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Las diagramm«« suivants iiiustrent ia mAthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 jf^M/i*^ ] CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE; \. „^^s>:-S^^ „^,,.^ ^?' .mI^I*^''' (t^^».A**^'»-^ "'*'*'*!*^*j BEING A SERIES OF TREATISES ON THOSE URANCHES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE IN WHICH THE GREATER PART OF THE COMMUNITY ARE MOST INTEF.ESTED, AND DESIGNED TO SERVE THE CHIEF USES OF A:I ENCYCLOPEDIA, AT A PRICE BEYOND EXAMPLE MODERATE. "^' EDITED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, KDITOBS OF "CHAMBERS'S EDINBUROH JOURNAL." \ EDINBURGH PUBLISHED BY W. AND R. CHAMBERS, 19, WATERLOO PLACE; AND ORR AND SMITH, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 1835. , "■■■■^ ■- ■-■'■'■■■■'■■■ .'■ - jj^ ■ -' ^ s 1 1 ;■; "«*■• ■■J i i! ,»■--( t ,' UMxti. '>D .„ m; t/IH^.i-i/ .V.' CONTENTS. K . 1 •5' I I, -I « .4 iNTHonurTOKT AnTiCLt. -AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARTH. PHYSICAL AND i»OLIT!CAL. The Earth u Whule. MitheinatiKal Uiviwont, Surface of th« Earth, The Atino«phere, InWrlor of the Earth, Euniiie and iti Empireti, KinniloiiiK, uad States. CiinHtitu- tionil Govern mentii, Hritiih hlamU. France, Spain. Poilu- pal, Auttri.t, PruMJa, Gernuny, Ruuio, &i:. A«ia, Auttralu, Africa, and America. No. I. — EMIGRATION TO CANADA. General Dewrtution, Canadian Tk.wnH, Passage, Pcmona who ouftht to Emigrate. Advice to EmiKranU, Settling on Land", Canada 0)nip.iny and it* Iand«, Char jcter of Diatricta* Climate tind Production*, Maple Sugar, Potanliet, O.iginal Letter from an Emigrant, Emigranta on Half-puy, Loo- elusion. No. 2. -HISTORY (;F THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN. Intrmluction. Conqueit (if Brimi" by the Roraana, Con- mieat hy the Sa»ou., The Normans, MlKO" fj^^"-. f'™* parliament, Edward the Fimt, Edward the Third, Richard the Second, Henry the Fourth, The House of Lancaster, HouM of York, the Tudors, Hinry the Seventh, Henry the Eighth, The Reformation, Edward the Sixth, Eliiabeth, Reformation in Scotland, Governmmtof Klixabeth, Warm the Netherlands, Death of Mary of Scotland, Spanish Armada. The Stuarts, James the First, Progress of ileh- frious Liberty, The Gunpowder Plot, The Spanish Match, Charles the First, Troubles in Scotland, Sitting of the Lung Parliameot. No. a — HISTORY OF MANKIND. Introduction. Origin of Man, The Multiplication and Dispersion of Man. The External Form of Man, His Stature, The Complexion of Mju, Effects of Art in Chan^- inti the Form and Featuns of the Human lltMiy, Varieties of Mankind, Albinos, Pychald or party-coloured Black and White People. The Proportions of the Human Body and Strength of Man. The Inhahitantn of Asia. Circassians and Georgians, The Tartars, The InhahitanU of Europe, The Greenlanders. Scotchmen and Englishmen, The InhabiUnta of Africa, The African Negro, Negro Slavery, The Inha- hitents of America, Jews, Gipsies, The Transmiwiion of National Varieties of the H jmau Form, Dii-ection and End of Human Life, Fall of Nations, Extinction of Races of Men. No. 4.— EMIGRATION TO NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, PRINCE. EDWARD'S Isr.AND. AND THE CANADAS. Nova Scotia, Towns, Climate and Prwluctinns, Character of Districts, Farm;og o-cupations, Purchasing and Settling on Lands, Locations, Si)uattcrs ami Backwuodsmeu, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton, Newfound- land. How to Transfer your Money to America, Parlla- mentiry Evidence on the Advantages of Emigrition, Various Information on the Canailas. No. 6. —EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. leaving Home, I'hc Voyage, Landing in America, Dis- tricts for bmigrantH, Different Classes of Emigrants, Pur- chaAiug Lands, Renting Land. Choice of l^nd for Settling, in respect of Health and NeighlhiurhiMMl. Agriculture, Soil, and Natural PnNluctioiien*iiv and Temperature of the Earth, The Internal Struc- ture of thi* (iIoIm?, Stratification and other (icneial Charac- terJHtics of ItiHiks, Clasailieation of Rucks, Modern Group, Eirntic or Tianaporteil HliH'k (Jroup, Supracretaciwis ur (iroup almve Chalk, Oetaceout* or Chalky (Jnmp, Oolitic Group, Red Sand Stone (iroup, Cuil ar Carboni- ferous (intup. (irauwai'ke Grou|>e. Lowest fowilirerous Group, Inferior Stratifleil or non-fouiliferoua Rocks, Un- stratiHetl Hocks, Theories of the Earth. 1 No. 7— THE COTTON. SILK, WOOLLEN, AND LINEN MANUFACTURE. The Cotton Manufacture, History, Prexent Extent and Yftlue of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain, Effects on the Population, TheOtttim Plant., Rearing, Gathering, ami Storing the Cotton. Different Growths and (Qualities of Oitton, wlu-ru Imported from. Preparations of Raw Oitton for Manufacture. Silk Manufacture, The Silkworm, or Biimbyx, Tfeatment of the COcoons for Silk, HeelJU'^, Throwing, Plain Wi'nviug, Figure Weaving, Silk Power WenvinK, Silk Velvet Weaving, Gaiiie. Wwdlen Manufac- ture. I.iueti .M:uiufacture. No. H. ACCOUNT OF THE HUMAN BODY. The Bones, The Muscles, The Blood Vessels, The Brain and Nerven, The Lungs, The Stomach, The Liver. The Spleen, The Pancreas, The Boweli, Lacteal Vessels, The Kidneyw, The Lymphatic Vessels, or Absurbeiits, The Skin, The Teeth, The Hair and Nail», The Eye, The Ear, The Now, The Mouth, Sense of Touch, Digestion, The Blood, Sleep, Nervous Influence, Infancy, The Sexes, Temperament, Men Adapted to Lire ia all Climates^ Varieties uf Mankind, Old Age. No. A THE STORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Causes of the- Revolutinn, First Movements, Meeting of the States-General, Ascendency of the Tiers Etat, Unpopu- larity of the King, Armini; of the People, the Hostile Des- troytd, Firat Violences, Return of Necker, Privileges of the Nobility and Clergy given up. Restraint of the King's Per- •on, March of the ftfob to Versailles, Distress of the Royal Pawily, Royal Fr.nilly Iteniove to Puris. Character of tlie King, CoD(ntion of the National Assembly, Framing of the New Omstitution, Death of Miraheau, Flight of the Royal Family, Effects of the Revolution out of France, The Lef^is- lative National Assembly, War Gimm^nctHl with Foreign Countries, Military Operations, lucreosed Danger of the King, Insurrection of the *JOth June, Insurrection of August 10th, Tae King di'posed. Invasion of FVance, MassatTc of Royalists. Formation of the National Conven- tion, The Invailem of France worsted. Monarchy abolished, Trial of the King determineil on. Trial of the King, Con- demnation of the King, The King Executed January *2I, niiii. Desertion of D'lmouriez, Ciuiplete Triumph of the Jacobin*, Fate of the H'lyal Family, Agassi nation of Marat, England Provokes War with France, ("ute of Roliewiern-, Restoration of Order, Military Triumplts of the much Republic. No. 10 EMIGRATION TO NEW SOUTH WALES. GeneralDescriplion,Districtaof Ayr, Durham. Northum- berland, Cumlierlatid, Cambden, Argj)-le, Westmoreland, Londonderry, Roxburgh, and Cambridge. Climate ami ProductiooH, Aborigines, or Native Inhabitants, Colonial Governuieut and Population, Society', Traite and Revenues, Emigration. Farmer and Grazier, Direction fur the Man- agement of Wuol. Farm Servants and Shepherds, Mecha- nics, LalmorerK, Unmarried Females. Mistellaneiius, PasN- oge, ScttleiuentH at Swan River and King George's Sound. No. II.— THE HORSE. Early History of the Horse, Original Omntry of the Horse. Warlike Equestiian Tribex, The Horu in Middle Ages, Contrast of European and Asiatic Breeds, Variations Owing to Difference of pasture. Introduction of Asiatic Breeds into l£uroiie. Inferiority of the Roman Cavalry, Modern History oi the Horse, The Horse in his Naluial State, American Wild Horses, Horse taming in South America. Particular Account of the Home, Intellectual Character. Superiority of the Horn in Elegance, The Arabian Horiie, Anecdotett of Arabian Horses and their Moatiirs, Peiligree of an Arabian Horse, The Arab's Treat- ment of bin Horse, Englifth Horses, The Race Horse, The Hunter, The Hackney or Roadster. The Coach HorM>. The Cart Horse, The Gallouay, The Highland Pony, General Anecilotes of the Horse. No. 12.— GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNITED STATES. Historical Notice, Form of Government, Exiiennes of the Government, and Taxes, Army and Navy, Alanufac- tures, Cipmmerce, Internal Commerce, Canals. Haitwavs, and Public Works, Sea Coast, Laki>s, and Navignhle Rivers, Minerals, (ieological Pivuliarities, Peculiarities of Different Districts, Climate. Soil, and Natural PrtHluctious, Rab's of Profit, Wages, and Style of Living, Population of the .States, The Colouretl Population, Ucoeral Remarks on Auierican Manners. Religion, Means of Education, Learn- ing and the Arts, Future Prospet^ts of the United States. No. 13.— A VIEW OF BOTANY OR THE VEGE- TABLE KINGDOM. Exhibiting the Different Orders, Genera, Classes, and \'urietifs of Plants, Vegetable Physiology, Economy of Vegetable Life. No. 14— EMIGRATION TO VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. (iet>giaphical Position and General History, General Description, Climnte. Soil, iitid Natural Productions, Alsrigiucs, v: Native Inhabitants, Divisions, Districts, &c. Hobart Town District, New Norfolk Ill-Strict, Richmond District. Oatlands District. Clyde Dix'riit, Oyster Bay Ilistrii-t. CuudH-lltown Distric*, Norfolli I'lains Districtf Launccston District, Summary Character of the Island, I'tTiiil Eatuhlislunenls, Viin Dicmcii's Land Company, Trade and Revenue, GoTernment and Population, Con- victs, Bush Rangers, Society, EmigratioDt Farmers, Mechauics. Farm Servants ami Labourers, Unmarried Females, Passage. Van Diemen's Land Prices Current, The Colonial Garden. No. 16. — POLITICAL ECONOMY. Cultivation or no Cultivation, I^abour, Exchange, Pro- perty, Money, Capital, Advantages uf Capital not Exclu- sive, Division of Employments. Question of Cheup ProduC' tion. Concentration of Labour, Large Factories, MacI ioery, Provisions agaiuht it recommended to Wtftkmen, Profits, Wages, Population, Emigration, Campamtive Renuiner'*- tions of Trades and Profetnions, Fluctuations and Gluts, Combinations, Monopolies and Restrictions, The Corn Monojhily, Free Trade, " Interests," The Currency, Ren*, Support of the Poor. No. 16. -THE DOG. General Character c ' Doga, Description of Dogs of Particular Species, Mist illaneout Dogs whose varieties are not known. Anecdotes No. 17 — DOMESTIJ ECONOMY AND COOKERY. Domestic Manar-ment, Cookery, Roasting, Boiling, Soups, Stewing, Pies and Dumplings, Purldings, Miscel- laneous Dishes, Light Dishea and Confections. Saui*es, Fish, Bread, Beer, Seasons for Meat«, &c. On choosing Provisions, Adviws fur the Economical. No. la— PALESTINE OR THE HOLY LAND. The History of Palestine, Jerusalem, History of the City, Genera) Description of Jerusalem, The Mofque of Omar, The Church of the Holy Sejiulchre, Muunts Zioii and Kloriah. Mount of Olives, &c Garden of Gethsemane. Valley of Jehoshaphat, Bethany. Bethlehem, The Convent of Franciscans, Omvent of St John, Hebron, The Deail Sea, The River .lordan, Jericho, Mountain of Quarantina, Cave of Jeremiah and Sepulchres of the Kings, Beer Lebanon, and the Mount of Gerizini. Nablous or Shechem, Samaria. Geraza. Lake of Genesaix>th, Mouut Tabor, Naxareih, Canaof Galilee, Saphet. Srphouri, and Zebniun, Acre, Mount Carniel, Jaifa i-r Vaffa, the Ancient Joppn, Ashdod, Gnth, Askclon, and Gozo, Tyre, Sidon, Mount Lebanon, The Druses and I^Iuronites, Damascus. No. 19.— HISTORY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN. The Remonstrance, Ctimmencement uf the War, Cam- Gign of It»4:3, Military Character of the Parties^ Solemn ague and Covenant, New Moilelling of the Parliamentary Army, Montrose's Cjireer in Scotland, Conclusion uf the Civil War, The King takes Refuge wiih the Scottish Army, The King Delivered up by the Scots, Ascendenry of the Army, "Tiial and Execution of the King, Establishment of a Republic, Subjugation of Ireland and Scotland, The Protectorate, The Restoration, Re-nction of Public Feeling, Dutch War, Plague and Fire uf Lole, War with Spain I7M>, War with France, Battle of Dcttingen, Battle uf Fontenoy, Rebellion of I74d. No. ao. — THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND ITS RESOURCES. Form of the British Government, Revenue and Expen- diture, The Army anil Nuvy, The Navv, MumifacturcN. Commerce. Public Works, Canals, Raifrnads, Bridget, Docks, &t'. Agriculture, Religion and the Church, Educa- tion, Veaily Income of the Empire, Estiutate of the Public and Private Property in the limpire, Effi-ctivc Power at Work in Britain, Population, Ditterent Clasm>s of People. The Cotnnics, C(uii|iii-rcd Countriis. British India, Extent of the British Empire, Will the Prosperity of Britain ivn- tinue ? No. 21— A POPULAR VIEW OF ASTRONOMY. System of the Universe, Properties of Matter, Gravitation and Inertia, CentrifHs;nl and Centripetal Force, Cenemt Laws of Motion, Figure and Mn*{nitude of the Earth, The Terr»*strial Glohe, Measurement of Degni% Weight ot BikIii's in Different Situiitiims, Diiirmd Motiiutof the Eaitli, Civil and Sideral Day, Day and Night, The Alituisptiere and Refriutioii id Lii;ht, Trade Winds, Annual Miliuii uf i A I .J). tSsikiaul''' CONTENTS. the E»r(h, The Svawiu, AberratioD of Light, P«n '«, Of SoUr, Sidertl, urn! AnomiJiBtii; Yfw-., MeHtiirvnient of Time, The Calendar, IVaniigraphy, '.hu SoJar Symem, Thi- Uwi iif KepliT, The Sun, The Zndi»c, The Moon, Pliaw-a and EelipMfl of the Moon, The other Luminnrii-* of the Syatem, Of the Planet* in General. Of the SjteUilefl, Cometa, Perturbatiooa, The Prwwaion of the Kquimixpi. Nutation, Of the Fired Sum, Conitellatitms, The Milk) W«y, Nrbuin, Perie«, Alemnonium and Stslue of Itleninoit, fiepulchres, Ruina of Uendt-ra or Tentyra, Lake Moeria and CAnala, Lower ^^rpt, Alexandria, Roseita, Damietta, Grand Cairn, MidilK K\;ypt, Cpper Egypt, Syene, Iiland of Elephantina, Rerenirc, The Oaiea, Recent Histoiy umI Preaent State of Egypt, Syrian Cam|Miga. No. aa—LIFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. Parentage and IloyhoiNl, Apprenticeahip* Proceed* to Philadelphia, Sail* for Hnglaitd, Return* to Atm-rici, Enters into BuMnra*. Start* a Newapaper. Comincutv* Huaiona by Hiniaelf, Civic IVcferment* and Duties, Elec- tncal »ud other Pliiluaophical Diai-overies, Political Career, Death, Character. No.S4.— HISTOUY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT 11 RITA IN. RebellioDof 174.5 concluded. Peace of Aix>Ia-Chapelle, Adroiniatration of Mr Pelhani, An'eaainn of (ivorgu the TbirtI, Caae of Mr Wilkes, Amt'ricendfnci', War with Fra* t-e, Suain, and ilnltand. State of the (invernment, Conclufiunof the War, RockinEhiin Admiiustr.ition, Coali- tion MinistiY, Minixtn- of Mr Pitt, French Revolution, War declared againat France, M9H, Tnexiiected succease* of the French, Kx(teeath of Mr Put and uf Mr Fox, Ruauia reduced. The Berlin Decrees, RuwIa rou)pc.-)lf«l to makepeace, Chnngesof Administration, Firnt Peninsular Campaign, ('a*e of the Duke of York, Austria ag.iiu pro- *trated by Napoleon. Walcl irru Exiiedition, Second Penin- sular Campaien. < ommittul of Sir I-ranciii Burdett, Prince inteHner>tic AfTairH, W*r with Auu-rica, Peace of 1814, Alxlicationnf Napuleim, Congreaaof Vienna, Tempnrarj- Restoration vf Nap-tiHin, Batlw iif Waterloo, Holy Alliance, The Princess Charlotte, Period of General Dt«»«*a, The Manchester Meeting of Augunt, 1SI!». The ** Six Ac' s" Ad'esnion of (ienrve the Fouith, Cato Street Conspiracy, The Qiieen's Trial, Riiyrtl Visit to Ireland, Asoendencv of Mr Canning, Commercial Di«a>tent of I .vJ5-l>. Miniateriaf changes of IH27-H. Catholic Emancipation, Death of (ieurge the Foutth. No. 23— MECHANICS. Defin'tinns, Of the Me>.'haniral Power*, Of the Lever, Of the Wheel and Axle, inclined Plane, Of the Pulley. Of the Screw, Of the Accumulation of Power, Comhinalioos oif the Mechanical Powers, (K the Centre of Gravity, Of Arches. No. 2»>— THE WEST INDIES. Situation, Discovery, Native Inhabitants, British po*ses- aions, Jamaica, St Christt.pher's Nevi*, Antigua. Montser- rat, Doriinica, St Lucia, BarbadotM, &c. Britiih South Amiirican Pimstw^ions. French, Spanish, and Dutch Posses- sions. Climate, Slaves, Trade, Value of Exporta aud Im- porta. No. 27.— THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPEN- DENCE. Bute and Number of the Colonies, Taxe* ImjioNefl on the Odoniea. Stamp Act, Disturbance* slwiut the SUmp Art, Stamp Act Rt-pealeil, New Dutie* lm|HMeil, Tumult* in Ho*tnn. BiMitou P<>*t Bill, Hoatilitiet romnirnred, Battle air Lex ins ton, Tinmderoga Battle of Bunker* Hill, Ameri- can ArmyOrsanited, Treaties with the Indians, Declarnlinn ufRiiihiv, Affair at Norfolk. |^oo«lincs in the Southern SUtes Fx|mtitiun to Canad.i. .\rni>ld'a Exi)edition to Que- bec, Afcsault of (^ipIh-c, Pt.KeedinKn at Ikiston in I77ri, Prwceefjin^B in Hrilam. Bo»ion ev*ruat*fl, Canadian Cam- paign nf f;7i». IVfrmc of h»rt Moultrie. iVclaration of Iude|>eu, Americanti Retreat from New York, Di*- trea-ei of the American Army, Britiih employ the Indians. Action* in 1777. Surrewfer of (rt'neiat Burgoyne, and Aid procured ftoin Franc. Hritish Ministry coniiesceod to treat, Campai'.n of I7HI, CoiHrlnniou of the War. No. 2H._THK STEAM EN(ilNR AND LOCO- MOTIVE MACHINES. Hi»t4iri<-al accmiitt of the Steam Engii.e, nnd it* pro- groHve liiipruvementSf Railroads and Uicumotive Engine*. 1 No. Jtf.— DUTIES OF LIFE Fir-t Series. Life as a whole, Puip >nesuf Life, Infancy, Youth, Health, CK'anlinrsii, Air, Time, Self-luve, Lalxmr, Habit, Inti-m)>e- rance, Truth and Fulvehuod, Sincerity and InHincerity. Civility, Anger, Self-respect, IVide, Vanity, Gratitude and Ingrititude, Slander, Prufanity, Envyi Emulation, Peace of Mind, Happiness. No. ;:« — CHINA AND THE TEA TRADE. Oei^raphical position i.nd divisioua of China, Inter- nal Appearance and Climate, Hirtory. Government, Law*, Revenues, Rnyal Faniily, Court Dress and Cerenuuiiuls. CI iHse* of Population, Occupulions, Pmductions, Agricul- ture, Tea Cmp, Manufactures, Arts and .Sciences, Language and Literature, Religion, Iti-vicw of Manners, Character and Ctmditi'U), Intercourse with Foreign Nation*, British Tea Traile. No. 01.— CHEMISTRY. Attraction, Chemical Attraction or Affinity, The Law* of Chemical Coinlii nation nnd lK>cotupoNttion, The Atomic Theory, Eipiivalent Rutins, Elemental Bodiea, Heat or Caloric Expnuitive Power of Heat, Latent Heat, Espial DiiTuflivc Power of Heat, l.ixht, Combustion. Air and Water, Acids, Salts, Metals, (Oxides, Eartha, and Alkalis, Oxygen, Chlorine, Bnimine, liMline, Fluorine, Hyiln^n, A Kite or Nitrogen, Carbon or Charmal, Coal (ia*, Boroo, Silicon, Sulphur, Selenium, Teltutiuui, Phoophurus, Arse- nic. Antimony, Cromium, Vanadium, I'ruuium, Shdyb- denuin. Tuntfsten. Columhium and Titanium, AlkaMne Rises, Farthty Ba««, Difficultly Fusible BaivR, Ea*ily FoKible B&ie«, Noble Metals, (retierul Ohservatiims on Acids Baw«, and Salt*. Oiganiietl SliuctuuH, The Animal C'onipounils, Fermentation. No. ;i'2.— MANUFACTPRES AND COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. Qualities of a Commercial People, Regulating Principle* of Commeice, Duties and Restrictions, Free Trade, Great Britain, France, Hullind. Ciermany, Auntria. Prusaia, Hanover. Denmark and HuUtein, Italy, The Island* of the Me(litvrraiK>aii Sea* Runia. Sweden, and Norway. Switsar- land, Spain, Tnrkwy, Asia, Kaat Indias, Afrira. North America* South America* West Indie*, Australia. No. ;i;).— ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM. Excitation of Electricity nnd resulting Phenomena, Di»- tributinn and Transfereni'e, Of the Two Kinds of Electri- city, Induction. Theories of Eli-ctricity, Etctrical Machines, Effects and Trnn»fer.'nre of Electricity, Of Induction and Accummtdation of KltTtriciiy, Motion of Aciumulatef1.igrator, Electro- chemistry, Chemical Theory of Galvanism, Physiological etltctM of (ialvaoisui, (ialvaniiim of a detul Body, Electru- Magaetism, or Mag netu< Electricity, No. 34.— THE EAST INDIES. Geographic.d Boundaries, Divisions of the Countij', History, Beginning of F'uropean Intercoms*. Riw of the EsAt India Company, The Comp-my's A*'umption of Political Power, Overthrow of the Mogul Empire. Hydcr Ali and Tipuno, Extent and Population of India. Govern- ment of Inilt.1, Revenue System nf India, Act of Par- liament of IHfVl, HindiMt^, lU-ligion of Hind< us, Indian Limguaife, ^lahoinmednus and other Classes, Rural CharacteiiMica and PrtMluet*. Indigo. Silk, ('"tton, Sugitr, TbelljmbooHndothei Products, Mitde of Living. Animali, Climikte. East India Money, Calcutta, Madras, l^utibay, Delhi. Agra, Benares* IVirtuguese SettlemenU, Ea»t India Trade. No. S3.— THE ART OF PRINTING. Origin and History of Printing, Discovery by Giitten- berg, Improvement by Sirhoelfrr, Early Progrensot Printing. Intrmluction into Enj^land, Fii« Pnntwl Te-taments and Bibles, IntnMluction mio S«-ol|and and Ireland, Progiess on the Continent and in Atnerico. Of the Tyjuii, C^mnms- ing, PnpgrciMtive Improvement in Style, |»nH'i«»» of Printing. Ink and InkiuK Roller^, Impritveil Prit>ting PrcMtcs, The Chapel, Printing by Machine*, Sterttttyping. • No. ;)6.-NATrnAL PHILOSOPHY. Ptopertie* of Matter. Impenetrability, Exiensiim or Magnitude, rigiirr, Divisibility or Se|Mrut»ility, I'onwity, Inertia. Natural Permanency of Mutinn, Actionand Rcjction, Laws of Motion, Conipo*ition and He*oInrt»«i uf Ftirce, .Attraction, Gravitation, Accelcrnleil ^lotionand Aceeterateod"» R'aehine. Retarded Motion. Centrifugal Force, On the Axis. On the IVndulinn. No. 07— StU'TH AMERICA. Boundaries and Division", Di«eiivery ami Hi»tory, Columbia, Bucno* Avres, or the I'liittd 'iVnvinces of Ln Plata* P,iragiiny, Biinchi Oriental. Chili, Peru, (tower.) Ilolivia or IpiH-r IVru. p4l«K0iiiii, Braid, (luinna, (ientral CharBctensticii, General Aspect, River*, Mines and MineraiN, Animal Kingdom, Earthiiuakes* Commerce uf South Amtrica. No. Sd.-^DUTIES OP LIFE-Second Series. Dutie* a* Suhjects, Conduct at Public Meeting*, Dutie* as Electors, a* .lurors, and a* Neighbour*, Duru* in our Dtunesitc Relation*, Husband. Wife. Chililrvn. Disappuint- inent* and Sorrows of P*rents, Bruihert and Sister«, Dittie* of Master* and .Servants, Duly of Trusting to Oursf-lv.**, Making a Will. Mikfortune*. F.vilB, Inupialitv of Rank and Cuoditmn, On Forming Opinion*, Dutieswhich tlie I'eople uf one Country owe to ihoae of another* Recreation* niul Amutement*, llel>gious ObSgatiuns. No. 09.— HYDROSTATICS AND IIYDRAPLICS. Principle of Equal Prraaure, Pressure of FluidH in Pro- {•ortiun to the Depth, Amuunt uf Pleasure, Fluid Level, tivei', Waves, Canal* and Sujiplv uf WaUr for Towns, Levelling. Iinmeriion of Solid* in Liijuid*, Fluid Supntirt. Stability of Floating Builie*, Specifiu Grnvitii"«, Siirings, Fountamn, &c., Capillary Attraction, Hydrautirs. Flow of Water from a \'e!Mel, Fluid Resistance. Puinp* and Machines fur raising Wt.ter, Hyilraulic Machine*. No. 40. — HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATION. General H!"lorv, England. Inf.iut Schools. S<>hnnls of Industry. Scotlnnil, Irelanil. Frano', Spain, Denmark and the Netherlands, Switxerland. Norway. Sweilen, Iceland. Poland, Russia. Pruiwia, (iermnn States, Italy. Greece, Ionian Islandsi Egypt, Pniied Slates of America, Lowev Canado* I'pper Cinaila. West Indies. No. 41. — PNr.r.MATlCS. ACOfSTICS. AND AER(»NACT!CS. Pneumatics, The Atinos^du-rc. Im|ienitriibi1ity of Air, Inertia uf Air, The Elasticity of Air, Weight ot the Air* The Barometer, Weather Gloas, Me.isurement of Heights, The Air-pump* Experiments with the Air Pump. TI.e Condennor, Machines fur Raising Water. Air Gnii, Fire Engine, Acoiist'c*. Music, Key Note*, kv. Mu^ienl luNtru- ments, Wind Instrument*, Spreail of Sound, RcHection td' Sound, The Aniaial ear, Aeronautic?!. No. 43. PRP.fiKBVATinN OF HEALTH. Air, Diet, Auiuuil Food, l^iod derived from Quodrupaln* Fowl, Fi»lt imd Amphibious Animals, The Cooktry of Animal FihmI, Vegetables and. Fruit, Driuk* Exerciie, Cluthing, Bathing, Sleep. No. 43. — OPTICS. Catoptrics* Reflection of Rays from Concave and Convex MirroiH, Formation of Imagef< by Mirrors. Dioptric*. Refrac- tion uf Light by Prism* and Lenses, Formation of Images by Lenscx, Telescope, M'criwroiM'. fcc. Phynical Optitrs, Dis- ptTvion of Light. Aehrunrntic 'releHcu|H-s, Physical Proper- ties of the S|Ht-trnm, Inflexitm or Difraelion of Light, Double Refraction of Light, 'I he Polar It.' tion of Light, On the Eye and Vision, I'nntual Refraction, The lUinbow, Holos, Parhelia, &c. Colour* of Bodies* Absorption of Light. No. 44.— NATURAL THEOLOGY. Design of the Planetary System. Relations between Man and External Nature, Design in the Structure of the Earth* Design in Animal Phy^iolo^'y, Design in the Formation of lu'tect*. Design in the Fornmtion of Fixhes. I>esign in the F'oruiation of itinU. The Structure uf Man and other Ani- luaU. C^imiM-ntatiim of Part^i in Animated Nature* Beauty, Dcnign in Vegetable Physiology. No. 40. -MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Aniient Philosophy— Socrati*, Zeno, Epicurus, Aristotle. Schulu»u. I'hdwiphv. Mtnlern Philnw|p|iy — Dewarte*. Spinou. ICuglioh Plulo»u|>i>y Huron, ilohbts, Locke, Snafte»bury, Berkley, Hume, Ilirtley. Scotch Phikiso- thers — HutcbinMin, Reid, Brunu, Siewurt. French 'hilosophy — Malleliranehe. Bavh', Couflillar, German Philnsophy— l^ihniiK, Kant. P)irenolo)(iriit Philosophy — (iatl, Spurzheim, Combe. Simpson. Concluding remarks. No 4t>. — COTTAGE ECONCMY. The Cow. Produce ufihe Dairy, Making Cheese. Making and Curiuic Bntrer. Reaiint: Cattle, l)i>eii*e* of Cows, Bmtline and I'erdiog Pig-, The G<>at, The Rabbit. Fowls, (iee«e, 'I'uikeys. Duck". Pittetms, lirrwiiig Ale and Beer, Cottage Garden*, Hints alnuit Bee*. >•». 47 — AKCHITECTrRE, History of Aichilcetim', Elententury Paitt> nf Buildin*!, Arche*, Arrad.s, l)tuvti^, H.'ot«. st>l,-. ot Building - ICuvptian, t hi new-, (ireciau. Onlrr- of Architecture-- Ru'uian Slrueturct^Modern T«ort- aniv to form distinct trcat'kci. The Rdlton ciiitirai'c tills n|i|ior- tunity of ttaUn^, that (ticy have ipared neither i >s nor eiitume to make the preaent work complete and acctimtL' i > \U ik-lalli, so sf to Ht it for very ftencral uae among all ulaste» of thi> commu- nityi iwrticulaily tnou who cannot moounivr the cxv''"*'^ "^ i'" eneydupnlla. They have much plea*uix> in montinnhiH. thai, in the coune of Itt publication, tliey haw derived very valuuble a»- abtSDOe from Mr John Francis Smith, one of the imlividuali per- manently engaged u)Hm the new etlitltm of the Knoydoprdia Brltannlca. Tne jrtlclei fltrniihcd liy thla able yauiiii gciitliroan are " A>tronomy," " Geological Account of the Olobe," " N*. tural Phllowphy," " Hydro»utiea," " Pneumatici," "Optics," " Electridtv, " ChemUuy," " ChemUtry applivd totho Aita." &c. slower the nearer it approached the equator, and hence was Inferred the reawnableness of the force of grarlty. This was easily explained In the theory Just men- tioned, becauKe, the circle of dally revolution being greatest at the etpiator, all bodies revolve proportion- ally faktor there than at the poles, so that the centrU fugal force is greater, and the force of gravity less, than at other parts of the earth's surface ; and becaase, at the equator, the rentrUi||^l force is exactly opposed to tbut uf gravity, but towards the poles, being oblique to it, produces less efl^ect. From these observations U was justly Inferred that theeafth is a sphere flattened at the pnlen, or a spheroid t and this form was satis- factorily accounted for by the fact that the particles of a yielding mass, which revolves on its own axis, depart from the poles and tend to the centre, by which the poles are uf course flattened, and the middle elevated. Various measuremeou have put this beyond all doubt. Another Important desideratum for a more Intimate acquaintance wiUk the earth, was to Az Its magnitude. The labours of the ancients, In this respect, were alt fruitless, owing to their want of suitable Instruments, Accurate results were first obtalued In the year 1615. WiUibrord Snellius, a Dutchman, first struck into the only true way, and measured an arc of a meridian from Alcmaar to Leyden and Bergen-op*Zoom, by means of triangles. After him, the measurements of Pioard, and the later ones of Maupertuis, approxi- mated nearer the truth. These made the circumfe- rence of a great circle of the earth 25,000 miles. Uut it Is to be remarked, that in this calculation the earth is regarded as a perfect sphere. Further measure- menu of all paiu of the surface of the earth will be necessary to find, rigidly and accuntely> the uue m;ig- nitude of it. If we take a view of our earth In its relation to the solar system, utnmomy teacher us, that, contrary to ap- pearances, which make the sun revolve about the earth, the earth and ten other primary planets revolve about the sun, and, lielng themselves opaque bodies, receive from the sun light and heat. The earth completes its revolution round the sun in about three hundred and lixty-ftvedays and six hours, which forms our common year. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun In one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the sun In all parts of the year : its least distance is estimated at 9:t,330,000 miles, and its great- est at U5,4B4,572, making a dilFerence of more than 2,000,000 of miles. In winter, we are nearest the sun, and in summer, farthest from It; for the difference in the seasons is not occasioned by the greater or less dis- tance of the earth from the sun, but by the more or less oblique direction of the sun's rayfe. Uesides the an. nual motion about the sun, the earth has alhO a daily motion about its own axis (according to mean time, in twenty-three hours, fifty-six minutes, and four se- conds). This diurnal revulutlun is the occasion of the alternation of day and night. But as the axitt on which the earth performs its diurnal rotation forms, with its path about the sun, an angle uf twenty-three and a half def^rees, the sun aiceuda, from March 2 1 to June 21, about twenty-three and a half degrees above the equator towards the north pole, and descends again towards the equator /rom June 21 to September 2:1 ; it then sinks till December 21, about twenty- three and a hall' degrees below the equator towards the south pole, and returns again to the equator by March 21. This arrangement is the came of the sea- sons, and the inequality of day and night attending them, which, for all countries lying beyond theequa. tor, are equal only twice in the year, when the ecliptic coincides with ilu^ equator. The moon, again, re- Tolves about the earth, in u similar elliptical path, iu twenty-eight days aud luurwen hours. Fur a com- plete theory of the earth and heavenly bodies, we refer to the article Astronohy. HATHEMATICAL DIVISIONS Or THE lAMTR In order to fadllute the operations of the navigator and traveller, and with the view to mark the relative situation of every spot on the earth's surfaoe, for a better nnderstandingof get>graphy, the globe has been made the object of divers measuruments, by means of ideal lines drawn from north to south and east to west. The principal line which has thus been drawn, as will be perceived by an examination of mops of the earth, Is the equator. It forms a circle round the earth, equally distant from the poles, and divides the globe into two equal parts, called the northern and southern hemispheres. From the equator to the north pule the earth Is divided Into ninety parts, by lines Indicating degrees of latitude. From the eqtiator to the north pole the same kind of division takes place into ninety degreef. Any place north of the equator is said to be sitnatod In such a degree north latitude ; and any part south of tho^tutor Is in the same way described as lying in snoh a degree sooth latitude. These degrees are composed of sections of sixty-nine and a half Eng- lish miles each. When written, they are Indleated by a small * after the figures, as 33*, which means twenty- two d^rees 1 and when odd miles over a degree have to be signified, It Is done also by a small mark ', as 12', which means twelve miles or minutes. So much fur the measurement of the earth north and south. In order to indicate spots eastward or westward on the surface of the earth, a similar division takes place. The globe is reckoned to contain one hundred and eighty parts, called degrees of longitude, measuring from one given spot to another. Most nations reckon from the capital city of their own country. The Eng- lish reckon from the observatory at Greenwich. By a navigator or traveller ascertaining the degree of latitude and the degree of longitude of the spot on which he is placed, he can tell his relative sltoatlon on the earth's surface, and is enabled to proceed In the exact direction which will lead him to the place which he may desire to reach. Betides being divided Into degrees of latitude and longitude, the earth is sectioned Into, five zones or belts. A zone is a bntad space Included between cer- tain degrees of latitude, and it takes its name from the peculiar heat or cold which prevails within Its compass. The torrid zone, called so from Its exces- sive heat, lies within twenty-three and a half degrees on each side of the equator. It is bounded on the north by an Ideal Hue called the tropt'j of Cancer, and on the sotith by an equally ideal line called the tropic uf Capricorn. Thit portion of the earth's surface between these distant circling lines is often familiarly said to be ^* within the tropics." Next to the north and south lie the two temperate zones, which similarly encompass the earth. It is within the northern tem- perate Bone that Great Britain is situated. Next these, still farther north and south, lie the frigid zones — the cold regions—which extend round the poles to the dis- tance of about twenty-three and a half degrees. Tbf* northern frigid zone is separated from the adjacent temperate zone by a line called the arctic polar circle ; and the southern frigid zone in the southern hemi. sphere, is similarly Itounded by the antarctic polar circle. The torrid zone is computed to contalnl0,500.375 square miles ; the two temperate zones 103,114,775; and the twit frigid zones 7!>)32t),GOO — altog^^ier iyu,l)43,75<> square miles. s^ sunt'' ACE OF THE EABTH AND OCEAN. ** To the physical knowledge of the earth belongs es- pecially the cunelderation of its surface and Interior. ^^<^ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I Th* nrih'i nirru* oonMlnt, u li nid, lua.lM.1,7M •qiian milw, oT whioh Muralir ■ Ihird pari in rtry fauid I lb* MmalalBf tvo-lbirdi srt wtur. Th« land l( (orapoaml prinolpaUy of two Uif muM< nr truu, On* of whioh oomprohondt tho ooniJnflnu of Kumpo, Aiti, and Afrios) lb* othor oonprahondi tha nmii. nam of Amorlo*. Anatnllo, which llaa In iha ncaaii io a MMitSorly diractloa tram Aala, la ao aiunalra aK to bo anliilM to tho ouu and oharacMr of a linh dU vliliin. All tk* datachad and amallar maaiai oF land, oallMl lalaoda, whan ukan tofalhar, an oompuiad lo • ontain aa much land aa tha contluantof Europo. In rafaranco lo maps of the aarih, Europo, Aila, Africa, •od Aaitralia, with their lilanda, are dlitiuKuiihed aa Irlnff in tha*ail«rn hemitpherei while America, with tha VVoil Indian and other lilanda, are comprehended In tha wextern hemiBpliire. Tho aaaa which enonin* paaa Ihoe uiteniire tract* nf land have locally variuui namaat hut the two principal e^tpaniaa of water ara the Atlantic and I'aciHc Oceani — the former lepmtt- Ing Europe, Asia, and Africa, from America on tha weal, and the latter lyinir Itetwixt tha waetern ahoree of America and the eaatam ihoiaa of Atla. The n. tniir* oewnt iiirnninding the north and aouth polea u« called tha Polar 8*aa, which have not hoea ex. Ei iuficiently for ui to be able to aajr whether any tracta uf land lie In theae remote quartan ol tho Uraat diveraity of opinion preTaila with reapaet to tha depth of the ocean. By numeroui Inveellga- tlou, It ooaa not appear that Uia depth la any wbera Biidi mac* than two or three mllea, generally It la a great deal leeet and It might be arfpiad, that, not. vltkatandiof the large turfac* of the ocean, the body of ila walera can only be ounaldered aa lying like lakaa in the hoUowa of the land t for the earth la eight thou- •and milee In diameter, and to that huge niaaa of deni* Batter tha aea beara no proportion In iu depth. Wkil* tha aurfaae of the land exhiblu a rariety of nuuntaln rangee, hlllt, ralea, and plalna, ao alao la tha bottom of tb* aea varied in iu oonflguratlon, abound- ing in aandbanka, hillf, roeka, and reefa, dangaroua to the mariner i and the ialandi which rear their heada above Ih* aurfaee are only the tope of the higheet billa and mountalna In the lea. The walera of the ooean, aa every on* knowa, are aalt, to a greater or baa da- (raa— a quality which la comidered neoeetary to pre. aerve them from putrlditv ; but how ihia laltneaa la produced, no one la yet able to tell correctly, although, aa la generally eoujeetured, it muii arise from the ahundanoe ot aallne aubsunoea at the bitttom of aume ■arte of the ocean. Thecauteof spriniia on the land, nom which riven draw their aourcea, ia alto acknow. ladgad to he atlll very doubtful. 84ime oiiniiider they originate from the raina which the earth haa imbibed i aone aUeg* that they rite from aubterranean lakef by ■Mana of capiUary attraction ; and uthen aay that ' ..ry ara outlela for the water accumulated in higher parts of the oountry, which water has found iu way thniugh las Ilia of rock, at if carried by pipes t hut lu all time iuppositiona there appear different objectiuna. The moat enlightened men are likewise unable to give any rational account of the eiintence iif volcanoeeor burning mounlaioa. M'hether tbtty derive their action from a depth of only a few milea, or from the caiitre of the globe, or what it ia that fvcds tlieir cov.Oustiofl, are queatlona which have never yet been satisfactorily solved. It la, however, known tliat they are con. neeled with earthtiuakea, and in that respect of ex. teiuive sut>terranean influence. The most interesting of all the phenomena connected with our globe, are the tides of the ocean, which have been the nubject of much sci«nti5c disputation, and are generally attri. buted lo the influence of the moon. We believe they will be found to be elucidated axreeabiy to the beat nocived ideaa, in the article AsTaoMOMY. THE aTMOSPHEXE. The earth — the aurfaee of wliich is so beautirully divenified l»y water and dry land, mountains and Tallica, extensive foresu and iracu of open country — la on all slilea surrounded with air, without the pros- aureof which, not even the humblest being in the scale of organisation could support iu own exislenc*. The andenu were not uoacquainied with the vast import- naoe of this agent io the great ecmomy of nature ; but they pos lease d no just idea of iu properties, and It remained for fialiieo and his pupil Torioellus to make us acquainted with the nature of atmoapheric preuurc Ihe air is generally d««cril»ed aH u fluid, baeause all bodies move tbruugh it with facility ; and in a stiuof re^t, it dotm not oppose the passage of the minuiext winded insect, or tlie tranimission of the must delicate odour, lu whole mass, surrounding the earth, may be regarded aa a great atrial ooean, at the bottom of which, man, and a vast variety of ani. mall, live; while winged triliea alone ri»e Into iu liigher regiona. How liigh it extends, has not been yet satit>ftfCtorily determii;ed ; but from the length of time during which the lun's rays ciHitinue to bo re- flected from iu upper reKions back to the earth, after lu orb l»s sunk below the tioriaon, there is rea*ou to Infer that it extends, in a state of extreme tenuity, to a very considerable height ; nay, it has been uuijec- tured that, in this attenuated cttudition, it may per. Tade all space, accumulating round the sun, m TIC*. iMTiaioE or THE EAaTa. The Inurior of ibo (artb, b*yond ih*d*pth of a fiiw huudrad feet, I* antlialy uakaown to ua. W* can only Judge of It by an aaamlnatlon of lu «xt*rlor, and by penetrating below lu tur&oa lo a certain depth. From these examlnallont, it appaan that lb* upper coating of lite globe cooelaU of a variety of layan of different deacrlpiiona of rack or atone, with a covering of beds of sand, clay, and other kinds of aolL Tha nature of ibeaa encruatallona, and the lurdar In which they He, ara anlSdantly explained In the article Oeo- LOOT i and wa need bare only advert to tha remark- able fact of all Ibeee varlou* layert or sirau of rock, with iinly one exception, abounding In the patrifled remains of vegaublee and animal*, and which usually receive the nam* of foetila, or organic remain*. Bv these remarkable Indication* wa learn that the eartn haa undergone aaveral extraordinary revolutions ainca lu origin. But what la atlll mor* curing aa dvllisallon enduraa, an object of admiration, and lu remains the foundation uf our hnowledge and usta. But with the dissolution of Alexander's empire, which had been raised on the riiius of Oredan freedom, Greece sunk Into insignifi- At tha uuna lim«, another nation waa rising In Italy, the Romans, who appeared, indeed, at an earlier pe- riod, but maida no figure in history till they had be- come masten of Iialy, and had proved victorious in their struggle with the Carthaginians. From that period their power began to extend over all Europe. They subdued Ihe divided Ureeks, and transplanted their aru and refinement lo the Italian tolL By the pro- gress of the Roman arms, 8palo, Portugal, France, the coast of England, Oelgium, Helvetia, the part of Oermany lielweeu the Danube and the Alpa, the Hun- garian provinces (then called /"annofiia, f/'pra, and Daeia)t became known, aud received the Roman mau- nen, language, aud refinement. Agriculture was In- troduced, and '-mrishing cities rose among the wan- dering tribee. The Christian religion, wlili-h spread thnnighoiit the wide Roman empire, waa aim ii power- ful inslrument in the dvlllsaiion of most of liiu Euro- pean nations, (iennaoy alone reniited the overwhelm- ing power of Home, and tiiereby prevented tha spreading of H4)man civilisation in the north of Eu- rope, which still renialiiml unknown In history. With Ihe fall of the Homao empire, occasloiie.1 L'hiell/ by iu separation Into the Eastern and Wesurii em- plree, a great change in the political constitution of Europe was produced, by tho universal emigration of the northern nations. TbcMi nations poured down upim the beaaiiful and cultivated oninirlee of iha RtHnan empire, now in the weMidiesa of decline, and Roman art and science were obliged to give place lo the barbarity, the deep ignurauce and superstition, of tile middle ages. The Usirogotlis and Lombards settled In Italy, the Franks in France, the Visigoths In Spain, and the Aiiglo-Saxona In booth Britain, reducing the iohalti- lanu to sul'jection, or becoming incorporated witti Iheni. The empire of the Franks was enlarged, un- der Charlemagua, to such an extent that ine king- doms of Franco, Uermany, Italy, Unr);undy, Lorraine, and Navarre, were afurwardi lormed out of It. About this time, the northern and eastern nations of Europe liegan to exert an inttueucein the affaire of the world. The Slavi, or Nclavonians, founded kingdoms In Bo- hemia, Poland, Russia, and the north of Oermany | lite .Matiyarians appeared in Hungary, and Ibe Nor- mana agitdted all EuMpe. The estabtlshmeni of a hierarchy was now undertaken by tha Popes, and iinally carried to iu completion by Gregory Vll. and Innocent 111. The power ufthe ropes waa lncrea**d by th* crusades. NeverthelesH, this struggle between Asia and i.urope had the elfect of forming a middle class, of leading the peasant gradually to thruw off the dialos of bondage, and of 'utroduclog the aru and Inrljr dtpoilMd, u th« uinuls MwliM ftrtnow >rt piwItlMd by iiI8m1 roekt or ', liidletw tbit eingi, wu not • wiiiiih bulled tn of tnimili • Mrth. Tbat Is oonflrroMi by zitl i>r tb> ori. iruliiuni wblcb €l«al lurfaM of la u iu praMnt ibl* tn ballen, uuui (Bd con. of dtMniililtd bleb iqpilMn [kmptni with lb* wrtb, Iha r ■Imoii Inooa. itlylold, 'that la aa ooa day. AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARTH— PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. Hiieiicai ihrnugh tlia Arftba and Orwki into Kurop*. Tb« ravtrftl oflttttri, by Ui« OrMka flttlng from Con. ■unUnoplfl, nvt ftn tntlr«ly n«« ImpulM to Kuroy*. Tb* wtttblUhmtnt of untrenltlM, th« InTcntton of prlnllofi tnd th« IUfarni«Uon, wrr%d to obarlih and d«vtlop« thwfl Modi of iinproTffn«nL Tb« ftudkl oontwu, th« itrufglo of prkiloMf, ltd tTtntuftUy to th« ftcknowMfintnt and MtablTihment of tb« rlghu of tbo IndtvlduftL Out of tb« chut of thamlddUtgei, artiM theitalM of (fermnny, Fnnoo. 8u«ln, PortiiRHlf Kiigliind, 8cot- Uiid, HwlturUnd, the lulian pnwan, Hungary, Bo< huniln, Poland, Denmark, Hweden, NorwaV, and Ruiila. By the oaptiira of ConiUnthiuple (I4ft3), tba Turku, witb thalr fanatical mlllurydaipotluD, b«. cama an £urop«an pitwer. Aiiitria, Holland, Froula, and Sardinia, wera alio added to tba number of Euro- pean itatei t and Ruiila, from the time of Peter I., was changed from an Ailatlointoan European empire. The attempt! of Charlei V. and Loula XIV. to become matMrt uf Kuro^, failed t but In our own timo*, Na. uoleon conceived the project of forming, from the European lUtet, an univerfal monarchy, and punned it for ten vearii. Hlnce the formation of the tutee of Europe, the following hnve ditappeared from the lilt of independent {lowftr* I Hungary, Poland, the Oer. man empire, Scotland, iiohemis, Venice, Genoa, and Milan. The following have been added i the itatei of the German omfederacy, the Italian itaiei, the re- public of the Ionian laUnds, and that of Cracow. A natural cnniequence of the general dttfuilim nf Intel- leclual cultivaiiun, and the decay of the feudal Hyktem, baa been the gradual developement of the Ideai of equal right and Individual liberty t bloody itruggles have naturally eniuod between the adherents of the new and old oploioui, and Europe la itill oonvulaed by them. Europe ii wanhed on three itdea hy the lea, which li calleil by different namei, and beUingt either to the Northern Arctic or the Atlantic Ocvan. A narrow •trait of the Mediterranean separatei it from Africa. On the eait alone it Joini the main land, being there ■eparated from Aula by an Imaginary line. Europe ii altuated In the northern frnaen and the northern tem- perate zonei, between 10" and 63* eaet longitude, and 36' and 71° north latitude. Including the ialandi, which conuia about 317)000 iquara miles, the whole extent nf Europe amounti to about 3,250,000 square miles, of which Russia comprises nearly one-half. The greatest length, from Cape 8t Vincent, in Por- tugal, to the northern extremity of the eastern Ixmn- dary, at Waygatt's, is about 3500 miles. The greatest breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the North Cape, in Norway, is about 2500 miles. Europe is remarkably well watered, although its rirem have not 10 long a course nor such large cataracts as those in other parts of the globe, particularly in America. The principal rivers are the Ebro, the Rhone, and the Po, running into the Mediterranean ; the Danube, the Dnieper, and the Dniester, Into the Black 8ea ; the Don, into the Sea of Aioph; the AVolga, into the Caspian t the Dwina, Into the Arctic Ocean ; an- other Dwina or Duna, the Vistula, and the Oder, into the Baltic ; the Elbe, Weser, and Rhine, Into the North Sea ; the Seine, into the English Channel ; the Thames into the German Ocean; the Loire and Garonne, the Duoro and Tagui, the Gandiana and Qaudalquiver, into the Atlantic. The Wolga and Danube are the longest. Of its numerouR lakes, the largest, which, however, bear oo comparison with the North American, are in the north of Eun>pe ; viz. in Russia, Lakes Ladoga (the largest in Europe), Onega, and Tchudskoe, or Peipus; in Sweden, Lakes Maler, Wener, and Wetter. On the borders of Germany and Switzerland ii Lake Constance ; on the borders of Italy and Switzerland is the Lake of Geneva (Lake Le- man); in Hungary are Lakes Flatten and NeusicKller. A great partof Europe is mountainous; the southern more so than the northern. The most elevated region la Switzerland, from which there is a descent, which terminates, on the side of the North Sea and the Baltic, in low pinlns. The lowest and most level parts are Hol- Iftutl ;4nil Northern Germany, Denmark, Russia, and Pruinia. he highest mountains are the Alps, in Switzerland and Italy, which upread from those coun- triei iu various directions, extend westwardly into France, and are connected by the Cevenves with the r)'tcTieAs, which separate France from Spain. One ehaln of the Alps stretches south towards the Medi- terranean; then, taking an easterly course, runs through Italy, under the name of the Appenlnee. Several branches run eastward from the Alps, through the south of Germany, as far as the Turkish provin- ces. Another chain, the Jura, runs to the north, and separates Switzerland from France., In the east of Europe are the Carpathian mountalai, which on one vide meet the Sudetic range, and on the other the mountains of Turkey In Europe. The highest moun. tain in Europe is Mont Blanc, in Savoy, one of the Alps, which Is said to be 15,766 feet above the level of the sea. Several of the European mountains are voloanoei; as £tua, Vesuvius, and Hecla. It is a fact worthy of ookioe, that none of the volcanoes of Europe are to be found in any of the great ohaina of mountains which have just been enumerated. The only one on the toQtimmt ift Vesuvius, and this is too much detached lo b« considered as properly funning oue of the Appe- nlnee. VEtna, in the island of Sicily, rising to the height of ten or eleven thousand feet above the level vii of the wa, is the Urgevt European volcano. The LI. pari Islands, anolonily called the jKoUmnt a few milee lo the north of Sldlyi bt«r tvldmt marks of a volca- nic orlirin ( and in Mvaral of them, eubtarranaan Ares are stlU in operation. The volcano of Siroroboll la In almost Incessant activity, and differs In this ra*PjK)t from anv other with which we are acquainted. The Azores, In the Atlantic Ooaan, are doubtless Indebted for their formation to the same clroiimsunce aa the LIpari Islands ( and Indeed new riKiki have risen from the saa lo their vleluUy, within a recant period. An eruption took plaea at » Oaone, during iba present century. Iceland, too, thougn lying under 6A* of north fatitudfli presents the rooti abundant tokens of the presence of volcanic Are, and has often suffered under Its devasUtlons. Mount Hecla Is the most no- ted, though not the only source of the aruptlons on this Island. To the possession of many Inland seas, and, consequently, of a Una of coast very extensive In propse who speak the angnages derived from the Is uf education ; iiMms/ous gymnasia and aoademies for the preparatory studi(*". ana a great number i>f lower schools, particularly In (}ermanv, are employed In educating the common people. In niatsy places there are academies of science, and so- cieties of all kinds, for the cultivation uf the arts and sciences. By in physical sltoatlon, Europe Is dlvldeif into East and West Europe. West Europe compri«M ihe Pyrenean peninsula (Spain aud Portugal^, \he coun- try west of the Alps (trance), *he countries north of the .Mps (Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- lands), the country south of the Alps(lMly), the is* lands of the North Sea (Great Hriuln, Ireland, and Iceland), and the countries wi the Baltic (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Prussia, ,. Eut Europe umtains the countries north of th« Carpathian monnuins (Russia and Gallcia), and the countries south of the Carpathian mountains (Hungary, In its mure compre- hensive sense, and Turkey). The following are the political states of Europe i the three empires of Aus- tria, Russia, and Turkey; seventeen kingdoms, viz. Portugal, Spain, France, Great Britain, Holland, Bel- gium, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Sardinia, the Two Sicilies, Greece, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and WUrtemberg t one ecclnsiastical statti, the papal dominions ; seven republic, name!/, Switzerland, the Ionian Islands, San Marino, Hamburg, Lu- beck, Bremen, and Frankfort; one elecutrate, Hesse ; six grand-duchles, Baden, Hesse- Darmstadt, Saxe- Weimar, Alecklenburg-Scbwerin, Mecklenburg-Stre- lltx, and Tuscany; twelve duchies, viz. Oldenburg, Ootha, Meiningen, Altenburg, Brunswick, Naatau, Dessau, Bernburg, Ciithen, Modena, Parma, and Lucca; one landgraviate, viz. Hesse-Homburg; one grand principality, Finland, and twelve principatiiies, viz. iloheiizollern-Hechingen, Hoheiizoll«rii-Si}{ma- ringen, Scbwarzburg.RudoIstadt, Schwarzburg-Son- dershausen, Waldeck, Lippe-Detuiold, Schaiimburg- Lippe, Lichtenstein, Keuss-Greiz, Keuss-Schleiz, Re- uss-Lobenstein, aud Reuss-Ebersdurf. CONBTITVTIOKAL GOVERNMEMTS. We consider that It will be advantageous in a work of this popular nature, to present a ahorr notice of those European states which have in the course of time ob- taiued constitutions, with the dates when they came under this improved mode of government. Never- theless, such are the changes constantly effeciing in this respect, that all we can hope to ascertain is au ap- pror.imation to correctness. It will alHobe difficult to point out distinctly what is sometimes the nature of the oorvtitutions we allude to, for, however free in nppearaiice, they are occasionally under the imme- diate influence of armed intervention, and the appa- rent restraints on the rulers, as well as the security of the subjects, are in many instances little else than a mockery. The Arst kind of constitutions to be noticed are those founded on the feudal estates of the middle ages, and on the system of corporations : for instance those in the Austrian monarchy, as follows : — In the arch- duchy of Lower Auotrla, In Stiria, and Carinthia, in Bohemia, Moravia, and, since 1810, aUo in Galioia and Lodomeria with Bukowine, the estates are still- kept up, comprising the four orders — the clergy, no- bility, gentry, and citizens ; the latter being repre- sented by the magistrates nf the royal cities. In the Tyrol, we tind again, since March 24, 1816, the estates of peasants, citizens, nobility, gentry, and clergy. But notwithstanding their gallant struggle against the French and Bavarians, they have not even received from Austria the right of a voice in the imposition of their own taxes, which formerly belonged to them ; but the constitution allows them the right of making representations. In the name of the country, to the emperor ! In the imperial part of Silesia, the estates are composed only nf the dukes and princes, with the lords and gentry, who are immediat^y under the em- peror. In the Ijomhardu. Venetian kingdom, the estates are founded, according to the constitution of April 24, 1816, on the system of corporations. Two central congregations exist at Milan and Venice : ihu different provincial congregations in the Lombardic part of the kingdom consist of deputies appointed by the king ; in the Venetian part, of deputies elected by the central congregation and the gubernium (the Aus- trian designation uf the government). All these de- puties are from among the noble and not noble landed proprietors, and from the royal cities, under the sway of the imperial governors or delegates. The privi* leges of these estates consist almost solely in the right of granting the royal ponUiUitest and in the distribu- tion and collection of the taxes. Some have also the right of advising the government, and that of peti- tioning. In Hungary the four orders uf the estatei ( HAMBKRSS INFORMATION FOR THK PEOPLE. — tht high cUrff jr, Ihr b4nmi «iid magHotta^ lit* !(•»• Irir, and rnyal frw oltiM— htn lni|mrunl prIflwgM. Th« Dukllliv at (cnur tod Iht oillM (In-i intlr d«|iu. tiM, wid ■('• Ik* innd'prii % f H r Ontrv «Dd Iht citlM •l»ri ihvir i«pi I Ihtn InMrudilaiit. In TrttniylTtnlft, . . ^^^ MvroiiM cflfuln righti of tiiv*. nl^'uly, ftMlilW by the rtprvMAUUvM of tht ihrt* nailons (ih« Hun|ftrlftnt, 8Hkl«r».afid Huont) whom h« oimvokOT. Th«M rvprvwnuilvM ronilit pftrlly uf niyftl oAMri, pttrtlv of d«puU«i appointed by lb* r«- (tut or tiMUd by tho fxirporfttlcmt. 5. Hardlnlan mnnkrrhr — Hntha liUnd of 8»rdmiK, Um e*orgy, notilltiy, ftiid dvputlMof tht cIiIm and bo. rouffhi, ffHreiie, cn|r«th«r with iht klnfd t)ia riffhl of layttUiItifr and uilnif. X In iha kingdum iif 8wad«n, than «aitk. At-wtrdlnn to Uib UtMi oouitUutlon of Jiin* 7, IMW, tb* »ld MUIM, comDiialnK four ordan — ihn nobility, oiaryy. tlilsana, and erown*pM*antt. Tha dtai hai tha right nf iMrlilallon and Uiatlon, and tha ■uparlnt«tndenMof ikalnaoooa, bank, and mini. Tha king hai an unconditional wHa, A. In thi* klngdiMn of 8uany, tha attataa are eom- poaad of thraa ftrdara. Tba Aral ordar aootliti of iha nlghar dargy, or pralatat, prlneaff aounu, and lordi, with tha d'^putlaa of tha unWanliy of Laipitc. Tha aorond ordar ambraora tha gantry, to which, ilnoa IfntO, iwanty-nlnadaputiaialMibaTa b««n Joinad from Iha poMaawin of nnhla aautca. Tha third order oon- aUta of dapiitiaa fnitn iha maglitratai of tha clilaa. Tha buainMHt «f uranilng and riaing tha taxaa, and of noaivlng iha afx ISiSt dif idad into two chambara. Tha old tyitani i>f corporatiooa wu rataiuad. ?• In tha prlneipallty of Llavhiaiiatain, a oonttitution a. >r the Austrian faaAiun wat intro- duoed, Not. 0, 181 A, Theaautea oonglitof thaoiergy and the depnilaa from tha ooamBnlllat, appointed by the mHKiitratea. Their power la limply to make pro- poiiiiuiii. H. In the iwogmnd-dnehieaof Meeklen- burg >chwerin and H«ck)enburg-8tr«llt8, ihaaautei ooniiit of the /fUttrtchmft and dtpntles of the oor> poratioiii. Thev bar* very great privlUgaa, which the furmer particularly malnuini with great itrlot- neu. I>. In the prindpalitieaof Heuu, the old aiuiai alio exitt, aa, Itkrwita, IU> In tha Uaulab duohy of Haxa-Ijauanburg. 11. The repiihlio of the aeren Ionian lelanda wai arevifd March 21, IBUU, and governed aocurdiug to the ariitovriitlo conttiiutinu, eitahllehed andar Hu«- •inn lntluanr«, Dec 6, IBfKt. M'hen the republic wu placed under the prot«ctiou of uititiiiiun Jan. 1, 1R18, according to which t^ia l«Ki>l»t' va body consists of deputies of the tiohllity, and the senste la choaan from among the legislative body. The seoond dascrtptlon of cnnitltutlon is that uf Great Britain, which is founded jointly upon he- reditary monarchy, astatea of nohility, aitd ttiat of a general national represenutlon. The British cd entirely through the medium of na- tioti:il rfpiesentatton. Tin* first government erected of this kind was tlist of the I'nited Htstet of America, which hpi^an in l?')?. (Vmstitntions In which the aristocratic element whh excluded were sotm after eita- bitshed it) France. Sewral other states then shook off the fetters of tha feudal system, and introduced more ur lass 01 the damocrstic element into the constitutions which they adoptad. During tha UiK half ranlury, thrTH hav«« bean one hundred and fourteen new writ- li'ik conntltutioni esuhlished In Kurope and Amarica t t) irty-one of them have been abolished, but the ra- mainder still exist, and alraul on* hundred mUlioni of P'-npIe are ruled by tliem. Kranie has seen, sine^ the revolution, nine differ- ent constitutions! — 1. Themonarchical.rapraaeDtative constitution of 17U1. *i- Thn republicauHlamocratic oonktitutiun of June LM, 17^3. This never went wholly into operation, much jKiwer being giv^n, for the time, to dictatorial bodies. 3. The coimtitution of September 23, 1795, which established the directorial government, and divided the legislative body of the national couvention Into ilie council of the ancients and the council of the five hundred. It vested the right of electing the repreaenutives Immediately hi thv primirv assemblies. 4. Tha coustitutioa uf P cemberlS, 17IK}, esuhlished l first consul for ten y< wttii the right of propfnitiT icwa, and tvo-other i suls. The tirsl consul (Bonaparte) was surrounded by a council uf state and minlatera. A triple election was at the same time esuhlished. The citizens of eu-h conimuMO chifte one.tenth of their number as persons ouali lied for public ofHca; the a|^reg«te of the pers4iii« tltus named in all tha oommune* of a de. partuieui chose also ime-tenth of their pumber; and from *Ua whole body uf persnni thua nominated by all tha departmenU. forming tha national lUl of parsons eligible to otni-ial situations, the conservdtiva sanatt* ohoaa tha legislators, tribunes, uunsuls, thn members of the court of cassation, and the rommisKlmiers of ao- oounu. In this Inslrnmeui the priruiuU* of tha lU bertv of the prasa, and others uf a similar kind, which had Dean guaranteed In the former conatltuthm, were omUlad. A, Manv essentlnl changes were soon afur made In this otniiiiiution hy the various sfnaiiM-rim. iw/tes orjfmniquta, S4i called. These decrees uf the se- nate, of August J and 4, IfltKI, gave the Arst consul. Napoleon Btmaparte, his dignity for life, and Inveftled hlro with several monirchlcal prerogativea. 6. At laat, tha s«mi/w«con«u//tf of May 18, IMM, elevalad the rtrsl oimsul ut the dignity of emperur oi the Frer.uh, and the iuoctsslun was made hereditary In his family. Franca had now a monarobical Oiuistltutitm with soma demoorattc forms i una of these — tlie tribunate — was abolished by tha t9natu»'C0n»ulU orgmniqut of August ID, 1BU7. Tha equality of all cillsens, in the eve of the law, was a prinelpla praaarved In all tha French ounstllutlons, and even the BourUuis were obliged to make It a promiaeni feature In the Churts CoHMtituiioHntU*. 7. Afur the downfall of Nmpolaoa, the senau drew up a new aonslltution, of April f), IHU, In which an aristocracy, hereditary in the famlllea of the aenators, was established. It gua. ranleed, however, in several raspecta, the liberties of ih» people. But liouls XVIII., u it is well known, adoaiad, at 8t Ouen, May 2. 1814, only cer. tain prtnolplas oif this oonsiltutlon, reUting to the re> praaentatlve syitam in two iMHUas, the respd behavtonr, the Irrevorahlllty of the sitle of the national property, the capacity of every Frenchman for all civil and military appointments, and, as before mentioned, the equality of all citlxens in the eye of the law. 8. After this, the king promulgau>d, June 4, 1814, tha preaetit constitution, the Chart* C'oni/i/tf- tionnttUt which had been drawn up by a oummittee appointed bv him. It established a chamber of peers, to be elected by the king, and a chamber of deputies, to be chosen by eiectura! colleges. These two bodies, tugather with the king, were to form the legislature. Hut this Instrument left many points uni>ettled, which alloweecember 2, IHI I, the owner* of majorate* (entailed estates) and the possessors of no- ble liel's, were declared representatives of the Bavarian nation by right of birth. At Jast, the king, Maxlml- Han, granted t^coDititutlon of May 36} 1018, aoconu panted by Un edlota. May 17. 1818, a regulation for tha coinmuniile* had been alreiMly promu^aied. Th* onnstitutlun establishes Iwu houses— one of peera, the other uf cootmona — the former to hold thalr placea hj right uf birth, or by appolutnteutof the king, the lat- ur by aleotiou. This alectlou, however. Is not nada by the oeople oolleoilvely. but by the dlffareol eatalee —itubility, clergy, and scbolara, cltiiens and peaianta. Tills ounsUlution nominally pruvidee for the chief poinu of civil lilieriy, freedom of c^uiKlencean^ of tha preas, *(|ualiiy of all the citlaens In the eye of Iha law, lite etfual capacity uf all olllaens for all apwilulmenta In the service of the state, also the e4)ual distrlbuilou of taxes, the responsibility of public ofHcers, Ac. 4. WUrtemberg — King Frederic abolished. In ISINt, the old ronstitutliin, inuiided on a compact oonoluded ba- tween the estates and the sovereign, and governed ab- solutvly, according to the decree af organisation of March 18, 1800. January 11, 181 A, he Issued a pro. clamatlon, by which ha iiiunded to prepare the way for the eatabllshmani of such a constitution aa he wished ; but the assembly convoked by him In March I81A refused the proposed constitution, uking for the re-establishment of the old one. At last the consti- tution of 8*pumber 2d, 1810, was established by way of eompacL It provides for two houses uf legislalore. A. The grand. duchy of Baden, afUr several pralU minary decrees, received a coustitution, August M, 1818, which provides for two houses of Jeglslatura. The ArRi Is composed ol peers, of the deputies of the gentry and the universities, a Catholic bishop, a Pro- testant pralau, and eight members nominated by Uu> monarch, without reference to their birth or siatioa. The lower house consisU uf deputies, chosen witli re- ference to the population. 6. The grand.durhy of Hesse- Darmstadt received a constitution, providing fur two houses. May lU, 1B20. 7. The principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont received a constitution Ja- nuary 28, 1814. This was changed, however, April 19, 1818, when a constitution was established, by which only the landowners and corporations of the cities ar« represented. 8. Thoduchy of Nassau received aoon- stituiiou hy the ordinance oif 8eptemt>er 2, 1814, which establishes two houses, one of hereditary peers, the other of representatives, chosen for a limited time* July 1, 1816, anew organisation of the government was proclaimed. It Is founded, for the most part, on the division of estates. 9. Saxe- Weimar received a conititutlon Heptambcr 20, 1809, wliile sho belonged to the confederation of the Khine. Another consti- tution was adopUd May A, IfllU, founded un the estatas of the nobility, ciiixens, and peasants, each of which sends Un deputies, while the university of Jena sends one. There Is only one house of leglslatnre. The elections are free, and the liberty uf the press Is gua- ranteed. The diet, opened December 17. 1820, ex- hlbited the remarkable instanoe of a represeutatlva body refusing publlolly to its deliberations, and allow- ing only the publication of portions >,f ju prtioeedluga- The lilierty of the press has been long since sus* pended. It is hardly necessary to mention how utterly insutticient abasisof reprfsentation the ant irni astatea are In our times, since the imp«>rtatit classee of the learned (who were formerly represented in the clergy), artists, mechanics, merehanu, and manufacturers, re- main, on this system, unrepresented. 10. Kaxe-Coburg received a constitution from lu sovereign, August 21, 1617i foundeil on tiie esUUs. When the diet is not sitting, a permanent oomraiitea watches ovt-r thenminunanca of the constitution, and the execution of the laws. A further ut-nstitntional regulation was given Decemlier lA. 1820, and the diet Arst asnemhl«d in 1821. 11. Haxe-ilildburghauseu received a constitution, Januury 7i 1818, founded on the estates. A permanent committee of the nobility, the cities, and clergy, represents the diet when It is not sitting. 12. Tiie principality of 8cbwaraburg. Kudolstadt received a constitution, April 21, 1821, founded on the estates. 13. TheprincipitlityofLlppe- Schaumburg received a constitution by a decree of January lA, 18IA. It Is founded on the eatalcs. 14. lar tl, IHU, tha cintoni convantd RK>I' • *"<' recfllrtd Into th« innredaracy of tha nlnataan cantoiii tlirte naw onat— VaUii, OanaT*, and Naufcliaiel. Kuh RRiilon haa Iti own rapraaanUliva conitltution, fi*imd«4 un iha alamanU of tha old tyitam, t»gcth«r with tha prlnclplai of tha act of madiatlnn. In nme, tha arfiowratlo prlnclplt prural'M In othari, tha da> nuicrtiilo, Koina outoni ara purely damocratio, a« V«Uii, Colra. Zu|r, *c. Naufchatal ha* a couititu- tiuii 111 whiuh arlatocratlot democratic, and monarchU cnl piinclrileH, ara combined. Tha king of rrniila, the novereiKn ol ihii canton, eitaliliihed thia conilU tMiloii, June 111, and Deremliar tltt, 1RI4. lUvtnff thui enumerated the European itataa which have received oonttitutioni, it may imt be uninlereiU loK lo inke a ■urrey of ihme European iUMi which are governed by lovereignii entirely abiulute. Auitria WBi mentioned among ihuie cuunlrlfi In which con- atitutioni founded on tha old feudal eitatei eiiit « but although thie may ba tha oaaa In point of form, y^ttha Austrinn monarchy ii virtually on« of tha moat abio- lute governmenta that can axial, and hai ayitamatl- cally pufiued, for a long aeriai of yeare, ao arbitrary a loiirae in many renpect* (Including the admliilairatlon uf the tinancei and the Intellectual cuUlvatlou of the people), that wa can hardly tind any thing parallel In ?overnmenU which claim to b« purely abaolutat U, ir Inatance, In Fruaala. The following governmeau are wUhnul conatitutlonii— 1. Piedmont, 8avoy, and Nice. 2. TuacAuy, Parma, and Alodena. 3. The Two Slciliea. -1. The 8iatea of the Church. A. Piua. •lu, with the exception of Neufchatel. 6. The electo- rate of Ueate.Caiael. In IHIA, tha elector, having reaumed poaaeislon of the electorate, after the abolition of tha klngduu) of Wvalphalia, convened not only tho old eatataa, thoie of the nobility, clergy, and citlzeni, but aUo that of the p«aaanU, whIuh gave ri»e to anl. madveraion ; and on the aiaembly'a diaagreeing to the new conatitullou wlilch he preaented to them, the •lector disaolved the bodyt aince which time the go- Ternment baa been entirely abaolute. 7> The land- graviate of Hease.Homburg. H. The duchy of Anhalt. December 'J(t, IHIO, thla little country received from lite reigning duke aconatitutiun, modelled entirelvon that of the French empire; but the guardian of Jila lucoeitor auKpeuded tha conaiitutlon, October 24, 1813. 0. The prinoipalitiea of llohcnzollern.Hcch' ingen, and Sigmaringen. 10. The principality of Scnwariburg-Sonderalmnaen. U. Tha duchy uf Oldenburg. 12. The duchy of Holitein. Both the Latter, however, are about to receive, according to public report, couititutlona founded on the eatatea. 13. The kingdom uf Denmark, in which the ancient conatitutiun wai abuliihed in ItlfiO. The people cj< uperatttd with the gnvernment in the ove.-throw of the old ayitam, aa it waa favuurable only to the nobi- lity and the privileged corporationa, the former of whom greatly abused their powera. Il regions thi>re wind innumerable arti- ficial canals and roads, every wl.ere giving token of the commercial character of the country The chief elevations In Ei gland am In the souther./ counties of WestmoreUnd and Cumberland, where tha hills rise to upwards of .1000 feet In height. The gennral aspect of Wales is bold, romantic, and mountainous. It con- sists of continued ranges of lufty mountains and Im- pending crags. Intersected by numerous and deep ravines, with extensive vallles, and affording endless views of wild mounti^in scenery. The Welsh hills are also ufieu green and pastoral, and feed an Immense number of sheep and black cattle. Tha mriit cunsidernble rivers of England and Wales are the Thames, Severn, Medway, Trent and Ouse forming the llumber, Tyne, Tees, Wear, Mersey, Dee, Avon, Eden, and Durwuiit, which, aided by the extensive system of canal navigation, afford an easy access Into the interior of the country, and enable tbe most inland districts to communicate readily with the sea, as well as with one another. Among the moun- tains of Westmoreland and Cumberland there are a number of beautiful lakes, uf which Windermere Is the chief, and is the most extensive piece of water In England, being upwards of ten miles In length, and from one to two miles in breadth. The coasts o. Eng. land are among the finest in the world for maritime traffic. Oeneraliy speaking, the western coast of the island ia rugged and prfcipitous, while the eastern ciiastisalmoat wholly level. The main channels for 'he khlpping trade of Ureat Britain are the Thantei*, the Humher, the Tyne, the Forth, and the Tay, on the east coast, and the Severn, the Mersey, and the Clyde, on the west. The climate of England and Scotland is variable, inclining to moisture and cold ; In the northerly part ot the iaiand especially, the i*ast winds are occaslnnally piercingly cold and most ueNiructlve to health. The mean average heat of England i •■ about 02' 4 in summer, thn beau rise to upwards of flti% thuDgh only for a few days ; the commiutherland, Ross, Inverness, Perth, Argyle, and Dumbarton, upor the mainland, together with Bute, and other islands, Wsldes a considerable portion uf the counties of Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, Forfar, and Caith. nets. In this district, which includes fully a half of Scotland, cies of civilised usage and Institution prevails, as wall as the usual English garb. Indeed, to the Lowlanders, the griulne Celt uf the mountains In a*- much a curi- osity as he wuuld l>e In the centre uf England. The Hebrides, or M'estern Isles, belong tu tbe Highland divisliin; bnt the northerly Islands of Orkney and Shetland are eiientially Lowland lo manners, Ian. guage, andlnatitutUinsof theinhabltarls, all uf whom are of Gothic origin. M'hile the Highlands are nearly altogether moun- Itlnoua and pastoral In character, the Lowlands are by no means Hat, but are distinguished by a great variety of hill and dale. Thuru la Indfced little per. fertly Hat ground In any part of Scotland. In general the land haa an inclination tu the beds of rivers or streamlets, or lo the sea ; the uidands being mostly pastoral, and the low grounds chUily under cullur* for grain or green crops The most fertile and level counties are Berwickshire, in its luwer division, and EKst Lothian, which Is adUcent. Wh«t are called tbe carse grounds, that is, lurge tracts uf alluvial soil on the borders of the Tay and upper Forth, are, how- over, more uf a dead '-"el, and are exceedingly beau- tiful and productive. Scotland abuunds in rivers of various extent, hut they are generally so rapid la their descent as to be uf no use In navigation. The Clyde In its lower parts is the only navigable stream. The Forth and the Tay are only navigable In their l^rths or estuaries. The firths of these rivers, and the Moray Firth on the ' uith.east coast, are of great conseqtience to the -^.^uping trade, and also for fish- ing. Tbe Tay is the largest river in Scotland, and after the Clyde and the Forth are ranked tbe Speyi FIndhnrn, Dee, Tweed. Ness, Nlth, and Looby. Tha Earn Is a fine river, falling into tbe luwer part of the Tay. Almost all these rivers have their origin la obscure rivulets among clusters of inland mountains. The northern rlv'?rs, Spey, Flndhorn, Dee, Slc. draw their sources from the groups uf Highland hills, chiefly In Aberdeenshire and Inverness-shire. In this lat- ter county rises the lufty Ben-Nevis to the height cf 4370 feet ahcve the level of the set<, and forms the tallest uf the Scottish mountains. In the bosom of the Highland country there He many beautiful and extensive lakes, the most noted of which, Loch Ca- tiine and Loch Lououd, are found In Dumbartoit and Stirling shires. Within tlie last sixty or seventy years, Scotland has undergone an almost entire change uf character, both physically and morally. It is now extensively and well cultivatetl and enclosed, huerftected by excellent roads and two or three cannls, and as nearly us may l*e resembles England in up[:i.4iance. From having almost no trade or commerce, It is now deeply engaged in trade, in manufactures of divers kinds, and pos- sesses a large amount of shipping. But perhaps the greatest improvement is observable In its chief towns, which have all been modernised, and greatly extended in size and population. Its principal cities and towns are as follow : — Edinburgh, the capital, with I/oltli and suburbs, with a population of 102,150 (without Leith, 13fi,204) ; Glasgow and suburbs, 202,420— (this being the third town in the empire) ; Aberdeen, new and old, 50,010; Paisley, burgh and atibey parish, r>7,4«6; Dundee, 4o,350; Ureenuck, ^7,571 ; Perth, 20,010; Inverness, 14,324; Montrose, 1 2.0ria; Dum- fries, 11,000; Arbroath, 0000; Kirkuldy, 5034. ScoU land is divided into 33 counties, which areornere lately eubdivided into 010 parishes ; the popuhition of the wh.>le, by the census of 1 031 , amiiun ted tu 2,300,807t which wat more than double what it was thirty years l»efore. Politically, Scotland is now ihorougnly in- corporated with England ; nevertheless, it still pos- sesses its own peculiar usages and legal code. It being only some of the acts of the Imperial Pnrliament which affect its laws. The system of administration of jus- tice also differs a good deal from tbit of England, and its supreme courts are settled at Edinburgli. Ecclesi- astically, it is likewise peculiar in its institutions, as has been elsewhere described in this work. ifreland, which now forms a por:{on of the United Kingdom, and is under the same kind of institutions as England, though naturally a line country, bus hitherto been the lenst prusperons of the British islands. It is computed thut it contains more than 30,000 square mites, or nearly .10,000,000 acres. Pu- litically, it is divided into the fuur provinces uf Lein- Htcr, t Ister, Munstcr, and Cuunaugbt, which compose^ 32 counties. Dublin, the capital, by the returns 01' 1031, had a population of 204, loj; Belfast, in tbe northern part ol the island, is a llourishing town and seaport, with a population of 53,000; Cork, on the south-east coas*, has a population of 107,010. Ire- laud contains about sixty towns, each witli above 2000 of a population. The total popuhition uf the country in lOai was 7,707,401. FBAKCE. After Oreat Britain, France Is nsnally reckoned the most powerful and inlluential country in Europe. In point of territorial extent and amount uf popula- tion, it stands muihhigher than Great Britain, wiilch is but a small country, and it likewise possesses a finer climate; nevertheless, such hsvebeen Its unfor- tunitte political and religioits disseosious and misar- rangements, that It has permitted itself to be mit- strlpped In the race of Improvement by England. Vet under all lu backwardness, iu many points France fonui a great nation, well deferring of the sympathy CHAIMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE i '% and respect of iu neighb* < i rs ; aud It ii greatly to be Retired that In futura a ({.>od underitandiug ihould ■ttbiiit betwixt It and Great Briuln. France ii situated between latitude 43" 20' and fir ft' N., and longitude 3" 61' E. and 9» 27' W., compria- Irganeitontof213,800iqnaremilei,withapopulatlon, according to official retumi, in 1837, o( 31,Hfil,d4A. It ii bordered on ihe north-eait by the !'«▼ Countries, the Prussian proTince of the Lower Hhine. and Rhen- Jth Ba\ aria ; on the east, it Is separated from Baden by the Khine. and touches Swi<«erland and Sardinia t on the south, Us boundarlet ■« the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, and the Bidassoa; the ocean boundi the rest. The island of Coraica, and the Uiires, in the Mediterranean, and the IsU- Oieron, R«f, Noir- inoulier, B«lle-Isle> Dieu, and i htessant (Ushant), in the Atlantic, belong to France. The foreign posees. tions are of lUtle value. The/ are, In Asia, PondU cherry and Karical on the Coromandel coast, Yannon In the Northern Circart, Chandemagore In Bengal, Alahe on the Malabar coast, a factory at Surat, and ■ome factories in Arabia, in all 170,000 InbabiUnta ; In Africa, Sen^al, Goree, the Isle of Bourbon, and ■ome factories, containing 90,000 InhabltaoU ; in AmerioL Martinique, and Qaudaloupe with ita de- Mndenciet, Gulrna, and the small Islands of St rlerreand Mlquelon, near Newfoundland, containing flfft,000 Inhabiunu. The territory is divided Into 86 dcportmenta, which generally derive their names from tfie rivers. They are subdivided Into 3G3 arrundlsse- amta, 2844 cantons, and 38,339 communes. Each ^•partment it governed by a prefoct, and each arron- 4UMment by a subpref«ct. The cantons have no ad. minlstratire powers. The communes are under a ■uyor. AU these officers, with the counseUora of departments, arrundlssementa, and communes, were, wore the recent changes, appointed by the king. The empire under Napoleon comprl:ed ammt 300,000 Move miles, with 43,500,000 Inhabitants, of which S8,000,0Gtl were French, 0,500,000 Italians, 4,500. 'tOO Flemish and Dutch, and 4,000,000 German. The principal mountains of France are, 1. The Toeget on the north-east. They are of a rounded oat- Bne, with gentle slopes, and afford much open paa- turage. The highest summit is not more than 4500 ftet nigh. 2. The Jura mountains He to the south of these, and their summiu rise to the height of 0000 feet. 3. Many Alpine branches intersect Daaphlny and Provence. In the ceotre of the kingdom are, 4. The mountains of Auvergne, of volcamo origin, of which the Puy de Dome, the Moots d'Or, and the Cental, are the principal groups. 5. The Cerennee Be to the south-east of the range last mentioned. Their highest summit Is Mont Lozcre (about C510 Ihet). 0. The Pyrenees form the prlnnipai part of the boundary between France and Spain. These moun- tains divide the cou.utry into four great basins, the form and exposure of which necessarily have a great influence on their climate and productions. The nar- row valley of the Rhine runs from nortli to 0 acres in extent. The valley of the Ga- ronne ia composed of a friable sandy loam, with a calcareous mixture, and moisture suthcient for every purpose. This district contains 7)054,501 acres. The greet valley of Languedoc is extremely prolific, though the toil is not so fine as that of the preceding districts. The Limarne, a valley of Auvergne, Is considered to have one of the finest stjils in the world. It con- atsts of beds of earth, said to be twenty feet deep, formed from the deojmposition of soft basalt. The calcareous and chalk formations are extensive. Tlie chalk provinces are unfruitful in grain, but the genial Influence of the sun allows them other riches. The calcarroiis loam on the borders of the chalk formation is more productive. In Bretagne, Anjou, and Maine, are immense heaths. The lanite$ are J^xtensive tracts of sandy deserts, producing nothing but broom, heath, and Junipers. The most extensive are the landes of Bordeaux, twenty leagues in length by twelve In breadth. In the remaining provinces, gravel, or a gravelly sand, is the predominating soil. The woods and forests are estimated to oover a space of 10,795,000 acres. The principal are tlioseof Ardennes, Orleans, and For.taincl'leau. The northern and western coasts are formed iu a great proportion by immense downs or sandbanks, and where the shores are formed by cliffs, they are seidnrii bold enough to be approached with safety. The harlwurs are therefore tew. On the Mediterranean, the cout of Languedoc is very dangerous, but Provence abuands in good barbourt. The culture, throughout the northern half of the kingdom, consists of wheat, barley, oats, pulsct *nd of lata, much more than formerlv, of poutoes ; Iu (he eoawem half, com (particularly malie), vintf, mtil. t iMilMb w4 oUtm. Tba eM Um parti, baloff hmtlmf > puts, beiof man elevated than the western, have more rigorous winters and more ardent summers. Coal and iron are found In abundance. The most common fuel is wood. The superficial extent of France has been recently estimated by Baron Dupin at 53,533,430 hecures, or 139,094,000 English acres. The value of ca- piul vested in agricultural pursuits Is estimated at 37.532,061,470 francs: the gross annual produce at 4,(>78,70R,805 francs ; the expenses of cultivation at 3,334,005,.'>15; leaving a profit of 31 per cent, on the capital. The produce of wheat in the best cultivated distrlcu, and on the best soil, hardly exceeds eighteen bushels per acre : an English farmer exptcu twenty- five or the same extent. In 1813, the number of horstk A France was 9,170,000 ( but in 1810, the horsMs and mules together amountad only to 1 }657,C7 1 ; at present the number is estimated at 2,500,000. The number of homed cattle Is 6,073,000 1 of sheep, about 45,0e^000. The total number of all kinds of poultry is about 51,600,000. The French are tbe best wine- makers in the world. The Champagne, Burgundy, Claret, Hermitage, are drunk all over the world. For a long time, the choicest growths were in the hands of the church ; and in the frequent changes of pre party which have taken place since the revolution, many vineyards have deteriorated in consequ..noe of bad management. The brandies of France are the best in the world. The value of the whole produce of V ine and brandy Is about 800,000,000 of fianos. The culture of the vine Is supposed to have Increased nearly one-fourth since the revolntion, owing principally to the small proprietors, each of whom endeavours to supply his own consumption by a little patch of vine- yard. M. Dupin says that many hectarca of f ranch territory are 3*01 uncultivated, merely for want of cat- tle to stock und manure them ; that twcthirda of the inhabitaattf are without aalmal food ; that more than oue-third subsist entirely on oats, buckwheat, rye, chestnuts, or potatoe0» and that the agricultural popu- lation is loo great for the prosperity of France. Two- thirds of the population is agrioulturaL France possesses a soil and climate capable of fur- nlahlng her with uil the raw materials of mauufactare except cotton. The manufacture of fine woollen cloths at Sedan wu introduced under the auspices of Colbert. The machinery used was very defective un- til M. Chaptal engaged an English machinist to In- struct the French aruxans. Steam.engines are rare ; the spinning mills being worked chiefly by water or by horses. The quantity of native wool manufactured in 1819.was 38,000,000 kilogrammes (of about 3|lbs. each), and, in 1836, 4^,000,000, with H,000,000 of im- ported wool : the value of the roanuiactured articles was 305,000,000 francs ; of the raw wool, 105,000,000 : the quantity exported was about one-thirteenth of the whole quantity manufactured. By the exertions of Henry IV., the mulberry.tree was cultivated in all the southern provinces. At Tours, silk stuffs for furniture are chiefly manufactured ; at Ganges, and other places in the Cevennes, silk stockings. Lyons is the princi- pal place for silk manufactures of all kinds. Paris ranks next after Lyons. In 181'.!, the value of the raw material amounted to 45,500,(HIO francs, of which 33,000,000 were the price of imported silk. The va- lue of manufactured goods, at the same period, was 107,500,000 francs, m' which less than one-third was exported. Forty years ago, the spinning of cotton by machinery waa hardly practised in France. Cotton mills have l>een established within that period, and the manufactures of Alsace are now superior to those of England in the brilliaucy of their colours. In 11113, l0,:Ui3,000 kilogrammes of oitton were spun by ma- chinery, and, iit 1H2A, 'JM,(M)0,000 of greater fineness. The cambrics, gaiue, aiul lawn of St Quentin, Valen- ciennes, and Cambray, are among the most valuable products of French Industry. Lace is made in great quantities. The whole produce of the linen and hemp manu- factures is estimated at 300,00(»,000 francs. L. 1814, 100,000,000 kilogrammes of cast-iron were produced ; in 1825, 180,000,000. > the annual value of about 38,000,000 francs each. Printing also employs a great number of persons at Paris. In IRU, the number of printed sheets was 45,075,030; in 1820, 80,031,303 ; and in 1830, 144,58I,(MI4. NotwJth. standing the low price of labour iu France, the in- dustry of that c men ; that of England is equal to a powei of li,44K),OlN) men. All the power derived from machinery of every sort, or from constructive ingenuity, and applied to pur- poses of industry in France, is tinly one-fourth of the similar power employed in England. The commerce ot France has l>ecn vary ranch di- minished by the loss of her colonies. The value of the cokinial importa, in 1788, was 337,0tW,'i00 francs ; iti 1834, it waa only 50,000,000. The exporu for 17«lMMWrtiil«U9/>00}009( in iaM,to44,00(^0«0. The total value of exports from France, in 1834, was 440,543,000 francs t of which 103,050,000 were pro. ductions of the country, and 277,486,000 manufactured articles. The amount exported to the United States waa 55,000,000, being more than that to any other country. The imports for the same year were of the value of 454,801,000 francs; of which 373,873,000 franoswerersw materials for manufacture, 121. 9r)7,000 natural productions for consumption, and 00,o:tO,000 manufactured articles. In 1824, the number of sailora in French ships was 328,480 ; of whom 28,040 were engaged in foreign commerce, 47,383 in the fisheries, and the remainder in the coasting trade. The navy, according to the budget of 1838, consisted of 38 ships of the iioe, 35 frigates, 8 steam.boaU, and 186 other veasels, and 14,003 officera and sailors. The army la 1828 amounted to 233,770 men, and was recruited by voluntary enlistment and annual levies, every French- man of twenty years of age being bound to serve for a term of eight years. The reoelpu of 1828 were l,037,iO4,4»l francs; the expenditure, 1,035,415,552 franos. As we have glren the history of the French Revo- lution of 1780 in another portion of the present work (No. 9), nothing need here be said of that event. It is suflident to state that the military character which was engrafted upon the nation by subsequent eventa still predominates, and may be described as one of the main causes fur the deficiency of France in manufac- tures, comn.eroe, wealth, and many comforts of social life. The character of the Frei«oh, however. Is fwt undergoing an improvement under the constitution which the country has enjoyv.d since 1830, when Louis Philip waa placed on the throne, by the events of what are termed the " three days,** or the revolu- tion which deposed the elder line of the Bourbons. The present reigning family, or house of Orleans, le a collateral line of ^e former branch, being derived from the onlv brother of Louis XIV., Philip Duke of Orleans. The following are the eras of the reigning princes of France: — 1. Capet Dyruuty: Hugh Capet (987), died 900; Robert, dieh '031 ; Henry L, died 1080; Philip L, died 1108; L uis IV., died 113? t liouis Vn., died 1180; Philip il. (Augustus), died 1233; Louis VIII., died 1336; Louis IX. (the Saint), died 1370; Philip III. (the Bold), died 1285; Philip IV. (the Fair), died 1314; Louts X. (Hutin), died 1310; Philip V. (the liong), died 1331 ; Charles IV. (the Fair), died 133a— 3. Branch 0/ Vahitt Philip VL, died 1350 ; John (the (iw>d\ died VMA ; ChaHee V. (the Wise), died 1380; Charles VI., died 1433; Charles VIL, died 1401 ; Louis XI., died 1463; Charles VIIL, died 1407 3. Branch t^f Orlearur Louis XIL, died 1515; Francis I., died 1547; Henry IL, died 1550; Francis IL, died 1560; Charles IX., died 1574; Henry IIL, died 1580.— 4. Branch qf Bourhm: Henry IV., died 1610; Louis XIIL, died 1643; LoiHs XIV., died 1715; Louis XV., died 1774; Louis XVI., died 1793; Louis XVU., died 17!»6. [French republic, from 1703 to 1804 ; Napoleon (Bo- naparte^, Emperor of the French, from 1804 to 1814.] ^Uouroons restored by foreign arms : Louis XVIIL, from 1814, died 1024; Charles, to 1830, when he was dethroned.- -5. \ew House of Orleans ; Louis Philip I., with the title of King of the French {roi-Htoyen), Of the dethroned Bourbon family, there are living the ex- king, Charles X.; his son, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angouldme (late dauphin), bom August 6, 1775; married his cousin, Marie Therese, daughter of Louie XVI. The second son of Charles X., Duke of Berry, born Jan. 24, 1778; married to Caroline, Princess of Naples (born Nov. 5, 1708) ; was assassinated by Louvain. Feb, 14, 1820. His children are Maria Louise (Mile. d*Artois, Imrn Sept. 21, 1819), and Henry (Charles Ferdinrnd Marie DieudonnL'), Duke (>f Bordeaux, born. Kept. 20, 1820, after the death of his father, late heir.presumptive. Charles and the dauphin abdicatetl In his favour, calling him Kiag Henry V. I lows :— >" The king is the supreme head of the state 1 liH commands the land and sea forces, declares war, makes treaties of peace, alliance, and commerce; ap- points to ull oHices of thu public admiiiiHtration, and makes all the rt^iUtipns and ordinances necessary for the execution of the laws, under the responsible lulvice of bis ministers;'* any of the three hrancheti of the legislature can propose laws ; the Chamber of Peers may sit without tliHt of the Deputies only as a court of justice ; peers may speak iu the housu at the age of twenty.flve years ; princes of the blood ma^ sit iu the House of Peers without a special summons from the king; the deliberations of the peers are public ; the renewal of one'tifth of the deputies every year ift attolished ; persons are eligible as deputies at the age of twenty.flve years ; the deputies elect their president witliout the concurrence of the king; and the electurfl choose the oftloers of the electoral colleges without the lalMlinMtofthaUagi artielee46aBd47of theoid ^^^^ AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARTH— PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. chmrtor, respecting amendmentfl, and the adoption of the tax act! by the depuUep, previously to belnf^ sent to the peers, are repealnd ; as ii also article 50, ex- empting the ministers from impeachment, except for tr«ason or extortiua ; the prevotat courts are abolished ; the king takes the constitutional oath, not at the time of the coronation, but on his accession, as in England. Besides this, provision la to be made, by separate laws, for, 1. The trial of offences of the press by a jury ; 2. The responsibility of ministers mud other agenu of power ; 3. For the re-election of deputies promoted to offices with salaries; 4, The annual vote of supplies for the arnay; 6. The organisation of the national guard ; 0. The settling the rank of all naval and mi- Utary officers; 7* Departmental and municiptl govern- ments founded on the electire tvstem ; 8. Public instruction provided for; liberty of taaohiog allowed to all ; D. The abolition of the double vote, and of the electoral candidates and their eligibility. The charter is entrusted to the protection of the national guard and the patriotism of the nation. The charter, with the "changes and modlfioationi expressed in the de- claration of the Chamber of Deputies," was preaentad to Louis Philip, who, on the 9th of August 1B30, took the constitutional oath; and thus the coru/i/u/iou octroyie was changed into a real contract between the ruler and the people. France possesses a considerable number of towns, with populations of from five to thirty thousand, and mora particularly about twelve thousand, but not many of any consequence with a larger amount of iuhaUiUnts. Paris, the capital, in 1B27, had a popu- lation of 890,531, which is about half the amount of the population of London. The other chief towns are Lisle, with a population of 69,860 ; Rouen, 90,000; Strasburg, 49,708; Nantes,?! J3!» ; Boulogne, 19,314; Havre, 31,049 ; Rheimi, 34,8(12 ; Brest, 20,G55 ; Cam- br&i, 17,031; Lyons, with suburbs, 170,875; Mar. aeilles, 115,943; Toulon, 30,171 ; Aix, 23,132; Ore- noble, 22,149; Clermont, 30,010; Betanyon, 28,705 ; St Ktienne, SO.CId ; Dunkirk, 24,517 ; Amieni, 42,032 ; and Orleans, 40,340. The chief port in the north of France is Havre, on the English Channel, and ftlar- setlles and Toulon are the principal outlets on the south. In point of capability for maritime trade, France is far inferior to Great Britain, from Its want of good harbours, though perhaps that circumstance is of less consequence than the peculiar genius of the people, which U adverse to naval adventure. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Spain, or the Peninsula, as It is frequently called, it an extensive eountry, occupying the south-western extremity of Europe, between latitude 38° and 44° N. and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, except on the north-east, where part of the Pyrenean chain of mountains form its boundary with France. In its dimensions, this coun- try extends 700 miles In length by 500 in breadth, forming an area of 45,000 square miles. Portugal, afterwards to be mentioned, lies like a patch on the side of the Peninsula, facing the Atlantic Spain, pro- per, Is divided naturally into two unequal compart- uents, one of which includes the central region, and the other that of the coast. Spain is essentially moun- tainous. It consists chiefly of extensive plains tra- versed by lofty ridges, towering to a height of from eighteen hundred to two thousand feet* There are comparatively few trees in the country, and the air being dry, the number of rivers is not great. The principal are the Ebro, Duoro, Tagus, (iuadrana, and Guadalquivir ; but from the bad system of things, they mre not put to their full uses for navigation and trade. In the lower parts of Spain, particularly on the ".oast, the climate is delightful, but in the high central plains the boat is as Intense in summer as the cold is pierc- ing in winter. The productions of Spain nre rich and various. Iron, tin, copper, quicksilver, and in- deed every valuable mineral, abound in the Periiu- sula. There are also a number of coal and salt mineft. WIteatof the finest quality is priNluced in most of the provinces. The other principal productions of the eoll are oats, barley, maize, rice, oil, honey, sugar, hemp, flax, cork, cotton, silk, and barilla; the wool, as is well known, 's of a very superior quality. There ve many fine fruits grown, as fiffs, oranges, pome- granates, lemons, ficc. Among the animal produc- tions, the horse of Andalusia, a province on the Me- diterranean, uptK ite Africa, is esteemed among the finest in the world. The sheep are millions in num- ber. The sea-Cti^tH supply abundance of fish. In a Tvord, nature see/as to have eibauited her bounty on this favoured lan'1 ; and had not uiigrateful man la- boured but with too successful perversity to counter- act her beoeficenuis Spain, iuKtead of being the poorest and most degraded, worJd now be the richest, hap- piest, and must pn»perous country iu Europe. About the begiuning of the present century, the populatiim of Spain amounted to 10,409,879 iridivi- duals, among whiMo were the following classes : — Be- ginning with the religious bodies, there were 148,242 clergy and munhh. and 32,000 nuns, exclusive of about a fourth of the population liviug on their pro- r^rty without doing anything; there weie 100,000 ». dividuitls exiitinif hk anmgglen, robbers, pint'cs, And asHafciioB, escaped from prixruis and garrisons ; aliout 40,000 oliieiHlH appointed to capture these, and having an uuderitandiiig with thorn; nearlv 300,000 servants, of whom raoie than 100,000 weio unem- ph>yed and left to their shifts } tiOjOOO tstudeuts, most of whom begged, or rather extorted charity at night ; and if to this melancholy list we add 100,000 beggars, fed at the doors of monasteries and convents, weshall fiud that there existed in Spain nearly 600,000 per- sons who were of no use In agriculture or the mechani- cal arts, and who were only calculated to prove dan- gerous to society. Having made these, we find there then remained 904,671 oay-labouren, 917|197 pea- sants. 310,739 artisans and manufacturers, and 34,3^ merchants, to sustain by their exertions upwards of ten millions of Inhabitants. These results, which ar« as applicable at the present day, when the population has Increased to abont 14,000,000, as at the time when they were deduced, exhibit a state of society bo radi- cally corrupt and debased, as to render all hopes of its regeneration very nearly desperate. Latelv, on the death of Ferdinand, the reigning monarch, the queen, in the capacity of regent, made a powerful attempt to establish constitutional government, which is the first step towards practical reform of abufles; but as yet little hu been done by the Cortes, or estates, to put the affairs of the kingdom on a steady and prosperous footing, Portugal, which lies on the western frontier of Spain, facing the Atlantic, and measures 4 1,500 square miles in extent, is an ancient small kingdom, inti- mately resembling Spain in almost every particular, and at prestint iu much the same unsettled condition. The country possesses two fine rivers, the Duoro, which forms the great maritime emporium of Oporto, and the Tagus, which is that of Lisbon. Portugal is rich In naturid productions, but wants the cultivation of In- dustrious hands. The rich mines of precious metals are now neglected on account of want of hands and fueh The chief source of profit is in the fruits, which are exported in abundance, particularly the orange and grape. Wines of several sorts, both dryand sweet, are produced ; the red port wine is exported, but in less quantities than formerly, and chieHy to England. Agriculture, commerce, the arts, every thing, in short, is neglected in Portugal, which in ma present day is a miserable poverty-struck country. Like Spain, it is eaten up by clergy, secular and regular, and these classes have moreover rendered at least a third part of the year htdidays, greatly to the lou of the nanon. The late Don Pedro, fatharof the prebent queen Maria, had the address to abolish the monaatio institutions, and to sequestrate the property to the state, which was an important measure of national regeneration. The population of Portugal was stated in 1826 at 3,214,000. ITAtT. Italy, once the seat of universal empire, bat which, since the overthrow of the Roman power, has never formed an independent whole, the pride of its inhabi- tants and the admiration of foreigners, on account of its delicious climate and former renown, is a narrow peninsula, extending from the Alps (46* to 38** N. lat ) into the Mediterranean Sea, which, en the east side of Italy, is called the Adriatic, on the west, the Tuscan Sea. The Appenines, rising near the -naritime Alps, are the principal chain of mountains, and stretuh through the country, dividing Lombardy from the Genoese territories and Tuscany, and Tuscany from Romagna, intersecting the States of the Church, and running through the l^ingdom of Naples to the Strait of Alesitina. Upper Italy (Lombardy) is remarkably well watered. The Po, which receives a great num- ber of rivers from the large lakes at the foot of the Alps (LagoMaggiore, di Lugano, diComo,d'Iseo, and di Uarda), and the Adige, are the principal rivers. They both rise in the Alps, and flow into tlie Adriatic sea. In 3Iiddle Italy (TuRcaiiyand the States of the Church) are the Arno and the Tiber, which rise in the AppeiUnes, and flow into the Tuscan Sea. In Lower Italy (Naples) there are no large rivers, on account of the sht>rtneta of the course of the streams from the mouutaius t4i thu sea t the Garigliano Is the principal. The climate is warm, without excessive heat, and ge- nerally salubrious. The winter, even in Upper Italy, is very mild : iu Naples it hardly ever snows. The abundance and excellence of the productions of the soil correspond with the beauty of the climate. In many places both of the north and south, tliere are two and even three crops a-year. The volcanic cha- racter of the coasts of Lower Italy is particularly re- markable ju a geological point of view, especially in the region of Pusiuoli and Vesuvius. The neigh- bouring inlands of the Mediterranean are distinguished by the same character. The preeeiit number of in- habitants is much inferior to the former population of this delighti'ul country, the total amount being 21,397,6(Mt. The national character of the Italians, naturally cheerful, but always marked by strong parsioni, has been rendered, by continued oppression, dissembling and selfish. The Italian, moreover, possesses a cer- tain acuteneis And varsatility, as well as a love of money, which atamp him for a merchant. In the middle ages, Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Pisa, were the chief marts of the European commerce with the East Indies ; and Italians (then called Lombards, without distinction, in Germany, Prance, and Eng- land) were scattered all over Europe for the purposes of trade. The discovery of a passage by seadoprived them of the India trade, and the prosperity of those republiui decliued. The Italian, restricted almost soil to tratiic in the productions of his own country, has nevertheleiis always ratoained an able and active merchant. Before Rome had (2100 yearn ngo) ab- Borbod all the vital power of Italy, this country wm thickly inhabited, and for the most part by civillsoA nations. In the north of Italy alone, whicn offend the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt a barbar- ous people, the Gauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small trlber, such as tha Etrusci, the Samultos, and Latins, endeavoured to find safety by forming oonfederaoien. Less oloeely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Grecia. The story of the subjection of these nations tu the Roman ambition, belongs to the history of Rome. iMly, la the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all tha sUtea situated in the basin of the Po; the second ax- tendod between the former and the kingdom of Naples, which formed the third. Italy is in modern times cut up Into a ni' ber of distinct states, partly independent with nativa Itfinoes, partly under the rale of Austria, and a por- tion under the civil sway of the head of the Romiih church. Thnmgbont the greater part of this flat country the system of pcdice is wretched, and robberr is exceedingly common; commerce, agriculture, ana the useful arts, are in a low condition ; bigotry pre- vails, and the national character is reduced to the low- est moral standard. The mott civilised and best go- verned part of Italy Is Tuscany, which differs Verr materially from the adjacent states. In the present day, Italy is only celebrated for its music, and its col- lections of works in the fine arts. The following sketch gives a view of the amount of population in tha five great divisions into which Italy Is partitioned i— . The population of the Sutes of the Church is abont 3,000,000. The capital is Rome, the seat of empire of the ancient Romans, bat now greatly altered in figure and appearance, and completely changed in cha- racter; this venerable city possesses a population of 160,000. The other chief towns are Bologna, with a populationof 65,000; ALCOoa, 30,000; Perugia, 30,000; Ferrara, 24,000 ; and Ravenna, 24,000. There are Other eight towns with a population of from 7000 to 14,000. The duohy of Tuscany, in 1826, had a populatio* of 1,275,000 inhabiunts. The capital of this sute is Florence, the population of which amounts to 60,00(K The other chief towns are, Leghorn, 66,000 ; Pisa, 20,000; Sienna, 18,000; Prato, 10,000; Pistira, 9000 1 AveiEO, 7000 ; and Costona, 6000. Austrian Italy, or the Lombardo-Venetian king- dom, which consists of the great plain of the Po, is subdivided into the governments of Milan, Venlc^ Parma, and Modena. The chief towns of the state of Milan are, Milan, 151,000; Brescie, 31,000; Cre- mona, 26,000 ; Mantua, 25,000 ; Pavia, 21,000 ; Lodi, 18,000; and Como, 7600. The chief towns in the state of Venice are, Venice, 101,000; Verona, 4ft,000t Padua, 35,000; Vicenza, 19,000; U flures 18U miles long by 150 in breadth, mid is one oF the most Ifeautiful islands of Europe, it is chiefly distinguished for its celebrated volcano, Mount Etna. Malta, an islet in the Mediterranean, about fiftv-four miles to the south of Sicily, now belongs to the British government. RUSSIA. The Russian empire stretches over the half of Eu- rope, and the whole of Northern Asia, from the Ualtio to th*) Pacifte, and includes vast territories on the north-western ooast of North America. It lies l>e. tween lat V^" and 79° N. It is bounded on tlie north by the northern or ley Ocean, west by Norway, Swe- den, the Baltic Sea, Austria, and PruMia, and south by Turkey, the Black Sea, Persia, the Caspian Sea, Inde|>endent Tartary, and China. The total superficial area is estimated at 6,000,000 square miles, of which about 1,500,000 are situated in Europe, and 5,600,000 in Asia. The Russian dominions compose about one- seventh of the habiuble globe. The surface of Rub. aia is generally level, and some tractf of land of this flat nature, frequently bleak and barren, are called steppes. The country also ptwsesset chains of lofty mountains in different quarters. Runr-i raises vast quantities of corn, which it exports; and it produces fruits and wine iu abundance. The forest also yields important articles of export. Cattle of all kind% hurscn, and sheep, are likewise bred in immense num- bers, chiefly for the exportation of their »kins. The mines of the country are productive of plaUua, aioH # CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I ^ ' Gnpp«r, quicksilver, alum, and ult, all which nracon- tlntial miirceH a( revflntie. Ruitia poftieisei varioui riven of the 6rtt magnitude, and canali are in the counta of entablikhment on a coniiderable scale. The po|iiilati(M) of Humlaf including Poland andFin< land, ii 57,000,000, of nine different races :— 1. Scla- Tonlans44,000,»00,incIudlngth«Rus«ians(42,000,00O, among whom are the Couacks, abput 600,000 capable of healing arm*) and ihe Volt** i- Ktuti*, who are •uttered over the country, from Tornea and the Nie- men to the Obi (3,000,000) ; 3. TarUrs, from the Dniester to the Caucaau* (2,000,000), mostly under their own government, without agriculture or lire* arms; 4. Oeorgiani «»d are called grand-princes. By the ukasa of March 21), 1820, it was det-lared that only the children uf a mar- riage acknowledged by the emperor are capaltle of succeeding to the throne. The highest councils are, 1. tbi imperial council, under the presidency of the emperor, eret^ted Jan. 1, 1810, with four departments — that of leKinlation (the supreme tribunal iu civil and eccletiastictti units), that of war, that of civil and ecclesiastical atTuirr, and that of finance; 3. theHenate, for home affuira (a drliberative body, consisting ol' eight depirtmpntu, three of which have their seat in ^Idtcnw); 3. the holy synod ; 4. the ministry of Htnte. The ministers hive a seat and mice in the im|>«rial council and in the senate. The ministry is divided into three sections — that of foreign airairs, war, the marine, the home department, ecclesiastical affaim, education, and finance ; that of the imperisl treasury ; and that of the puMic accuunu, roads and canals, and Justice. The whole state is divided into 6fty-one go- vernments and several provinces; of thesv, forty are in li^urope, exclusive of the (Josaaclts of the Dun, the , Cosiackt of the Ulack Sea, and the kingdom uf Po- land. The military force of Russia is excerdiofrly great, yet nothing to excite any dread. Uy s men ; but a vast prupnrtiun of this furce is cumpuAjd oi irregular militia, or armed slaves. It is considireil by recent writers on the suhj(H:tthat the utmokt amoiin I of rt-^ilar force wliich HusMBcan bring in:o the lieiit is l.'>0,000 men, infantry, cavalry, and artillerr. It is indtaputable that Kukhia Mas no pe- cuniary re<Hri {^n'f.'s on this score is ridtciilotii. The principal dc- penileai enf iiusiia is upon Kngland, tind a quairel with liie Uiitith government would most likely It ad to a ^e- riurm c.immotion tn the state. The pievailing religion ii tl.at of the Ureek church, with a full tuleratiun ol all rdixions. The state of society is a strange mixture of rehni'ment and barbarism. The pnpulatiun is rum- ^}sed of fjiir difTerrnt classes, as has already been meutioned. The boors or jteasants are the property of the crown or of individuals ; tbey amount to atiou't 3A,U00,(NH>, and are in a state uf great poverty. They are sometimes emancipitted by their ownern, and are sometime* permitted toputch'ase their freedom. The noble families are ahout l.'»0,000. comprising 7ril»,(HfO individuals, and enjoy some privileges and exemptions. The freemen, not nobles nur clergymen, are divided into six classes — the inttabitants of cities, the three guilds (capitalists, according to their income tax), the trades, foreigners or strangers, the notable citisens (Mraru, artisu, bankers), and the colonists. In re- gard to rank, these classes form fourteen gradations ; and all who can claim either u( the eight highest are aooaidarad ai uobla. Distinciiou uf any ktndi how- all aver, is only gained by the possession of a superior military rank. Debased as Russia is, It has recently made great ad- vances in civilised usages. Science, literature, and the arts, are highly cultivated and liberally endowed. The Russians, it seems, have not much original genitis, but they are the best imitators in the wurld, and quickly adopt foreign manners, language, and improvements. The wretched system of territorfal slavery is gradually disappearing, and the peasants are now more protected by the laws than formerly. The punishment of cri- minals ii alio becoming more lenient. Russia pos- sesies a number of towns of from 10,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Petersburg, the capital, has a population of 4aA,00(»,and Alosco# 240,000. Petersburg, which is built upon the flat banks of the Neva, Is oonsidarad to ba in appaaranca tha moat aplandid city in tha world. OEBMAMT. Oannany ia a term of wida and not vary dafinlta maaning. It la familiarly sppllad to a large tarritorv axtanding fromtheBaldoSaaon tha north, to tha Guff of Vauioa on tha south, having Hungary and Russia on the east, and France and tna NetltarlandB on tha west. At its aouth-wcst comer it Is touched by Swlt- xarland. This Immanaaly large territory occupies tha bulk of the centra of Europe, and oonsista of an area of 250,000 square miles. The most ramarkabla cir- cumstance ab(mt Oermany is its being compoaad of a considerable number of states, each less or mora inde- pendent within its own bounds, but externally da- pendent on the other states of the confederation, at is mentioned already under the head Constitutional UovESNMENTfl. Altogether there are thirty-four monarchical states, and five free cities, which enter into a confederation at equal sovereigns. For mutual safety they compose a diet or oongrass, at which each state hat a certain number of votes. Tha principal states of Oarmany are Pruuia and Austria ; Haxony, Bohemia, and Hanover, ara of lestar dimaniloni and importauoa. Tha othari do not require any notice. In the days of Roman greatnaaa, Uarmany, or Oar- mania, at it waa then called, wai inhabited by a bar- barous but powerful people, reuklatt of control, and ambitious of securing the spoils of richer nations. Thay broke loose at different periods, overrunning Italy and uthar fair portions of Kurope, and, under the general appcUa;fin of Cloths, finally prostrated the empire of Rome. The term Uoth is now used in a contemptuous sense, but it hat to be remarked that modern Kurope stands indebted for its liberties to the (ioths. The free institutions of Germany were car. ried into Kngland and other countries, where they have since grown and fluurished ; aud in later times the world has received various uuful arts from the same source, iu particular the art of printing, which transcends all other iuvontious. In the tenth cen- tury, Otho the Great united the Roman imperial crown (a thing merely so In name) with the German empire, anc thegrvat terr:^^.y we are speaking of was thencelorward called the Holy Roman empire of Ger- many. This empire lasted till its dissolution In 1808; but long before that era Germany had been broken up into states, by the enterprise of its native dukes and princes, and the name empire was little else than no- minal. In 1815, the states entered into the confede- ration which now binds them. This large confederated country is watered by 600 rivers, of which the principal are the Rhine, the Da- nube, the Weser, the Kibe, and the Oder. The roost Houthcrn chain of German mountains is formed by the TyrolesaAlps,thaAIpsuf Algau, the Camic and Julian Alps, runuingfrumesstto west. To the south-west are tlie Carpathian mountains, to the north-west the Bo- hemian forest. There are also alpine regions on the I'pper Rhine. In Northern Germany there are sandy , heaths and moors, and many districM contain fertile strips only along the largo rivers. On the whole, the soil is fertile, and the climate iu general is temperate and healthy. The number uf inhabitants is estimated It :t4,:t4:i,t>00 in 23W) towns, of which 100 have over HIKN) inhabitants ; 2341) market villages; 104,000 vil- lagfs, and numerous small settlements. Cf the inha- bitants, there were, in lHi5, Germans, 27i705,8AA ; persons of Slavonic origin, 5,325,000; Walloons and French, :tO!f,OOU ; Jews, 2U2,500; lullans, 188,000; Gipsie*, tMM); and Armenians and Greeks, 000. In the same year, the number of persons of difforent re. ligif»us periuasions was as follows : — Roman Catholics, lH.:)78,30Uf Protestants, 15,150,500; Jews, 2U2,500 ; Greeks and Armeniaim, 000. It should, however, be stated, that in this enumeration there are In all likeli- tjuod many religionists who are altogether unsettled in belief, although ostensibly belonging to some com- munion t fur in no country in the world is there such latitude in thinking upon points of faith. Germany contains 24 universities, which are attended by about 30,000 studentk — a class of wild young men, having ha- bits atid an appearance very different frum what usually uharatterlse attendants at colleges in Great Britain. The reading and publisliiiig ol (moks is carried to a grest Iu ight in een inhabited by a hardy and independent race of inhabi- tants, mostly attached to republican forma of govern- ment, ai.d lUways ready to defend their rights and their country from the aggression of the great powers in the neighbourhood. Switzerland measures about 300 miles in length by UO In breadth, and is supposed to contain 19,0U0 square miles. Politically, the oounuy Ih divided Into twenty-twa small states or cantons, ge. nerally independent of eac other, but confederated for purposes of mutual protiOtion. Some states are more free in their forms of gtvernment than others. The toUl population amountea, in 1827» to 2,037,030 persons, of which upwards of bte-half were Protes- tants, and the remainder chiefly 1,'oman Catholics and Jews. The Gennaa language i' most commonly used. Geneva is the smallest but most populous state in proportion to its size, and in this canton is situated the town of Geneva, upon a beautiful lake of about fifty miles In length and eight or ten in breadth. The highest mountains of Switzerland are found in the cnntons of Uri, Berne, Underwalden, and Orisons. Of about sixty Swiss mountains which have been measured, the highest is Munte Rosa, 15,535 feet high ; the lowest, Chalet, is 3000 feet high. Mom Blanc, within the limits of Savoy, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 1G,G68 feet high. The mountains of Switzerland are pastoral in their lower parts, and often covered with snow at their summits. The gluciers, more than 400 in number, are either the barren parts of the mountains, or heights which consist only of snow and ice. The continual alterna- tion of hill and dale affords the most striking natural scenes in every part of Switzerland. In some places, within a short distance, one may see at the same lime all the seasons of the year ; and it is ofwn possible to stand between npring and summer, so as to collect snow with one hand, and to pluck flowers from the soil with the other. Kvery mountain has Us water- falln; and as their sources are sometimes lost in the clouds, the cataracts seem to descend from the skies. Switzerland abounds in lakes and rivers, the fisheries of which are valuable, and which serve to embellish the Inrdscape; but none of the rivers are navigable. Smuil hteam.vestels now ply on the lake of Genuva, and me a great convenience to travellers. The chiel rivets are the Rhine, the Reuss, the Rhone, and the Tesini). The cultiviitinn of the vine Is carried on to A considerable extent in Switzerland ; the breeding of cattle is, however, the chief employment of the inha- bitants. Swiss clieeses are imported in great numbers into Uermiiny, France, and Italy. Manufactures of silk, cotton, and linen, have of lite >earn greatly in- creased in Switzerland, which is rivalling England in Mume kinds of gcHids, particularly printed calicos. P.e- cently great improvements have been made upon the roads through this attractive territory, and travellers are now well accommodated on all the main routes. NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK. These, with the province of Finland, form the north-we&tern frontier of Kun)pe facing the North Sea or German Ocean, and retching to the shore of the Baltic on the south. Norway lies on the shore of the North Sea, Sweden is behind it with its southern extremity to the Baltic, and Denmark is formed by the peninsula of Jutland projected northwards from the Netherlands and kingdom of Hanover into the mouth of the Baltic. Norway and Sweden are now erected into a kingdom, under one sovereign, much in the same manner as England and Scotland are united. Bernadiitte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, has fur a numlier of yearn been ttie reigning monarch. The united kingdoiit 'MjO in breadth. The country is mostly moun- t:i:ii'pt and some other possessions in Africa; hut, not computing these distant territories, it may be estimated that Turkey in the present day measures in Europe 178,028 square miles (but including the inse- cure provinces of .Moldavia, Wallachi.i, and Servia), with a population of upwards of nine millions of in- habitants; and in Asia 425,000 square miles, with a population of above ten millions. The bulk of the population in both regions is Mahomniedan, and un- civilised. The climate of Turkey is among the moat delicious iu the world ; its soil Is generally productive, and its natural appearance is beautiiu). Constan- tinople, bitiiated on the Dardanelles, is a large and populous, though crowded and inconvenient city, excellently nituated for trade, communications being carrietl on with it by the Meditt'rraiiLtan on the west, and ihti lilack Sea ou the east. Ilv-ry regiioi In Tur- ki^y yields its productions in abundance. The staple articles of export are wheat, rice, cotton, tobacooiy silk, figs, and other fruits; hair, wool, and opium. Mining is totally neglected; and there is in general little manufaoturing industry in the country. Tht tnhsbitants are at once extremely Ignorant, proud, and slothful, and the commerce carried on is uhieflj in the hands of Jews and Christians. The spread of knowledge is sedulously prevented ; printing, tlU lately, was carried on only by Armenians, Jews, or Greeks ; and transcribing books with the pen is pur- sued as a common employment. Painting and sculp, ture are neglected, because the Koran, or Bible of th« Mahommedans, forbids the imitation of the human form. A great effort has lately been made by the sultan or reigning monarch to introduce some civilised usages, and among other Improvements he has esta. blished a newspaper at Constantinople, In French and Turkish. The sultan padishah, as caliph, or suo- oessor of Mahommed, euioys the character of Pope to the Mahommedan world, and unites the highest spiritual dignity with th« supreme secular power. He has anllmltad control over the property and livat of hif subj«ota, especially of the highest officers of statt, whom he can remove or put to death at will. They klu the bowstring which ha sends them, and it » what they may all look forward to. The sultan makes laws without being himself subject to them. Th« Koran and the fear of public opinion, when it speakt b\ the voice of rebellion, alone restrain his will. All his subjects are equal in his eyes, for they are all slaves. The people have no rights. Merit, or fa- vour, or intrigue, can raise the lowest to the highest stations. There Is no hereditary nobility. The suc- cession to the throne is hereditary in the family of Os- man ; the will of the people and of the janissaries haa often decided upon the Individual. On the extinction of the male posterity of Osman, the right to the throne passes into the family of the former Tartar khan. Women are excluded from the succession. The padishah Is not crowned ; he is merely girded with the sword of Oaman, after he has sworn to up. hold the religion of Mahommed. The women of his hirem are for the most part Circassians or Georgians. Since Ibrahim, the sultans have been accustomed to choose from among them seven wives. She who first bears a son is called chakeiti sultana ; the other mo. thers of the princes have the name of sultana chassecki* The mother of the reigning sultan enjoys great pri- vileges. She is not confin^ In the apartments of th« Eski seraglio, and has a yearly pension of 500,000 piasters. The princes are usually brought up in con- finement among the eunuchs and women. Each learns a mechanic art or handicraft, hut they never acquire the knowledge which would tit them to rule. They have no prospect but the throne or death in pri- son. The daughters of the sultan have the title of tuitanoj and, while yet in the cradle, are married to viziers, pachas, and other great oflicers; but their male posterity, by a law of the empire, are condemned to death from their birth. The court establishment, with all the eunuchs, women, guards, &c., includes 10,000 persons. The external court consists of the attendants of the grand master of the seraglio, seven chamberlains, the court officers, a body-guard ot about 2000 men, the confi. dants or titular dignitaries, to which class belong the mutes, the dwarfs, the musicians, the masters of audi, ence, the masters of the stirrup, and the viziers of the shoulder. The inner court establishment consists of the harem, with its women, white and black eunuchs (whose chiefs, the kislar and capi aga, possess great inHuence), the grand vizier, and the sublime porte, which form the two cabinets of the Kiaga Be^, or Mi- nister of the Interior, and of the Reis Effendi, or Ml- nister of Foreign Affairs. The title of the present padishah is ** Sultan, son of a sultan, Chakan, son of a chakan, sultan Mahmoud II., khan, son of the vie- torious Abd-ul-Hamid, by the infinite grace of thft Creator of the world and the eternal Being, and through the mediation and great miracles of Mahom- med Mustapha, the greatest of prophets, upon whom rest the blessing of God, servaut and master of the cities of Mecca, Medina, and Kods (Jerusalem), to- wards which all men turn their faces when they pray, padishah of the three great cities of Istambul, Edreneh (Adrianople), and Bursa, which all priuces regard with envy," &c. The arms assumed by Mahmoud II., after the conquest of Constantinople, are a silver crescent in a green shield. Selim III., in 1700, after Nelson's victory of the Nile, founded the order of the orescent, in three classes, for Franks, which has been conferred on Nelson, Sebastian!, and other foreigners. The administration of government is also Oriental. The grand vlxier rules in the name of the sultan, or in his absence, the caiuiacban. The intrigues of the women and the eunuchs in the seraglio have also much i ifluence. The supreme council of state, the divan, is held in the second hall of the seraglio, under the presidency of the grand visier. The source of all civii, political, and criminal law, is the Koran. In addition to the code of laws, the in. terpretations of the ulema have great weight in tlie tribunals. The mufti is not only the chief of thti priests, but the highest interpreter of the laws. His decisions (fetvas) are collected. The highest tribunal, the divan chaneb, is held four times a-week by the grand vizier iu his palace, or in his absence by the tchaush-hascbi. In the lower tribunals of the large cities, the mollas sit ; in those of small towns, the cadis. The moslemi are, under them, the executors / CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. r ill P of th« wntcncet. The ftdminiitration of juttim ii u ■Imple M It ii prompt aad entrgetio. The common puiUihmvnU ar« the butlaado, hftnfflag, drownlog, ■tnuigUng, and impaling. BMring falM witneu ii the greatMt crime. At the head of the church ttaudi tiM aulun, at caliph, and in hii name the ranftl, who Ii appoinl«d and depoMd br the giand seignior. In the larger citiei, the mufti appoinu under muftii. Theland foroei were nntil wcenlly organlied on A miMrable Aiiatic nyitem, und amounted, according to Manigli, to 320,000 m»a ; of whom 74,000 were ■Mroenariea, 60,000 iufsntry, topuhif, or artillery, and others, and lA,00PcavaJry. There were, beiidei, In time of war, the band* of feudal vasaali, amounting to 196,000 men ; tke contingent of the TarUri, 12,000; and that of tb* Moldarians and Wallachiani, BOOO. The grand visier Is oommander-in-chiof t the Mpa> rate oarp^ are commanded by agas, the prorlnoial troop* by paohas and aangiaca. The present sultan, with more success than 8elim III., has begun, since isu, to form an army on the £uropean plan; and, in the year 1836, ditaolved the body of janissaries throughout the kingdom. 8elim III. formed a ma- thiasatioal school for the officers of the navy, which •mtisu of ten ships of the line, twenty frigates, and thirty ssDiller ships, commanded by the oipndan pacha. GREECE. The north-eastern part of the MedilornuMan is di- vided into two larga bays or gulfs, which run liar up into the European continent i that towards the west being called the Adriatic, and the other the £gean Sea. The peninsula, or tongue of land which lies be- tween the two, is the original country of the (ireelts ; colonies of the same nation have, from time beyond the reach of history, occupied the whole coasts and islands of both these gulfs, from Sicily almost to (Cy- prus ; but the parent states of the middle peuinsula are those to whidi the Orecian name is indebted for all iu splendour ; and it is this country only which is properly called Greece. From the situation of the Greeks in * region whose bays, headlands, and islands, present a great extent of sea-coast, lubiu of adrentore and mutual intercourse were produced among them in the earliest times, which had the greatest iuftuence in cherishing a nation^ actirity of character, and mak. ing each oommonity eager to rival the prosperity of Uie others. The people were early accustomed to make voyages, sometimes for trattic, sometimes for war, betwixt the opposite coast of their gulfs, guiding themselves by the surs from island to island. The early period of Grecian history, it is presumed, is al- ready in some measure known to the reader. The country with its already much debased inhabitants was latterly conquered by the Turks, from whom it was in part only recently wrested by a skilful reMlion or revolution. In the present day, Greece comprises in its northern paru the districu of Albania and Mace- donia; next, in a southerly direction, Epirus aud Thessaly ; the Mores (Bncieiitly Peloponneius) is an island.like peninsula, almost cut off from the latter diviiions by a strait called the Gulf of Lepanto. Alto- gether, modern Greece measures about 400 miles in length, and little mure than 100 in general breadth. Greece is a mountainous and romantic region, with aeve/ol beautiful rivers. Its agriculture ia in a very rude condiuon, but iu commerce ii iucreaiing; and the long-exhausted nation is gradually assuuiiug h set- tled powerful character. A constitutiunai monarchy, not very well organised, has been impoiod on the newly erected nation by the European powers. The popu< lation of the continental part of Greece is stated at three millions, and nearly naif a miUion for the islands adjacent. ARIA. Asia — the cradle of the human race, of nations, re- Itgions, and states ; of languages, arta, and sciences ; rich in natural gifts and hiktoritral remembrances ; the theatre of human activity in ancient times^ and still exhibiting, in many places, tlie characteristic traits which distinguisht*d it many centuries since— forms the eastern and northern part of the old world, and is separated from Auitralia by the Indian and the Pacific Oceans, including the Gulfs of Uengal, Siam, and Ton- quin ; from Ameriia, on the north-east, l>y Behring's Ntraiu, and on tlie eaat hv the great Eastern or Pacific Ocean, including the (iulfnf('i>rea, the >>t!AS of Japan, Tongou ( \'ell>iw Sea), and Okiitik ; from Africa bv the Araliian 8ea(witli vhiohiiiconnecteil the Persian Gulf) and t>yiheAraliian(iulf,iirKedSea,uith the Straits of fiabelmandeUfrum Eiirn|ieby theSeaof Aai)ph,withthe Siraiu of ( alfa, by the Black .Sea with the llosphorus, by the Sea of Marmora atid the Dardanelles, and bytlie square milen. Ititlcnds from 'HP to liWI'E. Inn., and from 2" to 7H" N, Ul Iu greatest breadth, from north to south, is 4140 miles, and its greatest length about 11000. It is four times larger tlian Europe. It is divided into I, Southern Asia, cum)irehending Nahilin, Armenia, mm, Malacca, A nnum, Tunqtiin, ('oclii n < Jitna, Laos, ('ambodia, China, Japan; 2, Aliddle or Tpper Alia, containing etry, morals, tbeo- '•'KY) laws, aud the rude empirical medicine of the Asiatics, are mostly confined to the priests, and united with deeply- rooted superstition, which leads even to ( iiild-riiiirder aud self-sacrifice in the flames. The .Maliontnieilan religion, the central point for instruc tion in nhich is at Samarcand, prevails in Western Asm. Over all ( entfal and the Eastern partof Nor. liieru Asia, prevails the religion uf th« l^ama. The religion of Brama, the head-quarten of which Is Ben- ar*s, ii confined chiefly to Hlndoston, and Shamanism, to the tribea In Northern Asia, and to the Russian Archipelago. The ancient doetrine of Zoroaster Is confined to single families in India and Persia ; whilst the Mosaic hat numerous adherents through sJl Asia. exoept the Russian part. Physical and mechanical cultivation ia carried to a higher degree of perfection than intellectual and moral ; namely, by the Indian Jugglers and Chinese mechanics. Remarkable skill has been acquired by certain classes of Hindoos In the weaving of silk and cotton. The shawls of Cashmere, the leather of Persia and Syria (morocco, cordovan, shagreen), the porcelain of China and Japan, the stoU of Turkish Asia, the lackered wares of China and Ja- pan, &c. are well known. The internal commerce U still carr) -^ on by caravans, as In the most ancient times, before Abraham and Moms, when merchandise wai transported from India, through Baotrla, tu ('olchis, ai at^esent to Makarien, Moicow, and Constantinople. The religious, civil, nnd social condition of the Asia* tics, proves, that, where the free devalopement of the higher powers of man Is subject to the restraints of castes, and to the tyranny of priesu and despou, and where the adherence to established forms has become a matter of faith, law, and haSit, the character of so- ciety must degenerate, and the energies of man become palsied. Hence the Asiatic, notwithstanding the rich- ness of his imagination, never attained theconceptloa of ideal beauty, like the free Greek ; and, forthe same reason, the European, whose mental improvement and social activity have been unimpeded, has shaken off the control which the Eaat formerly exercised over the West, and has obtained dominion over the coasU and territories of his old lord and master Greece led the way, and, after haring transformed the obscure sym- bols of the East to shapes of Ideal beauty, shook off the spiritual fetters of priests and oracles, and, at the same time, the temporal yoke which the Perttian Da- rius had prepared for Athens and Sparta. After a struggle of fifty years, the triumphs of Cimon (in 441) n. c.) first enabled Europe to prescribe laws to the East. Grecian civilisation then spread over the whole of Western Asia, to India, and even the military despotism which succeeded has not been able to extinguish the light entirely. In later times, the Romans and Parthlans fought for the pos- session of the Euphrates, and the Persians, under the Sassanides, attempted to tear the dominion of the world from the hands of Rome. Since that period, Asia has four times token up arms against Europe. The nations of Upper Asia, driven from the frontiers of China to the Irtish, crowded upon the Weat. Huns, Avarl, Bulgarians, and Magyars, succeesively issued from the Caucasian gates, and from the wildernessea of the Ural, to subdue Europe ; besides those later hordes, which were mingled and confounded with each other in Southern Russia and on the Danube. But the rude power of Attlla aud of the grandsons of Ar- pat was broken in conflict with the Germans. Next, the Arabians attacked Constantinople, Italy, and France, but their fanatical impetuosity was checked by Charles Martel, in 733, and the chivalrous valottr of the Gothic Christians rescued the peninsula n-ithin the Pyrenees. The West then armed itself against the East, to recover the holy sepulchre from the lultan of the Seljooks, and Christian Europe became better acquainted with Asia; but the sword alone cannot conquer a continent. Finally, the Tartars and Ot- toman Turks invaded Europe. In UA3, they took the Bosphonis and Greece from the feeble hands of the eastern Romans. In succeeding times, Europe has been defended against Asia, on this side, by Ger- many. The intellectual progress of the European, since that period, has raised him above the most an- cient nations ot the East — Persians, Arabians, Indiana, and Chinese. Gunpowder, the mariner's compass, and the art of printing (which the last-mentioned nation possessed, l>ut could not apply to much use), have be- come powerful iu his hands, lleuce Russia lias gained the \\ uiga, explored Siberia, kept watch over the seat of the ancient and modern Scythians, the mountains of the Altai, and Anally conquered the tribes of the Caurasue; whilst(since VasoudaGama discovered the way by sea to the East Indies, in 140H) the Portu- guese, Dutch, and French, and particularly the Eng. Ii9h, by their universal commerce, have made the rich countries of Southern Asia acquainted with Euro- pean laws, and Europe with the condition and luxury of those countnes. Persia is already entangled iu the European international policy, which is principally iwing to the efforU of Sir Harford Jones, Sir (iore Ousely, Mr James Morier, and the Russian general Vermaioff. The diplomacy of the court of China, now more than ten centuries old, still resists European encrtwuhments. Japan alone yet denies all approach to Europeans ; and her jealousy is as effective as the polar iotj which lilucks up the passages of the frozen seas. Tiie most interesting country of Aaia, Paleb- TiNK, or the Uolylifind, as it ii termed by Christians, is described at length in the present work ; and here also will be Itmnd accounu of China aud the KxiV Indies. ArnicA. Africa, one of the five divisions of the globe, men- tioned iu hibtnry thousands of years ago, ih fctill to us what it was to the ancients-lthe l:ind uf mystery. Only a small extent of sea, namely, the Mediterranean, separates Africa from Europ ; its coasts lie in sight of the most civilised countries, aud ya we know uo« A AN "ACCOUNT OF THE EARTH— PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. Ihing niore than itMuulUnes ; into the interior the foot of a European has lately, for the flrit time, penetrated. Whether the Afrlcaiii are deicendcd from a negro Adam, or whether a descendant of Noah conducted thither from Asia its Arst inhabitants, who recelred their blacic complexion from the fierce heat of the African sun, is a problem which can never be solved. Under the same name which it now bears, the valley of the Nile was, In the earliest ages of history, the cra- dle of commerce, the arts, and sciences. Dut even in the period of K^ypt*s greatest prosperity, deep night seems to have enveloped the surrounding countries, which were called Negroland. Subsequently, the Greeks and Romans became better acquainted with the Mediterranean coast of Africa, and penetrated in- to the interior perhaps as far as the river Joliba; but their knowledge never reached beyond the confines of Numidia, and they were totally ignorant of the south- ern part of Africa. How vague was she conception which Ptolemy himself formed of this portion of the earth, though it appoarcd to him a largi peninsula I Its outlines were not determined till the fifteenth cen- tury. Henry, the navigator, sailed round the formi- dable Cape Non (rton p«M u/fra), Dias and Vasco de Uaroa dlsoovered the Cape of Qood Hope, and both the western and eait«rn coasti wert examined by Eu- ropean navigators. Africa is a vast peninsula, forming a triangle, with its vertex towards the south, containing 13,250,000 square miles; situated between 18** W. and 51" £. Ion., and from 34° S. to 37" 30^ N. lat. ; bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Asia, the Red Sea, and Indian Ocean, and on the sonth and west by the Southern and Atlantic Oceans. It has a great breadth from east to west. The northern por- tion is much larger than the southern ; the greatest breadth, from west to east, from Cape Negro to Cape Ghiardafui, Is 69". Under the equator, the breadth is 4500 geographical miles. The internal structure of Africa Is marked by many peculiarities. It possesses immense chains of mountains, extending, perhaps, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Mediterranean, in manr parallel ranges. Such are the Atlas moun- tains, tne mountains of the Moon, of Kong, and Lu- pata; those of the Cape, 5000 feet high, and covered with continual snows ; but, on the whole, It Is more level than any other quarter of the globe. In none other do we find such boundless deserts; and the Cobi, In the centre of Asia, Is not to be compared with the Sahara. These deserta appear like oceans of sand, by no means destitute of fertile Islands. These islands are the Oases, peculiar to Africa. Among the mighty streams of Africa, we can now follow the Egyptian Nile to its sources. The courses of the other great rtvere have net yet been satisfacto- rily explored. We know, indeed, where the Congo or Zaire, Coanza, and Cuama or Zambese, terminate, but not where they rise. The Joliba (the Niger uf Herodotus), Mungo Park has Informed us, flows from west to east. The Senegal, the Gambia, and the Orange, are also Important rivers. Africa contains several large lakes, such as the Dembea, Wangara, Maravi, Tschad, and Aquilunda. The climate is va- rious, but in general extremely hot. Jn the lifeless atmosphere of the tropics, which have but two seasons, the wet and the dry, the heat of the sun is terrible; and Adanson tells of eggs being Toasted in the sands of Guinea, and the naked feet of the negroes blistered. On the coasts, the heat Is mitigated by the breeses from the sea and the mountains, and by incessant raiuH ; but the atmosphere is not so healthy and pure as iu the Interior, which has a higher elevation. The whole tract of Darbary is warmer than the more southerly regions, and all Africa, compared with Eu- rope, is a hot country. Of its winds, the dry parch- ing harmattan is peculiar to Africa ; it has the si- moom iu common with Asia, and the sirocco with Europe. To the naturalist, this wonderful country seems the first favourite of nature, a^ far as It respects the riches of the organic world, and the number of giant forms of animals and plants. It can enumerate five times as many species uf quadrupeds as Asia, and three tt t many as all America. It excels Asia in the o.ze (It its colossal river-hnrse (hippoputamuti), gigun. tic giratiTe, and larj^e antelopes and apes. That giant of birds, the ostrich, is exclusively indigenous to Af- rica. Uut tlie - >ust beneficent gift of ndture to the African is the Cb.inel, the constitution of which la in every respect adapted to the country and climate. Among the other animals are theelvphautaud rhino. terns, the lion, panther, leopard, ounce, jnckal, hya'nii, wnlf, fox, dog, cat, mongTiB, hat, rat, marmot {cavia tnpensui), hure, rabbit, jerboa, porcupine, hedgehog, ntute, civet-cat, ichneumon, bear, horse, ass, zebra, sheep (»ome with hair and large fat tails), argalls {cnpra ammon)^ goat, innumerable varieties of the ga- zelle, the buffalo, fallow.deer. In Guinea are found the roe, swine, emgalos, bubyroussa, and other quad- rupeds, wliose uHiural history has been as yet by no means ButHcicutly investigated ; even the problematl* cal unicorn is still said to exist In the Interior. Tlie varieties of birds are equally numerous ; among which Is the crown.biid, the most beautiful uf the fea- thered tribes ; the flamingo, kingfisher, pelican, and many kinds of parrots ; the peacock, partridge, phea- sant, widow and cardinal-bird ; the cuckoo, the cucu< lus indicator, tarile-dovM, pigeons, ducks, gene, Ac. The dasa of reptilea comprltM the crooodila and boa- coDstrictor, with muy other Mrp«Qti, lome iunoxiousi XT some highly poisonous. The bays and rivers abound in fish, but the variety of the species Is not so great as in the northern seas, and many of the most tueful are entirely wanting. The shrubs and earth swarm with termites, ants, scolopendras, spldera, and caterpillars, while passing armies of locusts obscure the sun like clouds. The most beautiful insects abound. Still more extraordinary is the force of vegetation. The earth renders back the seed to the cultivator increased a hundred'fnid, and produces those immense trees, among which the baobab, or monkey bread-tree, whose crown of branches sometimes forms a circle one hun- dred and thirty feet in diameter, holds the first rank ; the splendid white trunk of the ceiba grows almo«t perpendicularly from the root to the branches sixty feet, and, with its fine round crown, rises to a height of ono hundred and twenty feet. Our information respecting the mineral kingdom is the most limited. Of gold, Africa has more than any other portion of the globe; and iron Is fonnd in most parts of this continent, but It wants the other metals. Of other minerals, It has only saltpetre, sal ammoniac, some fullers* earth, and emery In abundance ; amber- gris is found on the coasts. The want of salt, ex- cept in a few regions, is most severely felt. The African races of men offer many points of in- terest to the inquirer. The majority of them are distinguished fnun the rest of the human family, not only by their blaek complexion and curly hair, but also by peculiarities in the construction of the bones of the head and even of the nerves. This seems to imply that the negro Is originally a distinct race. It Is thought that traces of this primitive race may still be detected here and there ; for example, of the ori- ginal Egvptians in the Copts, and of the Guancbes (the original inhabitants of the Canaries) in the na- tives of Barbary. The population is probably be- tween a hundred and a hundred and ten millions. The interior of the country must l>e very populous, since, within two centuries and a half, it nas contri- buted forty millions of vigorous men to the slave trade, and, notwithstanding, Is any thing but depo- pulated. Even the countries along the coast are thickly peopled. Jackson computed the population of Morocco alone at seventeen millions, and the Barbary states, with Egypt, which constitute but an eighth part of the continent, contain twenty millions. The torrid Guinea has, on the whole, a numerous popu- lation ; and large cities are situ8>d on the Joliba, of which we hu*dly know the names. The inhabitants belong to two branches of the human family ; to the black or Ethiopian race, which extends from the Jo- liba to the southern extremity, comprising, notwith- standing their tawny ::omplexions, the Hottentots; and to the Caucasian race, which includes the natives of Barbary, Copts, the Arabs or Aloors, the Agaziones or Abysslnians, and the nations of Nubia. The Arabs are not to be regarded as aborigines of Africa, but they have scattered themselves, and become occupants of the greater part of the north and west. On the islands and some points of the sea-board, we find Portuguese, Spaniards, French, Dutch, British, and even Jews, in particular spots ; but the Falaschas in Tigre, though they profess the religion of Aloses, seem not to be of Hebrew descent. The Arabic is the leading language throughout all the north, and as far as the Joliba, where It is understood, in some degree at least, by those nations who revere the Koran. The Berberd and Shelluh tongues are spoken in the Bar- bary states, and along the Atlas mountains. The Mandingo language Is used from the Senegal to the Joliba. On the western coast, a corrupt Portuguese is heard ; in the regions of Abyssinia, the Tigre and Amhara tongues prevail. The languages of the blacks are as multifarious as the nations. In Sahara alone, forty.three dialects are said to be spoken. But of all the hundred and fifty languages (this conjectural number was adopted by Seetzen) of the African na- tions, we are hardly acquainted with seventy. Equally manifold are the modes of worship. Alahommedanism has diffused itself over the north to the Joliba, and most of the eastern coast; the Christian religion is professed by the inhabitants of Tigre and Am', ra, by the Copts, the Nubians, and European stran >:rs, though with great diversity of forms. The most dis- gusting Fetichism prevails among most of the negro nations, demanding, from many of its votaries, hu- man eacrifices. We must not look to Africa for the triumphs of science, not even to the country which was its cradle in tlie infancy of man. All that the Pharaohs and Ptolemies had ever effected, was swept away by the storms which broke upon this unhappy region in the middle ages. SchooN, however, are still maintained by the Mahommedans in the cities of Barbary, by the i^laralioots, in the countries where they have settled, and here and there by the Copts and Monopbysites in Tigre and Amhara. The arts are exercised only on the northern coasts, where the Moors manufacture much silk, cotton, leather, and linen ; an active com- merce Is carried on by them with the maritime nations of Europe, and, by means of caravans, a trafiic, full as important, with the interior, to which they convey their own products and those of Europe. The blacks stand ou the verge of absolute barbar- ism, even where they are united into states. Their wauts are exceedingly simple, and every article used by tbem is prepared by themselves; the cloth which surrounds their loins, the hut which protects them from the weather, the bow uxd arrow necMUry for the hunt and self-defence, as well as all their house* hold furniture, are manufactured by themselves ; the gold which they collect from the surface of the earth is wrought by them into ornaments, and iron into arms. Commerce, however, with Europeans has taught them many wants, and Increased their list of necessaries ; among which may now be reckoned fire- arms, powder, brandy, tobacco, different kinds of cloth, glass beads, coral, &c. ; for which they barter slaves, ivory, gold, and gums, the suples of"^ Africa. The slave-trade Is yet of such importance, that, al- though most of the European and American nations have agreed to prohibit It, nearly 50,000 negroes ar« yearly torn from the interior by the Mussulman, Por- tuguese, French, American, and even British dealers. Formerly, 105,000 slaves were annually Introduced into the West Indies, besides those who were trans- ported into Asia by the Kermaniaus, and by the North Americans into the southern states of the Union. The exports of Ivory, gold dust, and gums, are^also Impor- tant ; those of ostrich feathers, tiger skins, hides, and other natural productions, are of less consequence. Of all the states of Africa, Barbary alone uses coin; in the rest not frequented by Europeans, money rarely serves as the medium of exchange ; in some, on the western coast, cowries are made to answer the pur- pose of coin ; in others, pieces of salt. The tropic of Cancer and the equator divide Afrlc* into three principal parts : — I. Northern Africa, com- prising Egypt, the piratical states of Tripoli (includ- ing the coast of Baroa), Tunis, and Algiers, the empire of Morocco, Fezzan, and tne northern part of Soodan or the Sahara, with the Azores, Canary and Madeira islands. 2. Central Africa, comprising, oa the eastern coast. Nubia, Tigre, Amhara, Efat, Adel, Ajan, the southern part of Soodan, with Darfur and the countries of the Qallas ; and, on the western coastSy Benin, Owhere, Senegambla, and Guinea, besides the Cape Verd Islands, those near Guinea, the sixteen Bissao islands, Socotora, &c. 3. Southern Africa, with all the south-east aud south-western coasts and interior, the Cape of Good Hope, and the island of Madagascar, the Comoro islands, with those of Has- corenhas, Amlrante, Tristan d*Acunha, St Helena, and Ascension. The following description, from the Edinburgh Ca- binet Library, conveys a luminous view of the cha- racter of the African continent : — "Vegetable life, in consequence of the absence of moisture, is scantily diffused over a great extent of the continent. In the heart of the mountains, how- ever, and in the kingdoms along their border, the soil is most profusely watered, and, under the influence of a tropical sun, produces, perhaps, beyond any other part of the world, that luxuriant growth, and those gigantic vegetable forms, which distinguish the equa- torial regions. The baobab, or great calabash, ap- pears to be the most enormous tree on the face of the earth. Adanson assures us that the circumference, in some cases, is equal to thirteen fathoms, as mea- sured by his arms clasped round the trunk, that Is, varying from seventy.four to seventy-seven feet* Branches extending horizontally from the trunk, each equal to a large tree, make the baobab a foresb, as it were, in itself. The mangrove, too, which rises on the borders of rivers or iuundated spots, diffuses itself In a manner truly re'nurkable. The branches, dropping down upon the watery bank, strike root and grow ( hence the original plant, spreading farther and farther, forms over the stream a species of natural ar- cade. These mighty trees do not stand alone, but have their iuter&tices filled up by numberless shrubs, canes, creeping aud parasitical plants, which intersect and entwine with euch other till they form a thick and impenetrable mass of underwood. As we approach, the confines of the desert, these giants of the wood disappear, aud vegetation presents a different and more pleasing aspect. It exhibits now the light and gay form of the acacia, whole forests of which rise amid the sand, distilling those rich gums that afford an important material olf African commerce. The lo- tus, a cele'trated and classical shrub, the tamarisk, and other small and elegant trees, afford agreeable and nutritive berries, which constitute the food of several nations. Various flowering shrubs, of the most deli- cate tints, rising into wild and spontaneous beauty, embellish the pr«>cincts of the vasite. Thus the de- sert, in its first approaches, a' d before vegetable life begins to expire, does not assume its sternest charac- ter, but wears even a peculiarly pleasing and smiling aspect. The animal world In Africa changes equally its na- ture as it passes from one to another of its opposite regions. In those plains which are inundated by the great rivers, it multiplies at an extraordinary rate, and often assumes huge and repulsive forms. Through- out all this continent, the wild tribes exist in large and formidable numbers, and there is scanelya tract which they do not either hold in full possession, or fiercely dispute with man. Even the most densely peopled countries border on wide forests aud wastes, whose savage tenants find their prey occasionally in man himself, as well as in the domestic animals which sur- round him ; and when the scent uf human slaughter is wafted on the breeze, bauds of hungry mo istera hasten from every side to the feast of blood. Theie ferocloui. creatures hold indeed so commanding a po- sition, that the colonist scarcely makes any attempt to extirpate them, or even to keep down their num- bers. Hu wages against tluun only a defensive war, ■nil wm CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ii ■nd wnployi hU oounig* and iklll ohhSjr in hunting lb* •laphul, th* uMlop*, and othtr pnoafnl tfl*; bjr whom ipoU k* 01*7 b« rariohad. Th* lion, tliM Unc or iho dMwt, that nlchtlMt amoni Uw tribe* wkick ban th* »iM*ni*u far their alwd*, aboundi la Afrloa, and eauM* all h*r foraatt to r*.«cho hi* mid. nl(kt roar. Vat both bit eourag* and bii flarcm*** Bar*, It la laid, b**n onrratad 1 and th* man who can undauntadly iae* him, or arad* hit fint draadful •yring, raraly ftlli hi* victim. Wider ravam ar* coramitMd hjr th* byvna, not th* ■trong*it, but th* moM f*n>siaui and uutaniaabla or all th* baatti of pray. Thai* cr*aturae, by moving in numeroua banda, achiev* what it twyond th* slug]* ilr*ni|tb of lb* maior animali i Ikay bunt with mighty Inroad into In* ciUet, and har* *v*n carri*d by itorm forti6*d cudueur**. Th* *l*pbant roami In vait herdt through tba dantoly-woodad traota of the interior, diiputing n ith tba lion tba rhnk of king of th* loww cr*atlon ; maichl*** in bulk and itntngib, yet tranquil, majee- tic, peaceful, lad in troope under th* guidann* of th* mo*t ancieul of the cumber, having a locial and al- moet moral (xiiMnea. Ha attack! neither nun nor . bcatt. The human being ii more frequently the ac- creator, not only with th* view of protecting the frulit of th* *anh, but alto In ordar tn obtain the bony tub. atanca compoalng hit luakt, which, und*r th* name of ivory, forma on* of lb* mo*l valued arllcln of African trad*. Th* prodlgioui itrength of the elephant, hie idmoat impanatrabla bide, hit rapid though unwieldy movenwnM, fmdw bhuamott parllout ubjtct of attack avan to Uw bold*tt hunt*n ; *o that piu and inarea of variaaa Undt ar* the utual modet by which hit eaptnr* ta aCiHtad. .ntiesd of the tiger, Africa baa th* laopafd and the panther, belonging, howevc', only to certain oC lu dlitricu. In the large and bvoad ri. T*ra of Africa, and through tba Immeni* fore-.tt which •vorahadow lh*m, araoe of amphlbioutanlmaltof mon. atnmt form and tiae diaplay their unwieldy Agnrae. The ihlaoeero*, allhongh not ttrlctly amphibiona, alowly travanct mtnhae and ewampv grounde, and almoal aanali die *l*phant In tiranglh and defsntir* powari, but wanta hit ttatura, bit dignity, and hit wttdom. Tba tingle or double horn with which he defendt himtalf it an arllcl* of cnmmtrce ea in ptrticiiUr, through the action of the tun on the twampy foreitt, rite up In terriltle a:id dettrurtive numbers. They fill the air, and darken the lliy t they annihilate the labour of oationi ; they drive even armiet before them. The locu*r, wheu iu bandt ittue in clote a.id dark array from the deptht of the de»ert. a.mmitt ravagce tur- patiing thru* of the moit ferocioui wild beattt, or even the more deiolating careei- of human warfare. In vain do the deipairing inliabitantt teek, with fire and other lueani, to arrett their prugreit ; the dente anil irre. alktilde matt contiiiuet to move onward, and toon bafllei every attempt to ciieck iu coiirie. Whole provincet, which at their entrince are covered with rich harveitt and brilliant verdure, ire left without a Irnf or a blade. Africa, from the cariieit agee, hat been the moat conipicuoui theatre of crime and -of wrung I wh*r* tocial Ufa hat lott the tracei of primi- tive ilmpiicity, without riling to order, principle, or nfinen«nl| wkar* (baud and vlolmoe ar* formed into BMional ayatoaa, aad Ban tr*aibl**allh«ii|blo(bit ivi f*llaw-m*n. For ccnturiei thii continent hu teen Ihoutande of her unfortunate children dragged In chaina ovar itt d*ieru and acrou tlie nc*un, 'to apend thair liv*a in foroign and dittant bondage," TAIL! or THE HEIOHT Or THC PIIKCirai. MOUK- TAIMa ON TllS OLOBC. EUROPE. Enillih »'t. Mont Blano, Aljn, SaToy lll,IH8 Muola Hou, Alia, Nwita. I>, sSS 3!M4 .1,U(J Haliaaa, On Ban Ncvta, Oramplana Ban Lawan, Orampljuu (^alniiann, Oraniplaoa VaauvMia, luly Broekan, Haiu . Snowdoa. Waka SchakaWan, Onunpiaiia (.■adarldria,Walaa . Ma<«l!llauddT'i Raaka,li>L ,1,4iM Ban Lomona, Oimmpiana 3,8(U Sehnaakopp. TkurllnflaB Fnml ■ . . 3,990 Sklddaw, England 3,n» ASIA. Chumularca, Hlmalayah, the higbnt mountain in the world ».Ono Ohairalaglrl, HimaUyall ai,Si« JaraharrHlnalayah a,a« Rudra. Hlmalairah . la.lNN) Jamaiitii, HlmaUyah a,iOO Hifliaat Peak of Hijidoo- rooah . . 10,000 Ellmtta, Caucaiua lri4M Ararat, Great, Anacnla 17,700 Kaabck, Cauoania 15,1100 Gnunung Paiutnbra, Su. matra 15,170 (Joutioog Paiaman, or Oithlr.Sumatni 14,iao Ararat, Lltlla, Armenia 13,500 Alai Tax. Alui . 11,590 IllahettPaak of Lahanon 11,0511 Ilalltikoi, Alui lo,oiH) Awatrha, Kamtachatka 9,750 Ennliah Olympui, Alia Minor . 9.1IH) IliKhril IVak of N Il|hminll,ia9 ;,liiil, Arabia , . 7,059 Takhulou, Taurui 7,715 Adam'i Peak. Ciriilon ll.fW Mabramanl, Qhauta . 5,7.V) Ida. Alia Minor 5,435 Chalinpur, Vindhya . 9.7<0 t'armel, Pala^na 9,9.10 Tabor, Palaalina , 9,U5J AFRICA. Hl|tlintPeakon'aincroonil3,000 Prak of TnieriOk , 19,1711 Bernard, Bourbon Idas It.lOO HiihaUPeakoTAtlaa 11.900 Lainalmon, Abyulnia 11,300 Cainiiaai,Snau»bcra,AM.I0,9flo Kombam, 8, AMea M30 Pogo, C'aiie da Vatd Iilaa a,lliO Taianu, AbvHbita ;,g(o Pim Ruivo, Madeira . 6,133 Table Mounuln, Africa 3,.1II9 Pilar Boot, Maurlllui 9,700 Olana'i Peak, St Helena 9,71U AMERIC.t, SoraU, Andaa . 111,400 IllimanI, Andaa , 94,900 Oualalleri, Andei , 99,tt» Chlmboraao, Andfa , 91,000 Cayamba, Andca . 1»,art of the Aiiatic continent. These ivtandi also lie n a fair louth.eaiterly direction from India, or Hln- doitan. The chief tiiand In the group li Auitralia or New Holland, iha principal lettlement upon which Is termnl New South Walae, which, with Van Die. men'i I nnd, a imatler liland and Britlih wttiement, art dMoribcd In Mp«nCt artlolM la th« prvMDt work. The other iilandi, which are atill inhabited by only Mvage races, are New Zealand, New Oiilnea, 80I0- mnn's Islands, New Brluln, New Irelaud, New Ha- b ides, and New ('al>'don{B. The whole islands are un- derstood to com prlsaMly three millloni of square miles, of which tba British gnrtrnment claims the dominion. roi.TifssiA. Polynesia — a word signifying *< many liles** is the name now given to tlie nnmermis firoups of small Islands scattered over tb^ Paciflc Ocean, but principally lying in an easterly and north-easterly direction from the abnre. mentioned territory of Auitralln, within about thirty degrees on both sides of the equator. They are perhaps better known under their speciffo titles of Sandwich Island*, Friendly Islands, Society Islands, Queen Charlotte's Islands, &p. They are many thou.. sands in number, and are Inhabited by savage races, who have generally been found much more tractabia than the barbarous trtbea of the other parts of the world. Most of the Islands are fruitful and beautiful ( some are e i Wli l ingly high and romantio, and their climate it reckoned tna most delicious on the globe. Claheita is one of the principal of the Hoclety Islands. Owhyhee, or Hawai, Is the largest of the Handwioh Islanda, and meuures elghty.four miles in length by seventy in breadth. Here Captain Cook, in 1770, fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natlret, with whom his party unfortunately had a dispute. AMIKICA. The continent of America lies In 'J-.b western he- misphere^ in a situation ritogether aloof from the oon* tlnentsof the Old U'orld — as Kurope, Asia, and Afri by lavage racei, ) more tracuble tier parti of the ul and beautiful t ancio, and their II on the clobe. I Society IilandN, i)f the Sandwich ilei in length by Cook, in 1770) ; of the nattree, lad a dlipute. tl:e weateru he- oof from the oon- Aaift, and Afrt uf time, the co- unted themselves tries, and set up , they hare em- establish demu- B of ariitocratic ublics thus esta- States of North lanti of ne^rjsa args amount uf , partly emanci- iiiig most uiifor. pised caste, their tpresentexciting It hsH been com- aceiidants in all Li nearly fourteen ma ; the negroes lixed raoes to at thlrtv.five mil- tile soil for more des the United e British settle- on the north; lorth.weit; aud vestern quarter, •sent work given orth and South I do not here re- refer the reader with that which ly, a description 1, CdlDtrarfhi and CHAMBERS'S ^ INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE « EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " BISTOniCAL NEWSPAPER." No. I. Prick ^{d. m ■ — ' - I EMIGRATION TO CANADA. Gneravcj on Wood by J. QaU* I 70 n PRELIMINAKY. Zt naturally occurs, whou the condition and prospects of the working classes in one country sink beneath what they are in another, that all who can removo from the worse to the better, wish to do so. Now, Great Britain is at present in the condition of a country where, though the wealthy are very wealthy, and the middle orders at onco larger in number and hotter in omditlon than in any othur quarter of the world, yet (ho poor are very poor — greatly overwrought, i u gene- ral, where work is to hi hud — poorly fed am) cliithod — and totally without hope, if they marry, of withhold, fng their otTsprlng from the snme misery. The popu' lation of the country is yenrly tncrenaing ; but it niuy be said, in the deeply touching language of Scripture, the nation is multipliod, but the joy is not increased. (Isaiahj ix, 3.) The only remedy, ns pointed out clae- where by the present writfra, ii in flight. At this moment, there are leveriil cuuntriea at no gront dis- tance, to which the depressed workman may trans- port himself, with a reasonable prospect of buttering his condition; and of theso it Is the purpose of the present and some other shot!ts to give an arcount. In tills task we cannot pretend to much originality i the mostof our matorial.i are and will bo dcrivt>il from llio books of late travellers in those rountrien, und wo will only give new infinination, when wu tltink it doeldedly better than what is to be found in booktt. In condensing our materials, we have l*eeu, aud wtll cnnti: ao to be, iusi>ireil by a most conscitMttiot!S sense of rCKpnnsibility regarding the interests of thn«c who may nt-t uj.on our information alono. Notliiiig Is flattered nr exaggerated t we have no rcannn to wisih that men may emigrate, if they think themselves bet- ter in (Ireut Ilritaini nor have we any reason lor describing one country *:'* better for emigranti than another, unless a regard for truth shall induce us to do so. The whole will be, in fact, a plain aud un- varnished report of what tht most clear-headed and trustworthy men have said about the rnnntiies in question-^ report which we compHu with no other guverningwish than that our suffering fellow-country- men may be cheaply and faithfully instnictcd in what it concerns them to know for their guidance in, per- haps, the most important step of their lives. There are three regions of the eartli to which the attention of emigrants is chiefly directed, namely, C'onada and the other British possessions in North America ; the United States, which many prefer, and which hold out similar advantages; nnd the British oolonies in New f^outh Wales and Van Dicman** Imnd. At present, our attention will be confined en- tirely to Canada.* GENERAL DERCniPTlOX. North America, of which Canada is a part, lies at the distance of 3000 miles west from Great Britain, on tho opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean. This vast continent is much larger than Europe, measuring 437ti miles in Jcngth from north to south, nnd SOUO miles across from east to west. In a general sense, rivtiizatton has penetrated no more than from 1000 to 1*^00 miles westward, and that only in straggling • That the purchaser of ihe vivscnl shctt may know wlirre to nlt.tiii iiiuiu (Utaik'il liifommliitii nii L'aiiiiila, will) rervrvru-c to t'mij;tatloii, we subjoin a \'M of Ihi' Imoki u«c(l In cur c)iii-hitlu, K>q.) 2 vols, qunrto, with )ilatca and drawiiit;s. Col- liurn, l.ontlon. ThU work i»o*!>CfM?« a vi-ry comiili-tc IxKly iif iiifomintion, chlelly »f a (tntuttcal .iiiTt luititlval naiiirri ami 1; in p irtii-ulnily rvconuncndwi to th« r*'"'»«l '>*" thost whti wuh a rooU a«-nnnt of tlie whole MUah prnw-siionj hi Nottli America.— " lUitbh Aincrii-a," bv John Mioiiri'ijdr, 3) vol*. ot-Uvo. Itliii-k- wonlIy In the Hrithh i>.HVi»ion» on the ten coast, ini'lmlinj; I.oiipt Canada.— " FJm' Nt'ftrs" Heaiiipm."*' in CanjHii," by K. A. Talljot, -J voli. octavo, Longman, l,*rom 1(131 till lau, tho poiiulation Increased twcnty-flve per ccnUt ■nd every c\iicctalloii is in favour of on equally rapid hicrenw ihiriii'i ilie currtnt y«ar. As a iiroof of the iwpoctabUity ot the cotliirand. iho fitet in s(Rlcrs, iMl dur- iiitf tliu Biiminpr of llOi, (he cnornioui sum of auo.cdj •ovcn.igOi v,.i. dep;>(ii«(l in the Uniik of Upiwr Canada. r :'I CHA]Sim,l{SS IXFOT^MATTON FOR THK PF.OPI.K. ii^ Engliih Ihw un«l vlina-h mu here chtnlilii'licfl ; ImiI there It lui inx for the tler^'y ; uml tliiTtf !■ t}ir niont ^rfiTt lilxTty i>r coMHcitMHc, aiitl tiB ^rt-at h nct'iirity «f life mill property Hn In ^cotlHiul or KiijftHiitl. I'ppfr CnnMlii is flivlilcd iiitu dKlriotn, comuicn, riiliti^n, 9Mru»hlp», i|t4><:iHl trncu, and itllotmeius ; tutffther villi liim^kn u( lurnl, ri-Hi>i-vtHl for the i-ltT((y ami tlie •ruwii, «iul landi Kpproprliited lo ihe Indtiins. A dlitrirt rontiilimtwoui- tlirt't>ci tnwr.ilijp*. The line uf UiviHltiii Ujtwixt UplMT nnd Ifuwer Canadti li in one piirt itif OUhwh 4fr Orniid Itivurt nearly all tli« otiier linen (irdivlitlon In till* prmtiioea are ttraighlf without rfgnrd to pliy- •Iritl distiiirtidti, such iii hilli and riven ; and thin p'e- ctiliiirity iftrtmimon over the whole uf Nortti America. The Mvpmtfn territory of each townntiip nmy Iw eatl- mnti'il itt (il,(M>0 Ui'rei, niakinft iin H^gr«K"te (|uinitity «.f |(>,lllfl,mNI acrcii. Ahout 7,IMH>,(M>0 of acrei hiive liecn grtinted todlirureutclaiiHeiuf M-ttlerRt 4,ti()A,4ake Huron, a di». tance llttlo short of ftve luindrrd and seventy niilea, and itretching northward from the water to a depth varying from fifty to eighty mites, Is roinposed of a aoll, which, for pnalui'tive richneu, variety, and ap- pliciihility to the highest piirrMMes of ngrittiltiire, may «hallenge competition with the chuicext tracts of land In the New World. Upper Canada ii chiefly a flat rntmtry, and Ii for tlia greater part covered with tinilier, Imt pofmesset a mnnlterof chains or ridges uf high laiidii running in dMTerent directions, and separating tlii« Muirces and channels of innumeraMe rivers and hro«)kK. The higher and level districts are called Taltle Iets of water in the world, and are entitled to the appi-llation itf freiih water seas, for they are not only of great extent, hut amiiahle to lie aifected by storms like the m-ean itself. The uppermost, called Lak« Superior, is ^m\ miles lonff, and Itil broad ; Huron, 21ft miles long, and from OO to IftO broad t Erie, 2.'tl miles long, and ahout 7^' ill breadth; Ontario, 171 miles in length, and VtO in hraadth. Theaccumulaied waters of these lakes form tba River St Lawrence, which is one of the largest Mraams in the world, and which, after a court*' ol SOIM miles, falls into the Atlantic. This miijextic river iaOO mites wide at its mouth, and is navigalile for > the St Lawrence In point of sice, and is tributary to it. It falls into the north side of the St l^awrenre at Montreal. The ^'elland, or Chippewa, is also a reniarkahly Ano river, wholly unobstructiMl hy falls. The St Lawrence ban a teittlency northward in its courte, and, therefore, tite farther up its hanks the mure mild diwi the cli- mate become. CANADIAK TOWNS. The cliief towns in Canada are Queliec, Montreal, Three Hivera, Present, Kinfrston, and Vork. The city of Quet»ec is llie capital of Lower Canada, and ttands in the extreniitv of a precipitous cipe, on the north iMink of the St Lawrence, oppiisite li.e iidand of Orleans. The appearance of the town, on coming into view, is particularly striking. The city is di- vided into an upper and lower town ; the former heing of ancient date, and adopted as the seat of commerce, and the latter Iteing the reoidence of the higher end moru mi|tertable clause*. There are a numl»er of ftne puhllc edifices; among the rest, the cantle of St Louis, a prominent object on the snmniltof the rtM.k ; the Roman Catholic and rroti>»tant cathedrals ; the barracks; hospitalK; the Quet>ec hank ; and a hatid- aome monument to Wolfe and Montcalm. The in. •ritutionsare, in many instance*, of French character, and the language of the inhahitants is French and Cngtish. In IK2A, the population of the city and auburlis amounted to 22,021 ; at present it may «m4Hint to 30,000, Montreal is a city of an entirely difl^-rent appear- ance. It is agreeably iiitL^Med on a tienTiliful island afthe aanie name In the St lf««wrenrr, which mea- ■ures 3'i milea long, by 10^ broad, and lies at the oonftuence of the Utuwa Uivar and the St Law. nnce. The island of Montreal Ifl nearly level, and ii tcarrely excelleil in fertility. The city stands on the south side of the isUnd, and is reckoned the first in the province, in renpect of situation, JocjiI advan- ta|re«, and superiority of climate. The houses are ipell built, and the strerU rommikdinuii. There are •bo MOte baiuUonie jiublic buildinjrs. The literary and scholastic inmitutions in Montreal are numerous, and lire of great hendit lo the province. There are no wharfs, and the ithips and hleain.lioats sail dohe to the bank of the river, wliere there is deep watei. !^lr MMtregor mentioni>t, in Ills work on Hritixh Ame- rica, that there is much nriivity ohxervable among iitl clHUites connected vf\i\\ trade. " The poiiition of .Montreal (sayi he), at (he head of tlie ship naviga- tion, iiiul near the conlluuncu of the St Lawrence with tlie Ottawa, and its su)iKe4)iient coinmnniciitiori with I'pper Canada, the Ueiiru'SHce country, aiul other parta of the United States, will alwayt uunstitiite it one of the greatest commercial emporiums in Ame- ric;i, which must increaHU In magnitudu and import- ance along with the rapid Improvement and inrrvai- ing population of theupperand surrounding countries. In winter, the trade of Montreal irxons who may 1>e inclined to enii- grate to I'pper Canada fsnys llowison), are of three dilTerent dcHcriptious, viz. the pi)or periant or day. hilKiurer; the man of small inaime and incrensing faniih*; the man possessing some capital, and wishing to enploy it to advantage. IVrsoTis of the fiiKt class never would repent If they emigrated to I'pper Canada, for they could h.irdly fail to improve their cireumntances and condition, Tlie poorest iniliviilu.l, if he arts prudently anil is tnilustrious, and has u common sliarc uf g(M>d fortune, will he able to ac4|uire an independence in the space of four or live years. He will then have plenty to eat and drink, a warm house to reside in, and no taxes to pay ; and this state of things surely forms r delightful contrast with those hardsliips and ['rivations which are at present the lot of the labouring population of (ireat Hritain. It is evident that tome descripttoni of emigrants will succeed better in L'pper (.'anada than others. Those whi> have htH,>n accustomed to a c^uinti'y life and to country labour, are of ccmrse more fitted to cul- tivate land, and endure the hardships at first attend- ant upon a residence in the woods, than artiznns or manufacturers, whose constitutions and habits of life are kotiiewhat unfitvimruble to tlie succeasful pursuit of agriculture. But every intlividual. who to youih and health joins pcneverance and Industry, will even, tiially prns)»er, .Mechanics cannot fall to do nell In Up|»er Canada ; for, when not employed in clearing lands, they will Hud it easy to gain a little money by working at their professions; and they likewise hnve the advantage of heing able lo improve their dwelling- houses, nnd repair their farming utensils, at no ex. pense. Weavers, being ignorant of country affairs, and unaccustomed to bodily exertion, make bvit indif- ferent settlers at first, and their trade \t> of no use to them whatever In the woods. Married persons are always more comfortalde, and siu-ceed sooner, in Ca- nada, than single num ; for a wife and family, so fnr from l«ing a hurden tliere, always prove soui-c»s of wealth. The wife of a new settler has many domestic duties to perform ; and childi'en, if ut all giown up, are useful in various ways." Every candid traveller in Canada concum in these views. *'<)f this, I think (says Fergusion) then' can Iw no doubt, titaieither the moderate capitalist, or the frugal, scdter, and industrious latioureror artizan, can. not fail itf success. S-'ortunea will not be rapidly or even readily acipiireil ; but it must U* the settler's own f;iiilt if he does not enjoy, in large ahundaiice, every Milid comfort and enjoyment of life, and rear around his table even n far^st of * olive ptnntis,* nithoutone anxious thought regarding their future dcklinution or provision.'* PASHAOE. Ft seenii doulitful whether the pns^age to I'pper Canada sliuuld I»e effectcJ by wayof ilie St Liiwrenre, or New Vork and tlie Erie Canal. Ibttb ways are reciinmiended, and it la more than likely that most emi^rants will have to be governed fn their ilecision l>v convenience' of shipping and other circuniiHtnitces. liaving wound up his affairs in this country, and otherwise urepared himself and family for proceed* ing to the land of their adoption, it is recommended that tlie emigrant should take u ith him a box of toots, whether he be learned to uae them or nut. The tuvU should coiikist of a common axe, handsaw, three aiifferf of ditfercut si/cK. pli-k-axe, spade, two gimlets, aham- nier, iron v.edge, three hoes ; a kettle, frying pan. an iron {Hit, niiiU, nnd at-mall portable handmill mr grind- ing corn I a gun and lisliing nets will lia of tfreal Niw vice, if he has means lo iHirchase them. He thonld also have geal warm frte/e coats and Jackets, and wortttHl stiwklngt and nr.ttens for Che winter ; alto Htrmig hide leather shoes, without Iron heels, as Iron is not required in soft roads, and is apt to attract tha frost, ami make the feet colder ; linen truusera and jacket for the aumnter, aa many cotton shirta as baaan atford to take out (linen being dear in Canada, and more apt to rot witn perspiration In summer), and a hhort flannel shirt, to lie worn next the skin, both la summer and winter. M'lthout caution as to clothing, the settler has a chance of Iwing attacked with aguik which Is the only complaint Co be dreaded. He shoulA also provide himself with a small stock of simple r\9^ dicines, to preserve the taiwels in regularity. Every one oiiglit to take a dose of metliclne on landing. No bulky articles or furnitureof any kind should l>e taken, but an emigrant should take all bis mattrasses and betiding, and as many good blankets as possible ; alsa a warm fur cap. Straw hats for summer ean be had at a cheap rate In Canada. Every thing should ba packed In sulialantlal handy trunks. IMain furnltun can he bought at a cheap rata In the colony, or th« emigrant can perhaps manage to make some artkstet for Ills new household. The hark of the basi tre^ woven or laced across his bedstead, will support a mattrasB, and that mattrass need consist of nothing more expensive than the latughs of the spnice Ar, or dry bescn leaves ; a buffalo skin will answer for quill and blankets. " Passages to Queliec (says the ofTiduI pamphlet at the Commissioners) may either be engageil incluslva of provisions, or exclusi.e of provisions, in which oaae the shipowner Unds nothing hut water, fuel, and bed> places, without liedding. Children under fourteen years of age are charged one lialf, and under Hven years of age, one third, of the full prK-e ; and for chil- dren under twelve montlis of age, no charge Is madau rpon these conditions the price of passage from l/on* don, or from places on the east const of Oreat KHtaln^ has generally been L.ti, with provisions, or L.3 witl»> out. From laverpiml, Greenock, and the principal ports of Ireland, as the chances of delay are fewer, tha charge is somewhat lower [we would here strongly advise emigrants to sail, if possible, from a port on tna west coast, as lieing a great saving of time, trouble^ and expense]; this year the charge will probacy b« from L.3 lo L.3, 10s. without provisions, or from L.4 to L.5 including provisions. In ships sailing from Scotland or Ireland, it has mostly been the custoib for passengers to And their own provisions ; but thii prao> tice has not been so general in liiindon, and loma shipowners, sensible of the dangerous mistakes which may lie made in this matter through ignorance, are very averse to receive passengers who will not agre* to be victiiiilled by the ship. Those who do resolve to snj'ply their own provisions, should at leaft be caro* fill nwt to lay in an InsufTicient stock ; fifty days is tha shortest periml for which it is safe to provide, and, from liondon, the paksage is sometimes prolonged to seventy-flve days.* The bekt months fnr leaving England are certainly March and April. The names uf the vessels to sail are generally advertised In the puhlic newspapers. The ciinveyance of passengers to the Uritish possea- sionsin North America is regulated bvanacC of Par* liament (I> (ieo. IV. cap. 31), of whic)i the folloMing are the principal provisions:— Ships are not allowed to carry passengers to these colonies unless they be of tlie height of rive feet and a half Iwtween decks, and they must not carry more than three passengers for every four tons of the registered burthen ; there must be on board at least fifty gallons of pure water, arid tifty pounds of bread, biscuit, oatmeal, or bread-stulf, fur each passenger. Masters of vessels who land pas- sengers, unleas with their own consent, ataplaredif* fereiit from that originally agreed upon, are subject tO a penalty of L.20, recoverable by summary proceM hefore two justices of the peace in any of the North American colonies. The enforcement of this law resta chiefly with the olhcersof his Majesty's customs j and persons having complaints to make of its infraction, Khntild address themselves to the nearest custom- hou(ie."-f* Taking it for granted that the emigrant and hU fuinily lind their way across the Atlantic hv the meatw ju.st specified, we have next to direct him how to pro> iced on hik landing. On this important particular we cannot do latter than lav l»efore him the following two exceedingly vatuahle oflicial documents, issued lor the expre*- '-jnettt of emigrants, by his Alajwty*t agent at (^uelwc, entitled . .^ . ADVICE TO CMIflKAKTS. '*' Quebec, 1st May Iu33. There is nothing of more importance ifi emigranta • Snrti'li r«iiiilir« usuiillv, «iiil very juilli-toiisly, provi.tr them- M-lvw with .» biitflrlriit (|ua'imiv or<>.itin««l, rgn* wril |*t hH, and »iiiiK' tV't and tugtir, lM-*iilr» talio i>t. A len-krlUiii Mid oTK' or (wo yum for eu'ikiii,; \IriinN, sre lni1l{i|>rtiS.i1ilo. Htlk Ivrili-il Willi luif M^t, In the |iro|Mii|irin nr inir |w)tinil of •U)tsr te .1 ()iiait u\ Dillk, aiul titJtiU>d when iiullv i-uol, Mill keep swiTtoU |lic vdviei'. t W« Iwro rtoommeDd that emiffntnU should ttl|mUtc fltr the iitte iif llir wtttfr-<'li)»»'l. nml Tint lo br fnr-.Vtl mliorr lur st lea.t M h(»ur« ftfUr ihi-ir •irh-aJ lU (Jui-bt »* ; RUii «i; b.trg'lii« ouglil lu tie by written agrwinfUl nith Uiccaitt^ii. EMIGRATION TO CAN/\ OA. «»w, three miipprf ot{i>»lL>ta, ftham- lo, frytntf pan. an mdniillrorftrlml' II >« of mat Mr- iftn. He ehoaM nnd Jnrkpti, and tlie winter ; alio 01) heett, ni Iron ipt tn attract the 1011 truuien and >nahirtaMb«ea« in Canada, and Rummer)| and m iht) ttkln, both la >n an to clothlnfy ickeil with agu^ ided. He Bhoull ck oriimple vn9f (ularity. Every on landing. No should l>e taken. I mnttraiioa and as poasible; aJw nmer ean be had thing ahould b« Plain furnlturt le colony, or th« ke some arilolet }f the bati tre^ , will lupport • insfitt of nothing ho ipnire fir, or answer fur quUc ciul pamphlet of igB^fil incluttvs IS, 111 which cats r, fuel, and bed* under fourteeft iid under aefea 1*6 ( and for chiU charge Is made. BSHge fnim 1/on- >f (ireat DHtAlii, ms, or Ij.3 witlta id the prinblpal ly are fewer, the d here strongly lima port on Ch» f time, trouble will proball^ b« 3ns, or from L.4 ps sailing from n the custom for s; butthitpr»o> idon, and tome mill take* which ignorance, are I will not agre* who du reanire at leact be caro- fiftydavB istha 3 provide, and> es prolonged to id are certidnly vessels to sail ic newspapers, Uritiah posiiea- V an act of Pur- )i the following re not allowed nlt>«8 they be of II dci-ks, and pHftsengert for en ; there must ure water, and or bread.stulfy who land pai* [, ataplacedlf. , are subject to niniary proceaa of the North if thin htw resti nistoms ; and itA infmctioDy rarest custom- grant niid hts c hv the ineaiu im )u>\w tc)pro> ant particular 1 the following iinpiitM, isHueu hia MajMty't on arrival at Quetwc, tliuii correct infnrmatiun or. the leading points c«iinectuil with their future tiurmita. Slaiiy huve sulfered much by a want of cautuiii, and by listutiiug to the opinions of interested designing cnarHCters, who fre<)U«iitly ofTer their advit-e iinno- licited, and who are met generally about wharfs, and landing pliwes frequented by strangfrs. To guard •niigrajits from falling into auch errors, they should, imraedtutely on arrival ki r your Journey. All torts of provltioM may be bought cheaper, and mneraUy of* better quality, in Montrenl and Upper Canada,' than at Quebec Drcfw yourself In light dean olothing. Females frenuently bring on slckneai by being too warmly clothen. Cut your hair short, Mul waan daily and thoroughly. Avoid drinking ar- dent epirlta or any kind, and, when heatod, do not drink cold waMr. Kat moderately of light food. Avoid night dewa. By attending to the preceding directions, sioknesa will be prmented, with other se- rioua inoonveaionces. \Vhen every thing la ready for ditemharkatlon, and If tho ship Is lying at anchor In the river, take care in paaaingfrom the ship to the boat t avoid all haate, and see that your baggage is in tha aune oonveyanoa with yourself, or left under the charge of some friend, with your name on it. If the ■hip nauls to the wharf to disomlmrk, do not be in a hurry, but await the proper time of tide, when the ■hip*a deck will be on a line with the quny or wharf. Faaeengera are entitled by law to the privilwe of re- maining on board ship 48 houra alter arrival t and it la nnlawM for the captain todc^prive hia passengers of any of their usual occommodntiona for cooking or otherwise I you may, therefore avoid the expense of lodgings, and make all your arriingvments for prose- cuting your journey. Previous to dinunibarkation, ■hould sickness overtake you, prorend immediately, or be removed to the Kmlgrant HospitiU, in 8t John*s Suburbs, where you will be taken care of, and pro- vided with e^'ery thing needful until restored to hesdth. Medicine and medical advice can also be had at the Dispensary attached to the Quebec Charitable £roigrant Society. This society will grant relief to aU destitute emigrants. In Montroal there U a simi- lar institution for the relief of emigrants. It is par- ticularly recommen(! .d to emigrants not to loiter their valuable time at the port of landing, but to pro- ceed to obtain settlement or employmont. Many hare regretted, when too late, that they did not pur- sue this course, and take advantage of the frequent opportunities that presented tliemselvcs for settlement in oonvenibiit situations in Upp«>r or Lower Canada, Instead of squandering their meaiiH and valuable time In looking after an Imaginary paradise in the aguish Bwarops of Illinois and Missouri, or other distant re- |ri(ms of the Western States. There is no portion of Uio American continent more congenial to the consti- tution or habits of emigrants hum the United King- dom, or that offer a wider tield or surer reward fur industry and good conduct, than the fertile districts of Upper Canada or Lower Canada. Many emigrants will find employment In the city of Quebec and Its vicinity, as also In and about Montreal. Single men In particular are advised to embrace the offer; but emigrants with large families had Iwttcr proceed without delay to Upper Canada, aa hereafter directed, or to situations In Lower Canada, particularly the Kaslcrii Townships ; and if they have sons and daughters grown up, they will find a sure demand for their services. Artifloera and mechanics of all deno- minations, and farming labmirem, if sober and in- dustrious, may be sure of doing well. Blacksmiths, particularly those acquainted with steam.englne work, also gi>od millwrights and sawyers by machinery, ore much wanted in the Csnudas. The following are the current rates of wages paid In Upper and Lower Canada to perftons acquainted with itie country {—strangers ought nut to expect ko muck : — Ship Ca.-pentcn ami Joinm. pw day .... Bncklayvn tnd Muons. do. Vpitrr Canmia. 45 Oil to 7> Ud 6«dd to 7k(ld lllsck»niHtM.Mi)lwri|ili%A(;,do.teUd tu Ua (id farm tnd Coiiimun L^buur. en, &r. do. . . ti 8d to 4a Od Ditto dltio, per month, sod round • • .Vi Od to (iO» (kl Huuic St-rvani* iMon) do. do, .Kta Ud (lv to the country. Kmigrants with families, snd wHo are possessed of from L.20 to L.SA, are advised to push immediately Into the wd«, in the vicinity of old settlements, where they can ulitalri proviciuiis fur their spare lu< a hour. The difficulties, although great at li.. *, soon subside, and much experience is the result. '1 ecosC of clearing wild lands, and making them reai. ' for crop, is from AOs. to ^i)K per acre In Upper Ca. ada and the Townsliips of Lower Canatla. To these I should say, select a favourable spot for yimr log. hoiisu, nesr a spring of water, or running stream, and where a eelUtr to keep your polalotn in winter ean be dng under the Aouj#,* If you proceed to build houses and cluar lands on a large scale on first arri- val, It rarely succeeds so well ; nir the price of labour la so high, and the difficulty of getting persons to work, added to the great expense of providing food for increased numbers, until produced fWim your own land, ought In every Instance to induce the strange emigrant and family to proceed cautiously in laying out their money; but a crop of potatoes and fodder for a oow Is the first object, and this may bo accom- plishod the first year, if yon arrive early. The se- cond you will l»e eiiahletl to fe<>d your femily wttli the necessaries of life, and the third year you may find yourself posscsed of a yoke of oxen, a oow or two, and a year old calf, a couple of pigs, poultry, &c., abundance of provisions for your family, and fodder for your cattle. The Irish and Scotch peasantry know well how to value the economy of a milch oow 1 every new settler ought to strive to obtain one as soon as possible, taking care to provide a sufflolenoy of fodder for the long winter Cattle require a little salt In the Canadas. It is not considered necesfary to go farther Into the details of the first settlement, as on all these points you will be guided by your own observations on the spot, and the advice you will get from the. Iwal agents and snperintendants. Great caution Is necesunry in all your transactions. When you stand in need of advice, apply to the government agents, or other respectable sources. You will find many plana and schemes offered to your considera- tion on your route from Quebec to your destination in Upper Canada ; but turn away from them, unless you are well satisfied of the purity of the statements, should you require to change your Kngtlsh money, go to the banks or some welfknnwn respectable per- son. Tho currency in the Canadas is at the rate of As. to the dollar, and is called Halifas currency. The value of Knglish gold or silver Is regulntfed by the rate of exchange in England, which fluctu- ates. At present the gold sovereign Is worth 2'M. 6d. to 24s. currency. In New Vork, fls. Is calculat- ed for the dollar; hence many are deceived when hearing of the rates of labour, Ac Ss, in Cana- da Is equal to 8a. Jn New York ; thus, 8s. New York currency is equivalent to Ss. Halifax. In Up- per Canada, and in the TowuHhius of Lower Canada, the tenure of lands is " Free and Common Soccage," as in England. In the Scigncurial or French parts of Lower Canada, the feudal or French tenure is the custom. In the Canadas you live under the British laws and constitution, and are less encumbered with taxes or local imposts than In any other country on the face of the glol)e. You ought, previous to leav- ing Quebec, to apply at the post-office, should you expect any letters; and if you are writing to your friends in the United Kingdom by post, you must pay the postage ; so also when writing to the United States. I.etter8 from one ptu-t of the Canadas to the other do not require to l>e post-paid. Kmigrants may f4irward letters to the United Kingdom from Quebec, by taking them to the keeper of the I^fer- chants' Kxchange, and paying one penny for each. Having arranged alt your business at Quebec, you will proceed without loss of time tu Montreal, by st«am-tK)at, on your route to Upper Canada. Two steam-boats ply daily to ]\lontreiif, 180 miles up tho 8t Lawrence, which' is performed in 2-1 Ui 30 hours. The fare for deck passengers is 7s< C for adults ; children under 12 years pay half-price ; and under 7 one-third. These steam-boats belong to private indi- viduals. Gov fnment ig Ju no manner connected with them. At Montreal you will find a government agent, who will advise you should you require it. Routes to the principal places In Upper Canada, as follows :— Quebec to Montreal, by «lcfim-bonlii, Montreal tn Prv«.-nt, by llurham buati* I'n-scot to Kingston, by steam, Ditto to Ciibiirnh, or nut Hoj»e, Pmcot to Yotk, Caiduil of Upper CsnadSt \ lIunlltoQi sna Ni.tt(*r*i * - i 7t M cost. Oi.3d rued lUsOd From Niagara, you proceed by land to Fort Erie, opposite Buffalo on Lake Erie, where steam.boats, or sailing schtwners, will convey those destined to Port Talbot, or other parts of the liOndon district, or vi- cinitv of Lake St Cluir. Persons going to settle on the lands of the Canada Company will proceed to York or Burlington Bay, head of Lake Ontario, At most of the prec^ ling towns and landing places you will find government agents. If vou are bound to Perth, or New Lanark, or the vicinity, disembark at Prescot ; or you may go by Ity-Town on the Ot- tawa. If for the thriving settlements in the New- castle district, disembark at Coburgh or Port Hope, on littke Ontario. Those going to tho townships of Se\'mour may proceed from Kingston, by the beautl- fnf Bay of Quint*f, to tlie mouth of the Trent River, from whence a road, distance 18 miles, brings you tu Seymour. If proceeding to the Home or Western • CsnAilIv clear the tlmtier and brush to adiitanoe from your dwcllins Olid nut^buildltiffx, or. in the uvfiu of tin Ul tlie wuudib KTcut ilak li Inciitted ot \hw being detuoyid. Uihirlols, diseniliark at York, the capital of Vnm Canada. Emigrants going any where beyond Yorb^ will in general find i( their Interest to make it their route. If fur the London District, proceed by Htm Niagara frontier, to Lake Erie and the Talbot SettW* ment. If for By-Town, Uranville, Hull, Hort«si» ec, ferry-boats go daily as the tide suits to St Nicholas, 12 miles up the river on the south side, where Craig's road l>egins. Kastern Townships of Lower Canada. The pra- sent route is by Three fivers, 90 miles above Qu^ bee, by 8team-l>oat ; here cross the St Lawrem« to tha south side, and proceed to Sherbrookj by Nicolet, La Bale, and Drnmmondville; or you may proceed to Sorrel, 40 miles above Three Rivers, on the south side of the St Lawrence, and there disembark. Tha rate of passage from Quebec bv the steam-boat will ba about tlie oaine as to stop at Three Rivers, and you will avoid the ferry. A good road leads from Sorrel to Sherbrook, by V amaska and Drummondville. Tha distance from Quebec to Sherbrook, in a straight lina by the new road to Inverness, when finished, is 09 niiles ; and by Three Rivera or 8 carriage. Sherbrook is the capital of the Eastern Towb- ships, and is surrounded by thriving settleinenta^ iiarticularly Stanstead, where industrious funniiif labourers or mechanics are much wanted, and ara sure (by good conduct) to du wellt aa also the town- ships of Stanbridge, Brome, Dunham, Pottriirlinmtlt, nnri tit* tptllemifnt of Portiieuf. IrihiililtnntH, itriiulpnllv IrUh. ThrM RU-en mut Iti viitnlty, tm mllfH from Que- Iwc, irfve pinplnymrtit to ntmijr rinifirHiitii. In tho r«ftr of Bertfiirr, I.KI m(lm ntHtvu QtieliM', are thu TowiiiMpi uf llmmUHii Kilkeniiyi Hnwdon, ■iiU KiU dara. Ne«r niupiw iH)ttli*Tnent tn tim •ciftnlory nf Trrre. bonne, ii about 31) milet from ."Moniivnl. PiTMoni (NKtnd for the Tntvnhblpt bordeHn)( on tbe OiinM'N River, pnrtinilarly Lovhnlwr, TiMiiplHon, Hull, Ar., will take their route and departure fnim Mnnti-enl. There are many d.'ilral»le ■itUMttoni for KMtlenit*nt Mondny to private Indtvldnali in Tpper and l^owcr CnnmTo. The namn of the proprietorf or the afcrnli Mv be had on apnilratlon at thla office- It li partji'itlarly recommnndnl to pmi^rantN tn l»« exceedinffly ciuitimii In aarertainlng the tttleH loinch landi ai they may lettle on. Recommendation for landi to the respective Town* ihip aftentfl and iniMfrintendanti of HTtilcinfiiti in I'p. per and Lower < nnadn, with routtii, &i'., will be furniahed to emigranta (pratiM). A. C. RuciiANAy, ChUif Aif9nl. EhIOKAMT PKrAnTMCNT, Quebec, 1st May IB32. Qiieliee, lit June iat3. Emigrants arriving at ttle- ment, may obtain a hication on the following terms, Tia. Fifty acres of land will be allotted to each bend of a family, uponcnmlition of paying at thn rate of 61. cur- rency per acre. The first payment to be made at the expiration of tlireo year*, and the whole to lie paid by annual instalments of L.3, 2s. 6d. each, with int«r- Mt, to commence from the expiration of three year*. The government will incur the expense of build- ing a small li^-house, for the temporary acrommoda- tion of settlers on thrir respective locations, and will afford some atiistance towards opening roads to the lands proposed to be settled, but will makenoailvanci's In provisions or utensils, and the settlers must depend •nurely upon their own resources fur bringing their lands into cultivation. Settlers with means will h-ive opportunities of purchasing Crown lands in several parts of the pro- Tince at the public sales, due notice of whiclt may be obtained on application attheCommiMtonerof Crown Lands' Office, Vork, or to the foUowing government agenu: — SSi" tuutric... } MrMe in a located part of the countr)^, will generally assist him. If quite lnexperienciMl in such kind of labour, he must neces- ■arily hire so**" (me to build liis cabin for him. In erecting on. . these log-huts he must not consult an elegant outside appearance, all that is wanted being protection from tbe iitmnsphere and a Are to ck his victuals. Having selected a dry commodious situa- tion, he will fell some trees, and, having cut them into straight logs, of the length re<)uire(l, and drawn them by oxen to the xjKit where the dwelling \% to Ite placed, he will neiit lay them across one iiniither at the cor- ners, notching them hrtif through at the ends, so as to admit them to lie close upon each other. A log. hut so formed is usimlly eighteen feet by sixteen. The roof is covered with th!nr nhingles or split logs. As for the door and wiiulowK, they are sawed out after th* house is erected ; and the fire-jiloee is formed with •tone* at one end. A log-hut, if paid for, will ciixt •botit L.1'J when completed. The emigrant is next •drised X*i bring his fumily, cattle, prnvisions, and Canning utensils, upon his lot, and, when fully set- tletl, u> (vimtiiencc bit o|»erations on the forest around his habittttinii. Tiie brushwd and snwdl timWr being t'learefl otT, the trees are next cut down, the axe being applied at aiKiut three feet from the gnmnd. Some periMius cut a circle nf bark from the trees, 110 that its vegetative principle mtiy die, and tbe fun and air thereby reacli tlie Innda ; Imt this plan is not to l>e recommeudetl. The trees should l)C at once cut down aiiu burnt, however toihome the labour may be. The 4 stumps will cunllnut to dlsAjure the fields after this pnwess. but these may bo eradltatud at airy future nmvenlent npfHirtunlty I niid If tbe settler be active, ho will in a few years liavo his whohi lot, or 9iltHe^ as we would term it, altogether clenr and In a statu of pnalurtiveueu. The lauds, ariei being cleared, re- Jnlre at first little cultivation { the ground is rudely ug or harrowed aud sown^ and the Arst crop In mostly every Instance' ft stifficlenl to repay all that has Iteen expendod. CAMA.DA COMrANV ANH ITS LANDS. This association was lncf>rporated by royal charlor on tlie 10th of August KWI, and empowered tn ontor Into extensive mniracts with his AlHje«ty*s govorn- mont for the purrhaae of reserves, and other largo tracts of crown lands in tbe province of ('p)ier Canada, I^ thuo purchases the Company became pnasoaotd or upwards of two milliiuis three hundred ibmisand acres, nne mlllbm three hundred thousand of which they hold In dispersed tracta of two hundred, two thousand, and ten thousand acres, and also. In a few rases of hlw-ks, containing from twelve thousand to forty thousand acres. Thu residue, amounting to one million acres, mmpnsea one vast section of territory on the shores of Lake Hnnni, known by tbe name nf^the Huron tract, which whs granted in lieu of the moiety of the clergy reserves scattereil through tbe variiMi* townshlpo of tbe province, tiince the institution of thet'ompany, has Ihwu paying government from l<.IA,000 to I».*iu, 1) a-vear( and at the end of six- teen years, the stipulatttil period of credit, it will have paid L.a05,00(l. The Canada Company sells iu laiuts 111 small or large htta to emigrants, at much the same price as governmeitt t the lands It mnsesses ore ge< neratly good, especially those In the Huron tract Many prefer to buy their lands at once from this re- spectable association, which is considered lil>eralln Its ilealings. There are agents in Lmidun, Kdinburgh, and other places, who will give every explanation to, and enter Into arrangements with,* intending enii. grants. They will also furnish, j/ra/ii. plans of the lots.* The agents of the (Jomnany, on tbe arrival of the emi- grants at QueWc or Montreal, will convey, at tbe Company's expense, purchasers who pay a first in- stalment in this country 4if 2s. an acre upon not less than one hundred acres, tn thu bead of Lake Unta- rio, which is in the vicinity of their choicest lands t and their agents in all parts of the Upper Province will give emigrants every information and assistance In their power. Should emigrants, on their arrival, not settle on the Company's lands, the money paid them will l»e returned, deducting the actual exi»ense of conveyance In York. The Canada Company sold upwards of eighty thousand acres of land in 1)131), I Km, aud IfClT, in lou of various extent, at from 10s, to Us. per acre. The Huron tract, In the western part of the pro- vince, t>elonging to this Company, Is nearly triangu- lar in its general outline, und extends almut sixty miles along tbe south-eastern and eastern shores of Lake Huron. " The general surface of this terr^ tory fsays Bouchette) ts remarkably level, and fre- quently presents rich natural meadows and excellent pastures. The soli chiefly consists of a deep, rich, black loam, with a subsoil of riay intermixed with sand, which, in point of faiiHty of cultivation and fertility, does not probably yield to any in the pro. vince. The forests are composed of the mint vtilu* able and useful timber, and are not of that almost impenetrable thtrkuess that in geiu'ral .liararterizes a(.'aiiadian wilderness. The maple tree, which here predominates, is a source of essential profit to the far- mer, from the copious sup|>Iiei of sugar he derives from it, by the mivt simple process, and with the least possible latmur aod expense. Tbe soil Is wel! wa. tered by the river Alaitland, a large branch of the Thames and its tri'nit:iries, the River Aux Sables, and numerous rivulets and briMiks. Fresh springs altonnd throughout the tract, and salt springs are frequent. The rivers are partially navigable, and are well adapted to tbe erection of mills. In tbe township of (Jodricb, a town has been laid out on the borders of Lake Hunm, in a good situation, with a harliour. The town of tvuelph, the capital of another extennivo tract Itelonging to tbe Company, situated in the rouiity of Halttni, district of (lore, ts alio in a thriving condition. The country around (Juelph enjoys mint of tbe advantages of the lluroii tract, in res|>ectof climnto and fertility 1 but a nearer proximity u* the older settlements of the province gives it probably a superiority of relative loc^l situa- tion. The Company gives the following Informntion re- garding the laudti it (lotsesiiet for sale : — " Inits of Innd are selling at prices varying from "k, (id. to atth. an acre, one-fifth payabledown, and tbe remainder(wli{<'b industrious settlers would be able to pay out of the • Theehlcf nfflfcnf ihc Cantila rnmpany I1 at 1.1. Stltclin'i I'l3n>. Hi*hi>)>»^atu Sirt«i, London. '\'\\s sc^ila nrc— Kiir ENnLAHD.— nrjfto/, W. D. W. nml W. K. Arraini u Hull, Hii-tiatil Tutlic; IJivrjKw/, Much Mniltici UnttilU, '"lumiat U<-ll I Pli/moulh, Miwttvr anti Sitni i SieaHint, J. ('. ^|llr^^n. F-n S('iiTLAVi>.--Kifin6Hr')A, Jitinr* .\ilam, W.S.i t.ritk, J.i*. Ouimti anil t'niii|iany 1 AbeftttH, J. t'attn. Son. ami L'niii|*any 1 (i/u«TK)ir, AlmxiitliT fi. (illh)u>n ; Urttnock, It. Earing and Cum- pany; UadtHnt^on. John Mald.-uir. Kor ImtLANi'.— JImUim, John .\ii)ri nflfiut, Wiillain nray t Vork, Scstnn ltJ>lt'i ; t.imrrUk, Jnhii t'.irnilii lA'UiUm-terrjfi Ui-or(!P (luihanan i Him ami H'alf/ura%Mlsaai AfONfrfs/, tlsrt Lofsni and A'rw York, J. C. Suchansa '" r erops) by annual instalments In Ave vsars, with in« leresL tiettlers with capital, who iirefer esMbllihlnf themselves on land hi ublcli partial clearings have boon made, and btg-hnuses erected, will generally Aud lots with such Improvements for sale. This arises f^om penums going originally In very destitute rlr- cumstances, or ratiier dependent on the Company'e assistance, who, having succeeded on their lots, aro willing to sell tneir land, with a reasonable proAl, to new coinem, al from four to six dollars, with the Inu provemenis on the same, hnnaes, barns, Ac. Thoeo individuals generally remove further westward, hav. ing acquired suHirlrnt knowledge nf the country, and nurchaw on tbe Huron tract, which Is equal in qiM* lity, at from 7s. fid. to lOs, per acre." CHARACTER OF DIBTRICTt. The various writers on Canada each re»«mmend particular districts for tbe settlement of the emigrant t out it is hnrdly to be expected that persons Iu this country can make a uerfertly Judlviuiis choice, an alt. solute Inspection of tlie lands, or at least Information near the spot, Iwlng in almost every case requisite. The moHt elabitrate details are given by Bouchette regarding the different parts of the province t and ai what he mentions may Iw of use in famishing emi- grants with an Idea of the nature of the lands, we take the lilterty of ofl^erliig a few of his obtert atlons, ** The Kaitern Stftion, InoludlngOttawa, Johnstoun, Midland and llathnrst dintricts. — Situated Itettveen two broad and navigable rivers, the Ottawa and the 8t l*awrence, and centrally traversed In a diagonal Ctiurse by an extensive and splendid sloop canal, con- necting the navigation with the waters of Ontario, this section of omintry evidently enjoys Important geographical and local advantages. Ill surface pro- senu, almost unexcepllon:ibly, a table level of moderate elevation, with a very gentle and scarcely perceptible depression, as it approaches the margin ot the mag- nilitvnt streams by which it is iMiunded to the north* ward and south-east. The soil, though snmetlniee too moist and mirshy, Is extremely rich and fertile, and chieAy wnsists of a brown day and yellow loam. This section is intersected by niimerons rivers, re* markable for the multitude of their branches an4 minor rami II cations. There are also a number of good publie nwds, Imth along the St liswrenco and Ottawa, and Into the interior, (ireat Industry and attention tn improvement are dlsplayetl upon mostcf the lands throughout this tract. The town of King* ston, the largest and mmt populous of the Upper Province, is very advantagetiusly seated on the norta side of the St Lawrence, or rather at tbe eastern ex- tremity of Lake Ontario. The streeu are regular and well planned, and the number of houses may be estiinatetl at about iViO. The town haaiiowcfmstder- able mercantile importance t the harbour Is well shel- tered and convenient. The thrivlut; village of Perth Is situated In the township of Drummond, on a branch of the Ridean, and occupies a central position between tbe Grand River and the St l*awreiice, communicating bv to- lerably good roads with Kingston to the south, anoDy- Town to the northward, at thu opposite eatreinitlea of the Hldeaii Canal. The first esubllshment fostered by government was made iu IHIA, by British emi- grants, ihielly from Scotland, many of whom are now at the head of excellent farms, uossesi aimfortablo habiiations, and reap the fruits of their perseverance and industry. Asi'endiiig along the shores of I^ake Chaudiere^ the objects of note first prenenting themsehes are tho rifting (ndonies in front of tbe townships ,of .March and TarlHiltoii t they are chiefly compoHed of families of high respectaldlity, imssessed, in general, of adequate means to avail themselves of the advantaiies that arc incident to a newly-opened country. High up, on the )kM and abrupt shore of tbe Chah^ tbe Highland chief Macnab has selecteil a romantic eililice, Kinell Ijodge, which he has succeeded, through tbe most ud- shakeii perseverance, in rendering exceedingly conu fortalile. His unexampleil exertlona iu funning and fostering the settlements of the town>bip, of which he may be consiJeretl the founder and leader, have not been attended with all the success that was desirable, or which be nnticiiialed. The CetUral Section of the province (rontlnues tht* accurate nnuchette) embraces the districts of Home and Newcastle, which occupy a grant of about oue hundred and twenty mites upon Lake Ontario, ex- tending from the iiead of ttie Buy of Quintt.' west- warri, to tbe line between Toronto and Trafalgar. Although le^i populotiH tliini tbe tract of cinintry com- porting tbe lirKt piirt of the dlvihion which wo have adopted, this poriimi of tbe province does not yield to it in fertility, aud is equally welf watered by numer- ous lakes, finud and beautiful rivers, and fniiitmor- able rlvem and bnaiks. Ttie rivers in general al^ound with excellent fish, and especially s-ilnion, great qiinn- tities nf which are nnnually speared in the River Cre- dit for the supply of the western c, towards Rice Lake: EMIGRATION TO CANADA. High II u, on •r, tlitf Higbliind butf Mvlnir Ihfii, nnd pi-obalily onw or twu mors c«im> puniUvcily in«l|rnlriraiit oxcttntfuni, thn wl\ o( tliii tract of nmntry U extrpmolv fertilp, h\i^)\\y ronduriva to af^rlciiltun, ■iid ylcldi luxurliinl crop'i nf wlirut, rye, nialxs or Indian corn, ycM, tmiley, outi, biu-k- whcat, &o. Tha fruntt of all the townihlpi rrnm XinfTBton to York arc, with Tuw tfxctfptiinu, wull wU tltd 1 ruHdH Imtd thnMif
  • >ii liiiti Wrn miulo In nKrlcnltncei the orffH, ({pnemlly upeakhifr, are itronff tnid well Iniilt i and thu liilmhUnnti appeiir to he pouenieil of all tlie necei^arluH, an well nn iiioHt of thu conirortn, that a life of indnilry ununllv NeitowH." In thin divUion U let- tled tliH tdwn of Vork. Our authority next proceeds to notice TVitf Wentern Seethn^ incliidtnfr flnro, NlHtfarn, Lon- don, nnd Wi'Ktern diitrJcti; hntai part of thli division Is noticed under the head Canada Conipiiny, we need not here I'ntLT Into toriK dctMlls. " With the aid of a little fancv (savpi Hniichetto), the tract of country wenre now descriliiii)( niav hi sha|>ed Into a vast ei|uilaterHl irlan- fnilnr ]H>uiHitnfti, whone hnsc, i*xteuilihK fnnn Fort Krie toCapellurdmi liiike llunnt, niea«ure»!2t(imiteaiand whose pprjiendlculHr, striklnK the IVtrnlt Hiver at Aniherstliurgh, lunhont ItiAnillci. ltIshiMindedu)the north and tvt'st hy Lake Itunm, River and l>ake Ht Clnlr, and Detroit Klvert smith hy l ■ity of thulri>ontlitnatlonsiihsi>rvahlein theiie four dis- tricts, are hy no means so ^'rent as might he exwrted In so exteriifod u rr^lo"* The whole tract Is ailuvlnl in Its form;ittim, nnd chiefly consists of a strntum of black, and sometimes yellow hKim, above which Is de- posited, when In n state of nature, n rich and deep Tegetahle mould, the suh-stratum henvaih the beil of loam Iwing generally a tenachnis gr.iv or hine cLiy, which in some |>nrtsiii>|>enri nt the lurlace, nnd, Inter- mixed with sand, constitutes the sn|H'r-M)U. There are numerous nnd extensive iiiiarrles of lltnentono to Iw found In these districts, that supply the fHrmers with excellent materials for liuihllug. ' Frees tone Is nlto found, hot In small <|uniitltlus, and generally ahiiitf Uie shores of the lakes. The Thames HIvor,* In this section, rises far In the interior, ami, after pursuing a serpentine course ot'iilMintonehtiudri'd and fifty miles, In a direction nenrlvsnuth-wcst, diM-liarges Itself into J«Hke St Clair." I^his porthm of the province seems to Its to he thnt nu)st worthy of the attention of the emigrant ( the clhnato Is pleaftnut, the land excellent, the rivers numerous nnd uteful t riKi^.s are opening up In all directions for the lienrlltof thelnhahitntitst and ntthough at a great dlsiame Inland, the communlc.i- tlon with thu ocenu Is conveniently kept up hy means of the taken and canals. Wvre we alHiut to emigrate, we wnitid have little he^tltation in directing our itepi towanls this imrtiou of Upper Canada, so tempting frnm the protllgious va^ituess of Its waters, the exube- rant fertility of its extiMisive ptaliiSf Its luxuriant or- chanls, dustry. Nearly eqK tract Udtig settled hy uavnl and military nalf-pny ofHcers, who (Jniw their pay quarterly, there will, consequently, he more ready mtniey circulating here, and more emplovment for all kinds of trades- men, than in most otfier pinces. The laud here It rising rapidly in vnlue. We may stnte that all kinds of tradesmen will find abundnnce of emplovment at Vork t hut, in cinite- quencc nf its low sftuailon on l^nko Ontario, It Is liable to agues, and will be avoided hy those who may he so affected. It may here he remarked, thnt the general salubrity of the climiite improves as you riH-erle from the hank's t)f the lakes nnd great rivers, nithongh these possess, as a counterpoise, n greater facility nf diKpoatng of surplus produce, being nearer to markets. The general complatntH on the shores of the lakes and large rivers are fevers and the agtie, which, al- though a niu.it annoying complaint. Is hv no means filtal. Hy great cnre being given to regularity of the hnwels, moderate use nf s)i{rituinis liquors, keeping the SKt dry, nnd nnneccKxary expe leu prontahle traits which stamp the Highlander its more at home in wielding the ilayniore, or extraclinv mountain dew, than in guiding the ploughshare to slow hut cer- tain results. The farms are hut Indilfereutly im- proved, ciuisidering the ud vnotages they have unjoyeil i am*, much valu:ihlu ilmu Is uxiiended in thu depths of the fiircht, in a deml-savagu lile, rutting and prepar- ing timber for the lumber merchnnt, which. If Siea- dlty devoted to the cultivation of thu land, would certainly be attended with liilinitely greater benelU, both in a physical nnd moral iwdntiir view. Trt go minutely Into the statisticn of even the banks of the river, would fnr exceed the limits to which I must neressarily restiict rnvHelf. Kulllce It to say, thnt a constant succession of eligible situatlouB present themselves for estates nnd farms. I was iniah pleaseil with the Matilda district, nnd consider it ca- Iinble of great Improvement. The soil Is a due mel- ow sandy loam, sometimes perhaps rather light, but ndmlrablv adapted for turnip hnslmndry and fiiiu- wiHdled sneep, with numerous henntlful situations for A residence, the mdile 8t l,awreucu ever forming a prominent feature, its surface varied hy lovely wooiled Islands, similar to those we so justly ailmlre on many of our llritlsh lakes. In appnmrhlng Kingston, or the east end of Lake Ontario, the Hiver Uuannnnguo falls Into the Kt Iiawrence, and, at Its month. Is the estaldlshment of Aleshri APDonell, two brothers who came about eight years ago to the colony, and who, by steady ciiterprnte, wiinont original capital, have realised consldernlde wealth, whiW, along with It, they have secured thu res|tect ami esteem of all who kiiiiw them. They have here what is calleil In Amis rica n v.-ilunhlc water privilege, or fall, and have erectetl Ihntr and saw-mtlls to n large extent. Last season tliey sent down to MontrenI 'J1,(H>U harreli of llotirt and a friend of mine, who wns their agent. In- formed me that one of the brothers having resolved upon becoming their own agent In Afontreat, It would 1k> a loss of some hundreils n-year to his Intuso In com- mlKhtoit. They have a very clever cooperage worked hy water, similar to the steam cimperage at (ilnsgow, nnd tittt articles turned out are uncommonly reaMui- ahle, substantial, and neat. I regretted nuich not having it in my power to form an ncuunintnnce with these Kpiritefl cnhinlsts, more espcH-hilly as they farm likewise to a large extent. The farm at Ouananogue extends to \2W acres, nnd the manshm-house and hams are commodious and handsome. Having received very encouraging arconnts at Kingston, of the cmintry along the Hay of Quinti', n deep inlet of Lake Ontario, formed by n peninsula called Princu Mdward's Island, I made an excursion into that district. The scenery was pleasing, in many places very linet and Hettleinentsnre forming on every hand. The sidl Is jiartly clay, partly Inam and santf, suMlcIently rich to yield lifteen crop's of good wheat, with Impunity, in a (leriiHlof twenty yeirs. Granite, limestone, ainl M'histns, or clay-'dai'e,*nre succe>>sively met with. Wherever a stream or creek of nnv Ini- IHirtance falls Into the lake, there wu find a milKseat nnd a vlll.-ige growing up, the embryo, in innuy cases, ofconslderalde tim'us. To tlitf patriot or philnnthrnplHt, it Is highly gra- tifying to remark, how thu wants nf the fanner and thu interestH of tlie trader or mechanic co-operate In the rnpid progress of general improvement and civilU xntion. Ilidywell, Siphialnirgh,nnd Helvillc, are nil thriving villages of this description ; and many iiidi- vlduals are to be met with In each, who, from the humble sitiiathMiormerchant's clerks, &c, are rapidly ncnuiring Independence. Vork (Iiu s.'iys In another place) is a very desir- able station for a settler to cIhhisu as hcad.i|uarierH| in liH)king about for n purchase, lie is sure, nt ilii:i place, to meet with numerous olfers nf farms, regaril- liig which lie will do well tn act with cauthiu ; nnd hu will he :ihle to inspect tnc plans nfpithlic lauds in the government lainl-oflU'e, under the snperlnteudencu of Mr P. Hoblnsim, a gentleman able and willing to afford him every facility. The n'cA and heavy \hi\{\ of Upper Canada Is not to he found, In ueneral, upon the immediate banks of the lakes and rivers. It lies for the most part from twelve to twenty miles back, and thus compensates the cnterpriiting settler for plunging into thu forest.*' CM-tlATi: AXD PROni'tTIOKS. It will prove both important nnd interesting toper- sons who have nny intention of cmlgraiiiig to Upper Ciiundn, to hnvesome knowledge regarding the climate of the country. On this subject, ilowison gives the following account;— "The nature of the climate Is a consideration of the greatest con&equence to all those who pnqioso to remove tn a foreign ctiiintry, and dcNervedly so; for a malignant atmosphere exerts an influence over the mind and hmly, which it is impossible to evade. But ho who takes iip his re»ld«uce lu Up^ier Canada runs no riht< i)f siifTerlng in this way. Thu climate, lu the westerly parts of the provincu particularly, !• ellke healthful and agreeahle. In winter, thu thermometer occasionally stands several degrees below gerot bul this Intense add seldom continues more than three or four days iit n time, nnd Is by no means nnidttasent* The temperature, d:iring January and l-ubniary, may, In thu generality of seasons, average lA* Faliren> belt. The snow uiually lira six or seven weeks t but the time, of inurse, varies according to the quantity that falU. M'hile It remains iipfui thu ground, the car- riage called a iUiyh or rario/e f which Is too generally known to reipiiru desci intion), is exclusively used, ana forms a dullghtfiil m»de of conveyance, one pair of horses being atdu to draw several person', sixty or seventy miles in the course of h day, wUnout mueh fatigue. Ofieii, for home weeks in winter, the sky umtinues bright uiid cloudless t and though the air Is intensely keen, yet Its bracing and exhlluratliig ef> fi'Cts enable one to hear the cold without nny Incon- venience. At these times the public roads are crowded with sleighs t nnd the farmer conveying bis produee to market, the wood-cutter hauling wmid, the quack iloctor, the merchant driving for pleasure, and the J"ffKl'>K traveller, all meet tlie eye In varying lue* cushitm. When the winter is moderate and steady, with plenty of snow, it Is thu most agreeable season in the year t hnwuver, It Is sometimes subject to vicissltudea which render It the most unpleasant. I have seen storms of thunder and lightning In the month of Fe- hruHry, the thermometer having stood at srero only » few days liefore i and have also known hail, rain, and snow occur snceesnively In the course u( half an hour. The changes of temperature are sometimes Inconcei- vably stidden end extraordinary i but they affect the Canadinns very slightly j for they are always prepared lor them, and their constitutions are not so tiaromt- Iricat Hs those of English people. The winter season Is extremely healthy, sickness of any description be- ing almost unknown either among the natives or fo- reigners. Spring commences in March i but the early part of tills season Is seldom agreeable, twing dnmp, tern* pe^tuoiis, and rainy, nnd occnslonnhy very cola. The roads likewise liecome so bad, th'it it Is hardly poe- siblu to go nut of doors. Town'tU the end of April the ground becomes dry, vegetntlon commences, and the hehls alTord a little pasture to the cattle. In May thu earth is covered with verdure t and If the weather Is genial and wann, the buds of the trees expand with nstonlshiiig rnpldity, while the forests exhibit an In- numerable variety of hues, all resplendently bright and exquisitely pure. In June the orchards are in full blow, and a trans* parent atmosphere nnd cloudless sky prevnil from th« rising to the setting of thu sun. During July and August, however, the heat becomes so Intense, that It is unpleasant to leave the house, or take the least ex- ercise; and nnisqultoes abound wherever there are woikIk, which prove a torment to those who are ex- |iosed to their attncks. The hent In the course of the summer has several times K'en found to exceed 100* Fahrenheit in the shade ; but it usuallv averages from HJ' toim». The antum:is of Upper Canada very much resem- ble thosu of Hritaln. October Is usually a delightful dry month, with mild days and clear frosty nights. The early part of Novemhc'r Is generully chnrncterlzed hv a peculiar state of the wcnther, which the Cane* dians term IndiuH lutiimer. The atmosphere has a haziness and smoklness which makes dlsfant objects appear Indistinct and underined, and n halo often en- circles the sun. At the same lime, a genial wnrmth prevails, and there Is seldom any wind. The Indian Miinmer is so delightful, thnt one would almost sup- po^e the country where it takes placutobe tmnsported for a season to simiu celestial clime, where the ele- ments ever existe«l In Imnnony and acted in unison. It is extremely diflicult to explain thecnuse of the re- gular mcnrrence of this kind of wenther ; for scarcely a year pnsses, in the autumn of which there are not simie days of Indian summer. It derives its name iVoin the vulgar and prevailing notion, that the hail- iiess of the weather is produced hy the smoke which arixes from the burning of the long grass thnt covers the immense jiralrlcs bordering on the Alissouri and MisHiNsippi. it is true thnt these prairies nre annually Hct on Hru hy the Indians; but that the conflagration nlt'ects thu cllmnte and atmosphere of Canada, is an idea too absurd to require refutation. Thu dimnto of Upper Canada has not yet attained that salubrity nnd purity which will eventually charsc- terizeit. Thick forests cover nine-tenths of uie inha- bited parts of the province, and these, by preventing the evaporation of water from the surface of the earth, pi'fHluce marshes, swamps, nnd collections of water, which in their turn generate mists, chilly winds, and agues. ^Vhen the wikmIs are cleared away, the air, although perhnps colder, will be even more dry thnn it is at present. The lakes will then attract the clouds towards their surface, and Upper Canada will seldom be exposed to heavy falls of rain, or violent storms of snow. I have already mentioned (he continues) that tlte soil and climnte i>f the province nre very favourable to thu growth of fruit. The cultivntion of orchards, however, has hitherto been almost entirely neglected. Tlu^ kinds of fruit most common in the country are not wull choseiii and tUey appear to degenerate fruin CIIAMHERti IWORMATION VOU TIIF VKOri.R Wlini n( rmn nnil •ilti*iiilHn. WiM trr;ti>«Mi ^ri>m Mkun. tfMitly 111 llifi fon*»t», Nnliivt>, hy prt'r*" MllMrv, Itrt'om* » irnr- 4lNi frnp», ftitrf iiImi fit IW mnlitnt( w)ii«*. Nlihiirv ■«•■» wnliiiit*, btiltrr.iiMtt, iiliimi. wIM ilmwtifrrli'o', crftAwrHN, Ar. ar* ffHiiitl in pnif^iilun nlmtMt vvi*ry vlMrv, amt mtKlit kll, nf ritiir«i«, h« Iropruvrd tn viUu* Mi4 qHMltly hy unltaUIn riiUivntlun. Th* Mill nf'rp(>»r Cnnwlii It In ■['•nvrMl psrcllnnl, 9»4 Hkvwiit* iif enay i>tililviiil»n. WhvNi in ih»Kntln tlMl \% rklini til t{c*'Nl<*'l 'iniinlity. A l>uili»l Hn «x. tout, anil an afm yiitUla uhtMit tiritrn lit Hhala. Ilyi> mii«MNl» wi>ll, til* Aii»|>bi>iii|; ffvnorally iwMily hiijih4*li •u arra^ 4>at« ara wry indilhrant, anil miu
  • na Aivimrabla t» ita growth. Indian «»rn h mtian ciillivalarf In tlw waitam partt nt tha |mK. viiw«, and yialita largvlr, If it la tiu< tnjnra •raft umI kra naa«l tu fanl liva ■tt«>fl fur thin purpuaa U tht* ■i^iiaih nr Ktmrd, which atronlt an nlntwlaiit crop, la Ma«k Hka^ hv tha raiUa, and navar roinmunlratt'ft •uy ttaplcaaaiit llavuitr tall&amilk i>f thacow*, aatnr. ■taa lnvari«l»ly iln, BtU whila aaamlnlnir thla (anaral Mitmala »f the Mturnimnda bv iliffaraniarupa, li tnuil ha rat-tiUartatl tfwl in I'ppar Tanadn tha lainl If icarrfly itvar maila la praduiv naa^ly aa muckai it wmiM dit, wara it un. 4ar jiullcI'Mii rultivalliMi. Tka Caaadian farman V**" M«* lyiiam In Ihair atfrlmiltural oparatlona, or in %tm niaaaitampnl of ihair laiuta, and thay prvpara tha anil f:r tlia rvt-rption of t)>« i*****) very iniperfat"'y. TkaM circnmsiuMiaa ara |[«aerally iba rttauli uf ifiiu*- WrT. but ufiaa ariw froca a want of ra|iicml, anil a MUnlty uf prw-urinf labourara to a#«iBl ihtMn in tha b*ii|pa»t of the farni. Wara an anlii^hlvnatl KnK)i"h r ID tuhjiKi a portl'W of tha baat laudt In I'ltpar k to tba Kriiiak tyitam of Agrl«uttura| raakin)( •f aauraa thoaa ilaviatioiit whiih iha climala, toil, and Mltar circuniitanca^ might raiular nrcaatary, ha would taiaa cropa infinitely luparior, alike in quantity and auality, to thoao tluit ara ffunarally yieldtHl al prasvnt brou^hout tha provino*.'* MAPI.C IVOAI. tn Upper CanndAt thi* tnhahhanU of the womly 41»tHrta nava it in thrir powvr not finly to mipidy tkrmaelvcii with tni^ar for tha uta of thair fMniilim, kut to maka lui'h titiantitlpa a* mav bn advanlA^aoii!! In a roinntarrial point of ilaw. 'fhia in^rar it pri». durvd fri>m thtf nap of thp mnp.a irra, one uf tha uioit Taluablt* vpf^publa priMtncta of tha Amariran fnmt«. An activa f^rmHr and his wifp may makr, it in taid, about 7"AII»t. of suffar annnalty, not infarlor In qiia< iity to that of the Wa*it Indies,' and worth abont -Id. par pound. The rnanufartura of thin nuilva migur (raaily taiidt to lowt-r tha prli'enf Wa^t India •ufp4rt, which would Ih> othrrwivp hi hiffh mrii. " 3lH|da tn^'ar mlf^t te maiuir.irtuinl (layihr) hy tha nidcil rnoiin- tainf«r In ynnr ronntry, an ncll, in tlia Amt «f*n4ou i»(. tar hli arrii nl here, as by the mott pniinfnt tu^ir laflner in Jamaira. TltP mNnufurlure Is ^fnerally oommenred aarly In tha month nf April, when the ■ap of tha trae ii firtC put ii>to nurtion at tha return ol tprin((, and when no other nKrlntlturnl opwrntion OUi he carrlfNl on tn f^ood pnrttoia hy the farmer, on •cenurit nf the unpleaiiant weather witirh iKCuri nt tftat period. A part of the estate ii lelected which etntalna the lartrfkt quantity of tVutrinhinf; ntnplu traea nearly conti»pion% to each i>ther: and a tempo. fary hut ia ererted for the ai-commiMlation of ihe o|»e. ratort, not more than two n^ thre» )K>in|( required fur tha mannf(eineni of a hundred tree*, from every one af which the up ii ixiilnff out nt the lama tima. In rainy weather, the iree^ yield ttit-ir i-alunide Juii<« ra< ther tardily t and, during tha whole month which it •ometimea devoieil to thit emptoynient, it often hap* paiii that onlv ei)(ht or niiiv days ara propitlmii tn tkte part of tfia aeitler'a labftiira. Tha heat waalhar tkr the pnrpoaa ia that in which tha niffht la froaty, and tba day cheered by tha My* of a warm aun. If tha proceaa of boiling were not continued both day and ni((ht, tha tap would aceumulaia ton rapidly in the rcaarvoirf and awui evince ayniptoma of vinoua farmer.tHtion. which would chaii^a iti quality^ and landar it uwleas for tba roaiiufarture uf lui^ar. The finit thing nereKsary for commenrinfr the ma- nnfRcture of thli article la a metal iMuter, which enau In l.^nper I'anadn alwut L.tf, llh. iterlinff. Thit ikolda nearly thirty (^nlloiia, and, withaKmnll rtMtkinf(- tMM, it luffiricut, in a pro^peroui leaitin, to Ixiil down MO Iba. One hundred nnd trfty trougha, ei^'ht reier- voira. and four hand.hncken, will he rece»*ftry for th-i remiliir lupply of thin hoili-r. Thetniu^hi riMt about Kla. ^1. per hundred ; the reaervi i>f hii aia durInK tha preieilniiir winter. An aiiierl hand ran makf IW or ^A tnniKh* In a day, whuli, though Airmad only with Iha aaa, will laat for many yeara, If rareftilly phtce*! under rover durinff summer. Tha iraaa ara iitpped either hy nieani of mi tncitlon niada by an aie, or the {>erforation of an auf(er. hut tha latter nttMla it conaidereil tha leba InjuritMi* tu Iha growth nf tha tn-e, ;ind !• ihriefore tha mora ap. riruve>l pt'in. A itnall Mhoi^ about nine inrhv* lnni( • made the conductor of iha tap from e:irh tni'i"lr ihu tiott' m, tha anp la drawn off Into iha bo'lem, nml reduuad to molaaae* by tha tlmpla proi-aat uf evaporation. The liquid In tnia purer itaia la than drawn frmu tha boiU era, aad plaoMl Id Iha raiervoira, or coolera, until it btroniea tiearly cold, whan It ia attained tlmHifth a woidlan rkith into a imallar boiler, and, altar Iwlnff chiriited with ckiTS ntilk, or hullni-k'f 1*1. mnI, ia bidlad down lo tlia ron«isten(v of tugnr, ami poured inh> moulda of the (lurticular »hai>a which It in intended to aaauine at a Borl i)f randy t nut, if to l»e used na noft auf(mr, tha tyrup in iti lait itafr** of ptiriliciitlon la lefk in a lutfar-raik, which ia perforalad. to allow tha inuiat oailirlea, iti tha form of nioliiiaei, to oi»ia tbniu^n the Inittora. Miiriy pntple neither clear ntjc ilrain tha molniiea, and conaa^uently maka vary cuarae and dirty ii'fcar t but hy a ilrlct adharence lo the limpla dire<'li(ma which I have nitvn^ tha moil iKnoranl novice in tha art mitfhl manufacture tUKar e^iial tu any that li imported Into Kn^Und. Homaof il( indeed^ nai what i» railed ' a tmack,' or peculiar taste, derived often from the kind of wimmI f>f which iha Iroiighi art? made, and ftunelimiv from being ne- filartaper consistence, iinifliu'eii about forty pounda of very good soft soap. It ii rclatati, thai when the land has bean covered with heavy timWr of a hard nattire, there Is such a quantity of ashea produced that their value will pay fur clearing the land. omutNAI. LETTFII FMOM AN CMIOHAVT. We have much pleaatire In now introducing an original lett»'r front I'pucr Caniida, which brings up infill niatlun regarding tne crdoiiy to the inonth of No- vember IlktJ. The etni^Tttnt hy whom this letter was written waa, till lately, a ftliopkn-per in Kdinburgh, and a permn of reipt-ctahility and luh^tance. Find- ing that hla meani as a tniileaniun were anhjcct to conKtant diminution, and that, by the mont perauver- ing efforts in his buKinet^ he could not anticipate u competence, at howeverdiatitnt a dale, lie resolved un emigrating to Canada ; and the result nf this impor* tant step, it nppeara, has been such as he had reason to eipe<-t. W e give hia verv interesting letter to a fricitd in Edinburgh, pmisely aa it wai put Into our hands, and only stippreai the name of the writer ; hut we vouch for itu authenticity and the liitefp'ity of its details, and thus leave it lo make ita own impreuiun un the mindi of Intending emigranta. Whitby. Cp|M'r Canada. Uth Xot. 1833. Mt I>tAft Sin — 1 contitl^atly expact that long Uafuro you roceive thia letter you wiU have beard of uur aafa arrival in Canaibi, in guud bi>alth* and utherwiae in cum- fortublo circumklanct-a. We ttuiiped at Quebec for eight or ten daja, iluring Hliich lime i oeveralluHt'd my family to quit Ihe thlp, in dread of the cholera, which raged in the town 'tlho time with very great ^iot^noe. We imme- diatt'Iy proeeeded nn our journev to York with all due speed; ihii ii perlurmed partly ny land, and partly hy water, the acronimodalinn in both coaet perhaps ai good aa the country can affortl ; thechar^'ct, however, are very high. I paid for my luggage alone, tntm Montreal to York, nearly L. 12, sul ttt my family a great deal more | fWim Quebec to Montreal ray luggage co«t nothing, thia eirruRiatanca ariaing entirely from great npjioaitiun in tha latter case, ami nti>re in the former. Uur juurni-v, how- ever, upon the Hhulu, waa comparatively Hgreeable, and, under the au[K>rinlending can^ uf l>ivinu Frovidumje, wu arrived ot York in aafvly and good health. I had ex- oevied. upon our arrival at York, to have itotiped there liir a month at leatt, and Wh my family, while I myaelf lurwyad the cuuiilry fui the par|MMQ uf ohtainittg tainr- matinn, ami procuring a |>ermananl pUi>a of retie i|U regarded Ina uholvr*— and ■erundiy, aa rvganiwd tha eiiurmuna rani uf hoiuea, I tlierafora ilt'tariHiaad to tpiu York next ilay, and umciteil to Whit- by. I act-ordlngly iirni-urt'<| a Loach liir that intrpoaoi mil came to John Willlamiona , ho stop|M'd ther* fof eight or ten davs till vm-H our lntfirMge arrived) I then jirot-ured a iiiiall hnuM'. We liveifln this hoii*e for Kmf ■ d you frnm Quebvo to York, and from Yurk lo inv liwuUh^t In Whitby, where I shall leave you fur a Hhile, and proiievd to UMltrraulparhapa greater intureal. Ihe S4.-unery upon Iha banks of the river and lake be- tween (iuelier tiiid York it very dull, andaltogethor un- lotereatiiig— at leaat it ait|>e&ra to be so in my eyes, and* I lielieve, in Ihe eyes of Keoiimen in general, so mueh sccuMlonied lo hill and dale. Exrepling tnwna such aa Montreal, KInKttoa, i . "v vlllagea, and I'arm-hiiuies, no- thing ii In bo seen hui i Interminable range of wood, ilumiMi of I aes, and ( i\v\\ fttaces, which ara at onea i-alvulai ' o damp t..^ tpliita of the emigrant, and la maka him wIWi he had never left his native land. I oan sMure you, NIr, I then ApU that Ciaaila, as it ia, was not the Caaaila I tiad fbrnwd an idea of in my uwn mindi I waa severely disappointed un this score, aad I btdia#a tbuuaanda have experienced tba saiaa kind uf disappoint- ment, and have relurned home with an evil report of Iha country, althout giving it any thing like a fair trlij. I meutlun this circumalance, in order to warn any parann who may be similarly placed not to ilespalr : onlv let him allow reason lo reMUine its leKitiMMle sway, and those airy caatlea which had been funned in the Imagination will ba damobabed in a minute— I anada will then be seen aa U really is. And what is CaniKla ? Why, 111 try to answer that queatioD. Well, tlien, Caaada is a country where persevering labour antl industrious habits will aecoaiuUsh what tba same (Mriuvering and induitrluui habits wlA not accomplish at home. I f^vikly confess, however, thai thla vircuinatanee, coupled with the entirely dilTerenl manners and cuatoma uf the peiipK*, ao wrought u^'on me aa lo damp lay apirita very inuuh — ao very muuh, indeed, that I deeply regretted I had aver left Scotlaml. I then foand it no vaay matter to bid adieu Ko my native land— the land where repose the ashea of my falher, my mother, and aisteff, tha wife of my youth, and aome uf my dear ehU* dren ; it was then that tha early scaaaa and assoclatlona of my bo^bouil and youthful yeara riuhotl into my mind in all their native iiwce and iinpeluuaily, and, in language of lileni eluifuence, unuttered and unutterable, cunsa- crated these scenes as sacred, and the plaoos a here they happened. Whilby Is universally allowed to ba one of the flneat tov nahipi in the whulo uf the Uuuer Provinaet Its loaal situation, as regards inarkuta and lua ulhur conveniences, is very goud ; there ia alwa)a a reaily utarket here fur all kiuda of farm produce \ the auil la excellent, and, taking all things to accnnnt, generally apeaking, well cultivated ; the prioe of land here is rising very fkst — land that was telling last season si fVnm IA lo 2(t anillingi per acre, baa advanced lo 'ib and :1U shillings, and clearwi land, which was aehing at L..4, lUi. per acre, has advancetl this sea- ■un to L.A and L.H, ami, in all proltability, will advance iliU higher i so that it npi>ears lo me quilo plain, that thosu who intend tu emigrate, especially thuav who in- tend to purcliaMi land, should do ao aa afum as possible. Wbitliy. in my opintun, is a verjr eligible situation for eiuigratila uf nlnioal oury deacriptiun : there is not a l>aker in Ihe whole lownvliip; there ia not a fleiher ; a wrighl and cahinctmnk'-r Aoutd succeed well, provided he kept cloae to hit hutlneai ; a tavern-keeper lo keep ludt;inga for Iravellem, and be ditcrect, would alsn do well i slore-keenors have all made fortunes, and moro fij^lnne!* mny alill be made by emigrants judiciously fol- lowing ohI ihe same hne of business. But why do I enumerate f Suffice it lo say here, that Canailaia a rising country, ami every ilaaa of eniigraiila mual succeed, pro- vided they act with prudence and caution. There are a good number of Svutaaieu keltled in this |iait of tha t-uuntry. L'pun Ihe una hand, and w ithin ten mioules' walk of mv liuuse, ia a Mr ArmKlrong, a Jutilce of the peace for the Jiklriet i I had the hiinuur and happiness to dine with him the otlier tlay, when 1 fuund him tu be a very agroo- atde and Inielligent gentleman. His case Is a sliigutar une, inasmuch as it clearly shows, in a strong point of light, what iierseveranee and industry will aci-oinptlih, under trials and diffieultiea seemingly altogether iaaur- mounlahle. This gentleman came lo the township In Whilby about twelve years ago, without any original eapital ; he bought 2(Ht acres of land, and began clears ing It with great spirit ; he built himself a log-huuae, and all things seemed tu go on and prosper \ but in an evil hour hu fair proaiiecta were cuinplctely blasted^ and his fuudest hopes da4iiied from his lips lo the ground, Ilis log-house was reduced to a heap of ruins by me, and Ilia little ail perished along with it. He, however, by extraordinary peraeveraitco and Induitry, soon overcame Ihe whole, and he is now prnnrietor of as fine land as Canaila can boast of. KIs whule profMrrty cannot b« valued at less than between L.^tKX) and L.30(iU. Tha next that I ahall mention is a Mr Tweetlie, froiu Syming- ton, in the Upt>er Ward of Lanarkshire. This gentleman came to th*s country about three years ago, and brought L.60U with him; ha boa now property worth L. ll^OU. Much about the same diatance from me as the two other gentlemen, is a Mr Ualiuer, from lloxtiurKbthire, who came to this township, and without any original capital has succeeded in Belling bis land cleared uf wood, and mostly cleared or debt. This gentleman b certainly a very remarkable instance of what i>eneverance and in- dttstry will aeeomptlsh. Nearer me still are tha Messra Williamson, fVem Stock hridtfe. These gentlemen hava Imughl UH> seres of land, at a remarkably luw price, and promua to da well. The ooit U t Mr Uepburn. U« «■■• of f<<«ltUne«, >lt>, owinf to th« r»— and ■t'rumlljr. EMIGRATION TO CANADA. omSu r llml iiiir^ii tii|<|»'>l tlivni fof ir^toao^ trrivt'tl 1 I th«>n bli hiiu*« IVtr fhuff t Inn I i-omlntf to lh«i ini»n«>)i uVmi lamily Anxinil m*, nttn thut alturlly knd Truin Yurk to !•««(* you for a • IfrvAlar intvrvil. v(*v untl Ukv t>«. ml *lti>|fi>thur un- In my fyvi, and* l«>nvrBl, Ht mu|K>iBt- • vll rvporl oftho k* a Air trial, t warn any ynon jalr ; onlv kl hln ■y, and thoaa airy DBftnalton will M hen Iw M«a aa M , 111 try to antwar I a rouDtry whero II will auflowuUah out habiu wlQ not bowv* ar, that (bit dlffbranl maniwrf U unon m« aa to ch, indead, that I 1(1. I th«tt fonnd !«• land— the land my molhar, and I uf my dear ohU* t and aHoclaliona lieil inlu my mind , and. In lanifuag* lUttMrahltf, conia* l^lawiwhera they one of the Aneat 'rovlnoe; iU Ivcal hur cunvonieni'M. larket lioru fur all Hunt, and, takInK , wi>tl fultivatvJ i lit— land (hat waa inifi per arre, ha* •nrtHl land, «)dch Ivancetl till* tea- lity. will advanee juilo plain, thiil lly tliuau who in- fttton a> |iot4ihlo. a tituaikui for Ihrre It not a not u floshor ; a .'11, |iruvided \ivn lo kevp would aim du ■lurfs, and moru judiciously foN But why do I Canada it a rliiog utt meet ad, pro- Thttre are a thla (laft or lh« ten minutoi' walk or the puace Tor inets to dine with bu a very B){roo- oio it a kiugular ttrontf point of will aui-oinpllih, nlto|{t>ther iniur- th» lownthip In out any oriuinal rid bvyan cTcar- elt a lot{-huu>e, protper ; hut ia iplctely bloated, t to the ground. Vuint l>y nru, and le, howuvur, by soon overcama at line Und at p«rty cannot bo ' L.aOliO. Tho le, from Sviniiij^- Thiigfntleman ja, and brought worth L. 1:^(10. at tho two other bufKhthire, who orWinal capital >d of woudf and an b certainly a iverance and in* 1 are the Mettrt gentlemen havo ly low pricBi and r Uepbum. Ita d t hii b(tr(y, himI It only re(|uirrt a lew more tu enatile them to tfi> on in pubbo mattor* with greater apirit and (lomplvli luiuuita. At rugatdt iIh* itate of religion In Ihlt toMiiahip, I would my, ihut (he mitjorlly u? Inlialdlantt are vompoted uf M«*tliora of tfi'dn are bciiinning to titei'uTate on thn auhjfot. Wh«at hat benn avlllng during tho •uinm«>r aa high at tit and iwen thllllngt |i«>r buthel, and other klmtt uf grain In prii)M)rtlon. I'otttoea are at ihia time telling at MM. per two ImiierUl holla, and are okpected aoun to be a great dval higher. Uutler brlngi here tOl.(o lAd.|Nirdo. ; egga, 7d. to ;4d. a doien i pork, L.3to L.3, te. ft barrel uf ibOilM. Cuwt Irom L.4 to L.ti; a good yoke of uaan from L.17, lUa, to L.UO I and hurtet from L/iO to L.iAeauh. Farm- tarvanlt get from L.2A to L.JU per annum, with victnalt. It i» impoaalble for mv tu tay what may ba the wagea of mt^fhanlca, at 1 have not tieeo ablii lo obtain correct in- furmution upon the lubjeut. Ilarvcat wagea aru a dollar per day, Imt itill vou ran cutvour own t-ropa a great deal oheaper than In Hcnlland. Cradling wheat and oata la a very common way of cutting thete kind of cropt, and 1 Mn aature you a very eaoollufft way it It. A Canadian can aaalty cut two aoret of wheat per day. There are plenty or labouren who will uke It to cut it at Aa, per acre, and upwardt, according to tlm haavliieaa of the orop. yarning utenaila teem well adaplatl lu thu pretent un- •Bltlvaled atatu of the country, and work widl, where Seoloh oartt, plought, hairowa, &c. would lie uf no uie whatever, and the aama otworvaliuiia apply to carrlagft OQ the roadt. Upon land fVei* of alumpt, however, the caau It diCfurent ; unun auch land Hcotvh iinplemantt of liuabandry are tieoidedly preferable. Uxen ire much uvod in hutbandry, and, in au Ut aa my opinion and ob> tervaMon go, they are uatd wUely. It It truly aaiuniah* Ingto jee tneie cattle drawing the loga of wood together In heapt for burning, and lo tee them ploughing and harrow- ing among tliu ttum|M. I have oltt'n vtooil upon the road In paaaing, and ailmlred the diwility and tractable- neta of the aniinala, aud, while viewing audi acfnet, have thought that Canada could not have l>««n cullivaled without them, the fttat and flory tiiipoaltlon of the liorae. In general, uttwrty unlUting tlicni for performing any lucl) work. The tame ohaervdiiouii alio apply lu ru«ilt in wot weather, aa uaen will go ihiuugh with the aameload wliere hortet would turn reative and ri-fuiu to work aU togolher; Imih are beat, however; and It ao huppvnt that Canada It richly atorod with both. At regardt my own aituatlon and protpfcti, I am truly happy to any tli4t they aru cheering. It la allowed on all hanilt that the purchatu 1 hav > made la a gooil one. It li a hundretl aeret of very flne land, fifty of which are cleared, with an encellent now barn upon It, built thit •aaaon, which coat L.70. with afyame-huute and othur ^. fleet. The toil it a doop rich loam, ami adapted to •very kind of crop, lit local aituation It alto excellent, being within one mile of the main road between York MI<1 Kingttun, where coachea puaa daily ; and aliout three milea from Windtor Uay, where there ia plunty of aliip- ping to alt parta. A due ttream of water runa through a part of it, upon which it erected a aaw-mid, and preaunit one of the llneat altuationt for a grltt-inill, whidi it very much wanted in thit part of the country. The price I paid for my Und wai '256 tovorelt^na j but, after detluct- lag the improvementa on It, it coatt only *2'2%. (Jd. per acre— a imall price, when It (a conaiden-tl that land in itt imicediato neighbourhood it telling at from L.3 to L.2, lUi. per acre. Sty nroBpecta of a crop next teaaon arc not of the mott flttterlng deicrtption. owing entirely to the extreme in- dolence of the [leraoti 1 purehatcd from. 1 1 II, how- ever, have five acret of wheat in pretty good condition, and other omp* In proportion. 1 Intond to keep 10 milch cuwt neat tummer, which will piy me well, u dairy pro- duce teilt very high. By neat fail u4 the year, if spared •o lung, I aliall have b6 acret ready for wheal, which, calculating the produce per acre tu low at from '2b to 30 butbeit, will bring ine from 36U tu 400 holla of wheat, whiuh, at 6t. per buthel, will l>e at mony poundt ; tidt, along with thu produce of the oowt, and other crojit, will bring me a aum nearly equnl to pay all expenaei, and bring me hack t'le whole of the money I paid for tliu land. [ do not mean to tay that 1 thall have bi) acrea of wheat annually ; but 1 do mean to aiy, that, by K'udent management and poraevering inilua^ry, I ahall ) fully enabled to realUo between 1..30U and 1..400 .i- y«ar, for the paymeat of eapeuiea and the maintenance of ui)»('lt' ami fdinity. Thit ciruumaloiioe, coupled with tlid lact tiiat i have no root lo pay, and almott no laaet, certaiidy preaenia, in a worldly point of view, a cheering and aidiiiuting prospect iudeed. Thia, I believe, it no exu^fgiTuted ttatuinunt ) but at I have had no oppnr- tuuiiy of reallaing It in my own experience, 1 only ofTir It at ttiy opinion. Deing ui'On the apot, however, and Jud)tiug from iho ttatu of the markoti, and other clr- ruiottancet, 1 not onlv offer it tiinidj' at my own opinion, but iu my deoidtd upfuioa. If the abuvo ttatemeat bo I that would thua Iw reiiiiirtid for the maintenance of above apeelea of atoA, ilit> farmer haa It in hit po elthur to put a crop upon it, or milch cowa ) and lliia | n SSn i m i SS S ih« mark aa olliarwiio^tlieli ll matt apfioar pvrfeelly plain to every unprejudiced mind, that, in an f-tr at leatt aa worldly olr- cumaianeea are eoneern««d, the en la of emigration are einnplelely anawernd. It it peifxvtly true, that, If a |iennn la judleluua in laying nut hia money upon land, and he at all mduttrioua, lin mutt he Inibipendanl | and let it ba uiiderttouil, that the tame ubtervatlua appllet to every branvh of trade. It la no uncommon ot'i-urrt'nee, however, to Add per* aoita poateaaing from 100 lo AOO aerea of land, of the flniiit tiualily, not at all able loauppoit thvlr own family, proet>«dlng entirely from their o»n ludtdenee i hut llii* elriumilanee, melnncholy aa It It, U one of the reaiona, among many nthera, why an Iniluatrioua innn maket hlin- aelf (he aoener IndepanilenI, tnaimuoh, at leiat, that in to far aa tho Indlvldualt alluded to are coneernvd, the market for grain and other farm prndiu* ramaint almott antiiety unoccupiei), and naturally thrnwt a greater num. ber of btual puruhotert into the market, 'llie proapeoia of the farming inlereata in thia young enuntry aru cer- tainly of a very pleating deteriplioD, and calrulated at once lo route and animate the mind lo redoubled tuli< vilv ami vlgtlanue. In ondtAvouring, hy honeat Indmtry, (o hetter the cireumttancea of yourtelf ind family. All kiniltof farm prrduee have been gradually on Ihelncreaae fnr Ihtie two or three yeara jiaat. and ttlll continue au. I believe 1 am correct when I toy, that, apetkiog gene< rilly, beat cattle and grain hava rfaen one. third, and In tome oatet mora than one-half, within Ibe time alluded to. A farmer here la at little or no expenae whatever at rtgardt hit young oaltle after Ihev are on« year old ; they ari< turned inht the woodi, ami Inrlvo tliere remarkably well i tliey will regularly relurn to the farm, once or twiuo in the fortnight, for tho purpoae of gflllng a little tall— a thing which all cattle muat have In thia fn'th-water country \ they then go hick to tho wooda again, and 1 have not heard of any of them being loit. At reirardt twine, thu oate it anmewhat timilar. Miny n farmer keept from llUy to tixty of thete animata, which do not coal one tix|H-nce for keep, ekeept when any are penned up tu feed olT; Ibey thi-n get a little Imlian corn, pt-aa, &o. &u„ and, at 1 am informed, pay well. Under theie cireunuiam-ea. it uiuat appear quite ovidimi that the land that would thua Iw reipiiftid for the maintenance of the [lower I"*'- lenia anotht r tiiurce wlieieon he may calculile with tarety tho aooaer to ralie himtelf, and, of courte, to in- dependence. Kui'h being the facta of tho cate, and when all tbinga are conaitlered, I have not the alighti'at hetltatlon In di>. elaring, that It appeara to me aa plain at the Aun at noon- day, that a IWrmer In Scotland, (»ceopying a farm thut doet not pay him, dintrettud at he tnukt be, perplexed and degraded, lulling from uioridng tilt night, with a tie. gr<'e of nn-iital aouuixh pretaing Upon him, calculated nt onoe to unnerve nil hit eiiergiea. nnti to tiring him to a premnturo grave, anrl vet, after all, unable to tup|H>rthla family or t>elter lliclr clrcumttuncet in any thape— I tay, a farmer, in tuch circumilaitcet, ought to route himtelf from hia Irthtirgy, and, by one i;rnnd nnd inlgnty efTort, ahake blmaeU flee of the fetter* by which be ia encloied, nnd, iilong Willi hit family, croai the mighty Atlantic, ami ivt himtelf down in Canada, where hl« tnlenit nnd industry at » fcirnier will be far better paid, and both hltclifiriitli'r and ttanding In toeiely, In a moral and pollticul pnliU of view, more liuty appreciated. TluMo obtervationt apply with equal force to every otht'r ctaaa of pertona j)iac('d in linidar clrcumttanci-t, and tu all auch the call to but I ick, with 70 acrea cleared, but the atumpt upon it, aella I at from L.2 tu L.U, IO>i, per acre— houtea upon the I I'lirma In both caiet, tu Icai or more extent ; unclcare I ; lanti In the former niluatlon, at h.'2 to L.2, lOt,, and in I the latter cue, at L.l, 6t. to L.l, lOi, per acru. Lodg- ingt aru very ill to bo got here, and present very terious dlmcultiet to emigianta with large familiea. 1 mjaulf wat exceedingly put about In thia respect ; but thete dlf- Hculiiet were toon overcome. A room with llrewood in- eluded, coatt 6a. per month. Pcraona with tmall capital, tay ftrom I...^0 to L.lOO, mutt lay their account with hard work. In my opinion, they ought to buy laud, if they intend lo do ao, whenever they arrive, anil pay tlio liritt initalincnt ; then work at aomo trade or otlaT for 11 year or two, and in tho interim pay the iniitalnienta an thoy fall lue : they may depend on it thoy will lliid this pliUi I very b;r.ch iu iocfr advantage, at it will assuredly hotter I their circumatances very much, nnd eniibte (hem tn go I oa their land with erery protpect uf eomplete auccuii. For WMl if Mth caution, 1 aai e^edlhly Informed thai many a one. In ihe ronrta of a yeb- or two, gel ao e«- Iwiglod aa (o be obllgef' to ijwr :he'r Airma, and to m«. d»-r their atualbma lneomtMir< iove j*.rip' j:., Che plan 1 have Jak| now reeommenila ' - ught.nva Mt'.,> le adopted. There are very fWw lets ' ^ land In 7 ' , , .ola tuwnahip which are not already ..cupiad, hi ' t are plenty of fknnt In purchaae f.^m plvate iniUf'Kaltt there are atdl, however, a few Iota, and I aliai. Ire you a tietcripllimof one of them. Thia lot It Dltuati-d on Ihe front of the third Com-eialon, about one mllu ilittant ftnm me, «n the main r'>ad Irom York to Kinga'on, and about three mllet f^otn the lake. I* contliia of tlOO icrea of excellent land, vtlih a Urge ttream of watrr running thrnegh It, and mcludea liy far Ihe tieat waterfall anti aituation fnr a grtat>mlll thai la lo be found In ihe whole townahlp. The prke put on It It 3Ua. per acre, and It eeriainly well worth the iltenllon of pertont cd capital and unterprlte* Keeping In vlfw the oaaa of the .Nl'Uoualilt, I do nol think it at all preaumptuoua lo look furward to alMllar rotuitt. In my opinion, allartlelea of houiehnid furniture, hei- bamlry utenaila, fltc, ought to lie brought out, at laail lo fkr aa the I'irL'umilineea of the Individual will |iermll. 1 haiard thit opinion from my own experience, becauie, bad I known what 1 now know, I certainly wtiuld have brought out more than I did. The |irloe of onnveyance fVom Qaebec lu Yurfc la 4«. 7d. per cwl. All arllelaa ought lo be put up In aa small paukaget aa povalhle. China, oryalal, earthenware, Jlic,, ouglit lo lie car<*fully tiaokud. I unfurl unately had the moat part of what I iroiight with me of that kind broken to atoma. With rfgard lo how etnigrantt thould bring oat aay capital they may liave, 1 tlare aoarualy venture an opj* nion. 1 inytclf brought out the muat part of the capital I had In gtiuh I got U4a. for every aotereign, which cer« talnly ^alJ well. In other clrcumatancea,Tiowovur, pru- dence may dictate othorwiae. Upon llievoyiigt> out, your provision atore ihout I coa- slit inoaily ol oatmeal, plenty of potaloea, egga, himi ; pbrnlv of porter and ale, which you will And to be very ote- ful. Tua will not ha much uted \ cofruewlll. Bring alonf with ynu some riue, wii h every oilier article to make a rl«e puildlng ; and particularly bring plenty of red herilnM| you Will lliid thi-se vi'iy utft'ulinituetl J a few dried fruoi | &tf. Hu kiire to bring provialoua for three montha at leaAt ; ami if you tlo not use them all on the voyag- • , OU will Hiitl lhi>ni of great use lo you alterwardi. 1 would ilrongty recominen Joining the 100 acrea I formerly porchated. I paid rattter a high price fnr it at olherwlte, \li. L..'l, lOt. |ier acre. It, however, maket my farm a complete one, and it not aurputted fur quality of toil and local ailuallon by my farm In Mie tuwnahip of Whitby. There are about SO aor 'a uf Jeared land upon the dU — ao that upon Ihe (km there aio in un^'o 70 acrut cleared, AUacret with atumpa upon it, aiitt 2U acret free of atumpt. 1 liavu let al:out ;t() acrea of woodland, to be chop!, logged, burnt, and feni-ed, ntid reatly for receiving the teed by the Hrit of Se,>tcniber next, at L..*) per acre. If the Und li town ilokvn with grott-teed immediately after the flnt crop of wheat, and remalnt to, it will require 10 or IS yean In that atate to rot nut the ttumpt ; but If continued under the operation of the plough, the ttumpt will oome out In "ia or eight yearii and in aomo tlluatioat a good deal tooner. Tho above purehatn will materially increaae my yearly Ineomo, without adding much to the item of exiiantea* !n tho meantime, however, my expentet are high, but no- near to high at the tame extent of land would re()uire la Bcotlond for ttocking it only, and a heavy rtnt to boot, and the returna nol much leat. The weather here al thla time, 10th November, it uncommonly lino, with a tlight froat in thu mornlnga, and clear tunaliinu through the day. 1 will bavu the moat part of my lanti ploughed belore the winter >ets In, which It cilculated to lake plaoo about lU weeks hence, I have hired a man of the name of John Ci^irna, a Scotiinan, from Symington, in the Upper Ward of Lanarkihire, who came out Itiia teaton. He aeemt a rnry quint and iteady lad, and plought uncommonly well ; with hia help I intend to chop ten acret of wood during winter. The wood upon Iheland here, in general, it not very heavy ; thu treet aru very tall, but not of great girth— of courte they are more easily inanageil to cut into proper lengtha for drawing into proper heapt to barn, I have thut endeavoured to give you all the Information at pre- tent in my power. The facta 1 hare ttated may with tafely bo depended upon, and, as regards my own opU iilon, you can either adopt or reject it at ynu choote. I muat say, however, that I have given it candidly and honettly i and whatever difference of opinion there may be on the aubject, 1 can tay, from ttie bottom of my hearty theio hands nre clean. Einigmtlon, however, itaturioua matter, and 1 would advlae ovury person to ho ftilly |>er<- tuaded in his owu mind before he retolvet upon the atep. You can eatily perceive, hy the tenor of thit letter, what my mind it upon the aubjvct, but, at la^d before, to tay 1 now again, let every who reads, judge and deter* mine fur himtelf. I tliall now conclude, by obterving that Canada may, with propriety, bo umphatically st>Ud the poor man's country—to ^uch pertunitlie proipecttin tidt country are certainly cheering. Languogo cuunot deicrlbu the tbrtll of pleasing and delightful ifntation which must take pottetalon ol the breatt of every one, who, from a stato bordering on absolute dettttution, la thus tuddeidy rained to a ttato of comparative plenty and lodejiendtnce. In aticb ili^troniam, anil thu ilvnr innocent •nJ prattling pl^'^'Ko* of <'"'<'' inuluiil nllection and love to each other— hnw oAen, I sny, iiiu^l i>uch a one, wilh loftn Iri liii o)e«, hato |irrreivi<(l lui-h coining miMry with horror and tliamay, tlio ionlrmplalion or which ii ralculaluil at onco to jinUy evvry nerve within him, and n-eeie (he lilood within hii vlIiis ! Thintf*. howcvor, •re chan^fed Tor the iHntler. Tiiv mind that wut once ti.o GOMtant prey of fearful fori'liodin((« of coming w -•'■■ .' aeM. is now penceful ftnd «ttreno. Thu cloud (hat wu fUrk nnil lowi-rinff, and throatcnu'' n coming ilonn, hu now pasftod away, anil tite •un, whidi was thus (or a time obtcurcil, suddenly brvaHs forth in all his noonilay hrifpcr Canada, a cir- euuistanco advantaf^eoui to those alrcail^ in |>ossessi(in of cleared proiluclive lands, and which will act as an in- •eiitiva to the emigration of ayricullurists. KMIOMANTt ON HALr-PAT. Upper Cenada seems to tw n country excellently npted for the comfurialde settlement of officer* »n •pay^ and other* who happen to be potsesHed of a ■mall annuity. Tha aumi of monev they from lime to tlmo rBMive enable them to purcliase many of the oonrenieneei and lux^iHei of life ; the atyle of living ■nUa their previous habit*, and they have it nlwuys in their power to provide for their chiN'tuii, whi . ix not iiften the case with those upon .•nail fixed innimea In tbia cutntry. It will alio be remembered thiit t^o. vernment ffivet a certain quantity of land gratis to tboae who nave been in the armv. Cantain IIhII, in hU *' Traveli In North America/* preientft his readers with a letter which he had received from a hatf-pny officer, who had emigrated to Upper Cnnada, nn ex- tract from which we here take the liberty of otFering, as iUuatrativa of the condition of, emigrant* of that claast— ** Haring made my mind up, In the winter of 1818 I be^an to make preparation*, by disposing of my household furniture, reserving for myself bed*, bedding, carpets, and such other thing* a* were port- able, and Ukely to be useful. I also made arrange- mcuu for borrowing the sum of L.200. Arrived at Bristol, I procured a variety of tools, implements of husbandry, clothing, &c, to the amount of L.10U, and laid In a good stock of proTisloni, and every thing Ukely to make the voyage oomforuble across the At. lanuc We tailed on the 3d of May 1819, and after a tedious Toyage to Quebec, and some detention after- wards in getting up the country, wc arrived at the Tillage of Cobourg, in the district of Newcastle, on the 19th of July. The whole of my expenses for voyage, f Tovblona, and all other travelling chargee, amounted to L.100, 8a., so that, on mvtrrival, I had every small sum left. However, tuy quarter's pay ciine round I I was in a cheap country; and, moreover, found a most warm and hospitable reception in thu house of an old and esteemed friend. As a new township on the Kic« Lake was about being surveyed, and I had not means to purchase a cleared farm iieur my friend, 1 determined to wail till the survey wax finished, and try the Uush — as the woods here are called. This was in the month of December of the same year. I then obtained the grant of land my rank In the nav..l service entitleil me to. ]i> Keitruary 1020, I contracted with two men to put me up a Itig- house, 2B feet by 20 ; nnd thirteen b>gfl, or as many feet, high ; to roof it with ahinglpn, ff'id to board tip the gable ends ; and to rtear olf one nrre almut the hoUitP, to prevent the trees from fulling nn it, for all which I paid them I'>0 dulUrs. This r)>i-I1 of n build. Ing had merely a doxrn-ay cut out of the niidtile ; uid when my friend and the iitergyman of Hamilton drove out in a singlo sleigh with nu*, to see it, and wc took our dinner at one end and their pile of logs in a Canadian lorcKt. I will own, fur a time our situation nppnllfd r^e, cud to my then unformed judgine felled nnd chop- ped up three acres m*(re : niy cleared arre I planted witli j>otntfH self, and tiuit w'l.s forced to learn the buslneas of a carpenter. This 1 considered no hardship, as I had always been fond of the use of tools, and had, previous to my leaving KngUnd, taken several lesKons in turn- ing. |)uring thu snmme^, I got my house chinkeg-hunse comrirtablu within, and, with tlie addition uf some white-wash, smart without. In August, wa cut some coarse grau in a lieaver- meadow cImu by, sprinkling salt through the little lUc'-. as we made it; after this we logged up and cleared three acres of the land 1 had chopped, and by the latter end uf September had it sown witli wheat | the logging-, tlumgli heavy, I did with my hired man and steers, and before the winter had it fi'iued with rails. Here, It may lie remarked, 1 did not gt*t much land cleartid, but by doing little, and tlwtt partly with my own hnnds, 1 gained experience; nnd I would strongly advise gentlemen settling in (.Hiiada with small moans, to commence clearing slowly, and with aa little expense as possible. Ill the fall, or ai^tumn, I put up a log-kitclicn, and ashed fur my cattle; during the winter, I cm- ploj'ed my man in chopping three acres more, in whu'h 1 mnv and tl'en assisted liim,nnd soon Itecanie very eK|iert in the use of the axe, felling the trees to the most advantage to assint their burning, and to save trouble in logging. With my beaver-meadow hay, and the fir tops of the fallen trees, my rattle were kept fat nil tlie winter. In the spring, three acres nntre were cleared, fenced, and cropped with corn, potatoes, and turnips; and where log heaps had been burnt, t)ie nshcn were hoefl olf, and phtnteil with mulons and nicuinbers ; a small patch was fenced off for a nnrspr\, and apple semis sown, trees which are now ten and twelve feet high. I also put out several of the wilu plnm-trees of the country, which now hear ahundance of fine fruit. From this time, about live acres yearly have iwen added to my farm, taking ^reat care. In clearing olf my Iiind, never to destroy 1) 1«^ thnt would make rails, by which means the fem-u always cnme ulT the field cleared ; and although they are small — fnim four to six acres — the fences are all six feet, or nine rails high. Here I will re- mark, it is a great fault to ^plit rails small, an error vhat most new settlers persist In. In the sjiring of Uti2t my Httenttmi was tn-ned to making a flower and kitclit'ii garden. Itotind the latter I made a straight fence wit!) oedar poflts, and thirteen rails higii, which is at this day suicked with every kind of fruit tree to be had in' the nei^hbiuirhood, which flourish beyond my expectation. My stock of animnls has been gradually increasing, and to my other stock I have added horses and sheep, with p hrres. I have the ()'*ed for the remain- in^SOO acres id' mv hind; also deeds for town .nid pnrk lots in tlie rApi^ly settling town of Peterborough ; and, as my family have iiicreaKtMl to six, and lire growing up, I am just now itlxnit Imildin r a frame- house, 3ti feet liy mil in the clear, two stories high, with a commodious kitchen behind, the timber and shingles for which i have tKUight liy disposi j of a mni-e, after using her for live years, and breeding a pair of horses fi*um her. \rith my own exertiiins — Wing able to do most of the c.'(i']ienter'B wor!: inside — and uhoiit 1^.10(1, I expert to get it fininhcd. Some of niv first rIiop))ed land ii now nesriy clear of stumfis. 1 am jdnntiiig out an orchard of apple< trees, raised frnni the seed iiown by myself; have n good bii-'i ard stahte, witli various other oinres ; — In short, ft.'el that I hiive Hurmotinted every dilliculty. A town is growing up ne»r me, muds aru iinprnvin^', bridg(>s are built; one of the best mills in the pm- vince Is juRt linislied at reterborungh, another with- in three miles of roe. IhiarcU, and all deseti|iiitiiis of lumber, are chea)> — atMUit five dollars HN)0 feet, four saw.millii being in fii>i>ratioii. Storin, n t:innery, diittiltery, and niitny (ilhor useful biuineasi-!), are esta* blJKlied, or on the eve of being so, at Petcrboniugh ; on the road to which, through Otanahee, the Kane \'oni. pany, tliu clerfn', and tome private individuals, have soiiu' of the Wst land in the ),rovinre for site, at from 7k. f/il. t4i lOs. jier ari-e. 1'he prieeof land generally, except on the roads, is about Tis. )>er itrru I was the Itrst settltT in the towriKliip, and atinoHt be- fore a tree was em down ; now there are nearlv two thousand acres cleareil, and \'i5 families, consisting of &.M> souls.** CONCMrsiOU. Very little remains now to lie told regarding runndn. In iiur (fpiiiion, the iptestion of emigration is one of ;i very simple nntnie, and may easily lie solved by every thinking human being. We havo prortd beyond t ho posalbility of doubt, that Upper Canada U a country placed In Infinitely better circumstances at the pretenl moment, than any part of (ircat Britain nnd Ireland. We have shown that, in most places, the climate la delightful, and the lands fertile. It I* not denied that In many portion* of the colony ague* and other local diseases prevail, but it admits of demonstration, that Canada, on the wholes Is at healthy as these Islands. If the inhabitanunf the low uncleared lands In North America be liable to agna and fevers, those of this country are, on the other hand, continually liable to colds and consumptions to a degree fully as danger- ous; indeed, the eoltU nf the island ol Great Dri. tain seem to rank as the most destructive of the diseases which alfect mankind. Desidcs, every year, the continent of America, as it becomes cleared, is becoming more salubrious, and it certainly possesses extensive tracts of land already fully as healthful and casant as any part of Kngland. If it be established mat ITpiwr Canada Is that fertile and prumiring ter- ritory which it is represented to lie, the whole of the question of emigratnm resolves itself into this: are men who are In difllcultius in this country willing to undergo the trouble of removing thither, and of exerting themselves for a few years after they arrive ? As for the notion wliicn obtains as to the pain of parting with early friends, and thu place of our hirtn, thnt we take to lie entirely falla- ciinis. It is the duty of every man to go wlirre hit mental and physical properties can le most advan* tageonsly exercised. It is a fundamental law of hu* man nature, that mankind must disperse themselves over the whole earth to seek out the best means of subsistence, and the most agreeable spot fur their re- sidence. Had intending emigrants to proceed to a Innd of barbarians, where neither human nor divine I.iws were understood or acted upon, nnd where they had to settle on sterile deserts, or burning wilder- nesses, we might excuse their hesitation to depart from their native country ; hut the case is quite dif- ferent. To emigrate to Canada, or any other British cfdouy, is simply to remove, as it were, to another part (if Great Britain. Distance Is nothing; fur the removal of a family from the north of Scotland to the south of Kngland would be attended with nearly the same trouble and ex|H>nHe ; and. In each rase, the family would find itself surrounded with neighlwura equally strange. But to emigrate to Upjier Canada with the means of purchasing a tract of land, holds out a much better pro8}>ect than to remove from one part of Ureat Britain toanother. In this country, it now re- quires a very great mental and physical effort to obtain a comfortable subsistence. Nearly the whole uf the lands and manufactures in the United Kingdom ar« passing into the hands of capitalists. The rich ars iiecomuig very rich, and the poor are sinking deeper Hud dee|»er into poverty and wretchedness. The small farmers nnd tradesmen of Kngland, Scotland, and Ireland, are now placed In that peculiar con- dition, when emigration to a country less oc- cupied and overdone than their own is almost im- perative; for, liNiking around on all sides, they see little chance nf rising into better circumstan- ces, or of rearing their families in thnt comfort- nlile and reputable manner which their feelings dictate. To such, therefore, Upper Canada offers a fnir field for removal and settlement. In that country l.-iiuU can be had in full possession, at on expense of from fifteen to twenty times less tlinii what is paid here by way of annual rent; and it is seen that in a space of from three t.o five years, the whole cost may he re- alixcil by the amount of the produce. In Upper Ca- nada, moreover, there nre no taxes ; at least they are no very trifiing—a penny an acre, we lielieve, for ciU- ti vated land — that tliev are not worthy of being classed as taxes. There are aUo no poor-rates, and no ti.het, both of whit-h imposts aru severely felt in Kngland. The emigrant thither wilt likewise have nothing to finnoy him in a political sense. In the United States, to which he can nlwayi* pna'ecd from t'auada, if it suit his pleasure, he becomes a free citizen after a lertain period ; but it Is alleged that he will most likely have his feelings hurt otnisioiially, if he haa any sentiment of attachment to Great Britain and its foim of government. In thu Canadas, hu contiaues to be a British subject, and can elaim all the pieruga- lives of sueb a distiiictimi. In short, if we consider bow quit kly local nnd other uttnchments can Is formed, and how Invariably the ohjet^^ts pressing most iinme- diali-ty arounti us become in our eyes toe most im- I'Mit.ii'it and interesting — if we fntiher consider tho almost instant improvement of riiTumstances which miiKt t.ike place after the first dilficulties are g)tover, and the gnut value of w hat is in this country tmly a source of anxiety and vexation, a family of coildren, we see such advantiiges in emigrat'on, that wo nre convinced nothing hut a want of knowledge of tlioso advantages, sufHcient tn create confidence in their reality, prevents many tlionsnnds from annually leav- ing tluH exhausted and inonopoliNcd country, and t>e- Uking themselves to a phiie where there is litorully ** ft world for the winning." UPiHntBiiHt Prinlt.lau«h!moiltr Ho», I.on- itoni ami W, t'rnnv, Jim. nnd I'd, SfirkvU>« Httnl. Dtililln. fioM /all thf RmkM'llfn Ui HoiuUnil, KntfUnd, utit linlaiid ••('IIASIRNSS'S INFMRMATIUM rOH TH> PSOPl.a" M(U h« COn- tlHuwl oiK-c A forlntftlit (* vt-ry aUi'imUif Wwlnitwlav). K.iPh num- ]Mf Mill (HiiiiUl of 4 (ludiit'i suit ilirri'Ti'tit «uik at 3 jtuiiul-tr uiid Imtrucllvi- iistiop, :** '' -lY-ft. »'.-•)'»" V In pfli-e. burvcd by ALsaANnitii Kmitwouu, 8t Andrew litrset, Eatiilnii«lu i CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOtt THE PEOPLE. No. 2 CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Paicji I^rf. HISTORY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN, Fioir. iu ConquMt by the RomaTii, till ihe Civil War. . «nri It. I'HAMtlBHSi temoittr Hu»', l.on- ;vUle Mreet. Ilublln. it(l>nil, Mtit liflUiid Ps.>i>i.R" will h«con< «ilay). K.ifh num- k ui 3 ito|iular uiid St AnJitw btnet. INTRODUCTION. The L'uiteft Kingditm of Great Britain and Inland formSf at the preiciit time, one of tbe most important pfirts of the face of the wholo earth ; and there is hardly anv human lieing whoenjoyi tuch advantages in respect of aociety, ;>;^rsunal Itherty, and education, ait the btthject of thut kingdom. But} as may be easily supposed} this has r.it always been the case. The time has been when the people of these coantries had sonietvhat inferior advantages; tlie time bos been when tbey were no bettor oif tlian tbe inhabitants of neighbouring couacrics; nay, thera has been a time whun they weie fur less enlightened and comfortable in their circumstances than some otiier people — in short, snrages, like the Indians of America. Now, (he purpose of this history is to show how the people who lived before ourselves in Great Britain HI.- Ireland contrived to bo always improving their drcumhtunces from tlio worse to the better state, till in the end tlie gcneralion which now lives has become what we nil know it to be. Knowledge of this kind is called history, and its use is to toaoh the living by the exi>ericnco of the dead what is for their advantage. If the men who now live did not know any thing of those who livtHi before, they would Iw in a condition little better in that respect than the animals which have no knowledge whatsoever ; but by knowing tbe evunts of past times, and what sort of people their an- cestors wrre, they assert their superiority, in one ma- terial point, to animHts, and have the advantage of not only all their own experience in the world, but that of many generations now in thb dust. History is only to be rendered intelligible by dates and periods. By dates is meant the years in which fvpnts happened ; by periotis in meant the dates of the mont rcmnrkiible events. Some jteople say they can- not remumber and do not care for dates ; but this is only because they cnnnnt remember and do not f»re for evftnts. If a person bar. a general idea of history, rihtu!! become ideas — ll may be said, lending idea&— serving to arrange ihe whole in his mind. In fact, dates foi 1 the pertyective of history, and, without them, the whole would b, wbiin the present King accirdi :) to tbe throne. Qo back thirt 'Ml years, and we huve Ui'20, when George the Fourtli became king. On back *.hirty-three years, Htid we have IHOO, when the kingdoms of Great Bri* tniu and Ireland wei« uiiitevi under one legislature. If we go back to l?!^ wlticti is a htuidred and nine- teen years ■ go, we havR the dtte of tbfl accewion of t!u' present royal family to thu throne, in the pernon 4)f King Get ^s the Virsi, who nas his present AlajeMy's grand fathurY grandCithur. All these are j.niodt, particularly the last, ber;iiif*e the sway of the Stnart<« (another family) then mmo to an end. The next great period is :he Ktcvolntiori of l(}(tn, when the people expelled . le king (James the ^ieootul), because he was a tyrant and a Catholic, and set another (Wil- liam the Third) on the throne, btn-nuse he was a Pro- testant, and willinit to rule with a more moderate exercise of por/er. Wo may next mention the period lOOU (two hundred and thirty years since), when the two kingdoms of England and Scotland were united under one monarch, by tbe aceension of James the Sixth of Scotland to the throne of England. Previous to that period, the political history of these two coun- tries was quite distinct, to the great discomfort and Injury of both. Go back sixty-six yean farther — luuaelyi to the year l&37«..«ad wu have the date of the Itefonnation of religion in England, )ierhaps the most important event in its history. Fifty-two years earlier we have UOTi, when the lino of the Plantagenet race of sovereigns ceased in the person of Richard the Third, and a period was at the same time put to a contest and civil war, which had raged on account of two rival liranches ^f that family for ninny years. All before this {wriod is rude and warlike, as if men were different in nature from what they are now; all after^ though occasionally rude enough, is something like the mildness and intelligence and neighbourly peacefulness of the present day. History, therefore, before tbe year I4B6, is of much less use than what follows; Uio experience which it teaches does not bear so strongly on the circumstances of the p~ sent age. As we go back farther and farther, wo find always a more and more imperfect government and system of laws, till, about the beginning of tbe Christian era, we reach the ages of absolute barbarism. COHaUEST OF BllITAlM BT THE BOMAKS. At the time when the British islands were inha- bitcd by barbarians, the Romans had extended their sway over nearly the whole of the known world, being a people almost as enlightened, or at leiiSt tbe ruling clusea among them were so, as the people now living in Great Britain. Our islands being situated at tlie extremity of the earth, as then known, came late under the attention of the Romans. It wits not till tbe year 5o before Christ, that their great captain, Julius Cvsnr, having subdued v^aiil (now France), thought of extending his conquests to the opposite island, of which ho wa« so ignorant, that he bad to gather Kor~.d uaulish merchants to tell him about it. He diiembarked near Deal, and soon overawed the savage natives, though they were naturally warlike, and averse from a foreign yoke. He did not, however gain a proper footing in the country till the succeed- ing year (54 before Christ), when he employed no fewer than eight hundred vessels to convoy his troops from Gaul. Except on tbe eonsts, where Home tillage prevailed, the British tribes lived exactly as the In- dians now do, upon aninials caught in hunting, and fruits which grew spontaneously. They stained and tattooed their bodies, and bad no religion but a bloody idolatry called Druidism. IJttle wan done on this occasion to establish the Roman power in Britain ; but about a century after- Vards, namely, in the year of Christ 43, when the Emperor Claudius was reigning at Rome, another large army invaded the island, and reduced a consi- derable part of it. A liritish prince, culled Caradoc or Caractacus, who bad made a noble defence agnintt their arms, was finally taken and sent prisoner to Rome, where he was regarded with the same wonder as we would bestow upon a North American chief who had greatly obstructed the progress of our setilentcuts in that quarter of the world. In the year 61, an offi- cer named Suetonius did much to retluce tlie Britons, by destroying the numerous Dmidical temples in tbe isle of Anglesey; religion having, in this case, as In many others since, been a great support to the pntrio- tic cause. Soon after, he overthrew tbe celeltrated British Princess Boadicea, who had raised an almost general insurrection against tbe Roman power. In tbe year 70, Agricola, a still greater genera', exutnded the influence of Rome to the Firths of Forth and Clyde (that is to say, orer the southern part of the country now called Hcotlaud), which he formed into a frontier, by connecting them with m chain of forts. He was the Arst to sail round the island. In the year 64, having gone a little beyond tbe Forth, ho gained a decisive victory over the rude inhabi'^ants of the north, who were awembled uader a chief named Oal- gacua. It is generally allowed that the Romans exiwriencttd an unuHiial degree of difficulty in subduing tbe Bri- tons ; and it is certain that they were entirely baffled in all their attempts upon tbe northern part of Scot- laud, which was then called Caledonia. The most tliey could do with the inhabitants of that country,, was to build walls across the island to keep tiiem by themselves. Tbe first wall was built in tbe year ISO, by Hadrian, bct-<^een Newcastle and tbe Solway Firth. Tbe second was built by Antoninus, on the line of forts between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. Whttii the conquest was thus so far completed, the country was divided into six provinces, of tbe following names aiid boundaries : — Britannia /'Hma, or First Britain, to the south of the Thames and Severn ; Britannia Secunday or Second Britain, containing Wales and the adjoining districts along the Severn ; Flavia Cat- sariensiSf from tbe two former provinces to tbe Ger- man Ocean, the Uumber, and the Don ; Majnma Ctemriemia^ to the north of the Humber, from its mouth, to the mouths of the Tyne and Kden ; Valenm /ta, from the Tyne and Eden to the Forth and Clyde ; Vetpusiatuif the level country beyond the Forth, orer which they bad only a temporary dominion. Th^ country vas governed in tbe usual manner of a ^to- man province ; and towns began to rise in the course of time, being generally those whose names are now found to end in Chester^ a word derived from ca«i. a, the Latin word fur a camp. Tbe Christian religion was also introduced. CONQUEST BY THE SAXONS A time came, by and hye, when tbe Romans could no longer defend their own proper country against tbe iintioiis in the north of Europe. The soldien were then withdrawn from Britain (about the year 440), and the people left to govern themselves. The Cale- donians, who did not like to be so much straitened up in tbe north, took advantage of their unprotected state to pour in upon them from tbe other side of the well, and despoil them of their lives and goods. Tbe Bri- tish had no resource but to call in another set of pro- tectors, the Saxons, a people who lived in the north of Germany, and were very warlike and enterprising. The remedy was found hardly any better than the disease. Ilavingonce acquired a footing in the island, this hardy nation proceeded to make it a eubject ol conquest, as the Romans had done before— with this material ditference, that they drove the British to the western parts of the island, particularly into Wales, andsettled themselves, and ucw hordes of their country- men, over the better part of the land. So completely was the population changed in this manner, that, ex- cepting in the names of some of the hills and rivers, the Itritinh language was ^.^tinguisbed, and even tbe name of the country itself was changed from what it originally wiis, to Angle-land, or England, a term taken from tbe Angles, who were a detachment of thu Saxon conquerors. The conquest required about a hundred years, and, like that of tbe Romans, it ex- tended no farther than the Firths of Forth and Clyde. The great warrior .rlrthur, of whom every body has heard, was a patriotic prince of tbe Britons, who in vain tried to defend his country (Vom tbe Saxons. England, exclusive of the western regionr, was now divided into seven kingdoms, called Kent, Northum- berland, EB5t Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex, each of which was governed by a race de- scended from the leader who had first subdued it ; and the whole have since been called by historians the Saxon Heptareht/t the latter word being composed of two Greek words signifying teoen kingi. The king- dom of Northumberland included the present Scottish counties of Berwick, Roxburgh, and the liOthians ; while Lftnarkshlre and Dumfriesshiro> with part oi CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. M m t' itl 1 1 rhp |»ri^wnt northern counlit'n iif Kngland, formed a Hritish kin^duin called ^trathclyde. To the north of the Firth ot' Forth^ dwelt a nation railed the PJc&i, who had also a king; ami i . the Highlandk there wai another nation, known hy the name of the Scoti, who had come thither from Ireland in the year M)3, and mtahlished a monarchy, destined in t^e long>nin to ahtorb all the rest. There were at one period no fewer than fifteen kings, all reigning at onre in the island of Britain, and Ireland was in much the same situa- tion. The prosperity of the whole has been found to iticrease as tltesc small pHnripalities were gradually amassed together : it hiis only happened, very unfur. Innately, in Ireland, that a distinction in religion, and some other causes, have prevented that union of national feeling which has elsewhere followed the political union of the diflferent nations. The i^axon lli^ptarchy prevailed from '.Mnit the year A8fi to BOO, when Kgbert, King of M'essex, ac- uuired a paramount power over all the other states, though their kings still cimtinucd to reign. Alfred, of whom all must have heard, was the grandson of Kg^fort, and begun to reign in the year 871. At this time, the Dani-s, who ore now a quiet inoOensive people, were a nation of pirates, and, at the same time, beathens. They used to runie in large fleets, and work dreadftil ravage on the shores of Hritain. For some time, thev conijiletelv overturned the sovereignty of Alfred, anA rom|)ellei{ him to live in obitrtirity in the centre of a marsh. Itut he at length fell upon them, when they thought themselves in no danger, and regained his kingdom. Alfred spent the rest of his life in literary study, of which he v^■e^ very lond, and in forming laws and regulations for the giN>d of his people, lie was, pt^rhaps, the mttst able, most virtuous, and most popular prince that ever reigned in Britain ; and all thix is the more surprising, when we tind that his predecessors and surcesfors, for many n^Cy were extremely cruel and ignorant. About his time, the nntntry of Kngland became divided Into counties. He died in the year 901, in the fifty-third year of his age. The Saxon line of princes continued to reign, with the exception of three Danish reignii, till the year Utiidf when the crown whs in th^ (Mishessioii of a usurper named Harold. The country was then in- Tsded by M'illiam I>nke of Normandy, a man of ille* gitimate birth, attended by a large and powerful army. Harold opiMttpd hiip at Hastings (October M), and, after a well -con tested battle, his army was dttt-.ttetl, and himself slain. M'illiam then caused himself to be crowned king at Westminster i and in the course of a few years lie succeeded, by means of his warlike Norman followers, in completely subduing the Saxiuis. His chiefs were settled upon tne lands of those who opposeil him, and Itecanie the onrestors of the pn-sent nf»»Mlitvof |->rrtMP.t. Previously to this period, the churoh of Home, which was the only survlring jiart of the power of that empire, had establititied its supreinarv over Kng- land. The land was h1s4i Kulijected to w[i.it is called the feudal system, by whiih all proprietors of land were supposed to hold it from tlie king for military ser^'ice, while their tenants were nndemUHKl to owe them military servk>e, in turn, for their use of the land. All orders of men were thus kept in a chnin of servile oltedlencc', while some of the lower orders were actually slaves to tlit-ir suiwritirs. In the yeiir K.'>.*l, Kenneth, King of the Scots, had •iiided the British kin^'dom to his own, and his de> !K-endant .'\Iala>ln) the Sectuid, in lOiO, extended his dominions over not only the smith of Scotland, but apart of the north of Kngland. Thus thu whole ialand, putting aside ^\'ales, waH divided into two kingdoms, of unequal mngnitude and htrength — the kingdom of Knglaiid and the kingdtmi of Scotland, under which diktiuctiouii ihey were liesiineil to con. ttnne for several hundreil yearn, neither being able to luike much impression upon the other. THK VdHMAXS. H'iM.iAM Till* FiB«T, surnitmed tlie Conqueror, reigned from 1(KH> till 1007, being chiefly engugeil all tliHt time in completing the tmbjiigntionof the >iixt)ns. Ho was a nionan^h of nnich sagniity and power to ciinitiiand, but of a violent and brutal clLirartcr. Hiii eldest sou Kofiert, happening to be at a greater ilix- tanre from London than William, who wiis the K«H--u)d Min, that individuHt seixed upon the crown, of which lie could Tiot afterwanls lie dispohseHsed, till lie was shot arcidcntally Iiy an arrow In tlie New Forest, in the vear llOO. In tlie latter part of this kiiig'n reign, tfie whole of v^rUiian Kurojw was agitated by the first crunade — an exped^ion fiir the recovery of the Holy Land from ttie Sarscens. Kobert of Nr>r. Tnaiidy had a high command iii this enterprise, and (faini-d ninrh glory as n uarri^ir ; but wliile be uai fn luty, on his nuurT., his youngent lirother Henry nsurpeil the throne ieft vacant bv William, so that he WM again di>.apptilnted of hJH fiirthright. Hr.NHr THE FiRSi', surnanied Iteanclerk, from bin being a f:ne scholar, wh. n prince of sonu> ability; bul he di'tgraced hiniM'lf by putting out the eyeN of his eld- est brother, and keeping him nearly tlttrty years in lonfinemeiit. Such barbarous conduct shows that, in this age, might was the only right, and tliat men betitaled at no (Wtioni which might promise to ad- vatioa their own interests. ( omempnriiry wiili William tbe(!onqiipror in Lng- Und, wu Malcolm thp Tuihu in tMrotland, sur> lu named Cnnmore^ from his having a large head. Thli prince, after overthrowing the celebrated usurper Macl>eth^ married Margaret, a fugitive t!ate hy civil wars, in which David of Scotland occasionally joined. At this time, the birthright of princes used to cause immense bloodshed and misery anmng the people in other quarters of Europe, besides England. A Duchess of Brittany Iteiug declaretl unfaithful by her husband on bis death-beil, caused the devastation of that pro vinw before the succession was settled. On the iteath of Stephen, in IIM, the crown fell peacefully to HKKnv the Skco i>, who was the eldest son of Maud, and the first of the Planta^net race of sovereigns. Henry was an acute and jMditlc Krince, tliough not in any res|>ect m tre amiable than is pri^ilecewuirs. His reign was p'incipally charaC' terifiist by a series of measures for r^ucing the)Hiwer of the Komish clergy, in the cou.-se of which, some of his courtiers, in 1171, thought they could not do him a letter service than to murder Thomas i» Ilecket, archbishop of Canterbury, who had l>een the chief obstacle to his views, and was one of the eldest and most ambitious men ever produced in England. For his concern in this affair, Henry had to perform a humiliatiiif^ penance^ which is not wonderful, how. ever, when we consider, that, alHint this time, the Pope caused two kings to lead bin horse. Henry was the most powerful king that had yet reigned in Rritnin. BeiidM the great hereilitary do< maiuK which he pcssesited in France, and for which he did homage to the king of that country, he cntised ^V'll.LlAM of Scotland, the gramUfUi of Da\id, to acknowledge himself i.s his vassal for the whole of that kingdom. (William reigned from llfifito 1214.) Henry also adilnl Ireland to I. lit doniiaions. This island had previously been divided into five dilTerent kingdoms — Muuster, LeiuNter, Aleath, I'Uler, and i!onnaught. The people, being quite uncivilixed, were perpetually quarrelling among themselv ^; and this, with their heathen religion, furnished a fliinxy pre- text fn de- throned liy bin subjects, introduced nn Engliidt warrior, Kichard Karl of .>trigul, generally called Stroniff-oir^ for the piirjMweof reg.iiningbis pmHcssloiis. Tliedi^. ripline of fifty knights, ninety enquires, Kud four hnn> dreil and sixty arcliers, in nil six hundred men, citiiblet them ; and theconqnext wii« ertsily comp "tl by Henry in person, who went thither tii WJ'i- The military leaders were left to rule over the coi> itry, and they managed thvir truHt so ill, that the Irihh ne\er became iH'aceatde Kubjei*ts of the Nu.-niau king, an the English had gradually ilutie. MAC.XA IHAnTA. Henry the Second whs much troubled In his latter years by the disoliedience of his children. On his rlyiiig, at length, iti 110*1, he whk succeeded byhi)tM)n UiiUAHi), styled Ca:nr tie /.tnri, from IiIk headstrong courage, and who was much liked by his subjects on tliat account, thimgh it iU^'s not appear that he possessed any of the other eood qualities \vhicli us. tally command affei'tion. At the coronation of Hichard, the peiq>le were permitted to massacre nianv thousands of tiiuif- fending Jews throughout the kingdom. He was In reality a military savage, only redeemed a little by the profession of religion, and of what is calletl chividiy, AlmiMt Intmedistely after his aiTexsion, be joineil the King of France in a second crusade ; landed in Fairs- tine, and fought with prodigious valour, but no ginrd result; and then, returning with a small remnant of his gallant army, wandered in disguise into the fbmil- nions of his mortal enemy, the Duke of Austria, who, with the EmiMTor of (iermany, detaiiieerformed with his own hands. It happens, however, that the weakness of kings is often the means of glv- ing Increased liberties and privileges to the peo[rie. Tne paltry tyranny and wickedness of Ji>hn caused his barons to rise against him, and the result was, thar, on the 10th June 121% he was compelled by them to grant what is cjiUed the Magna Charta, or great char- ter, for securing the various orders of his subjects in their rights. The clergy and barons, who acted in this noble enterprise, gained for themselves manyprl. vileges and exemptions, which suited their own in. tere?tts ; but they fortunately deemed it necessary, order to procure the support of the people, to stipulate something for them also. The principal point secured to the banms and conunoners was, that no tax or sup- ply should be levied from them without their own consent in a <>reat Touncil — the first idea of a Parlia. ment. Some excellent provisions were also made re- garding courts of law and justice, so as to secure all but the guilty. The Pope was dreadfuUy wroth at this invasion of the royal privileges; he excommuni* cated the barons, declaring them to Ite worse than in- fidels. The opinion of a modern historian is very different : he says, " To have produced it (namely^ the (Ireat Charter), to have preserved it, to have ma- tured it, ctuistitute the immortal claim of England on the esteem of mankind."* And inch is now the universal sentiment regarding this first bulwark of English liberty. rniST PARMAHEVT. On the death of John, in \'2\G, he was succeeded bv his son Hfnrv tiii: Tnuin, then a boy in the tenth year of his age, who eventually proved as weak, but not just so M'irke'l. an his father. In his reign was held the first assemblage approaching to the character of a Parliament. It was first culleil in 12'Ji>, in order to give supplies for carrying on a war against France. The money was only granted on condition that th« (treat (.'barter should be confirmed ; and thus the ex- ample wrs set at the very first, for rendering snpplieit BchiH^k uponthe prerogativeof the king, and gradually reducing that power to its ])resent comparatively mo- derate level. Cnder the earlier Norman kings, and even, it is believed, under the Saxons, an assembly called the Oreat Conncil had shared with the sove- reign the power of framing lav.'s ; but it was only now that the body had any power to balance that of the king, ami it was not till V2G5 that representatives from the inhabitHiits of towns were introduced. EmVARI> THE FIRST. The reign of Henry the Third, extending to fiftv- six years, was characterised bv frequent civil broifs, and was disgraced by the pusillanimity of the king; but it derives a lustre, with which the king has no connei'tion, from its having given birth to the present constitution, or system of legislature and government. Edward, t!ie mui of Henry, succeeded (1*272), a prince as warlike and sagacious as bis father was tlie reverse. Ho distinguished himself by his odious attempts to add Wales to his kingdom, an object which he accom- plished in 1*202, by the overthniw and murder of Llewellen, the last prince of that country. In t!i« meantime, from the death of William the Lion in 13U, Scotland had l>eeu ruled by two princes, named A LEX- ANIIEK THE StlUND and ALF.XANnFU THE ThIRD) under whom i^ advanced considerably in wealth, uivili- Katlon, and comfort. On the death of Alexander th« Tliird, in 13B5, the crown fell to his grandaughter AlAacAHF.T, ayou ng girl, whose fatherwas Eric, King of Norway. Edward formed a treaty with the Estates of Scotland for a marriage between this princess and his stiri, wluim he sivled Prince of Wales. Unfortu* nntelv, the young ladvditMlon her voyage to Scotland; an t t)ie crown waH lel'tto be disputed by a multitude of distant relations, of whom John Baliul and Kuiilht BnircE seemed to have the best right. Edward, being resitlv)>d u» make .Scotland his own at all hazards, in- terfered In this dispute, and Iteing np^minted arbltra- tor among the competitors, iwrsuaded them to own, ill the first place, an ill-defined claim put forward by himself of the right of paramountcy or superior sove* reigiity over Scotland. When this wiis done, he appointed Baliol to lie his vassal king, an honour which the unfortunate man was not btng permitted to enjoy. Ha\ ing driven Italiol to resistance, he in- vadefl the country, overthrew his army, and, strip- ping him of his sovereignty, asaumed to himself the dominion of Scotland, as a right forfeited to him by the rebellion tif his vassal. After he had retired, a brave ScUc-kitit(»iri lliitorv uf Kit|[lsiub Csltnvt C)clupr«lifc ?7 (' HISTORY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN. the 8i>n of nil ir. John who lenated theaf- ry first, hy the in Kuid tu have pen*, however, means of ^1v. to the people, f John raiioed psult was, that, led by them to , or threat chnr. his Bubject* m who at'ted in lives manyprl. their own in. t nerensary, [tie, to stipulate 1 point secured t no tax or Kup- oiit their own lea of a Parlia* B nlso made re. is to secure all Ifully wroth at he excommuni- worse than in- itorian is very ed it (namely, it, to huve ma- 1 of Kngland on L-h is now the rat bulwark of as succeeded ! as Ldward became en- KroRsed with his Onch wars, Robriit Bruce, Earl of Carrick, grandson of him who had competed with Baliol, conceived the idea of putting himself at the heed of the Scott, and endeavoiiring, by their means, at once to gain the crown, and to recover the inde- pendence of the kingdom. After a series of adventures, among which was the unpreiueditott'd murder of a rival named Oomyn, Bruce caused himself, in 1300, to he crowned at hctme. For some time after, he had lo skulk «■ a fugitive, being completely unable to maintnin hiA gniuud against the Knglish officers; but at length he becHine so formidable, that Edward found it necessurv (13U7) to lead a large army against him. The Knglish monarch, worn out witn fatigile and age, died on the coast of the Solway Firth, when just within sight of Scittlaiid, leaving his sceptre to his son Edward the Secomd. That weak and foolish prince immediately returned to London, leaving Bruce to contest with his inferior officers. After several years of perpetual skirmishing, Bruce was at last met on the open field by King Edward, who had a hun- dred thousand men to oppose to thirty thousand Scots. The result of the battle of Bunnockhurn, fought on the 24th of June 1314, was the complete rout of the English army, and the flight of the king, who never again molested Bruce in his hard-won sovereig-iity. Thus, at the time when Ireland was sinking under £iif;lish rule, through its unfortunate internal dis. sensioDS, the national spirit of tlie Scots, united under one beloved leader, saved their comparatively poor country from that disaster, and enabled it, at the pro- per time, to accede to a union, instead of submitting to a conquest. The weiikness of Edward the Second chiefly took the direction of a fondness for favourites, into whose hands he committed the wh. In the victories which he gained at "ressy (August 2fj, \:un) and Poitiers (September 17, .JAfi), the nutional valour, and his own, and that of his cele- briited son, the Black Printe, were shown conspicu- oiihIv ; but this lavish expenditure of the resources of his kingdom, in which he was supported by his Parlia- ment, WHS of no pnrnianent benefit, even to himself, for whiiii) alone it wnn mado. In those days, alinoiit all men fought well, but very few had ever the art to improve their victoriflund for several years. On the death of Henry In 1413, his sun succeeded as Henry the Fifth — a prince, youthful, brave, and victorious, and, therefore, re- vered by the people of England, although he seems tu have been destitute of humanity, *ike most of the other individuals whom mankind have hitherto agreed tu call great. The Lollards, a body of religious re- f), in the course of his French wars, was stained by the deli- Iterate massacre of several thousand prisoners, whom he feared to leave in life. He succeeded, in a great measure, in asserting the claims of his family to the throne of France, and actually, for some time, con- durted the government at Paris. But ho died in the prime nf life, 1422, leaving the crown to an infant nine months old, who was proclaimed as Henry the Sixth, King of France and England. Under Henry the Sixth, whose power was for some time in the hands of his uncle the Duke of Bed- ford, the English maintained their footing In France for several years, and, at the battle of Verneuil, In 1424, rivalled the glory of Cressy and Poitiers. At that conflict, a body of Scotch, seven thousand strong, who had proved of material service to the French, were nearly cut off. In U28, when the nation seemed onriipletely'sunk beneath the English nile, the Int est! of the native prince were suddenly revived hy a simple maiden, named Joan of Arc, who pretended to have been commissioned by Heaven to save her oountry, aud, entering Into the French Rnuy, was the cauu or several aignu reverses to the Englith. By b«r tuthuiiMtio uenioof, tod (he trust «v«ry wher* reposed in her supernatural character, Charles the Seventh was crowned at Rheims, in 1430. Being soon after taken prisoner, the heroio maiden was, by the English, condemned for witchcraft, and burnt. Nr- vertheless, about the year 1453, the French monarch had retrieved the whole of his dominions from the English, except Calais, and no other attempt waa ever made to reduce that country. Henry the Sixth was remarkable ^or the oxtremo weakness of his character. His cousin Richard Duke of York, descended from an elder son of Edward the Tkird, and, therefore, possessed of a superior title to the throne, conceived that this imbecility of the mo- narch afforded an excellent opportunity for ass«rtin|( what bethought bis birthrighL Thus oommenoed the famous IVan of the Uouett as they were called, from the badges of the families of York and Lancas- ter, the former of which wns a red, while the latter was a white rose. In 14&4, the duke gained a de- cisive victory over the forces of Henry, which were led by his spirited consort, Margaret of Anjou. In some succeeding engagementt, tne friends of Henry were victorious ; and at length, in the battle of Wake- field (December 24, 1460), the forces of the Duka of York were signally defeated, and himself slain. The Kretensions of this claimant were then taken up by is eldest son Edward, who, with the assistance of the Earl of Warwick, gained such advanta^ next year, that he assumed the crown. Before this was accom. plished, many thousands had fallen on both sides. Henry, who cared little for the pomp of sov- ligntyi was confined in the Tower. Scotland, in the meantime, had (1424) redeemed her king from his captivity in England ; and that firince, styled James the I irst, had proved a great egislator and reformer, not to speak of his personal accomplishments in music ard literature, which sur- passed those of every contemporary monarch. James did much to reduce the Highlands to an obedieooe under the Scottish government, and also to break up the enormous power of the nobles. By these pro- ceedings, however, he excited a deep hatred in the bosoms of some of his subjects ; and, in 1437, he fell a victim to assassination at Perth. He was succeeded by his Infant son James the Second, the greater part of whose rei^ ■'as spent in a harassing conten- tion with the powerful house of Douglas, and who was finallsr killed in the flower of his age, by the bursting of a cannon before Roxburgh Castle. His sucoessor, James the Third, was also a minor, and, on reach- ing man's estate, proved to be a weak, though not ill-meaning prince. He fell a victim, in 148^ to a conspiracy formed by his subjectt, and which was M by his eldest son. The morality of princes in this age seems to hare been much upon a par with thai ascribed to the Turkish sovereigns of a later agu. They never scrupled to destroy life, either within uie circle of their own family, or out of it, when It suited their interests to do so. HOUSE or YORK. Edward the Fourth reigned ten rears, perpetu- ally disturbed by renewed attempU of the Lancastrian party, of which he mercilessly sacrificed many thou- sands who fell into his hands. At length, having offended the Earl of Warwick, who had been chiefly instrumental in placing him upon the throne, that powerful nobleman raised an insurrection against him, and in eleven days was master of the kingdom, while Edward had to take refuge on the Continent. Henry the Sixth wpj then restored, and Warwick acquired the titU of King-maker. Nine months after (1471), Edwa-^ landed with a small body of followers, and, hav'.ig called his partisans around him, overthrew and killed Warwick at St Alban's; Margaret of An- jou, who had fought battles for her husband in almost every province of England, gathered a new army, and opposed Edward at Tewkesbury Park, where she was completely defeated. Her son and husband, beinr taken, were murdered In cold blood, and she herseu spent the remainder of her singular life In France. Edward reigned, a profligate and a tyrant, tlU 1483, when he died in the forty-second year of his age. He had previously caused his brother, the equally profli- gate Duke of Clarence, to be drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. Edward the Fourth was supposed to be succeeded by his son Edward the Fifth, a mere boy; but his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, a wicked and de- formed wretch, in whom all the bad qualities of the family seemed concentrated, caused the youngprince, with his still younger brother, to be murdered In the Tower, and soon after mounted the throne under the title of Richard the Thibu. For two years, this disgracse to humanity retained possession of tne English throne, though universally abhorred by his people. At length, in 1485, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, a connection rather than a descendant of the liancaster family, resolved to attempt the dethronement of this monster. Having landed with about two thousand followers at Milmrd Haven, he adrenced into the countrv, and speedily gained such accessions of foroe as enabled him to meet and overthrow Richard at Bosworth Field, where the tyrant was slain, and the victoriousRiohmond was immediately proclaimed king, under the title of Henry the Seventh. The new monarch soon after sought to strengthen bis title by marling EllMbeth, thndaughterand heir of Edward the Fourth, by which it was supposed the fiunilles ot York luid Lancuter were united. chambeuss infohmation for the people. iHl -ii fi TUI TVIIOmS— lIBNtY THE aCVKNTII. Undtv Hanrr the country revivoti from a longcoarM of dvtl rrfera, fn the oouna of which far more than a hundred tiumtiand men had been ilalu, the moat poverftU of the nuliility broken down, and the industry and eommerce of the und interniptfd and laid wante. Kren during llmt dreadful omtett, it wan rcn.arkfyl that the evtli of war fell chiefly on those who made it; chat th« government, however disturbed by various rl&imanta of the throne, was mild and equitable — Ht least M oompared with thai of other countries, and thai the people throve under a system in which their own ooneaui, by the voice of the House of Commons, waa naoessary to the formation of every new law, and the imposition of every tax. It was remarked at this time by Sir John Fortescue, an exiled English jtidi^e, that the com|)amtively despotic monarchy of France ■rodttcsd oppressions and grievances from which the Kngfith ■ubject was exempt. According to this law. yer, the sovereign of England held his power fnmi and in behalf of the pet)plt% and not from any abstract right, as was pretended by other kingii. 'i'his idea eould nerer have aiisen, hut for the repeated breaks in the snooession which have already been described. The Koglish kings had in fact undersold each other to the people, and thus, in the course of time, bated down tneir rights, as they called them, to something rery trifling compared with what they were at fimt. Thus it may be seen that the usurpations which had oooaaioaed so much civil war and bloodslieenect title. Some friends of the house of York, rather than want a r««l claimant on that side, set up a baker^s boy, named Lambert 8ymnel, to personate the son of the late Duke of Clarence ; and an army of alMmt eight thouaand men was led into the field to assert his pre- tensiona to the crown. This force was defeated at 8Coke, in Ncrthamptonshire(JuneUH7), and Symnel b«ng taken, was oontemptuously ap|>oiuted by the king to be one of his menial servants. A similar pre> tender, named Perkin \V'arl>ec.k, but alTectin)* to be Richard l>ukeof Vork, the younger brother of i^dward the Fifth, set up his claims (U!I3), and received fxreat encouragement in Ireland, Flandera, and Fortupnl, by means c^ which he landed with a considerable force at Deftl, but was defeated and obliged to re-embark. This youth, r ho is said to have been the son of a Jew, next found refuge in Scotland, where James the Fourth, a young and gallant sovereign, was now reign. ing. Jamea ^ve to Perkin in marriage a young lady connected with the royal family, and undertook an expedition into the north of lilngland, in favour of his pretensions. This enterprise failed entirely in itsob. ject, and the Saittish king soon after deserted the came of the impostor. Perkin subsequently raisetl a formi- dable insurrection in the southern counties of Knglam), but, when about to encounter the royal forces, deserted his anny, and took refuge in a monastery, where, tic oording to the ideas of that age, his peison was quit(> l^cure from all earthly force whatsoever. Here he was literally liesieged by the royal army, who, though they could not tourh him within the building, were yet able to starve him into a surrender, exactly after the manner of a garrison in an impregnable fortress. Perkin capitulated, and was brought to London, where a pretence was smm found for hanging him (Novem- ber 23, Umi) at Tyburn. AImo«t at the same time, Henry procured the judicial assassination of the Karl of Warwick, the real son (»f the late Duke of Clarence, a poor idiot boy, whom he had kept iiftoen years in oonfinement, and whose title to the crown, being su- pericw to his own, rendered him uneasy. Henry also, m the same manner, killed bis own stepfather Sir William Hunley, the individual whohad chiefly aided him fn obtaining the throne of Kngland. It will be seen with surprise, by the reader, that it was not till a somewhat later period, that the sovereigns of this ipreat cotnitry began to have scruples about putting their relations to death. Henry, thotigh a bloody tyrant, like the rest of bis race- was a sagacious and peaceful sovereign. With latidable forethought, he was anxious to seal a peace with Scotland, by marrying hiseldest daughter Mar. garet to James the Fourth ; a marriage which, ht calculated, might lead to the union of two countries hitherto only productive of war and misery to etu'h other. The marriage Utuk pUce in August 1A03, and Henry's calculation was fulHMcd exactly a hundred years after, by the accession of the great-grandson of the royal pair (James :iie Sixth) to the throne of £nglard. flENnT THE EIOUTII. At the death of Henry the Seventh, in IfiOO, his son HrifBT Tnc Eioarn sucreeded, a prince then in his eighteenth year, 'r.u whose character seemed at first that of a gay tnd jovial young man. Honte years l>e- Ibre, he had been affianced to Catherine, a Hpanish princess, who had previously Ijpen the wife of his de- ceased brother Arthur : he was now married to this la- dy, the Po)>e having previuusly granted a di4|>ensBtion for th;it purpose. For many yenrs the reign of Henry was unnuirke<1 by any unubual incidents. The chief ndmtnistrHiioa oi affairs was committed to a low-bom but proud churchman, tbe tvlebrated Cardinal ^V'ol- •«*y. The king became much engageti In continental puliticsi and, durinif • war whloh he carried uu agaioil Fvfince, his hrother-tn-law James tlie Fuurth, who sided with that state, made an unfortunate irruption into the north of Kngtnnd, und wtis tivurthrown and slain, with the greater {mrt of his nobility (Septem- be.- », 1AI3), at Flodden. Several changes of great Importance to Kuropea.^ society took plnce about this time. Kver sii'cu the destruction of tlio Honiun empiro, the nnfions which itnisH nut of it had remained in srhjei-uon tntlitf papal see, which might he said to hn-, u inherited the uni- versal dnminion of that gove; nment, but altri-eil from an authority over the h<^tlies of men to ;tn eni]tiri> over their minds. It is said that this authority of the Ito- man Catholic n>ligion had, In the courite of time, be- oome much abused, white the religion itself wns cor- rupted by many superstitious obeervntu'es. So long as men had continued to be the thoughtlexs warriors and unlettered |*eBsnnts which they hiid been in the middle ages, it is nut prohablu that they would ever have callpii in cjuestiim either tho :nithnnty of the Pope, or the pnnty of the Catholic fnith. Willi know- Iedgt>, however, and the rise of a C()n»mprc)Hl nud mn- nufitrturing cinss, cnme a disposition to inquire into the authority of iliis greot religious empire. T'.e art of printing, dinrovered about the middle of t)ie pre- ceding century, and which was now rendering litem- Hire accessible tomnstclussesof thecomnnuiitv, tended grently to bring about this revolution in I'^iiropean intellect. Tho minds of men, iudotM), seem Ht this time as if rising from a long sleep ; and it mi;;ht well have been a question with persons who hnd ri'ilci'iion, hut no experience, whether the change was to turn to evil or to goi>i!. When men's minds are in a sutte of preparation for any greot change, avervMnnll matter is required to set tliem in motion. There was tm Augustine monk at Wirtemberg, in fJermnny, of the name of J\Inrtiu Luther, who became incenncd at the Roman see, in consequence of some injury which lie conceived to bavu Iteea done to his order, by tho Pope having g: anted tbe privilege of selliug indulgences to the Dominican order of friars, llein^^a man of nbold h id inqui^ng mind, he did not rest satisticd till ho hail convinced himself, and many others around hi);i, that the intlul/^enccs were si iful, and that the Pope had no ri^iit to grant them. Thi« hnppeaed hIkmii the year 1-'>17. Controversy and pei«t.'fution graculiaritieH of the Catholic syittem of worHhijt. In these proceedings Luther wan conntenuuced by some of the suites in Germany, and his doctrines were h]iecdily established iu the northern countries of Lurope. TIIK RRFORMATIOK. Henr)' tbe Kighth of Kng!snd had been originally educated for the church, and still retained a ta«te for theological k-arnini^ He now distinguished himself by writing u book agftinst the Lutherun dmtrines ; and the Pone was so nnich pleaded with it, nsto grant him the title of Defender of the Faith, tienry was nut destined, however, to continue long an adherent of the Koman PontitT. In the year lli27, he became enamoured of a young gentlewoman named Anne Roleyn, who was one of his wife's attendants. He immediately conceived tho design of annulling his marriage with I atherine, and marrying this younger and more agreeable pcrnim. Finding a pretext for such an act in tlie previcius mnrringe of Catherine to his brother, bo attempted to obtain from thr PojMi a decree, declaring the marriage unlawful, and that the dispenKution upon which it had proreedtnl was beyond the powers of the former Pope to grant. The Pontifl' (Clement the t^eveuth) was much pcrplexeil by this request of King Henry, bnwer and wenlih, and, in November l.'i.tO, expired at Is that ever took place in Kngland — no less than n total reformation of the national religion. In order to annul his marHnge with Catherine, aid enable him to marry A'nne Holeyn, he had to shake ofl' tho nuthc- rity of the Poite, and procure himself to be aclinow- ledffed in Parliament as the supreme head of tlie Kni;- lish church. His marriage with Anne tiKtk place in l.'V.'t.l, and in the same year was iKirn his •.-elobrated daughter KlixaWth. In IKm, Henry became ns anxious tn get quit of Queen Anne as lie had ever been to Hd himself of Queen Catherine. He had contracted a passion for Jane Keymotir, the daughter of Sir Jnbn Seymour, it yotin* lady then of the queen's bed-chiimbir, n > Anne herself had been In that of Catherine's. In outer to gratify this new passion, he accused Anne ot wtiat appeam to bavo been an imnginiiry frailty, and with- in a month from the timrt when' she hud be>'U an honoured queen, she was behetided (.May U() i i the Tower. On tho very next day he marrii'd Jant Sey- mour, who N(Nin after died in giving birth to i son (afterwards Kdward ihe Sixth). Hisdau(fhter» i lury and Klizalicth were dec!ure, thmigh professing independence of K< me, Henry stiil maintained, and even enforced, by 8e» ere and bloody laws, the most of iis doctrines. He now took measures for altering this system of worshiji to something nearer the Lutheran model, and aUo for suppressing the nimirnius monasteries throughout Ihe country. Being iHtsBc-tsed of more despotic poi'er, and, what is stranger ntill, of more popularity tiian any former sovereign of Kngland, he was able to »m- connter tho dreadful ri-tk of otfending, by thene ine; os, a vastly powerful cornonition, which seems, moreover, to have been regarded with much sincere afTection and respect Ii. many ports of Kngiimd. No fi-wer tlian six hundreil and forty-live monn^iertcs, two thousand three hundred and seventy -four rhfiuiiieries and chapels, ninety college!*, and a hundred and ten hos- pitals, enjoying altogether a reveiuie of one hundred and sixty-one thousand pounds, were broken up by this powerful ami nnscnipnlinis monnrcli, who partly seized the revenues for bis own use, uimI partly gave them away to tbe persons who most urtivcly assisted him, and who seemed most able to protect bin govern- ment from the effects of such a swrepiog reform. By this net, which tuok place in lo:i7i the Iteforinution was completed in Lngland. Yet for many years Henry vacillated so much in b.is opinions, and enfor- ced these with such severe enactments, thitt many persons were burnt as heretics on both sides of the question. It was in the southern and eastern parts of Kngland, where the commercial classes at this time resided, that the doctrines of the itefoi-matitn chiefly pi'evNilud. In the western and northern parts tif the cinintrv, CiUholiciKni was still predominnnt, und in Ivelan.l, which was remotest of all from tho (,'onti- nent, tho Protestant faith made little or no impression. After (be death of Jane Seymour, lleury married Anne of C'leves, a (Jermun princess, with whose per- son, however, ho was not pleased ; and he therefore, in the coolest matmer possible, divorced her by un act cf Parliament. He next married Catherine Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk, but had not been long united to her when he discovered that she bad com- mitted a serious indiscretion before marringe. This was considered ii sullicient reason for behtuding tho unfortunate queen, und attainting all her relations. Though Henry had thus nuirderud two wives, and divorced other two, and bi>coin(>, moreover, a monster in form as well as in hia pssHions and mind, he sue* ceeded in obtsining for his sixth wife (IM3) Cathu- riiio Parr, widow 'jf l^ird J^atimer, who, it is ct-rtaiii, only Cfintrlved to escape deitruction by her extraordi- nary prudence. Aliiio&t all whoever served Henry the Kighth as intninters, either to his authority or to his pleasures, were de^troytnl by lilm. Wolsey was either driven to suicide, or died of a broken heart. Thomas Cromwell, who succeeded that minister, and chiefly aidwl tho king in Ipriiifiing about the liut'urma- tiun — Sir Thontas More, lord chuncetlor, llie mont vir- tuous, most able, a: id mr)Kt cuusistuntmnn of lnsttme-.~ theKarlofSu^^ey,\t'huwasoucufthemo8tll<:colIlpliHhed knighu of the age, and the first poet who wtvie tho Kn^lish language with perfect taste — all nnfrered the same fate with Anne Boleyn and Cnthuiine Howard. It was tnily said of Henryj that he neviT spared man in his rage, or women in his lust. When James the Fourth died at Flmldcn, in IJjIS, the Si'iittiih crown fell to his infant ^oll.^nInes the Fifth, who struggled thrmigh a turbulent minority, and was now a gay, and, upon tho whole, 'tn amiaMtiprincr Ufa uncle Henry tbe Kighth endeavoured to bring him into his views respecting religion, but James, who wns much in the power of tlie Catbotlc clergy, appears to have, rather wished to become the head of the Pojiisli party in Kngland, In the hope of iucccediug, by their means, to the thnitio of that country. A war l.itterly broke nut l»etiveeu tl' ■ two monarclis, ami the Scottish army having refused to fight, from a dislike to »he expe. dition, James died, Ilerember IM'2, of a broken heart, leaving nii only child, Marv, who was not above a week dd. Henry the Eighth imnieitiately conceived tho idea of marrying bis eon Kdward to this Infant queen, by which he cnlculated that two hostile nations nhould be united under one hovereignty, and the Protestant Church in Kngland be nnjpported by a similar establishment in Scotland. Thi:tu hiiudred broken u)) l>y this :th, who partly ntid [iiirtly pive firtively asitiHted ntict his govern - ping reform. By the Iteforinution for nmny year* lions, and onfor- >ntK, thi-.t many joth sides of the nd etiHtern parts i.ines nt this lime fiinnatipn chiefly liiTn parts of the intinHnt, and in from the Conti- or no impression. Ilenry married with whose per- nd he thereforCt ?.ei\ her hy an act iherinK lloward, nd not been long at she hnd mm. inarringe. This r behtfuding the lU her relations, two TPiveJ, and L'over, n monster td mind, be kuc- t'e (I.MU) Calhtt- bo, it is curtain, y her extraurdi- jr served Henry authority or to ... Wolney was a broken lioart. at miniHter, and mtthu Itut'urma- ior, the most vir. nnn of his ttDie>^~ oHtiiccoitipllithed who u rote l)io all Kuffcred tlio L'rine Howard. cr spiired man 1, 1:j47i leaving (he thronv to Kdward the 8lsth, a hoy between nine and ten yeara old. The Duke of Somerset, maternal uncle to the young king, became supreme ruler under the title of Protector, and continued to maintHiii the Protestant doctrines. Under this reign, the church of England assumed its present form, and the Uook of Common Prayer was composed nearly as'it now exists. Somerset being resolved toattain, ifpossihle, the match between Kdward the Seventh and Alary of Scotland, invaded that country in autumn IM7, nnd was met nt Musselburgh by a large army under the governor, the Garl of Arran. Though the Scotch were animated hy bitter animosity against the l^nglish, agninst their religion, and against the nhject of their expedition, they did not light with their unual resolution, but were defeated, and pur«nt.-')st pure, and most amiable of all the females who appear in the history of England. Though only seventten, she was deeply lenrucd, and yet pre. served all the unaffected graces of cimractur proper to her interesting age. Unfortun.itely, her father-in-law Northumberland was so much disliked, that the Ca- tholics were ensflled to displace her from the throne in eight days, and to set uj> in her stead the Princess Mary. Northumberland, Lady Jane, and her hus- band, Guildford Lord Dudlcv, were all beheaded by that Hiivage princess, who soon after t(M>k steps for restoring the Catholic religion, and married Philip the Second, King of Spain, in order to strengthen herself against the Protestant interest. Mary experiencetl sonio re- sistance from her Protestant subjects, and being under great suspicion of her sister Elizabeth, who professed the reformed faith, but took no part against her, was almost on tlie point of ordering her to executiim also. As sonn as she had replaced the i'atholic system, nnd found herself in jmssession of sufficient power, mIiu b(v gan that career of persecution M-hich bus reuderet) her name so infamous. Five out of fourteen Prot<«tant bishops, including the revered numet of Cranmer, Imtimer, and Ridley, were committed to the flames as heretics; and during the ensuing part of her reign, which was closed by her death, November 17> IMQ, noariy thrw! hundred persons suffered In the same tiinnuer. Thuse scenes did nut tnke place without I'xciting a proper horror in the miruls of Englishmen in general, including even many Catholics ; but the royal authority was nt all times too great under this line of princes to allow of elTectnnI resistance. Such ;i persecution, however, naturally fixt'd in the minds of tliA IlritiHh PnUestfifts a hereditary horror for the name of Catholic, wliich has in Its turn beci» prtiduc- tive of nninv retaliatory persenitions, almttst equally to be lamented. In the latt*»r part c»f her reign, shfl was drawn by her husband into a war with France, of which the only pfTect was the loss of Caliiis, the last of the French posscssionsof the Kings of Engl.iiu). The luitural Bourncss of Mary's temper was increased by this disgraceful event, as well as hy her want of chil- dren, and she died in a state of great unhappiness. EMZAnETH. A more auspirious scene opened for England in the accession of Elizabeth, a princess of great native vigour •of mind, and who had lieen much improved by ad- versity, having been kept iu prison during the whole reign of her sister. From the peculiar circnmstanrcs of Rlizaheth'a birth, her right of succession was de. nied by all the Catholics nt homo and abroad. This party considered Mary Queen of Scots, who was de- scenlled from the eldi-^t sister of Henry the Eighth, and had been hronglit up in the Catholic faith nt the C4Mirt of France, as their legitimate sovereign. Eli/a- bcth had no support in any quart r, e>.cept among hiu Protestant subjects. The Pope issued u hull, whirh, direi'tly or indirectly, pronininred her an usurper, and gavp piTuiissisn to her subjectii to wek her (lrthn>ne- ment. The court of Fraiu'c profesi^ed to (■(msider the Queen of Scot*, who had recently Ii' i-n nu-rried to tlie Dauphin n« iht- Qji en of En^'luV.d ; i,nd aU the Eng- llsh Catholics befriended the claims of this priiiceii. Under theae circumstances, Elizabeth found no rtiance of safety, except in restoring and maintaining the Pro* testant religion In her own country, and in seeking to support it i^ alt others where the people were favour, able to it. She gained one ^reat point, in the Hefor. matiou which now ti>ok place m Scotland, by the agency of John Knox, and a part of the nubility, who, with the assistance of a smiill English army, sent by Eliza- beth, overthrew at once the ancient religion and the ?;overnment of Marv of (iuise, wlio acted as regent or her daughter, tlie queen. Elizabeth thus esta- blished a friendly, thougli irregular, government in Scotland, and raised an attachment towards herself among the Scotch in general, which eventually proved destructive to their Catholic sovereign. Mary, the most renowned boauty of her time, nnd in early life apparently the most fortunate of wqnien, became, in 15o!>, tlie Queen-consort of Fiance, by the accession of her husband Francis the Second Ut the throne of that country. IJy the death of her husband, however, at the end of the year l&f>U, when she was only eighteen years of age, she lost in a great measure all interest in France. In August Ifttil, she returned to her own country, and assumed a nominal sove- reignty, where in reality all authority was vested in the Protestant r'^bles who had lately effected the Ke- furmation. hefgrxiatiok in scotlakd. The change of religion in Scotland was of a more decisive kind than it Ituil been in England. The English Uefornuition was cifucted by sovereigns, who, while they winhed to throw oil' the supremacy of the Pope, ami some of thu more odious of the Catholic rites, desired to give h.s little way as possible to po- pular principles, and, tlureforc, not only seized the supremacy of the cliurch to theiuHelves, but, bv bishops and other dignitaries, preserved the churcK as completely in the light of u dominant power over the people, as it hud ever been. In Scotland, how- ever, where the reformation was effected hy thu nobles and the peo]de, and at a time when still Imlder prin- ciples hud sprung up, none of this machinery of power was retained : the clergy wero all equiJ, and all useful ; only a t>mall pnrt of the ancient revenues was allowed to them ; their general atfair!r, instead vt being entrusted to the hands of bishops, were con- fided to courts formed by themselves: these courts being partly formed by lay elders, kept up a ayni- piithy ami I'lttachment among the community, which has always hecu greutly wanting in ttie English church | and, to crown all, wliile a large part ol thoancient re- venues was absorheil by the nnbh's, a very consider- able portion wiis devoted to the maintennncoof pariyh schools, under the express aintrol of tlie clergy, which at once fornu-d regular nurseries of Protestant Christiana, and disneminatud iiistnictiun more ex- tensively over this small and remote country, than it has ever bein over any other part of the world ; an advantage whirh hits placed Scotchmen ever since in the most confidential nnd important ofHces In all other countries, nnd given to Scotland itself a aistre superior to that derived from any other source. The English have much to boftiitof; but in the import- ant matter of public instruction, they are nearly throe centuries behind their northern iicighbourt<. The affairs of England and Scotland art', for some time after this, inextricaldy mingled. Queen ^lary had no power as a Catholic in her own nmntry, and was obliged to govern by means of her natural brother James Stewart, Earl of Moray, who was the leader of the Protestant interest in Scotland. Pers- -lally, however, she was intimately connecteil with tlie great Catholic powers of the Continent, and became a party, in 1664, to a coalition forntcd hy them for the sup- pression of Protestantism ail over Europe. She had never yet resii.'ned her pretensions to the English throne, but lived in the hope, that, when theCatludica succeeded in every where subduing the Protestants, she would attain that object. Elizabeth, who had only the »uppt)rt of the Protestant part of her own subjects, with a friendly feeling amcing the Scotch and other ui'.importaiit Protestant nations, had the greatest reason to dread tlie confederacy formed against her, which rendered Iu .liluation very simi- lar to thft of Great Hritain during the war of the French revolution. It was prr)ved, however, nt this trying crisis of our history, that the rouunerce, the insular situation, and, perhaps, the superior intelli- gence of the Ilritish i>eople, luted them for resisting nearly nil tlie rest of Europe. Kli/abetli stood lirni tipon the Protestant fidtli, ami the prtiicipU'S of a comparativelv liberal ami popular government — tlie only safe position, as it has proved ottencr than once in our history, for the so\ ereign of these islands. A series oi' unfortunate events threw Mary into the hands of Elizabeth. The former queen, in irtUrt, married her cousin Lunl Darnlcy, nnd by that means alienated the affections of her brother nnd chief minis- ter, the Earl of Moray, as welt as of other Protestant lords, who raised a rel>ellion against her, and were obliged to fly into England. S'v;mi after, the jealousy of I)ar[itey, n>spci'tiug an Ituli:.ii musician named Hizzio, wbo Acted as French secretary to the queen, united him In a conspiracy with tlie banished Protes- tant noldemen forthemurdcrofthat hunddo foreigner, wiiich was effected under very barbarous circuui- stanceK, Mtirch *X t.VJO. .M.iry, who wan dultverod tn the '^uiveoding Juue, uf huj: eou James, withdrew her affections entirely from her husbaud, and began to oonflde chiefly in the Earl of Bothwell, who tome months afterwards caused Darnley to be blown up by gunpowder, while he lay Jn a state of iicknem ; in which transaction It has' always been suspected, but never pnived, that the queen had a considerable share. Uothwell soon after forced her, in appearance, into a marriage, which excited so much indignation among her subjects, that the same Protestant lords who had effected the Reformation, and wero the friends of Elizabotli, easily obtained the possession of her person, and, having deposed her, crowned her infant son as king, under the title of James the ttiXTH, while the regency was vested in the Earl of Moray. In May 16C0, Mary escaped from her prison in Lochloven, and put herself at the head of c. body of her partisans, wlio were overthrown, however, by the regent at the battle of Langiide, and Mhry was then compelled to seek refuge In England. By placing her rival under strict conliiiement, and extending an effectual protection to the regents Moray, Lennox, filar, and J\lorton, who successively governed Scotland, Elizabeth furtitied herself in a great degree against the Catholic confe- deracy, OOTEHKHENT of ELIZABETH. It has already been seen that the liberties of th« people were much favoured hy the frequent interrup. tlons in the succession to the crown. At'henever one branch of the Plantagenet family displaced another, the new king felt himself weak, and endeavoured to strengthen his title, by procuring a Parliamentary en- actment in support of it. It thus liecame established as a regular principle in the English government, that the people, who were represented hy Parliament, had a say in the appointment of their king. A con- siderable change, however, had taken place since the accession of Henry the Seventh. The great power acquired by that ting through his worldly wisdom, and the destruction of the nol>ility during the civil wars, had been handed down through four successive princes, who inherited the crown by birthright, and did not require to cringe to the people for a confirma- tion of their title. The Parliunientii, therefore, were now a great deal more under the control of the bova- reign than they had ever been before. Henry he Eighth never permitted his Parliament to oppose hit will in the U.ist; it was alsit seen that to the various changes of scligion under successive sovereigns, thu Parliaments presented no obstacle. An idea wati now beginning to arise, very much through the supremacy the sovereigns had acquired over the church, that the right of the crown was one derived 'from Ood, and that the people had nothing to do with it. except to obey what it dictated to them. Of thii notion, no ono took so much advantage, or was at so much pains to impress it, as Elizabeth. The vigonms talent and fortitude of this woman have always been a subject of admiration and pride among Englishmen, but they have failed to see that the very greatness of her cha- racter at once prompted and enabled her to be a tyrant. No doubt the arbitrary measures of Elizabeth were generally uf n jtopular nature ; yet this dm>s not ex- cuse them in firinciple; and their ultimate mischief is seen in the attempts of future sovereigns to pursue worse ends upon the same means. Elizabeth's go- vernment consisted entirely of herself and her minis- ters, who were, from the beginning to the end of her reign, the very choice of the enlightened men of Eng- land. Her prime minister was the celebrated Lord ilurleigh, by far tfie most sagacious man who ever acted as a minister in Britain. All her emissaries tn foreign courts were of one complexion — circumspect and penetrating men, devoted to their country, their mistress, and to the Protestant religion ; indeed, the wisdom of Elizabeth's government might almost be said to have reached an unamiable extreme, as we of- ten find, in individuals, that their perfect propriety and worldly knowledge keep the feelings too niuth in the background. Elizabeth appeared so much as the champion of the reformed faith against Catholic Eu- rope, that the people do not ".eem to have ever wished to control her actions. It will hardly be believed that she was at one time permitted to assume a power of making and dispensing with laws by her own procla- m!itir>n. It is perfectly natural, however, that the people should allow of a more arliitrary line of conduct in sovereigns and ministers, who are iu a maimer on their own side, than in otiiers wlio attempt to rulu over them more expressly in thu light of rulurb, WAR IN THE NETlIEntANDS, The great business of this century was religion. In the Netherlands, which formed part of tiu} doini. nionsof Philip the Second of Spoln, the reformed faith had made considerable advance*!. Philip, like other Cathtdic princes, entertained the idea that this new religion, besides being etrndemnable as a heresy and an offence against the Deity, temled to make men in. dependent of their rulers. Finding the people obsti- nate in their profesxions, he commenced a war with the Nethcrlunders, for the purpoee of aalktroing his authority over their consciences. This war lasted about twenty years. The Netherlanders fought liko desperate men, and endured the most awful slaughters and liardsb'ps lather than submit to the tyrant, whom some claim of what is called birthriglit had given a title to oppress them. Elizabeth could not help wmh- ing well to tliu Netlicrlaiiders, though, for a long time, her dread of Spain, then one of the greatest (towen in Europe, prevented her from opouly uaistiug tbeio. CHAMUERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. f ( ■ , trill \ Ml ' ■ 'W I h. Th« ehittf leader in thii war of liberty was William Prince of Orange, ancestor of the present King of the Netherlands, and one of the purest and most oouraKe- oas patriots that ever lireathiHl. At the same tiniei about two roiilinni of the pfitple of France M-ere Pro. tasunta, or, u they were tht'ti called, IIiigiuiDts, who acted also for the general Fnitentnnt cauM with as much energy as the^^at strength of the French go- remment would permit. It was the tfieneral sciiii. aien'4 of the Catholics of that apf, that heresy was an evil the extirpation of which could not l>e too dearly purchased. They therefore persecuted it at the ex- pense of almost all the best human feelings, tniftting to the importance of the end for a justification of every species of means. We do Dot say this for the purpose of exciting the hostility of Protestants against CaLiioIics. The latter class of personB have, for many years, been far less inclined to penecutioii than the Protestanta, so thai the mutual account of injury is now pretty nearly balanced. Hut, in the sixteenth century, Protestantism seemed a new and dangerous experiment, which all good (^athnlica felt hound, sofftr as lay in their power, to prevent from going nny far- ther, lender this feeling, ('harles the Nmth of France caused the massacre of from ten to twen'y thousand Protestants at Paris, on St Barthulomew*s day (Au- gust 24), 1673, a barltarity which is said u> have given siiUsfaction to all professors of the Romish faith throughout Eunipe, and to have been celebrated with public thanksgivings at Rome. Many other cruelties of the same nature were perpetrated by Catholics upon Protestants. £lixabeth at length, In 1&78, ev tended an open protection to the Netherlanders, excusing herself to Philip bv stating her fear thut they would otherwise throw tnemselves into the arms of France. The northern provinces were thus en- abled to assert their independeiu-e, and to form the country which has since been called Holland. It is curious to reflect, that, in modern times, this anintry has Blood conspicuously in oppoutiun to the liberal Interest throughout Europe, under the government of a king descended from the patriotic Prince of Orange: while Lord llurleigh, the great English statesman who counselled that England should pro- tect it in its resistance, is the ancestor of two noble- men* distinguished in their own couiAry fur their seal against innovatory principles. DEATH or MARY OF SCOTLAND. It may be easily imagined that the severities and threats of the Citnollcs provoked sse penal laws against the adherents of the ancient faith, which have only of late U'en alt4iguther abolished. Eliza- beth hangud many men Ua no other c.ime than that they were Romish priesU ; beiuf^ S4>lely provoked to do so, however, by the plots which were perpetually forming by men of this class for auassinating her. Her principal victim was the unfortunate Queen of Kcots, who had Iwea kept in captivity for nineteen years. The liberation of this prmcess was generally « part f^ the schemes of all the enthusiasts who {dotted the murder of Elixalteth. A law was at ength passed, intended for the destniction of Alary, by which it wu declared, that any person, by or /#r whom any plot should be made against the life of the Queen of England, should !« guilty of treason. In 1A80, a gentleman uf the nanm of Rnbington, with some others, contrived a plan for assHSsitiutmg Elisa- beth, and placing Queen Mary on ihu throne. The plot WKB disc4)vered by sples—a class of persons of whom great numbers were employed in tnts reign. The conspirators were seised and executed ; and out of the confessions extracted from them by torture, was woven a tissue of pretended evidence, for proving that the Queen of Scou was ooncerned in the conspi- racy. In reality, Alary might have some vague knowledge that such a plot was in agitation ; but, as a prisoner, detained in defiance of all law, she wbs ni'ither called uimiu to divulge any secret involving the life of Eliiai>eth, nor was it in her power to pre- vent any man from entering upon an enterprise in her favour. Thirty>six commissioners, appointed by Elizabeth, arrived ut Foiheringay Castle, in Northamptonshire, where Queen Mury was coulined, in order to sutiject one independent prinuess to a trial for high treason against another ; a proueeding quite unparalleled in history, and whit-h, Indeed, was only giving to mur- der the form of law. Alsry protested, both agaiust the law upon which she was arraigned, and agaiust the nomprienoy ftf the court, but was at length in- d-'ced toapfwar upon trinl, lest it should havH been 4ised that ihe refused, from a oonsritHisness of u ** It is impo^iiMe," says an English historian, A' read, without admiration, in the minute records 't»« trial, the self-posseased, prompt, clear, andsa- \- *iS replies and remarks by which this forlorn •.;.q defended herself against the most expert law- \i-.*^ -.d politicians of the age, who, instead of exa- mining her BB judges, pressed her with the unscni- pnlous ingenuity of enemies." Upon a mere shadow of evidem«, whirh any lawyer would now pronounce to be not only imiwrfert, but illegal, she was cf Iviiglaud. seen in Europe. The Duke of Parma was to conduct the land forces, twenty thousand of whom were on board theslilps of war, and thirty-fotir thousand more were assembled in the NetherlandB, ready to be trans- ported into England ; so that, as no doubt was enter- tained of sticcesn, the fleet was ostentatiously styled the Invincible Armada. Nothing could exceed the terror and consternation which seised all ranks of people In England, upon the news of this terrible armada being under sail to Invade them. A squadron of nut mure tlian thirty ■hips of the line, and those very small in comparison, was all that Elizabeth had to oppose it hy sea; and it was considered impossible to make any effectual re- sistance by land, us the Spanish army was composed of men well disciplined and long inured to danger. But although the En^^lish fleet was much inferior in number and size uf shipping to that of the enemy, it was much more manageable, wliile the dexterity and courage of the mariners were greatly superior. Lord Howard of Effingham, a man ot great valour and ca- pacity, t(Kik upon him, as lord high admiral, the C3m- manil of the navy. Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, the most renowned seamen in Europe, served under him ; while another squadron, consisting of forty ves- sehi, English and FlemiBh, commanded by Eord Sey- mour, lay off Dunkirk, in order to intercept the Duke of Parma. Such was the preparation made by the English; while all the Protestant powers of Europe regarded this enterprise as the critical event which was to decide for ever the fate of their religion. In the mean time, while the Spanish armada was rireparing to sail, the admiral, Santa-Croce, died, as ikewtBe the vicc-ndmiral, Paliano; and the command of the expedition was given to the Duke de Aledina Sidonia, a person utterly inexperienced in sea affairs; so that these unexpected circumstances served, in some measure, to fnistrate the design. Some other acci- dents also contributed to its failure. Upon leaving the port of Lisbon, the armada next day met with a violent tempest, which sunk some of the smallest of the ships, and obliged the rest to put back into the harbour. After some time spent in refitting, the Spa- niards again put to sea, where they took a tinherman, who gave tl?em intelligence that the English fleet, hearing of the dispersion of the armada in a storm, had returned to Plymouth, and that most of the mik. riners were discharged. From this false intelligence, the Spanish admirnl, instead of going to the coast of Flanders, to take in the troops stationed there, resolved to sail directly to Plymouth, and destroy the shipping laid up in the harbour. But Effingham was very weH prepared to receive him, and was just got out of port, when he saw the Spanish amiuda coming full sail to- wards him, disposed in the form of a half-moon, and stretching seven miles from the one extremity to the other. The English admiral, st^conded hy Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, attacked the Spaniards at a distance, pouring in their brondsides with admirable dexterity. They did not choose to engage the enemy more closely, l)ecauBe they were greatly inferior in number of ships and guns, as well as in weight of me- tal ; nor could they pretend to board such lofty ves- tals without manifest disadvantage. lu this action, however, two Spanish galleons were disabled and ta- ken. As the armada advanced up the Channel, the Eng. lish still followed and infested its rear ; and as their shipa continually increased from different ports, they soon found themselves in a capacity to attack the Spa- nish fleet more nearly, and, accordingly, fell upon them while they were taking shelter in the port of CaUis. To increase their ctmfusion, Howard selected eight of his smaller vessels, which, after tilling them with combustible materials, he sent one after another, as if they had been fire-ships, into the midst of the enemy. The Spaniards, Uking them for what they seemed to be, immediately bore off in great disorder ; while the English, profiting by their panic, captured or destroyed about twelve ships. The Duke of Me- dina Sidonia l>eing thus driven Co the coast of Zea- land, held a coui.;;il of war, in which It was resolved, that, as their ammunition began to fail, as their flert had received great damage, and as the Duke of Psnun had refused to venture nis army under their protec- tion, they should return to Spain by sailing round the Orkneys, as the winds were contrary to their panssge directlyback. Accordingly, they proceeded northward, and were followed by theEnghsh tieet as far asFlnmbo- ningh-head, whore they were terribly shattered by a storm. Seventeen of the ships, having five thoiiss'nd men tui board, were afterwards cast awayon the West- . crn Isles and tbe coast of Ireland. Of the whole armada, three-and-fifty ships only returned tu Spain in a wretched condition ; and the seamen, as wvU as the soldiers who remained, were so overcome with hardships and fatigue, and so dispirited by their dis- comfiture, that they filled all Spain with accounts of the desperate valour of the English, and of the teni- peuuous violence uf that ocean by which they are sur- rounded. The reign of Elizabeth saw the commencement of tlie naval glory of England. Up Ui the reign of Henry 1 the Seventh, there nas no siicn thing as a navy be- I hinging to the public, and the military genius of the < people was devoted exclusively to enterprises by land. ; The rile, however, of a commercial spirit tn Europe, I wliich in UU2 had causetl the discovery of America, I and was again acted upon by the scope for adven- I ture which that discovery opened up, bad latterly HISTORY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN. uauftod great attention to be jtaid to naval affairs in England. EngUihinen of all ranks Huyported and entered into enterprises for diHcovenng unknown territories, and under Drake, Cavendish, Hawkins, and Krohisher, various expedilimis of less or more magnitude were sent out. Drake was the first Kng. lish seaman who sailed round the world. When hos- tilities with Spain became m(n>e open, these com- manders made many successful attacks upon the colonies of that country in the West Indies, and also upon the fltftfts of merchant vessels which were em- ployml to carry home the gold, anping it secure from fo- reign invasion, that it would have conferred everlast- ing lustre on this period of our history, even although it had nut been characterised by any other glorious event. It is remarkable, that while Elizabeth increased in power and resources, she became more noted for fe- male weaknesses. In her early years she had shown a stoicism, and superiority to natural affections, not usually observed in womankind. But when she Iw- canie old and infirm-~not to mention another word, which politeness will not permit us to use respecting any individual of the sex — she also l>ecame volatile and susceptible to an extraordinary degree; so that the hand which slie had withheld, in her younger days, from the nohlent princes of Kuropc, seemed likely to iie Iteiitiiwed, in her old age, upon some mere court ^MUterlly. Her favourite, in middle life, was Robert Karl of Leicester, a profligate and a tritler. In her latter days slie listened to tl..: addresses of the Ki;rl of" Kssex, a young man of greater cimriige and hettiT principle, but also headstrong and weak. Essex, who had acquired popularity by several brilliant mi- litary enterprises, l>egan at length to assume an in- Solent superiority over the uueen, who was, on one wcHsion, sn much provoked by his rudeness us to give him a hearty box on the ear. Notwithstanding all his caprices aiid Insults, the queen still doatingly forgave him, until )te at leugtli attempted to raise an itisurrectiou against her in tlie streets of London, when he was seized, ctmdemned, iind, after unich hesitation, executed (February 2r>, 1001). It is always alleged that the life of Essex would have been sat ed, if the queen had received from him a ring which she hnd given him in his happier years as a pledge of her affection, and which slie told him would at any time recal her tenderness towards him, however deeply he might have offended her. It is ■aid that Essex gave this ring to the Countess of Not- tingham, to tie carried to Ellzalwth, but that the ('Ountess was pre .tiled upon hy her husband, who was an enemy of Essex, to suppress it. Elizabeth, in at last ordering tlie execution of Essex, had acted upon her usual principle of sacrificing her feelings to what was necessary for the public cause, but in this effort, nuide in tlie sixty-eiglith year of her age, she had miscalculated the real strength of her nature. She was seen from that time to decline gradually in health and spiritM, till a settled melancholy overtook her. Her distress was increased to a great degree hy a fleath-bed confession of the Countess of Nottingham, i-espectin^ the ring. The dying woman asked the queen's forgiveness fiir her treaclierv, hut Elizabeth turned from her in a transport of grief and indigna- tion, saying, that Om) might forgive her, but that she never could. After this, she declined still more ra- pidly, and at length became so ninch absorbed hy her siirrow as to refuse sustenance, and to sit for days and nights on the flcNir, supported )iy a few cushions hriuight to her hy her attendants. On the 24th of March lfi();(, she expired, after a reign of nearly forty- five years, during which England advHuced from the condition of aseciind-rate to tlmt of a first-rate power, and the Protestant religion whs eHtahlitihed on a basis from which it I'ould not he shaken, though it has since made hardly any progress. TIIK SI I'ARTS — JASIKS THE FIRST. The successor of Elizabeth, hv birthright, was Jiimes of Srotlaiul, wlu» was lutw in the thirty-sixth year of bin age, and had been nuirried for some venrs to the I'rincess Anne of Denmark, by whom he had twi> Sims, Henry and Cliartcs, and one daughter named Elizubeth. Koliert Carey, cousin of the late qiMn, rode from London to Ediiitmrgh in three davs aim two nights (which nearly equals the speed of tfie fastest of the present conveyances), in order to inform the King of Scots that Elizabeth was no more. Janu's immeiliately removed to London, and assnnu'd the government of Englaiul, while his native kingdom, chough thus united under the same sovereignty, still retaiiH'd its own superior institutions. James )iad all Elizabeth's ideas respecting the power, or, as it is called, the jtreromitim of the crown, and was equally anximis to manage all affairs alter liis own free will. Uuttlioiiffh he was not deficient In talent, he entirely wanted llie vigorous personal character, and the im*- iierious. and, ut tlie same time, popular maimer, which had enabled Elizabeth m ertVcinally to subdue her Farliaments. It must also he owned, that he hud not the suuie straight-forward uuxiuty f^r the public Id welfare and gn'atness, wbieh always formed such a speci(ms excuse for the despotic proceedings of bis predecessor. PHOORCSS OF nCLIOIOUB LIBKBTY. It may bo easily conceived that James was not so successful a ruler as Elizabeth. The truth is, the po- pular spirit had lieen gaining such force iu the latter years of that princess, that it would have required a stronger instead of a weaker sovereign, to keep it In check. During the whole reign of Elizabeth, there had been rising in England a party called the Puritans, who wished still greater reforms to he effected In the church, and carried on their devotions in the same manner as our modern dissenters. Klizalieth looked upon the Puritans as her greatest enemies, and enacted many severe laws against themt by one of which It was declared, that any person found guilty for the third time of merely not attending the regular church of the parish, should be punished with death. Per- haps no one ever suffered to the full extent under this bloody law, but it may give an idea of the general se. verity with which the Puritans were treated in this reign. A dissent from the church, indeed, was looked upon at this time hy the higher powers as a kind of re- bellion, and there can be no doubt that the Puritans, in struggling with these powers fora mere toleration of their simple system of worship, contracted ideas of natural rights and civil freedom, in the highest de- gree threatening to the arbitrary sovereigns of this age. It may even be said, that if men had not had the de- sire of a freedom in religious matters, and been there- by animated by a zeal which despised all worldly dangers, there would not have l>een so early or so [H>werful a spirit of civil freedom \ for men could never have contested for that object with the same eagernesN or constancy, seeing that it rested upon less intelligible principles, and had not such a sacred end in view. Elizabeth had been able to keep the Puri. tans in some measure in check ; yet, as they were constantly increasing in numbers and confidence, the succeeding monarch found it far more difficult to evade their demands. James, in fact, while he inherited all the apparent powers and prerogatives of the Tudor princes, inherited, it may be said, a people always becoming less disposed to obey arbitrary rule, so that this well-meaning monarch has been more blamed for the simplest exertions of what he thought his rightful authority, than Queen Elizabeth has been for the most violent ; among which may be reckoned her open con- tempt for the House of Commons, and her occasional imprisoning its members when they attempted to ex- press their independent opinions. THE GfXPOWDFR PLOT. One circumstance which greatly tended to favour the opening views of the i>eople respecting their li- be.'ties, was, that the Protestant faith was not now threatened hy those Catholic powers, in opposing which Elizabeth had been enabled to carry matters with so high a hand. The Protestant faith'being it- self secure, the people were now bent upon j)iitting it on an improved footing; and hence the spirit of tlie peoole was now chieHy turned against the high power of tlie church and the king. His iVIajesty, at the same dpie, was much troubled I>y the Catholics, of whom arespectable minority etill remained among his sub- jects, und who were grievously oppressed hy the penal laws enacted ugainst them. Under the intolerable pressure of a persecution, which transported men be- yond the hounds of reaiion, a few Catholic gentlemen contrived a plot for sweeping off the King and his Parliament, by an explosion of gunpowder from under the House of Lords, and which was to take place on the 5th of November l(i05. The gunpowder had all l)een properly stored in a cellar, und a man nameil Guy Fawkes was ready to light the train, when one of the conspirators, named Henry Percy, caused ihe discovery of the plot, by an attempt which he made, through the means of an anonymous letter, to with- hold his friend. Lord i'\loiinteagle, from attending the fatal house. Fawkes was seized, and confessed his intentions ; and the rest of the conspinitors fled to the country, where most of them were cut to pieces in eniieavouring to defend themselves. This plot is ge- nerally alluded to as a stigma upon the Catholics, and it is stilt barbarously kept in remembrance hy an an- nual celebration of the dav on which it was to have taken etfei't. In reality, it is a disgrace to the Pro- testants, or, at least, to the Protestant government of that time, since nothing but the severest persecution could have induced men to contrive any thing so re- pugnant to allthedictates of humanity. Jameshimself never could he induced to take advantage of it, as niont of his subjects desired, for the purpose of in- creasing the persecution of the Catholics. If men had then been as enlightened as they are now, and not smarting so much under the recent dread of the CHtludIc confederacies against Protestantism, they would have treated the gunpowder plot us only an awful lessim of toleration. TIIK SPANISH MATCH. The reign of .lames the Fir^t is not marked hy any of what are called great events. In 1U13, he lost hin eldest son Henry, a youth of nineteen, who was con- sidered as one of the most promising and accuinptislicd men of the age. The second son Charles tlicii Ipecanie the heir-a))p!irent, and James was busied for several years in seeking him out a proper match. The princess selected by hit Mi^ettv was the second daughter of Philip the Third of Hpain— « match not very popular, on account of the young lady being » Catholio, but which James thought advantageous, u tending to conciliate the people of thai religion, and also l>ecAUBe the princess belonged to one of the most powerful houses in Europe. Some delay occurring in the negotiations, the prince set out in 1022, with hie young friend the Duke of Buckingham, to visit the court of Spain in disguise, and, if possible, make per- sonal application to the lady herself. The prince and duke travelled under the name of John and ThomM Smith, probably for the very good reason that these were then, as well as now, the most common and un< distinguishing names in England. In passing throiiqifi Paris, the prince saw Henrietta Maria, a sister of the French king, whom he was In reality destined to marry. At Madrid, he was received with great dis- tinction under his proper character; but he was kept at such a distance from his proposed bride, that the Duke of Buckingham proposed to send home fora te- lescope, in order that he might obtain a peep at her as she walked in her garden. Some disgust finally broke off this match. CHABLEi THE FIHBT. James died In March 1025, in the AOth year of his age, and his son succeeded, under the title of Charles THE First. Elizabeth, the only remaining child of the late king, hk' 1)cen married to Frederick Prince Palatine of the Hnine, who was so unfortunate as to lose his dominions. In consequence of his having p'aced himself at the head of the Bohemians, in what was considered as a rebellion against his superior the Em- peror of Oermany. This discrowned pair, however, by their daughter Sophia, who married the Duke of Brunswick, were the ancestors of the family which now reigns in Britain. James was greatly blamed hy his subjects for not entering into a war with the emperor for the purpose of replacing his son-in-law— a contest which would have been very popular, in so fur as it had a Protestant object, hut was otherwise unadvisable. James was also blamed, in the course of his reign, for successively giving himself up to the company of trifling young men, who became his fa- vourites, though they had no other recommendation than that of an agreeable aspect ; indeed, his fondness for these favourites — the most remarkable of whom were Roliert Carr, created Earl of Somerset, and George Villiers, who became Duke of Buckingham — can only be accounted for by supposing him to have prematurely fallen into a state of dotage. Though a man of much natural talent, and still more learning, he has left the general character of a timid, weak, and undignified prince ; he was so good-natured, however, that, notwithstanding the frequent contests he had with his Parliament, he never became decidedly un- popular. One of the first proceedings of Charles the First was to marry Henrietta Alaria of France, a Catholic princess, who is supposed to have exercised a great control over her husband ot every period of his life. After breaking off the proposed match with the Prin- cess 3fary of Spain, Britain e^igerly threw itself into A war with that country, which was still continued. To supply the expenses of that contest, and of a still more unnecessary one into which he was driven with France, he applied to Parliament, hut was met there with so many complaints as to his government^ and such a keen spirit of popular liberty, that he was obliged to revive a practne followed up by other kings, and particularly Elizabeth, of compelling his subjects to grant him gifts, or, as they were called, benevolencet ; and also to furnish ships at their own charge, for car- rying on the war. Such expedients, barely tolerated under the happy reign of Elizabeth, could not he at all endured in this age, when the people and the Par- liainent were so much more alive to their rights. There was, therefore, a great deal of discontent over the na- tion. The Commons, seeing that if the king could NUpport the state hy self-raised taxes, he would soon become independent of all control from his Parlia- ments, resolved to take every measure in their power to check his proceedings. They also assailed him respecting a right which he assumed to imprison his subjects upon his own warrant, and to detain tliem captive as long as he pleaseit. Having made an inquiry into the ancient powers of the crown, be- fore these ptnvers had been vitiated by the tyrannical Tiidors, they embtriiied the result in what was called a Petition of Kioht, which they presented to him as an ordinary bill, or rather as a second 31agna Charta, for replacing the privileges of the jieople, and particularly their exemption from arbitrary taxes and imprisonment, upon a fixed basis. With great A\U tictitty ('harles was prevailed upon to give his sanction to this bill (1028); hut his disputes with Parliament S(H)n after ran to such a height, that he dissolved it in a fit of indignation, revolving never more to call it together. AUnit the same time, his favourite minis- ter, the Duke of Buckingham, was assassinated at Portsmouth, and Charles resolved thenceforward to be in a great measure his own minister, and to trust chiefly for the support of his government to the Kngi lish Itierarchy, to whose faith he was a devoted ad- herent, and who were, in turn, tku most loyal of his subjects. His chief counseMor was Lauil, Archbishop, of Canterhurv, a man of narrow and higotted spirit, and who made it his duty rather to ineraase than to diminish the ceremonies of the English churchj aU CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR TITK PEOPT.E. iH' 1 !«j iH though the tendency of tliiHi|{e WM decidedly favounUtle Co their dlmlnutinn. Ki>r tnrne yenn Charlei tfOTtmei tha country entirely m mu irreaponiihie drapoC, levy- ing tuei liy hit ii'nrn orrien, mid impritoniug luob portont m ware ohnoxloui to hhn, In utter dtflanoe of the Petition of Hiffhi. The Furitani, or chureb reformera, Bufferw! mont sevpf'Iy under thii lyiiem of Ihingi. They wero driiiffff.l in great niimban W- fore an nrbitrnry court called the Star-Chambar, which profrt««d to tak.> i-oK'iHuance of oirenoee agalnit the king*! prerogntive, niid agninkt religion t and tometiuiea men venernhle for )titfty> teaming, and worth, were fcour^r** ihnnigh the itreeU of London, and thtfir can cut olf, and their no»et alit, for merely differing in opinion on the intut upeculativs of all Muhjecu with the king and hii clergy. The great body of the people Iwheld these proceedlnga with hor- ror, and only «ime opportunity was wanted for giving cxpreuion to the puulic feeling. It is to 1>e o!>fterved, thntnone of the taiea impotedby Charlei were in theniiulvea hurdeiisume ; the country was then in a most proRperous amilitlon, and the taxes far Icsi in proparti>in to every man's means than they have ever nmce Iwun, It whs only to theprinclple of their Wingriinod without Purliameutary sanction, which h^ formerly been su npcewiarv a control on the royal power, that the people wore jisptwed to resist them. It may easily be sup|Hi!ie(), timt, though there might be a general disposititiu to rebistance, the most of in- dtviduuli would not like to Ik* the firit to come for- ward for that purpose, as, in surh an event, they would have been sure to experience tho severest persecution from the o>urt. One mnu, however, was at length found — and let it never t>e Torgotten that his nam? was John Hampden — who was determined to undergo any per&nnal inconvenience rather than pay his twenty ahi'ilings of ship-money. The case was tried in the Exchotiuer (l(ht7); H>>d as the judges were then dis- miuable at the roy^U ptenxure, and of course the hum- ble servants i^ the king in every thing, Hampden lost the dav. He roused, however, more efTectually than ever, tlie attention of the peo{.le to this questi.m, and means were nut long wanting to check the kiug in his uufortunuu* career. ' TBOVBI.rS IK SCOTLAHD. An attempt had Unm made by King James to In- troduce the Kpisropal church into Swtland, because ft was thought dangerous to the Kugliah church that a fonn nf worship, rewmhling that of the Puritans, should I>e permitted to exist in any part of the king's dominions. Tho same object was prosecuted with greater seal by King Charfex, and although the peo- ple were universallv adverse to it, be had succeeded, after a visit which lie paid to tho country in 1633, iu aetlliug thirteen bishops over tlie church, by whom he hoped to govern the dergv as he did those of England. But when he attempted, in 1637, to intnxlucea Dook of Common Prayer Into the Scotch churches, as a sub- stitute for extemporary prayers, the spirit of the peo pie could no ]i>nger be kept within bounds. On the Liturgy being opened in the principal church at Edin- burgh, by a dignitary styled the Dean, the oongrega- tinn ruse in a violent tumult, and threw their clasped bibles, and the very stools thev sat on, at the minis. u>r*s head, and it was not till tlie whole were expelled by force that tlio worship was permitted to proceed. It was found uei-i>ssHry by the Scottish state oflioers to withdraw the obnnxiuus Liturgy, till they should con- sult the king, who, not dreading anv mischief, gave or- ders that It should l>e useil as he hai) formerly directed, and that tbecivilforcetihouldbeemployedin protecting theclergymen. It was found quite impossible to obey such an order in the face of a united people, who, by o>mmittees asst*mMed at Kdlnhurgh, representing the nobles, nuniitcnt, gentry, and burghers, endeavoured to awe t'.e king inbi an abandonment of all the late in- novations. Charlesendeavoured, byeverymeansinhis p^'Wor, to avoid such a humiliation, which he calcula- u>d would give immense force to the innovaton in England. But the Scotch, when they found him hesi- tatlng, iKiund themselves, March KCtU, under a bond called the N'utional ('ovennnt, which was slgrv hy nineteen-twf ntieths of the whole population, t. . Mst their sovertign in every attempt he might m.iko to bring in np m them the impurities of Popery — for such they held to l>e thi; forms of worship and errlesiastical government whirh (Charles had lately imposed uiwu their church. The king sent his favourite Scotch roiinsellor, the .Mnniuls of Hamilton, to treat with hit northern suttjrctK ; but nothing would satisfy this devout, and, nt tlse of gaining time, in order that he might make warlike preparations against his refractory peo- ple. The asse m bly met at (jlasgnw In Novemlter, and, sa roight have been expt^cted, formally puritied the church from all the laie innovations, exoommnni eat- ing the bishops, and dei:laring the government of the clergv to rest, as formerly, in the General Assembly, which consisted nf a selection t^f two clergymen from each presbyterv, with a mixture uf luy elders, and no one to control its pr«K-eed'ngs but the divine foun- der of the Christian rRltglon. Karly in the succeed- ing year, the king hnd, with great difficulty, collected sn Army of twenty thousand mr*n| whem he led to the 18 border of Scotland, for the purpose of reducing thefte riespisers of his authority. The Scotch, however, strangtliened hv devotional feeling, and a certainty that the Knglisli, in general, were lavouraMe to their cause, formed an army equal in number, whii'h was placed under the command of Uetternl Alexander Leslie, an otHrer who hid served with illstinction in the h>ng Protestant war carried on aguiiist tho Kin- peror nf (iermany. The Scottish army was en- camped on the tfip nf Dunse Law, a hill oreHmiKing the iMuder, where the duties of military p'lrade were mingled with prayers and preachings, such us were never liefore witnessed in a camp. The king, seeing the wavering of his own men, and the steadfastness of the Scotch, was obliged to o|>en a negociation, in virtue of which it was agreed to disband both ar- mies, and to refer tho disputes um-e more to a Uene- ral Assembly and a Scottish Parliament. The king now adopted a new policy with the tur- bulent people of Scotland. It is consistent with the self-love ot a king, who, by mismanagement, has brought his nenplu into n state of rcsistitnre, to sup- pose that it IS not so much the discontent uf the mass, as the ambition of the leaders, tliat causes the insur- rection. In realitVt the leaders, with all their ambi- tion, are but the creation of the mass ; beings called Into existence or at least into action, by the general sentiment. Charles, overlooking the radical evils al- together, thought that he should uvcrcumo all opposi- tion, if he only cotild gain over the uuhlrs who had hitherto taken the lead. He accordingly called a num. her of them to his court at Ilcrwick, and, by blandish- ments and prnniises, endeavoured to make them his own partisans. He was successful only with the Karl of MontroHC, an ambitious and unscrupulous per- son, though of great abilities, who was alre.'dy dis- satisfied on account of the ascendancy of tlie Karl of Argyle. Montrose is henceforth fmind at the head of a royalist party, which gradually begun to gain strength. In the new Oeneral Assembly and Parliament, the votes were equally decisive ag:tinst Kpiscopacy; and though Charles prorogneil tho lutter body Itefore it had completed its prweedings, it nevertheless sat still, and vot^d every menaure which it thought ne- cessary. Tho king collected a second army, and, In order to raise money (or a second attack upon the Scots, was reduced to the necessity of calling an English Parliament, the tirst that had met for eleven ye.irs; but Anding it bent upon the redress of griev- ances, he thoourht lit to disHOlvo it, and trust for sup- plies to tho clergy, and other friends^ arbitrary IHiwer. The Scots did not wait for his attuk, hut, in August 1(>40, marched into tho north of Kngland, iu the expectation of being suppijrtcd in thi>ir clitinis )>y the English jwople in general. Throughout all these proceedings, the Scotch professed, and were no doubt sincere in professing, a rational loyiilty towards the king, and only avowed a hostility to A rchbJNhop liaud, the Earl of Strafford, and other royal counsellors, whom they professed to c^msider as alone blameable fur the differences between the king and his jieople. On the '2Bth of August, the Scotch were opposed by an advanced party of the royal army at a ford on tho Tyne, near Newhnrn ; but they forced their wav through all imj»ediments, and, driving the Englisfi before them, took ptiaseiuion of Newcastle. Charles and his minister Stratford tried every means of excit- ing the old hostile feeling of the English against the Scuts ; but common objects in civil and religious liberty had now rendered them friends, and iMith nations con- oeived themselves tu have no enemy but the king's tyrannical counsellors. Animated hv such feelings, the English army showed a strong disinclination to meet the Scots on the Acid, Insomuch that the king found It necessary tu abandon all hope of reilucing the latter people to ultedience by arms. He once more opened a negotiation for peace ; and it was schoi after agreed at a council nf peers, that all the present dis- sensinns should be referred to the Parliaments uf the two countries, the Scottish army Iteing in tho mean time kept tip on English pay, till such time as they were satisfied with the state cif their alToirs. ■ ITTINO OP THE LONU TARMAMKNT. Tlie English Parliament met in Novcmtwr, and im- mediately commenced a series of measures f4ir cA'tT.- tually and permanently abridging the royal authority. There was even a largo party, who, provoked by the late tyranny, contemplated the total atfolitinn of the monarchy, and the esublishment of a republic. Ke. ligion wai to appearance the moving-spring of the re- volution. The destruction of the Episcopal sytitem was anxiously desired by an immense party, who con- ceived that large benelices, and a connection with the state, were inc^impatible with pure religion. AH were alike furious against the t'atholics, but evidently not so much from a sincere fear of that body of Christians, as the oonveniency of setting them up'for the nlijecis of popular alann, and making all revolutionary acts appear as only so many necessary safeguards against their madii nations. The Arst acts of the Parliament had little or no Immediate reference to Scotland. The Earl of Strafford wae acctised nf treason against the liberties of the people, and executed. William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, anotlier xcalons otmn- ■ellor, was impeached and imprisoned, hut reserved for futtsre vengeamv. The remaining ministers of the king only saved themselves by flight. Some of the Judges were Imprisoued and fined. The abolition uf Kpiscopac) \wis inkfii into coiisiiieratimi. 'i'lio (.»- tholics fell under m severe persfcullon i and even the |>erson of the queen, who fwlonged to this faitli, was not considenNl safe It was not till August 1041, when the English Parliament had gained many of Its obie^^ts, that Ihev permitted the treaty of peace with Sr.*i,!:ind to Iw fully ratlried. They then gratiAed th* troopa, nut only with their full pay at the rate of L,HA<> a-dav, but with a vote of no less a sum than L.300,0CNl bt'iidei, of which L.ttt),(MM) was paid down, as an In- direct way of furnishing their party with the muana of future resistance. The king, un liis part, alsotouk measures for gaining the attachment of this furmida- hle body of soldiery, and of the Su4Utiih nation In ffu- neral. He had agreed to he present at tho meethig of their Parliament, iu the autumn nf thin year. In his journey to the north, he paiied through the iinny iit Newcastle, and accepted an invitation to dinu with (Jenernl Ijeslie. On his arrival at Edin- burgh, August 14, he sqtiared his conduct nu)st cart-- fuUy witli thu rigour of I'resbyterian manners. In the Parliament he was exceedingly complaiBanti h«i at once ratiAcd all the acts of the precednig irregular session ; he yielded up the right of iinpointing thu state officers of Scotland t and he ordained that thu Sc4ittith Parliament should meet once every three years without regard to his will->4in Immense [xiint in the claims of freedom. The men who had acted most conspicuously against him In the late insur- rections, now became his chief counsellors, and he seemed to l>estow favours upon them exactly in prr»- poriion ti> their enmity, lie createtl General Lcslin Eiirl of Levcn, putting on his coronet with his own hand. Argyle was made a marquis. Many others received promotions in the peerage. The oriic«s of statu were distrilaited amongst them. Thus, it wilt bo uliservod, the uAVctionsof the Scots were in a man- ner set up to auction l>etween tho king and his Eng- liKh Parliament, and from both did they reeeivo considiThble gratiAcatiuns. Put wlrle thus Intriguing with the covenanting leaders, (.'luirh's tilso kept up a currespiuidence with tliat royalist party which had been embodied by the J'InrI of .Montrose. This nobleman wui now suffering co[iAnement In Edinburgh Castle, fur his exertions iu favour of the king. In th^ anguish of disappointed iiuibition, he concocted an enterprise In thu old Scut- tish stylo against the lives of his political opponent*. The king having refused his sanction to thu scheme, ho seems to have resolved upon executing one uf a less ferocious character, without his Mujc.tty's know- ledge. Tho AJarquis of Argyle had all along Iteen the prime object of Afontrose's antipathy, and the fKlitim was now shared by the AlarquiB of Hamilton, who at this time held a nearly (H)ual place iu the Scot- tish councils, and by the Earl of Lanark, his yownger brother. These three noblemen Alontroso intended tu be suddenly sei7^, and taken on board a vessel in the Firth of Forth. On the same night, his friends were to surprise Edinburgh Castle, and endeavmir to bring about a complete revolution In fa^ur of the royal cause. The plot was detected, and the three noble- men retired precipitately to the country. Charles himself was tho only person who suffered : the scheme, though probably unknown to him, was universally laid to liis charge, and it intnaiuced suspicions of his sincerity, that tended to neutralise the effects of his late favours, and also to afford matter uf reproach t4> the English Parliament, who had of cuurso viewed his j(uirney to Scotland with great jealousy. After spending about three months in Scotland, the king was suddenly called away, in consequence of in- telligeiuo which reiiched him from Ireland. Thu Catholics of that country, who formed the great majority of thu population, and had for many years groaned under the oppresnion of the Eni;Iish, he^ame infected liy the example of the Scottish Covenanters, and resolved that they would also endeavour to obtain toleration and equal rights. Their pru- ceeiliiiga led to an intestine war, during which the greatest cruelties were perpetrated on both sides. Though the itoor Irish were struggling for both na- tional and religious freedom, thev gained no sympathy from the patriots of Britain, w)io, on the contrary, urged the king to suppress the Irish rettellion, being afraid that a religious toleration in that country would be tni^ousistent with the same privileges In tlieli'own. The Scottish Cov*'nanteri immediately sent over a large body of troops to assist in rivetting those bonds tipon the Irish from which they themselves were just emancipatei). It is by such traits of exclusive feeling that the reli^rious sects of thin age diminish their title to the sympathy <'f an enlightened posterity i for iUs invariably found that the persecuted became the |P« secutor, whenever it obtained an ascendancy. How this dispute with the king grew wider and wider, till it etitled in o|>en and general war, and how at length thu litwrties uf the tlritish nations were se> cured a^Mtust the power of the crown, wiU form the subject of a future sheet. * FniMRCRciH: Prlntrtl anil PliblUhcil by W. nnd R. riiAMPKna 1*1. WircTlfxt I'liuvi sl«o by \V. Oa«, PatfrrKwIcr How. I,»»n. don I Riiil W. Cuanv. Jun. and Co. Snrktillc Mn-ct, Dublin. Sol.) liy Jolm Moclrtx), OUignw, and all uttwr Bttukielkn tn Snalaiid, Kngland, and IreUnd. "rHAMHKRR'a iMrOflMATIOM rOR TM* PtIIPM" Will be COfl. tinuwl onw a fiirtnl,!(.t (•vury aliemne WiHUieMlsv). Knch nuin iH-r will c(m>iit i.r a illiunct and (hirurvia wmS or a potiular a:id hiititictlve naliirc frh-r thrrt-iuylfprncf. St«r«otyped by A. Kihkwood* St Andrv* Street. Edlntmxgh. JL^, CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOK THE PEOPLE. No. 3. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE "EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Pricb Hd. HISTORY OF MANKIND. nrt. Cdliitmistt. INTRODUCTION. Ir the hiitory of one mun, whose life hat been divenU fled by adveniureif be Intereiting to hli fellow man, how much more Interesting must be the history of the whole human racet viewed as the coUeotire members of one family, the branches of which have extended throuffh all regions of the globe t By ancient records, by monuments that have l>een preserved throiigli the revolutions of ages, and by numerous other kinds of evidence, we are enabled to look back through the mist of time to that remote period, when this world was in Its Infancy, and when man had only Just gone forth, like a labourer at day-break, to commence his arduous pilgrimage. At first we behold him, an Iso- lated being, standing alone on the yet unpeopled earth ; then we find him increase and multiply his ■pecies, build cities, invent arts, and disperse into different and far distant countries, where both his N>dy and mind become assimilated to the most opposite extremes of climate. At every step of his progress, we observe his character modified or changed, by the effects of external circumbtances operating upon the peculiar pliability of his nature. In one position, we find him degraded Into the condition of a savage ( he lives naked In the forests ; his food consists only of the roots and herbs which grow wild in the fields; his time is passed in the repose of sloth-like Indolence ; or his actions are wild, fierce, and brutal, prompted by the darkest and the most unhallowed passions that can rend the human heart. In another, we observe him surrounded by all the glowing luxuries of civ'liiation ; his person is swathed In gorgeous •Ilks and golden tissues ; his steps rest only on the softest carpets; his bed Is swelled with luxuriant down ; his table loaded with all the doHracles which the animal or vegetable creation can provide ; ho is attended by a retinue of his fellow-creatures, habited as beings of an Inferior order; he has been born to fortune, and Is, perhaps, the envied scinn of royalty ! But, Instead of takiug either of these extremes, let us look Into the origin and history of nations ; let us view man as he existed in ages far remote, and as he still exists in all r^ons of the world. Purely it will afford us no ordinary interest and pleasure thus to trace the stream of our existence, through all its devla* tions, down from its fountain head. If we could read the history of our own race aright, how much would It contribute to our own happiness ! for every condition in which man may be found must suggest its own moral. Here do we see huw energy, activity, and industry, have delivered him from the miseries of savage life, and surrounded him by all tlie comforts that are required to redress his wants and satisfy his desires ; there do we observe how misgovernmcnt may enthral the most civilized society with slavery, and how excessive luxury may undermine the stability of the proudest empire. In the one instance, we read the lesson whii'h shouht urge us to subdue and govern our own individual passions ; in the other, we observe ilio elucidation of thaa political principles which can alone link nntioii t^ation in the bonds of peace and friendship. ORIOm OP MAN. That man did not exist from all eternity, hut was created, is obvious ; for we see that nations increase accordinfr to a certain rate of progression ; so that the further we recede In our calculations, the more we must reduce the existing number of inhabitants, until we reach a period when only a single family could have existed. But this Is not all : a more con- clusive proof remains, which is, as it were, lettered in the structure of the globe itself. M'e find that this •arth is constnicted of numerous rocks and soils, laid la ngular luooession, one above the other — the lowest belAf tbo most simple, and tha oldest i the highest the most complex, and tha most recent. Wa ob- serra, In Ilka manner, that there ar« various gra- dations of living beings—plants constituting the lowest, man the highest link In tha chain; be- tween which extremes, we And fishes, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds. Now, when the structure of the glotw is examined, it appears to have undergone pro- digious revolutions, all of which have been more or less destruotive to the beings which were then in ex. Istence. We fiist find rocks, wherein no remains of plants or animals are found. We next find another series, where the remains of plants and the simplest kind of animals abound ; then we excavate the bones of reptiles, birds, and numerous quadrupeds, each in successive strata; yet the remains "f man we do not discover. At the present time c* are con- tinually opened, which appear to have been the abodes of wild and savage beasts, proving that when they prowled abroad, mankind were too few In number to subdue them. Animals multiply quicker (generally speaking) than the human species; and before the flood which Imbedded their remains, they had wandered far Into the woods, extending their dominion over the greater part of the unln- habited world, while the human race, few In num- ber, was confined to a single region. Since, then, amidst the vestiges of those great revolutions which have occurred in the globe itself, we do not find the bones of man, btit only the remains of Inferior ani- mals, it Is evident that only few of the human species could have existed when these catastrophes took place ; therefore, the multiplication of mankind must he (comparatively speaking) very recent i but let not this be misunderstood, for all we mean by recent. Is, that, in the sight of eternity, three or four thousand years are but as a day, or as a wave In the bosom of n passing stream. Accordingly, there was n time when man first be- gan to exist : that he did not create himself, is ob- vious ; therefore ha must have been created. The tales of the gravest philosophers on this subject rival in extravagance the most ludicrous nursery stories that ever beguiled the ear of childhood. But it is unne- cessary to enter into these absurdities : it only re- mains for us to ask ourselves — by what kind of evi- dence are we to explain the origin of man ? When we examine the human body, we find it com- posed of many parts, all of which harmonize together for the production of a certain system, exactly as the stars we seo in heaven, by their mutual relations, com- pose tlie system of the imiverse. But no examination of the human body can elucidate Its origin. The ana- tomist may unravel its most intricate machinery, and lay bare, with his dissccting-knife, the course of the minutest nerves — the physiologist may explain how the structure of the eye may be adapted to tlie sense of sight, and how every organ has a stnicttire appro- priate to its particular use— the chemist, when death hn^ sealed down the eyelids, and the vital spirit has departed, may, in his turn, analyse and explain the principles which composed the decaying frame — but not all their combined sagacity can approach even to the remotest explanation of how these elements could m arrange themselves as to produce an organization so comjdete and so perfect, that its contemplation alone cannot fail to humble the pride of the most daring philosophy. Since, then, no eff'ort of ingenuity can solve this mystery, nor any examination of the body itself alTord us the slightest assistance, there is only one other kind of evidence to which we can have re- course — it is the evidence of History. The most ancient history in existence was dis- covered about the fifteenth or sixteenth century be- fore the birth of Christ, and is thus described by Sir WllllamJones, whose knowledge of eastern languages, and extensive erudition, are of the highest charac- ter t— " The oldest composition," says he, *' perhaps In the world. Is a work In the Hebrew, which we may suppose at first, for the sake of argument, to have uu higher authority than any other work of equal anti- quity that the researches of the curious had accident- ally brought to light ; it Is ascribed to MusAii, for su he writes his own name, which, after the Greeks and Romans, we have changed into Moses. After de- scribing, with awful solemnity, the creation of the universe, he asserts that one pair of every animal spe- cies was called from nothing Into existence ; that the human pair were strong enough to Iw happy, but free to be miserable ; that, from delusion and temerity, they disobeyed the Supreme Benefactor, whose good- ness could not pardon them, consistently with his justice ; and that they received a punishment adequate to their disobedience, but softened by a mysterious promise, to be accomplished in their descendants."* Trusting, then, to this historical testimony — which can only guide us through this and other perplexing mysteries — we must come to the conclusion that man was formed by a Creator ; and although it Is not ne- cessary for us to advance any further proofs in sup- port of this belief, we may observe, that, notwith- standing this account is handed down by tradition, yet the events which took place before the deluge have been transmitted to us almost as directly as any of those which took place after that epoch. This wa« occasioned by the very great longevity of the Patri- archs. Noah lived some hundred years with thou- sands of persons who had conversed with Adam; and Abraham lived with Shem, the son of Noali ; so that from the time of Adam to that of Abraham was com- paratively no greater a length, even for tradition, than from our father*s grandfather to ourselves. The birth-place of man — or that region of the world in which he was created — has attracted much notice ; and, independently of all higher authority, natural historians have come to the conclusion that both men and animals originally migrated from Asia. The il- lustrious naturalist Linn»us says, that the " hill of creation" exists in nature, not only as a single accli- vity, but as an extensive amphitheatre — a constelhi- tion of mountains, the arms of which stretch out intu various climates. In the early history of the worid, while other parts of the earth were covered witli water, or presented only a dreary surface of bogs niul mo- rasses, the high land of Asia was already crowned nith forests, and abounded with multitudes of animnN, which have since dispersed themselves into every lati- tude of the globe, llcre roamed in freedom the wild ox or huffulo, the musimon (whence is derived our common sheep), the camel, the wild cat (from wliich our domestic cat is sprung), the jackal!, wliich (l»y intermixture with the wolf, and even, as some suppose, with the hyiena) originated our domestic dog; the rein-deer, the sagacious elephant, the cunning ape. Here, too, the grape, olive, pomegranate, orange, anil all the most luxuriant fruits, grew wild. In many places even corn ^rew spontaneously. In this de- lightful region was man created; here did our first parents enjoy the brief sunshine of primeval inno- cence ; here all was happiness, until their disobedient^ to Heaven's high decree '* brought death Into the world, and all our woo ;" then were they driven forth, under the Divine pleasure, to till the land whencu they had derived their own existence ; then commenced the sorrowful and perilous wanderings of the hum:iii race. The world wsj all before Ihcm, where to chooso Their place of rcitt and Providence their gutdp. ' — • AitsUo Researches, Vtd. III. p. 4S^ h III m^ IBB MUtTirtlCATIOM AMD DUFIMIOK or MAK. When iiiiiiklna tiiul mIiiM IdM ymn' »ii nvtiit took pl»ce, lo •wful 111 !n imnire •ml lo Wrrllile in iu COI1K111HIK1H, tint ill vmlIgM ni«y yot be trefed on tlie lunimlli of llio lii)[liml inoimlAiiii end ill the liwonia of llie lowllml vullici. Tlie huniAii rw*. lllieell other miiniali, in tlie lienlnninu, w" ireetwl both male •ml feiimle, for llie olivioui (HirpoM ut ro|in>dM04lon 4 •lid belnma the |«-ricMl of the fell Hid tliat tt llw Maud, we lind tliat niniililnd hud iiicreiuid k> a link dlKloua anioiillt, owiiiu I'artly to tlio vtry ((rrat Ion- fovlty to wliiih man" of tlie aulediliiviiuw etutlued, ■lid partly to tlie nuiiieroiii iiitermarrlaifM which tlif 11 look place. All iiationi, even the iiiuit unlettered, hsee lome irwiitloii of thii diuilroiii erent, which 4aetrayed the whole kuouui raw than axlitiiu, with the rAcrplioii of Noah and hia three loni, witn their wiv.a, who, eicapiiiK in the ark, and taking along with llipiii inch aiiiiiiiiU an weru lifcei iry for the re- uoimlatiou of the I'urth, runiaiiied In •. Vty until the ark reeteil on tlouut Ararat, which aiirnlliea the " Sloiintiiin uf Uenwiit," and ie uue of the highni luoiinlHlni In Armenia. M'hen the wateri had luhilded, and the fare of the •wth benme again nnrovered, Noah and hia famllv took lip their abode in the pUini of .Sliinar, whwe It •ppenn they dwell in leiita, which were the kind of dwellingi tint adopted, and iiied until lonie of iLeir de- acendanU liegan to liiilld liouari. Hare Noah punned thearlofhiulJandry: herchli fiimilyilirreaieillnnum. bera, and remained for aliout 180 yi-ara, when the con- Anion of tongiiea t.Hik pliice, and they were diipened iaio different ami diitiint reglont of the earth. The confuHion of ton^ci did not atfecl the isxiie uf iiheni or Jiinhet, but .hat only of the iinpioui Ham. To deacribe the roiitei which tlie different (froupa tiKik, la not nece«farvi but it muit Bp|>e«r obvioua, that, aa the dpocendanta of Kliem and Japhel yet iindonlood «aeh other, they would unite inlii fmall aocletiea, and continue Ui practiae llioie arti which had already been ac<|uired s while the deaieiidants of Hani, not under. •landing each other, would trpiirule, ami degenerate Into a utate of barliarimn. The dearent of mankind, orl. Hinallyfromaainglepnir, and themultijdiiation of the familiu of Noah, may Ihi proved, by aritluiuitioal calcu- lation, to have lieeii Jullicient 10 aupply the earth with ita present number of inhabitanta ; nay, bad not wan, plaguea, and famlno reduced the p..piilation, their 4e>(«ndannalonewoiild have ovor-peoiiled the world.* Here, therefore, we ihall aimuly explain how the muU ti|ilicatian and diapenion of tlie faniiliei uf Noah gave riae to uumeroui natiuna. Khcm, Till Son nr Noah — Hia >an> ware 1 Khun, Aahiir, Arphaiad, I.iid, and Aram. The Ttgian In icAiiA Ike/^ mipru/ci/.— The loiith part of Alio. TVic nofieiu to which Ihefgavt riie — The Aaayriana and I*eniaiit. Ham, the Sok or Noah — UUaoniwerei Ciiah, Bliiraini, Phut, and Canaan. 7'/i« rtjiiom to leAuA (/i«|r niyratoit.— Africa and the %Veat of Aiiia. The tuitions to whi-h Ihry gare rite — Cuih gaee ri«e to the l;iliuipiani, and American irihiHi; Sliaraim, to the Kgyptlaua, ('yreniana, and Lybiana. Japiikt, THE tioN ov NoAii. — IHh Rona Were : (lo- ner, Magu^, Madia, Javaii, TubiU, ^Icahech, and Tirai. Tkt regiom lo which they migrated. — North of A«ia and North of Kurnpe, The natiom to whieh they gutie tier — f iomer gave rile to tliedaula, (iennuux, and CcltMi Afadia, to the lledes; Javan, to tlie loniaiis and (ircckii; Tabal, to the Simiiiardl t Meahech, to the Jluacovitei ; Tirai, to the Thraciani. Beaidee the direct dUpernion of mankind through the region! of the globe HpeciliiNl, they were occaiion. •Uy dinpcried to detached islanda hy arcideiitul rauaea. Coiik, Fiinter, and other celebrated tmvellera, liave refniirked, that partiea of aavagea in their canuet mult often liave loat tlieir way, and l>eeii driven on diatant •liorea, when they were forceil to remain, deprived both 4if tlieiiieunsaiiiloftlicreuui»ite intelligence fiir return- ing to their cotintr%'. Tmis, Captain Cook found on the island M'ateoo'tbree inhabituiitiof Otaboite, who bad been drifteit hither in a cunoe, although the die- taiice between the two ialiinda ia live hundred and fifty roilcn. In Itilili, twocanoes, containing thirty peraoni, who had left Aiicors..!, were thrown by contrary windi and Btormi on the iiil;iud of .'^amar, one of the Philiu- ptitea, at n diatance of eight hundred milei. Captain iieer.hey, in his late voyage to the Facifiv, Call iu with CIIAMnEUSS INFORMATION FOR THE TEOPLE. — - — — - --- - m\ . m • Hebrew calcuUtion. t " Varioui bit (Kp wtyi," tay< fiUcuhfUiw, in hii IlUtopr of Ihc nUilr, " which hav« fxim «tU'm|tte«l t»y lcAm«il nirti ti» th»>w tlic mulMlile iiierpMv uf inxiikiiiil. Fnr imr iireMiit pur|M(H', it will W iufTit-icnni>»ui'|">«»'. ihal ihi'flr.l i(irc«-ix»uii!c*. i.r. Nimli'n thrw nmt and ihtir wiv«, in twetiiy ynn »fti-r tfir flim»|, ^ll^:ht twvtf thirty tiaii i anit, by Itu! gHHluiii iruTciuv of ten |iair fur vavU «nup)r. ill forty years' MTue, t)irre would, Iti (tirn' lititMlrril anti forty yean nff-r thu IIwmI, Imvi- aiiMiii a ■ufHi-wiit nuiiibet lo ipriiKl coloTiio* ijvcT the (.irr of ihe wlinlf farth," In aurtrt^ iwrtft of NfNIh AtnvTu^ the pnfnilnllmi ti nippnard Iu d(Hibl«iloelf every tWFtit\-ltti.- yt^r«. In lIiujimt I717> tlie liuuiaii flu1))'ft wpri'OJiii|)utid Ht iiol niiire than li>,rinii,iKii)i in the vnif ITftl, a tpaceoffony-k.M \r-Hr<, tht-niini)ier» wt-rc L'tMUi.dilli. thU la duultlinii, In no fiivf nirabic i;Iiiiiiit>r, and ilurntK wvn llu^ iI«vmU- tkm of many blcxMly wnn. \Vt(li :hi,> niplil liicrvaMf of ih« )M>|m- laUrin oftirwil llritaln, every i-er^oii i« wi'll auiiiaiiilctl t but how miuh faali^r iiiu«t ini'ii h.i\v iiiulii)ilit-d at tltr |W!ri(Hl we arc 'vin- Ll^mc, when thecliinalf wa* iiHiie f.iw>iir:il)lr, U>e h.'ibitaof titeii « aopiiulk-MedA Ukd Itwa chei-ka \o pointlatiaa cxiustl I 18 ■om* nutlvM 1^ lh» Coral Itliiiid»» who hiul b«f ii In a •ImlUr m»nnar lurried to n frreat illiUiii-a fnmi tht*ir n«tl%e country. 'I'ltvy liml («l, tu the iiiiinl>«r of H Imiiilratl ftiiil lil'ty miiila, lii threw thiuhle niixw*, frtm Arttft « Vkmki lilHutlt littHti^ irfio«l 4hrite hi«i«it>M mll«> tu tk« wiitwiinl uf Utahaltc. TThvy wvra uvertiiken hy tie iiioiirihiii, whii-h tliaportod tha t'kiiooi t Kiul, after tli iviiig thmimliuitttheoL-eiin, th«y «•*• kft bti-nliBt'il, *>otliM» II gfMt iiiiinhfr of frrMiti Mrlthtd. Tw« 111 lh« raniwi «(*ru never heard of, cmt Iha other wni drllted rrmn one uiiinhHliitetl liUnd to another, at rui'h of which the viiy«)(ere ohtuinrU a hm pniviaidMa \ and al l«n|rctH alUr having wan4er(*d fur a dwtanea of ela huudroil milea, ihay war«i found, and carried to their honiM iu the lUoiiioni. Kotxehur, when inveitlt^nting the roral iiilfi uf lUdack, at the ea«em extremity of the rRrollna Iilfii, hccnniM ac- ifUftiiitttd H'itli 11 (HTSon of the iihiiio of Kadu, whtdlitaiU, from whu-h hu had heen drifU'd with a party. Kudu tind three of hit cuuntryineu one day left Ulea in a iailiuf; boat, when a violent itnrm arose, and drove fthain out of their eonne t they drifted about the open w« for eight nioiitke, aeoordinfc tu their reckoning by the luuon, making a knot uu a M»rd at etery new mtMiu. Being ex|wrt iiihenitcu, tbey »uhiiiU'd en- tirely on the prmluce of the lea, aiul, wheu thu niiu fril, mid in at much wnter aa they had voKiels to con- Cain it. Kadii, thu beat diver, frtMfiwntly went down deep into the wii, where it li knoivn tlmt the wutttr ir> nut Mi lalu Thus, with a C4H'oi-iiut ahetl, with only a Hinitll o|Hruiiif(, he iM'ciuionully ridiev(>d itiiir want. ^Vhi'ii they rcni-JKHl the iileft of HadacU, c\ery hope, and almost ft*i>liii>f, hud died uithiu tht'in ; thi>ir huII had Umtf liet>n d"Htroyed ; their rnnoe had long been llie iimrt uf windi and wa\eii ; and they were picked up by the iuhahiiattts of Aiir, in a ttate of inaentiiiility ; but by the iitiapitahlecnre of thtweinlundttri, they iiHin recovere«l. and were reitoreil to pttrffcl hcnlth. "Acti- dentR linulnr to thete (sayi I'rofestuir I >^urth America t **> that man, ev«n in a rude ittue of iw-iety, ii liable to lie Aciittered involuntarily by thu wiiidi und wuveii ovrr the f(h>b*), iu a manner tinguliirly nimloic"iit to Uiat iu which many planti ant) animal* are dlffuaed." There ii yet another fuel coniierfeed with tlie diMioriMiin of man norliiy of our nntii-«, beuauie it eaplaint huw ho may have entigratiHl Into couiitrieK whiih Np|>var now far separulod from earh othi]uakpR. Voltaire hns triumphnnily askfd how man could have cmiKrHtcd into Ntirth Amerirn { but, in- de)»eudeut uf the explanation Just given, navigators have dis4'ovi>red thiil the north-eHst piirt uf Anu'rica in very nearly coimected with the nortb-vvcRt part of Asia, thu distance lietween the coasts being so trifling, that iHith men and nuimala may even yet pass auroes without much ditticulty. Thus dmts the pntgress uf kuowleilge triumph over thu doubts and errors which our ignoruut-e and credulity too often upraiiie ; nor do we despair of a time ubuti truth will raiiil'lisli her do- minion, and mv! faith prevail throughout the world. TiiK i:xTruvAi roHM Of MAN — Ills sTATrnr. All the prtNlurtions of nnttirc'— no matter whether weonntentplatt* thecuriuuMly cauatnicted fabiicofBiii. mul IhmImm, the ttriu-turu uf plmits, or thu regularly arranged |>arliclesof mineralit — Jireiii thcii.Hclvca pur- fitt ; and, us if Jt wcic int 'ttlt-il that the eye of cvt-ry obbervaut hciiig ahnuld bu grathii'd, all we behold neema to huvf bfen innulded iu a cjist of bi'autv such as imiKt iu every instance excite udniiratioTi. In the veget:ibl« kiiigdoui— frtiui tlte «>ak of the forest tn tlu* gracefully drooping willow of tlie vailoy, from the rarest iUKvor of foreign clinir!i to tho uioit cuinmun weed — wu ttchold tho muKt flgreealile variety ; so, too, in thu animal kin^duni — from the Hoiim iiiid tigers which prowl wilil through tho woi-{HMtts that creep ahmg thu grass or desert sands — Ikiiu the eagle that builds its eyrie on the loftiest clilf, down lii the little humming-bird which flits about like a motu in a stiuheum— all we tee excites wonder and admiration. Virior iutelligcuce. Let u%, then, proceed tn examine the various pertiliarities by which tlie human frame it distiiiguishud in dilferent regions of the world. 'rhu variiihlf stature of man first claims our atten- tion. Iu this ciMiittry, the a^fruge height of men is live fi'ct fight iuchcH;' tho nverni^e hciKl.t of women five feel live inches; and all who uxceuil or are bu- • Thcluv l)r Jt'hndtmUinof lliik vity u iurauf nt b isthcr uiiuTP ths ticrs^ H-tVt.«, tlMt tliis inra* neath eliber uf these meMurementt, may be contl- dered above or below the ordinary standard. In the temperate climate uf Europe, the stature uf the biu iitan race may bu said to vary from five fret and • hulf to six feet I hut In the high northern latltuda^ where tho growth of anlmiilt ami vegetablet ii checked by thu intensity uf the ctdd, the stature of man It low. 'Ihe iMplanders, (ireenlanderi, and Ksquimaux. art ■11 very tliort, meuurlng oitty from Atur ut m UtU« al)ds'u liee fctttj kit them la no unlfermiey between any prirticular rlimale and variety of human ttatttiw. It ii true that the Liiplander Is short, but the Nor* Wfgian, living iieMrlv la the aaoie latitude, It tall | so, also, wliilo thu Ilottuntots, living in thu south of Alrica, uru very short, the Calfres, a neighbouring tribe, are tall, robust, and muscular. In Asia, th« rhineeA and Japaneie are neerty of the some ita« tore as ourselves | but the Mungtds, and some other trilies, are remarkably short. The Inhabitanta of America present us with very striking dilferenoei. In the regions north of Canada, the tribes are very tall ; ann>iig the Chrrokeee many exceed the helghl of six feet, and few are below live feet eight or teik inches. The western Americans uf Noutfca Htmnd, ne:ir the Columbia, are of low stature i so also ar« many tribes In 8outh America. The I'atHgoniani, however, who occupy tho north-eastern part of thU cuuniry, are uf prodigious ttaturo j mott of them u« six feet Hve or six Inches, and many eight feat high. liulividuaU of very reniarkuhle height have fre- quently existed, and umuiig them the following ex* itmph'H, which wo believe to bu well autheuticatedi niuy bu adduced : — rt In. Oiike John Kr^U'ric. nf Druniviclt, llanovtr, nwMurad • Oiieofihtt KInit nf |'ru.t\lmn ■ 'It An lilaltiiiaii (tkelrtou in the l^udoa CuUogc) * 14. A Daiiuh fviiialc, nunu-d I,a I'lerni - - .70 Rut while wo call to rccol lection those and other gl. gnntin portonages, we may also remember, that a re* nmrkable diminution of stature it likewlie frequently olttervtlde, Hil ' , Ki.^ iifritlsnd. TnrsunrtHl mtty 33 IncttM (Fvensll) ilomilajiki, a I'tilUh noblruiaii (ikilk-d Iniiiiuiy LiiH;u<*Ket) • - - - Xn iln, do. < Stubuii), » famaW Ui Nurembtrg • 9 fast. in sinne instaitoae, these varieties of stature appear to have t>een hereditary t thus, the father and titter uf the gigantic Reiuhardt. above mentiuned, were gi* ^untic ; tlie parents, brothers, and sisters of Stobena, dwarfs. It is well kmnvn that the King of Pruula liad a body of gigantic ((uanli, coniisllng of the taD- imtmen wlio could be collected from all the oeigblioiir- ingcouutrius. A regiment of these man waastotionady diiriiiglifty years, at Potsdam. "And now,** sayi Fav- Rter, ** a great number of the present inhabitantt of that \i\vkV9 are gigantic, which it more especially strlk* ing in the numenmi gigantic tigurei of woiiien, and ta certiiiiily owing to the ciMinecUmu and intermarriagya uf tliesu'tall men widi the fumalut of that town." All such cases, showing an excees or a diniinutioa uf the duvelopunu'iit of the human body, may be re- garded as irregularititfs of nature, or at sueciei of monstrosities. Aecordingly, those men who baro much exceediMl tlie ordinary standard, are generally ill proportioned, and have not puMessed tlreuj^th cor- responding to their sixe. In general, in such c^««e. the nervous system seems as if lusufticient to supply with muscular vigour, or intellectual energy, the de- mands uf thu pretematu rally eiaed body. It may indeed be remarked, ilint a tort of healthy balanoa should uxist between mind und matter; and if, tliere- fure, from the original fornuitioii u( the body, or from liabits of luxury, the human frame make too great a demand on thu nervous iiiHueuce by which all Ita parts are animated, the mind itself must he enfeebled and impaired. l>warfs are, for the miait part, tha viotimsuf disease; they are iu general ill^nade ; their heads are very large, and their powers, plivhical and mental, very feeble. It may lie concluded, then, thai few healthy well-made men,' having sU the attributes of their race, will be found ta exist who are much almve or much lieJnv the average height uf their fel- low-C4Muitrymen. The causes which produce tlketn varieties of stature are not well understood ; huts flotihth'xs, a simple mode of life, nutritious sustenance, and a snhihrious atmosphere, will be found to favour the full, healthy, and natural developeinent of the human botlv. The inHiience, indeed, of thesficouaait may be well illustrated hy the ibllowing ohservatiuns of the traveller Harrow ; — " There it perlmpj^iio imtiou on earth,'* says he, " that can prutlu^Pao tiiio a rare of men as the f 'nffres ; they are tail, ntout, musrular, well-made, excellent figiires; they tiru exempt, indeed, from many uf those cauiea which iu more rivitized societies rnntribute to Impede the growth of the biHly ; their diet is simple, their ex- ercise uf a salutary nature; their body it neither cramped norcovured hy clothing; thu air they breathe is pure; their rest is not disturbed by violent lovf, nor their mitols ruflU'd by jealousy ; they are free from thiise liccHtious np]>eltt'es which prowed freijuently more fnnn a depraved imnginntion, than a real natnru want ; tlieir frame is neither thaken nor enervated by the iiseof iiituxicuting liquors, which thevare notaa- quaiiited with ; they eat wlien hungry, aiuJ sleep whan nature demnnds it. M'ith sm h a kind of life, Un- RiHjr and uielnucholy can have little to do. The euuntenanca of a Calfre ie alwmye ehearful, and Ihe ( I HISTORY OF MANKIXD. ^li, may be coniL itaiidaril. In lb« lUturo of tha htu iiii llva fret and » iiortlieiii Ulltudaa* giitulilft ii chetked ture iif tiiiu) ii bw. (I KiqiiiiiiHUX, ara rni fcur It* a lllUa iiitfarniiaf batwaen uf human itatara. fiort, but the Nor- I latitude, Is tall i iig hi tilt) louth uf in, a neighbouring lar. In AiIh, tha of tha loma ita- lii and Bonie other he inlmliitunti of rikiiitf dilTerenoee. he tril>e« are very exceed the height 3 feet eitfht or tait uf Ntwtka 8ound» ituru; Ml alto nr% The rntHgonlant, utem part of thla \ iniMt of them are y eight feut high. height have fra- the folhiwing aa- vuW Hutlieaticatedf m. n IndiM ni|mrlitg the imall Welwh CMllle with the largo llerefordHhire cattle, or theHhettand pony with the tHlUbarked maren of Flanden. In the interior of ('tivlnn, nernrding to JMr Pennant, there I* a imall rarlety of the home, not exceeding thirty inrhen in height ( no, Iini, in the Iiland of Celahei, a rnt'e of hiiffalnei ii found, not ex- oaading the ■ixe nf nnr rmnmnn nhcep. The Ptiilniin fowl, likewiiHt, l« dmiMfl the aixe of the common fowl ; and we are all aware how the Bantam breed le priced fur ita imperior lize and iitrength. The human race han been iiippoMtl to hare degtnie* rated In stature { many pfrsons, inderd, hellei'ethat man are now much nhorter tliun tlioy M-pre at a for* mer period in the hlatnry uf the world. The .Scriptural atatement, thut " there were giants in those aays," has, indeed, given rise to much UHelosi disrussiou ; for while nimiu have maintained thut all men be- fore the deluge were giants, others have argued, mora correctly, that no giants ever existed, but f.hut the term NJniply refers to men noted for their crimes, and the violence they committed. There Is cartaiiily unreason to suppose that thegeiierril stxture of man ditfered hufore the flood from that which wo at p-^sont obser\'e ; yet, that some few very eigantlc men did exists is recorded on authentic testimony i nor, from the Instances above mentioned of men of extraordinary stature, could such occurrences he re- garded as marvellous, or out of the ordinary course of experience. The remains of Egyptian mummies nreiorved from tha earliest antiquity prove satisfactorily that the sta- ture of the Kgyptiaiis did not exceed the ordinary haiglitof tha human raoej many of these being five faat six inches, Ave feet eight inches, kc. Besides which, from the helmets and breaat-plates preserved, from the buildings designed for their accommodation, and from monuments and works of art that have es- caped the vicissitudes of ages, we may be satisfied that men were not formerly any taller than they are mt present. Immense bones have often been dug up, and exhibited as tlie bones of men, wliich, on inspec- tion, have provfd to be those of animals. In lul3, the bones of the great giant Teutohacbus were shown through Kurope ; but these, on inspection, turned 4nit to be the bones of an elephant. It Is remarkable, that even the great natural oistorlan DuflTon fell into ft ilmilar blunder, which hat been corrected by Blum- enbach. It Is a fashion with all poets, and with early histo- rians, who often encroach on the land of fable, to describe giants as origiiully composing the nations whose praises they sing, or wtiose history they record ; bat such narratives are, for the most part, founded only on popular tradltltms, which have been some- timaa suggested by superstition, and notunfrequently by the premeditated craft of interested and better in- formed persons. To excite the energies of the people, and to goad them on to war, their leaders often repre- aented their enemies to them as gigantic beings, who would destroy them, unless they prepared themselves for the most enterprising and daring feats. Every po- etic hero or heroine is yet expected to undertake some marveUiMis achievement — to encounter some appalling danger — to surmount some tremeudotis obstacle : hence, in Fletcher's introduction to the H'ortfitf CUi- gen and his ir(/>, the Ktiiglit of the Iturning Pestle ii made to ask what the principal person uf the drama ahall doK~.to which the following pithy desire is responded ^-." Marry I let him come forth and kill a giant r* THE COMrLKZION OT MAK. As the Inferior animals over which man claims do- minion, present us with diversities of colour, rorres- ponding to the climates in which they live, ro does the human race present us with certain varieties of onmplexlon, in all the different latitudes of the globe. Beneath the burning raj's of a tropical sun, the com- plexion of man is of a deep jet black, as may Iw ob- aerred in the numerous trilws of African negroes ; hut as we proceed from the enuator Into more temperate climates, the complexion loses its darkened hue, and passes through all varieties of shade, until it becomes delicately fiiir. If, passing from the extreme of heat to the extreme of cold, we extend our observations to the highest northern latitudes, we sh»II there find that tlie human body becomes nf a brownish or dusky hue, ■t^^as may be observed in the I^aplander, Oreen- lanner, and Ksquimaux. We may, indeed, establish the following classification of complexions: — 1. The white. 2. The yellow, or olive-coloured. 3. The red, or copper coloured. 4. The brown, or .'iwnv coloured. 6. The deep ebony jet black. The original complexion of man has nfi^orded matter for much speculation ; but the general opinion of those who have examined the auhject is, that he was not, as we flatter ourselves, of a white or fair, hut of « dark complexion. When we consider that man was created in Asia, there is no extravagance in conjecturing that his complexion may have lieen of R\u'h a cliaracter. Many persotis have argued that such varieties and contrasts of cr)mplexion as are observed nmniig dlfl'er. ent races of men, could not have arisen from external drcumstances ; wherefore they conclude, that more than one speciei of man must have been originally 10 f-reated. Hut the truth Ih, that the influence of light, heat, dry or nioiiit air, food, soil, artlfiriul bnblti, and very ninny other riiuie«, which it Is difflrult even to enumerate, may, rlirough a long surreKsJon of ages, have efl^erted these ihnnges. We have a proof of this In the Jews, who am undoubtedly derived from one parent stock t yet the Kiiglish Jew has a fair com- plexion, the Portuguese Jew is swarthy, the Ameri- can Jew is olive, the Arabian Jew i^ rnpper.colmired, and the African Jew Is black. Ilin*, then, we dls- tiiirtly see the Influence of climate on n people, who seldom or never Intermarry with (rthers of n dilferent sect, and who have presorved their }ieculiar character, as a diHtinrt nation, entire, amidst all the other In- habitants of the world. Kveu in this country, the Influence nf ellmate on the complexion Is very obvious, as may lie notii*wl by comparing the countenance of the rustic who toils in the oiten fields, or the senman who traverses the '* hnundle<(s plains nf orenti," with tliatof ttie literary man In his retirement, or the mechanic, who, from sunrise to sunset, tolls in a manufactory, (.'ompare, too, the daughter of n rich noble, who has had the mis- fortune to have been born an heiress, and Is educated for the display nf her beauty in tha fHshhmable world, with the daughter of the cottager, who has, from her childhood, berti accustomed to exerdse in all wea- thers ; in the unr, the skin is exf|uisUely soft and smooth, and emulates in whiteness the purity of the winter snow; in the other, the skin Is less smooth and fair, and the tinge of the life-blood Is seen man- tling below itt the one is a complexion Indicative of a delicntn or perhaps sickly constitution, which can- not withstand a winter blast or a summer shower; the otaer indicates a being continually cheered by the conscious and animntiug glow of health. In a foreign cmmtry, where the sun's rays fall more directly, and, therefore, with greater force, on the earth, exposure to their influence tindouhtedly tans and darkens the complexion, as may be observed In all those who have returned from a long residence In India. Kven among the natives in Africa, the women of the higher classes, who live much under shelter, and seldom expose them- selves to the sun's rays, are of a lighter complexion than those who move about in the open air. It may be observed, too, that negro children, when horn, are as fair as Kuropeans, and gradually afterwards become black. Besides this, the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and other parts of the body which are concealed from light, are not so dark in the adult African as those that are more exposed. Here, too, as In many other 'nstances, a striking analogy may be traced between the causes influencing the complexion of man, and those influencing the co- lour of animals ; for as plants and flowers spread forth richer hues in the cheerful light of the sun, than they do when drooping beneath continued clouds, so do the l>irds and animals of a tropical climate wear a gaudier plumage and a gayer covering than those which are destined to live in the snowy and gloomy ri'gions of the north. Within the tropics, trees and plants ge- nerally attain the most luxuriant growth, and the air is often loaded with delicious perfumes. Here the pea- cock, the parrot, and the bird of parodise, sport tneir beautiful plumnffe; and thetigerwithhisbrightstrlpes, the leopard with his spots, and the lion with his noble mane, seek the solitude of the forests; where, too, serpents, with the most glowing and daazling hues of skin, may be seen either reposing beneath the bougha of, trees, or not unfrenuently turning round thtir trunks. Kven in Dritain, birds that ny by day have a brighter and more varied plumage than those that ouly venture out by night; as may be seen by com- paring the featliers of the goldfinch with those of the owl. Animals, too, such aa hares, rabbits, mules, &c, which burrow in the earth, and conceal themselves from light, generally assimilate in colour to the soil tlicv frequent. Nor does climate limit its influence only to tlie colour of animals ; it alTects the texture and na- ture of their coverings. Hence 'the dogs of New Guinea are nearly naked ; those in the northern latl- tudes are covered with coarse woolly hair. In Africa, the wool of the sheep degenerates' into coarse hair. The colour of the plumage of birds, when domesti- catei!, undergoes many changes. Some singing birds — principally thme of the lark and finch kind — are known to become black when fed upon hempseed. Owing to the varied influence of such causes, where- soever wo rest our eye on the lurfaco of the globe, there do we behold a character peculiar to that region, not dependent nlone upon the relations of its moun- tuins or its vallies, its lakes or its riven, but on all aniin:ite nature — the trees of the forest, the birds of the nir, the animals both wild and tame, and man himself, who, like the rest, in the succession of ages, hi\s localized himself, and found an appropriate na- bitation in every climate. EFFECTS OF ART IN CITAKOINO Tllf: FORM AND FEATUHES OF THE HUMAN BOnv. All nations, even In their infancy, have recourse to such customs and fiishions as gratify that feeling of vanity which appears natural to man. It la not aloue in civilized society that fashion exercises her tyranny ; she extends her influence over even the most uninformed of the human race. Savages almost universally delight in painting their hoilies, in hang- ing rings through their noses and lips; and the na- tives of almost all countries, at an early period of their history, hare undertaken to fashion particular parte and featun's of their iHMlies into a happier mmibl. In Infancy, eopeclnlly juit after birth, all the Ihmics of our frame are soft and pliable, and admit of being compressed Into shapes such us were never del signed by the provident wisdom of nature. The head, the face, the breasts, tha feet, and other parte of the human body, have hm-n subjected to the most capricious Interference, the Inquiry into which Is not so much a matter of curiosity, as of importance, be- cause we may hereby discover the origin of certain peciilUr appearances, which are now characteristic of particular roces of men. The bend, the ronfigura* tion of which, in early Infancy, is changed with great facility, has been submitted to mnnv nlterations In figure. The Hcythlans, as a sign o^ their nobility^ chose to have it shapeil Ilka a sugar-loaf, which waa efl^ectml by the midwives binding the Infant's head with cloth bands. Anciently, the women of Peru ha4 recmirse to this absurd fasiiion i so also had many Indians; and, that this form wkh occasionally trana* mitted to their children, is evident, from the birth of several infants, with this congenital monstrosity, bar- ing been recorded. A remarkable length ot bead, by other nations, was conceived a beauty. Thla the ancient Portuguese produced In the same artlfi. clal manner. The Hermans esteemed a short head as the most preferable, wherefore we are informed that the Oei*mau moth<>M took especial care to lajr their children in tneIr cradles In such a manner that tha back part of the head should be compressed. Other nations preferred round heads, a fashion which was affected by the Greeks, and also by the Turka, who considered It the most rommodi'mis form for the turbans they wear ; and the Turkish skull, at this day, It observed to be remarkably round. In the province of Old Port, In the West Indies, the men, admiring the square head, gave it that form bv compressing the infant head between boards, whion enclosed it on all sides like a square wooden box* The forehead has, in like manner, been made the subject of many capricious fashions. The Mexicana judged those to he most beautiful who had little fore- heads. The Spaniards, on the contrary, accounted a high forehead a happy distinctitm; wherefore tha ladies drew back their hair, to extend Its height be^ yond its natural dimensions. The Russians admired proad foreheads, to acquire which, they compressed the head from almve, so as to increase Its breadth. The Italians, on the other hand, endeavoured, by ar- tificial means, to render the forehead more prominent than natural. If possible, a more singular fancy pre* vailed with some nations, who were accustomed to tiurn letters on their foreheads. The ^Siamese, Thra- cians, and the people of Malabar, adopted this fashion; among whom, both men and women cut Into the fleih of their brows, crosses, letters, and numerous fanciful characters. A very receding, or sloping forehead^ has l>een and is still considered a beauty ny many of the African tribes, and this they give their children^ by making them wear a flat compressing ln8tmmen^ which has Iteen often exhibited in this country. Not only has the head been subjected to these ca> pricious changes, but the nc«e and the ears have like- wise been suliinttted to the ingenious contortions of fashion. " The Indians," says an old author, "have their noses slit like broken-winded horses." The truth seems to be, that they made an Incision In the centre, dotvn the length of tne nose, and used to keep the aperture gaping by pieces uf bone or wood stncK in as ornaments. The Chinese consider a short nose a beauty; but some tribes in Africa, and also the Pe- ruvians, reverted this decree of taste, and esteem a large nose the most desirable. The inhabitants of the island of Zanzibar turned the nose from its point up* wards, and thus gave It a curved upward direction. The Tartars, and Caflfres, and many tribes both In North and South America, took particulnr pains to flatten the nose In infancy ; and this still Is a fenture desired, and prevailing nmong most of the natives of Africa. In consequence of their king, Cyrus, having had a hawk-Hke nose, the Persiuux considered ttiia shape a mark of nobility, and adopted every artifice to produce it. This fashion, wo find, was also highly esteemed among the Romans, wherefore it has been termed the " Itomnn nose." Another very prepos- terous custom adopted has been that of lengthentug, by artificial means, the lobes of the ears, nnd the length to which they have been dragged is indeed al- most incredible, we are informed that some Indians, having extended them to half the length of their body, used to lie upon them, making them, as it weve, a couch to rest on. In the M'est Indies, among some tribes the same fashion prevailed, and the elongation wasetfected by hanging weights to thoni, which they gradually increased. The Ilollnnders adopted the custom, and decorated them with heavy jewels. The travellers Condamine and I'llon saw the lobe of the ear, in many Instances, hanging down to the fhonlder. Very large ears having likewise been deemed less asi- nine than at present, were considered beautiful, and diligently cultivated by being continually dragged be. youd their natural size. This the Caribs took great pains to efl^ect, as also did the inhabitants of Zanzibar^ as well as the Peruvians. Not only were the earx subjected to this species of torture, but many natlona esteemed it a very great beauty to have the lobe pierced with a large hole, the great dimensions of which con- stituted its principal charm. This was eff'ectcd by means of pegs of wood, the diameter of whlcli thejp gradually enlarged ; thla custom was adopted by thft CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i rii p«opIo iif MftlafTftr. " Th« K«nilt*wiHn«ti of Indot- tan.** Mjri ail Rnmtin^ old mithor, " Imvf* lh« rtapi or APtnar part of th« «iir« iHirfil whvn tlicy »rii jriHinir, which lh«y itally ttrrti h auH mako wltlir, liy thingi kf|)l III fur that purniiu>, uittil i( at Uat biN'oniM lar^e vnoUKh to buhl a riiiK an tiiff at a liul* aaiirvr, mad** fiir lt« ildra to r»tt tn th« Hcih i liMJdrt which, rouiid about thsir taia lh«y mak« othvr hulvs fur pwndant*, that wh«n Ihvy uleaM thvv mlt{lil «*nr rlnf(i In ihvm alao. Th* llraKlMan*, on tn« authority of M r Suiithvy, fnMrt ^Hirdi In th* tltia of thalr vart, and liu-rMiii them in iltr, until the flat ran 1m put iHnmich, and the eara reach the ihoulden. The praruce of wear. ln|( n.any r1n|r« In the mr waa romnion amiwf the itatUei of Virfflnla, ami)n(( the llraaillanai and many nationa. The cuiloiu nf pf*rforailt>t( the lidw uf the •ar, and wearitii( ear^ringa, it eitremely am-ieitl, and waartuidemned Itymany oldvr niuruljili, whoaltirnied that It would have Iteen nothiuff tn wear vaiit orna- ment* itbotit the net-k and hair, but that it wm moat abaurd and inunitn>ua to ** let them into their iHtdlet." M'e cannot purine thia tnhject further ; but may ob- •erve, thai we do not think that the beauty of the tiu- man form, inch ai we behold ll In the moat lovely of the femal* mi, ran be enhanced hv the dandling of any Jewel from the ear i but, a* our leamtHl authority quaintly obiervei, "the ron4*eit workeil very ttronK in their head who Artt IntrtKtuceil thia fuahlon."* Alm<»«t every i>enon baa heard of ilu> prartice uf tb* women of manv rouiitrieif who draw out and enlarge the h«M4im of tneir children aa mtm aa thev l>ec«ime dtr«lope«l t * cuitom which prevallml anion^ trie .Meal- can women, and it itill pracliaed by the IlindiMM, uho, while they carry their children on their back, afford them milk by throwinfr their boaom over the shoulder. It appeara, tiio, that thia waa once a ruitum amonf the Irith t for Meiib*el obtervei, that *Mha Iriih> women al thia dav (IttAS) would g\v9 tuck to their babe* behind their nai'ka, without lakiufc them In their armi ;" and addi, ** that their hreatia were ftt to be made money-baf^ for Kait or West Indian nierchanta, b«finf{ more than lialf a yard long." The l*ortU|rui>te of the prraent day are aaid tn l>e remarkable for the larve •iae of their iKMonii t while the Spuniah women, on tne contrary, take paini to coniiirrM thwii, and prt'vcnt their luxuriant ffrowth. Tne handi liavc been, in like manner, made notorioualy the luhjecta f»f timilar fantaalic inlerfervncei. The Iadt«i of l*ortU)(al were formerly ambitioui to dliplny long and narrow hand* ( wherefore tha handi of children were, In early yean, tiKhtly bandaifed, to prevent their Inereaae in breadth. The llindooa, ("bineie, and Kaquimaux, are remark- able fur their imall bands | the aabm oi the llindoua brouffht into Hngland have the bandlit too kntall fur the European hand. Among the ancient Spanish women, large hips went deemed desirable) to priM-ura which, they comprrsaett, with cloth bands, the neigh- bouring su|ierior and inferior parts of tht* InMly. In China, from the very earliest i>eritHl, small feet have been considered so essential to the beauty of personal appearnncf, that the custom of bandaging the feet of infanta to retard their growth prevails among all dasaea. If a mother, aavi a traveller, were to break Uila custom, she would Itirur the note of Infamy, and be punished. But while we are gratifying our cu- r'^siiv, and tmlle at three fantastical customs adopted by other nations, we must not forgot that we nave imnelres, even in these enlightened times, given way to cuHtomi as absurd, and as injurious to the healthy omdition uf the human tH>dy. It is not mun^ than ten or Aftetui years since the I^ndun danily, then known as the " Ilond Streot lounger," asnunieil in. variably a faslitonable stoop, lifting up the shoulders, and turninf( down the neck, till the chin nearly met thechesti and, ai If to ronvey a satire nu her own ■uhjecti, this despotic geni'is of fashion inuitediatcly afterwards reversed the onler of hitr decrees ; and then the same loungers were seen with their bodies erect aa ramrods, and their chests ituffisl prominently out, as if they were desirous of emulating the breasts of women. We are all too well iici|uninted Mith the false notion adopted by lailies, who fancy that a pre- Icrnaturally small waist contributus to the l»euutyand fracefulness of their figure; to ace considered ; but, in the mean- tima, it may be laid down as an axiom, that If we wish to give the UnIv a graceful form, we should encourage It* natund and healthy develupement, and allow all its CDUfclea full freedom of action. VAKlKTIEt or MANRIKD. Notw!thsUnding the differences of lUttire, com- plexion, and general habits exhibited by different na- V III* • Sea BiUwcr, whow smutltiK tvMik on this »iih)rct hv th* fUlow. felf 4toU title!—" Anihnipoinetwntrrphntis— Mm Traiuformcd— •r tha AftUMal ('tunircuru tli/torMiilly Pinrntml lu tht mad aad cruall OalUnlry, fim\itn Uiavrrjr, rkdkculoui Beauty, fllthy nnerlMt and loatlwifne Lovelliwut', ofmtMt Nstlmi* rMhrfmlag md aliKTing their BodiM ftura tht MouU taltndtd In Natunb* ^. a. MS3. 30 liona, tha whole human race, multiplied and dlsperaMl as It is through nil pnrls nl' tha world, ron^tllute but one snrciei t the ap})arf>nt varieties of which, ih'cm- siouea by tha InHneiu-e ol tliniate uiid other raternal circumstances, pass so littensibly, and by so many "hades, into one another, that ll is ImpiMsible to sepa- rata them by anv deflultu boundary. Ilul, mitwith- staitding this, philvsopliars have attempted to establish carlain vat'l"tfea of mankintf, aa If, Indeitd, there bad beau orNflnal and speciHc differences iH'iweeii tb(M« raeas of itien which appear sumawbat dllferent in ap> paarance from una another. It generally happens In science, that If one man start into a new path, and aunounca the discovery of facta before unknown, the majority of those who siircerd him C4intent them- selves with ri'itarating hia stalenietits, and found- ing iNt them the infvreniwa they wish to establish. Ilenve tha li'arne*) Matte llrun, ihu ingenious Law- rence, and aU who have written on tho history of man, follow, with little or no variation, the classiKca- tton prtt^Mised by the celebrated lllumenbach, who re- duces the human rare to Ave varieties i the Caucasian, the Mongolian, tha Ethiopian, the American, and the Malay. Hut ilie truth Is, that this and ail other di- visions are perfectly arbitrary, and we doubt nuich whether they should bo riM^eived. The dilfereuces so established depend principally on the various am- figurations of tha skull i but the truth la, that there Is almost u much dUTarence Itetween the skull of an Irishman and that of a Mcotcbman, oi there Is iMtween the skull of a Circaaslan and that of Mun^folian ; nay, not only in tha same country, and anunig the name Inhabitants, tnit even In the same families, the miMt remarkable differences. In the form of the bead and tha features of the face, are obaervable; yet we do not draam of classifying them into any definite order of varieties. Indeed It is very questionable, notwithxtaud- ing the greatness of his authority, bow far the accoi.nta given by Blumenbach, of the different skulls of nations, should be admitted t his observations weiv, f^r the most part, founded on Individual skulls, which can never be relied on as rcprcsenlintf correctly those of the bulk of any uatitui. M'e hold, therefore, that excepting as a matter of fancy, it Is no* right to speak of the varieties of mankind at all \ for, instvAd of re- ducing them to Ave, we ma make fifty of a hundred, in fact aa many aa our Ih^^nulty or pleasure may choose to suggest.* The method most agreeable to nature, perhaps, would be to describe the organlxatiun of man only in reference to the latitude or climate In which he lives, prtK'eeding fr«mi the equator to the poles ; but owing t«) the free communlcatli>n between nations, and the continual Intermarriages th^t «H*cur, every step we proceed is beset with difficulty. If we wished a specimen of the form of a Scotchman, we should not rest ctmtented with taking an individual who hap- pened to have Iieen born in Scotland, even from Scutch parentit t but we should Ini|uire how far his lineage liad been exposed to corruption, or gradation of firm, by intermarriage with the natives of other roun H'j; yet It if sufficient fur many, esteeming themselves obiervera of nature, to place aa specimens on the shelves of museums, skulls labelled ('bineu*, (ierman, Hindoo, simply l>ecause these skulls hap- pened to tie picked up In Ihoae countries, or t»elotiged, iterhaps, to individuals whose genealogy could never tie aHvrtalned. M'e know well, that, owing to the effects of climate, and many causen, some of which have lieen already referred to, the inhabitants of different parts of tne globe present us with vftrleties of stature, feature, shape of nend, pniportion of limbs, Ac. ; but it would be Indcisl hignly absurd for any person to pretend to establish distinctions of perma- nent varieties, by referring only to the differencei "bserrable In tha form of the head, which Is a part only of the human system, the trAo/e of which should lie brought into evidence. Here, therefore, 've shall deviate from the arrangement usually adv; at', and notice only some of those nations or tribe? -if ceople whiMe prn^ra/ physiognomy and hafiit* .^^ >a *•. enta- blish for them a prominent position Ir tho l^story of Man. ALBINOS. In Asia, Afrlra, America, and even in Furnpe, we occasionally meet with a very remarkable variety of complexion, which is exhibitc«l by those peraima de- nominated white people, or Albinos. 'Jiiu skin of these individuals is remarkably white; the hair, which in the European Albino Is flowing, h of a Mift silky texture, and likewise of a yellowiBh wliite, or crea:n colour t their eves appear at first of a rose colour, but, on examining the pupil in the light, are disco- vered to lie decidedly red ; the iiis, too, or that deli- cate fringe which surrounds the pupil uf the eye, boa a constant tremulous motion. Dnring our stay in f)taheite (says Captain Cook), we saw about five or six persona, whoae skins were of a deod white, like the nose of a white horse, with white hair, heard, eyebrows, and eyelashes, red tender eyes, a short !tight, and sairfy skins, covered with a kind of white down.** Mr iiankea and Dr Solauder thus describe an Individual seen on the same inland : — " His skin was of a dead white, without the least appearance of what Is called complexion, though some parti of his body were, in a small degree, lets white than others ; his aair, eyebrows, and beard, were as white as his • U. Vlrry tItvtdM the bumaa race Into hce speclMt Dflimou- fis Into Mvrn / Bory St ViDcmt Into Aftfrn. Such divbloos, and JMrMlNUvliMW, aie Ttry amualni; but IKtla briter than a i»> skin I his eyes appeared us If they were I and he appeitretl to bo very short sighted." ll«ra we may oMerve, that nature, aver pro\ ident In h#r deilgiii, has, in ronstrucling the eye, placed, on a par- ticnlHr coat within it, a dark ctilourlng inalter, fur the purpose of absorbing those raya of Tight, the In- tensity of which would otherwise injure the iterve of vialoii. It Is, we may add, this matter which gWea the eye ita peculiar colour i In some Initaiices It le block, 111 others brown, and, according toltsdltfei- ent shades, give* rise to blue, grey, lu xel. dark, or black eyes. Kurtherinore, we may observe, that there Is ge- nerally a sympat'iy between the natureof this colour- ing matter and the hair, whence pwtple with light hair have often blneortfreylsh eyes, while those with black hair bare generally dark or black eyes. The same principle is atsii observable In animals, among whom variety In the colour of the skin and hair Is occom- panieil bv variety In the rotour of the eyesf which may lie oliserved In dogs, cuts, rabbits, and other va- riously spotted or coloured animals. Accordingly, It la tha want of this colouring matter In the eye of the Al- bino which gives It the rose or red colour, and, at the same time, renders it painfully sensible to light. Ileno* a traveller, describing them, informs ui tnat *' they see not well In the sun, ptirlng In the cleareit day, their eyes being weak, and running with water If the sun shines towards them t ••> that. In the day time* they care not to go abroad, unless it be a cloudy dark day. Kesldes, they are u weak iHM>plti In comparison to the other, and not very lit for hunting and other laliorioux exercises, nor do they delight in any such t but, notwithstanding their being thus sluggish anil dull in the day time, yet, when moonshiny nlghta come, they are all life and activity, running about In the woods,* and skipping alHiutliku wild bucks, running as fast by moonlight, even In the gloom and shade of the woods, aa the other Indians do ny day." Another traveller says. ** They have this distinguishing pecu- Itarity, that they cannot endure the light of the broail day. While the sun is up, they cannot look steadily ut any object, and, during all that time, they contract their eyelids so, as apparently to exclude vision. But, In return, they are gifted with the faculty of seeing every object in the dark. Uy the HindtMM they arv liKiked upon with horror, and their bodies, like thoa* nf penuniK labouring under skin diirases, are cast upon a dunghill, or left to l>e eaten hy wild beaita." In Africa, among the black races, Albino negroee are freauently liorn ; they are looked upon aa great curiosities, and are often collecteil by the black kfnga, and kept as objects of wiinder and ornament. Uneuf the kings of Ashanteo is said to have collected nearly a hundred white negroes. Ilutfon hasgiven a mlnut4t ' description of a white negress, born In the inland of Dominica, of parents who were natives of Africa. 8h9 was not iiiiile Ave feet high, but well proportioned* Another is described by l)r M'lnterbottom, who jo- forms us, " that she had all the negro features, with woollv hair ni it dirty white colour, and a tkiu equal- ling (n whiteiM SM that of a European, without any thing disagreeable In its appearand or texture. Her eyes were between a red and white hazel, and not much affected hy light." Albinos havu been said to appear most frequently among ilark people, and In but countries; hut they may iM'cur among all races of men, and in every lati- tude of the globe. This jieculiarity Is nut, we may add, restricted to mankind, but often found among tha inferior auimiils, especially in the horse, cow, cat, mice, rats, and mole*. rVEBALD OR IMRTV-COl.Oirnr.D BLACK AHD WRITE FKOPLK. Nature presents us with so many varieties of pro- duction, both in the vegetable and animal world, that our incrcd'ility is often excitetl, merely because the re- lated fact happens not to be in accordunce with our own individual experience. This disposition to sceptlclnm should not be encouraged ; the duty which In such cases devolves upon us Leing simply to weigh well the evidence on which the narration hoa been founded. It is certain that instaiu'es have occurred uf people hav- ing been born pyebald ; that is, the surface of the body baa bfc«n found marked by blotches distinctly de- fined, and nut running into one another— exactly oa Is observed in pyebald norses, which are very common in this country. In theHO Instances, the prevailing contrast is tietween black and white. Thus, In tha Xoological Magaxiiic, we i-eod that a gicl was born in .Somersetshire, with the hair of her head of two re- markable distinct colours; after she had grown up^ ilack-^||t on the right side uf a carroty red. In SouthwaApa the hair on the left side waa that of a jet black- few years ago, a person was tiorn with the right aide of thehmly white, and the left side black ; another waa born with tbnlower half of the iKidy white, and the up- per black. Iiihtances have certainly occurred of negni women, who have been marriinl to Kuro{>eans, giving birth to twins, the one C4>mpletely white, the other completely black. It is impossible for any effort of human ingenuity to explain these Irregularitlea t but certainly they are not more wonderful than iiumeroua otlier monstrosities that have been recorded, and ttill occaa ionall y appear. TIIC PHOrOltTIONfl or THE HUMAH BODT AMD STRENGTH Of HAK. The beauty of the auman form deponds very much on the proportions which the head, trunk, ana linUifl li Ji ^Jt*!5V- HISTOHV OF MANKIND r wur* lilufNidMrt il|[))t«tl.** Il«r« |iro\fdtfnt In h#r , |iUr«tl, uii m |Mir« urintf iiinltBr, fur I i>f Tit(hl, th« In- ijuru thit n«rv« of liter which flivM n« (iiiuuiuai ll i» illng tiilu diffa;. wl.ilvk,ur bliuik «, tiiBt t\i9Tm li !(•• uni of thl* colour* pie with liKhl bftlr Dthoiflwithblftdi •y«i. Tha lame *\»t unong whom ihI hair ii ncconu thp »yt»i which Itt, niid othvr VB- Ai'i'nrdinKly, It ia th« tyeof tn« Al- '4>lour, and, at th« detollffht. Ilfliica It ui Uint ** thay tha claarait day, : with waUr If th« In tha dav llnti^ t ba a cloudy dark ipio in cum pari ion kunting and other ight In anv luch t hui ihigfTiih anti inoonihlny nlgbta running Hb«>ut In ildbucki, running loom and ihade of yday.** Another tingulihing Mcu- ligntnf th« broarf nnot look iteadlly imp, they contract [-hide vlilim. But, faculty of aeelng Illndooa they ttrm bodlei, like tboiw uet, are caat up(»n lid bisuti." fl, Albino negroea vi\ upon ai greac y the black kinga, >rnament. One uf ve cullectevell proportioned, rbottom, who jo* gru featuret^ with and a iklu equal- ean, without any or texture. Her to hnxel, and not moit frequently iintriet ; hut they and in every latl- not, we may add, imnd among the hortt*, cow, cat. ACK AMD WHITE varli-tiei of pro- ninml world, that y hniiuse the re- ;i> with our own tion to uppticifim ty uhicb in such to weigh well the liifn founded. It etl 4if people hav- le surface of the hui distinctly de- other — exactly u are very common I, the prevailing . Thui, In the gill wai born in head of two re* ) had grown up^ a jet black-J||t In Houthwani^* Ith the right aide Bck t another waa rhlte, and the up- occurred of negni lUropeanB, giving white, the other for an^ effort of reguloritiea; but ll than numerouB ecorded, and itiU m BODT AXO pimda very much trunk, aiM linbi liear |i»eaoh otht^ri mid nrtliti tlifreliii>*, Iuim* inki'ii great patni todDtfrnilrir thiino, wUU-U they Imvi- in \u-- nrral done by inriikurlng thtiu liiei that have Iwen eitt'cmml the wonderR iil thi'ir art. hut Ml many of theic Htiitui'ti are chIimrhI or diminu* live lit alae, and, tnure eaperiHily, «« every v^rirty ii iiburvable in the height and proportion* nf men, no mandiird lo taken c«n be univermilly npplirnbte i In- deed, no dellnttu ruleof Iteniit/ can Iw oat itilMit'd, for it Miuttt d(*pvnd entirely on the model wu inny rhd by which it In notirlRhed ; wherefore thoRo trlbei ilint lubRlRt on a itcanty and inferior diet have their growth checked, and become HI pmportiuned and uufeubled. The na- tives of New Holland are small In Rtature, with long and Rlender llmbR, which may be attributed entirely to this cniiRei for we are informed that their food is always of the Ijast nutrltlixis kind, and verv scarce ; indeed, the scarcity is often aggravated to all the hor- rors of actual famine, under wnlch they are reduced to the appearance of spectres, and not unfrequently perish. The stature and proportions of the negru nave often been compared with those of the European, by which It has been shown, that the trunk of the negro fs more slender, particularly almut the loins, the arm and forearm longer in proportion to the height of the body, niid the calf higher up on the leg. Hhilo the savngeH of New Holland have their legs so extremely bnig, the Mongolians and Amcrlcaus have their leg! and thi^bR t4H> short in prop Much ditTerences In the stature and proportloiii of the body iieceRsarily occasion consider- able ditferences in strength ; for, ns we have ob- lerred, it ii not on the height of the body, but on the Just proportions of all Its parts, that physical power is dependent. The art of training men to nui races, Agnt, lift heavy Wflghts, &c.. Is founded ^mtirely on the prlnciplt' of supplying the body with just sufficient Rolid and liutritiiniit aliment to support it, and to en- able it to undergo additional exertion. It has been often supposed tbiit man In a snvage stiite poRsesses a superior degree of bmlily strength t but this does not appear to be the fact. A French philosppher, M. Peron, made numerous experiments on this subject, which he communicated to the French Institute ; and these have been regarded as perfectly satiifactory. He took twelve natives of Van Ilieman's Land, seventeen of New Holland, tifty-six of the Island of Timor, seventeen Frenchmen, and fourteen Kng- llHhmen, and, by the aid of an instrument, which in- dicated by a dial-plnte the force of the individuals who experimented, he determined the strength of the arms and loliiR. The KngliRhmen proved the strongest ; then came the Frenchmen t after them the natives of Timor; then those of New tlolland ; and, lastly, those of Van Uieman's Land i hence It was fairly coiicluded that civillzatiim, always excepting its abuse in the luxuries to which It often gives rise, does not impair Imdily strength. Hesanguller Rtatei, that, by means of a certain harness which he has contrived, and by which every part of tlie Imdy was pmportlonally loadcu, 11 person was enabled to support, in the erect poRture, a weight of not less than 2(>(M)llm. ItcRldes the nature of the climnto and the quality of the TikmI, habits of exertion have n great intUtence on the developement of muKCuhtr power ; hence gymnnstic schools were insti- tuted by the niicientR, who encourogeil their children to Mrsevere in ustiig athletiu exercises. The South SennhinderR, by practice, are enahletl to swim about In the strongest surf, which would instantly destroy a boat or vessel. Alcn Rccustomed to running will nutstriu the S|>eed nf horses. The royal messengers of iRpanan, who are trained to running, go thirty-six Ic.igues III fourteen hours. And we are asRure, that daiuers have the calves of the legR fully and well developed, while uuggoners, who are atcuitomed to walk witliont duly rulslng the arch of the I'lMit, Nave those musctes very small and weak. Athletic exi''cises are at present very fushiunablu In this country, and the use of poles or clubs Is now common in almost all schools \ but It Is not to l>e for- gotten, that all inordinate muscular exercise is prejii- iliclal to health, and tends tu shorten the duratlun of life. When creav exertion is made, tite action of the heart ancT blmHl-vesRels becomes iiirreased] and when this Is often repeatnl, they become impaired. Hence blackHmiths are uarticulurly liable to diseases '- r tic men, who has devoted hit whole ' »(j . laiice of feats of strength, Is thrown upon a sick. bed, his whole frame becomes B|>eedily unstning, and rednce«l to a state of the must miseralde debility. Frlze-fighterR wrestlurR, men who practise violent gymnastic • .ses conti- nually, seldom or never arrive at old nget they con- centrate, and, at It were, bring Into a focus the whole vigour of their constitution 1 they are, for a time, aU-powerful and triumphant, but their victory is Rhort-llvnl, their pre-eminence not enrlablfl; they too soon And that they have exhausted the fountains of their strength, and must sink to rise no more. Kx- erciRe, moderate and healthy, and also gymnastic Hinusements, are not only proper, but esRential to good health ( but let them not l>e carried to excess — let not the bow b« too far bent, lest It become irrecoverably broken. TUB IMIIABITANTS OF AilA. When we consider that Asia was the cradle of the human race, It Is natural, in taking a general survey of the globe, to fix our attention on this region, which, although 110 longer illumined by the arts which once shed liver it n glory, still retains, even amidst Its ruins, sufficient vestiges of the past to excite our interest and anir^Hte our con'erT.nlatlons. Owing to the pecu- linraspet. of thisct'iir.'r -. wehere find every varietyof cllmatet spring, sii[iim<^r, autumn, winter, Heemhere to have chosen regions for theic perpetual abode, and may be found ciKexIsting Wneath the same sky In the same territory. It is no wonder, then, that such va- rieties of character should here be impressed on the yielding and susceptible frame of man ; that he In one district exhibits ail the energies of the hardy, bold, and fearless mountaineer or warrior; and that ho in another betrays all the effeminacy and weakness inci- dent to excess nf languor and luxury. CinCASSIANS AND flKOnoiANil. Proceeding on the principle of selection, we may perhaps with Impunity begin with describing those peonle who are considered to exhibit the finest models of tne human form, and wliose surpassing beauty has become proverbial throughout Kurope; wo alhide to those piirtlcnlar races living on the great chain and at the foot of the Caucasus — the former the Circas- sians, the latter the Oeorgians. Bliimenbach is in- clined to believe they represent what was the primitive form of man ; hut this, of course, is a mere fancy, founded only on the fact, that the human race was created in this region, and that here the human f(»rm seems to exist In Its hiffhest state nf perfection. The Cirrasstnn men, especially in the higher classes, are mostly of a tall stature; tneir form is thin, but Herculean in stnicture ; they are slender about the loins, have small feet, and uncommon strength in tneir arms. The women are distinguished by a white skin, regular features, and dark brown or black hair, which some travellers describe to he intermixed with red, con- stituting, perhaps, what we term an auburn colour. It is the ianhlon among them to compress the waist by means of Rtraps in early infancy, considering, like the Turks, that a very small waist adds to the grace or elegance of the form. Painting the face is considered to denote a want of chastity, therefore never prac- tised t but the girls are allowed tu dye their nails. At the foot of the Caucasus live the Georgians, who, like the Circassians, are considered to be the most beautiful women in the world ; indeed, one traveller assures us that they are more bea\itiful than the Cir- cassians, but the complHlon is not so fair. Chardin, describing them in tlie French language, says — " The Oeorffianraceis the most beautiful in the Kast, I may •ayi in th« world* X have not obiorrod an ugly face In the country, neither among the one nor the other Hux; they arti all angelic. Natnru has spread graces liver the most port of the women we hud no where else. I hidd it lm|M»(»ibIr to Ree n Ithoiit loving them; w« run neither puint more channiiig countenances, nor mure beautiful forms, than they possess.*' Rut whlU nature has thuR ui'tcd iheiu with ure.eniinence of personal bvauiy, slie has left them, like the Tiii-klsh tviiinen, in a stati* of inteltectiiHl and mortti degrada- tliiii, inasinuch ai they are deplorably Ignorant, and puKRHSR no nifiittil activity ; they have no Idea ufi n- merce, but indulge in that species of traffic from which human nature recoils, vix. the sate of their owi. rhll- drcn — sonftimes sold to gratify the animal pasRioiia of the purchaser, and sometinuts to be converted Into slaves. Till: TABTAIIS. The Tartars, who occupy Immense regions In Asia, present conRldenible variety In their perstuis, as well as In their manners and customs. They are distin- guished by large and wrinkled foreheads, very short noses, and eyes deep sunk ia the head. Their cheek- bones are high, and the lower part of their face very narrow ; their chin is long and .prominent, and their upper Jaw falls in t their teeth are long, and distinct from each other ; (heir eyebrows thick, and cover n purl of their eyes t their rkIu tawny; their hair black t and their bodloR of middle stature, neither strong nor robiiHt. Wf have mentioned the length of the teeth, a part of phyHiognomy seldom noticed, yet In Home nations poRsesRiugrharacterlRtlc differences i thus tha teeth of the KgypliniiR are found very thick, and the crowns of them obtusely cone-shaped ; the Incisors or front cutting teetli of tlie t^)us influence on the human frame In every lati. tiula of the ^Xoh^. C'umpare the stinted form of the l^aplandts wiili the hitray frame of the German .>r the Sii'iitch Highlander. The difference la verv strik- ing; but we luould no mnro doubt their being d«. ffcundant.** from the same stork, than we should doubt the identity of the same plants, which, transported iiitii a barren soil and told climate, refuse to put forth the same luxuriance na they exhibited in a more con- genial region. THE OliEKNLAKDEK. The OreenlAnder, Laplan ler, and Enqiiimanx, may either of them he instanced as examples of tlie charac- ter presented by the hitman form in those Hieary and desolate regions, where winter, arrayed in all her stemnt hnrrort, seema to hold an elerna! ""'tm. There, In diote snowy aolittides which appear fit only to he dift;tirhed by the prowling of the arctic bear, does man exist, shrunk and withered in aspecf, like the lichen* t.iat rliTiif C« the barren rocks by which be ia surroiindH. Here his frame, as we have else- were observed appears nf diminished size ; his stature seldom exreei's tlie height of (ivu feet, and has an ap- pearance of imbecility; Ma face is broad and flat; his cyet, nos«, aid mouth very small, and the under lip tsmewhat thicker than the upper. It has been ob- aerreit, that the expresaion of the coftntenfince id •omewhat similur to what we observe in thiseountrx', when the frAtuivs have been drawn in, and, ai \* wm, shri'.elkd by htienif cold. Tl r bodies are diwk gr.'V, but thotr face appeari more of an olive oolmir; tli(*ir skin is unctuous, and npfeaaantlyroldto the ton* h ; and their hair long, strui^ht, anil jet black. The fenale ronntenance, without prvtensiim to regu- lar beau.*T, is said to be often agrVeHlde. b— fng a fraiik and gi*od.hnmniired expretrton. \ hey are ex- trvmely nimble with ;Srir feet, an'', dexterous with Cheir lianda; they inBna,-*« their rjnoes with much ikni, and carry burthentt ->vhii'). we uould not lift. £uch it the appearance of man in these cold a-d fur- btddin;; >c-(^i.;r? Happier, indeed, is the lot of those briii in more temperate rlimatos, which alone are fa- vourable to the full devclopeu ent of those attril>utes which alone Kive man thnt moral and intellectual im- portance which raises him su high in the scale of cre;itetl DCfngs. 8C0TCHUEK AND SKOLIffllMCV. We have observed, that ihe human rare, having mi- {rnied fvimi the east, always proceeded to colonize the adjoining or iietghboiiniig ciiuntrics ; thus Cypms was peufled from the neighlxiuringrountn' of Asia, Crete and Sicily fromOreece, ZeUiid fromilennany. Iceland from Norway. Britain, in like manner, driivf«d its Inhabitants from Gaul, the pet^le of which, having crossed the Channel landed ou its southerly coast. These Gauls were dnccndud from Gomer, tlie son of Japhet, and they derived their name from Oie fiome- rit*. Much dispute has existed concerutng the ori- gin of the word Britaix. The learned ('aniden i'et are there some essential differ^ ences in the physiognomy, which amount almost to national iiecnliarities; insomuch, indeetl, thnt he who leaves Scotland to make n tmir through Ireland or Englan.l, will soon recognise the very marked diffi"**- ences ohsecvable In the persons of the people by whom he becomes surrounde*'. The frameof the Srrtchman is, generally speaking, hardle. , more robust, and stronger than that of the Englishman ; we might al- most assert thnt the liony skeHton of the one is made on a larger or stronger scale than that of the other — not that the difference may he appreciable in !.dlght, but in the compactness and strength of its construc- tion. The people of Scotland have generally high cheek bones, and their features are strongly marknl. The formation of their heads approarhea m .ich to what w >bservn among the Germans; that Is, *ue skull Is lifuad, and son.. .>'h.it flattened at the back. Thafea.^ tut'cs nf both the English and Irish herein present a marked .iifference, not only in the character of the face, but also in tha" of the head. Their features are less strongly brought out; their cheek Inmes smaller; the head, too, has a diffc^nt contour. Among the English, in particular, the head is more flattened at the sides, and 'ess so in its posterior region ; however, with them the tipper par* Is commonly rrell developed. With the Irish the whole .''rame and conntenaraehas a more active character ; their features are more va- riable — . vhould rather sav, breathe a greater va- ticty of expression — and their head presents a differ- ent con fiini ration, having the upper regie • just above the foren.ad (especially among the lower cl.issce) much depressed, and being narniwer In breadth than either i-;e Kogilsh or ScotcJi. While the whole skeleton of the English seems more slender than tliat tit the Scotch, the lilfereuce as in other nations is the most pcnvptibic about the hands and feet. It is cer. tainly the nistom in Scotland wi put children to v alk at a piuch earlier period tlian they do i.i England, which, we have no dotibt, Irrings out Into a strongoi d ^velopement the musiJesof the ancle and foot. Among ihti Imrer classes, the practice of going barei'ootetl also gives a coni-*e character to the feet ; for it may l>e ob- servr^) that all those nations which pride themselves on having small and de!icat(> feet, are careful to pru- lec* ibem from exposure. TheCiiinese, andee|>eciAlly the . ircaskians, always have their feet covered ; the former wear, when going out, boots of silk, satin, or cotton, and, when at htmie, loose slines or slippers made of silk stuff; the latter are especidlly OArefnl in using a covering for their feet, to which is generally added, when they go abniad, wouden cii^. TIIR INHAIIITAX'^H OF AFRICA. Africa, unhappily by its very name, siiggeits to our mind many very painful associations, such as are inseparably coiinocteu with tlie recollertlon of tliose abominable atrocities which bate lieen systematically committed fur the purpose of enslaving and oppress- ing many of its dcfrnriless natives, '>nd such as are also ^ssarily excited by the memok y of thi>s« enter- prisiiig and amiabie men who socrili ed their lives in vainly ftiuwavouring to explore Its sandy drkcrts, 'or tlie purpose of carrying the light of Ciiiisiian truth tjita the habicalious of .hose uuinstructed and unfor- tuiiMte Iwiugs who liv<^ amidst the gloom of its impe- Utttrablti forest*. Africa, ranking next in respect to its siu to Asia and America, was undoubtedly peopletl originally by tbe descendanu of ilia impious llam ; and while these ctmstituto what lusy be called the native inhabitant*, tiiera are, )>estdt«, nuoierou* races met with, wlrch niigrattd I'n^i Arabia, and other Akintic rouniriea. I (ere we Intd Aloors, '^urks, Arabs, Jens, and 'ar'oiis trilies, existing in a state of siR-iety that is involved In all the darkueh<4 ulnth must over attend on the want uf Chrikiii'U I'ivilix.'ition. We have not space to enter ititoacotiMileration of the condition of nttcient Africa; here we sluill kpcuk ontv uf the African negro, tbe slavHry to which he has lieen subjerted, and the im- pniveinent of which his moral and intellectr **! nature is sustepiible. THE AFRICAN NEOIIO— JfEORO SL/VCaV. Not only hftve .as African negroes Iwen forcad to sihinfl to all tbe cnelttes and degraiiations of rmUtU cij oppression, bnt even men of science, whosa mhids no |>rejudices ihould darken, liave endsavnured (o • nmotft ArauOs eftbe C s k H e more false, car* taiiily no prejudice more abominable, than this ; for although his skin may !« black, the heart that beats within his boiom still heaves and gnwns and bleeda under affliction, and is sensibly alive to every act of kindness and humanity. With the external form and appearance of the Africjin negro, with his dork complexion, depressed fr)rehcad, woolly hair, flat noso^ thick lipSf we are all acquainted, but we must not thence conclude that hi* soul cannot be illumined by on'« rav of Christian charity, aiKi that he is a Ikmuk proscribed beyond thellmitsof all possible civiliTAtion. Such a conclusion would not only be uncharitable^ bnt false ; for all travellers have agreed, that, not- withstanding thedisadvantages under which they hava laboured, notwithstanding the cruel deitpotism under which thev have writhed, they often manifest some of the kindliest feelings which can do honour to hnmaitity. If, indeed, we for a moment ask ourselves wherefore they cannot be put on an equalitv with other civilized nations, we sliail be sorely puzried ; for surely we do not recognise inherent disability in their depressed foreheads; for if so, how many of mirown fellow coun- trymen wmild be disqualilied for freedom, and At only to wear the chainsof slavery- ! Again: we surely can- not discover any causk for their perpetual degradation in the circumstance of their forearms being a littla hinger in proportion to the height of their bodies than our own, or In that of the calves of their legs being half an inch higher up ; su S reasons as these we should never dream of entertaining ; therefoie we are driven to the inevitable conclusion, that, although, like the in- habitant* of other countries, they may atway* retain certain characteristic peculiaritit«, yet they must l>e aa capableofbeingcivilixedaBthebarbu'OusAnglo-Saxona from whom we nurse>eB derived our origin. African negroes, under liL tha dIs|Hu^r.g circumstances by which the oordingly, the physical organiiatiim of the African :iegro by no mean* offers any insurmountable obstacles to his intellectual improvement — not that we would pretend to define the exact height to which he might attain, for we know that tbe intellectual qualities of ^1 nationsof Europe differ extremely, and that there is even amtniff them a scale of gradation whicli it might seem invMioiis to describe. In the whole History of Alan, there is no chapter so humiliating, none, cer- tainly, more appalling, than that which records tha infamous and Mo^hI -stained atrocities that have arisen fnnn the slave-trade, which inhuman traffic appears to have been first adopt-d bv the Portuguese, then by the Dutch, then, in the retgn of Queen Elizabeth, by tha English. Happily we live in an age ii which tha cause of humanity at length begins to triumpii over the tyranny of political interest, for all parties of the state have now agreed that reason, justice, and religion, alike Imperiously demand the abolition of negro sla* very; and tliC only doubt or difficulty that remains, reH|>ects the mode in which the emancipation nf the present slaves should «e effected most judiciously for their happiness, and fur the peace and security of those who have been their proprietors. Into this per- plexing subject of dlscnssio'i it would not iHKome us to enter; but we despair not of a time when the inte- rior of tbe vast coi>tinent of Africa will be fully ex- plored, and when the pitnr African will l>e able to sit down ''V 'lis dimiestic fireside, surrounded by a* many comfo- s as thoHe thnt cheer the heerth of the bcuc- tish cottager. TRE IHnABr.'AMT* OF AMKR.w America, which is perhaps one of the finest eoun- triea of the world, when first discovered was £|und Co 1m only ihinly inhabited by a few scattered ^roes, who dwell by the sides of the majestic rivers or mog'iificent lakes, or, like other uncivilited pet., le, led . solitary and savage life amidst the Intricate paths of its extensi' e forest*. We are all awar^ how Its different regiima Itecame populated by emigration from other tountries; but with these settlers we shall not interfere, as It is the original natives of America alone who here claim our attention end fn« lerest. Il is presumed, as we already e«plafned, that this continent was peojdad by migrations from tha norti -^BSt part of AslV—a fact Iwrne o-.it by theclrounrix stai.oa, that when America was discovered, no natlvea were finind to be ncqualnv^d by Iraditifitr with tha r-.ost remarkable events narrsted in the Alosaie hla* tory: in addition ro which, the Amerieaii laafuagt ayyea i e ^ have bean foiinM on tha AeUti^ HISTORY OF MANKIND. rior order-— a nnn* lowflr rlnm of anU B more fulite, car* le, than this ; for D heart thut beat! (riHtni niid blt^i ilive to every act the cxteriinl form TO, with hig dork jHy hair, flat noio^ but we mitst not mot be niiintined 1 that heinalHMn^ Msiblc civilization. yr be iincharitalile^ iipfrt'cd, ihiit, not- (■r which they hava )l dcHimtiim under 1 manifeit aora« oi )nour to humaiiitya iimnlves wherefora rith other civiJiied ; for aurely we da in their depreued irown fcHuw coun- ?edom, and At only lin: we tiirely can> petual def(radation irma beiufc a littla if their bodiea than heir le^ being half ns thesa we shmild )foi« we ftra dnren .hough, like the in» may always retain y'et'they muit \te &» TOUsAnglo-Saxona r origin. African [ eircumatanoes by Lardad, hare been ellecCual advance- n America to nmke exartions to pur* amed Hannibal, a id another named tgical ol»aervation«, era of the French, n is cftlebrateil bf Lsiderable progrctn sarticiilar pmrlicat 10, an Afrit^nn from :M, tmik hiidegren urtemberg univec ou(;ht by a ulava- studied theulog)^ A poems. I«aKtly» i^asa diitinguishM this country. A«> im of the African lountable obstacles [lot that we would which he might Ict^ual qualitieH of y, and that there is lun whiuli it might whole History of liating, none, cer- bich recordi the that have arisen traflic appears to rtiigucse, then by leen Klixabeth, by ag« ii which tha triumpti orer the parties of the sute ce, and religion^ tion nf nrgm sla* Ity that remiiinSf tancipation of the »t judiciously for and fteciirity of Into this per- Id not iHKome ui [Tie when the inte- will be fully ex. will t>e able to nit iinded by as many larth of the 8cuu f the flncst conn- ivered was ^und r scattered ^ftea, ijestio rirera or nclvilized pet., le, dit the IntrlLatA re all aware how ed by emigration hese settlers we iginal natives of attention and in* y ewplafned, that «tlons from the -.itbytliecircum^ ivered, no natives aditiutf with th« the Alosaie hie* lerieaii Uagnect lAtUOe, » The natives of America possess a largo and robust frame, and a well -proportioned figure ; their com. flexion ii of a bronze, or reddish oopper hue, as if it weru rusty coloured, not unlike cinnumon or tannin ; their hiiir is black, long, coarse, and shining, but not thick set on the head ; their beard is thin, and grows in tufts ; their forehead low, and their eyes lengthened ott, and their outer angles turned up towards the tc:opleF> ; their eyebrows are high ( their cheek- bones prominent ; the nose a little flattened, but well i^arked; tlie lips extended; and their teeth chfiely sot | and pointed. In thnir mouth dicre is an expression I of Bwee'neas, which forms a striking ctmtrost with the gloomy, hoi-sh, and even stern charocter of their [ countenance. Their btad is of a square shape, and their face is broad, without being flutt and tapers to- wards the chin. They have a high chest, massy thighs, and arched legs ; their foot is large, and their whole body squat and thick set. The stature ~nd complexion of the native Americans vary considerably in ditferent parts of this continent; but, on the whole, they bear, in their physical and moral character, so strong a resanb'mce to each other, that there can bu little ooubt that they derived their ori£;in from the some stock. jzwa. Notwithstanding that the Jews have suffered the most ruthless persecution, and that their blood has stained almost every altar in Christendom, they yet remain, though scattered far and wt-io amidst all na- tions, a distinpt race, and afford, perhaps, the best example that can be adduced nf thn transmission of a very singtilar physiognomy through succ/'ssive ages, from one generation to another. The head of the Jew is considered to be extremely well fomed ; in- deed, the Jewish skull is observed to approach very nearly to the Caucasian motiel, v/hich, as we have it expliitned, ■ tlie most perfect yet known. Although the Jews exlating in every climate present us with varieties of complexion, they are naturally fnir; and, though born beneath the glare of an African sun, their children possess the same fairness. According to West, the lat« celebrated painter, and President of the Royal Academy of I*ondon, the peculiarity of their physiognomv consists principally in the nose, the bridge rf wh.ch is curved, or crooked, giving them much the resemblance of Lascars; but, besides this, there is obviously a peculiar exprrssiou breath- ing over tltevhole countenance, which does not ad- mit of being easily dwcribed. The Jewish women have always been considered lieautiful ; henoe poets and novelists fre<{uently introduce into their iictions the Jewess, arrayed in all the most glowing charms of female loveli.'iess. oiraiEB. ^ Very analt^ous to the Jews are the fJipsies, a va- grant, thoiijfh distinct, race of people, who, deriving their ortgia either from I'gypt or Walluchia,* over- spread most of the anintries of 'Kurope. They led an Arab-like, wandering, desultoi-y life ; carrying with them tents, and such uteniiils as they required, thev woluded themselves in the recesses of forests, untif, having exhausted their HUgotten booty, they again vent forth on their errands of depredation. It is a ouriims fact, that the inhabitants of many of the towns In Italy and Spain, sulnlued hy their own ignorant fears, regarded them with superstitious wonder, and ■cidom or never ventured to recover their stolen pro- j»erty. An-..nig the gipsies, both women and men were eenernlly tall ; their complexion was swarthy ; their nmtures prominent and sharp ; but the expression nf the wiiole face can only he conveyed hy the pencil or bruKh of tlie painter. It hb'l a 'Jiarncter of its own, whicli was, and still remiini, ..haractcristic of n dis- tinct rare ; and this (as in the instance of the Jews) hKs heen occasioned by their keeping thunutilves, as much as possible, apart from the rest of mankind, marrying only Individuals Wlouging to their own trilies, and preserving in every country the customs and the habits peculiar to thomiielves. We have now shown, on distinct evidence, that the trar.aniiHStun of particular forms and likenesses, how- ever they may hare orginated, may take place Insuch a degree, and to such an extent, as to impress, with speeilic differences, families, and whole races of men ; and applying these and the ]ireceding facts to the lnh:iliitKnts of the many nations c? whom tte have re- ferred, we may legitimately conc'.udo, that the differ- ences we have described arose gradually from the operatitm of external circumstP.m^s, and were ren- dered pf rn.anent by transmissiufi from one generation to another. •rftt J ^AHsuiaeioH or katiowal varietisi or THE UlfMAir roRU. Ilti'iiig now considered tlw very nHnarkable differ- ences whinb the human fonn presents in various regiituB nf the globe, having alluded, in a general ■nauour, *o the effects of dlnuOe, and other external cause*, and haviiiff t>':platued, too, the methods whicit have Itwm adopted for the purpose of altering the ori. giuiil shapii or character of many of its features, li ^ us promtcNl to consider how far peculiarities so indm: il may lie transmitted from generation tu guuuratlun. How happens it that the Circassian mothers give birth to forms an fair and lovely as their own ? that the negro woman givos hirtli to a cliild with a low bruA', • Kuiaii>tl IiikiiU iliitt lliey crnnf ftom WallnrhUi, srd ttetilct Uts iwpular nutkin that lliuv wtrc orii^lnally uslhtt nf Egypt, «li-ii[ivcd ofthfilr icttknivuU by mit- of iliv kings of Jlungary. flat nose, thick lips, and all the other negro churac- terifitics ? Assuredly it would appear that the stream of human blood, through whatever clia.:uel it may , flow, carries along with it qualities derived from it's original source ; so thut here'^y nation is preserved diFtint f from nation, and one race of men from another We are all aware thr.l certain temperaments of con- stitution, certain dispositions, and certain diseases, are hereditary in particular families ; and such evils no education or efforts of art can ersdii^te. Occa- sionally, too, wo remark, that a certain character of physical frame, such as the height of stature, the form of the head and chest, the resemblance of features, &c., prevails through all the members of one family, do* rived either frnm father or niotlicr. The life of man does not extend long enough for him to observe the progress of those cLAUges which can only be effected in the courseof suLtessive generations; therefore, on this subject we can miy reason from analogy, or from what may be observed to take place among inferior auimalo. If ue instance the dog, it may Uu observed that we do not find greyhounds, ter- riers, spaniels, pointers, existing in a state nf nature; these which we may term different races of dogs, re- sult from the artihcial intermixture bf particular breeds; Uiey are all descendc>d origiuaU>; from the san'Mtock, but, in the coui.o of successive genera- tion.^ have severally acquired forms, habits, and dis- positions of the must opposite descripcion. Again, in almost ev-ry county we observe similar deviations among cattle; thus the red oxen o( Devonshire ap- pear of a very different race to the white-faced oxen of Herefordshire ; the hornlet>:i lireed naturalized from Poland presents an equally striking contrast with the brown oxen of Yorkshire ; then, lut anv one or all of these be comnared with thestraij^ht black heifer which browses on our Scottish hills, and we shall at once perceive what varieties may, l^y artiiu'i'il causes, be permanently established among animals of the same species. Hor^^es vary no less rcniarkahly, which can- not fail to bo observed when we compare the breed of the racer with that of the clumsy and bony draught- horse of Lincolndhire, and when we contrast thesi in their turn with the Scotch (ialloway or Shetland wmy. It is perfectly evident that the dilTercnccs here exhibited betv >>en individual animals belonging t the same species are by no means greater than the differences exhibited by the himiun race in diffcreut parts of the world ; and we may, therefore, reasoning from analogy, conclude, that, if su.h dilFerences us these could in thetic animals be induced In' external causes acting upon them, *,o likewise might diiferonces us remarkable in the human frame arise fron. nnalo- gous causes, operating, doubtless, with not leas power upon it.* The hereditary ..nsnii^sionof lertain peculiarities of structure has ' ecu attested on iudisputabte autho- rity, and many singular facts, in illustratior, have l>eon recorded. Hut the truth is, that although rer- tain variations of existing features and limtm may be presented, such as tl>*^ nose of one race being more flattened than thut u^ another, or tlie legs of ono more elongated th^n that of another, no chunge cin ever tak<* place v hich ca{^ trunsfonu one species of animals into another. The harrier seems to bo this — the impoasibility, through all eiianges, of adding any additional faculty or organ of sense to the nnimul. The sense uf smell may he improved in the dog, as it is in the American Indian ; the sense of hearing may be ilso brought, in an animal already possessing thut spTtse, to a higher state of perfection, as it is likewise in many savages ; hut ull the art of man cannot dove- lope either a new sense or a new function in any class of animals. It is this which separates, by an ever- lasting and insurmountable barrier, the highest clans of apet from the lowest and niotit miserable class < f savages. T!' :, i<»rnior may be taught every kind of trir j but never can they acquire the gii>. ef siieech, bemust the organixati(m in their wiad;Mpt:s exhibits a (Vfec which must prevent theii ever attaining this fstiulty. It appears that the greatest variety, or the must re- markable deviation from any original unim t't organi- Kation that has yet been propagated, nmfinnts to a supernumerary toe on the hind and foref'^- - hnti' ., ob*er\'ed, that there is a continual effort ,>n !«> pan of nature to recur, after any such digression; to the ori- ginal tyt>e. On this principle may perh..p« be ex- pUined the very curious fact, tha^ in picture galleries the likeness of the members of the s^int finnily may i>e seen to pass through various gradations, receding from, then returning to, a very exact resemblance of the original; so that it is presumed, that, in the course of generations, individtutls arisuwhoore the exact fac- similes of one or more uf their very remote anceetora. DUUATIOX AND FND Or III.'IIAK LIFK. llio life of niun has been likened to a ilretmi — a fall, ingstar — ataper-flame'-uleAf — nduw.k into uur omn brea&ts, for man is complete in every individual man t one reirurdtid as an isolated being is the type of tha whole human species. It has been beautifully said by Wordsworth— '• Our birth is hut s ' diseases ns man is afflicted with in civili"«'^ ., .^ t. Those who attain the greatest longevity art. g'y the inhabitants of temperate climates, and amongth n very notable instaurcs have occurred. Lewis Cornaro, a ^'enetian nohleinaii, having recu^^'red from a severe illness in his tliirty-sixth year, enjoyed good health, living on twelve ounces of solid food and thirteen of liquid, n>!til he reached the hundredth year of Ills age. Tnonir.s Parre, a peasant of Shropshire, died in 1035, at thegreatagoof 152 years andOmontbs; and it appear^, from the inspection of his body after death, that he might have lived several years longer, had not a ple- thoric state of his lungs lie^n induced by hisexchan/^ing the coarse fare oud pure air of his country for the luxurioud diet and dense atmosphere of the palace in London. The Countess of Desmond, in Ireland, lived to her Uoth year; and numerous instances of long"- viiy, equally ^urprisuig, might be adduced. It is ob. served, that such cases arc principally supplied by the country; indeed, living in towns is so unfavourable to life, that the expectatioit of its duration is there greatly reduced; thus the greatest expectatir Franklin, who died in his eighty- fourth year, was descended from long-lived parent^^ bis father died at eighty-nine, nnd his motlier at eighty- seven. 2. More personswho have married live to lie very old than persons who hnv** remamcd single. " I have only,** says the same author, " met with one person beyond eighty years of age who was never married." 3. More women live to be old than men ; but more men live to be very old than women. Indeed, there appears to he n provision in nature for the mutual ac- commodation of the sexes; for, at those periods of life when women are the weakest and most subjected to disease, men are stronger liian at any other period of their lives ; then, when men, hy old age, become weak- enwl, women again have the superiority of strength. 4. It is observed that the number of births exceeds, in town and country, the number nf deaths, but the proportion varies in different districts, accoi^ing to a viirnttion o.' puliticnl and moral caus'^s. 5. A nume- ricul proportion uf births always exists between the scat's; but more ma7?« ore born than females, which ap;'*'ars to be a provision of nature ;'or maintaining a dii ' -quality between the number of the sexes; for the life of man, independent of destructive wars, is more exposed to accidental causes inducing death, than that of women, ^'adler has pointed out a curiinis fact, which seems established hy the tables he has pub- lished, vi-2. that it n man marry a wtmian younger than hin.^elf, the number of boys in their family will excet!d the number '^r girls; but If the man be younger Jmn his wife, th. n, acconlingto the disparity between t v'r respective ages, the number 'jf girls will equal of predominate over the number of Iroys. 0. Of all new- born infants, ono out of four dies the firat year ; two* fifths only attain the bixth yer**; and, before the twenty. second year, nearly 'iie-bolf the generation ia consignti to the grave. Avtained, however, to tha ago of maturity, one out of every thirty or forty indi- viduals dies annually, t^uch are the general facte which appear to have been established concerning the duration of Iniman life; but it is not to lie for*{otten that its extension and accumpanving happiness must be materi^illy inoditied by the hu^iits which each indi- vidual in Ins own sphere la led to adopt. An inge- nious medical autho.*, Mr Thackrob, has exi. I il CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. \ ii M m^ wbI profsuioni muK hare on the livci of thoM by wlwm thay are punuetl. This deficiency ve hare •ndaarouiM to lupply, by clasiifying together the fm which hare been attained liy the nunt celebrated BMa cngagad in different profcMiuni, and deducing the average period to which the life of each hai been fmind to eitend. By thit It appean, that italeunen have at*ained the longest duration of life ; then come physicians; then divines and theoloj^ans; next to them musical composers { next, philosophers and ma- thematiciani ; then artists and literary men ; and last, poets — those men whose vivid sensibilities and suscep- tible feelings render them too often little fit to encoun- ter the common-place annoyaaoes and diScultiet of the world. Statamm nfritiMI. Itivhn aiirf TktoloffianM, UuMicatCcmpoten.] rhilMophfrt and MaUmuMclalu. >1 Euler 90 Goldsmith 49 Cowley Creblllon Hannier ^ Pitcaime 80 Uuddridite 49 Kemp 40 Epieurus Fcriuion M Jordaoe IB 90 <» Ktcbll Rmli'llllk 00 Duni Scutu* XI Burney 08 88 Kneller 79 Holiiuhed 00 Dante ta Jourdain w ScallRor 09 Fenelon 04 Gibbon) 03 Flaihaued T3 Hcmiklrk 70 Hume 05 Drayton 68 Noitll 00 Jamca s Hall m Gow 80 Franklin 04 I.a'ieue 71 Johnson 79 Rt Maurin t» Mead Hcathcole 74 Jonielli 00 Fahrenheit 90 L" rraniHi oil Jones 48 Uryden s Mawon «7 Vamlerllnden 68 Menrv M Jackiun 70 Qaaiendi 01 Lu.ti 9:l Josenhul 80 Fontalite Panuler »7 Poll 7» Hervey 41 Hullmandel 71 Grolitu m Netwhrr 48 Kelly 38 Gay 44 PHni TV sluane W Hooker 47 lloliliauer B Galileo T8 llemlnl 81 Henault 86 Glover s Prynna Oil llombcrit Kunchef 10 Home m Hawkins s Gunter 41 Guetellio "3 l.lllo 40 Gower Pin T" 7* Huadley HS Oretry Henchcl 81 Canova la Linnaeus 71 Gray 91 Pola SO !?»' a> Janien \i Gerbert 73 Halley 70 Hu Freanoy H l.ivir 79 GuarinI 7» Pratt 111 43 Jortin n Gaillard ftl Hooka 08 MarattI 88 Lueian OO Jonson, B. 03 HlrMicu 67 RoUndcr 40 Kljinli l^nnane Knox 70 DunI 00 HorroK W D^todo 7» Lilly 47 Juvenal 8t Satllle Sully 81 ilhiuc* 80 IH 07 rlmarosa Caleott 48 99 ilsir* l» 80 Parmcgiano Pellcfltmo 'eniil m ?! l.ytteltOD Mably 04 7B Malhcrbe Menandcr 73 9> Temple Thurtne 71 Average 6& I.coX. 4« Uai'h 60 Kepler 9V 411 l.avater 00 Metastaaio 84 sa f.imboieh TV Keiier 81 KIrcher 79 *(>uiiin 71 Machlavcl 90 Milton at Villien fli l^wth ?l l.«o 91 Klieh 60 laphael 37 Meurslua 00 Mollcra M WaliHile 71 Loyola 04 Naumann M Locks TO Rembrandt 111 MontalRne 90 Olway 91 Walihynclmin 90 Liithrr S3 Paulello 7i Itevould* llubena Oil Montesquieu 60 Uvid CO Wolwy w Kennrt 08 Picclnl Ti LoBfiHnoatan ^M in Montraueon 84 Petrarch TO Mirabeau 4i Malebranehe 77 l>aloatr1na Lyons 30 Itaebiim 07 De la Motta 90 Pitt 4a Xiinencs tiu Melanctbon 0.1 PUtoccht 00 LeCleit: 79 .Saeebl 60 Touniefort 91 !"« M Mittdlelon 87 WotlO 90 Imellui 70 Salvator Roaa 98 Uueveilo Rabelais 70 97 Average )9.S Moiltelm 80 Lelbnits 70 Del Karto 41 70 Perseus 18 Newton 79 Averago S8w7 DeUHire 78 Tenleri 67 llecn.ud Riehanlson 61 Pindar 86 Overall 00 Lalanda 79 TlUan in H 91 IVnn 74 M'Uurhl 08 Vanilennecrer 63 Robertson Howe 41 PiXler 73 Mayer Molrnmia Napier 30 Vandrrvelde 74 noehefoucault 67 Schiller • M MauilloD 7» 41 Vandyke 41 RoUin 80 SaekYllle T!" * .Seeker 7J 07 Vernet 01 Rousseau 00 Ravage ,J1 Saehevercll 99 MuKhenbneck 00 Da Vind 75 Cervantes 07 shakspeore Surklfng 11 .13 Newton R> Lebrun 70 I.e Save 80 « Tilli.tion 04 No^nlui CO Reni 08 Scnrron 90 Swift TO Uiher TO Paical 30 PL Veronese 90 Sclden ?? Racine 60 Warburton l« Reaumur ! 87 .Smollett Thomson 48 Watti 74 Avenge 0L9 .Stemo 99 Tasso 91 We«ley Whiiton 08 09 V,^iC" Burke llapin 08 64 Rainuy Scon 73 01 Wlekllllb 60 Torieelll 39 Sheridan 69 Waller ei Whitneld 30 PlayDilr 70 Voituro so White 81 • Walton 61 Watt Kl /iinmerman 67 Vouiig 84 Arerage 07,4 MauncrtuU Saunn 61 76 Meser.vy Father Pi:_I 73 _70 Cnwper Vitsll 00 11 Avcni^ 04J Average 61.6 Averaso 99.3 FAIL or KATIOS8 — EXTIIXTIOS OF RACKS OF MEN, Hiftlory teHchen uithut all imtitmn, alter attaiuin^ the meridian of their glory, and after Winf< crowned with laureli of triumph and vicuiry, Hiak dunn into decay, «ven as the oak nf the forest has it leaves skit- tered by the wiod, aivd its tmnk wptorn ^nd laid pros, trate upon the spot on whirh it flourished It is a melancholy fact, and one that cannot fail u teach a •icrn lesson, '* where Athens, Kunie, and Sparta stood, lltere it a moral desert now ;" nay, the verv site on whii-h mighty cities have flourished are no lunf^er to be discovere*'. i^ence, a noble poet has said — •■ I'fe Mnoil uptm AohlUra' tomb, Anil heard Tro> » 'btcd— time -111 tloiibt «)f Rome." The causes of this decline and fall of nations are some- times not easily unravelled ; but there arc at lensttwo which stand forth more prominently than tiie rest, viz. moral detpradation, and the cxlcnnination effected by the sword of tyranny. M'hen nations are in their in- '■ ,, the stnxrgle'to advance forward leaves them .lu itaie tc indulge in luxury and licentiousness ; hut wh«n they have attained the summit uf their imperial ambition, then their energies relax, their habits lw< cuine vitiMed, and their bh>od tainted by intermix- turn with other races that have already succumbed to similar degradation. When the emperors, whose rolies of royalty were most of them dyed with blood, reigued over Rome, onoe " the miitres's of the world," these causes were in full operation. " In reality, the citiuns of Rome (nays a very accomplished author) were a new race, brought together from or ery quarter of the world, but espeeiaily from Asia. So vust n pro- portion of the ancient citizens h,id Iwen ctit off by tlio sword, and partly to coitccal this waste of nopulutioii, but much more by way of cheaplyr re<|uiiiiig services, ur of showing favour, or of ly^qulring influence, slaves had t>een emanripaU-d ^n such ^reat multitudes, and Invested with all the righu <)f citizens, that, in a sin- gle generation, Rome became almost transmuted into a baser metal, the progeny of those whom the last ge. neradoD had puri>hased from the slave merchants. • • • Scan-elv ft fa'^'ly has come down to our knowledge that could not enumerate a l(o of divorces within iu own contracted circle. Kvcry man had marriwi a series f.f wives, every woman a •eriei of husbands. • • • Thus, the very foun- tain (^ all the * household charities* and virtues was polluted t and, after that, we need little wonder at the Bseasslnations, potsonings, and forging of wills, whirh tlten laid waste Che domestic life of the Honians."* W9 apprehend, that, with all other nations that have vThtCMSti, Chspblll. lllMkwood's Msfsaliw for Jan. 100$. Si Iwwn graduallyswept from the face of the earth, a simi- lar train of causes have been in operation. Mut'^to no- mine de 'jfabulananatur — moral depravity, (Nilitical mibrule, and unjust and exterminating wars, aru the steps by which all nations desoend into their grave. The extinction of particular ranetof men has no doubt often occurred ; thus Malte Brunobserves — and the fact is well known, and independent of any authority — that "the Indian tribes, continually forced back by the ad- ^anclngtidcof white population, are fast disappearing from the eastern seetion of Anifrica. It is to lie lamenteletely eTterniinated thvt unhappy r ^e of people, the Red Indians nf New- foundland. In iU28, a journey was undertaken by Mr ('urmack, for the purpose of making ini|uiriefl into the customs and habits, and tracing, if possible, itie remnants that might remain, of this rai '^ of people ; but although tht'y reached the spot which had iHien their settlement, and discoveretl the various implr.- monU they had used in their domestic life, they could not discover one of the unfortunate Indians left to recount the afflictions wliich his tribe had endured. One particularly affecting incident is relatfd. The local government, having, among other of Us san- guinary decrees, offered a reward for those who would " bring a Red Inc'ian to them, * its emissaries carried away byftjrcea Red Indian female, whom they named, from the month in which it hnpiHsneil, *' .'Marv March. " Her husband, in detiance of the fire-arms and fixed bayonets uf her captors, made a noble attempt to rescue her, and in so dningwiia cruelly shot. Ills tril>e built a cemetery fur him, in which they placed his hitdy. Shortly afterwards, the same government, influenced by interested motives, adooted adifferent line of ]Kdicy, and ordered Capuin Huchnu to repair to the lake by wliich she was captured, and restore her to her tribe, fnr the purpose of opening a friendly iiiten-nurse with them, rnfortunatcly, she died In Captain IturhiiuV vessel at the mouth of the river ; but they tcMik her body to the lake, and, not meeting with any of her peonle, left it exjuised on the bank, for them to m(M>t witfi It. It avpcurs that the Red Indians were !it this time encampeil on the iMinks of the river Exitloit, ami observed ('aptain Rnchan's party passing up the river. They retired from their encampment in consequence; and,' some weeks afterwards, by * circuitous rnitc, went to the lake, where, Undinw ner body, they re- moved It from the vlace on whleh it wu left, and laid il In the cemetery by the side of her husband. Cap- tain ("urmack, finding all itair rilU|[es untenanted, nt length determined to re^ftlrtslhe Red Indian l^ake, which wu known to b« Uittlr IWvonriM ndMvoiit. " After much fatigue," says he, " we approached thfl lake with K ..|rt: and caution, but found, to our raor- tilication, that the Red Indians had deserted it for some years past. My party had been so excited, and in snnpiiine, and so determined to obtain an Interview wikit these people, that, on discovering, from the ap. pearances around us, that the U^u Indians — the terror of the Kuropeans, as well as the other inhabitants of Newfoundland — no longer existed, the spirits ef one iind all of us were deeply affected. The old moun- tnineer (who accompanied us) was particularly over- come. There were every where indications that thia hud long been thecentrul and undlsturt>ed rendezvous of the tribe when they hod enjoyed iicuce and security ; tint these primitive people hud Hlitmdoned it, after having been tormenteil by |)arties of Kurupeans dur- log the last eighteen yearn. M'e spent several melan* chuly days wandering on the borders of the east end of the lake, surveying the variousremainsof what we now contemplated to have been an unoffending and cruelly extirpated people."* There is little or no dniiht that many other tribes or racet jf men hare in like manner become extinct. Indeed, says Pro-* fessor Lyell, " few future events are more certain than the extermination of the Indians of North Ame- rica iind the savages of New Holland, in the course of a few centuries, when these trilies will lie remembered only in iioetry and tradition." Rut It is not anionic Bnmll trilies or races of men alone that these extenni- nating rauses are in gradu.J operati(/n ( for if we ex- amine the peerage of every Kuroj>can state, we shall discover that families of the highest celebrity and thu proudest distinction have died out, and become ex- tinct. The Medicean fiimily, once the gl"""/ ..." Ku- n>pe — the i .vient nobility of Jt*raiH>e — t'e Tudors and I rinntagenef of Kngland — have all passed away t their niuiifs live only recorded in their epitaphs. Vet, in the extinction of particular trilies 'ind classes, we find no evidence that the world is in its dotage, or that the hunmn riire is in its decay. Manl^ind are yet, after the lapse of thousnnds of years, in tho infancy of their nitirul and intellei'toal strength ; rind ages will yet pais awav tiefore they exhibit, on a great tnd univeraiJ tcal«i the latent virtues and possibilities of excellence with which they have hctin endow ^ by a beneficent CroAtor. • Ktltiibursh New l'h Hn>ophk;j ' J ourna l. Vi ; t . XT.. P- ^l* " Kdiniii uHt Prthtwl anrt Publh ird by W. anrl n. CiiANaNas. I», Wattiloo PIr.wi sIm> I)y W » ^a. Pnler-'jiter lt»w, I.00. linn I smi W. Ciianv. Jim. .inil i'. '• Vvlile Strwi. Dublin. Si'lil hy all Ihc !l(M>ltwlli-!t In KrfHl& i. i.'nitVtnd, si.a IrclsniL "CH^untRii'* (KrcsWAnnrt foa xk '. i*»ori.»" will bo cuo- llnucil once a fortnUhl Ic-cry cltcrnst*) V c^itcaday), rary men ; and last, ihilUtes and auicep- . little flt it encoun- s and difficultiet oC ' we approached th« found, to our mor- 1 deaerted it for lome lo excited, and iii obtain an interview orii)f{, from the ap- Indiani — the terror )ther inbabitanti of the spirits ef onp Tlie old moun- ii particularly over* ndications that thia iiturh(.Hl rendezTous tetkve and security ; MintlontNl it, after uf KurupeaiiB dur- pciit Beveral melan* ers of thr east end remains of what we in unolTending and lero is little or no *«t-(>t jf men hare Indeed, says l'ro« are more certain iaiis of North Amc- jid, in the course of will he remembered ut it is not amunif that these extenui- ti(>n ; for if we ex. •pan K(ate, wa ihall Ht celifbrity and thu and become ez- ■t) the gin*";' ..." £u« v — t' oTudon and passed away ; their epitaphs. Wt, in und classes, we find dotage, or that the kind are yet, after the infancy of their d ages will yet pail ind univenal acale, of excellence with benc6cent Creetor. ml. V.il. XI. p. 511; W. And n. ('iiAHnitna. I'.iter^'.iier How. I.oo* kvttle .Stmt. Dublin. klnijVtnd, ti.il Ireland. i'suri.*** will be cua- c^UMtla)). ^■rt:ir-^- :.^^Y^.^-'yf^^fph-fr,f}J■^ift^/ii t.!;i^rrj-»j._t,jf | CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE "EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND , « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 4 P"'"" 'i^- EMIGRATION TO NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWiCK, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, AND THE CANADAS. NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, CAPE BRETON, AVD PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. I>Erav«1 on Won) Y.y F. G. nruce, EdfnlnirRb. WliilKthe flood of British emigration has been poured ehiefty into Upper Canada, whoso unoccupied lands offer a Iwundless scope for the efforts of a large and indiiiitrlous population, the American colonial posses- mons lying nearer home, and situated chiefly about iite mouth of the great river St I^awrence, have also n^'iiv'd a considerable body of settleri ; but the \ ■ '.t-r.-iet for the reception of emigrants in this cjuar- :t*\ n\i. • never yet been sufhciently made known ■iu iesh possessions on the sea-const uf America A cf Lower Canada and Newfutmdland) are NewBrunswicli, Prince Kdward Island, t Ml. iindC:iiij -trotou. The first two fonn part uf the main hind ; the other two are islands, and, as may be seen on thu map, they are all near to each otlier — Nova i^cotla lying furthest to the south, wliile New llruni- wirlt bounds with the United States. The whole lie within the 4nd and 47th degree of north lati'tude, and from about the fiOth to the (iHth degree of w-gt longi- tude. Thftto countries .iru not sn warm genial an I'ppiT I'nnada; they arc wh.tt .Scotland ih to Kng. and, more rugged and mountainous, and more unpro- mising in their outlines ; but they are not li>!ts healthful and pleasant, and they possess, what many will esteem u gretit advantage, the prni)erty of being' the nearest tolonini possessiouN of (ireat Britain, with the likeli. ho-.', nf remaining longest under its paternal govern, fn ' NOVA SCOVIA. Nova Hcotia is a peninsula of the mainland, with wliich It is connected by a narrow isthmus. It nuu- sures atiout three hundred miles in length, but is of • Oiirchl»fauihorityli:\l>c«friinioni>f VovaSciitli.dicprlntPil at lUlinii, uul of wliit'li Uurv aiP prrtmbly few ciijiIm In thU eountty. Wc Iiave likcwln- had itTOur>»' to tfic wurki of Hou- •hrtt« inri Ms*yTr(|or, sti'l tho I .ilen of l\ii>t*in Woonom, Ik-- ■Mm offleial documcnu and |>«',i)ihl*U. unequal breadth ; altogether, it contains 15,617 square miles, or nearly ten millions of acres. One-third of this superficies is occupied by lakes of various shapes and sizes, spread in all directions on the face of the peninsula. There is no part of the land thirty milev distant from navigable water, and in all parts there are line streams and rivers. Tho southern margin of Nova Scotia is broken and ni^^^, with very promi- nent features, deep indents, and craggy islands. The features of the northern coast are soft, and free from rocks. It is bounded on the north by part of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which separates it from Prince Edward Island; on the north-east by the (iut of Canso, which separates it from the island of Cape Breton ; on the west by tho Bay of Fundy, which se- ' parates it from New Brunswick; and on the south and south-east by the Atlantic Ocean. Including I Cape Breton, whirh is now a part of the same govern- I inert, it is divided into ten counties, namely, Halifax, ] LuiU'iiburg, ('umberlaud. King's County, Hants, An- napolis, Shellmrne, Sydney, Queen's County, and Cape Breton. The chief towns are Halifax, Tiairo, Lon- I donderry, Onslow, Lunenburg, Amherst, liortoa, I Cornwallis, Windsor, Newport, Falmouth, Annapo- i li.s, Dighy, (Iranville, Shellmme, Barrington, Yar- mouth, and Liverpool. Halifax is tlie capital. No part of thu British American settlements ha« I orciihioned so many contests, or has been so often ; granted and purchased, conquered and ceded, atN<,.'a ! Scotia. It became known to the French, who called I it Acu a, about the year 1603; and, till 1713, it was j alternately possetised by the French and English, when the latter became its permanent possessors. It is placed under the management of a governor, legislative coun- cil, and a.<(scnibly of reprcKentatives, simitar to the other colonies. At an early period of its history, it ber^mie distinguished by tin name of ^opa Scotia, which signifies Xew Scotlariti, an appellation not in- appropriate, considering the nimiberof its inhabltanta from North Britain. The population of the province, including Cape Breton, amounted, iu 1R27, to nearly 143,000. About a twentieth part are the descendants of the French colonists ; there are about GOO native Indians remaining; about 1500 free negroes; and the remainder of the inhabitants are the descendants of British settlers and refugee loyalists fnnn the United States. The public revenue is raised from imposts on imported goods, and is at present rapidly increasing. Direct taxation is practically unkuown, TOWNS. Halifax, wo have said, is the capital of this flou- rishing colony. It is a town pleasantly situated on the slope of a rising ground, facing a fme spacious bay or natural harbour in front, on il;e east, or more accessible side of the peninsula. It resembles somn Knglish county towns in appearance, and is gradually improving, there Iwing now a number of good houses of stone and brick. There uro churches of tho Kpis- copal or established religion, and chapels for different bodies of dissenters. The town possesses tiarracks for military, and government buildings. It has like- wise tteveral schools, a banking-house, and various institutions of a useful nature; also several news- papers. A description of the place h thus given by Alacgregor : — " Halifax is in length rathar more than two miles, and about half a mile in breadtti. The streets aru wide, and cross each other generally at right angles, but that only next the water is paved ; most nf the others, however, are niaradamised, and, from the as- cent and nature of the ground, usually dry ; but in summer, the dunt, which is often whirled furiously along by the winds, is exceedingly disagreeable. Thn appearance of Halifax >'rbm the water, or from the opposite shore, is prepossessing And peculiar. Thu front of the town is lined with wharves, alongside of which, vessels nf all sixes, and variously rigged, are inceiiantly discharging or loading their cargoes CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. . fl^ |1 I - .. AVarelioiises rlie over ilio wharves, hs well m in dif- ferent pnrts of tho tiiu-ii ; and dwelling-liouscs and public liiiildln^s rear thotr heads over each other as they Btretch alonff* and up tho nidesof the hill. The spires of different churches; the huildintf above tho town, in which the town chK-li i» lixrd; ii rotuuiiii- built church; the sii^nnl posts on Citadel Ilillt the (lilTeren: batteries; the viiriety of st/le in which the houses are built, some of ^vhich are pointed white, some blue, some red, and some built of brick and Stone, intennixed with thosu built of wood ; rows of trees showiutf themj-eives in different parts of the town; his Mi^eaty*s ships mcK)red opposite the dock- yard ; the establishmeniR, and tall sheers of the lat- ter; the merchnnt shipn under sail, nt anchor, or alonifsiilo the wharves ; tlie wooded ami rocky scenery of the back ground, with the islands and the amall pretty town of Dartmouth on ttio eastern shore; are all objects which strike roost forcibly on the view of a stranger when sailing up the harbour. The number of dwellintf-huuses is etitimeted at alwut 17U0, the public buildings SJ, and the population, exclusive of the ai-my and nary, akaut 1C,0()0. The houses are rery irregularly built, some being one, sonu! two, some three, and a fev four stofiesTiit;)). Ilaiidaome stone and brick buildiags arc built and furnished in the English style; and many of the houws built of wood are really more imposing in their appearance, being large, neatly f.ni^hed, and painted white, thau the tieit atone houses." Halifax has the advantage of boing tlia priiiripil naval station of British North America, and this dis- tinction it will, in all likelihood, enjoy a<< long as our f^overnment possesses an acre of land oti tho western shores of the Atlantic. It Is the sent of guvemmentj and the principal commeretal mart in the province. Its manufactures are still in an imperfect state: they C4insiat of n sugar retinery, distilleries uf rum, gin, and wLIsky, breweries of porter and ale, and factories of soap, candles, leather, dour, and cordage, and a few minor articles. It is now a free warehousing port. According to Bouchette, "In 1B28, the ex- ports, exdusive of tlie con.tting trade, amounted to Ij.24C,8^2, in 3 vessels, containing Ut,.'it 1 tons, and navigated by 33211 men ; and the imports r.7*l3,3&2, in iUi vessels, containing 02,R29 tons, anil navigated l>y 3il40 men. There were owned at Halifax, in 1 1^28, seventy-three stjuare-rigged vessels, ami seventy- seven schooners ; of which, neventy were employed m the West India trade, four between Halifax and .t season is vinter. The first fall of sitow is hailed as the signal for commencing amusements. Kleighs built, decorateil, and trimmed in all tba dillWantaliapes and Ibrms tliat the fancy of the owner can desire, immedintely make their ap}>earance, some driven with four hones, and soma with two. 8o long as the snow couUnues mi the ^ound, the amusement is prosecuted with great eagerness am) spirit. In the winter, also, there are public assemblies fur dancing got up by subscrintion among the inhabitants, or hy the officers of the differ- ent regiments. Besides theae, halls are nrrasionally given by the governor. From the character of tlie society, cheapness of living, &c., Halifax is a place Well fitted for the settlement of persons on lirnitetl but fixed incomes from this country, and is much preferable to the dull and dear country or sea-side towns in the United Kingdom. Windsor, tba county town of Hants, is situated nearly in tne centre of the pmvince, oit the banks uf the river Avon. The town, or village, as we would call It, is small, but well built, and one of the pret- tiest in Am«4ca. The scenery in the neigbhonrlioofi is remarkably Hne, and the undulation of the land such as to present a variety of landscape. The scene is diversified by the serpentine windings of the Avon and St Croix rivers, which are bordered on either side by Hcli and fertile meadows. The neighbour- hood is not devoid of trees and groves. After leaving Windsor, and pnK-e4'dingon the western ror^, the tra- veller .s very murh struck by the extent and beauty of a view which bursu upon hiro very uuex|)ect«dly ou de- scending the llorutn mountains. A sudden turn of the road displays at once the townships of Horton and f ^>rn. wallts, with the Basin uf Mines, and the (lasperaux and Horton rivers. The great breadth and extent of this view, the still retired verdant vale at the Anrt of the mountain, the ext^ndad townships of Horton, interspersed with groves of wood and cultivated fields, form an assemblage of pleasing and interesting n)>- jerts in this juvenile country. The post road, after passing through puts of Horton, ('omwslljs, Ayle*. ford, and (tranville townships, brings the traveller to Annapolis, a place uf little importance, but reuiuk- ably salubrious and agraeable in summer, by a cool wa breeze. Annapolis is situated near the shore of the May of Fundy, and a packet plies weekly to Ht J(dit;'s, in New Bniuswirk, on the opposite coast Lirarpool is a town of some im|>orUnee oa the onast «f the Atlantic, and carries on a considerable trada in tlw fisheries. West India produce, and timber. JPidou is one of the principal towuiinNova Scotia, f 30 and ban, perhaps, more connexion with Scotland than any other rea-port. It is situated on a harbour of the same name on the north coast, opposite Prince Hdward Island, *'AIUiotigb (says Uonohette) not very regularly laid out, theh u.si ire generally better tliau in any of the other provl'UMl towns; many of tbem ara built of stone. It contains four places of worship — an KulKCupal, a Htmian Catholic, and two Preslirteriun cnapels. There are also the Pietou acitdetny, a gnimmar Kchool, court-house, and public library. The population ca>mot now be less than S.'iiK) or 3000 souls. Pietou is a free warehousing port, and its trade Is very considcrnhlo in lumber (wood in a rough state), ct nI, and the fishery. Coasters from all parts of the Oulf of 8t i«awrence resort to Pietou, ai*d Its exports have amounted to L.IOO,(MK> in a single vear. One hundred vessels have been loaded here with timber for Great Britain, and its exports to tlie West Indies were not less extensive and important. There are still in this district some considerable portions of ungranted land in the inte- rior, on tho borders of Sydney county ; tho Rfmvgata may l>e about 70,000 acres, upon the whole tiuarably good land ; and although not immediately adjacent to the sea, yet in nt> place above twelve or fifteen miles from it, and, in all instances, intersected hy rtverk.** Captain Moorsom describes Picttni as a place agitated hy the violence of sectarian strife and feudal prejudice,' brought from this country, but he antici> pates a great change for the better, in the m»:iners and comforts of tlie people, in the course of a few years. *' Tho Highland Iwnnet (says he), which slouches like a nightcap ovej* the eyes of the presen* generation of settlers, will lie worn out, and replaced by the Itest of native straw, plaited hy tiie hands of their children. A soil generally rich, and a climate av;iilable for the mndet« of Scottish husbandry, are fnrt^ less presuniDtive of its future pnMperity, than t> y udance of' mineral, which, from the limited e\ I ' '* has hitherto undergone, we are war- ran I u i its substrata contain.** TE AKD raonucTioKS. It hax • peculiar misfortune of this portion of the NoniL ..ericaii cimtlnentto be represented by almost everv writer as a jjloomy sterile region, con- stantly enveloped in fogs which ob^ictire the sun and ini]ieHo "^fetation ; whereas nothing can be more dis- tant l'n>m the truth. This strange representation can only be accounted for, by supposing that the travel- lers who have visitet) it tecal or epidemical disorders with which other rountriea are frequently afflicted. Althmigh the win- ters are intensely tnild, they are not so disagreeable nn the raw cha:igeable winti-rs of this cnuiitry, nor nearlv so fatal to human life. Besides, if the M^ttlers work during thive ijiiarters of the year, ihey will have ample provision for the remaining quarter, and they therefore look forward to wititer ai their searon of holiday eujo\'ment and relaxation. Few paru of the world are so well watered as Nova Scjitia. The rivers, brooks, springs, and streams of different kinds, are very numerous. Someuf the lakes are extretnelv Wautiful, containing. In general, one or more small inlands, which are covered with a luxuriant growth of wmwl, and vary in every imaginable shape. The land in the neighbonrhotMl of them is often un. diiUted in tlie most romantic manner. These lakes will, in time, Iw of great service to the province; in several Instances they nearly Intersect the peninsula, olTertng Bcof>e fur inUnd navigation. Already, by the etfortk of art in connecting a chain of lakes or rivers (like our Caleilonian ('anal), there is a water commu- nication across the country from Halifax, which will be nf immense l>enefit to commerce and agriculture. The fruits of this rountry fbrm a good criterion of the cJimate. Besides ■ great variety of wild fruits, gooseberries, strawberHas, rherries, and raspberries, there are pears of various kinds, all the varietirs of English plums, apples of a very superior quality, quiniTS, peaches, anrlcots, and grapes, If assisted by the sbtdter of wooden frn-'es. The other vegetable praducta are eunimbers, potatoes, artichokes, cauli- flowers, cabbages, benns and peas. Hops are an in- variable and sure rrop, and mar !>• raised in great abundance* Pumpkins tnd Intfian corn are culti- vated to a great extent. Carrots, onions, parsnips, beet, celery, and most other kitchen herbs, are pro- duced with ease. The grains cultivated by the farm- ers, are summer and winter wheat, rye, buckwheat, barley, and oats. The nat\iral forests are elm ; cherry ( white, black, yellow, and grey birch; red oak ; beechy white and yellow pine; white, red, and black sprocei maples, Slc Some of these woods produce bark for tanning leather ; and the sugar maple, as In Canada, afl^onis sap for the niannrncture of sugar. Potashet may also be made from the burnt ashes in eradicating the timber. It is mentioned that there arc a variety of herbs and roots which are used by the iphaiiilants Instead of tea, but tho cheapness uf that oHkAe of luxury hardly renders It worth while to resort to Mih expedients. The mineral products of this part of America ar« valuable, but none is so much worthy of consideration as coal, which is found at Sydney, in Cape Breton, to a great extent, and nf better quality than in any part of America i It is as highly vaJued as that from New> castle in England, and wiU bring as good a price in "ue market. In the district of Pit.'ni, coal n disco- vered ill many places. There ran be i o dnnbt, there- fore, that the possession of this fossil will tu, ^litiita one of the chief superiorities of these provinces over every other. I^imestone, freestone, aiAl slate, alxnind, of the Itest qualities, and there is plenty fine clay for bricks. Iron ore has also been discovered in several places. The province has no animals of a tix)ublDsonie nature. There are foxes, mice, squirrels, and rats. Among the feathered tribe there are a number of birds of the same kind as in Britain, including those railed game in thi'< cc^iitry, all of which may be shot and useil as food without any restriction. The only troublesome insects are the musquitoes and black flies, which are the torment of America, but they disappear in a great measure as the land becomes cleared ami drained. I; may be added, that the rivers abound in the finest fish, among which are salmon and trout; and the shores yield large supplies of white and shull fish of different kinds. CIIABACTKR OF DI8TBICT8. The soil of a country of such an extent as Nova Scotia must necessarily he various in different parts. If an imaginary Hue be drawn, dividing the province in the exact centre, from east to west, the north-west- ern half will be found to contain by far the greatest pottion of g(}od laud. On the side towards the Bay of Fundy, the soil is very rich and free from stone, and contains many thousand acres of dyked marsh land. This is alluvial land, and is made by tho de- posit of the tides, a sediment composed of the finer particles nf soil, brought away liy tlie rivers and tor- rents in their cmirse to the Bay of Fundy,ofpiitn-.'ent matter, salt, &c. This land called marsh, after . . liu attained a suital)le height, is ilykcd, and tlwi wuti'rs of the rivers excluded. Nothing can exceeil its fertility. I n many places, particularly about Windsor and Truni, it yields three tons of bay per acre, and has continued to do so without manure for fifty years past. There is a difference in its qnality. Wnere the tide which ovcrfiows it is not much enriched, by a long courat* tlirough the country, it is thin, and of an Inferior qua- lity ; and ou the other hand, that which is partly marsh and partly intervale, that is, composed at well by the sediment of salt water as that of fresh water, it ex> cutd* in luxuriance any land in the province. Tho quantity of these dykes is very great. At the head of the Bay of Fundy, there are seventy thousand acres in one connected body. There is one marsh in ('umber- land containing nearlyas much land as Konmeymarsh in Kent, and of a nuality vastly su(terior. There iv something peculiarly agreeable to cattle in the grass growing upon these marshes, which has a wonderfifl tendency to fatten them. This land is found In grout 3uantities In Cumberland, Alacan, Napan, l/ondon- erry, Truro, f)nslow, Shnbeiiacadia, Noel, Kennet- cook, Newport, Windsor, Falmouth, Horton, Corn- wuUis, (Iranville, Annupulis, Ac. Ibe next best qnality of land is callitd by a term peculiar to America, intervalr^ an alluvial soil made by the over- flowing of large fresh-water brooks and rivers In the spring and autumn. The quantity of intervale is >n- ralcnlable. It Is to be met with in every part of the province, and is frequently found covered with a long natural grass, several feet in length, and is sometiuiejt railed wild meadow, ami sometimes intervale. The quality varies according to the size of the bi-ook or river by which it is made, but in general it is very fertile and rich. The upland varltn so much that ic is dillicult tn give a general description of it, but ono tract deserves ni>tice, fmm its extent and ijuality. It nmimences at Cape Blontidon In Cornwall^, and runs in one continuous ridge of high land for upwards of one hundrefl miles in the dln>trtiIgby. and va. rics from three to seven miles in breadth. This is a very strong soil, and, with little exception, of a n-.ost excellent <|uality throughout, producing wheat and other grains in abundance, in Hort4)n and Corn- wiillikuie upland has something of a uniform chararter, and consists of a light sandy loam, which posHe<«ses the double advantage of being aarly and easily worked ; and the crops raised upon it ara as great as from any land in the country. But almost every other town- ship contains a great variety of soil, vsrying from the he.ivy rlay land to the lightest gravelly loam, and from the ricJiest to very indifferent. Tlie souUi-wast- em part of Hnlirnx county is in general sUmy, aitd refew. nff at good a price in PiL.nu, cnal u 'livco- n be 1 dnubty tliere- I foisil Will eu<^titut« theie proviuecs over 0, aiMl slate, abound, 1h plenty fine clay for discovered in several nala of a troulilosonia squirrels, and rats, re are a number of tain, including thoae rf which may be «hot istriction. The only iiitoei and black Hies, 1, but they diaappear become* cleared and the riven abound in ! salmon and trout ; es of white and shull FBICTS. an extent as Nova lis in dtflerent partn. lividinf;tl)e provini'ti west, the norlh-west- I by far the greatest ide towards the Day find free from stone, res of dyked m:triih 1 is made by the de- miposed of tie liner y the rivers and tor. KundytofpiUrt'ient >d marsh, after , >, haa ;d, and tlw wiiti'n of n exceed its fertility. Windsor and Truni^ , and has continued years past. Thcra nere the tWe which by a long cotu-iie of an inferior qua- hich is partly marsh posed aa well by the fresh water, it ex> the province. The tat. At the bead of ty thousand acres in marsh in ('umber, td as Komneymanth fverior. There in cattle in the grass h has a wonderftfl id is found in groat Napan, I/ondon- dia, Noel, Kannet- th, Ilorion, Com- Ihe next best term peculiar to made by the over- and rivers in the of intervale is in< every part of thn overed with a long I, and ifi somctluie^ intervale. The of the brook or general it is very iei so much that it »tion of it, but ono It and quality. It irnwalhs, and runs nd for upwards of of Pigbv. and va. readth. ' This is a reption, of a iroft luring wheat and Iorti)n and Torn, uniform rhararler, irhich posne^set tha id easily worked ; great as from any very oilier town- varying from the ravelly loam, and Tlie souUi-wca(. enaral itony, utd itfor culti>atioD» but the ejistern part, about the three rivers that empty Into riutuu Basin, the Oulf Shore, Mount Thorn, and the whole district of Colchester, conUins a large por. tion of excellent land, consisting of dyke, intervale, and upland. Sydney county consists more of upland and intelrviJe, having but few marshes, itnd is in general an excellent tract of country. The best proof of the opinion usually entertained of a place, is the stower of vegetation in its vir- gin mould, and in several pluces the ingenuity of the planter is still employed iu diminishing and wasting Its supcriluuus fertility, in order to bring it down to a state lit for profitable culture." The growth of the wood is generally an index to ascertain the quality of the soil. M'hen it produces black and yellow birch, and rock maple, or cither of thoae trcfti, intermixed with hemlock and oak, orchn, ash, and twecli, tho land is in general of superior qua- lity. Its strength is also manifested by the height and hulk of the wood, and the distance between the root and the first limb of the tree; but spruce aud lir, or white birch and poplar, are in general marks of an in. ferior quality. Liuid bearing beedi of a giK)d growth, and pines of largo dimensions, forms a medium between tha two, and is of an ordinary deHcriptiun. Although the first mentioned wood is a »uru proof of gU4>d land, the latter is not an infallible mark of its inferiority. Largo fires have at ditferent times raged in tho wil. dsruess, either by the neglected embers in the Indian cnuipa, or by othor accidents ; aud whoko thi>(ie fires consumed the original growth, a now set of saplings arose, frequenlly of a diirerent description from the fii^u This is nut peiuliar t4) Nova Scotia, but has (tucti noted in Knghtiid aud Canada. Kvelyn, a wri. tor of tho seventeenth ci-ntury, who paid great atteiu tion to the rearing of forest trees, mentions, *' That when bin grandmother's woods were cut down, wliich cuniistcd ontlruly of oak, there sprang up again not oaks, but lieeclies, and when they in their turn felt the uxe, there arose spontaneously a third plantation, nut of oak or beech, but of birch,^* which ho does not •et down aa a thing singular, hut merely becjiuse it happenetl under hut own eye. AI'KuDzie, in bis North Amerir^ui Tour, speaking of the country iKirdering on Slave Lak«, says, " It is covered with large trees of ipruco pine and white birch ; when these are de. •troyed, poplars succeed, though none were liefore to ba wen." It is owing to this circumstance that the lettler has been frequently agreeably surprised to find that l«ud| which he sunpu-cd to he of an ordinary ua> 27 ture, haa turned out upon cultivation to be of a very good uuiJity. Tho groivtli, however, of the wood, aa first obsorved, ia must cotumouly a jirettv good crite. rion by which to estimutc the soil. Tue first kind never proves bud, the hitter sometimes better than is exptfcted. Uuuchette mentions, that the quantity of land ap> propriated in Nova Si:otia amounts to3Ji)'^^,'i'3^ acres, and the quantity at the diauosa^ ul' tho crown about 6,000,000 '* The first scttl'..8 (he cuntiunes) natu- rally selected the best Ij'.u, both as to quality and si. tuation ; the ungran^o.., or crown lands, therefore, lie in tiie rear of the '^wnahips, and iu the interior, and consist ofalmost all the inferior tracts, with a very con- siderable quxutity ofgouil laud. There areextcnsivo tracts of crown lands in the county of Cumberland, extending from one end of it to tho other, a great part of which is of very excellent quality. The wholu of the county of Sholburoo ia still undisposed of; some of it ia well wooded, and the soil in many places of good quality. There are olao considerable tracts of good crown land in the interior of tho countjr of An- napolis, Queen's, and Sydney. In short, considerable tracts of superior and good land are to be found among the crown landa in all parts of the province. The va- lue of land necesaarily depends on the fertility of the soil, local situation, and state of improvement. It is impossible, therefore, to form any general estimate af the value of improved land. Wilderness or unim- proved land varies from L.5 to Ii.40 per hundred acres. About L.IO per hundred acres ia the full a\'c- rage value of improvable wilderness land. " The proccH)' of bringing the wild land into a state of cultivation, and the operations of agriculture, are much tlie same in this province as in all other newly, settled countries. Tho first thing to be done ia to clear off the woml. The trees aro cut down at about three feet from the ground, lopped and suAvn into convenient lengths, and then burnt ; where this is not performed by the settlor himself, the cost of the whole is about Iv.4, 10a. per acre, exceeding the rate at which the same service may be procured in tho Canadaa by about L.1, lOa. per acre. The wood, although green, burns fruoly, and the whole clearing may bo, and generally is, performed in one 8eiiaon, from Alarch to Septem. her. The land is then prepared, by inanuid laUonr, with tho hoe, for the seed, and wheat, rye, maize, sown, or potatoes planted; gross tweeds are always sown with the grain crops, ami after they are taken off, tho land remains in grass, producing hay for the food of tho cattle in winter, until the stuniiio of the trees decay, and the plough ran be used. Tin; settler is enabled to keep a stjck of cattlo as soon as he ran raise hay off his land, which is generally the third year. Ihe settler carries on the same process on a portion of new land every year, either until his whole farm is cleared, or until, by the decay of the sttmips, he is enabled to ciiUivati; a^'ain the already-cleared l.ind with the )dough, which can generally be done in five or six yeara. New land yield:* the most abundant crops, and a farm, consisting of Itoth new and cleared land, is considered more jirofitablL* thnn one entirely cleared. Farms of the former description arc calleil " half-improved fanns." Wheat is raised with some difficulty in Nova Scotia; if the seed be well selected, and sown early on good land, properly tilled, it will ripen in all ordinary seanons ; it requires great eare in its culture, and if tnat bo neglected, it is probable it will not succeed. The average crop on good upland is from sixteen to twenty-fivebushcls; on intervale and marsh, mncii more: it has been known to yield forty bushels per acie. Tlie quantity grown iu the pro- vince is not nearly sufiicient for its own consimiption, and tlour ia consequuniJy imported to a considerable extent. The climate is very congenial to ryo, outs, and barley; they are raised witliout (lilticulty, and yield abundantly. The average crop on good land is oats, 25 ; barley, 20 ; and rye, 1(> bushels per aero. iMaize, or Indian corn, is indigenous in Anu'rica; it is extensively cultivated in the western districts of this province, and is a most valuable vegetable. It is easily cultivated : the loaves and stalk afford good food for cattle; the grain is the very best that hordes and swine can eat; and the meal the best for bread, noxt to wheat-Uour. Indian corn bread, though very little used in this province, is in common use in t)ie New England provinces and Now York, indeed all through the UnitiHl States; the average crop is about twenty- five to thirty bushels per acre. ** INitatoes thrive better in Nora Scotia than in any part of America, and are very much cultivated ; the produce is about 200 bushels per acre. Turnips, lieans, and buckwheat, aro also cultivated very genu- rally, and with success. Few places are regularly divided into fields, but a rotation of crops is gene* rally adopted. On tho virgin land, wheat, rye, po- tatoes, mnize, and sometimes turnips, compose the first crop ; then grass for a few years. On the break- ing up of the grass land, generally oats, then potatoes, tlien wheat, succeeded by potatoes and wheal, and laid down with clover or timothy grass. Hay ia ii:- dispenaable for the subsistence of cattle in the winter in this province, aud the culture of grasses ii there- fore a primary object with the Nova i^tian farmer, insomuch that the land laid down in graai is scarcely e\'flr broken up until the failure of tlio BrMft«rop in- dicates the necessity of renewal and change. New land reouirca no manure in the first instance, and some aoils, marsh, and intervale, have tteen under crop fur several successive years without the aid of mu- nure. Bung ia the most common manure used, par. ticulorly on upland ; lime has come but partially and lately into use. Uypaum, of which such quantitina are exported to tho I'nited States for manure, is not at all used for that purpose in thia province; tlie allu- vial deposit of the tide and rivera is, where it can be had, considered tho beat manure, and used aa such." rAHSIIVO OCCUPATIONS. It is related by our authorities, that, until recent times, the operations of the husbandman were con. ducted in a rude style, little resembling tho fine system of culture prevailing in the mother country. Great improvements in this respect have been effected, partly through the attention of the late governor, the Karl of Dalhousie, and by the establishment of boards of agriculture. The change produced by these so- rintics ia more visible in the improved breeds of cattle^ in the variety and quality of seeds, and in the attention paid to manure, than in the different branches of work performed upon a farm. Ploughing ia atill (or was very lately) badly executed, and there is great room for couduoting the cultivation of the fields in a better style. The rotation of crops is very simple. Pota- toes, grain, and clover, constitute the usual rou. tino; sometimes commencing with grain, but oftcnor with potatoca, of which two hundred buahela will be produced on an acre of good land. Turnips have not entered largely into the agriculture of the country, and they are not easily preserved during winter- Ureat quantities of oats, wheat, buckwheat, barley, and rye, are produced. Flax ia seldom raised for sale, but the country is favourable to its production, and its culture is rapidly increasing. Tlie hay of the country cousista of a variety of grasses, 'fhe intervales, when in their natural state, ]iroduce a grass vulgarly called blue joint, which is very luxuriant, but affords a coarse and inferior food. The dykes produce clover, or timotiiy mixed with rlo. ver. Sometimes they boar flat grass, which ia a plant btrougly partaking of a saline nature. A proportion of this fiat grasa land ia very valuable to a farmer, as tho crop may be gathered after i^l hia other hay is secured, and receivea but littls injury from the rain. M'orkiug oxen aometimes prefer the hay made of it to clover, and it is always lui agreeable change of diet foe them. The undyked marshes produce a coarse salt 1,'rass, which is covered at high tides by the sea water without injury. Young cattle aro fed upon thia in winter, and continue in very good condition. This grasa is also valuable for the manure made of it, which is of a much superior quality to that produced by cattle fed upon clover. White and red clover, timothy and brown top, are the grasses usually raised upon upland. Tho farms in the old townships consist ge- iienilly of dyku and upland. The former is act apart for hay, with a smalt portion for groin. The latter is di. vid.rd into two parts, one of which contains a small piece of ground for tilln';7et and the rest ia n large pasture, in which the whole of the stock, cxiws, horses, slieep, pigs, and young cuttle, feed at lar^e during the summer. In the autnnm, so scon as the hay ia gathered, the stock i» removed to the dykes to dcpastuio upon the after- grass. The properties of this grass are so peculiar, that horses or horned cattle, however low in condition, become completely fattened in the course of six weeks. This system among others is now undergoing an alteration. The proportion of tillage land is becom- ing greater, and the pastures consequently somewhat improved. The farmer is hereby enabled to raise j>o- tatoes or other vegetiible products snfiiciunt for stall feeding, and tho markets aro not so much glutted by f;rnss.fed beef in tiio autumn as heretofore, but regu- nrly itupplied at different periods according to tlie du. maud. The quantity of manure is also proportionably increased, and the soil thereby rendered more rich and productive. The period of sowing differs according to the season and soil ; but in general, oats and wheat arc sown in April; Indian corn is planted according to local circumstances, at any time between the 10th of fliay and tlio lOth or I2tfi of June. Barley aud buckwheat aro sown about the Ut of June, and tur- nips about the lOth of July. IMowing commences about the 2oth of July. Iteaping begins in August, and is finished in September. l)ung is the only manure which has bren u^ed in Nova Scotia until within these two or three years. But since the establishment of agricultural so^^iciicH, lime has been applied with much sucllss, and com- posting has become a general practice. In most tlh^ tricts iiorderiug on the Bay of Fundy, inarsli mud (ijf whicli the dykes are composed) is !ip|ilit'd as a sni'er- firial dressing for grass lands, and as a manure for grain crops. The effects of this application arc vciy great, often producing two ot three courses of wheat in succession, and afterwards a strong growth of gras* for several yeara. In Hants, King's, and Anuapidis counties, there aro very extensivo orchards of exiti- Icnt fruit trees, and a very frreat quantity of appli s uf superior quality, and cider ia annually exported to New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and the \\'ef.t In- dies. Cumberland and Annapolia counties art> re. markable for the great amount of butter and chee»e whicli they export every seaaon. The routine uf farming o[)crations ia thus pleasingly described by Captain Aluorsom : — " As soon ns tha ground is clear from snow, the farmer is busily em* ployed in piling hia summer fuel, securing his aledt and other winter apparatus :.l out the house, clearinif hia drains, and setting up hia fences. These fence* arc either walls of loose atoneS] or rough trunks, or m CHAMBFT^S'S INFOllMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. m m^ ii!.*j imlfi placed in u variety of wayn : in winter they are l'rtt«|Uflntly tl.iawn down in order to allow a free track for th« pauage of iled* over the mow, and alwayi re- quire to be fixed afreih in iprinf;. MucU labour and «xpenie i» thui annually inciirml lioyond that which incalleil for in clipping nn Kngllih hedge; but the readineu with which polei are procured from the wnodSf the fncllity otTered of shifting the pole-fenre ill any deiired direction, and, Bttll more, the expenie itnd trouble attendant upon ftnC rearing a hedge where no luch thing nai been ever planted before, are the reaxoni whicn induce the eniploynifnt of tim- ber fences, even where a farm in at tome diitance from the f»re«t ; hedgei, however, are tlowly creeping Up in the t>est cultivated dittrictx. Ploughing, shi>ep- thearing, and leed^tlme, occupy every moment from the middle of April to the middle of Juno; and at- tending to the garden and field crops, and removing the accumulated refute of winter, bring the farmer to the mowing umou before he it nearly ready for it. The tcythe comei into play In the middle of July i and in tome teatoni I have teen the hay left rotting on the ground, for want of time to secure it before the speedy ripening of the grain obliged the husband- man to employ the sickle. The sheaves are commonly brought into the barn or stncked by the middle of September. Digging pfitatoes, gathering Indian corn, nnd fall.ploiighing, both for winter grain, and n* a jtreparative lor the soil against the following spring, occupy the farmer till frost and sniiw compel him to put on mitts and woollens, and lalwur with his axe in the woods, in order to provide fuel and fencing- polei, which he brings home as soon as the snow ren- ders * hauling* easy. Amid such a variety of work there is hut little time left for attention to neatnoat ; much, however, might Ite done which is now neglected. The large mmntity of land under cultivation, in pro- portion to tite niirn!>er of hands employed upon it, is another cause not only of slovenly farming, but of the »r»neral '"'-r---?;- "*■ ^rfMi-ice, both in quantity «nd quality, below tile real capa'.:«litie* «*" •'•? ■"•'. T':e lower class of farmers seldom employ additional I: Imur, other than the voluntary aid of his neighbour, '.or which he gives hii own in return. About the Windsor country, the common practice is to hire la- Itour on a farm ^ur a period of six months, for which from fifteen to eighteen pounds nirrency, besides the man's * keep,* are given ; this is considered less ex- l>ensive than giving twent/ pounds per annum, as the keep of a man during winter is of more value than the labour he would then be required to perform. Part »i this payment is generally made in protluce. Karms are sometimes rented by the proprietor to the farmer for the half of the returns he raises ; but la- bourers are leldnm hired in this way. I'pon any ftmn of work, such as hay-making or harvest, a abmirer will tometimi^t, though rarely, get as much HS a dollar per day, and his keep. Mowers will some- times engage for a dollar per acre, but they then find their own provisions; a good mower will get through hii acre in the course ol the day, by working after sunset. The wages of labourers, compared with the state of the market for agricultural produce, are the greatest drawback that the Nova Scotian farmer ex- periences ; in thit way he finds the greater part of his profits absorbed ; and hence it is that a larp^e family, iniitead of being a clog, is a direct Miurre of wealtfi, KO long as its members will combine in operating for be common benefit.'* It appears by statittical returns that there are in the province a^ut iO,0()(> acres under wheat, 22,500 iicres under other grain, 22,500 acres under potatoes, nnd atmut 104,000 arresundet hay; In all atKmt200,000 acres under crop. In ItWR, the province owned 12,9A2 horses, 110,770 horned cattle, '.'J4Al&'A sheep, and 71,904 Bovine. The nmntry is iitt vMecieo i'j v-"-''""' roads, which are every year imp ^ving and exteUtling 4t the expense of the local gov rnment. '^he itihabitants of Nova ^V-oda enjoy the advantage of haviHK ^rticks of foreign luxury, eAnocially tea, at a very low ••xpens''. The East' India Company annually K;*nds rii.:* jr two vessels direct from China, which arrive about June ; and the cargo is sold to merchants or others free of tlie heavy duty payable In this country. " Tea (sayt Captain Moorsom) is more extensively consumed throughout Nova Scotia than any other article of luxury, except spirits. It is used in the ptmrer nittages at everj* meal, partinilarly among thcr-e setters who originally came from New England. In the third year from the first experiment of the China vessels, the sale of the Kast Intli.i (lomp.iny trebled its original extent. The Compiny's agent disposer of the consignment by wbolesate, with a very moderate charge to meet contingent expenses; and lea, of the best auality, ne\t lo (putpowdrr, may be procured at Halifax, at an Hvurnge, when mixed, of three ihiliings sterling per uaiind." ruRCHAsiyo A«rn settlinu on lands. Lands are now disposed of by government on a uni- form plan in all our North American possessions — that is, by public auction or sale, an upset price being specified. The regulations for the disposal of lands arethus given In subiunce by Boiichette : — '*TliBt the liftnd Commissioner, having notified to the governor the quantity of land proposed to Iw sold the ensuing year, with the upset prices, the same to Iw publithed in the Oaxette ! that no lot contain more than 1200 acres : that the purchase-mnnev be paid by four In- •talments, the 1st at the time of sale, and tlie 2d, 3a, 28 and 4th at intervals of a year : that if instalments be not regnlarlv paid, the deposit-money will be forfeited, and the land again referred to sale i that purchasers under 200 acres, unable to pay the purchase-money by instnlmentt, may be put in possesnion under » quit-rent, equal to five per cenL upon the whole amount of the purchase money, to be paid annually in itdvance^ upon failure, the lands to be again re- forred to auction i that the quit-rent be subject to redemption t that the party wno shall have paid an instalment towards redeeming his quit-rent, and shall afterwards neglect to pay the accniing quit- rent, be liable to have his land resold so soon as the arrears of quit-rent shall have covered the amount of the instalment : that the names of purchasers failing In the regular paynieiit of their purchases or quit- rents, be made pablie, and their lands the first to be fmt up to auction the following yean tliat no lands w granted but at the current sales In each district, except to poor settlers who may not have l>ecn in the colony more than six months preceding the last an- nual sale, in which case such poor settlers are entitled to purchase the lands at the upset prices fixed for the same at the prevtoni year*i sale : that lettlers may, at any period within seven years from the date of those regulations, obtain lots of 200 acres, but no more, in unsurveyed districts upon a quit-rent, equal to five per cent, on the estimated value of the land at the time of occupancy, and that such quit-rent may be redeemed l>efore the expiration of that term, upon ' payment of twenty years' purchase of the amount, and afterwards upon payment of any arrear of quit- rent which may be then due, and twenty years' pur- chase of the annual amount of the rent.* No patent or transfer to be granteil until the purchase money, or arrears of instalmcntior quit-rent, shall have been paid 1 that the purchase money and quit-rents be paid to the commissioner, or his delegate, at the time and place named in the condition of sale.** If settlers possess nothing but their industry, they will he under the necessity of acting for u time as the servants of others. To be enabled to go at once upon a farm, it will be necessary to possess a small stock of money, not only to pay the price of the land, what- ever that may be, but to lay in some useful articles of furniture and provisions for a family. The provisions to be taken by an emigrant to his lot, if Lis family consists of five persons, are as follows : — Fifty bushels of potatoes Two barrels flour One barrel rye, Indian, or oatmeal One barrel mackarel and one barrel her- rings Half barrel lieef Five gallons molasses Three gallons rum Three pounds of tea Twelve pounds sugar One milch cuw . . - L.18 8 6 He will then CA/'xid Ii.l0on the fullowiiig articles: Two axes (the axes got in this country do not answer for cutting do- '■ trees), four hoes, one saw, one or two planes, one adze, twenty or thirty pounds nails, two pou, one kettle, some tea mugs, gridiron, frying, pan, and some earthenware ; all which he luu advan- tageously purchase in the colonies. LOCATIONS. In a small pamphlet, entitlf^d "The Emigrant's Friend," published at (ilasgnw, in which are many useful hints, we find the following good advices. " In choosing a property, /orn/to» it generally the first thing >.^ked to. 1st, Its vicinity to a good market town, or a principal road or canal, on Iwth of which latter there are generally stores where yon can diitpnse of your produce. 2d, The state of the bye-roads in its vicinity. Proprietors are assessed to work upon these a certain iinmt>er of days every year, proportioned to the value of their property, and the better these are, or the more of them completed (for according to the district plans they are generally very numerous, al- though only one at a time is opened), the U^t, are pro- prietors assessed, and the more valuable are their pro- perties. 1 was amused, although sorrowfully so, some years ago, by a letter vhich was shown t<» me, from an emigrant to his friend here. He had been lured into the Canadian woods, by having land given to him /or nothing. Along with his family, he had gone through tix years of privations and hardships, which no earthly reward would induce him to go through again. One year they were well nigh starved, owing to the deers having eaten up the little crop of grain which they had sown in their partially cleared field, and to the bears paying a similar compliment to their Indian corn; for except during three months in the winter, they were cut off from all intercourse with their kind i a swamp * like the Greenock harbour at low water' lying between them and the nearest settlement. Yet he thanked God »hat their difficulties were fewer now, for they were getting used to the t^ver nnd ague, and expected soon to have a wooden causeway completed throui^h the twamp ; and they were also' able (after bIx years of toll) to get enough of produce off their farm to feed themselves, and to pronire a few of the lururies (knives and forks and sjioons, I suppose) which they had been used to In Rntnin. Mind they were very poor people whilst here ; from this yon will perceive the importance of the word iujturiet. The ..2 10 » 10 1 » 2 1 IS 1) 12 (1 12 » 15 8 & roads, however, he considered a great hardship ; hi* son and he had to work two oi three weeks in the yeax upon them ; and he «aw no end to this, for though the causeway through the swamp was nearly ready for' going upon, ' yet there were twelve roads in the town- ship, and all the$e roada to be made.* Here then is the price, or rather rent, paid by this poor man for his property — six weeks lalwur annually, which, consider- ing that he kept himself, was equal to L.8, or A2 dol- lars; *ho generous bestower for nothing, l>e It ob- ser\*ed, having his adjacent lands increased in value, to the amount of the roads made through them, inde- pendent of the advantage of having a neighbourhood commenced In them, and having probably purchased them himself at the rate of one or two shillings for each acre. Md, The stale and vicinity of sch crops from wild c, require to be own. The third They are made and purchase the ur, and of others low choose to * set- tee of their accu- settlement thus mechanics become naker, and house- their way to it, .of.«ll>trades" it begins to thicken becomes fully en- lawyer, tavern- follow the other d memliers of so- !tty white-painted pletcs the picture, parts in the cotin- at I advise you to 1 in these you will tiences which yoa to the more per- irtng you to turn loyment, and eiv- works readily ana yingon the main- is to the United an extensive tract iiles, the greater ense forestii; the und excellently nts. Besides be- 1, it possesses in- directions, snit- ure. The climate numerous And ; and the riven [ the coasts, co^ haddock, salmon, aiul other fish, nro yielded in plenty to the eulerprising dHhermBU. The resources nf the province iire thus inexhaustible, and, according to Slacrregor, suUuhle to the maintenance of at lenst three millions of inhnhltants. As yet. New Bruns- wick has a small population, and tho principal settle- meiitt lire iilnng the river St John mid its lakes. On the niirlhern siile of the entrance to this large river tttwn the Bftv of Kuudy, stands the town of St Johii, thit turgesl \\\ the province, though not the capital. Frvdericklon, the metropolis, and seat of goverment of tho colonv, Is situated nearly ninety miles above St John's, on tiifl snnie river: it la still a village in ap- oeanmce. The chief buildings are the government hoiiKu and a college. The province nf Netv Brunswick presents an exten- sive liiut of ronn to the Oulf of St Lnwrence on the east, while on the north it has part of Lower Cana- da, which separates it from the River St Lawrence upwards. Its latent capabilities for carrying on trade with the interior are thus very considerable. Alli-iimichi is the chief river after the St John. It falls into the Oulf of St Lawrence, and is navigable for large vessels for about forty miles. Along Its banks, here and there are seen the huts and houses of settlors, who havo not made great advances in cul- tivation. Tho cutting and export of timber form the main trade of the dintrlct. About twenty miles up, on the south hank, is seen the village uf Chatham, wliure manv oT the Hliipa load, and where several of themerclmiitsare settled, who have erected stores and wharves. Four miles farther up is ^een the village of iNewcaitlo. The Mtramichi river divides into two groat branches. "On coming down the south-west branch (says Mr Macgregor) iii the autumn of IIWH, from where tho road from the river St John joins the Aliramichi, about eighty miles above Cliathatn, I was astonished at iliu unexpected progress made during so short a period in the cultivation of tho soil. Near where the road p-irts off for Frederickton, an Ameri- can, possessing a full share of the ndventurous ncti- Tity of tho citixens of tho United States, has esta- blished himself. He told me that when he planted himself there, seven years before, he was not worth a shilliug. Ilo lias now (11121)) more than three hun- dred acres under cultivation, an immense fleck of sheep, horses, several yokes of oxen, milch cows, swine, and poultry. Ho has a large dwelling-house, conveniently furnished, in which he lives with his fa- mily and a numerous train of labourers, one or two other houses, a forge, with a powerful trip-hammer worked by water power, fulling-mill, grist-mill, and two saw-mills — all turned by water. Near these, ho showed me a building, which ho said he erected for the double purpose ofa school and chapel, the floor of which was laid, and on which benches were arranged CO as to resemble the pit of one of our theatres, lie said that all preachers who came in the way were wel- come to tho use of it. An Knglish parson, a Catholic priest, a Presbyterian minister, or a Methodist pre ich- er, should eacti, he said, get somethiiif^ to eat at his house, audhavetheuseof thechapel, with equal satis- faction to him. He then showed lue his barn, and in one place a heap, containing about ninety bushels of Indian corn, tnat grew on a spot scarcelv an acre, which he pointed out to me. This man could 'to little more than read and write. His manners wero quite unpidished, but nut nide ; yet he had wonderful readiness of address, and, as far as related to his own pursuits, quick powers of invention and application. He raised large crops, ground his own corn, manu- factured the flax ho cultivated atid the wmd of his sheep Into coarse cloths t sold the provisions which his farm produced, and rum and British goods to the lumlierers; kept a tavern; employeil lumlierers in the u'iiihIs, and received also timber In payment for whatever he sold. He made tho axes and other tocds required by the lumberers at his forge ; he ate, gam- bled, and associated with his own labourers, and with tho lumberers, and all others, who made his house a kind of rallying point ; he appeared, however, to be n sober man, and a person who had in view an ottject of gain in every thing he engaged in ; he talked much in firaiso of thu ricli intoriur country, and how rapidly t would be settled and cultivated,' if possessed by the Americans," The fidlowhig is a list of prices compiled from do- cuments sent in to tho Commissioners hir Kmlgratlon from various parts of New Brunswick : — M'heat, per bushel Maize, per ditto Oiitv per ditto Barley, per ditto riitatoes, per cwt. Butter (fresh), per lb. Ditto (salt), pi>r ditto (.hei*se, per ditto Kui{s, per doKen Ducks, per pair Fowls, per liltto (ieese, per ditto Turkeys, per ditto Jlny, per ton Straw, per ditto Bread, per -lib. loaf Beef, per htone £ 1. ./. £ s. rf. A (1 to 10 0" 4 li .. A 1 II .. 2 ti 4 .. 5 1 3 ... 3 n .. 1 n II .. lu 4 .. 7 74- 1 n •2 .. u 3 II 1 II .. 3 li :i .. 5 7 II .. n 10 n 1 in .. 2 10 1 n .. 1 li n 1(1 .. 1 n n ;i ;t .. 4 £ ... bing and flowing of the tide than eight miles. It abnuuds with streams and springs of ilie purest water. There are no mountains in the island ; a chain of hills intersects the country ; and in dilfcrent parts the lands rise to moderate heigiits, but iu general the surface of the island maybe considered as deviating no more than could lie wished for the purpose of agriculture. Almost every part affords agreeable prospects and lieautiful situations. In sum- mer and autumn, the forests exhibit a ricli and splen- did fiillage, varying from the deep green of the fir, to the liveiv tints uf the birch and maple, and the clia- racter ol" the scenery nt tliese seasons displays .». siull. ing loveliness and teeming fertility. Tiie island is diviiled into three counties, these again into parishes, and the whole subdivided into sixty-seveu townships, containing about 20,(HN) acres each. The plot of a town, containing about 400 building lots, is reserved iu each county. Charlotte Town, the seat of govern- ment, is situated on the north bank nf Ilillsliorungh river (east side of the island), and its harbour is con- sidered one of the liest in the Gulf of St Lawrence. Tlie town stands on ground whicli rises in gentle heights from tlie banks of the river, and contains about 3o0 ilwelliiig-hoiises, and about 3400 inhabitants. " Tiie climate of Prince Edward Island, owing to its lying within the Oulf of St Ijawrence, partakes, iu Slime measure, of the climate of the ueigiibouriiig countries ; but the difl^erence is greater than any one who has not liveil iu the colony would imagine. Iu Lower Canada, thu winter is nearly two muntlis lon- ger, the frosts more severe, and the snows ileepjr, while the temperature during summer is ef)iially hot. In Nova Scotia, New Urunswick, and ('ape Itreton, the frohts are eiiiially severe, the transitions from one extreme of temperature to another more sudden, and fogs frc<)m'nt along those parts that border on the At- lantic anil Itay of Kiiiidy. The atmosphere of this island is notcil for being free of fogs. A day foggy thriMighont seldom ih.'ciii'S during a year, and in geiie- rul not more than four or i\ve that are partially so. As ri'g.-irds the salubrity of the island, it is iigrccil by .-(11 who iiave liveil any time on it, and have cninpari'd lis climate wiih that lif other ciiiintries, that there are iV'vv places where health is enjuved with less iniernip- lion. " Large tracts of the orignal pine forests have Iwen destroyed by fires, which have raged over the inland at dilferent periods. In these places, white birches, spruce-firs, poplars, and wild cherry tre^s, have sprung lip. Poplars of great dimensions are plenti. fill. Many other trees are met with. Among the wild fruits, raspberries, strawberries, cranberries, (which are very large), blueberries, and whortleliet- ries, are astonishingly abundant. Foxes and bares are numerous. Mosauitoes and landflii.. are only annoying during the neat of summer in the nelglu bnurhood of the marshes, and in the woods ; wher« the lands are cleared to any extent, they are seldom troublesome. The varieties of fish that swarm in the harbours and rivers, or around the shores, and that abound on the dilferent fishing bankr in the vicinage of the island, are numerous, each abounding in great plenty'. " 'The excellence of its soil, its climate, and the oon* figuration of the surface, adapt the lands of Princa Edward Island mere particularly for agriculture than for any other purpose. All kinds of grain and vtgt- tables raised in England ripen In perfection. Wheat is raised in abundance for the consumption of the in- habitants, and a surplus It exported to Nova Scotia. Both summer and winter rye, and buckwheat, pro- duce weighty crops ; but the culture of these grains is scarcelv attended to. Barley and oats thrive well, and are, !u weight and quality, equal to any met with in the English markets, and superior to what are pro- duced ill the United States. Beans of all kinds yieU plentiful returns. Peas, when not injured by worms, which is often the case, thrive well ; and turnips are sometimes liable to flies and worms. In no country do nnrsuips, carrots, beets, mangel-wunel, or potatoes, vield more beautiful crops. Cucumbers, salads, cab- bages, caulillowers, asparagus, and, indeed, all culinary vegetables common iu England, arrive at perfection. Cherries, plums, damsons, black, r?ll, and white cur- rants, ripen perfectly, and are large and delicious. Flax is raised, of excellent quality, and manufactured bv the farmers' wives into linen for domestic use. liemp will grow, but not to the same perfection as in Upper Canada, or some parts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The principal grasses are timothy, red and white clover, and a kind of toft indigenous up- land grass, of which sheep are very fond ; also marsh grasses, on which young and dry cattle are f'*'' 'luring tiie winter months. As a few cold days and wet weather frequently occur in the latter end of April or the first week of Alay, wheat or oats are seldom sown until the first of the latter month. Barley will ripeu if sinvti liefore the '20th of June, although it is gene- rally more early. Potatoes are planted about tlie last of .'May, or liefore the middle of June, and often later. Tnrnip-secd Is sown about the middle of July; some prefer sowing it iu the first week In August, in which case the leaves are not so liable to injury from worms, fiardening commences early in May, and generally combines tlie difl'ereut departments of fruits, flowers, and vegetables. Hay-making begins in the latter end of July, and as the weather is commonly very dry at this time, it is attended with little trouble iu curing. Potatoes and turnips are left nndng until the middle or end of October ; the first are generally ploughed up, except on new land, where the hoe alone is used. Parsnips may remain on the ground during winter, and are finer'when dug up in spring than at any other period. *' Milch cows, and such horses and cattle as require must care, are housed in November, hut December is the usual month for housing cattle regularly. Sheep thrive better by being left out all winter; but tliey require to be feti, and it is necessary to have a shelter witlinnt a roof, tn guard against the cold winds and snow-drift. Black cattle are generally smaller than in England ; a good ox will weigh from eight to nine hundred pounds, but the common run will not exceed six or seven hundred. The beef is usually very fine and tender. Sheep thrive remarkably well ; but until lately, very little care was observed in improving the breed. Swine seem to thrive here as well as in any country, and the pork brought to Charlotte Town by the farmers is probalily equal iu general to that met with in the Irisli market. Little care is, however, taken of swine. The horses are, with few exceptiont, small, but capable of performing long journeys, and enduring great fatigue with mucli spirit. The greater nurnbur of farmers, particularly the Highland Scotch, keep by far tiKi many cattle for the qiiatititv nf pro. vender tliev usually have to feed them witli during winter. Tliese pei'iple think if they can manage tu carry their cattle thniiigh the winter, they are doing well ; but the consequence is, that their cattle, e«. pecially milch cows, are in such lean condition iu spring, that they are not iu tolerable order till July Various improvements are taking place by means of cattle shows, and exhibitions uf agricultural produce, vvliicli have been establislied. It is also plensiiig to observe the improvement in the mode of cultivating tlie land, which has spread over the colony durinfp the last few years, and which may be attribiiteil priu. ci|mlly to the force of example set hy a few of the old settlers, chiefly the loyalists and Lowland Scotch, and by an aeqiiisitinn of iiidiistrioiil and frugal settlerfl from \'orksiiire in England, and from Dumfriesshire and I'erllisbire in Scotland. " 'riie principal disadvantage connected with this islantl, anil, iu fact, the only one of importance, hi the lengtli of tho winters, which renders it necetuiy W7 CHAISrBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. to hHvp a l.irip* »ti>ri' iil" liiiy fur xuppnrttiii; live itiM*k ; und wliit-h nU(>, t'l-ntn tht* titinipt opriiiiiK "^ ipring and Rtiniinor, ttbriiltrra the tin for anwjng mid plnntiri);. About a ton of straw \\\r mmtIi, tiikhig ^Mrge and tmitll ti>freth«r, ix n-i|iii»ttf to winter Mack cattte properly. Thn wJnUir kmboii ha* nlito mniiy advHn- Ugei — 'w4>od iiiid HrttiK \m\vs are eMily lirmif(ht ft-oni tlie forPHtii, over the KiniMrth hlippery raad.i made hy the frt^ati and »no\v«f and dlslitnceii are shortent'd by the liayi and rivem befiiK' frmien ovt>r. The grtxi'id Ji alio' Cdnsidpred to be ftfrtiliu'd hy ileep iinow nnd front*, nnd there are few farmer* who conMder t)i« winter an impedimeul to afrrictilture, otherwise thaii the tprinfr opening m> suddenly ujmn them, and the utoniiihing quit'knexs uf vef^liition, leavinfc them onJy Ave or stx weeks for preparing the soi], and >uw. iBfr uid pbintinfr> *' When truvfllinff through the setth>mpntfi of Prince Kdward I*land (cunitnuea Mr Mafpwnr), we dis. cover die inhabitant* to funsist of KngliskDien, wnu, tbouith fewer than any oiherv in numlrers, are finind from almost every countv tn Kn^lrtiid ; Mcm tJie Highland*, llebride*, and the scnithem ctniiitie* ; Aoierican loyalists; and a few Dutdi, (ierman*, and Swedes. The whole pupnlution may be estimated at 3A,000. The Engliah *ettleni, ahhoiigh for *ome timo dieoontentcd with their condition, iireKmeriUly found to thrive, particularly those from Yorkshire; nnd they ar« much more attentive to in*door comfort and cleanliness than most other nettler*. *' The inhabitants of the colony, particnlarly tho old fnrmers, are hoepitahle, kind, and i>t)Mgtng, nnd, generally speaking, amoral people. Litigation, whirli (he timber hu*ine8s nnil thermlit given by the tavern- keepers and small shopkr.-pnm have pr'odnred, nnd the low price of ram, form the vole cansen of immo- rality, and the mnst baneful evils connected with the island. The farmers are employed during the winter in amending to their catlli*, thnwhing out their mm, cutting and hauling home fire-wiMxl r»r wintop use, and a stork of (\\v\ for summer; tlifse occuji;i»ioiis, with many other little nintters coiKiected with his farm, htm«e, and market)*, engage the constaTit nt^en- tion of a managing industrious man. The farmer*' wiv«f and daughters ari? generally very industrious, decorous, ar.d correct, and strictly domestic and at- tentive to household duties. They assist in the la- Innirs of the farm during se»d-tiine, hny-making, and harvest, and, during winter, prepare their flnx nnd W(K)I for spinnin;,' and knitlin>r, nnd many of them ,-\Ino Weave their hotne-^pun cimh. The ditferent de- uominiitirins of religion that harp plnio* of w*ir5hij( are the Church of Kii'Hand, as est;il»iished by law t!ie Kirk of Scotland, Sctiliish Di^^Nrnters, Honi:;n (■"nthoilc!!, Alethndists, and T1ftpti»ts. Ail thr mem. Iters of these profeuiom a^^ociute together as neiijh- l»ourn, aid frequently attend the jilnres of worship of tach other with great good feeling. There is in Char- lotle Town a veryrespectaMegraramar-schfrnl, bbcIiodI on the Madras system, and srVi>ois in most of the settlements for elementary instruction. The Leffi.*- lative AMemblv vnte monev for tho partial srip- port of tliese schools. The Island is govrnierl hv a iletitenant-govemor, n cnincil. and a Ifou«e<'f As. sembly of eighteen representatives, elected by the peoplf*. " As to the prospects which this colony mar present t.1 persons in ihe I'liiteil Kiii;,Mi()ni who itre lit^sirous of emigrating, not more than 2*»,fM»0 acre", if ?o mucli, »ro held by the crown. Womllands in conve:iient ftltnations may, however, Iw purrhaseil for from l(h. to Ij. - per acre; and h»ases, in perpi tuity, or, what amounin to the same thing, fi^r ;H»t* years, can be oI>- talneil for the annual rent of fnmi Is. i;) 2s. per acre, and in some situations for le.ts. So that, taking into crtnsideration the mlvantnt'es of iTsiding in tlie vici- nity of well-disposed soriety, the opportftin'ty tli.it is afforded of havin;? children inftnicted in the rtnti- ments of education, of rnnds ("(Tmniunicating between all the settlements, of corn-mills nnd siiw.inllN. Iummr almoKt every where in theneij?htiourhn!id, and havinij the mnvenlenee nnd f«*nefit, hy Hvitig twar thi' -ihijt. ping ports, of re«dv markets for tho produce of the land or sea, it miiy (k« reaMUiaHly onchided, thnt the term* on which tniid^ are now to I»e had in thi;* island nre much more favounltle than those on which they caa be had in the Tnited States.*' CAl'E KRKTON. Cape Breton i* a romantic and mountainous island, lying close to Nova Scotia on the ea^t, and-only di- \-idcrn sidt) is the «riiig it of timtN>r is es- timated at \».'S an acre. The niineriiNof the island Hre valuable. Cn(>e Hretou is pi.liiicj.Ily annexed to Nova Scotia, of which it forms a c, who are of French, Scottish, Knglish, and Iri;th origin. There are %am9 mnali towns along diiferent parts of the shores Far- ther information respi?i:tiMg the island will be found la tht Farliameiitary erideuec. MIWrOrSDl AND. The iktiind of .Newfouiidlund is seldom made the pliue of ht'ttleinent hy emigrants, and it '.hen-f(»re re- i|MireN little or no description here. It is situated on the north.eastem aide of the entrance into the Gulf of t^t Lawrence, oinl measures ulwut 1(HH) miles in circumference. It is a wild, rugged country, poorly wded, and of n rocky and barren soil, unlit, it would iippear, for agriculture, but celebrated fur its extensive fisfieries, which are ihu chief business of the inliabi- tants. In lIUU, "JV^ ven^els were employed in this lucrative trade, and the amount of the in)|K>rts was L.(>4(),IH>i). The population are thriving and increas- ing, and may now amount tu7*^IM)0. Its government nnd laws have hilhorto been exceedingly defective. St John's is the chief town, and lies i:S(K ON Tlir. ADVANTAOLS OF V:MKiHATION'. AVe have now to bring forward some 8at^^facto^y information relative to the.tt' provinces, selected fnnn the minutes of evidence l»elore a seleit (oumiittee of the Ilou!((t of Commons, whidi sat uu the subject o'' emigration, in lU'Jti. Ciilonc) John Ready ealird in, and cxamincil. " Von are Lieiitenunt-tJovernor of Prince Edward Island '* — [ nm. Have you hnd anv opportunity since you hiive helil the government of Prince Ld^vanl Istaiid «if hecom- ing acouainted with the state of the waste lands in that colony ? — 1 have. What is vi:nr opinion with respwt to an emi^^ra- tion (Hm'ifsl t.» tbitt tt>b>nv ; cotibl it be niainiained upon the tenns 11 hich are fnvolved in the pnipoMnl emigrKtion to Cpper l^anndu ? — An emigration lo Prince Kdward Iiitniul mij^ht tte carried on at con- siderably less exjteiise, becau^ethe triins|»ort in shorter; emigrants could l>e sent out lor probably L.'i a-head ahme, with the Ad^'niunge of lieing placed oti their land the day after their 'irrivah When placetl ou his liiiul, he would in all prnlmbiljty have a water con- ve\Tincp for his pntduce, no part of thu island being more than from oit^ht to ten miles from water-carriage. Where would be the market for the jtnMhice raised hy the emigrant? — Indejtendent of the istattd mar- Ketx, tho principal markets are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland ; to Neirfmindlind tbey wnii their provisions, livestfwk and corn tn Halifax, ami toother parts of Nova Seotia their tlour, oats, *c. Is the qtintity of ilie land of Princu Kdward Island more suitable fin pa>tturage, or the growth of corn ? -_!VI ore suitable for the growth of com than any other production. C'cuild yon Inform the committee as to the average prod m tion per acre of bushels of wheat from land of the Iwst quality in Prince Kdward Ihland ? — The ave- rage production is contideieil about twenty bushels of wheat an acre; I have heard of more la'ing grown on well cultivated land. My own opinion is, that twenty is a fair average t hut there are persons that have asserted, and who hnvo means of knowing, that it is upwards uf twenty. Is tlutt wheat of good i|Uiility, so as to corupetc w> » oihrr wheat in the market in ihut part of itie v\vir.. ? — I think it is, though it is not tho cnstum to gruir the best quality uf wlieat. Have you nny esiinwito of the amount that is ex* ported from Pnnce KdwiiiJ Island to Newfoundlaikd tn a year? — The trade is carried on in snriU veusuU from the numerous outpoits, so that I nm inialilu ts furnish any tiling like a correct estimate; it is eua* sideruble. Is tho climate uf Prince Kdward Island healthy P — It is particularly healthy ; the unintry is very drjr and it is well watered, and all wtHMled. In what are tho return* made the corn that ia exnorted ? — They are West India ,. lalnce, teas, Bri- tish mainifactureil goods of all descriptions which they require ; they h to l>''HK>emigrants,tnking them as they nin, young and old, and provide ample sulraistence for them, so that they shonhl not he in want of any kind of necessiiry when thev weip landed on shore. A statement of it trans- actmn that took phtco in the last year, and the vr-.ir before, may give, perhaps, some insight with iTSjtect to the island of Cape Breton. Sir .Fames Kempt nun!© im allotment of land there ; he ap]K)inted a land coip- mittee to allot the land to the settlers ; as soon ns it was known in Scotland that there was an allotment of land made in the island of Cape Breton, a numbep of poor people in the north of f^rotland, where the custom-house re^nlr.tions are not so strictly enfoirnd, found the w.iy to rmliark in three or four vcseU; and there have, in the yeai-s 1024 and IJI'Jo, upon a moderate calculation, at least 300 settlers conic from the north of Scotland, whoso passiign did not cost them more than fifty sliilHnfj's, or three pounds, for those pimplo pronded for themselves. All that tlic master of the vessel looks ti», Is to Bee tliat they have a (Minnd of o:itnuvil for every day, and half that fjiian- tity for a child, with, perhn))s, about half n pint of inc'nssei, a little butter, and a few eggs, and he ]'ro- vidts them with water in the passage, they payin|f ubont thirty to thirty-five shillings. Tho^o scttUMi came out he.-e npnu their own exjtense; there was not a mouthful of proviwons or any thing given to them by government. They settled themselves upon tlu) land tbul Sir James Konipt allotted tii tliem, and I doubt whether there is in Scotland so hiippy a set of people as tliese. Thev have got their log-liuts erected. The c-nstoia of settlers there Is, that they cut down the trees that are jupt rcnind, and put \tp n log-Init, and th(^ bark of those trees makes tlie covering; s:)th;it, in point of fact, ho is under cover and honseil in a few lionrs. Ife then cuts down as fast as he can till tho ensuing year, sotliat the wood lies all the winter upon tlio ground, cut up in ten or fifteen iiieces. Al^er buinlug the masses of wood, he does n )thing but just cist his corn in, witliout jilongh or harrow, ur any tiling cUe, except scratching a little with a thing mado like a dung-fork ; he ninVes very little more wrntrh- ing than a fitwl in a dung-heap. A man e.nd u wo* ■nun will cover in an acre or half ai: acre in tliotoutso of a day, nnd the crop comes up as tine as any in tho world; there is no finer crop raisetl in the world than the f^-^t crop that comes in that way ; so that, in tlio iJrst year, a man with any kind of iMdu.-'trv will havo, at any rate, his potato4>s, perhaps not a fufl nttownnuo I'f bread, but ho would have a greater allowance if he cnnld go to tho mill with it ; but the mills are iit a great dlKtaiue, and they are obliged to make wjuit are called querns ; in that way they grind their liitlu crop of torn ; hut in the Ilrat year tliese people are all conifortalile. I mav make another remark, uitli re- >'pe('t to the great facility of settling upon the Bra* l>'<>r Lake, which is this: the lands upon each Kido of it nre remarkably good ; an arm of tiie sea nearly flivides Cape Breton in twoislands, except the penin- Mila at St Peter's; tltat peninsula may be cut down, ^'> as to make a navigation thiongli at a very unall expense, so as to uiiitu tlie sea un both sides. Tho iMiimus is not more than \M) yards broad. Von said you had no doubt that any number of emigrants, landing ujion ilie shores of S'ova Scotia, would he immediately absorbed ?— I think any num- ber of umigriAits, ilistributed judiciously, that is, not all thrown un one sjHit, but scattered round tothettif. ferent harbours, from 15,000 to 'Jfl,000 voluntary emi- ^ritnts wtHiliI be almorbed in the province every *.eiir. For how many years do you imagine that that nre.it annual absorpti4m might take place ?—^Vheii I Itrst knew it, its |Nipubitiun was under 11,000; Its popnla- lion is now upwards of 70,0»M); nnd when I speak of Nova Scotia, the committee will rememlwr that I am speaking r)f New Brunswick also, Wcnuse I consider New Brunswick as part tif Nova Sctitia ; they are so much alike, that whatever applies to one part, ap. plies to all the province of Nova Scotia; therefore, whatuvor I say applies to the oii« M much uft tu iha tvtia^ P F.Mir.nATlON TO NOVA SCOTIA. NKW BRUNgtH^. &c. UN to rittn|it'tf w' k jKirl of ilif «»n\. ? 10 cii^toiii to giomr niottnt tliiit iH cx- I tu Nvwtniiiidlaiid in ill imill vi'itieU mt 1 nm tiiuiblu ta tdnintet it U eou* il ItliiuJ liunlthy f luiitry i» very dry tltp corn tliiit it f iMliite, teiin, llri- ripliuiiB whit-h ih«y K(le with 1-^iiKlaud t iicipaliy britiff from n. and cxRmlnNl. 'mincil, iind Attnr- ■ Nova Scotin?— I alionmlplitbcron- ■ ftdvHTitRgPthnthnt iiiceof UpjH'rCiiim- withprvBtt'rnilvnii- 10 province iri Nora least, from 12(«Uo ' nin, young and old, them, 8o thnt they of necessary when jitemftit of H tnin^- year, and tlin vc.ir iNight with i-p»ii(M*t James K(*m]it nimte pointed II land vniv- tlers I na hooh m it u wns nn nllntmeiit s Bri'tnn, n imnilxTr Irotlnnd, whero tliB so strii'tly enfoi'i'od, ve or four vcst-Ia; I and lirJ5, upon a Sfttlers romc from S8;ig[) did not cost p tlircc pnumls, for Ives. All that tlio > RCP tliiit thoy h:ive mid hiilf tliHt ijitnu- ihout half n pint of \v egf^j and he pro- !\ssage, thry pnyinj irf5. TIio^o scl'tlcii ii'tMise; thpHMvusuot linKKivi'n totht-mhy lvi'5 upon tho l:ind m, and I doubt ipy a set of ptopltj utH tTiH-tcd. Tiie vy rut down tha up a h)g-1ntt, and ioriii^ ; s:>th it, in il hoiisfil in a few as ht> ran till iha II tlie wIntRr upon pii pirrt's. After )e5 11 itliinj; hut just or Iiarniw, or any i:li a tl'.iii;; niado ttio more sirau-h- A nmti I'.ud ii mo- arro in ilierouiso fine ns any in tho in the world ihim ; ; no tlial, ill tllO itlustrv will havo, t a full nllowiinuo allowance if he nxillii iire at a ther atiT tilt vd lo niaV:u what ,' ^lind their littlu lii'^^e people are all iT.nmrk, with re- iifj upon ihe lUai ds upon each «ido of tm* sea nearly 1, except the penin- mny he cut thiwn, f;h lit a very kiiriU hoth KJiiea. TIio H broad. at anv nunilier of es of Nova IScotia, I think any iiiini- lioufdy, that iit, not id round to theilif- <>00 voluntary eml- rovince every M'ar. Ifinelbnt that ^re.it ice? — When I tirst 1 1,000 1 ilH popiiln- nd when I Rpeak of nu'inlwr that I am Itecnuve I coiulder ^otla ; they are so M to one part, Hp- Seoti;*; therefore, u mxmh ai to tha other, I loniiider that Nova Saitirt and New llriins- wiek would well provide for a population of -t,(HHI,IN>0 ur A,(HHI,(HH>, taking atlvanttige o( tho linliery, f!oupled with the Rfirirultiire. In autlnc the population of Nova Scotiii, 1 have set it much lower than it reiillv i; I think it not short of 100,000: that ol New ilnniMwiek I think aw preat, say IIHI,tMKl ; tho lait ren- atis, about two yeam af^o, made It 7A,(HNI. ilnw (h) you think cinit they would he immediately nhxr^rbed ? — The single men would, of rourse, imme< diuf 'ly hire themselvei out to day labour ; thuy would ppt imniediatts emphiyment either in the n«hery or in the furnut of the countrv, so that alt the single men and the children wouhl f>e at once provided for. The demand for ehildreu there is lieyoiid cimceptlon. If the fatlier and mother areunnhle to provide for them, thev rim nlwnv?* bo provided for there, ItecBime every fanner will take a child, or two or three children, from t'lve tonJx or seven yonrs of aflpe, amirentice, as fast as vou ran give them' to them. As the army and rnvv resort to Halifax, we generally have a very largo portion of orphan children thrown uinm the poor list ; and our modB of disposing of theso children is, that at four to five years pn. lation mir of a man, tfecnuie ho is trained «p to the habits of labonr. When a native of that rountry comes to a farmer to hire, he will never stipu- late for less than from thirty-fire to forty pounds a- year wnires ; he will ijt down at the farmer's table t<» eat, nnd, besides that, the fanner mutt keep his horse for him to ride. What is theaTOTBge rate of labour In Norn Scotia? — The general rate of labour for a new comer is about ;U. a-day mrrency; 4s. M. wcmM be tho dollar in sterling; but a native of the country will not work under 5s. a-day; In harvest time, 7». It is to me a rmtier of serioui apprehensiai, the attack that will be made upon mo when I go bacJc to Ireland to take these people out, for I expect to Ite surrounded with thoimands who wish to go. I suppose I have re- ceived nitire than IaMO from ditftreut pertons to pay pauages ouv. 81 Hi-nry Jnhn Boulton. SrilicltorOriirrii! nf Upper Canada, sallca 111, Riiil oxafnlntil. Are you prepared to ntnte in detail In what manner an emigrant from any part of this country would ac <(uire pi-o|ierty enough to make a payment of L.4 pei- aniinm quit-rent for his land, at the expiration of neven years, and how he would ohtain the money for ie ? In tho first place, if he is tolerably industrioun (nnd I will hern say, that the Irish make c<|uiilly good settlers after a short time, and readily acquire the use of the axe), nn American will, in thPCourneof a week, chop down the timber upon an acre of land ; it is eommo ily considered n week's work for nn able- bodird lafirurer to chop the timber off an ncro of land ; [ am not prepared to say how long It would tnko him to burn it ; it could not tnke htm that length of time ; but I may any generally, thnt %n ahle-bodicd man can, without over-working himself, clear, fence, and put into crop ten acres of land in the course of a twelve- month. Having done that on that ten acres of land, what will he be able to raise ? — That ten acres of land he can put into wheat, which it a profitable crop ; but it is not proper for the first year, because he would re- quire a crop that would come more early into une ; he would poasiblv put in half an acre or an acre of potatoes ; he would put in some Indian corn, but thnt would depend upon the leason of tho year in which he went upon his land ; but if he put the land in wheat, the average crop of wheat, on medium land, depend- ing upon the season, would be from fifteen to thirty bushels an acre ; If it is a wet season, and badly put in, with had husbandry, it might not bo over fifteen bushels an acre, but it must be very badly done not tn produce fifteen AVinchester buHhels. I have known as much as fifty bushels to an acre, but very rarely. I cannot name above one or two instances of it ; but forty bushels nn acre is not very uncommon, though it is not usual ; but not being a farmer myaelf, I can- not speak very positively on the subject; but I have often intjuired of farmers, and I should say that about twenty-five bushels an acre, or, to speak within honndi, 1 may certainly say that twenty bushels an acre, is commonly produced, Do you mean up4ui an acre where the stumps of the trees are still stuntling? — Certainly. With this corn so acquired, wilt you describe the process by which he is to replace his clothing and his general means of going on ; where does he find a market for his produce ?.-If emigration was going on, he would find a market from the incoming emigrants, and there is frequently the best market in the must out-of-thu-wny parts of the country from that circum- stance; within two years, I have known wheat selling for Cs. a bushel, that is, about 5s. sterling, back in tho woods, when you could buy it for half that sum upon tlio lake Mhores, because the incoming emigrants re- quiretl it, and the great ditiieulty of getting it there gave it its value when it was there. Did you ever know the wheat which is sold for Os. paid for in money ? — No, very seldom ; that is, by new coining emigrants. W'ill yon explain the process by whicli the settler would be enabled to pay his rent in money, as he re- ceives the value of his product- chiefly in goods and barter ? — When lie had made sucli improvements u]ion his land as I presume he would have done, from the g(>nerat proceedings of emigrants in tho country who have no assistance, at the end of seven years he would have K(>ven or eight barrels of lluur at least more than he WiHild want for his own use, and with those bar- rels of dour he would be perfectly certain to get L.4 for them at tho neighbouring towns, and a great deal more. There would be the transport to deduct for those barrels of dour ; therefore, can yon name any settled market to which the settler could take his produce, and get a fair remuneratiea, lieaides a auuntity of beans and garden atuff, of wiu^.'h no particular account waa kept. This crop alone w:il leave a profit of about L.lOO over and abovu the ex^H^nse of clearing die whole of the land. "Mr Joseph Uedell commenced CK.-^':iog his farm at Richmond, in the parish of Wondstocl-, almut four miles from the Kiver 8t John, in May lO^t. With- out any other assistance than that of t'iree sons (tho eldest of whom is now but sixteen, tha next twelve yeara of age, and the other still youMger), he had clenred fifty acres of land, from which l.e raised, last seaaon, two hundred and forty bushels of wheat, two hundred and 'ifty bushels of oats, fifty bushels of buckwijeat, six hundred bushels of {mtatoea, one hundrt>il and fifty bushels of turnips, and a small quantity of Indian corn. He haa paid L.llO since he went on the farm, ia now clear of debt, and owna four cows, one pair of horsea, cigtit head of young cattle, twelve sheep, and eight hundred acres of good land." VARIOUS INFORMATION ON THE CANADA8. The following scraps of information, selected from the excellent and piipular worka, entitled *' Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada,'* by a Backwoodsman, and *' The Advantages of Emigration to the Canadas," by Mr ('Httcrmole, will be perused with advantage by intending emigrants : — ** WbothenaretogotoCanada ? In tlie first place, all who cannot cumfoitably support themselvei bf ffm i CIIAMHKRSS INFOllMATION FOR THE PEOPI.K mi •n !\ t: IV^ 'lm± their [.(hour nt huoMt WMRIM| hi tOM bt «ver lo ptMir in thii otnntry, hU wagsi u n latKHirar will nuiru tliitii tiipport liiit rHiiiily t unit il' )itt *>h jirudeut tuiti iM)tifr, he limy in n iiliort timi* iHV« mtiiiwy rnoiitch to iJiirrhuMe lor liimwlf n farm ; mmiI iI' Iiu hat a fa- mily, »ii inurK tliM li^tter, tm iliiMuMi arti t)i« bent ttock n t((rini>r lati piMwiii, me labour of a rhild trvvn ysart old tieiiig coiinidi'rvd worth hiiinaiiiUimfrhnian in moat jiaruof (ireat llriuln, Knentlly fniin t)ire« to four dotlar* a month, with d, iHiard, and washing Iwiidf*!. At home they talk «f "a poor ninn with a large fuiuilv ;" luit tnrh a phrase in Cnnadn would he a cnntrathction uf terms ; for a man heie who has a largi< lumlly mnit, under ordinary circumitauceR, kkiii cease to be a poor man. Mechanics and artizans of almost all deBrripltuns — aillwrlghu, blacksmiths, t-urpenters, niastms, brlok- Uyers, ullori, shoemakers, tanners, millers — and all tke ordinary trades that ar« required in an agricul- tural and partially shipownlngatul commercial coun- try, will do well to romr to Canada. Of these trades, the blacksmith, uilor, shoemaker, and tanner, are the l>est. If there were in nature (which is doubtful) ■uch a lieing as a sober blacksmith, he might make a fjrtuiu'. Kmigranti would find their account In bringing out small ijuanlitiesof seee added some small )>arceU of potato oats, and of the large black oat of the south of Ire- land, for seed, as tlmt grain, if not renewed, degene- rates into something little better than chaiT in the course uf time. When a bear runs away with one of your pigs, there is no use in going alter him, hallmiing, without u gun. When once they ha% e killed a pig, if ynu do not manage to kill the liear, you will never keep one hog : fur they will come back till they liave taken the liist uf them ; they will even invade the secret precinctn of the hog-stye. An Irishman in tV Newi-naile tlis- trict once caught a bear Jtaj/ranti' iir'lictOy dragging a hog over the walls of the }>en. Pni, instead of assail- iug the bear, thought only uf stHruring h;.* proitertv : •o he jumped into the stye, ami seized the pig by tlie tail, llniin having hold of the ears, they had a dead pull for possession, till the whillihMiIng uf Pat, joined to the plaintive notes of his prolitjc, brought a neigh- bour to his assistance, who decided the contest in Fat's favour, by knocking the assailant un the head. The wild turkey takes the lead of our lTpu duals is lighter, and in others, approaches to a leaden grey, and is verv like the dunieittic turkey of the ■ouutrv, which, there is little doubt, mum in intmv instances hold the same relation to him as the haft' Indian (or "Ami Aru7t'-," as the French call them) dt*e% to the original proprietor of the soil. Vou can only distinguish him from his civilized cousin by a ipiick, firm, light infantry step in his giiit, and his inilejtend- dent, watchful liMik. At certain periiNh uf the year, he is any thing but shy. I b.-ue wnlked ulong the highway for half a mile ut lea»t, vwth u fliH'k ni' Inur- teen uf them marching in front of me, nil the time within easv shut ; some of them iiiarcltiug in tin* middle of tke road, some hopping up on the rail fenceit and running along them, some jumping over into the neighbouring field, but nune showing any unreason- able fear of me. The stream is no less prolific in sport than the forest and field; and if u man thinkk pni^ter, in the words of Iiuiak >\*altJin, *' to be pleiuunt iind eut a trout," he can gratify his taste to any extent in Upper i'unada. Truut are only found in the small streums, not in the larger rivers ; the large fish probably making the lat- ter unsafe (piarters fur them. They, generally speak- ing, are biuall, like those v( the niu«)rland burns lit home, but very delicately flavoured. When, hiiwe\ er, mill-dams are erecti^d 4in streams, they increasi in kt/e; and in the beautiful clear streams, iVd lom springs in the Lon^' Point country, lliey are us liiige aa I have seen them any where i>i Iwiglaud. The banks being overhung v, ith trees, fly-lifclitu^ is rurely to be bad, except you htatiuii yuurself on a bridge or mill-dam; but the bait they take at all feHftumi, from the middle of winter, when you catcit them ihrtiugh a hole in the ice, to summer, when you wn>.h ilown the middle of the stream, with it tloatitig bet'urt' vou. Nut being acquainted with the wavs of the wurld uiid the deceits of mankind, a piece of l>eef is as g«Hid ii bait for a ('anadiaii tnmt as any that can be fouiiil. Ofuther fish there is nu lack ; and many oi them have no Kuroi>ean name, but art- ver>' good tUh bfr nii that. There nre different kinds of houws in Canada, alKiut which a few words may be useful to the settler. Most ecome a chapel uf ease to tlM stable or cow>hous« i and the glaring and staring bright-red hrluk-honse is bruuglit forward close upon the riNid, that the frame dwelling, which at one time the proprietor looked upon as the very acm^ of his ambition, may at once serve ai a kitchen to, and be concealed tiy, its more aspiring and aristo- cratic successor I just like s man who, having ac- quired wealth from small beginnings. Is anxious to conceal from the world tbe gradations by which he mse, and to exhibit only the result of his sucivisful Industry. If you can afTord to build a brick or itone house at first, by all means do so ; but if you cannot, take my advice, and, like a good fellow, don't build a frame one. It is the most uncomfortable dwelling ever man lived in." — llackwoodtman. " For the purpose of agriculture, the Cpper Province is decidedly preferable, the climate l>eingmuch milder. Ilo-vover, to go there with any reasonable prospect of iuccesi, some capital or n lalKiurlng or mechanical employment, connected with the every-day pursuits ami necessities of Tife, is indispensably required. In January the greatest fall of snow usually hap- pens, when the winter trade with the interior cum- mencest tbe snow Mimetimes, luit not of late years, allows of two months gtNid sleighing ; last winter was mild, and it did nut exceed five or hix weeks; this is considered, in the pivsent state of the roads, as a ca- lamity, preventing the farmers who live far back in the country fnun getting to the different markets with their prtiduce In fact all, both Canadians and emigranu, after the first year, do not wish for mild winters, as they are less favtniriible to health and btisi- nena than fine friM»y weather, accompanied with plenty of snow. In iffit)|irul we pay far greater attention to proper clothing than is dune at home, wearing stout fear- noughts, \c. ; this |>ervadesall rankii ; even the Indian observes it, and rarely appears, at least, to suffer fnmi the most severe weather, which, it should lie observed, is generally dry, seldom taking cold ; if the feet and head are kept warm, all goes un well; ftir caps are much worn in winter, l>eing lie tter adapted than hats, and may be had near KM) |ier cent, cheaper here than in Canada ; 10 dollars is the usual price uf a good cap. The air, though much lolder than in this country, Wing dry and deprived uf its moi.ttness by congelation, has less efi^ect on the huntun b(Nly than moister air, although many degrees warmer. Det-r abound hi the wumls ; nil persons capable and willing to Inint them do so, there Wing nu game laws. Itears. woive*, ami foxes, are nut so numerous as to be troublesoire ; the tieith and skins of the first of these arexaluable. and tbe reward paid for the scalps of the wolves, on prmlucing them l>efore a ma- cittrute, whicli u-as raisetl last sr*ssinu, I believe from L.l to li.'J |>er head, lends to keep them under. M'omen servant^ cm b:triily be procured, and they generally receive Ifls. or ills, a month." — Cattermolr, COKCI.I^DINU RrStARKS. ^^'e have now presented what we consider a correct account of the extent, character, and iirosperta of the British colonial poss4*s«ions nu the coast of North America. Although it is ulivious that these territo- ries d'l not offer the same wiile field for the settlement of emiijrants, or the same means of ndvantjigeous eni- pinyment, as l-'pper ( nnnda or the United States, it is a nialter of certainty that they possess large and fer- tile tnu-ts of giMMl Uiul. fit for the support uf an abun- dant populuiioii, and that they afford a ready refuge and home fur steady and industrious men and their families from this uvcr-burdened country. However much these countries may suffer in com|>arison with the interior of the North American continent, it is, we think, clear that they are un the whole equal to Kurope; and it is remarked by a native authority, *' that of all the emigrants who come to the country, nune return to their nntive hind, notwithstanding the numerous opportunities from the dittcrent ports." In these provinces, as in utber places, the description of emigrants who ntost promote their own interest and that of tliecoluny, are farmers, ur persons accustomed to rural (K-cupntiuns, who carry with them fmm I*.200 to L.AOO; men who. instead of beginning a settlement themsi'lves, can pnrchnsu one already commenced. The native is now exiM'it tvith his axe, mure used to the cleanni; of land, and better fitted for n pioneer in the woods. The Kunipean ik Keiierally his iu)ierior in all kinds of rural occupations: the one is at home with bis axe, the other with bis pbiugh. The emi- grant should thereiore purchase a farm, which, besides suitable buildin^i«, &c,, should contain three or four hundred acres of land, forty or fifty of whirh Hhuuld be deariHl, and the native should recede to the woods, to contend again with new roads and new settlements, to which he Itos Iwen accustomed. To the other class of emigrants who go to these provincet with small means, it may Iw proper to suggest, that experience has shown the necessity of their not being too eager to obtaio luU of land, It is bettur for them to engage as workman for a few years, until they l>ecume ac- quainted with the climate, mode of cultivation, habiti and manners of the pe^iple, markets, relative value uf land, and other useful information, after which there is a greater probability of their selection being judi- cious, and their efforts successful. We have heard it frequently remarked by u periun of resp(>ctaliility in Nova Scotia, that, in very many instances, emigrnnta min their prospects ut tbe outset, leaving tbeinselvee almost paupers, simply by not attaching theniselvea at omv, on their landing, either to some occupation, or some select spot of land aa their locaiiun. They go from place lo place, seeking for the paradise they had anticipated, and spend all in the vain search. Letui try to impress upon the minds of intending einlgrnntl of every class the abstdnte necessity of being persever- ing and steady in their habits. An idle nian in anj part of America is an anomaly, and one who falls Into unsettled or dissipated habiti ii sure of >>elng visited H'ith ruin and contempt. Kvery man who departf for these vast western territories must resolve lo work with his own hands ; and if he use those obvious meant which are pointed out, and which ii requires no g» niui to understand, he cannot fail ui placing himself and his family in a ciuidition of respectability and per« manont C4)mfurt. In speaking of the state of the Itt- Iwuring classes in Nova Scotia, Captain Mooroom makes the following striking observation : — " The cheapness uf living, and, indeed, uf every thing except chithing, is such, that the wages uf most operative tradesmen enable them to be idle, if they are so in- clined, three days out of the six. Instances are far too immerous in which this ii a common practice, and moat of the hmira thus deducted from lalmur are poised in the various stages of intoxication." M'e would earnestly hope that those whom we are now address- ing, who design emigrating to these provinces, will sedulously avoid such a pernicious habit uf intemper- ance, which will bring disgrace notonly totbenuefvea, but be in sume measure a reproach on the land which sent them forth. There is one form of emigration which we would particularly recommend to intending eniigranls, for we U'lieve it will l>e found the must agreeable, if not the moat economical; this is the removal, in a body, uf a number of families known to each ether, and who may all settle in a cluster, or in the neighbourhood of each other. This plan, if pursued discreetly, wiQ neutrHlixo many of the pains uf emigration, and will originate a little society, in which there will be a tU milaritv of sentiment and a sympathy not otherwiw to lie obtained. iSuch an advantageous species of re- moval has already been tried in a number of instances, particularly by Scottish families, and is productive of the most agreeable results. We would, therefore, ad- vise those friendly to emigration, in any particular part as well settled, ns well cultivated, aa well regulated in their affairs, public ami private, and, therefore, as civilized and refined, as many of the rural districts in Ureat Britain. Kven as it is, many iiortions of North America have uutstrip})ed (Jreat Jrjtuin in the career of general intelligence. Such being the capabilities iind fiatleriuf^ prospects of these territories, it appears a species uf infatuation fur far- mers to continue to peril thousands of pounds on land in this cuuntry, with the barest t-hanreuf success, emluriiig innumerable vexations, and at tlio mercy of landowners and law-agents, while they can obtain, for the matter of a few hundreds uf pounds, lands, in the llritish colonies or the United States, of the most fertile description, and which, in a short time, by ac- tive exertion, will repay all that is expended upon them, niitl remain a permanent and valuable friTliuld fiir their family. Luckily, lioth fi>r the benefitof the mother cuuntry and indiviul)li»>hrtl liy W. snri'iiina mCm -ultivittitiM, Itiiliiti , rfflutive vnhifl of Al'lrr ivhii'h titera rctioD IwinK judl- W'n hnve lii'Hrd it r reH)H>t'tHliility in tMittvi, eii)iKr»iiU mvitiK tliflmmilvei icliing theniM'tvet >mft Dccuputiiin, or ti'Htiuii. Thfy go pHrmliie th«>v Imd II neiircii. i'Vt ui tenilinK«mi){rants i>r h(fi»K pt>ripv«r- II idle man In sny (>n0 who fiiUi into D of IteinK viiit«4 tDBii who depnrti It reiolve to work ONI' obviotii niearu ii requirei no g» lit (iliicing tiimielf L'cuUility and per- iie »tal« of the lit- l'H|itain Moortom irvation : — ** Th» Bvery thinff rxcapt of niuit op«rHiiva if ttiey are so in- IniUuicet ar« far mon practice, and 1 lalMur are pa«i«l iuu.*' We would are now addreu- fie province, will lial)it uf iiitcmper- uiily ti> thunuelvea, on the land which I which we would iig «*nii^ranli, for 1 affferahle, if not iiiuvbI, in a body, ich otlier, and who neifclt hour hood of pd diarrecUy, will ligratiou, and will tliere will be a ti- itby nut otherwiw eout ipecief of re- Linber of invtnnceif nd is productive of tuld, therefore, ad* in any particular d to employ them- proceed, if pot- y the same vessel, lelectiug a district narked, that emi- inucli chanf(( of Rucceas, ri ut the merry of (licy cuti obtain, piiimiln, Innilii, in tatea, of tlie most nhort time, by ac- H expended upon vhIuhIiIu frt-fliold the bcnt'fitof the B kind (if delusion he vast resoun'ca erica, &ucli as that unnnt but dispel bjcct, and be tdanta. ftlttt K. ('HANBCIta. ipniosUT Knw, Loo- Kvillo Slrrrt. Dublin. I oilier Itoukirllen in imI i>nn> a riiniiiKliL— M Siaif:'*, Ni-w Suudi |)i, fur the uie uf rmt- r Street, I'.'titiburgh CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE CONUUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBUROH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEW8PAPKH." No. fl. PmcB IJrf. EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. The United States now occupy the largeat portion of the North American continent, and offer a boundless Held fer the settlement of emigrants. Originally con. rtiiml to the territory ahmg the shore of the Atlantic, tiiii great republic has extended its influence and IK»wer oTor nearly the whole of the regions Hprnadini^ westward tn the Pacific. This vast territory, lur- piiising in internal rosimroet, and nearly in dimen- aions, any of the empires of the Old M'^urld, extends from the tfith to tlte 4IHh degree of north latitude, and from the Vi'Jilx to the 134th dogreu of wcit longi. tilde. It measures in extreme length, from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic, 37HO miles, and ita greatest br«ndth is eitimnted at 1300 milee. The United States oontlit of three great natural diritinni — the slope from the range of the Alleghany mountnir.s to the Atlantic, comprehending the oldest settlement! i the valley of the Mlssiulppl, now in the course of settlement ; and the ilope from the Rocky or Chippewau mountains towards the Pacific, which is still In a wilderness condition, and inhabited by In. diant. The greatest wonder of this immenae country is the valley of the Mississippi, which is considered the largest division of the globe, of which the waters 1>tiu into one estuary. The Atlantic slope contains :t!M),000 square miles, the Pacific slope about 300,()00 ; but tliis great central valley conUins at least 1,300,000 square milet, or four timet as much land as the whole of England. The valley of the Misiiisippi, into which the flood of emigration to the states is chiefly directed, is divided Into two portions, the upper and lower val. ley, diitinguiihed by particular features, and sepa- rated by an Imaginary interaecting li-ie at the place where the Ohio pours its waters into the Mississippi. This large river hat many tributaries of fir8t>rate pro- portions besides the Ohio. The chief is the Missouri, \rhioh, indeed, it the main stream, for it it not only longer and larger, but draint a greater extent of coun. try. Its length it computed at 1870 miles, and upon H ptirticular courte 3000 milet. In its appearance it is turbid, violent, and rapid, while the MltslHsippi, above its junction with the Missouri, is clear, with a gentle current. At St Charles, 20 miles from its en. iranoe into the Mlsiltsippi, the Mlstouri measures from five to liz hundred yards acrots, though ita depth ia only a few fathoms. The Missittippi Proper taket iu rite in Cedar Lake, in the 47th degree of north latitude. From thit to the Falls of 8t Anthony, a distance of five hundred miles, it runt in a devious oourte, first touth-oast, then south-weet, and, finally, touth.eatt again ; which last it continuet, without much deviation, till it reaches the Miuouri, the waters of which strike it at right anglet, and throw the current of the Mississippi en. tirely upon the eastern side. The prominent branch 'if the Upper Mistiuippi It the St Peter't, which rite* iu the great prairiet in the north-west, and entert the parent ttream a little below the Falls of St Anthony. The Kaskaskianext joint it, after a courte of 200 miles. I n the 36lh degree of north latitude, the Ohio (formed by the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela) pourt in iu tribute, after purauing acourseofTM miles, and draining about 200,000 square milet of country A little below the 34th degree, the M''hite Kiver entert, after a courte of more than 1000 milet. Thirty milet below that, the Arkantat, bringing in its tribute from the confines of Mezioo, pourt in itt watert. Itt latt great tributary ia Red River, a atnuun taking itt rite in the Alexlcan dominioni, and Bowing « eoun* of more than 2000 milet. Hitherto the watert in the wide regiont of the west- have been congregating to one point The " Father cf Watert" it now upwardi of a mile in wiiUb, and several fathoms deep. Ihiring its annual floods, it overflows itt bankt below the mouth of the Ohio, and •ometimet extends thirty and forty milet into the in- terior, laying the prairies, bottoms, swamps, and other low grounds, under water for a aeaaon. After receiv. ing Red River, this large ttream it unable to continue in one channel ; it partt into separate courses, and findt ita way to the ocean or the Oulf of Mexico, at different and distant points below New Orleans. The capabilities of the Mississippi for purposes of trade, are almost beyond calculation, and are hardly yet developed. For thoutands of years this magnifi. cent American river rolled its placid and undisturbed waters amidit widely-spreading foretti, rich green prairiet, and swelling mountain scenery, ornamented with the ever-varying tints of nature in its wildest mood, unnoticed save by the wandering tavage of the west, or the animals which browie upon itt bankt. At length it came under the obtervatioii of civilized men, and now hat begun to contribute to their wantt and wiihet. Every part of the vast region, irrigated by the main ttream and itt tributariet, can be pene- trated by steam-boats and other water craft; nor it there a spot in all thit wide territory, excepting a small district in the plaint of Upper Alisiouri, that it more than one hundred milei from tome navigable water. A boat may take in ita lading on the bankt of the Cfaa- ta jue Lake, in the state of New York, within a thort distance of the eastern shore of Lake Erie — another may receive ittcargo in the interior of Virginia — a third may itart from the Rice Lakes at the head of the Mil- liuippi — and a fourth may come laden with furs from the Chippewau mountains, 2600 miles up the Mii- aouri — and all meet at the mouth of the Ohio, and pro- ceed in company to the ocean. Those whom we are now addressing probably inha- bit the island of Great Britain, where the traffic of every sea-port, every branch of inland navigation, has been pushed to its utmost limits, where every art it over-done, and where the heart of the ingenious almott tinki within them for want of tcope for their enterprise. But here, on this wide-sprcad ramificA. tion of navigable stream?, there is an endless, a bound, less field for agricultural and mercantile adventure. Within the last twenty-four years, the Mississippi, with the Ohio, and its other large tributaries, have been covered with steam-boatt and bai^t of every kind, and populous cities have iprung up on their banks. There are now iM-ports at the centre of the American continent — trading towns, each already do- ing more buiinest than some half dozen celebrated ports in the Old World, with all the protection which restrictive enactments and traditional importance can confer upon them. ciTAivinEnss ixkormation roil the peoit.e itunil oniluri u( llie wurltl, h ill uuv liny |iitit«pv. I<«t tu iiiliiiMuitU )f«i-oinfiet|niill)r tUiiKi Willi KtiKland, iri(.-lutrthrrn niid Smithirn, or Krrr and !. Iiattllii^ Stat4>s, in whirh thi* i-liinute and linhitt of ihu fMMplit iliirer vttry roniideraltly. It ii rhirtly, and al- ii>oit eniirelvt tu (he nurtheni nr frpi> itatei that the Mttriuiim of' rinUrantx ahould he dlrri-ted, htH'aiue ftiirh (HTBoni will there Imve at iiiut* u l*r Slave Mtaiea afford no pla<*« fur any exiviit tlnme mIiu have ripital tu ptiit-huKi* l>uih Intul and itfiive* t nnd the luji and (ernperatiirf, hviiid<<%. Hrt> adapted thirilv tu the niltnre of tohacr't, cotiun, iiidiffu, rirt*, anil ntiicr Xnu ^tiral pnMltti'tlona, in ralainffnnd prepiirin^ whit-It, the {H'uple t>f thit rountry liaVH luirxperioiin*. We Kliall, tlierefure, advert hut iliKhtly t iiiitei, in i;tvlng ilireciiuiii tw omiftrantR, itnd innke our itifunnuiimt nH till! a^ iNiuihle on thou* wliit-li afford prnrtlciMe nnd ilHtirntile wttlementi to peupti' fioni thii riMiiiiry, The«e litter tirp Itounded oil the aouth pretty itearly l>v the lIHh deffree of lalitodi>, no that they lie In a li.mate cormpuadlnff to that of the toiith of France and the northern p%rtof Spain, though, ni yet, on the whole, they are leta ialiihriotii than thuiu uJd rioared roiintriea of Kuro|ie. When the ctJmiite of the itofih. ern Rtatei li plannl in c»mparii4>n with that of Ureal ]lniain, It may l>edearrt)»ed ai rnorepKtreiiu> in an in. mer beats and winter t-uldt ; hut from all we (-an learn, ii appear* thai the Amerirana are eieuipted from that amount vt( HiMagrefnbU weather—that vexattoui mix. tnre of rawneH*, ctdd wihda frutn the riat^ raina, iiin- •Mne, and froat, which ronatituiea the Ki^'itteat draw, haekunlhiiroiintrv, and whfih ftnnuuljy ctirrieaoff a lar^ proportion ol' the inhahitanta. The followini^ la a lUt of the varlnua Statei and Territiprjes, with the nnmea of the chief towna, amount <)t population, and extent in square miles : — Rtatf. riilf'f Town. P"piil«tfiiti In iioo. Afiiins N<'w Hampshire \'eniioni MnsKHchuietts Khixla NIniid t'unnec-tii'ut New \*.>rk New Jersey 2*ennsylvaiiia 2>elaw.ire ])i«t.itr(:olumbia ]\Iarylnnd Virginia North Carolina hiiuth Carolina lieorftia Alahanm Miitissippi ]/Ouialuna Tene^n'e Kentuiky Ohio Indiana llliauia Aliiiuurl 31icljig:;n j\ikun»aa Florida Portland Fortmnouth Mout|K!l)er Mott'Ml Providence llartfnnl New \'.irk Trenton Philadelphia lIKiver Wathinirton llal'.iin.tre Richruotttl Italeyh Charlett'in Milh'd^'.'Tille Tunealuosa I New Orh'ans J New Orleans Naxhvitle Frankfort Coliimhua Indiannptdia Shaticentown St liiniis Detroit Lilile Hock TfiUaliasatie fiio.ou i»7,2io a:»7,7n l,i*ia..v»« :i2",77i» I,»47.*i7a 7«. ;."*.'*, 44f1,fH3 I, '-Ml, 273 73H,470 44A,(to:t ai.v.n* Of M ,283 0HH,n44 9:i7,(t7» »4I,A«2 l.'.7.57S 110.074 yo,;Mi3 34,7201 Am in >«l. Miic«. :t:.M!M it,70(> u,;im) 7,».v> 1 ,'.NM> ; 4(i,000 , 7,070 47,004) s.ioo 100 10,000 70,«M.'O M),(HKt .h:i,imm Ol.lKJi' (51,770 4n.i!2fl 4:1,000 »7.(UK) 40,0 54, :(4,(»oo WjlKK) oovrit It into tl>r iiientm rTV tHie who giM-a creates rFAvixo Hour. Ttlariy iiersoui shrink from the idea of emifrralinff, beciuto it ai-emi like a roale«aion that they have lieen h^ifled at home, and tone, whero <»!her» have I>cen sricceitsfnl, iliey have faiUd. From thi« wp'ik feelinj<, they continue to linger on, stni^linfC ivith dltcou. rat(ementY, and wiahinf^ rather tu gain the credit of patient welUduin^ and refli^rnatlun to uimvoidulde trouhltrs, than u> encounter what they think the re* proarh of leaving the country. Such persona (who are often the wnrihlest of so. iety) ahould n-olh-ct that the same persevernitre and stetdineii* which in thin cinmtry it only sulfirient to keep their fniNilies out of distress, will, in a more favouralde tield of industry, pi tr« them in nnnfort and independence, in thiit rnintry every man's exertions are met and thwarted hy the c^impetlti.m of hts neitrhltonrs; whrretot, in the new Iand», the tnrn-aiiny dennity of popuhition and lieif^hhmirhood as yet only stlda to a mini's u-eulth, fliid to tlie promts' of his industry. It used tu l>e tiiotiffht (and many still fonlinhly think no), that, to Uav* tht country, waa a man's la^t reHiurcf, and wa* only adciptrd hy those who could not do iettcr t hut it is now diMiiverml that America, instead of heinir onlv an asylum for the h.-iffled iind despairin-r, ia, like an Immensa harrest-fteld, callint; f.ir retpi tu, who hnvf tfcill and ability to lalinur, from nil «T''"1'"^- The altindinre of uuucrupicd land in that tMiiinirv onh 34 re<|uir<>« the hand of niiui t • ol huinnit Kiilnintciu'e, hixI i' work for another to follow I1 Thecuin)>etitionof one man affalnst another In this rotinlry is so |{reat, that youn^ pMople, hrinl 10 UIp up with their neighhours, and this, he. cause they were apprehuniiive of losing their altua- tions. In America, thecunipt>t lion of i>iie ninu against another is hy no niuiiia so ke<-n ; good wages nriy t>e made hy intNlorate exertion ut all Ihn urdinary imcful irudfsi and men who have heen accuitonifd to farm wirk will lind a ready demand for their UtHiiir, with fair and even high wages, without the fear of losing ttinployinent when their youth anil strength Is ex- hausted. It reiiuires a little rinnneHs to determine on leaving one's country, and thnt is all. The rrsointion mice taken, iho thief dlflirulty is surinuuntcd. The Hiicieu hikI comfort of the nunitwrs u hu have t:ikt>n the step already, leave little room for perplexity or uneakineHS with regard to others. Till! dilfirulty which farmers have for this coiiiiiiler- ahUi time had in lindiiig farms for their sons, ami the very large capital whicli is retpiired to Kim-k a ylMlH^ man beginning life in that way, render it wortliy of consideration whether parenu would nut do better to buy land r>r them in Canada or the rinted .states, where one hundred pmittds would make thcni proprie. tors of their farm, and sttH'k ttieni aiiMicii iitly with nil that i* iit-ressary for thriving ami hecoining wcalihy. A inimlier ecii ' *"' uily. In going into the army. •>. '' tiidia. It in needless to say that all tlitM* pruspecto itre much more tiitcert.iin. \\ (• make thesi' ultservations iiHncipally, however, with rol'Tence to our f intriwlucing a nuniher of men ol educiition, aiuiclied from principle tu Hrttain, and exercising a powerful iiiriueiice in s«>curing the future nttachnunt III the liiuntry uf their adoption to that of their birth. TIIi: VOVAOK. When the detennination Is once taken to emigrate, the next step is to make arraiigenientR with a ship- owner, nr CAptiiin, for the voyii;;e. A paisntfe may l>t> tnki-n either to Philadelphia, Itahiniore, or New York, with almost er)ual advantage] Pliiladtlphiii or Nt^v Vork are perhaps prefcrahlu ; hut no passenger should l.'o to itoston, except he hat friends or business there. Take no furniture wh.-itever, hut plenty of good warm clutliing, and hed.clothc^. We need not repeat here the directioiiH nhieli ha\e hivn already given; the steero,'e passeng^-rs g-nerally lay in provistoni for themsetveii, which coni>it.t (tf oatmeal, potatiH'H, some eg>;s, milk hoihtl with lumpsui^ar, and some salt heff, or iiam; these provisions should be calculated for fifty days; whatever reniHius after the pnfta.ige, wilt he n>ie. ful afterwards on the way to a settlement. A tin pot, or kettle, with a 6at side find a hk, for hatttfinrt up- on the rifii 0/ thf Jirf, will In- very useful, because it is often impossible to put every thing on t/tc Jirr to. gether at c^Niking times; and this pot c:in be boiled without occiipyini; the roiim of ot)iers. It ii particu. larly rerominended tct that the sipiall may cause hard work to tlie ■ailors. Inn no danger to any boily, except there la* land within sight, ami the wind blovv- i ig them on it ag^iinst their will. On rrnning into harbour, bo in no liutry, or rather lot your hurry put M)u in tto confusion ; get all your things ready, and have some Iudf.;ings lixetl on to take your baggage to before moving—Passage from I^rf'ith to Ne^v Vttrk, in the steerage, L.3, lOs. to r.4 : children, fnmi 7 to 14 years, one half ; under?, <>"(* thini ; under I'imontha, no charge ; pa.i%engeri find their own prnvitirms. The Slip lays in water^ firewood or conls^ cooking apparft- tiis. it'i'l I'lH up sIcci'tM^ lilrclis. One-ihii.l of the fndgl t to hii p.iid before ti.e passago heNe<-iiiiJ, and the einiiinliig t^vo-tblrds on sailing. Cabin passagef L.U ui I..i;>i children, I.. 10. tANHINO IM AMRRtrA. MiipiHising the emigrant landed at Philadelphia, New Vurk, or Haltimore, hit next step, If a trades- man, la to consider where he Is most likely to rind work. Kxcept shlpwrighta, and one or two other trades. It is t>erhapa better In proreed to some of the considerable Inland ton nn, u here uiigcs are genrrnlly higher, and the e.ist of living less, thi this auhjei't, the emigrntit will lind ready Information from people of his own buiiness in whntever city he may land 1 thev are set l.>ni unnilling to putstrnngeriin tht' way of Hnding rtn|doyment. There la an emigmnt so. ciety ill riiilhii'dpliia, which has done a great deiil for this purpose. If tlm emigrant wishes to intrchase lanri, and tins fixed on the district where lie Intends to settle, he ought to take his past for thoxe who mean to prix'fi'l (o .MichijiHU, but thi'si' tuay aUo go hy Mfm- freil. whi'iii'p the Itidrau Citnal, now opened, affords an easy pa<d by the Uideaii Canal, the expense will be somewhat less. The alMive, we have snid, is the ciwt of a pBssafr'>ti> .'Michigan; thnt to tHe Ohio may be reckoned «s a tritle more. We have not received intclligeno' of th- completion and opening of the canal nhicli is in pi greKsfrom Lake Kric hy Columhus and (.'hilicothe Portstnoulh in tndiann, so that it will he neces%i for travellers, who think of pmcei'ding tu any of tKe wes'ern countries, to journey piirtlv by rnrifl, nud jijirtly by cmuil, to Pittsliurg, ami thence down the Ohio, This thev c^tn do, either (mm lIaltitnor<> or I'h'hid.dp;.!... Fniigrant I who Intend to settle In the Highlands of Pennsylvania hsd l»«'tter take passage immediately to Philadelphia, which will be rheapest; but if that be im|H)asible, as ships are not always to lie found for the tifsired port, the journey either from New York or Itiiltiinorc tolhul place is hliortf and not expensive. Headers may see it mentioned in our notice concern- iiitf the *' Kxitensen of Travelling." After landing, emigrants ought to make no delay ill lingering about the sea-pttrti, either from curiosity or the persuasion of fellow. pusseiigera. I^tthcm im- TDLMliately proceeil to business. If in search uf land lu tUiio ur ,^li^higan, let them Instantly set out thither j they will lind a land-offico in every princlnal town of iliu diKtricts, where they may hnik at tlie surveys, learn what townships or lots remiiin unsold, and get Auch inforjnation as ttiu surveyor possesses concerning tlieir qualities. Hut In every case let the settler ex. amine and aearch for himsen ; no one else can or will jiid^e for him. The surveys are made out, delinent> ing the lines of the most considerable rivers and hills; and they are covered over tvitlt a number of small sipiarei, like checks, whiidi represent the diiferent towiiithips of six miles s'ptare, sections of one mile, and <]u:irter sections. There are aome principal linee marking larger stnmreji ; these ant the meridians and base lines, hy ikhich the positions of the ninuller por- tions are fixed, according to their distance from each. No smaller (piantlty is sold than 80 acres; and the price of government land is every where the same, tliat is, one didlar and n quarter |>er acre, or 5s. fM. — though emigrants c.iiinot always reckon nn getting a situation to lit them at that jirice ; perhups four to t'i^'lit dollars ur^f ]irocttre a rhoice. If the M'ttler wishes In have land tn Pennsylvania or New York states, it is to be bought there from in- 'lividuaU, the government having no land for sale in thi'^u states, 'i'he price here varies arrording as the iaii'l is iiii[iroved or not ; and on this suhiect tlie reailer u ill lind Information under the head " Prices of Land.'* If the emigrant ahould not, immediately on landing. lind any one who haa land tn sell, an advertisement inserted in any of the papers will bring soine of the owners or their agents to watt on him, and to direct him concerning purchases to be examined. His family s lould remain in New York or Philadelphia till ha 1 Ts tlie Itind and fixee on a lituutioo. KMIGRATTON TO THE UNITED STATES. inimeiU.'itely' ; tmt if that be fuumi Cnr om Svw Vitrk i>t t'xpeiis'vc. utice cuiiciMii- ..frrmitii nn InncllMff, tre fidvl»ml to IttH^ thtir ntmivy in ■nmn iif thu Ixtiiki. If tltf*y hnvit any mii- •l(l«ralil» Hum In ftnU), ttivy can t(i«n«rally r1tii|M>M of It to ndvnntatfH to the broktn t but It li h«tti*r, In th« mi*iin\vhilit, to pUca It In hank at a iptciat lUtmiU. Ukltiira rerript from tha caihlf r, Wiring that li» will ratarn iht »amt to ymi or your onlitr. The iirm'eedi, after rxchMnfrinf( your Kohl, may Iw left in ine hank, from whrh ymi will receive a iMMtk Ktvlnn you cretllt ftir vuur ti poait t and you may then draw upon the bank nn ymt neril the money. To thofii n'ho tvinh full informntlon on the Rubjei't of Amerlra, we wnnhl rei'onimend ihn iij»lt»tiHitl work lately puhliiihed hy J. Ifowitnl Hititon, Km(., which ivintalni every thlnpr relating to thn hiHtory, natural eapabilitiefl, and itatiitica of the rounlry. The rertnt work of our countryman, Mr Mtuart of nunearn, has been ipioted frcijuuutly in thrnti pn^c«, but not mora often thim It* iiccuracy anil imjinrtiiility dt-wrvv. The volume of Air Fer^uion of Wos of the lower ranges of hills are of grent fertility, and, from the niildneHs of the climate, some of the nuinntnins ndiult of culti- vation to their very summita. The mendowg are In the highest dt^ree luxuriant, and the hills are co- hered with ahundanco of pasture for cattle, sheep, hogs, deer, and goats. The timber found on the hinds in their wild striio :s dIfTerent, nrrording to their iin:i. lity (a circumHtauoe winch the lutendin'.' settler rYiouM observe carefully); that on the hoAt lauds beliur wuU nut and chevtuut; the next host, maple, beech, o»k, and hickory ; the third iititiHty, pine, spruce, ii»d hem- lock (a kind of fir-tree) i anil the poorest lands are encumbered with shrubs, brambles, and bushes. When the lands are brought under cultivation, their pro- duce, in Iitdiiiu corn, wheat, buckwheat, potut!<, A.(>., equiil.4 that of any of the eastern nections of the Union ; and tNe soil, especially in the hilly parts of the north, is well adapted for gmxing. ftlr Flint mentions that produce in this dliitrict may he stated at from twenty to twenty-ftve bushels of wheat, and from twenty-five to thirty bushels liulian corn. The^e, hu adds aro raised under slovenly management, and without mtii')i labour. A farmer expressed his contentment with the crop under existing rlrcumstauces. " A dolhir a bushel for wheat," he said, "made a fair price, where he has neither rent nor taxes to pay. His own farm paid about four or five dollars a-year for the support nf the state and county ofilcers.'* The expense of taking cattle fnim these inland parts, where they are easily fed, to the market at Fhlladelpbia (wlieru'they always command cash), in almut As. Od. n-he:id. The great roads from Philadelphia and New Vurk, to Pittsburg, on the Ohio, pass through part of the dis- trict. There is also a canal between Pliiladelpliia and Pittsburg, whiih Intersects the southern parts of it, and affords means for transporting the produce uf the country to markets on either side. This country prcKents a climate more healthy, and less different from that of European cfuintries, than most oth'jrs In America. Its hilly surface,, find clear rapid streams, seem more congenial to the habits of persons accustomed to the same scenes in this coun- try, than the fiat though rich carse lands of the west- ern rivers. The price of laiul here, as in all other parts of the 'Jnlon, varies according to tht advantages com- manded by the property; fertile land, well hituated for roads, nelling considerably higher than soil of an inferior quality, or more remote from markets. The medium price of unsettled land is from two to f(mr dollars per acre, ami the best situated about eiglit doU lars : the amount of the purchasu will always lii> taken in instnlments of a dollar per Hire, each year, tiil the wliole be paid up. If the account be discharged in six wars, little fault will be found. Many labourers, work- Ing at the canals in this distriit, of which there are wveral In progress, receive four dollars and a half per week ; and as they can he bu:trded (with meat twice a-day) for aliout two dollars per week, thev can save fight dollars at least every month, and, by tlie produce of their industry in this way, may be enabled, in three years, or a little nn»re, to command as much money ai will purchase lOG acres of land. As they are not re- quired tu pay fur the land on entering this sum will 3^ •tialda tliem at uure to settle uu their property, though for such emitfrunts It is ({euerally advlRabie not to purchase morn land than they can quick Iv bring intA cultivation, wUich ta about fil'iy acres. Air Cob. Iwtt mentions, that while In America, he was at an Inn one night, where he met a Connecticut farmer on the road to Fenniylvanla. with his dauKhtert tba rest of hln family had gone thither already. His reasons for migrating were these i He had five sons, the tldest nineteen yearn nf age, and several daughters. Con- iiertii'ut is thit kly settled, and land dear. He had not means t'> Imy larmii for his s mt there t he there- fiire giMW and ^ets cheap land in Pennsylvunia ( his Hons will aHNiat him to clear it, and thus they will have II farm each. Air ('ottliett dues not, however, think this an advisable plan, except for those who are accui- tinned to hard and steady labour. There are itumerous bus of land alwavs on sale, and to Ite heard of In Phlladelphiu i but [f tlie emi- grunt has any tlitliculty on this head, he ban only to iriiert a notice, inentiHuing his wiOiet, In tme of the pulilio papers, when he will be waited on by luie or other enitneclud with tht sales. Let hlni, honever, by all means, see tlie land himself, before concluding a bHrguin : this caution cannot be too often repealed. It in not to be expected that every duiirublu object should he united on one propirty; but many Inconve- nienres can be observed hy a man's own eye, wliich no one will point out to him. It must in general be borne In niinil, that the t>ust carse lands, or the r 'ch hnttoniH of vallies, are not the moat healthy, and a situation near m^irshes, or po.ils of shallow water. Is always to be avoided evon In the healtliiest districts. There are about twelve millions of good iiiahle land on sale In this district. Tlie ('ouuirlcf nn the Oltio and MlHlulppl. The climate of this extensive region Is not uniulted to Kuropean constitutions, though perhaps requiring ifrcater caution on a first arrival tlianin the old status i because, Iteing an inland coantry, theheat of summer and the cold of winter are not sottened by those breexes from the ocean which moderate the temperature of islands and sea-coants. In murshy situations, and close by the banks of rivers, especial!) if the woods in the nerKhbnurhtMHl have been left nncleareil, agues and fevers are not uncommon during (mtninn, but these, with due caution, are seldom fatal, and are IiNiked on by the inhabitants with little aupi-eheniion. None of the large towns have btTU hH down In un- healthy sltuathms ; and the settlers, in nelectln^ lands, can at present have their choice of > upland grounds, which ai'e not liable to any disen \Vii\i this ilrawback, which ii wai necessary to state nt tlie outset, the region wt> liave now inentiioied presents a sccnu uf proniine to the indnstrlons settlor, which is hardly to tm equalleil. The greater part of the land is a fine blaik mould ; in sonu! parts, parti- tirularly the river sides, u'hero tlie gra^s continues rank all the year, It is covered witli heavy timber ; In others, where burning of the dry grass in HMinmur prevented the grawth uf trees, it lies in lino meadows, called here prairiea ; and In the hilly, or rather knuUy districts (for tlie land is generally tiat), there is a growth of shrubs and uuderwoixl. The !y industry, that he met a settler who had that year raised nine hundred bushels Indian corn and wheat, by his own individual exertions. Air Flint had previously heard of u negro, settled on the prairies near Vtncennes, who hud tiie name year raised one thousand bushels. The soil is well adapted for growing the European vegetables ; as u proof of which, wo lind it mentioned, that cabbages grow to the size of 13 and 17& ff^et in circumference : those of nine ftnjt round in the head are common. Parsnips^ carrots, and beets, are remarkahle for their sixe and flavour ; peas excellent, and very prolific ; unions are raised with no other trouble than sowing the seed, and keeping the grntind clear of weids. The follow, ing extract from the memorandum of a naturalist in that country, will give an idea of tlie jwriods of the seasons :— .April 1st, Peach trees in blossom. 2d, As- paragus in blossom. 3d, Peas, beans, and onions planted. 10th, Spring had completely opened, and tlie prairies were green. I6th, Lilac and strawberries in bloom. 27th, Ijettnce and radishes fit for use. liOth, Koses and honeysuckles In full bloom. — It Is mentioned, alsu, that turnipi, sown on the lOth {Sep- tember, will grow to a very large size liefore winter. Besides its capability for roaring grain, &c., it is one of the best cattle-foeding countries in the world. "A farmer," it is said, " calls hiin:>elf |>i>ur with a hun- dred brad of horned cattle around him." Hogs, from the abundarii-e of all kinds of vegetables, are reared and fatlriied in great numhers i and the demand al New Orleans affords a ready inarkel for all. Nothing U more common than for an Illinois farmer to bo t.nini I tnfinta of the two ftatei, Indiana and Ohio, it a place of jfreat trada. In 1800, it contained only 7^0 peoplff, ant. :n 1805 only 960; it wai then snrrounded by a wild country, occupied by the Indiana. The country around ii now oultli'atwl, and the numlwr of inhabitanU in the town is aNmt 35,000, of^mposwl of pMplfl from alt part» M Europe and the United 8tntes, who have been attracted by the udvnntaKes of tiie place. On the oppofite side of the Onto, in the state of Kentucky, there is another town, which ii dirided into two by the rirer Licking j theae two parts are laid nut on the sanie regular plan as Cincinnati* m that the whole appears one city. There aire many l^rent mannfactnring works here : steam-miila, glam and iron-works Ac-, and the bustle of the plac<* K^vea the farmers an excellent market for their produce. Tnis advantage is farther increased by the trade of the nnmernns Iar^r« stcam-lHwt^ which here take in cai^oes of beef, pork, ilour, Ac, *"or their v()yage down the Ohio and MiKsisiiippi to New Orleans. Formerly, th^T could not easily t.^%nd the rirer, nn account of rapids which occur farther down at LouisTJlle; hut iufo haTe been now overcome by a caral two miles in length, cut through the rock at that place. lyouts- Title itaetf ii tiMated in Kentucky, and is a place of consideralile trade. Other large tflwn4 in this tract of country are, PitUborg, Wheeling, SteutwnTille, Marietta, Chili. c^>the. The; afford a considerable market for agri- cultural produce; and the free nnvi^tiw. » "ew Orleana, as well as the faiUltiee now afforded by a canal cut to intersect the onintry fr;>m the Ohio, at Portsmouth, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie, secure a constHiit and steady demand for grain, salted t>eef, jMirk at the mall, ftc. The Americans look forward to this district, and the vutcoMntri«>a surrounding it, as the future pivot of their national grandeur. Mt«lilg«n. The reader will observe on the map a tongue of land, situated between the two lakw, Hunm and Michigan ; this travt, with anttther which lies ' r. »!iv M-est, tietween lake Michigan and the Mississippi, has l>een lately tiegun to he wtttad hv'emignuils from the old states' of America. The two, ^lffethe^, pos- sess great recommendations to agricultural emigrants. The capital is Detroit, a town situated on the river which connects l^ake Huron with Lake Eri'.*, and contB-.iing "iMQ inhahitanta. These lakes, with their rivers and raiiaU, give the district aocts? to the mar- ket* ;;f New Vork, New Orleans, and Montreal. 7'he climate is temperate and healthy ; winter sets lU (fpneriilly ' 'it the middle of November, and cnn- tiiiiifm till aY le middle of March. At Detroit, ii IHin, the mei..t heat of January was 34°, and. >n UCiO, the mean heat of July was flO", of December, 'J7*. The country in situated upon limestone ri>ck. rather hilly, and iH>si»esse« what the American i call giKMi water pnvilege«— that is, numerous falls of water for riiilU, Ac. It is better watered than any other in the United States, being finely diversified with lake« !ind brooks, rising in most parts from copious springs. The soil is in general a good fertile loam, upon limestone ; in some places a calcareous earth is turned up, mixed with the amimon soil ; in others, the loam is mixed with a little sand; bcAh are extremely pro. (luctive. The country is, in some districts, under heavy timln'r, and in others, an open prairie, where the settler has nothing to do but surt his plough. Hones cost hf-Tt. fnim L.]8toL.22, lOs. ; oxen, from L.15 to L.IR, a pair. The produce of the land runs frmn 2^ to 50 bushels wheat, after one bushel of seed. The cotton plant, the grape vine, the sweet mitato of Carolina, the tomato, and egg-plant, have all Iwen !^ux«ssfully cultivated. Rye, barley, oats, i>ea<, beans, and potatoes, as well as all kin/lsof vegetables usually cultivated in the same latitude, produce here in great abundance. Peaches and pears have tieen tried, and iH-rth produce delicimu fruit : near towns, penrs tell at from 2s. to it. per bushel ; apples vary from *(d. to 2s. per bushel : curranu, blacklwrries, mspberriea, and strawberries, thrive exceedingly. Indian corn is less luxuriant than in the valley of the Ohio, the climate t)eing somewhitt colder. This amiitry, on the whole, seems more congenial to iChropean coniti* tutions and habiu than the other weatern Mttlements. The richest, and, perhaps, most beautiful part of the territory, is generally thought to be that adjacent to the M Jrt(fcT)h's River, on which twelve new coun- ties are forme*!. The soil is excellent, and there are numermis falls of water, fnr mills, Ac At any of the government land-ofhret (which are established, wherever there is land to »ell, in all the states), a settler may prfivide himself with a farm, i.t the usual rate nf 5». 7id. per acre. No quantity smaller than HO acres is sold ny government. Should he chance ^l fancy onu in some favoured spfH (most •f wliicii are already secured along the great public road for 300 miles tnmugli tlie awintry), ne will have little difficulty in procuring it for I'is, or lAs. an acre. An extensive tract of nnintry ujhiu the river and bay of Lftf^anaw (on the went side of Lake Huron) is spoken f^ In terms of high admirition for the rich- neas of the soil, and Iteauty of the natural scenery; lind alan, as pretenting uncommon Inducements to enterprising ani indiutrious farmers and merhanirs, fnan ita oentral ar advantageous p<»sltton for huni- ness. The river liuganaw \% aavi^M* for Imals, 20 nUlca frma the head ef the bay, and a road it made 30 to Detroit Fox Kiver, nn the west side of l^ake Michigan, is also speciallr noticed as highly desir. able for tettlert, in regard t^ quality of soil, beauty, and local advantages t a tanal is projected to conueot this river and the lake with the Misaissippi. Mr KergusBon, to whom we are indelited for the above particular-, g*»ea an estimate from the expe- rience of peraon aciiuaiiited with the district, of u purchase iti Ml Jilgan, and of its returns :— Price of IfiO p. res, at U dollar per acre L.45 t> Seed, labour, and rail-fence, at dol- lars, for, say, 150 acres - - 202 10 Harvesting, at 2 dollars - - - «7 10 Dwelling-house, stables, Ac. - - UJO L.495 L.07A tifltirns. Produce of ISO acres, at '20 bushels pet acre, at 1 dollar per bushel Profit L.I 80 No .allowance is here made for maintenance ; but it is to be recollected, that the 'vheat crop may be re- t>eatcd for three or four years without manure, and in the succeeding years the charge for purchase dis- appears, so that the advantages of the latter are obvious. These are properly appreciated by the Ame- ricans, the number of emigrants flocking to Michigan being immense. Its ^'ipulation, in 1831, was esti- mated at .12,000. Detroit, the capital of Micliigan, is the embryo Constantinople of the inland seas of Not h America. It is flituhted 'n a narrow channel, which connects the two lower lakes, Ontario and Erie, with the thre^ upper, Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Having ac- Cf»% in every direction to countries of more fertile soil than those of (Greece or Asia, and possessed of an equally favmirable climate, it twgins ita career with political institutiuna far more propitious to hu- man welfare than were possessed by the celebrated city we have mentioned ; and it promises one Hay to be the ubitde of a more numerous; aa well as happier population. other DUtricts. The three disuicts we have mentioned are tboae in which the greateat quantities oi iaud are yet unoc- cupied, and where it is to be had cheapest ; out there are others in which settlers may tocatt themselves with advantage. Among theae is the district of (le- iieuee, in New York state ; and, indeed, the whole valley of the Kiver Hudson preseata, at intervals, spots on which goiKl Und may be purchased, especially by those who would rather sit down on a place partially cultivHt id, Bud >jear markets, than in the heart < f the forest. DirrrRENT classes or rHioaAiTTs. Milt Milh CapitaL There sre thrw different classes of emigrants, each of wlumi will be guided by different motives in their choice of a situation. The 6rst is composed of |>er- sous who are possessed of capital to some amount, anrt who have l>eeii accustomed to move among the weal- thier classes of society in this country. If these indi- viduals inte:id to devote themaelves to agriculture in the c'luutry to which they are ttound. every ciroim- staui« leads as to believe, that unless they are prepared to submit to very great sacriliees of personal comfort, and that for no inconsiderable time, they ought to pur- chase land partly improved, and as near some of the towns at they can And it. The hardships of a new settlement to persons who have nut tfeen accustomed to lalmur, are hardly such as can he anticipated by description ; while the total change of habiia—lnbour- ing in the woods, living in lug-huts, and the want of regular food — often induces disease, of which such pi^rsons may feel the effects during the whole of their after lives. Abundance of half-improved propertit>8 may be found (aa we have mentioned under the title ** Purchasing of Land"), upfm which moderate lab«mr, and the exertion of some skill and attention, wiW secure excellent returns. These may be heard of at any of the large t<»wn«, hut chiefly at New York, or at Al- bany, Oenessee, Rtichester, (jeneva, Ac, in that state. In }*hiladelphia also, in the state of Pennsylvania, most rtigible purchases of thie obtained now at price* lower than ran be expected in a few years, when a greater number of aettlers shall havt^ arrived to occupy it Properties within twenty miles of the town already fiell very high — say fifty dollars or more. Almost the same ob- servations may be made with rerafd to l«imisrille, Cincinnati, and JeffersraivlMe, which are situated in the states of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana ; theae places alraady |M>s»ess great trade, and from the abundance of niincrali, ooal, Unie, iron, lalt, and lead, wbleh are found in the neigh btmrhood, they must continii to increase! Farms, therefore, purchuaed in their v»i- nity, are certain to rise in value, and, with attentive cultiration, will, .n the meantime, pay the cultivator ubundantlv tor his labour and capital, Cim;innati particularly is a place of great activit)r, and persona who settle in its neighbourhood will easily find society to their liking; it presents, indeed, though so remots from European cities, no difference nor any inferiority iu Uiis respect. It is right to mention, however, that the whole of the western country, and, indeed, of all the countries which are iu progress of settleirent, ara overrun with a awarm of speculators iu land, and in piojucted L. -^blishmenta, new cities, m. nuiactoriet, Ac, all 'vhom the monled emigrant ought to avoid as a set of leeches. Americans may deal in those mau ters, and may jwrbaps profit by them ; but emigranta never can do any thing but involve themselves in dif- liciilties by such schemes, l^et them look to certain* tie* exolusioely ; the quidity of th<; land, the heaJthi- ueis of the site, the neighbourhood of a market already established ; these are the only considerations that should weigh wj*.!. '!..^i, and no other. In short, to thoito who havi^ capital, wo would say, without hesi- tation, clxNise ytnir abode near some of the jirincipal towns; it is almost indifferent which. Thesoileftbe western countries on the Ohio ia the richer, and its pniduce more varied and luxuriant, t at the prices of agricultural produce are lower than in the old states, and ^rJjjvr deamr. This is the sole and essential dif- fer nee ; except, indeed, to those who wlnh to specu- late ill buying land, by adding to its im proven itanta, and hen selhng it at a higher rate, when their own labuiir, ind the increasing density of the busy popula- tion arout. * them, shall have added to its value. To ];er>oo!i w^ I wish to make money in this way, the vi- cinity .'I the rising towns in the western stawes is cer- tainl* a field of high promise, and many have already reali ed large sums there by proper management iu that manner, Urchanicfi Fsne-Semnts, and Labourcn. Atechauirs and labourers, iu hwkin^ for a situation where they may settle, will be guided by very differ- ent views from cliose of persons possessed of capital. Tho latter, if they wish to buy land, will prefer tu have it in a place where labour it cheap and fanu produce sells dear. The man who lives by his wages, ou the other hand, would have labour high, and all manner of provisi(>n« cheap. H'e have attvised ;ho»e possessed of capital to look for settlements at near the If>rge towns as pv usible, where market* and labour are most easily procured. The other daai we would re- fer to the lists we have already giren concerning tlio rates jf wages and the cost of living; they will find there all the information which is requisite, or can he gi'en, for determining whethsr they should proceed I.) Americ'\ or remain in thia country, as well as for their settlements when there. It was impossible to «ibtain accounts of the wa^ of ovory description of tradesmen ; but by comparing the rate at which Uuhw In any one business are paid there, with the wages which the same persons receive in Britain, a pretty safe con- elusion may he gained witli respect to the rest. In regard to the places to be chosen for settling by me- chanlcfl, farm labourers, and others who look for work, we l>ellevf, that to those who potaess funds !»ufhcik.-at to carry them forward to the western or inland states, there can be no doubt but these afford the preferable field for them, both in respect to wages and cheapness of living. The towns on the Ohio are all gaining ra.. pidlv iu poptUation and importance, from the richness of the country with which they are imrrounded ; and ihe immeiiite qu:iutity of minerals found there, coals, Ac. (as ulreaily remarked) make it probable, tliHt if manufactures l>e ever established any where iu Ame- rica, it wilt be here. The carriage of foreign manu- factured goods ia very expensive to a otiuulry so re. motely inland, and to which they have to be cart' a through »o many canals, rivers, or railroads; and the district itself produceH cotton, «ilk (if cultivated), iron, lead, coaU, Ac. ; so that there is here a bonm for ma- nufacturing on the spot which hardly any other coun. trv poMesBCS. The consequence begins to t>e already felt: m.tnufacturing establishments are l>egun, wages are high, and the prii^ of living is withal exceeding low. To mechanics and labourers, therefore, who have money to defray the expenses of the journey, we cannot but say that the western states present by far the most favourable opportunities. The following ex- tract nf a letter is from ('inclnnati, ou the Ohio ; — *' The improvements in ('incinnati are rapidly in- creasing : the communications opened by means of the canal and the new runds give an impetus to trade. WimtfviT number of artixans, mechanics, and latHuir- ers ct)me out, they will f^nd abundant occupation. The soil is excellent. Knffineers are in great demand. Engravers, particularly tnosn who will work in gene- ral work, an maps, names, Ac; card-manufacturers; tinmen and braiiers; })ell.hangera, with, knowledge (»f canting or directing in that dejiartment ; liakiug, brewing, and malting; are good trades. Olovers, stock- ing weavers, first-rate plane-makers, turners in steel, intu, brass, and wood, are much wanted. Car|ienters, jointers, Iniitders, plaaterers, bricklayers, stone-masons, {dumlwrs, all who are good at their Iniiineis, and la- ir.urers, can get plenty of work, at Its. or 4it. per day. Oardeners ami iinH'hnnirs average 4s. (kl. to tfs. per day, nirriers, (*s. per day, journeymen's wages. Tai- lors get 2(h. fur making a coat, llattrm flu wi>ll." Let it bf recUlefftedj that, with these wages, Uour EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. it at it*, pur 112 Ihi. ; nitiUun nt 'id. per lli. ; sugar, 4d. to 6d. per lb. ; couIm, &d. per huahel. U mft" now be oiked, what additional expense will ho re*!' -' jA to take a mechanic to Cincinnati, after he has reached New York or Philadelphia ? To this we find it aniiwered, that the journey from New York to Wheeling (a town on the Ohio) costs 2A dollan, or L.5, 13s. 0d. ; and from Wheeling to Cincinnati, by steam>boat on the Ohio, the fare is 10 dollars, or L.'J, 6s. Th« whole expenses, therefore, from New Vurk to Cincinnati, are L.7) Us. 6d. The journey may now )>e made, by the canals and steam-boats, to Butfalo, on Lake Erie ; thence ti> Cleveland ; and from that place, by the canal, to Cincinnati. This will roduce the expense somewhat. The same letter from which we have quoted above, mentions, that a family of respectable pursoni had urrived at Cincinnati from Knf^land, and that the whole expf nse of their journey (with 36(>0 lb, higt(aK«) v.hs L.7A> But there is no occasion for going even so far as Cincinnati ; Wlieel- iiii^ itself, or Pittsburg, which, though still on the Oiiio, is much nearer New York, present quite the same inducements to mechanics of all descriptions. Labour is in the greatest demand every wherq. The puople are not ablo to avail themselvM of the riches of the country which th^y inhabit without assistance. llr Flint, who travelled on foot, was stopped by the farmers asking him anxiously If he *^ kiiew ^f any tra- veller tcho would i^»t himtet/f and thrash /or a few days ; ' and Mr Htuart of Dunearn, after telling one of the Ohio settlers the work usually done by faiin. servants in Scotland, was charged, on departing, not to neglect sending some of them to America, if possible. It is not in otie or two districts of the Union that this demand for work-pcopte exists, but every where. The towns immediately on the coast are generally better supplied with tradesmen, labourers, &c., than those inland, because emigrants first land there, and often apply for employment as soon as they go on shore : but in all that we have heard on the subject, we Hnd no instance of a person who was willing to work, and who did no; find employment. Penoni who with to tmy Small Lota of Lind. Besides emigrants possessed of good capitals, there are often men who are acquainted with fanning busi- ness, and with that only, but who have not money to buy improved land, and who wish, therefore, to de- pend on their own Industry for clearing ground for thematlvts. Aliiny such men, after persevering for years, with v!ieir families, in unrequited labour in this country, have gone to America, and become proprie- tors of well- imji roved and rich farms. We could quote numerous exainptes cf this kind : the following is taken from Mr Flint's interesting publication : — " J. M., a msn from the county of E^'inbursh, arrived hero ( near Pittsburg), an'1 had settled with his family, (levon lonn, two daughturs, and a son-in-law, aliout ten months before I met him. He has purchnsed 480 acres oflanil; built two log-ht)Usus and a small Rtabti) ; cleared and enclosod about 23 acres, uhieh is nonrly all under crop ; dcailened tho timber iif about HO acres mure ; Mul planted an orchard. In addition to these improvu- uients, bia sons have wrought for a aeighbour to the amount uf a hundred days' work. He hai a iiorse, a cow, a few hugs, and some poultry. 1 inquiret* if he felt himself happy in a strange land. He rephtd, that he would not returi. to Scotland, though the oropuTty of which he formerly rented a part wore given him fur no- thing." This instance — and hundreds of others might he quoted — will show that people from this country, with a stock of from L.50 to L.lOO, may establish them- selves wuU in America. A smaller sum than these will hardly suffice to land with, if the settler intends to buy land immediately ; because eighty acres of laiid (whic)i is the least quantity sold by government) costs L.22, lOs. ; and though sometlting were done to rnise a crop the first seasou, the other expenses of a log-htmse, &c. would absorb every thing. The price ofgovernment landis required to W paid immediately. We shall not dwell farther on the subject of settling on new land, clearing the ground, &c., but \)eg to re- fer our readers to what ban t>ettn already said concern- ing it in the article on Canada, where the practice is tlie same as in America. We slmll only give the following quotation, doscrib. ing the situation and life of cultivators in the woods i — " The settlers in the woods a|ipear to be the moat con- tented and iniiependtnt people, in their way, lever met with : perhaps with only a log-house unplattered, con- taining two ronma, one above and one l>e)ow, sometimes r»aly one below, with a Urge oiwn fire-place and a log- fire. Tho chimney back and hearth built of atonv, picked up alK)Ut tho farm ; a boarded floor unplaned. perhaps bowed only, if too far from a saw-mill ; one or two small glaAa sash windows, and sometimes at Aritt none ; doors and galea t ith wooden books and hinges, A few articles of commnn household use ; two apinning- wlioels, one lor llax ami one for wool, with reaves of spun-yam bung round the inaide of the houie on wooden pegs driven intu the lugs; an upright chum; a ritle- Ein ; a dog ot iwo ; an oven out of doors, at a little dif- nee fWui the house, built sometimes of clay, sometimes of brick ur stones, often placed on the stump of a tree near the bouae, and with a shed covered with tree l>ark to keep it dry ; a yoke of oxen, some young steers, S or 3 cows, H or 10 sheep ; perhaps a horse, or a span ()nke) ; a sleigh wsggoo, a plough and harrow, the last perhaps with wooden teeth ; these form all their rtchns nsrept their land, and on this they often raise UK) n three or lour hogi and a cow, or a yoke of o\un, in a season, besitl^js seven or eight more store pigs, and a suw or two. Those who brought a littlu money wit^ them, or were furliinatu in '.aviag a family of In- du*. ious suns, get perhaps a g.^od frame-bouse, or, at all events, a good rrame-l>am, BO or lOO acres of land cleared ; grow 400 or (iOO bushels of wheat ; other thinss in proportion ; with 2 or 3 yoke of oxen, 12 to :Vi fat bojfs, 2 to A horses, &c., half of them or more biood marcs." The following is a ruder picture of Industry :~. " In Maquftpin county (Illinois), one of our frontier men settled himself nn government land three or four years since, with 4 or 5 sows for breeders, worth a. many dollars. In IH29, he drove ^2 fat hogs to market, which he sold for 13fi dollars (L.31, 7fl. 6d.) The amount of corn given to the whole liefcre he drove them did not exceed one bushel. They lived on the ratiffe, anti grew Alt on r *, that is, beech-nuts, walnuts, acorns, Ac. ; had they been fed on corn, they would have sold higher. Of the proceeds, 100 dollars (L. 22, 'Os.) wore appliiad to pay fur UU acres of laud on wliiub h had settlecl ; the remainder served to pay some small debts, and to pur- chaiu his s^-dt, iron, and groceries for the year. This is not an extracrdioary occurrence, but one common in that country." FUKCHABIMO LANDS. Lands are so' I * y the British and American go- vernments in much the same manner, and at nearly tlie same prices. In our colonial possessions there are public sales of land at upset prices, and at these they may afterwards be obtained, if necessary, by paying instalments. In the United States there are public land-uttices In the chief towns, at which maps of the sold and unsold lands are kept for inspection. Landsare first offered for Bale by public auction, and are put up at from a dollar and a quarter to two dollars |)«r acre. If no one offers these prices, they are exhibited on the land-office map, and may be obtained at any subse- quent period. On the maps, sections of n square mile, and quarter sections of ItiO acres, are laid down; six miles square constitute a township. The sixteenth section of each township is reserved for the support of a school. The lands when bought are payable one- fourth part of the price at the time of purchase, one- fourth at the expiry of two years, one-fourth at three years, and the remaining fourth at four years. For money paid in advance at the land-office a discount of eight per c«nt. per annum is allowed, till instalments to the amount of the payment become due. For fail- ures in the payment of instalments, interest at six per cent, is taken till paid.* There is thus little dif^r- ence in the moc«lity of the purchsse, and the pur- chaser's name, being insert'-d in writing, and the in- strument subscribed by the President of the United States, and the agent of the general land-office. It is delivered to the buyer free of all expense, and may be transferred by him to another person without the in- tervention of stamped paper, law practitioners, ur those absurd feudal usages which continue to disgrace the transfer of landed property in Great Britain. £mi-. ff runts in going into the woods to make a selection of ands, will do well lo take with them an extract from the land-office map applying to the part of the coun- try they intend to visit, and by this they will discover entered from unentercHl lands. The public laud is, of ctmrse, totally uncleared, and untouched by the plough ; some of it is more heavily timbered than other portions, and it is of very various quality, that on the l>ank8 of rivers and alluvial grounds being exceedingly fertile, and other parts be- ing either rocky or raarshy, so as to be either too unhealthy, or too unprofitable to be cultivated. The settler, however, has his choice, and, by going out into the woods, he may fix upon a lot to his own mind. An enterpriking cultivator, particularly if be be a stout man, with a family (k sons, may do very well upon such lands, because tb« original price is small; au'l id'ter clearing them Co some extent, and erecting one or twolf^-houses and barns, he can either extend bia I'ultivatitm (which is easy afu crops are got for the firht three seasons), or he mt«; sell at a consider, nbtu udvHUiw as population betr'as'to increase aruund him, and as settlers arrive, i.ho are not incliniKi to make firrt beginnings in the woods for themselves. When lots are advertised for sale, there are per- sons who make it their business to go out to survey the whole tract More any one else has examined it ; and by remaining in the woods for months, sleeping olWn in the op«ri fields, and undergoing great hard- ships, they get acquainted with all the natural advan- tages of the land, the spots where there are water, power, minerals {nu<^ as salt-springs, <«.c.), healthy, open, or fertile grounds, and select such of these as they^ choose, in order to sell them again at a profit This practice raises the price of the hnt lands, and it ■ liiAB Ajiiert'^tn publiuaUiMi, quoted by ttTguHon, thefoUow< tnit |i.uM*{v 4K\ rvUiive In (no Miihinao territory :—" TfiO pmytranus tn the ritory hu- nicittly rntrri»riiiliiii, induitrioui faniMTn. who, from not lwln)( allowwl to puivnaK- tht- lanil on cre- dit, thiwtiy iKtMina immediauly tlie real owiim of the loll. and, beinj! free from debt, l)U1 fair to liecoiin- wiAlthy ntiicni. The |)riiH- of untolit wild Isnil la flxcd and untfor:!), twliig on« dollar and a quarter (M. 7|d.) piT acre ; the trnna icady moDcy." It is h«n; a|>|M l»n»pllm t-onnir in itattna, thai Ute plan of imrtfianiiit: laiidi on cNdit, or by inilalmantf , la mltobie- Vdui, v.u\ >h>iuKt tf iKMul'k' be avuUled. is one which can only be followed hy natives well ucquaintod with the face of the country ; but it can- not be said to have much effect in retarding settle- ments,- as tho persons who follow it seldom h'>0,000 unfit for cultivation. — No account seems to have been given of the lands in Michigan, a large and very fertile dis- trict lying around the lake of that name, and ou the west borders of the Huron. The greater part by far of *his immense territory is still unappropriated, aiul remains for sale. These are the putdic lands, but there are vast quan. titles of gnmnd in the hands of individuals which have not yet been cleared, or only partially so ; and the prices at which this is to l>e had vary according to the qualf*^' of the land, its situation with regard to roads and u.. rkets, or the work which has been already done upon it. Large quantities of this description of lands are to be had in the north-western districts of Pennsylvania, at from two to four dollars per acre ; many portions of it are fertile, situated on healthy mountain sides, and in a climate more nearly resembling that of Britain, than is to be expected in the low, though rich vallies of the western states, where (except those of Michigan) the public lands are chisdy situated. In the other old settled states there is not so much of this kind of unoccupied land ; though, certainly, when il comes to be in America as it is here, where every inch of ground is wanted for raising food, an immense quantity of what is now despised, will, by the opera- tions of draining, trenching, and reclaiming, be brought into productive cultivation. In these states, particu* larly New York, there is, however, always aliundonce of properties in the market, parts of which have been long farmed, and which have houses and ottices erected on them, for extending thecultivation of theirremain- ing acres. These are oflTered at various prices, accord- ing to their advantages ; and to gentlemen who huvu skill and enterprise to introduce better and morecai*e- ful modes of farming, they oflfer admirable capabilities. The profit which has been hitherto realized in Ame- rica, has been by merely breaking up the woods and prairies into corn land in the roughest and most un- skilful manner ; but a new field of enterprise and wealth remains to those who shall introduce, In the settled states, better breeds of cattle, anH uxrve scien- tific modes of agriculture. The Americans, as has been already stated, entirely neglect the use ^f ma- nures; they often shovel the refiiae of tlieir stable yard into the nearest river; and one farmer is ru'. 'i.piied, who,Tatherthan removea dunghill which had itathereil in his court, chose to build a new set of barns.* T^e national habits lead them continually to think of breaking np new land, and they alwtys choose to do this, rather than manure the old. They prefer, In short, taking their crop oflT a large field carelessly and unex- pensively cultivated, to getting the same returns from a smaller piece of grotind skilfully prepared. This is obviously a want of thrift n weU as of science, and it is for this reason that we sav that gitod farmers, with some capital, might take aitvantage of the half- improved lands which are on sale in the settled states.f and by buying them at the very moderate prices nc which they are tiered, enrich both themselves and the nmiitry, b^the introduction of more business.t. e. .Mr Kergusson mentions several farms which he saw on sale: one near Oeneva was of 2fiO acres, "con- sisting of good loam, and some indiflferent clay, well watered, but without any mill power. The wheat and Indian corn were excellent; the hedges thriving and in good order, with a double rail-fence; the mansion- house and offices were very respectable. The price asked was 2& dollars per acre, or L.U06, 5s. fur the whole farm." • Plint'a Leitvra from Amtrica. t The expcrtmenta of Mr Cobbrtt, whilt retiding on I.oug Ulaiul, are an IlliittrntionofthU remark. Ilia miMe ufcuttivauiii; and \>mPT\'u-iarula-f»apa, lumipi, and ulhpr griMn OTop«i his Ins ent'iiiiire mnnod of feeling hoga t hi* ahcllcring of poultry dm inii winter, to iirocurf I't't,-^ and chickens oarly 1" the aiiriUB i un" all raani|>lea which wi-r« much needed in Aiociicj. CHAMBEUS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOl'I.K Mr Fargunon nunlinni the prices at wliitli «<>me | trict it be chineii i and for uscei luiniiig tlii", the eini. • Tho rpnUkiikfHtit) Ainrrlrftarrcrrlaknlv lilgher Ihjri mi({ht be e«pjinrlifmi of the prire of tend and lU mil. iinriiMi^iiilry. Hutu Mr HckcTiilK, "n hlioM; •uihorit)' TIP lUtP thr abmp fu-u, ilid not rcillv \»kn th*> liiuil, •nrl fwilv in^jtml winccrung it ity rrwify hi* (■■tiinKjr, we ftrrdl%- f-Mp.| I', ihlitk a rr»l bi.ldrr iiilflhl have Jiearil a Iim#r nrtce. In ittn('<. r plat*. Mr I'iiV,< riuft tn^t fic w.,« a.kMl lhr« iiuiUfU l*l Krt wf rmi— 4 lum (|uit« ihtniiiMir eo In paia. 38 other, farmt wore offered ; we lubjoin an abttract of ihe uotirea i — " 1. C«)>tain DtTonport't tkrm, on the eait bank of the Kutiion. It containt 3AD aor«a, 100 of which are in wood t the toil is (tartly clay, partly untly loam, ami a larffe portion it a rich holm on the rivor kitie, of tho flnett imatity. Tho price ilemandeil it L.7, lOt. per acre* and ir wat told at lomewhat more than that turn toon after, lie return might roaionably be expected lo reach L.Ji2, lot., clear of exprnMet^ from the Hat land; and L.70 IVom ihu proQt on a sheep stock on tho upper por- lion of the farm ; in whole, L.lti?, lUi, The price given was L.SOOO, and L.'lKMmoru was r'-^quired fur bui'Ming, rpDcetf and draint'-in all, L.rJOOfl'; for which there it a return of L.I8(>. An industrious Scots farmer, in Mr PerffHtson^ opinion, would not fiiil to realize L.300, clear of ail the pxpenips nfMihtiistpnce, &o. •' 3. Nest to Ihii farm was that of Mr Knickerliockcr, ro 1 laining^ 375 acres. There is a fine holm on thia fkrm, h'i'l the upland seemed fUlly butter than No. I. It wai let in iharet last year, and the owner recoired L.tiS. Thr price atked was L.4 (teracre, or L.ltOO; and L.200 more would be requisite for housi't, fences. &c. There w*% no more timber than teemed requisite for the use of the eitate. " ;). Mr Chorney't farm, 106 acres, with wood lufD- clent for the use ot the property — about 40 acres of very fine holm, capable of yielding, 1 was assured, forty or ('fty busheli cfoats, or other grain in proportion. This t tnn could be had for L.&30, and would certainly return 1..4oor L.6U clear. •* 4. Mr Vely'i farm, 1 18 aero* ; 40 acre* of most su- perior holm ; the upland good ; with a stream running (!irou);h it. The houHes appeared to be new. This turn U'luid l>e had for L.400, and the return could not be leu tltun from L.U to I..40, elear of all charges. " ii. A farm of ;UH) acres, occupied by Colonel Grant, at A rent of 300 dollB.-s (L.67. lOs.) The soil is good It^am ; nine |>arts of it are clay : a new dwelling-bouse, aiid good barn, with a valuable wood lot. It iui<;ht be iMJiight for L.I5(Mi. " The wh(de of these properties weri- evidently sus- reptiMt of great improvement, thou};h in foul and bad condition. The local situation is good, tlie C'hamplatn ennal passing within half a mile, though separated by the rner. The roadt are tolerable.* The account given of these propertie* by an intelH- rent olwerver and agriculturist, will serve to convey hit i(it«of the prices of land, and the returns of the capital and industry employed in Aiiierlcan agrieul- iwre. la all cases we believe it to have been well l-ntved, that no person should buy more land, how- ever cheaply utTered, than he can immrdintely culti- vate with advantage. The capital expended in buying ftiiI>erf1uotis ground is completely locked up from use ; atid that circumstance, in a country where every dis- [Kniable dollar can \t^ employed with certain proHt, is a diMvnright and pitiable loss. There are some ytT- SOI15, indeeil, who, as has been alreatly mentioned, speculate in land, buying large quantities in order to . tt ii of the greatest rons«(fiiencethat the land which .t selected lie in a healthy situation, in whatever dis- grant niu.tt exaniiiie the spot himself. Let him trust the report of no other person i 'and dealers and others naturally commend traola of ground which they have an interest to sell. The people of tlie neiglihourhood are also to be distrusted, because they are all anxious to have settlers near them, from the additional vulne an increasing population gives to their proi>crty. There can, however, be little diHicultT in making the choice. In the first place, the neighbourhood of all marshes is (O lie avoided, as well as of rivers, which, from their sluggiih course and low banks, appear to overflow and stagnate in time of t1(K)dt. Such situa- tions are almost always liable to agues and fevers. The same may be said of low moist prairies (meadows), whose great fertility should never tiinipt any settler from this country to esUibliith himself in them. An elevated spot, where the air circulates freely from all points of the compass, is must desirable. If circum- stances should induce the settler to fix himself near any of the great rivers, it is asserted that a residence chosen as near as cmnvenient to the margin of the stream will Iw more healthy than those situated a few hundred yards distance, in what is cnllcu the " interior of the Iwt'tom." Ahmg tho Mississippi and ."^lissoiiri, the bunks are generally higher than the ground a little distance inward ; and from the porous nature of the soil, tliis interior land absorbs moisture from the river, and remains always damp. So much is this the case with regard to the Missouri, that all tlie wa- ters which it receives from its tributaries do nut in. crease the sf^am, which is, therefore, as largo IiHH) miles from its mouth as it is where it fulls into the Mississippi, after having received more than a hun- dred rivers in its co irse. This circumstance is utiri> buted chiefly to the water l)eiug absorbed by the porous soil, whence it is partially evap4)rated in the surround- ing air. This peculiarity renders the immediate vi- cinity of the rivers (except where they haven rocky cltannel) unfavourable to the health of )>erson8 tutely arrived in tho country, and whose conttiiutioiiK have not been yctaccuitomod to thecliiuateand atmosphere. To emigrants from Britain, we would sav. that the country of Michigan and the Ilighlaner of years it has now been settled, however, has lieen thonnighlv explored, and all its healthy and unhealthy situations ascer- tained ; so that a settler will .leldom l>c at a toss, in the neighbouriiiiT towns, to find some clue by which to guide himself. In whatever place a settlement be choM-n, it is of the utmost consequence tliat the house be on a dry and airy spot, and that it have a spring, or clear run- ning stream, of good water, dose by, for hnu^ehold purposes : some, to secure this object, pitch on the banks of a pf possible, be laid with some hard dry sub- stance; and a little tire should )>e kept in the even- ings, even when the weailier hart none of these vaiii-gloriout Itoahtings have any influence with the new settler : he ou«ht, in every point, to maintain ha- bits at little remo\e> mi for the mere sake of braggadocio, or to imitate the ostentatious hardiness of tome of his neighboiirs. lie will find the Hrots proverb, " lionly and fairly gangs far," as true in the back vv«mhU .f America as at home. Steady and caiiiinns pertever. aiice in clearing hit lands and serurtng his harvesti, with patience and giNMl humour under niiih privations as are uuavoidalile, are chiefly essential to the BlK■^e^K of the emigrant. As a farther advice to setllen entering into the woods or new lands, we would sav, that if two or three can go together, it assists them materially : a fa. mily with several stout sons hnt a ^ery great advan. tngo in this respect. A few acqnaiiiiances joining to- gether, and tNking a piece of Inrtd to divide mnong them, can assist one another in cieartng it, or in get- ting in their harvesti and If any accident hRppeni in one of their families, the good offices of the rest serve greatly to relieve lu UicoiiTeiiiences. It may hapjien, for instance, that some of them gets a hurt, or it laid by for a week with sickness ; and if this were to occur during harvest, or in seed time, every thing would he lost withint the assistance of the rest Of the company. If such purtnershipR cannot be formed before leaving home (which, when the emigrants are not from the same neighbourhood, cannot l>e expected), they may be and often are arranged to much advantage during the passage! and intending settlers will often find it advisable to sacrifice some of their own views as to the district in which thev mean to settle, in (.rder to have the assistance of nteady companions elsewhere. Should no prospect of this kind occur, and should the eini. grant resolve to choose a spot and settle for himself, is next object ought by all means to be to study the i dispositions and characters of his nearest neighbours, j and accommodate himself to them with chuerfulnesa j and good humour. In return, he will almost always j find them obliging, and ready to affo, ^ him informn- I tion and assistance. Both after he .. settteii, and j while on the voyage, he ought to avoid all bargain, making people, many of whom he will find, who have continually something to sell or to exchange, of the very best kind, at they say. These insidious bustling characters ought to be specially marked, and ami- grants ou^jht never to buy any thing but what they nave already determined on, or see to he absolutely necessary. AOniCUI.TUBK, SOIL, AND NATURAL rHODUCT10;oll8) per acre. The I udiau corn yields ftO bushels (or l'2\ h.dls) per acre; this vegetable is cultivated in rows or drills, which are placed four fctt apart, and hoed much in the same way as turnii)8 are here; the fltiilk grows to a great height, and affords in the leavet a kimi of grass, which cattle eat with greediness. The corn is used as food for man in a great variety of ways — as bread, as porridge (when it is callei muih)f and in puddings. When unripe, and in the green pod, it is not unlike green peas, and in that Ktate is sold as a vegetable. Horses, cattle, and poultry are all fond of this grain, and thrive well on it. Potatoes are also cultivated, nnd yield very profit- able returns, gtjod land producing 300 bushaH per acre (b'O bolls Scots), ^\'heat, however, is the most valuable crop; and though the produce is geiici ally smaller than in Britain, the flour is of excellent iiua'- lity. This crop usually succeeds maize, and is fol- lowed ill succession by barley and oats, sown down with grass — although' this rotation is as frequeullr inverted ; and at maize is a culmiferrms plant itsel?. it Is not thought, by oliservers from this country, so useful in preparing the ground forwheat ns our green crops are. ^V'ith giH>d maimgervient, oats yield (mm 40 to ,10 bushels, and barley a\nnii one-fifthless. Bvo and buckwheat are more generally cultivated than in Britain. Buckwheat cakes are one of tlie standing dainties of an American br.';ikfat>t. The process of manuring is much neglerteil, both bv the useof ordi. nary stable manure, and that of llrne ond gypsum. The Americans say that the labotir re ,'i tnni liny. HO ... CIN) bm ... M> ... I(HK> i<-kt>nt. 1 rHrin"H h Itiy, lor tlitf li-il n ^i)oi| deal t kind of ffFHin ihey mij(lit b« 11* rt. 11^ ill ihii til till' f;u told, cr umk ; tbfM- ml ihebutckir jmyft for them from L.12 t(i li.U [Hir head. Men em- ployed nil drovers retaJvu 4s. fkl. a-day, with fot>d for theiimelves aad cattle. It ii allowed that a great deni might lie done in all the stat«s to improve the lirt^eda of Hit cattle, who, though alnrHya in gooroiight a sheep-doctor from England, and gave him *:7h. each 100 sheep for his attendance to this kind of stdck only. The prices at which farm produce sells vary exceed- iiigly in different places, according to Che demand aiid the distance from markets. In New Vork slate, wheat brought 1 dollar to 1 4 dollar per bushel ; maixc, 'J.i. to 2s. tid. ; oats, Is. 2d. to Is. Od. ; barley, 2s. ltd. ; potatoes, Is. 3d. (inod ordinary horses, L.20 to L.2d. Oxon, per pair, with yoke and chain, Ii.20 to L.30. Cows, ItA, lOs. to L.O. i'Merino sheep, I)s. to lUs. ; Saxony, I'M. 6d. to 4ris. ; common sheep, a sort of coarse small LeicesterSf 4s. (td. to ih. after slienring. IJrood sow, L.2, fts. t.) Ii.3, 10s. Hogs, Id. to I^d- per lb. on live weight. Oeese, 28. lOd. a pair. Tur- keys, 2i. Id. each. Fowls, (J^d — UtemiU cost : Farm- wn'irgon, L.13, 10s.; nx cart, L.IO; ploughs, Ij.I, lOs. to li.l, IGs. ; good duuMe harness, h.\W. Dairy articles, from the labour and attention they require, are high in proportion to other things; and, from the same cause, they do not pay the farmer so w;01, nor arc* they so much attended to. Orchards are a matter of considerable attention in America, and ajiples, peaches, and ctierries, thrive in t!ie greatest be:uitv and luxuiiance. The orchard it- w\\' is a consideralilo ornament to a farm-house, and its fruit can be disposed of Co advantage either fresh or preserved, if near a town; and if not, it yields a iuxury to t!io farmer and his family, which their tvliole earnings could bardiv purchase m this rountry. l.iltle attention is paid to tlie appearance of (^-aniens, wliu-Ii arc in general ploughed ; l.tbour beifig ton dear to admit of Bpatle huabnndry; the Americans, indeed, M'arcely know how to handio that instrumpnt, .Many parts of the Tniou arc highly propitious for t!io growth of ll'ix and hemi), the hemp of Kentucky being f-nind not inferior to thaf. of Higa. Hops thriv'e well in New Knglaiid. The rearing of the silk-worm is a pnilituble occiipatioii in Connecticut. C^otton, to- l>acco, rice, iudigi), and sugar, may l>e said to form the staple products of the more southerly states. T)ie vine, which seems to be indigenous to America, and is found in the forests, has within these few ytmrs been successrnlly cultivated in Indiana, and in nuiny other parts lii the western states, the first cultivators being a '.lody of .S'.riss settlers. Of one of these vineyards, 'Ar Flint thus speaks— " We have witnessed nothing in our ronntrv in the depnrtnu'ut of gardening and cultivation wliuh can rom|tare with the rlclmess of this vineyard in the au- tiiniH, when tlie clusters are ripe. Words fifebly paint ^urh a spectacle. The horn of plenty seems to have been emptied in the production of this rich fruit. We principaily remarked tho bine or Cape gnipe, and the .^ladeira grape. Tlie wine of the former luia been pre- l.'iTod to the idarct of nonrdeaux," in the northern Ktates, farmers make sugar from r!ii.' maple tree; and as the pnaiuee is of excellent i'.ii>lily, and cheaply procurett, this becoiues a branch >•! industry well worth attending to, at least for do- m«>stic consumption. The tree flourishes best in billy districts, whereicrises to the height of itixcytir seventy feet, with a thickness of one foot or more. The work of making sugar from its juice eonunences in February or .Marcli, when the fri< pass over the game, which is abundant in the American woods, and which may sometimes afford amusement, sometimes an agreeable variety of food. The m:inard, or common wild-duck, is found in evpry fresh-water lake and river of the United States. The canvass-back duck is an American spe- cies, altogether unknown in Europe; tltey are fmind in the rivers Hudson and Delaware, t ut principally frequent the waters of the Cbesai)ea' r'. where they fecil on tlie roots of a certain grass-like pUnt abuii- dant in these streams: they float abnut in slio:il«, but are exceedinjrly shy, and ditlicult to be shot. The dcHcai-y of tlielr f!esh, ni li'i;li price they bring in towns, render them . >>t Imrative pursuit to numbers. In gener i, \\\i\\ regard to game of all kinds, thougii , i :>i.'i txceUent. it is no uliject with the chielty .uiai. -Oio does no'. care to waste his time in following it. Mr Fergu'son of W^oodhili met in Canada with a yom ir ^i ■ Mian who bad been a poacher in l^cotland, tnit \i.i ■\ net- tled and thriving well on a farm of one hpndrud acres in his new country. Mr Fergusson said to bins " Von will ne*!d neither certificate nor qualification here: what do you principnlly (diottt ?" '* Indeed, sir," said he, " if vou'll believe me, I scarce ever think ab(mt it, for tWre's uaehody here seeks to hin- der us." A herd of deer onlv two davs before had witndered pa«l him while at tiie plongb, yet Walter felt no inclination to run for his rifle, though it stood loaded in the house. WAUi:S OF LAUOUn, AND COST OP LIVING. The price d many articles of clothing are spun and woven at home ; and the geese are subjected to periodical contributions, towards the bedding of the household, or the feathers are sold at a good price." Baltimorp, Mr Pickering, who went to this town to look for 8 situation as overseer of a farm, mentiout the fol- lowing prices as current there : — His own lodgings and board, at a respectable ship- carpenter's (including washing and mending), ISs. (Id. per week.* In the markets, beef, 2d. to S^d. per lb., the best cuts, 4^d. ; pork from 2d. toS^d. per lb., and sometimes lower; veal and mutton, by the quarter, Is. 2d. to 28. 3d. ; good lamb, 4d. per lb. Turkeys, Is. 2d. to 2s. 3d. each ; fowls, G^d. to Od. each. Cab- bages (drumheads), Id. to 2d. each; potatoes and turnips, lOd. to I4d. per bushel. Wild-durks, 34d. to 6d. each ; the canvass-back duck, a large bird, and esteemed a ^reaC delicacy, I3d. to lUd. each. ; par- tridges, 4d. to ^d. each; quails. Id. to 2^d. each; hares and rabbits (small;, from tid. Co Is. each ; shad (a fine fish like a herring, hut ten times the weight), 13d. to Hid. a pair. Apples, very fine, 13d. to 28. 3d. per bushel ; green peas. Is. to Is. 8d. a peck. Ship-carpenters* wages from 7s< to 98. per day, which was higher than the usual rate, on acctnint of a great demand for hands at tlie time. A voung man, bound apprentice to a shipwright, had 138. Od. per wt!ek, wages fur first year, and 228. tid. per week second year, to board himself. Pfiitadetphia. In the " Price Current" of Philadelphia we find the following rates given on wholesale articles : — Mess beef, per barrel of 100 lbs., 45^. to 478. 2d. ; butter, per lb., 44d. to &d. (best quality) ; biscuit, best, per lb., 2d. ; mould candles, per lb., 5^d, ; dipped candies, 4^d ; cheese in casks, 3d. to 4d. ; cofi'ee, 5^d. Urown shirting, 3d. to 44d. per yard. Flour, superfine, per barrel of 190 lbs., 2t)s. Id. ; Indian corn meal, per 190 Ibfi , Iwo. Id. ; hams, &d. to 5,^d. per lb. ; honey, per gallon, 2s. Id.; loaf sugar, per lb., O^d. tottd. ; brown .sugar, 3,^d. per lb. ; brandy, per galhm, 78- 2d. ; Virijiniii tobacco, lAd. per lb.; Cuba tobacco, b{A. per ii>. ; wine, Madeira, per gallon, fis. 2d. toI3s. Od. i Port wine, per gaUiui, 4s. Od. to fis. Od. These are the wholesale prices : articles of provi- sion are furnished in the markets as follows: — The best beef from 3^d. to O^d. i* r ll> f-cording to what part of the animal is hileci. ! ; t .. mutton, of excel- lent quality, 3d; chickens i>' out ^s. Id. a pair; tur- keys Ironi 3s. Od. to 1%. a |<:.' . Butter varies, accord. ing to the time of the year, from ti^d. to lOJd. per lb., averaging about l'-!^d. Superfine wheat-flour, lOs. Od. ner liarrel of 10' lt)s. ; kidney beans, Is. l^d. per peck; I berries (gu. j, 2|d. per lb. ; good rye whisky, Is. to Is. 2d. per gutiou; ctirn do., less. As til the prices of tabom ui I'liiladelphia, ind the surrounding I'ouutry, we f ii tituted, that .1 Ubour- ing man ^'l is from 3». 2d ■- < ■\'^. (!d. per day, in the cities ; ann ' farm-work, in the country, be receives from L.l. I( V to L.2, 14s. per month, besides hoard and UkI. An atteulivo handy servant girl is readily t> . 'K'-*' ^^ ^'^' ^* V^"^ week (besides her board, uf cuurbe). New York. The provision minl.Ht here seems to be cheaper than that of i'hiliirl^ :i, as we find the best beef q»ioted at 2d. per ' .lourneymen mechanics ait- hired at til per and some that work by the pieee eani Os. pr. 1 tnuse-carpenters, bricklayei's, and brick-make .1 ready employment (except in the dead of winter ), at 48. Od. to 7B' or Hs. {ler day ; and shoemakers, tailors, and persons well acquainted wiib any common or useful trade, easily find work, accord- ing to tbeve rates. It musC be remarked, that trades. men in America work long hours, that is, from sun- rise to sunset. BIr Stuart of Dunearn says of this circnmstiiuce, that he does not think the employer gets any additional work done by it, the people being much I'nin-e disposed to loiter than when the hours are shorter. It may ho remarked, also, that the long summer day at New Vork is about an hour and a half shorter than that of liimdon. >Vith regard to prices generally, it deserves to ho nientioued, that tluwe of imported articles, sucli as • The lining wm, a ronit turkey otn-e rr twice s-wwk, fi-wii, bwrstpshi. liRTTi. KaiiRsrrf, anil u kind of pudilliifrt |iH>», miuji. Il>h, 6t\!. A vartfty of ttie nl)ovo wu {iLu^'d on l)u> tslilr .it ^mtv ihi it , mill RpnFrally (hn.'eklndauf Vfgct«blc<> wllli voltteut lis.ii'lit' '^ft. fait and mjijivT, CHAMBKUSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ■■■J Wh, •u^^ar, coll'm*, Hic^ are higher in pluctit «t • di«- tunot from the iwa uid tbe ifreat (o« ns, and that ar- ticles of home provision are cheaper there. Thit ariMt from the expeuie of carriaxv in IkhH caMK, what ft produced and ttild at home having always leas oliaifree on it than what ia Immght from a distanre. ( luthing is rather dear iu the tuies, especially wool, let) ^ wiimtod Bt(H-kiiif(iiand worsted iniu, for instance, are oonsiderahly higher than in Kngland. These notices will serve to convey an idea of the (list of living and of waires in must parts of the eastern states, where emigranu lirtt laud. They will lie found to vary, as we have already mentioned, in different places, and aomrdtnK to circumstances { but it appears tcenemlly that there is full employment for labour, M ith wttgesi acoording to the kind of busineis, fr'mi .'it. 6d. per day, with board, to Os. per day withmit litiard, the most laborious or most ingenious trades reoeivittg the highest remuneration. The cost of liv- ing may be inferred from the prices of beef and wheat, the fumier varying from 3^. u>4d. per lb., acronliug to tlw quality or the demand, the latt«r generally aboui 4s. 6d. per bushel, or IBs. per boU. Wt(M uid Living in the WMtcm SUtct. >Ve And tbe follow iug list given fur tlia priivs at riui-iunati, on the Ohio, which may be reckoned tlie capital of tbe west, and is the point to whicli emigrants tirtt direct their steps in that quarter. Flour, tfs. per cwt. of 112 lbs. ; Indian com, from fJ^d. to8d. per bushel ; mutton, 3d. per lb. ; cider, 4s. (id. jier barrel ; bacon, 3d. and 2^A, per lb. ; shoulders, 1 4d. per lb. ; hams, 'jid. per lb. ; freesold butter, '2{d, and V>d. per lb. ; mould candles, &^d> and Od. per lb. ; di|t randies, A\d. ; coals, 4d. and 44d. per busht'l aHimt, '•d. and 6d. in thf> yard ; coffee, Hd. and M. per lb. ; teat, Is. (Jd. to '2%. {>er lb. ; sugar, 4<1. to •nI. per lb. ; copper sheeting, lltd. per lb. ; fid copper, Od. per lb. ; cit^ara, 30s. per l(NM>. We h»Te mentinued these prices for tbe sake of nimparison : but as the western stairs form a country in some measure different, and almost foreign tt> the Americans themselves (those of the old M'ttled dis. tricts), we slinll give an ai-count of theut sfparatoly, to which we refer our readers in another {'•gc. EXPENSES or THAVELMNO. .Mr Piriieriug, to whom we have formerly referred, travelled in search of a situation i.s land steward, and has been particular in noticing the expenses of his lournev. The following are some of his notes : — l-roin Brunswick in New .Jersey, to New Vork, partly lboat, and partly byco;icb, IM miles, l^s. :M., ln:e search, at a tavern, where he paid for lodging »>Jd. per night, and IS^d. for each meal ; five beds in the mom he slept in. U'ent on board the steam tug- iNiat for Albsiny ; the fare 4«. Bd., I iiles of land-<^rriage, IHs., including breakfast and •.mner : went in the William Penn steam.lHtat front Philadelphia to Italiimnre, 130 miles (going ttirough tieDelawareandChesapoakeCanal, Umiles), fare IHs. —breakfast and dinner, iHJth excellent, were charged U. 3d. each. From BaJtinnire to WashingUm iu the ktago-coach, 3fi miles, fare i:t8. Ud. : got a m^t light roach, a p'^ir of sleek weli-fed hornes, and a Mack liriver to go i»- *fount Vernon (the former rcNidonce of Ueaaral Washingtou), a distance of altout I'J miles, ir another sheet a historic account of the country, and a variety of deUils relative to iU onm- mercJal character and resources, but not of such immediate interest to settlem. As the preceding in- forniatiiui has been very rarefuUy drawn from every accessible source, and rendered ns complete as possi- ble, nirthing remains to Ite mentioned M'hich can con- cern the inti-rest of emigrants, unless it be a few ol>servatiuns on the manners of the people they have an intention of residing amongst. Few persons know or oare about those little pecu- liarities of speech or manner in which the people of one county or district differ from those of another; as, for instance, in what the dialect of the natives of Yorkshire differs from those of Ior are to ex^iecL " 1 could say much," ssys Mr Ferguison, "were it pro- \MT, of the boapilslity of Ni>w York, and of the unos- tt-ntslious kindnofs with which myletltrs of introiluction wiTp n'ci'ivpd. Tho sljle of living is elegant and com- fortahlo, and the domrstrc rircles which f bad the plca- Mire of joiniug Kceiin-d truly unslfi-clcil and happy. The i|uit't, uiniU'Rt, and amiable tonv v( female society par- ticularly |ilL*aM*d me." We give a «eit>nd extract from the same traveller. *• I learned al*o, fntm n Kcoi^nian in ^t^ Thorlmrn's em- plojmcnt, wlnmo family hsd suffered heavily from sick- ness la«t winter, that flowers ami |tarties Ity no means engrufiH iht- sole sttentiim of thu lailios uf New York. He SMured me, (bat, within bit own obiiervation. it was i|uite wondwrful what they continued tu do, in vuiting, i-lulbiug, and attending to the poor. Thisman IsR Gku- gow in great dcstitu[>"n about a ycur sg<'. Ho is now in comfortable circumsuince!i, and bix family provided for ; lint thtf first furlnigbt which honest Saunders Leo spent in New York, a total tirangor, witiwmt inimey or ciigofie- ment, he described with a shudder, n» 'furfectty uir^."* Mr Pickering, who arrived ,i toul stranger, and wtthniit eniployinrnt, lodged at tlic lumseof a shiucar- |>enter, where he sayshe was trcattMl with great kind- ness, .^peaking nf Christmas day, he sayn — " The moment I arose this morning, 1 was prk'sented with a glass of * egg>mogg,' as they catleil it — n i'ittn|Hiund of roni. eCK't milk, and sugar ; also with ci'ii.'«'r-cakp, and ft cake with rsisfns in it, which t« thpir • Cbrtttmaii ntkt>'— all for merry-making and partir*. I was presioil to fine in ttte evening with the carpenter and his wife ; a number of tine fumslei and youag men present ; ({uile a M>cuble party ; the femslei easy and unaffected ; broke up early, by reijuest of our ho»l, next day iM-ing Sun- day." It must be recollected that the person who was thus kindly enteruined was a total stranger to tbe whole p!irtvl-an Knglisbmaii — without friends, and with very little mcmey. The following extract is from the letter of a female emigrant. whi>se husband hiul fallen sick on his ar- rival. The letter is dated " Hrrftitifn, J.imf iiUarnl, near NVir f'ttrkt 1^- " " We hired a room, and my liunH -n i Iwutght a saw, nnit went kiiwing wood, and iloinff s>>\ thing: aok*. he was taken ill, aii■ bad no|>arish tosppl) to fur relief: but vuu would be astonished at the friemis we have found i fur people (bat were ((uiie Kiraugers have aalled to knoa if iMm ricA Huf/iUhMon iufU kert ; one kind gentleman sent for u doctor, and aiiulber good obi Me- thudiil ^ave me leave to go to thv grocers for any thing in bix n""^" • and others were eiiuslly kind. I never Itiought ■ -ooalil meet with such friends among stmngrm. Hukband is now lnl^ndlng fast." Mr Flint tavs — *' To- much thought of in America as in this country, and that the industrious laliiniring man stands mure nearly nn an eipialtty with his em- plmer than with us. the fvUowiug extracts rtlatc to i this sultjci't. Extract of a letter from a labourer : — *• A M'rson must not think of coming here withovl wtirking ; and they «*espiso drunkards ; liut if a pwsoo keeps steady, be is respected much more than in Eng* land ; he is admitted at Uble with the larmer." The following extract is illustrative of Americui nnanaen In various respwts. It is from Mr Stuart i— " When they meet ui walking, they, whether ac- quainted with OS or not, (KM|uently stop their vehislCK and very civilly offer us a ride with them, ami will hardly believe us lo be serious when we decline to avail our- selves of their kindly meant inviutions, and toll them we prefer to walk. There are fuw more striking points of difference between this country and Britain, ttian in the numbers of people who ride sod walk on the public roads. It absolutely seuins disgraceful to bo seen walk- ing. The circumstance, no doubt, proves the easy cir- cumstancDi of the mass of the people, as well as the value of time to a mechanic, whoso wages may lie fW»m one to two dolliifs n-day, and who can better afford to pay for a conveyance and spend less time, than to walk and spend more."—" We have not hitherto," ho \dtls, in an- other place, •* seen any thiog like a poor man's bouse, or a buiar«r. or any one who did not seem well-ololhed and well-fed." Such are some of the traits of character of the inha- bitants of North America, who, although speaking the English language, and living unae. i-nitutionsitrictly Knglish in their uharacUr, differ, ai may be supposed, in several respects in their manners from the people of t!iia country. Tliey do not lay claim to that artifi- ciality and polish which distinguish what is ealled "good society" in Great Britain; they are more downright and frank in their behaviour, less ceremo- iiiotts, and are In every way a more independent peo- ple in their thoughts and actions than tlie geoeralitr of English and Scotch. From all that we can under- stand of their character, they seem to possess leas of the quality which produces "cringing" than any peijple on the surface of the earth. It may be con- ceived, from the extraordinary mixture of classes of persons from most European countries, and the wide field olTered for adventure and enterprise, that the Americans have little of that staidness of disposition and subdued tone of mind which are characteristic of the British nation. Society, in the partially settled districts, is, therefore, still in a loose condition ; and emigrants will re<)uire to be more alert in regard to their inUrests, and much nuH-e on their guard againot dec«ption, than iu this old estnblishod country. It is deeply to be regretted, that, for a number of yearb, there luu been a class of writers in tireat Britain — we would particularly instance those of the Quurierly Heview — and a few travellers, whose deeply-rooted ob- ject it has been to vilify the American nation in the gross, and to hold up not only their institutions and usagi4, but all that belongs to the country, whether in nature or art, as fit subjects of ridicule and con- tempt. The unworthy calumnies which have been industriously circulated by these splenetic writers, need nut in tlie smallest degree pnxluce hesitation among emigrants in reference to nettling in the United States. The citixens of tlie North Americnn Uniitn are essentially British in their origin and chn- racter. Their other peculiarities have naturally arisen from Uie fortunate circumsrances under whicJi they nrK iilaied ; and in which peculiurities we would etjuully partake, had we fewer public burdens, fewer cauhes to Iw! careworn, as well as ii greater scope fi»r tlie protitable exerclite of our industry. In compariiig ('iiiuid.i with the states, every intelligent traveller liHowB, tliat the citizens of the I'nion are infinitely more active than the subjects of O rent Britnin. Within the colonial territories, all public works, and nnwi of tiie heltlements, proceed slowly, the system seeming to Ite rather inert; while on the states* side of the boundary, every species of work proi^eeds with the ino^t astoiiisbing rapidity — canals being cut, railways torni'.Hl, and towns buift, in an inconceivably brief space of time. As Tpper Canada has nearly the same nntnntl advHntage^ iih the states, iiud as the people, it may be pri->e ; hut it must al»o be idhtwed, thiu it is not in the nature of things that a ntnntry, witii its seat of f^'overnmetu three thmmand mile-i di»tsnt, can besoadTantNgctMitlv c^ulucted as another otmntry, where the gnvcrnmenc is not only on thesjMit, hutconwists of the People then>- selves. It is not. however, our object here to draw any comparison Wtwixt the ptditicul conditiou cf the ado. iiies attd state Hntb bnvefree institutions, and botl< jmssess thoS4> i Silitien which ran yield comfort to settlers. The i nest, the industrious, antl the enter- prising, will tin well in either, and will command re- spect and nsoM.Unfv wherever they may fix their place nf setth ■ . iit. EhiMBi KMH t'Dttlfttl and Put)li(li*>l by W. miU 11. ( immbsk., 10, WaiKi ' Place; also by W. nun. I'*teniimpr Ht.w, Uni- don ; ai"i y' * rnuv, Jun. anil Co. Saukville Mn-ct, nuhlil., Sfijil ttn ' >iii MavWotl, ()ls«f{0«. Slid all olhn lliKikspMert in Se-'tlnn-l. » nK'^ntl, wnit Irelaiiil.— l>ut>liihM( otki' a ATMiiehl. NumlKTi. <"(U.iiniiii' ivrcounti 'it Nrw south Wnlts, una Van IHrnnan'* l.knH, »iili map«, Aw Ike aae of emlitranti ondotlwn, sit \n )rrv)MiraiioTi. fttsivutfiH^) tiy A. Ki»KWuui>, St A.u>tfvw Strc^'t, F.tHutni^K CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAUBER8, EDITORS OF " CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. & PnicB Ijd. ACCOUNT OF THE GLOBE. Tht >boT* E'ifnvtag i«i)T«MnU Mint of Ihe mor* remukable PhenomcnK of Nature, which will b« found drscrribed in full in tht body of this Mtlelc— On the right li a view of riugal'i Cart, on« of tho most remarkable ipeciraeni of Daultle Column*.— On the extreme left, a Submarine Volcaio li wen belching ftHth Ita red-hot melted rocks from the botom of the dee;!.— In the distance is a Volcanic Mountain, and to the nght of it. Granitic Rocks. irwl, Ediubwn;U ASTRONOMICAL DEHCAIFTION. The Earth, or Olobe, which we inhabit, and which for many agei was luppoMd to be the centre and principal part of the univeraet it only one of eleven primary planets, or similar globes, which revolve round the sun at various distances, and the whole of which together, including the sun, form but one of innumerable simi- lar systems, which are disposed in the Immensity of space. The Earth is the third of the planets in point of dli- tance from the sun (that disunce being ninety-five millions of miles) i In point of siie, it is one of the smallest— Jupiter, for Instance, being many hundred times larger. Its thickness from pole to pole is 7B98 miles ; In the other direction^ it measures ^i^i. The difference of 26 miles causes an imperceptible depar- ture from the spherical, into what is called the sphe- roidai shape ; and it is assumed, as a proof of the ori- giually fluid state of the earth, that this Is exactly the form which a melted or liquid globe naturally takes in revolving in space. The revolution of our globe round the sun occupies 3f{5 days, hours, 40 minutes, and A? Becouds, which, as every one knows, censtltutes a year of time. It has another revolution round its own axis, which Is performed in 24 hours i this agaiu, as every one knows, constitutsi a day. The former revolution produces the seasons ( the latter, day and night. SURFACE or THE EARTH. The greater part of the surface of the globe is co. rered by sea, and the land appears Insulated In larger or smaller masses within that envelope. A mass of the Urger kind Is called a continent ; of the smaller, an island. Of continents there are properly two. The larger and first known overspreads a great part of what is called the eastern hemisphere or half of the glolw, and is divided Into Europe, Asia, and Africa. Another continent of less extent exists in the western hemi. sphere, and is divided Into North and South America. Of islands there is a great multitude, the largest Mng New Holland, tn the Southern Ocean, while the most important is that of Great Britain, on the north- western confines of Europe. The mass of the earth is composed of the various sub- stances which we are accustomed to call land, and the sea Is only a covering of greater or less depth. The vast ocean called the Pacific, which In some parts interposes thousands of miles between America and Asia, is sup- posed to be only four miles deep at an average, and the Atlantic, which separates Europe from America, is supposed to be only three. In order that such a large mass of waters might be preserved from putri- faction, it Is replete with salt, of which the Southern and Mediterranean Seas are said to contain a somewhat larger proportion than others. The other substances found in the sea are sulphates of soda, magnesia and lime, and carbonate of lime and magnesia, which, cuUecttvely with salt, exist In the proportion of three to four per cent. The surface of the land, from being very uneven, is in many places indented hy large sheets of water, which have obtained the name of inland seas; such are the Mediterranean, Baltij, and Red Seas. If the extent of such seas be less, uud the openings larger, they are called gulfs or bays. The still smaller por- tions of sea, surrounded to a considerable extent by land, and which afford a shelter for ships, are called ports, creeks, or roads. Those masses of salt water which are enclosed by the land on all sides, and have no communication with the main ocean, are termed Caspians, from the Caspian Sea, which is tlie largest of them. The saltness of these bodies of water has been variously accounted for, some supposing that they have been cut off from the oceau by a change tn the relative level of land and water ; and others, that the saltneu arises from their occurring in oountrles impregnated with that matter. In support of the latter theory, It may be stated that salt springs are numerous where the Caspian, and the Lakes Aral, Baikal, &c., are situated. l.ATITUPE AND I.ONOITUDE. In order to describe acmrntety the p'nition of any place, geographers have divided the circumference of the globe into 360 degrees or parts, each of which contains C04 English miles. A quarter, nr 90 degrees, of this circumference, lies between the equator or girth-line of the earth, and its poles, In all directions. A half, or 180 degrees, lies between any one point ua the equator, and the spot exactly opposite. Thus, when it is desired to indicate the position of any place, the geographer first mentions how many degrees and parts of degrees it is either to the north or south of the equator — which is called tatitutU ; and then points out how many degrees and parts of degrees it is from an imaginary line cutting the equator, of which al- most every nation has established one for itself; and this is called longitude. In Britain, the great Astro- nomical Observatory at Oreenwich is held to be the starting point for measuring longitude. There are other circles on the face of the earth, all established for astronomical and geographical purposes. HOUNTAINa AND PLAINS. The surface of the land is composed of slopes of every degree of inclination, extensive and nearly level plains, grooves, depressions and cavities, ridges and eminences of all kinds ; the highest of which bear so insignificant a proportion to the earth's diameter, that the glolw, if reduced to the size of an orange, would not present asperities so palpable as those on the surface of that fruit. The bottom of the sea presents inequalities similar to those exhibited on the surface of the land. The most remarkable elevations are those series or chains of mountains, which stretch through large tracts of country — such as the Himalayas of Asia, the Andes of America, the Alps the Appenines, ami the Pyrenees, In Europe. The Himalayas are the high. est hills of which the height has yet been ascertaiued, being 25,000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. Theserhains areintersected by vallies, which slope towards tho surrounding countries, and afford the sources of the numberless streams which carry off the rain waters to deposit them in the ocean. The tops uf hills are sometimes like sharp cones, sometimes are round and swdling, and occasionally present ex- teniire pUioi, or what are called table-lands. In >^#: CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ]v"% obedience Cu tho laws of nature, lucb waters ■• riae otil uf the Krouad, or fall from tht lwar«"i in elevftttNl di|tri«U, glide into th« hcdlowi, or vaNittt, a>d l||er« form riven, whirh, In proportion to the estant of country drained by them, are either large or small. The lonfCMt and largMt river in th« old oMiUiMat is the Danube, which mm tbrouKh Uermany and Tur- key. In America, however, there Are streams of much grtiater maK">tude— such as th« Mississippi, which rtinii 4300 miles, or a fifth part of the circumference of the fflultf, and the Amaaon, which ivtmly UOO miles aborter. In some iniitances, water rests in large hn. ■ins or hollows, and forms what are cttlled lakes : tlie lArgesi of tbeae li Lak* 8upwi.% over a ■pnco of MO mUoit and Id Africa are vast expanses of ocariy level frouad, whore the traroUor, day aft«r day, Moa tho horiion preaervii^ tho same distance lu he proeeodii aod boujudlag an oeaaa of arid sand. Largo pl»iiu alio ooeur al groat olevalioaa above the oea, such aa thoto of Tartary. Thibet, and Mexico. In North AlMoriea thon are similar expanMa, caUe.l nrafrios (i «. moadowa), whioh proMnt a thick cover- ing of nalund grooa. Among other reouu-kable in. dentaCJoue or heUowa of the earth, may be numtioned the two graal flooMlah valUotr called UhHunore-nau- Albia, and licrachaMroi In both of tlioso instaooos, a atrai^t llao la obeorvod for Deariy a hundred miles, and the hollow la aoi in cither oaae flUed regularly hv natural walor. thimgh the forour hat beeomo the b^ola AU tWoooubetanooi^ whkh, bylhoacthmof tho at. inogphero, and otherninioi|teporotoftwi tho more solid tHu-uof the eartfa*aa«rfaei& are carried toalowor Itvel bv the agencT of water in taoohapoof raini^ riren, Ac The effecU thus produeed are rei7 racnarkaUaw The hardeat rocks, such as granlto. are ttablo to doeompo. oitioB, which has been attributed, and juitly so* to the chemical as well at mochanJcal Influeuae of the aimtisphere. This destruction of the aurfiua la com- mon u» almost all eoiintries ; It goes by the mune of weathering. In some uarta of Euglaud, the rubbish thus accumulated in tiie botluoa of vallius is thirty feet thick. The fall of rocks is common in mountain* whose lofty ridgM are expoced to the alternations of froet and thaw. AVater is the grand agent of detiructiun in this cose. In filtering through porous rocks, it sometiniet meets with rlayff, which do not admit uf its pasMige. The days become moistened ; and tf a large mass of rork repose uptm thmn, it is loosened, and descends, like an avalanche, upon the plains beliiw. Many falls tif this kind occur; one which took place in Su'itxerland, in 1804i, covered a beautiful valley with ktones and illme, crushed one village with xaasset of rocks, mcrwhehnm; Mu«>*^er with mud, and destroyed above Hi^ iodividuala. Biv€r$. — An immcBse4)uautity 0^ mul, land, and Other substances, ii carried down by rVers, and these accurariluting at their mimths, ure called deltas. l>ur. log a Hood, the transporting power of rivers is aug- aaented, and Mmietime^ trees and animals are hurried along, and cntnml»ed in the bottom of the sea. Lakes collect immense i|uuuliuoi of this matter : the Lake of i'oroo, for instance, is nearly tilled with it at the higher part. The ttuhjert of deltas is a very Interesting one. During n succeasion of agea, tlie Nile hub tnin»[>oi'teil an ermrimms quantity of mud and other rubbiiih intu the Mediterranean, which ai the mimtU has accuuiu- kted into a constantly increasing delta. It liaii Iteeii calculated that the Kile has raised the surfuce uf Upper Kgypt abi, and all other rivers, accumulate immcuie ijuautilies of mud, Ac. at ttteir mouths. JrtioH of the Sea on Cotuls — .Many crista Ih'w anifile evidem-e of the destnittive eflV«ts ul the sea upon them. In the eastern part i>f our own (fltaiid, the sea has made very oontiderable encrnachments within the lapse of a few oeiUuriea. The breakers, how'iver, Himietimes throw up a barrier against their Own ravages, in the shape of shingle and sundy h eaches. The former frequently become an excellent protection to the land, but the latter aomt'times prove very deatnicttve to it. W\uin the sand is fonied for. Ward by tlie brealuir*, and tucumulatvi into hills known by the name ol dunct, ilia often dhiicd iuiaud 42 bv tbo winds, forming a sandy desert, and large tracts ot uouotry are thus uverwltelmed by it. The paogress of theto dunes, according to Cwvier, it irreslatlble, forcing even lakes before them, and covering forests, houses, and cultivated lands. Many villages have been entooibed by them i aitd in one department of France, ten are at thit moroont threalootd with de- struction. In Africa, there are immense deserts of moving tand, which have made a desolhting progress over vast tractJi of territory. To the westward of the Nile, between the temple of Jupiter Ammon and Nnbia, innumerable cities lie buried beneath them. Whole caravani are said to have been overwhelmed by the Lybian sands t and Burckhardt, the traveller, informs us, that after pauing the Akaba, near the bead of the Rod liSea, the bonoa of dead oamela are the only guides of the pilgrim through the waaleo of sand. Tide$ and Cunvn^— Tides are caused by the at- traction uf the sun and moon, and correnta princi. ually by the winds i the motion of tho earth, however, bus also some effect upon thno. Thejr are of Import- ance in geology, as they may bo the moans uf diatri- buting tite matter brought from the land by rivon over the bt>ttom of the ocean. Tho atroam cauaod by tides has a velocity of one mllo and a half per hour, when there is nothing to oppose it. Tho transport- ing power of tides is vury small, except in shallow seas. This is proved by the fact, that the bottom of various parta of the ocean, though consisting of sand and mud, has, acu*rding to tho soundings m naviga- tors, remained the wme fur a long period of tima. Current!!, like tides, have little transporting power in deep water, and it is only f many miles ; the enir it uf ground swallowed up was estimated at fiftet'ii mites by six. Forty villages were engulfed or enUmilxHl in the sub- stances thntwu out, aud nearly three thousand indi- viduals perished. £arlhquaket. — The connection lietween earthquakes and volcanic enipLidtts is now almost univentutly admit- ted. They frequently occur simultaneonsly, and seem to be the effect!! of some caufte as yet unknown to us. Kvery theory which has hitherto lieen oflfered as ex- pUn.'iUiryuf the phenomena, is liable to serious nlijec- tiuu in oiii' n'Kp*rct or another. Kartliquakcs produce a motinn of the ground, sometimes tremulous, and at other times iindulatory; the la't«'r is by far the most dangerou^, ai)d frequently spreads devastation far and wide. Instances of the destructive effetrts of earth- quakes mukt be familiar to our readers, and K;ircely require to be mentimo-d here The shock of an earth- quake is sometimes felt over an immense circumfer- ence. Th'it of Ktflion, in I'Jlili, sent its ntnlnlations over nearly the whole of Kurope, and even as far as the West Indies and the continent ol America. Vast tract:) ui couutry have occasioualiy been duvatcd by earthquakes. The coast of Chill, In South America, to the extent of oBe hundred niUee In langlk, was ralMKl thrao or ibiir feet In coateqiienco of Uo oaitb« quake which took place In 18n. In Mr L^eH's able work on geology, there is a great mass ot evi- dence whlfh goes to prove that earthquakes have p oduced such elevations in other places, and thatde- pi uions have likewise taken place. The following iustance of such an occurrence will be read with Inte- rest i — Tn the year 1893, the Island of Jamaica was visited by a violent earthquake j the ground swelled and heaved like a rolliug sea, aud broke into rents, In which many people were engulfed, and some of them were vomited forth again, aloTig with great quantities of water. Three quarters m Port Royal, then the capital, sunk down, with thoir inhiU>itants. entirely under water i and after the earthquake had ceased, the chimney-tops of houaos woro seen just pro- jecting above the waves. A tract of land round the town, about a thousand aoret in estent, sunk down in less than a minute, during the first shock, and tho sea immediately closed over it /furWcanrt.— The terrible violenco of tbfit Tlsiu. tions Is well known. The velocity with which they travel, and tbo dahtgM of rain with wkUb tbty are aooompanlod, offset eonaidonble chanfpt on tim sur- bee of a country. Wholo towns aro snmoHmoi scat- iwad in that oooAufea which ibo ybytUngi of a child pnsent, when, in a fit of annr, It ■ftrowc them ahout, and tramptos upon thaw llot onljr baHdingc and aninal Ilia aro dactroyod, but whoU forests are swept to tho deep. A largo anotint at tMniotrial anU nals and Tsgotahlcc, along wilk tha land detritus, must, upon thssi wwailnns. ho hnrrioA Into tho ocean, and thoro doaositod. HwriwwM ai« Siwi t i w si ac- oompaniad with suhscorina cartfcya k oc la Jamaica, in 1780^ during a atoiM, a oatt wava hnnl «f«n Sa- vanna la Mar, and swept OM whda lawn awar in a moKont, iMrlag *'mm» wwk hAted." 4]prino«..^riags aro gcn wa fly impr«natad with various unds of mattar, wttick thoydi^oHt tn abnnd. anoe. Many springs haro the powar «f changing ve- getabla mattar into a ft w ril, or it pn n This process of potrifoction, as it Is caUad, Ii owriodon toa mat ex- tent in tho hot sprii^ of Fumacv of which Dr Webster gives tho foUowing aconint t-Jlo found " branches of the foms whhih now iMiriih in dM island oootplately petriiod, yi oo rrin g tha caaw arpaa r o nn a as whoa v of tho racdo so coww la tho island, mm~ liotaly m Ino r aU s ad , tha contra of each joint being Iliad with deUoato irvs—ls of sulphur.^ Travortino is a substance sonewhat of tho taaio dooariptkin, and Is to be found deposited from springs In layers of Im- mense thickness. Those of Tlvoli present an extra- ordinary accnmtilation of borixontal lieds, from four to Ave hundred feet thick. The Bakie Loch, in For- farshire, produces a marl used In the agriculture of the country. Mr Lyell is of opinion that it was im- mediately due to the shell-Ash of the lake, whidi do. rive the lime either from the water or the food which thev live upon, and that dying, their rcmaiua accu- mnlated into heaps of shell marl. This was converted into riK'k by the action of the water, which was im- pregnated with an acid. Certain springs deposit a pitchy bubfttance, called usphaltum ; and others era covered with a combtistible fluid, called naphta, which tlonts uiHin the top. Those of Kanguou, in a provinoa of the ISurman empire, are said to produce 1K2,781 tons a-year. Coral Rtefs and itland* — These are the works of myriads of small insects, called corals. They occur ta various paru of the world, but are moat numerous ia the Pacific Ocean and Indian seas. Their extent if sometimes almost incredible. On the coast of New Holland, there is a coral reef which stretches out to a thousand miles in length. The Tacific Ocean It studded with coral islands, some of which are of con- siderable magnitude. Corals do iH>t commviuw thalr laborious ouerstiuns at a great depth below water { from (W to loo feet fs considered the utmost extent to which the Islands extend downwards. They are g*. nerally of a circular or oval shape t and Mr Lvell la of opinion that corals build uplHtii1, a hiunan body was dug up which was completely clothed with garments made of hair. The clothing of the inhabitants was manufactured from this material before the introduction of wool; but manv ages have transpired since this took place, eo that the oody must have lain an immense time, yet It was perfectly fresh and unimpaired. Amongst a number of cases of this description which might be brmight forward, we shall quote the following, as particularly interesting!— "At the Imttle of Solway, in the time of Henry the Eighth (1542), when the Scotch army, commanded by Oliver ^Sinclair, was routed, an unfortunate troop of horn, driven by their fean, plunged into this morass (the Solway moss), which instantly closed upon them. The tale was tra- ditional, but it is now authenticated, a man and horse ht complete armour having been found by peat-dig- gers In the place where It was always supposed the affair had happened. The skeleton of each was well preserved, and the different parts of the armour easily distingtiisbed." Besides the human body, there have been found in peat bogs iiones of tho staff, nx, hog, horse, sheep, and other animnU that feeil on herki, and in Ireland and the Isle of Man, skeleuuis of a gigantic elk. There are no remains, however, of nnimals such as the ele- phant and rhinnrertis, which are only noiv to be found in warm countries, though, as we shall shortly see, they are quite common in mud and other rubbish. Upon this Mr L)'ell remarks, *' that they had ceased to live Itefore the atmosphere of this part of the world acuiiited that cold and humid character which favours 43 thegrowthof peat." ThlariMOniag appears perfectly conclusive. With regard to the question whence peat derives its antiseptic property, it has been conjectured by some, that the carbonic and gallic acids witich Issue from decayed wood, and also charred wood, which oc- curs in the lower parts of many peat mosaen, mav ac- count for it. Vegetable gums and resins will also nave an effect. Dr Maccullooh states, in his work on geo- logy, that the occurrenoe of tannin in peat is too ca- sual, and its quantity too small, to produce effects of any Importance. The power of tanniu to prevent de- cay is well known, and its presence in almost all trees, but particularly, and inconsiderablequantiUes, in the oak, is also well known. Now, as has been already observed, many peat beds occupy the sites of foresU, especially those of oaJlr and pine; so tliat tannin, in these at least, must have Iteen present in great quantities. It may have entered into various combinations, but that it really is to be fmind In such peat bogs, and to a considerable extent, either lu u simple or compound state, appears to us be)-ond a doubt.* DXMBITT AMD TEMfBRATUHE OF THE EAKTH. Various opinions have been entertained on the den- sity of the earth ;t but its attraction is such, that it Is now no longer disputed that the density must continue to increase. In a somewhat regular manni*^ from the surface downwards. The mean density of the earth Is about five times greater than that of water. Whether the temperature of our planet bo en- tirely owing to solar heat or not — for philosophers still differ upon this point — there can be no doubt of its being very materially influenced thereby. We have only to recollect, that the difference of seasons and climates depends upon the more or less ver- tical descent of the sun's rays. Local circumstances, such as the proximity and size of mountains and seas, have certainly a very considerable influence in vary- ing the temperature ; but the principle seems incon- testible, tliat, under equal circumstances, the tempe- rature decreases from the tropics to the poles. That the temperature of the earth is not the same at present as it was formerly, but haa considerably decreased, is proved by the organic remains of vege- tables and animals having been found in situations of latitude, where, from a want of congenial tern- perature, they could not now exist. Plants and ani- mals, now peculiar to a tropical climate, have been discovered imbedded in various rocky formations in Scotland, England, and other places even farther north. These interesting relics of a former world, as they may be called, will be dcacrilied when we come to treat of the internal structure of the earth. Vari- ous causes, but none completely ^att9factor^', have been assigned for this change of temperature. 6y one party it is insisted upon, that the axis of the earth was by some cause or other nhifted, and, consequently, that the poles were differently situated formerly from what they are at present. 8ir J. F. W. Hei-schel supposes that a diminution of temperature might have been effected by a change in the ellipticity of tho earth's orbit, which, though slowly, becomes gradually more circu- lar. The theory of an internal heat has also been had recourse to for the explanation of this point. From the earliest periods, philnsophers have enter- tained the opinion that a central heat exists ; but it was only at a comparatively recent period that direct experiments were made, in order to put the hypothe- sis to the test. The temperature of mines has par- ticularly attracted attention; and, notwithstanding that the experiments made on them are liable to error from various causes, they would seem to indicate an increase of temperature from the surface downwards. The temperature of springs has also been appealed to in support of this theory. Many of these, rising from considerable depths, have a heat independent of solar influence, which heat varien from the boiling point of water downwards. The^ occrr in all situa- tions, and sometimes far removed from volcanos. In many parts of the Himalaya range they have been found, and Bakewell discovered them amongst the Alps. A great burst of thermal or hot springs takes place near the base of the Ozark mountains, in North America, and at a short distance from the Washita, from which ther derive their names. They are alwut seventy in numner, and occur in a ravine l>etween two slate hills. The hot springs of Iceland are well known ; those called the Oeysers are the most remarkable. Sir J. Mackenzie witnessed an eruption of the great Oeyser, which commenced with a noise resembling the distant discharge of a piece of ordnance. " The sound," says he, '* was repeated irregularly and ra- pidlv; and I had just given the alarm to my com- panions, who were at a little distance, when the water, after heaving several times, suddenly rose in a large column, accompanied by clouds of steam, from the middle of the basin to the height of ten or twelve feet. The column seemed us if it burst, and, sinking down, it producetl a wave, which caused the water to overflow the basin in considerable quantity. After the first propulsion, the water was thrown up again to the height of about Afteen feet. There was now a succession of Jets to the number of eighteen, none of which appeared to me to exceed fifty feet in height; • Wo have I)ecn liiformetl by Mr Stcvfni, iin t-xncrieneed land- ilralnor, that In Sweden, where he hiu ctntlnctt nn immen^o quan- tity at ■oil, the prat boK* nimoct tnvariahly occur aboi'e prcMtralc f(>re?out five minutes. Though the wind blew strongly, yet the clouds of vapour were so densc> that, after tne first two jets, I could only sea tba highest part of the spray, and some of It that war oc> oasianally (brown out sideways.'* The water at last sunk into the pipe in the centre of the basin to the depth of ten feet. It rose ogain, gradually however, and was found to have a temperature of 20U°, only threa degrees below tho boiling poiut. There can be no doubt that heat is ounmumcated to thene springs at some distanoe from the surfiu^ of the earth, but whe- ther or not from the supposed great fountain of cen- tral heat, Is yet uncertain. It has also been attempted to account for the supe- rior temperature of the earth in remote ages of its history, by supposing that volcanic influence was for- merly more active, and that, consequently, a more copious communication of internal heat to tne surface would take place. But we have no proof that an ac- tivity in vulcanos, sufficient to account for the pheno* mena, did ever really exist. Mr Lyell has examined the subject with his usual philosopLicat acutenesa, and his opinion is, that such a change in temperature may be accounted for accord- ing to the present order of nature. The degmdatloa of old, and the elevation of new continents. Is a demon- strated fact; and the influence of such a change in the relative position of land and water upon climate, is unquestionable, from what we know of it by aOual observation. If we compare the two continents of Europe and North America, we shall find that places situated in the same latitudes differ very considerably in tempe- rature, sometimes to the amount of seventeen degrees of Fahrenheit*s thermometer. The principal causa of the difference observed in corresponding latitudes of North America and Europe, Is, In the first place, the coiuiection of the former country with the polar circle, by a tract uf laud of considerable height; and, in the second place, in the separation of Europe from the arctic circle by on ocean. AU large bodies of water havo a tendency to preserve an equilibrium of temperature, which is communicated to the contiguous land ; and hence the climate of Islands and coasts dif- fers very materially from that of the interior of conti- nents. Mountains which rise into the colder regions attract and congeal vapour, which communicates its cold to the adjoining country. Greenland, which, forms part of a continant stretching northward to the 02d degree of latitude, experiences under the 6(Hh. parallel a more rigorous climate than Lapland under the 72d parallel. Upon this subject Mr Lyell observes — " If, for ex- ample, ail other circumstances being the same, the land is at one time more divided into islands than at another, a greater uniformity of climate might bo produced, the mean temperature remaining unaltered ; or if, at anc lier era, there were mountains higher than the Himalaya, these, when placed in high lati- tudes, would cause a greater excess of cold. So, if wb suppose that at certain periods no chnin of hills in the world rose beyond the height of 10,000 feet, a greater heat might then havo prevailed than is com- patible with the existenco of mountains thrice that (dlevat^n.** THE INTERVAL BTr JCTUHE OF TBE OLOOE. Taking a superficial view of the continents and islands we have just been considering, they awaken no further idea than that they are a mass of rocks, sands, days, and other substances, confusedly mingled together without order or arrangement. Alore care- ful inquiry, however, soon shows this conclusion to be erroneous. Phenomena of a very singular and unexpected character display themselves when we take a survey of the side of a mountain which baa been laid bare, or look into the interior of a coal mine or a quarry. Instead of the miscellaneous ac- cumulation of heterogeneous substances anticipated, we Hud a remarkable degree of order and arrange- ment. Successive layers of rocks appeav regularly disposed, one above another, like so many volumes ot books piled horixontally. Further inquiry shows that this is not an accidental and raro occur .'ence, wliich. is oonfined to particular and far separated localities ; for such an order is found to prevail universally over the whole surface of the globe; and even where it would appear to fail, the exception proves the rule, as there will always bo discovered, in such cases, ample evidence that violence from beneath has been exer- cised in breaking the continuous and horizontal lines of rocks, thereby introducing anarchy and conf -sion ; and we ne(;d not travel far for an explanation of aU this : no one can be ignorant of the fact, that at the present moment, volcanos are at work in belching* forth rivers of liquid fire through the solid floors of the earth, and not only destroying its internal orga- nisation, but changing its external appearance. ■ TbU, however, is not ^U. When we come minutely I? ' t^pect what sort of substances compose the varloua rocks, we find that ninT-y oC I^-em are as thickly stud* ded with the remains of animal .''ud vegetable life, aa is the midnight sky with stars. The strata thus cease to be, but ace imulations of particular kinds of matter, interesting july in so far as their own origia and deposition is c mcerned t aud we recognise theaa as tabbts, wherein are inscribed in hieroglyphics, which are universally understood, and can ueitUer become obsolete i or perish, the records of nHiure*a history. The deca> of man Is hereditary in his works.; and when these WH ome dust, like the hands which CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. J J? U' m 1' ! f ''Kb m, i ■1- ftthiunMl them, it ii once uiid for ever. They lire dMtitute of the element! of reiiuvBtlon which we tee m nature*!* whereby they are maHe to reitppeiir ngain, ** another and the lame ;" or of that pprpetuily of beinf( which leU the Upie of indefinite peritidi of time at defiance, and to which, emphatically, a thousand years are as one day. Tlie grapes of Zeuxis, and all the splendid pictorial nchievenients of antiquity, hare long since Iteon gatherMl up wifh the other spoilt of Hnie. Uut the myriads of animals imbedded in the bosom of the cold rock, uncoTinted am before the creation of man himself, still exist, completely entire — all hilt alive — and reveal to ui not only the minutest parts of their organic stmcture, and sometimes also their various shades of oolotir, but their habits and moilea of life, where they lived, and what they fed up«m. Such is the state of perfection in which the process of embnlming Is carried on In the grand mu- seum of nature. We shall now proceed to give a more partictilar account of the »TRATiriCAT10M AND OTHCR flEITSmAI. CBABAC- TERISTICS or ROCKS. Rwks are said to be stratilled when theT occur in layers parallel to or almve each other. A'(''lien thev are found, as granite is in a mass, withmit any such form or order, they are called unstratiAed. Strata differ in being more or less distinct, regular or irre- gular, straight or undulating i they are seldom found perfectly horisontal, and are of very unequal ;,aickness. Rocks, taken in the mass, are very nearly related to each other, nineteen.twentiethi of the whole mi. Bcral contents of the earth being composed of five flubstanceis namely, sllex, alumlue, lime, magnesia, and Iron— j(for a description of which, see below). — There are other minerals found in the solid parts of the globe, but they occur usually in reins, and are more especial objects of attention to the mineralt^ist. To (hose unacquainted with thesuhjert, many of the terms which wo mu^t necessarily employ will appear as unintelligible as Egyptian hteroghrphics, and to obviate thisdifflculty, the following dphabetical list of them, with explanations, is prefixed : — Jeidi are compound substances, which have a sour laiite, and, amongst other propertiee, they dissolve alkalies, earths, metals, &c. Aiumine is one of the earths, and enters most large- ly into the composition of rocks, clays, and loams, of which it is the plastic principle. When washed and thoroughly dried, it is of a white colour, and destitute of taste or smell. It is the base of alum, and hence its .^rrndcfoiu, formed of sand. Argillacewut formed of day. Bitumen is an inflammable mineral substance, which burns with flame in the open air. There are numerous varieties of this substance which have obtained distinct names, such as naphtha, which resembles common tar, andaaphaltum, similar in cun- sistency to common pitch. All the varieties of pit-coal eontatn more or less of this substance. Caicareoutf formed of lime. Calx is the Latin name tor that substance. Carbonate, Carbon^erout. — Carbon, or charcoal, Is a simple body, of which the purest and most valuably; specimen is the diamond. Combined with oxvgen, nne of the gases composing the atmosphere, it Jbrms rarbonic acid, an air which is fatal to aninuU life when inhaled : a carbonate of any thing — for instance, of lime— is carbonic acid in onmbination with lime. A carboniferous body is one in which carbon prevails. Citemicai artion differs from mechanical action thus; —When a river washes away and carnes any portion uf the earth to the sea, the waste thus twrne down is only mixed in the water, not intimately united with it by anv chemical affinity : when, however, oxygen or an acid combines with any i^ the substances com- posing rocks, and fortns a body different from either of the former two, then this is' a case of chemical ac- tion. In the first instance, the integral particles were only separated from each other ; in the second, they are ' ttoth separated and united again with the solvents. In the one, a sediment is deposited ; in the 'Nher, a precipitate. VonglomeraU is a mass of rounded pebbles cemented together. Vretateouti having ike properties of chalk. CrjfMlalhne — When fluid bodies are allowed to cool w\ik adequate slowness, their particles are arranged in regular fi^ires, which are called crystals: — Ice, fur instance, is a crystal. DetompoUj to separate into more simple parts ; to dtcny. DetrituM, or Debritf the wasta of rocks and other •abfltances. Fitrure, adefit, or chasm, where a breach has been made. Formatiom, a certain series of reeks, supposed to have been produced under certain gMeral drcum- ■tances, and at about the same epoch. Fottiit, orf^nic remains. ign^tmi origin, and afu*mu origin ; the A rat results from the agency of Are, and the sacond, from that of Water. Atwe, a well-known earth, wbieh exists in great abundance, and under various forms to nature. It is • metallic oxide, that is, a metal in combination wfili oxygen. Common limestone is a carbonate of lime; gyp-ura is a sulphate of lime, iliat Is, sulphuric acid, or vitriol, in union with lime. The carbonate is widely tfiNribuMd in aaturt, and freqtwntly ocvuit \u bnU of immense extent There are a great number of other calcareous minerals, such as oolite or roestone, which will be described as they occur. Chalk is a very com- mon species of calcareous earth. Magnttia is another earth, which has also a metal- lic base. It exists in nature under various states of combination, with acids, water, and other earths, and is found in various mineral springs, and the water ot the ocean, united with sulphuric and muriatic acids. Marl Is essentially composed of carbonate of lime and clay, in various proportions. Marl frequently contains sand and other foreign ingredients, and some of them aro more or leu hardened, whilo others are friable and earthy. OrganiCf having the structure peculiar to living bo- dies. Organic remains are living bodies converted into earth, stone, bitumen, Ac, but preserving the ap- pearance of their original forms. OMid€» are metals and other substances, combined with oxygen. They differ from acids, in having less oxygen. Osjfgen gas forms about a fifth part of the atmo- sphere, and water ctnitalns about eight-ninths of it It is more amply diffused in nature than any other material body, its attractions being very numerous and powerful. ShaU is slate da^ and bituminous slate clar. SiUjt, or siliea, is an earth i it Is a crystalline sub- stance, and presents itself in nearly a pure state in the varieties of flint, agate, &c. Strata [singular, §tratum], layers of substances placed above or l»eneath each other, as slates, Ac. Supracretaceou* (iuproj over or above, crttactout chalk), attove chalk. Traverlitw, one of the rarietiet of lime. Vertebra^ back-twne. CLAISiriCATION OF SOCKS. To facilitate the acquisition of knowledge regarding rocks and their oivanic contents, they have beenclassi- fied by various pniloaophers. No classification that we have seen, after consulting a great number of au- thors, seems to t>e either so free from theory, or to come sfbttiUfrmus. Primltivr. ITnatrstificd Knchi.— Tht«e In the Imprmfd Wrmertsn an ar- ratiffMl amotiK the ttntifled rocks, according to the order to which they are luppoied to occur. 1. MODEIH omOIIP. This name distinguishes the detritus, or waste of various kinds produced by existing causes, such as have already been described under the head " Altera- tions of the Surface." It likewise includes the coral reefs, submarine forests, and peat bt^ns, which have also been noticed. The organic remains of this group, of course, for the most part consist of existing aiiimalit, and are hence not of so interesting a character. Those, how- ever, which are most important, belonging either to extinct animals, or those which are at prenent found on the glol>e, will be noticed ir the next group. 2. CaRATlC OR TRAHSPORTED BLOCK aHOl'P. This group, says De la Beche, is merely one of convenience, formed for the purpose uf presenting certain phenomena to the reader's attention, which, in the present state of science, could not so easily be done uitder any other het^d. It comprises all those gravels, hands, t*Iocksof rodu, and otlter mineral sub- stances which have been scattered over hills, plains, and on the lMtti;ms of vallies, anil ^hlch, though often referred to one epoch, may belong to several. In various paru oi Britain, and also of the Conti- nent grvat quantities of rocks, sometimes of consider- able siee, are to be found strewed upim the sides of mmintains, and in hollows, which, as far as can be at present ascertained, must have been conveyed there by the influence of " moving waters." The fact of their having l>et'n trannported from a great distance, is prtived by their differing from any rocks in the neighbourhood, and their identity with others of the same formation far separated from them. Between the rivers Thames and Tweed there have been pebbles, and even blocks of rock, found, which, according to their mineralogical character, must have been trans- ported from Norway. From these, and various other circumstani«s which might be mentioneect«d here : Indeed, a full account of those which were found in the Kirkdale cavern in Yorkshire, would alone more than occupy the whole of this Journal. This cavern was disco- vered by cutting back a quarry In 1031, and was shortly afterwards visited by Professor Buckland, to whom the world is indebted for a minute and abia description of it Its greatest length is about 24fi feet, and Its height so Inconsiderable, that only In ■ few places will u permit of a man standing upright The following are the animal remains found in it : Elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hynna, tiger, bear, horse, wolf, fox, weasel, ox, three species of deer, hare, rabbit, water-cat, and mouse. Of birds, there were the raven, pigeon, lark, a small spedes of duck, and a bird about the slxe of a thnisb. It is the opinion of Professor [tuckland, from the manner in which the remains were strewed about the cavern, and the great proportion of hysna teeth over those of other animals, as well as the way in which they were gnawed and fractured, that this was the den of hynnas for a lung succession of years. It may be inferred from a|^ pearances, that they brought in as prey those animals whose remains are now int«;nnixed with their own, and that this slate of things was put a stop to by an eruption uf muddy water into the cave; fur the .^ttar is covered with a stratum of mud, and in it the bones were found. At other olaces In England, various Interesting re. mains have been dug up, such as those uf the mam- moth and bison. Amongst the numerous animals found, which differ in some part of their structure from any living thing that now exists, there are seve- ral of immense sixe. The mammoth, or fossil ele- phant, demands particular attention, as the entire body of one was discovered in an iceberg, near the embouchure of the river I^na, In Siberia. It was a good deal mutilated by tiears ; but from what re- mained of its flesh and hair, and from its physiologi- cal Btnirture, philosophers were enabled to determine that the animal had l>elonged to a race of elephants inhabiting cold regions, but which is now extinct The icmeins of great numliers of the same species have been found In the same country, and in other northern regions. Ita height appears to have been from tea to twelve feet, and its length from sixteen to twenty. Its tusks are larger than those of the com- mon elephant; one was discovered which measured fourteen feet in length. In every respect the extinct species appears to have been stronger, larger, and clumsier, than any which is now to be met with on the globe. The megatherium Is another gigantic remnant of the past It is found in few places ; but four nearly complete skeletons have been collected. In height (% would appear to have been about seven feet, and la length about seventeen. In stmcture it is betweeo the ant-eater and the sloth \ hence it has Iteen termed the gigantic sloth. Its bones are of great sixe and strength ; an'l. from some parts of its conformation. It would an;(ear ;<> have Iteen a climbing animal. Ill neck is lung, ana ('uvier is of opinion that it had a trunk. It is furnished 7'Ith that which no other qua- dru;"'d has — a chin. There are other animab af nearly similar dimensions, such as the mastodon aiui megalonix, as well as great numbers of smaller site, but uur limits will not permit of us describing them. Besides the Kirkdale cavern, above noticed, manv others of a similar description have Iteen discovered ; and the ascertaining the relative ages of these accu. mulatiuns of animal remains, is at present occupying the attention of geologists. This is a question of vast moment ; for ihuuld the remains ot man l>e discovered ;n them — which has never yet occurred — and If the mouths uf these caverns be closed with detritus and fragments of rorV brought from a dista.ice, such trans- port not being due to actual cause«, and there Iteing nn other communication Itetween the outside and the place where the bestial and human tmnes are entombed| there would appear to be no doubt that man was a contemporary with the extinct species of elephants, rhinoceroses, hyenas, and bears. Upon this Inter- esting subject Mr de la Beche has the following r«. marks : — " If the co-existence of man and these extinct aaW malu should ever be satisfaftorlly proved, it would b^ eomea curious question whether his so found remains are those of an extinct species ; or undistingiiixhah^A^ Uhv Iht bones of tb« horsej from thoM which rmm ACCOUUT OP THE GLOBE. «xiit. It U a sinffular circiimitAiicei nnd one which demands Btteiition, notwlthiUndingthningonioiii re- nerki that have been made ou the lubject, that thu remahii of the muiikey tribe HhouM not yet have been discovered among the unditturb«d bones and other iubttances in cavet, or in the old transported gravel, or diluvium of Profetior Bucklnnd. It has been ob. jected, to a remark that man and the monkey tribe were created about the tame period, and were of com. pnratively modern appearance uu the eartli's sniface, that the oountriei have not been geologically well ex- amined where the monkey race now exists. This is Dortuctly true. But Is there any reason why monkeys hould not have lived in climates and In situations where elephanu, rhinoceroees, tigers, and hyanas were common ? for the climates and regions in which existing plephantu, rhlnoceroHOS, tigers, and hyenas' abound, are precisely those where nuutkeys are now found. To the objection, that if they did then exist, their bones would not be discovered, at their activity would secure them from falling a prey to hystnaa and other prectaceous animals, It mav be upposeif, that they must have died like other animals, and that their dead curcHStes must have fallen to the ground, and that they were quiie as likely to have become the food of leu nimble creatures, as the birds found la the cavern of Kirkdale." 'J. SUPIUCBETACEOUi OE OKOUP ABOVE CHAtK. This group is identical with the tertiary rocks of most Englisn authors. It consists of a number of suhiUnces, such as sands, marls, plastic clays, &c, in which there Is a great abundance of organic re- mains. In France, AIM. Cuviarand Brongnlart first pointed out the importance of these rocka, and, dur. ing their obiervations on the beds around Paris, they discovend that the organic remains were not all ma- rine, but that a number of freah-water shells, and ter- restrial animals of a description now unknown, were by no means uncommon. They also found that these remains were deposited in beds, each holding a certain plaoe in a certain series. In £ngland, Mr William Smith was employed upon more ancient rocks, and was In the habit of identifying certain formations by the organic remains embedded In them. These facts In- stantly led to a generalixation ; and it was a theory received for a long time, that particular formations or beds contained the same organic remains which were not to be found in the rocks either above or beueath. The opinion, however, gave way before after obser- vations t and it is now generally admitted, that certain shells are not peculiar to certain strata, but that they are, nevertheless, to be found in far greater abundance there than in any other place. It would also appear to follow, as a necessary consequence, that the older the series, the more, and the newer the series, the less, the uniformity. However, this is merely a conjecture, nnd the truth of it can only be determined by an ac- curate examination of rocks in distant parts of the world.* The varieties of the supracretaceous group, and the theories which have been advanced to account for their formation. It will be impoaslble to give here. A description of the Paris rocks, and alio some of those in Knglnnd, with the organic remains peculiar to them, wiil suffice to oonvey a pretty accurate idea of this part of our subject. The rocks of the Paris ba- ■in have indeed long been considered the most perfect specimen of the kind to be found ; and the following is their classification, according to the illustrious phu losophers, whose labours have been so essential to the advancement of the science, MM. Cuvier and Brong- nlart — (order ascending) : — ( Pliitlc clay. 1. Fresh-wfUer ftmnatlon, ■{ Lignite. Flnt MDibtone. CiOnirf) gmaicr, SUhwouillmMtont Uypcum, with bones of satmali. Prrth*wster mArlt. Gyiwcoui marine marla. 4. Second marine IbnnatkHi,^ U|t)wr marine tanda and undatonei. Uitper marine marts and limeatonsk MiflktoiK! witliout ilielli. Shelly millucinp. Upiwr fmh-watcr marla. Ptattie day. — This substance has been so named from its easily receiving and presei'ving the forms given to It, and, from possessing this property, it is nued in the potteries. It rests upon a surface ofchalk, which is very irregular, and furrowed out so as to present an alternation of hills and vallies. This clay III of various colours ; and above it, and separated by a layL'r of sand, thero frequently occurs another bed of clay, whicli scarcely can be called. plastic. It Is black, satidy, and sometimes contains organic remains. In this deposit, considered as a mass, it is stated that or- ganic remains do not occur In the lower parts. In the central portion, fresh-water animals commonly occur, and in the upper part there is a mixture, some- times un alternation, of marine and fresh-water re- mains. Calcaire Grrnafftt as its name implies, Is composed of n coarse limestone, which is employed for architec tural purposes. It is frequently separated from the plastic clay beneath by a bed of sand, and It alternates with argillaceous or clayey beds. The animal and vegetabln remains enclosed In It are numerous, and generally the same in corresponding beds, presenting considerable differences when the Iwds are not iden- tical. • Deli BfchR*s Oeoloctcal Msniul, n, im. .1 40 ?. Fint marino formatkni, 3. Second (^ti-watet fonns- (ion & Third fVMh.water ftmns. tiun, Siticeous Limnttms is sometimaa white and loft, sometimes grey and compact, and penetrated by lUax. It Is often full of cells, which are oocasionallv large, and C4)mmunlcate with each other In all dirtctlont. Gyptum and Marb.— Gypsum is a crystalline suh- stance composed of lime, In union with auli^huric acid and water. Its colours are grey, whiti, and yellow \ but different varieties of it nave diffe ent hues. It was used in ancient times fur windo\' glass. Th9 gypseous rocks consist of an alternation of gypsum and limey and clayey marls; these mar!- ^^^'also found In thick beds above this alternation. Abun* dant remains are there found, and palms of consider- able size are discovered prostrate. The gypseous strata contain the n'markable remains of several ex- tinct animals which suckled their young. These beds are oonsldered as having been deposited in fresh wa- ter, and above them are others, which, from the^i* organic remains, are believed to have been depc^Ued in the sea. Amongst other marine animals, the re- mains of oysters, sometimes of a large slxe, have been found, and they have evidently lived In the places where they are now entombed. Besides fishes, birds and reptiles have also been discovered In the gypseous beds. Upper Afaritu SantU and Sandttotus, — These con. slst of irregular beds of siliceous sandstone and sand. The animal remains in the lower portion of these beds are broken, and very rare. In some situations, however, millions of small bodies have been fdund. These beds are orcastunally covered with a species of rock which is filled with marine shells. Upper Frcth-Water Formation. — This rock some- times consists of white calcareous marls, at others of different siliceous compounds; from one of these, millstones of a celebrated kind are formed. They are sometimes charged with shells and petrified wood. The Parts basin, as the space in which the above group of rocks is found, alTords one of the most re- markable instances to be met with of the various vi- cissitudes to ivnich the surface of the earth has been formerly lubjected. Ti>ere are three fresh-water and two marine deposits, w'n jch alternate with each other ; the former composing the first and the last of the se- ries. A glance at the forcing table of the classifi- cation of rocks will place the fact In a clear point of view. As an explanation of this phenomenon, we may suppose, that, at the period when theta rucka were de- posited, lar^te inland lakes had become numenmi : and that this basin was u gulf of the sea into which a large river emptied its contents. There Is no evidence, however, of a violent rush of waters, the organic re- mains having apparently been quietly deposited. The supracretaceous rocks of England arc com- monly known by the names of plastic clay, London clay, Dagshot sands, the fresh-water formations of the Isle of \Vight, and the crag of Norfolk. We can only afl^ord a snort account of some of these. Pttutk Clay. — This deposit, though it occasionally contains an abundance of clay, employed for various useful purposes, is aUo mixed with beds of pebble, irregularly alternating with sands and clay. It thus differs from ihat of Paris, but it agrees with it so far as it reposes upon an uneven surface of chalk. The organic remains are principally marine, but those of fresb-water and terrestrial animals are intermingled with them. London CJay.— The great argillaceous deposit which underlies the London district, has obtained this name. It is of a bluish or blackish colour, and contains a portion of calcareous matter ; t>eds of sandstone are also said to be occ-asionallv present in it. This clay varies considerably in thickness, sometimes from seventy-seven to seven hundred feet. Besides the re- mains of K great variety of shell-fish, those of a cro- codile and turtle have been found ; masses of wood have also occurred in this stratum. Bagthot Sandt. — These rest upon the London clay, and consist of layers of various kinds of sands and marls ctmtaining fossil shells. The Isle of Wight and London formations, al- though diiTering considerably in the nature of their deposits from those of Paris, present such an analogy in the organic remains uf some parts of the group, that we are justific-d in referring the deposit to the same ej>oclt, local circumstances and accidents having determined their characters. It is the opinion of many philosophers, that at the deposition of the supracretaceous group, the world was passing from estate in which anImaJs were some- what ditferent from those which exist at present. The lower part of the Appenlne mountains, In Italy, has been appealed to as a good example of the truth of this hypothesis, fur among the shells discovered in them, there are some whicli l)ear a resemblance to those now existing in the Mediterranean ; while there are others whose analogies are only to be found in warmer latitudes, and many are wholly unknown. We do not see that this theory will stand the test of facUt for we have already seen, that many animals which are now only to be found in warm climates, and also those now extinct, have been discovered In eold rwions \ and may we not with equal plausibility generalize upon these facts, and say, that they indi- cate a transition of the earth from an ancient to a modern state of things : perhaps both may be correct, and we msy therefore conclude, that the earth has passed through a variety of changes, and has gra- dually lieen fitted for the habitation of those nume- roui animab that now people its surface. This will be mure clearly shuwu as we proceed in our examine* tlon of the mure ancient rocka which constitute the crust of the earth. It may be observed, that volcanle agency hu been very active during the formation of this group. Ktna, It would appear, has A>r a long series of ages given forth its igneous products, and a considerable portion of these rest upon supracretraceous rocks. In Central France, where extinct volcanos are numerous, this fi still more evident i a volcanic mass, called the Plomb du Cental, appears to have burst through, nnd frac- 'ured the fresh. water limestones of thu Cantal, which, iTOordlng to Mr Lyell, are equivalent to the fresh- ^ ater deposits of Paris, and some of those In England. 4. CaCTACEOUl OA CHALKY OBOUP. This group, and the three which follow, belong to (he secondary rocks of the Improved Wemerian rlas- ■iRcation. Throughout a large portion of Western t.urope, the cretaceousgroup occurs in the well-known foiTn of chalk. Chalk Is a carlmnateof lime. It Is very fdeitMful in England ; and at Dover and other places, t nin^ along the coast in cliffs and mountains of consl- derable ilze. It Is well known that nodules or mussea of flint a.'e abundant iu chalk, and it is extremely dif- ficult to account for their presence there. These no- dules ofteh contain the remains of shells and animalt- In the lower p^rts of the English chalk deposits, the flints disappear, boc^ming graduaMy more rare in the passage downwards, jtrom this circumstance, the group has been sometimes divided into upper, or chalk with flints, and lower, or chalk without flints. But this characteristic does not universally prevail. Be- neath the chalk, there la a rock called greeutand, which in Normandy is used as a building stone. An argillaceous deposit called gault also occurs ; It is of a bluish-grey colour, and is frequently composed of cSy in the upper, and marla in the lower part. The cretaceous group, taken as a mass, may in fing* land, and over a considerable portion uf France and Germany, be considered as cretaceous In its upper part, and sandy and clayev In Its lower part The Sroup Is extensively distributed over Europe; and Ir dela Beche makes the following servations up- on its rolneralogical character in general i " Through- out the British islands, a large part of France, many parts of Germany, in Pc!«.;d, Hweden, and iu varioni parts of Russia, there would appear to have been cer- tain cauaes in operation, at a given period, which pro- duced nearly or very nearly the same effects. The va- riation in the lower portion of the depoait seems merely to consist In the abaenoe or pretence of a greater or less abundance of claya or sands, nibatanoes which we may consider as produced by the deatructlon of pre- viously existing land, and aa depoaited frcm waters which held such detritus in mechanical suspension- The unequal deposit of the two kinds of matter Iu different situations would be in accordance with sucU a supposition. But when we turn to the higher part of the group. Into which the lower portion graduates, the theory of mere transport appears opposed to the phenomena observed, which seem rather to have been produced by deposition from a chemical solution of carbonate of lime and sUex, covering a considerable area.'' Mr de la Beche goes on to state, that no spring or set of springs could have produced the great deposits of chalk which cover immense surfaces. " But," says he, *' although springs, in our acceptation of tha term, could scarcely nave caused the effects required, we may perhaps look to a greater exertion of the power which now produces thermal waters for a pos- sible explanation of the observed phenomena.'* Mr Lyell states, that chalk must have originated in the sea, in the form of sediment, from tranquil water ; and that, before the existence of the rocks above, it must have l»eeii raised in large portions above the wa- ter, and exposed to the destroying power uf the ele- ments. An immense number of organic remains have been discovered in this group. In various parts of France and England, fish nave been observed. Reptiles also have been found ; one of them was of considerable size. Shell-fish, and great numbers and varieties of small animals, have been discovered ; but the remains of mammalia (animals which bring forth their young alive, and feed them from their breasts or dugs) have m . jet been detected. The fossil vegetables in this group are principally marine ; and much of the fossil wood is pierced by a boring shell, as if it bad been long drifted about in the sea. A species of rocks called the Wealden rocka occur beneath the lower green sand of the English series, and are characterised by the presence of terrestrial and fresh-water remains in abundance. It would ap- pear that these rocks underwent changes similar to the Paris basin already noticed. Near Weymouth, and in the Isle of Wight in particular, freih-water and marine remains occur alternately. Amongst the animal remains found in these rocks are varieties of land and fresh-water tortoises, rrocodiles, and a species of monstrous terrestrial reptiles. fi. OOLITIC amoup. This group is composed for the most part of alternat- ing clays, sandstones, marls, and limestones, many of the latter being oolitic Oolite stones are a carbonate of lime. Intermixed with other ingredients. Those which are found at Bath, Portland, and Purbeck, are much esteemed in building. This group of rooks has been separated by various authors Into a number of subdi- visions, which, however, oan only interest those who 'V*e- •Imlly in iti mineralogical i-hariiiter ( *nil when tlili li ih« CAM, in order to detvitnine whether certain fiicki bel«n(( lo the gronu or nut, recwurie hai b«en kud to the urnnic rtimaini ountained in them. In ■nme |iKrt« uf Eurupe theiie are very abundant, and In other filare* tba reveme. To aonnint fm- thii dlf< Ibrance, it ban b«m luppoied that in thoee pnrtii of WMtern £un>p« where they arc aliuiidantt thallow •aaa exiiled; while in thuM plaoei, itivh ai Italy and Oreece, where few remalni are found In the forma- tion, the iralare were deep. With reepMt Cu the d«po»»tton of the nnliiio ffronp, Bothinir vary aatisfaotory can ha aaid. Whence oame •lie immrnee quantity of carlmnata of lime, ia a uuaa. tion ntrt eaaily tniwen^. To aceouni for it by ipringt, •imiJar In aiM and saline cimtanli to thoM w« now MM, !*op*art t'j be tinphiloanphli'aL Many llmeakiiiM are iH*at!t altogether computed of organio remainai and this haa led to a th«ory, that thvte anlmale •«- traeted lima from the waiar, leavlnff thair khalli, pnidufjed throuffh milliona of Kanaratlona, lo be yra- dvally ooavertM Into liineetona. NotwithiMuidinf all that we can euppoee waa dtpoalted fro« eprliiM and organic bodiaa, **ther« reaMina,** My* DvlaBeohe, " a maaa of limealona lo be acronnted fur, dlitribufMl generally ovar a very largfe lurfaoe, which require* a rery general praduetion, or ratli^r depoiit, of oarbo- ■ala tif lime eontaanporancoiialy, or nearly loi over a great area." The arganle remahw hi tMs ffronp of rodii ara rvry ■umeronn, and aeveml ranarkahle epedea of airimal* bare been dftamrared. Ther« haa been one atranfe reptile, called lehth^oaaMniaf Amml i tt waa of a very large rint aa Iti Jaws are oceaaionally eight fret in length. In Aape It et»ia#irhat reaemhlea the rroen- dile, and, tnm Ita farm, appeart to have been adapted Anr buffeting tbft wawa. Another, named the Pleiio. ■annia, had a verv Itmg neck, and probably, tram lit appvaranre, tithftd In nhallow creeki and hay». l-Vnm the indlf^ted remaina of rertebria and other hraiea foand in tlwra, we have become aoquuinted «lth the food uptNi whh-h they lived. Tliev notdnly duvoured tith, hnt preyed upon aarh other, tne larger devouring the tmaUer. Moat voraoioiii and alngnlur inhabiUnu of mir t(\iih0 theae animala eertalnly were, t'uvier irformi iifl that the IdithycaauriM haa the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of a onooodile, the head and braasu hmie of a Ijaard, M»e extreniitfea of cetarea (being, however, four In mioiher), and the vertebns of lleh i end the Pleiliiaanrua has, with the satne iwtaot*oii« ex- tremitiet, the head of a liaard, and a neck resembling the IkmIt of a serpent. It is ttnneresaary to observe, that no living specimens of theae nmnsters exist. MamfniUia hare hren found only in one place — HtonesfieM. (YnntdilM, tortntnes, turth'n, flub, grent varieties of shelUfish, and many kinds of airiinis rep- tiles, are nhundant. Millions lif small animala called Auimonit«>s hare t>etfn discovered in this series. The shells are «tiQ]>ed something like a ram's horn, and thev are furnished with various cells, which th« ani- mal appears to have had the wm-er of filling with air or water, as it wished to rlae or sink in the sea. Belemniten are another plentiful class nf shell-fish to he tnet with. The destruction of these animals In wruia places must have been exceedingly great, beds of rock of fjreat sir^ heing ahnmt »'hnlly formed •f thpitu Froni the vegetaWe remains diMwered, it wmild appear that some parts irf tlie glohp were clothed with a vegetation widely different from ^at which we now see around us. 6. RED SAMIMTOTIE (llinitp. This group, the next in ordt^r iis wi> i)(*iicend down- wards, is aometimes of cmisiileniMe thickness t the rocks r>arap(mng It are as follows ; — Varit^gHted Marls, Mttach^alk, lied or V'ariei;ated Handstonet, Zerh. otein, and Red ('onglomerate or TiMlliegeiides. Varierkted Klarb — Those which lie i mm ctl lately below tne oolitic gronp, sometime* gradually pasx iuin it. As their name implies, they are gi'nerally of different colmirs i — those of the Vosgea, a i;htnn of mountains in the cant of Framv, are principally wine red, and grcfnish or hluinh grey. In the cen- tral portion of these marls are liedii of black clay, l)lui»n>grcy fiatulKtoiie, and a sperlfs of greyish or yel- Wvhdi Ihncntone. The sandstone and clay eontain ragMalde imprewimrt, and even 0(»al. In Poland, the molts whirh immediately hiureed the oolitic forma- tion are termed wliile sntidfttone, from their colour. The upper part of this altematefi with thi.-k beds o( grey-hine mnrls, partly red, and more rari-Iy vnrie- gated ; l>ed^ af linaeetune, and a valnable one of iron •re, are found in it. Miischflkalk is a llnfeslone varying In texture, hut most fre'jueiitlr fr^y niid compart { it is somKinies so hard as to \>i- (•tn)ilu)eil as marble; it is nnkrnnn in Kiigland and thH north of France, hut, in thv cast WQd south of tliH Utter country, and in some parts uf Oermany and Poland, it oc-^urs. Amongst other or- ganic remains fuuiid in it, are those uf the Plesiosnu- rua and Ichthvosaurua, already described, bhell.fish are aUo alMindanl. UhiI or Viiriegated Handshine, or new Ked Sand- stime of Lnglish authors, varies In cohitir, Iwing hmI, wltiiv, hluo, and grei^u ; thii funiier, however, predo- laiiuiting. lu France and other countries, this rock 40 Is stiinetlm^ •'■ml Tor hnlldltig. No(t''.,(iiamshirt) Into Yorkshire, hut It Is generally coarse, and often Incidterent. A variety of vegetable and animal nk for the causes which have produceil this mass," s«ys I>e la Beche, " we may (wrhaps in some measure approach them, by uhserving the state of the rocks on which It rests. Tliese are fuund, In the greuter number of Instances, highly iuclined, contorted, or fractured, evidences of disturtNUice which the inferior and older rocks have sufl^ered previous to the deptisit of the red sandstone group upon them. These appearances are not oon- jined to particular districts, hut are mure or less ge- neral in western Kurupe. From an exaraiuatlou of the hiwer l>eds, no doubt oan exist that the fragmcuts of riN-ks contained in them have, for the greater part, been hrokeii off from the older rocks of the more Im- mediate neighbourhood. h therefore does not appear un philosophical to con- clude, that, as far at least as regarda these lower con- glumenite l>eds, we have appriwched to something like reuse and effect — the cause Iwing the disruption nf the strata, the effect being the dispersion uf fragments consequent on this viulenoeover greater or less space, by means of water, prohrihly thrown into agltaHon by the disturbing forces. Thiu these fortvs have, iu some places at least, not lieen small, is attested by the large Htze of ilie fragments driven off, and the rouudi^d omi- dition of s«ime of them, aa may Ihi well seen iu the vi- cinity of Ilristol, wher» the mllod masses of carboni- ferous limestone are somellme* cunnidrrable. Of the evidence of the great force employed, X know of no Itetter or mure easily oliservefl example, than that at the cliff named Petit Tor, in Dabbaoombe Uay, Devon, whence so larg* a portion of Devonahiro marble is oh. tained." " Thia group," says the same author, " would seem to constitute the baae of a gieat system of rockH, whlih, when not deranged by local accidents, hax filled nu- merous hollows and inequalities of land of consider- able parts of Europe. J^uch a hollow ia well seen in our own island, where thtt central counties are occu- pied by the red sandstone series, apjiarently fining up a previously existing depression In that situation, hut la here ^rlthnvt that great capping of the oolitic group, which, for the most part, rests ao conformably upon it } so that, taken ns a whole, and ahstractimi twng made of minor derangements, they wmild both seem to fill up great depressions in Kurope ; aometimes, as la the case In Normandy, the oolitic rocks overlapping and coming in contact with strati older than the red s;tnditon« group, upon which hitter they nevertheless rest so conformably, that the onu seems a tranquil de- posit on the other. We muKt of course ranidcr that numerous liH^al disturbance!) would produce a marked difference In the deposits, even amounltng to a per- fectly nnconformahle jKisitinn; yet the conformable nature of the two groups, taken in the mass, Is some- what striking. During their deposit, great and re- markable changes were effected in animal and perhaps , vegetable life; and it scpms somewhat necessary to admit, that consideralilt* differences in the relative levels of sea and land were produf-ed at varlmis times, causing changes in the churniter of the inhabitants of the sea, from variationn of pressure, and other cir. cumstances, while noaniall difference might be effected from the filling up and rise of the tHUtom.'* 7> COAL OR CARBON irr. NO t'B GROUP. There are three kinds nf rm^ks comprehended in this group, nanudy, (^lal .Measure^, AlountiUu or Cur- iMmiterous Limeslune, icid Old lied Sandbtoue. CUial measures iire couijkimhI of various bt.*ds of saud- atone, coal, and shale. Coal is certainly the nieeu ascertained that the coal miuMs in 8outh Wales alone, wliicJi are yet nearly uuwruught, would supply the present demand fur the article lur l^KtU years to come. Coal measures alHiund in vegetable remains, and their oiigin is now universally a«cril>ed to an immense accumulation of plauts aud uther vegetable matter at soma remute epm-h. They were distributed upim a previously da- ftoslted surface of sand or mud, but principally the alter, which Is now compressed Into shale. Hands and mud were again aocumuhited upon thu vegetables, and this process went on Irregularly for a conalder* able time, during which siufesalve tribes of the vege- table world aprung up uptiii the detrltua which covereil rdants fttrmerly eiitomhefl, thus giving rise to Ihoso rregularly interstrntlAed b»ds of coal, sandstone, shale, Ac, of which this gnnip la ctmiposed. At Newcastle, there Is a mine t^nitainlng fi>rty succes* sive nnal beds, all separnted from eu-h other try layers of aandatone aim (rther rocks. The length of time reqnireil fur such accumulations must hai*e Wen immense. The transporting power which dcposltrd these vegetables appears to have iK^eri moderate, ami the distinct intervals of vegetable growth would re- quire mnalderahle timet for iwaj l>eda, now only sU or ten feet thick, must, before pretaurewas amdled t*i them, have occuple*! a mueh greater depth. The ter- restrial vegetable remaina so abundantly preserved In the coal itrata, are for the most part laid flat. Rue there are cawa where they occur In a mure upright position, and aome of them are found vertical, with their roots downward*. This Is preHsuly the manner In which submarine forests are found { and If several of such forests were discovered above each other, we would thus have a series of deposits similar to thu coal strata, in ao far as vegetable remaina were concerned. From the atate of preservation In which simie of thu delicate leaves of plants are found, there la some diffi- culty ill reconciling thsir deposition with the supposl- tlon that strung currents of water tmre them down, and distributed them over the extensive areas when) we now find them. Such rough transport must greatly have Injured the leaves; and how are we to acnmnt for vegetables occurring with their rmits downwards 'f On the other hand, De la Beche remarks, " If we are to consider parts of the coal moatures as In any way resulting from a series of similar deposits** (to thosu uf aubmarlDe foruits), " we arc certainly called upon to admit a very remarkable aerlea of changes In thu relative surface-levels of land and water." There hi no doubt uf thia, but how are we otherwise to account fur phenomena ? The depoalts of the Paria baain a1> ready adverted to are quite as remarkable, and they both in a general sense seem to have resulted from si- milar causes. The vt^table remains found In coal measures are sometimes Vith respet't to the character of the vegetation In the coal group, Imtanists Inform us that It ^ Insular, and not ctpntlnental ; and that many plants unequivocally indicate an extremely hut climate, even greater tlum that of the torrid tone. This Is another indisputable proof that the temjieraturu of the earth has decreased. The remains uf both terrestrial and marine animals have been found, and amongst them were some palates offish — a very remarkable circumstance. The coal strata are frequently twisted and shattered, and these dlsloc-ations, in the technical language of the miner, aro called faults. The occurrence of theiie, al- thoticn they may interrupt mining for a time, are highly advantageuua. Fractured atrata are often l>nunaed by faults, w hich prevent the passage of water from one mass into another, and thus prevent an over- flow of water, which would otherwise paral)'xe the nperatlnna. Mountain Limestone. — This It a very prevalent HKk, and many picturesque mountains of Britain, and other parts of the worm, are composed of it. It ia frequently traversed by beautiful veins of calcareous spar, at tinu'ji apjrearing to tio principally composed of orgauio remains, whilb at others nttt a trace of thcsu can be detected. This rock is of vtirions colours, but mostly grey, varying in intensity of shade. In wtina situations it affords gofyd mnrMe, which ia susccptihlo of a considerable degree of polish. From its durable natTire, It Is likewise used in building. That stik peudons work, the Breakwater at Plymanth, is com- posed of it. Alany valuable mines of lead ore occur in thia rock. .Shell-fish, and other orgimlc remains of the lower class of animals, are plentiful. Oiii Had Sandstone This rmk cnnsists of grains of sand, or fragments of older rocks, cemented to. gether, and rendered compact; hunee it is termed a (mnglomeratc. It derives its red colour from the oxide of iruu which it contains. It Is of very variable thick- nnss, sometiniM very thin, and at others swelling to the depth of se\'eral thind feet. A specimen nf il may be seen at Hawthomden, where it frequently cH-cuni under conl strata. Few organic remains have been disc^n'ered in this rock. The line of separation lietween the three members of the carboniferous gruup is generally well marked ; in some parts of .Scotland, however, we can scarcely say that this is thu case. Considerable diificuUv Is felt in making distinctiuus in this country, whiun is inoreaaed by tlie presence of rocks beh>nglng to an- other group altogether. This is otherwise In the northeru districts of Knglaml, where the red sand- stone rocks have evidently been deposited iium tlio limestone and coal after the latter bad suffered violent dishicitions. A ronsidnrnhle portion of tho surface of Ireland iscoverecki at the Warnarian otaMlfloatiun i — OrnitWHoke ii a very prevalent rock, and C4in«i»tt ohiefty of aricllUraiiui matter, liir tha mmt part of a ilatey taitnre, in whluh numaroiii friifinanta of other rocks and itonei are Imbadded. Viewed ai a whole, the grauwnoke leriei roiiiUti at a large Mratifled maH of arlnacaoue and ilatoy nM-kn, inturminglad with pBtrhm of llmeitone, whirh fre4|uently extend to con- aidenihje diitanoefl. Kmirtng ilnte !• not unfrequontly met with amongit the gr:uiwaoke roekt. The group (wuiui in Norway, ttweden, and HuHla. A por- tion of imithern l^tlaod ii formed of it, from whence It proceeds down western England Into Nor- manily ana Briiuny. It " '«>ars abundant In Ire. land, and patches of it ar< >und In other parts of tha globe. There is In North America a large da- posit, closely agriwing with it in many res|>ects, "so that," says a writer upon the subject, " there Is evl- dence to show that some general causes were in ope- ration over a large portion of the iiortliern humltphere, and that the result was the production of h thick and extensive depoeit* enveloping anitnuls of similar orgn- itio stnicture, over a considerable surface." From the character of the substances composing the greu- wacke group. It would seem to have been slowly de- posited. Tne origin of the limestones has afforded matter for much speculation. We cannot, as we formerly did for the previous limestone rocks, suppoee them to have resulted from the uxuvim of marine animals, liecause we would l>e thus called upon to consider that carbonate of lime was once more abun- dantly present in the sea than we now And it, and that it has l>een gradually deprived of it. This sup. position would naturally lead us to expect that the sea, having been deprived of a (V)nBlderanli> portion of its carbonate of lime, the n>cks composed of it would become lest and less abundant as we rose from the older to the more modem formations. But this li the very ' reverse of the case i it hai been sup- posed that the carbonate of lime has been derived from the interior of the earth ( and as it is not unfre- quent In volcanic regions, great disruptions of the strata may have produced circumstances more favour- able for its deposition at one time than at another. ** Be this as it may," says an (Miiineiit writer upon the subject, " the liniestonas in the grauwacke series most frequently run in linos parallel to tim general direction of the l>eds; and although the calcareous matter may not be altogether contintious, there has evidently been some cause in operation at the same time, within a given district, more favourable to the production of limestone, than at another. It is also worthy of attention, that when the limestones occur, then also do the organic remains lierome more abun- dant, appearing as if the calcareous rnck* and the or- ganic remains wero connected with each other." That nnimals, by secreting limn from the medium in which they lived, may have eotitributetl considerably to the mass, is evident from their remains otwurriiig In abundance { but that It may all \m attributed to their operations, appears impossible, for in certain districts not a trace of animal axuviai is to be found. In the organic remains of the grauwacke group, there is a mixture of existing and extinct animals, which is remarkable, connidenng the antiquitv of the roi-ks. A family of small animals, called Trdnbites, iipuear tn have faieeu the Arst living creatures who In- habited tHir earth. Their forms vary consideral)ly ; and in some which we have exauiiiieil, the head and mouth extended over the whole diameter of the body. They seem now to have entirely dissppeared from Among existing animals. Keveral families, such os the genus called 8pirif«t^ survived the de|)osition of this series of rocks, as they occur in after formations ; but in these they must have l)een finally entombed, since no living trace of them is now to Iw found : others again havti weathered the various vicissitudes And re- volutions of the globe, and are continued up to the pretientday; amongst these are several opmes of corals. With respect to the vegetation exinting at this early neriod of the earth's history, from the remains found, it would appear to have Iteen similar to that which is ao abundantly preserved in the preceding series of rocks. Indeed, the formation of several coal mines has been referred to this epoch — an important fact, as it proves the existence of dry land, with vegetables upon it, con tern poranei)usly, or. nearly so, with the dawn of animal life. What other creatures may have existed at this period besides fish, and the other or- ganiMd haings already mentioned, it is impossible to •ay ; biit there is no presumption in suppoiiing, that, ■inco vegetation clothed the dry land to some extent, terrestrial animals, suited to the circumstances of the time, were not wanting, for this is only in accord- ance with the general harmony we at present observe fanatur*. 0. LOWEST roSSII.irCROUS GROUP. Although this group is little more than one of con- vwuaoof^ beiug but Uie lower part of the preceding 47 seriae, it is tha opinion of some gaologlsu that it may l*« separated from tha grauwacke mass. The study of this part of our subject is very difficult, aud prasenta few at(ra«'Uons to any class of r«ulars but those who hava paid some altaution to the science. The rocks oonposiug this group are intermixed with those of Igoaous origin, so that tlie most der«ptiva appearances prevail, thus rendering a fine distinction between them and the f^roup below obvlnuHly impossible. We bav« thus, in a dastianding order, arrivtul at a period whan there was a combination of those causaa which produMd fusslliferous and nnn.I'mHJIiferuus strata— whan there was, as il were, a conflict belwaen the puwart of fire and water, until « nature reclaimed bar order," and the latter prevailed. *' That there should Ite a transition or passage," says Pe la Beohe, " even eflTected by tlie alternate operation of particu- lar oauies from that condition of the world's surface, when chamloal action prevailed, to that when maohaul- cal action beiaoie moi-if abundant, is what we should expect, since it is in accordance with our knowledge of rock depusits (generally ; for we observe, however suddenly certain changes may liave been produced in particular Hltuations, that, viewed robably the Arst creatures that inhabited the globe, tut this is only Inferred from their being tho lowest specimens of organic life hitherto found. There may have existed previous tn them myriads of Heshy and gelatimms animals which perished without leaving one solitary trace behind that they had ever lived, and moved, and had their being in the waters, Indeed, I>r Turner has suggested, that, if we suppose these animals to have been abundant at an early period, we may thus ac&mnt for tho bituminous nature of some of the earlier limestones, especially those which do not contain a trace of organic remains. INFERIOK BTKATiriCD OR MOK-FOSSILIFEROUI ROCKS. Hitherto the hardest and most oompact substancea that we have met with have been characterised by the presence of organic remains, but we now enter upon the examination of a class of rocks which were formed at a period when, as far as our knowledge extends, neither animal nor vegetable life existed on the globe — a period antecedent to that when the Divine Hplrit, whioh Milton so sublimely invokes, " With intuhly wliijpi ouU|tr(«cl, r>ovo*like Mt biXMKling on tlie vstt sbyti, And niailti it |ircgiunt." This group, and that whidi follows, have long gone under tne name of primitive or primary rocks, be- cause, fromtheiroccurringlowest in the series of rocks, and also from their containing no organic remains, they are supposed to have been Arst in the order of formation. Ilefore describing them, it will be neces- sary to give an account of four substances v/hicli enter largely Into their cj}mposltion, namely, ,Quartx, Fel- spar, dlica, and Hornblende. QuartM^ or silica, is a crystalline substance of various colours, but generally in appearance something like white glass. It scratches glass, strikes Arc with steel, and is sometimes nearly transparent. It presents it- self almost pure in the form of rock crystal, In the varieties of Alnt, agate, chalcedony, and siliceous sand. It is a metallic oxide, its base Is called silicium. The scieutiAu world is indebted to Sir Humphry Davy for its decomposition. Quarti is very exten- sively uned in the artn. ^V'hen combined with soda, it forms gUss, aud, with alumina, porcelain and pottery ware. Fehpar Is another crystalline stone, which displays various colours, and refracts the light. It principally cnnsists of a mixture of sandy aud clayey matter. Lime and potash are also present, and oxide of iron occasionally colours it of a reddish hue. Its colours are usually white, red, and grey. It Is softer than quartz, but harder than ^X^Mj and therefore scratches it. Felspar is used in pDttery, that of Cornwall, from its Hue quality, toa considerable extent. Home beauti- ful viirieties of it are employed in jewellery. It is one of tl (.- most abttndant minerals in nature, and enters largely into the composition of a number of rocks, as we shall shortly see. Mica is very common, and easily recognised. It also consists principally of flint and clay, with a little magnesia ann oxide of iron. It is of a lamellar or leafy texture, and easily splits into thin layers or i)lates, which are transparent, and highly elastic, [leforo the invention of glass, it was employed as a substitute for that useful article. Indeed, in some fiarts of the world it is still used in place of glass. It H soft, and may he scratched with tlie nail. Its usual colours are brown and light grey, but sometimes it Is black. Those shining specks and small thin plates observed in sand and various other substances are mica. It is sometimes, but very rarely, found orya- taltized. Hornhlcnde is another plentiful mineral. It is crystalline, and of a dark green colour, approaching to black. Its constituents are alumina, silex, mag- nesia, and a considerable proportion of the black oxide of iron, from which it derives its dark colour. Whip- stone is composed of this mineral and felspar. The individual rocks of the inferior suatiAed series ara not so easily riistinguisbad as those whii:h He abvv^ them, they are so coufusadly mixed up witli each othaCt The strata vary seldom aahibit one species of rock extending over a large uwai of country, axuppt, paiv haps, the clay slate. Clay tilate CA>ntains a oonsiderabU portion of argil* lacaous matter. It Is dis p ose d In layars, which ara easily split into tliiu slabs. In colour It varies from a ffreyish white to a deep blue or black. Kxtensiv* bads of It occur iu Scotland «nd Cornwall, as well at In other parts of the ({'obe. It Is used to a great ex* teut as a rooting for houses. The best slates fur this purpose fimnd in BcoCland are those of fiusdale, auA some neighbouring islands otf the coast of t>orn, ia Argyle, and In Uallachulish, lu Appln. Tha AnesI kinds of clay sUte ara used for writing on, and th« iiencils employed are a softer species of the same rock. Those little meulllc masses which we discover in thia and other slates, are iron pyrites. Pyrites are native c4>miNmnds of nietals and sulphur. These slates art often so very like those of tha grauwacke series as t« Ite undistinguishable from them, which renders their origin very ambiguous. Chlorite Shta is chiefly com* KohmI of a substance called ublorlte, rmambling mica, ut softer, and of a green colour. It is sometlmet mixed with quartx, felspar, mica, and hornblende, la various proportions. Taicost Slats is a rook Into which clay slate graduates, aud not uufrequently It passea itself Into mioa slate. Talc Is a substance similar lo mica, or is rather a speciae of mica. QuartM Hock. — Qnarta we have already described. The rooks composed of It vary In texture, sometimea apparently of a cliemical, and it others of a mechani- cal origin. It is pretty abundant in Hctitlandj and iu South America, Humboldt takes notice of a maaa more than UAOO feet in thickness. — Uornblend$ Bock nndSlatt. Under this head are included all those com- pounds, evidently contemporaneous with the rocke amongst which they occur, of which hornblende con* stitutes the principal Ingredient— iVica Slate !s ea- sentially composed of ndca and quartx, and forme extensive tracts of countrvi as well as thin beds, In* eluded amongst other rocks.— £uH/tf is principally, and In many cases entirely, composed of the substance called compact felspar. It Is generally subordinate to gneiss or mica slate, and does not appear to constitute any extensive tracts of country. Frimitive iAmestotu; This is an important rock, and is easily known from other limestone, by contain- ing no organic remains. To It belong those varloue kinds of statuary marble so valuable in the Ane arts. An account of the variatlee of marble is incompatiUe with our limits. It is found in several parts of Scot- laud ; but the Anest is the Parian marble, of which the famous statue, the Venus de Aledlcl, is formed. It is almost incapable of decay. A question here arises, under what circumstances could marble have been pro- duced? It is a carbonate of lime, and must have been, from Its compact texture, subjected to great heat. Now, carlion^te, when heated, gives out Its acid, but the acid is still present in the marble. Sir J. Hall has thrown considerable light upon tills ob- scure subject. He subjected common carbonate of lime to heat, under a highpressure, which prevented the escape of the acid. Tne consequence was, that the lime was fused, and a substance obtained which iu every respect was identical with the Anest marble. We are therefore justiAed in inferring, that, under a high pressure in the bowels of the earth, nature formed her extensive beds of statuary marble. Gneijit is composed of quartz, felspar, mica, and hornblende, with an occasional mixture of other mU nerali. It occupies very considerable tracts of coun- try, and we aii> informed by Professor Jameaon, that all the useful metals, except mercury, occur in thie rock. Protoyitui may be arranged with gneiss, as they are very nearly similar, and both are closely al- lied to granite. These are the most remarkable of the inferior stratiAed rocks, but they are far from being the whole of them, for the varieties and transitions (^ the one into the other are endless, and set classiAca- tiun at deAance. We cannot enumerate the various situAtions where these rocks are to be found. Thev occupy a brge portion of the earth's surface, and they always occur witlwconstant general characters, so that we may sup- pose them all to have resulted from common causes^ and these of a chemical nature, since the prevalent mineralogicul characteristic of the mass is confusedly crystalline. UNSTRATiriED HOCKS. This group, which is widely diffused over every part of the globe, comprises those rocks usually culle4 Volcanic, Trappean, Serpentinous, and (iranitic. They are found mixed with almost all the stratiAed formations, and hear every mark of having been thrown up from beneath. For the most part, they either occur as " protruded masses, as overlapping musses which have resulted from the spread of matter after ejection, or as veinstones Ailing up Assures, ap- parently consequent on some violence to which the strata have been subjected." The substances princi- piilly entering into the composition of these rocks are quartz, felnpar, hornblende, and mica, which have been already desi-ribed individually. The otmpounda which they form either when they are all present, or when two or more constitute the elements, are ez- ceeiiingly viirious in their aspect and texture. Granite. — The most prevalent and important rocH of this class is a confuaediy crystaUiue body, cuiupiJaod CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. of tbt four iiibiUnwt Rbar* nftiiMd i but ihvM ir* not ftlwivt all prtMni i ■ntiMtimM onlv two of ihtm art fnun^ In a mait. which ohtfelni lh« nam* nf xranlu. ThU rock waa inng ninildur**! th« Aindamiinul nnm on which all th« olhvrt wnni arcuRiulalAd t but thU opinion wai atianilonad wb«n rtimplM oeourr«l of lU rMllnft upon iiraiiltttl anf the earth, though tbey wera aa fnnd n( ifranita aa the nnrirtit Ktfyplian*." •*'nmo iil«a uf iti durnhilily may Iw fiirmiHi Irom the exri'ltetit state of preaervatioti in which ihi> ^rand head of Afrninim ia found, and that uf the rrletirated ndumn vulgarly called Pompey'i Pillar, which atillatandt en* tlrv, amid the mouldering niins of the ancient city nf AlfXKudria. The olielltk In the Palara of St Jean da Katcran, at Home, which waa 4)uarried at iSvrne, Iti the rel(;n of Zetui, King of Thehaa, thirteen hundred yean before the l-hriRtian erat and that In the Place of tlenile is preient, intteail of mica, it ii called Syenite, from It* umninding In tha lilaud of hyena. When quarti and felipnr orrur alone, and the f r\*ttal- litntion ii auch thnt the former aiipeara diaacmiuated ill the latter, it la termed graphio glhinite, fmm iti Waring a lunpnaed resemhlance to antli)ue graphic chararteri. uranite li lometimea pnrphvritir, larife cryatala o( fcNpar lieing diueminated t)irnugh tne mass. The pornhvry nf Hen Nevti is a tt«sutifiil 'tone, in wb'.a the p.'Ie rose and rolntin of a yellow- ish white jte finely ble.'ded and atmdetl. The |>or- phyry of Jie ancients was "hiefly of a red colour, and iinm tha , quality it derived ita name. Sfrpe.itin* — A rock uf thik •■lass haa been so called from its reaamhiing the skin of v serpent, in tha de- lightful admlitura of various colou*« which iteihl- bfts. Several fine specimens of this stouv r.r: Tjund In Britain, particularly at Portarmed in the maas, which explains the phenomena of globu- lar basaltic nfcks. Ilia remarks were also extended to the columnar structure, and the theory of their ori- gin, hence deduced, is exceedingly plausible, hut an explanation of it would carry us far beyond our limits. We can, therefore, only refer the Inquirer to the Philo- sophical Trniisactiuns for IHfM. We hnve now passed in review before the reader the various stratified and unatratified rm-ks of which the crust of the earth Is com|M)ied. A more minute account nf the almoit endless divcnity nf substances, and their intimate and complex relations to each other, it was impoasihie to give within our neces- sarily circumscrilted limitn. Itut we hope enough has l>eeu ilntie to satisfy the minds of that inimernus cluks of indiriduaia who wish a comprelivualve view of It aul)ject presented to them wittunit l>eiiig fatigued with minute details, or entertained with barren specu- lation; while in other minds there may have pro- bably lieeu awakened a desire to prosecute the atudy by reference to luore latKirious and aniptiliud ctmipila- lions devoted to the autijcct, or to thiit must perfect and sublime uf all wiirk»~-Natur« hersi'lf. From the foregoing detail of unquestionable facta, we may with pert'ect safety infer. First, That all solid h^tdies have formerly l>een in a S4iftor fluid itate, thai they were either fused by fire or held in suspension by water ; fur how otherwise can we arcount for the presence of organic l>odies in them ? 8evondly, Thai ■am* larrihie convulsion, or a series uf convulsions, haa rent the solid pavement of the earth, and up- heaved the bed of the sea, in many instances beyond the regions of perpetual snow ; for how otherwise can we conceive of marine remains being imbedded in ele. vated mountain nK'ki ? Nut aaauredly by means nf the deluge ; yet such an explanation of tne phenomena has been given, with alt due gravity, In works pul>- lished so Tate as the year 1833. Tne theory of Vol. taire, in one of his numerotts and very atmird essays on geology, was even more plausible than this. Thai singular man hated the Christian religion so much, that he hated every thing which was brought forward to support it. M'hen it was stated that the sheila found npon the Alps afforded a proof of the deluge, he replied, with admirable tact that they were eastern species, which had fallen from the hats of the Syrian pilgrims. On another (K'caaion, be observed, *' that the bones of n rein-deer and hippopotamus, discovered near Etampes, did not prove, ns some would have it, that Lapland and the Nile were once on a tour from Paris to Orlemains, and those of hia works, in strata where vegetables and the lower ani- mals occur in infinite numlier and variety, is one whiih cannot he explained away, and appean to be de- cisive of the ptdnt. Let not the Christian reader be startled at this statement, and sarcastically eiclaim with the pious Cowper — " Some drill and tmr* The aolkl MrtS, and fniin thr ilmU tht-TS Extrset a pr;{liter, by which we Irarn, That he who made it, iimI rcvealfd lis data To Mom*, wai miitakcn In iti sgr." It goce directly to corroborate the Mosaic account of the tiroewhich has elapsed since ttie human ruce fint appeared upon the globe. This is now agreed upim by all f hihnophera whose opinions are worthy of no- tice. With regard to the creation of the earth itself, the language of Scripture, particularly with regard to laaaf, is metaphorical t *o that U) fiiniid any argument upon it would be quite un philosophical. THCOBIESOr TMK KAKTH. There la nothing to important to science as a correct Gneralixation of facts which go to prifve that nature s adhered to a certain numi>er of fixed principles, fram whkb %km new deriatati iu developing particu* lar parte of the mighty scheme of creation, unlesa, perhaps. It he tha collection of the facts themselves i and yet there has nothing retarded Ita progress mora than lha hasty deductions from too limited observa- tion. The truth of this Is more strikingly exempli* fled In the historyof gaolovy than in that i»f any other ■danca. The theorieaaud c«mjectures as to the man- ner In which the substances compoaing the globe war* Ant amaaaad, and the vicissltudae to which nnks and strata have bean rabieoted. sf> as to accwint for their preaent poaitiona, and the alternation of bill and valley, are various and conflicting. Two, however, stand conspicuously forward— those e brought about by the laws now existing, and that it is not indicated by any thing which we perceive." The lamentable exhibition of human frailty dis- played in this philosophical crusade, for a time re- tarded the progress of just vlewi with regard to geoloffj, but in course, a third part} took Its rise, and rapidly gained ground. The memben composing it obaerved a strict neutrality, and were aealous in col- lecting facta, not fur the purpoee of supporting tpacu- lutive doctrines, but uf ascertaining truth. It is now pretty generally admitted, that, after all, neither of the two theories answen the variuus condi- tions of the problem to be solved. A third theory it at preaent gaining ground, and itappeart to Iw a very rational one. It Is reared upon, and partly constructed of, the ruins of the lluttonlan. Discarding the idea of paroxysmal convuliions at particular epochs, and au extraordinary influence of subterranean heat for the consolidation nf submarine deposits, it explains the former changes of the earth's surface, by reference to causes now in operation. Prol'easur Lyell bos published an admirable wurk in support uf thin upi- niun. It wuuld be doing injustice to the author were we to attempt to give an abstract of his various argu. menta, deduced from an unusual uiaaa nf evidenct*, which goes to support the doctrine. We take plea- sure, huwever, iu referring the reader to the woi k ; and '( he be not convinced of the correctness of ilio fundamental view there entertained, he cininot fai' to admire the ability and eloquence with wL'.ch it has been advocated. With respect to Air LyelPt theory, we have, in conclusion, one observation to mokei— ttince ilia now pretty generally admitted, that the teiii|H-ruture of the earth waa a good deal higher formerly ibtin what it now is, would nut the causes at present in opera- tion, under such circumstances, act with a greater dwree of iutentity, and produce more extensive ra- sulu? KoiNRmnH; IMntod und PubllihiNl by W. snd It. CuAMHsaa, 19, Wttrrliw) Pliuft a(M> by W. Onn, PatrrniMtvr Row, l.oiw dunt and W. ('i.-RnY, Jun. and <'n. Sackvlllc Stn um of nulcnuita and olbers, ■re In urviuriuton. •tmolyped by A. Kiehwood, St Aadnw S(Ml» Bdtabuigh> »f ffi.vr : ■» y \ vrr- \}( rrsKtitin, iinlMf, • f«i-U ihf-mwIvM I 1 ItH proffmi mora 00 llinltail oliMrvft* In tbfti i»( any oCner urM ■■ to th« DIKD- «lnf(n hy the aitviicv ot ihape of muutitaini, llutton'i theory la Nta which htflung to Kreat dafr^t ii th» rraiiran heat, iiip- Huhinarine di'poiiti. [aolof(i't that there tmiice and repuie t untiiient* had fur- w onei, they vrerv )arosyiiuRl voiivul- eral yeara kept th« h had Itapartiium, ith whiub the IxUi- 'ithoiit A unralltil in (iuua Mai addiHl a t of ahiiM Hitd Lvin- r the heretivnl vol. Hurhl, 1 con Mt> ni> ct of uu cml," «:iid of tho Kluhu many I then deemed thu Ha mav be aaid to kllprAvionliiotinnt, I to have borrowed here are now coin. d todouht the trutb ihutild thi'ru he any id ? The worki of iiite of man, which lie of their own de- in hit worki/' uiya tin of infancy or of may eatimate eitbar )ii. Jh maj/ put an ijfi^, tu the pretent »d of time) but wb ■atnitrnphe will not exiitinK, and that hich we |>erceive." human frailty dia- ide, for a time n»- wi with regnrd to ly took Iti riie, and mbsra composing it irere aealoui in coU Hupporting iptcu- g truth. tted, that, after all, the variuui condi* A third theory la ippeari to fie a very d partly conicructed Uiicarding the idea ticular epochi, and tterranean heat for lepoftita, it explains urface, by reference rolL'sior Lyell haa lupport of this opi« ; to the author wt're of hia VAriouH nrf^u* ,1 niaiR of ftvidi*tic(>, w. We take plert' eailt>r to the work ; ti rorrectneAs of thit ned, ha c^mnnt fni' jnce with wl.ch it leory, we hiive, iu lie :— ^iiu'« it ii now thti teniptruture of formerly thtm what ,t prcient In ofnira- iirt with a greater more extruiiro ro- of nolcranu and oiherf. •« StKMlf BdWHilh. CHAMBERS'S ' INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 7. CONDITCTBO BY WILLIAM AND ROBRRT CHAMnRKS, KDITORB OP THB " BDINBIIROII JOURNAL" AND " liiarORICAL NKWHrAPCH." PBioa \^ THK COTTON. SILK, WOOLLEN. AND LINEN MANUFACTURE. TltG < ()TT«)N MANUFACTURE. Th> CiMtnn Miinuriiclurt nf (Imi BriMin li, ■!. togtiher, uiifl or tlie most wundtrful triuiii)»hi of mu. cbuiical invtntiun. To it un wa mainly ind.bt«l for Ih* inaiiMndiiiii potltlan which UrMi Britain •t pmml hold! tmanft cIrlllMd natloni. It hu •Ilka pn»«d our " prifno lintw" In the itrufile of wtrfart, and (mit td agrlculturt) our main prop in tha time of peaca. It ha« at unca calJad forth tbtf rflfotiroM of Dritlah ffeniiii, and furnlihad a bmindleii Held for aotire induKrjr, and tha am- ploymant of capital, rerhn|>a tha lurait way at oommandiof tha attention of our raadari to tha •ubjact, and impmiinK upon thtm ita immanM na- tional iuiportanoa, it .Imply toatate, that tha ceautlon of mir cottijn mannfactura at Ihji momant, wara lurh a rontiugency poaiiblu, would at onoa throw Idla, and eipoM) to all tha miiariea of porerty and privation, nearly a m.7ion amf a kml/ of our coantryman, and dry up a aourfe of notional produca of tha annual valua ofnaarly/or/yaH//ioru«/er/t;iy, wher«of hrtfniynii//Jonj' Uftrth are ootuuiMtl b^ foreign Muntriei ! But avan theia focti, startling aa they may teamt ara not tha most ramarkabla faaturaa of thii branch of art. Thai io large a field for induitry, and the amployroant of capi- tal, ahould have beau opened up within the ihort ipaca of little mora than half a century ; that, after travelling h.'e thousand mile, fur tha raw material, returning with it to our shores, incurring all tho outlay of draaa- ing, manufac(tiring, dec, wa are ubia to carry it back, in its Anished state, and actually dispose of it at n prff/C/, td the growers themselves, amongst whom tho cost of iibour is not a twentieth part of what it is with us ! — •* • ' '-« circumstances, we say, appear almost incredible. 4nd the seal of the miraculous Is put to the whole by thf fact, that all this has been accomplished by the inventive genius of a few humble, and, for tha moat part, poor and lUitarala individuals 1 muToitr. The period at which the cotton manufacture was first introduced Into Great Britain, is conjectured tu havo been in the early part of tha 17th century, as wa And the first mention of it made by Lewis Roberts, in his 'Treoiore nf Traffic" published in 1641. From the same authority, we learn that Manchester is entitled to tha creaen found diflicult, if not reckoned impossible, owing to the want of proper muchinery, to manufacture cotton warp (the longitudinal threads) of sufficient strength, and in place of which, ,{ them with the foreign or Irish linen yam for warp, and with raw cotton fm waft. The carding and spinning of tha cotton (the latter process being, even then, generally done with the spindle and dista/T), by giving emplaymant to all tha brnucltes of tha fkmlly above a Stat' of Infancy, was a wonderful benefit to these doi lot.ie manufaeturan, who wara thus also relieved from tha aspandlture of their time and limited means In tha providing of the materials i although It must b« Dbvious, thai. In a commercial point of view, II was Impoasibla to proaacuta the ma- nufacture, on any vary extensive scale, hy such a mode. By tha custom-house returns, it appears that in 1700 tha average weight of cotton-wool Imported into Ureal Britain amounted to only 1,170,001 lbs.; nor did any considerable Increase take place for up- wards of sixty years afterwards. It was estimated, on the accession of Oaorga the Third, iu 1700, by Dr Perceval of Manchester, that tho entire value of all the a>tton goods at that lime manufactured in Great Driuin did not exceed \..W),m*^ftvr. The year 1707, however, was destined to form a new era in this branch of manufacture, and tu witness the commance- mant of a sariaa of mechanical Inventions altogether unparalleled in their nature and results. Jamea Har- graavea, a common weaver at Htanhill, near Church, in Lancashire, and, according to some, originally a carpenter at Blackburn, having by chance scan a common splnnlng-wbaal, which happened to be over, turned, continue Ita rotatory motion fur some time whilst lying on iu side, conceived the Idea of his /pia. ning-jtnny, which he afterwards constructed with his own hands in a very rude manner, containing only eight spindles driven by bands from a horiiontal wheel t but which, by subs«|uent improTamenta, was soon so much enlarged aa to enable a little girl to work no fewer than from tigkty to o;ia hunttrgtl ami heenty spindles at the same moment. The amazing facility derived from this invention in the process of spinning, soon of course became publicly known, and excitad, aa all such beneficial inventions generally do in tha minds of tha ignorant, the greatest alarm and indig- nation amongst those who earned their living by the old mode of spinning. Their fury at |r>it broke out into open violence 1 they attacked Hargreaves's house, forced the door, and broke his machine to pieces. Nor did they stop here. Several years previous to the in- vention of his jmny, the same ingenious individual had eifacted a great improvement in the process of carding, by which one man was enabled to per- form double the work, and with more ease, than hy the original method. Although soon superseded, it unquestionably hod given rise to the cardiny-enginct the real author of which is not exactly known ; but it has been ascartained that tha grandfather of the pr». sent 8ir Robert Peel was the first manufnctnrer who erected one of the latter, which he did with the assist- ance of Ilargreuves, at Blackburn, in the year 1702. With tha latter fact also still fresh in their minds, the old one-thread spinaars and hand-rarder« became so exasperated against poor Hargreaves, that they rose in a body, scoured the country in all directions, and demolished overy piece of the new muchinery on which they could h>y thair hands. Tha unfortunate abject of their dislike was campelled to flee from his na- tive place, and retired to Nottingham, where he took out a patent for his Invention. But even there he was not allowed peaceably to enjoy tha fruits of his ingenuity. Hia patMl waa invaded, and he found il necessary to apply to the couru for redress. A nu- merous and powerful association was in consequence formed to defeat his efforts, the wealth and iufluenoe of which, h« was, unassisted, unable to contend against ; and he waa obliged to give up th« contest, and submit in silence to see himself robbed of his just rights. Ue soon tSMu fell into » title ai extreme po- verty, and, tu tha disgrace of his aga and nation, was liarmltted to end his day. in Nottingham workhousa t It must here he mentioned, however, that llargreavaa't jtnny was only of use in the weaving of wtfl, or tha transverse threads of thu web, tha warp eoutluuing to ba spim of Irish or foreign linen yarn. Tha honour of discovering the mode of spinning cotton yam of suffl- elant strength and texture for the lattar purpose, was reserved fur another, wlio, almoti contemporaneously with Hargreaves, wu employed in perfecting in in. vention which soon produced a complata revolution in the whole an of cotton-spinning. Having in an early number of our Journal given a sketch of tha life and mechanical Inventions of Sir Richard Arkwrlght, our readers might reckon a re- petition of il here superfluous. We shall, there- fore, for the sake of preserving the chain of our narrative of mechanical improvements unbroken, do little more than glance at the nature and datea of his various inventions, referring such at may not have seen the biographical sketch alluded to, to No. 10 of our Journal, or to the "Library of Entertaining Knowledge," whence it wri taken. Arkwrlght waa born at Preston in 1732, of very poor paiants. Ha was the youngest son of thirteen children, and waa brad to the trade of a barber, at which he continued un'M nearly thirty years of age, when he gave up shaving and cropping, and became an itinerant dealer in hair. It was whilst engaged in this peripatetic occupation that he first turned his thoughu tu me- chanics, and commenced an ardent search for the dis- covery of the perjMltial inolien. At an afur period of his life, Arkwrlght (then Sir Richard) used to state that he derived the first hint of his great invention of the ipinning-frame from seeing a red-hot l«r of iron elongated by being made to pass lietween rollers. The precise lime when he received this hint is not exactly known, but it la conjectured to have been nearly about the same time with Ilargreavea's novel conception of the tpinning-jetmy 1 as it is ascertained, that, when the latter made his valuable Invention known. In 1707, his rival in ingenuity was busy in the om- stmction of his spinning-frame. Arkwrlght'. want of funds, however, together with his utter ign.Tance of mechanism, long hindered hli getting tha ixnoep- tions of his genius embodied in a visible and tangible shape I and, even after his model was completed, by the assistance of a watchmaker named Kay, at War- rington, whom he employed to prepare the pans of the machine, the benefit of bit invention waa nearly for ever lost to mankind, for want of friends and patrons to assist him in giving it a trial on a proper scale of magnitude. Like poor Hargreaves, too, ha began to experience the persecution of the ignorant and deluded rabble of Lancashire, who soon got notic« of the important nature of his machine ; and he, too, took refuge in Nottingham iu 1708. But his future fortune was destined to be of a far different descrip- tion from that of his unfortunate mechanical rival. Having procured an introduction to the celebrated Jedediah Strutt (the first adapter of the stocking- frame lo the manufacture of ribbtd itockingt), to whom he explained the principles of his machine, thai tagadous man percelT«d at a glance the value of tha invention, and immediately entered, conjointly with his partner Mr Need, into partnership with Ark- wright. Accordingly, in the following year, 170!), a patent for spinning by rollers was taken out in Ark- wright'a name, and the first mill upon that principle, driven by horses, was erected at Nottingham in the same year. Tlia working by horse-power was soon found too expensiva, and a second factory, upon a much larger scale, was aracwd at CrtHnfnrd, in Derbr- shh-e, in 1771, which wu driven by a water-wheel. It is from the niccessful application of the latter power lo lb* procMt that the invention bat derived Itt de- GHAMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. iioiiiiiiatiun of hlip vttter./ranu; hihI the ywrn manu. itt'tured ti>- it that of water.ttcist. If ever any invention de#erved the appellation of originai, it wns that of Arkwrit:lit. The ili5eoverie8 of Hargrt'uyes, and others who pret-eded him, can only be viewed as ifflprnwmrnf*U|Kin pref ionsly e^tHhliilied prindplea, wonderful and inxeiiioni although they certainly were. The tpinniiif/'/ramfy on the other hand, bears not tho les-i attinity to anv iniKle of spin- ninff previnuily knowOf or from which the inventor rould derive the m tared, and biwinrht into operation uader difficulties and privatloni which only thb ardent mind of an enthusiast cotild have borne up a^fainit and overcome. For a full detcription of the spinning frame — a ma. rhine which performs in itself the whole proceu of spinninr, Irnvinff to man only the tronhle of feeding, or lupplying it with the raw cotton — we refer our readers to the htograpbical sketch above alluded to; the article on " lotion Manufact.rc,'* in Ltewtter^a Encyctopadih • the Supplement to the Kncydopadia JBntannicaj Vol. lit.; and a very valuable work on ontton-spinning, pnhlished by Mr Mven, jnn., I>ook. ■eller, Glasgow, in 1832, mititled, the "Carding and spinning Master's Assistant.** We shall here only ' shortly mention the principle of its operation. Itcon- •tita of two pairs of rollers turned by mnrhinery. The lower roller of each pair is furrowed or fluted longi- tudinally, and the nn|>er one is covered with leather, to make them take hold of the cotton. As soon as the carding, or roi>i;ij/, as it is technically called, of cotton, has tkegiui to pass through the lintt puir of rollers, it (s received by the second pair, which are made to revolve with three, four, or live times the velocity of the first pair, according to the dthired tenuity of the fhre;id. A twist is, at the mine liuu', given to it by th» adaptation of the spindle and lly of the common 'f1ax-u hod to tho machinery. i\n in the ca«e of poor Hargreaves, the vast im- portance (rf Arkwright's discovery speedily rained up air-iinst him a host of opponents, rivals in trmlc, wliu left no effort untried to get his piitent set Ht.UU; and to appropriate to themselves tltc merit and pnlitA of his ingenuity. For the sake of brevity, as well as for the cn-dit rif the nation, we refrain from recapitulat- ing the particulars of these disgraceful and niulicioits ebullitions of envy and avarict*. The rrstilt uf the Hrst of these, iu lj7*f terminated in the di-icomttture of his enemies. A verdict was givirn iu )iis favour, and he was permitted to enjoy the )>eneiit of his pa- tent, without further opposition, until the expiry of tlie term of fourteen years. Having sub!ie<)uently taken out another patent, however, for ''urther inveu. tions in other departments of the Otrding and spinning processes, the exertions of his opponents were more SMCL-essfuI, and his patent was set aside on the score of tU^/icienejf in ihs tpecijicatton qfthe wtriouM invcnlions. But the most uxtraordinary and invidious feature uf these prnoecdings was, that, ou tlie latter M'cuiini, in 1766, sirtatn jteart <\fter Arkwright\ claim ui the in- Teutiou of spinning by rollers had been fully esu- Wished, a poor reed-maker at Bolton, of the name of Highs, or Hayes, was brought forward, fur tkt JitMi timCy to dispute the originality of it with him. 'i'hi. man, Hhofaad also formerly attempted to deprive poor Hargreaves of the merit of the spinuing-jen.iy, de- poned to his having invented the n>ller-sptnn ug ma- chine previuutly to ITUII; that ha employed the watchmaker, Kay (above mentioned), to make a mo- del of it; and Kiy was brought forward tj swear ttuit he had coniinunicated that model to Arkwright. The utter falsity and groundleuness of this trtunped- up sto,-y is too apparent to need refutatiuRM-were it onlv from the l.ict of the pretender remaining for such a length of time, nut only in t!te must abject ihk verty but mnlntiining the pntfoundest silence, whilst the alleged pilferer wu accumulating a princely for- tune before his eyes, tndependentiv, hIm), of this circumiunce, the teMimouy both of Jlayes and Kay is evidently unwortliy of any credits the former, from his previous base attempt on Hargreaves* patent; and the latter, frotn having, Hctording io his own statement, bstrayed a Mcret invention, vntrusted to his keeping, to a stranger. Mr Kichard Arkwright (having l»een knighled on the occhsiou of presenting a congratulatory address to his Majesty George the Third, in \19A^ U|Hin hi^ eMrajte fnmi the treasonable attempt against hin life bv AUrgaret NtcholMin, wiieu he (Mr KicharJ) was )t'i;li sherilf of Derbvshire) died at his seat, at Cromfurd, ou the ^\ of August li^ii, In the k'ltieth year nriiitt age; a nob)'- snd en. rouragingexanple. even to the humblett of mankind, of the wonders w> be achieved by wdter indtistry, ha- bits of olrservatfoii, retlection, and per^verance, and « virtuous and well-regulated mnrttl ciMtdiu t. (Jreat, incalculality grent and iinport.ittt, however, as were the results of 8ir Kfihiird .Arkwright's spin, iting.frame to the art orcntton-spiiinlng, it neverthr^ less had Its drawbacks and deficiencies. Although, by its means, r.he previously insurmountable difficulty of spiunii-.g the irarp from cott'tn had been ovei'mme, it was found that the yarn ir produce*! wait of ttNi firm and hard a texture to render it suitable for weft, and that it I'lHild not be utetl m ith advantage in weaving riothof a finer ouality than what is technically termeil No. 0(1. But lliis objectiim wai soon nlivinied by the Ingenious contrivance of an:>ther individual, who may \m ti>nnt*d the third creat Ivencfactor of ibis t>ranch rtf •ur nuioiul ouuiufactures. In 177^} ab' during iht currenay uf Mr Richard's first paient, Mr Samuel Crompton, uf Bolton-le-mottrs, Lancarhire, invented his miiU'jrnnjff being an ttnlon of the essential pro. uerties of the inventions of his two predecessors ID discovery. With this machine ronimenced an en- tirely new era In the art uf cottou-spinning, in as mucn M it was found capable of prtHluring varieties and ifualities uf yam before unattjinahle ; ai.'> ail the finer descriptions o£ cotton fabrloe may date their ori- gin from its introduction. As an illustration of the degree of tenuity or fineness of which it has been found practicable to spin cotton yarn by this machine, we may mention, t^at a single pouna uf raw cotton has l)een spun by it into XiU hanks, each hank measuring H40 yards, and forming together a thread III? miles long I The usual price paid by the nuiilin manufac- turers of Glasgow for the finer yarns at first spun by the mule was tteentp fiuinea* per wynd. The mule, however, did not come into general use until after the diuoliitiou of hir Kichard Arkwright*s second patent in 17Hd, ten years afuir its discovery: yet so rapid was the progress it made, that, In 17ft7i only two years after its introduction, no less than riOO,000 pieces of cotton mufilln — a species of fabric never before at- tempted — were made in <>reat Britain, the mannfac- ture of it having lieen liegun simultaneously in Bolton, Glasgow, and I'aisley. Air Crompton never took out n patent for his invention, but upon an application to Parliament, whirh he was advised to make in 1812, a rewanl of L.r>(M)(> was voted to him. During the in- vestigation that took place at the time before a Com- mitttw of the Huuhe of ilommons, it was proved that there were then four millioM of spindles employed on Mr Crompton*s principle; thattwo-thirdsofthe steam* engines fur spinning cotton, turned mnto ; and that the value of the buildings, machinery, Ac, employed on the same principle, amounted to about four mii* liotu sterling. The mule was originally wrought by the hand ; one man l>etng able to manage twomule^, eucb containing !44 spindles. Hut, in l?!^, Mr Willinm Kelly, of <;ias. gow, then manager of the !«c:iark mills, invented, and took out a i>atent f<^, a mode of n.oving it by machi- nery. By this new mechanical power, it was found practicable fur a man to manage IWO spindles at the same time! Like poor Hargreaves, however, Mr Kelly never derived any sul)»tantial tieneHt from his invention. His patentwas immediately invaded by others, of too much wealth and influence Tor him to contend against ; and, lltungh the undisputed inventor of the machine, he chofte rather to submit to that must cruet and intolerable uf rubberies, than involve him- self iu an expensive, and, at best, doubtful litigation. Whilst Arkwright and others werecontritmtutg the efforts of tlieir genius to raise the character of manu- factures in Kngland, the celebrated James^Aratt, vl Glasgow, was employing all the powers of his original mind in etideavouritig to adapt his steain-^engine to almort every upecien of machinery, particularly to ro- latiee motions. In this he at last iierfectiv succeodcd, and, in 17^2* ereitetl the first engine on tnis principle at the Itradely iron-works. In 17^0, Messrs Bolton and Watt were eniphtyed bv che Ai^'Hrrs Kobiusims, Popplewick, Nnitingh.im, '.o erect a s'l'Jim-engine in uieir manufactory there and thisnis the first in- kUiice of the application of that power ^the spinning 5t uniun of their great inventions, am) seen the plans brooded over so long and eanu'stly in the hidden recesses of their minds, brought thus pnutically, and upgether fur the benefit of mankind ! During the same year, no less tlian eight other engine** were erected b^ iSfessra Bolton and Watt, in hs mauy cotton manuNutories in Kng- land ; and it \> Tieedless to say how far, since then, that power has gone to supi'mede the employment tif every otii«r, in all branches of mauufucture. The above ycAf, indeed (17Hu), mavlw regarded as the firv.;. of the "golden age" of British cotton manufacture, not only from the circtiinstance just named, but 'vn others, which e<|ually contributed to give an impe- tus to the trade altogether iinprecedeuteil, and which hasneversinceshowed symptumsof a reaction. These were — the cancelling of .Sir Kichard Arkwright's se- cond patent, and the discovery of the power-lmim. The invei;tion of the powtr-toom was attended with circumstatues every way as singular as thcnwt which marked any of the inventions which preceded it. The lUv. E. Cartwright, a clergyman at Hollander House, K(?iit, happi-ning to be iu i*oinpany nith some M«n. cheitter gentlemen at Matlock, tn 17B4, the convervi- tion turned uinmi Arkwright's inventions, when these gentlemen all sMted tbi-ir mnvlctbm, that, upon the expiry of the patent, so many mills would Iw enacted, and so much yarn spiiii, thai it wntild l»e im[Hitsibla ut procure hands to weave it. Mr Cartwright ob- served, that Mr .Arkwright must in that case set his wits to work to invent a weaving-mill. The Man- chestrians all declnred this to be invracticable; but Mr Cartwright denied there could be any grciiter im- possibility in inventing a machine to we.i\e than to nptn ( and having subse()neully set his inrn wits to work, actually produced, in the folbiwiug year, a liNim, evrry movement of wlilrh was perlornu'd by mai liinery.' Previously to the ctuislruction of his ma- chine, he states that he knew iMnblMgwhHti*viT of the principles of mnbanict, bad never seen a loom at work, and was utterly ignorant of thtprowie of weav. ing. In an interesting iiccuunt which he sent U> Mr Bannatvuo at filasgow (author of the urricle on Cot- ton in the Supplfinent to the Encj/. lirit.) of this his first initiation in the mysteries uf mecliau'sm, he gives a ludicrous picture of the style iu which his machine wrought when first set a-guiug. ** The waiiiji," atys he, ** w«re placed perpeudicurarly ; the rferi fell with the weight of at least iuilf a linudredweigitt ; and the springs which threw the shuttles were stiong enough to have thrown a Congreve rocket! In fact, it re- quired the strength of two ]>owerfnl men to work it at a verv slow rate." He took out a patent for his inven- tion in I7B5, and a second, upon an improved syatem> in 17f7> Many years elapsed, however, ere jiuwer. loom weaving became general, or was even found at all advautagetms. The first power-luom mill, erected by .Mr Cartwright himself at Doncaster, failitl, as did aJHo subsequent ones at Manchester and (ilasgow. The firitt approach to any thing like ruccess was made in a large weaving-mill, erected at C'atriue, in Ayr- shire, by Messrs James Finlay and Company. This was in IBfl.'), eighteen years after the invention was made public, in l&OfI, the same spirited Company erected anothermill at Donne, in Stirlingshire, the two establishments containing lietween tliem 4(i2 looms. The great defect in the system of power-toom weaving w:is, that it was found necessary to suip the haim front time to time, in order tn dress the webs, which made it impossible for one man to attend to more than one lot>m at a time. Owing to this great drawback, it is more than prol>able that the plan would have been long since abandoned, but for the invention of a beau- tiful and ingenious machine by a Air Thomas Johnson of Brndbury (but which is generally attributed erro- neously, even by Air Bannatyne, In the Supp, to the Ency. Hrit.y to Sir Katcliffe of Stockport, from that gentleman's being tlie first to render it effective, and bring it into notice), for warping and dressing the warps without stopping the lot>m, and by which means a lM>y or girl of twelve or fourteen years of age can now manage two looms, and produce three times as much cloth, and of a better quality, as the best hand- WL'uver could produce ! The dats of this last inven- tion was aliout the year 1U13, since which time the employment of power-looms has spread with' aktunlsli- iig rapidity. Tne inimber at present at work in Grcut Britain is estimated at considerably above AO,0(X>, of which 10,000 are oonjectured to be in i^cotland. Is it t(K> much to predicate, judging (Vom what we have already seen, that hand-weaving will speedily be en- tirely supersetled by machinery ? Air Cartwright at'- lerwards obtained a Parliamentary grant of L.10,00l> for his discovery. A great improvement on the power-loom was !iub- stfi^uently made by Mr Peter Alarslaiid of btuckport, by the invention of the douldg cranky the value t>f which consists in making the lathe strike the rluth a 3 nick blow, in coming iu contact with it, which ren- ers it more stout and evenly. From what has been before stated, it will at once be inferred that Scotland followed considerably in the wake of the hi»ter kingdom in the art of manufacturing cott4)u cloth. Vet it is a singular fact, that, almost im- mediately upon its introduction amcmgst tts, we took and Itdve uniformly kept the lend in the fabrication of aII the finer and more fanciful sorts ut cotton goods. A though checked by many unavoidable ohstarles — the chief of which was the want of experlencttd me- chanics and other workmen— it was not long ere Arkwright's plan of spinning by water began cu be acted on. The first cotton spun by that power in Scotland is supposed to have been in the island of Bute, in what had pre\iously been a lint-mill, auil afterwards became the corn-mill of Itothsay ; and alNHit the same period it was also U'giiu tn be spun at Pennycuick mills, nine miles south of Kdinburgb. In I'itUt, the llarrhetul mill, in the parish of Neilsuut, was completed ; Mxm after, that of Busby, iu the pa- rish of Alearns. In 17')-< u large mill, of six suiries, now the property of Brownf , Alalloch, and Cumpanv, was erected at Juhnston, in Itenfrewshiret shortly aft«r this, a large esiablishineut was erected at Blan- tyre; and next loUowed Mr Dale's wurks ut Lanark, in wliich ^Mr Arkwright himst-lf was for some time a partner. Without further dcuiil, suffice It to say, that there are now conslderatdy above one hundred cotton-spinning mills in >H-otland. What are called funcjf ;/noiit, were first manufac- tured uf cuttun, at Paiiiluy, which ha«ik out a patent, wti '. afterwards became the property of the Alessrs Alitchell, at Glaagnw. PnllicAi handkerchiefs were first madt in (ilasgow, in I7BA, which place still continues tlie principal mart of that article. Blue and white checks and stripes for exportation, were, until Sir Kitluird Arkwright's discoveries, entirely cnmpoa»;d of linen, but are now wholly made of outwn, tiid tr* BMnufMlttr«d io great COTTON, SILK, WOOLLEN, AND LINEN MANUFACTURE. quantitiw in various paru of tiootlttad. The chief •Mt of them, however, ii Gftrliile. (.'olUm cum. brief hvftnn nlto u* >>e mtde alumt the lauie time —the nmntifnctiire of which tepitrtited itself cambric, and intended to be used as garments along with that article. The first of these was adopted hy the Lancashire, and the second by the Jjanarkihire weavers; nor hp/e either of the parties ever Iteen able to rival the work, maiiahip uf the other in their reipective departments. Bandana hmidkerchiers were lirst manufuctured in Glasgow, ill IHII2, nor have they ever been attempted ti> be made any where else. They are lirst dyed of a- bright Turkey red, and the colour afterwards dis- charged from those parts which form the pattern or tigiire, by pantiiiig a ciiemicai preparation through ttiem. Calicuos were not wrouglit in Scotland until the year 1801, unless upon a very insigniticant scale Ht Forth. The total value of the manufactured cotton goods in Scotland — that is to say, the expenses of la- bour and profit, superadded to the price of the raw material— was estimated some years ago by Mir J. Sin- clair at very nearly Ii.7,000,00U ; but that its present amount is much beyond this, is evident from the as- certained fact, that in and around Glasgow alone, the value of thu goods manufactured at this momeut is up- wards of l..(VM)0,OOU sterling. PltESENT rXTENT AND VaMIE OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN GHKAT BIIITAIN. The present prodigious extuut of the cotton manu- fHPture In Great Itrit.iin, cun only bo properly judged iff by comparing it with what it was furmurly. To go no fivrtlier buck than 17''^1 — fourteen years, even, afte the iiiventiun of ilurgreaves's jenny — we 6nd that in that year there were imported of cotton wool o,\9ll,'J&H Ihi. In 1831, the imjHirts were 280,000,000 lbs. ! In f he former year the exports of cotton yarn were 00,788 lbs. : In 1B3I, they exceeded 70,125,000. The num- ber of varJs of cotton doth exported In 1029 was 4i)2,.'il7,'l:WI, vulued at nearly L. 1.1,000,000 sterling. Since that time, however, u great increase lias taken pluco. In 17b'0, the value of the whole cotton goods, when miinufactured, was, us we have stated, esti- mated at L.20O,OO0 ; at present thov may be rated ut h,iO,im,m) ! Mr M'CuUoch calculates tlie amount of cfipttHl employed in the manufacture at fully I...Vi,»00,000. L.ai,000,000 is employed in the pay- ment of wnges alone ; lj.35,000,000 invested in spin- ning mills, power and h%nd looms, workshops, ware- houxt's, Slc. ; and L.6,000,000 in tlie purchase uf the raw material. Suppose the quantity of auton wool consumed and converted into yarn in England and Sa)Uanil. inKCU, tr» l»o - - . atri.fiOO.WtO lbs. Hlliiu'ing I,J 07.. por lb. lost in spinning 24,60i),375 Quantity of yirn produced - 2;t7,a.^'*.*''-i"» Il>»- Suimose the av t>i-!ige size to be No. 60, tint number of hanks produced w.nild be - n,r>!M,5;i 1,250 Number of s]>in'i1es cinployr>d, suppotiing each to produce 2^ hankH per dav, 300 working days in a viar - . '. - I5,85!>,373 Nunihsr of persons employed, supposing each to pro- ilar« 120 hanks per duv - - 3.'I0,4U0 This is nupposcd to include merely those that are eni- pbtyed within tht» factories; it does not take in ma- chine makerR, founders, carriers, warehousemen, •nginuern, wri^lits, uiiisims, cardmakers, &c. &c. S'lppose thu above yum, No. fiO, to be woven into 10.(>tj° jaconet, with warp and weft the same mialitv, '2k Itii. of yarn will make 24 square ynrds of rlulli. Tne quantity of yarn prmluced in one year would make 2,2fRt, 750,000 yards, suflicient to cover a spaire of 1,208,153 square miles, which would about eleven times cover the whole surface ground of England, ScotKind and Ireland, the superficial extent of which are 57,0lH> — 2It,187 — :*0,370 squnre miles rcsportlvely, ffqtml to 1 17i407 square miles. If the number of spin- diet employed be 15,850,375, allowing 500 to each horao power, then to move the above spindles will re- qtiire 31,718 horses' power. FFFECT8 ON THE POPULATION. nut there is no point of view in which the rise and growth of the cotton manufacture appears so remark- able as ill itH rcmilts on the population of the districts wliere It is carried on, being chietly In Lancashire and lianarknhiro. The parish of Manchester, for in. stance, which In 1774 contained 41,000 Inhabitants, had iiurensed in 1H31 to onwards of 187,000. The po|iulittionof Preston, which in 1780 was (MMK), is now 31,rpool (not properly a scat of the manufacture, but one of the sea-ports, where the consequent im> porting and exporting are carried on) is, perhaps, the most Pxtraordii;:try. In 1700, its population amounted to 51-15. In 1770, before mechanical invention had uiven such an Impetus to the cotton manufacture, it had lncr«nnt>d to 34,000; In 1801, it had risen to 78,000; nod in IIWl, to 17«,000. In I7'W, Glasgow contained about 43,(MK) inhabltanUt in 1801, 8:i,(NH)t nnd In tlL'tl, ttu'y reached nearly 203,000. The case of i'alslev is even more striking. In 1782, the num- ber of in)iabirnnts, including tue Abbey Parish, was 17,700; In l»:il, they amounted to neariy 80,000. Itut bowttvtr gratifying a picture of increasing na- Hi tional prosperity the foi-^olng results may present, there are one or two considerations therewith con- nected which have given rise to much anxious re- Aection in the minds of pliilanthropists. One of these is the effect on the moral character of the community, which must ensue from the crowding tf^ther under one roof, and in promiscuous communication, of such masset of human beings as the factory system— Uie direct result of mechanical inventifut— Iiatintrodnrad. On A question of such diiticacy and importance, how- ever. It is not our province here to enter. Neither would it suit our limits to discuss the merits of an- other subject, which has long engaged the sympathies of the humane, but which, we trust, is now in the course of being thoroughly investigated, and, where wrong, corrected — the treatment of the many thou- sands of httlpless little children employed in the vari- ous factories. In Ireland, the cotton manufacture is as yet of little importance in a national point of view, hut it has been thriving very rapidly sinre the abolition of the I'fotecting duties in 1823, in so much tliat the increase in the two subsequent years — vix. to 1825 — was no less than twehefoU, The return for the latter year showed 6,4I0,(J45 yards uf manufactured cotton, of which the chief proportion is of yarn sent from Eng- land. In fact, it has in many places utterly super- seded the great staple manufacture of linen. The chief seat oi it is around Belfast; but it is also carried on to a great extent at Dublin, Kildare, Wicklow, Wexford, and Louth. Calicoes and muslins are like- wise extensively manufactured in the counties of Wicklow, Cork, Down, and Queen's County. THE COTTON PLANT — BEARING, GATUEHINO, AND STOUINO THE COTTON. The name of '* cotton" is supposed to bo a cornip- tion, or moditication, of its Arabic denomination, cootin. Tlio plant is indigenous to all the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America. It is aloo par- tially cultivated in Russia, 8pain, and other countries of Europe ; but, latterly, to a very great extent in the southern states of the American Union. Herodotus records, that in India there are wild trees that pro- duce a sort of wool superior to that of sheep, and that the natives dress themselves in clotli mado from it. The cotton plant has even been known to ripen in some sheltered situations in England. J. Blackburn, Esq. M> P. bad a gown made from cotton grown in his owa garden, for a dress for his lady to appear in at court. Four ounces of the raw material made 7i yards mus- lin, 1( yard broad. The cotton plant is raised from seed, and consists of two distinct kinds, annua/ and perennial^ which require different modes of rearing and treatment. At Arse, the young plants are ex- tremely tender, and are easily killed with frost These are all pulled uu by tho roots when they are six or seven inches high, and transplanted into regular beds. Light showery weather is ino«t favourable for the crop. The seed is generally planted in March or April, and, in September and October, the gathering of the cotton is general; but it usually contiiuics till Christmas, as the pods ripen very slowly and gradually. The perennial cotton tree is almost exclusively raised in Guiana and the Brazils upon the alluvial soil thrown out by the overflowing of ttie great rivers. The cot- trfonning this bO ofrectually, that ui)WBrdB of 100,000,000 pounds of this cotton are now imported into Great Britain. REPARATION OF RAW COTTONS FOR MANUFACTURE. As it is quito impossible, without the aid of dia- grams, to give tlie unskilled reader any intelligible idea of the numerous and complicated machines em- ployed in the preparing, dressing, spinning, &c of ootton, we must confine ourselves t«) a brief enumera- tion of the various processes which it undergoes in iw way to the hands of the weaver. The first, and one of the most important things to be attended to, is the murinffj by spreading in a ding of regular layers, of tho peculiar sorts of cottons found most advantageous for weft or warp, as the case may be. There is only one general rule which obtains in this part of the process, viz. that all the cottons thus mixed be, as nearly as possible, of equal length in the staple. AH the rest must be left to the skill and ex- perience of the manoger, who regulates the mixing according to tlie quality of yarn required, &c The cottons, when well mixed, are then put through a machine called the wiUotc, the use of which is to tear asunder tiie lumps of cotton, which are almost as hard as wood on their arrival in this country. After the cotton is thus opened up, it is put into the actUching machinSf which Iwats and opens out the fibres of thv> cotton, so as to make it spread easily and equally, and also cleanses it of sand, seeds, dead cotton, &c This was formerly all done by the hand with switches ; but that mode was latterly found far too tedious, as well us too expensive. After being thus twaten and cleansed, the cotton is placed on the spreading machine, a recent substitute for hand labour, the use of which is hi spread a given weight of cotton into a given length and breadth, so as to prepare it, of a uniform thick- ness, fur the card^. This is a must important process, and but for the economy of the machine, hand-spread- ing would still be most in use, being found much more certain and uniform. The next process Is that of carding the cotton, the nature of which all our readers must be familiar with. We have before men- tioned the improvement in this stage by the invention of the cardintr-ttngiue. The cotton on coming out of the engine is formed into a thick soft ribbon, called an endj which is conveyed by machinery into the dramng-frame. This was the great triumph of Ark- wright's genius. Previous to his time, the drawing was alt done by the finger and thumb; but his double rollers, the principle of which we have before explained, at once entirely superseded that mode, being at once incalculably cheaper and more perfect Between the draw-frame and tne mule-jenny^ by which the cotton is finally converted into finished yarn, there are vari- ous other subsidiary processes, which it Is needless here minutely to describe. Their principal use is ti» reduce the grist of the end, preparatory to its being spun into a thread of the reiuired tenuity. The ma- chines for that purp<)8e, some f)f which are fast beami- ing obsolete, and others just newly intrud\iced, ar severally turmed the Hlabbino-I'RAHE, the Can- Frame, the 8keleton.Fkahe, the Jack.Framg, the Throstle-Frame, the Fly-Frajie, the Tube- Frame, the 8teetchino.Frame, Ac. &c. In ad- dition to these machines, it is of importance to notice, that a new throstle-frame has been invented by Mr ilobert ^Montgomery of Johnston, Scotland, for which he last year (16:12) obtained a patent, which it is con- sidered will soon supersede all the machines hitherto used for spinning low numbers and for making copes. SILK MANUFACTURE. It is tmlversally agreed that to the Chinese the world is indebted for the discovery of this beautiful species of fohric. The period of its oririn is, however, totally unknown, like almost every other national art and attribnte of that extraordinary and exclusive peo. pie. Their written records date ft nearly 3000 years before the Christian era, but the subject is so uuich envehtped In traditionary mystifications, as to balfie all attempts to get at any thing like certainty on the subject. It need only be mentioned, therefore, that long before even the very existence of the material was .»> CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. " < "» w.». known to other nations in »ncient timet, th« weftrini; nf lilk bftd attiunad adtffreeof perfertton in China which appenra alu^tber extnitiniinary and unac- timntahle. The period of th« tirnciiiinKluctioa of silk ainoDffM the Komuna it conjectured to have been dur- ing t^ reigu of Julius Cwsar, but lor a lonf( time af- terwardi it was merely used as an article of theatrical decoration. Laws we're even made prohibiting its be- iag worn as mnte attiiv, both on acci>unt of its costli- uees and the edtuninatu dispnsition it was supposed to denote. The voluptuous luid prufliicate Kntperor Hs. liogabalns was the lirst to break thrtmgh tho prohibi- tion, and the ciutom of wearing silk speedily became a nntiimal one, although its high price necessarily re- •iricted tiie luxury u> the wealtliier rlnnses. Down to the time of Justinian, about the miidle of the sixth oentury of the Christiuu era, the manufacture of silk oontinued to In* wholly tnonoiKilised by the Chinese, the intercourse lietween whom and the Komans was carried on by means of caravans, which traversed the interior of the Persian empire. AtMHit the period just mentioned, howevfr, war naviiig broken mit between the Hooiana and the Persians, the usual supplier from China were at once stopped: and this rircumstanct*, which, of course, was regardiHl at the niumont us a great national miafurtunc, was the direct means of the lirst introduction of the manufacture into Kurnpf. As •ilk, from t>eing a luxury, had then lieconiu an indis- pensable article of apparel, tlte Human Kroperur, after the breaking out of hostilities witli the int<>rmfdiate state, offered splendid rewards for the discovery of a mode of ailtirating and wnaring silk in hit own terri- toriei. £iKouraged by these promises, two Persian raonks, who hud gone as Christian missionarin into China, and had resided longenough to make tlieniseJvet perfectly acquainted with the then mysterious process, contrived to secrete a quantity of Kilh-womis' eggs in a hollow r.'utc, wliich they brought to Justinian at C-onttantlnople. These e^fgs were duly hatched and propagated under tho care of the monks, who, at t)>e same time, instrticted the Romans iu the whole pro- ress of manufacturing their pnnluction. The insects thus produced a*ere the progenitors of all the silk- womis which have since been reared in Kurope and the western parts of Asia, and uitimateiV became the meant of establishing a source of manual industry throughout many nations of the world, the extent and importance of whicii it would be no easy task to calmlate. From Turkey, the lilk mftnufacture, to. flMher with tlie rearing of the insects, rapidly spread into fireece, Italy, Hpain, and Sicily. In liiHt, that •agacimis and politic monarch, Louis the F^Ieventh, who clearly saw the value and advantages of the silk manufacture, invited workmen fnim different parts of Iiftly, and bv bestowing on them many important and eacliisive aririlc^es, inducad them to establish them- s«>lvps at Tours. Little progress, however, was made in the mannfacture until the reign of Francis the First, who, upon getting possession of the i>uchy of Milan, in IA21, prerailed np4m vmie of the native ar- traans to remove to Lyons, and establish themseh'es under hit pnitec-tion. The art quickly sprea^l into Hn>een»», and other prorinces of uie south of France, where the rearing of the silk-worms was carried to great perfection, and continued to thrive still faster under the iubrted from abroad, api»ean to have iteen prartitedin Kngland long previous to its intrudiiction into Franc*', and at an early period of the fourteenth rentur)', as mention of it la made in an act of Parlianit'ot. iu the )-ear 1363 (37 I'Mw. HI). Hut little progms appears t<' have been nuule hi it, whether as respects quality rrign of James the Fit-»t before the manufai^urp of broad silk wM Ant b«7,iin in Kngland by simie thrownicrs, iWers, a..d weavers, who were induced to emigrate fnim the Continent, and establish themselves in Ifon- Aim. From that moment, the trade increased so ra- )ridly, that, tn lf!?9, the throwsters of |j«mdon formed a ^Ntdy of Niillirietit importance to hi< inrorporated. A attort interruption to the progress and priK>p<>rity of the manufefture to»k plsoe during the Parti arnentary wars, Imt it epewdily n-vived after the Kestoration ; and welt-arn frrmianact, passed In lOKI (UCar, IL), that thf inporporaiion of tilk throwsters at that time employed ♦O.WW men. women, aadrhildrrn. It must hpr** ite o^Hterred that, hith<>no, atthoiigh several temporary prohibKions had from time to thne been Hid nn t'he impnrtatfon of woven silks, these ware ■eldom enfifreed, and the trade may almost bt* said to have bf^en quite free. Hut it was n >t until the famous revoration uf the •diet of Nantea, in IHHA, by l^ouis the Fnurtefnth, that the KngHsh silk manufacture assuminl much importance in a romnH^rrial iNiint of vxrw. rp«m Itiat evant, which dm«i> nearly a tnilliou of iiidivi- diuds, moat of thfni nienThants, manufacturers, and ar- tificers, from Fruinn, a large nurnlH*r of tilk weavers tmigratpd to I^ondon, and established themselves in the district of hpiulttelds. Limdoti, whj«ih has ever aince Ci>ntinued to be the chirf Mnt of tliis maiiuiac- tnre in (treat tirttaio. Thi- ttimulus thim given, both in numbers and mecbaniial skill, speedily placed 6:^ the English silks on a par with, if not superior tn, the workmanship of foreign cmintries ; yet, strange to tell, it was at this very time, when all caatu of apprehension from foreign competition seemed to he at an end, that that blind system of prohibitions against importation of siiks from abroad commeneed, which has conUnned, until the last lew years, to ope- rate so fatJilly against the prosperity of'this import- ant brunch of art. In lti'J2, an act was passed in favourof the SpitalHeld^ refugees (who were at the same time incorporated by chiirter, under the name of "the Royal Lustring C^jmpnny," prohibiting the importa- tion of lustrings and alamndes, the articles then most generally in use. That this measure was passed from the most patriotic motives, and as a special mark of national gratitude to the Hpitaltietds emigrants, there can be no doubt ; and it is only to be n^rettcd that such fihort-sighted polit y has Iteen persevered In up to so late a date. The immediate consequence of the act was a relaxation of exertion and industry, from a sense of security from foreign rivalrr, on the part of the monopolists. Inferior manufacture aiid discretion- ary prices again gave rise to a contraband traffic ; and ns one bad act gt-neriUly germinates, like a fly-blow, a h(»t of others in the statute-honk, so, in KiftH, a new cliarter was gmnt«'d greatly enlarging the privileges of the Spitaltields Company, and extending the term of pro!.iltition in their favour, which was made to in- clude various otiter articles of manufacture besides those formerly prohibited, to fourteen years. The in- genious Frenchmen immediately adoptetl a new expe- dient for assailing their self»secure rivals ; they set themselves to improving, with all their ingenious skill, thosfl article^ nut underlying the bans of prohi- bition, and the result was, that, lung before the expi- ration of their patent, tlic fashions underwent an en- tire change, and the HpitalHcIds Company, indolently tnisting to a reaction in their favour, instead of push- ing forward in the new field of competition, was com- pleteJy ruined. The pi'pular doctrine of the present day, that govern- ments art' rver in the rear o(' the people as regards liberal vicus of jwiMcy, dot's not seem always to have obtained in practice. Upon the settlement of the treaty of Ctretht, in 1713, a commercial treaty was nt the sanie time drawn up between England anil France, for the mutual importation of the manufac- tures of each kingdom at a low ad valorem duty. So violent and general, however, was the mitcry Imme- diately raised against this contemplated measure, that it was found necessary to withdraw the Parliamentary bill for its rntiliration ; the chief arguments agsinst itii adopti(>n lH>{ng the extritordinary ones, that the silk matktif;irture had increased twenty-fold in the course of fifty years — that almost every sort of Kilk fabric was made as good in Kngland as in Franco— and that black silk for hoods and tt-arts, which for- merly was all importeii, was now made at home to the amount of L,300,(*0(), whereby an iminens*' inrrease had tnken place in tlio exportation of wix>)leii and other goods, to Turkey, Italy, and uiher countries abniad, whence the raw silk was importeii. Up to I7IH, our silk wravers were almost wholly dependent upon the throwsters of Italy for the supply of organzined silk ; but, in that year, a Mr (afterwanli >iir Thomas) I^iinbc, having, in the disguise of a c*>m- i mnn workman, miccfedMl in taking accurate drawings of the throwing inmbinerT at Piedmont, erected a stupendous mill of five stones high, and nne-eighth of a mile in length, for that purpose, at Derby, and ob- lained an exclusive patent for fourteen years. Thin enormous erection contained 2fi,.'iBfi wheeN, and UTJ4U movements, which worked 73,7^^ yards of or- gamtined silk thread, wHth every revolution of the wa- ter-wheel, whereby the whole machinery was driren ; and as this wherl revolved three tim«*t in each minute, no l^ss than 3IH,504,ItfMI yanis of organzined silk could br pHMlured daily. Sir Thomas's patent expired l>efore he had rei-eivpd any thinjj Hke an adi'qunte re- muneration from his establishment for the ixprnse of its erection, and an application for the renewal of it was rejected. The sum of L.U.fHW was, however, awarded to him by Parliament. l)r M*CuIli>ch stut*^ as his opiniiin, that the introduction of throwing-mills into this countrv has greatly deteriorated, instead of having bonertteJ, our silk manufacture; hiit, wpcon- iwiR, we do not very dearly see the force of his rousons for coming to this lyinci ision. For nearly a I'enttiry after the al«)ve i)eriod — that is to say, from the decide of 1730 to 1(124 — the history of our tllk manufacture presents little el«e than a sue i*essinn of eom|daints, by the manufactui-ers, of the importation of foreign ttilks, inelTectual attinnpts on the part of the legislature to check it, and onmbtua- tions and ontraget amongst (he workmen. Motions and siiu-gestions Innumeralile were made in Farliii- ment, CtNiimittees app^nnted to investigata and reiairt, ttv. ; hut all the legislative attempta on the sulijert seem to have been conceived witli a narniwness of view, and a partiality of application, which nither tended to BgKravate than Ameliorate the evil. These attempts cim«iHt«d alnie- tween master and workman, and sweru penalties wnre exigible both from him who gavr and nim who reufived mure tJian the fixad sum ; while the manu- facturers were forbid from employing any other than KpitalAelds weavers ! Thia act, after producing in. calculable mischief, was repealed In 1824, when more liberal views began to bn entertained on the subject of the tilk manufacture. At that time the duty on organiined or thrown silk was nu less than Ua. y^d. fier Ik t on raw silk from Bengal, -Is. per Ih. ; and rom other places, Gs. "J^d. At the suggestion of Mr Huskisson, the duty on the first was reduced to 7s. fM. (it was further reduced to fit. in ISSft)) ""(* ^^^ ^"^T on raw lilk to .^. p(>r lb. ; great reductions were also made in the duties on dve stutfs. It is most gratify- ing to know, that, since Ifi^Efl, when the removal of the previous restricti4ms faN>k place, our silk mainifacture has rupidly increased in value and importance ; and it is no exaggeration to say, tliat it has, within the last six or seven years, made more progress than dur- ing a whole century jirecedinv. The greatest iropor- tadon of raw and thrown silk during any one year firevinus to the rejteal of the prohibitory srstera was n l»23^namely, 2,43>i,'^f>1i lbs. ; whereas, )n Ibtll, it amounted to 4,'ftlKl,AI7 lbs., being nearly twice the quantity imported wheii the mono}>flly was in its vi- gour. (Perhaps it ought here t4> be mentioned, that the removal of the restrictive duties on foreign silk was first suggested and strenuously recommended by a Comniitti>e of the House of Lonls.) Most of the machines nnd processes known tm Uie Continent have l>een iutroduceil amongst us, and many of them ma- terlolly improved. In everyspecies of plain and su)>- stantiiil silk fabriis, the manufacture of Britain is !t<'I:noil<'dged to be infinitely superior to that oi France, as well as in all mixed munnfartures, suuli its silk with wixd, silk with cotton, silk with linen, &.<-. For many years byp»st, Edinburgh has been much distinguished for the manufacture of shawls, which, for richness and Kubstantial quality, we believe, are now Sicoud to none produced in any part of the world, with the exception of India. In t^e manufacture of riblvins, gaures, nnd other light fancy goods, at well as in the style of jfntjA, the French still maintain the Kuperiority, but the difference is iH'comlng dally less [lerccptible. Hincc the alteration of the duties, how- ever, the importation of French gauze goods has driven »nir own almost entirely out of the market. Several Paisley manufacturers are now working for the Lon- don market in imitation of French gtmzes. The best black dve of silk ii reckoned to be that used in fienoa. The next is our own. From the great depression of prices in ctuisequenre of foreign roinpftition, uur silk dyers are at present vying with each oihur in endeavours to dye the nilk without dis- chai^ring the gum. This is a great deterioration in the silk fabrics. It it called supple; the French first cominonrcd the pritittre. One (treat cause of the inferiority of the British silk fancy goods to those of the French, is, that in this country there is no common standard of fashion : every manufucturer makes goods for the year which hh oun taste suggests, so that there is nu cercninty of the article coming into general fashion. In France, the leading manufacturers comnnmicatc willi each othftr, and fix on one or two colours and kinds of PmhIs, which are submitted tn the ta>te and decision of wime leading pernon of fashion. Ily thit means, the en(>rf(ips ot' ail the inanofinturers .tie cn^ii^eil iti lontpi'tiiic for the Rujiejiority in prmhuiiig the best fabrics of iln- ^;llm• cattcru. Wd obtain the greatest pa.t of our plain ribbons from 8witcerlaud. Having thus given a brief outline of the rise a'ld progress of the silk mainifacture nji W the present time, we shall now advert in detail to some of the more curious processes in its production, dressing, weaving, Im:. And it is proper we should here state, that in what follows we have been indebted for much of our information to an admirable Treatise on the Silk Manufacture, latelv published by Dr Lardiier, in his Cabinet Cyclopaedia. TtlR Mt.K-WORM, ON HOMBTX. \Vv have already noticed that the disctn erv of the valuable pn»perties of this little animal Mongs to China. It is :i species of catcrpillur, and undergoes a variety of changes during the short period of its life, asNtiming, in tmch of tliree successive transfornin- tiuns, a iomi wholly dissimilar from that with which it was previously invested. It is produced from eggs, laid in summer by a grevish kind of moth. These eggs are about tlie siie of a grain of mustard seed ; their colour, when firht laid, being yellow, but alter- wards becoming of a tduish hu4'. In teniperule tJimes, and n ith proper pre«ing. When first liatrhed, it is a small black worm, a))out a quarter of an inch in length. On being brought forth, it al- inost immediately begins searching for its natural f(M)d, the leaves of the mulberry tree, e hich it devours with avidity. In almut eight dayi, the head grows much larger, and the wonii ik atiaiked by its first sicknes?(. This lasts for three dayn, during which UTW! it refuse* fwid, and remains perfectly motionless. It then begins to cast its skin, which it arcompiiihes after much pain and exertion. So complete Is this moulting, that not only itie covering of the body, but I of the liet, the skull, tuo jawt, and even the teeth, is COTTON, SILK, WOOLLEN, AND LINEN MANUFACTURE. o«gt off. The iniect then begins to f«ed with re- eniited appetite, and ooutinuei for iivo dayt, when a ■econd moulting takn place, exactly like the tint, and to on through a thinl and fourth course, the ani- mal progrefltiveiy increaiiing in site. At't«r the last moulting, it feeds voraciously, and increH&es rapidly in size during ten days, when it hu attained its full growth<~being then generally from two and a half to three inches long. At thin period, it begins to leave off eating, and soon entirely ceases— tieromes restless and uneasy, and looks out for a convenient place to commence its spinning labours. Its colour is now h light green ; but bk the material for funning the silk gets digested, it becomes glossy, and souiewhat traus- parenL The silky substancu is secreted in the form of a tine yellow tranHparoni gum, in two vessels, which are wound, as it were, on two spindles in tite stomach, M'^hen the animal lias found a suitable angle, or hollow, fur the deposition of its silken ball, ur cocfKin. it begins to spin thin and irregular threads at first, the silk being drawn through two minute aperturnit l>eneath the jaws. In four days the OKOtm is C4imiileted, the labourer remaining, .of course, al- ways oil the inside of the sphere it is forming. The cocoon resembles a pigeon's egg in shape and colour, but is not quite so large. At* may he imagined, the in- sect, from the continual emisuun of the gummy eilk, together with the want ot' fond, gradunlly contracts in ffixp^ and if the cocoon be opened after ic is Hiiished, the animal will appear in the fonn of a chrysalis (ttomethiug like a kidney bean), with a smooth brown ftkin — its former covering lying beside it. The silk- worm goes through all the transformations above mentioned in the space of from twenty-two to thirty days, aurording to the tempemture to which it is ex- jxMod. The covoniis ctnitaining the insects intendeil t»t be prenerved for laying e^gN, are left undisturbed, and the chrysalis graduHlly undergoes a transforma- tion Into the state of a moth. This change is acc acres were selei^ted for the purpose In the county of Cork ; about 100,000 white mullterry trees were pmutiHJ, with buildings for the hutching of the silk-wornis, &c. The projw^t, like most others of that diite, at first promised well, but It was uttimatelv found prudimt to abandon it. In Bri- tish India, the rearing of the silk-wmm has l)ecn rapiilly increasing for many years. In the Itengitl t-s- tablishment alone, there are eipbt princijial silk far- lorjrs hehmging to the Kast India fonipany. The nutntwr of people employed in each, inottuling nml- Ifvrrv planters, worm-feeders, &c. may be stated at from hMKM» to 40,0*K». The rearing of silk-worms has also bwm intrmluced into the Mauritius of late vears with derided success. In Russia, it was first nilnHluced and enrournged by the Kmpress (.'atheriiu', and the firndurtion of raw silk is now rapidly increiising. It R calculated that upwards of fourteen millions of silk-worms annually live and die Ut supply Great Uritain with tlie luxurious fabric of ttllk. TREATMENT OK TIIK COCOnMB KOH SII.R. The coeoons vaiy Inith in sixe. cobinr, and qnalttv, and great nare ii taken in se|>araling thwe into dif- M fereut assortments. The first proceeding is to destroy the vitality of the chrysalides. In tropical climet, this is done by exposing the cocoons uy the burning heat of the sun, and in more temperate climes, by baking in an oven or steaming them above hoc water. Great nicety is required in this part of the prooest, ao that they get jnst so much heat as to kill the insect, and no more. The test of determining when this if accomplished, is by a profuse moisture or sweat which comes out upon the blankets or cloths wherein they are enveloped, and which exudes from the body of the in- sect. The cocoons are then spread out to C4iol very gradually, still carefully covered ; and after this tliey are exposed to the sun and air to dry. The cocoons lose in weight alNUit 77 percent, by the desiccation of the chrysalifl. The weight ard strength of reeled silk that can be obtained from each cocoon are very va- rioutly stated, and they in fact actually vary much according to circumstances. Count Dandoh), perhaps tiie most trustworthy authority on the subject, found that a cocoon, weighing alnnit four grains, when drawn out, extended G25 yards, which is certainly a most astonishing quantity, considering the abort pe- riod employed by so small a creature for its produc- tion. It has lieen calculated that 1 lb. avoirdupois would extend A1I5 miles, and 47 lbs. would encircle the globe ! Owing to the quantity of flius, or loose, inferior, silky fibrss which encircles the firm ball of the coconn, it is found, on an average, to require twelve pounds of cocoon to obtain a pound of i-eeled silk. A pound of reeled silk is capable of being converted into sixteen yards of gros de Naples, ur fourteen yards uf the best description. RF.Ef.lNO. Previous to reeling the cocoonS| it is necessary care- fully to separate them from the outer floss above men- tioned, which is very simply done, by merely opening the floss at one end, and pushing out the hard compact ball. Great care is here necessary in classing the cocoons according to their quality, as each quality re- quires a different mode of treatment in the reeling. The cocoons are all submerged for some minutes in hut water almost btiiling, in order to soften the vis- cidity of the gummy substance whioli envelopes the whole tillken portion of them. This is d(me by means of a uipper boiler, eighteen inches lung and six deep, set in brickwork only so far off the ground as to ad- mit a fire beneath it,'and filled with sqft water. This small oblong boiler stands at one end of the reeling- marhiub . at the other is the reel Itself, which is mcely a wtMden sjiindle turned with the hand hy a crrtiiK handle at one side of the frame, and to which the kkeins arc guided by small wire loops or eyes at- tached to the end of the frame immediately above the boiler. Two skeins are generally wove at one time. H'hen the water in the boiler is nearly boiling, two or three handfuls of the cocoons are thrown into it, and allowed to remain a few minutes. The reeler then takes her seat ut the tildes, and presses the cocoons with a bnuh alnnit »it, inches lung, made of the finest twigs (»r tops of heath bound together and cut evenly at the eud. the fineness of the silk wanted) of these threads, tllu^ cleared, are passed through each of twu holes in an iron bur raised upon the inner rim of the boiler. Two uf these compound threads are then twisted twenty ur mure times round each other, in order that the tilament« may better unite by these niuiual crossings; they are tlience led through the two wire loops or eyes, and from there conducted to the reel, where they are made fust. The proper heat of the water is judged of by the manner in which tlie lilameuts come iiwuy from the rest of the cocoon, and by this also nuist the rapidity with which the reel is turned be dettirniiued. These, however, with all the other miuutiw of the reeling process, depend so en- tirely upon the attention and experience of the reeler, that it wuuld be endless as well as useless here to de- tail all the various rules for the management uf them. Silk may be wupcrseded in Great Hri- tain by subsequent improvements { but it ii o«rtainly not a little remarkable, that, in Italy, the aame ma- chinery is still employed, without alteration or im- provement of any kind ; and even in France, the or- gan/ine used for the manufacture of the best fabrics continues to be almost wholly imported from Italy. Raw silk, preparatory tc weaviiijj^, must be made o take one of three forms, respectively teriosd uitif/iss, tramj or orgaiurint. Singlet is merely the raw silk twisted, In order to give more firmness tn its texture. All raw silk, for whatever manufacture designed, must undergo this process. Tram is formed by twisting together, not very closely, two or more threads uf raw silk, and thii generally forms the weft, or trauiverse threads of the web. Organtiiie, which is principally used for warp, it produced by a very elaborate process, of which it would be impossible to convey any correct idea to the general reader without the aid of a diagram. The principle of the process, however, may be >enerally stated to be like that of making rope, where the com- bined strands are twisted in an opposite direction to that given to the separate threads, and this is accom- plished by giving a reverse motion to the machinery; whereas, singles and tram are twisted only in one di- rection, similarly to twine, or to the individual strands of which the larger rope is made. Silk thread intend- ed for orgauziue u in the first process twisted in a left hand direction. The organ/ine, when finished, i^ transferred to reels instead of bobbins, whence it is made up into skeins, and sorted for sale or use. Pre- viously to this, however, the reels are subjected to a process of steaming for two or three minutes, in order to prevent any after crinkling. The silk thus thrown is called hard silk, and must be boiled for some hours with a quantity of soap, in order to discharge the gum, ami thereafter well washed in a current of clear water to discharge the soap, after which the silk ap- pears soft and glossy. PLAIN WEAVING. The p'*inciple of the weaving-loom, whatever be the material which it is employed to manufacture, varies little or nothing. The date of the invention of the loom is completely lost, and that of the whole art of spinning and weaving, indeed, is shrouded in im- penetrable obscurity. With the exception of the more recent improvements in the particular details of the various processes, however, the nature and action of the weaving-loom is so generally understood, that it would lie utterly useless to enter upon an elaborate description of it in this paper. That the art of wear- ing had its origin in the I^ast, there con he no doubt ; and BO little has the first rude principle of the loom )>cen departed from, or improved upon, that the wretched Indian, performing his labours in the open air, with his threads tied to pieces of bamboo and stick fixed in the ground, the cords for raising and depressing the alternate threads of the warp attached to a branch of the tree which shrouds him from the noou'dav sun, and seated upon the hare ground, with a hole dug for the reception of his feet, can yet produce fabrics, which, for delicacy of texture, cannot lie surpassed, and scarcely rivalled, hy the European weaver, who is possessed of the most elaborate machi- nery. The improvements of modem times have tieen more for increasing the power and productivenesf oc the loom, than impruving upon its principle. FlUUHE WEAVlNtt Is the art of producing variuus patterns in the cloth, either by the introduction of threads of different co- hmrs, or by a different arrangement of the threads, or by using in the same fabric threads of different substances. The art is of ancient invention, as it is known to have l>een practised by the Egyptians at a very early iwriod. The improvements more recently made in it have been many and important. Stripes which occur throughout the length of the piece are the effect uf using threads of different colours or sub- stances in the warp alone, nnd give the weaver no additional trouble. Stripes which nm Bcn)ss the piece, or in the direction of the shoot, ai*e cuusied by using different shuttles, furnished with threads of the re- ((uisite colours and substances for the formation of the shoot. The only additional lahotir here is that uf changing the shuttle at certain intervals. A cnmhi- natiun of these two methods produces, of course, a checqiiered pattern, nnd in the same way a great variety of rectilinear patterns is obtained. To call forth figures, flowers, or patterns of any descrip- tion, different means are necessary. By dividing the warp lietween several leaves of neddles, which can be depressed at pleasure by separate treadles, threads of different colours may be either concealed or brought forward upon the face of the goods at the pleasure of the weaver. These thi'eads may be made to change places one with the other, so as t4> reveal or conceal each in such n way as to make out the particular pat- tern wanted. The regularity and precision necessary in producing fanciful patterns in great vaiiety, re- quired a very different sort of loom from the common loom ; and to meet which, the draw-loom and " drav- Aoy" was invented, by means of which, the most com- prehensive patterns are wrought, with an immense saving i>f tnnible, labour, and expense. The working of this apparatus at first required the constant atten- tion and utmost eare of two persons, but subsequent inventions and improvements simplified, as well as perfected itj to an extraordinary de^jree, the moit of ''ii-' CHAMHERS'S INFOllMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i which were devisetl by |>rB(tirjtl weavers it) our own roTintrj'. AH previiMn iiiiMips nnd niarhiin»ry fur hilk flpirinjf, however, including the dr»w-Iooin anil draw. hftT, were stiper»mled of late years hy the *' Jarquard *fmrAin«" (named after its inventor, a practical weaver at Lyons), which effected almost as ffrtat a revolution in this departraeot of silk manufacture ns Sir R. Ark- wrigh(*8 tpitining-frame caused iu the spinning of cot. tmi. It it a great drawback, and proves a source of much regret to us, that our (teing necewarily re. ttricted to mere wrhni dencriptinn debars us from giv. ing the general readtT any clear idea of the nature and construction of thme complex machines we an* now treating of. The i/drfuarrf liMmi has proved enpei'inlly beneficial to the pimr weaver, by Kimplifying tiie mrst dithcult, and, at the came time, utterly prniiilcM iior- tion of his labour, the preparation of his loom for figuring, which, previous to its invention, RometiiMi>tt coitt him many weeks* inceuant toil and care, ere be got pmperly adjusted for weaving. Ureat improve- ments and simplil-cntions hhve of late been made in the Jaeijuard machine, in Oreat Itritain, while in Lyons, the citvof itn birth, it remains unaltered from the day of its invention. 8ILK TOWEH WEAVINO. The suhstltution of machine tor hand-weaving, in- trmluced hy the Reverend Mr (^artwright into the manufacture of cotton, has also been applied to tliat of silk; and various improvements and moditications, In its application to the latter material, have snbsc- <)uently t»een made, the most important of which are thoM of Mr Austin of Uiasgow, and Mr iSiuller of Haddington. But it is very doubtful if the power- loom will ever prove of any advantage in silk-weaving, nnless in the very coarsest s[>ecles of the manufacture. Owing to the {vculiar nature of silk, little ur no sav. ing of labour is accomplished hy it, as it is not |h)s. sibie (as in the case of linen or cotton-weaving') for one man to maiiafce more than one powur-lmmi at a time, while an actual waste of time takes place. fttlE-rCI.VET WEAVING. Thisbranci) of the i>i1k manufticture, although it lias now l)ccn made and usetl for several WMituries in Kurope* isoomparatively a motlern inveutian. It had its origin in Italy, and was ff>r a long time solely made in that country, particularly in Florence, Milan, Venice, Lucca, and Genoa. After its introduction into France, however, the French weavers Ki>eedily exrelletl their instructors. .Vt the period of the revt»- r.ttion of the edict of Nantes, heii>re mentioned, it wits introduced by the French refugees into Kngland, and established at tSpitaltields. Velvets are also ma- Mufrtctured in China, but these are not etjual in point of cjuality to the very worst of European production. The soft shag or pile which distinguishes velvet is pnxluced during the process of weaving, by inserting short pie«'08 of thread douhlt d under the shiKtt or weft, and which stand upright in such a way and so close together rs entirely to conceal the interlacings of the warp and shoot, lu the production of every yard of velvet, six vurds of pile at least are used. l*he loops of the dunfded threads intendetl for the pile are sup- ported by f roDved wire's, and tlie loops are afterwards divided hy rnnniugasharp in!>trument, chIUhI a treval, along the groove. This is done by the hand, and, of course, requires great dt'xtcrity, as the idightest devi- ation from the proper line would infulltbly injure, if not wholly deotrtpy, the silk. It is considered a gotnt day's work for one man to weave one yard of plain velvet, for which be is paid about five times as nnich as (or weaving gros-de- Naples. The warp, iluMit, and pile of silk-velvet should all Iw of organzined silk. The rot tot), velvet introduced of late years is only lit for ornamental liangings, Ace, not subjocted to much wear, which they will iu>t stand. OAf'^E. The manufacture ofthis light and transparent fabric (which is supposed to derive its name from (laxa, a I tty on the frontiers of Kgypt) whs mtiuv years ago very exteiiHivclv carried on «l Spitiilttelds. About the year 17WI, it was introduced int4i raisley, wlieiv it was soon brought to the very highest perfection. The patterns and designs were originally cumposwl in Paris; but it was not lung until the Paisley manu- facturers estid'lisbed draughtsmen of their own, and opened warehouses in l^indon, Dublin, and even Paris itself. The Spiialfield weavers, unable to rival their northern brethren, have entirely discontinued the gauxe manutactiire ; hut it is one of the few light fabrics in which the French arc still acknowledged to ext^l all others. VV*e have now enumerated all the principal sorts of tilk fabrics manufactured iti (ireat Britain. There are varioits other descriptions of silk goods made, dis- tinguished by different appeJlations, hut as tbc^> are in a great measure only modilications, varying in thick- ness, (fUHlity, dri'uing, ^c. of those above nientionetl, we have thought it uiitieceasarv to enter upon a de- scription of ihitm. The old stilf, costly, and magnifi- cent brocades and daiiitisks, the pride and gh>ry t>f our great-grandinotbers, have now utterly faliun into dis. use; and as their extinctiun is, in our opinion, any thing hut a matter to he regretted, we will piously re- frain from disturbing their slurahers, ur seeaing " their merits to diKlose," unless iu the event of their •gain showing a dispusitiim to enlcr into fashionable •ociety. M WOOLLKN MANUFACTIfRE. The manufacture of wool, as It was the eurltont, so it continued to be the most important hrtinch of llri- lisb manufactures up to a very recent periiHl, when that of ciuton, with a rapidlty'of pro^rcNs altngethur unprecetiented, UMik the precedenc** of it. There can tw no doubt that the art was tir^t introduced by the Romans, previous to w1u)ho invasion tlie inhabitants wore wholly clothed In skins ; and it is recorded that the first manufacture was eatahlished at Winchester, for the purpose of supplying the Ho- man army with clothing. After this, all trace of the manufacture is lost for many centuries. Some stray notices of it occur In the tenth, chiefly referring to the great pmgretisivu increase in the price of fleeces, which, in IIHA, is stilted to have advanced Hity per cent,, while that of the sheep themselves had decreawd to the same amoimt. Hut it seems certain that this rise in the vahie of wool was m'casioned almost solely hy the demand for it abroad, especially in Fbuulers, where the cloth manufacture then flourished most. In a history of the state of the w(H)Uen nianufHCture of tlreat Britain, drawn up in 1613 bv *' John Mav, Deputy-Aulnager," it is observed, that ^' the nntitiuitio of wmi'l within this kingdom hatli been l)eyoiia tlie memorie of man so highly i^speotinl for those many benefittes therein, that a customable use has always l>een ubserveil t4} make it the »eut of our wise learned Midges, in the sight of our noble peers (in the Par- liament house), to imurint the memorie of the worthie commoditie within the mindes of tliose fimie sup- P<lIen nmnuriicturehad been domesticateil, and reached no small pcricclion in Knglftnd early in the thirteenth century, when fine Spanish woi>l Iwgan tol>e imported. This article was soon pmhihited, and the importation of cloth itself encouraged ; and this was done, both on ncc/nint of the sniN'riority of the foreign cli>th!i, and with the view of promoting the foreign demand for l>nglish wool. This interchange of ll, the customs im- fKmed, \c. &.C- From the same author we learn that the fir^t flaplf for wiHdIen clotlis, i. r. nuirkct, or public pliire, whither the merchants were ohligeii to carry tluMr clotlis for sole, was fixed at Cantertnirv, in hiHiour of St Thomat. Fnmi the time of Edward the Third, the woollen manufacture may be considere'JO, there were three famous clothiers in the north — CuthlKTt of Kendal, Hodgskinsof llidifux, and Alar- tin Urian of ^tlanchester, each of whom bud liirge estahlixhmenis of spinners, carders, weavers, fullers, dvers, \c. Rtpptui and Halifax were the two first places in Vorkshire where the manufacture was in. troduced. In IfiU, a great improvement took place, in the west of Kngland wiMtllen manufB*tures, by the in%-ention of what is called medley or mixed cloths, for which (tlouccsiershire is still famous. U'orAted g(M»ds were first prtKlnced at W'orhted, a sni'ill town in Norfolk, fmm winch the yarn they were made from takes iu name. This spe<-ies of manufacture seems afterwards to have been mohtly transferrcit u\ Nor- wich, as, in an art of Henry the Eighth, we find worsted yarn denominutetl " the privnie property" of that town. Perhaps one of the most exiruordinary pieces of legislation ever deviiM>,lNHsOiK» worth were exporteil. From this p< rioil up till 1777* little increase t«>>)k plare in the exports, nilbough un. quesii4)nably the manufarturtt throughout the cotintry continued progressively to increase with the immeiiuj im rettse in the wealth and p^ipulatlon of the kingdom. The highest official vahie which the exports of wool- leu g(Mids fnitn Knglitnd ever attained was in ltMt'2, wnen they reached L.7,12 sterling. From lltt'J to the present time, liiev have alteruated between I«.4,A4K>,UOU and L.ti,OU'>0- The great increase of the cotton mHiiufHctiire after l7W*i contributed nnioh to check the progress of that of woollen in England, but the latter has, neverthe- less, mmtinuMl steadily to augment. In lltOO, a ('urn- mittee of the House of Connnons was appoinU'd to investigaleinto the state of the wool trade in England, when almost oil the principal manufacturers in Vork- ■Iiire and the writ of England were examiaed. The results of their evidence are both inteitsting and im- portant, and f.ilt naturally to be stated here. It waa estimated that the number of sheep then kept in Eng- land and Wales was about '.*tt,00t>,lKK), and the pro- duce of the fleeces from these sheep was (JO(>,t)00 packs, of 240 pounds each park. Rating the wool »t L.U per pack, the total value of it was L.(i,(100,(HK>. The next point investiguUMl was the increased value of the wool, after being manufactured. This was found to vary much ; iu some goods being scarcely double, in others nine-fold. By striking an average, the total value of the whole manufactured wcMtllen gtmds was estimated at nearly L.20,000,(M)0. The n>annlactur- ing of these was supposed to give eniploytnunc to altout 3,tHK),lNK> of men, women, boys, and girls: it being at the laine time slateil, that, from thr .'ate in- Tentions In machinery, Hb persons were able tt) do us nnu'h work as Hi34 persons oould do in l/itfi ! The capital ve>'ted in the machinery, buildings, &c. appro- priated to the woollen manufacture, was estimated at L.ti,(H>fl,IM>0 sterling. In the West Hiding of York- shire alone, which hiis Iteen at all times the most im- portant and extensive seat of the woollen manufacture, the anntial vahie of the giK>ds of everp description, broad aod narrow cloths, kerseymeres, blankets, dec was calculated to Iw about L.H,O00,000. The accuracy of many of these statcmunta nf the Englisli manufacturers has been much canvassed, and there seems little doubt as to some of their calculations being sonu^what exaggerated, es|H'cially as regards the quantity of wool manufactured, and number of hands employed. At tlie same time, Mr Stevenson, who has alwavK been esteemeer of adults employed in producing them he reckons at 4B(>,(N>0 or r>4Ht,(>0(>. A statistical estimate made so late as last vear (lU.'i3), was to the following eH'ect : sheep fed in' England and M^ales, 341,001),0(H>, e:icb of which yields a fleece of four pounds weight, or one hundretl and forty-four millions of fwunds, which, at one shilling ]ter pound (or L.l'i per pack), is worth L.7,4,(»mM>00, leaving a pn>fit of L.12,(HK),U00 per an- num to the various manufacturers. The woidlen manufacture is divided 'Utn *"vo piir- cipal heads — the weaving or mantiff.^tu.liig of yarn into cloth, blankets, carpets, &c. ; Jiid the •'oiHted fabrics, such as stockings, glover' .•- mitj, par taliions, lVc. ; mid we shall now shortly numerate the various seats of these branches of mn oifacture. 1'be principal seiits of ti. ^ fonner kind are the West Hiding of Vorkshire, anu tlie -./estern c<»untit'K of \S'ilt»hire, Homerictshire, nnd(jlot. esters'iire. 'i he manufacturing divtrict of the West Hiding extends over an area of upwards of 2(H> square mites, inclndimr, however, the hardware mnnufucture in and iienr Shcl- tield. (.>f the norlherucluth manufacture, Leeds, Itruil- ford, Halifax, Huddcrslield, Saddlewortli, and Wake- field, arc the principal reiitres. Leeds is the chief mart forcolnured and white broadcloths. The former are sometimes callfd mixe from an individual, Tho- mas itlanket, at Hrisrol, M'bo in i:i3!>, after the pass- ing of the act pmhibiting the exportation of English wo4tt, first set up u liKim in bis own house. The msuufncturc of stutfs Is chiefly carried on at Uitidlord ami Halifax. At Sliuttleworth the manufactnie of \ery fii.e broadcloths as well ns kerseymeres is like- wise carrit'd on. Wakefield is chiefly distinguished for the iiii|)ortanre of its wmd market, and its mode ut' dyeing. Ily various stamping acts, returns are or- dered to be mud(* every Easter to the justices at I'on- tefract scMiioiis of the quantities of broad and narrow cloths made in the West Kidviig during the preced- ng year. 1n( (^louresterihire, the manufacture of broadcloths, but chiefly superfine, madeof Spunihh we nmnnfactured, either in fac- tories or at private houses; the factory system, by which ev(:ry process of the manufacture is carried on under the same roof; the last is the domestic syster^ irt which privaio wer»vers purchase wool from the dealer, and employ themselves, wives, children, and sometimes several Journeymen, in the various nisnu- (acturing proocisei under their own rooli. The faw- COTTON, SILK, WOOLLEN, AND LINEN MANUFACTURE, to.y nysteiii t!t eviileiith r'lo ond Um^i udH|)tud I'or cur. ryiii|^ thfl niHimr:ii;tii]'> i.> it.s ittmnKt exU'iit. Tlie iiio'le of (iiKjiip .iii; of tho various wiiotlfln cloths ii (iilTeranl in Voikshiie und tlie west of Knglaiiil, hilt in ))oth upon ii sciile la keeping with thu magni- tntle of the niaiiurarture und tho cumnieri'lut iiiiuurt- ftuce of tlie king Join, In the west of Knglaiia the ?o.)(U nre expii^c^ at periiMMral inurketfi itr I'uirs; in 'orkxhirc, in clotn ^aJla, i which therp are three at lieaHfl, hesidci others at ilalifax, Itruilfuril, Ihuldera. fleM, Wakelield, &c. Thooo halls ronsi-t ni" h>nK walks or giillerics, through the whole iL-iij^'th of which the maBter-maiinfiicturerii have their Btainla in doutile rowH. Between these the moicliants pass, and nmke their purchnsen. At a certain hour n hell rings, and thr* market chiaen, those goodit which are purchased lieing then imrried to lln' nierL-hiiiits' nuarters, and th :>f(e unsold remaining In the stands. The goods are honght in their umlreiscd state, the m" "hant after* wards getting them tinished b^ himself. Tlressing and finishing has of late years hei^ome a huslni^s en- tirely distinct from the inanufai-turing departm.'tit, und in which to attain perfection has I emi the chi -f aim of the VorkRhtre merchants. Ho proficient, in- deed, have they become as to defy any hut the must experienced judges to distinguish their cloths from the more costly ^ahrics of iho west of Knghind. Al- most all the machinery now ushI in the manufac- ture of cloth is hnrrowed from that of cotton — the spinnini^.jennies, the slabtiing.mill, the carding-en. glue, lVu. In almost no species of British manufacture has there heen aurh great improvement in recent years as in the article of superfine broadcloths. Till not a very distant date, the continental tine black and blue cloths were eminently superior to those produced in this country. But tlie peace having openeUaterallygivun to ttie spirit of enter- prise, the fabrics have since been made of the tnoKt delicate tuxt'ire; and as the art of dyeing has at the same time liOen wonderfntly advanced, superfine clotlm, in black anti blue, as well as in tri'^teful fancy colours, are now made in England, wliich far transcend in ex- ciilUmce and beauty the manufactures of any conti- iienial country. Every year tho appearance of tliese EngUith snpenine cloths is improving, while, from the effects of C()nij)etition and ingenuity, the pric« is not only not advancing, but falling. Thus the lower and middle clnshes ui the community are now, in a gre;it measure, as well dre.sned as the higher; and it is hardly too lunch to say that this circumstance alone has a |M>werful tendency to produce better moral feel- ings ametve'. in London, under the patronage of Edward the Third. The manufacturing from native produce, however, progressed very tardily, ne is evident by a mandate of Henry the Eighth, a century and a half later than the period ju^t mentioned, ordering a certain quantity llax to be raised for the purpose of providing nets for the fisheries. This fact, together with the circum- stance, that, during the reign of Elizabeth, the fabri- cation of sail-cloths, if not thru first rnmmenced, was, for tiio first time, inipcovid and encouraged, leads to the conclusion tliat only the very coarsest articles were, up to a comparatively recent period, attempted in England, the woollen continuing to be the great staple manufacture of the kingdom. About the year \bii% the manufacture of linen was engaged in in the coniityof Norfolk, and a paiiicular privilege extended to it fur the making uf a linen cloth called dortieck. About a century later, linen yarn began to be imported in large quantities from Ireland, and manufactured at .'\Ianchester, the want of proper machinery prevent- ing the Irish themselves from pros^^cuting this trade as an article of foreign trafhc, although it had for xv.ixuy previous generations been established amongst ihem as a domestic manufacture from flax raised by themselves. Towards the end of the wventeenth cen- tury, the importations of linen from France amounted, it has been calculated, to nearly L.1,000,000 sterling, although the English manufacture itself was then ra- fiidly incroasing. Besides tho French nianufacture, urge importationsof linen into England took place from Germany, from Holland, and even Scotland — from the latter, to tho value of no less than L.100,(M>0 sterling, Mr King, in his "fln7i*A Merchant" rates the con- sumption of linon 'v\ England, in tho year 1702, at L. 1,700,000, of which the English manufacturers sup- plied ^^.^4V1Jy^Hi. Previously to this, mi the reign of Charles the Second, duties were for the Arst time im- posed on foreign linens, and Parliamcr.t seems, frcmi this time forward, to have taken an interest in the success of the linen manufacture, more particularly in Scotland and Ireland. It seems questionable, how- ever, how far this patronage, especially as regards the latter kingdom, proceeded either from patriotic or dis- interested motives. Great outcry had Iwen made in England against theincruasing manufacture of woollen goods in Ireland, by which, of course, the demand for that staple manufacture of England was niucn dete- riorated. In HJJIB, both Houses uf Parliament ad- dressed hi*. Majesty, \V'illiam the Third, complaining of this national ^-rievaiice, and rerommending that the Irish wool manufacture should be discouraged, and that of linen established in its steady to which his MQesty replied, " I shall do all that in me Viet to du* courage the woollen manujacture in Ireland^ and en. cortraye tne ihun maniifauturey and promote the trade uf Bnglnnd V^ The duties imposed on foreign linens seems to havn Iwnefttedour own manufacturers little; and, in the year 1743, a new expedient was tried, by granting a bounty on the exportation of British linens. Even this temptatitm teemi to have had little effect, as wo fiiid, from \.ue custom-house books, that, prior to 17-lH, not.m.'ire than !200,000 yards were exporteo from England, and only 00,000 from Scotland. T.'ie progressive increase in this manufacture, which after- wards took place in the former country, will appear from the following facts : — In tho year 17*3, the quan- tity exported, drawing honnt", was 041,M0yar there was a diminution of ntrarly 6,000,000 uf ells, in the foreign importations. The general introduction of the cotton manufac- ture, about the year 17B0, greatly deteriorated that uf linen. Besides the substitution of printed cottons for printed linens, in dress, the latter trade suffered by the general adoption of rx}tton stockings for thread ones, whilst the great increase in the importation of Irish linens discouraged another branch of the trade. The amount of the latter may. be judged of by the fact, that, from the Union of Ireland till the year 1813, there were, on an avenige, annually consumed in England very nearly 33,000,000 yards of Irish linen. We shall now mention a few of the principal places in England where articles are manufactured from flax and hemp i — Canvass for sail-cloth Is manufactured at AVarring. ton, Kirkham, and other placer in Lancashire, White- haven, Workington, Stockton, Whitby, Hull, Ret- ford, Reading, Oxford, Bridport, and in various other places in the shires of Dorset and Somerset. During the bite war there were, at one time, no less than twenty-three contractors for the manufacture of sail- cloth for the navy, having twenty looms each, con- stantly employed ; but yet, so far were these from supplying the requisite quantity, that by fur the greatest portion was obtained from Scotland, A con- fliderable quantity of hemp is grown in Suffolk, and manufactured into sacking and cordage. The latter, however, are chiefly made in the vicinity of Stow- market. Sheeting is made at Broomsgrove, in M'"or- cestershire ; in Berkshire, many thousands of people are employed in the nianufacture of sacKing, for hops. Great quantities of linen thread are manufactu*red by poor people in cottages, near Workington. These, with some other manufactories in Westmoreland, Lancashire, Durham, &c. are the principal in £n(c- land. Mills for spinning flax were first erected at Darlington. In Scotland, the manufacture of linen was, in all pi-obability, introduced, as in England, by the Ro- mans, but there are no means of tracing its origin or subsequent progress up to a very recent period. From the continual state of turmoil in which Scot- land existed, however, equally from internal dissen- sions and foreign broils, previous to the Union of the crowns-, a slate of society totally incompatible with the successful cuUivatlon of the peaceful arts — it is improbable that the manufacture of linen was pro- secuted otherwise than as an article of merely domes- tic occupation and consumption. Until 1728, indeed, every description of manufacture was at a very low ebh in Scotland. In that year a Board of Trustees was appointed ** for overseeing, directing, and better improving the linen and hump manufactures in Scot- land," under whose fostering care, and by means of premiums, bounties, and various other modes of en- couragement, they have ultimately utitained great prosperity and importance. From the extensive ' pnwem conferred on the trustees, they have greatly extended their patronage, and continue still to watoli over the trade in all its branches, from the sowing uf the flax, to the finishing of the bleached cloth. Very little flax is raised :n Scotlai:-^, and it is sup- posed that there are not altogether 20,000 acres under this crop in the whole country ; thd yarn being princi- pally imported from Russia, Germany, Holland, &.o. The raitiing of llax has been tried to its greatest •xtent in and around Airdrid, hut the superiority <)f foreign flax is so grcnt, that it is now almost entirely given up. It is entirely from Holland and Flanders that the flax for the finest linen nanufactnred in this country is drawn. At Dunferniline, the Scots flax is nearly unknown. The diflerii\ce l^etweea Scotch and Dutch fiax lies principally in tins peculiarity, that the Si^otch flax becomes progressively worse In the process of manufacturing; whereas the Dutch flax goes on always improving in the course of work- ing. as hmg as it is wrought within wnat is called the g^-isty or its nator'^l point of strength. The spinning of flax was, of course, anciently performed by the distalf, or rock and ipindle, these being af- terwards superseded by the spinning-wheel, which is still to be found in almost every cottage and farm- house of Scotland. This mode of spinning va« for- merly carried on to a very great extent in some uf *he northern cuunties, more especially in the districts of Aberd.en, Angus, Psrth, Orkney, &c. As was formerly the cose with cotton in illiigltvcd, the linen yarn is ^iven out by agents to females, who spin it at BO much per spindle. The spinning by machinery was flrst introduced In 1790, tne first flax-mill being err-cted at Inverbervie in Kincardineshire. Since then, this branch of the manufacture has increascvi immensely, and it 'a calculated, that, a* the preieut CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i tim«, there are upwurdi of 6,000,000 of spfndlM oi Unen yarn ipun annually by the hand and maehlnerv together. ( Kach ipindle con'tniDn fcnir hankii, and «arh hank twelve cuti, of ISO threadft. ninety Inches in iMigth.) But the yam ipan bv the latter mode, aU thouh strong and even, cannot be made nearly lo fine for toe tiKhter fabrics aa by the nnnmnn wheel i the Utter machine, therefore, (• likely to keep lu place. Prom the manufacture, however, being of late years principally ronffned to coarse articles, such as osna- ottrghii, hogging, Ac, hand-spinning is little prac. tised (esrept In the places above stated), and that only by private families for dnmntlc use. The progms and extent of the linen manufacture, since the vftar 1727* can easily he traced by the re- cords of tne Trustees' Office. In I72A, the number oi' yards lUmped was 2,1H:{,07R, value Ii.in.n,:il2, 9k. '8d, sterling; the quantity sumped in 1A13 was 18,975,8624 yards, value L.l,030,4ns, lis. ajd. ster- ling. Ono somewhat remarkable dmirastance must here be noticed, namelv, that, from 1728 up to 18U, and notwithstanding the many changes, by machinery, bounties, competition, ftc, the average vahie of linen cloth has not varied nuire than fmirpence sterling p«>r y»rd, the original price l»eing about ninupence, and scarcely ever after, up to the foresaid year, having eit^eeded a shilling. Fifeshire (including part of Rinross-shire) is the busy seat of the Scoltixh linen manufacture, which was introduced tu it about sixty years since, when the London trade was opened up. In the course uf the intervening period of lime, the connty has been overspread with spinning-millt, bleachfields, weaving, looms, and other esitentials for carrying on a great trade. From time to time, con>idern(ile changes liave rt town of Leven, are-the most extensive in the county. In the weaving of linens, n hok- towns, vilUf^es, and haniVts, are con- stantly employed. The cloth produced is, for the greater part, exported lo Loudon, as the Scotch tliera- selves wear almost nmie of their mvn g(K)ds, being contented with the cheaper linens of Ireland. Blan- keuand plaidings are also mavufncturvd in this shire. The ttperative weavers of Fife form an iitdeprndeni respectable class of artisans, thomughly national in their habits and sentiments; and being, in rooat in- stances, provided with gardens and potato grounds, if iiut pigs and aiwa, near their cottages, tliey «ive in %. sut« of peace and aimfor*, perhaps nowhere rqualleil, at least not suruaxsed, urnoiig the working daesea in any ptirtiun of the I'nited Kingdom. ForCai'shire, which lies immiKllatrly north from Fife, has ih% chief tr:uie iu manufacturing coarse flaxen and hempen goods, princi|>ally fnrai Uultic pro- ducf. Thk^ seat of this lucrative branch of manufac turea is at Dundee, a town which, like Faisley and Olfugow, has made extraordinary advances within the last fifty ^'eani. The precist! period at which the trade was estaldished is not ascertained, but is con- jertured to be aUmt Uiu beginning of the lastcenturv. It made little pnt^ress for some time, as in 1745 only 74 tons (»f rial were imported, and no hemp. The ijuantity of linen then exported is ejtimated at one million of yards, hut there is no mention of tail. >«n(l ing, 0t,18D piecea, measuring about 4 millions of ards. Total, 571 millions of yards. the chemical process of bleaching has Iwen intro. duced and practised with great success. Barging used for packing cotton li likewise a staple nrtfcle. It ii generellv made of hemp, and is exported to the (JnltCrd ntatea, tne West Indies, Ac Coarse linens for house- hold purpotet are also made. A great pro]>ortion of these goods are woven by the hand in the town and neigh 1)011 rhnod, and employ great numbers of work- men in Forfar, Kirriemuir, Olammfs, ('upar-Angus, Alyth, and other places. Dundee Is the grand de- pAt of these places, Into which all the homc-madf stuiTs are brought either for sale, or on payment of wages. The intniduction of spinning machinery, in which great improvements have recently b«*n made, hat been the means of preserving the mantifactures of Dundee against foreign competition. There are at present between twenty and thirty Rpinning*miK:, each being an edifice of from fmir to six or seven sto- hy steam, and tended by Imys and girls, flax is Imported from Russia. ries high, with spindles and carding-machlnes on every rtat, aU moved " Almost all the flax is Impoi Besides the hemp used in the making of sail-cloth and bagging, it is most extensively nnd in the ma- nufacture of ropes, cordage, twiue, &c. In every town of any extent there is one or more ropewalks, the product of which is generally applied lo mercan- tile and agricultural purposes in the town and sur- rounding aistricts. Themanufucturingofthread wasintroducedln 1730, and has ever since been carried on to a oonsldei-able extent ; but cotton thread has now in a great meiisure luperaedcd that uf linen thrmighout the kingjlom. Owing to the discontinuance uf stamping the linen for tale in Scotland after the year 1823, it is Impos- iible tu give the returns up to a later period. In that year the numl>er of yards stumped was :U{,2<>8,r»:i0i ; value, I«.1,306,39G; averaging rather Irts than !Hd. per yard — the mauufacture having verv nearly doubled since the year 1H13 in fuan/i/y, tDoiigli not exactly in Da/»«, owing tu the depression in the price of linen clullis. It has l>een calculated that alwut 80,000 persons are engaged in the linen ouumfacture in Scotland. The value of the linen cloth mauufacture cannot l>e less than L. 1 ,riOO,000. The average amount of the lM)un- ties paid on the exportation of linen goods was about L.50,0()0 sterling. These are now in the progress of being abolished, but it is satisfactory to know that this measure doee not as yet seem to have bad a prejudicial effect on the manufacture. The amount of the various premiums offered by the Board of Trustees for IfCIU, on all sorts of Scottish manufacture, was L. 13.30. In point of quality, the Hollands sheetinor manu- factured iu Edinburgh is reckoned the best iu the markeL Linens and yams are now lower in price in Scot- land than ever they were liefore. The manufacture of linen luut long been the staple one of Ireland, and Is conjectured to have betm do- mesticated there previous even to its introduction into Ureat Britain, at least it is ascertained to have )H>en brought to much greater twrfection in Ireland at a very early period tlian it had attained in Kngland. in a descripti«m of Ireland, published at l^eyden In 16:^, it is stated that ** this country altoundsin flax, whi'-ti is sent ready in great quantities to foreign na- tiolt^." " Formerlv," says tne writer, "they wove great quantities of linen, which was mostly consumed ut liome, the natives requiring above thirty yards of liuen in a shift or shirtt from the numemuH plaits or folds made in it." This inclinatifm to dandyism ap- pears to have excited no siiiall jealousy in their Kng- lish wmquerors, at we find an act ]>aBRed in the rt>ign of Henry the Kighth, prohibiting, under a severe penalty, the use of more than seven yardfi of linen to a shirt or shif^ in Ireland I What would Im' anid to such an interference with the arrangements of the toilet ut the present day P It was to the Earl of Strafford, when Lord Lieutenant under Thiirles the First, that Ireland was indebted (as Si-otlnnd was to Mr Pelham) for the first effectual legislative encou- ragement given to her rrmnufartureH, particularly that of linen. He importni fiaz-aeed fnim Holland, and brought spinners and mant>facturers from France and Flanders, and embarked an immense pri\-ate capital of his own (some say L.lf(>,0it0) in the bus{nefiie how far its motives in doing so were entirely disinterested, and the patronage seems to have been extended chiefly with the view of discouraging the Iriah wnolleu manufacture, the ■mmint of which was then exciting the jealousy of the English. A Board of Tnisteee, upon tlie plan and for the same purpose as that in Scotland, was afterwards estHblish- ed, and bounties ware granted upon the exportation uf Irish linen. In I7'17t tbe manufacture ttf camtiric was first introduced from France. Tbe introduction of cfMton affected, of course, the linen manufacture in Ireland, as it did in every other part of the I'liiteil Kingdom, but the latter has neverthideas continued to increase, and, in some places, at this mmiient, ex- **ibits more favourablu symptoms than it has ever ytit shown. In Iftid, the imports of Irish linen into (i reat Britain amounted to &2,JMi0,000 yards, the declared value of which was L.2,RU8,010. Of these, a8,784j008 yardN were retained for home consumption. The raw material Is almost exclusively grown in Ire- land, and it is calculated thut there are at pritsent be- tween 130,000 and 150,000 acres sown in flax. Vp Ut the beginning of the present century, the spinning of flax wns done entirely by the hand, and even yet the spinning by machinery bears no prupurliou to the old method, as the work is executed nut only belter, but actually cheaper, by the poor female peasantry, than can be done by machinery even iu England. These poor creatures can scarcely earn more than two- pence or threepence a-day, even with tbe must dili- gent labour. Another and very sufficient reason ft»r the continuance of hand-spinning, is the cii'cumstanu* that, by that mode^ from twelve to twenty hanks to the pound of flax nmy be spun, whereas by machinery scarcely more than three hanks can be spun. The Irish women Lave always l>een celebrated for their skill in spiiuiiirg, wiiiih is supposed to arise frum the delicacy and suppIencBft of their lingers. We have already mentioned that great Quantltiea of linen yn n were formerly exported to Kngiaud, and even yet thfa spinners are much more numerous than the weavers. In many districts, indeed, the Dianu- fucture is entirely oonlined to the spinning, while, iu not a few, the flax is grown, dressed, spun, and woven bv the SHiiie family. The earningH of a linrn-wtmver win average almnt ?>• a-week. I'lster has lung been the chief seat of the linen manufacture, but il is also extensively pursued in tialway, Mayo, Sligo, Drog- Leda, Slc. For the mtnt part, each particular district has its own particular kiud of manufai!tiire. For in- stance, unblearhed linens of'.i'2 inches wide ar« mann- fHctured in Limdonderry, Donegal, Antrim, and Ty- rone—cambrics, lawns, und diapers, at Itelfaal, Lia- burn, and Lurgan ; and so fortli. There is an ex- tensive manufacture of suil-cJotb nt I'urk. AltMt uf the blench ing-greens are in the counties of Fermn- nagh and Sligo. The United States of America have lately passed an act for admitting Irish liueiin into their ]ioria free of duty after .lanuary llt:t4. This will, no doubt, have a most [towerful eflFect in stimulating the manu- facture in Ireland. The demand for foreign linens In Great Britain is but tnlling. During IU:fo, tbureal or declared value of those entered for homecunsumpiiun only amoun^l lo L.*j:MM, 12s. 4d. In IH29, the exports of linen from the United King, dom amounted to A7,:i,007, exclusive of L.a2,037> the value of the thread nnd iniall wares exported. Theexports from Ireland direct to foreign countries were abtiut one seventiHtnth part of the whole. The Unile«l States, the West Iiidiea, and South America, have always been the l>est markets for British linens. Of the total quantity exported in MWi, 18,:)(i7tbHfl yards were destined for the United Slates, 1 l,HM,207 yarda for the British West Indies, A,70<),IKrJ yards for'Bm- xil, (l,H22,6:t7 yards for Spain, &c There arc no means bv which to form any.iCCTirate estimate of the entire vafiie of the linen mannfacture of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr Colquhoun esti- mated it at L.|.\000,000. It is worthy of notice, in reference to manufactures in genenil, that great evils hiire resulted of late yeani from the introduction of nn entirely new system of boKineMtt. Individuals, going under the name of mo- ney-lenders and com miKStnii -agents, in London, con- tniVt with uianufHcturers to trannniit to them their stock in hand for disposal, for which they gmm bills to a certain date. If the goods are disposed of ut the prices fixed by the manuUcturer, so I'nr all is well ; but if not, the broker is, of course, at lilierty to sell the goods for what can be obtained, paying himself tbe amount of his bills, but under the teinptation of collusivety dispiMiing of his goods at a lower rate toone dealing in a similar way with himself. The articles, when the bills are not paid, are seldom diHposed of at full price. In either ciuw, however, these money- lenders, or commissi on -dealers, retain samples of tbe article as a pattern, whiiii they employ sulmrdinnte nmnufnrturem to Imitate u[Hm an inferior scale of quu- Ifty, thus deteriorating the value of the fair article in the market. A Statement showing with sufficient clearness the slow but sure prioress of the manufacture of Scot- land, of her domestir cimnuniption, and of her trade —liueu representing the manufacture t the exi jse, the domestic cousumptiun t and the customs, tho foreign trade i^- Vfflfi' V'arffii. Vslup. (irmi. Net. OnBU, Nrt. 17"7 1717 1747 i.sm.nno 4.7)il,4M MB) .7m U,704.408 i»,:ns.»m «t.^i4,0B7 i.mv.fMi iii..i:i4.4M \,iMA*a xn.Ktt WU.NliS «a,i 87. eti,: m; vm £ .TI,.'WHt 4,M4 X 3i).(tm 1R,444 U,S4ft tflrt (HI UMpSIl Fiiivniiiu < : Piibllihsd by William anil nonsxT Ciiambkks, If). WntrrtfMi I'fawt alto br W, Onii, )'auni(iitrr How, I.nti- ibin I sii>t W. fUHSv, Jun. sail Ca Snt-kvlllp Strn-t. Dublin. .Sold by John MaulwMl, (ilsogow. snil all trther HuokMllriiii) ICrAtlniiil, l-^ri'Isiiii. ""rt Irpl»ml.~P»iliIUh«l nnw s fi)rtnif ht. jiteicvtyited by A, Ktikwrititrd by Uallantyut; and Cuiiipuiy, I'sul'i Woilu t "W^lVS^tt s- tlA, CHAMBERS'S ^ INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBIIROH JOURNAL" AND ; « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. a Fbiob Hd. ACCOUNT OF THE HUMAN BODY. X X .'U.IIU 3i>.in( ftT.llM r..'tT7 W,t'l4 ini,«a m.is) I4U,«II u.m ll»),JM I*. Ml rti.'i.to? Tw.mi IMM IH) UlHJlt When we see a beautifully oonitructed machine, as a steam>englne, with iu piitoa riling and falling, and itt valves opening and shutting with the greatest pre- cision and accuracy^ and the whole of its parts con- joining to prudiico the neceinary power and motion rf^quired, we are irresistibly led to inquire into the structure of its parts, and how these are arranged and Via together so as to accomplish with such wonderful facility their various movements. The animal body is a niiichine far more admirable in its construction^ and more wonderful in its offices, than any devised by human art; and although there has hitherto existed an aversion to Inquire into its form, founded on vague prejudice, happily such feelings are rapidly pasting awayt and a laudable curiosity to know something of the most perfect of the works of the Great Architect of the Universe is beginning to be excited among man- kind in general. A general knowledge of the parts of the human body and of their several offices may be very easily obtained ; the study is within the compre- hension of all ; and as human reason was given us, not only to " know ourselves" morally, but to minister to our physical or natural wants, the total ignorance of these must be culpable. A knowledge of the human frame, so far from exciting in us fear or alarm, is ra- ther calculated to call forth feelings of gratitude and admiration. We find in it very nice* and delicate, and complicated parts ; but yet we find all these so ad- mirably fitted and adjusted for performing their seve- ral offices, that they very rarely, indeed, go wrong, unless deranged and interrupted by the ignorance, the neglect, or wilful folly of man. The human body is composed of several parts or syiteras, which serve particular purposes, and perform distinct offices, all conjoining to one general end. There is a skeleton or frame-work of Iwnes on which the whole is built, and which gives solidity and strength ; a system of muscles and tendons, which are the means of motion ; a system of blood-vessels and absorbents, for conveying the fluids of the body ; a nervous system, for imparting sensation ; a stomach and digestive organs, for supplying nourishment t lungs, for respiring the air which is necessary for up- holding the prit:ciple of life ; and several inferior parts, which call for less prominent notice. All these parts come to l>e described in their order. THE BUNES. The bones are composed of the earthy matter of iinie, and of gelatine, or animal glue. The lime Tives them hardness and solidity — the animal matter ren- ders them pliant, and not so readily broken. The outer surface of the bones is smooth, firm, and com- pact, while the inside is spongy and porous, with nu- merous vessels ninning through them. The large round bones of the body, such as the arm and leg, are huUow, like pipes, hy which their strength is in- creased, while the necessary lightness is preserved. The marrow is contained in the hollow inside, and also the bhKxl-veitels that nourish the bones. ' In the human body there are altogether 24B bones. The skull or head bone is composed of several pieces joined together by ragged or toothed edges, somewhat like tlie teeth of a common saw. In the new-born child these iHmes do not meet tog(fther, hut are joined by tlie membrane below ; as the child grows, and the head increases in siae, the bones gradually extend, till, at last, when the sixe of the brain is complete, they join together, and form what is called iuturety or sanms. Thus the bones form a strong and firm arch around the head, well suited for the safe protection of the important oi^fan within — the brafn. Proceeding from the lower part of the skull, there is a chain of twenty-four bones, firmly and curiously jointed the one into the other, and extending down the back ; these Iwnes are called vertebrv, and the line or chain which they fbrm is called the spine, or back.bone. The second of these bones iu the neck contains a projecting pinion, or tooth, which is received into a corresponding depression in the first bone of the se- ries, and on which the head turns round from side to side. The bones of the spine end in the pelvis, a large hollow basin-shaped cavity, which composes the lower part of the body, and gives to it firmness and stability. At the top of the spine, immediately below the neck bones, are situated on each side the thin shoulder bones or blades, to which are attached the bones of the arm ; these shoulder blades lie above the ribs at the back ; they are not joined to them, or to any of the neighbouring bones, but are kept in their position by numerous muscles attached to them on all sides ; by this means they have a free and easy motion. To the shoulder blades on each side are attaclied the arm bones, which move in a beautifully formed ball and socket joint, that admits of motion in all directions ; with this, and the yielding motion of the shoulder bones, the arm has every facility of movement. At the elbow-joint the arm divides into two bones, and these are so fitted on each other as to permit of exten- sive motion to the hand. Kight small twnes, firmly wedged together, form part of the hollow of the hand ; from these proceed five other small straight bones, which form the remaining part of the palm. To these are attached the fingers, which consist of three bones each. The thumb contains only two joints. On each side of the pelvis, in the lower part of the body, the thigh bones are attached. At their upper ends they move in a ball and socket joint, formed by a deep hol- low circle in the pelvis. From the knee proceed two bones, which compose the leg. The front one is the larger; the side bone Is thin and slender, and is at- tached to the other like a spring or clasp. A small bone covers the knee in front, called the patella, or knee-pan. To this bone are fixed the strong muscles that move the knee-joint. A round projecting bone forms the heel, which, with six wedge-shaped bones, compose the foot ; from these, four bones proceed, to which the toes are fixed ; each of the toes, like the fin- gers, ooniists of three small bones, the great toe having only two. The ribs proceed from the rertebrs, or back-bones, and are twelve in number on each side; they bend round in a circular manner to the front, and join by means of lung elastic eartilnges to the breast-bone; thus forming a hollow spaco for the lungs, the heart, and other parts contained in the chest. The ribs move in an easy joint, fixed by tendons into the spine bones ; and with the elastic cartilage in front, they expand and contract to suit the motions of the lungs. Thus the skeleton or frame-work of the IkhIv in completed. Ail animals have not this frame of bonus : it is only found in a certain number of classes, including man, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and fishes ; and from all these having a series of vertebrae, or back-hones, they are called vertebrated animals. Some of the other tribes of beings have their frame-work corresponding to ttones, on the outside of the body, in the form of a coat of mail : this is the case with shell-fish, as the lob- Iter, and with many insects that have a hard horny external covering, as beetles. THE Mtrsci.Es. The soft fleshy substance of the body, which gives plumpness and form to the whole, is the muscular part, or muscles. These are the instruments of motion. And when we consider the various positions which the dif. ferent parts of the body assume, the agility and quick- ness by which the most intricate movements are made, theceaseletsplayofthe heart, the heavingof the lungs, and the singular rapidity of articulation or speech, we need not be surprised that these muscles should be many in number, and Important agents in the human economy. The muscles are thick fleshy substances, of a red oolour : they are oompoted of numerous fibres, or Uyers, placed lengthways, sometimes straight, and sometimes oblique. They are of an elastic nature, somewhat like a piece of India rubber, and oontract and extend at' the impulse of the will, by which they are lengthened and shortened alternately. A muKle is generally thick or swelled out in the middle t it gradually geti thinner towards the extremities, and, in many instances, passes at one or both ends into a tendon, or tough white substance, which is attached to a bone, and serves the same purpose as a rope or cord, to fix the muscle to a point from which It is in- tended to act. These tendons are most numerous about the joints, especially tha larger Joints, where they allow of free and unrestrained action, and yet occupy little space in situations where a large swell- ing muscle would have been inconvenient. About the larger Joints of the body also, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder-joints, there are numerous glands, which pour out an oily substance, that serves to lubri- cate the joints, and fadliutes the play of the tendons. There are from four to five hundred muscles in the human body, all necessary for performing the various movements and operations ofthe complicated machine. On each side of the back-bone there are several layers of strong muscles, which are fixed by tendons toevery projeotion of the numerous bones which compose the spine. These muscles keep the trunk of the body erect, and alio permit of the various motions of the back. There are a number of small muscles about the face, and head, and eyes, whose various action imparts that expression to the human countenance which indicates the prevailing feelings and passions of the individual. The tongue, besides being of mus- cular form itself, is also supplied by a number of in- tricate muscular fibres, which give that amazing volubility of action by which the vast number of sounds composing language are expressed. Several are attached to the lower jaw ; but two in particular, the temporal muscles, proceed upwards through an arch formed by a projecting arm of the temple-bone, and are fixed to the tendons of the head. These two muscles are the most powerful in moWng the jaws in the operation of chewing the food, and are very largo in several animals of prey. Another flat muscle in- side the cheek is called the trumpeter-muscle, because it assists in blowing from the mouth, and in sounding wind instruments. The chest is supplied with nu- merous muscles, which move the ribs upwards and downwards in the action of breathing. A large flat muscle, called the diaphragm, stretched across the lower ribs from side to sidci and separating the hollow of the chest from that of the belly, alsocon tributes to the process of breatliing. The arm and hand are rolled in- ward and outward hy a set of muscles, which are places on the outside and inside of the respective bones ; thus, the outside muscles act in a contrary manner to the inside, and reverie motions are thus alternately per- formed. The muscles of the fore-arm are fixed to the scapula, or shoulder blade, at one end, and to the bone of the arm at the other. The fingers are moved by muscles situated in the fore part of the arm, and have long slender tendons, by which they are attached. Two beautiful provisions of nature are here observed ; at the wrist, a circular ring of tendonous substance binds down the long tendons, which would, in their various motions, otherwise start up from their places at the same time that this ring permits their free and unhampered play ; the other is in the constnietlon of the tendons of the fingers. There are two principal muscles which move the joints of the fingers, and two sets of tendons, which are inserted, the one Into the middle bon?s of the finger, the other into the third row of bones, or the extremlMes of the finger. In order to preserve their free action, and to make thera lie in the most convenient manner, there Is a loop or ilit in the shorter tendon, by which the other ( CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ill ;. pftuei through to lu iiiMrtion in tho jMiinl of the Anger, hj thli maknt the loiifCfnt nntl itnm^feit muKle movM Chflextramitiet of tha Hnffcr, where the p««lMt power it wanted. The miiitcln which move Ura lower ntrMnltiM ve much of the tamx kind, hiii thicktr, uul mor* powerful than thoee of the arms. Meraral Um muKlui, actlnfr In opponltinn to each other, are iiiuatod arouod the thl^th jointn, iind move them. ' They aro fixed, one ond to the trunk of the tnidy, tome pretty far up, etpeciallv ttvo, which are half-way witnin the abdomen, or bcllv, on ench aide o£ the Hpine, with the other end attached to the thigh hone, ttereral thicV muiclea alio are situated at the hack, farming the hipa. Two large muiclei compose the calf of the leg, and join to form the tendon of Achillas, which is fixed u> the heel Iwuet these muscles act powerfully in bending the leg and sup- porting the body in walking. The foot and toes are moved by several long slender miisdet, nituated iti the leg, which have tttndons atuched to them exactly like tluMw o( the hand and fingers. The pelvis and lower limbs of man ditfer greatly from those of all other animals In their superior pruporiionnl Rtrength, and in the numlwr and fipllnuss of the muscles. This was neoeasary, as man is evidently intended by nature for the erect position. In the monkey tribe, whose general form approaches nearest to that i>f man, the narrowness of tne pelvit, or hip bones, and the small- ness of the muscles of the lower extremities, clearly show that they were not destined by nature for the erect attitude; in fact, all animals of this class are furnished with four hands, the hinder pair exactly resembling those in front. When they attempt to walk on the bind extremities, they cannot put the sole to the ground, but press on it edge-ways. By the nice balancing of the muscles, and the great force which they exert, man is enabled to stand erect, and to maintain a firm position, or more forward at plea- sure, notwithstanding that the body is without the perpendicular tineof the cen'.re of gravity ; and conse- quently, according to the laws of inert matter, it would have a consunt tendency to tumble down. This is the case not only with the trunk of the body as a whole, but the head also is balanced upon the neck by means of strong muscles, whose constant exertion is necessary to maintain it in its position ; for in young children, when the muscles are as yet weak, the head has an inclinstion to droop, and in the dwd body it falls down ou tha shoulder or breast THE BLOOD-VESSELS. These consist of the heart, with its arteries aad T6ins, that branch out through every part of the body, and '''Arry the blood, by a constant circulation, through them. The heart is placed in the left side of the cliest, and midway )>etween the back and breast bones; it ii of a round conical shape, with vha base or broad part tippermost, and the point slanting downwards to tho left. It is of a thick rousnilar form, with hollow ca- vities inside, and numerous cords or pillars of fleshy or tendonous substance stretching through these to give them support. In man, and all the umre perfect animals that breathe air through the lungs, it is double, or has two distinct sides, each performing separate otRcet. In fishes, again, tbe heart issinf^le; in in- ftp^'ts there is no proper heart* but a vosiiel that nms along the back, somewhat like an artery, through which the fluid, corresponding to blood, circul.ites through their bodies; other animals, still more sim- pie in structure, liavc no trace of heart or blood- vessels. The heart not only sends the blood through the whole Inidy by means of the arteries, which blood is ftgnin returned by the veins, but it also •ends this venous blood through the lung^, to be renewed and purifled by the air, from whrni'e it Is carried back to the heart, to be again circulated through the ^mkIt. The heart, then, i-on^isu of two sides, a right and a 1<>ft ; and each of these lides con- tains two nnllow Ciivities ; the one callM an auricle, from its fancied renemblanof* to a dog's ear; the other ft ventricle, or belly. Tho manner in which the blood is circnlated is as follows: — Two large reins, one friMn the upper part of thi' iKidy. the other from the lower, enter the right aurirle of the hcirt, and carr^ the blood, which has nnde the niuiid of the body, into this cavity. Here it is of a dark purple cplmir, and is called venous blood, from its coining frmn the veins. From the right aurirle it is seni, by a sudden contraction oi forcing btguiher of the two sides of the c-ivity, into the rigjit ventricle imme- diately below the aiinrje, and i-oniniiinicating with this by a smnll npenin;; fnrniiihed with a valve; by the right ventricle contractii'g. It is conveyed by the pulmonary arterien into tie hnigs, whicS are two large cell-formed substances ou each side of the chest, surrounding the heart. In tlie lungs the blood un. dergne^ a.^ important rhantre, to )hi afteraanU men- tioned,, bv vhich it changes from a dark purple hue lo '.ue colour of acarlet. After passing through the .ungs, it is returned by the pnlmouary veins to the Itft auricle of the heart t from thin it is sent inio the adjoining left ventricle, and by n |>on-i>rful rontrac- lion of this muicnlar cnvity, it f\nw% out by the great artery of the heart, the carotid, which distributes it through every part of tho *>o*ly. agsin to be returned by the veinii ; and thus the round of circulation is con- tinusUy going nn. Tlie hf^rt being an extremely thick musrio, the Ibrce with whirh it rontnicts is very considerable. Tbo left ventricle of the lieart, too, although somo- what smaller, is much thicker and more muscular than the right, it having to send tlierefore tho lungs are not usetl, there is a small hole or conimunicslion )>etween tho right and left auricles, by which the blood from tlio veinw flows directly through Co tlie arteries, and thus iivoid^ goiuf to the lungs ; nt birth tliin hole closes up whenever tne child begins to respire. The aorta, or great artery of tho body, after it leaves the heart, passes upwards in the form of an arch, when it S'ves off the carotid brandies to supply the brain, and oe, and arteries, to the arms and cheat. It then bends downwards, and gives off branches to the sto- mach and other viscera; and when it comes to the lower part of the belly, itdividesintn two parts, which fiass out and l>ecome the arteries of tlie thighs and egs. The arteries of the body are umiposed of three coats or coverings, the principal one being a thick muscular ring, which encircles tlie artery, and which contracts and expands so as to assist in sending the blood onwards. The principal trunks of the arteries lie deep in the fleshy parts of ihe lM>dy ; but their ra- mifications are so numerous and minute, that they may be said to pervade every particle of t)u> humnn structure— bones, tendons, and every other texture. These extreme branches of the arteries being so mi- nute, anatomists have had ;:reat dilUcnlty iu tracing the exact point at which they iiasa inti> vi-init. They do so, however, as is seen uii the surfiice of the brain. The veins are another system of vessels wlu'ili return the bliMxt from the extremities of the body to the heart. They are larger and more flaccid than the ar- teries, and are distinguished from them liy having no pulsation. A large vein generully accompanies the corresponding artery, but the great propirrtion of the veins lie more towards the surface, and are easily distinguished swelling out under the skin. The nu- merous veins from the lower extremities Join into one trunk in the bcllv, which vein, after passing through the liver, as will be afterwards descrilwd, joins the right auricle of the heart, the bliH>d from the upiwr half of the body joining also hy another similar vein. In the veins of the extremities that hang downwards, and are apt to be gorged with bliM>d, there nre inserted numerous valves, at short distances, which prevent reflux of any kind. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. Like the arteries, the nerves branch out into every riart of the bixly, however minute; and it in hy the ofluenre of the nerves communicating with the bruin, that motion and sensation are derived. The brnin is the great centre of the nervous Bysi4>m : it incontiiined within the Imnes of the head, and consists of a large pulpy mass, formed on its iurface into numerous waved urconvoluted furrows : inside, it is of a whitish cream colour, and of the consistence of soft cheese : there are two large cavities in the centre, calleetlum, which, in the lower animals, always hna the preponderance. From the lower part of the brain procWds the spinal cord, or marrow, as It Is sometimet called, although it hat nothing in common with the marrow of bones. It is a long round cord, of the thickness of the finger, of the same kind of substance as the brain, and formed of a number of smaller ner- vous conU, running parallel to each other ; It descends ilia groove or circular cavitv, farmed in the nume- rnuH small \wnn compoaing tde spine, and runs along the whole length of tne back down to the pelvis. The nerves are small whitish-looking oirds, which proceed from the brain and spinal marrow, and spread out in mniunerable branches to every part of the body. A large branch of a nerve tfenerally aixi»mpaiues every large artery, and every Important part of the iHMly has a branch of a nerve sent off to it. The nerves for supplying the organs of sight, of smell, of hearing, and of uste, ti»gether with the great srmptithetic nerves, which give branches to the heart, lungs, ato- in«(-!i. nnd i»ther important viscera, proceed directly from the bmin. The nerves of motion and sensat'nri to the muscular parts of the body, take their origin, with • few exceptions, from the spinal Cfird. Tno sets of nervous branches proceed from the cord on each aide, corresponding to the jnnrtion of every ver. tebrul bone ; and it is found thut a branch of these nerves imparts motion, and the other the sense of touch, of heat, and of cold. The brain has a cover- ing of three thin membranes ; the outward one strong and thick, the inner extremely thin and delicate. The nerves, wliich are S4ift and pulpy Inside, have also a thin external covering which protects them. ^ The nervous branches are never seen or felt in the living bodv, and what are vulgiirly called nerves, are tlie tendons of the muscles, especially those about the wrisu, fingers, and ankle Joints. Their great num- bers and minute divisions are manifest, however, be- cause we cannot prick any part of the biMly with (he sharp point of a needle, without wounding tome of them, and thereby causing the senaalioii of pain. When the nenes are completely destroyed hy disease, the sense of feeling In the part Is entirely lost. The brain in the lower animals Is not generally nearly an largo. In proportion to their bulk, as in man ; and the cerehnini, or upper brain, is greatly smaller than the cerebellum, or lower brain. In many classes of the inferior animals there is no distinct brain, but only nerves runninff along their bodies, and joining inh) knots or ganglions. Insects and worms are of this description, in the polypus, and some other similar animals, a distinct nervous system can scarcely be traced. THE LUNGS. In the highest part of tho cavity of the chest, on each side of the breast-lHnif, ttie lungs are situated. A membrane passing from the breast-bonu to the back, divides them into two lobes, the right and the left — the left lobe lying immediately above, and partly en. circling the heart and its great blood-vessels. Tli« Inngs have a dark-bluish appearance, a familiar ex- ample of which is afl'uided in tho HffhtB of sheep, that part generally appended to the heart and wind* pipe. Innide they are composed of an immense num- ber of cells, which alternately inflate or collapse as tlie lungs are filled and emptied of air. When an in. spiralion is made, and the lungs are filled with air, thew cells become expanded ; and the bl(M>d sent from the right side of the neurt, ard spread over the calls, is exiH>aed through an extremely thin membrane to tlie air. An important change here takes place on the blood t from being of a dark purple colour, it im- mediately changes to a bright scarlet ; it is found thrC it has absorbed or taken up all the oxygen, or vital part of the air, and has parted with a corresponding volume nf carbonic acid gas or fixed air, which It hail aciiuired In its circuit through the vessels of the body. So eHHrntial is the matter imparted by thp air to tl:« bIo(Hl for sustaining animal existence, thut the breath- ing cannot be suspended even for a very short {reriwl without extinguishing life. It is probable, too, thai the heat of the body is generated, and constantly kept up, iu Roine way or other, hy means of this process of breathing, and the change which the bhiod un- dergoes. The lungs, like every other internal or- gan, are covered with a thin transparent mem- brane called the pleural this membrane, as well as the Buhatance of the lungs themselves, is liable to inflammation ; and hence the name of the disease culled pleurisy. The trachea or winrlpipe, the cotninuniiation between the mouth and lungs, is a hollow tubo, having a series nf cartilaginous rings passing round it, to prevent the possibility of its being comuresiied either by external means, or from the foed in tne net of swallowing, and, in ctmseqiienre the breathinff obstructed It takes its rise from the bot- tom of the mouth, anu ^uses in front of the ne.'k, where its strong ciirtilage may he seen and felt, rvt its lowrrpart It divides into two parts, like theproi>gs of a fork, one gning to join the right lube of the lungs, the other the left. Lungs for breathing air are only found in the higher cl.'isses of animals. Fiahes are fnrnlaheil with gills, those comb-like substances which lie within a flap on each side of the head ; over them a strt'am of water is constantly sent by inhaling it at the mouth in a similar manner to breathing. The air, ^»hich is always proxent in considerable quanti- ties i 1 water, is thus absnrl>ed by the blood-vessels while ramifying overthe uilts, and all the purposes nf breathing are answered. In insects there are no lungs, nor do they breathe by the mouth, but along thesiifes of thi'ir liodies, liy numenius holes with small tubes or spiracles, leading to a longer middle tulie, by which the ai r enters and mixes with their fluids. When we descetid lower In the animal scale, even thla substitute for breathing ceases, and probably the vital aii' is nbsorlKd by such animals by simple pores, or vyen- lugs in the skin. THE STOMACH. Deh'nd the windpipe, taking its rise also from ttie bottom nf the mouth, lies the nsophagus, or tube which passes Into the stomach. This tube expands at the top tnci what U called the pliarynx, forming the whole of the upper part of the throat immediately t>ehind tlie tongue. Intothisravit^the windpipeopeoa, and, to gii-ird against any particle of the food or drink passing into the windpipe instead of Into the passage to the itomach, there ir, a little tongtieor valve which closes \ccurni:-lv liver the month nf the windpipe every time f'ltdordrtnk Is swalluwetl. When the snhktancvs have p is«ed, the mfve ngniii springs o|M>n, and miniiii of fret brenthiiig. To * bow* hitw aiTuntely ami pri-. c>«ely every p:irt of ihv liuin.'ui nmrhiiu* p(*rfurma let ACCOUNT OF THE HUMAN BODY. 4ut)cS| H rt-lelirutetl writer ImH JimtniuN'tl this miniu vhIva, which, in u multitude o( iwrnoiii dining tif- ^Rthflf, not DiiR tiinn out nf a hunnred in luiy one in- dividiiu) iiintiinrti Is nt fault. When a drop of fluid or pHttlcle of food doet hf chiince Iniilniiiita ftuclf into the winduipe, m wniltive ii thii tutxi thnt a convtiU iriv« cougu ii excited, till it ii again exMlted. There in another little tongtie or Hap ottarhed to the roof of Uie })alate, and luen ahove the tongue when the mouth in o|iened. Thii, which guardfi the pasaage to the iKMfl, \* nut, lu>w('vcr, tn be confounded with the other, which ii further down the throat, and turiiiihle. The fi'Mophagut uiintie* dou-n through the cheHt in a ring fiirmed hy tlie tendonii of the dinphrngm, thut Iart{e nmicle which ttretcheii acrosi the Inwe^ ribs, and which aRsints lo materially In breathing. Iiiimcdi. Htely below thli muicle on the left side Is sittiuted the stomach, which is suspended in Its place bv tieing at- iMi-hed to the ceiiophngiii, or tube from k)ie mouth. 'J'he titnmnch is an ovui bag of considerable size, occu- |iyjiiif u ulunting position immediately twlow the heart, witli its ri^'lit side overlapped by the eilge of the liver, and extending to the lower end of the breait'bone. The Bti>uiHch has three coats, an extfrnal roembrauoui >>ui', a muscular, and a soft villous Inner covering. The upper panHiige, by which this bug commtinic-nles with ttiti (L'sohlnigtts, is imII;-)! the cardino o{>eiiiiiK; the lower, wncru the ftrsc gut commenc<}a, Is (railed the pplorie orifice. THE IJVEIt. Oppoaite tho stomach on the right side lies the liver, n largo flat substance, of a dark brown colour, divided into two lobes. The liver has a round, con- vex, outer surface, and is hollow or concave beh)w; it is also thick and solid at the back part, and its edge licromes thinner towards the front, whore it lies over a portion uf the stomach and bowels. It is suspended In its place by several ligaments iittached to tiiusur- roundiuK parts. In the under side of tlie liver, in a small hollow, is situated the gnll -hi udder, a small ovitl bill? wjiiflt contains the hile. A tube from this bladder, cnlled the hile-duct, passes Into the upper portion of ttie bowels, carrying the bile there. The liver is sup- plied byi^everal brunches of an artery in the usual way thnt the other organs are, but It ban also a peculiarity which no other intestine has. The large veins, which return (he blond from the lower piirt of the bowels, before going to the hiart, enter the substance of the liver, and there spread into innumerable branchei throughout its whole surface. Front this venous blood the I'ile is 8ecretea r^wanting, where there is merely a duct ta convey the bile into the intestines. In the lowc.c clusses of animals, &1> traces of liver or gal I -ducts dtsuppear. THE SPI.EEH. Thi:j substance ii situated below the stomach, on the left 'jide, between it and the ribs. It is in shape a Ha', oval, and uf a dark iron colour. No duct or open, i.ig has been discovered proceeding from it, nor has Its use been rji yet accurately ascertained. It is pro- bable that it serves ti» relieve the stomach of iu sur- plus quantity of blojd while this organ is distended with food; or it maybe the medium uf conveying fluids from the ntomach into the hlood. It has htwn frequently cut cut from living dogs, without causing any apparent derangement in the health or digestion uf those animals. THE PANCREAS. This substance, known under the name of the sweet-bread, is a large oblong glaiul, lying across the bark part of the ttelly, extending between the spleen and the middle uf the liver. This gland ptnirs out a substance something like the saliva, or spittle of the mouth ; and by means of a small duct or canal, pours it into the upper bowels, along with the bile from the gall-bladder, both these substances aiding i,n diges- tion, and the preparation of the nutritloui fluid to be afterwards luentioned. THE noWELfl. From the lower, or pyloric orifloe uf the stomach, the dutxlenum, the first portion of the intestinal ca- nal, takes its origin. This gut passet below the liver and recfivet the bile-duct, and tfieduct from the pan- creas, when it tenninates in the Jegunum, which again pasH's inb» the ileum, or s.mall intestines. These are of great length, and occupy the greater part uf the lower lielly, Iwing folded and twisted backwards and forwards in many intricate windings. At the end of tlie iltiuui, fhe colon, a large gut, makea an arch upward towards the right side, and across the belly, and descending at the back part, ends iu tho rectum, the termination uf the intestinal canal. The whole length nf the intestinet in man Is generally about six times that of bis average height, or fmm thirty to thirty-six feet. In all animals that feetl on vegeta- bles, the guts are of great length ; whereas, in Uiose that derive their nmirishmentK'om animal food, the in- tMtioM are uf much shorter proportions. Two mem- 09 hrauous substances, called the umeutuni and mcfiei terv, run along the whole length of the Intestines, ami aerve as a means of thetr attachment and proper suspension in thefr places. The bowels have three coats— an external one, common to them with the other visotra, a muscular coat, and an Internal villuus novering. LACTEAL VSaaELfl. These are Innumerably small tulies, proceeding from the Ileum or small intestines, along their whole course, and spreading along the mesentery, where they form an immense numlier of small knots, or glands, by Joining together. These are the vessels which take up the fluid chyle, or milky-like substance, after It has been digested and properly prepared in the sto- mach and bowels. From these mesenteric glands, the thyle is conveyed hy these ducts, or canal**, to another large gland, situated tn the loins, on the right side of the aorta, and Immediately below the diaphragm, called the receptacle of the chyle. Fmm this recep- tacle the thoracic duct arises, and passing upwards by tho side nf the aorta, or great artery of the body. It joint the left subclavian vein, lying under the left clavicle, or collar-bone, and thus pours the whole of the chyle into the general circniiition. THE XinNKYS. These are situated in the hiins, one on each side of the bauk-honc, about one-third up the spine. They are in shape somewhat like a French liean, and their intermil form consists of a number uf minute porous tubes. Tiiey each at the middle hollow part re«'-eive a large arterf, and their use is to filter from the blood the superabundant fluid, and salts and juices unne- cessary for the system, and transmit these, by means of two small tubes, or ureters, to the urinary bladder. These tubes enter the back part of the bladder In a slanting direction, which serves the purpose of valves, preventing a flowing back of the fluid when the blad- der is full. The bladder Is situated in front, imme- diately above the bone of the pelvis, called the pubis. The whole cavity of the btdly is lined by a thin membrane, called the peritoneum, above which is the muscular fibre. This periuineum is liable to inflam- mation, in the same manner as was mentioned of the pleura, which produces a very violent disease. The coats of the intestiues, too, are also subjevc to the same atfection. THF I.TMPHATIC VESSELS, OR ABSORBEKT?. Theno are another distinct set of v^s-els spread over .'ill the inner cavities of the body, and also through- out tho skin, on which they open by innumerable xninll porous mouths. Their oftire appears tn be to take up fn)m the blood a thin lymph, which they con- vey Into the receptacle of ibe cSyle and thoracicduct, and also to exhale or carry oflT from the skin the su- perfluous moisture uf the body. This mni*.tiire forms the sweat, and several pounds of fluid are daily drained off from the body iu this manner, even when little or nn bodily exercise is taken. These vessels are composed of a series nf extremely small tubes, and, joining and interweaving, form numerous glands, especially in the groin, armpits, and neck ; when swelled by disease, they harden end enlarge, forming knots like a pea or bean. Iltit they are no less numerous on the surface of the inner cavities of the bmly as on the skin ; they are fourd in the brain, on the surface of tho lungs, where they give out a large proportion of vapour at every expiration of the breath, and in the abdomen or belty. It is a disease or sluggishness of the.ie vessels, whereby they do not perform their necessary duty of taking up all the superabundant fluids, that causes dropsies of the chest, bellv, and leg!i. The branches of the lymphatics of the lower half ot the bmly join the receptacle of the chyle; those of the upper part enter the thoracic duct just before the latter pours its contents into the subclavian vein. THE SKIK. An external compact membrane or skin covers the whole body. The outer skin, or cuticle, is unprovided with any bhwd-vessels or nerves, consequently is In- sensible ; in this manner it is well suited for a protcc- tion to the parts T>eneath ; it is pierced by innumer- able minute iK>res, which are the mouths of the exha- lent vessels : it is thicker in the palms of the hand and soles of tho feet than in any other parts of the body. Below the outer skin is a thin membrane, cnlled the rete mucosum, which, assuming ditferent httes in dif- ferent nations, gives rise to the variety of colour in the human race. In Europeans, It is white, passing into yellowish brown i in native Americans, of a cop. per colour ; in n^roes, uf a deep black. It is highly probable that i-Iimate has the elToct of modifying this cide iuuderable to a white- skinned person. Immediately below this net-work Is the cutis, or true skin, an ex^.remely sensible mem- brane, so thickly studded with minute bluod-VMsels and branches of nerves, that the smallest pointed needle cannot prick it without touching many of them. On the pt)ints of the fingers, lips, and other parts ot the body, these vessels are very numerous ; and hence the^e parts are endowed with exquisite feelings ot tout-h. Itelow the skin is situated the cellular mem- briitie, which isanet-work, whose interstices are filled with fat, and It thus serves to fill up the spaces be- t^veun tlie muscles, and to make up the shape* and pre- serve thesymmetry, plumpness, and beauty of the whole frame. In cases ot emiriation, this fatty mniter Is sometimes entirely taken up by tho absorbent vessels i as, after a tedious fever, or other lingering disease, when the rough outlines and indentatb ns nf the muscles, nnd tne projections of the bones, beoooM painfully apparent. THE T«KTII. These are placed In the upper and lower law, in which they are attached by roots, which sink tutu therm&nent teeth is thirty- two, consisting of sixteen in each law. The four front teeth are callra the incisors, and have one long root ; on each side next to these Is one eye or dog tooth ; then there are placed two small grinders on eadi side, havir.g double roots, and three large grinders, or mo- lar teeth. The last of these is called the wisdom tooth, from Its making Ua appearance latest In the jaw, from the seventeenth to the twentieth year, or even later. By this change and gradual succession of teeth, we have a beautiful provision of nature for pennltting the jaws to increase In pIzo, and, at tho rame time, foi preserving the relative )>ositlous and regularitv of the difl'erent teeth ; for had the first teeth of ch^ildhood been permanent, It is impossible that the jaw could have increased in growth without deranging the order and position of the whole. The teeth of various ani- mals difl^er accordingtothekindof food on which they live. In carnivorous, or flesh-feeding animals, the teeth are sharp-pointed, and adapted for tearing their prey to pieces ; in those animals called graminivorous, that live on grasses and other herbage, the teeth are of a rounded forir., with broad surfaces, and the grinders are furnished with several layers of the hard enamel following each other in succession, with a slight layer of common bone interposed ; so that, when the grinder is worn down by the friction of chewing. It Is not rendered useless, but a new layer of the enamel is presented at the worn-down surface. Some animals, as the hare, rabbit, beaver, and mouse, havethefront teeth of a chisel shape, with enamel only on tlie outer side nf them. These animals are called gnawers, be- cause they chew nr gnaw down their food in this par- ticular manner; and by the inner soft part of the tooth being liable to be worn down, while the outer is harder, tho enamel is thus always kept with a sharp edge. Some animals have large projecting tusks for defence, as the elephant, w'ld boar, &c. ; others, as fishes, are provided with teeth more for holding fast their prey than for mastication. Alany have no teeth at all, as birds, worms, and other soft formed animals. Man is characterised by having all his teeth set close to each other in a half circle ; they are of a medium form, be- tween that of carnivorous and herbivorous animals ; the front teeth are adapted for cutting ; the canine are sharp, though not of undue length ; and the grinders are suited for masticating vegetable and farinaceous matters, as nuts, &c. In short, the form of the teeth of roan evidently points out that he is adapted to live on either kind of diet, or a conjunction of both vege- ubles and flesh. THE HAIR AND NAILB. The hair grows out from the skin somewhat in tba manner nf a vegetable production. Hairs ore fixed by roots in the skin, from whence, by a series of mi- nute vessels, they draw nourishment, and continually increase in length. Thev possess no sensibility, how. ever, and, unlike the otner parts of the frame, may be cut off without producing the least pain. Hair is of different colours in different individuals — is fair in those of light complexion, and deep blauk in the swar- thy. As old age approaches, and even in many voung (tenons, where there Is a particular disease in the tair, or drvness in the skin, this colour changM to , grey and wiiite. The colouring matter of the hair ii contained in the centre, which is of a hollow form, .ind consists of an oily substance, in which carbon or charcoal, in minute particles, is more or 1ms mingled. The nails are somewhat like hair in their production and compoaitiou ; they are, like hairs. Insensible (u the CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THK PKOPI.E. Ill ii. louuh, Knd may Im* rut or pureU withuiit uruilucjnf( )>»in. Th«y receive nuurifhmeiit frum the iKMNl.veHAeli of the extreniiit.ti, and have a conitaiit ffrowth or renewal of their lubaunor. Nailt serve aa a Jefenoe tu tlia Undar part* of the tiiiKert ; In animals they form for* midable weB|H>iia nl attack. Tbo horiii vt rattle are asacUy of the lanie nature ai naili, and are chiefly oompoMd of animal {pY Jatine. THI KTK. We now come to ctmtider the or^ni of tente. The •ye may he oompared In Ua stniettire tu a tpl*'Rr()|>e, t^e puriMMe of both t»eing to roUei't the myK <>i litfht prtMweding from the iitrface of bodlen, to rtiruriitrate theee ray** by means of a refractintf loni, into a fticus, and, therefore, to form a verv small ima^ or picture of the object before them. I'he human eyi< ii placed ir< a large hollow or socket in the upper bones of the face, surrounded by fatty lubstanor, and the various miisclM necessary for moving the eye-ball and eve-lid. At the upper and outer angle of the eve-socVet is placed a gfaod, which secretes the tears tliat urve to moisten the delicate surface of the eye, to wash off any dust or other lubstanoe, and to keep the eyocon- tinimlly wet and transparent, for the purpose of per> feet vision. The 'ears, after aprcadiog over the eye- ball, collect at tbe inner angle, where, at each corner uf the eye-lid, both alHive and Iwlow, there is a small opening visible, which carries the tears down a pass- age into the Mose. The edges of the eye-lids are also ■upplied with glands, which pour out a mucus that prevents them from adhering together; and theae, when irritated and inflamed, are often the seat of dis- ease. The membrane which covers and imparts the white colour to part of the eye-ball in front, is called the selerotic coat. The middle transparent part of tbe eve in front is called the cornea, which is tilled with the aqueous humour of the eye. Immediately b^und the cornea is seen a circular fringed-like lub- ■t— ehind. This lens is contained within acapsule, or thin covering of bvlicate membrane. A familiar example of the lens of a fish's eye is presented every day in that white globu- lar nubstanoe found in such eyes after boiling. The beat ct>agulatea the lena, which is of the same nature as the white of an egg; and in the fish it is nearly a cir- cular body, to adapt the animal's vision to the dense medium of water. The lens is the substance which receives the rays of light entering the eye, and refracts or bends them inwards, whereby they are oillected into one point upon the back chamber of the eye or retine, and thus a minute picture of the object seen is formed. If a bullock's eye is taken when fresh, and a hole cut in the skin covering the back part, and then presented to the light with a piece uf white paper put opposite the hole, a representation of the objects in front uf tbe eye will tie distinctlv traced on the paper. When through disease the lens Wcomea uf an opaaue white colour, and will not transmit the rays uf lignt, the affection ii known at the cataract, producing blindness. The fluid filling the lens is called tbe crystalline humour. Behind the lens is the back chamber of the eye, filled with a fluid, called, from iu thickness, the eryttaliint humour. Over this back chamlwr the retina is spread out like a lining or covering. It is covered over with a blai'k pigment, the better to prevent the intermixture or reflection uf the rays of light On this membrane theivptic nune, which comes from the front part uf the middle brain, aad enters the eye-hiill at the bark part, spreads out in numertms branches ; and here the smidi images of the outward objects presented tu the eye are painted in miniature. AU these objects are painted on the retina in a reversed position, or turned upside down, tbe same as happens in a common microscope; and how they are perceived in their upright position through the medium uf sensation, is a curious questiun, not easily admif.inguf explanation. Karh eye, too, forms a distinct impressiun of every object, and yet things are not seen double, hut both eyes combine tu give one impression to the brain or seat uf pen^ption. Be- sides the numerous muscles which roll the eye-ball in various directions, to adapt it to the various positions of vision, there seems also a power, in the cornea or front portion of the eye, whereby it can flatten or be- come more convex according us the object viewed is at a greater or less distance intm the eye, thus adapt- ing itself to tiie focus of vision In a similar manner as the joints of a telescope are drawn out or pushe*! in- wards. When the cornea is, from ita natural form, of too rounded or convex a stnicture, disuni objects am always seen imperfectly, henre causing what is called nigh-stghtednt^s; on the other hand, when it Lroni the different densities of the three humours compusfiifT the eye, the refraction, or breaking of tbe light into the various coloured rnys, is avoided. This lor a long time was j gre»t objection tu telescopes. till different kinds of glass were joined ti>gether in the lenses, thus imitating the resources nf nature in the eye. The eyes are supplied by two large optic nerves, J iroceeding by separate trunks from the brain; they oin bigetner for a short s|)ane within tbe cranium, where they again separate, and cftdi entering an opening al the back part of the orbit, npread their branohea over the retina. Bometirors these nerves lose their power of sensibility, and tutal blindness Is occasioneil without any perceptible disease of the eye t this is called emeuroru, and is in most cases incurable. All the Urger and more perfect animals are possessed ofe/es. Birds have in general very acute vision, es- pecially birds of prey, to enable them to dittinguish their victims at a great height in the air. They have also a third eye-lid or transparent memhraue, which covers the eye-ball when they are darting suddenly through the air, and which thus iir'".ects the delicate organ of the eye from Injury, at tlie same time that it alhtws the transmission of a sufficient quantity of light, Fishes have eyes of a soniewhat different form from land animals, to adapt their vision to the denser me- dlum uf water, thrtntgh which the rays of light \mv,% to thei.' eyes. Insects have great numtwrs of soihII eyes clustered together, and most probably ihey ure of microaoopic structure. Alany of the inferior ani- mals, as shell-fish, worms, dec. have no eyes. TUC KAlt. This Is the next organ of sense whose sttuatum is the m4Mt complicate*!. The outer part of the ear is f»rr.ed so as to collect and transmit the currents of air into the passage which lendi tothedruni. This pansage is of a winding description, and, Itesides being defended at its moit'K by a number of -tmnll hairs growing up in it, there \\ also a waxy stitintmue ctmstanttv secreted, which ke' ps the whole moint, and is an elfectual bar to the er.tratice of inserts or other offensive substances. At the inner end nf this winding passage is the thin membrane, or drum, which Is stretched out on four small boiieii, and which, by its vibrations, conveys, through the medium of the nervea, the sensations uf •ound. There are also attached to these small bones, Mveral ihuscles which, l>v their cimtractlon and relax- ation, modify the tension of the thin membrane, and prevent sounds fntm acting too strongly tm it, or ren. der it tighter, in order to Im* even sennible to feel vi- brations. Behind the cavity of the tympanum, cr drum, there is another passage which leads from the ear to the mouth, called the Kuttaehian tubgf tlie iib. Ject of which Is most pmhably the same as the holes In the common drum, to allow the air to escape from behind, and thus promote the vibration of the mem- brane of the tympanum ; fur it i« found, that if such holes are not made in a drum, little or no sound will be produced ; and in the human IxMiy, when this tube, leading to the mouth, is choked up by the inflamma- tion of a C4tmmon cold, deafness is produced. There is another cavity called the vestibule of the ear, co- veied over alio by a thin membrane i on this mem- brane the nerves of hearing are expandeii, and convey tbe sensations o( stnind to the brain. The sense uf hearing is very acute in some animals, es|HH:ially those that live by prey. In the lower orders of lieings the sense is awanting, but is compensated in a umsiderable degree by the extreme acntene»s of feeling, or tiiuch, which is so diffused over their bodies as to make them sensible of the least agiution in the air by which they are surrounded. THE KOBE. The nose is the organ of smell, and is of compara- tively simple structure. The htmes forming ita inner cavitv are of a spongy nature, or rather are cum. posed of a numlwr of very thin plates, covered with a soft membrane, over which the branches of the nerves of smell are minutely exposed. Theeflluvia prtH-eed- ing from bodies, aiid which imparts their pei-uMur odour, must pass In a stream or current through the nose before tne odour is perceptible. If the air is perfectly still, and no current allowed in the nose by suspending the breathing through that organ, the strongest smells will make no impression. In some animals the sense of smell is acute and ]Hiwerful, be- yond the conception uf human beings; thus a dog, by the aculeness of this sense, will distinguish tlie fiKit- stepa of bis master amid those uf a hundred other peo- (tie, and can thus trace him for miles, although he has >een a long while out of sight ; pointers also scent game at a great distance. On the other hand, this sense is entirely denied to many of the lower animals. In man it is in many eases very imperfect, nnd may \te blunted, or even extinguished, by diseane. In C4)lds affei:ting the delicate menibranes lining the nostrili, tbe sohSI is very much diminished. THE MOtTTH. The sense of taste is nearly allied to that of smell. The nerves nf taste are spread over the upper surface of the tongue, and are raised up in innumerable small poinu, like the pile of velvet. In tbe lion these pa- pilla are very large and easily distinguishable. No other part of the mouth is endowed with tbe pro^wrty of testing, except the tongue, as may Iw proved by touching any p\rt tif it with a piece oi salt or sugar, when no sensatiun of taste will \m ronimunicated un^ til the tongue has cnme In contact with the part so Uiuched. That the taste or flavour uf many bodies is heightened by the accmnpanying effects on the or- gan of smell, is evident ; because, if the nose is stopped up so aa to prevent tbe exercise of its functions, many substancet having different flavours will taste alike. This ii the case with the various kindii uf wines, but eH|>eciBlly with the iirdent spirits, li is ulmost impua- sihle to ilistingiiish between (he flavours of dilferent kinds of spirits if tbey he trieil in the dark, and with tilt! passage (o the nose accurately shut up. The tongue and whole cavity of the mouth and throat are kept moist by the sulivii, or spittle, which onntinually flows Into them from repositories placed aruund the cheeks and under the tuiitfue, called salivary glands, which coi»Miut>ini(e with the month by means of small ducts, 'I'lus sativ^t flows in grealest quantity during; meals, tnd may even lie exciteil by the sight of fooil when the Hppetite is gcNNl. It is of essential aervic<* in moiait iiing the fu«Kl, and preparing it for the pm- cess of (liKestion in the stomach. The sensation of taste in in all probability diffused among every cJaas of beings, however low in the scale of existence, aU thuugli it is probable many animals possess little of it in their mouths, eKiwcially when tnese are fond uf hant. horny, or even earthy substances, as in many Inset IS— the lobster, crab, Stc — and where any organ corresponding to h tongue Is wanting. Kven many birds that fet'il on grain and hard bo«lies, nut chewed • ir broken down in the mouth, must have little sensa- tion uf taste. SEN1R or TOlcil. Tbe sensation ttf touch is diffused mure or less over every part of the body, luit Is most perfect at tbe points of the fingers, which in man are grnerully n examine the ligure and texture of iMidies. For this purpose they are furnished with a large supply uf very minute btiNiil-vessels and nerves. It would appear that there are different nerves that convey the iensi4* tlon of touch, distinct from tlione which are the nerves uf motion; and that these proceed in pairs from tbn spinal marrow ; and that, moreover, the sensation uf heat or cold may he perreivcd very distinctly, In cases where the prirklng of :i ii(H*dle or contact of other boe said to belong tu every animated being, and is one great characteristic of animal existence. Vegetable bodies possess a certain degree of life, and show what is called irritabiliiy of their fibres ; but they hive mi sensation properly so cuHed ; they are not sensible of pain or injury, as the lowest and simplest sentient animal is; neither have they the compensating per- ceptions of pleasure. It is probable, however, that sensatiiM is not by any meiins equally acute in all ant- ni ' lie feel more intensely than others, and It is II rovislon of nature that it should be so. The Im^' ects and reptiles, from their structure and habit^, .ire continually exposed to Injury; and did they feel it as acutely as tlie larger animals, the de- gree of animal suffering throughout nature would be excessive. !tlany afiimals bear the loss of limbs wiili impunity, and have the power of restoring these lust memlwrs in a very shun time. It is probable, that, according tu the perlert ni of the nervous system, U tlie acuteness of animal sensation. On thus reviewing the different parts of tbe human body, it will lie observed that most of its organs aru double. On a line being drawn In the middle, on each side will be foi'nd parts which are exactly similar tu the corresponding side. This is the case with the brain, which is a double urgnii, tmving two series of nerves prooenling out from eiuli side of it to go to the reipe^'- tlre sides tff the body. There are two eyes also, eaih reflecting a distinct image on the retina; yet tlui nerves communicate so that only one impression is conveyed to the sense. The arms are double, In suit the various purposes for which they are employed, and so are the lower limlrs, an essential requisite for the support nf the body, and for progressive mothm. The lungs, t(K>, may lie said to be dimble, having two distinct lubes ; and it sometimes happens that erne uf them is entirely shrunk or diseased, and yet the im. jmrtant oHlce of respiration is still carried on. The stomach, the liver, and some of the other viscera of the abdomen, are, however, single, their several oflloes being common to the whole buidy. DI0E8TI0K. One of the most important operatitms in the animal economy, is that uf digestion, whereby r.ho various substances used for food are dissolved in Che stomach, and undergo changes, by which they are formed Into matter fit for entering into the composition of the dif- ferent parts of the txHly, to nonriNh its growth, and supply the daily waste which takes place in the ays- tem ; for such Is the constitution uf animal bodii'^, that the substances of which they are composed are liable tu constant waste; the solid parts are worn down, and taken up by the absorlfent vessels, and a large quantity of fluid Is at eonstantly given off by the exhalent vessels, both from the skin and the sur- fai-e of the lungs. This is manifest in the sweat and the vap4iury exhalations constantly passing off by the mouth ; and tliere is alsu an imperceptible perspi. ration regularly proceeding from the surface of the b(Mly, which has been computed to amount to several pounds in the course of a day. It must be evident, thereftire, that if this waste was allowed to proceed bnt for a very short period, the lN>dy would soon l>e reduced to a state of complete decay. A constaiit sup- ply of new material is therefore daily needed, to re- place that which is wasted ; and thus it has bran sup- posed that a human body changes its whole meieriahi many hundred times tram the peritid of its birth tiU death; and that an individual, as regards his mem corporeal structure, n not at all the same at the pe- riod of manhood to what he wna wiiau a boy, nor in ACCOUNT OF THE HUMAN BODY. old Hge wtmt he waa in liia |irtiue. AllhnuKh tlili i-hangti tliBu ii complflte, even t4) the iHineH kihI nimt •iiljd |inru of the frnine, It \n liniiitfht Hbout lu ((ra- dually, anil with the regulur and mlnuto mhititiition iif (iiiif particlft fur niiother, that it ii never percrptihle i nnd even thu niarki uf iiiott and blemiiihtii, mid the li»*allng lean of woundn, nre accuratt^ly preiiervcd. Man hat been railed, with relation to hit diet, omni- voroui, from hii bein); adiifitcd to live on evory kind Iff food, whereat mottothvr animaliareounHned to one )>articntar dncription. The carnivoruui nnimalilire on fltah alone, the ffr-imlnlToruii* on gruM and )(reen herbi, and the ifranivnniui on {rraiiiti and othir iinaller ■«edi. Tht»e anhnult never chuntce thi'ir respective dieti; nor, fruni thu ciinitruction of their leuth, ito- marhR, and Intvitinet, were thev ever intended to do Ml. Hut in man it ii plainly evident, from hli ana- lotnical itructure, that he uai intended to feed on every tort of fmid promiHcuomly, or that he could adujtt himielf to oltfivr animal or reifetahle furt>, mi hah:t or nLM-eiiiity imfwlled him. Man alio difTeii from brntui in rewrtlng tothe arti of coiikln^f, wImmh. by the food \» put into a lUte inore Atted for digMtlon, and for yielding a mtflciency of nutrltinui aliment. The fiKxl being received into the mouth, li broken down and maitlrated by the teeth, which are of two kindi, the cutting teeth and the grindfri. It ii here alio reduced into a loft pulp by the Hallvu, which flowi into the mtmth by the iiUivary ({landi ; and thui being ■utticiently broken down and Hoftened, it pasiet into the stonmch. The itumach hai numerous glands si- tuated on itH inner coat or surface, which secrete a peculiar fluid called the gaitric juice, which Is clear lutd culourleu, with little taate, or tmell, or sensible qualities. On this Auld depends the important office of di^(>itIon. It has the power of coagulating sub. BtHucei in the stoniach, of preventing the content! of the stomach from passing into a state of fermentation or putrifactiun, and of dissolving the whole into one homogeneous mass. When the stomach is flrst filled with food, it appears to remain there for a short period without undergoing any change ; gradually, however, •uccesaivB portions of the food an they roine Into con- tact with the gastric fluid are diisolved ; till at length, in a shorter or longer periml, the whole Is collected into a thin greyish paste, railed chyme. In the upper or left division of the stomach, It would appear, from •ome 'eccut ubtiervations, that the food Is freed from iu supcrubundant moisture, which drains off by some undiscovered means to the blood-vessels, and from thence to the kidneys. The chyme then, as it is gra- dually formed, moves to the other extremity of the stomach, culled the pyloric, where it passes out to en- ter the intestiiKil canal. It would appear, also, that the pylonia, or lower mouth of the stomach, has a sensitive power, wliereby,it freely permitH the digested chyme to pass out, but refuses exit to the undigested natter. The cliyine having passed into theArst part «f the intestines, or duodenum, is then mixed with the bile from the gall-bladder, and with the pancreatic juice. Both these substances, especially the bile, ■eem enicntial for the conversion of the chyme in- to propiT aliuientary matter, but their peculiar ac- tion has not vet been satisfactorily explained. That the liver and bile ducu are of toe utmost import- ance, however, cannot be doubted, from their magni- tude, and the ram by which they are supplied with numerous vessels, and from their being universally preiu'nt iu a great proportion of animals. The chyme having passed through the duodenum, and having been mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice, now changes its appearance and properties, and becomes the chyle, or nutritious matter destined to supply the various parts of the system with nourislimenL The digested mass is passed gradually along the umrse uf the Hinnll intestines, urged forward by wliat is called their })eristaltic motion, which is effected by a succes- sive contraction of their fibrous coats. Here the mi- nute mouths of the lacteal vessels, opening on the inner surface of tlie small intestines, take up the chyle, and carry it, un has already been descrtl>ed, to the receptacle of the chyle, and Irom thence, by the thoracic duct, it joins the blood-vessels. The reitise uf the aliment u liich has not l>een taken up by these lacteal vessels pHs»<'i on through the large intestines, and at length i> ijected from the body. It is conjec- tured that, in ihe colon, or large gut, which ibllowt otter the smaller intestines, the fatty matter of the body i!« secreted. Digestion is unt brought about, as has by some been supposed, by any meohanital means, as by the grinding powers of the coats or sides of the itom&ch, nor by heat alone, nor fermentation, nor by the simple solution of the food in n fluid, but it is evi- dent that it undergoes a series of chemical actions in the stomach and Itowels, whereby its nature and pro- perties are completely changed ; and thus animal and vegetable substances, however different, are reduced to one peculiar kind of flnid, thechylt% which, though it may be found to vary slightly Recording to the kind M fond, is, in its general properties, alwavH the same. The gastric juiee varies In different animali. (n those irhirh feed on vegetable raatttT, it dissolven theitesub. ■tMidet only ; whereat, grain and vegetables pass thrmigh the stoniach of a carnivorous animal without underg^rfng any change. It has this singnlar pro- perty, too, that although it readily dissolves dead ani- mal matters, and reduces them in a hhort time to n thin pulp, it wilt not usunlly act er of sharp-pointed pebbles, which such birds always swallow, it it ground down and acted on by the gastric juice. This compensates for the dellciency of teeth in fowls. Cralis and lobsters have no tw*th In their mouths ; hut in rhcod through the arteries, and rt« retnni to tlie hettrt by the veins, bus already been explained. The purpose of its thus making the circuit uf t!ie whole b^My, is to supply the necessary materials for increasing the bulk and re- pairing the daily waste which takes place by perspi- ration, and the absorbing actions of the lymphatic vessels already described. The blooil, again, is reple- nished by the chyle, or nutritious juice formed in the intestines from the digested food; this chyle enters the venous side of the heart, by one of the large veins called the left huKct.ivian ; fnim the right side of the heart it goes along with the venous bhHMl to the lungs, and there it is mixed with the oxygen, or vital portion of the atmospheric air, by which prm^ss it is C4mverted inio bright-red arterial blood. In this state it now contains the material of the Iwnes, ot the fleshy or muscular parts of the brain and nervous cords of the Imir, nails, enamel of the teeth, and, in slM»rt, of every different structure of the system. The average quan- tity of blood contained in an ordinary sited person, is calnilated at about 30 lbs. weight. The coloured globules of blood do not enter into the smallest vessels of the body, but only the thinner part of it which has no colour ; thus, ia the eye, there are numerous blood, vessels, but these are so minute as not to admit the red parts of the blood ; and this Is a necessary provi. slon of nature, in order that these organs may retain their pure transparency for the purpose of vision. In inflammation of the eyes, when these vessels are much enlarged, the red globules sometimes enter, and the eyes are then said to l>e bltHHlshot. What is called the pulse. Is the flow of the blood thrblivlon of sleep ensues. We are utu'onsclous of the exact moment when we pa.is Into sleep, but occasionally It hap)tens that Immediately afterwards we are awaked by a cort^. vuliive start, which Is caused by the sudden breaking in of the pt)wers uf volition, when as yet but newly and imperfectly lulled to rest. Sleep is quite essential to existence. I>eprive a person of sleep, and the Intdy sinks under the privation more rapidly than under famitu*. Indeed, no circumstances, however urgent, will prevent the approaches of sleep for any length of time; and under thu severest calamities, and even while in the hour of battle, or when suffer* ing from extreme fatigue, or cold, or hunger, sleep steals up(ui us to steep the senses in oblivion. Healthy sleep is sr) profound as to resemble, in all that regards telf-consciousness, death iuelf. Hometlmes, however, the mind exerts Itt activity, though It is but a partial exertion ; and hence dreams, or tha thoughts of sleep, are made up of all incongruous assof^iations, such as thoughts of the past day and in* cidents of Icmg liygono years; scenes of actual expe* rience, and others totally imaginary, being all mixed up and jumbled together. In sleep the heart continues tobeat with regularity, and .hecirculatinnof the blood is carried on throughout the body; the lungs perform their functicms, the stomach digests, and the tH»weU, and all tho glands for secretion, carry on their opera- tions; in short, everything is carried on nmnected with the su^tenitiice of the body and the existence of the vital powers ; but for the most part all other f towers, such as those over which we have a c:>ntrol n our waking hours, are at rest. This is notalwaj'S the case, however, us walking during sleep, or sum> nambulisro, is a peculiarity which some individuals are liable to. Dreams are most C4)mmou when the sleep is Imperfect or too long continued, and thus they (MTur frequently utwnrds morning, or through the night, If the stonmch is loaded and oppressed with food, or the mind harassed and deeply impressed with cures and solicitudes. In a state of health and serenity "f spirits, the most profound and most refreshing sleep is during the fired than during the day. This is the reason, t, why a person lying down to sleep out of doors, or on a sofa, with the usual allowance uf clothes, feels chill and uncomfortable on awaking. Digestion, too, would appear to go on less vigorously during sleep ; and hence the impropriety of going to bed with a full stomach. During the night and darkness is the most natural and obvious time tu select for repose, and it is only the absurd encroachments of fashiim that have well nigh turned day into night. By going early to bed, the damps and C4tlds of night are avoided, wiiirh is of essential consequence, especially for the delicate. There is also a natural iimnection of the functions of the body with the peritMis of day and night, which makes sleep taken in the flrst part of the night peculiarly refreshing. The absence of every irrita. tion of the head and other parts of the btnly — tho perfect rest of the mind and external senses-^have also great influence in promoting sleep. Again, a variety of causes which weaken and debilitate the body, incline to sleep; such as great losses of bhMNl, cooling med'^'ines, purgatives, coldness of the atnio. sphere; and narcotics, such as opium and tobacco, drinking largely of wine or spirituous liquors, by first causing great ext^itement, md afterwards a corres- ponding debility of the system, also predi^^pose to pro. found and lethargic sleep. Injuries of the head, by pressing on or otherwise interrupting the functions uif the brain, also induce sleep; and great corpulency, by retarding the return of blood through the vein's, and thM>i keeping up a pressure upon the head, is ge- nerallv ncctimpanied by a disposition to hUt less. Till- (teriod require)H>r, or h lii;ht one. It is true, gluttony and intoxication produ(*e sometimes deep sleep, biit it ap- proai^hes more to an apoplectic stufHjr, than the calm repose of the teni|H*rHte. It is in such cases that the curious circumstiiiice which has been called " night- mare" occurs. When a person is weired with an attar-k of this kind, if it is very severe, it generally iisturhs sleep so much, that the sufferer at last becomes con- scious that he is in bed, and onlv half asleep, lie feels to be oppressed with some weight which cont^uvs him to his back, and prevents bis breathing, which now becomes extremely labtfrious, so that the lungn cannot be properly filled by any effort he can make. The sensation is now the moat painful that cao W conceived. The person becomes every instant rr^fe CIIAMnERSa INFORMATION FOR THK PKOPLK. MMt tiHir* HWkk* And ciMU(-loti« iif hit titiiHtiiui. Hf nukf*M viulvni ttlf»nt lo niuvti hja liiut>t, mprcinWy Im Mrmi, with ■ virw ut thniwiitK off ihit iitcumWui «viftlitt but not it niMM'U will obvy tha tinpulM o( ih« will. JU K^Ni"* «l(tn iiicrawiiitf, Ml th^t avary l>rMth ha drawi Mirmi Ui )>a ftlmml Ills liMl thai ha I* llkaly to drKw. Thtt ha«rt Kfiiurittly iii'ivat with ifn'rvatad v«|m'Uy, aomptiini^ (■ •tlfaclvd with pal)ill«limt, Iha rounlvinni^ appmr« K'lMkt'y, iiitil ihaayet >r« half npvn. Tht* )>atititit, IT Ivll Id hiiUMlf, lla* in thU iiaia fffinprMlty ahoul a iiiiiiutaor two, whrn ha rtH>r iniUiitly rhan|n*t hli iH»eikioii, m «■ to wHki> him. nt-lf thttrou|(hly. II ihia Iw not dona, lliit lit li vary h|>t 10 rrtiiin a){a)n immrtliatcly, m tha |iropttiiiitv ii fail aKHiii aalrap it almoal irratUlihlc, miil, if yialdrd te au^omiianiril frtH]UfaUy with rertaln draniuy iinA^limtion!! ntfrt tiiw itie mind| and Ml othvr timm U iiitn|ily tha NrtuutittinK inimclm t>f th«f vuif* catlod InUi artion without nny dittinci ani», atlaoil without tha (lerion Win^ rapaltlaof re* SIltTtinff any tiling if nwakfiiwl durin(( hit hHrNn((na. uiiy or lite hiMiT aiiinuiU eitand their |writ»da of olfH'p to tinmhftlf of tha yntr t thii ia cnllfHl m itatt* uf I'trpidiiv, and ocnin in thoM» aninuU during winter. This ttnta (if torpidity rcaeinblaa, in muit rMp*H-ta, « roiniiiiti) alnapt only that it m mora profound and lonxtT i-untinuMl, latd iha Tiial funriiont arr stii- )M*ndnl in a more o»iO(ilfle drt^rae t ittll therr )■ a tt^tile rirrulation of the l*l<»od in tha larkfrr hyl>(*niiit- iiiif aiiiiiiala, u* t;real, and tne intcrrupiitoi of the vitJ tiinctioni lu 4-uii(plele, aa almoit asuily to r«< atinlile death. NCRrnt'S INrLVKMCT. The brain ia. In all prolMibilitv, the tni of thoitifht and cunM-iouineat, and, throUKd the ittatromttiittility M tha nerT(>ii, of motion and aflnMlion. In wltat niari- iicr ilie brain acta, howrvrr, or nrrvoui ftenMttioii ii r'M)vey*Hl, hat ai yet, and nniit alwnyf, it i* prctiirned, rpmNin an Impenvtr.ihlr niyntery. At %hn narvoui hrniii-iira have a ottniinon ori^ill in the brain, or the kpititt miirrow, aa itipy eitrnd to evci-y part of the ImnIv, and aa tha hranrhm 'jf even remote par ta often join and intermix with eui-h otlier in vnrioiii wayi, that aympailiy of one |Mirtioii of the frame with an- other, aiwl those curtona Hitting and alleniaiioni of p\inn, which ao frtH)m*ntly tMViir in iliM'ane, may b« i-i-nilily rxplaiofHl mid aironntad for. Tiiuit the fcreat kympathetic ni-rvi>, whicli nriaeii from ttir lirmn, de- ftrendi iittti the I'heat and ahdnnieii, mid f^i^t-s otf hrMnrheatJi the hiii^t, itotniu'h, hriirt, anddrnptirainn. When itny one ol thtve orfrauii, ihfu, ia dinrMUfd, it it. luit ui Im* woriih'n>d at thai the othfm ihouM tym* \ htht7u with tliem, or that aavrre hendachea ahould nriM! fnmi diaonlt-r of the lunnavh. 'I'be brain and ner\e«, Imi, lining pHrU of the animal ayiieiu, it ia not fiiiriiruinKtbat atreriioni ot the noud, and eicji*. nteuL of the p»*«ioiii, ihtiuM hnve inch an influenna oil tiie heal'li and itrneral (HniaiMiiy oi the body, and, on tbi* oiuiir hand, ili»i dtMttM* of tlt»< hmlv kIiooIiI re> ripritcitll^ atft^'t the mind. Man KtirpiMca all other ariijiiiil^ in the heik/l>t end profMirtiniiR of the forehead, and in the maaaot brain in tlie up|*er purl mH the ikull. In tlie human h«ad the lower paru of the face >>ear a ^iiiiiller proportion In the forehead than in tha bnitea. The fHce in plai'e*! In nearly a per|iendic)ilLr line with th" toreheiMt, nitie-id of proj«*ctiiifr oiiiw;trdt into a »it 'ut, at in thf hiwer atiimala. Tha hrnte fac« ii I'lfrtrly ftiitud (or the pnrpitie of animal want*, and tor itf fence; the jaai are lunff and narniw, lupplied with thick, ttnoiK niuarlea, and abort te^th ; there i« not the elevated nNhle einiinhlion of n rMtional mind, that my ol divtuiiy, at the itp- )N*ear to lie un* deraUNid by animalt, at well ea practiaed bv them; for a iloif, on looking to the ronnlenance of fiit imtater, eMil]f Tviognite* the mute wtpreaaiona either of cotn. menaation or ditMtiafiu^tion. Krom the action of theae mutrln l«inf( ao often repeav<4l, phyaiof^nomy aritea ; au that tha ivnatanl expreation oif the face re- t«i na aoinetliing of tha action of tha prcvalliiiK muacl**i ; ftiid thiit aume iracea of frequent auger nftvn remain in the ronnteiuknce after the paaaion itaelf it f^une ort. With tJie power of ifteach and raaaop, man liHa aUo the meana of crpraaaiuK hit feelinfia and pataioon by laughter and weeping, which i« almuai unktiown t'> Ci»it lower auimiala. Weeping pruceeda from • deep emotion of the mind, and Aei'iim nii dfort ol nature to relieve Ow k\nivn\ of Krief. It beKitia with a deep In- tplration of the lungt, aftar which follow iliort alter, nuta inapli-atlona and axpiralioiia, and It it rtniahed with a deep lung-drawn expiration, which it linmedi< alely followed by an inaptratlou. Heme it haa nearly the tama good and bad elfecta, and, when modarale, i| ralievpt tha dintraat aritlng frf>m grief. LaiiKhter haa ita rtt« from toina tndicrotit Ideaa impreated upon the mind, and would teem t4i ariaa direiitty from Iha litiltation of the branchea of the internal nervea, pro- hubly thoaa of the diaphragm i Immediately to thlt aurcoe«la a nnmlier of iinparfect inanirHtlnni and ex< piratioiia, which teem u> be charked by the contrac. t>on of tlie ((lottit in the throat or larynx. Laughter In a inoderale degree may be conducive lo hmiltn, at it givet a conruaaion to, and ullimaivly promotet, the circulation ; carried to exreat, however, it mav prove dangeniut, fnnn arcumtilaling |ik> much bbma In the Inngt. Hneming mnaitia or one deep intplralion, tnccemled by a powerful tingle expiration, and teemt to cnniitt of a convulalve effort of the mutclet of breathing I41 throw off aome rauae of irritation in tha aeiiffitive membrane of the noatrilt. The ronimon hiccup it a tpaamodic action of the muaclea of the ttoinach, niy ditugreeahle ii>na-itroiiH, which aaem to to prodiirrd hv every aenaatiun In a nerve that it too atrong t mid pleaaiire, bv thote in which the nerve ia irritated be. yond what it uaniil, but In a gentle and moderate de. gree. Itching it akin to pleature, and in kith the (low of blotMt la increaicd into the part in which either jdeaauri' or titillntion it perceived j but when farther iticreaaed, it df^neratet ir* aln, or excetaive lenta* (ionN In the nervei. Anxletv aritet from the blood (wing rrtanled In it* nataage tliroii^h the lungt. An. ger violently excitetthemotlnn of the splrilt, tncreatca the motion of the heart, the freiiuenry of the pular, Iind the atrength of the inuavlett forcpt the bliMMl into the extreme veaaelt t and even burtta the tmaller vet. tett thumtalvet 1 thui pataion alto incrvaaet the tecre- tjon of bile. Orief weakeiii the atrength of tlie nervea and action of the heart, retardt the pulae, detlroyt the fipiwlite, and produoeapaleneis,looaeneatof thehowelt, indigtfition, and thoae alow or lingering dlaeaaea tliiit tiiku their rite from an interruption of the tecreting K'aitda, and a disease of their atructure. Keur dinii- uiahet the force of the heart, weakeniihe nnitnilar mo- tions, relaxei the whole tyateni, and, if long uiiitinued, cauaea a general sinking of the iHwIy. Kxceaaive ter- ror increases for the nu>ment the mutctilar ttrength, even to cunvulsionti excites the pulse, inlernipta the murte of tha blood, and in not a few intlanccs liHs produced sudden death. lrv of paat scenea, past events, wnrdt, coUnirs, Ac The imni^nation Is early derelo|>ed In children. In the ftrst periods of infancy we have scarcely me. mory ; It grows and is strengttiened with the accumu. latino of incidents and scenes that pass tiefore us( In rhildbfMMl it is <]nick and retentive. In old age, again, the power of retaining the memory of recent eventa falU, while the circumstances of long paat years are pertinaciously retained. Imagination is moat active In the tint period of life, from childhood to maturity. Judgment then assumes its swav, and the brilliancy and activity of the fancy somewdat subsides. iirrAircr. At the moment of birth, the Infant begins to m- «rciae an indeprudtnt existano% wlwrMi, before, it formed a part, ami was noiiritli*'d by the veaaelt, of ita Iiareiii, A gentrMJ aimilarity takts place in the am. iryo growth of niott animals, and the familiar instanee of the chick in the egg may be taken as an exampta. Tha egg Is C(mip4iaad of a i«iitre pari, or yolk, ann of tha albumen, or whit* pari surruuufling it. In Ihhi whil* part, a small darker speck may ne seen float. Ing, frimi whenc* the first nidimanu of tha chick ara derived. In a few days after the han has sal on tha egg to impart to It the nrreasary heat, a iniall whitith spot will he ohaerved, which Is tha first nidi* roants of a brniri) in a few days more, vesaals nlU be seen spreading out from a central heart, and form- ing a nvl.work all around ; gradually an appear, anca of a head is s«en, with indications of brain and ipinal marrow 1 ttie eye.balls next are formed, then tne several parts of the viscera, the projections of tha wings and legs, and, lastly, the skin and rudlmanUof the niture feHthtrs. louring these periods of incubis* tfon, the chick haa been nourished liy tha yolk of tli« •tfffi which has gradually been aliaorbed by Its vessela fur Ihli purpose. At Itist, when its growth is per. fected, and the whole contents of the egg converted Into tha materials of Its body, the little animal \m~ gins to pick a hole in the shell, and, by repeated ef- forts, bursts from its thelly priton, and atsumes an independent life. The infancy of man is of much longer duration, and of a much more helpless nature, than the same state lu any other animals. A child cannot walk till it it at leaat twelve months old ; and even for a uonsiderahle time after that periwl, it haa to be fed and tended with the utmost care t whereat, after a very short time, the young of most animsls are able to provide for tbemselvea { in a gn'al many, a few minutes after birth, they are able to walk about, to search for and disiinguiah the teat of their mother, aud hi pick up the fmid that is suitable for them 1 and having remained under their maternal protection lor a short apace, they leave their pnrentn, and never know or diatinguiah them more. It la very diffen-nt with the infant 1 during a long and helpless period of child. hfMid, it is tended by a fund mother, who antiripat«'t all its wants { while it, on the other hand, wau'hen her smiles, and Imitates her most mintite actions ( and thus a reciprocal Inind of union is entabllahed, by which not only every s|it>cies of knowleilge and exp«. rience ia acquimi for the conduct of after life, but thitse moral ties and airetttlons eati.bliahed which omi. atitute the great IkwsI aud solace of human society, Man proceeds from Infancy to maturity by a slower and nuire ^radiutl expauae of the bodibr structure than any other animals, and this may be one reason of his superior organisation, hit greater fitness for aupport- ing laliour ann fatigue, and the longer period to which his life It prolonged. Knim infancy luiwards, the men- tal powen also Kradually expand. This it also differ- ent from aninutia; for in them the faculty of instinct at oncH is perfected, and never afierwardt IncreaseN or undergoes any cliange. In childhood, the mental fncultiesarectmstantly active, and on the alert to catch new information, inquisitive to know every thing, and imitate every genture. The facility with which chtU dreii acquire the knowledge of words, and In a few months master a liingnage, is yerv aatonishing, when we rellect fur a ni lit(iirv, flfC*'") I* ■lotillfr, Impiiwnii'iil* and, Irt w«ry rMpMii, laiire dclii »uily loritiiNl t Uia bimM mrm IflM pniJuctirifT. tlia ihii«;I«« wiftHr, Ism oonipii'iioiii, and mure innMilily MdiiJmI oi^ into tha other t iha •iMJuldari ar« i)«rruw «iid roundnl { ili« f(r«iittt«l bffMdth of thti timly balriK at the )M>lvi«, from whi>ntw U graduAlly tiif>tiri tipwardi) the ikii) it iinft mid dn« liraie I the lutir ■iiUHXh, and (if a nilktui H|>pit»rKni-«. The mental qualitiiw and dItptwitliHii dilTerwiiuvwhal alio. Mail U noiniiiandiitfr, retnliiie, ilarinf(, adven- tuniuN, addUited todeep and abtlrnrt thtMif{)it, an well aa Ut high and imaginative ipertilatiune. Wimian U tfvnde, auhmiulve, timid \ with a mind, parhapt, little Inferiur In conipaM to man, ihe !■ mure cum- mnnly diitlri^iitnhed lor anita penetration, niee and delicate iliacrirnitialiuii, rrliiied and chaateited tiiite, and el^Kant ami ulayf'nl fancy. It waa the opinion of Pluto, that, wttli n'K»rd tu the mind, there ii no natural ditfereni^e tit twet^n tha lexet, hut in point of ttrenfth. " When the ftitire eaxei are C4>mpHred to. KRthor," layi he, *' the female ii douhtleu the inferior i iMil In Individuali, the woman haitften the advnntafce of the man." H'iih warm and ttmder attach men ti, |Mir« morale and high raliffioua feellnipi, she !• adinU rahly ualoulate menta hnii lH>en the foremoet to appreciate thone iiu< perlor nunlitiM which are to be found in a grnt'lH and nniophlNticHtHd female. The late Hrttfemor Dugald Stewart thuti introduces a quotation from a well-known traveller, which atfordi a juat and lieautlfnl eatimate of the tender diipoiition of woman i — " From the greater delicacy of their frame, and from tiia nume- roui ailment* connected with their temperament, lomhined with their conitani familiarity with dia- Ueinea which are not their own, the aynipathy of M-mnen with the ■uiferinga of ntheri ii nmch more lively, and their primiptitude to adminlcter relief, whenever it la poMiihle, is much more eager than in tiie generality of men. To the truth of thin remark every day'i experience Iwara witneu ; and, from the tmtininny of travellers. It appears that the obnervatioa (Ktonds to women in all the different stages of society. The strong testimony of I^edyard, the celebrated p«- dfttrlan traveller, on this |ioint, may be regarded as Twrfuctly decisive. " To a woman, whether civilised or savage, I never addressed myself in the language of decency or friendship, without receiving a decent and friendly answer t with men it has been often mtierwise. In wandering over the barren plains of Utmmark, through Htveden, Ijapland, Finland, Kussla, aiid the wide-spread regitnis of tiie Tartar, if hungry, dry, ni|r), wet, or sicJc, tlie women have ever ht'en friendiy to roe, and uniformly so; and, to add to this virtue, these actions have been performed In so free and kind a manner, that, if I was thirsty, I drank the sweetest draught i and, if hungry, I ate the coarse meal with a double relish.** TIMVERaMENT. There are certain conditions of the bodily frame which evidently constitute varieties of the human oonstitution, .ind wliich have betsn called tempera- ments. Thus the sanguineous temperament is cha- racterised by a florid fair complexion, rather tall sta- ture, hair of a flaxen or che.ttnut colour, a certain pJuinpness nf the form, olue eves, transparent skin. Tha accompanying mental qualities are, a quick per- i'«ption, ready and tenacious memory, lively imagi- nation, a mind disposed tohoite, fond of anticipations, amorous, delighting ir pleasures, of an active habit, generally healthy, tint if attacked with d scnne, thtn will be of an inllammatory nature. This temperament daaoeuds into the muNnilar or athletic when the ani- mal powers are in perfection, but the mental less de- veloped ; thus the head is small, and the forehead low, but the muscles are well marked and swelling, the shoulders broad and full, the chest large, and the feet and hands small and well proportioned. The bilious temperament is indicated by the hair being black, or dark coloured, the skin brown or yellowish, the mtis- cle* firm, tha outline of the features well formed and expr*^slve. The mind is also bold in the conception of designs, firm and persevering, courageous, active, inclined to sudden bursts of passion, and the powers of intellect will be fimnd to he generally very early devehtpcd. When the body is diseased, and evk is not too long, his belly doa* not project, and his hands are large, hut ikH ttMideaply rlalt i his foatt i| rather thick than long, add his legs are tlrm and round i he has, also, a broad archeil chest, a iitrong voice, and tha fa- culty of retaining his breath for a long time without dlfHoulty. In general, there is a romplata harmony In all hts parts i hia senses are good, hut not too dali- oatiM his pulse is slow and regular i his stomach Is exoallant, his appetite g*M>d, and digestion easy, Tha loys of the table are to him of Importance t they tuna lils mind to serenity, and his soul partakes In tha p'^a* sure which they communlcatfl t ha does not eat ma. «ly ftir the sske of eating, but each meal is an hour of daily festivity t a kind of delight, attended with thu advHntiige In regard toothers, that it does not make him poorer, hut richer i he eats slowly, and has not too n'urh thirst. Timi grent thirst Is always a sign of rapid self-consumption. In genersl, he is serene, lo. quacious, active t susceptible of joy, love, and hope t but Insensible to the ImpresRions of anger, hatred, and avarice I his passions never baoonie tim violent or destructive. If he ever gives way to angar, he expe- rienres rather a useful glow of warmth, an artificial and gentle fever, without an overflowing of the gall. He in fond als ditatlou and agreeal)le siMrulatlons t is un optimist, a friend to active and domestic felicity i lias no thirst after honours or richeai and banishes all thmights of to-morrow. HAN anAPTrn to i.ive in ail cmmatks. Man has this superiority over all other animals, that he can Inhabit every dilferent region of the globe, however extreme the degre* of temperature. He is fnimd under the scorching nun and amid the arid plains of Africa, as well as in the frost-lmund regions of Spitsbergen t and he Is found to live and thrive uniler these different extremes, not only after a gra- dutti naturalixation of ages, but can even move from one country to another, and undergo a vu'issltude of climate with comparative impunity. Thus we see, even from our own country, emigrants going forth, and naturalising themselvea amid the cold regions of the north, onward to the very verge of the equator. The Esquimaux and the Canadian savage will prose, cute their usual employments of tha chase In a tem- perature where mercury freexei Into a solid mass, and where even brandy congeals to Ice in apartments con- taining flres; while the African negro, again, feels quite at his ease in a burning climate, where the ther- mometer in the shade ranges from IK)" to 100°, and upwards. Man has an equal facility In adapting him- self to the pressure of the atmosphere attendant on low or elevated situations. In Mexico, bo is found living In elevated regions, from 0000 to flOOO feet alwve the level of the sea; and the hamlet of Antisana, in Quito, Is Ifi,!^^ feet above the level of the ocean. On the contrary, we And almost all animals only adapted to live In the reg.'ons In which they are naturally found ; and If they are removed from such localities, they seldom enjoy the natural period of their life. Kven the dog and the horse, the domesticated com- panions of man, degenerate and change their natures under extreme varieties of temperature ; and the monkey tribe, which, in the structure of their lH>dies and in the substances un which they feed, approach the nearest to man, Itecome sickly and diseased, aud never propagate their species, when removed Into any nf the colder regions of the globe. In order to enable man thus to subsist in regions having such a diversity of natural productions, he Is endowed with the power nf feeding on and digesting every possible variety of food— he is, as compared to other animals. In respect to diet, omnivorous. We thus find the Greenlanuers and Inhabitants of frozen regions living almost exclu- sively on the fat and flesh of lund and sea animals, the only species of {om\ which the barren and uti^'enial nature of the climate affords, and a species of food, which, from its stimulating and nourishing nature, is the very best fur enabling them to live under such an extreme depression of temperature. The inhabi- tants of hot countries, again, will b« found living on rice, fruits, and other vegetable substances, which the warm and genial soil produces In abundance, and which, from their nature, are less heating and stimu- lating than an animal diet. In the intermediate and temperate regains, a mixed diet of animal and vege- table food is preferr'a. Much discussion has arisen whether mau >>:> more a flesh-feeding or herb-eating anima!; experience demonstrates that he is equally adapted to become both — that he will live on an al- most purely auUual diet, aa w«]l as on one purely vege. table; although, were we strictly to compare the form of his jaws and teeth, and the general structure of his intestines with those anlmiiU tliut live on nuta nnd other fruits, and farinaceous or mealy substances, as, for instance, the m«d nations that bread, and the grains and mealy roots, in some shape or otlier, have always a prui>onderauce in every meal. Dut the art of cooking, which man retorts to even in tha first dawnings of civilisation, enables him lo change the nature of his various fo«Nl, and to render it more sultabla lH)th htr digestion and tha purpoaes of nourishment, and thus gives hitn a wonderful superiority over all tha rest of the animated world. Indeed, It is by this improved mode of preparing his fd, parhaps, aa much aa by original atr«*ngth and prrliM tion of frame, joined to the other comforts of civilisation, thai he Is enabled tolrravathe vlciasitudes of climate, and t4> prolong hia Ufa to a longer period than the ipreal majority of other animala. Man haa been formed with a naked skin, with tSe evident intantiim that he slwuld clothe himself by hia own labour and Inganulty. Almost all the larger and more perfect animals have a covering ma and nourishing veiretaules, for food—to Invent ttMils and engines, by which he aci|uirea a command over the sea and lund, by which he erects bridges, con- structs machinery, and launches the towering vexsrl upon the wide ocean 1 And, lastly, with what .kill he constructs instruments of art aud of science, by which he can examine and investigate the most minute ob- jects of nature, as well as bring within hia sphere of observation other planets aud other suns in the vast dome of the universe 1 TARIETIKS or MANKIND. From comparing the annuiinlcal structure of all races of men throughout the world — from their gene- ral similarity in every material point — there can be no dmibt but they are all of one species, and cotisv- (luentlv hiust have all sprung from one original pair. The diversity of features, of stature, and of colour, onljr constitute varieties of this great family, and take their rise from particular circumstances, as climate, food, habits, and the degree of civllixatten to which they may have arrived. That there is an intimate relation between colour and the climate, is shown by this remarkable fact, that the northern regluni exhi. bit a fair skin, and that, as we gradually proured southward, the tint deepens. Thus, t^.L Norwegians and Danes are fairer than the KngLsh, ihe Knglish than the French, the French than the 8pan>rds and Portuguese, and these than the Moors, while ijiu negroes in the burning regions of Africa are darkent of all. Even in this country, exposure to the sutt darkens the complexion. Kuropeani who have been In warm climates come home wltn a skin permanently darkened in a slight degree, and the yellowish hue which prevails among the Americans of the present day shows the gradual effect of climate In the course of a few centuries. Captains Lewis and Clark were io much browned during their expedition to the Missouri, as to be often taken by the natives for In. dians belonging to hostile tribes, and it was only ou showing the whiteness of their skin in such parts as were covered that their suspicions were removed. In liord Amherst's expedition to China, it was observed, that persons who were in the habit of working in the heat of the sun, with their bodies uncovered from their waist upwards, became of a dark copper colour; but when tliey stripped, either for the purpose of bathing, or of going Into the water, In order to have a better view of the expedition, the comparative whiteness of the skin which was usually covered gn\ h them the appearance at a distance of wearing light coloured pantaloons. It is true this effect of the sun is only temporary; but ii we are to consider, that races of men, in tne first ageo uf the world, lived the life of rude and unclothed savages for thousands of years, exposed to the full inlluence of a tropical sun, the gradual effect of altering the colour of the rete mucoBum, or under net-work of the akin, is not at all improbable. In warm regions alone, we find this block colour prevail ; and the more savage and rude the people, the deeper, climate being the same, is the tint. The final use of this tint is explained under tlie bead of " The bkin.*' Considerable variety nf feature and form of the head prevuilti among different nations, and five striking varieties have been pointed out. Ist, The Caucasinn, or European variety, is distin- guished by all the shades which characterise the white inhabitants of the globe. The head is larfe, ee- pec!ally the upper and fore part of It ; the face is oval and straight; the outline ot the features distinct and regularly marked, and falling In a nearly perpendicu- lar line below the forehead. AU Europeans. axoeiiK CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. If I I the Lavlau4«rt, tn indiided andcr this divtdon t m wv th* inhabltuM of WMtern Atia, u lh« Turks, OvorfUuit, ClreutluB, Anibi, Perslut,aD4 HIadon of hlf h OMta ; ooMpvaJMndtu all tkoM bMIoiu thM Iwv* bMD dlMii^nUlMd for (SrlUntloft In dUMr m. dant or modern tia»t.— Tb* iMoa^ dMaioD Is the MoagvUwi, or mllow raos. This TariMy Is distln- ffvtslMd hy biMli «r«s; bUek, strmlfhtt stroDfi and thin hair i littlo hoard t head of « tquaro form, with small and low forehmd i broad and flattonod faoo, with the Isatarss mnnlng togotbar ; noso small and flat I roottdad and yra j oe i lng' ehooks t ajm plaood ob> Hquoljr; narrow half-Mut oyaUds t Iftrff* round ihioh lifs I and akin ol n yalhnrlah hooi aomawhat Ukd driad lainoa-paaU This divltloa Inoludas tho Mofu)*, a nunMroustribo, UriwIntlK oaairo of Northern Ada; the Calmucks i the C^faieae and J^tanoae 4 the inha- hitanu of Thibet, Coahln-OUna, Ava, and Biemt togaiher with the Laplanders and Ksqalmaux inha- UtiniT the northern refleas of Borape and America.— In the third, or Ethiopian variety, the skin and ejres are of a jet Made ; the hair blade and woolly ; the skull narrowed at the aides and leufthened out In front ; the forehead low, narrow, and slanting t the oheek-booea prqjecting« the jaws narrow and jut- ting outwards 1 the upper front teeth oblique ; the ) ehin reoediog ; the eyee prominent ; the nose broad, ; thldu and flattmed on uie Jfaoa ( the lipe, and parti. . enlarly the upper one, thidi; the projeedng jaw and the retreating ftwehead dittingoish the negro's | head from the two forefroing. All the inhabltanu of \ Africa, not oomprehei^ed in the Caucasian Tariety, are comprised m this. — The American Tariety is diaraoiertsed by a dark skin, of a more or less red tint I black, straight, and long hair; small beard t couMtenanoe and skull rery similar to that of the Alonffulian tri'>«y ; forehead low ; eyes derp ; face broad, particularly aorou the ohenks, which are prominent and rounded ; mouth large, and Upa rather thick. All the natire tribce of America, ; •Koept the Esquimaux, are comprdiend«»d in this ra- J riety t bat the skin in many of them is much more of a brown thka a copper colour The fifth division is the Malay variety, and it has in it less of a peculiar | characur than any of th« other divisions t the colour | is brown, from a light uwny to nearly a black | the hair is black, abundant, and more ur lew curled ; the '• head rather narrun- ; bones of the faoe lar(;e and pro> j minerit, more full and )>niad towards ttio ap«a ; the mouth lar^ The inhabitants of Malacca, Sumatra, ' Java, and of most of the adjacent Asiatic islands — u( the AloUuoca, Philippine, and neiKhbniiriug groups — (tf New Holland, Sew Qui .ea, >ew j^ealand, and ' the numberless South Sea isUndi, are all of this va> j riety ; and it may be remarked, that among Ute East { India islands there is a division resembling the negro \ in the character of the hair, in colour, and iu the ge* ^ ner^ form of the skull and features. | Although tb^re is uo foundation v.'iat«ver for the | stories related of giants, yet the inhabitants of a district of South America, the Fatagonians, are dis> , tinguiiihed fur considerable strength of body and a ; height ab dually these begintothicken and get harder — a greater proportion of earthy matter is adding to tbc Iwnes. i'he exuemities grow out Urge, while the heart it. self d(M« not iucrease in an equal degree; hence the circulation becomes lees and less quick, till the {>e- riod of full growth. When ihe growth of the Itody can proofwd no farther, a degree ol fatness not unfre- quently occur«. This proceeds from the superalMin. dant nourishment priiduced from the fo<>>i, whir.h, from ttie impetus or lores of the cirnilatioii being more lesscnetl hy the greater extension and resistance of the body, accumulates in the cellular textures, and by the sides of the extremf vessels. In every part of the body, the induradtm produced by approaching age tjecomes conipicuoiui ; in the bones now wholly brittle, in the skin, tn the teudons, in the glands, in tht- arteries, and in the >'rain itself, which geufinnrr and drier. Moreover, the arteries continue to get (14 denser, narrower, and even shut up in their mlnuta branohes. At the same time, the nerves beoome mora and morecalloQsand insensible to the Impressionsofthe senses, and themiudes to irritation t thus, theoontrac- tile force of the heart, and the frequency of its pulsa* tions, are diminished, and, of oonsequenoe, every foroe whieh impeb tha blood Into tba ultimate veasds. The qadlly of humours is diminished in the denser bodyt the moisture which lubrioatee the solid pans every where manlbatly decreases t nor is the quan- tity ofhuasoursoiilydiminished; they themselves like- wiee beoome vltiateid. They were mild and bland in ohildrani they are now acrid, salt, and fetid, and loaded with a gmt quantity of earthy matter. This cireumstanoe, of the superabuudanoe of earthy mat- ter, is erideat In the gouty oonoretlons in the joints of old people, in the nvquenoy of stone, and in the arterial tulMS, and even the hears Itself, being fre- quentlv converted into real bone. The rigidity of the whole body, the decrease of the muscular powers, and thediminuUon eGome lessened ; the eyesight Itegins to fail, and duUaeea gradually comes over all the senses; the memory uudeixues a remarkable change, while recent evenu pass through the mind and make no impression ; the i>ccurrenues of early life continu- ally suggest themselves, and are minutely called to remembrance. Dr Rush mentions the case of a (Ger- man woman, residing in America, who had learne same author mentions the case of an old man, of lUI years, who declared that he had forgotten every thing he had ever known exurpt his Utxl. Anthony Benexet, an. other American, made the foiloning remark to a friend who questioned him regarding his memory : — *- Vuu can read a good book with pleasure but once ; hut when I read a good hook, 1 so sn refreshed with rest, in t'.eir disposition ut deuil immediately every thing th* V hear and see, in their general garrulity, and their ar.titude to she'4 tears on slight occasions ; lastly, the lear of death is less stroug in old age than in early or middle life. Although usually seventy years is the extreme period of human life, yet a small propor- tion of those born ever nach even this ; a few rare instani^s occur where one hundred years or upwards are attained. The famous Parr lived to the age of I.V} years ; he married at the age of lUI), and, when 130, was able to thrash, and 10 do every descrip- tion of farmers* work ; he was at last brought from the pure air, and the homely diet of the country, into the family of the Earl of Arundel, in X.«ondfm, where he drank wine, and l>ed luxuriously. The sudden change of diet and circumstances, however, proved quickly fatal to him. Henry Jenkins, another poor niuu, lived t4> the asumishing age of 16!> years, and retained his faculties entire. Some time ago, a state- ment appeared of the ages of the resident pensioners of (ireenwlch Hospital, which contained at the time '2-110 inmates. Of this numlwr, \M had attained to or passed the age of HO ; n>ia only was above 100 1 Ki were!H)or mure; and UO were eighty orup wards. Abtmt 4*2 of the (Hi were of aged families, and in some of thii number both parents had been eged. longevity has in a great nunil>er of cases been fcmnd to Iw heredi- tary. Eighty of ttte W* had Iweu married ; "tit were in the habit ul using Uibscco In some form or other, and 48 bad dnink freely i 30 were entirely without teeth t 62 had bad, and 14 good teeth. But the oldeat man in the house, who was 108, had four new front teeth within the five preceding years. The sight was impaired in aboutone half, and hearing only in aboni a flfkh part of the number. Old people are nut gene- rally inclined for much exercise, nor ts It sulMd to their stiff joinu and impaired vigour; for the same reaaen they cannot eudure much cold. Cheerful con- paay, especially the company of the young, is peou- iiarly grateful to old people. Innocent amusementa and recreations are also of great consequence, and the mind should be exercised in some useful or amudng putsuit. Cities, or at all events oonsUut and agree- able society, are favourable to the condition of old age. In lonely necluded ooui.try places, the mind sinks pre. maturely into a total gloom aud blank, for want of sufficient stimulus aud variety to keep up the vigour of thought aud play of ideas. Few deaths occur from what is commonly called old age, or a gradual and si. multanetms decay of all the functions. It may besaid to happen when the powers gradually decay, first of thf voluntary muscles, then of the vital muscles, and lastly, of the heart luelf, so that, in an advanced age, life ceases through mere weakness rather than through the oppressioa of any disease. The heart becomes unable to propel the blood to the extreme paru of tha body ; the pulse and heat desert tlie feet and handa* yet the blood continues to be sent from the heart into those arteries nearest to it, and to be carried back from them. Most commonly, however, some one part gives way, and disease gradually coming on, cuu off the lingering flame of existence. Thus the b4)dy, after having grown up to maturity, and flourished in its prime, sinks tn the earth, and moulders into the dust uf which its several part^ are composed. CONCLUSION. The admirable ^.tructure of the body of the human being, Iu superiority in every respect hi that 01 the lower animals, has frequently afforded a pniuf of de- sign in the all-wise lireator, and is one ui the most striking instan «snf the impossibility of our lormatioit being Uie result of blind chance. Paley, alter going over a great number of examples of this kiud of design in a Creator, tfc** <>t> ^' '(ate that, in all "instances wherein the mind feels itseli in danger o( being aiu- founded Uy vanity, it is sure to rest ufwut a lew »tnmK poinu, or perhaps upon a single iusCMiwie. Amongai a niultuuiln ol pHHifs, it m orts that iiimw the busineaa. If we observe in any argument (h» umtinues) ctut hardly two miads fix upon the same instance, the ui- veraity of choice shows uw strengtii oi the ar«unMms, because it shows the iiumoer and competition oi slw examples. There is no Bnl>)ect in wtana the saadauay to dwell upon select or single topics is saflaaal, basMMif there is no subject, of which, iu lu aiiixn^eat, ^1 la- titude IS so great, as that ot nasural uimsh- applied tn the prool ol an intelligent i.rmtar. ^vi my part, 1 take my stand ia huinuii muiUuny : liuo toe exMnples ol m-^hanism I Hhiniiu ne ii))t Ui ursn nut troai the copious catalogue wliK I) rtsuppiuw. an. the pivot upiMi waJch the head turn-*, the ligsrnmii witluii the socket of the hfpjoiia, iiie pulley itr trochlear muii:les of the eye, the epigh'ttiii the bnndages which tie down the tendons of U« wrist and uistep, the slit ur perforated muscles at the hands und luet, the knitting uf the Ih- testinen to the mesenterv, the course of the chyle into the blood, and ihs constitution of the sexes as extended throughout the whole of ilie diniiml creation. To these instann's, the reader's memory will go back, as they are severally set forth in tlieii I'litces 1 there is not oue of tlie number wbi have I r4!ad or lie^trd of any boIuiioii of these appt>Hranc«s, which, in the smallest degree, ohakcs the i-iincluston that we build upon them. The works of nature wantoul/to be (^)n tern plated. When contemplated, they have every thing in them which can astonish by their greatness : for, uf the vast scale uf operation ibruugh which oui discoveries carry us, atone end we see an intelligent Power arranging planetary systems^ I'xiug, for iimtance, the trajectory of Saturn, or coiistructing a ring of two hundied thousand miles dlameier, to surround bin body, aud tie suspended like a magnificent arcli .iver the he«ds of his iuhahiranu ; and, at the uther, bending a booked tiMtb, concerting aud providing an appropriate me- chanism for the clasping ami reclaspuig uf the fila- ments of the feather of the humming-bird. We have priNif, not only of both these works proceeding fruni an intelligent agent, but of their proceeding from the same agent I for, in the first place, we can trace an identity of plan, a uinnectiun uf system, from Saturn to our own globe; and when arrived upon our globe, we can, in the second place, pursue the connection thrmigh alt the organised, especially the animated, bodies which it supports. We can observe marks of a common relation, as well to one another as to the elemenuofwhichtheirhabiutiou iscoinposed. There- fore one mind hatti planned, or at leust hath proscribed, ageneral plan for all these priKluctions. Oue living has been concerned In all. Cnder this stupendous Being we live. Our happi- ness, our existence, Is tn his hands. All we expect must come from him. Nor ought we to feel our situ- ation insecure. In every nature, and in every por- tion of nature, which we can descry, we liiid attention bestowed upon even the minutest parts." CdliiburKh : i'rlntvl snd publUhsd by W. snd 11. ChsmbMi. n CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 9. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBtJHGH JOURNAL" AND «' HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Price I|(f. THE STORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. INTRODUCTIOV. I" is liuml)!/ conceived that a clfiar and impartial ac- count of the French revulution ought to he in the Imnda of every individual in this country; for there is no man, be his station and his opinions what they may, who is not liahle to receive a lesson from its events. The possessor of power is taught, hy the French revolution, to use what he possesses in a ra- tional and humane spirit. The advocate for anciiuit institutions is taught to beware lest bigotry he mingled with his views, ^nd reform he postponed so long that revolution becomes the only alternative. The subject of power is taught, on the other hand, that, in seek- >Hf; to avoid certain evils, he is not perfectly sure to avoid others, and that it is safer for himself, as welt as for those above him, that he pros'^cutes the biisi- nes.^ of political improvement in a spirit of modera- tion, and with a regard not merely to his own parti- cular desires, but to the general tendencies and capa- I'ilities of the nation of which he fornis a part. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. France, it 's hardly necessary to remind the readei', was, previous to l^^iO, one of many states in I^iiriipe wliich owned theabsiilute sway of one sovereign. The king, it is true, was retjuired, by the idea of a supposed constitution, to take the advice of the people (as repre- sented by what was called the Tiers Etat, or Third Ks- tate) before imposing new taxes; butai he never did so, or had not done bo for upwards of a century, this part of the system is hardl) worth mentioning. In addition to the evil of obeying a despotic prince, whose measures were sometimes dictated hy favourites of tlie basest kind, the clergy, a body of about I3l),00() pernotis, and the ncblesse, or nobility, who were 200,000 in num- ber, possessed various invidious privileges and powers, )r was any man ever pt-rniitted to receive so much as a commission in the urniy, un. leis lie could produce n certilicate of the four last ge- nerations of his family liaving belonged to this sacred order. Who, on looking at this catalogue of errciu'ous reguliitions, though comprising Imt a part of the griev- ances complained of at the beginning of the revolu- tion, e:in wimder that the enlightened and patriotic of the natii)n concluded a reform to be necessary to the wfill-!iei0i(< of their country? — or that the superlicial and ignorant, keenly feeling their wrongs, siujuld, without podseasing sense or forethought to lab-tilate nn c»n8ep. raged by their Parisian brethren, who were prompted to this by the Duke of Orleans and his faction. Philip ])uke of Orleans was presumptive heir to the crown, failing the king's children and brothers; and having formed the dishonourable purpose of supplanting Louis the Sixteenth in the affections of his people, and it is also suspected in the possession of his throne, he affected, to treat the meanest of his countrymen as his equals, while he expended a part of his immense revenues in paying for the writing and distribution of multitudes of inflammatory pamphlets, and in an ostentatious display of humanity in the distribution of money, bread, and soup, to the populace. Kespecting the in- famous character of this man, all who have written a just account of the revolution are agreed. One of his aims was to be appointed by the people lieutenant- general of the kingdom, but in this he never succeed- ed, from his naturally cowardly disposition, and from being utterly destitute of that energy necessary in a leader at so momentous a crisis. The declarations of the people were at first loud in his favour ; and had he possessed the courage, the military talents, and ad- dress of Cromwell, he might, like him, have overcome all parties, and succeeded to the powerof his murdered sovereign ; but when exposed to personal danger, his mean qualities became so conspicuous, that they ruined him in the estimation of his partisans, by con- vincing them that he was a man unfit either to lead or to rule. Vet as he was possessed of consummate art. he contmued for a long time to influence the people by means of his money, and hi:i congenial though san- guinary councils. ASCENDANCY OF THE TIERS E i AT. On the second day of the meeting of the states- general, the three orders convened separately. The deputies of the tiers etat amounted to COO, and the nobles and clergy to 300 each ; and the question of tlie greatest consequence which first necessarily un- derwent investigation, was the commissions of the different members, and their validity. The tiers etat was anxious that the tliree estates should meet in one common hall, to verify their commissions, and debate innnediatelyonthe scarcity of provisions and the state of the finances. To this proposition 114 members of the clergy consented, but the nobles insisted on the verification of their powers in a separate assembly. The tiers etat, well aware, however, of tbe financial difliculties of the nation, which nuist soon bring mat- ters to a crisis, paid no attention to this proceeding, and suffered five weeks to elapse without taking any farthersteps. During this period of inaction, nil was done by the ministry that could be thought of to con- ciliate this difference, and bring the three estates to act in cincert; but nothing could persuade the re- fractory commons to depart from their resolution, and the disappointed nation, who had expected vwry tiling from this convocation of the states-general, were seized with uo small dismay at this unpropitious commence-, mentof its proceedings. The people universally took the part of the commmii, while the nobles became every day more unpopular, and were ii-sulted when- ever they appeared. All who took their part shared in the opprobrium ; and they were even opposed by a number of their own body, with Orleans at their head, and deserted by a part of the clergy. Still the majo- rity of them stood their ground, well knowing, that, if they consented to the terms of the commons, they would be outvoted on every question, and their conse- quence and power annihilattHl. The leaders of the tiers etat, who were bold and skilful men, now BUd« donly shook off their apparent sloth, and, avaiiiajf SB CIIAMUERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. P ik !ji; w tbetiii>(*Ivefl of the itato of public opininn, tvized witli a flaring hand the reins uf fl;(>veriiiiient; iind after again Issuiug a sumnioni for the der^v and nuhlea to jo'ji theiii without etTectf they aolemiUy voted them. mIvvs tht> legiilaton of thulr Cdtintrr, with the title of khe *' Natioual Autnibly at Vnnce. By this dfcrec. ttie revohition was coii-stitiited. All the acts of thi^i Mwmbly were decidedly eapreaaive of loverdgu power, and tliay dutermiavd, in concert with hU majesty, to new-model the affuirt of the imtion, and take intii contideratiun the national debt. In the midst of their redoing at this victory, an event happened which seemed to inspire them with new en- thu.tiasni in the path of opposition. (.)n the 20th June, when the president and meinbera of the aiMmbly re- pair<>d U* the hall of duhate, they found the doors !«hnt, and surrounded by a detachment of guardu, who iu- ibrmed them that tney could not enter, a* hia majesty meant to hold a royul sitting on the 22d, for which the hull v.us then preparing. Surprised at this jroctieding, and apprehending that an immediate dissolution nf their Uhly was determined upm, they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis^cour',, and took an uath tliat no- thing should prevent their meetings till they hud settled for the country a new (Constitution. Thiti resohitirMi w;itt unicertally applauded. They then took possf^ssttm of the ihurch of 8t Ix>uis till the decoreti^^iis of the hall were completed, and on the third day the royul ■assion waa held iu the ancient form. In this meet- ing, bis inaje»ty presented the outline of a new con- ni^Htiuu, contiiiijing many important reforms, hue reCHJning th" itilTerent orders, and the obnoxiouit right of issuing lettree de cached; in virtue of vluch power it had beea tha custoai oS itie nto> ttarcks of l''rani:« to imprison their subt?t'ts without trial, at the suggestion of a concealed enemy, or In t-i>mpliani-e with their owd arbitrary will, withcmt the frii'uds uf the victims either being able todrsco%er •he crime of which they were accused, or the place of Wietr conlinement. This royU sitting was concluded by the king's desiring the deputies to retire, and re- ■unte their places next day. He then withdrew, and was folhiwed by the clergy and nobles ; but the coni- inons still continued to sit. *ple, and vill only be expellevl by the bayonet." This rNllying detiance waa greeted with enthusiastic oheers, and they proceeded to business. In this sit- ting ihey deciarml their uiuuimons determination tti aillterc to all their former decrees, pronounced the perM*ns uf the membcrn inviolable, and ugretnt that they nhotild continue the r sittings. On the 27th. ihey at length obtained a complete triumph over tin' clergy and nobles, by the deputies of the two urders rr'tur'ning to the hall' at the earuest solicitation uf his majesty. t'KPOrUI.ARtTY or TUE KINO, It was now that the situhtion of the nation be* came truly alarming. The sovereign, to whom (hi' pei>ple nf France had for s«» many ages lH*en di-viit*ii by a superstitious feeling of idolatry, was now begin ning to he assailed by loud clamours ui dtFBpprobalimise that he would not forsake them, and they were pocilitNl lor n short tine. Meanwhile, the news of *.he ruyal ■estiiiMi had created a suiis:ition of ditiappoiutmeul and dingtut at Pari*, which, juineit with the famine n uffieure were directly liberated by the i«*ople; and the gtmrdi, who were then called in to usslst in bringing the p<<. ^htce to order, grounded their arms. Fur this, hi'w. •vcr, they were pardoned by the king. It was tl*' advice of the aristocracy that tlte king uliould endi'a- Tour to overawe the [HHiple and ttie HSAeinhly by a strong military force. This meastire being violeuily crpp-jsed by Nerker, he was dismissed, and thirty regi- ments vvere phuxrd rouml Tarts and VenaiUes, caiupn werf marked out, and .Marshal Itroglio, a skilful ^c- ter.«n, u an appointed their conimautler. In the dismissal of Necker, and this movement of t^e tr(K>pH, the |>eople thought they perceived the seal •f their hnal ruin. The assembly oddn^ssed the king, praying fur the removal uf the trunps, aud taking upuii tliemselvfs the responsibility of keepiiig order in the city. The answer to this was, that " tiiu monarch wan the bent judje uf the way to employ his triMips, and that the assembly could not iulhience Paris while their presence was iMcaeaary at VersailUs." This reply was no hwaer nroived than the AlarquU de la Fayette moved that the luiuutry should If* resptmsiMe to the pattple for their conduct, that the tnMips ought to be wltndrawn, and that the assembly Khotitd persist in all tu fornu'T decrees. Tht- Marunis de la Fayetl** * as a French nobleni«n,eathusiaatic lu his ideas of lil*eny, and an eager ospiriiitt after fomn. lie hkd gone Ui Americat and volunteered his services in its cause even Iniure his king t4Mik part with it against KugUnd. and 4l wat hii axaiaple, so much adrntred by hit country* men, that bittuauced maay of Acui to detutD their talent* to the aai ARMINO OF THE PEOPLE — THE BASTILE DESTRUYEIl. But to return to tha history of events : As soon at the news of Ncckar's departure reaehod Parla, pnparations for reaisting alt aatliority were made. The inhabitants of the city armed thcniEelves with whatever weapons they ctaild prooure, and formad themselves into a national guard, amounting to 100,000 men, of which La tiivette was appointed the commander. A great aopiisition was made in th'. discovery of 30,000 staml of arms, and 'iO piaoee of cannon, iti the Jlotel des Invalided, of which this hriny tt>ok possttssiun. The fortrens prison of the Inutile had always been an object of jealousy and dfr> testation to the people of Paris, and their tirst act vras one of hs, and some other r;'gimeuts, which it is probable would have adhered to him; and hy their aid, and that uf the nobles and well-.ttFeii«ns, and res Uiring order. At all events, hail his life Iteen the sacriti would have dieil nolity in the discharge of hirh'Uial (sloiuities with fort. ;u a:ituundiug inteUigen<-« froiii .Marshal Ilro„'liii of i!ie revolt *tf the irtxips under Ins i im- mind, who had refused to act apiinst Pari^i. The Count d'Artoix, with the tiiemlM'rs of the ministrv, were now become t(t> hateful to tlie peo^de, thai their names were cnridled in a li-tt of bhiody pruscrip- tions, and di^ht becuniing their only tafrguard, tlivy rt-osd. The king no\. nifTtln entered the national as«embly, rtitirely dive«»teil of all |M>mp, and intimaleen' tiled fretfuently, ;ind made laws for themselvei ; whih' tlie citizent, having ac- ipiiml A taste foi' meeting together, funned dub:, at which much intrigue and party spirit prevailed. W'tt have iul<>rmed our readers that the late utinister e!»c.t|tetl vist wttliont trial, white his son-in- law, attempting to avoid tbe ^»nie fate, was cut to piei-es, and the heads nf both exhibited by tbe mob, uho Mere now tn^Jme fduiiliar with butcheries. HtTtaai us MK(Kk;H— pBiviLKuEsor rur. kohii ity ANDCtEKUY UIVEN L'P. Orders were ouce more sent for tbe return of Neckrr, whicA, btlng accompanied by the entreatiet of tht u- semblv, he immediately obeyed. His exile had be4'n regardetl as a public calamity, and his return was coiebrnted as a triumph. On the day following his arrival* he vidretsed the miiuicipality of Paris from.* balcony of tlie Hotel de V'Ule, where he ur^ tht peupla to grant an aianetlv for the past, and reconc^ liation for the future. This speech was hailed with seeming transport, but it was by those who had no power to realize the hlcuings It sought to obuin. The subject was, however, agitated in tliea-tsembly, and it was decreed that It was the duty ..(that body to main- tain jiutice in all cases. The meeting of the aaaembly, on the I4th of August, was rendered memorable by the proposal of the Count de Noailles and the Duko d'AguiUon, that taxes should only be levied in propor- tion to the means of the contributors, that no order of the state should be exempt from public burdens^ and that feudal claims should be redeemed at a fair valuation ; those claims, however, which consisted of personal service in the vassal, to be abolished with- tmt compeuaatiuB, l«ingcontrary to the rights of man. Tbe noblemen who made these proposals were poa- seased uf extensive estoteti, whidi, of oourse, enhanced the value of their intendad sacrilice, and set an exam* pie, which seemed for the time to create an emulation which know no bounds of reason, the members vleing trith each other in a frenaied eagerness to renounce their rights, and strip themselves of every privilega or distiuction. At the same timo, this mama of H*nc- rutity was made an instrument of destruction to the clergy, by requiring them to submit to an act which deprived them entirely of iheir revenues. Duringthls sitting uf the assembly, many lawH were made, reformed, or abrogated, all in unisun with tbe wishes of the peo- ple ; and, as a se4)uel to the whole, it was decreed that a solemn TV Deum should be performed, a medal struck in c^immenioration uf that, and a deputation sent tu his majesty, to inform him that they had bestowed on him Ihe title oi *' Restorer of Gallic Liberty." Thus iu this sitting was the power of the people rendered conipleie, by the entire spoliation uf the clergy, who still, in common with their monarch and the nobles, retained their nominal dignity, without riches ur a shadow of influence. QESTRAINT OH THE KINS^B PEasOM. A short peace followed those popular acts ; and a new ministry was formed, who declared the re- venue to be in the most miserable state ; nor could ^f. Necker, though lie exerted his utmost powers, pnM'ure a loan tu more than half the amount of what (vas required. In this emergency, many peo> pie made vtduntary gifts of their plate oitd jewels, and the royal plate was sent to the mint. The next ques- tion wliiili agitated the assembly and the minds of the people, was, whether the king sho\i]d be allowed the privilege of a veto, that is, a right to forldd or reject any particular act which hud obtained the haiwtioii of the a»semblv ; but, to prevent farther discord, his majesty tleclared, in a message to the assembly, that he xvas content to possess a suspensive veto. He also gave his sanction to the past decrees of that body, but expressed h'w doubts if some uf them would an- swer the purpost-H fur which they were framed. The debutes on the veto had given rise to mucli irritatiuu in the minds id' the people, and every thing itgaia bore tlie stamp of a sjicedy approach to some import- ant crisis, which was hurritnl on hy a report that it was intended t4i convey the king to Metx. The place nf ihe French guards, who had revolttMl from their a)« legiaiuH lu the monarch, had been filled from that time by the national guard of Versailles, which, in concert with the gardt^s du corps, composed entirely tif gentlemen, were the pn>tectorK of the roial family ; hut, on the report of the king's intended flight, they requested, at the intitigation of the disalfectud at Pa- ris, to be alhiwed t<) resume their attendaniv oti his person, fi>r the purpose uf w.itchiiig Ins movement*. The most violent of the revolutionists eagerly seronded the |ieople in bringing alKxit this desired object, hav. ing in view the farther intention of conveyiug thu kin^ and the national assembly to Paris, where they would be vinder the influence uf their own authority. The Count de Staing, who Cinnmanded the national guard of Wrsaille>, which, together with the Swiss I guard and the gardes du > orps, wera then all the tro«>pH fttationetl at that place, being aware of (he state of matters at Paiie, requested au additional regiukenl i to assist in protecting the royal family; and uonrd- inglv the regiment of Flanders was immediately added I to tliif force commaiuleil by him. On the arrival of this new regiment, the ganif-s du curps, in ciriupliance with tt usual custom, inviit^^l their ulbcers to diuiicr^ where the oHirers of the national guard of Versailles, and of (he Swiss guards, were also present. The en- tertainment was given in the opera hall of the palace. Tu this scene of festivity, iheir nutjesties, taking with them the dauphin, repaired, at a time when, after itiany loyal toasu haviug been drunk, the u)m< paiiy were already excited by wine. The royal pro- ^eru'e gave rise to unlHiuude<) enthuaiasn .Sm'gs and mttsiti liecame vrhlrtes of the most loyal devucioai and the ladies who attended tha queen assisted in do* luxating the olhi their every remaining hope. MARCH or THE MoH TO VE«SAIM.E»— OCT. ft, 1?**^ The drcumstauoM connected with this milltarj *n* THE STORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. terCKinment were reported, with nil tlie exaggerations ul' malice, to the starring mub of Paris, who, inflamed with envy and indignation at Che very idea of a costly and nimptnaiis bunqiiet having baen given in the palace of their king while his people were driven to the extremities of faTnine, determined to demand bread at Versaillea. The first insurgent party which put this determination in practice was composed of women, and some desperate and worthleHs men who Rsnimed the female attire. Thin mob was headed by a man named Stanialnus Alnillard, who had played a con- spicuous part at the taking of the Uustile. They det tMit, vociferating, "To VeraaillcK ! to Versailles!" This rietoui movement was iifipused by Fayette ui the extent of his power; luititwaMiii vuin that lie ordered or recaonatratodt for the only aithwer he received from his aoldiara was, that they " could not turn their bayoaete against women/' This array of ama;:o]ii, already intuxu-ated witli brandy, were ftddresaed from tin^ ti) time by the armed brigands who acoomjmnied tbem. and who iiUlaiBed them to a pitch of die utmost fury against tl»e qneen and the gardes du corps, re- presenting them as the principal delinqnonts in the tilffAir of tlio banquet, and whoae assassination they by all iiteans ttdvised. Thi> remaining populace of Paris raugbt the infection from those who had departed from \'ersaLUes, and determined to follow. The guards, commaiMled by Fayette, and tlte other military forc4!, of tiie city, insisted on hiti leading them totbe Harw paint of ottraetiim. All Paris hud risen, and iu this dilnnma Fayette applied to the assembly of the com- mune for dirMCtionK, and received orders to comply with tlie wishes of the fieople, who in reality could not liave been reHtraiuod by any authority. He therefore put himself at the head of the national guard, and marched for Versailles. Meanwhile, tiflTHE85 or THK hoyai, family. The king was hunting when apprised of the ap. proach of this singular tbrce, and be returned to the palai-c immediately, vvhere the oificer in c^ommand asked for orders. " Wliat !" said his majesty, with a smile, *' against women f" And all the pree-aiitifm thonght necessary was to sluit the iron gates i»f the paliice, and draw out the military. M'bon the wom*Mi arrived at Versailles, their commander Slaillard ter, Imtsuch a state of inaction was not consistent wit b the hopes or designs of those who had lirst set it in mo- tion, and it was suggested tha' the delegates Iiiiri beini brilied in the palace to give a favourable report of theii- reception. This was enough. The mob had already observed that tliey were ii the good graces of the na- tional guard of Versailles, and ais(» of theiTgiment of Flanders, who would not act against them. The gardes du corps "'ere then the only f»ie they had to eui;ountPr, and, sittisfied that tboy were kr'pt in check by the fear of producing a general attack, the outward Hveuues of the palafr werequickly occupied by niuul- titude i»f the women. Meantinie, the gardes dii Ciirps ■were placed in the court of the palace, ii) front of the i»^ti;)nal guard and reginu-nt of Flamiers, while the ppace between them was tilled up by the women, and by the iinned brigands who had accompanied them from P:triB. In this unnatural state nftxtntar.t, a fray nrose, in which, it ts said, an ofKeer of the Versailles guards struck one of the Parisianh with hit satire, and iu renirii hml a sluit ftred uthiuk, which it suited the purpose of the mob to say came from otn' ftf the gardes du corps. This whs suAicient U» fasten a atig- jua upon that body as tbe aggreisorh, inid the national guard immediately took part with liie people agsMist the gardcis du corps, twoof whtmi were wounded, and another narrowly escaped. His majesty was urged to flight, but determined on wailing tlie arrival of I«a Fayette with his civic troops. 'J'he gloDm of approach- ing night came on, accompanied by torrents of rain, And tbe utmost confusion and uproar prevailed, when lift Fa>f(tte ra.'ido his appearance, f(dlowed by the Pa. risian army, and others, iunoiinting iu alt to :((t,OM. and, iu a snort time, his exertions, aiu) the good COB- duci of his soldiers, seemed to restore »cJoui and wild countenances of a savage people, who were eating and drinking, singing, shouting, and cursing, wlulea shot was now and then fired, and a bloody threat ut- tered in attestation of their still kee{)ing iu mind that their main errand to Versailles was not yet accom- plished. Towards moniing, a band of the most despe- rate again approached the palace, and while prowling tound it like wild beasts in search of prey, tbuy un- fortunately disuovered a door that was neitlier fas- tened nor guarded. Only one hundred g-ardes du corps remained within the palace as its protectiou, while it was surrounded outwardly by the French guards, whom Fayette, in his late nudienne with the king, had succeeded in p<»-Buading him to reinstate in their fwmer duty. 1'he mot>, finding an open en- trance, and knowing how blenderly the palace was guarded within, very soon anmmnced, by dreadful shouts, that they had succeeded iu penetrating to its interior. (Crowds now ran up tbe grand staircase, ut- tering the moflt vehement threats and abuse against the queen, whom they accused in the grossest lan- guage of ticing an enemy to the wishes of the peo- ple, mild of hanng, by her extravagance and evil coun- cils, broun^ht the nation t^ its present state of poverty. The gardes du corps advan(x>d to meet thom in the galleries, and, by tlms liearing the first shock ut their onset, gave their uiibn-tifcyiatt! queen time to ew'jtpe. This she did by atarti^tg from ber bed, and iUnng thrnugli a secret passage to the apartments of the king, iviiile the clamours that demanded her head still nmg in her ears. Ihit in spite of tlie appalling situa- tion in which her majesty was placed, she still main- tained tbe exiurage which was never known to forsake her, and «"hic}i, on trving occasions, so frequentlv. dur- ing the latter disastrou;* period of her life, shovced it- self in tlw> most exulted acts of heroism. 8he had now no somn'T leaehed the kinfi'" apartment, than she sent for her ciiildreii, and then dressed herself hastily in such babilinients m it bereme her to wear when she showed herself t" tlie people, a oourse which she was determined to tfiopt. Tlie secret i)assage between the apartments of their majesties remained undiscovered when the mob forcwd their way to the l)ed-cliamber o~ the queen, and (hey wei-e thus prevented from followinfr ber. Tlwir dis- appointment, iunvwer. niily teiid»'i! to increase their ivige, and tbfv now eudoavoured ti' force their way to the king. During liie brief space siiice the palnfre «as entered, heieral murders iiad been committed ; and the gard*« dti corps, apprehensive for the life of the king, bad biirrieaded the entrances to the part of (he palace now necitpiiHl by bim, which thev deter- mined to d<>fend with the last drop of their blnod. It lias been a matter ninch d!spwtf>d, whether I.n Fnyette. on this m'^morjdile night, allowed the pnlace Im be so ill guai'dod from treachery to his royal master, or from a dtshelief in tbe evil iutentimis of tbe mob. Ciiudnur must certainly nnptit him of anv sinister motive, when lie i» jiid^ped *w bis previous c^inracter j though it n\ns( ftil! remain matter of rcftret that he should have yielded to fMti/xne. and sought repose, while his exertionF were so necessary to prevent the disasters which were the rfioseqnence of bis al»Hcncc from his troops, whose hatred to tbe gardes du corps was tbe principal cause that the insurrection wns lutt 8uppres»ipi1 in time lo prevent nil tbe eviU to which it gave rise, im Fayette, however, roused from bis slumbers, at last arrived at tbe pnlace. just as tbe moh bad beaten in the barriciide« of the king's upartmeut. He wns accMmpanled by the (grenadiers of the natiotuii gimrd, whom lie earnestly enjoined to save the gardes du rorps. In this he was obeyed, and the insurgents were driven from the palarc just hs tbev were begin- niiig to pilltqjfe it. Tlie gardes du cor ps, to save their brethi*en, many (.f whom were on the outside of the palace, assumed tbe jiati'mal cockade, and showed themselves at tbe windows, at the same time taking off their liandoleers. and throwing then down to tbe people, who, siitisfieertted rne^ of "Vive !o nation ! — Vivp le roi ! — Vive le pArdes du corps I" nOYAI. FASfH.V nrMOVF TO PARIS. While these shouts were re!ss which they thought it prudent to do. Amid the manifestations of jov which now prevailed. th! was suddenly ;: loud fiemimd made for tbe appe.iranrc of the queen, whirh was imme- dintely ci'Mipiied with, and she enteicd the biileouy with her two cbihlrou. Voices among the crowd were heard to viwifemte, "No children, nochildron !*' This heroir » oman, not intimidated by the snngiiinary intentiim a^' tiix^t her implied in this <;ry, immediately dismissed tl»e children, and st^od alone IwfoT n cruel multitude thirsting fir her blood, with her hands crossed niion her bosmn. H«r lamnty, her magnani- fnity, end her m«je*tif diyntty, rtniek her intended assassins with ai-tcnlshment and awe. Tbey forg<'t that the arms were in their hands M-hich could, iu one moment, terminate that life they had so lately sworn to sacrifice; and, instead of remaining the oh> ject of their implaoable hatred, the queen became for the moment tlie id(^ of their admiration, and thev hailed her with a general shout of " Vive la reine.** The Duke of Orleans, wIm was all this time busy among the mob, and had been even seen tn point tha way to the qneen^s apartment at the time of its at* tack, now entered the palace as a friend, to congratu- late their majesties, while his emissaries were exciting the people to insist on the removal of the king to Paris ; and, accordingly, the next cry whioh anise from them was, " To Paris, to Paris !" I^a Fayette's advice to the king was to yield immediate obedience to it; and his majesty expressed to the crowd his will- ingness to accede to the wishes of his people, provided he was to be accompanied by the queen and his chil- dren. " Yes, yes,** was the reply. " I also demand safety for my gardes du corps." This was also granted. Fayette then made the military tmder his command seal this compact by a general discharge of artillery, and a volley of fire-arms. The assembly was now sitting, and, when in- formed of the intention of the king to depart for Paris, Mirabeau moved that the national assembly of France was, during that session, inseparable from his majesty. It had tieen the earnest wish of Itlira* beau aud hts paity to remove the assembly to the capital, from the greater facility it afforded them of working on the minds of the people ; but the pre- sent resolution carried the appearance of an. attach- ment to the person of the king, and h was unanU muusly agreed to even by the moderate and more conscientious members. There were four parties in the national assembly at this time. The leaders of one were Mounier and Malouet; of the other, Mirabeau and the Abb^ Sieves. The former vv-ere the moderates. Alounier was enlightened, consistent, and firm ; and it was his lung-cherished wish to model the constitu- tion of France after that of Kngland. Malonct was honest, and always guided by conscience, but not so well qualified to judge or act as his colleague, from his having accustomed himself to trust in the self-cvi- dence of truth, without troubling himself to bring conviction home to others. Mirabeau possessed splen- did abilities, but his character was so immoral, that, before the breaking out of the revolution, he had lost that plac« in society to which Ins high rank and ex- traordinary t:ilents entitled him; and he was now devoting all liis,efforts to raise himself, not only into notice, but to attain the highest possible di^jtinctions, which his irresistible eloquence bade fair to acciun- plisli. 31 iraheau professed to l»c a friend to limlte'l monarcliy, while, at the same time, he aided and en- couraged the republican piirtv. The Abbe ."sieves was RcrupulouH in allowing his wish of equalisation to be known. The third, or republican partv, of which Fayette and Baillie — the latter of whom was then mayor of Paris- — were memlwrs, wished for that form of government which was established in America; and though thev still retained a partiality for>the person of their nmiiible and iinfortiiiiHte king, it was consist- ent with their principles that he should be divested of every attjibute of royalty. Before we uttempt tn give a sketch of the fourth fHCtion, it will be necessary to sfty something of the club called Jacobin, from its be- ing held iu the hall of tbe Jacobin friars. This was II society formed at first by able but violent men, whose ideas of liberty were so extravagant, tliat thev imagined it would be cheaply purchased at anv sacri- fice of lives or principles ; and, thus united, thev be- came a cimmiou centre for all those thronghont the nation \fho held th(> same opinions, and were open enemies to tlie plan of constitutiixuil governnwut. These men. however, were so profligate in their man- ners, and so bnitiiih in their feelings, tbut they were held in detestation by all those who hud nut thrown olF a regard for the dectucies of life. I'he Jacobins were the avowed friends and rourters of the lowest order of the jietiple, whose habits they ntfectrd, and whom they ptirred up to spurn at laws iind every spe- cies of order. It wiis the purpose of these men u> make shipwreck of the state, that tbey might indivi- dually be enriched by her plunder. It was among these perso.iH, who formed the fourth faction in the national nsHeiubly, that the jiartisans and emissaries of Orleans were found. Iiet us n( -v iq;aiu follow the course of events : Vn<'"- passing the decree which waa to remove the .'tfl^embI\ to Paris, it was determined that a hun 're^ ui the de- puties should accompany his majesty. Mirabeau of- fered himself as one, and comptair."' bitterly whv.i he found his name excluded fiom t'l'- list by tbe pre- sident, JMounier, who was always j.-fi'MUs of him as .-i concealed enemy to the con.ititulic... Tbe king, the queoa, the prin(T»s lUizabetli. the two royal children. and two of the members of the Rssf>mblV, wer.'i p\it into one coach, which was folhiwe-i by the carriages of the deputies; while a de'^schment of brigands, as an advanced guard, carried j. ti-umph the beads n'' two of tbe gardes du mips, fixf?d upon si»ears. The fiibwomen, and a nuniWr of the uimt abandoned -f their sex, lormiug a si-rt of bacchanalian prc-H'saion be- tween ihom 4nd the royal carriage, escorted us cf sent unexpected gtiests ; but still it was t. t-clief to its pertecuted iuhaliitants to be left in h fur a time in fuiet. No cries of gratiilatiuu or loyalty from the people accomi'naii'd tlieni to this new abode, where their forebodings froiM what they had already suffered must hav« be»n sufficiently gloomy. CIIAHAerClt OF THE KINO. y*. U not to W doubted that Louis the Sixteenth waft a conscientious and benevolent man, who really had the happiness of hi* people at heart ; but his fatal destiny mado him monarch of a great people at a crisis waen the most splendid military and po- litical talents were necessary to meet and guide the prevailiiw^ spirit of the tiines, and when perhaps they woulu hardly have stilficcd to cure the lonx-accumu. latod distemper* of the state, or a^ert the tvils whirh rer? destintni to descend nn hii own devoted head. Ol thc'Si' high qualities I»uis was t>ntirely destitute. How, then, could he poisiblv expect to esrni»e from the sad fate tbat nt once invofvcd him nud tbe untinn in misery ? And yet it is pntliable, that, during his whole existence, he had never tmce contemplated the most dibtant probability of ever witnei«ing the spec- tacles which now every where met his eyes, of hin kind, light-hCHrted, obsequious, and adoring peopl? becotning sanguinary., instilent, and dictatorial, lie was, therefore, unprt>pared for this singular change, ard underided how to meet it. COSniTIOH OP THE KATIONAt ABSEMRLT. The removal of the king to Paris was a grand trl- tunph to the popular partv, but tbe nobles ctmsidered It as ft final blim* lo tbefr ho|)es of ever recoveriUK their ascendancy ; while Mounier and the conscien- tious memt*ers of hii party abandoned all idea of ob- taining a free constitution, whose laws shouM assure the free and unbiassed delit»erations of its representa. tives. The assembly had Imm-u remov«*d to Parts by an armed force, and thi« they considered as the first step in depriving ibem "f tneir liberty. And, in truth, the revolution now changed its object — lil»erty was no longer the mark at which it aimed. Tbe deputies of the pe»ple were now placed tmder the ii.rveillance and control of ibe Jacobins, who sorters of his party, a respectable man and elm|ueat orator, indignant at tbe scenes of dis- conl, murder, nnd tumult they had lately witnessed, and foreseeing a continuation nf these enonnities, abandoned their seau in the assembly on th^ !Hh of Octolier, and emigrated from iheir cmintry. The good Mal'>net, suppfiri<»d by M. de Clermont Jnnn''rrr, who nas at the same lime p.wspssed of just thmighl and shining talents, weic left at the head i>f the mo- derate party, but wfre quite unable t4> stem the terrcnt potiml in upon them by the Jacobins ; and lhcr,» were often at 'bat peritMl no debates save be- twetm those nf oppoifite opinions. Thi' Ihite of Or- txaas was. meanwhile, so generally acltnow'eflged by nil parties to bare aried a dotilde part in tbe Inle Iransai-fiuiB ;■); Vv-rsmillei, I'.at l'« was ^witiik on \>\ l«a Fayptte, wb.i iniiited on bis ]<>hring Kranee : and, alarmed b\ this demand, he 4ce.irdlngiy t«)«k his im. mediate departure for Kn^tland. Tha king Kas now Jilerally a prisoner m his palace, which trat strictly guarded, whils he was, partly on their own account, obliged to disband his faithful gardes du corps. FRAMIKO OP THE NEW C0K9T1TUTI0K — PK8. 1700. The national asMmbly, once more settled down to business, proceeded to attempt the formation of a free constitution. But laws, in which the varied interests of so poptilous ft nation were concernnl, could not be made without mucli murmuring. Uno of the first steps toward the new constitution, was the confisca- tion of the whole of the church lands for the benefit of the national finances. It was in vain that the clergy remonstrated on the Injustice of this decree : they were, after some fruitless endeavoum, obliged to submit. All distinctions of the ancient names and divisions of the French provinces were olditerated on a motion nf the Abbif Sieyes^ and the territory divided into 83 departments, subdivided Into 600 districts, and these again divided into 4n,000 communities or municipalities. This measure was evidently contrived for the purpose of getting quit of old recollections, and calculated for introducing that levelling principle uf equality of which Sieyes wai the supporter. All titles of honour, all diitinetinns of the different orders of sot:iety, and all armorial bearings, were abolished. A decree was also passed, sus|)ending the parliaments of tho kingdom from their accustomed functionout this time an event happened which tender! to infiame the minds of the people to a violent pitch. The court expenditure had never yet been made public, but an account of it was kept in \.-hat was called the red book. This biHtk was in the piis< sessiitn of M. Neekcr, and a sight nf it was obtained i)\ a meuitM*r of tlie assembly, under promise of se- crecy, which WHS so far from being kept, that, in a lew days, there were copies of i? in every bookseller's shop. This publteution disclnseil some court secrets; and the pM>ple were especially exasperated at learn- ing by it, that, during the administration of M. Ca- roline, t'.ie king's brothers had received above two millions sterling, in addition to thvir stated allowance. This, together with a catalogue of what they deemesidentof the n::tional assembly, i-'iiyette was in this day the ob- jpct of popular idolatry. Neeker's popularity had Ihtu lor Home time on tbe wnne, and he now gave in his resignation, and quitted France unregretted t-y any p;nty. llPATH OP MIMABCAn. At this time all I'aris was thrown Into nfilictinn l.>- tlie d« ath of .Miral>eau, who expired af^er a few days' illness. The national assembly put nii mourning, and de< rted him nnprei edeuied honours, lie was the first iterciui inteneil in the magnifieen : Pantheon I'onsecnited lo great men, in the name of a grateful nation. litft iKnIy was, h'lwnver, some ti^t^ after- wardi reUMived. on lis being diseuvcreil that hn lu'd no( Ikhpu tnarrnsible to bribery. Iu fart, st the thno of his death, he was, in conseuuence of being richly bribed by the royalist party, labouriii(; serio isly and artfully in the work of re-establishing royal authth of June (1701 ), entered the carriage which waited for them on the Uoullevard, and took the road for Montmtfdy. When it was made known in the morning that they had tied, without their route being known, the rage and vexation of the multitude knew no bounds. Fayette and his guards, and the mayor, Uaillie, were accused by the people of being accomplices in the flight of the king, in which they fancied that they beheld the invasion of France, the triumph of the emigrants, and the return of despotism. The assembly, however, seemed to take it more coolly, for there it was rather matter of rejoicing to the republicans and anarchists. Onr of these parties saw in it the deposition of the king ; and the other, a stimulus to the commission of outrage, from its probable infiuonce in delaying the return of or- der. The siiKvre constitutionalists alone regretted it ; while at thi! same time this regret chiefly arose from the necessity that their constitution, as it was framed, had need for a monarch at its head. All the measi.rea which were necessary, however, to meet this emer- gency, were immediately taken. Alessengers were dispatched, iu all directions, to intercept the royal fugitives. Thectmstitutionalistfl, M-ith Fayette at their head, were determined not to abandon a form of go- vernment which it had cost the most talented states- men of their country "lo nuirh trouble to form. They succeeded In calming the people for the present by a proclamation ; assumed the executive power ; mad'3 known theirpacificdisposition towards all the potentate!! of Kurope, by means of the foreign minister; sent to all the troops to recei\c their oath of fidelity in tlieir own name, instead of tho king's. Thus the national assembly was in a few hours invested with all thn rights of the sovereign, and the government went on without impediment— ft dangerous lesson fur tho inter- ests nf royalty. JNfeanwhile, the rovnl party »ere pur- suing their jouiuey with all possible speed, and, rTter many narrow escapes, arrived at St Afenchould, whero they were furnished by M. du Bouill^ with an escort, under the pretencenf guarding money to pay the tro<'ps. But while they halted for a short time at this place, the king was recognised by the postmaster, who had been formerly a dragoon, and who immediately mount* ed a horse, and reached Varennes, which was trie next stage, before they had time to iX)me up. He"e he in- formed the municipality of the approach of the king, when he was arrested, after a journey of lAO mil^s, and when nearly arrived at the frontiers. The royal deserters were Immediately brought back to Paris liy a deputation from the itssembly. Thus ended nn ill- arranged aitd ill-fated Httemnt, which had no g >od elfect at a future perioil, and which immediately cauled the emigration of many more uf the nobles and clergy. EFPEtTS or THE HEVOLTTION OI/T or PRANCE, In the mean time, these extraordinary prm'eedin^ of tbe French nation wetd exciting much interest m other countries, and had various eflfeits up(m the minds of men. In Britain, and other monarchical countries even less open to liberal tmpresstons, a large portiou nf the community, romprisuig many of :ho most active and powerful intellects, behold the French revolution as a grand e.tample for the n>genoralion nf other nations, and began to press accordingly upon their own respective governments. These gt)vern- ineuts, along with the privileged classes and clergy, i and a vast lh>dy of respei-tahle atipptirters, r^-^nled thia ( reat event as one wbirh threatened all existing insti- tnditns, and was likely to produce more immediate evil than eventual good. A partv. ir we may so ex- press ourselves, was formed V^oiid the limits of France, which proposed, in e(Kt>peraliiui with the emi- grant royalists, to du whatever uught seem prop«>r in a:d^r t) stay the violent progress of tae revolmim. and protHt the person of thn sovereign. AImui ika Ume of the king's flight, a treaty took place nt FUl^ Iu Saxou), between the Knipernr I^uipuldaud tlie Kied, Iu u sM-rrt couvessuMi, at the solivtCAiiua of the t^unt d'Artots, t4> fuNiish THE STORY OF THE FRRNCH REVOLUTION. each 12,000 troops on the frontiers of the Uhine, as soon OS thejr could be got in readiness, with a view to support an army of the emigrants, and to manifest, unequivocally, the eflfectual protection they were Ue- tt^rmiDed to afford to the cause of the monarch of France, while they demanded the concurrence of the 'jiher Ktiropean powers. These proceedings stiriod up still worse elements in the minds of the French nation. They suspected their monarchy even while lio was accepting the conatituuon, and doing every thing that they required^ of a secret alliance with the Hiili-revolution party out of the counti y ; and he even- *ually It'll a sacrifice to the alarm and indignation ivhii'h arose in consequence of the interference of that party. During a short time after the return of the king from Vareones, all was tolerably quiet in the national Hiisemhlyt but this calm was succeeded by a trial of powei' between the constitutional ists and the republi- can and Jacobinical leaders, on the subject of de- throning the king; and a meeting took place In the Champ de Mars, where a petition to this effect was laid on the samo altar at which the civic oath hud been taken, in order to obtain signatures. The bet- ter, however, to prepare the minds of the multitude for this lOnger useful — idle droKuis, from which they were to bt too %otni roughly anakened. WAR COSIMRhTEIl WiTII FOHEICK COUNTIIIKM. Just after the meeting of this new assembly, France experienced a sensation of apprehension lest innova- tions should be made on its newly acijuired liberty by Sweden and Kuasia, who, it whs said, haci determined to restore the old government, though the I'n.nsians and (Germans still continued to teinpt>rise. Nor did the pacific answers rei-etveil fcom the different foreign coiirtK on thpir beipg informed that Louis had ac- epple4 llif (Yituittutinn, avail rtnuh In allaying thin a)'pr»heM^Mm ; for their »»«wers bore an air of reserve, whKli Mfvmed mcrelv ctiloiuiled to avoid it present ns^iire, while the Fn loh etoigrhots continued to aver ri»«t all Kurope was artniug to defend tlip ca ise of feir king. The assembly was in C4)nse<)uence inun- Mted witli addrt'sses in (lisanprobatlou of the court ftod \a pi'rty. At this time, the period of M. Huillie's may>M-aIty beinr^ classed, M. Petion, a violent reptib- Htwi and Jiu'obiri imrmber, was elected in his piaee. Oh the lit of March 17!»2, the deiith of the Kmperor Leopold took iilace, and nhnrily after it, theassassion- tien of the ktog of •■■.vi'ilcn by luic of his owi, ciub- '•«•. Fniori* Kiiii,' .-f IIungsrvT who surre4>detl Ut tkm dominions of his br<'tlier the Ktuperor Leopoh*. U9 openly avowed his determination of waging war against Franc«, unless certain terms were submitted to by the king and legiclBtive assembly. These demands were refused, and accompanied by a declaration of war on the part of France j and it was the miserable task of LouU thus tu send a def^ince to his queen's brother, and to both of his own, who had taken up arms along with the most fsithfully auachet* part of his subjects, in order to restore to him what they considtred u his rigbU. MILITARY OPERATIONS. The limits of this paper do not admit of our going deeply into the account of military proceedings ; we shall therefore only give such a slight sketch of them os.may enable our readers in some kueasure to under- stand the motions of the French armies. France be- gan itB hostile movements by an attack on the Aus- trian Netherlands, which at first proved unsuccessful, by the defeat of the troops commanded by M. Dillon, and those under several other leaders. The Austriani were, however, compelled by Fayette and his division to abandon the field. Aleantime, on the 30th of Oc- tober, it was decreed, that, if the king's eldest bro- ther did not return to France within two months, be should be deprived of his right of regency. A deci- sion was also made with regard to the clergy, that if those who bad refused the civic oath persisted in their determination, they should be deprived of the money allowed them for subsistence ; and on any religious dissensions arising in their communis, they should be made answerable forthem. Hismajesty sanctionedthe decree ogainxt his brother, but used his only remain- ing privilege of putting his veto on the other. Alt expedients were fallen upon to create suspicions of the kin^, and to render him an object of aversion to the people, in which Marat was the principal agent. This man was the son of a Swiss schoolmas- ter, and had practised for some years in Paris, as a physician, or rather as a quack. He had b.Kome ob- noxious to the national assembly at an early period of its fittings, by publishing a pamphlet, in which he suggested the diabolical advice of hanging up 800 of their members on the trees of thf Thuille- ries. For this olfence he was commitf^d to prison, but wa3 softn set at liberty, owing to some illegality in tne form of ''ommitment. His ambition never seemed to rise above that of becoming the leader of a disor- «'erly and sanguinary -abble. Among the reports to which the incendiaries gave rise, that of tlie existence of what they tevmed an Austrian committee was boldly averre^l— iKat is, a pf.rty in ilie cabinet who favoured (he enemies of Franco — and aUo, that it was *he fixed intention of the king to escape. These reports were f)elievi'd by 'ho people, who were kept by them in a constant state of alarm. Thu Brissotino faction be- "anie also alarmed, though the cause was somewhat diirerent. They felt certain th.'t a struggle for power was Hpproachiug, between titem and the Jacobins; and being aware that the latter had multitudes of the lowest order of the citizens at their command, who, armed with pikes, would constitute n force not to lir resisted, they formed the plan of furnishing by ballot I'O.OOO men, to be armed, and traineiiuuder the walls of Paris. This scheme was hi^^hly displeasing to the people of the city, as they considered such a force as dangerous to the capi' il, and looked on the national guard as quite e(;'ial to its defence. They therefore petitioned the king and the assembly itguinst it, and obtained the support of the king, vho was jealous of the niensure as entered into by the IJrissotines to bring aliuut a n^publican government. INCREASED DANOER OF THE KING. Dumooriez, minister of war, advised Louis not to tinvart the assembly with regard to the trwips from the departments, test he should become suspected of vvifiliing the capital to be left open to the advance of the enemy, ihekingi liowever, mvis no: to be per- suaded, and determined toopposehis vet )to this mea- surL'. Thtrc was also another point ot contest be- tween the king aiid the ministry : a decree was passed in the assembly, that *>U priests who refused to sub- scribe ihe o^tth ro the constitution should be liable to exile. This was avainst the conscience of his majesty, and ho expressed his firm resolve to put bis veto on it also. On 'hesi! subjects, Uoland, one of the ministers, remonstrated with the king, in a letter conceived in such a spirit of disrespect .iiid harshness, that Louis dis- missed him, and two otliers of th'.' ministers who were his abettors. To retain l>;imouriez. he was obliged to withdraw his negative with regard to thetr(h)p8 from the departments, but still Rttwd liiiu in respect to the 1 riests. Dunuiurie?: continueil, howi'ver, to press his majesty on this subject, and to threaten to Hbaudon lis office in case of ref\isal. This had still no effect, and, resigning his place, he was sent by the a:w.'mbly to bectnue a leader in thu French army. INSURRECTION OF THE 2dTU ,?l \K. Irtuis wha i.ow charged with all th*- cimes and misfortunes ^T the revoluMB^ Rtid )«K their dt«rni- e.i ptxiple, headed by two u'pn named JH Huruge and daritern*, astemLed iu tiie Ktreets, audf having col- lected all their force to the number of 40,000, appeared at the door of the national assembly, aud, having en- tered it, continued to pass through for a space of two hours, exhibiting the sanguinary mottoes of their flags, and displaymg their destructive W'japons, amoo^ which were scythes, hay-forks, &c. Tliey next rur* rounded the Thuilleriei, and, having forced an en- trance, proceeded to the aparment where the king and his sister the Princr.sB Elizabeth were, wiili a few of the national guards who bad rallied round their sovereign, and who now hurried hlra into the recess of a window. Here the king^i sinter remained with him for the space of five hours, crashed and heated by the crowds that incessantly poured in to heap every species of iusuU on the unfortunate monarch ; among which, they compelled him to assume the red cap of liberty. At length the mayor, Petion, and also a deputation from the natlonAl assembly, arrived, who at onco, as by magic, clearer' tlu ;>a]tce and itavre- ciucts of its extraordinary visk^ors, proving that those whocouldsc easily dispel such a numerous mob, could with the samf^ facility have prevented them from as* sembling. Highly offended and indignant Rt the scene of violence and insult which had passed in his palace, the king next ilay remonstrated against it in strong terms tu the assembly. Petitions from thu more peaceable citizens were also prewnted, praying that the leaders of the insurgents might be broight to punishment. Fayette, also, arriving unexpectedly in Paris from the head of his army, declared at the bar of the assembly that he had ii^n addressed by his troops to express tlieir dissatisfaction, that, while they were shedding their blood to maintain the constitution, it should be suffered by the authorities of Paris to be outraged and trampled upon with impunity. The energy with which Fayette addressed the assembly, in denouncing the rapid progress of faction, and de- manding I,. at a strict investigation should be made into the ccure of the late outrage, and its instigaio' >« brought to justice, seemed at first to create some sen- sation of shame in the assembly ; and some indications, accordingly, appealed of redress being granted, which, however, passed off without effect. Fayette then or- dereu a review of the national guards, but they did not assemble ; and he next watted on his majesty, and proposed to him, as his only remaining prospect of safety, that ho should again attempt an escape, in which he offered to assist him. From the queen's prejudice against Fayette, this assistance was refused^ and he left PaiJs to join the army. The directory of the department of Parts, scandalized at the late out- rage, now took upon them to declare against the mayor, and, imputing to him the blame, suspended him from his office, which he again assumed almost immediately, thouglt hit^ sentence had been confirmed by the kin^-*- Petion having appealed to the assembly, and carried his point by means of his frient'.s the Jacobins. Afraid lest Favette, wuoni they nad so much insulted, should march liis army upon Paris, and compel an adherence to the constitutional laws, or perhaps join with the foreign invaders in the king's cause, the Brissotinea looked to the arrival of the troops from the depart- ments as a tit body to strengthen their party, instead of the Jacobin s, whom they found they could ro longer trust as tools in the work of republicanism. These troops when they arrived at Pans showed themselves at once ignorant and overbearing, by assuming to themselves all the authority arising from their fancied consequence as armed representatives of their country. They paraded in numerous parties the garden of tl;.; Thuilieries ; and if any of tlie royal family appeared, they insulted them in the most brutal language. A young man named Barbaroux, one of the most en- thusiastic lovers of liberty, brought tn Paris als) a battalion of men from his native city of Marseilles. These Marseillois were received at Paris, by order of the Brissotines and Jacobins, in the most fraternal manner, by all the force they could muster; and both were destined to form an insurrection, tvhose business it was to be to securo the municipal authorities, to ocTupy the posts of the city, and to encamp in the ganlen of the Thuilieries ; by which means it was in- tended to intimidate the king into an act of abdication. This plan, however, failed, through the cowardice of Santerre, who was designed to be their leader ; though \ iolence was sooii again resorted *o by the Brissotines, in which they were aided by a nviiitesto of the Duke of Brunswick, .'nded invasion of France, with the intention .^" r. storing the ancient government, and threaten ^ the legislative assembly, the national guard, all v« ho held civil offices, and, in short, all Paris, wiih the most bloody vengeanci*. TImr was construed by the people into an ituontrvi- vertible pro f thiit the king wa!> recretly hostile to the constitution, and his depoiition was resolved oii by the violent party, n'»t on'\ on accouiu of what they calleii hi* ireacherv, but as an act of proud du- fiance ut luc author of tW manifesto and his allies. The country was nowd<'?lared to be iu danger, and Paris asHumed all the appearances of a city just about to undergo a siege. Annd these hurried and ularni* ing movemencm the king was accused in the assembly of holding Mnanma-se with tln^ enemies of France, and his forlV-itniti- ol' the crown demanded. Tiiis mo- ti •«* Itrougbi Oil tlip final struggle between theconsti- t^tCHHtatists and their opponents ; and some extraordi- oary atfick on royalty hub so openly avowed i»;?d su generally credited, that the king is repcrted to have said, in full assurance that his days were now num* beret), '* I have no longer any thing to do wUh eirtb».« . ''il CHAMHERS'S INFORMATION TOTl THE PEOPLE. I null turn nil mv tlioiifrhu on lieHvcu." H« how. *r«r raniMMl hit ^vii%» fr>iKrdis lo ihn Htnoiint of n tfmliMiMl, from diKt«nt linrrtickt, •nU. with thi« slmt- 4w prvpftrnUon for the ii|i|troMhingGriKi«, he nwHtted lll«^t«. nnumitKCTiOK ot kvnxnr 10— tm: kika nrrofirn. Oa the Tnornlnff of th« lOth of Atifpin, or rathrr tlttfo ftf^pr nihliiitfht An the 9th, the dreaiSful tocvin wuiidcd Its fuirhMingponl in the ewt of the affrif^ht^Hl dllzpns, ind wn sm>n Jolnpd in its terrific notfi by nil the belU in l^rli. Unims bout to ■mi«, iind the adverxi! imniea KnpmhhHi nil tl.pir fi>rrp«. Tho!*o (»n tbv pni't of royaltv trert; nmKll, and Komi c»lle<>trd : they w««i8te were stat*i>ned within the ydan, but so ill armed, tliat rapfers, hanger*, and Idittits, were their only n-enpons. SlandKt> thfcom- Man^r of the nntkniRt i;iiards, did Indeed select kix. laen battalions of his u, in tht- vicinity of the Thnilteries, ami placed tiUy pttK\w itl' cannon on the op^HMite side of the river. Abont eight o*olook inthemorning, lltiederer, the procnrenr-gtme- ral-syndic, informed liis m»ieaty that the national guard was not ti> l»e depondcd on ; thai, from the overpowering force coming against him, 'nothing was Co be esptnted hnt the murkier of himself and fHnilv ; and that the only nay ttectimi in the assembly, the great miynrity of whose nuimlii>ni had alwai's tthown themselves so ininticnl to the riiyal intrnats, exclaiRicl, with energy, " Nail me rather to tiiese walls than r« me from the palare." Uii: there was no altern»tivo for I^onis but tu accept Otm olfer, or placi' himM'ir ut the head o( the guards ; :uui he dill tM't hosit.it*' til prefer the former, and overritnti- lite scruples of Ms rdiiwjrt, hv reminding her lliat this measure would place the cUililrtMi in Bsifety. The king, qii«en, the two children, and iho Princess l^lizaltcth, went on fiwt, esi'ortcd by tlircc hundred Swiss, to the hall of tW ussomhly, and arri\-t-d safely there, thou.^li .'.- " ' itUout (•Jicoitntering many perils and muij}i iu- viitt. The ap(»earaiice of the king in the afscmMy ' T^-'i* a real victon* gained by the c''o. C" ited to thf r-epiTLiTfl of a pnblir ;.,ini,i!' Thvy , however, hardly v snrtvudwred, and tht* consetiuences of thiN ue^]i-i t ut*r«: most disastrnu^. The palftOe was forn^tl, th.' ^-i.rihr jisrt of the Svi>, and hts other faithful adhen'iiu. cut to pfpcen, ;. . I •venthelowcst nioniBil fmn-d inthe palace put lmIciuIi, As soon s« the inti'Migenc^-ur thecftiitnreor I'l,' pJac.- arrived, tin? ^uBpensmn of ihi* king M'm iniUicdi'itd) ^ecretsl in a lumultnmis ^ittiitg, when- il«* dopntir's were mlxcii with haiid?i of ftrocioua men, fiTsh from the carnage at the pnUoR, and recking with the blood of their vi<'tims, nmi with a raf^d rahble of men. women, and chlhlrcn. Dnrin^ tbi» htst dav of thf* ill. fiited lAmfs's kingly dignttr. he *u«taine^ Innumcr- aWe insnlts with a caimne»n trufv natonithini,'. At one o'ch>ck In the morning, the king and hi« l-imttv wore removod to the neighbouring convent of tlie ThniHeriaa, after havtofr remaiiipd fourteen hours lis- tenint- Todohales tn wbh-h fhry wrre treated with tb. greatest indignity. Tin* piatis lewcK, and mont-v fonnd m the pRhir^-, wer*- lima);ht and dflivered up to the assembly ; and one man, wjio nppi-airf)!, fr^mi hiw «9ress, of the mtwt )mtlgv>m dwcriptiou. **inj-t^d witti a hatful f»( c"ld, and thretr it down haforc the prwi- 4fmt. Itj fact, many oi the p<).»i delnded p'*»pie sr- r^rmsly behoved, that, (n jfrtning (he fowirgents in or- 4»w tfi pnt down the rimstittition. the%' were acting u tterHoriouR and heroic part, and tlmn-fot* wisliert to avoid casting a stain on their proecedingK by the ini. Imitation of theft. ixVasiov or riANCK. t%« MWtf of (U Catal t^%«uiu at Uie lOtli August no si*oner reached tlie oars of Iih Kayctto, who was then at iNidan, ihnn he addressed his army in favour of the king and constitution; hnt, fuiding them ill af- fected to the cause, he alwudoned them, and with three of his staff attempteil to leave Franoe, hut was made prisoner by a |>arty of Prussians on the fron- tier, and thrown Into a (lungoon, from which he did not make his escape till 17&4. PiimourioK rocOjgntsed the decrees of the assen.hly in the separate army com- manded by him, ami in return was appointed by them commandcr-in><'hief. The combined armies of Ann- trla and Prussia entered Franoe. The Duke of Bniiiswick*s armv eonalsted of fiO,000 men, and, to- gether with the Ilesslaiu, the Anstrlann, and French emigrants, amounted to tN>,O00t white Dumonrle* had only 17>«en removed to the Temple. The place so called was a small diHsion of Paris, enclosed by gates of its own, within which debtors were accus- tomed to And refuge, the thronged state of its inha- bitants rendering it peonilnrly dirty, unhealthy, and dismal. In one of the angles of the enclosurtf was ■Jtimted thepalacfl of .he grand prior of the order of the templars. It was built Iwtween a narrow court and a small garden, isolalfvl from iho mstn building; and its numerons turrets arose — which were called the great tower — a hundred and fifty feet in height, and oonsfstbig of fmir ardied stones besides the ground floor, the circumference of which was only thirty feet within the walls. This tower was particularly gloomy within, from the immense thickness of the walls, anJi the impediments opposed to any view {Vom its win- dows, by the iron bars and wooden outside lattii*es. It was surrounded by a deep moat ; the staircase lead- ing to the apartments was divided by six iron doors, provided with massy bolts ; and it was guarded by three hundred men. HASSACn^ or ROYAMSTS. On the alarm of the approacli of the allies, the heads of thi* commune, or rntnmi»u Cinnicil, who were now Robespierre, Uanton, and Mnrftt, summonod the populace by meann of alarm pins, and enrolled iheni to march against the enemy. It was then pro|K>seil by those infnriatod men that the domestic foes of the atate should l»e de^iroycd t>efore the foreign ones were attacked ; and the fortv aR»einMee 10th of AuguRt, and, bringing them forth, along with numbers of nouconforniing priestji, and nuilti- titdes of suspected persons, u ith whom the prisons of Paris were then crammed, after huving given them a mook trial, they were butche:"eil in the in.wt liorribl«( manner, by the oxrs, pikes, and s;itirct of the mob, consisting of meti and women, who, WHiling ir. blond, and covered witti tbi' sanif ;■ iTiifnin'ii y tide, performed their d-eadful (>ftn-('uiiti tr;in>p:»ris of delignt. Nuirt- Imts (»f Indies weic limn murd'.Mcd ; among whom, the innocent Princess de LamUdlc, whose only fauft wnh a ninrrre nttanhment to the queen, was lliorally int in pie4'(>s, and her head.— which still retalnv^ its nn. (Nimmon besnly, and from which its fair nnglcu hung in long tri'xses — fixed on u spear, and tarried to the Tcmpie, in order to Iw presented to the unfortu- nate cause of her acc\)saciou. This carnage lusted fmir days, and it is cmnjtuted that not less than 4W1Q s\ifferei\. Nor did iu trenxied contrivers int(md that tbe mas^unre hhould hUty iliere; for they had laid r plan to make it u'lsvcmal ihtoughout FjancB, in whi.h they were, li<..> ■ , . i. - iit'd, from the people i« ;!u' provinces b* ; than those of the cjtt-^i^ and 1«M inn , i)isAppoiiued in this,\i.*i- 4-ver, thuv cau^ -; .Jhh-x ikUly rtaof tlistinrtiuu ti> [ be brought from f)rleanN and murdered iit A'ersaillcs. Will it V Indieved that the IcgiHlative assombly wtt» silent during these but£!heries ? But su It was; 8Ji«i not tin the 10th of September wm> ilwre any nutii-e taken of ihcni, when it was decreed that in future the 1-ommunet slm.ttd be answerable witli their own lives for the security of their prisoners. The Duke n[ Or- leans, whir, we have said, returned to Paris ,i\ the federation, wa< belir*v(ni to hav«< Iteun a prime !tl^ligH. tor of these enonuittes ; for though all detipitieil him pei'sonally, yet liiK mouf>y was capHhle of ladug tiset) hh a powerful engine. FonMATioK or rvv. katiokai. coxvy.VTroN. The b^gislaiivH asHeinbly now ci>aAcd to act, and memUtrs from it and the constUncm nssembly wen; rhoten, with others, to form i?.e '* Natiowal f?ON. VKNTION." Uobespierre, Uanton, and Marat, were anmng the members, and occupied the place of leaders in the Jiu-obin party uf the repriHM>ntavives of Paris, wliirh. ooiiststing <'f twenty, bad nut itmnng that numhet abm-v four or tive who had not nudsted at the iMe waanacre. One ot tiu.- Itru motions moved in the eonwiiuon w»« far a deinee to renmve the kiug and ttti- seat of gfrvemment to tbi' other !>idt! of the l/iitrxf, Hiul to draw the army of I>unn>ui'ie/ i-ouitd PariK ; but this ^v,t^ .iverruleii by l)«nton, who »tr«)uu«nikiy ivhiste'l the mcasurii, ami pi-cviiitcd imi the uinveutiou to reinforce that generul. I>uatou, by thin ■Mcixva, gained an uacendancy among the merabcrm, utul was ttuabled to encimrage aJid VAiutt ive with impunity man\ oi thoje snbiet|ueiit evcnt^ uf blood which liavu givan his namu so dreadfnl a dis< tinctimi, rnr intadcvs or fkanci; wonsTEn. Meantime, Dnmourlea, wtio had renslved a reln- fiiroement of flsderates from the provinces, was endea- rmirlng to protract the mardt of tb« enemy tilt ha cmild form a junction with the army of General Kel- lermaa, oonsitting of 20,000 men, and Ronrnavflle, front Flaodera, with l3,oi[N\ tngwther with new leviea which he eotpected from (ihalons. llefore he cmild, however, acoomplish this, he was anacked by the ]>tthe of Brunswick, for two siicressive days, with little effact, and "ar- dinia, and the French army were every wlieje xiiui- rioua. They took po.ssoMtion of Saxony, of Nice, and the countries round it — of Spires, from whcnco ibcv drove till' .\n3tnans, tukii s' 3000 prisonerK — raid of Mviz and I'raiikfoit. In short, the revoiutioniita i^eic triumphant, atul the inunediate consequi-jiLc was an unanimous decrw, that royalty ahoii' ' Wetrrnaliv abcdished in Franc* ; and this dt'Crce wak. by the in- fluence of the Jacobins, rec*:ived with unbounded a]>. probation in Paris, and throughout the provinces, where a thousand of their chilis were chlablishcd. At the name time all titles, save that of citizen, ware an- nulled ; and it was dcrreeil that the public arts tthuuhl be dated from the year of the French li-public. THIAl. OF Tiir. KISO nETFH^utw m ov. The Mtiuutainidt?, having now triumphed in so f.ir OTor the llrissotines, smipied not to adopt any plan which afforded the smallest jiro>.j»pct of miniug titcir opponentA; and the^ therefore brouglit forward, uitli- mit dela\, the quaetion of how the depohed monflrcli was to be disposed of. Thf opposite party wihhi-il to save his life, and this of itHcIf would have been suth. ment to detcriuiue hi|i unfortunate destiny. The BrisHotlnesf^titelr weakness, and snbmittnl lo their enemies, becwtse they knew luiy violent oppn^iiiou would jirova iaeffectnal — thon^h they lOMdc a f.iint show of suffMrt, on the side of the kingi t" the lii>=t. A comuifiwe was appointed by the coni'ention to make iin|u»n into the delinquencies of the king, and iniMiincrabb' accusations were the couficquenrc. In these chain's against Louis, not even a show of troth or probability waa attended to; and after torturing every event during his r?ign towhich blami- could bo attached, iat> voluntary acts of his omi, the \choU was aummed up by an absurd attsertiou that he hud harboured an tntentiou of massacring the whole con* vention, prot^ted as it was by thu national guards and by all the other trottps and people of Parih. Self. evideitt as these monstrous fahtehuoiU wern, the ttni- venUon dorri'od that Louis slnmld be brought tti their bar to answer for them, and stand his trial for lilW. Robespierre exclaimed, " Summon him to the bar, nnd let us demand a reckoning for his crimes !" At Uif time that th^ decrees were passing in the cimvrntion, which, one by one, led to the final un- hapjiy fate of the royal family, tliey were subjt-cu.'d, ill tlje gloomy and wiettdied apartments of the Tcnijdo, tn every indignity, and treated with a malignant harvhmms, iu order to a&^nunt for which it U only necessary to say, that they were complctii^- in tht; |N>wer uf the cummunos of Parix, who, swayed in all thair rctioun and ooininns by their leadors, to^di pica- sure in trv^tuig lltulr distiugnished prisoners with THE STORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. every refinamBot of oru«Uy. And thii being the ob. jpt-l ktpt in view by thesu individusli, it was of course th«ir study to place such men only round tfaeir vlc- x\n\% whoso hearu never knew the touch of pity, and tvho could look, unmoved, on the meekneu of the monarchy wlio never manifested, by word or »\gn, a Kpirit of rcvoiitfu af(ainat thoie whose sole delight it was to wuund his feelings, and add contuinuly to his misfortunes ; and who beheld^ without compassion or hdinirution, the pious, the pure, the uobui. minded mid disinterested Princeu Elizabeth, devoting her every thought oud action to alleviate the misery of tlie little band of sufferers. Surely she had done no- thing to merit the hatred and oontempt which she sharL'd. And though the heroic, but, perhaps, not guiltless Alurie Antoinette, whose unsubdued spirit was less resigned, refused to truckle to her persecu- tors, by exhibiting un appearance of what she did not J> el, yet less brutal jailors would have respected this sincerity, urd l>een moved by the strong attachment uf the wife, and the yearning feelings of the mother, M'hi'rh were always so conspioiiouii in her. It was for the ciijnyinoDt of the domestic rirrle, and for its or. iiairit'iic, tti.'tt the amiable Louis had been formed, and lint for the ruler of a mighty nation, at a juncture when lirmness of purpose was necessary, and great skill und talent would have been required to reform the state without revolutionising it, and to reconcile ])cia:hbmiring potentates to the change. Ihit we have Biiid that tho convention had determined to act at once lis his accusers and judges, and he was accord- ingly suniiuonod to appear at its bar on the llth uf l>oteniber 1709. TftlAL or TRK XIMO. On the morning of that day. the king had retired, as WHS Ills usual custom, with his little son, to Impart to iiitu iiiHtnu-tion, and to foster those tuleiit!i which, even at the early age of seven years, were conspicuous to liiH paternal eye. Itut it was now resolved that he should be separated from this fondly cherished child { und he was torn from his arms, at the same time that it wns announced to him thai he was a)>out to receive a visit from Chambon, the new mayor of Pa. ris. Two hours, however, interposed between this iiitimntion and his arrival, during which perimt the king, who heard the noise of the trampling of horses, niid the sottnd of wheels incessantly increasing round his prison, was left to all the horrors of an impression that lind faateued on his mind, that he was to be im- ineiliatoly murdered. When the mavor at length ap. peared, and read to him the decree ot the convention, ordering him to their bar, his majesty's Hrst remark WA-i, " I could have wished not to have iMH'n depriveil of the society of my son during tho two hours I have been expecting you, but it is of a niece with tho usage 1 have experienced for four months." The king proceciled in Ghambon*s coach to the con- ventioii, wlitch had now established itself iu the pa- lace of the ThuiUeries, as it beHtted the monarch of the }K.'iJpIe. Tho pri^ceesion which accompanied the kitij; couKiiited of three lield-pieces, which moved in front, with adetuchment of horse, while a bodvofGOO foot formed a line three deep ou each Nide of his ear- riHge, and the rear was brought up by three more field- pieces, iiud an tsant of fusUeers, At one o'clock it reaclim! the ThuiUeries, and Santerre appeared iutbo c4)uventiou, and said, " Louis Capet'* awaits the orders of the axseuibly. This auuouncemeui was followed by a deep tilenoe ; eveu the mo«t tumultuous and law- lem occupiers of the galleries became still as death, and every eye was turned un the door through which tlio king was to enter. Presently he made his appear- ance, with an air of majestic dignity. His misfortunes Iu.d overcast his features witli an expression of tho Mo^t touching melancholy, but it was unmiI^(led alike with fear or with contempt for tho tribunal Iwforo which hj stou. His nit^esty then listened attentively to H long -sdiinf "f charges brought against him, on which he «a.s separately interrogated, many uf them accusing him of the most cruel tyranny, and tho most consum- mate hypocrisy. IleaiisweredUtthem, though hhortly, witli the utmost precision and frankness, and imver Mrined in the slightest degree to lose liis self-posses. Kion, exc-eptlng twice, when accused of having distii- I'liti'd money to the po«»r for the purpose of acquiring pofujarity, and enslaving the nation, and when taxed v.itli lansing the MiHtdshed ou the 10th of August. 'i'.< flie first charge ho replied with animation, "I itrviT knew plensure e«|ual to the power of relieving diHtress ;" and to the second, he answered with d(>ep eni'iiion, "It was not 1." AM the written documents hrouglit forward nguinst him were then shown to him, most nf which he densulatiou. Be- fore his majesty's second appearance in the convention, he commanded his counsel to abstain from every etfort to excite the passions of their audience in his favour, and to adhere exclusively to sound deductions from the evideuce. The king left tl\e Temple, on his second summons to the asseiulply, about nine iu the niuruing, and was conveyed, as before, iu the coach of the mayor. De Seye Itegan the king's well-known de- fence, wliidi he read without iuterruptiou. This de- fence wuH au able appeal, in the first instance, to the rights which had been allowed him as a constitutional king, utui, should these at the present moment be dis- allowed, to that justice to which he was entitled as a private citizen ; while ho treated it as an absurd chi- mera, tliat Louis could, with the slender forco under his command, ever for a mument have thought of turning their arms against the convention. When De Seyc concluded his defence, the king added a few words, expressive of his conviction that he atidrofsed the members for the lost time, and solemnly avowing the clearness of his conscience with regard to any in- tended injury to his {u-uple. When the king with- drew, a long and tierce debate took ])lace, ou the motion of Manuel, to adjourn for three days, that the king's defence lui^ht be printed, and sent to the de- purtmcius. (.)u the contrary, it was insisteil upon that judgment should be pronounced without separat- ing. Such contradictory opinions inflamed the violence of the contending parties, und the Jacobins becoming perfectly infuriated, etpelled Manuel. Vergniant, ouo uf the nutst tihle of the BrikSOtiuH . jded in vain, in a strain of almost unrivalled elo'iufue, that the fate of tho king should Iw decided by *!.t people. He eveu went so far as to reproach the Jacobins as the contrivers of the past massacres, and to prophesy the hortftrs that would ensue if ever Paris was given up to their nile — a prediction that was more than verified when th It event did take place, and tho reign of terror began. His representations were, however, now totally disregardetl, and a final appeal was demanded mbeniwith terror by uttering loud threats of vengeance if the sentence was not death. They swore, if he was ac- quitted, To go inntantly to the Temple, and, having murdered him and his family, to iuttict the same fate on alt who bad favoured him. This was suttici..>nt, and the votes Mere immetliately taken. When it came to the turn uf the Dukeof f>rleaiis- the strong interest which jwrvaded the whole convention at that nunuent when they wure H»«aling the fate of their sovpreit;n, ap- peared much deepened ; every eye was fixed on him ; and when he pronounced the word " Death," a simul- taneous shfK'ii seemeil to be felt thnm^hont tlie iis- semblv. When the voting was tinislie'i, it appeared that there \\n» a luajority of fiftv-three for the king's executinn. At this juncture, fhimouriez arrived in Paris, with the intention of saving the king, if jMNisi- ble. He lind ^'ained a victory in the battle uf Jemuppe, by which he had secvired the c^mquest of Flanders or nelgiuin. and, presuming on this, he expected to lind his inlhu-nce greater than it proved ; but being, like his predecessor La Fayette, foiled in bis attempt, he, tike biin, withdrew also to his army, and left the king to his fate. In fact, no one now seemed to intermeddle in the matter, so completely were the more moderate members of the convention overawed Oy the immense and sanguinary power of the Jacobins, whose uver- wlieluiing and increasing iuHueiice was »i}o\i to teach them that tlicy were to derive no benerit to theiuselves from their tame and dastardly ^nbmi^l•itllt. When his niujestv \va8 infnrmwl by (iarat, tl^i m.nister of jus- tice, nt bis sentence, he remained <\i\n and nomposetl, and 4lcliv,'red t>) litni a paper cow, .liiiu^ a list of ic questv, which was read in the AUivention. It com- menced with craving three davi* r«ipit« ) ft then went on to Iwg that ha might b« allowed to see a pers4m he should name ; that he should b« freed from the ha- rassing watchfulness of the cummunet that ho should be permitted to comniunioslfl In private with hia /«■ mily ; that they might after his death be allowed to retire whithersoever they pleased ; and that thoM persons who wero dependent on him might not be abandoned to poverty. The delay of the tentenoe was refused, wnich, when reported to the king, he said, ** Well, 1 must submit." H« waa, however, gratified by an accession to his wishee respecting hia family and dependents; for what would have beeu hia feelings in his dying mocnents could he have anticipated the horrors in store ht them 1 The Abb^ Kdgeworth, who nobly braved- all peraonal danger, was permitted to attend his majesty, and, accomyanied by tiarnt, went to the Temple, where, after being narrowly searched, and treated in the most insultiuff manner by the guard*, he was in- troduoeil to the presence of the king, at whose feet he felt, Bud bathed hit hand with hia tefors. Thto manifestation of attachment, to which he had beta lately so little accustomed, melted the unfortunate monarch also into tears. He read over to the abbd his last will, so full of religion, of affection, and of justice, in whieh his mind Is pourtrayed io so lively a manner, but a copy of which we have not room here to insert. He then conversed on various topica, in- quired for his friends, and forgave his enemies, among whom he particularized the Duke of Orleans. After this, he rose to make his last visit to his family, in or* der that, when this heart-rending trial was over, he might flx all hit thoughts on heaven. THE SINO EXECUTED-- JAK. 21, 1793. This interview lasted an hour and, in its com- mencement, gave hopes which had 1 sng been strangera to tho bosoms of the affectionate circle, who, seeing him enter their apartment without the usual restraints, and being ignorant of the fate to which he was doomed, believed that this was the dawn of a brighter day. He was without guards— he was comparatively at liberty — and it roust be so. But they again looked upon him, and there was no joy in his countenance i he was also silent — he embraced them with convulsive clasps — his firmness gave way, and the tears he could no longer repress burst forth. They antioipated their misfortune, and their cries became so frantic, that they were heard beyond the precincts of the Temple. When his majesty was obliged to leave them, he could scarcely separate himself from their clinging embraces. He gave them hopes o( another meeting ; but the last expressive look he threw upon ttiem told another tal^ and laid his wife and hia sister senseless at his feet. He returned to the Abbd Edgeworth. "Alas,'* he said, "why do I love with so much tenderness, und why am I so tenderly beloved ?'* Strong emotion overcame him, and ho sighed deeply, and wept for a few minutes, before entering on religious subjects with ttie abbe. He then prepared himself by eoufea- sion, and was granted the request to have the sacra- ment administered to him the next morning. The ablxf, seeing tliat the king was much exhausted, pre- • vailed on him to lie down, and, though certain that he had not many hours to live, he slept tranquilly. At five iu the morning, he rose, dressed himself, heard ma^s, and partook of the sacrament with the deepest feeling of devotion and trust in Ood. At about eight o'clock, the commissioners of the commune came to announce that the hour of execution was fast ap- proaching. The king descended the stairs with a firm step and ]ilacid countenance to the carriage witich waited for him. Hitence reigned among tho crowd, and he proceed«d with tho Abbd Edgeworth, and guarded by 1200 men. His majesty continued to read a book of devotion with great fervour, till he ar- rived at the guillotine, which stood iu the Place Louia Quin/e. He ascended tho platform, and uddro«sed a few words to the people, in which he solemnly pro- tested hia innocence, and prayetl for and forgave hia enemies. He was still speaking, when the feroeioua Santerre caused the drums to drown Ins voice, and, in a few momenta more, his head was severed from his Iwdy. A request was made by a faithful attend- ant, to be altoived to bury him at Sens, where the royal family were interred; but this was refused, and the monster Legeiidre moved that it should be cut into eighty-four pieces, one sent to each department, and the heart to ttie convention. The body n us, liow- ever, thrown into a hole iu tho churchyarcl nf St Mary Magdalen, which was filled with quick-lime, aud guarded till it was consumed, when pains were taken to obliterate all marks of where he had been laiil, by levelling the ground. — Thus perished Lonis the Six- teenth, by a sentence ununimously pi'tnumnced unjust and infamous by all Europe, and M'hich linds no pa- rallel in history. Benevolence seems to have iMfeu the paramount quality of this monarch, from wliich hie abhorrence of being implicated in the shetldiug of blood arose, aud which r.t lant caused his own to flow on a scaffold. DESrRTIOK OF DUMOURIE/. Having arrived at this epoch, our remainiTif details iiiM^t bo still mure contracted, white we give an ac- ciiunt t.f some of the leading events v/hich took placet in Franc*.' till the time arrived when a fireatet degree of tranquillity was restored to the nation. A short time tiefore the death of Lonis, Diiuiouri**/., as we hiive related, gained the buttle of Jeiiii/pe, .. it CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. aud ber«me the conqueror of the Kleiiiiili pruvincei. Th«H proTinotts were lnimeiliat«ly taken i)OM.iuiun of by tlic cn his intention of reducing within bounds the power iif the ronrention^ and the course of the revolution. .Meiinlinte, he obeyed orders fur making an attack on Holland, which, from the manner of dispoeing his t.-Oi>i>ii, WHS unsuccessful. In short, the French forces wore so entirely defeated in their attacks on various places, thxtDumourirz was suspected of treachery, and comniisaionera were sent from tlie convention to inquire into his couduct. These personn craftily insinuated that they had oome to advise with him on a counter- reroliitiim. Deceive<1 by this false pretence, and be- ing, from the cimlidence he placed in his army in ge- neral, no way slack in eipreuing his opinions on the ■ubject, he at once made known i> them his determi. nation of putting an end to the reign of the conven- tion, and re-est»blisbing the constitution, with a king at its head. The convention, informed of his designs, summoned him to appear before it. 11^ had, however, too great a respect for his head to attend on this sum- mouH, and disolieyed. Four deputies n-ere again sent with orders to arrest him at the head of his army, but Dumouriez twik them into custody, and sent them to the Austrian army as hostages for the safety of the French roynl fiunilv, and presently followed them with only 700 cavalry and 800 infantry, the rest of hU army preferring to retain their allegiance to the convention, wlio tet a price on the head of their ge. neral. Of the troops which passed into the Austrian army with Dumouriez, the greater part deserted from him, and after r(>siding in Ocrmanv for tome years, he came to England, where he remained till hisdeHtli, which took place a short time afu>r the restoration in tUU. COMPLETE TKIUUPII OF THE JACOBIKS. The Mountainistt accused the Brissotines of a par. ticipation in the conspiracy of Dumouriex. Feeling that it was a fortunate moment to rid themselves of nil opponents, Robespcirre attacked them violently in the convention, and Marat in the Jacobin club, and it WHS proposed to bring them to trial, or rather to de- cide ear, but prncured n body of federates, consisting of -tOU, from lirrst, which sufficed, thongh a n-eak numlwr, to keep the murderers in check for a time. Fear prevented the Brissotines from imputiufj; this plot against them to the opposite pBrtv,and theyatfertea to believe it thecontri- rance of the nobles and priests. Kncouraged bvthis pu- sillanimity, Uobespierre impeached by name, in n short time afterwards, the lenders of the lirissotines, as ini- vlicated in I)iimouripT.'s crime. Ho was, however, in Ills turn denounced with the Jacobins, against whom it now seemed the intention of the oppo-nite party to make a stand. They nominated a rommtuion of twelve members, composed partly of their riuii party, and jtartly of neutrals (who formed a part of the con%en. tion called the Plain, which we have never mentioned from its being occupied by the neutralit), tn watch the citizens disposed to anarchy, in which eiiiplnymcnt they showed much energy, by arresting and commit- ting to prison one of the moat furious ringleaders of the late insurrertions. Jtiit this bold st4>p wits not fol- lowed up ; and taking advantage of this want of de- rision, the convef tion was surrounded by a mob, who romiK'lled the recal of the commisKJon of twelve, and the lilieration of the man they had imprisoned. This concession showed plainly that the power of the Itris- fcotines was at an end, and that it mob could at any time command them; and the Jacobins determined to be rid of them by a final stroke. On this occasion, during a sitting of the convention, it was Kurrnuiidi'd hy an armed fnrce of 2000 federates instntrted for the occasion, who brought in their train artillery, with grape-^hot and shelli, and who, with the iniiltitnde on the outside of the building, vociferut(>d a dL'uiainl lor the death or banishment of twenty-two *>( the Hrisstitincs, who were pointed out as acromplice.t of Dumouriex, including in thii list the niinistent. After tiXperieni'iug grtat terror, and during a degree of confusion, where debate was impoKNilde, it w\», how- v\er, detennineil to increuse the number uf the pro- scribed to thirty, mo^t of whoiii were arrested ; while thofte of the party who escaped were scattered in the provinces, whereiheyenduredall manner of hardsliips, .ind were many of them at last put to death. Mean- time, sentence of death was eiecuted on twenty-two of the imprisoni^d ileputies, who were guillotined. FATK OF TIIF. KOVAf. FAMILV. The unfortunate queen wm now, too, to suffer the came fate as her husliand. hhe was si'parated from her family and sent to thepriMmof theUonciergerie, uherL* U she spent her time in tears and prayer, till, on the lUth of OctoWr, she was dragged to execution in an open cart, amid the most cruellnsults, nnd guillotined in the same place where Louis siilfered. The pious rrincuss Kllvabeth was also doomed to the guillotine, and met her death with the most saint-like resigna- tion, on the aOth of Atay (I7IU). Of the danuhin, it is almost impossible to relate the dreadful end, with- out a shudder of horror. This poor innocent child was delivered ti> the keeping of one of the most atro- cious and blood-thirsty villalni in Paris^ with an order not to murder him, but to ffft rid of him, which this monster accomplished by slow degrees, and by means of hardships, ill usage, and starvation, till he found refuge in an early grave. And last of all, we shall mention the princess royal, who was exchanged with the Aasrrians for La Fayette, and some other distin- guished prisoners. Let us also mention here, that a few days after the death of the queen, the same fate overtooit the infa- mous Duke of Orleans, who had assumed for some time pist the absurd appellation of Citizen KgalitiJ. Neither this assumption of a namo so much to the taste of the Parisian mob, nor his many other dis- graceful acts of conciliation, availed him at last ; and after being tried as a conspirator against the govern- ment Ht Marseilles, he was acquitted, but sent to Paris, where he shared the fate so common at the pe- riod, and was brought deservedly under the axe ot the guillotine, amid the execrations of all parties. A^HASSIKATION OF MAIIAT. It was now that Marat, glutting his sanguinnry ap- petite with the blood of prosrribeil royalists, became such an object of detestation to n young maiden, named Charlotte Corday, residing at Caen, that she formed the extraordinary resolution of putting on end to him and his enormities. She accordingly journeyed to Paris ; and demanding, at his own house, to nee him, she was ushered into an apartment where he was taking a bath. After some conversation about the refugees in Normandy, Alarat remarked, that, within the space of a few days, they should all lose their lives by the guillotine. 'I'hese words were the signal for his own death, for at that instant tlie young wninnn drew a knife from under her robe, and plunged it to the haft in his heart. She was instantly seized, tried, and condemned to death. Her answers on her trial were all given in the most heroic spirit. She pro- fessed to have considered deeply, before its perjietra- tion, all the consequences of the deed she meditated, and to glory in having kiUed one execrable monster, to save the lives of many thousands of lier unhappy countrymen. It is related as a singular circumstance, that, at her execution, she was not insulted by the mob. <'harIotte Corday was beautiful nnd young, dignified and mfulest ; and these advantages, together with her having evidently acted in this dei^d of self- devotion from a principle of lore to her country, was probably the reaHeen published by it soin ' time before, declaring, " that they would give ussismnce to any natiun ihut wifthed to rewiver its liberty:" as also why the Silu-ldt had been opei.ed contrary to a former ngrccnicnt, Ti) theRe questions tlie conven- tion refused to reply, and immediately decreed a war against Kn^lantl ; upon which an auxiliary urmy was sent to Holland, wita the Duke of York as its com- ni;iii(ier-iii-(hit'r. France Has at this time w;iging nn unsuc4'essfnt war against various antagonists, while an unheard-of system of tt'rror wit< carried on in her interior, Mhere a mere chnrg< or suspicion was s'ldicient lanton, who had incurrentrfMlict liim. At that time it is saut that *' lifiy were put to death each day as regular task- work." lu the midst of this work of > uUo among the Mountainist party. who feared for themselves the fate of Uantoii. Rohei- plerre saw with some alarm that he was losing hit popularttv, even aiaoug the most ferocious of the peo* pie, nnd he Itegan to affect sentiments Ifordering on the Puritanism of ''romwell's time; and In this spirit he framed a law, in which lo many criinos were stated as being subject to the penalty of death, that it wai thouffht no one could lie eximpt from impeochment. This decree gave especial alarm to the convention, as they observml that no mention was made of their personal Inviolability; but that, on the most friyoloui pretence, Robespierre could transfer them, without ceremony, from their teats in the assembly to the guillotine. Hut from this moment secret revenue was vowed airainst him by his old associates of tlie Mountain. In these circumstances, he sought com- fort and courage from his still staunch friends in the Jacobin club, where he was encouraged to denounce his enemies In the convention. After a considerable delay, he determined on this course; and once mure took his teat there, nnd stormed against a thousand abuses in the different departments conducted by the separate members ; but, being foiled In this attempt by the general voice, ho again withdrew, to carry his complaints to the Jacobin club. Meantime, a list of proscribed members, said to bo copied from one in the handwriting of Robespierre, was handod about, and a league was formed against the com- mon enemy, whose fall it wnt believed was now at hand. On the Arst visit he again paid to tlie convention, he was received with every hostile indi- cation, and, after a most furious meeting, the result which followed was the arrest anil imprisonment of this blood-thirsty man, and a few of his no less san* guinary associates. They were not suffered to live many hours after, but perished on that scaffold which had been to long the scene of their own unhappy trl« uinphs. RESTOItATION OF OUDER. After the execution of Robespierre, the government sot themselves vi({orously to the task of freeing the untventiun entirely from the dominion of the Jaco- bins, and by condemning some to death, and others to banishment, effected their purpose in spite of one of the most desperate mobs which had ever been raised in Paris, and which violently assaired the convention. The lirmnesi, however, with which they were at- tacked in return by the national guards, restored or- der, and society Iwgan to recover its contidence, and some portion of its usual tone; and very soon the na* tnr.il character of the nation, with nn elasticity pecu- liarly behniging to it, once more exhibited Its usual vivacity. MIMTAnY TBIUMniSOr THE FREKCII BEPUUMS. The last time, we mentioned the armies of France, that of the north was thrown into utter confusion by the defection of Dumouriez, while it still re- mained in the iieighlKturhood of a large bmly of tho enemy; while the most active operations nerc de- termined on by the allies, which consisted of every Kuropean nation, excepting Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, and 7'urkey. Thus the republic was me- naced by foes erhH|is to be applied to such violations of humanity, init not Hutiiciently tempered with a reference to the imnn'neut fear which the revnlutionistk had reason to entertain lest a reaction might be produced by foreign arms, and a worsts fate befall themselves. In so limited a sketch as tho present, it is difhcnlt to advert on all 4>ccaftion8 to motives and to palliating circumstances ; but we are ready to allow that he who judges of the French reign of terror without a consideration of tho irresistible principle of self-defence, and some allow- nnce ut the same time for a frec-s))irltcd nation just let loose from the most odious bonds, not only docs injustice to his fellow -creatures, but commits a sole- I'ism in philosophy. (•'niMii nuH : PtihliJtliitl by Wri.LiAM ■uii\ ItoiiKiiT (iiAuHKHa, i!», WatfrliMi PlaiiM hI«) hy \\. Otui, f'.iiiTn»trr now, I.o* iUmi aii'l W. TiiRRV, Jan. «tid Co. ^.ukvlllu Street, Dubin. tiiM by John MarUfKl. (ilugow, ami ull uttii-r llut>k>illeii In SttjUaiid. KnBlaitd, and IrcUml.— Fubibhi'il oikt a fortnight. btcmitypedby A. Klrkwi>o«), anil pnntrH by BiUtantyiwaid Company. Paul'j Wnrk. CHAMBERS'S I f A ffA INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUOTBD BY WILLIAM AND kOBSRT OBAMBBIU, BOITORI OF TR8 " BDINBUHOH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NKWSPAPER." No. la Pwo" U* EMIGRATION TO NEW SOUTH WALES. AmriALiA, or N«w Holland, !• »n ImmenMlr l*rg* lll«nil,iili]ite diniAnce from Great Britain l> about 16,000 mllei by ihip'a coune. The circumstance of its lieing liia- aied at the opposite end of the giolHi, haa the effect of reversing the seasons in their relation to ours. Their winter is enr May, June, and July t their summer our November, December, and January. Its being situated so much farther east than we are, again affects the relations of time with regard to day and night. The sun rises there ten hoiira sooner than with ust and thus, when It ia Rve o'clock In the morning in New South Wales, it it about seven o'clock of the pre- vious evening in liondon. As these changes, how- ever, come gradually upon the voyager to tliese lands, he is unoonsdouB of their taking place, and is only made aware of that which has occurred in the posi- tion of the leuaons by the names of the monthn. Van Diuman's Land, another Australian colony, which we intend to describe in a subs«]uent sheet, lies to tite aimth of New Hoihind, from which it ia aeparated by Bass's Htrnit, a narrow channel of the sea. eiNERAL DESCRIPTION. 'llie general appearance nf New 8outh Wales from tTie Bca is very far from being inviting, presenting immediately on the coast a continuous front of bold cliffs and m\tral precipices, unbroken for many miles together ; behind these, again, and running generally parallel with them, at an average distance of about 40 miles, rises a chain of rocky, precipitous, and almost impatsalile mountains, extending along the whole eastern coast. These are called the "Blue Mountaina," Thia unpromising appearance of the ■hares of New South Wales Is not removed npon your landing. For Ave or ilx miles Interiorly the land rontinues barren and rocky, presenting little other signs uf vegetation than a few thinly scattered sluntpd shnibs and dwarf underwood. At this distance, how- ever, inward, a marked change begins to take place : tlie soil improves, and lieglus now to )>e eucumbered with tall and auieiy trees, which soon again thicken into a dense bvit magnllicent forest, Indicating, in. ileed, n more luxuriant soil than that passed, but ■carcely less disumraglng to the settkr. Still pro- Kresaiiig inwarda, however, from six to nine miles farther, another change takes placs. Vou have cleared ; the forest, and the promised land Hea before you ; Im- proving now with every step you advance ; now pre- senting an endless variety of hill and dale, covered with the most luxuriant vegetation; now extensive plains, resembling the finest parks in Knghmd— a ra- Mmblance which is made tlie mem striking from their bahig similarly interspersed with nagnliicent trees, jutl numcrmn enr rurthrr hifhnnatlon, «r«, •■ A l>twrl|i.f ilw (-(Hnny nt New K.imh Wt*»i-«," by W. ( . WeiKwufili. Wt.iM.iKer. L.tjiidon — ■■ rm.iit StMe of Aut- iTSlta.' by llot^n Diiw%on, K'li. Elrter nnti Ci>.. I,onan«in, rt.W. '.(Mlmni. t.oii.1'111.— •• Aiii)i«iiiK' rnromuilion Hvladve ut New "-mill Wall J auil N,.« /i il,..,!." by Janui liu.by, Ku|.-UI»er- vatioB. "11 ihe.olnmr. ..f Nrn ^onlli Walcii itiii V»ii THenian'B LauJ, ' bv Johu lleniltrtiiii. i).ipiul MUaiuu Pnaa, Calcutta. HAP or N£W SOUTH WALES. wiiiih the whole of the eastern coast of New Holland exhibiu, and, as a general description, ia agreed to by ail who have ipokm of It. The colonired portion of New 8onth Wales is divided into ten ooimtles or distrlcu: these are, Ayr, Cumborlaua, Cambden, Argyle, Westmoreland, Northumberland, Durham, Cambridga, Koxbnrgli. and Londoiil.rry. The first seven of these counties lie between tlie Bhie Mimn- tains and the sea; the three l»«t interiorly beyond them. Ayr, Durham, Nortl.umlierland, Cumber- laud, and Cambdan, have all ol thaiu the coast for Ikeir aasUrn boundarisa; thence stretching each of lh«n more or less Inward. Tlie other fonr cmintles are entirely inland. This diiposlfiou the reader will St once perceive, by referring to the map. Taking tha coast line, we begin with the county of AYR, the most northerly of the rang* of counties, bounded by the sco on the east lu length, from east to west. Is about 110 milea, stretchng innard i and its breadth, or line of coiist from north to south, about 66 to 70. This county is remarkable for the vast proportion of high, rocky, barren, and mountainous land which it presents ; It is also, in general, so thickly timberad as to give the greater part of it the appearance of on* immense forest. The quantit) of cultiratable land, therefote. In this district, i< Amiparatively exceed- ingly small ; and though there are some good tracts occasionally to be met with, it ia not, on the whole, by any means a desirable quarter of the colony to settle in. The climate, too, has bean found to be hlghlyuaravourible to wheat x and the hills are bleak, poor, and brushy, and not well adapted for grazing. Port Macquarrle, one of the penal aettlementa of the colony, is in this county. DURHAM. The limits of this district are not yet property d*. fined. On the map it Is laid dmm as aKtanding oo ' the coast from Farquhar's Inlet to Port Hunter, CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR TIEK PEOPI.K. ti: a dlftHnrii nf nT)mi( 7^ mllt^ii, and itrt'tvbliig Mbout MW mile* PxiiTlorly. There It, howevpr, Imii k uimll portion ol thia litoated, u U li c:UM, thet li, p trtct, to r»r at it hat bwu explored, like the yreatrr nuinlwr of the other dUtrlcta, ts axvmMlinKly vaHed, oltetipretmitingthemoet tieautiriiltfenery, andf^iiaUy uften the rererie t on the wIiuIp, it does not ■eem to ho hy any meani rich In lultable Iwalitles for th» a^icultural fmt)(niat. NotwHhilandliifir, however, lliii unfavouratile rhararter when ({fn^ritlly ii[»iik«>n of, It vet conlalnn umie of the ftnMt landa in New Suulb W'alM ; theie are ti> Iw found in the neighbourhood of the llunier and Pattereon rivers, on tlie Miuth and tonth>eMt tide of the onnnty, u laid down in the map. Tlie fertile valliet and toft ffreen nndulatin)( hiiU nf thit part of the country ar« spoken rapturouiily of by all who have teen them i they are, however, of coiira«, al) already lorated, and not an acre worth taking uan here he had, except by ptirrhate from the present pro- prietort. In this dlitrict )■ lituated the large and oommodiout harbour of Port Htephen, and the tnwn- •hip of Maltland, the capital of the diitrirt, consisting of upwards of 700 aoult. The next district purtuinf the line of coast li VOttTHUUBElLAND, lying between Port Hunter and Broken Bay. a dia* tance of about M mile*, and extending inland about fUi mile*. This county postesiet the utual pnipor- tinna of graxing land, barren tracts, and fertile nvlona, but, like t?v»rv other part of New South Walt^, it greatly doHcient Jn ,cood roads. The best lands here, though it poaaetae* many other bMutifiil and desirable localities, are to t»e found in the nelghbtmr- hoiNl of Pattprson Rfvar, which divide* it from the eounty of Durham. M^ithln this county is situated the town of Nen-castto, so called froin the abund.-tnl •upply of cunl which it affords; the whole surriMiiiding country, at well as a line of roast extending fnmi (M> to 70 miles on either aide of it, preaentlng evidence of ita abounding with that valuable mineral. A con* ■idernlije trade in this article It carried on lietwern this iHirt and Sidney, the metropuHs of Nrw Mtiuth Wales, where it is sold at the rate of 2lhi. to 'Jit. per ton, the price Ht the pit mouth being ft*, to (]«., and the freight lAt., the diitance somewhat le^n tlutn hM miles. The coiil mines at Newr«*tle aro in the band* of gtnernment, and are worked by convicts, or, as they are cnlled in the colony, $econit aentent-e men, Iwing those who have rommitted offences after reach- ing their Hrst destinatltm t uien, in short, who are hbnished nut to, but front. Botany Bay. The New Simth Wales coals are said to Im of good quality, burn- ing well, bu( generally small and diny. Nutwith- standing the abundance of coal, however, wood is pre- ferred in the colony for burning, perhaps in stime measure oning to the circumstance 01 their iire-plare* being exclusively Htted for the latter. The town of Newcastle itself, besides ita collieries, is not otherwise rvmarkHble than at being a guvernment tution, aa it pueieate* only alHmc 200 free inhabiunts. It con- taint, however, a church, barracks, storehimnes, and jail, with a small de|>6t of militiry. About "iH to 30 miles south of Newcastle, and still within tbo county of Northumlmrland, there is another b:iy or harbour, Iwaring the whimiicHl name of " K«id*9 Mistake,'* and which we notice cnlefly on acwunt of that whlmslcttllty, and nf the circtumttance whioh gave rixe to it. A worthy skipper of the name of Keid had been dispatched from Sidney for Newcastle, to procure a cargo of coals. Not being so well ocquaiutetl with the coast of New South H'ale* as with that of Fife, he en- tered the harbour which now no flatteringly peru«- tuaies hit name, found abundance of coals, loaded Kis ship, and returned with Hying colours to Sidney, never dreaming all the while but he had t>een at Newcastle. The '* mistake" was so(m discovered, and )(onr Keid't blunder put in a fair way of being banded down to a remote posterity. CUMBERLAND. Following (mt the line of coast as originally pro- posed, we now comd to the county of Cimiberland, wVwh has a coatt tine stretching southward of aUnit &fi niilfts, via., from Broken Bay to Coul llitln, hIhiuI 18 miles south 01' Port Hacking, and running in- land alHiut 40 miles. This countv, though one of the smallest, and in point of fertility of toil one lony, and amongst these Sidney, the capita). In this c^mnty also is situated the celebrated Botany Bay, a name atsmiated in this country with every thing that It Infamous. This celebrity it has ai-quTred, however, n»rrely fnrni the circumstanoe nf its iiaving been one of the ilrtt pe- nal Kcttlements, or recepiitcle Cur banished otmvicts, which n-as establialied in Now South Wales. There are many placet In that country to which they are now &ent as well as Botany Brty ; indeed, thousands of 0\em never see too latter pLicj) at all, l»elng sent l»> etatiuns at a gnnt distance from it. 1'he towns iu this cuunty are Sidney — the inetropoli*, as we have al- ready said, of New South Wales — Parumatu, Wind- ■or, and Liveruotil. Sidney is situate^l aliout seven miles inwards rnim the head nf Port Jackton, one of the noblfst harbours :n the world. It is built upon two necks of land, with a valley between culled Syd- oey Cove, poases*iiiK a depth of water which enables vcsMlt a{ the greatctt burthen t4i ro:ne cJosu ui thf 74 land. Thirty or forty yean ago, the ground nn which Sidney itandt wax a barren detmata wild, covered with wood| and tenanted only bv savagei ami the beatt-i of the foreat. It is now onupied by a large and thriving town, with a ptipulatlon nf upwards of 10,000 tintia, and where an» to be found more than all the ciMivenicnces and luxurieaof a nriti-ih town of the aame extent — regular atut handsome markets, pub. lie serninarirs, banka, extensive warehouses, hotels, dittillerlea, breweries, steam-enginet, stnge-roarhea for ditferent parts of the citlnny, four newspupers, the Sidney Herald, the Sidney Monitor, the Sidney ()a- a«tte,*and the Australian^ equally rvspecuble looking periodicals with any published in this country t ami. In short, every thing, as we have already said, of which a nrltisu town of similar tlie can tM>aat. Next to Sidney In Importance, though mtich Infe- riur to It, is Paramatta, situated at the head of the nar- row inlet of the sea in which Port Jackaun terminates alwvtt Sidney. Between the latter place and the for- mer, a distanoeof alHiut Iflmiles, there Is fre<|uent and regular nimmtinit^iiim both by land and water; two coaches, one morning and evening, and two pnsaage- boata, daily plying iMtween the two placet, the fare of the for..i<* -^i.. inside and 3s. outside. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the t4'enery which pretenu itself on all side* as you proceed to Paramatta by water, the tea generally smooth at glatt, or but gently rip- pled by a slight breeie 1 Innumerable little promnnto- rtea covered with woud to the water*t edge, ttretchlng into the sea, and forming a corresponding number of l»eautifi.t little bays and inleli in endless anccetsion and variety. Paramatta rontalnt abiml from SIMM) to 3000 inhaliltanu. The greater part of the houses here are built of brirk or while freestone, and being fur the most part unconnected with each other, cover a greater extent of ground altogether than ita population would teem to warrant. The aituation of Paramatu la ex- ceedingly delightful. It Ilea in a aptu^iona hollow, co- vered with the richeat verdure, and turroumled by billt of a moderate height. Here, unty are churches, hotelt, taverns, seminariea, Ac, and all the other appendages of a considerable country town, with a miiitarv and convict barracks, Jail, government house, and the fe- male factory, an establiahment for the reception of In- citrrigible female convlcta. fttany of the private hoiint-H are nf elegant construction, with parks and gardens at- tacheool is situated on tlie banks of (ieorgit't River, which discharges itaelf into Botany Bav. It cnniatnt abinit IIMNHnhabltants ; possesses a rbtm'h, two or three good inns, stores, cuurt-house, jail, and the usual acctunpanimentt of a town in New South Wales, a convict and military barracks. The soil artiiind Ir»re*s Kiver, on which It Is situated, and which is about half the sixe of the Hawketbury, it navigable for boau of about '2ti ton* burtlieu an liigli up ns ihe town. Hecurrlug again to the ooitit line, we cenie to the eouuty of CAMHnrit, extending south from Coal Cliffs to Shoal Haven, a distance uf alMuit H:> to 40 mlhw, and ilrelching Interiorly north about flO miles, with an average breadth of about 'iO miles. There are not )et any towns la thiif ctiunty. It possesses, however, an average quantity of fertile land, but is greatljr deH- riiht In water; the very limited supply ivhirh it po... s«*ases chiedy pnK'eediii^; from braudies of the i'ovf Pasture and Wingecarul'eo rivers. This important desideratum — the want of water — operates, aa might In) expected, greatly agalnit the prniiperity nf the riit- trlct, lince, without It, Its fertile )i..iins can have no tempUtiun for the settler. Nor it this deHclency ot water confined to the mere shortness of the supply uetTssary for the irrigation of the soil, but to hunuiu extatence. Cunningham, one nf the authorities re- ferred to at the bottom of the first page of thfa aheer, relates, that he "travelled for 13 miles once along one of the main roMls (in this umnty) In the height of summer, yet could only obtain one aolitnry drinii of hut muddy water throughout all that distance." Camliden, though not remarkable for its extent of eultlvatable land, posseases, perhapi, a larger propnr. thm of paatiire land than any In the uilony, and this of an acknowledged superiority in point of quality. The most nourishing hical district iu Oiit county i« the Illawarra, titua^ at the foot of a mimutain oi that name, a few mllet Inland from the aeii-coatt, and one of the moft beautiful and fertile localiliet In liui whole oolonv. Ijcaving now the tea-ooatt, we tJikn the range o^ inland counties t these we have already deacril)ed all lying Iwtween them and the tea. The Hrst ill this order la Anoyi.E. Thfa county it alxmt flO milet iu length, and nf an average breadth of about 2A to 3(». About the one-half of it it indentetl, aa it were, liotweeii the county of Camliden on the coatt, or eattern tide, ami the county of Wettmoreland interiorly. This ia one of the flnett districts In New South Wales, prudiiciitg wheat and othei agricultural commnlities of the fimc quality, and In the greateat abundance. Large tracts t4Mt, of the Itest pasture land are hern every where tf» l)e met with, and, from Its geogruphii^l position, iu climate is of the nu»at deligbiful kind, highly fuvour- abie not only to the rearing of every description of I'attle, but rendering it capable of pntducing, in great perle«:tion, all the frultt and vegetables of Kurope. All these advantages, however, have been hitherto counteracted to a great extent by the uant of good roads, and more particularly bv the want of one to Sidney, the great mart for all colonial produce. One aerioua eHTect of the abaence of roads In this lieautiful and delightful district, bat been to prevent the raialmr of a greater quantity of grain than was necessary for the mere cousompi of the grower, who, having no means of brin^fing a superfluity to market, is witnnuC any inducement to pnKtuce it. This evil, however, it likely to tw siam reinetlied, if indeiNl not already done, as we perceive, by a Sidney newspajier of 2Hib June 183a, tl it tho hmdhnldern and others of th»^ county had received a favourable reply to an addrev on the subject, which they uresenietl to the govermi on the occasion of bis making au excursion into tlu.- tnuthern districts uf the colony — his excellency prt^ raising them that a road to Sidney would be completed without delay. When this shall be done, and some good interior roads besides conttnicted, the county of Argyle caniiot fail to l>ecome one of the wealthiest and mutt important districu in the cohiny. Adjoin- ing Argyle, and now pnweediug northward interiorly, we come to the aiuuty of WESTMORELAND, Stretching from north to south about 00 miles, ari'J averaging In breadth about 40. This is tho most mmmtalnoiis district in the settled portion of New South Wales; and although none of these are of any great height (the hignest imt much exceeding :MH>0 feet), yet thev are st numerous, extensive, ana withal so barren, that but a very small portion of ciiU tivatableland is left. It is not, however, without some fertile spots, and some excellent grating districts Amongst the beat of these it an extenaive flat called Kmu Plaint; but the general chara<;ter of tbo countn* la highly unfavourable to the agricuUuriat. There lieing little mure deserving of particular notice iu this county, we proceed to the adjoining county of I.ONDONDEBRT, situated behind tlie Blue Mountains, and bounded on tho north and eaut by the counties of Weatmore- land and Roxburgh, and thence stretching sotith and west interiorly, but witliout any definite limiu being yet assigned to It in that direction. This county pre- sents an irregular and varied surface. It is, however, comparatively lightly timlwred, and generally easily acgessibie ; but, although pHrticulnrly adapted for gracing, it pretenta but a imall portion for the plough, and that cnrty witlrh ciitild ti« iiinde nvuilubte tti anyflxteiit. I'KK^evilhig norttnvnrd, wv next enter tliH minity of lOXBiinail, Mpftratetl from the lua liy the countlei of Northiim. IwrUml imil Ihirhain, nixl lyln^ Imyoiid the Uliie AlountnliiH. The cmuity nf Koxhnf-HJi in tlmut UM) inilei III length, north and notith, (iiiU aUukt 7" niDt^A Iff avera^ breadth, front Halt to weit. llt*re there la mJ«u a great iiritpurti' < of hilly and harrcii laud ; hut it poikeauM oim ttHit In imrtlciilur of reniarkatde lieaiity and fttrtitily, rnllod HHthumt I'lalim, ninniKtiuK of iimny thouiaiid acres of the tWu'st paaturuge. TIw-mi tire now covered with tlni Ihx^ka and herdii of wttlerH to an immenie amniint, this territory ulone furniih- irift the ((renter pntportion of the wnole quantity of wtwd tix)iorii space between thti liarrcn ran^e of innuiitHins and ili(* I'oiiNt, hnv-iiif; been nireudy loralfH), or in the pos< kOKxion iti settlors, there was nt>ne left for the thou- wndN tliut were yearly arriving in the colony. On the disoivury of tbesu fertile plains, thtirefore, the aii|H)rabundiint etnigrunt population which haii been put np, as it were, on thu narrow utripe butweeii thu mouiUHins and thu lea, left that ItMrltory, and, t-rossing the mountains with their Hooks and herds, poured down upon this new land of promise, spread, ing themselves and tbttir tlocki fur and wide over its rlcli domains. Theclinmteat Buthurst, from its great height above the level uf tlie sua (about 'HWO feet), ii considerably colder tliaii in the eastern districts near the coast, and on this account none of the tropical proJiictiuns, which thrive so well in thu latter, can be grown there to any uerfectiiin. In the mldstof these line lands isa thriv- ing town of tliu samo namr, vt/, Ilatbtn-Ht Town. Here there are several institutions, bt*Mpuuking the wealth and intelligence of the Burrounoing settlers. Amongst these are an ncudeiny, literary society, and ^mblio library. Proceeding still northerly, we arrive tit the county of CAMBninOEj separated from •** by the county of Ayr, and with the latter lorniiii;^' •' northern boundary of the coin- iilied portion of Ni ■ South Wales, on its eastern coast. This county i« about the Siinie extent with the latter, viz. iilxint 120tnih'i in luiiKth, or from cunt to west, ati'l about fi.'imiJos in breadth, or from nortb to south. Like KnxInir^Oi, this rouniv hI*o preseiUN UN with one ?raft in pHriicuiar of valuable Iar*'i, This is calltil l.i\cr;i , notwithstanding, wuU adapted for graviing rattle ai'^ borsesf \mt from tlieir being subject to jnundatior iu the rainy seoimi, the bent ptirtlon of them Iteiiiv* uuder water during that pe- rioi], they arc neitht- uiapti'tl for agricultural pur- puses nor for the reiinii«r of sheep. Thu l.^.i-rpnol plains are about 4(1 miluii in extent, eucli way. There are few settlements in this county besides thi»!«e <>n the plains just named, althougit it possesses some vn v eligible lands; but they ure remote, ami of limiietl extent. SU.MMARV. Wo have now run over all ilie r.unitiiis which com- rose^ with the excepiiioi of two ttr tliree remote set- tlenients, the u hole of the coloni/t^l portion of New &>uuth Wales; and tm ghinring at the ntHp it will he uerceived liow very small a part that is of New lltnlnnd, occupying, of a coast line on thu east of nearly 2(H)I) miles in extont, only about .'MO, and stretching interiorly, at the bnmdost part, ilitu n re- gion of similar extent not m-ire than the same dis- tance; whilst, M ift niirrowest point, it pnH:eeds no farther inward ibun }l(l tn W) mile« • the whole form- io;.c a triangle, with its Imso i*.>. : >' . stretching in- w.inl, »nd its apex southurl; ; tiu; -if n ast and ihe interior line ctmstitutint: its tit rtsiUe*i - l'i whole space within forming liitle more lln^'i h men: point as crmi- i>ttred with the vast exteut ol iM-ritjr y -hich lies be- viom! it. Little is yet known -< <;il Wbtls, cutting canals, Alc. The fiinnation of roads, again, will neceiiarily ami naturally follow, as 'nne of the tirst conseqtiences of increaalng prosperitv Although New South Wales certainly does present .ttl those characteristic* of which we have spoken^ yet they are only general ; the excep. tlons on a nearer inspection are both numerous ami Importaut. lis pasture land is more extensive than that adapted t.tr the plough, biit it nevertheless )>o«- sesiei many districts of great fertility, capable of pro- ducing an nnlimiteil amount not only of every species of grain cultivated for human use, but of all the pro- ductions of the tropics — the cotton plant, oranges, lemons, grapus, tobacco, Ac, and every other vegetabln native of the must favoured climes. Mountains uiii high barren grounds prevail, hut there are yet iilm ^ of inany miles in extent, and largu tracts of ^n- ijy un- dulating hills, rtothefl in tlie richest vereauty to the scene, giving it altogether the sppesrance of an Kn^' lish domain In the highest ^i.tte of natural perftrtioii From the hilly and wuooy character of the conniry, too, it presents throughout its whole extent, in num. berlcss places, scenery of n in^hly romantic and pii- turesijur description, equuiliiig In beauty thutinest in 8ootland. CLIMATE AND I'HODUCTIOKS. The climate of New tSouth Wales, con6ning our- selves of course to the setUed portion of that country, although varying considerably in ditferent districts, is altogether highly agreeable and salubrious, and is par- ticularly fnvorirable lo children ; scarcely any of thosu •ti^eaBes to win < they are so subject here, and which \eLrly carry otl no nniny ttionNnncU, being at all known '.here. Neither is it leas favourable to all t^e other suites of human existence. In summer, the i l it not — ren^ipressivethan in Kngland,andin winter Kecold "uch less severe nikiw rarely fulling but :i the 'te inland distih : ^> liich are situated at it ^'reat Iki '. above the levei ' the sea; and even then . ex- cepi *r on the highest {h Ah of the bills, it lies tnu for a sho^ time. In the lo m one of the most de- lightful and healthful on ibe Ince of the glntn;. The •right and sunny skies i>r It^Iy are here v < Hlltnt, and ^U the Inxuriesof the tropics jyrodnced, wit. thein- ! leralile warmth of these sultr)' regions. \i Maveal- ri iy pointed out twn (ir three contr^irietie-- ^'tween >• ^outhWal." uid (Jreat Itritain; ^itotbe. s to be lotiiL III the temp^ iture of the different wino^, that from the south l>eiii,^ 'here the mldest, and tlial from themnth the warnii*«c. This iiatui *lly an-es from its geogruph>(-.ul poftittoi.. from itshei ' ii'tnated about as piear to the south |Kile as we are to ilte north. Thede- ^^ree of colli, and accumulations nf ice and snow, being equally great in both of these extremities of theeartri, it follows thai the winds from the south miistbu tlit're the oddest. As might )« expected from itsf,'eniul climate, .New South Wales is rematkablo for the variety and beauty of its natural veKt»ialde produrtinns ; tlie must gin-- gcous dowers and t-itruliN growing wild, niid in the greatest profusion, e\ri-\- wheredeliKhtingtheeye. ItK trees are tall and siiU'iy, often reiiching to the height of a hundred feet; ami tlins in comparison reducing to absolute dwartishiif^!i the trees of rt and stunted ; they are, too, witliout the luxuriant foliage of the latter; and being ali evur- greeiis, none of them casting their leaveh annually as ours do, they constantlv present one dull dark uuitorm appearance, the prevailing complexion of all the fore^t !>i-eiier^ of the colony. The woods, therefore, in t li^ pan ot the world, are entirely without the benutitnl utid ever varying tints and hues which mark the dif- ferent seasons in this and most other countries. The natural grasses are on the whole rather rank than luxuriant, growing to the height of several fuet, and thus pi'fsetittng an ap)>earanca of vvgetHtlon which does not in reaflty exi^t : the suttler being at t^rst often surprised at the bareo ^« of the ground when this long ^(ii«« hasl>e«ncrop|>< The lietter districts, however, |iresent ImmeiisH trii. 1 « of the richest and most lux'i* riant pasturage. Amongst the foremost of the animal Krodnrtions of New Houth Wales is the kangaroo, a armless, inolfensive quadniped. These animals fur- nish the principal part of the food of the natives, and are reckoned exrellent eating by the uplonlNts, who And mueh amusement In bunting tnum. There are no beasts nf prey here, neither lions, tigers, leupa.ds, hyienas, nor any other description ot aninmls danger* Otis to man, o.'ccepting a few uf the niirpent tribe, and accidents from these are of as rare ovrurrence as In England. Itesldet the kangaroo, there is a species oi animal called a Aying-tox; it is n sort of hat of Im- mense tine, and most hideous appearance, but perfectly harmless ( here also are native dogs, niittve cats, and opossums and squirrels, in abundance. Of birds tlieru is a greater variety than any other country can prtHluce, and many of these of the most I'eMutitnl and varied plumage; amongst these are panots, a very numerous class. The principal mineral productions of the country^ BO far as these are yet known, are coal, irnnstime, limestone, potter's clay of tlie finest quality, whin- stone, granite, slate, &c. I'he three first — of one of which, vix. coal, we have already elsewhere sjioken— arc to be found in inexhaustible quantities. Some metallic ores have een considered, although the opinion 1^ not com- pletely l)orne out by experience, as omongst the lowest of alh known savages In the scale of intellect. There is certainly less niechaiii''al genius amongst them— fewer contrivances to Iniy^Dve the original condition of man than are to be found amongst the natives ofany other i|uarter of the ^Hol'e. Their only arms are a rude spear, or rather pointed pole, which, however, they thrvw withureat force and precision; and a short club, called by tnemselves a waddle. 'IJieir huts arc of the {MKirest description, and thev vrmr no sort of Cixering whatever on their bodies, ^rhe very opposite instances of their general coiuiuct with regard to the cobiiiiKts, leave it a dilltcutt matter to decide whether they ought to be considered as u harmless or a mis- chievous race. For the mischief they have done to the settlers, they have in general had stifhcient provo- cation ; and the murders they have committed — not 11 few in number — have been for the most part perpe- trated in a spirit of retaliation for similar crimes com* mitted by the whites. All attempts to civilize thum, and to induce them to abandon their wandering life, have hitlierto been next thing to InelTectnal; and with the exception of a few in the neighbourhood of iSidney, and some other of the colonial towns, whom this contiguity lias, in some degree, forced into a half- domesticated state, they still wander almut in roving tribes throughout the Interior, to the no smalt danger frequently, even to this day, of the more remote- set- tiers, whose establishments Jiey are very apt to vi:>it, and that with no friendly purpose. On thu whole, however, they are by lui means formidable, tliu tiare sight ol a mu>ket instantly putting them to liight, though in r^insitlerable numbers. Cannibalism isvaid to exist amongst somt.' of the tribes ; indeed, proofs t>f this borrilile propensity, too strong to leave the mat- ter in doubt, have l>eeii frequently di^covere)!. I'l some of the counties, however, and in several of il . t>wn«. particularly Sidney, nianv nativesare found enl|l^;>yed ^ various descriptions ot labour, for their own fienelM mil that of their employers, the whites. Those of til n who ttave much intercourse with tiie colonists ai't- ->»id to lieciime most amusingly polite in ihi'ir nmnner?*, bowing and scraping after the very best modes by which these courU'sies are practiiicd. COLONIAL GOVEHN.Mt:NT AND rOPt'l.ATlON. The internal policy of New Smith Wales was, unt I within the last year or two, condiu'ted by a governor and council composed of military oHii ro, tliegovenioc himself always betonging to thai 'tessiun. The cmrts there, therefore, h^d more i <'pearunce of oonrts-nmrtial than of judicial trilm. This state uf mutters was the natural result of t xinal cha- racter of the cohmy, which whh li»-xt it. uled merely as a place of hnnishmeiit lor C4mvict> — a class which required to be dealt with in the most y ''«pt and snmnuiry manner when they nuuie themst « agatn amenable to the law. The govfmnientoi -^outh Wales is iniw carried on by a governor, a !> . -tttiv*' and executive council ; both of tl^f two last, h> »>-i: »« the governor, are appointed by tin niinistry at hf^tie. The legislative council Is com|H)sed t" incipolty uf pf^- sims holding ofliciut situations, and these cHlefty re- siding in the government towns. The execnitv- council) again, in composed of persons lilli fig the iiigb- 4 ! : •% ^V^^Oi, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 Ui§23. |2.5 I 1^ 12.0 1.8 1.4 1.6 P / /} -vV-' Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 Wr^S r MAIN STREET WEBSTet.MY. I4S80 (716) «'/i-4i;,'? ^1^ ^' '%'■ Bl CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i Mt (OTsrammt ■ppointniwut. "ihtro un, bMidM, • dua at AinotlonvlM oallad poUn muUtnMi, diitri- MMd thnmgkoal the qdoaj, with whri« of I4.4OO py a nnum Mch. That* l«k« «p«ol«l ooniiwnn of fltfbnoM (NMamJitad by convicts, whom tney Iutv • rr«r to ponUh bj floesing or oondtmning to work bonL Sidnoy I) tli« cUaf •»< of tba oobnial go«in>awB<, aaBiDttMndInc tha ivptama coiirc, and Ui* hatda at jB iim drll ud militvf oubliibmaiua of tho coun* try. Thaw u« nil maintciaad bjr tha boma govaro- mant, at an ananMb iacludiiw dw vhsryaa (or (ha ■lonTlct BODuIatioo, of UISO,000 nr tunmn. Siu«( • oolony of OnW Brit»ii>i tha bwt by which New iiouth Wales Is goraniad an tha sama in thair leading ias. turci with those of England, diflering oojy in insiancw wbara such dUhr«nce was found nacaasary (0 adapt tham to the peculiarities of the country. Tba populatiaD nf tha wUea joloay, iadading the ecoTicts, who aniount to abuut 1&,««0 or i»,im in number, is asilmaled at 40,0Qa..«B anauiii of popu- latian but little praportiooed 10 tka vast eitaol of tar- ritory which it occupies. SOCIITT. The title of this department of our sketch wiil ba very apt, we dare say, to produce a smile on thecoun. tenanoes of those of our rnders who have not hitherto thought of New South Vales but as a receptacle foi the ezpatrlatad thtevea of Knglaud, and who have, therefore, aceuttcmed themsehree to kwk upon it as a land espacislly and ciclusively appraprlatsd to crime and immorality, contaminated and disgraced through-. out all it» relatfons, a sink of Impurity, and not to be thought of as a place of abode tor any honest man. In truth, nothing can be more absurd ih^n the Ideas generally aaleetaiaad of Now South Wales on this Marti n i l ar head. Thsea ideas have arisen, of course, from tba circn nn ta w ce o( its baiug a panel saulemea^ one of tha plases to which caavicuara Saab As this, therefore^ wa concaiia, is prasitnadi howeva' anwHh ously^ to give a tana and chanciac to tha society at the ooliiny, and to tandtr that country a daageiuua one to Uva in, we cannot do beitsr, in an attempt la reaanve these hmrasslnas, tba«»>nva a short histoay of the convict altar hia arrival at New S4)uth Walaa. Ou reaching Port Jackaais whither ha ic generally taot, the convict is in tha Stst pksa, instantly nurchad under a pnuaf gitwd to barracks astabUshad foe hia recoftion- UaitmnediatalyafterwardaaitlMihaBdad ovei t« a guvanment superiuteodant of works, to be employadln tha formation of reads, bridoas, Ac, or be is aasigoed to a tettlac to assist Urn ia oiwriag lauds, or any other manual labour ha may hava to perform. Neither in the one case nor the other is his work made opprgMve, and ia both ha is well fed, thougb kept under the strictest surveillance. Whan disnowd of to the tattler, ha i« provided by tba latter with tha meant of eracting a hut to himself, tha first employ, ment U> which he i« put, if no Kuch accommoda- tion is already ou the tcttlar's station. Tba al. lowance qf fuom this brings him Immedhtdy within the reach of the cnlo* nisi Taws. IT rcfysctory, or even merely Insolent to the settler, hit master, he may be taken before a magistrats^ and either flogged, or sentenced to work tor a certain period on a short allowance of fbod In what are calltMl the govprameat chain-ganga, cosapaesd of eoiivicu who nave oAiaded a second time, end are, aaaru- iiishs Mut, worked in Cstters. Da lbs expiry of his original term of bsnisknent, the aenvict haacaaas, Ib colonial phrase, sa emancipist, and is then hlaowa master. Many of these, now altogether a larg* body in the colony, acquire extensive pruparttes, and hi* come in their turn emfllny-irs of eauvicts, snd vrem diipeasara at the Uw. IMany of them, too, ttuufih lets (firiunata, becona uaaful, and even reepeetahia members of the coamuaHy, if one cirvuastaMa iit their Ilaes oouU ba fotgoMao ) and it is not mere poU- tio than just that it sbiuld, seeing that, basidea their luviag pa'd tha full price of thair ttsaigseeilcsia, and having Ifceiahy sstaUished a sight tt> dsasiad thair restoratio* t» that society whiah has itself sWand and received that price, it does not by aay maaas oacaa- •Miiy IbUow that lis who has dona wrong aaca will do w f* From what we hare said, it will b» saea that the eoil- gvaat It In no other way bnmghl Into contact with the eonviet than as master and servant. Tha Hue of demareaiion between them Is dtsHnct ; there Is no Jostling, and there need be ae offensive association ; tha hiwa haaw tha convict strictly within his province, and it wiU ha the bult of tha aetder hhsisalf if ha per. aUts hia ta step out af It. With legard to tka aasaa- dpist. It ia diSstaat ' ha ia his owb mastar, as wait as the sasigtant; aad, so iar as honeaty goaa, straaga as It may saeam although eaaily aecoanied Car, ha wiil find fiwy a* asach of It amongst that class aaaanngat hia brethren the free wttlars | aad this Is aot pavfiig tha latiea aa aquivacal eoaspluaani dther ) far wliasw prladple atigkt be waatiag, a desire to redeem their farHiitad i«|sstatian iuduaae these af the emandpists who have raaliy a desire ta da well, to act gaaasatty with the ataat sempuleus hanaaty 1 and ba it taaoL holed, haddaa, that tha affsarss for - blob auwy af thaai hHse keen kaaishad, have not heaa of a aatara at all affecting thair in«sgrity. With this dwe, how. ever, tha amigiaat has It always la his peiwa i la aiiagla just aa much or at little a* ha plsaisi» siaaa ha wUI fiad, in alsaoat every part of the cdaay aaar towaahips oe sattleaients, abitadaHaa af suck sadaty aa ha any enter without any sacrifioa af feeUa» In Sidaay, whara tba keM and Iha worst b la ka fMad, th«ra are UMny kiudrada of familiar not oaly ut tha X' ' ' K las p a ot ildli t y, but aotiting aliart af what la hiahioa, aijoytng all tha etegaadea of refined liiit, axchaaging ita ssurtesiea, and cultivating Its amuseawnu and alaaauias 1 spieiidid aqnipaBss an to ba seen rolling awag Its strw-ts 1 its public daadng and asserohly rooms biasing with light, and fUled» w our newspaiiers would say, with *' beauty and fashioat** music parties and theatricals filling up the measure of the happiness of a Sidney Hft. NexttoSldney, Baihurst bee prabaUy the highest Dretenshms to a anperierity In tha genonl characiav ar Ita aotiety. BesMee Its M- lerary IneSHBtioas, it boasts s» assodadoa called tba Batharst Nuat, csipossd of alt the spartfaig gentle, men who reslda lu the districa t these wear a unlfkiwi, and are, as a body, no way hifirlor to any simlla* siv si>.< ia linglaad. TiLkOK AXD mmwvn. Thr nbortnesa of the thne since thh coh.ny became an object of attention to tha speculator and emigrant, ^vea little reason to expect that Its trade should be *erj extensfva. It has scaroety ret emerged fhmt ^y state Af infkncy t bus it Is fiisl gafnlng strength ; and if no unft m ieeen circiinntancee arise tq check Ita pra- spa*liy. New South Wales win ona day become, if it i* not so even now, by (kr the meat Important of all the Uridsh settl e m ents abroad. Its leading export articles are wool, and seal and whateoih; a great part of Ike latter Is of that vahuMa kind called snerm oil, pradneed by a description of whale found In tn^ (South Seas only, and which generally brinws here doabb tha priee of the eonmioa whale oil. Here, then. In theea artivtee alena, is a source of hnaiense wealth. From the beun^loaa psstnra land of the eolo.iy, aad tha highly fevawraUa aalan of the dimate, the In- crease of i h ssp la without any Ihnlle, aad the ocean aad ita ppeducaa are yet mora uabaandad. Tlia quan- tity of wool aapaftad from Naw Sowik Walea Is yearly Inereaslngs aa4 la likely, ladead certain, to go aa improving. Ia the artiela af oH, which has only vsry lately became an object of serious oimsi- daraslon to the coloolsts, the impiievsaient has been e^udly rapid, there being now 'J9 vessds, averaging a tonnage of 87^9^ bdooglng to and sailing out of Port Jackson alone, exclusively engaged in the whale fishing. The produce of Ihla bvaiwh of the coloniat uada in the six months preeedli^r tha Mtb June llttt, anHwatad to L.49^M0. The whale extnna of the cii- leoy far the saoM period aaiouated la L.M»,«4I, and the imperts Is L.MI,KH, the fanner falling short of the laliee taiha anuiunt only of aboat L.*! ) ** a proof that the colony ia now needy able to watti alaae, ssi4 a reasonable ground of hope that it will vevy soea be In a condition ta afTerd much mora tlsaa theeasaas ef aasistatiae which ithaahll h seio eayilsed^ A Mill more striking evideaoe of the lacssaeing piweperisy ef the cokmyis to be fcaad inthadsaumatesHiaef Imkaaiag ill four years, ia seiaaimlanasa. aaarty, aa^ in alhara atnra thaa daubled ike lamiat of ita|w u aa n y in eattla aad skasp, and the eMant of its euhieatad load I aad ia a few vearaiaerait iafaand te ham aasavlkaa doubled the value od ita imparts and aayarta aad anamal af revaaua In ISM, the cobiny was calculated to pas- sesso/h 1828, . 18M, of ihasp -1828, I horaad cattle laenaae iao,ooo 283,000 143,000 UO>(N» 2ao,oau - lOM, tha average auoont of Ita eiparts far oaa year was UM^OW - ISM, it aseoualsd far a similar period •a M»t64l lAl4»,(!dl 1824, Its revenue far one half year was L.28,000 1633, for the same space of time It was 68,81 1 Increase la one half year |j.4S,2I I AH thsaa Iccnaaea are still pro gr essi n g onwaads, aad with yet greaUr rapidity thaat the arasediag in> stanoea anoca. Between tha carmapoading half yaaaa of IB31 aad 18311, than waa a difference in the amuuai of revenue af not lata than U13,244 in favour of the latter year. Tha ^ladpal sowce of coloalal lerawia is the du. ties exigible on li^aon, aad far llcancaa to dealers, Ilc I and ia this particular, it aniat be confsssed, the picoin ia rather an asMuadiug oaa, and piasaiits our Urethnn at the ether ead of the worM aa indeed "Jolly compaalona every one," Out of a half yearly nvenuacf Ulil,SIl, some odd sbilliugs and peace, Ii.51,028 has been derived from lii}uovB ahwe 1 1 The stock in baud uf the ii>r February 1832, waa Rum »7,a»t K Bnady . 2a,S17 <3in M21 Other spirits 6,3S and ahlUnn, aad, osnfiniag the dis. trihntkia la ttaadattaaf the Int class, would preba. bW not be slosa of the proportioa uf eigkt or nine gdkiBt ta each maa in the cokiay. On the daya at the 23d and Silk Jaaa 1832, then wen graated in aidaey aleaa a* Ismr tiuus IDS new liessiiiis ta Ian aad tavarn- b iepai s and publicans. On tha whole, ie has bee3 calculated that there is a qua>ttity of liqtts.-a consumed in Ibis colony alaae, at i«st ten timn greater than in any other part of the globe besides, of similar extent sod populaUuu. In the June following the February In which the stock of spiriu In the colony Is given, the ousntltyirf rumbsd amounted t» 130,01X1 galloni, and tne brandy decreased to 10,370. The productloa of wool hat for seme time back been a primary consideration with the settlers, and they have of late begun to pay more attention to the (quality than they did nirmerly, quantity alone having been at one time- all they aimed au From the Improvement which has taken place In the breed of sheep, as well as In the mode of preparing the wool fur the market, the New f^uth Wales wool has now br aattle and skisap ia pnfanDce to agriealtmel prxiMiiaaa. KjiioaATiaa. Having new givea sack an account ef New fCnklh Walee es oar limits will permit, we pronei to s{Mt uamarrwd famales. The 8rei ef tkasa amy Indada, aa all to be said undn Ibis head will apply squally la, any paseon, who, hav- iag a sasall span sapitaL— aa iudkinnsabla le^die, hw>e*an— and wli% allboa^ without ear previous knowledge of sniaulMral andrs, ma* be aadraua uf enigratiog with the view of tuning mamat^ A pre. viaas aoqualataan wiiis kaskandry, and treatneat ad sheep ana cattle wauU oaitainly be a very gresi ad- ventafa ta any ona gidng out 10 settle ss an agriaal- turist and grasiar 1 bist thuutaiids are thrlviag la EMIGRATION TO NEW SOUTH WALES. ■ vjnuiu in ail our coloitiM whohtd little or no kiMwMlge ot Ibtm twion tli«y U(l Briuiu. Pr». tmiing on Ih* pltn w« hare laid down, «• begin with iha PARHEK AKD ORAHXI. Although New Soatk Welee pmentt, perhife, one • i the mut oUgible querten of the gloM to which the briner, op|iK(Hd by high rent! end low jwiow of egriculturu produce in thii country, cell go, he muit not think that, with ell iu vaat extent of flae laadi, paetoml and Hgriciiliural, iu dalightAtl climate, eiMi the general abundance of all the neneeeeriei of Ufa wlUeh it produce*, that be will therefore have ii» thing to do ou Undingon these iaveured ihorea but eit down and enjoy hijiself ; much leaa mutt bethink, that, though it requiree capital, lesa or ateii^ to commenoe ^mer with any reaeonable prwpect ef Kioeefe here, that noue will be required there. Both priration and faacA work, and coneUerabla expenditure beeidee, will ba demanded of him before he raeehee a Mate of ceaa&m and iadependenca. Tkete lubmitted to, however, itr a tlma, he will leon fiad himeelf in ae eemfcvtable and happy circumttanoee— M> br ee regard* exlerioi tkiagi — aa perbapa the lot of man will admit. Abore all tbingi, howerer, he mutt not think of golngout with- out a capitk^eti or more, but of course the more the better. L.^l or L.SOO free on landing there will do Tery well ; L.500 or L.600 a great deal better ; and L.lU00or L. ISM will tecttre him, with proper manage- ment, certain and sneedy success. In short, the first sum is the lowest which he should think of emigrat- ing with ; and although there need be no limits to the extent, yet the latter sum is ample. Let him not re- main here until he is entirely minnd, but set off at unoe, while he has yet any thing left. If he be already pennileis, let him not think of emigrating unless he can And a friend who will assist him. As there are many industrious and respectable persons, howerer, who cannot coinninnd a sum equal to the umount of the lovrest of these we hare named, it has been recook- mondcd, and hns been found from experience to an- swer well, thHt inHiriduals possessing but sni&li capital^ say from L.M to L.100 or L.IM, should unite their funds, regulating the numbers of the association to formed by the amount which each contributes — say three or four, if each possesses L.IfiO,' Are or six u L.tOO, and eight or nine if Ii.50; lower than this la amount of money, or higher in point of numl>eri, it would not be adrisable to gn. It these united haart and hand, as well as purse, in the work before them, there is littTo doubt that they would soon place them- selres ia exceedingly comfortable and independent cir- ctimstances — such circumstances as are unattainable in this country with ten times the capital. Land, of course, will be the objoct of the farmer, or the person intending to turn fanner, on going out; and it therefore forau the most important part of this department of our subject. As might lie expecteti, all the good lands in the neighbourhood of Sidney aiid the other markeu aia already looaeeA that is, in tile poeeessioa of settlevt ; but there are abwndanoe of these fron tw» aereo up ii^ two t hu aeanrf, and be- mad, alwaye on sala, or to b» had on taaae, varying IB vatne with soil and situation ; and, speahinir genew rally, this is by itr lb* moat adrieable war Air the emigrant to become pneseaaed of land. All the labeitr nnd expense o{ clearing and pnparing new hnd la avoided i an eligible silaatien, near a market or tome point of embarkation, i« oeenred— 41 eensideralimi of the last importaiiort and the vexatieits dtelayt and tfonblee of all sorts, which bnt too o^n aocompany tka punhaeing of crown or mrioeated lands, it escaped, t« say nothiiw of the dithmMet and fatigue which the iatanding settler enceuaters in roaming through the onuMry In seai ch of a snitahle location. The pnr- c h a ii ag- of improred land of conrae piveumealhe poe- aaaston of capital^ but, at we hare saiA lest sr more cltfais leneeessary in any event; and stteh landr av we speak ofj if not in the immediate ricfnitr of flNFney-, or efatrr ether town or township may beaadat abnvt Vh* te i^*. per acr« As tlie syatem of agrientlniv in New SantK ^^alee doe* not materially dighr from that ptirened in tMaenuntry, an intending pnrehaaer, or ranter of lawd there, tbengh bnt newly arrirad, >f previously aofnaialed with agricultural afkir*^ wfll have an difliexlty fn pereeiviiig, on a peiannal Intpeob tion, whetiiOT «- not the properly whieii he intend* tii purchase or rent be properly fUmiehed with all the neceeeary tmlMinfi* and ereMJoni of a fbrming eata* blishraent. 1k>i Mm, h'reerer, look, earefolly to tMe^ hr all the liarn*, *hedH, cart.houaes, Ac. neoeeeaiy here^ are n r e c as twy there aim. It would not be ad- visable ill the newly nrrired eaiigTanI to enter info any vWvalr bargein with aiiyindfndual regarding rtn pwrenase or tm i ti fcg of land \ let hhn rather attend tfte PhKNo sale* and atntioin ef privafle preperty, which are ahnoateverydaiyadvertieed intfieb^dneynewipapert; He wiH then have Ifte advantage of all the inftmna- tiott whteh eempatittfm can afford, and that i* neariy ail that need be desired. If he see* an anxiety to pur^ diHae among** tlie old htttidr, who may be p re sum ed to be g»»d judges of the value ef the subject exposed la sales b» may believe ft is worth lookhTg to. f ftftey Wd. tiA |ier acre, he oaiinot be far wrong in bfMIng a trill* mare, provided always that hi* previous personal in* p a u l lui i of the property, and lire informatioa he may have lieen atHe to acquire regarding it from dlriit- i a i ji iOif peraon* — (take care of thi*)— -eoncur in ran- d^ing it advisable. The neit^ or rather the only other mode of aeqnhn. log land in New South ^Valea, and that which is nto*t geoeral, i* by purehasiu or raating It from the go- vemiaait. Tha latter doe* aat new (iiae* the year 101} frait< any land* aa it fcrmerly did. The L-md* wkieh tka governB«*at have to dhipeae of are called crown laada, and laekda all the land in the colony not already pae*e*t*d by ptivate iadividuaU. On thi* part of tha nthjael we oaanot d* better than place before tha reader the govematiot regalatiaiva, which, -afMr araaiUag that ao lead thall ia futate be diapoaed of in New South Walea or Vaa Dieman's Ijaad otherwiae than by publle lale, and that a divi- •lon of the whela territory into eounlie*) hundred*) and pariah*^ ia ia progre**, preaee d to enact, that " Ail tha bad* in iIm colony, aot Utherte jpmrted, and not appropriated for pubhc purpose*. wiU be pat uf to tale. The ar'ea ' ^ ef eaoiset depaad i^u the qualitT of the knd audit* laaaltitaalias; bal na land will ee arid bdow tha rate of u*. per acie. " AU penoM propaeing to aurekaae land* net td. rertlaed for *ala mn*l traanMt a written appUcatioa to the governor ia a certain ptaaciibed fbrm, which will be delivered at 111* aurveyer-oeaerai'* alSea te all pa**en* applying, on payment of the raqniaila he oflfcU. " Thaaa peraoaa wha are deeinn* ef parchaiing will be allaved to aelect, within certain defined Undla, •tt«b portien* vt huid a* they may wiak to acqaire In that mannar. The*e perUc*!* of land will be adver. ti**d for *al* far thrae calendar montha, aadwiUdMa be soU to the higheH bidder, provided that such bid. ding *haU at least acaoant te btb pm acre. "A dapciit cf !• per cant npaa the whole valoa 01 the purchase nraat bepaid dewn at tha tlmeol lale, and tk* remainder mu*t be pidd within aoe calen- dar manlli bam the day of aalc, pnvioaa te which the panhaear will not be pat ia peaaeasian *d tli* land, and. Id eaaa V payiaeat net being gnada withn tha preacribed peried, the tale will beonaMered void, and tbedapoeitlbrlaitad. " On payment ef the money, a grant will be mad* in f ee a imp l a to the pur ch ase r at the noadaal qah-cent of a pepper-earn. Vrevlooe te the delivery of each grant, a fee ot Udtt will be payable to tha aohmial tew cretary for preparing the gnat, and aaether ft* of five thilting* ta tka ragi*t*a* ot the sapraoe court for enmlUagit. * The land willgwacally be put up ta Mle in leta e< one squart mile, o* M* acieat boa saallac lota thaa SM asra* may, andar parriwilar dnuasataaca*, be patehasad, an makinyapplioatiDB tethsfavernariB writing, with Ml expianatiaa* of tha leaeoas fbr which the partita with, ta pneebaa* aaaiiilarqa entity, "Tha cream raaerves to itaelf the right of makiag and eoaalrucdng cudi road* aad bridge* as may he n cc « **a i; ftr piiUi* pn rp e*** in att land* piiichasui a* above) and alao te aach ladigcncss tiialn*, *«a*y and other material*, the pradaee of tha land, aaasay be reqniied far maUag and keeping tlie said reads and Inidgeain repair, and for any other pablic worhr. The crewn forther I'tatins to itself all mine* of pre. cieot matak." It will be perceived, that, by these regulhtion*^ a ea- pital of at least L.im (640 acre* ut At.) for the pur- chase of hnd alone is in general cases required ; but smaller lots are very easily obtained, and the farmer is thus little mere than a nominal restriction. Be- sides procuring IWnds from government by purchase, then may be aha had on yearly leases, or as tenant* at will, to any extent, at at. I^d. per 100 acres i but this is not an adririable way of occupying land, for you are lure to be turned out of it, sooner or later, aoconllng tn the adrantage* it may possets (and if it hare none, ft is not worth eren the small sum aAed for h\ ty some intendior purchaser coming forward and making an offer fin- it to the gnrernment, unlets, hideed, you can yourself out-bid him, fbr it can be sold only by public tale. As all the good tandi ia the colony, in the district lying between the Blue Moun- tain* and the sea, are already located, new comers, unlets they have the means ef purchasing private buds, or are contented with inferior soils, will hare to look for their location on the other or interior side of these motuitains. Thus being tliruwn at a great dis- tanee fVom the market, their views ought to be con- fined aimiat entirely to the rearing of sheep and cattle, particularly the former, raising as much grain only aa will serre Gr their own pnrate use. Particular circumstance* may aftar this relation of matters, but in general, and at the present moment, these are the riewB that ought to ne entertained ; nor need the settler regret this, since wool is one of the most pro- fitable and saleable commodltiea which he could bring to market. The liondon sale* of this artier*, the pro- duce of New ftouth Tt^ate* and Tan. Dieman's Land, areraged, in 1(113, about Is. Stf. to Is. 6d. per lb., while Merino ewes, according to the Hiriiiey Illonltor, may be bought fn the colony for 10*. each, and milch cows for L.S. Let the Intending settler, therefore, as he rahiet his future succ***, pay hi* utmost attention to this departinent of the purtuit* which will engag* him in his adopted country; and to enable him to do so with an increased certainty of a good result, wa giro the following ■■iMUcTiem ro> m a*ifAe(iniir or woot,," BY MB WALTER BUC'UA>Air, ABtMBiaiD TO TRB AiniTBALiAW woot-seowaas, pnmiiiing that the want of attention to sach proceed- ing*) regarding the mauagement of that artlcl*, a* tbate direction* peial out, ha* hilkana i^iatad amt •arkiurly to the diaadvaatage ef the Au*t«l)iaB void. nevai*. Tha huaading *ettl*r will aUe ak*«v«, £r*a> tk**a diiecticna, the Baea**ity at laaMlup — nearly aa poesiUa te a nippiy ef watar igr waiataig hi* WOOL Watkiiif.~"lt I* of graat iBponaaM that the •ce dwald be wail waaSad, that tha wool muf be breught te marhat with a* bright a ooloar aa p an l Ht. Srary *oar(ui*ac*i, and a rary plaalifU toppiy of paie water, ihonhl th*refara be aravlded, a rannlag ttnaai b*ing ma*t daaiiable. The prafoMUe node of washi.ig it tliat which i* periormed Were *liiai iilg. acoordir^ to the German manner. Some growers have tr «d the plan of washing after the fleece* hare been ' lOrn and sorted, and, as is supposed, to hare B**d perfomed at the came time and plae*) aad with an eqoal degree of care, the colour iaHielylobatadferBi, mid it will then only be neces- ■ry te attend la tha aeparation of the fleecee a* to length, flaena**, and giBeral quality : but if a larger aiu w ei haa iatk* el didlbrtBt Inveds, and fed on dif- Mient aoih, cam diould be taken that the lieeon he *efarated, flrtt a* to colour, and then again a* to length, liuenes*) dec. PoMnf — The fl*ee**,beiBgaaumed, a* already lug- Klad, should be seraad one upon another, the neck of Mcond fleece being laid upon the tail of the first, and *0 on alternately, to the extent of eight or ten fleeces, acoording 'o th«r tiae and weight. When so spread, thetiresideeshenld be fblded towards the middle, then reRed tcgelher, beginning at each end, and meeting in tfte centre, and the roU or bundle so formed held mg e t h m by a alight pack-thread. The buging should be of a eloee, Ann, and tough nature. The material hltbeno meet generally uiM haa been tall canratt, which very 111 retiit* bad weather on a long voyage, and when received here even in fhvourabic cnudltion, is >c dry and crhp, that it wiH tear like paper > a thicker, twilhd^ mora flexiMe, and tough material, would be preferable. The sixe and form of the packue may be m length about nine feet, and width four feet, sewed np on the two long sides and at one end, the other end being lefk open, and the sheet so formed being suspended, with the open end upwards, to receive the bundles, made up as tiefore directed, which are to Ire put in one at a time, one of the flat sides of the roll or bundle being put downwards, and so on in succes- sion, being weU trod down, until sufBcfently Ailed for the month to be closed. This is (he Oennan mode of packingi but it it doubtful whether smaller pack- ue*, of the dimension* that hare been hitherto sent frdm the two colonies, may not lie more convenient for so long a voyage. The ooeratlon of screwing should be discontiuued where it nas been practised, as the prevBure by the screw, and remaining compressed during' the mya^ occasion* the wool to be caked and matted together in a manner that is higlily prejudi- cial to It* appearance on arrival. TTie practir4* also of winding up each fleece separately, and twisting ti por- tion into a band, la productive. In a minor degree, of the same prcjndictij effect, and it is to avoid this that the mabing Oerman bundle* of eight or ten ffeeces It suggested.*^ The Australian emigrant agriculCurltt* and gra. ziers, as we have seen, will fall into (wo classes, as it were — the one, tho!*.e who purchase improved land, ready made Ut their hands 1 and the other, those who locate on new land bo'jght from the government The latter will be almost exclusively engaged iu the rear- ing of sheep and cattle, for the reasons already given. Tnefiomier, af^ain, will, in most instances, bare more tn do with Hgru'ulture than grazing. As this, how- erer, as we have elsewhere uud, is pursued on u simi- lar lyetem in N«w South Wales as in Knghnd, wti CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Mad not enter here into any detuli on the lubieot, there hting nothing at all peculiar In the caie of the iDnnar. Nor can we, firom the uiual cmualtiee of eea- •ont, eoUi. Ac., venture to fix any probable rate of produoe which the wttler might expect hit acres to yield. That, however, with the exception of wheat, may be laid nnerally to be equal to that of corre- ■poadiiur lanoe in England, in the caw ai wheat, tiM quaUty le auperlor to that of any grown In £a- ropei but the quantity per acre it below the arerage rate of England, teldom exceeding 24 buthelt per acre. The folknrlng *< return," hjwever, from the Sidney Uenld, will give an idea of the pricet of produoe t-^ AMTUft whoUtait prictt t^f farm prodtut ai Sidnt^ from Ut to Bth Augutt 1833. Mlieat, bett, N. 8 AVtIet, UO A per buih. ofOO lbs. I>o. 3d, .040 „ „ Po- 3d, . . 3 „ „ Barley, bmt, . .030 „ ofAOlbt. Aiujse, .0 3 A per meaturenent. Coluuial tobacco, bett, 1 7 per lb. Do. 3d quality, .014,, Pouioea, . 4 10 per ton. Butter, beet ulted, 3 14 U per owt. Cheese, good, . . .330 „ Pork, tslted, . 1 lit „ Bacon, . . .308 „ Bam, ... 308,, At the cyttem of agriRulture it the tame, or nearly Che tame, with EniiUnd, to alto it the detoription and rotation of crops, with the exception of tobacoo, which thrives well, and it betoiiniog to attract some degree of attention in.the oulouy. Tlie proper management of this crop, however, will be beii lesrnt on the spot. With regard to the intending settler who purchnset the unimproved landi of the goremment, his course it neither so simple nor so easy. Onarrivingst Kidney, he geu into lodgings, which he will obtain, includ- ing bod and board, at a rata varying from tea to twenty •hillings per week. Let htm, however, re- main here aa short a time as he possibly can, other- wise he will spend money idly, which, at all times valuable^ it now to him not doubly, nor trebly, but incalculably to, as on the few poundt which he now lias in his pocket hit ii'ture tuooett in a great meature depends. Let him not, therefore, npeud a tingle shil- Uiu( that he ran avoid spending. If be intend to pur- chase improved lands, let him look after these in the market iinroediately, and proceed, as soon at he can attcr purchase, to take possession and commence ope- rutums. If he intend to buy crown lands, he had I'etter not waste time in seai'ching for a location in the lower districts, for tbe reason already specilied — viK. tliat all ^MiA lands there are already located — but proceed at once into the iuccrior ; probably ahnut Ba- ihurst ur the county of Argvie, botli elsewhere spoken •>f. are the best points to which be could direct him- self, if he tind that there are government itnds there adiertited for tale; and althuugh them should nut, he will perceive, by the c«>lonial regulstiuns i^mtei), that he may, nevertheless, if he disoi>ver a t)N)t n-hlch he thinks would suit him^ and whiuh is nut the pro- perty jf aiiittherf p.-iK-ine it to be put up to sale. The greutt»f drawback, however, in thi> nixe, m. thnt hf> must wait until the expiry of the period (three nunths) diiriutf which, by the regulations, it must be adver- tif^ i-efure being hrought to the hammer. But dur- ing tliis time he need not by any means be altogether losing; let him purchase immediately as many ewes as his means wilt admit, reserving, of ctiurse, for other expenses; and the»e he will get readily quart^'red with tettlen who have more land than tbey can ttuck, for one-thlrd of the proceeds of their wool ; thus the eml- granl getting the other tuo-thirds is already esta- hliahing a source of income, and without tnmble; and he may do the same hy cattle. 8uch description of settlers as will readily enter into this arrangement with him are numerous, and will easily Iw found upon in (miry. The newly arrived ero'grant will of course, of his nwi) judgment, take cnre to select land aa lightly tirn* be*M an possible, that the expense and trouble of Clearing may be the less. Leaving his family, if he has one, at Sidnevi until he return from his exploratory expedition, the enii- ^ant who is about to look out for a suitable location sets out on horseback, pmvided with changes of clothes, a blanket to wrap himself in at night, and a light cord with which to secure hii horse white he is himself asleep; and if hit route be through thinly inhabited dtstriiTts, he had better de accompanied by a pack- horse, with prnvisiuni. |{ii train ef'tre referred ta Providing hiinnelf now wich cart, plough, and let of harrow^- whirh, by the way, he had better not bring from Kmrbtud, as, thouifh somewhat dM;er, he wil) get lAJiti of a descriptlou tii-iter suited to his purpose in r«*iMjy-.Jie pru4'eflds with his family to ttie sc^riu of 78 r; hit future labours. There are two or thris tumtidera- tiont of Importance to the newly arrived aettler which may be thrown In here together Let him take every meant in hit power to ascertain, Imfora rMuming again to Sidney, that the land he has Axed upon It not either dto^elher or In part the pro- perty of another. This It not alwayt by any meant easily made out, mittakes often occurring, and giving much trouble and annoyance tothe new settler, who may, if such a thing happen, find himself compelled to set out on a second expedition. He shmild endea- vour to find mit, at Sidney or elsewhere, the nurveyor of the district in whiich he purposes making his seareh, and make such inquiriee of him regarding the point Just spoken of, and luoh othen at may teem necestary to him. The newly arrived settler must not allow himself to be influenoed regarding the location be hat fixed upon bv any thing he may be told by the neighbour, ing settlers. It being their Interaat, at least they think It so, to dissuade new comers from establishing them- selvea in their neighbour' lood. Nor must he mind what he heara to the disadvantage of the oonntry whilst at Sidney, from any one of the tcoree of Idle dissipated loungere who hang on there, and who, themselves ruined and disappointed through their own folly, are ever ready to fasten on the stranger, and to entertain him with the most dismal accounts of his adopted land. I^et him, we say, avoid these people, and pay no attentiim to their rroakingst but oome to the res4dution, under the blessing of Qod, of setting stoutly and manfiilly to work, and there Is no doubt he will speedily And himself in an Infinitely better condition than he was at home. The sheep and cattle which he may have botighl previous to his itxing upon land, as before recom- mended, he mutt on no account remove from the settler's grounds on which he has placed them, until he has prepared the proper enclosures for their recep- tion at nis own location, otherwise they will give hitn much trouble by straying, and thus consume thnt time in running after them, and in collecting and keeping them to^^ether, which It to necessary for his other numerous and pressing avocations. New South Wales, besidea presenting to the emi- grant all the advantages which are to be found in America, aJTords two peculiar to itself, and these very important ones. The first is to be found in the short distance which he has to travel after landing in search of a locatfon, this seldom exceeding 100 to 140 miles in the former, while In the latter be hat often to per- form a journey of 1000 for tlie same purpoie. The next is in the seasons. The Canadian has to provide for a long and severe winter, during the greater part of which he is necessarily thrown idle. In New South Wales there it tcaraaly any winter at all, and the farmer may, conseauently, carry on hit operations throughout the whole year. For his )abotir8i*s the settler has to look to the con- victs. Thete he uhtalns by a written application to the ^'ovemor, who will immediately assign him a re- quisite number to aiisitit hint in clearing and pre|)aring his lauds. On this suhjeii, which appeart tomnwhru ntai^ling, and hns. we twiieve, operated unfavourably on A'l^triPi'i ciniv'Mtioii, we beg lO lay before niif readers the following extract from a KCriet of remarnt on emigration to New South Wales, in the Sidney Monitor of Ist Aiitoi»t lut t — " Conviot servanu, we admit, are not so gotid as the servants of England. Thev are not so skilful, except one in four or five, and \n point of industry and good manners not equal, of courte, though kept down by a vigorous discitiline. But thev are more skilful and industrious th&n slaves, and. In lieu of costing from L.30 to L.AO a-piece, they ant the assignee (employer) only I^.! a-year per head, which poll-rent bus not yet been levied upon the as- signee, but it is expected it will be laid oo very shortly, and for a saluury end. " The man wlto feeds and clothes his cnnvicu ac- cording to the law, giving them rather the advantage in the ailjustment as to quantity and quality of their food and eluthiiig, and who treau them with civility, i» as safe on his farm in residing with convicts as he it with freemen.** Settlers, however, if very fattidiout on the subject of convicts, may employ free labourers ; but the com- paratively high wages which these demand, and the insolence towards their employers— punishable in a convict, but not in them — in which they are but loo apt to indulgis knowing that they can easily find an- other employer, will sn reconcile him to convict labour. As our limits will not admit of our entering into further details regarding this department of our nub- ject, we now conclude it with the following judicious remarks from tlie authority just quoted, vis. the Sidney MoniuM* i~ "Strangen coming to New South Wales shonld bring letters to as many persons at they can, provided they 1»e men of chai-aoter. But let them not expert any thing more from the people here than a kindly feeling towan^i them. Thit they will receive, if they meet with hospitality, it will be likely to do them harm. It will tend to raise in them exi>ectations of rank and expense, which will retard their success, and probably ruin them, by inducing them to borrow money on mortgage, h.c &e. ** ilowever respectuble men may have Iteen at home, they should have firmness eiuwgh to Uy all rank aside when ibay c«>ine Uuie. Let thimi fur this pur- pose, sell all their blue coats and yellow buttons, and tilk ttonkings, and enter the colony in a barrn- gun shooting jacket, waistcoat, and trousers, their wives and children wearing dark %iniT* for cheap- ness in washing and for durability ; and however they may be rallied and tempted by their new friends here to put on better attii-e, let them turn a deaf ear to tuch allurementt, I^et them buy nothing In the Mxy of furniture but rush-bottom chairs, and the commoneet tables, and bcilfteads without posts, which are sold here at lOs. esdi ; and, in short, let them endure the con- stant reproach of being mean and stingy until their wool, salted Iteef, butter and cheese, sJiall have en- abled them I;, dress and furnish their houses accord- ing to the'r taste By that time, however, they will h.vve l^rne^^ to see Ibe folly of attempting any thing in New South Wales but to be warm, dry, and werl fed. And In iieu of improving their external appear. ance, thry will learn the wisdom of laying out their profits in building bams and stahlfs, in fencing in more paddocks, in buying more milch cows, and fine woolled ewet, and In buying and ranting more land in the distant Interior to keep them.** rARM BERVAMTS AND SHF.PilEaD^. Men of this description are invalnahle in New South Waletf and much wnnted. The amount of wagex, however, whhih they may earn it not easily, or, rather, cannot he itated, at much dependt upon* the prupur- tlon which they may be dispoeed to take in property, that it, in farm produce, lets or more of which iti ol. wayt undertt4)od to form part of the farm tervant or shepherd*s Income. The general rate, however, of the wages of this class, may be said to be about L.l.'t per annum, snioetimes as high as 1^.20, but the lower will be the safer cnlculatlon. This, however, is not the money-rate. Part of It, to what amount depends upon bargain, mutt be taken inpreperty. Itestdes this fixed rate of wagtis, however, they have an ample al- lowance of animal food, flour, &c., generally more than they can consiime. Though the nut amount of wages, therefore, may appear not very tempting, the latter consideration fully makes up for it, making the condition of the cottar or farm servant there Infinitely more comfortable than it Is here ; besides, his children. If he has any, contribute there much sooner, and to a much greater extent, to the family's comforts than they can do here, work of all kinds being in much greater demand. The boy or the girl either will vet their rations of meat, flour, dtc, with proportianalda wages, at toon as tbey are able to do any thing; and thui an amplb abundance of all the necessaries of life, and these, too, of the best description, may al. ways be found In the cot of the shepherd or farm la- Itourer in New South Walet, pretenting a t'rikln^ contrast to his straitened and impoverished condition at home, where, amongst other privations, animal food rarely crossoi the thrcs'iold of^bli door. MECHANICS. The demand for mechanical tkiU In the colony is exceedioKly Ki'*»t, and it will probably be many years before either this demand abates, or the remtmaratton of the emif^rant artisan suffers any diminution* In the meantime, ut nil events, the scarcity of mechanint in New South Wales amounts to an absolute famine, and the eagernens with which they are sought is fully ^i-oportioned to this scarcity. If any particular class can be said to be more \?anted than another, where all are wanted- the following mi((ht be named : — Coopers, ship and house carpenters, cabinetmakers, joinens wheeUwrights, brick-makers and laye.s, stone quarriers, cutters, and masons. This selection doee not in every Instance correspond with that in the cir- culars or bills issued by emigrant ship-o^nera and agents, but as it is taken from a newspaper published in Sidney, in Auguit 1833, it is no doubt correct. It has at any rate the advantage of being more recent than the former, none of which that we \\ttvo seen are dated later than IfCil, aud even these refer to ttte rates obtainable in lAlU). As our object in this paper is nut either to dissuade or to encourage any one to leave their native laud, but to sute facta as we find them, leaving it entirely to parties to judge for them- selves, we feel uot only under a restraint, but in par- ticular difficulty, in speaking of the wages which the mechanic may look forward to in New South Walf-s. the more especially that we find the rates spoken of In one of the Emigrants* (Juldes to New South Wales," published in this country, character! xed by a Sidney newspaper as being " many of them notJ>- riously untrue." There is, however, no occasion to exaggerate. The real and true state of matters there is, we should think, suHicientty tempting to must iradeimen. The wages of mechanics in general, l*e. sides the certainty of immediate employment, may be safely stated as ranging from As. to 8s. per day ; few get at any rate so low, and c4Ttainly none lower, than the first; and in some cases, such as that of a very expert workman in any of the trndes atwve named, a sum even licyond the highest may be obtained. Let the Intending emigrant, however, calculate on the lowest only, and he win nin no risk of disappointment! if he gets more, so much the better, and the chance is, that, if a good tradetman, be wilt Nor Is the mere amount of wages, much as it Is Wyond that of this country, the only advantage which Australia holds out to the mechanic Tliere ii, besides, to bo coupled with it the extremely moderate price of some of the principal necessaries of life, though oeruinly ali of them are not lower than in this oouutry ; on the t'uiitriii y, many of them are EMIGRATION TO NEW SOUTH WALES. much higher, and many ut' **-«m at leuit ttqiialty high. AiiimRl OnhI, however, and t«a and iiigar, particularly the two former, are extremely ulieap ; but it muit he obwrvetl of the flrit, that, cheap as it certainly in. there hai been Mnnethinff like a deception practised regarding it. In all the blllR, circulars, && bublished on the subject of Austmiian emigration, Mef and .tutt^m are stated as selling there at IJd. per lb, ; so It ia t but then this Is of an inferior description, and, ukureitver, it means when a whole carcass is bought t the best Is 3d. per lb. when the whole carcass is ta* ken, and 3(d. when purchased in smaller quantities. A rnechuuic is not likely to buy animals by the car- citsB 1 the real price, therefore, which he will pay in > 6 a 3 Rice, ptr lb - 3 n (> Salt. Colonial, cwt 8 a A H Npiiits, rum, f. gsl. If alO BrtnUy ^ 18 u a Gin - 18 a U Colonial 7 6 a n Soap, Mackle't, p. lb ft a U Aiplnall't 01a U (1 Staish - 1 l> a t U Straw, oat, per load 18 u o80 Barley IB o oSO Sugar, Irmf, )ier lb U B a u MoUt «. .1 a n 4 Tallow, per cwt » R ii37 4 Rough fai .. :{8 tl a U Tea, Hytoii, per lb i H o 1 id Vffling Hyion It U a 3 6 Souchong - 1 B a S o P<-kne *. 3 a 4 Uuii|Kiwdcr A U o Tobaci'o, Braiil, lb. 9 a V 6 Colonial, leaf U 4 a o Al lig I 6 a a It ■Utka 3 a 4 Negrohead -. 3 (J u 4 3 iteinTa, Col. ii. box 7 t) dIO U Havanah .. lA U ulH (» Chiauira - B O alO Maoilla -. aiA&*a3L Snurr, Col. per lb 6 U a 7 VwetabJee, routoei, per cwt 3 a S Alo. Eng. per hhd. 61. Ida a (U. do. dot. 14* a lA Colonial, Iter hhd. «» a 80 (In. doi. (f d fl Bwr, Kng. per hhd. tU. IIM a fU. do. gal. 14ia lA CnkmUl. per hhd. 4A a AA da gal. 8 a o Dlwult, per ewL - 13 a 8ti Rlanfeeta, Col. per pair Itl a 30 Blue, r«r lb * ff a ti Butter, freili. per do li Id a Ik 4d •nit - 9 d I ft Rcci4, 91b loaf U 3)d 4 Candlea, mouldi, lb I o o dtpa Cattle, Bullocki, each Working ditto Cowa * do. in mdk » Calvea - Slieop Ptgi du. roasting fl a 61 SilOia SflAa 3 Oa 4 U I Od 8 U 1 10 O 9 10 6«a»i ea B 7 aid 3a 4 8s 3d Cheaae, English, per lb Cotonlaf - 4d (/ 6d Cloth, lUramatU, peryd. laBd D(i. broad do, . 3 4 Coffbe. ground, per lb 16 Riga, per doaen . 6d a Bil Fliic. New Zea. per ton l6/.u I'V. fine 1«4 14 14 lA lA 13 Flour, per lOOIb* Barkttr Limgrord t)ixnn Olntrd Pickering Oordon Green I'ruit, (wrdoscn, tiraiigee » l.einnns >. Apple* M. Fean ~ OuincM, none Water melons, ca. (i 4 a B Clmln. per busliel. Wheat «. 4sa.laAsOd Matie, do. » 8 .1 a 9 6 Bartey » 3 o a 3 ff Oats » 9 » d 3 (I Rye ^ 8 U d 3 May, Ens. seed, t.)n fU.d IW.Qa Comnial 6 d 8 10 Mlden, iMsrlb - OaOildOill Hiirna, per lUO 8 a it l,o«U)i'r sole, per lb U B d 9} Kip « .. 1 B a 9 6 Dressed shoe, ench 3 6 alO OtflddlsOd 4 8 1 fld 30 9 I) d 3 4 d 6 Meat* beef, pet lb joint salted Mutton, carous * Joint Pork, carcass ioUit l|dd 9d 3 d3) 3t d 4 is a 9 91 d 3 81 d 3 4| d A Cabb^gea. each ILi 8 Turnips, bunch Ifd 1 ) Carrots, per do. o i |a o 9 Fumpkitis, each 8 d 1 Unions, per bunch 8ia 3 CauUftowcTs, each B a 9 VlncRar, Col. p. gal. 9 6 d 3 Cedar, board, p. ft. 4 a A plank l|d 9| Bi '.e gum, plank U l)a 8 log. 1 u d 1 1 Firewood. p.Tond 4 a A Treenails, per KXl 4 d Wine. Port, per doacn a^ld 40s Mstteira . 3A j 40 Sherry .. 35 d 40 Claret - 10 a Oo (.'ane, per galhm 4s 6d Elder » Ai fid Wool, per lb - 4d a 9s The expense of the passage out is the most serious drawback in the case of emigration to New .^outh Wales. Hut the mechanic who has not the means of defraying the whole of this expense mhy have as- listanta from government. The fiUowing are the re- gulations on this subject : " No one family will be allowed an adnnre exceed- ing L.20; and therefore it will be useleu for parties who may not jwAsess the remainder of the sum requi- site fur engaging their passagt , to apply to the com- miMionent (cuinmissioners for emigration, London.) No advance will be made eicept to persons who are competent workmen in some of the ordinary meoha- :iical arts, as, for initance, blacksmitlis, carpenters, Hlv. i and the advance will Ite further conlined to men who are married, and intend to take their wives with them. '* Every pernon dr-slrotis of reoeiving the proposed arlvance must till tip and senil tiack to the secretary tf> the oommisiioners the return* hereto annexed. U the info.mation omtainod in this return shall be con- sidered satisfactory, the applicant will receive uotice to tliat effect He may then proceed to make his agreement with the owners or masters of ships pro- ceeding to New 8outh Wales or Van Dieman's Land ; and a* soon as any shipowner or master shall notify to the C4immissioners for emigration (in a form whion will (>e provided for the purpose), that the emigrant ^"s taken the other necensary steps for engaging his PMsage, an order will be granted for the payment in the colony of L.30 to the agent or the master of the vesael in which the emigrant may arrive. The emi- grant will of course be able to obtain a oorrespouding deduction from the amount to be paid by himself in this country. • PHnted terms of ilu>se returns may be had fhim any of the emiTrani xhlp acentu in L<-iih, l.lvernfinl, Lonikm. die., on annlt- eiiltn tn ttit-m (|l) i and they will uke the ftirthcr trouble vT ricir<)ti;itlnfr titit ini^int'^* for the Intendlmr pmlsrant, on the un- tifr.t mrllntf, of cuunw, huwevpr, that he takf^ his lusMge by un'- uf their ftMjK. ** The order for payment will be entrusted to the master of the veewl lu which the emigrant is to pro- reed, and will consist of a sealed dispatch to the got- vernor, uontaining the name and description of the party un whose account tlie money is to be paid ; >>ut arrangements will be made by wbicL the delivery of this order to the master will not take place until the emigrant shall have signed the acknowledgment which will be required from him of the debt he will contract with ^vemment t for it 1* the intention of his ma- jesty's government — and it cannot be too clearly un- derstood by all persons who may accept this loan — that repayment of the debt (in such proportions and at such intervals as may not be unsuitable to the cir- cumstances of each emigrant) shall be atrlctlyenforced by means of ample Dowera which the laws of the co* lonv render available for that purpose. " Should the number of applications to the commis- sioners be greater than the funds at their disponal will enable them to comply with, priority of date will form the rule of selection among applications in which there shall appear no other ground of distinction.** From these r^ulatlons it will be perceived that no unmurrted person, or other than a mechanic, need ap- ply for the aid of government ; that the e*aigrant must be accompanied bv his wifet that L.!iO is the utmost sum which will be advanced In any case (ex- cepting where there are daughters in a famil yi between the agea of 1ft and SO, these being over and above pro- vided for — Set unmarried /emaiei t) and that he must be prepared to show that he has the means of paying the dinerence of the expense of his passage, which, it will lie seen from the article under that head, is about double this sum for two, or man and wife ; and, lastly, that the repayment of the loan will be strictly, though not oppressively, enforced after h« has become fixed in the ooluny. LABOURERS. The demand for labourers in New South M^ales is scarcely less eager than that for mechanics. Exagge- rated accounts, however, of the encouragement as to remuneration which these may expect in Australia, have also got abroad. If stout able-bodied men, they are sure of immediate and constant employment ; but their wages are not, as is stated by some, L.2ft or U30 a-year, or about 3s. per day, with board and lodging, or 3s. per day without, but Is. per day, with a ration consisting of 12 1I)S. fine flour, 12 lbs. fresh beef 2 Itis. >UffAr, I lb. tea, and | lb. of soap. In some cases la- bourers may meet witn more advantageous terms, but those stated will be found tho most general, at least they arc those offered to labourers by advertisement in the Sidney papers in repeated instances, and are likely, therefore, to be near the truth, since the ad- vertisers would not, of course, offer more than was necessary, and could not reasonably expect any success from their advertisements if they offered less. UNMARRIED FEMALEfl. The demand f^r these is not less, or rather it is now greater, than ttiat for mechanics and labourers. Those who have some knowledge tt( the dtiirY, however, are preferred, though all are welcome, if not old or de- crepid. *' Female servants," says the Sidney Munitor, " of all kinds are wanted by the thousand, especially If young. All under 40 years of age,** continues the same authority, " if sober and honest, nu v cal- culate on husbands, good, had, and indifferent, within a year of their arrival, should they prefer a married life. If they keep single, they may save money." The wages of good female servants is just now L.lft per annum ; these, however, woitld, of course, fall if the numbers thiit go out be very great. To this description of emigrants the government also offers auistance, with this important difference in the terms from those on which it is offered to the mechanic, viz. that the money advanced is not again demanded, but is a free gift. The following are the government regulations on this subject i — 1st, The commissioners (of emigration) will con- tribute L.8 (it is now raised to L.12) towards tho pas- sage of unmarried female emigranto. 2dly, When emigrants of the above description, and between the ages of fifteen and thirty, are mem- bers of families which are about to proceed to New South Wales or Van Dieman's Land, they will, on applying to the commissioners for emigrstion, be fur- nished with orders payable in the colony for the above- mentioned sum of L.8 fnow L.)a). This money will be paid at the option of the emi^ants, either t4i the heads of their families or to the captains of the ships in which they are conveved ; but it will be necessary that they should make uieir option before departing from this country, as the orders will be framed ac- cordingly. 3dly, Females desirous to emigrate to New South Wales or Van Dieman's Land, and not forming part of any family proceeding to those colonies, are required to send in an aooount ^ the particulars enumerated in the annexed paper.* If they be between the ages of eiffhteen and thirty, and possess the funds which would be necessary, In addition to the sum allowed them by the commissioners, to complete the price of their passage, they will he admitted as candidates fur the liounty of government. As sotm as a sufficient numl»er of such persons shall < At In the cose of meehanles, printed Ibnns of tueh a i«apcr as It here alluded to may be obtained flruin any of the enilgmnt ship affonti or (»wiu'r, for some small clerkship about the dock-yards. We have been the more induced to add this n^ative in- formation regarding Australia, that there are many deserving men of both of the descriptions alluded to, who might possiblv be tempted *o try their fortunes in that new field oi enterprise. Such persons, then, as we have spoken of — and we may also name weavers- ought not to think of going out unless with the means and the intention of betaking themselves to agricul- tural pursuits. PASSAGE. The distance from this country to New Holland, as we hare already elsewhere said, is about 16,000 miles ship's course, tfiat is, making an allowance for all the variations from a straight line which a ship must ne- cessarily make. The time occupied in this voyage is generally about eighteen weeks, or four months and a half, but, on the whole, may be calculated at five months. It will be seen, on looking at a map of the world, that the course of the ship in which the emi- grant embarks for New South Wales is, if she sail from Leith, Liverpool, or London, through the Straits of Dover, across the mouth of the Bav of Biscay ; then she passes the opening of the Straits ol Gibraltar ; then the island of Madeira, where the wine hearing that name is produced; next theCanur;' Inlands; then the Cape de Verd lelands ; then crossing the equator or equinoctial line — an ideil boundary deacribing a cir- cle round the middle of the earth, and dividing it into twoequal parts, or into the nup pcnont into on* bad, »liea tkara an do or- dinary ihip bada cbat ean wltk aarr dagraa of eomfort aseonBodaia aiora tkan twa Tkii, though appa. rtntljr a trUIng aircunHtaaoa, and likaly on that ao- oount t.-> auap* tka notioa of tha pawangar until It b* too lata •* ramadT it, b « w iiu aa a aarioui evil on galting Into wamwr regiona. It ii than found axoawUnfly diatraialn|r, andTnthalaatdagrMunoomflnrubl*. L«t tha iBtaadiu amignuit, therafora, look iharply to both ofibaM partkulara bafora dnally angaglnc hli paaiaga. t'THK SBTTI.EMBNTB AT SWAN RIVER Aira KINO OEOROE-8 SOUND. •WAN BlVia SETTLEHIIIT. Thi* MMlarowl ii wholly wunanactad with tha colony iif NawKouthWalaai bulbaingintkuiamaquartaraf tha world, in tha Mma iilaud, it naturally falli tu bt ipoliaii of in an artic.aed aa a alaoa of Mttlanieiil in tiie yc^ir 1838, when t'aptain Slirting waa appuinwd liauieuaiit-gwveruor. Tha laWM aoaannu of the prMgrau of thii little co- lony are npos Ika whole fai ourahle, although they do ii()t oanainly held out any very great iudueementa to anyoqn to go thither. Thealfflottltiaa and privationa which a new lettler haa to •ucanniar at ki> initaet in both Van Uiemaii'i Land and Naw 8outk Walaa, are here Kill more Air- midabla— • nereaiary uooaaquaace of ita yourger itaia. aodiiadapendeneaonfareifBiuppliea. The fint im- prewiomoftkanawlyarrivedeinignuit are ezoaedingly unfaemuahl* and dUkeananlng. Tka Mil appean, «iid taallr ia, until you kave gone about fil'ieau to IvMtT nilaa Inlanil, actremely poor and barren. At ihia diilaaaa fratn tha coaat, however, it greatly int- pmve^ aahibliing many beautiful and fertile tncts, and hearing Mma of the moat magnificent tram in the world. Hera, alio, ia the lana profuiioii of (heaa gor- genua lawai* whieb form m reaurkabl* a iaaluf* of iha natural vagatable productiom of New South Walaa and Van INaman'a Land. IM animal produo- tiona ar* entirely aimilar to thoa* of tha two foiiipar oo- iouiaa, and it ia equally free from any that ar« danger- iHw M man. The heat, however, would appear to be more oppresRive than in either of thr place* jiut named. M'hether thii ariiea from a greater inteniity in the lun'a nyi, or from a ligkiar or more irregular vlsiu- iioD of ttwee eoeliag kreeaea wkkh prevail iu both Naw 8*utk Walm and Van Diaoaa'a Land, ia not aaplalnad, hut tka caanphiinta bv the aettlera tlisre of ih* wumlh of tha climaKi are freauent, wliile thai* are nana in thia particular fraaa eliner of the former. The alimatak kawavar, ia narerthelet* exceedingly ktallkfuL Not only kave no **nplainu of any kind whatever, aiiribuiakle t* tka counirv, appanrad amoagat tha calwiata, but tkev are enabled to hear rapea un a with impunity, wkiGi^ ia moat other cli- mataa, might be altaoded uith the moat aerioua oon- Tha bam Uad, Indeed the eiJy land yet diMarerad Buficiaauly near tka lattletnent worth cultivating, ia an Ik* baahi ef the Swan Hiver, and on thua* ef aa ad)oinlag river, caUad tha Canning ; but even tkara it vanly anaaidi wn eitker tide more than two nilm froia tka aliaiaii and net ehea lo &r, and all thia land haa b**B aiivady lacaled. Them ia, however, raaaaai to baiiara that good tracta of ooiratry are la b* fauad in ih* inwirter t indnad aome have been fimnd : but the yaui^ celeny hae not yal had time to devote to azpfr ililiaiu af di«*vary, ar aeeia able to avail ttaelf ef ik«a chat kave been raadau Tke premure of eaigraiaoai, iiOH-evflf, and more leiaiir* *ai tlia part of uioae Hi- ready tha^ will no daubl very aoon extend the de- pendeneiaaw tha telilgateal, mid lead to eame valia. able aaquiutieaa of eouMry. The land alraady under culnranan kaa been found to ba very preductive, bear- ing crape af wbeat and other grain equal to tha bew ef any other country, but not yet in inmdent abaindaam toaupptytkawaataaftheco^my. Forgraan, aad many otkar artielee of agriauitaral praduea, it ia aitU in- debaid H New 8ou& Walaa, Van Diamut'a Und, and the Capaat Oood Hope i but the pragvem which it haa aiade, and acatianaa to make, bida fair la leave ii at BO diitauat data whaUy indapendaiu of rbniigii aid. Live Meek «f every kind, hawevar, ii aiceadiiigly dear; gaod working kuUoduhave brought L.tll each; a ouw and calf upward* of L.:td| very indiffaraot Cape horaaa L.M each i aud Hoiith Walea aheep dUs. Pruviahma are alio high. Freak l>ee<^ by no nwana alway* t* be had, i* la. pa* lb. i patainaa, yama, and nnmna, Ma. per IW Ike. Rioe, tea, and augar, how- ever, are reaaonaHIa : tha Itat Sid. per lb., tlie aeceud at U, and tha laat 4d. to M. The value of ariitlea, hawevar, in oflrd and lodging beaidra. and a rertain pruapect of cunatant employment during their livea. • Although CBTpentera have been named In apeaking nf mechanica, all deacriptloni of artisana ueceasary In the ctmatructing of houaea meet with equal enrnurage- ment. While cuntempluting thia high rate of wagea, howevor, the mechanic muit not overlook the aet-off againat it which ia to be found in the great expenae of living there. Provlaiona are high ; and articlea of clothing and other nfceaaariea exorbitantly ao, though certainly not nearly to tht* extent of eqiialixiiig expen- diture to income, tlie Utter alwaya, witlt ordhmry moderation In living, atill greatly exceeding tlie for- mer. The deacription of peraona who have ginie out to aettle in tltia colony are reprcaeuted to have lieen hitherto auperior, on the whole, to thoae who have gone to any other of tlie Uritiah aettlemeiita. " Even now,** aa/a a correapoudent, who datea hia letter fnim Perth, " we can ait down auv day at dinner with a party of aa gentlemaiiW and well-coiiiiected men aa we uaiially aaaociate with in Englmd." And they already And thenaelvea in a oondiuon to Indulge in aome lif the eleganctea and amuaomenta of refined aociety. Balta are frequently aiiiiounced at the " Btirling Anna Ho- tel,** ao Inn in the town of Freemantle. The nativea, who pay frequent viain to the aettlert, appear to lie exceedinpy harmleaa aud Inollenaive— mild in their manner*, and puaaeasliig conaiderable In- telligence. They are of a dark copper colour, and In a atate of pi^rfect nudity. On tlie whole, thry seem to be a mucli more amiable race than tliiite in New Soiiik Wale* and Van I>ieman*a Land : and slipre haa net yet been, no lielleve, any intlauce of ciilliaion lietween them ami the aettler*. Their weapoua are the aanie with thoae of the native* of the former coloiiie*, via. the tpeiir and waddie. Their ralent for imitation and mimicrv ia very remarkable. They will readily and correctly repeat any Englitb word, or even a whole aentence, after the •peaker, though, of courae, not I'omprehending a word of it. Ulien vititing the aettlera, the men — for the female* never appear — fre- quently bring their children along with tliem; but on tneie m-caaioiia they will not intnide thrmaelve* into any of the tettlm.*r have been, on their part, baaidat, ao iBdiirerent about Iha duxacter* of Uuiae wham they took out, that It waa fouod oaceaaary Iu appoint a nmgitlrasy la pruteet the paraona, property, and right* of the aettler*. Htaek af all kind* are aaid lo thrive remarkably well her e, a clmimttanca peculiarly fortunate for the co- bmv, aa it la a aeiirce ef profit auonar availabia, and with leaa hihaur, than that of agriculture, and, there- fore, better adapted tu ila prrwnt ttnie ; aa it la alao 1(1 all auch hct'.lemeiita ivlulc only in the firat stageaof thair exiitence. Where tlie aoil ia gumi, vevelatlnn ia repreaanled aa being very luxuriant, exhibiting wiiat i* agreal deaideraliim iu many parta nf tha neighbour- ing coloniea, tliat variety in the graaie* aoeaaential tu the health of cattle. All the Kurupean vegeublee and tropical fruiu which have yet h««n outtlvaMd in the MItlement have al*u thriven well t a«d aoiongit tha latter we And the colony producing pine.appU', oranga, lemou, and lime tree*, vinw, flg aud cofl'aai trem. Tke whole popnUtlon uf the ciiloay ha* haan eatl- malai at 2800, an amount which aaema to be cmui- dered aa amply mifflcient in the meiiutime, until Air- ther diacoverlee of guod laiida hav Seen made, aa there ia jitit now acai-ceiy an acre uf avaJaule aoil but what ia already Imated. Some partial exploratory expedi- tioiu have been already undertaken, and the mull ot tliete hat been in aume caam highly favourable, large tracta of fertile country having lieen fallen in wiU-, particularly in a aoiitherlv direction from the Mttle- meiitt but whether from their having lieen loo i-fuiKiUf than It, or too dilhciiit of aocem, they yet remain un. located. Dr Wilton, R. N., who explored Ih* enun.ry between King Ceorge*a Smiiid and 8wau Kiver, aay», that in thia excuroion he paaaed ** thniugh a cnuiitrv betnlifullYdiverallled bvmoderalelyelevaled hilb, anil fortUe ana verdant valliet, adorned and enriched bv niaama of the purmi water.*' It would therefore appear tu be In thi* direction, which ia louth and aouth- ea*t of Swan River, tkal de*irable new Iik itioii* are mo*l likely to ba found. The country at *ev ntymiira dialant frum King George** Sound ia, he *ay*, ** well adapted for either agricultural or paatoml purpoaea, lieaidea exhibiting, occaalonally, aome beautiful and highly pictiimqiie aceuery.** Dr M'ilaon conclude* by laying, that " the area which he walked over, tliree or four day* Journey, contained as much. If not mora, laud fit for every piirpoee of rural economy, aa ooiild be found in any portion of equal extent in New South Wale*.'* KIXO OEOROl'l aOUBO BETTLCHZKT. There ia little in thia aettlement that can be oonai- dered peculiar to it*elf, aa all Ita natural pnnertim and characteriatica are the mm* with thoee of Swan River. It adjoin* lo and ia a dependency of the latter, and ia altiiated on the aoiith aide of that point or pn>- jection of land which placea Swan Hiver on the weal coaat of New Holland. Fannen, laliourera, mecha- nic*, and whale flahermen, are greatly wanuid here, and are offered the fallowing encouragemmt, by au- thority of Oovemor Stirling, to emigrate thither:— A gaiiraiitee will lie given, if dealred, to auch a* wi>h tu ■eciire employment before leaving home, of certain wage*, proportioned to their aliilltiea and induatry, and regulated by their different trade* i the*e wagea aaaured lo he about one lialf more than what ia given in thia country. They will be alao Inaurad of a aiipply of provlaiona at a rate not exceeding a foiirili more than the pricet of ihia country. To thua* who prefer devoting ihemaelvM to agricultural puranita, a grant of Und, at the rata of one hiin- dreil acre* to each family, will be made, free of all chaTg*, with the advantage of fixing the price* of klock, pravi*Iona, &c., before nartingi thu* enabling the emigrant tu form a correct idea of the amount of capital which he would require before leaving hi* na- tive land — a piece of information which i* often mudi too lung of coming, aometimes mil until It ia too late. It ia recommended that all who go thither aliwild lie married peraona, aud that they aliould be accompanied by their wivee. Uenerally, with regard to thea* aettlementa, we may any tlgit a great deal loo much haa lieen oaid in their favour, and not a little tuu miicli againat tliem. They appear entirely iinduaerving of either the eu* eoraium* of tlie one, or the abiiae nf the other. They are iieitlier particularly deairable placea tu eraigmu to, nor ar* they the reverae. The emigrant wIhi gaaa tliitlwr enuounlert th* iiaual amount of diriieul- tiee, and, by peraeverance and induatry, will in ouurae ef lime, we believe, attain what ia now auaual amount of Mccaai a curopelency aa to tlie meau of anbai^ fo lic*, but no mnney-making. M'e cannot ciinchide thia notice of the Swan River, aad iu dependency King Ueorge'a Siaind, without niiticiiig the "ery tvarni and liHlteriiig lerma ill whicl> til* pment governor, fioverimr .Stirling, la apofcen nf by tk* aettfera within hia jiiriadir lion. " file excel- leiicv," aay* one ciirreapmideni, " I aaaiira yon, has no ainecure in pleaaing hII partlea ; hut, I think, of all the men who endeavour tu act impartially, he 1* the man I upright, well-nerved, the riili and the poor man ia the *am* Iu him. AH private rerommenda. tkm* gn for nothing, and he treat* the aettier who comm Willi a fow tinndrad pound* with lb* tam< alTability aad oondaacemiuii m tk* oaie who brlng^ L.lit, aad preaperity of a enhmy dependa upon the charar- ter, diapotiliaBa, and tamper ufiu chief mkr, a aaltl. «i*nl indaeemeat to eanigrrle to the tettlemeata ef wkick we bnv* juat been apeaking, akkoiigh thcve wm Uiil* eba, ia i* b* fouad ia tha character of Ikair prcaani governor. 5tS BetlAlvaewi l» u Mlahv a by WitLiaw and Reaaar ('NAMBtaa, IK WalavlooHaBei alao by W. ilea, P al a nn a m Huw. I.4N1. dan 1 aa* W. Cnaav, Jua. and (a. KatloUle NlnM, Uublla Sole bf Joba Maeland. (itawov, and all Mho HnakwUm bl MMIaad, Eneleml. and IrataiuL— HubHahad once a ftinnkht bunulnad ba A. Klrftwune, and (irlnKal by Balbanr** aad CuiuiNiuv, Faul'i Wotlu CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AMD ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 11. • ' Price lU THE HORSE. V~ v' 'M- EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. But for the domeiUcatlon and services of the hone, we thould have yet been far behind in civilisation t and, without him, our luxuries would have been greatly limited. By his aid the labour of inland agri- culture ii much leiaened, commercial intercourse is facilitated, and mankind transported with speed to distant parts. Of all other animals, the form of thu horse is the most perfect and elegant, and highly adapts him for speed ; while his pliability of physical organisation, and his extreme docility of disposition, renifer him a willing and obedient servant to man. Daubenton re- roarkS) that of all animals the horse seems the most beautiful ; the noble largeness of his form, the glossy smoothness of his skin, the graceful ease of his mo- tions, and the exact symmetry of his shape, have taught lu to rt^ard him as the lirat, and as ),he most perfectly* foimed ; and yet, what is extraordinary enough, if we examine him internally, his structure will be found the most different from that of man of all other quad- rupeds whatsoever. As the ape approaches us the uaarest in internal conformation, so the horse is the most remote — a striking proof that there may be op- positions of beauty, and that all grace is not to be re- ferred to one standard. One of the most striking qualities of the horse is his intrepid courage, and extreme generosity of disposi- tion. He has been used, in all ages since his domesti- cation, in the battle-field, where he has ever been found to face danger, and even the shouting of the comba- tants, with undaunted boldness, and unshrinking flrm- ness ; the hottest cannonading, and the more irritating discharges of musketry, have failed to make him quail. Courage has ever been an attribute of the horse. We find the following powerful description of the horse in the Book of Job, one of the oldest and best written of the Scriptures. He says, *' Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ? canst ihou make him afraid as a grauhop- per ?— (he glory of his strength is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoioeth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet th« armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ( neither tnmeth he back from the sword t the quiver rattleth against him — the glittering ipear and shield. He swalloweth the ground with fiarceness and rage ; neither beliereth he that it Is the Bound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets ha, ha I and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thun- der of the captains, and the shouting." The period is not known at which the horse was first diHnesUcated. He is mentioned by the oUest writers, and it Is probable that his subjugation was Marly coeval with the earliest state of society, The •tend writers tells us, that, 1702 years before th« birtl of Christ, horses were used. It Is said in Cienesis, " and Joseph gave them (the Egyptians) bread in ex- change for horses." This is the first instance of horses being mentioned in the t'^riptures ; and from what is stated in the earlier chapters of Genesis, it would seem that the horse was unknown to the Israelites and Egyptians befo^ that time ; for in the 12th chapter of Genesis we read, that *' Abram had sheep, and oxen, and men-servants, and maid-servants, she-asses, and ramels," but nothing is said of horses ; we may there- fore reasonably conclude that they were unknown. This was 1030 years before the birth of Christ. It would therefore appear that it was a short time prior to the^ear 1702 before Christ that horses were first introduced into Egypt, but wheuoe, we are not in- formed ; and they seem to have propagated and in- creased in that country with great rapidity, for in the eleventh chapter of Joshua, and fourth verse, we are told, " they (certain kings opposed to Joshua) went out, they and all their hosts with them, much people, even as the sand that is upon the sea-shore in multi- tude, with horses and chariots very many." This was 1450 years before the Christian era. The S^iMures, therefore, clear up the point to wilMn a Tb^ years as to the time when horses were introduced into Egypt, which at that period was cer- tainly the most civilised state in the world. At this epoch, Greece, which in after times was destined to astonish the world, slumbered as a barren and unpeo- pled waste. It would appear that man first domesticated those animals which supplied him with food, such as the ox, the goat, and the sheep. The camel and att seem next to have been subjugated, and to have been uB?d as beasts of burthen. The first breaking of the horse for riding is attri- buted by some authors to the Lapithv, a people of Thessaly, and is thus described by Virgil in his third Oeorgic ;— . *' Bold Rriohthontni was the first who Joln'd Four horaw fw the rapM nco dodirn'd. And o'er the dusty wheels presldliifr ute : The lAplthv to chariots add the stata Of bttji and brldloe ; tan^t the steed to bound, To nm the ring, snd traoo tho mary round j To ■top, to fly, the nilw of war to know, T* obey the rider, and to dara tbe foe" There is great diversity of opinion among authors as to the period when men first began to mount horses, for the purpose of riding. From the writings of Ho- mer, we must conclude that horses were ridden long before his time, for, in a metaphor, in the fifteenth book of the Iliad, he compares the strength of AJax, bounding from ship to ship, to that of a horseman on a strong steed. •' Nor flffhts, like others, fixed to certain stands, Uut liwks a noTlof tower abort the bandil High on tho decks, with ut glKsntlo stride, The godlike Hero stalks .rooi vido to sld(^. Lo, when a honeman* from tbe watery mood (SUllod in the manofo of the bounding steed), IMvce four fair oourson, practised to ubi-y, To Bomo great city, throngh tho public way, , Bate in his art, as sldo by eido they run, He shifts his scat, and vaults from one to one ; And now to this, and now to that ho flios ; Admiring numbers follow with their pyos>" It is quite evident that horses were not used for rid* ing till long after tho period that they were harnessed in war chariots. Sir George Ouseley mentions, in his Trav^ through Persia and various Countries of the East, that he examined all the relics of antiquity to be found among the ruins of PeraepoHs, from which Im drew a conclusion, which is at once interesting, niid in some measure confirmatory of the opinion above noticed, that the horse had been gradually subdue<1. He says, " There are no figures mounted on horse- back, although some travellers havo mentioned horse- men among these sculptures. One would think that the simple act of mounting on a horse's back would naturally have preceded the use of wheel-carriages and their complicated harness ; yet no horsemen nre found at Pers^lis ; and we know Homer's hor&ei are represented in chariots, from which the warriont sometimes descended to combat on foot, but the poet has not described them as fighting on horseback. The absence of mounted figures might authorise an opinion that these sculptures had been executed before the time of Cyrus, whose precepts and example first in- spired the Persians with a love of equestrian exercises, of which, before his time, they were wholly ignorant.** Although a general, It is an erroneous opinion, that Arabia was the native country of the horse ; as ^re are warranted in supposing this not to be the case, from what is stated in Second Chronicles, chapter 0th, which informs us that King Solomon obtained gold and silver from that country; and, in the 2Rth verse, that " they brought unto Solomon horses out of Egypt, and out of all lands." However, Arabia is not expressly mentioned, which certainly would have been the case had horses been natives of that country. Solomon is said to have had ''four thou- sand stalls for horses and chariots, and twelve thou- sand horsemen ;*' at which time the price of an Egyp- tion horse was one hundred and fifty shekels of silver, which amounts to about seventeen pounds two shtl* lings sterling — a much larger price than at the present day, if we make allowance for the difference in the value of money. ORIOIKAL COITKTRT OF THE HOaSE. Left only to conjecture, we can but suppose, from a combination of circumstances, that Asia was tha original country of the horse t for there he Is found, to the preMnt day, rorlag in unrMtrainad freedom. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. It' and we aro without any hiitorical record of hU liaviiig I been Introduced by man Into thoie extensive wildi; And one thing ii quite certain, that he was not found | cither In America or New Holland at the original dis- covtM-y n( thoae ooutinenta. The great desert tract* ■voaad tl: • Am of Af«l and the Caauian Sea hare been iuppoeed th« native eoiin- try of the kone t hot If thli emijevtura it correct, he tnuit have widely extended his geographical range, for he is foiitid in a wild atate in Asia aa fiar nertk M the sixtieth degree, and tu the utmost southern ex. tretnt-a of that vast cuntinent, and also in manv parts of A THca ; but wn must suppose that those of tiie for- mer country emigrated as the species multiplied. £ven BO late as the seventh centni7 of the Christian ei i, when the Prophet Mahomet attacked the Koreish not far f.-om Mecca, he had but two horses In his train ; And although, in the plunder of tVis horrible cam- paign, he carried with tilra ,n hh retreat twenty-four thousand camels, forty thousand sheep, and twenty- four thousand ounces of silvpr, there ia no mention of horses being part of the l>ootv. We are informed that th«j Arabians had but few horses, and those not at all valued; lo that Arabia, where are now the moat celebrated coursera In the world, la but compvatively of modem date h m b i ce din g eoontry. History tellt ua that in toe aceosid centnry honca were exported from B«ypt t» AraMn, as fieiiiUi to their kingat from wUA wc may eeniactan llaBt iMr finest horoM were orlgtnaDy tW frodnea of Imtiaii ■teeda, wWnae ttey war* aka axMftdl to fffhtofia, India, Pcraia, Parthia, Armaaia, 8eytkl% &fr WAKUn BQUUTBIAN TElBXt. The Amaaooa, a nation «f faasona wnrnw, wko^ liu ■tead of their knsbanda, ruled the ataia, and foonded an extensire empire in Aala Minor AOO yean before the Christian era, wore cnlabratad c^ptaatrlana, aud had a superior bread of horaaa. Herodotus, who wrola In the ifth eontury before Christ, informs oa that the Kthiopfoas had a good breed of horses, and were eqneetriana. He also tells us that the Indians were accttitomed to the use of horace from very remote periods, and that the sol- diers of that oount(gr who attended Xerxea in his celebrated march against the Grecians, fought nn horseback as well as in war-chariots. That histo. lian affirms that the ancient Persian horses were fomous for their beauty, vigour, fire, and other quali- ties, and ao oelebratad on account of their speed, that the name of a borae in that country is ^«Aetween a gallop and «n amble ; and to those who cultivated the best breed they proved a great source of emolument. They were Slot, however, able to stand the fatlguea of a long loorncy. The Huns were a powerful pemle about 300 years before Christ, and their cavalry frequently consisted of two or three hundred thousand, formidable by the matchless dexterity with which they managed their bows and their horses, by their hardy patience in sup- porting the inclemency of the weather, and by the in- credibw speed of their marches, being seldom checked by torrents or precipices, by the deepest rivers or the most lofty mountains. They spread themselves over the face of the country; and, notwithstanding the tfaborate tactics oi the Chineae, directed in their ope- rations by Kaoti, whose merit had raised him to the throne, were constrained to surrender to the victorious arms of the barbarians, in the year 901 before the Christian era. The Hnns, while in the fteld, slept on horseback, scarcely ever dismounting. The Parthians, about l&O years before the Chris- tian era, are said to have managed horses with great akUl, and were celebrated for their manner of fight- ing on them. When they happened to be discomtited by their enemies, such waa their dextei**v th it they would turn round in their saddles, in th*. nutt rapid flight, and discharge their arrows at their pu '»uers, and then resume their proper wat. The poets « ho mention this, say that their flight was In eonseeen ascertained to inhabit the deserts in a free condition for many centuries. Some authors have stippostd that tliere were origi. nally two distinct species of horses — one from the eastern deserts, and the other from the low alluvial lands of Kurope. Although thefce two breeds are con- siderably different, both in bulk and general appear- ance, yet no specific dilTerence is discoverable in them, either oxternully or in their anatomical constr action. Besides, they breed indiscriminately ; and their pro- geny are not mnlee, hot continue their race ; which is sufficient to convince us that they are but one species, altered by IocmI circumstancea. From all that has been written by travellers in Asia and Africa, as well as those of other countries, it is evident that horses of almost every nation vary in a material dt^ree from each other, both in exemal form and iioalitiaa. And we see what is the case in our own island, the small extent of which admits of but little variety of climate. In districts not far from each other, we find breeds difl^erinff as much, nay, even more than the Arabian and ordinary European horse. For these extremes we may refer to the large breed of Clydesdale, and the pigmy pony of Mall, and other islands of Ncutland. CONTRAST or EUROFEAV AMD ASIATIC aaiEDS. The European horses which have not been improved by e.stern blood are very different indeed from those of Asia, not only in form, but also in the texture and shape of their bones, being usually round and porous, witn thick ill-shapen joints — their beads are fleshy and clumay — their jaws ill formed — their bodies large aud bulky~th«ir bellies slack — their chests flesty — their If^ thick, greasy* and liable to various diseases — their tendons are relaxed — aud the texture of their hair is coarse and long, with thick and spongy hides —their general proportions are also less symmetrical than of theeastem hnseds. These differences, no doubt, arise from the quality of their fwHl, which in mo t parts of Europe is ill adapted to the nature and con- struction of their digestive organs. From this cause, their constitution is debilitated, and. In consequence, their movements are rendered shig^sh and nngrace- fulf their ardour and spirit damfwd, and they leem to lose their natural gentleness of disposition. Wa find that It is In the dry pastures of Arabia, Persia, and Tartary, that the horse is to be found possessing superior strength and action, and that intelligence, spirit, and generous disposition, for which he has been prised by every nation. Tb« plains of th«a oftin. tries seem pecaUarly Attad for bis oenstitatkm» ba- ing iufflelently elaratad above the Iffrel of tha aan to render the pasturo dry, aromatic, and wholesome ( f^eoffom thaea saline partioka, which, although they give lustre to the hair, create that difficulty for tha horse to become habituated to any other country whoea climate may be essentially different. As a proof of thit fact we may remark, that the horsei of the Nortlieni Crimea, the country bounded by the Volga and the Kuma, the Black Sea and the Doii, seldom thrive until they have pastured a year, at least, In Vologneo, Po- dolia, or the Ukraine. The horses of those, and countries with similar pasturage, are completely frea from the strangles and other slandular diseases which aro so frequent and fatal to the horaaa of Europe. VAniATIONI OWINO TO DimaXWCE or PASTURE. These observations ar« in complete accordance with tha opinions of tha celabratad Bruce, tha Abyssinian traTeller, who perhapa had seen a greater variety of hortae than any other individual. He says, ** at Ooraa baglna that noble race of horses, justly cele. bralad orar tha whole worid i they are the breed that waa intiodnoad here at the Harucen conquest, and have baan preserrad nnmixed to this day : they seem to be a distinct animal from the Arabian horse, tuch as I have seen in tha plains of Arabia Deserta, south of Palmyra and Damascus, where I take the most ex* oellent of the Arabian breed to be; lu the tribes of Mowalii and Annaey, which fa about the S6th degrea of latitudat whilst llongola, and the dry country near it, seem to be tha ceotre of axeaUanoe for this nobla animal t so that the bounds within which tha horse is at lu greatest parfoetion, seem to ba between the 30th and Mth degroea of latitnda, and between tha Mth d^free of longitude east from the meridian of Greenwich to the banks of the Euphrates; for in thia extent of country Fahrenheit's thermometer Is never below TiO degrees in the night, or in the day below 80 degrees, though it mav rise to 120 degrees at noon in the s^ade, at which point horses are never affected by the heat, but will breed as they do at Halfaid, Oorea, and Dongola, where the thermometer rises to thesa degrees. These countries, from what has t>ecn said^ must of course be a dry sandy desert, with little water^ producing riiort, or no grass, but onlv roots, which are blenched like our celery, being always covered with earth, having no manhea or swamps, fat soapy earth, or mould.** Through ages of domestication the horses of Britain seem to preserve their natural predilection for drr pasture, which they {nvariablv prefer to that which is rank — thus proving that dry food must have baan his oriflrinal nutriment. To food and climate, therefore, must be principal- ly attributed the great diversity in the various racea of horses in different countries. In support of this theory, we have only to refer to the wild horses af Honth America, whicn were taken to that conntrr by the Spaniards. Xhaee are undenUKMl to have beaa principally of the Andalusian breed, which have cosu tinued to be the best in Spain since their first in- troduction by the Moors in the year 710 before Christ. The horses of Andalusia, having directly spning from Barbs, have retained many of the pointa of the Mooiw ish breed. This is to be asorilied to the high and dry soil of the province. The South American an* vannas, where wild herds browse, are high mountain tracuwith an arid soil, and the atmosphere is dry and keen. INTBODUCTION Or ASIATIC lEEEDS INTO EUHOrE. The introduction of the Asiatic horse into Europe seems to be involved In as much uncertainty as the native country from which the horse spning. It seema probable that the ware with the tiroeks and the Par* liana was the means of introducing many of the Asi- atic horses into the former country. Xerxes had in his army 80,000 horses, principally stallions, and must have left many behind, which would Imp*-ove the Grecian breed, while their dry climate would con- tribute to their being preserved in their original purity. The defeat of ThermopyUs, and the occu- pation of It by Macedonlus, would have a tendency to improve their horses, which would be assisted by their intercouree with the Iterant. In all probability, it was at this time that the Asiatic breed was first intiodnoad into the European states. Horses must have been introduced into Spain by tha Carthaginians, after their conquest of that country, which was occupied by them for upwards of two cen- turies ; and to the same cause may be ascribed the excellent breeds of Sicily ; from which two pointa, tha eastern breed may have found its way into Europe by the south-west. We shall now attempt to trace the means by whiih the horse was introduced Into the north of EnrcM. The Russian Count Rxeiwreski makes the followfnf interesting observation: — " There exists in all indi- genous Asiatic horses, under whatever latitude, sane- thing peculiar in the expression of their countenanasii in their mode of playing their ears, and in all thn movements of their body, which evidently shows thcsn to be of one twttj, and which is to ba obierred i^ THE HORSE. ■ana of th* watMrn boratii witk tba MMption of Uw Jbullth, which ban » grmt dacl of Arabian bbxxl. I liotToed tbli In more than 187,000 Aalatio bono*, which m9 brought annualijr bj tba Calmudii and Tartan to tk* oalabrated fair of Bardyaioco. In 18U, thera wan bnught to thu plaaa 67,000 hortea from tha graat fltappa I and I majr lafaly uj, that, during tha coana tl nra yaara' raiidanca in Ruuian Poland, I muit bava Man upward! of 240,000 bonaa of that country." Tha Savthian blood muu hara baan conununieatcd to all the honea in tha north of £urova, owing to tbair flomiaation witk tba Sanuatiaoi, and tha commerca of «ha lattar with more waitarly nation!. Sirabo man. liana, that a cuitom axiitad among tha Bovtbiana of mntilating tbair honei, in order to malce them more obadient ; and tbete being trannportad into the low, moitt, and rank paiturei of Germany, Lithuania, •nd Pomarania, aa well aa tu tha northern prorincaa of France, would naturally degenerate^ from tba na- ture of tbair food, a> wa And that the bonaa of low and moiat conntriaa are inrariably of a Urge and ckimiy make. Tha molitura of tha atmotphare, and tha bad paa> tuie, loon make an eridant Impreeaion on tbaaa bonai, •ad rapidly efface tha beauty and qualltiaaof tha aaalarn bread, which, however, are lata liable to luoh graat ahaii|^.9 in tba countriaa lying betwUt Southern Po- land to the heigkti of Kiow, from the chain of tba Carpathian mountains, along tha banki of tha Dniea- ler, owing to tha putura being at a superior qua- lity. It is almost certain that the indigenous breads of all tha European bonaa hare been derived from thoae of Scytbia, at a very remote period t and al- though the latter poaseaa many of the properties, and much of the general resemblance of the Asiatic horse, they are yet much inftrior in the elegance of their ihue, and tha compactneaa of their Jointa. There can be little doubt bvt that tha state of tha Suropean horaea waa wtetekad indeed, before the wan of the Oreeks and Persiana, and afterwards the eon- qMst of Spain by the Carthagiiiiana t and it must be obrious that the commnnioation Europe bad with the south was of inflnitaiy more advantage, in this raapoal, than that which it bad with the north.' -- . ixriuoBiTT or the loiiAir catalkt: Folybius, Ib aarratini tba paasage of the Tnbia, where Hannibal obtained the celebrated victory over the Romans, gives a good idea of tha wretched state of the horses uf that nation. In describing the troops which ware then under the command of the CoostU Sempronius, be says — '* Meantime, Sempronius sound- •d the retreat, in order to bring back the cavalry, who were ignorant of the proper mode of conducting tham- selvas to an enemy by which they were fronted. They had, in fact, to deal with the cavalry of Numidil^ whose practice it was to retreat in different directions, and then return with great vigour to the charge, when their enemy waa not expecting it." The Roman army at that time waa principally composed of infantry, and their cavalry was ill mouuted on large and heavy •taeds, little calculated to cope with the Numidian cavalry, which could boast of active and lively horses, ^ which means their evolutions were performed with great celerity. The bas-relief horses of Marcus Aureliua are yery ttsilike the eastern courser. In times still more mo- dem, we find that the horses of Raphael, I^ Brun, and other celebrated painters, are large heavy steeds, with ooarse beads, which must have been the charaoter- iatica of the burses in tbair days. On the contrary, if we examine the flgnrea of hortea, given In the old Arabian manuscripts, particularly the celebrated onea caQoemlng the arms, evolutions, &c of the east, we ftnd tha same characteristics which the horses of that eountrv preserve at the present time, although their execution as works of art are miserable in the extreme. In tha fourth century, the Qreeks entered Europe by the north, overran it in a diagonal direction, as far aa Spain, and, spreading laterally, disponed Asiatifl horses, and improved their breed. Afterwards the If oora, in the eighth century, introduced many horses fh>m the east. The Saracens, with a force of two hundred thou- sand soldiers, in the year 703, penetrated into France as far as the wails of Poitian, the capital of the department of La Vienne, where thay were totally routed by the army of Charles Martel. In conse- i{U ence of this disaster, many of the superior 'horses of Uiat people must have fallen into the hands of the french. The English might have obtained some of the improved breed of that diitrict after the celebrated victory of Edward tho Black Prince, on the 13th Sep- tember I3A4. Traces of eastern blood are still visible in this part of France ; and in Limousin very fine horses are to be met with, which can only be accounted for from the dryness of the pasture. Cardonne, in his Histoire d*Afrique, informs us, that, in the tenth century, the grand visier Abd-el- Malek ben Cheid presented, among other gifts of va- lue, to tho caliph Abdol-Rah-man the Third, fifteen Arabian horaas of tba best blood. Eastern monarchs ware in tha practice of sending presents of hones to France. In the year 800, Haroun-al-Raschid sent a variety of magnificent presents to Charlemagne, and among them some fine nones. It Is also probable that during the enisades many eastern hones were import- ed into Europe by the princes and nobles engaged in that enterprise ; indeed, it is almost ceruln that they would bring along with them some of these fine ani- 83 mals, which have been io highly valued by man baa the remotest ages. The celebratad Oengulskan, la the thirteenth een- tary, brought all Asia under his sway. In his con- quest he carried with him tha armies of bis subjugated stataa. This ciraumstaoca tended to amalgamate tho braeda of India, Perala, and Arabia, which wera ul- timately scattered all over Asia. Botam-ahan, grandson of Qanguiakan, In the year 1311, invaded the Crimea, dispersed the Cossack nation, and, croaaing the Dnieper with his army, overran Poland, and advanced into Silesia, subduing Lublin, Cracow, Lignitx, and Breslau t penetrated into Hungary, and was on bis march to Constantinople when his ambitious career wu terminated by his death. This adventurous Incursion was followed by many others, but partlcularlv by one of much importance — that of the famous Islam Gueray, who, in the year !(M8, joined himself witk 300,000 Tartan of the Cri- mea, under their leader Bogdan Scbmlelnieki i this army invaded Poland i and as these Tartan were In the practice of taking two honea with them in their wars, many must have bean left in that cmmtry. Even in our own times. Prince Sanguisko of Volog- ■la, aent his equerry, M. Bulski, tu llaleb, whence he brought sU Arabian stallions of great value; and Oenaral Obodynski brought with him, at two differ- ent timet, from Constantinople, upwards of sixty honaa. MODERN HISTORY OP THE HORSE. In the former section, we have endeavoured to show the progressive introduction of the eutern horse into Europe. But one thing of which we are assured la, that the flnt Arabian horse which was introduced into England was during the raign of James the Flnt. Since that time, great intercourse has taken place be- tween eastern countries and Europe, and also various wars ( from which causae many different breeds have been imported, which have tended to improve the race. The southern varieties of the horse, however, have been preserved in their native purity in Oreat Britain and Inland alone. Besides, in the deserts around the Sea of Aral, wild horses are also found in verv large troops in those extensive upland vallica on the sides of the Mus Tag mountains, which bound the great valley of Asgar, through which flows the river Indus on tha east, and the Belur Tag monntains on tho west. There an also numerous herds in the vallies amongst the Great Caadhur range, and also in the Hyderabad moun- tains In the Charmar mountains, towards tha north of China, there are some inconsiderable troops of wild borseo ; and still farther north, amongst the vallies of the Altai range, and even so far as in the northern boundaries of Siberia, wild herds are occasionally to be met with ; but these an an inferior race, with large heads, coarse, ill-formed limbs, and very thick about the joints. It is said that some straggling in- dividual pain have been seen even so far north as the plains in the district of Tungousi. Wild bones an also to l>e met with near the Cape of Good Hope, In the mountain plains of Oraaff Reinett. THE aOaSE IH BIS NATURAL STATE. " To have an idea," says Goldsmith, " of this noble animal in his native simplicity, we are not to look for him in the pastures or the stables, but in those wild and extensive plains where he has lieen originally pro- duced, where he ranges without control, and riots in all the variety of luxurious nature. In this happy state of independence he disdains the assistance of man, which only tends to servitude. In those liound- lesa tracta, whether of Africa or New Spain, where he runs at liberty, he seems no way inoommoded with the inconveniences to which he is subject in Europe. The continual verdure of the fields supplies hiswanu, and the climate, that never knows a winter, suits his constitution, which naturally seems adapted to beat. His enemies of the forest are but few, for none but the greater kinds will venture to attaclc him ; any one of these he is (singly) able to overcome ; while, at tb i same time, he is content to find safety in society, for the wild horses of these countries always herd to- gether." Wild hones are always to 1)C met with in droves of from five hundred to a thousand, seldom exceeding the former number in Asia or Africa, as food in these countries is less abundant than in America. They never attack other animals, hut always act upon the defensive, Tbeir pastures satisfy their appetites, and, when exhausted, they have only to shift their stations to places where their food is plentiful. They are seldom to be taken by suiprise; but, if attacked, the assailant seldom comes off victorious, for tlie whole troop unites in defence of their comrades, and seldom fail either to tear tbeir enemy to pieces, or kick him to death. Wild horses usually retire to the confines of a forest to repose. One or more of their number are always awake to keep watch while the rest are asleep, and who warn their fellows of approaching danger, which is c! ne by loud snorting or neighing ; upon this sig- nal they start to their feet, and either reconnoitre the enemy, or fly off with die swiftness of the wind, followed by the sentinel, and by the stallion who is patriarch of the herd. In the desert tracts along the sides of tha Don, in Russia, there are numerous troops pf wild horses, wliich have sprung from emandpalad priigeniiors. The Cossacks frequenay take those, and breed irom them, by croaaing them with their domeatlcatod luirMs, which are said to be thereby greatly improved. Paiiaa says thay abound in tha vicinity of^tha Paius Msrutis. These herds are the deacandauls of the Russian burse* which were used at the siege of Aaopb, in lOWi, u haa taken from the Turks by Peter the Great, uim was compelled, from want of wrage, to tt.t at liberty iiinrly the whole horses belonging to his cavalry, to sack load for themselves. They are now quite wild, and asso- ciate In troops in the same manner as otiier wild horses. Those herds which have remained close to the alluvial and fertile banks of the river are of a large sise, owing to the ranknass of their food ; tha ground in tbaaa situatlonn is so extremely swampy, that no solid edifice can be erected near the river, the whole surrounding country being little Iwtter than a morass. The benls which inhabit the higher mouA« tain districts have all the appearance of the bonaa from which tliey sprunff. It is supposed that tha troops found in tha plains of Great I'artary are do- scended from the same source as those of the banks of the Don and the Ukraine. AMXHICAX WILD UOISBS. In the vast plains of South America, immense troop* of wild horses are to be found, which have all sprung from emancipated individuals taken to that country by the Speniardt. The geographical range of thasa hards exunds from the ehores of La PlaU to Pata- gonia. They have increased with such astonishing rapiditv, that they are to be met with in troops of many tnousands. Axiara aflirms that they sometime* congregate in herds of not less than ten tnousand in- dividuals I they are invariably preceded by a leader, who appeara to direct all their movements, which ars performed in a manner so perfectly systematic, as hard- ly to be surpassed in regularity by the beat trained ca- valry. It IS very dangerous for travellen to pas* through the districu ; for, if perceived by the wihl herd, they will approach closely to those who ara mounted on horsekaok. After their leader and vl- dettes have reconnoitred the strangen, thay will, at the direction of their leader, make a rapid course round the traveller, and, with loud and inviting neigh- ing, tempt the tame horses, which ara either saddled or loaded, to join them. If the rider does not use the utmost precautions, or the leader of the laden horse does not exert his utmost care, they will either fling the rider, or throw off their burden, and precipitately join the wild troop, after which they are lost for ever. The whole troop seem doligbled at their acquisition, and hurriedly ily off in a body to tba desert, while the neighbouring earth vibrates under the weight of these mighty phalanxes. They will frequently re- turn, and sweep round the astonished traveller Uka the whirlwind of the desert, threatening instant an- nihilation, when, of a sudden, they will simultane> ously set up the most vehement neigning, wheel in aa opposite course, and disappear in the neighbouring wilderness. These immense troops do not always feed in company, and only congregate in cases of alarm, and again disperse into smaller herds when the cause of alarm has passed away. In the province of (Tumana there are nnmerons wIM horses, associating in troops of from five or six hun- dred, and even one thousand. They occupy the great savannas, where it is dangerous to disturb or try to catch them. In the dry season, they are some- times forced to travel two or three leagues, and even more, in search of water. They set out in regular ranks, four abreast, and thus form a procession of an extent of a quarter of a league. There are alway* five or six scouts, who precede the troop by about fifty paces. If they perceive a man, a puma, or a jngur, they neigh, and the troop stops ; if avoided, they continue their march ; but if an attempt be made to pass across tlieir route, they leap on the imprudent traveller, and crush him under their feet. It is best to avoid coming in contact with them in these marches. They bava also a chief, whose station is between the scouts and the squadron : he is a kind of adjutant, whose duty consists in preventing individuals from quitting the ranks. If any one attempts to straggle, either from hunger or fatigue, he is bitten till he re- sumes his place, and the culprit never fails to obey, but with disappointed looks, and with his head bang- ing down. Three or four chiefs march as the rear- guard, at five or six paces from the troop. An in- stinctive duty impels these horses to obey that rule which they seem to know is for their common good ; and this instinct, if not absolutely reason, is very nearly akin to it. It is quite evident that all grega- rious animals are aware that their safety consists in their united force, and in a principle of subordination, which ill many respects is superior to the efforts of man in a savage state. The wild horses of America are generally of a chest- nut bay, torrel, or black. The latter colour, however. Is not very common, and the chestnut usually predo- minates, from which somo authors suppose it to bo the original colour of the horse ; but we do not find that to be the leading colour of the Asiatic wild breeds, bay-dun being, in that continent, the most oommou. When wild hortea are att'^cked by the puma or jagur — which are their principal enerolet in Ame- rica — by a particular signal, which they all under, stand, they close into a £nte mass, and trample their CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. MMiluil to dMIhi or, forming * cirol*, with lh« young md fnali In ihdr nntra, dafwid thtmMlvM •riih Ihalr hMb, iind itrika wlih nick nioelljr knd force, Uul ra Mlmal It «p«ble of wlthiwnding ihtm. Whan an atlaak bacomai necaawyi Ikair laadar ikowt Iha axampla i and If ka aonaldart a rairrnt nacanarv, ba glvta tham Ika ilgnal, which thay iimulluiaouaiy ob«T. Captain Haad, in kii joumay arrma tha Paapaa, glvaa III an Ini* reaiing aocouni of kii raaaling a wild troop in a di^ n I of tka enunlry whara tha popula- tion U pralty danae. 8o>na o( tha unfortunata cap- turad honaa ara luppoaad to ba foraad along by thalr ridara at tkair full tpaadi ha aan— "At thay ara thui gallopiof •long, nrgad by tna tpur, it It inia. raating to laa tba graupa of wild horaaa ona patwt. T'la marat, which ara navar ridden in Houtb America, aaam not to andarttand what makaa tha ponr huria carry hit kaad to h>w and look to weary. Tka little Innocent oolta ooaoa ninning to meet kim, and tkan etart away frlghtanad) while tha old honaa, whcaa whila markt on Iha flankt and backi betray their ac> qnalnlanca wltk tha tpur and taddle, walk tkiwly away for iome diatanca t than breaking into a trot, at they taek their lahty, inort and look behind them, lint with one eye and then with the other, turning their noaj from right to left, and carrying their loug taila high In tba air." Boaai-TAMixa IM wuth amiiioa. In Sontb America there ara no ragnlar ttaUta, their bonaa being either kept in patturet, which ara fenced, or in wkat they call eorraitf which oontitt of a dr- culnr enclnaure of mugh poatt, drlTen into the ground ao dote, that a horae cannot pait through lietweeu them. In theie, howerer, the marea and foala are iierer ennAned, but am albwed to graaa aboutat free- dom. Thay howerer uiually keep one horae liad at tha door of their hut, to ba ready In cata of immediate need, which they (ted on a tcanty mwl of maite at night. If an additional horae la wanted, tba gaucho (who it A natite Inhabitant of tha plaint) goea to the ecrfW with hit buto, aiid ietcbat one which may hare keen only lubdued the preoading day t or he will go to the plain where they an graiing at freedom, and bring one whldi he baa backed for the Am time; and when tbeee hortea hara been once uacd, they are aitbar put into the corral and fed with maiae, or re- turned to the plain to feed at liberty. Thit Atfte it a vary eimple oootriranca, but of great power in the handa ot the gaucho, who It aooiutomed to uao it from bia youngaat yeara, or at laatt to tea it dona, and ba pula it in praotica at toon at be hat luffidant itrength to ute it. Miart, in bit Trsrelt in Chili, giraa the fcUowlng account of it i— " The Auto la a mittlla weapon, uted by erery na- tin of tba United ProTlneaa and Chill. It it a rery atnmg plaited thong, of equal Ihickneat, half an inch in diamaier, and forty feet long, made of itrlpet of green hide, pUited like a whip-thong, and rendered auppla by graate. It haa at ona end an iron ring, about an inch and a half in diameur, through whirh ■iia thcnr it patted, and lliia fonnt a runniiig nooie. Tha nucbo, or natira peon. It generally mounted on honeback when be utat the laaao t ona end of tba thong it aflixad to bit taddla-ginb t tha ramainder he wib carefully in bit left band, learing about twelve ftet tielonging to the nooaa end in a coil, and a half of which ha boldt in bit right band. Be then iwinga tbia long nooaa boriiontally round hit bead, tha weight of tha Iron ring at the and of the nooae aaaitting in giring to It, by a continued dreular motion, a luffl- dent force to project it the whole length of the line." It it •ometimea neoeitary to break in a niunber of honea at once i in thit event, they drive a whole herd of tbdr wild honet into the corral at one time. Thit aoana waa witnetied by MIera, who thut d«aeril la thrown round the two hind legs, and as the gaucho rides a little on one side, the Jerk pulls the enUngled horse's feet laterally, eo as to throw him on his side, without endangering his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider dis- mounts, and, snatching his peneho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps It round the prostrate animal's head. He then forces Into his mmith one of the powerful bridles of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and, beetridlng him, removes the poncho, upon which the astonished horse spnnffs on his legs, and endeavours, hv a thousand vain efforts, to disencumbw himself of his new master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a discipline which never falls, reduces the hone to such oamplele obedience, that he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the capture of his companions." Themaree are frequently killed for flood, particularly on festive occasions. During the war of independence, General Han Martin gave a grand feast to tlie Indiana who had joined his standard as allies. The whole en. tertainment consisted of maree' flesh, and the blood mixed with MtL The Indians are in the habit of eating horec deeh raw, as .rell as that of other anl- The rapid Increaae of horses in South America Is somewhat checked by a spedea of madness which breaks out amongst th^m, owing to the scanty supply of water during the dry season. All the n(tlile and generous qualities of tnis animal disappear, frensy seiiee them, and they rush predpiutely into every pool or lake they meet with, trampling each other to death. On these occasions thousands have been found dead in the neighbourhood of a pool or rivulet. There is a remarkable difl^rence in the dispositions of the Asiatic and 8outh American wild horses ; those of the former country can never be properly tamed, unless trained very young; if taken when adiilts, they frequently break out in violent fits of rage in after life, exhibiting every mark of natural wildness ; while thoee of America can be brought to perfect obedience, and even rendered sonewhat docile, within a few weeks, nay, sometimee days. It would be difficult to account for this imposition of temper, unices we can suppose that it is Influenced by climate. PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF THE HORSE. The horse at five years of age, at whldi time be is in a sute of maturity, has six indsory or cutting teeth In both the upper and under jaw, in familiar language termed nippers, and tw> canine teeth in ench jaw, termed tushes, situated inside of the cutting teeth ; six cheek teeth, or grinders, on each side, in both jaws ; they are furrowed on both sides, and their crowns are flat, having on them several ridges of enamel. There is a vota space between the canine and the cheek teeth. The upper lip ooine darker and mere narrow — being datrker, loogar^ and narrower, In the outer two. The nippers at two years old exhibit a considerable change In the shape and markings. At three years old the central nippers are consider- ably larger than the others, doubly grooved on their outer convex surface i the marks on the next two In* cisors Iwing nearly obliterated, and heginnintf to die* appear in the corner nippers. When n horse Is rising three years, his two central nippers above and belov fall out, and are replaced by new ones, having tka hollow mark In the middle t at the end of this year the tushes will have made their appearance ; there la also a risible difference In the form of the jaw. At four years the central nippers are perfectiv form* ed, and the sharp edges a llfle worn off, with tlia mark shorter, wider, and fainter. At Ave years the jaw is nearly perfect. The tusfaea are much ileveloped. In the sixth year the marks In the centre nippers nra worn out. There will, however, be some differeuoa of colour in the centre of the tooth, as the ceraentf or enamd, which Alls the cavity, Is of a browulsb hue. At eight years tha marks on the lower Jaw ara nearly nlled up, but on the upper jaw they senerally continue till ten; the two central ones are, noweveri obliteraied at eight. At this period the disgraceftil practice of Bithopinp is often resorted to ; a term given from the name of the inventor. The mariis on the surface of the cor* ner nippers, which have now nearly Iwcome plain, ara imitatea, aa at the age of sc sn, by an engraving tooL They are then burnwl with a hot iron, when a perma- nent black stain Is left. I'hls practice is sometimee employed on the next pair of nippers In a slight de- gree. By this infamous trick the ignorant are ofkm Imposed on. But tha irregular appearance of tha cavity, the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges, and concave Inner snr- faoes, areawantlng, which no art can Imitate; thut an attentive observer need not be deceived. At tan, merdy the rudiment of the Ainnel of the nippers remains. In a Jaw at twelve years old, the nippers hare loit the central enan*"' iuid the septum of tha root la rounded. At sixteen, all the nippers have become trlanguUtr In shape, and the septum of the root forms a rounded point on all the tables of the teeth. The ordinary time at which the mare girw up pnv during is from fifteen to eighteen, although there aro some instances of their having foala at an advanced aga. The Limerick Evening Post for 1830 suied that at that time Mr Thomas Kepper, in the parish oJP Athnakisha, county of Cork, had a mare, which, In the June of that year, produced a foal while she waa then in her forty-ninth year. Opposed to the abora remarkable drcumstance, we may mention, that, on the 13th May 1830, Mr Archibald Hamilton, Broom. bill, parish of Wamphray, l>umfrieeBbiro, had a mara whicn produced a foal, although at that time sha wanted some days of bdng two years old, which la a drcumstance altogether unprecedented in English breeding. The horea will live to a great age If properly treated t the oldest on reccnd Is one whlcF wae In the stable of Ferdinand the First, which attaiued the rery advanced age of seventy years. The most serviceable period of a horse's life is betwixt the years of five and ten, but horses hare continued In unimpaired vigour till the age of twenty; and instances nave been known of their being wrought till above thirty years old. Mr Oanby says, " In addition to the many rerorded in- stances of a longer life in the horse than la roiiimunly met with, I can adduce the following one of my own, and the best I ever posaessed, whether In the field or on the road, and which I bought when he was twtnty- two fear$ oidj and after thn he was hunted hard three seasons, as well as rode as a hackney during the summers." The mare ^(oes with foal usually about eleven months, seldom varying mora than a few days; she brings forth but one at a birth, which is covered with hair, and with the eyes open, and so strong as to be able to walk. Sometimes, however, twins are produced, but such instances are very rare. A remarkable Instanca is recorded in the Sporting Magaxiiie for Aug*ist 179d« of a mare pnfducing twins ; the first a few daya after she had gone eleven months, so extremely wok and small as not to give any hopes of Its attaining matu- rity, and so frightfully ill formed, that Bergem, tba proprietor of it, was at first Inclined, and uinrenallf advised, to destroy It, there being no hopes of it avar reaching maturity. He howerer permitted It to cou- tinue with the mare, who, after an interval of fourtoM days, to the astonishment of erery one, produced a colt-foal of the most livdy and promising appearance^ which, with the first weak fual, was allowed to ba suckled by the dam. The foal is suckled for twdve montbi, and doea not reach lu fuU adult lUta till five yaan. THE H0R8E. tUtod that pAriih nt which, In hlle the w«(K the abor« , that, OB ton, Brooio* hadanuuw time the which ta in JSnglith en monthij brinnfiMth hair, and be able to Dduoad, but lie initanca iputlTM, aayi after weak and aing mats- ierfrem, the uiiiTemllf ofltevM^ It Co ant* of fourCeiB produced ft ippearanoa^ owed to b« IN-tRtLKCTirAl. CMAKACTIN. The horte li potaeued of aeute and dellrate tenHtt hit hitellectiial character li marked by a quick percep- tion, a moat retentive memory, and RrMt brnovoieiice ff dlipotltlun. It it well known that a horia will rarelytread nnabunuui twin*, if lying on the ground, but will itKit over him with the utmoti caution. Kndowed with ratt itrength and great activity, tho borto teldom exerui cither to hit maiter'i pr»Judica| on the contrary, he will endure fatigue, and Heittb it- lalf, In the tervlce of hit owner. Hut it It not tu man alone that hit affectlnni are conHned, fnr hu cxteiult hit attachment! to all other atiimala with whicli he may be ataoclnted. Kvery penon who it poitetted of a dog and a horte mutt have obierved tliclr familiar attachment I cati alto havo l»een frequently the fa- vouritet of the horte. and hit attontlont to the goat are no lett romarkabfe. The home it greatly attached to muilc. and Httenc to u band with Apparent delight, and will frequently uie his endvavuura to get oloee to it. Thit uropen. ilty hAt i)een known from the earllett aget. M'e are Informed by OratI;i* *hat the Libyan ihepherdt uied to allure wild hortet by the oharmi of mutlc. Thifl valuable nnlmal provet uteful to man even after he itdoail i hit hide make* araluable leather for harnett and roach. work t from the hair of lilt mane and tail It manufactured haircloth, and It It also uted for ropet and finhlnr; lineti hit bonet are nmrerted Into mafoietla, and ground into manure ; and in Tar- tary and other eattern countrlet hit Aeth it etteemed •a<»llent food. ti;FCHIORlTY or THI HOKtC IN ■LCGAXCI. " Of all quadrupedt,** says Dnifon, '* the horte poa- tetiet, along with grandeur of ttature, the greatett elegance and proportion of parti. Uy compRring him with thff aiiimalt above or Mow him, we And that the att it ill made; that the head of the lion It too large; that the limbt of the oa are too alender and too thort la proportion to the tlae of hit body ) that the camel la deformed i and thai the grotter anlmalt; at the rblnoceroa, hippopotamut, and elephant, mar be con- aidered at tttM and thapeiett matiet. The great ditferanct between the head of man nnd that of the qnadmpedtcontlitt In the length of their jawi, which it the moat ignoble of all charactera. But although the Jawi of the horae be rcry lonff, he hat not, like the ate, an air of imbecility, nor, like the ok, of ttu- ptdity. The regularity and proportion of the partt of hit head give him a light and tprightly atpect, being gracefully attached to hit flnefy arched neck, which it well tupported b^ thn beauty of hit cheit. He elevatet hit head at It anxlmit to exalt himtelf above the condition of other quadrupedt. In thlt iioble attitude he regardt man Aice to race. Hit eyee are open, lively, and intelligent i hit eart handiome and of a proper height, being neither too long, like tboie of the att, nor too thort, like thote of the bull. Ula mane adomt hit ffraoefiil neck, and givet him the apDcaranee of ttrtmgta and courage. Hit long buthy tall coTert, and termlnatet with advantage, the ex- tremity of hit body. Hit tall, very different from the thort tailt of the deer, elephant, and hlppopotamua, and from the naked tailt of the att, camel, and rht- noeeroa, it formed of long thick batrt, which teem to Hie from hit crupper, bocaute the trunk from which they proceed it very short. He cannot, like the lion, elevate hit tall; but, though penduloua, itbecomet him better i and at he can move it from tide to tide, it aervet blm to drive off the flies which incommode him ; for though hit tkiu It very Arm, and well gamltfaed with cloae hair, it it nevertheleti very tentlble.'* The way in which the head of the horte Joint hit neck, oontrlbutet, above all other peculiarities of hit form, to give him a graceful atpect ( itt mott ■dvautageoui potltion It when the front is perpen- dicular to the horiaon. The luperlor ridge of hit aeck from which the mane ittuet, should flrtt aritu in a ttraight line from the withert, and then, at It ap- proaches the head, lurra a curve nearly timilar to that of a Rwan't neck. The inferior part of the neck thould have no curvature, but rite In a ttralght Hue from the poitral or breatt, to the under Jaw, with a tmall in- olluatlon forward. K It rose In a perpendicular dl- fWlltm, its lymmtlty hp*' gracefulness would be RMllv diminished. The nn}>erlor part of the neck oulcf be thin, with little flesh near the mane, which ought to be decorated with long flowing and delicate hah. The neck, to \te flne. mutt be long, elevated, and proportioned to the general also of uie animal t vhen too long, the horte commonly throwt back hit headi and when too short and flMhy, the head It heavy to the hand In riding. The head of the horse should not be too long, and It ought to be rather thin than otherwlte. The front •hould be narrow, and a little convex | the eyeplta well filled, and the eyelidi thin ; the eyea large and prominent, clear, lively, and tparkllng with fiery giancei. The pupil thould l>e large) the under Jaw whould be a little thick, but not flethyt the note aliffhtly arched, the nottrilt open and deep, and dU rlded bv a thin septum or partition. The ears thould i>t> small, erect, and narrow, but not too ttlff, and placed on the upper part of the head, at a proper dtt- iance from «ach other, but not too wide, aa thbt al- wayt glrei a horte a diiagreeable upect. The mouth ■hould be delicate, and moderately tpUt ; the wlthara riutrp and elevated t the thouldera flat, and not con- 1 1 the back tqual, a little arched lengthwiM, and mUed on etcS tide of tlio s^tliie. which should havH the apiieiirnnce of being tlightly tunk ( tlie flankt thort end full ; the cnipper round and plump ( the haunohaa well Airnlshed with mutnilar fletht the dock or fleahy part of the tall Arm and thleh i the tbight Ivge and mutcular t the hmigh round before, brmd on the tides, and tendinmit behind i the thank thin belbre, and broad on the sides ( the tendo Aohll- \m prominent, strong, and wall detached from the leg- bone, and the fetlock somewhut prominent, and fiir- nlthed with a small tuft of hair belilnd i the paitemt should be of • middle length, and pretty large t the coronet a little elevated i the hoof alack, tolid, and ihiniugt the Instep high, the quartert round, the heelt broad and a little prom' lent, the frog thin and tmall, and the tola thick and roncava. Till ABAIIAN IIOatK. Altliough Arabia It not the original altodeof the horte, OS many have luppoted, yet it la the country where he is to be found in a domesticated condition, exhibiting hit prittlne beauty, symmetry, and tuirit. In that country be It preserved withutit the admix- ture uf any foreign broedt, and contequently preserv- ing theexouitite proportiont, elegant ttructure, fleet- neti, and docility, for which he hat been to famout for to many pntt aget. These are only of a middle stature, their llmhi remarkable for the beautiful form and cleannett, and the make of their bodiet rather tlender. The pure Arablant are tomewhat tmaller than our race hortet, seldom exceeding fourteen handt two Inchet in height. Their headt are very beautiful, clean, and wide between the Jawi ; the forehead It broad and square { the face flat t the muxale thort and flno; the eyes prominent and brilliant t the eart tmall and handsome ; the nottrilt large and open t the ikin of the head thin, through which may be diitinctly trared the whole veint of the head. The body may, at a whole, be c«r, * my toul t my heart I must I be to unfortunatt* 4 retted thee In the fondest manner. Ood preserve thee, my Moved t thou art beautiful, thou art sweet, thou art lovely I Ood defend thee from envioui eyea 1* Thlt man'i name wat Ibrahim ; being poor, he had been un'ier the necessity of allowing a merchant of Katra 'x* become partner with him in the possession of thit m>. -^. biia wat called Toaita ; her pedigree could be trace' ..n the side of sire and dam for five hundred years prior to uerblrth. The price was three hundred pounds, an ennrmout turn in tnat country.'* Tlie Arabs have no written rules for the manage- ment of horses ; it is handed down by oral initruc- ' tinn from father to ton. They will never tell their maret on any account whatever, even for any price, an excellent illustration of which will be found in the following well-authenticated anecdote t — The whole stock of a poor Arab of the Detert con« titted of a maret thlt the French consul at Said offered to purchate, with an intention of sending her to Louit the Fourteenth. The Arab hetltated long, but, being pretted by poverty, he at length contented, on condition of receiving a very contloerable sum of money, which he named. The consul wrote to France for permission to dote the bargain, and, having ob- tained It, he immediately tent for the Arrdi to receive the mare and pay for her. He arrived with hit mag- nificent courser. He dismounted, a wretched spec tacle, with only a miterable rag to cover hit body. He stood leaning upon the mare ; the purse wat ten- dered to him ; he looked earnestly at the gold, and, looking steadfastly at his mare, heaved a deep ti^b ; the big tears trickled down hit cheeks : — " To whom is it," he exclaimed, '* that I am going to yield thee up ? To Europeans, who will tie thee close, who will beat thee, who will render thee miterable ! Return with me, my beauty I my Jewel I and rejoice the hearta of my children 1" At he pronounced the latt words, he tprang upon her back, and wat out of tight in a mo- ment What an amiable and affecting sentibllity in a man, who, in the midst of dittreti, could prefer all the ditattert attendant on poverty, rather than tur- render the animal that he hat long foatered in bit tent, and had been the child of hit bosom, to what he tuppoted inevitable mitery ! The temptation of riches, and an effectual relief from poverty, had noe sufficient allurementa to induce him to commit what he considered so cruel an act. An Arab, who had arrived at upwards of eighty years of age without having had a day*t tlckness during that 'ong life, had a favourite mare that had earrira him for fifteen years through the perils of many a hard fought battle and long march, and which had produced to him several excellent fnalt. Being now unable longer to ride, he presented the mare, and a tclmitar that had been hit father't, to hifi eldest eon, and told him to appreciate their value, and never to lie down to reat until he had rubbed them both at bright at a mirror. In the first skirmiRh in which tlui youth waa engaged, he was killed, and the mare fel into the handt of the enemy. H'hen the newt rei ched the old man. he tald, " M^hat is life to me, now thi 1 1 have lost botn my ton and the favourite of my heirt?-^they equally shore in my grief, and I would ghdly meet death, as my life is no longer sweet to m i»" He almost immediately thereafter took ill and d.ed.« The following amusing aneodotea are related by Sir John Alalcolm t — ** When the envoy, returning from his former mission, waa encamped near Bagdad, an Arab rode a bright bay mare of extraordinary shape and beauty before hit tent, until he attracted hit at- tention. On being atked if he would tell her — ' What e Smith on BrtsfUng
    een beaten by a mare of another breed, and wai easily reconciled to the younff man, in order that he might recover tha mare, whuih appeared au object about which he waa more tollcltoui than about hie daughter.'* The Arabe are most particular ragardlag the pedU grM of their honae, and they have amongst them a bravd which they protend has descended from a horse of King Sohmiou s. It must nut, however, Iw sujp> poaed that all the horses uf that country are of the fiBflr kinds, for they have three di^' ''act oroedi t the two Inferior kinds they say were intr^ luoed from In- dia and Ureece. The superior kinds taey pall nobles, and they are never sold without a pedigree, which is more scrupulously attended to than with faumau be- ings iu Kuropa. PKDIOKCC or AH ABAllAK HOBSK. The following pedigree of au Arabian horse was hnug nb4)ut his ne^rk wlien Iwught in £gypt by Colo- nel Aiuslie during the last cuuipuigu i~ '* In the name uf tiod, the merciful and compaa. ■lonate, and of beed Mohammed, agant o£ the High Ood, and of the companions uf Muharamed aud uf Jerusalem. Praised be the Lord, the om-iipounl Creator. This is a high-bred horse, and ita colt's tooth Is here iu a bag about his neck, with his pedl- gree, and of undoubted authority, such as uo intiflel can refuse to believe. He is the son of Habbamy, out of the dam LahadaJi, and equal Iu power tu bis sire j of the tribe Zaxhalah. He Is fine moulded, and nuule for running like an ostrich, and great iu his stroke and his cover, in the honours of relationship he reckons Zaluah, sire of Mahat, sire of Kallack, and the unique Alket, sire of llanaaseth, sire of Alshiifa, father of the race down to the famous horse the siro of l«ahalala| and to him be ever abundance of green meat, and corn, and water of lib, as a reward from the tribe of Zaihalah f4>r the fire of his oovtir ; and many a thousand branches sliade bis carcase front the hy»na of the tomb, from the howling wolf of the desert ; and let the tribe of Ziahalali present hira with a festival within an eaatoaure of wails j and let tliousands as- •eaUileattkerieingof theaunintro4ips hastily, where tke tribe holds up, under a canopy of celestial signs within the walls, the saddle, with the name and (k- milv of the poaseasor. Then let them strike the bands with a kMid noise inoeasantly, and pray to Uod for the tribe of Zoab, the Inspired tribe.** THK ABAB*e TBEATMEKT OF llll IIOESE. In Arabia the horse is treated with much gentle* nets and kindness i he inhabits the same tent n-ith his master and his family. His wife and children, to^ ther with the mare and foal, associate together in in- dlacrlwinate friendship, occupying the same Iwd, where ike little children may be seen prattling with and climbing over the body, or banging rLuud the necks uf the docile a:iimals, who In their turn will frequently repoae with their heads resting on some one of tne family. Whipping is never resorted to by the Arab : all services aud ajfectiuns of the horse are ob. tained by gentle measures ( and hence the remarkable docility of disposition which is mixed up with their native Are and energy. The friendship l>etwiit the Arab a»d his horse is mutual ; for should the rider iail, the horse will instantly stand still, even In his most rapid career, nnd wait till his master remounts. The horses of most eastern countries are nearly Hi- lled to the Arabian hltxid, snd bow are almost entirely bred from males of that country. The Persian and Barb are, however, nearest to the Arabian in point oi degance of shape aud docihty of temper. Variety of cUmat^and food are ahvays exerting their td, or in the nearest possible degree to the Arubian or Barbery horses, are such as are immediately produced from one or other of these horses with an English mare, which has her- self lieen the produce of an Arabian or Barb, or by two crossings In the same degree. The perfection of English racehoreea seems to have acquired iu height about b century ago; because at that time was produced the celebrated horse known by the name of the Flying Childers, which was the fleeteat horse that ever ran t and although much trouble and expense have been devoted to Improving the breed since his time, every effort ht^ railed In producing an equal to him in |>oint of speed. There have been a very few instances of the native horses of Britain turning out gtwd racers, without the commixture of foreign blood; among these may be particuiarixed Hampson ard Bay Walton. All our best horses have luting from the Darley Arabian, who was sire to Chile srs. From the same horse Eclipse descended, who, ,'n ,'vdnt of proportions, was perhaps the most perfect which was ever foaled in Britain, and from whom the fleetest and best-bot- tomed horses of onr country have sprung. Although much attention is paid to the descent In breeding, yet It freqtiently turns out that foals of the horses and mares of the best blood prove very worth* less ; and It Is a curious fact that first-rate horses have Rometlmcn l>een produced by mnres only three- fourths bred. But in breeding, » mare is ffenerally chosen with u great a proportion as possibTe of the blood of 'the celebrated horse King Herald in her veins. She ought to be deep in the girth, long and full in the fore>arm and thigh, short In the leg, standing clean and even upon the feet, and wide and spreading in tlie hind -quarters. From such a mare there is every pro- battility of obtaining u well-formed progeny, as we are convinced that fully more depends vf*on the form of the dam, than of the sire, in breeding. The horse enters into the spirit of the race with as much xeal as his rider, and will in general strain every nerve to outstrip his adversary. As he advances to- wards the startmg-uost, all his motions betray the eagerness of his desire to start. When the signal is given, away he springs at a settled and steady puce. The rider Itecomes, as It were, a part of the quadru- ped, whose every motion should correspond to his mnvcnents. He pnH'eeds f«rwnrd, restrained by his rider to the pace he thinkn l>est nuited to his strength, and preserving his powers till the last. The nder knows well where to push him ; he touches him to indicate his wish for a trial of hii powers; the hint is speedily taken, when nil his nerves are called Into action, and he bounds to his utmost stretch. It some- times, though rarely, happens that the spur becomes necessary to roune cverv energy ; he knows Its import, and everymusf' '^called into action todefeat, if pos- sible, his com] T. If he has spirit, little applica- tion of these ^ be necesnary, and, if dull, all the punisliment tlutt ran be Inflicted will prove nnavall- ing. But In general, the natural spirit of the racehorse, when rmised Into actierby stakes at Epsom in IBSI. Tirt HirwTtn. The hunter Is a combination of the thorniifh-bred rwrehorse and hair-bred horses of grester strength and Iwne. He is less leuf^thy tu his rarrasr, and ought to K. ''-■•n Arteen to sixteen hands high. The polnli most likely to discover a horse of good properties as b hunter, are a vigorous, sanguine, and healthy cohinr, with a lofty forenand, a head and neck as light as pot* sihle, whether handsome or not; a quick. moving and Aery eye, and a mlddle-sixed ear. His Juws shomd be dean and wide, and his niMtrils large and yielding; his shoulders thin, thighs strong aniTniuBCul.'ir, cheil deep, hack short, ribs should h« large and wide, tall high niid stiff, gasklns well spread, and hind-quartera lean and hiirrl. Almve all, let his Joints be strong^ firm, and closely knit, his legs and pasterns shorts for we believe there never was yet a long limber-legged horse that was able to gallop down steep hills, and take bold leaj)S with a weight upon his back, without sinking or foundering ; and, lastly, his feet should be moderately larn aikd Hiund. With these polnte, a horse will In all probability have thoee qualificiu tloni required to malte a good hunter. It Is not, however, every giMid and fleet horse thai Is a good hunter, for he mav have strength and vi* gour fur a long Journey, anil yet not be able to beer the shocks and jtratnlugi of a fox-chaae; another may he swift enough to win a plate on a amooth turf, which yet will Iw crippled or heartbroken by onehBta In February. The rlftht hunter ought to have strength without weight, eourage without too much Are, and speed without labour ; a free breath, a strong walk, a nimble, light, but large gallop, and a sweet trot| to give change and ease to the speedy muscles. A horse should nevor be used for the sporta of the field till he is lU yean of age, as hie jolnta wIU not ha closely knit, nor his londuns suAelently teaaoions, tiU that period. A horse In his fifth year may occasloa- ally be taken out with the boiinda, mil then he should be ridden with moderation. rHR HACMMEY OB BOADSTIK. The hackney shpuld be a hunter in miniature, hti height not exceeding fifteen hands and an Inch, but rather below than above that sixe. His form should be more compact than that of the hunter, with mora substance In prnportiou to his height, so as to fit hiai for the fatigues of everyday work. His head ought tn lie small, bis forehand high, but rather light, and placed on the neck in b gradually tapering manuert with his eyes full, clear, and sprightly ; his shouldera deep and extensive; his back straight, with strong loius; his withers well raised; Ids ftllela wide; tha croup must not droop too suddenly, nor must his tall be too low eel. The fore-arm and thighs ought to ba strong and musriUar, and the leg* rMher short than otherwise, straight, and somewlut neer-set. When the shank bone Is solid and Bat, It is an excellent pdat in a hackney. It Is of the utmost consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be deep and flat| and the tendon not too much tightened In. Hli feet ahould point straight forward, with the heels wlda and open; the hoofs should be of a dark, toii^, skla* ing horn ; the fon-legt closely set, and as straight aa possible, for a horse with bent knees Is very likely to fall when his feet come in cre-leg«, and also well. formed hind ones ; hia feet must i>e quite sound and free from corns, to which hard-ridden horses are verv liable ; and he ought only to lift his fore-legs moderately high, tiome are of opininu that he cannot lift them too high, and amcelve, whUa he is possessed of this quality, he never will come down. There is a medium, however. In this, as a horse that raises his fore-legt too high in trotting it always dli- agreeable in his action, wlilch greatly shakes and fa- tigues the rider ; liesldes, he batters his hoofs to pieces In a few years. The principal thing to be attended to Is the manner in which the hackney puts his feet to the ground ; for If his toes first touch the road, ha Is sure to be a stumhler. The foot should come fist down on the whole sole at once, otherwise the horsa Is not to he depended upon In his trotting. There can h« no doubt that a horse should raise his feet to as to pass over projecting stones, for otherwise he Is likely to lie tripped by them, and thus thrown off his centre of gravity. But every horse Is liable to fall while going on a road, and therefore bis mouth should always be felt by the rider. A hackney can scarcely be too close before or too wide behind. It Is errona* ously imagined, that, If the fore-legs are close, tba hoofs must necessarily cut the posterns, as It is onlf when the feet are twisted, or irregtilarly set in ona way or other, that they cut. Our present breed of hackneys has a conalderBbla portion of racing blood In them, varying frmn a half to seven -eighths. The Utter are too highly bred for the general purpose of a roadster, u their legs and feet are rather tender; and their long paces aad struight-kneed action are III adapted for the road, be« ing more fitted for cantering and running thaa tha 1 THE HORSE. |f«|, whioh ii Ikfl dlittnf(uiikiiii clwrHOMriiUc uf ■ fnod hwkney. ludentl, thay iKould n«r«r Im par. miltad to ffo ft! any othar puw than m trutf which it undoubtedly mueh better adspted for tlia road than canterlnff. A hackney ihouht b« particularly rrfn-toraperrd, luid not fflv*" tt) itartipf ,. Thu thurough.hrtMl hut k. ueyouKht to poiMtilwo quaiiliai inuii|H9ii>aitiu ui v\n Mnty of iha rider i he ibould never nby at any thing on the road, and hli nitHlon at a trot ihauJd be muoC ■tore iniooia than that vf a hidf*bn»d horee. THE COACIIHOIIE. W)x»n ooaohee were Ant Introduced inti Great Ilrl. tain, the bonet uied were of the Ur|fe unwieldy kind, M iihhhI was ntit revArded In tUiue days ) for if tra- Telleri could he lafclv tronreyrd Afieen or twenty ■Ulee in a day by a vehicle, U wae then Lonildrred a gmt feat i uouMquentlyi In thoee dayt ctwchhortei were Just luoh at thoee now need in the lighter kinde of waggoui. Such wai the tardlneat of their move- nenu, that, about tlatv yean ago, a J(mrn4y betwixt London and Kdluburffh occupied from a fortnight to three weeki' time, which U now performed In forty, three hours. The lifttcr kind of coachhortei owe their oriffla to the Cleveland bay, and are principally brwl in Vnrk- ■hlru, Durham, and the snutbern districts of Nor- thumberland, and inme few have t>ecn produced in litnuduihire. The ooachhorM it nroducffd hy a croni of the Cleveland mare, with a thrce.fourth or thi>. rough-bred horte, which li po*ieiMd of luflicient lub- Matice and height. The produce of these ii the roach- horu of the bitfheat repute, and moit likely to poumi good action. Ilii potnti are odvantageouily placed, with a deep and well-proportioned body, itrong and dean bone under the knee, and hii feet open, lound, ttnd tough. He poflieup* a fine kntw action, Ufta hii feet high, which givci an elegance to lili pacee and action I he car Ho* his head wull, and has a fine ele- Tftted crest. The full-sized coachhurse Is, in fact, only an overgrown hunter, too large for that sport. Some have supposed, that, In llritaln, the rage for breeding coachhorses, for so much speed, Is a prosti- tution of the powers of the horse, and that It Is bar- barous to drive them with that rapidity which Is now the prevailing fashion. We do not, however, consider il 10 very blameable, as expedition Is to desirable fur the mercantile interests of the country { and If proper oare Is taken to shorten the stages, there can be little harm to the hones travelling short disUnces at a pretty ■harp rate. It is (pilte certain, that, within the lust few yean, every means has bei'n used to promote the •itablishing of posthorse stetions at very short dis- tancat. TlIK CAATlIOnSE. The carthorses of Great Britain are extremely Tariable in point of size at well as in shape, differing in almost every county. One principal character, however, is weight, togi'c more physical force In the draught. They should not t>e above sixteen hands high, with a light wcll-shaped head and neck, short pointed ears, with brisk sparkling eyes; their chests should be full and deep, with large and strong Bboul- ders, but rather low in front than otherwise. The back should be straight, and rather long, but not too much so, as this always Impairs his general strength ; the legs should be somewhat long, but not too lepi^y ; hii ftlLts should be large and swelling, and the liones ilot ; he should stand wide on all his four legs, a.id Considerably wider behind than before; ho ought to have great pliability in the knee-jolntit, and be able to bend them well, which assist in producing a brisk and active step in walking, a qualitv of much consetiuence in a cart or wuggon horse. The height of a draught horse, however, to be desired, will dept>nd upon the purpose to which he is to be employed ; and they are, therefore, not unfrequently bred seventeen hands in Mght, w'th lofty forehands, and many of them deep in the centre, as is the case with the coachhorse. A great object is to increase strength, a«;tivity, and power, to remove weight, and to be of the height of ■ixteen hand* for ordinary utility; and, indeed, it has l>een proved that bonns of this height have per. formed feate of strength of greater magnitude than those of more gigantic propurtiona. The finest breed of carthorses is the large btacktf the breed of the midland counties, and thn Suffolk breed. An excellent breed also was the CleveUnd bays. The Karl of Egremont, one of our greatest and moat succeaaful English breeden. Is said to have praserred theta horsee In his stud, and still propa- gates them Hb purity ; and It Is supposed that these fine horses are purely indigenous, without the mix- ture of any foreign blood. The Clydesdale are highly valued to tho present day. The latter are excel- lent for the purposai of agrlcalture, but particu- Urly so on the road. They reach to a large iiKe, and aro nut unfrequently to be met with sixteen and a half hands high. These animals are strong and hardy, but their beads are coarse, and they are rather flat on tha sides aud hinder-quarten. The usual colour of these horses is grey or brown. This breed Is sup- posed to have ori^^nated about 130 years ago, be- tween the common Scote mare and the Flanders horse. An excellent example of the Clydesdale breed !• glTen in tha baautiful work, by Mr Howa, on the Hona. Inthr aid]andcoantla»,Tia.War«lckihire,Darby- ahice. Leicestenhlra, Uncolathira, and Nottingham- ay shire, there Is a very large breed calletl the great eartborse. It was bred In the lowland r(rh alluvial Futures of the plalna of these rnuntlea, from tha lemlsh and I>ulrh hones, with the larifar KngHsh breed. Mr Uahewell introducml horses, and also mans, from tho Natharlands, and thus prnduoed those fine animals with Ilelglu Mood, both on the side of the sire aud dam. rnmt this stock, a>>out thirty years ago, Mr Uakowell produced one uf the finest animals of tha kind which was ever siian, and sent It to Tatterpol'i, f»r the Inspection of King George tha Kourth, His head was light and well-set on, his fore- hand lofty, his shunldars deep, his legs ilean and Hat- Iwnwl, with the general activity vf a pony ; and it was universally acknowledged, that, for lightness, (ilea.i. ness of make, and bulk, he was a superlatively excel- lent nniinal. Mr lUkowe'l recommended this animal as highly adapted for the onrposeof hreeiling, with ap- Ernuriiite mares, cavalry norses, hunters, and stnmg acks I hut his Maiestv did not enter into JMr Bake. woll's views, nor did no assign any reason for not tryii4|C the exp«?riment. In Rssea and the nelffhbouring counties In former times, hnraes were of alfcolouni, as brown, grey, bay, and blark; hut since the time that Mr Uakt^well l»e- caine in cflt-brated for his breed, black is now tho prevailing cohiur. The very large hones of leventean hands and up- wards, are only useful for the purposes of brewen' drays, waggons, and the slop-cnrts of London, and of which weltave given an excellent representation, en. graved by Bonner of London. Wo, however, dmiht much of their answering the better for their gigantic sixe ; and all who have written on the subject consider that they are Inferior In point of strength, on account of their hulk, for by the feeding which Is required to increann their dimensions, little of muscular fibre is prndurcd, the growth Iwiug nrinrlpally in the cellular tissue and fat ; and the additional quantity of food rpe comfortably ridden is at an amble. Theyc^ngocon- aidarably faster up a gentle acclivity than on leval ground, and are very aarvicaabla in tha higher moun- talnmts muntrlea, b«dng snre-fooied, and extremely rantimis what mad they purine. Tha Rev. Mr Hall, In bis "Travels through Scotland,** gives the fnllowiTig Illustration of this fart . -" Wl.en these animals coma to any boggy plate of ground, they flnt put their nnaa to it, and tnen pat on It in a pet'uliar way with one ai th' -r fore-feet ; and fnim the totiiid and feeling nf tha ground, they know whether it will bear them. Thajf do the same with Ire, and determlna In a minata whether they will proceed. " It would be dIfHeiiU to assign a causa fur this aaiac* Ing falling off In the horses n< Scotland. Thent oaa be little doubt but that thry had a powerful breed Ir early times, nthtrwlse they never nnild have oope4 with the Kngliih In the fre(|uent wan in which tbusa countries wore engaged from the earliest times; and it i« well known that an Arabian horse reached Hctm land about 4M) yean before we have any autbanlto record uf this hraed being Intnxluced ir' . Englandy which must have had considerable influanoa m tea proving tha broad of tha Scottish honaa. (iENEnAL ANECDOTES OF THE HORSE. During that destructive war, which, ' r a space oi thirtv years, desolated all Germany, till it was termi- nated by the pter in the inn whera they usually stopped for the night, n knocking wai hourd at the houtie door, which, on being upeocd b* the maid, a horse pushed in hii head. The gir( frightened, shrieked out, and called tu the carrieriy who, coming to the door, were no less surprised than rejoiced to see the heroic conqueror of the three wolve^ though much wounded, yet still faithful to his mostert and, on account of his meritorious conduct upon tlUa occasion, they agreed to forgive him his former mil. demeanours, and retain hlmln their company. A remarkable instance of revenge in a horse owned by a person near Boston, In America, Is related on gooil authority. A person, a few yours since, was in tha habit, whenever he wished to catch his horse when It was running in the field, of taking a quantity of com in A measure. On calling to him, the hnnu would coooa up and eat the corn, while the bridle was put o^er fats head. But the owner having deceived the animal several timet, by calling him when ho had no corn In the measure, the horsa at length began to suspect the design, and coming up one day as usual, on being called, looked into the measure, and seeing it empty, turned round, reared on his hind-lrgs, and killed hit master on the spot. A gentlema-i rode a yonng horse, which he had bred, thl.- ly miles from home, and to a part of tha* country where he had never been before. The road was a cross one, and extremely difficult to find ; how- ever, bvdintof perseverance and inquiry, he at length reached his destination. Two yean afterwards ha had occasion to go the same journey. He was ba> nighted three or four miles from the end of his desti- nation. The night was so dark that be could scarcely see the horse's head ; he had a black and dreary moor and common to pass, and had lost all traces af the proper direction he was to take. The rain be- gan to fall heavily. Ho now contemplated the un- certainty of his situation. " Here am I," said he t» himself, "far from any house, and in the midst of a dreary waste, where I know nut which way to direct the course of my steed. I have heard much of tha memory of tho horse, and In that is now my only hope.'* He threw ths reins on the horse's neck, an^ encouraging him toprooead, found himself safe at tha gate of his friend in about half an hour. It must be remarked, that he could not possibly havo been that road but on the occasion two yean befora, aa no p i- son ever rode him bu*: his master. M'hite, in his Natural History of Selbome, proraa the si>ciable disposition of tha hone by the followiBg anecdote :— " There is a wonderful spirit of sociality in the bnite creation, independent of sexual atta^ ment : tho congregating of gregarious birds in the wia* ter is a remarkable instance. Many horses, thongfa quiet with company, will not stay one minute in a field by themselves ; tlie strongest fences cannot restrain tliem. My Aeiffhbout sixteen milt!s, he took the hill road from Drumnadrochit to Beni''-. The load was completely blocked up with, and ^soern- ible amidst, the waste of snow ; so that .'^1 1 Smith completely loet all idea of his route. In this dilemma he thought it beet to trust to hii horse, and, loosening the reins, allowed him to choose bis own omirse. The animal made way, though slowly and cautiously, till Oiiming to a gully or ravine, near Olennmvent, when both horse aiid rider nuddeuly disappeared in a snow- wreath several fathoms deep. Air 8mith, on recover- iag, found hiinself nearly three yards from the dan- gerous spot, with his faithful home standing over him, and licking the nnow from hi^ face. He tlilnks the bridle must have been attached U. his person, 80 Ocmpletely, however, had Ito lost all sense of conscious- nets, that beyond the bare fact, as stated, he hud no knowledffe of the means by which lie made so strikint^ and providential an escape. A Wiltshire gentleman, in 1K21, lent a well-bred and tiery mare to a friend from town, who had i-omo down to try the Kssex dogs against the Wiltshire breed of greyhounds. At the clone of a very fine day's sport, the huntsmen had beat a small furze-brake, and, for the )iur|Kwe of l>etter threading it, the Lon- don gentleman di!>mnunted, and gave the l>rldle \t( the mare to the next hor'rman. Puss was soon started ; the " halloo** was given ; the person who held the mare, in the eagerness of the sjmrt, forgot his rlinree, loosed his hold, and, regardless of any other than his own steed, left the mare to nin, likeMazeppa's, '^wild and untutoretl.** But, to the astonishment of all, instead of oo doing, or even attempting to bend her course homewards (and she was in the immediate neighbourhood of htr sfable), she ran the whole coume at the tail of the dogs ; turned as well as she could when they brought the prey about ; and afterwards, by outstripping all competitors (for the run was long nnd sharp), she stopped only at the death of the hare, ana then suffered herself to be quietly regained and remounted. But what renders it still more remarkable, is, that she had only twice followed the hounds previous to this event, which strongly indi- cated her nntrral love of sport. The brace of dogi that were slipiK'd at this course ween in the habit of exercising them with her. Whether this had any effect on her actions, is quite uncertain ; but, be this as it may, the circumstance is not the less worthy of our admiration. In 17!M| a gentleman in Leeds had a horse, which, after being kept up in the stable for some time, and turned out h)to the field, where there was a pump, well supplied with water, regularly obtained a quantity therefrom by his own dexterity. For this purpose, the animal was observed to take the handle into his mouth, and work it with the head, in a way exactly ■imilar to that done by the hand of a man, until a sufficiency of what nature called for was produced in the trough. One of the most intelli!;ent of horses seems, from all accounts, to have been that belonging to Mr Banks, whose renown is alluded to b) Shakspeare in " Love's Itubour's Lost," act lint, scene second, and by Dekker, in his " UntruMing of the Humourous Poet." It is related of this horse, that he would restore a glove to iu owner, after his maiter had whispered the maifs name in his ear; that he wuuld tell the numlter of psnce in any silver c >in. He danced, likewise, to the sound of a pi)w, and ui\d money with his feet. Hir M'^alter Ualeigh says, "that had Banks lived in older times, he would have shamed all the rharacteri In the world, by the wonderful instructions he had giveit his horse." Johnson, the celebrated horseman, is well remem- bered by many penwms now alive. Being at Derby in one of his excursions, he married the daughter of Alderman Howe, who then kept one of tht9 princi- pal inns, and succeeded him in his business. He urn- ducted himself so as to be well esteemed by the oen- tJemen of the county; and his black horse, which he still kept, was one'of the favourites of the Vernon hunt, then probably the first in England. The fol- lowing feat, performed by him and his horse, is worth remembering: — The hunt were taking leave of Lord Vernon one day by the side tff the lia ha, when his lordship told Jolmson, it was extraordinary he never liad b«>en tempted, in the course of any day, t c ■■«; 'ed /rom his tender years, as was evinmi next morni.tg. His father, in passing through the statile-yard, descried, with great horror and agony, his infant bu.Mly em- phtyed with a pair of scissors, attemptini?, with great coolness, to clip the fetlocks of the hind-le^ of liis vicious hunter, which, in placeof exhibiting his usual determined resistance to this operation, wns looking round with the greatest complacency on his pigmy t;ri)()ni, whom the father every instant exjwcted t(> sei' Htnick dettd at his feet He, however, shortly afterwards walked awny from the horse unharmed. The alwve liurse had a particular antipathy to stran- gers. On one occasion his master wa« returning home from a jovial meeting, 'vheieheluid been very liberal in his potations, which destroyed his power of preserving his equilibrium, and rendered him at the same tin^e somewhat drowsy. He had the misfortune to fall fnmi his saddle, but in so easy a manner, that it hud not the efr..ct of rousing liira from his sleepv fit ; and ho felt quite contented to repose where he alighted. His faithful steed, on being eKsed of his bunlen, instead of scampering hume, as one would have expected from his habits, he stood by his prostrate master, and kept a strict watch over him ; he wcs discovered by some labourers, at sunrise, very contenteilly snoozing on a heap of stones by the road side. They very naturally approached the gentleman, to replace him on his saddle ; but every attempt to approach was resolutely ojiposed by the grinning teeth and ready heels of his faithful and determined guardian. A gentleman of Bristol had a greyhound, which slept in the stable along with a very tine hunter of about five years of age. These animals became mti- tually attached, and regarded each other with the most tender affection. Tbe greyhound always lay under the monger, beside the hurst>, who was so fond of him, that he was unhappy and restless when out of his sight. It was a common practice with the gentle- man to whom they belonged to call at the stable for the greyhound to accompanv him in his walks i on such occasions, the horse wouhl look over his shoulder at the dog with much anxiety, and neigh in a man- ner which plainly said, ^^ Let me also accompany you." When the dog returned to the stable, he was always welcometl by a loud neigh : he ran up to the horse, and licked his nose; in return, the horse would scratch his back with his teeth. One day, when the groom was out with the horse and greyhound for ex- ercise, a large dog attacked the latter, and quickly bore him to the ground ; uu which the horse threw back his ears, and, in spite of all the efforts of the groom, /usheil at the strange dog, who was worrying at the greyhound, seized liini by the back with his teeth, which speedily made him quit his hold; he shook him till a large piece of the skin gave way, when he fell to tbe ground. He no sooner got on his ftwt, than he judged it prudent to beat a precipitate retreat from BO formidable an enemy. KXTRAUBniNAlir FEAT OF A DnALCUTIIORSi:, An unparalleled insunce of the power of a horse, when as!ilsted by art, was shown near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, and opened for the carriage of goods from Wandsworth to Mertsham, a bet was made that a common horse could draw thirty-six ttnis for six miles along the road, and that he should draw his weij^ht from u dead pull, us well as turn it round tbe occasional windings of the road. A number of gentlemen assemliled near Mertsham to witness this extraordinary triunuih of art. Twelve waggons loaded with stones, eacli waggon weighing about three tons, were chaineil together, and a horse, uken promiscuously from the timber cart of Mr Hur. wood, was yoked into the team. He started from near the Vox public-house, and drew the immense chain of waggons, with apparent ease, to near the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rale of four miles In an hour. In the course of the undertaking he was stopped four times, to show that it was not by the impetus of the descent the power was acquire**. After each stoppage, a chain o( four waggons were added to the CAvatcade, with which the same horse again setoff with undiminished power. And, still fartner to show the effect of the railway in faciliutlng motion, the attending work- men, to the number of about fifty, were directed u* mount the waggons t still the horse proceeded srith.mt the least distrris ; and, in truth, there apMwed to )»e scarcelv anv limitation to the power of his draught. After tk« trial, the waggons wtra uken to the weigh- ing machine, and it appeared that the whole welffkl was as follows t— _ , ..... Tons.eirt.Hi. Twelve waggons first linked icMher, wckricd au 4 » Four ditto. aAerwsrdi ■nsehetT . 13 • fiuppoMd wel|lit of fifty labounus - 400 U 6 S CONCLUSION. We conclude this account of the horse by the fol- lowing quoution from CapUln Brown's work, entitled " ItiogrHphicnl Sketches and Authentic Anecdotes of Horses," which contains a great mass of curious in- formation regarding that noble animal i— *' Plutarch says, a good man will take care of hla horses and dogs not only while they are useful to him, hut also after age renders them unfit for service. A beautiful illustration of this benevolent maxim is re- corded of the Athenians, who, when they had finished building the fieeatompedon, Net at liberty the anlmolt employed in its erection. It is related that one of these, at the head of his fellowJaboures, some time after the completion of the temple, led the way to the citadel, which so highly pleased the people, that a de- cree was made by the senate, enacting that ther>e faith, ful and willing servants should bo kept the remainder of their lives at the public expense. Every humane mind must shudder at \he brutal treatment to which ihnV noble and gonrrous animal, tbe home, is but too frequently exposed in Europe. The nss, also, a beost of gre.-\t sii^uclty and gentleness, is almost invnriiibly treutetl with navngo (-srbarity. Let those unfeeling and unprincijiled wretches look to the mutual love tiiiit snbiists between the Arab and his steed, and the kindness manifested by the people of eastern nations to tlieir nsses and mutes, and the benefits they derive from such a mode of treatment. Ifnn other principle will awaken their kindly feelings, surely that of self-interest should Ktimulato them to adopt gentler measures. Although the horse sctdnm exerts his it. ngtb and power to the prejudice of his muster, we L ve, how. ever, one instance of rocidlection of Injur)-, and an at- tempt to revenge it. Tbis is inserted in a work of D. nolle, Esq. of Torrington, in Devonsliini. A liaronet, one of whose hunters had never tired in the longest chase, once encouraged the cruel thought of attempting completely to fatigue htm. After a long run ho dineedlence, it will be f(Mind, as with man himself, that so soon as fear is removed, and the animal has dieoffvered its own strengtii, revenge will generally follow. I hsve no (lonlit but in nine cases out of ten, where horses be- tray fnricms or stubborn tempers, that those have Iteeii pHHluced frtmi the cruelty or ignoraniw of their first trniners. The horse is an animal of great intdligence; but c\ *y thing addressed to his perceptions sliould be clear, shi. *. and distinct, for he is incapable of follow, ing a train of spoken language. Few words delivered with precision, accompanied by caresses and gentle treatment, will Iw found mo;>e effectual than any other course." It cannot be expected that we should enter into the treatment and cure of the numerous diseases inciden- tal to the horse ; but we may offer the few following cautions as preventives to man) of these: — Stables should be well aired, and have windows in opposite sides, so that the air may pass currently through them; these should be invariably open when the horses are out of the stable, and frequently oven when *hu horses are in their stalls, taking care, how- ever, never to allow cross draughts when the horses are lieated, or after returntnf^ from active exercise, as this may produce rough, and other inflammatory diseases, (irooms are in theconstant practice of keep- ing stables so completely free from air, that they even resort to the practice of closing up the bottom of the stable door with dung at night. Great warmth pro. duces a fine glossy coat, Init It Is most destructive to the constitutbm o^ the horse. A horse should never be ridden hard down a bill, as this has a tendency to shake and weaken hli foro-legs ; and he ought tii get but little water on a journey, and he should not be allowed to drink until perfectly cool ; nor should he lie fed with oats for a quarter of an honr at soonest, after having had exerrlse. The first thing that should be attended to is to nib the horse carefully down, and not to leave him while a wet hair remains on his body. BDiNBuaoHt Putiltahfd by William snd RnssaTCHsMBHS. W, Wslwloo Plsoei U " "" " '- ""- ' — ilnni Htil W. t'casT, Soldby John MatlemI, iDufnw, -^ . _ HixKtand, BncUnd. uwl IreUnd.— I^lb)Uhed once s ftirtolcht Stnvotvped by A. KtrkwiKN). snd printctl by BaUantyM and Cxaipsoy, PsuTs Wotk. «t alu) by W. Ona. PstenMNttf How, iMm- INT, Jun. and Co. 8aekTtlk KUwt. Dublla. cleod, iDufnw. and all other BuukMllrra In rbola wtlgl Mil. ewt lb. ai 4 < 13 .t 4 u i I ♦ K$ ^«:i<;k'iui' '>lfi CHAMBERS'S +i;;!jij».jf A{-«i'V- INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTKD BV WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 19. ''""'« ^*^- GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNITED STATES: TbcitForniofOowmmcnti Amy -wd Nivyi Kipmueiof Govominimlt Minufncturv.Commcnw. and Tr-idii C*n»li, RiUway«, ami PubUe Worlwi Miiwmi; Cilmait, Soil, ind N«tU»l FTwluctluTut l'rt«)Mo Labour iPopuUtlon.wIilte and colouroil)M»nnvr«i Hclljfloni LciuiUnij aud Art»i Me.uu of Kducationi and Natkitul PtoipecU MAP OP NORTH AMERICA. HlHTUillCAl. KOTICK. The continent of America, with kU itit inlandii, onH the people who nrif^nallv inhHbiteri tliem, was un- Hn(i-vn to the Inhabitantu of Kurope till tin? unci of the fifteenth century. They were dincovereU in the year 1492 hy Chrittopher Columbus, while he was in scartrh of a route by sea to the Kant Inctiefi ; and when he flmt saw them, he believed that they were part of China or Japan ; to little idea hud the Kurupcnns of thoie daj'S of the eiiiitence of the vart countries which have line* exerciied Huch a powerfu.^ influroee on the fate of their deaceiidanta.* The mde xtate of the native in''abitant)i, and the fiupnrlor military knowledge of the c^uropeBnii, whinh they iimhI with very little ref^ard to right, enabled them MHin to seiM on all such pdrtr uf tlie ooiint 7 ne thuy preferred, and to drive away, oe reduce to imb- jtrttnn, the original pOMessors, In this way the Nouthern part of the ooutfnent wf> lulijugatcd, and 1 onc« a fbrulfhu r ItaUtniYM and * TA any one who wUltec ft»r i4abointe Infnrmalinn ronmming •h« UMlitiflt or geuRr^hy of tht Dnktod ^titcf. wt- cannot too highly racwiitmod •• Waidm'a SuiUtkwl, Pol llical, and Hlitoriea) AoGMintuf t>M Unltwl SlalM"— a wotk whidi we have ftrquMiUy o n twiUad m ooaplUng thia pip^r. Msna't ricoffraphy it an «!• mlrabla work f j ngaid to Um phyrioal teium of tht country i and to (hoM who wUh to oompuro Ua pitt ilau wUh its praamt, U U Invaliiabla. WIK la'a Anttkan Anaual R^tMooMaiiu a atore of tutliikal aad oomnanlal tooto oTili* hlghaat valun, Mr Ptffuiaon'i book nf traveli, and the ratfallaat vnlumaa oT Mr 9tuaK, ronuin an accurate picture of muiocra t to whMh we may add the amuitng (oailp of CapUIn Hall wd Mrs TrOllope. wha an both etariUnt tn thalr way, if rMiden make the uaual allow* aaee Ah tnvrikn and utiriiti. piirtly cull niseil, hy the .Spaniards iind Ponu|fiicse ; while the nurtherii jiortionM IVUI into tho hunds i>f tlio other mitritimc nations ofKurope, thi> Eiiglitih, French, Dutch, find Swedes, who formed colonies at difierent points along the coast. The whole of these, however, soon fell into the positession of the Enfjiish and French filone. lender these two jiowers the American colo> nil's continued to alTord a refuge to people nf the IJu* ropenn couiuriuH, who considered thenisclveH oppn>s«ed or iiifgrievtHl at home. During the seventeenth cen- tury, when extensive emigrtion first liegan to take place, it was not so nuich the want of employment, or of Rubsiatence, which induced men tn iteok for a change uf residenc-e, an the wish of escaping from persecution oil account of religion, or from the civil wars of the time. This V AS the caatf particularly in Knglnnd, dur- ing that period when religious and puHiical animosi- ties greatly disturbed the country, Tnmhles of other kinds, and latterly the neciwsities of an overcrowded population, continued to aiTord a motive for the peo- jdu resorting to America ; and during great part of the eighteenth tvnt. r^', it is reckoned that from 0MO to ftOOO persons yearly removed to these countries from Kun^w. Some diaputesarosr, almit 17AAt between the French and English, who were now the sole pnsseuors of North America ; these at lost led to a war, which terminated in the total deitniction nf the French power in that country, and ir 'hetranflfercncc tnthe Engliiih of all their colonies there, except some thinly i>eopled rQgioni on tbo Miwiuippi.. This result took {daoe in 1763; but though it gave to Britain a lar,'Te additiuit of new territority, and relieved her old poaseb^ions fi-um an enemy, it left her burdened with large debts. In order to avoid unpopularity at home, the ministry of the day projected the scheme of throwing part of the hurdon of these upon the colonies ; alleging as a rea- s(m, that the war had lieen undertaken for their l>ene- tit, and in order to deliver them from an enemy who continually hung on their frontieni. The first tax proposed for this purpose was a stamp duty (1705); but the colonies firmly refused to nubinit to it, saying that they wexe perfectly willing tn ^ay the expense of their own govenimeuts, but that they would not en- dure to he taxed by a foreign body like the British Parliament, which was situated at the distance of 'MiOi) miles, and in whose deliberations they hud no voice, while it might employ the money obtained from thent for pui^HNtes hostile to their own freedom or welfare. This feeling was univerBal among the people of th** colonies ; for these Iwing generally the descendant* of men who had left Europe in disgust at some real of fantiied oppression, had not those habits oi defer«ar4 to the noramands of persona in high station, whirh often tend to secure obedience and quiet In other coun- tries. In omise petilinn and reinontiriite againit wlmt they conaidered ah in- justice. Still the Britinh ^ivernmeiit per«evereHith parties led to fretiuent viu- lence, and at length to actual demonstratioiii of war on the part of the Americans. This war lasted for ■tiout seven years, from 177<> to 171^2, am) cnncIudLiI at lust, as might have been anticipated^ )iy t\w British being compelletl to relinquish annintry of which every inhabitant was their eneuiy. The war was cunduclrd on the iwrt of the Americans hy (ieneral (ieorjff >Vashingtuu, to whose talents and perseverance ua speedy tHrmination was greatly owing, and wh(we mocleratiuii in using the inlhu-nce wliich succchs had given him over his conntrvmen ha* been tt»o selttnn imiuted hy conquerors. The Ciuincils of the Ameri- cans, and their negocJations with other pnn-crs, were mainly dir^ted during these trans.-a-tions hy Benjamin Franklin, a man who whs eiiuully dislinguisihed as a philosopher and a lover of his country. FORM or OOVEHNMFNT. Kach of the Kngli!>h cohniiet, at they settled iu Anierica, had had a certain itirm of gnverrunent as* signed it for muintaining tht necessary ntder. This cmsisted generally of a house of assemhly, chosen by the people, with governor, judges, ami other ofti- cers, appoMited !iy the king, but paiil out of taxes levietl hy the reiiresenlalives. On acqniring inde- pendence after their war with the mother eountry, the dilferent ciilonies, now r.illed Statt$, made such alteratiimn, each in its own constitution, an they he- lieved to he suited to their circnmaunces ; aiitl a gene- ral government, framed and aprntinted hy the consent of the whole, was formed to take charge nf nmh na- tional affrtiisas the states couM not manage «epitr..iely. The states li:ive each a senate and houne uf repre- ftentative^; ihe members of the former ate fewer in numfter thiin those of the latter, and a part of them only is chosen at each election, so that they -Tmaiu in office r>rpe\eral years, generally four : the honse of representatives is elected anew every year. The resolutions agreed to hy thew two bodies for the go- rernment of the Htate are afterwards nuhmitttnl to a pr«!sident or governor, whose sanction omstitntes them part of the law. Both senators and representa- tives are paid for their attendance on the public busi- ness, gemx-ally at the rale of twn dollars (or nine ihillings sterling) per day, l^eaides an allowance fnr travelling expenses. The right of election residi s in the people under certain linnuti(ms: in some states the piwseiision of a certain property (about 1«.AU) is required iu the electors : in ntiiers.'the regiilar pay- ment of certain taxes : in all, a residence in the state, rarying from two years to six months, is requihite. But there are only eight of the states in which black people are allowed to give viites. The judges and other magistrates are in some Ktates elet'ttKt hy the people : in others, hy the gowrnor, subject to the approval of the two houses t and their tenure of olhce Is in sume for a term of years ; in others, during good behaviour ; and in several) till the holder atiaiu a cer- tain age (ab.ait 7*>)' This is the form of the states' governments. The general government is coiistitntiHl on tSe same model, consisting, like them, of a president, senate, and house of representattvea, who are c):osen hy the same electors as those of the pnivincial legislatures. The members of both houses receive 'Vh. \wr day, with travelling expenses. The senate cmsistN of forty- eight memlwrs, two from each state ; sixteen of these are electeil every two years, v^ that the whi)le may he renewed in six years. The members are reijuired t^) he at least thirtv years of age, to have lived nine years in the United tjtates, and to l>e nt the time nf election r^idenu in the state by which ihey are returned. The senate exercises most of the functions of the Britikh IIiHite of Lords. The house ot lepresenta- tives is chosen annually, and the nifniberti are re- quired to he at least t« t-niy-four years of af:i», to have resided three or four years in the state for which they are cliosen, and, iu one or two of the districts, to |k'S. •ess a certain property. There is one repre«entative nearly for every , ilOO 7«7 u VJi u u vilege of public meetings, to expreai their opinions peaoeably on the measures of government. The people are secured in the right of la-aring umis, of fair trial, and in the piMitession of Uieir property against all aggressors, either public or private. Of these rights no act of Congress, or other authority, can deprive them; and if they are invaded, the auf- ferer i:an have redress hy applying to the public courts of justice. The judicial pinver is vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as congress uniy from time to time establish. The present judicial establitihment consists of a supreme court, thirty-one district courts, and seven circuit courts. The supre^no court cimsiMts of a chiet' justice and six associal" justices, who hold accnrtin the city of Washington annually; besides which, eiirJi judge attends iu certain districts to hold circuit courts witli the local justices. The pnii'e>ses of law art* iu general simple and direct, and lue not made diflicutt of access to the poor hy any burdenstnne expenses. EXFCNSK8 or TIIF fiOVERKMENT, AND TAXTS. The following is a list of the salaries of some nf the principal officers of the American government : — IVr atimim. President, L.^OJO \''ice-Presideiit, Secretary of State, ami Secretary of Treiisnry, each . Secretary at M'ar, .... Chief Clerks of Treasury, &c., l'm(miister-<}unerHl, .... Chief Justice, Six Associate Justice', each . . Attorney-Ueneral, .... t>even ambassadors to the follnwlng States : — Kngland, France, Russia, Netherlands, Spain, Poriugal, and Sweilen, each with an allowance of L.2(>2:i tor outfit, .... Ambassadur*K .*^ecretarr, Consuls at Lu is regulated hy that of the mer- chant service. 'I'he expenses of the state during the year 182!) are stated as loUows : — Salaries to Officers of atate, exjH'nsps of managing the public lands, aids (o canals, perjtentiaries. and inu provemenis, lighthouses, niiitt, \e., Ij.2Ul),dU0 Salaries to ambassadors for pmt^'tinn of American subjects in other countries, and foreign interctmrse, . . 4fl,7» .Military establishment, pay of the army, Soi'),'2Kt Uepair of fortilicatinua, militia expens«-i, building piers, improving the navigation of rivers, pensions to invalids, civilixa- tion nf Indians, Ar., . . . 1,155,003 NVval establishment, including pay and subsistence of tiie navy, expenses of stores, construction of works, repairs, \c. 1A\AW2 Public debt (since paid oil') charge . 2.7i:(<,:t!t.'i soar. *M (1 (1 bVi (1 2-4 n 2(L' (1 i:iri II VM een very nearly disi hartred. But in estimatini; the whole roit of the government, it is neresaary also to take into an'ount the sums reuuired fur the «x{H'nses of the ilitferent states. \re mi not find any direct notice of the amount of these; but as Captain Halt states that each person pays t*) the state govcnmieiit .'Is., annpral government about Us. i\A. per annum, this prn|H)rtiou would make the amount of expeusi'sof thedi/Tcrent states abimt li.'J,lMt7*n'i!); and the whole cost of goverutnent iit therefore t^.?.?^-.!^'!', amounting, according to Captain Hall's estimiite. to atamt 12s. 4^d. for each person. The national ; and theiustrnctioo i^iveu is wuU fitted for training thetr minds to know* ledge and gentlemanly feelings ; the course omtUts of natural and experimental philosophy, mathematics, engineering, ethics, drawing, and the usual military exercises. The young men eilucaU'd here are received into the army as cadets, and their promoiimi is after- wards regulated strictly by seniority, except in extra- ordinary cases. The .Iniericaii navy has seven ■hioi of the lin»— seven frigates of 44 gnus, and three of 90; with twenty shiops of war, and smaller vessels. The nnmtwr of captains is ^7; of masters commanding, 311; and of lieutenants, 253. There are seven navy yards, of which the principal are on Long Island,' near New Vork, at Philadelphia, and at Washington. Notwithstanding the free genius nf the Americao constitution, and the little attention paid to wealth or diiTerence of rank in common life, discipline is en- forced with great strictness in the naval service, and with the more jealousy, perhaps, becnuse there is al- ways a danger of the fieamen and inferior officers fall- ing into the independent habits of their countrymen, wliirh would be inconsistent with the authority of a ciinnnander at sea. Captain Hall tells a story of a young ollicer who announced his intention of appeal- ii)g to the people on having been reprimanded by his captain. This being reported at head. quarters, an order came down to sav, that the officer was perfectly at liberty to appeal as he proposed; and in order that he might do so without inconvenience, his discharge fmrn the navy whs eurlojed. Great care is taken in the selection of perstms wishing to enter the naval seivict'; and these gentlemen are also exposed, aAer- warils, to frequent and rigoral 4if time and capital has been ex)H!iided in training thu wprk-peo]de to their several departments in these lurge cnrerns ; aiul in most places where they are establinbfd, there are a viiriety of different manufac- tures exihting about the same spot, nmst of which are some way useful or necesaary to each other, so that nuu'h ex]>enHe is naved iu carriage, &c. It takes a hiii^' course of time to collect all the furniture of a niaiiuf.icturing u>wn; but as this has been already diiuK at manv places iu Kngland, ami as wages are nun it lower there than iu America, the Knglish ma- iiniactures can be prtaluced more easily, and at less e\|(Mise, than tbii^e t>f America. It is by no nieaiis from any want of ingeiniity in the people that they >lo not succeed there; for, during the war. (1812), Mheu Knglish uochIs were excluded, the Americans began hi maniif.tcitire for themselves, and not only coiutrncted exadlent machinery, but produced jwr- fect imitations of the goods which had been hitherto impurletl. They were not, however, so cheap, from the causes we have mentioned ; and now that there is peace, Kngli!>h goods would he universally used, wei'u there not hiHb duties imposeil on them, in order to favour those in America who had gone to expense in establishing manufactories, and learning vile nece^isary processes. The jiorthern sfites (by whom chie6y the American goiHls are made) express themselves indignant at the idea of depending on fo- reigners fur gfliHls which they can pnaltire at home, where tlie work-people would alford a niarkii. fur the farm prtalnce of tlie country, wliile those of the south, who have no manufactures, wish to have the cheapest articles, from whatever quarter they come. 7'here has Iwen a good deal of angry discussion on this sub- ject between the parties, which has now, howorer, been compromised, some of the prohibitory dutie* having >>een regwaled, and others reduced, so that, ihough there is still a cimsideralde preference given to American gn(Mls, those of Kngland are nut aiu>- gellier excluded. The manufactures which are followed with most advuittago in America, and without fear of KugUsh rivalry, are those which produiw articles too bulky or to ) heavy, in proportion to their value, to bear the expense of a long carriage, or of which the materials are found In the country, and can l>e wrought up thei e at less exf ense than by carrying them to cheaper tradesmen at a distance. Some of these branches m.. be mentioned — such as, the making of soap, candlis. and hats ; taiming and working in leather, particu- larly bulky articles; huildintf of carriages; making of oil kinds of agriciUtural irnpleiftenis; curpent>y, suHiug, and turning of most descriptiuust b'iilditig u( GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNITED STATES. flhipn And iteam-baatfl ; conitructing and puttin(fiip of mill-work and machinery ; distilling ; the em- plnymenti of giihtsmiths, tlniimithfi, and printers. T)i«re are ievcral businesses, however, whoiie proi- pertt depend chiefly on prohibiting the cheapiT ina- nufHCtnres of Kngland, and which of course are liable to bo deranged by any alteration in the tariff laws; theno are the making of glass and earthenware ; spin- ning and weaving moiit kiniiM of cotton goods ; making of woMlens, uirpets, &c. ; most of the finer kinds of Itnrilware, iron, steel, hnd brass; hempen goods and nilk goods. TJie native American tton, and mix it 11)1 ill the yarn with their linen and woollen stuff's; hhiitkets, quilts, coverlids, stirckiags, mits, &c., are iiutjo (-liicny in the family. These are perhaps net- thi-r 81) tine nur muiie ko expeditiously as those of ri>gtihu' tradesnu'ii ; but they are produced fur domes- tic use at times when thcro is no other emplovment, and in this manner may be said to cost nothing ex- rept the material of which they arc made. It is sup- lUMserl that nearly two-thirds of the domestic clothing are so made In country places, many families, as in Canada, having a loom in the house. It is the sun:e M'tth soip, canalcs, and maple-sugar, all of which are nmnufactured hy the farmers at liome. The articles Diiide liy families in the stiite of New York for their own use, were, in Ui31, reckoned at Ii.l,0Jlo.3h'l) in value. Attempts hui'e rece.itly been made, with great swcross, to introduce the manufacture of silk : the mtilhurry-treo grows sponraiieoiisly in the middle •tatos, and Che light easy labour which the collecting of the silk requircH, would afford employment to eld people and femalet, enabling them to add to the {:i- niiiio of their families, when they could not otl-.iMuise be able ti» do ony thing. In the southern, or slave states, there nro no do- roi'Hlic manufaccuri's ; every article of clotliiiig whii'h the hlavca require bus to he pun-luiited ; and this is tlie renfon why thwse status found the operation of tin; i.'iriffso oppressive. COMMFRCR. FortifcTi Trade. The wealthiest clan in the United States are ge- nerally the merchants of lai^e sei:-p(trt towns. Com- nuTi-o may be cinisidered as forming the aristocracy of that country, anil is regarded every where as highly honourable. Young peoplu are eilucated fur it with UK much rare as for the army, or for ft!»y of the learned professions; and they ac<(uire a knowledge of the Ian- guagea of the foreign couutrit's with which they pro- pose to be connected, their inodt'S of transacting busi- ness, &.C., instead of learning dead languages, and the manners of extinct nations, an with us. The nui- nufat-tures and markets of foreign states — the (|ua. lity, value, ai.d proiiis of every commercial artirlo, form the objects of their study, and prepare theiii ( Total exports .... 73,84y,m)8 Imports. A rtiele* free of dwty . 12,74«,245 Articles taxed on importation 68,13l>,fi7A Total imports 1,403,479 1,747,820 90,028 m:\,:v.m 48r),i83 a7:ti6!)i 9,813,429 0,103,702 188,579 1,901 I,W)7,140 823,178 5,2:t.'.,24l 2,491,480 3,788,37^ 4,8:^7,4:l8 1,813,238 3,024,«(r) . 70,876,920 Tables are given of the difTerent countries with which this trade is carried on. '1 he fillowing abstract will give an idea of the extent of transactions with cacti ia IIUO:— Imporls, Expnrti. Hussia .... 1,821,899 418,576 Germany, Holland, and Nether- lands .... 2,779,280 0,321,459 Sweden, Norway, and Denmark 1,173,4!I4 478,842 IJritain . " . . . 24,479,214 20,229,212 Spain and Portugal . 1,189,8,10 791.050 France - - - 7,922,198 11,093,95!* Mediterranean, except French and Spanish ports Gibraltar . . - Afrim and African islamls West Indies generally Rritish M'est Indies Hayti British American colonies Mexico Brazil Other South American republics 4,050,021 East Indies and Mulny islands 2.038,48.3 1,100,717 China - - - 3,878,141 742,193 South Seas - - 20,748 27,942 North-west coast of America - - 53,090 The commerce of the states, therefore, to the dif- ferent qiuirtcrs of thu world, may be summed up as follows :— Imports. Exports. Europe - - 40,720,43? 47,081,146 AVest Indies and other jiartsof Ai.ieilca - - 23,807,430 23,473,025 East Indies, China, and South Seas - - - 5,937,372 1,906,852 Africa and its ishinds - 4H9,I8;i 373,091 Of this trade tlie fiillowing ia the amount which is carried on with Britain and her ditTerent cidoniesr.nd dcpendenci"s :— Dollars. Imports to America - - 20,7('4,984 Exports from d.i. - - 31,547,701 The annual amount of the American commerce ia about sixteen millions sterling in imports, and a little more tlian tliitt Hum in exports. It appears that these sums form almut half the amount of the British foreign tiatie. The American sliipping, however, is nearly equal in tonnage to that of Britain. Tliis apparent iicunsiKtency is accounted for in two witys : first, a grent deal of the trade to Britain is carried on in American bottoms, and not eiptally in ships of the two countries ; and, secondly, there is a larger quan- tity of tonnage occupied by the Anturicans in the coaxtitig or internal trade of the country than there is in Britain. It is, in fact, the traffic between the different partn of the Union which gives its chief ac- tivity to American commerce. Thit) is owing to the circuuiHtiinie that tlie northern and soutliui-n states, bi'iug situated in very different climates, have pro- ducts as diffeiTiit from each other as England and Ejiypt. America hi\* here a source of permanent and secure tntde, in which no fecomes in request, and it covered with n throng of settlers from Europe, or of the restless speculators of America. New York'SlBlc. The Erie canal was planned l»y »n American jia- trhit, i^Ir DeM'itt Clinton, and wsifl carried into effect at the cxiJeuse of the state of New York. It extends three hundred and sixty miles along a rich and fertile country, which had formerly no communication with markets, but which can now send its produce to the fta iu two directions. It is forty feet wide at top, twenty-clght at bottom, and four feet deep. It was finished in five years, at an expense of L. 1,800,000. The average collection of dues from vessels passing in the spring of 1831, was L.400 per Hay. Mouses, villages, and town-^, ore starting up along its whole line with imexamp1e.000, which was wholly eipended by the New York merchants. It opens a rnnveyance for the coals and aKrirxiltiirnl produce of I'enniiylrania to the market of New V'ork. The sRHie two rivers are connected nt a point farther down by a sllll larger work, called the Mttrris canal, which, like the former, is farried forward into the ttate of Pena«ylvaiu% a considerable distance. The Dcla««n sod Cbeupeake Canal This is a large canal furmed by cutting across the ■pper part of a neck of iuAr»hy laud which Mpiirates two large bays or firtha, tho Ih'lawure and the ('beta* ptake. It atforda au easy and quick water oommuni- cation Irotweeu two of the principal cities, IMtloKire and rhiladetphia. It is about l'uurter    4),000 d>ilUr*» or 1*970,000. NaTij;:\tlon of the Potomac and Shenandoah. The Potomac and Shenandoah are two noble rivers, leading far up into the country {torn the heail of tbu Hay of Chesapeake. The narimdon, howevtr, i.s interrupted oit both by rapids, wnich rendered them useless fur the piirpows of trade: these have (>een nri dt>pih of water, six to seven feet. Acoording in the plan of this oanal, ft will pan fnmi the tide-wuter of the Potomac, above Georgetown, and will terminate near Pittsburgh, in Penniylvania. The cuat wan estimated at '.?2,U7A,000 Hollars, or L.A,034,37^; but it is not tupposed that miuli more than half that autn wilt be actually wanted. There Is another important work roauaenced for eoiineoting the western cinmtries with tho Atlantic — thia ia the Daltimore and <->hio rail-ruad, which ia to exterxd froai the city of l\ 'limore to the river Ohio, II diitance of throe hum' <"l ami fifty miles. It Ik now ill prugreaa, and is i.'i' greatest work of chs kind — It-It miles of it were open in lOai. It would be idle in us t.' attempt here an enumenu tioii fif uren a small pnvporiion of the undertakings tU thia nature whii'h have Uveu executed in America. M'lierever the navigntton of a river bit* been impelled by rrtpids ur the iKTcaaioual shalluwnt'<<« cn overcome, if , there auru either useful minerals or fertile laud to fiemadeacceaiiible. Along the bonks of aome rivers of this kind, caiiiUs h:tvotMU-a carried for u»e hundred miles; as, fur iii»t;iirt', the caiiiUling of tbe Lehigh and Schuylkill, in IVntikvl- rania. Wherever two navigable atroaina Bowing to dUfcrent aexs uro brparaied by a ridge wliich it h yt>^. aible lo ptMietratc by :t caaai, the work is uttentiiu-o, and tlM com muni cut! on made cumplute fnnn wa lu sea. luxunples of thia are found in the Champluu CHr.nt, which is completed, and connects the Iludaua anl H Lawrence; and in canals between the .Miajiii >tnd the Wa1>iith, the Fox river, nnd the OviacouKiu, which are both likely to be efTected. It ia not that tlie Americaaa are more grnuroui or more patriotic U>uu other people tliat thvy undertake these works; It werni rather to arise from a spirit of rettle&s enter* j>riM!| which cjini)u' l>e katisfifMl with turning to Hd< vantage the land within their reitt'h, but must tw aiw-aya hurrying away to secure the rcsourix- alrlu' t^sJiaprovo tho rrowded population of Kurope rtrh and inexhanatihie oountriea to which they may emigrate for ages without filling them, but which would have been of little niivaniHgo without the channels of cotnnuiuic»tion now opening by thi< Anu-ricanH. The only other work ef thu kind we have riMiin to mentioi\ is the Ohio Ststo Canal. This canal Is to pniis t'rimi Portsmouth, on the River Ohio, to Oteveland, uu Lake Kric, n diiitunce of three hundred and ninu miles. Of tlicito, one Imndretl and nine uiileH are completed, aud tbe rest under contract to be finished by a given time(lU3A). This canal will complete an unbroken line of communication from New Orleans, on tho Hay of Mexic^t, up the Minaia- aipui and Ohio, to Portsmuuth, thence to Lake Erie; and, from thia point, either to New Vork by c^ual, or down tho St LawnMice to Montreal and (juebc?. There is also in nrogrenN u canal from Cincinnati, on the Ohio, to elTcct tlio liuuiu object: this canal, in llt^H, had been exccuteil from ( Inciunati to Dayton, sixty-five miles, and tbo remainder is in progress to join tho Kirer Miami, which falls int4t Lako Krio at Ijaureuceville. The whole length (including feeders) ia tun iiuaUred and ninety miles. The general gu< vcranu'nt gives donations o( laud to old iu the cum- plctlou of tlicHC works. !)K.\-lO.\ST, I.AKKH, AVIl KAVIOAUtF RtVF.RB. U-iys aiiit llorlxiuM im tho Si-a.Cunit. There are *on\e countries which are di'pnved of t\\v advantage of bays, harbours, antl guiHl protection for shipping. Fraooe, fur instauce, with a lung line uf seo-coabt, baa but few of the-te nntural advantages ; aud a more rtunarkable Inatnnre itill, is atTurdcd by the coant of Coroinautlet in India, which has nut one g4KHl harbour or bay where vessel:! might take »heUut', along its whole extent. Ameriia is very differently situated in this respect : from north to south along the whole coast which fronts the Atiantio, the country is deeply indented with large navigable bays, whicft alTord ready protection to her shipping, and give points of rLndexvuui to tbi> traile of nnmeruas river* which fail inui i|jem. It would be needless to mention tho whole of tlicku : tlie smalb'*>t of them on the coast of L.di.-t, wheri) ships are ezpustd to a'l the hazards of an o)iiiii Hi>u, and lie ttfi', delivering their cargoes by mcana of rafts or lightera t-cni backwards and forwards to the ahore, would be reckoned aufiicient to give wealth and iinportiime to a Urge city. They are so numerous on the coast of America, that the com- mercial facilities of bitlf of them cannot be taken ad- vantage of: among the principal, are tho Bay of Cheanpeake, where the months (or firths) (»f several largo rivers, the Sustiuelmnnah, tlie Potomac, tho James, the Happahannix^ &&, meet together, and concpEitrato theopi(} to bring all the natural advantages of the country into operation for commerce. To the aouth of the Cha(Ui|>eake, in the nlavo coun- tries, tbure are also many noble harboui*a, bays, and rivers, which, under eircnuiatancc*a moro favourable b> the moral and commercial improvement of the peo- ple, would give to the trade cavities hollowed out un this summit Iwvrl, and they receive the waters of all those snudt rivers which are lornteti on the ilat region lying around them. The principal lakes are tour iu number, aud are called (beginning from the ciuiward) Lakes Ontario, Krie, Huron, Michigan, and .Superior; thenavigatitm friuu I*ake Ontario Ui Lake Krie is Interniptcti by the falls of Niagara, where that river (the same which is called the St l^wreiice after it (]nits the lakes) is precipitated over a rock one hundred and sixty iV*et hi^h. From Erie U) Huron, vessels of large siui pass uninterrupted, but the coiuinunication is aguin impeded lu the chan- nel which counecta tb** two latter witli Lake Huron, by the falls of St Mary's. At Niagara, a caual, celled tbe U'elland canal, Itaa lievn formed by the Uritish govornment on the Canada side of tbe rivtir, which uoablea vessels to pajui from Ontario to ll'>ie without Impadimeat ; aud the likg will u« dtHtbt be performed Li-iith WldUl Itafdi Bl.«iUion nbor« Milct. Hlta fSu Uu Sut-I/M. ISO 40 soo 23'. 270 ao 200 nun UO 100 000 «U 400 M unknuwa t>l8 480 109 aoo Ml hv one or other of tlie governments, for the fulls of Ht Mary, whitnever the lyHnmeroe M|M)n these more re- mote lakus shall justify the expense of such an under- taking. Tbe whole chain of tkoee inland seas will then be nuvigable IVom one end to the other; nnd is their shores are all of great fertility, Iba r^on lying around ihtra may l>e expected al some fiittire time to be one of the busiest and richetl on the globe. At preaeut, as thay extend along the northern limits vi tlte United Htates, tliey afford to that inland bonndarv ntuirlv the same commercial advantages as those pv*. !u-a»ed by h eea-coast, and give a sensible stimulua of the industry of all the districu connected with them. The folh)vring is a summary of particulai't conneeted with Uie extent, depth, &o. of thel^» : — Name. Ontario Erie Huron Alichigan Superior None of the navigable riven of the United States fall into the lakes, and there is no river that flon-s out of them over which that country has eominuLd, so that it \vould appear that tbe adrancagee it can aa- rive from them are but limited. To c'^medy this in- courenieuce, which the Amerleans soon peroetved and regretted, they have led canals fWmt the most of thttr inland districts to the upper enrtton of the lakes; while frimi their lower shore (or that which is next the sea) they have conducted others, to give them m outlet to the ocean within their own territory. The iiuvigKtiou is thus rendered complete, from the shorea of tbe sea at New Vork, by a oumsl, to lixke Krie ; tlience to Huron and Michigan; and from thence by utber canals to the inland states of the west. M'e shall again have oceasion to allude tu this in mention, iug the American cecals. Navigable Hirers. The navigable rivers on the eastern aide of Ameritw are numerous and Important. We may first uientioi. tbe Conuetrticut, a large stream tlowing into the At* Untie near the north-east end of Ijong Island : tlw Hudson, a river navigable for steam-boats of the lar- gest class for one hundred and sixty miles above ita month, and the channel which has cniUjIed New York to extend its commerce by a canal to tbo lakes : the Delaware, fiowiug past rhiladetphia, and affording cimimunicatimi bv itself or its tributaries with a toviw try three hundred miles in length, aud of nearly eqiuil breadth : the Susquehannah, tlio Potomac, tlie Jamec Htver, and others flowing into the Hay of Chesapeake, which, by the help of canals, afford entrance to ves- sels of one kind ur other into the deepest vallies end recesses of the eastiiru country. Southward are the Uoanoke, flowing into Allwm&rte Sound, and the Puia- lico river, afford'ug channels for the commerce of North Carolina; while South Carolina and Georgia are cnnalled in the most coniplete manner (If wo may use the expression) >iy tbe rivers Pedee, Santee, Sa- vannah, Ogeechee, Alatamaha, Ac. ; and Kast Florida enj;>vs the same convenience in the river St John's and Its branches. Hut the eaatem rivers, useful as they are (and they have certainly as yet been the chief seats of cotnmerce in the country), are by the Americans themae.lvea en- tirely lost sight of In the^nthnsiium of their admir;i- lion for the nmnense streams which water the westerd aud inland statee. These great rivers are certainly not to be equalled in any other country, at least luaiiy country which has had such skill, ur such a form of •government, as have enabled its people to turn the commercial facilities of their inland waters to proper advantage. The American rivers to which we uUude, are the Mississippi, and tbe large tributaries which arrive from the east and west to fall Into the channel of that great stream, of which a description has been givuii In a former article. MINERALS. There Is a great variety of useful minerals distri- buted through different parts of the states : coal niav l>e mentioued among tlie first t it exists tfaroiigli afl the eouutry, lying north of a line drawn fn>m Phi- ladelphia to the DLOUth o( tbe Ohio, and is partion- larty abu iidant on the upper waters of the Susquehan- nah, lis wWlitson the AUegHuyand the Monougahala, At Piilttbuixh there is a hill principttlly ootuposed of coal, antl it is found ut mouy plaoea in thia district within a few feei. of the aurfaue. There are extensive ixwl-miuec also on the Uoanoke and Appomatox, in Virginia. The countnr on the Ohio is particularly rich in mi- neral producnons. The whole district ia btrttomed on limestone, on which rests the wide and valuable uoal formation men'.med above, extending from the heed waters of the Ohio, fn Pennsylvania, to the river Tombigbec. Iron ore Is found abundantly in the same district, principally towards tbe upper part of tbefVhIo; bog ore is fuund in the vallies of the Allegany chain ; anil various kinds of ores, of tbe same metal, are met with in the New Kiiffland states i at one place, carho. nate of iron Is found, which, on being reduced, pro* ducee stenl, and ia t«lled »imi err. Uluck lead, in ImhIs of fnen five to six feet wid^s trBv«u-see the states of New York, .lersey, Virginia, CantUna* 4tc Vitp* Der ore ia found iu Virginia, in ('onrm'ticut. atid in Ntiw lersey : it exists also in tbe iifigiibourhid extending thrnnrh a liirge trnct af country in the westam pnrtR nf Virgi. nia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia : they hn wron{(ht to ronsiderable extont, twenty thouiiaad mon heinf^ omploypd at the different worklnfrfi ; the minofB, who are people of nil txmntrieR, nay that the produce is richer than that of any other inineK on the gltibe: one piece of pure gold waSMiuud weighinj^twen* ty-eight ponndt. The annual produce in about one million (ttt- rling ; but we have not heard what propor. lion of this is expended in the work, or what actual profit hai lieen realised. One singular fact is remarked ooncerning these mines, whicli is, tliu indubitable evi- deuces found that they have been wrought at HOino [>eriod before America was kiKiwn to the Europeans. Inny pieces of machinery whicli were used for this I" SI purpose have been diuiovered in the workings, nmonu; which wtere sevenil crucibles nf earthenware, which are fur better than tliose now in use. Silver and itt ores are not uf frequent or extensive occurrancA. Alaruury has been found native in Ken- tuuky, but it occurs pleotifulty in the ore an bituminous oinnabar, through the Oliio ami Michigan territory. U is fuuud in the tuU as a hhivk or red suud, Mmiu-. tiines as a Una red powder, aud at otlier times in iron cJay. There are lead mines of vast extent on the MisKOuri; they are itnid to occupy n surface uf six hundred miles in lengtli, aud twohuudriHl in breadth. One miner will raise about two thousatid poumla per (lay, wliicb sell fm* forty-live dollars, aud yield twitlve huudred pounds of pure loud. Kpaom salts, Glauber Hidts, and nitro, nro fiiund in Ohio aud Indiaiui; the two latter in caves, the f::r- mer in a thin layer on rocky surfaces. Salt, which in countries far removed from the iH>:i is an article uf f;i-«HK HXpeuiie, is pr(Miut;ed from salt-springn, or from MviuKS in dilTerenl parts of the wostcm country, ^liimral WHters of valuablu niodicinul iptalities occur at ■everul places; the kpringk principally fnj()nenti'd are those of Saratoga, in Nuw Kngbtnd. ected are sufncinntly marked. Mr Mnc- Lnre states, ttmt some shells of tho recent alluvial formations in New Jersey are Itlentical with species found in the nerondary rocks. There Imvo been dis- »x)vererf in Udked liiiiestone of the elder secondary formation, the prin'.s of hiimau feet; the marks are those of a man of ordinary size stiuding erect, with his Iu»els drawn iu, and his toes turned outward ; the toes ure much spread, and the feet llatleued, like those of pE>ople not accuHtomed to shoes; the iiitpres- sions ;ire htrikingly faithful, exhibiting every muscu- lar swell iind depression with accuracy. Kvery thing seems to warrant iho conclusion, that these 'murks "■(.,•»■ ui.ii'.e a; it time when the rock woa soft, and re- Ocncd ihuiii liy prensure, which geology diitdh at a p»riud vfi.y long indeed beftpro the general Ihiod. Tliey were examined by (iovernor Loss wnl Mr J^cUoolcraft, at s. is" uml Hercnluneuni, on the .MiHAiihippi, aiiu tltu;, exint also at the Cumberland mi>unuin!t, alwuyK in the siuue kind of liintstune. Other singi.hir facts (unconnected, however, watli tho ah«ive) have tieen observed in tip district. At Picka- way plains, on tlie Ohio, u hum;, i Nkulutim wiis found teienteeu feet below the surfiue, iu » bi-d of pebbles and sbelh deposited, by wuler, *nd havinjt nine feet of earth over ihem. At Cincinnati, in digging a well, an arrow.lnad was found ninety feet bciow the sur- fan*; Hitd ill Illinolu, fragments of antique pottory and jars of coa-'so earthenware have l»eeu found at a depth of eighty fuet heluw groiuid. Iu formiii>T the Krie canal, the workmen, when di^fging this ri.lHo uf grftvel, fiiund several hundred living sholl-tish at a tieiitb of forty-two feet, Thev wero chieily of two kinds nf m//(i, a s-ilt-wator mu'ssol, of which fteverul spoeiep exist in Kritaiu : one, CHlltd amuratin, in used f>ir foml in Zetland, aud another is eaten about Cork, where it is called «i/^nr Uton*: we do nut know it the ipeciei M-hich were dug out of the gravel are annul among the present Amirtcan bbelUl'iab. Liniiixf ttrnds havf^been found in America* as here, in solid rook, of wl.at h;is been culled the mill-stone grit. rECrLtAIUTIES OF IHFrKarKT distbicts. America is generally eonNidered and «i»)ken of as vu% Kuntry, its people as formiiii: a »ini;le nation, aud the remarks which are made with regard to one part nf It nrp supposed to be equally applicable to all. No idea, however, can be more fallacious. Th^ region which xye term tho Ignited Htates Is oompou-d of sec* tions ot country as remote from each other as London is from Constantinordn, or Madrid from Berlin; they lie under different climates, and tho different circum- stances under which their inhabitants are placed form in each a ttitnlly different set of manners. Tho Kng- liah language is common to all, and they nil profess the Christian religion; but in most other respects the difference between them Is as great as between any two Kuropean nations. Tho great divisions under which the country ought to he viewed are the norih- eaatorn or New Kngland states, In which fur the pre- sent may be iucluded Z^ennsytvania ; 2d, The southern or slave states, to which section also we may refer Kentucky and Tcnesnoe ; and, 3d, The now states uf the west, which are in iirogrcis of scttlptiient. The manners nf the New hngland states are formed on the motlel of those of our own country, and there are few circumstances in the natui*e of the climate which tend to produce any material alteration ; it is among them only that due provision is made for the educa- tion of the people or for religious instruction. The proituctions of the soil — the modes of agriculture — the arts and occupations to which these give rise—the al- tprnHtions nf hcftson — and many other things, have nil a resemblance to those of our own country. They cultivate wheat and the other European grains; their garden vegetables, potatoes, turnips, carrots, cabbages, sence of all that hustle and variety of langnagt* and dress, which mark a great coumiercinl city. It is obvious, tlierefore, that tho numnera of these two places can have very little in (Himmon. If we look again nt the northern states, we shall Hnd a difference of a similar kind existing between \ew Vork aud Pbihulelnhia. The former city is the gri'at thoroughfare of nil emigrants aud commercial agents who arrive from Kurope; the people passing tiiroiiifh it daily are sometimes estimated at 1^,000 or '2(),fMMl ; it lies at a central point, having ccmmuinlca- tion by rivers, canals, and rail-roads, with the wh(de northern parts of the American coutinent. Grain, proviRi(ms, lumber, and mHuulHCtures, are bfOiight from countries n thouKand miles inland, rer.mtpnita- tioii, or for the use of places along thetjttnsl, which have not the came facility of conveyance. People ar. riving there are secure of finding a jmssafie io"every other city inland or coastwaya; hence the streets and i|uuvR are constantly crowded with travellers and Uieir luggage. Thu extent nf its conuuet-cuil trantutctions gives a facilitv to those who wish to engage in anv kind of ^{ittrulation, be<»nse ln're they can always te:irn the price's or the demand for every article ttf Ameriuiu proiluco ; henco theie is a restlensness, hoKtle, and continual spirit of change among iUt poptu lation, or a great part of them, whii-h it would Ihi vain to setik cUewhere in Kurojie or in America. Phila- delphia, on the other hand, thon;rh aUo o place of very extensive commerce, has fewer channels (»f communi- t'utionwith the distant inlanil countries, and has of course a smaller variety of produce either raw or nni- nufuutured : hence there is le a greater variety of toil and rlimate than wheat, and yieldt a much larger uruduoe. The lugar niapla f^rowt every where, but thrives Iwit in the good niatia diitrii'tt. Wheat is alto ctilti- vat«ii through the whole Union; hut it is only a pnu Htable rrop to the noitl' of the Potomac, or In the hilly diitricu of the soutu ; in ttiese siluatlont it yields birtte r*turni, and of exrellent quality i In the low WHOU districu it is not cultivated { these are more fa- vo'iiable to the rice crop. ]n general, it is remnrked the lat« wheat countries are favourable to the Kuro- pp<%n ronstitution, and that in rice countrien, whiih are wvm and mnist, the AfriKui population hiis a great advantage In retjiect to health and longevity over whites. The cultivation of tobacco bpglns in Marylaiul, in lititude 30*; it is rHt»ed to a i^reater extent in thut state, and in Virinnia, than in any others of the Union; >ut It thrives also in all the western states, t'otton does not succeed well farther north than the latitude of 37*, though snme of the district! raise it foi- dnmtttie uie t it forms the staple of all the districts south of ihe river Koanoki^. The best kinds grow in >'iritti ''yrolina and Georgia, in dry sltuatiiuis, upon the saR-co(.3t. The cultivation of nee occupies nearly the same region as that of cotton ; it Is a very un- healthv occupation for the slaves who a e enguged In It. Tne climnte which is favonrablo to su^r doen not extend tteyond the latitude of 112"; it is rained in thi* states chieriy for domestic use, and is not an ar- ticle of export to any extent. The i-rop is rather pro- rarldus, from the frosts which sometimes occur even in the most southerlv districts. Indigo has been tried in America, but coufd not come into competition with ttiat of Bengal. Tlie vine grows spontaneously in most of the south. eru and western statee, and is cultivated as a fruii alhiut Philadelphia. The niull)erry*tree,,hops, and hemp, all succeed well in the m.-idle and western Glutei. Tliu timber trees of the states are of numerous kiiidn, and many of them of the best quality. There are twenty-six kinds of oak, of which eleven or twelve tpecies are in request; the tw^t for common purposes is the while imAt, a tree which is found plentifully over rhg whole country : the iive oak grows in marshy places near the sea, and has a hard, heavy, and dur. able timber, much used for ship-building. There are eighteen kinds of pine, cedar, and larch ; seven kinds of maple, three or four of which furnish hu^ar ; the best in called the su^ar muple; ten kinds ut walnut trecK ; four kinds of birch, the baik of one of which furuiihes the Indians with canoes; six hinds of ash (the ash of this country is not ol' the number) ; besides manv other trees, of very useful qualities. There are one hundred and thirty kinds which nVe to a height of nioie than thiity feet; while in France there are only thirty-seven of tliat Hit. The flowering shrubs, Knlmia and UhrKiodenftrvn, which ait; ciltivuted here with so much attention for their spleiidiil tlowers, : grow wild on the sides of the AnieruAu Iiills, to the het;;ht of tiftcen or twenty feet. Even in the mi>st thicOy- peopled states, there are still remaining large tracts of uncleared woodlands, which ^ive the country a wild a))pearaiu-4>, and form an aspect on the whole very dir.reut from any thing seen in Europe, where forests have long been too va- luahtt: to be allowed to remain uncut. RATKS or rROI'lT, WAOCI, AND STVT.r OX LIVIKO. There is abundance of fertile land in the l-^nited St'ites, which nei>dt only to be broken up and cleared of uoods to yield large reiuriis for a sliglit outlay. There are none of those ohstarlet to thec-uliivatiun of •tolitary districts which exist in the lawlens or unim- proved condition of xime other countries. Property is secure every where, and there is hardly any spot, however remote, whteh has not ready conmiunicntiun hy rivers, canals, or roads, with one or other of the largo cities. Ilcm-e, fertile lands wbli-h are of easy access are to be found by every one who is at a hms tor emphiyment, or who thinks hit present occnpatitm less profitable than he would wish. On such soils, the accumulation of cupital in aKriruItiirc is much mure rapid than haa ever been exhibi{e self. Ills wife, and four children, for three days nearly. Hence the style of living nniong all clu.ses is full and lilieral; there is less perhaps of tbtt princely but in- vidious magnifirence, which, in the patacei of'^Kurope, is so often beheld surrounded and besieged with the importunity of beggars; but there is au equul distri- bution of comfort every where. The houses of the middle classes are well and conveniently furnished. At a specimen of the way in which they hve, we may mention, that a nuui wht) pays IHs. (id. per week for boiird, lodgin^if, and washing, dines at the family table, where there 1^ a roast turkey once or twice a.week, fowls, beet-ste> one to six ur seven of the population. rOPl'I.ATIOV OF TUK STATES. Th'j rapid increase of population in the United States is one of the mtMt interesting circumstances connected with their histor;-. When the general stylo of living among any people Is comfortable, and tliey continue at the same timetoadtl rapidly to their num- bers, it isaproofthattheircountryalTordsahundiUit re- sources for subsistence, and that thev have industry and skill to turn these to giMal account. liUgland doubles the nttir.ber of her people ia ataiut one hundred years, Scotland in one hundred and fifty, in America tliey are douhleil in about twenty-live years; and it is reckiuied, that, by the end of a ccn«ry from this date, if tlie same increase continues, the American popula- tion will l>e mure than two hundred millions ; a num- ber greater than that of any nation at present speak- ing one Uuguago on the face of the earth. From the rapidity with which successive generations couic for- ward, It is generally remarked that the number of aged persons in any neighbourhood appears small coni> pared with the muUitudcs of young people by whom they are surrounded; and from the same reason the number of individuals below sixteen, who in other countries form hardly a tliird of the population, are in America fully une-half of the whole. Iu (.'arulinaand Kentucky, the number above sixteen was considerably less than that of those uruler it. Tlie pi.pulution at sutrcssive periods lias been given as Villous from the ofh.ial census :— ^v^lilt' ■>»)).](>. Population in I7f'0 „ „ iniH) » i»io „ „ l«2t» ,, laai) r»,;ina,7:i« 7,2:i!),W».'l i*,«:io,if;o IJ,050,I77 Bta^-ks. «y7,o!J7 aiM>,fi4u i,i!n,:ui4 .'.(iio,4:uj These returns show ait average increase of thirty-three per cent, iti ten years; a rate incomparablv greater than has e'er bi>en witnessed in any other country. The nutt>'.j('r of perwms wbocome from Kurope tnse't- tli* in '!ie states is estimated varitiujily, from (MNN) to 20,'/4N) yearly; the moat accurate arcuunts incline to the former statt>ii)eiit. The number of foreigners not naturalised who were residing in the states iu IftiO was &3,(Ut7 • and at these persons cannot be natu- raliseil till they have Iteen five yeitrs in the country, this anmunt, with a little dt^durtitm, may represent the arrivals durttig the last live years, which will therefore be about t<-ii thnusaiul pet- annum. The tensiis fur liClil gives the uuu'her of persons who have aliaiiiud thu age of one liundred and up- wards, as follows : — White men al>ove one hundred . . VXt Pitto women .... . 'I^A Black people — men .... \KV.)\^ „ ,, women . • . . lOll 2(ill The proportion of hinrk [tenple who Hvo to great afro appears therefore tn be much higher than that of tlie whites. This advantage the .\friran race seen; to possess chiefly in the southern districts. In ten of the states south of the i )hin and Potomac, the whtde num- trer of white inhabitants was fivo and a half millious, the number of blacks one million and a half (nearly) ; yet of the former only three hundred are above one nundretl years of age, while of the latter there are 1780 — n circumstance which shows that the cttnutte of the louth is lH*tter fitted for the negro constitution than for thut of white people. Of the latter, only one in nineteen tliou>iand arrive at the age of one bun* dreil ; while of the Afriraiis one in every nine hun- dred reaches that age. Om the subject of longevity we may mention, that, in August Ittl7i within a cir- ol« of t»plve mil«i in diamvter, in North Carolina, tliuie wei'u living sixieeii persons between eighty and ninety years of age, twelve from seventy to eighty, and twelve from sixty to seventy. A child wai lately born there whose father was eightv-foiir and mother 6fty- seveu years at the time of birth ( Vruti/cn's Vnittd Statct — iValih't Heyiiler). (n Cumhuilund county (Virginia), seven persons died between the ages of ninety and one hundred and twelve years, wiUiin a short time of each other. In South Carolina Ik it re- marktHl, that all who ctmld be found abovu eiglity (ItlOd) were emigranti from Kurope, and living iu tho upper hilly country. THE C0I.0URT:D POPri.ATIOK. The st.itcs which continue to support slavery art those which lie south of Pennsylvania and thu river Ohio, with the new distrirtH to the westward of the Missis-iippi ; in all the others it is abolished. The whole number of slaves in 1030 was two miUionN, The condititm of these poor people is every where very low ; thu field slaves are fed, lodged, and Attended to, exactly on the same principle as tlint on which far- mers in thiscountrytAKe care of their oxen and horses; a planter is sorry to see them dying or diseased, be- cause he loses their labour; but they meet with no farther regard. It is frequently profitable to cultivate rice in very tnarshy gruunds, or in fields artificially overHoM-ed, where the negroes must work up to their knees in water iu the heat of the day. Numbers of them take sirk and die in this unhealthy occupation, but the planter only calculates whether the profits of his crops will pay for the number of new iiegroet which be is obliged to bur; he never thinks of the distress of these poor people, and even takes credit to himself in being liberal in sacrificing his blacks, iu order to keefi those rich grounds in cultivation which otherwise must Iw lost to the country. Mr Stuart of Diinearn mentions that even where the slaves were well fed and attended to (as it is the interest of every proprietor to do M-ith his cattle), he found them. In respect to knowledge and feeling, little lemovcd f'rrmi brutes, while all declaied themselves unhappy and miserable in their situation. When their tasks are found deficient, they are whipt, put in the stocks, or forretl to wear irons. One person was in the habit < f punishing his slaves by itig them down in coffins, and some of them had Uivd under that treatment. The cruel owner might have been punisheil by law had there been sutiicient evidence of the farts ; hut aa bv. tiH)k care to have no one present but slaves, whose testinn>iiy is nut admitted in the courts, nothing could be done. The gangs of slaves on large estates are In genen^ toleruMy well fed and clothed ; but there is a nume- rous class of nluves belonging to very p>or, and ofteu very improvident, white people, and these are exceed- ingly wretched, toiling hard, with little subsistenre and the harshest treatment. In all cases, the stavoa live together with little nmre fueling of the decenciea of life than the brutes that perish. Kven when they are employed as waiters in the large inns and hotels of cities, they are not furnished with beds, all lying like dogs in the passages of the house. There are laws by which every one who s)mll teach a sKvu lo read, or permit him to be taught, may he imprisoned for twelve muntlis. The adviuitage of having labour I»erformed by slaves, is to tho proprietor very conii* derahle : they are maintained at iiu annual expense of about thirty-tive dollars each; while the interest on their original cost, Ht ten ]»>r cent., may be forty dol* lars ; the ituiouatis sevenly-l'ive dollars, or about L.17 per aMinkiii. Now, the wages of a wliite labourer are iicre three times as great as in Kurope, and cannot bu rei'kojitd at less tlian five liundrtHl or six hundred dollars, from L.I'JO to K. !.'>(>. It is uo wonder, there- fore, that the pniprifturs of slav: a in America are jeis> lous of liny atieinpts to instruct or emauctpatu them. Fnv H'oikt nml Colunri-d INwpIe. From (he black peiple having been first introduced into America as slaves, they are regarded every where with great contempt, whether free or in bondage. In the stuies where slavery remains in force, the free ne< groes or mulattos are treated with the greatest con. tumely ; every impediment is thrown in the way of their obtaining ediu'ation ; and the senate of Virginia even voted that the iurrease of schools for coloured people was a nuisance which ought to be ptit down; iiy laws in the several rtates, any one who may insti- gate tbeni to resent this ignominious treatment, or In any way to diminish the respect which is cdmmnnded to free (N'ople of colour for the whiles, may be punished bv fine Bny ihu Qiiukori, Hud other tKintivolutit jwnoii* in thit free •tntoa, to ei- lalilitth uiid luaintalii renperttiltlu hcIiooIh for the edti- ciition of hliick children. An tUo memory of their for- mer slavory wpuih awiiy, thuy will coma to ho rty^rded In a nionf favoiiruhle vUnv. The whole nimiher of free-coluurLM) perionii in the atatc-s iH aliunt3(K),UUU. Thu [1(11.11)1. The ntimhiT of Indians now remaining within the territory of tlio statfH ii eitiniatotl to be somewhere between 4til).(HM) aiid (:OU,m>(); oi ihea:;, about 7.'i,(l()0, oonaiHtinK of trihttji called Clivrokees, (Jreeks, (Jliicka- ■awe, and ClioctawH, are in pottHus^ion of tracts of iand lying coiaii(iioui to each other i. (ieorgia, Ala- bama, and Tcnettttei'. There Iiavu been some diKputuii ooncernint; t)ifir it-rriiory, and some of the adjoining atates hnvu used vitry despotic mt-uns to have them •jected from it : tliey still, however, rut:iin posiiesslou t and as any viotunce done to them directly would ex- cite much odium both in Kurope and among well- thinking puiiple in thi> statL's, they are likely now to remain tindisturbitd. Thev have quite renounced tlio idiaracter of siivugRti, anJ are all moro or less in pro;^ri!!i» towards civilization; they ctilttvnte wheat, niiiize, punti)kinH; r«ar cjittle and horse.s; nianufuc ture cloth, oil, leather, &c. The tribe which has made the grciitent advances is tlie C'herokens, whit«« fO|>utatioii, in I1VJ4, was iri.jftO; in 11110, it whs 2,400, so that ihey aru not falling nlF in number like the other fndians. They poHMetts a Kne, well-watered, and arable country of five millions of acrus ; iigricul- ture is well umltTtttood 4 aiipleaml peach orchards are eommun; butter iind cheese are produced of good qualities: thuy have slaves, good horsen, ami about 22,000 lu'fld of cuttle. Several of them are good tradi>iimt!u, as blackNiniths, weavers, millers ; and they have saw-mills, griHt-mills, waggons, and other fur- niture of an improving connnunity. They have a newspaper edited hv one of their own people, in their own laogtrnge. NSinierous mid flourishing villagt>H are st-en in every section of the country. They are remarkably clean and neat in their persons, and prac- tise bathing universally. A young man solicited the band of a young Cherokee woman : she refused his offer, and gave ns a principal reason that he w:ui not clean in his appearance; that he did not, as the Che- rokees do, bathe himself in the river. They consider bathing and cleanliness In the light of a moral virtue. The (Jhui-taws, (>hickasaws, and Creeks, have not been so much notict>d as the (^tierokees ; hut they, too, are in a satisfactory progress towards civilization. They have good orchards and corn fields, and some of them are the owners of inns or hotels on the roads through their country, which are found, we believe, to lie very comfortable places of entertainment to tra- vellers. TheriMire a few )>ooks in the Choctaw lan- guage ; and the Creoks produce very neat articles of pottery, jars, vases, &c., and pipe-heads of black marble. Their ploughs, spinning-wheels, &c, are a farther proof of their thriving condition, and the growth of economivu! habits. The Indians in the northern part of the statc:S, and along the lakes, retain much more of the idle un- »tfttled habits of their ancestors than the louthern triiK.^ ; and those of them who remain near the while •t'ttlers 'ire little superior in appearance or character to the gipsies of Kurope. Reserves of land have been ftCt apart for them nut of their former hunting groinids, and in many cases these have been entirely surrminded by the farms and settlements of the whites, the Indians •till remaining in their original patch of forest. In this state, they appear to be like animals of prey under ronftucmeut ; their natural occupation Is taken from them, and they seem to have no powers for any other. Their numbers are found to tte smaller upon every enumeration I ami their idle, uncomfortable way of living, with the disrespect which is every whore shown thoin by the whites, tend greatly to prevent any spirit of union among them, or any steps ti> prosperity. Some few of them have settled into Hgricultnral com- munities, and have built houses, churches, &,c. ; others have lubmitted for a time to the Inutructiou of mis. xiouarics. Hut as thi.s addi nothinif to their respec- libility among their own people, who prefer ^ good liunter to a good mechanic, they Jiave seldom the stea- diness to persevere. urNERAI. ItrMATlKB ON AMFRICAH MAyNKItS. There are perhapH some naiiotial traits which may be stated of the Americans generally, and which per- vade all the districts : one of these is, that among white ptHtpIe, there is not that deference paid to rank nr wealth which Is reckoned their natural right, or at least are claimed for them as such in Hurnpt', The demand for wnrk-pe<>ph> '. . always so grent that mas- ters nre glad to get them at whatever price; and on this account the men themselves feel much greater in- dependence of their employers ; while the employer, on the other hami, is much at a loss if at any time he cWTend the workmen. This circumstance modifies the whole intercourse between man and man, among the white inhabitants of America. Labourers viiy gene- rally Rit at meat with their masters ( and in (timilies the whole establishment, masters and domestics, eat at the name table. The Americjtn working people sel- dom, however, bring up any of their children as house Mrrault, which amung them li reckoned a dsgrudiug employmunt ; and if any of them submit to act in that capacity, they will still not allow themselves to be e-Jled servants, hut arodenominuteil h-lps. The name **mtuier*' is also di»liked i and uii I'mjiloyer Is gene- rally culled toaa in preference. In cousequonca of this' unpleasant kind of feeling, which imposesa sense of degradation on one party, and of constraint on the other, white people nre as seldom as possible sought for as house servants ; these are generally blacks or mulattos, who are not allowed any where in the states to eat with white men, ond who therefore never think of it, nor feci hurt about It, when in fen'tce* The diHiculty of getting servants, and the high rate of wages, leatU every one, as far as po^ililu, to do his own work. A gentleman of rousiderabin property goes to market, and bringii home a turkey for dinner ; if he even mend his own shoe*. It Is not thought anywise strange. Judge Marshall (Chief Justice) used t jcarry home his dinner in his I>fk»d, and no one appeared to tliirik it nnbei'oniing. In their dmnestic manners, there are some pecu- liarities which may be mentioned. They live a great deal in large bounling-liouses, or hotels, instead of having liomes of their own; and travellers passing through the country, in stopping at any town, have frequently the opportunity of dining at the inn wiih a great part of the respectable iiiTKonB of the jdace. Work-people adopt very geueraily thu saniu mode of living; and there are houses in the different towns whereas many us forty rir fifty board ami lodge to- gether, paying at a certain rate per week or month. Even young married people frequently live in this way for some vears, not troubling themselves with a separate ektabliahment till it be absolutely necessary for their family. Alarriages are generally a great deal more early with them than in this country ; u circum. stance which contributes to this practice of bnardtn>r, as young people, though they have always rbundani employment and snbsidtence, cannot till after sonu! time accumulate sutHcieut for furnishing a cmnfurtable home. We have Air Cobbctt's authority for stating that long courtships receive no cimntenauce from young ladies in America; females of every rank very quickly disun'ss a lover who requires time to make up his mind. It may be noticed here that women every where receive the greatest attention, both in their families and wlien they have occasion to go abroad. Captain Hall, who seems at one time to doubt cimcern- ing this circumstance, sava in another, ** it is a rufe which we saw universally attended to in America, never to think how men shall fare, till every female bus been fully accommodated." As a jiroof that the same feePng exists among the working classes, we mav mentifui, that, in farming establishments, thu fe- males are never askcil to do any work out of doors. There are certa'n laws in the United States wiiich have a peculiar influence on the manners of the coun- try. It is not, for instance, allowed for a rich pro- prietor to leave the whole of his wealth to any one of his children ; the laws direct thai it shall he'divided equally, or nearly so, among the whole. Hence large F>roperties are broken down, and the aristocracy of andholders, the most important class in all other countries, have no existence in the titatt>8. As it Is this class which in Knrope gives the tone to a great many of the observances and even feelings of society, the want of it in America has a ))owerful iutlueuce in forming a set of manners ditTerent from ours: the farnuTS there nre almost universally the prnjirieturs of the land which they occupy, and it is seldom very extensive. They have no renttt to pay, and they cul'- tivate only the best soils; hence they Jiave alu-ays large returns on their outlay; aud though few of them acquire great fortunes, the majority are in easy rir- cumstances. Some of the southern planters, who are the richest class in the United States, have incomes as high ns L.lIt,OUOor l«.30,000 per annum; many have from L.3000 to L.5000, hut the incomes of the majo- rity do not probably exceed L.700 to L.1500 per an- num. The next cIuhs to the planters, in point of wealth, are the great merchantti in the commercial cities, some of whom possess fortunes of L.230,000; these, however, are not numerous. As none of these sumd are, however, equal to the large fortunes which are inherited in Europe by the accumulations of seve. ral generations in one porsim, it is evident that there cannot exist in America those clubs of ennrmiuisly wealthy individuals, who have such a powerful in- fluence in all the alfnirs of the older countries. Kx. tensive concerns and great establishments, which in other countries are supported by single individuals, are here carried on by joint-stt>ck companies : not only is this the case with banks and canals, but with mills', steam-boats, woollen, cotton, and iron manufactories. The shares in the stocks of these companies are gene- rally small, and they afford a ready means for me- chanics, labourers, and persons of all classes, investing their savings with advantage. From the comfortable circumstances in which propio of the middling classes generally liud themselves, there are not the same restraints upon their moving from place to jilacc, to improve their circumstances, as there are in hurope. Vonng persons have never the ap- prehension, for instance, of leaving their parents des- titute, or dependent upon others, which often keep them at home with us. Married people, again, with a growing family, have generallv a sullicient ».tock to enable them to move away with all their children, and take a long journey in whatever direction they may mm a prospect of thriving. !u England, where they have hardly aiuHiciency from uneday toanotlwr, this would be impouible; and hence the small nuio- ber of working people in this country who are altle ta transport themselvei to take advantage of the higher wages and better living of America. The journey by canal, river, and lake, to some of the back settlementa there from the cout. Is more eipensive than that of an English family wotild be to Ilalifaa, and the iro* provement of circumstances hardly so great; yet how few in this country, to whom this improvement wn;iH be the greatest, are able to Uke advantage of it ! This power of shifting their place, aud seeking to bette/ themselves, baa had a more iteculiar effect upon the character of the Americans tban any other circum- stance. They have less of that superstitious attach- ment tonne spot than is found in poorer countries, where the people cannot leave it t families think HttU of u journey of some hundreds, or even thousands of utiles ; and the numbers who are continually moving with their liif^gage, has made the opening of new cjinals and rail-r(Nu)s to distant parts more pro5tabl9 than it could have been in any other country, BELiaiOK. All forms of religion are equally favoured by the state in America, aud the members of all have equa. privileges. None of the clergy are paid liy goverii- metit, or out of public pniperty, in any shape; they dcjtend for their salaries entirely upon the umgrega- tions for which they olHciete, and by which thi>y are elected. The bishops, ministers, elders, or other of- ficers, are chosen by the mt^inlters of each persuasion, according to their several forms of church govern- ment, without the intervention of any other party. Tliere are a great ntiml>er of different denominations of Christians in America; the priuripal are the sani* as in this country, consisting of Catholics, Protestant Kpiscopalians, Presbyterians, Quakers, and the va- rious classes of Independents. In some of the statea there are certain denominations more prevalent than others. New Kncland, for inst^ince, was settled bjr the Puritans in Cromwell's time, and its ,.*eligioui condition bears the impress of that origin. Mary- land was coloni'/ed by Itomaii Catholics, who are sttll numerous there; Pennsylvania by the Quakers or Friends; while Episropacy prevailed in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The first Presbyterians came from England, Scotland, and Ireland, and settled in Delaware and New Jersey. If the whole population of the states were divided into twelve parts, three of them would \te Calvinists, chiefly of the Independent and Presbyterian sects; two Baptists; two Metho- dists; one Kpiscopalians and Lutherans. The rest include persons of many various forms of belief, and a contiderable number who follow no religious pro- fession. There are about sixty t^iUeges and seminaries for the education of young men devoted to the church, of all the different sects. In New York, it is found thut there is one clergyman to every 1384 of the po- pulation ; in Pennsylvania there is one to every 1 123 ; in Kentucky, one to every 1377 of the white infaabi- taiits. In Great Britain, the proportion is one to every HOG or f>00 — in Europe generally, one to every 1000*. It must Iffi recollected, however, that In Ame- rica this whole number are actually employed in the ministry ; there nre none of them who are merely dig- nitaries, or who hold ofhces without labouring for tlie instruction of the people : this renders the proportion of actual religitms tcochers greater than at first sight it appears, when compared with the number of cler- gymen in European countries. These remarks apply chiefly to the old settled states of the east and north ; and on this subject we ))eg to give the following extract from the work of a recent traveller of our own countrv, Mr Fergusson of M'oodhill!— *' The religion of the states is marked by some pe- culiar features. It has been too frequently disgraced by wild and extravagant fanatics, and Ui'iitarTanism has in many places made dreadful strides. Still, the conclusion to which I liave come is favourable to the growth of pure and vital Christianity in the popuhmft and civilized portion of the states. I observed, in fiublic and in private, a decent observance of the Sab- tath. The official papers of the government uniformly recognise the superintendant care of a heneBcent Ood. No shops were to he seen open on the day of sacred rest, still less were the theatres or places of public amusement ; ptihlic travelling wa«i not in gene- ral use, and the transmission of the mail on that day had been debated in the preceding session of Congress, when the question was lost, chiefly on the ground that the constitution forbade any interference by (government with matters of conscience. There can be no doubt, however, that Salibath profanation is practised in some quarters to a great extent. As re- gards the fruits of^ religion, there can be little qne^ tion, that, taking them as a people, the citizens of America are virtuous and exemplary. Conjugal infi- delity is extremely rare, and, in more than one of the states, is visited by fine and Imprisonment. In the large cities, at least of the middle and northern states, vice does not stalk abroad in that disgusting form which may be said to deprive respectable females In European towns of the free enjoyment of oar pub- lic spectacles and walks." We give one more extract on this subject! tt is from Mr Htuart of Ouneam 1— rHAMBKRSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. t " W» went lo altrnid divlii* MtrvKO nt Mr St^b- Mnpi* ehurflb. H« hnA fcmin fnim hutn», and wot tiniiTaidably deulnwlt and the pennii who had pro- mlMd loaffldiM for him fhiM toapprar, in cnnitt- qupnoe of th« mornfiifr baln^ niiHmiy. Th» confinff- Dim aatamblad— n |Hi«MaiMiuNl i at ImikHi l>r .Smith, nne nf tha aider*, roa«, aad laid, that lht>y ought not tn iwparata withmit diMharfcinff thoM rWifirtoiii diitiea whtrti had lad thorn to aiMmble on th« Ant ilny of thfl w(wk. He then |piv« mil a p«iahn frtim hit own Mat, and aftarwarda prayed. In the ineantiBfie, he had aenl homo otia of hii rtaiif^htera for a volume of aemHNtf, one of wbU'h he read. A aeeond paalin wai fliren out by him and lunfr, afiar which tiie wrvioa wa« cwioludad by a prayer fnHn Mr I^iiter, a ibrmer In tha neiffhkMwrhood, and one of tha elilt^ri — the »hol« without any H|>p4*arance of hustle or exertion.'* There are a ffreat number of rcli^ioiiii newspapttm in Amerim, which li a fnrther priMif of the Mrkiui ha* biM of a lurjfe part of the pnimUiion. The remarks wo here have m.-ule npply eRchiHlTply to the New Kngland itatet, and to the older teltlefl dintricts of the emit ; they niav aUd perhiips Iw extend- ed to the lotvna of the newIy.iornitMl wpsteni states, in which much attention Is given to relift*on. In the nlave countries, howerer, this condition is RUi^>ther Prtrer^rd. North Carolina, with a |H);iulation of fll)ll,*>UO, has hardly Kfiy clergyriien ; and South Ca- rtlina, with 4'Ji>,000 inhahitants, hits not mure than forty. In Geor^a there were ntily ten in 1M18. Tn Vir^nia, the population is almtit one million; the tniniber of derffymen not one hundred. The situa- tion of Maryland li similar. In the countries on tlie Ohio, Michigan, Ar., which are in progreu of settlement, there are no r(>»;iilar chiirrhps except in ttnvns ; the only opportunity tlit' nilrinists hav^ ofattendtuff sacred ordinnnrei Win|if nt H phi -meetings, or lent-prrtufhmftt, as thev would b<> imllcd in Scotland, which are held In the foresn, and are sometimes continued for several days. The first iwttlers in thesu districts are f^enerally nide men, and mtlfl heedful of reliffious matters ; hut these met'tinfra serve to keep alive amon)? them a feellnfr of what is due tn their chanuHcr in this respect, and, as the po- pulation becomes more dense, f(raduall/lead to the estaldishroent of regular pastors and churches. MCANft OP EOL'CATIOy. The state of the people in respect ti> education is very different in dUieivnt porta of the states. In the old settled diKtricts, the proportiim of wcU-informed ■Ami wplUedurated people is fpvater than in most Riiuntries of Kurope^ In the slave states of the south, a»d in the vesurn districts, which are as yot ooly uomtpied tiy a thinly-scattered population, the n tWe*. I itudflDt to 1331 inhablunU. — middia iIkvc *utM, 1 — .11';.^ — — KHitKem iTavc >tJit««, I — Tint — — WMUmoiiicwtUtt^, 1 — OUfU — la the New Kncland autes, it appears, by the num- ber of younic men who are thus recetviuff a liberal oduciuion, th:a there is care taken to provide instnir- tors h>r the riainff ffeneration, aa well as to secure respeetabla attaiaraeats in those who are to exercitte the professions of clerfprrnen, Uwyen, medical men, encrin«era, itfu In the ahive states there ia a lament- aMt> deficiency of all thia. In the newly-settled dis* uii.'U it cannot of eourse t'e expet-ted tliat people so ibinly sratiered over the wilds should have r«t[ular lueans of educatiou. Ia the New England sfitas the means of iostructioa provided for the children of thu lahonriuf^ classes are m general such as to put the knowledtfo of rtradinf;, writing, and arithmetic, within the reacn of all. Kvery klate has a public fund set apart for paying the salaries of teachara ; and If thia ia not siLfficient Ut provide one for each township, the inhabitants are expe-cted to assess themselves to make up the deficiency. Thov (generally elect school-committees, who build schimf- hiitues, choose teachers, and apportion funds, accordiiif^ to the neceaaitics of each parish. Children are en. titled to attend at these seminaries vrithout any charge hut that of payint; for the books which they use. In order farther to secure the education of young people who may be obli({ed to j^o early to i^reiotf, it is omniuii in thaw ntates to stipulate lefutoling a$ part of thtxr traget. This was iu former times a ref^Ur condition in respect to young farm-servaiiu in Scotland, only that here they were generally taught by the mastet- or mistress themselves, whereas in America they are sent to sch^Kil for that purpose. The result of all tliis is that the auinber of people of the working classes who can read and write is here fully greater than in any oouutry of Europe, not even excepting Scotland «w Switserland. The means of education are seldom avauting, while the wages of the labouring clasaea enalila them to provide hooka, and to maintain their eliildren at acfaool for • longer period than can l>e euily done in Kurope, where their services are sotm required to aaaiat in maintaining the family. It is nmarkad, that, " though ttie number of learned aud scf'.otific characters is muck saaUer than in Franne or England, the mass of tha population are better in- fbrmed than In either of these countries. Heading Ibe jOikmala uuiveriaHv (which ar* afforded it a Afth Wti part of the price of newspapers in this rtmntry). and knowing a little of what Is doing nt home anfl the wnrM renernDv, they Iwtray none of that awkward, netis which spring-* from consvloiH ignorance." It must not be supposed, however, that this general account of the stnte of eduCHtlon nnpties eaunlly to every district. It relates. Indeed, chfotly to tne great towns, and to the thlrkly.peopled places In their nefgh- hourhood. The n>iiiote townships, which In a country so lately occupied foi-ni a large proportion of the whole area, are freiiuently as much deficient In the means of Instruction as in regard to religious edtfiinticn t and they have Indeetl little anxiety to improve themselves. Manr of them pnv no attention to the regulations for establishing schiMiln, and, wero It left to themselves, wouhl iillow their people to remain as they are, with- out either rending or writing. In America, however, ns in most other free countries, the well-informed nor- tion of the community Is the most active, and, like tliu little leaven which leavens the whole lump, it is continuallv at work to stir up a desire for informatfon and light In all the dark places round It. Tlie nper;). tions of benevolent societies have the same effect in the remote districts of America which with us they have proiluced in the Highlands of Scotland and else- where ; and they are ultimately more sni'cessrul, be- cause, whenever a desire for iiiformutlou has beeu exclteil, tlio comfortable circumstances of the people enable them to go on wluratlng themselves. In tilt the newlv-nettled states, lands have been allotted for the erection of niMdcniies, and thu establishment of rei{ular district or jini'iH'hiiil schools, according as the population iucreiises: six hundred and forty aci-fs aro generally set iip:irt In each township fur this purpose, l»e»iUea one or two entire toH-nships in each slate for univerrity I'umla. I-KAllNINO ANn THF. AUr». *" " •Americn lias produced several names of the highest celebrity, both in learning and the arts. ChisNical studies, which used to bo looked on as the great te.it of learning, are nut very extensively activated t but in general philology, or ncrfunintauce with the prin- ciples of iBngnaj^u, this country possesses several very eminent scholars — among whom we may mention Mi' Dupon^-eau, a native of France, Imt naturalised in America, and celebrated for his researches into the history and affinities of thii dilTereut Indian tongues. .^ir ^Vheaton, also, who ia well known for his acquniu- tance with the langnagt>s and hintory of the n«e, there is Dr ('banning and Jouathun liilwards in divinity; Irving, celebrated t>oth as a historian and n novelist ; Bryunt, a pM>t of high power and elegnnco ; Cooper, whose fictitious narratives have attained a fame hardly inferior to those of Scott, and which exhibit a set of manners completely original to Eunipenns. It is questiimnhte, indeed, whether there is not ns great n jiroportiou of living .American writers who have attained celebrity in England, as there are of English autliors of the present day whi»se works arer^adun tne otiiei- fliile of the Atlantic. The American reviews, which often give publicity to the opinions of men of talent in that country, as ours do to those of philosophers and states- men here, jirodnco freijTU-ntly as deep an impression as any European puhlicatinns of a siniihtr kind ; and tb? sele<-tions which appear now and then in this country from the American periodical literntrre, give evidence of us high talent in the writers, and of us coltivatctl taste in the readers for whom it is prepare*!, OS anything of the same description among uursclveti. In science, the reputation of Europe is so compacted of what lier philotopbem of f )rmer times hare doiu-, and irf" what is now doing by th.we who cnntimie their r***earchei, that it wmihl be absurd to institute acorn- parison in this resjrect. It i.iay he remarked, how. ever, in regard to America, that she poascsses men who keep pare with all the discoveries and improve- ments cf the sciences, and who are able to canvass and examine eveiy thing which any new train of investi- gation may bring to light in other conntriea: if we add, farther, that one of the most splendid of tht^e original trains of investigution was duvised and traced to its result, the identity of tlio electric fluid with Hghtiiin,', by the American pblLifcopher Franklin, ne Bhnll have (tatti as much for the scicntilir fame of America, as «»n be arrogated to itself by any Knni. pean conntry. Of the American journals of sciencf, that of Dr Sillitnan is well known in Europe, wliero it enjoys a high aud well-meriled celebrity. The re- cent growth of every thing in America has not ^ireti *,ime as yet for the forn;.ition of those extensive mu- seums and libraries which so much facilitate the re- searchei of learneil men in the old countries of Ku- rope ; and as the legislature has not power to vote money for these objects, it may he a considerable time before any thing is witncitsfd' there like the splendid national collectiotia of Paris, London, and Rome. There are, however, several muaenms; as, fur in- ■tance, those at Salem, Boston, and IMiiladelpSi >, whose fame will gradually accelerate tlieir own in- crease, and mav at last attract national attention to the subject There it no public astronomitcal ohaer- vntory in the states, and the expense wonM b« ton great for any private means. In mechanical srleiue, which Is the abaorblng pur- suit of the present dav, the Amuricans h'\ve been no whit behind other nations iu deviaiiig means for faci- litating and abridging auch processes of lalmur as are carried on in their own country. Steam navigation, though certainly first discovereil In Scotland l>v .Mr Taylor, was as certainly first brought to a useful and practical result in America by Air Fulton. The ma- chine which was contrived hv an American for sepa- rating cotton from the seed-^that for distilling salt water, or procuring sweet water at sea, by separating it fnim the salt — some umtrivances for abridging the mannfwuure nf iron- work—and many others adapted to the peculiar circumstances of their country, show the Americana to be equally ingenious, and iM]ually acifuainted with the resources of mechanical inven- tion, as the English or any other natiim. The science of the Americans haa also been displayed iu a very remarkable and useful manner, in the con. strtu'tion of several large Canals and rallwdys, some of whiclt are hardly to be equalled in any otiivr ountry. Thu same skill is seen in Improving the navigation of their rivirs, in constructing bridges, in architecture, Hud in ship-building. tMJTrilC PRO«PECT8 OV TlIK II .SITED flTATK!). Erom tlie rapidity with which the pi»[ are indeed magiiilcent .anticipations, and we know no reason why tliey should not be realisefl. But WH nnist remark, that, whatever they may add to the national grcatuesa of the Americnn name, they are hy no nieiins likely to be favourable in the same degree to the individual comfort of the members of'lts popu- lation. It cannot be doubted but that the high rutea of wages and j)rofita, and the rapidity with which ca- pital now accumulatea iu that country, are partly nw. ing to the large tracts of fertile and easily acceiiihie laud, which are always at th i disposal of^ its inhabi- tants. Were the gtivernment weak, iguornnt, or par. tial, the^e unoccupied territories might exist, as they do in many other countries of the world, without be- ing of advantage to any one. In America, the qualities of the govenwnent render them easily availtthlii, as long as they last ; but nothing can renew thu same advantni;e after It has once been expended. As those splendid protoecta, in which the Americana are f4>nd of indulging, approach to realization, the quantities of now bind will be daily growing le.s»_the rapidity with which capital now accumulutcs will bu dinnnishing iu the saiin! proportion — the wages of industry will gra- dually fall olf — anil as the nation becomes greater and more powerful, in tho same degree will the resources of its individual population he lessened. Ktu the truth is, these fiincies concerning the rapid iucreasu of popniition, and the filling of the whole Ameri- can continent with a nation of unparalleled power, " greater than the sands itf the sea iu multitude," are mere playthings of the Imagination. Too little is known itf'thc real nuniurical progress of population b» cfiable us to say any thing on the subject ^ and cer- tainly it it nt)t the circtimhtance that their immense and fertile cfiuntry tri/f one Hay he fuUff ncctspinf, which ought to hi* a subject of satisfaction or pride to the Anierii-ans, however powerfiil the nation might then bt-, but rather that their gigantic popu- Ifition has rirli fielcU and abundant pasture in wliich to carry on its incroase for many ages. During this time, it may set an example of equal government and peaceliil Industry to the rettt of thu world, which, unhappily, haa tteea hitliwrto wanting { and by the reliction of jiut priuciplea ou the iullueiitiol piirt nf thu old contineot, the new niuious of the west may be the means ot ii'deeraing it I'luia many oppressiuud. When these arc removed, it will Ite seen, tliat, In our world too, there is nut wanting abundance nf tuiiK'cu- pied und rich Inud : whole kingdoms aud provincifi of Kurope, .\>iij, and Africa, are at present shut up from indiutry liy one kind ttS barbarism or other, nnd tlie example of America may yet enable mankind to enjoy the advantages of tboir fertility. CoiNto 3111(1 I>ulbm a fortnifUu. SIcroutyncd Uy A. KUkwood, sod prlntsit by ttaUautyns asA ConipAoy, Paul's Work. Ti coi an tho of pri tha by wit wh log vii or bod ma Btat inU altli in I cen the met In I one isfi ■ay poll g0T( fori •nil uac are xielt imb 11ml tion t|uii and and tend and inoli tran tbo plan 10 a «ntc or n\ duel of w are< prep tnfc comi tho: proG and finlt dlffl CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLUM AND ROBIKT CHAMBBRS, IDITOM OF « CHAUBBRS'g JOURNAL" AND ^ « HISTORICAL NEW8PAPIR." No. 18.>-Naw Bdition. Pi"c« Mrf. VIEW OF BOTANY, OR THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. ri|.i. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS EXHIBITED. il»i rit.J. nf.4 iiey, " what its inhulii- irnnt, or par- txist, tti they without he- tlie qualitin ailbblH. a» thu Biime As thuw ■ann urn fimd inantitiesof piility with iiiiahinff in itry wili gru- fi:rcater nnil 111' resources Kul tlie id iniTfiiixi (lie Anirri- Icii powtT, It.tuili','* are iKi little is puhition Ut 't i and cer- ipir immense til/ fifcujAeify tion or pride the nation gantic pnpu< tire in uriiich Uurinx this government Ltrld, n'Liebf and hy the iitial piu-t of le west iiiuy opprtissioiu. timl, in our •e of lUHK-l'.U- provinri's o( >ent shut up r otbef, Hud mankind t. * 1 a CetvUdoas. or 8c«d* ntaiM of MmU(/bn>, J aIm M , w tMdM vwtU. TnoM of the mambruoui jMrtlUiMit inwiriMM naaln wkw* iMr i t Mnw U lin >«• bau ooJjr partial, laarlnf tnniTarw flhraa. Tha eonioal tarmluailoat ooeaaUnall* e b iai inbli In ika TtaMla ol planU alao ladlaMa Ikalr oaUular origin.'' or TBS TAKOtin ITlTCIf. Bv tbla tarm may ba undarttoud ^n a i^naral mm* •11 IbuM paru of planta wbioh do not aihlbit tha form •Ithar of mambranai or of calU. Il conitltuua almoit tha aniira bulk uf tba mora solid paru nf iraaa. If a branch ba cut tranavaraalr early in ipring, tha lap vlU ba found to miit MM aorar iha wbolaof tha cut •nrfaca, which If ■umin*4 will ba found lo contlil of ■ raat numbar at axcaadlaftr amall fibtaa, raaaala or yipai throiiah vUoh tha Uaold porlioni of Iha raff»> tl|blo aaoanS or 4aM«iU. Tkaia ara at it wara Uia nini and arlarlaaaf tha plaul. Indaad, whilM the ttama of calls akaaa ilaiitiksil may ba said to constl. tula tha flash ol alaat^ tha lissua of fibres may ha ■aid lo stand for Ha booaa aai other firm paru of tha lyslam. In animaK *k« flaUa ara conreyed to and from a central raaasrair aalial the heart ; but tuch an orvan doaa nut exist In tha vegetabla kingdom. The duids enter by innumerahla moutlis at the rootf and are conreyed Ly the vascular system to all paru af tha plant Attad to receive them. There It little ra- rUliot: in tha diameter of the vessels and their gene- ral lorm is cyllnMcaL Tkair ■luulaneta Is ijuile Mtoalshinf . In a piece of oak of about the slia of l-IOth uf aa inch, 90,000 vaaeals hav* baan lackonad to exist. Hadwif measurad tha larfaat reasal In tha tHoi of a fnurdi It a p psa r sd Mltk of an Inch In dl. MS alar thrsv(h Us laetmrnaai, wUch ma«nlfle4 000 thnea; so thai Its raat diamater waa tha 34iieth part •f aa Inch. Tha vaaaala of plants do not, like those •f animals, exist ain|l*, but are collected In bundles, or fksclculi as they ara called, which somatlmee con* laia hundreds of Tcsee l e. Tlwy oecaslonally aleo ra- tify I that la, soma vaaaala shoot off fhrns ana parcel to unite with aootkar, and aflarvarda rutnra to that which they had left By this ramiSaatlon a reticu- lated Bspaarauce is b« form 'a hollow cvlinder, the spires beint' generally In contact This hollow tnbo Is some ' i nrmod of one cun- tiauoue fibra, anmatimae of eevaral parallel fibtae ad. haring togathar. Tha fibiee ara tenacious, and in aome plants alaatio. Thay diifar much in six* in dif. larent pimnu, and at different stsges of the growth of the ume plant. They stretch through the whole of lu length, from the roote lo the leavee and flowers, foUuwing the various eurvaturaa of tha staa. Grew found iliat thay aliarnala with tha straight veeselt in every part uf the wood, and surround and enshsatb them in the leafatalk, the leaf, the flower, and the fruit. The straighl vessels are said to be formed in spring, the spiral vessels in summer. Theea spiral vess e ls undergo vnrioue transformations. In many cases tha inner fibraa of tha tube, Instead of forming a continuous spiral, appear in Iha shap* of rings suc- ceeding one another at regular intervals, and ounsti- tnting what are callaJ annular vcesels (from anniu, a ring). This Is eonsidared a primary form of veesel, and (rum tk. two simple vatiams of vaaaels deecribad, mora complex forms ara alaboralad aa the plant ad- vances in age. In the punctuated vessel tha spires are aoparated to neerly equal dislaacea from each other, aad the intervening spaoae are Ailed up with a mem. brana sprinkled over with small okacura polnia or dole. This is tha largest la taspaot of diamatar of the ve- gwable vaaaels t it ia at lUat transparent, but baoomaa •faqua bjr (fa. A Imirtb varlaty of vtital, which has Ika saiaa origin aatkalaelt halag IkrmsO of tftigs, Is thai In which the separations ara not AIM with la a m k r iaat but with i»aU praductlon* (wcaadiag faam ikaaa rlng« ikeeiNlvas. These niiMoMlo«s oAan have the ipa»rsaca of ntlwork, whaaao thay derive the name of rttteulnUtl spiral vasaela. Neither thay aor iha fenaar varlata ■alsl la tkayiang pl«ai, but ara gradually deva l opal aa II approaohaa nwturliy, aad by tba sama sariaa er aaitsaai that la, the spires or rings which were at first oonllgunus separata at a ficallons from the spires theesaelvee. The retlculaled Sfiral vassals ara band bol la few alaala, aad ihay apaaar to diffsr from lb* panatualal variety prinal- pally In tha poeltlon of the,rlng«, which are mora or less obliquely placed, and at different poinU send off otie *r mora branchea. A fl/lh varlaty, oUW Isa rf i r f rtiuli, has been already meuiloned. They derive their name from resembling a chain of oblong ovate cells or beads, and are classed by various writers, someti.jas amongst vascular vessels, sometimes as be- longing la lb* caMular tissue. Very contradictory opialons prevail with regard lo the functions of the vagalabla vaesehk By soma writers it is asserted that two distinot spealaa aalst, oa* of whiak la iolanded lo oonvey sap and iba other ta aonvey air, aad hence called >h lliaaa ntiarisilc of tba functions which thaaa veasala per- form; but th* following deacription will eluoiaau what la meant i— For about a month during the early part of spring, the sap risee through th* wood alone, andlsaotdlelingulshablainthabarkatalL In coarse of lime, however, as tha leavaa bacoaie dawlaasd, Iha sap it tendered no longer visible in Iha wood, aJlboiigh it undoubtedly contluuss to ascend through that chan- nel, and the bark becomea moist, or saturated with fluid. Now, as il has been determined beyond a dunbt that no sap can reach the bark by tha roote, nor entars it direetly from the root, there is nooibar way of accounting for these phenomena but by supposing that the leaves are th* organs by which the sap is carried off from Uie wood and conveyed into the bark. This inference has been confirmed by lb* fact, that tha bark continues dry until the ieavea shoot forth, and tlut, after having b«*n moistened, it again beoomee drv if the leavaa be stripped from the tree. The fluids, which undergo a peculiar change in the leaves, are carried downwards by means of vessels situated near to the inner margin of the bark. They differ but little in structure from the more simple vessala of the wood. Thay run In straight parallel fasciculi (or bundles), a now layer of which is yearly added to the inner surface of the bark, as well as a new layer of ligneous vessels to the outer surface of the wood. Orew, a great authority in thee* mattaia, obsorves, that the new matttr of th* tre* is every year distri- buted two contrary ways, one part falling outwards towards the bark, and the other part retaining iu si- tuation Inward, to constitute the wood. By this p«. culiar mode of growth, vessels In the bark exhioit reticulation or a net-like appearance, themeehee being filled with celioiar matlar. Bach vestal is an entire tuba of a small sisa, and arranged according tu tha nature of the plant and lu habiu of vegetation. In the foregoing observations wa have aLtempted to give a view of the elementary organs of planu. These, again, enter Into combination, and form what are somatimea called compound organic constituenU, or common texture^ but which, for tha sake uf clear- ness, we propose to distinguish by the name of BBCOiniaaT oaDSm or oaoAaa. These ar* the pith, th* wood, th* bark, and tha epidaimia or skin. Tha pith ia that soft, light, and spoogey sort of substance which occupies jie centre of the stem (hence sometimee called the heart), where it is commonly surrounded by a circle of veesels, which construol for il an appropriate canal. When seen in iu meet Mrfsot form, il Is found t* consist eatiraiy of cellular usaue^ rather loose in texture as in the alder, or compact aa at the knot of the ash. The wood (lig- num) Is that hard cylinder which Immediately lu.-- ruunds and envelopes the pith, and Is enclosed by the bark. It is aaseuially ooropoead of vassels, and of cellular tiatu* oomblnad in aa InAaiu variety of ways, and exhibiting every diversity of (bmt If a tree of t«v«ral y*ars' ttaadin^ b* cut transversely and examined, It will b* found In consist of a numbar af cylinders, enclosing one another lihe so many Uy*it at aaManWo citalea dispostd aoaad ms aald Sy ijia uumkar of Ibasa «k*«ga of lb* «ae aap h* immmiMt. ThaauiavoM, wkiek Uip«Bg*y *■« lew4aakU itaa the Inner or haart-wood. Is called albnmum. Th* •tkul* «r* travanad by laya at Ua*e diverging from the centi* of the stem tolucireumbmic*. Theeeas* called medullary ravs, or silver grain, and they ar* composed chiefly of Urg* ealla, aHaading is*aa**i«aiy, a*la Ibadlsiillii «f iba dlamssar *f lb* laaa, aa4 composing by their union continuous vertical planaa th* wbul* kagth of ih* inak. They ara called m*. dallary {t—m mtiMlm, aaarrow), because they were supposed to b* procassoe of Ihepllb, or a oontlnualloa of II, which is not the case. Ilialr ni* appears to b* lu keep open the onmmunlcallon between the barh and the plih, which the formaiienofthe wood would other- wise have destroyed. The bark reeembles wmid in Its comptment paru, batay ai*de up like li uf ve>iels and cellular tissue, IntlxHtoly oannected with each other. As in trees, a new layar of aaesala la annually added lo the wood, so a ilatUai bat maeb Iklnner layer la also made to the kark, lo wkiek Iba aaae of /iter, or inner bark, is usually appHad, Ik* oW layar being pushed outwards. Between Ik* vessel* thus annually produced, a considerable poetfaat uf eattular tlisus Is inierposed, the oella being cumaoaly (Ibri with Juicea. The whole it mrroundea by aa *al*r me or envelope, lo which the names of skin, spHaasstl, cuticle, or rind, have been given. Il is an aatremely thin mambran*, and extends over the surface af every part of the plant, excepting the spongeleu of iha tuoti, and the lummit af Iha pistil in flowers. Th* rind of planu is similar lo the skin of animals in tha functions which It par> forms. It is no doubt Inleadad lo protect the more seaaible organs beneath. As tha scarf-skin of the band b«coaiae iaduralad by b«4 laboar, s* tba rind of tha Ira*. If exposed to a siunny dlmato, b*camaa rough, wbusl Iha rind of tba san* spadM of plant, II nared In a shellarad slluallon, ilka Ih* haiida of a dalieal* lady, remains smooth. As Iba planu grow, the riad auatebea, aad sometlaMe lo a eansldatakia ailaati but In caaaa In whiab l» ia aos aaally etr*t*b«d, aa in th* elm. It btaaka up Into Inaamarabl* craoka. The birch, and soma other treee, " caaU lia bright skin yearly, like the snake." Tb* rind Is transpa* rent and colourlees where It Is very thin i but It la usually *f a brown or giev colour when thick. Va> riau* opinioBS ara •aMnalaad rasaesMi^ Ih* origia and sinialur* of this Bua»braB» Ma* philoaophata hold it to b* continnoua with lb* bark, aad fomad of lb* oul*r sides of iia cells. Otbers daacriha II aa a s*> paras* oiambraa*, enmpuaaJ of miaata ealla or " blad- dan," aa Oraw call* thM, wkiek ekriak aad ar* dri«l up aa tba plant growa oU*r. Tbia opiaioa i* now sup- ported by th* hlgh*st authorltioa. Thar* haa la soma inttancas been found a vary delicate^ transparent, and apparently Inorganlsad membran* on the ouuide of ihe rind. Whether it poaeeeeed poras, or, as ih*y ar* somatimea laswied, glaiida, waa loog a diepated point, but their exisuaaa has l*i*ly baea luooaiaatiUy proved. They ate a sort of minute bags opaning oa the oulsid* by an oval sill with a raised Dorder, which contract* when water or moisture is appllad, and expands In dry air, or whan expoaed to rtallght. Such is a view of tha general cotopaoant parla of the vegetable structure ; w* hav* now to turn our at- tention to the compound members or organs whicia tliey form. Thes*, aa already observed, have been divided Into two distinct classes, namely, organs of nutrition, or, aa they are sometimes denominalwl, con- servative organs, and orgaus of reproduction. Tka principal compound organ* of parfsolplaau balongiuc to the first class are, the root, tha ato* or axla, ih* buds, ajid the leaves, toguther with the appendages of these pnrts. Those of the second class ara the floral envelope, the reproduo^'.v* organs, and O* seed. TUI aooT. The root (radix In Latin) Is commonly defined to he that part of a plant whlon attaches Itself to the soil where il grows, "or to the substance on which la feeds, and is the principal organ of natrltion." Ex- ceptions tu this definition occur, aa In tb* cas* of soma vegetablea which grow floating loosely in water, aa duckweed, and otliers, having no root at all. By far the greater number of planu, however, have ruou, which perform the above functions. As Ihe nourish- ment of a phuit ia derived from tha earth, tha rout la that part which grows in aa oppoaita direction to tba sum, and is buried iu the ground. KooU ara gaoa- rally found to spread much farther on the windward than on the sheltered side of a tree, and to be pn»- portlonal to the branches, spreading to considerabi* extent iu treea plauied In au open field, but remain- ing ia narrow compass In thick woods and forests. A root coniisu of several parU, which have been called the body or caudti, the collar or life-knot, tha branches or radicles, when such exist, and tba routleia or tm U fibrse, which seem u b* iBdisp*nsable in all roou. The body aasumaa vatioua focinat th* lop *r pivot rout, which is, 1. simple^ long, and taper, as la the carrot, beet, and parsnip, or like a flattened globe, at In the turnip ; 2. branched. In which one princi- pal stem sends out a number of braachea, Ibas* agate separating into small**, till Ihay bacM* lib* Abeaa. It must ba ataatioaad, kuwerer, wiik refano** to car- rots, poutoas, and lb* like, that madam botaaian ara dispooad to consider tham rtlbar *• Miblamatan luau THE VEGETABLE KIMODOM. lini. hr It nadlly inrodaMi • daifr l■■k^ M OM (Mdt IfcM i«Wi> >■— w llM > i M H w illwftiaatlo—ofil— « ■MN IkM ikM* tt tMH. Tkan tra ikfw nrti of «h«M MkMmMMi tl—i «ln nkv, m In llnfMMo ■■< ufMraMi «lM Mfia, M in M«— tk« Man iwl mm nak. It ta ih* omm ■■■■mill r««li» tl Ik* whoki hr l( It b* i««i n w« «r arlMtlr tt&ut, tk« phnM wlU laafteUr Ma; whllM lb* iaaa Ckna ar roodaMi aUkaagk aa aana. till pan at a plaol, mar ba daatnyad at plaaaura m long aa Iba crown ramali «ba«i. Whaa It U of ibm h iriaa ap, aa4 tka flam aaan diaa.' Saek planu wa tannal annod^ at tka pom, aal moit kindi af ■raia aa4 oofB. Aa tnn, howaftr, In if praaar iwatiaaat, ean ba naimtt aa itrong ■Banalt aaa ba bnmgkl M (raw two yaan, wkan •kajr an la WM * Maaalabi or Iter thr«* jraan, wbao lb*7 art taUad B tifltla. Tka tbrou raol cos- thit of a anaamy af loaf tbla abrtt of dlAraDt laaaikt aaC lUckaaatt, and kaviag iifll flnar ooat aptughic haaa tkaa. a In tka aaaa of wbaalL barltjr, aad laott gnoMt. Tktta naall Ibiaa or rootlau baar a l aiaabliBna la tka bnatkaa and Itavat of ika ttam, Flbrlli aouM af a (nlral ibtdeulni of vtnatt, m- doaad bjaeaUntaraoraaaadaaUtla. LIkadiaMavat «f iraat tbat an not araiwraaa, thajr ara annaalljr ■radiioadi la toaia oaaia, *7tD( aad IbUIng off Ilka Marat i In olbart, baaonlnf thlekt^ hardar, aad fcrmlnf radlalat or root-bianebat. Tba iponfalait, at Ikar art oallad, wUeb laka np noiulihnaiit from •ba loU, ara iltaalad at tba aMramllyor tbtta rootlau. Thar ara mlpula ipoony bodlaa of an oblong thapa. W* kata an Intlaaea of roollalt IklHng off Ut* Itarai ta tkot* aritlni from bulba— aueb aa Ika Illy, tba •nloa, tka tnlip, m. wblob art pntkad off and parltk Ilka Itataa, by mdt aoatalnin| tb* mdlamn of ik* rootMt to k* •nlrvd nasi aiaien. It It altar Ckriit. mat tbat «k«ta nol>bndi baaoma parfcetly dUtlaot. fra H wtor Rami* e b tt m i " Th* bnlb h my linlltr to, ir aol Idtntlaal wttfc, wkat It Itrmtd a bod whtn dnnnd oa a iltat or kranili, aad It tomtd by tba baaa « laavta batamtag tkltk, aad ttoring np a qnan. . , •£ B*nfV«M tka light, and ta tmj cata ihoni It, aad taadiBMraorlaattolkaatatrtorthatartk. Baitdtt taklag ta nourlthmaat for tka plant, tka roolt glr* off ratatt, or wkat may ba oalM azeranwnt, at It laan ._ .» . ._. . ... .. . . ^^ ^ hi In. Inanea oa tka tarn aad liaa of roota. If It k* ftaa aad ttiOy p tat u attd, tka, not oftaa datoandi to a grtat daptk in tgrm of a top-root « bnl if obttadtt op. fating It* dtteant b* •Bblrdi, and many liehtnt, ftangi, ft*. tm tna, italx, on axii. Th* it*m, whk a ibw atetptlent. It alwayt abort gronnd, aad may ha dttorlbtd gmortllT at that thick parModlcular pillar from which rariont niwr growtht, mch at hnntfata, ihoot off lataraUy. Thar* ar* ax. captlunt to thIt dadnltlon, bnl h h tma of by' far tha groatctt namb«r of plantt. Than ara rarioot elattn of tttmt, tba g*n*r*l phyttdogleal ttmetnra of which hat already b**n giTtn. Prohttor Rtnnit Ihui d*. *crlb*i tb«m i — " Th* ttam It dirldad from lb* not hy th* crown or collar already dttcribad, which, thangh srld*nl on all barb* and on yonng trtm, can- not b* raeognlttd on treat of mtohI yean' gnmh. Th* tpaca batween th* collar and the Rrii laaf or bud >it*rm*d th* bol*, which it tbo applied to tha ipac* k*tw**a two or mor* leares or l)uaf, whose bate it called a node, from the Laiin word norfu* , a knot — by gardener*, an eye. The great body of a item, whether ilTlded Into holca or not, it oiled the trank. The mm of grueae, com, and reedi, it termed the ilrcw ; th* tttm of palmt, limi, mnihrooaii, anil i**-weeda, la tarmad tha ttalk ; tha item of mch Aowert at the primnae, tha daily, the tnowdrop, and the lily, it •irmad tha tcape, though flower-inlk It carutaly kattar I tha rnnntng ttem, at in the ilrawberry and etaqnafoU, la tarmad a ninner ; a thoiter nnner that deaa not root^ at In the huuielcek, ii termed an offiei ; ■ laager on* that doat not root, u In tha encumber, a sa In th* gaaa af hyncintbi, which grow ta natnn aad analitlaa of Ika toll anrt a Eital aa,' rinalal i aad a tmall tttm prattadhig latannyfrem a not ar itaol, a laekar." Wkenatrank heart paima n ent or paranoial branehat, tba plaat la larmad a treat 'kan permanent braaahaa attae, B«l flrom a trank, but frati tk* ruot, tk* plaat It tarmad a ikrab i whan tmall and mnch hnMiad, a copaa akrab i wkan tamltktd irhk woody brtnektt tkai an not pairmanana, at ta Ikt traa mignlonalta, H It tarmad aa uadar.thnib i aad whan Ih* whoh Mtm It aot woody, *nd dl«t down trtry ytar, at Itatt at Ikr at Ika arown af tha root, tha plaat It tarmad an harb i wh*n a tnmk It formed Ilka tha nndergraund ttam ef th* irlt, of Ik* ktrdaned hatat of hmraa wfciek ban wllktrad aad fallaa, and It not taper, bat all of one •klakaatt, firing off oo braaehat, at in tha dal* and aatta, tka wmtTi larmad a palm. aoDt. Budt, wklab hare rarloua formi, but an gmMraliy oral or raimdtik, eooiltt of th* yonng iboota, tithtr of \ml, lo»*r, or twig. Th*y ara umally farmed either early In tnmmtr or In antomn, and ara to eontrlrad aa to pi me r it from Injury tht dtlltat* fbllatad ttruc tan wllkta. Tha onialda it eoanottd of toogh tcalae. which ara ftaqneetlyeorered wlia a gnmmy ratia, and thay an tatarnally kept warm by a downy nitaianee Inlti p ett d between tba learet. Bodt an la moat re. ~ eta Ilka bnlbt tha tealaa belngeonpueed of eellnhur la*, whk dhttactfbtdcnU running throngh It. Tbli Mparadoa of tha ratottlar fudenll It tha Ihatnn which dlitin^thae theie icalet from learet. The taner lealu fmitm tka Aiaetlooi of letraa, until theie an fa^-JHt and fblly expanded, when they drap off i but U tome Iraae, at ta tha apple and the almond, they an eonTaned Into laaree i whilit in othen, at the rcee. they (n conT*rt*d tato tk* p*llclee, or foot- ilaUit of tht raal learet which ipring out of them. When tha eantral part of a bad contalni Itarei only. It langthene npwardi aa it expandi Into a branch i thui a laal-bnd and a braneh.bnd may be lald to be the mma. Whan It eontalni a flower, Ihli It iltuated at ta the bnlb of the tulip. In whioh unaU bolbt ara formed on the edgat of tba crown of the root between the tcalae, which gradnally enlarge at the anpanM of the loalee, an dataebad, beeome perfect boHii, and nnd np laar*t and llowtr.italkt. Withratpaottothtman. ner in whioh the learee ara Added, they mar be phdted, at In tha palm aad birah i doubled, aa la the rata and oak I embracing, u In the Irlt and the lage i dooble em. bracing, at In ralarlan, leaaal, Ac. i dooDlecomponnd, at taewrat, mimota, Ac. i nwd Inwardt, at In gruiei t tiled, aa ta pnrat, lilac, ftc. i nllad outwardt, at In rote. mary, prtavote, dee. i railed langthmyt, braadthwayt, rollad mm the tip to tha ban, or wrapped round the ttalk. Iieaf.bndt an mon tlender than flower.bndt, and tha latter an mon or leu bulged out and blunt at the point, but do not upon expanding lengthen nawardi like the laaf.bnd. At in tha caie of leaf.bndi, the em- bryo of flowen It dtipottd ta rarloni formi within lit anTelop* i It may ba tiled, at ta the race and cherry ; plaited, at In the potato i railed up into a ipiral, at In the wood.eorr*l ; rarapled, at In tha poppy j Ire-fold, at In tha pink I or ralred, at In glnieng. Budt ara ninally fimndatthelnnarbateioflearet, but they oocaiionally oocnr in other placet. Too many bndt npon a tree ara apt to cramp ht gnwth, line* It hat to rapply them witk nourlikment which otherwite would hare been appropriated to ittelf. Leaf-budt janerally con. tain only the rudiment of one axit or ttem, but tboie of pine, 8r, and odier treee of that deecrlption, contain •eTeral,aacihencloted in IM own proper pemla. When the plant hat no item, the bndi ara praduced in the axilli* of the root-learee, at In the dalir, primroie, ftc. Darwin wat of opinion that erery (md wai a com- plete Indlridual plant, and a tree an >ggregate of budt. He reatonad thni from the fact, that when a bod it ent from one tree and Interted Into another. It growt Into a perftct braach— « dlreumiiauce which bat giren rite to the ingeniuui art of engrafting. The bndi of met, being in a itate of graat lenti. billty, and feelinc the flm warmth of the aun, the rl- taHiy of the conunned thoot li ronrad Into action ; It attraeta the molilnra contained In the neighbouring cellt charged with nonriihlng matter ; the riting tap alto entan iti Teiteli ; it gradnally twellf, and burst- ing the enclosing scales, pnshet into the light and air, unfolding Us leares sucoeeslrely at it adrancet, until tha whon tre* benmet green. With reepect to learee, we ihall qnote a pailage from an eminent writer npon the subject : — " Much of the b«inty and interest of the vegetable kingdom depends on leares, whether we ragard them as the clothing of a single plant, or of groups. To the plants themsefret, they ara the most important of the con- servative organs, performing nearly the same func- tions in the vegetable economy which the lungs perform ill that of the animal. Every leaf consists of two parts ; the one thin and expanded, in ordinary Ian. guAge the leaf t the other, as tliick as it it braad, the IO(it-sialk or petiole i these together oonitltnte but one organ or proper leaf) and, with a (bw exceptions, when the leaf falls, it alwayt separatet from the twig at the base of the petiole. Leaves ara mora diversi. fled in form and composition than any other of the vegetable organs) they an simple and compound j differ in situation and distribulian on the branchet | in direction and innertion ; In reaped of expansion, point or apex, or tip, base aad margin ; In lurfaca, nbatanca, eompotllion, and appendaget. In slaa tlw dtflkr u widely i the leavee of nfpmm Ififtriam ara mlcroteoplc ohjMtt, wkllt thota of tba talipot ■aha (Ueaal* sftaata) hare barn known to *xo**d nilnylh*llnolnmmlkr*na*. l<**r*i an tithtr oaAs- •ettc, (blling btfon tnamMr It put i or JfUmmt, fklltag In aniumni or ftrtUlnl, not falllog until imthad off by tka now laartt In tht following iprlng^ a* a ti ini ri t i; of ttm loonr dnntlon. LttvM an compoaad ot Ihraa texturta--a vatoulat, a aallidar, aad a entlnlar tlunt i aad wa axpaot la •nd ihatt aarta ta tfia midrib and narrtt, the paran- Skyma, and Iha turfkett of trary laaf. When meant, whalkar nanml, aa tka almoaphon and tha molitura contained ta It, or artlRelal, at tiaaping In water, and axpotara W Ika air, an ampkiyad w dettray tha eailela and tka parandbym* of laarai, tht fudoall of rtttab irhlok cantlinw tht ribs and narvee, aa Ikay an laprapirlr called, remain, and conttilut* wkal it tarmad a tkabton laaf. In ikalelon laart* wa Airf Ih* neondary rlht or narrtt rnnning aiikar ta Hralght llnaa fWnn tha midrib ta ika margin, or branching off In an tnfialty of dirlslans, so aa to pro- dnee tba appaannea of a rattenlatad wan. Oa a man cleaa examination wa And that than ribt, whethar itralgkl or radenlalad, coailtt of btclcull of oondnol. Ing rtttab, dotaty aooompanlad with proper or r*. tnrntng raittlt. In thota laaree, the rlht of wbtoh run ta itralghl hmgltndlnal llnat, Ikalkiolenll conili. luting ihtte annnlled by traatrane rtttalt at certain distancee, which are not giran off from tha Iktcicull, aa Orew and ulhera have tunpotad, bat an dittlnci rtt- tels, united with the fttdculi by Insertion. In thick and succulent leaves, u thote of alo^ thick oordt Of spiral vtttelt, accompanied by large bnndlet of pro- par v*is*lt, ttpantad only by a thin layer of cellular tubsunce, ara obnrred to Iravene the leaf. Thll leaf Is bordered by tpintt. Into which tordt of iplral rtttals pall, gIran off trah th* fksetcnhu ntarttt to tach of tbam. In l*avtt In which tht cotia, or ribt, an Iraninrta, th* tame ooramnnicatlon between the coata, by inuculating or Inviting rttteli, occurs, form. Ing rhomboldi i aad thit ttmctun Is common to all monoootyltdunont Itaret (or Itarei of pltnu whott seed hu only one sead.lobe). At the point of atloah- ment between the branch and tha panel*, .If thIt b* dllatad, th* v«at*ls enter the petiole In diatlnot iktci- cull, the number varying in diffbrent plants. Tha sap and the proper vetsili an doeely attached In the tame (biclcului wMlst in the leaf) but Iher aeparala at the point of attadimani, tha tap.veeieli patting tmm the medullary ihaalh of tht twig Into the leaf, and the returning veaeeli paming fMm th* leaf Into tha bark of tha twig." In tha above extract the midrib and other t*mt haVa been employed which reqnlra explanation. Throngk the middle of a leaf then rant a ttalk dividtag It Into two btlvee, and which hat been denominated the mid- rib. From tlwtldet or ban of this, tmdler ribt branch ofl', and which have been rariouily called veins and nerves. These tend towards the edge, and from them strike off still finer ribs, till the surface of the leaf ap. pears like network, the meshes being filled with a gram lubiianc*. Professor Rennle proposed to call what han hitherto pused under the name of nervet or veint, Itaf-ribt, and their tmaO branchtt rtblits-^ a nomandatnra which we think convenient, and tkall acoordingly follow. Onuses afford (he timpittt tpe. dmen oritaf.rlbs. In these the batet of tna Ittvm sheathe and embrace the stem. In tome plantt on each tide of tha midrib than It a leaf-rib nearly at large> and sometimes thete ribs an mora numerout, and radiate from th* bottom of the leaf onr In whole extent It wonld appear that the almoil oonntleit array of forms of ribs wan determined by tha character of Iha branching from the midrib. Ij«aret ara either slmpl* or compound i they ara simple when lamina ara eft- tira, or when. If separated into several divisions, these segments ara not articniated with the petiole. Profea- aor Rennle thus deecribee simple leaves :— " When the midrib and Itt branchet form a simple leaf, it may b* line-like, at In the Juniper ; awl-shaped, aa In the jon- quil; spear-shaped, at in ribwort; sword-shaped, at in the iris 1 riband-like, as in grass ; apoon-ahaped, aa In navel-wort ; oblong, aa in the banana ; egg-oblong, aa In the marjoram ; Inveraely egg-oblong, aa in th* cowaltp ; wedge-ahaped, aa In ahrub-candy tuft ; roundfab, at in raund-leaved mallow ; or thleld.thtped^ at in tht Indian treat or nasturtium. Whan the pair of rib-branchea at the base stretch farther than the others, the leaves become halberd- shaped, as in cuckoopint ; heart-shaped, as in bur- dock ; arrow-shaped, as in sorrel ; kidney-shaped, ak in ground-ivy ; triangular, as in mercury ; thrae- lobnl, as in hepatica ; four-cornered, as in the tulip- tree ! Iddle-ahaped, at in tiddle.dock ; trowel-shaped, as in tflack poplar ; or diamond-shaped, as in water- caltrops. Again, when mora of the rib.branohea besides the pair at the base are long, the plait of thd leaf is often mora or less regniarly fonned to corret- pond with this, and becomes five-Iubed, at In the hop and sycamore ; hand-shaped, as In the blue passion- flower ; slashed, as in the iong-ritalked geranium ; flve-clelt, as in the spotted geranium ; many-ciefL aa In monkshood ; cleft-cut, aa In dandelion j wing-cleft, as in sItr-thisUe ; or comb-deft, as In water-violet When the stalk bears mora than lamina, and thee* ara jointed to it, so that they can ht separated without tearing, the leaf it taid to ba compound ; tach lamiot. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I I «kMk« it ktT* ■ Mklk 10 ll or uti It nlM • Im*m, m4 Ik* Jotnl to «1M •!! uiImImImi. TIm Unt. •iMMiial, rmmrm, Mk, •••«• m>4 ! » ■■■■ r«> l*kiir. aui, (loMr, ■■4 • ■■ullllu4« of iMmIIi k*ra MMr***! tam. WUa Ikm It ■ tff taOtUlk larrwt- lac two tr aart IwllMt, ikt tii«faia4 IW my ki •krw-lbU, M In ttortr i (wr.lbM, it la har.han4 aMuiUta, m4 io ua, Ikt ImMi ktlaf MnB«4 aua^ %M *k«« ik« •>•■»• iktaitTta la naakar. Tkty •.••!•• dHiai MMrilai M Iktir 4brotltloa i h am. ktlM, «k«alk«yk»tlM trfMnaoaafuuaknUa. Aa4 *k«a aaaiaktriif IMatt ItaMtttara |ria«a4 alooc •te tMtt af dM taaiaMa Uaf-Malk, ika emapoual Ua/ te laM to k* viacaii wktok tana It ^aalUM bya lit- arialaallaa Mna pnlu4 la It, 4iitmlp«lTa of tka yt- cutltf outMaatloa, tt uatautUf .w1b(M, lyra.wlBgM, aal M oa. Wkaa Ika titall lattou ara a(aln Urihi, tka akalt laaf It tal4 Io ka 4attSil)r.in. doniod, tad titumlng a rarUt' of formii lumo u( which, fur Initaaoa loa hoaki in ollran, taabia iht plaatt Io climb, Briillot irt alto tototlimat Iha ta- oratory ducia of gkadt, at aaampUtad la boraga, tka attlla|louit, ftc. 7, Tkorni (•*!*«) ara in gaaaral p r i n miii of iha ligaaouipartofiitmt, and hart ntarly Iha tamattruc tura at branchac Thty ara Indtad lomttiaMt abor- tira branebat, w la tha gtnni mnmut i lomatiaMi iha iubtt of tba loaf bardoaad, at la tba data i tomotlmat hardantd tlipulat, at la arythryaa. 8. Pricklw (a««M) araprodoctloBtoflba bark and tka cuiii, tt it wtll asampUttd In tka nta, wilk tka bark of wklok tha prlehlm itparaia. Thay eontltt of bichkoooi a turn of okloog coUt, wkick koooma condtaitd wardt iha point of tba prickia, aad oror wkich tht comaooo cu^lt of iha pan It thrown back. • ». Pnnt (/ufcra). Undtr thii Urm tra compra- haadad tha landril, tkt claw, ihthouk,aud tht bladder. Tha tandrll It a long, tyllndiical, ilaadtr, iplrtl or- gOB, Ittuing from rariout parlt of Iha plant. It con. liiu of a curlaa, which rtttmbltt that of tht root-italk of Iba laaf, and uf fatdcull of rotitlt Imbaddad In a callular paraathymi. It bat apartarat oa lit lurfica, Iba tana at iht Itaf ; to that tha landril partaktt of tho natnra of tba pailola of iko 1^ aad uf tho cull. cular iTitam of that organ. Thadaw toof twokindi, tha radicalar and Iba clrrhal. Tha radlcubur daw It a nnall tbraad-llka bodr, protrudtd fram tha iltau of coma flaaibia pUnta, whion tnlariag Into tba crarlcat of iba bark of Irott, and tkt crtcki in racks tnd wallt, tnablta tha plant to support lualf parptndicularly upon tucb lurftcat. Tht drrhal claw it a combina- tion of tho landril and tba dtw. It It wdl tatmpli. tad la tha Virginian ertaptr. At far tt rcgardi Iht landril-Ukt portion, lu ilrucluia It tka tuna at llat of tha lanaril i iba daw ilitlf oontitu of cellular matiar, wbich being a ooallauatloo of thtparanchyma of tho other ptrt of tht organ, it ban cbtcktd In lit tatantion, and axpandt lidtwayt, liariog Iha under lurfica almott darold of euilt, but iiudaed with mi- nute wartt or thort Sbrili. Tht warU and SbrlU entering inia tha minuta porai of itooe, brickt, &c iwtU ihtrt, and oialntala the claw tc Irmly altachtd tt 10 luppon the branch, and enable the plant to dimb on the face of a perpendicular turftoe. 10. The bladder {amp, at Ike tn> giss of iktir Juncllon wilk the mm, cil< wlie tailed brtclta I and that the centre of a bull c wi lata au talt or stalk, bearing the lo' M tacha a that bud, Iht InntrmotI of which ooniiliule the flower i whilit oihtr budt giring birth Io ntw sulks, Itartt, aad floatrt, may or mir not ht prodnotd In tkt aalllai of Iht aulermott, at ihey ara uafoldad on tha orlaloal " "■ ■ * .... ^^ rariout, of dereloplog The infloresoenca of plaalt Is rarr rarlous, and aepeods enllrdr upon Ibe power of dereloplog the flower.buds In tae aails of ike braclem. lalor- cscence, howtrtr, may be reduted lo two kindt i ll it cdled ilmplt whtn formed by Ike derdopeme n t of oaa bud and one branch i aad compound, whan formed br the derdopement of sereral budt and braachaai Prabssor Hooper, of Btle, bet Inlroduatd the moti recent trraagoBMnt of flowtr-slalks i and as kis no. mcndalttre Is simple, and kts keen a4oplad by Profta lor Kannle, we ikall tmploy It Hooper eoBtldtrt lb* modMorflowtrlngatcoailstlngof aBarolutloB, wklch may be ceatripatal, cenlriAigal, or mixed. , CnlriptM XMAKlea.— Flawtr^ldkt ara dtkar dmple, tupporllng only one flower, or compound, tuu« porting mora flowtn Ikaa one, apOB ttalklttt. In ctntripetal erolutloo. Ike flowert klow trtt In tke dr» cumbraaee and last in Ike ceatiUk tka flawsr-sulk al> wars growiag from tke lanar baas or aoilla of a leaf, tad the tiam baring dwayt a ltaf.bud at the luauait. Variout aamat, rtry pnaaliu Io a beginner, htra bttn girtn lo tht rariout kindt of Inflorascence. When there it only out flowtr. It It laid to be lorml> nal and sulilarr- When the prindpal stem grown past ibe flower-bud, aad tha braelea retalat the form and site of a leaf, th* flower It called aaUlary aad to- llltrri Whtn Iht budt which gnw upon tbit tloa> gtled Item unfold inio flowert, tech lupportod by a pednnde, ihtt It, limply a italk, tht Innoretotnca it ctUtd a raMtMi If iha flowert art MMlle, that Is, without a padundt, tnd Mated la the axil of the brao- Uw, a spike li formtd, of which theia trt maay ra- rlititi. tt corn, Itrtndtr, Ac. Whtn the bractw on Iht prlnotpd stdk art dose, and ortrlap ooeaaotktr, or are Imbricalad, it tklt ll called, wilk flowert re- podng (leitilt) m Ikdr axlUw, tka ipika It termed a calkin, or, In Latin, aamluai. Tka diffareaoa thea belweea a raotoM and a ipike it, tkat tba Malki upon which the flowers blomo m ara longer in the former than In the latter. When tbete padundee or itdki •koot 10 at to kaar bractasi, bom wblck otker ilalki itrike QUI, wfcai It cdled a pa a ai r /t ll Hirmad. Utnally In thtie two, the lower pednndtt ara only dighily longer than the othtn ) but when ther ara rery long, and the upper onei rery thort, ll It leoanlaaUy lermad a Mryail, ham konu, a helmet. When all the flowert are placed together in a globular head, we hart a ea. fUlUtm, from caM<, the bead. When tha prindpal axil It but little (ngthaaad after the opening of the bud, and the other flowert which It conlaintd bare •Idki, aa walel It formed, from imMla, a fan oi Krten. Thit it called limpla whta the ttaikt iprlag. ing from the lauM part of the priadpal ana hear but one flower, and compound when the ilalkt of the le- condary buds bear saullar umbels, iuto wbich these opea. Thtta ara all spsdmens of simple i n flo r esc en cr, aad tt the lower flowers ara Arst exp t adad, this moda of flowaring It called cenlripatal. Ctafr^iva/ Btn lal iam. ." In the ctntrlAigal ardo. lion," tayt Profatsor Rennla, " ea^ branch or flower. ilalk tenalnalat in a flowtr-bud, atrar in a laaf-bnd t aad ooattqnaady it caanot ba prokwgad fartht^ at ia tba centripetal, though it may ihoM out firath flowtr. budt from tka tide wkaa Baurltkmeat It afforded. Inittad of a dngia flord leaf, eath top.flowar bat two or mora^ and (ran the inaar bate of thtta two or mora new branebat ipriag, each again tadlngin a central flowtr and two or mare lida-branebei. Thty proottd forking off in thit manner, till the npply of nouriilk ment Is exhautlad. All the flowers in the centra opw fint. The form under ibis diridoa may not inap. propriatdy ba lermad in general a boa^oet (in liatin, Vma) ; but when the braackat from the flower.iulk are wanting, or rery ihort, it it ttnned a ball (ia Latin, ffamuj or ffoawni/ur), ibough diffarlag only from the tofl in itt erdulion. The bououett erowdtdi together art termed a Iiteicia (in Latin, /asebalui), aa in swtalwiUiam. Tha bonquet It In soma Inslanaia only dmply forked, ai in tilena aad toma of tka plakt I IrijdT or oikaner forked, at in sparge i or not forked at tU, no flowert bdag arolred oaone ilda. at In kogs l»s( Mfl •carpUm-flowar, Soaetlntt Ika boaouti !•• ^" . J' THE VEGETABLE K1NUDOM. n* wablM M umImI, uuI MWMtliBM • biuUIti kM It ■lw»t 4lMliiiulik«4 hj lu yMallM •vdullaSi Mlnrf «M bunoli (Id l.uln, l/inriut), f \u Um IUm •nd lh« biiiur.burri Mi4 *lw In tba ylanu wkoM flawarlng «w fnrintrljp larRiad lb* wborl (In I^llu, ««r(l<>l//iu), u In mini, balm, tkyna, and Ufa i aoil of tlila Ibara ara nany varlallaa, acaonling aa ll ra- Mmblaa a pannicla, a cluilar, or a iplkaj anoihar, whan Ika aanlral ula rollowi Ika aanlrlAif ai arola- lion, and Ika iMa-kmnekaa Iha oaalrlra'*li "kick U Mnsad a kuadia (In Ijailn, carymtiu), it In yamw." TOtUI, OKHtCirTACLI. TbaouUraniralapa (In LMln, ftTJglktd (bl, Irldanlatui, Ac.1 If no laath ba paraapllbta, ll It than anilri i and in lliat COM Iha numbar of parte ninit ba datermlnad analogically, or by olhar maani. Tha coharlng por- tion ft urmad tha tuSa. Homa Mpala in tha lama calyx may cobara logalhar In a graaur dagraa than tha othari, and thia givaa rlia to a tUaUaM calyx. In a bw ganara with articulated upali, iha dWIiiona cokm toaalhar, but laparau from tha tuba lo tha form of a lid or opamolum. liamatlmaa Ika calyx ii raducad lo a mora ring round tha baaa of tha corolla. In tha raiarian, lhl< ring it aftorwardi daralopad into a pappui, form* . oi numaroua long and tna radiating ttgmanu. I many coaipaii/* tha margin of tha calyx alio conitilulai a pappua, appaaring aithar in tha form of a ring, or brutlaa, or Malta, or rough hatra, or faaibary haira. Tha calyx auv ba fraa from or an. attached to tha iiruit, or tha tuba may ba ckiMly in. oorporatad with It, or adkarani (aUtM ailuntnt). Tki organ totIm without and, and it wan vaio to allamp tuba may ba oorporatad with it, or adkarani (aUpM ailunnu). ^kii organ rarlM without and, and it wan vaio to allampi a aaacriptlon of all iu pacullarltlaa, Ona graat dli. tinctiou ariiM from iu lituatlon. Whan doM lo the fructlBcation, il it callad tha parianth (from sari, about, and an/Aot, a lavat) | whan dlutul, il haa vatloui othar uamMi but In ganaral, undar ihaM circum- ilaooaa, il ii rot coniidarad a Mgitlmtte calyx. ooaoLLA. Tha eorolla li for tka moat part mora or laN oo. laurad ; and it axliu in tha greater part of tha axa> Cioui planta. (Exogenoua li tha nama giran to a ga ahua of planta, which will ba alluded to aftei. wardi.) SomatlmMitiBTaryaniall, andradnaedloike appearance of men Halei, and eran in HBegBnanii quite aborliTai and when thia happana, we mutt pro- aeed with the greatett aaution, and depend much on analogy, u ai not lo confound thoM groupa of planU In which it ought to ba praiaot with Ihoia furniihed with a pariMtth, in which a true corolla ii alwati inp- poaed to ba akttnt. Tkt dirliloDi of the corolla ara called petala. Tkay an almoat alwayi articulated at Iha baMk fi' oouequeolly fall oB t and whan thia hap- pana at a very early itaga, tkay ara lald to ba cadu. Mot. When the palala bava no articulation, u in manpannia, they either remain for a long time, or an yaniManl i or an maroeicenl, when they wither away wilhanl falling off. Whan tha palala are quite dlt- tintt from eacn other, the corolla ia polypalaloua; or whta noia or leu united by their margiat Cram the haN npwaida, monopetelout, an laaornct term, which •oghl ta ba axehaaged for gamopetabnu i and then ll tuj b* paitlta* dlridad, loolM, or Mllnb !> ^ Ml •■M «av at la Ika lalva. Mat paialt aiay alta aalte la Iktir apper paitt, ikamh diailaal kelaw. Wktn Ike lawar part of a petal, aa tka paaleia of laarae, ii aarraa , aad caatliM ef tka naloa of all ika TaaMla tkal aapand aad raaiify la tka apaar poriioa, tkaaoa- mated aeil ia tka aiaw or aagalei Ika dilated, ika limb or lamlaa. If Ike uaguae ka loag, ittalght, and cioMly appraaaked to aack oikar, even Ikongk dii. Ilnci, a kind of Inka la fomad i but, properly ipaak- Ing, ll ll only a lake wkan the alawi ara ualud. Tka oriOca of Ike tuka la tenaad the throat or faux i aad tbia may ka aakad (nada), at ftaralakad with Hula laalw or ap p eadegaa. called loaietlaMa a crown. Tba •kepa of tka loralTa It fraquanlly of Inporuaca In dli- tiaguliking aalnral groupa of plaala. Wkan all tha pelali ara equal, ll la laid lo ka regular i whan a rao- aopateloui regular eoniUa kaa no tuka, km iwelli aut gradually from tka ban to Ika lummil, ll li balLikapad or campanulate i and araaelate If il la iwollan al Iha ban, tad centeaiMd al the tap t whea then li a luba, and when ll la narrow below, kni dllatee nawardi, M that the Uak ii campanukua, Ike corolla la InlSindi- kullfarm or Auuiel-ikaped i it ia rotate or wkaal-ikipad If Ike lube lie Tory ikorl, aad Ike limk ipnadlag aad nearly plain | kypMraterUorm. wkan ika lake it wag, narrow, aad eyUndriaal, aad Ike limk lanadlng like a Iter I and tnknlai wkaa It ia aloHat entirely compoaed of a narrow aloagaled tuka, illgklly dilated upward!. Wken Ike pelala ara ef naequal aiae^ or eokare ua- equally, tka oerolla la Irregular | and if luah pelali uuila, the rMall will ka an Irregular monopelaloui ouruUa. Of the rarloui oikar kladi of corolla wklak arin from the aalura of Ika lube or ike piitila and Ihalr relatiooa, wa caaaol gira an aoeouni in ihii place. •TAHIIft. From ont la oiany mmU hodiat, rarrlag rerr muck In form and ilie, lie immediately wlikin the hloMom, aad IheM ara termed the itaaieai, or the male oraani of reproduction. In ganara], a itaawn eoniiite of^wo parte, in nwal caiaa, of a llamanl d, Ig. 1 (from^aai, a thread), which la oiually while, and alwayi of an aalkar, a, ' plante Iken ara Mveral iiylM to o rm of the •lyle ■• fill'irmi but fra. quenlly It li thick, aiir>latad, or clab.ikapad. i. it commonly a hullo* tuba commnnioallng with the ovary, and MoiatimM M cnanactad ai to fall after fa- oundatlon. Tba itigma, which furmi the lummil nf the piilll, lomeilmw lermiaalM the ityle by an upau mouth. BamatimM It hu Iha appearance of a imall bud, and In other Initoacei It li virlouily divided or forked. Soeullmaa il li imoolk, and lomelimM co- vered w'lh halri. The number of itigmato U dater- mlnad by that uf the itylei or divliloni oi the itylei, aad therefora varlaa from one to ili, or auira In dlf- ferant plaoti. In form and cuiiiiitenc* the iilgma variM conildarabiy, being In the latter reipeol iklak and flaihy, or thin and mambranoua, or formad of imall glandular budiei. Befora enuring Into particulari regarding germina- lion and reproduction, we iball give an account of vegetable nulrlllon, a hranch of the aubjecl too mueh neglaeled by botenlcal wrll*n. In treating of thlt departmauL wa ihall prlndpallv fallow Dr Rogat, who hat admlraUv elucidated it la hit Brldgawater Tnir tin i-pon AalBial and Vegatebte Fbyiiology. ^. rooD or riANTi. ■<•" Water miy be eenildtred ai the geaeni vehlela Ihitnigh which nutriment ia reedved by the vegetakla kingdom i kui it kaa keen demoaitniad Ikat plantt cannot live upon pnn water alone, aa araa al ona time believed. When planu an conulned in eloM vaiieli, and lupplled regularly with water, bui to which no car. bonlo add gM la allowed to enter, they an developed only to a very limited axunl. They moreover oulekly dia. unleM frtek inppllei of water ke regularly ftar- niiktd. Tka water which goea to the nouriihment of the vegetable kingdom ii never perfkctly pun i for keddM containing air In wkick than It coniuntly a portion of carbonic add gal, by peroolaling Ihrongh the nil ll hai imbibed idlne matter, m well ai de- cayed vegetable or animal remaina, whioh lubilancea an MluUe la a very minute quantity of water, or ara ■o finely pulveriied ai to be impended In the fluid, and carried with il into the vegetable lyitem. From chemical experimenii, it appetra that the prindpal matten taken up by planta, baiidei water, ara car- bonic acid ni, nitrogen, chiefly in the form of humic add, tflgetner with a few lalu, luch al polaii, and metaiiic ingredlenu. Out of IheM, and the hydrogeu and oxygen of the water, and Iha carbon inppllad by the carbonic add, all vegeubia producli leem to be prindpally elaborated. Tb i peculiar fertility of each kind of toll dependi chiefly on *he quantity of vege- table and animal remalni which It poueeaM In a ilato capable of being abiorbed by the plant, aad of contri- buting to iu nouriihment. ABIOarTIOM or NnTXIMIKT. Tl>e greater number of plauu which are oompoted of cellular litiue abtorb water with nearly equal fa- cility from every part of their lurfaca. Thli il the cue with a daic of aquatic plauU callad the alga. On tha other hand, lichaui and wme other planu abiorb it only at particular and variable parte of the lurface, wbon lUuation appaan to be mora determined by me> chanlcal caum than by any peculiarity of itructure. Some, however, are Mid to be furniihed in certain farU with itomata, which may act ai lucking orificea- u planu having a vaicular lyitem— and they an by far the moil numaroua and important — the rooti an the ipecial organi which abiurb nouriihment ; occa- lionally, however, the leavai and itemi of pliuu ab- iorb moiitun, but thii ii not their naturid action, tha root being the proper organ. Roote an provided with luckeri, called ipooglolei or ipongeleU, which De Can- dulJe deicribei ai reMmbling a minute iponge full of pone, Infemd, when they cannot bedeleoed, from the fact of fluldi actually pauing into them. The iponga. Iru an alwayi placed ou the extreme tipa of tkeroot- leu or amalleit tlbtM of the root, and ara oompoNd of an expanded tluue of imall loundUh eelli, often at toft at pulp. Thay imbibe the flulda that ara In eon- tact with them, partly by capiUarv action, and partly alio by what hu been tanned anygroacopic power. But though thcM prindplet may lofldentiy account for the limple entrance of the flnidi, they an Inade- quata to expldn lu continued Meant through the tub- itanoaoftlu root, or along the Item of the plant. The moat probable explanation of Ikli phenomenon ii, that the progrewive movement of the fluid ii produced by altemata contractloni and dilatationi of the oellt theak lelvM whioh compoM the texlura of the plant t thaia actloiu being themielvci referable to the vitalily of Iba organi. The abtorbent power of Iha ipongtoUi li limited by the diameter uf their porei, lo thit if fluidi be thick or glutinoui, they an apt to block up the puiege alto- gether. Tbui, if the ipongioUe be lurrounded by a lolutlon of viidd matter, luch u gum or lugar, iu Km will be dogged up, icarcdy any of tha fluid will abiorbed, and the plant will decay | but if the laaia llquidi be largdy diluted, tba watery portion will •&• CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. m tw, whiU Uw |i«Mr Mit of Ik* IkWM ■■Mtl*l* wUl UlartlxUat. Tb*iuMarMniitp*Mr«fMtaaii<» k MUUMd wkw hUb* mbuimm at • mH» I « MfWRth ■n prMwM to tU roM, th* mMr of ibm mMoi, with onlv * ouU priMrtloa «f llw adM, Wiif takm up I u4 If Ik* rMHinbw fwt ef lb* laU ka •umlm^, li wUI k* Ann4 in tx man Mf«|ly ki«n(aM«< wltb th* nln tku ktfon ikb akaMiM kU Mkw fbia. It ku bMB tnuU, kmww, IkM If fwCeat Utaidity aatet, Uw plaol will taha la Ih* Uaai< wllk aqiwl avf. iIUt wkalkar It ke alobrknu arotharwlaa, w Ikal ka aeuon at tka plaatii nia«lia»l«al| aad ml Iha mallof dlMtiainalln at all. tMBon or Tint ur. Tkc mriau natttn hald In tolatln yoong bud* tM mparing iter th*lr d*T*- lopaaiaa*, which niually tafct* pbc* aftar th* gmid 'warmth of ipring ha* p »B*l i « l « l b*yond th* aurho* af th* earth, and expanded th* Ibr** and Tai*aU of tha plant, tbaia I* tnatsd an ntnnt daffland (br nonrlth. m*nt, which th* root* are aauialy •mployod in tupply. lag. A*tk*l*an*3MB0tp*tc*mplal*d, theaapiaal Ant applied la porpo*** *ani*whatdif*nnt from lh«*e it I* d**tiii*d t* faUl at a mua *dMiM*d perM, wk*o It ka* to Bowkk tka Adiy *^paad*d orgau I (U* Ooid k**, aceoidingly, k**B calkd tka aanUng la^ li da** not rJr* tkn^ the alk■IBna^ bat thtoigh Ik* weed, which i* iinm*di*ialy aoatlgiMu* to th* pith, and thaaa* pimn, bynnknawachaunb, thiDUghlha olhar layar* «f wood to th* kada, wkl*k it aaoriik**. la tki* dicoiuu* drcalatioB it i* •nppo**d to uBd*ago a ckaua, o> h*«*an* am l m ll al*d , In wlOetk clala it i* ittad for *al*riag inlaaearidaadon with the plant, or keeoBilag Inoorparawd with Iha aaw organlaatkm. Thi*nanliagt*pha*h**a ooa^rared lath* milk of aaiotal^ wkiek i* pt apa r ad for • •imilar parpo** at «ha*a tinea oaly wkia na*rim*nt I* nqaiiad te tk* W whl*h tk* laB*a* are exaoaed. It I* anlr datlag th* day, tk* nf ere , that lUi ftiaallon Ii la aalNlt*. Da Oaadell* bee feaad IkM Ike brtlllcial light ef an pndnee* on the lean* *a elbit iballar to that or the tolar ray*, and in a dagrae prapoiHea a le to lu tateoally. A* It h eaty thnmgh ih* itomata that aa. ■e«iiiig < PhlToe Pkllaenpkar* ei* et rariaaa* with regard to Ih* akansal* laioBgh whkk th* tap pa**** ia it* ■•e*Bt along tha *Mm, aad la ilr auktMaagt pi * gr *m to iH nhlmate dwlln*lioa. Da Cardolla i* of epialon that it pern** aloac Ike iutmmlliilir *pac« t aad h* *d. 4uo**aBumb*rofairuai*nl* in lapport of hi* iri*w*. In wd** to accanain tha Telocity with which lap ri***, Hal** eat off in the ipring a riue branch, aad eaclaccd tka oiu iurfM* of th* ataaip in a bant tuba, wh*n the Bap towad *e akaadantly, aad with iuch farce, that it •uttain*d a yiariity of maraury equal in weight (o a eelnma af weMr f*rtT.thr** fiM high, which > ii- cac*c a fore* of propulaion **n*id*rably graeter tlian the prceaur* of an additiociil aunoiphere, or lire times graeier than the cnrrentof th* bkMd in a hora*. V*. Hena ciraimataQom, howavar, contribute to influence th* rapidity of cireolation in Teg«ubl*a. In axperi. menting upon blanched plant* with coloured duldi, Bonnei ftmnd that th*y roa* from two to thr<* inchn p*r hoar. Haat ha* a T«ry ccnililenibl* influcnc* in raiting the cap, and rery probably electricity may be aaother important agent. Pjrhaps they, in some myateriooa manner or another, may excite the Titai Bwrementa of tbi cellular atructure already alluded to. There ia no eridence that there la any thing like mnaenlar power exerdeed. The aimpieat idea, saya Roget, ia, that Iheae actluna lake place by meana of a eontractile property belonging to iheregetabia titiue, aad exerted under certain circa-natancita, and in con. funnily to certain lawi, which we uaTe aot yet auc- eaaded !n determining. ■ XBALATWII. Th* nutrient tap, wbieh, e* w* her* ***n, ri*n in tk* as*m,*nd i* Iraaamiucd lo Ik* l*ar*a witboutany ahaag* ia lU i)uaUti** or oompuailioB, ia immadUleiy, fee the aiedium of tka atomala, or orificea whieb abaoad in Ike aurieee of ihuee organa, aubjectad to the proeee* of *xhaiatlon. Tlw proportiaai uf water which the aap leaaa >lhirda of t^ wlude i|uantity r*. oaired ; ao thai it ia oiily th* remaining third tliat ■ alaiiia to aeuriik the organa of tiie plant. It bea been aeoertained that the water tkua erep iire ied ia perfectly pur*, or et leaat deee net wwrtaia more liian a lO,IWO,iWatk part ef tha teeiga maMer with wkiok It waa impregnated wlien Aral abaorbed by tlw rvece. Tke wrier tbue eikeierf, being diaeelved 1/y tiie air 4ha moment it eacapea, paeeee elf In the form of iavi- elkleTapour. Uaiaaatadeaaexperiaiea* witkaiaui- flower, three feet high, endoaed in K veeaei, wlUch ke kept for flfieea daya, aad inCtrred fiem it that tha daily leaeof tlieplealbyexhalatiaaweatwuityoaaaeei and thia he cempulee ia a ^uantily a*Tanl**n tint** graalar then that loat by ia i eaa i ble p ea a p lratjon from an equal pertiou of the aurfaee of tha hamaa bady. The ooeaparatiTa quealitiet of fluid exhalad by th* ■aai* pUa> at diSarent i'la** ar* r*gniat*d, not •• «, aa by the ianaaiiy of th* light m haiatlaa pree'ede, the aoakerof Iheae nore* In a gietn *iufaea meat ccntldanblT liifhnnee ue tnaaltty of flnidex: <.... Bt Ike km ef ao large a mrdoa of the water which In Ike riaiag cap had held la iohithm Tmrloui fbreign malerlelt, theee eahataaoee a** l e n de i ed more dlipoMd ta Mparaw thorn th* fluid, and to b*Mme conaoUdaled en the «Mea of tke oelb or reaiala, lo which they are eondncled from the lean*. Thia, than, I* Ih* Ant modlAcaiion in the qoalitiee ef tha cap wMck It nadat. go** ia th*a* orgaaa. OBOAMi or AUATIOV. Th* fbll*wlag aaeoont ef th* proeea* of aVntloa la free* P mf aiii r Kauaie'a work >— " Thoagh phau ha\ a no eigBBt aaalogooa to Innga or giUa, nor eren, I think, to the air-pipee of inr u, to whieb the epiral reaeel* ban b**n niataklnglv, it ahenid aeeai, oompaiad, y«t they cannot lire without air any mot* thaa anbaab, aad they die when de- prlred of It. The air being Ihua Indiepeniable to re- galable lUk, mutt act on the plant In tame manner ; aad axpariment* han atoordiagly proved that the l ea e aa of pleni* p*ribrm aome function aimllar to that of tha ktiig* of onlmala in aalBUla, the air lakaa into the Innga in hree Mig through the note and mouth baconae dceoanp jd (in the dark it may be remarked) by girlag np part of Ita oxygen, which coaibhie* wllh the blood, |- . receiving in turn from the blood a per. uon of carbonic uiod gee end watery rapour. In planta thia p roaamb reeeraedt fbrihe aap, erhhih he* mounted late the laarea aad young grua ahoota, and which ia ojmpoaad of water, oerbenic ecM gae, potaaa, and a Cew other ingredieate, either derived from the aeii or taken np on paming np thraogfa (be plant, beoomea partly decern poeed m tke ligkt ; a portion ot the cay. gen Mag aet free fnim tlw earboa which ranaini In tha lee^ while the oaTfan b given off into the air, at tha aaaaa time that the hvga portioa of the water la given off undeoeaipeeed, ia th* (atm of vaponr. The qaantity ef water Ihua eahalad by a eaubage ha* bean piavad te in eeveateea tbne* greater then thattianapirad bv a man In what la teraaed ineenilble p eii p l ia li o n. The ea bela ti aa of water tehee place throogh the poeea already d*a*rib*d of the groan partt, botnotthadeeoeepeeillaaofair, w" ' ~ ' which b effected, aa De CandeUe leaaeika i where thar* are no poree. It la haponent to remerh, that Hght ia Indiapenaa- ble In effecting what may be called the afraUon of plania, that ia, iu ieoompiaing the aep in the leavat, aud eondenaing th* carbon, potaaa, and other mattera Indiapenaable to nutrition, while welery vapour ia at the aeaw tiaw exhaled ; none of wbicn take plec* in tlw darlc Heal nwy cauie a trifling evapo- raiioa, bat nothing in proportion tu tkat cauaed by light. It U on ^a account that plaute expoeed lo much light are greatly kardar and tougker than wben grown In more aiiady piaCM t a raonntain oak, for ex> ample, mere Uian a fotaat oak i or a wild carrot on en expoeed bank, mere than ^ garden one ahaded by the leavea of ita MIowa. The green colour uf iearr^ aa well at the varied coloora of Atrtrera, though very im. perfactiyanderaiond, may be plauclbly ex]uiaed from the aama priooipUia. (ienaeuer thiake thut Ih* real colour of carbon ia darlc blue rather than black, while the tlnue of the Bella and veaeeb of which th* body of plana ia com. a aee d ; ia yellow ; eeoaequentiy, when the bine oerbou la lodged ia tbeaa yeihiw traoalucent cella, a green on. lour b tbe reaalc Ueace, in the apring, the newly expended leave*, twfore they beve had linw to prepare much carbon, are yelbmiah ; end when ;>ianta are kept from the light, ao that no carbon can tw prvpaiad by thei.- laavea, they beeom* wblM, and alio crisp and aocoolent fro-g the aeaae eauae, aa ia aeen in blanched celery aad endive. In anlomn, whan tke bavea eeeume variona tinia, it was found by JUacalre to arise from their taking in oxygen during the night, Aud being too feeble tu open tiwir porea for it* *acape daring tlw day. The oxygen thua coaflncd unitea with .he aaaterials of the pMlp, prodttoing varioue acida, whoee kntiwn action ia lo change bium to rede; aud, coaaequently, when the blue carbea beooraee Ihua tinged. It produces variour skados of orange, and etker oonbinationa of red and yellow. Macaire wee led by his researohee to atcrl. biile the vario.je colours of Itowera chiefly to uxygeii aocnmulatad in the peuls producing acids to comtnoe with the other princlplee. It may be well, however, to caution the yoiiug beginner not to ttke these state, menu fur more than an ingenious and plausible theorv. It might lie snppoa*d, es planu aeem to feed cbiehy oa earbon, that tkey would thrive well hi amoke, or in aaaaneephareof earboBioadd gaa. But it ii found not take ao; for tbaparHclea at carbon in amoke are Ion laine t* *ot*r th*ir porre, and tuo much undilutad car- bouieedd gee goi gea th e^ and they will become brown, and die. Pleale, i> wouM eppeer, then, are destined by providence to purify the air, which la l prov*d by •ip*rlm*nl. Th* d*ocmpodllon sf lb* air In th* Innga of aai. mab avolv** heat, but Ihii h leae obaervable in Ih* d«ooBpodtloB of air by plaala. Datfoataiaaa foond, however, la tk* cnckoopint, that during tha formation of Ih* a**d Ih* t(*rmom*t«r waa raised flf. teen degr***. Th* origin of Ih* variooa odoura giv*n off by planH ta nn batter nndarttood than that of their colanr. and ' ahall not th(r*(br« detail mera oonjeetnre*." MrOBK or TBI lAV. After th* tap ha* undtrgon* In Iha l*av«* th* donbl* pree*e*«* of *xh*htlan and atmtlon, it b now mora abandanlly chargad with antrlment. It it now ela. bOTaled Into a fluid eorre*pondlng to the blood of ani. male, aad flited for becomfaig Incorporated with the vegetable ornne. The emde fluid which enten the leevee ta called the aacending tap t and after It leavea them In order te be dlitrlbuiad throukbont the plant, it haa bean caltad the returning aap. It still con. lalna a eoulderable quantity of water, but a laige Broportkn of that which haa not been exhaled by the leavea, aad lu elemente, oxygen and hydrogen, haa eombhied with certain other aubetancea, ao aa to form pniximale vegetable pradncn, of which gum Is the timpleet, and g'n*nilly th* moat abundant The returning aep de*e*nda fl-em th* laav** through two diff«r*Bt etmcturea. In exogenoua nlantt, the greater portion find a ready peeaag* ihrough th* liber, or in. neraaon layer of bark, aad anotkar portion deaoends through the elbumum, or oulermoet layar of the wood. With rogard to th* *x*ct olianncb Ihrough which it peaaee, the aama degree of anoenainty pre. valla aa with regard to Ihcee which tranamit the ea. ccndiag tap. U* CaadoUa maintaiae, that In either cate the fluids And their way through the inlereel- lular tpaceai other phytlakigbia, however, are of opinion that particuUr vaaaeb arc appropriated to the ofllce of tranimittiaa the desoeading aep. The na- ture uf the fonee arhleh aotual* the aap In it* de. aeaat frem tke leavee, aad Ita diatributhm to differeat pane, aa well aa Ihea* powara which oontribulc lo ita motion from tha roole to the leave*, are Involved In equel obeeurlty. The hypotheeb thet it rmnlied bvm capillary aitreMlen b bow generally abandoned. nCUTIOH AND ZXCBKTIOB IH VISETAaUe. The aradilcaliona which the returning aep under, goee, and lu coavertion Into gummy, aacebarine, amylaceons, or ligneoua nroducta, are effected liy the timpler kinda of cclla, llut thei* ar* other cellular orgaaa in which greater ohangm take place in ita na. lure, tke ogeata for effacting which are unknown, end are therefore referred generally la the vital ener. giee of vegeution. The preceae is termed secretion, and tha organs by whish it b conducted, glande. The matter aearWd is •omatim** r*tain*d ia th* cdla, and tiaiMtimea appears oa the oalaide ae an axcrelioa, Car the piaat haa the power of throwing out by the leet thoa* aaperfluoua or noxioua nuttera which, if re- tainad, would iajura it. Thb explaiaa the feet why planta reader the toil where they nave long l>een cul. livaiod, leae suitable te their contlnuaBoe in a vigor, ons ecndition than it originally waa { and also why phiatu of a different apcdee are frequently found lo ilouriah very well in the aame aituation where thia apparent deterioration of the toil haa taken place, ilenee tL< impertaaee ia agdeubare of a rotation of cropa in the same field. The veaaels in which the fluid aeeretlont are con. talned are of a peculiar kind, and exhibit ramiflcaliona and junctlona reaembling theae of the blood.veaaela of animab. We may alao discover, by the aiil of the mirriiseope, that the fluids contained in these vesiela are moving in curreule with oniisiderable rapidity, aa appears from the vftlble modoaa of their globulea; aad they preeent, therefore, a remarkable anahigy with Iha dteutalion ef the Mood In aoaae ef the Infarior iribea ef enimab. Thb cariaua phenomenon wee flrtt ob. aerved by flehulu in the ehilldoniuB^ in the year 1 8f0 ; aad he dedgnated It by tbe term Cydoda, In order to diatinguiah It from a real circulation. If sa farther In- quiry M ahould be found entitled to tha tatter eppd. tadea. The dr mar raavemtnti which hava been tbui ah. aerved in the milky juicea of planu, have lately at. tractad much altentlon among botaaiiU | but oond. deraM* d a vital eoatractlon of tha vecedi, for ibey aeaae Ih* I the plant hae reedved an >njary, mi an Bwre aetive In proportloa •• tka tnapantoia of tfaa at iu «* y kare to highari ciont are con- ramtfioitiani blood* TMtelt the kill of the tbeM TetwU le rapidity, at ' wkr globuiM t analiifry whh InlaHor trtlws WM fini ob- t^SToar 18S0; i»t in ord«r to OB fnrthar In- lalMr appd- THE VBGETABLA KINGDOST. ouun or amoDiKniKui. Thau km tinmiy bwu wmaUmi In don of Um pwu of • flev«i| • man ailauM Moounl of thalr Ainctlont will aovkaflna, for which «••!• prindp«Uy iuitbtti to FnImmt BmuWt *bi* Uttk work on Bouny, The mii iill i l part at • mnm li Iha withtr, which hw aaull* tw»thMBlMrt UM wllh a ]iacuUw mauar taraad poUas, tha fioMifyiiig prin* dpla of tha plant. Whan Iha poUau sniTaa at ritjr, It burtu from tha aalla ol th« anthar, and ihada luolf upon tha •ummlt of tha platU i ailbin fnaa tha ■tamant bclug naar It, or by tha, wUda or ioiacta, whan thay ari at loau diitanoa ao tha laoM piaBla> Mi tha hual ; or on dUTataat planli^ aa i> tha bop. M . Iiaooq, bowarar, appeart la hara pravad by as> Dfrlmant, thu fartlla Mad* may b« produood in Iha famala hop-plant wlthoat iha ImarrenttoaoflhaiBalai and wo hara a •inilar auapla aaoaac aniaala In apbldaa, of which tb* hopUly la • ipaalea. The iummit li wall conlrinad Stt nuiniag Iha poUau that may faU upon it, tram Wof without any rind to oorar it, and in all. caaaa auialanad with a clammy Buid, which cauaaa Iha (falna of poUan to awall, bunt, and diiohaiaa Ihair aiauU gnnnlaa. Soma luppoM that thaaa ara takan up by •paaflclata In the lummll timilar to thoaa jt tha root, whila otha ia allaga that tha Inid mattar la which Iha franalaa float it mokad up. It haa bacn diacof arad that tha nalna of poUan, whan ihad on tha tnmmit. In a (aw aoura •hoot out oua or mora dallcata tuba*, which by toma philoaophart ara inppoaad to aztend down at far aa the leed-organa, and to expand around and between the naicent leedt. Soiae beliara tbain la oonray thl- thar the (ranulia, which at laaat enter into tha tobea ( olhen, however, deny that this la tha caaa. Tha teed. organ Ilea at tha bate of the platil, and conlaiu tha aaedi either naioent or adrancad to maturity. It beare a Terr UrnBg raamblanoa to tha egg-organ of birdt wad iniev and ita paria hare aocordingly received from naturaiiiu the tama adantilo namaa. The aaed- organ ie uiualiy of an .^ j-oblong farm, and ia alwayt compoead of an outer membrane^ a middle membrao^ and an inner mambrene, all intimately united. Aa erery leed dcrivw ita nouriahmant Inm tha inner membrane, there muit ba a oommunioatlDg point; and thii point being alwayt on tha rarge of the mem- brane, may beta termed j that on the ieed being termed the teed -tear, but popularly, though improperly, named tha eye. In tome tpeciet the verge Deart a number of tinallar vergea, to each of which a eeed ia attached, fay what li named the narahalriag by tboea who par- ■le aoiatal analagiae to ailraait muatteiiate, but ia batter termed the ntgt-emi or teed etalb Allthete pana are obrioui In an unripa pea or bean. The verge of the aeed inlV •emtlimae oceure In the form of an ezpanaloa turrounding tha aeed In a greater or laea degree, which haa been miitakea for a pal of the aeed. It la thii expanaion in the nutmeg which ibrmi tha maoa of oonawraa The centre of the laad- organ ii tomedmaa formed of a ton of topport, round which the leed^ u« ranged, termed the pillar, and tkaoraticaiiy repraaanted aa oontiiting of tavaral vergee united in a whorl with a apaoa between. The Btruoture of leeda it no leaa enrioua than that t4 the ieed-organc The regiona of a aeed are named Drom the poainon of the aaed.tcar, which It placwi at the baae ; the point oppeeite, the tip ; th4r upper part, tha back ; thaoppoaila to that, the belly i and ktween, the two ajdea. In curved aaeift, inch a* In uignio- natte, tlie bate and the tip income oppoaile. The outer coat of the leed haa baeu called thti aboil and conaiau in moat of a aingle membrane, whicli in fitted to protect the leadaiOrmoaleiMntlBl part, thii i.emel, from eztremea of heat and cold. The amh'jt nf a aeed oomUu of four parte— the radicle, the uecd.lobe or lobea, the neck, and tha gemlet ; all of which wre important to be noticed in tne progreea of firermiiia. lion, and with regard to the foundation of niutlitrn ayttcmi. The radicle fnrma that extrerolty of the embryo from whioii the root tp'*ingi in Khe prognnw of genninatlon t and before, it .1 always timple vid imdivided, but aftarwarda It may divide mto branch- ing radidae, at in graaaae and mittletoe. The i artide may be naked, or it may t>e enveloped in a Bhetttb, or it may be Incorporated with the weJ.ptilp, and upon thiiae three diitinctioni Rtehard fotiiided a Bys. tarn of claitificatlon. The seed- ^obe it very vtritma In form and in liae; it may be divided, or it may not ba divided, into lobee ( upon thli principle Juiaieii founded hia tyitam. But \i li IncouBisteni nitb thia ty(l*m that the lobee may ba three, aa !n drooping cyprcas ; Ava, aa it ' ink ; clx, aa In drciduout cy- preaa ; and even ' ' '; or twelve, at in pine fir. In ■ome casea during genninatlon the ieed.V)bes i*emain below ground, aa iu the horee cheatnui , in othera they appear above gnmnd In the form of aeed-leavm. The neck It the point of junction of the root and the Item I when !t It dittlncily marked, it formt the crown of the radicle, and tha baee of tbe Beed.lolie, and it ia by the leagiheningof theneek that the teed- lobea are raiaed above jmmnd, at In the cabbage, radlth, and mualard. Tha gamlet or plume ia a tmall body, often formed like a I b athe^ eluuied Id tho ca- vity between the teed-lobae, when there it but one, and bitween the lobea when there ara but twot The mmher of eofta of taeda and fMla which varlona planu praduoe require to ba methodhallf diaiioitd In ordar, but the belt arraagamenla are yet dolbctlve. SMd map ha eilhar chMa, or nmy be dehboeat, of both »; •hiah kind* of laadi then art taranl variailti. loa Vaolta are aonaidaiad' by bataaltte aa tha ripened aaed- nrgan, and, aa every one knowi, pieeent ahaaal end- leaa vtrialiae of appaaraaoia. ■aaniaaTwr.^ After Iha leai haa haan didy I wi datiid by tka poUaa, uad than parfMlty ripanad, it mat* ba kept frcmazMaadegaaaaof beat arodd, aiaa Iba ptaaer evolution of a jwuf plaat will net laha placa. The aalemal dienmnanwt aecaetary to gac mla a tfam da- pead aa water, heal, and air, and, ae eo ti nacte d with thaaa. on toll and litnalieii. Tha liiaa laqnlred ice germiaatlcn ratiaa mnab in difarcBt tpaaiaa 1 that muttard lakaa llltla mora Ihait oaa daiy, whilat Iba roie, the haxel, &0. reouira two yaata. Whaaataed bagliu tegermlnattt it enlargea until it bonit Ita thaU. WhaMrtr tba embryo begint to grow, it ht larmad Iha plaatiet, aod ooniiita of two parte, cue de- Bceading and iba after aacanding ; the nnt being the embryo root, tha aaaoad the embryo item. At toon aa the embryo alem or giatlat baa reached tha open air, ita laaflala ara eapandad, and begin to perfnmall the functiona of leavee. There ara two grawl nltaaai of leedt, thoae having only one leed-lobe, and thoaa having two or mare leedJohet; and eaeh elate geminttet after a certain manner. Wheat may batakaB aa an tactanee of the firtt, and Iha pea of tha aacend ; but for ^ detaB of thaae we mutt retar to iargar worka upon tha inbject The varioua oplniona enteriainert relative to the growth ofaplanlBayaUbarefortad to three general headi. 1. That growth la diameter le eanied on by the an- noal ehaage of tba Inaar barh faMo pulp wood, andof pulp wood into bard wood, and by Iha aacoeealve re- newal of the iaaar barh. >. Thai the aucceteive fbr- nuuion of tha hkyera of wood la prodnaad by the evolving of huda. 3. That the anuuiil fbmatlon of woody layara la O'^lng to tha pulp, which ever) year forma at one and Iha aanm time a new layer or pulp wood, and a oaw Uyar of inner bark. Then ia a great diffennca amoagat plania with regard to the en At which they arrira^ Then an aoma whieh lire only a few houre, or at meat a few daya, whilat tome treea eziat many centnrlee. An important naet of tiie anbjeot remaint to be die- ouatad, namely, the olaaaificallon of plania, or tha ar^ rangement of tha nnmenut ipedae In tone regular order. Many achemee or ayateme hare been at rvieui Umea in uae to facUllala the acquitltlen of knowledge reapeoting the rariathe of the vegetable kingdom, and theee have beaa taeteaelvely ah a nd e n e d , ee Inenf- fieienl, aflac aew epeaiaa wen diaaovarad which r*. luired claaaillcatlon. Two lyitema, hnvevar, at pre- sent prevail—that of tha great Linnnna, which iacalled the aezuel or ardddal system, and that of Juaaieu, which ia danominatad the natural ayatem. Neither of theaa fully answer tha purposes fur which they wen propounded, but we shall give a brief view of each. SYSTEM or Li»v --„•;. The basis of the Linnnan diatribution of planta rests almost entirely on tho male ornna or stamens ; and where no sexes could be distiogutBhed, the author termed the plai:ts Cryptogamous t and the claaa includ- ing suoL, tne last of his arrangement, Cryptogamia. Tbe other claaaee, which amount to twenty-three In number, an cailad Phanerogamoiu vegetablet. Some (if them have the flowera hermaphrodite, or containing both Bexea t othen have them aeparate, or an deolin- oua. To the former belong twenty claaaea, to the lat- ter three. Again, hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers may have the stamens either free fVom the ptstiUum «r united to It ; and hence arises another division ; iinly one olaae, however, belongs to the last ; so that r.hera an nineteen to the first. These nineteen are Ttrther divisible according as the stamens an free from each other or united together. The former mar be equal or unequal In length ; and those agmii which an equal may either be dennite or indefinite in num. ber. The rlp,BBes are divided into orders, each clus CMnslBting 01 two or mon, and theee orders an deter- iT.ined by the pistils. The botanist haa luerely to <»unt the stanienB to And what claae It belonga to, and to count the pistils to '-low the division of the clan when It Ib placed. Unibrtuuately for the perfbctlou of ihis system, all plants hare not been formed upon this principle, but it holds in a very considerable num- ber. Professor Rennle gives tha following outline fi-om Iiafflouronz, aa a Firit Linnaan tenon. When a plant in flower Is found. It must furnish an answer to one of the following qnettiona :— 'CISH I. Hu it stamens rNo.— Then It belongs to ii and pliUls ? II. An the with only stamens, or only pistih, and also with both atamana and pittiU? Yes. — Then see question II. 'Yes.— Tllen it belongs to No — Flowers with only Bta- mens on one plant, and flowers with only pistils on another, belong to Flowers Beremlly with only stamens, or only pistils on diOlsreal paiu of Iha aame pleat, lietong to Flowei* wllh both an 81 and pistils locluded in the Sanaa flower, see quealion , III. nt. DotHestamensJ Yes The:i it belongs to adhen to the pistil? iNo Then see quesUon IV. IV. AntlieBtamens J Yes.— Then It beibnia to ualt*dby«heaatbenr\llo.— Than aaa queeHoD T. 19 V. Awlhaalameaa united by the Ala> atealt? "^ / Yet.-Thea It belonga to ^^\No_ThaB aaa qaeaUen VU.. IS u » t,Vt 14 .-fliw^A ' IX. Haw massy sta- maae era then thirteen ? Yee.— lamanlhaatwobaa- dlas, it baloags to Tn oa^ two buadlss, it be. lootfs to . . . In only one buadia, it belonga to ... . (.No.— Then tee quesUoo VI, VI. Ate then only six stamens, (bur heini longer lhaBlheotheft[ VII. An there only _ foar stamasB, two b*. f Vee.— Tkaa 11 Mongs to ing longer than thai No.— Tbeasaaqaeation VIII. Yea Inaerted apoa the r^ ceptaole, it lielanga to IA mena mora than 12 ? 1 1naerted upon tbe flower- cap, it belongs to 12 Tweln Then It belonga to II Tea.— Then it belongs to 10 Mae.- Then It belongs to » Bght— Then it betonns to Savea.— Thea It boloBgs to Six.— Thea it belcogs to Five Thea it bakings to Foar^-Ihen it baloags to Three.— Then it belongs ta Two— Than it beloags to LOne Then It belongs to The following pnsanla a view of the varioua olasaaa, with their technical namee; and although part of what is stated above ba repeated. It will serve in this tabu- lar fbrm to give a olaanr Wtw of tha cltaaiflcation i— 1. MoirANBua, with 1 slamsn, . aingtr. I; DiANDaiA, *. V M. ... ONm. 3. TalAanau. . S -« VaUritmt 4. TariiAaDBiAi •> 4 •«- ... JloUjr. .,,.1 a. PxHTAiioau, _ I _ ... nvMluitt, "'' fl. HaxAmau, .a — ... aaowdrvj^ -"** 7. Han jisaiA, — 7 --• OuttmitL & Oo\AaOBlA, M 8 ». ... Sourg* LaurA ft ■iniaANDaiA, .- S — . wmSarb. 10. DaoARaaia, » 10 — . ... teaaa. 11. DoDiOAHDaiA. — 11 to IB . . JbarabMCOt 12. IcosANDaiA— SO or mon Btansiu Imattcd' late the salya Ipsilgyaoas). \X PoLVANDaiA-.saar men rtsmBW lasstlstl unJci tbe ovary (byppgyiMWi). 14. DiDVtfAMiA— 4 Raiiwns. 9 long snd f ahoit, 15. TaTaAnvMA]liA-.«itam«iis, 4 looaoud a •hett. ..... 1& MowAOBLpmA— atamans unitsd In 1 ftsd- oulUBortubv, .... 17. Flinairilll BtsaiaUB unitMl in X Asst- cull ta FoLyApsLPHiA— staaaons uaitad In 9 o^l'o,„a.M. QpAfia Pofipy. ^urpliFaaylses. 8eurvy-gmn. Marth Mtmui 19L Svwoawaai A a n tiiafs mllsa, 90k OvwAitoaiA— fBOBou and pialU iiBl^:id. t Haasnwt. 91. Howeion aaaqiiisl flows s s gnwlu 3a>«.L 99. DiaciA—thamale and tbs ftsaale flowsTS\i>-_ growing on lUflkimt ptanta, l*"V' 3S. PoAYaAMiA,-h«raspbnMUt«, mile, and lb* 1 ' ' * mala plontj, growing on the aaoia plant or oa >Fiff, aoporste plonu, , , .) 94. CRVpToQAMtA— flewerloM plant*. leHaiui Mott The second LinnsBan leason of Lamimronx, by which the ordera an deterrained, procoeda thiu >.— Fltatrt »iM iiamene »/ a fiMti tmmitr, ami tjual in FiBST Class, or Monandria, having one stamen. — If they hava one plelll, they an of tba first order, or Monogynla ; if two platila, they an of the sacond order, or Djaynia- Sbcoxd Class, or Dlandrla, baring twu stamana. —If they ban one platil, they an of the flrst order, or Monogynla ; if they have two plittlla, they an of tha second ordar, or DIgrnia ( asid if three, they an of tha third order, or Trigynik TaiaD CLAta, or Triandria, having flowera with only three stamena— .If they hava one piatil, they an of the first order ; If two, they an id the second or- der ; and if tluecy of the third order. FouBTH C1.ASS, or Tetrandria, having flowen with only four stamens equal in length.— 4f uiey hare one pistil, they ara of the firstorderjif two, of the secondi three, of the Ihurd ; and if four^ of the fourth order, of Telragynia. FirtH Class, or Penlandrio, baring flowers with only five stamens.— Thoaa having from one to four pistilt an named as in the preceding claases ; thosa having five pistils belong to the fifth order, or I'enta- gynia ; and if they have many platila, to the alxtii or- der, or Polygynta. Sixth Class, or Hexandria, having flowera wltk aix Btamena. — Aa they have one, two, or three platila, they belong to the first, second, or third orde-s ; if they have six pistils, to the fourth order ; and if many pistils, to the fifUi order. 8IVINTH Class, or Heptandrla, those having only aeven atamena. — If they have one or two pistils, they ara classed as before; if four pistils, they belong to the third order ; and If aeven pistils, to the fourth order. EioHTH Class, or Octandria, having flowers with only eight stamens. If they possess from one to four piBllla, they rank in '~,ha order corresponding to tha number. Ninth Clasi, or Enneandria, thosa having only nine stamens. If they hava one pistil, tbey belong to the flrat order ; if three, to the second ; and if six, to tha third. Temth Class, or Daeandrta, having o-ulj ten na. mens. If they ha. e one, two, or thrv.t pistils, they belong to the first, second, 01 third orJers; If five, to the fourth ; aud If'ten, to the flfth order. Flowers uiUh ilamtnt of 'athtr uneerlain numbtr, ttti of fixed tnserKon. Ecx^llTB Ct*M, or Oodecandria, baring flowtit w CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ^ m V 8>l I irilh from aknn to nInMMn ituitBt iiutrMd Into the nmrmU—U th«y han from om to In plitlU, flicy bolong to Iho orlen corrMpondlhf to th ,M nnm- b«n ; and if ib*y hm ibont Iwalri plitOi, thtjr !>•• loDtf to the ilxth ord«r. TwiLrTR Cl*ii, or looundria, hning flowtn with twenty or uiora ituaiaa iBaartad Into tha flowar. eiip or tha bloaanm.— If thay han ona, tar^, or thrca ■UiiU, they balong to tha fint, aaoond, or wrd ordara i 11 An, to tha foartk ordar ; and if many pbtila, to tha fif^h order. TiiiaTiCNTH Clam, or Polyaiidria, thoaa harlng flowan with fron Iwanty to ona handrad itamana In- aartad into tha raeaptaelk— If thay hara from ona to ail piatila, thay ara claaaad aa bafiirai if thay hare ■any pittUa, they bahmg to tha aaranth ordar. Flowtra wilA two of tht a4amtH$ thorUr. Fca>T»iiTM Clah, arDldynania, haringlowara with foar Btamanai two longer and two ihortar, In- aartad on a oiw.pataUad bloaanm If the four aaadi ■ppaar not to ha In a aead-raaaa l , they belong to the Ant ordefi ur Oymnoapannia i bat if they appear lobe I tha aa w aa ne aa l ad in • aaad^organ, thay belong to •rder, or Aogloapamia. Fir TIEIITH CLAii,or Tetrad ynr nila, baring flowart with all Itamana, four longer and two •hortar, the Uoeaoro with more petali than one— If the leed.organ it a abort pod, they belong to the 6rat order, or Sill- inloea ; and if a long round pod, to the lecond order, •r Slllfiioan. fhmtn wUk ttamttu nnUnf tf IMr /UmtnU. Six I nxTH Class, or Monadelphla, baring flowni with the filameuta of all the atamena nnited at the baaa into one bundle— If there are three lUmens, they be- long to the first order, Triandria | if Are slanuuia, to the second order, Penlandria j if aeran slamens, to the third ordar, Heptandria; if eight stamens, to tha fourth order, Octandria ; If ten stamens, to the fifth order, Decandria ; if eleren stamens, to the sixth order, £n. deeandria : if from twdre to twenty rtamens, to tlie aerenth order, Dodecandria ; and if more than twenty Blaroens, to the eighth order, Polvandria. Skvsxteextii Class, or Dlaaelphia, haring flow- eta with the filaments of all the stamens uhiied into two buadlaa. If they hare fire stamens, they belong to the first order, Pantandri* ; if six stamens, to the se- cond order, Hexandrla ; if eight stamens, to the third order, OcMndria ; and if ten stamens, to the fourth order, Decandria. EioiiTEUTH Class, or Polyadelphia, haring flow- era with the filaments of all ihe stamens united into three orraore bundles. If there an from tweire to twenty- fire stamens unconnected with tje flower-cup, they belong to the first order, Dodecandria ; if the bundled stamens are inserted in the cup, to the second order, Jcosandria; and if there are more than twenty-lire ataroens uncotinected with Ihe flower -cup, tu the third order^ Polyandria- Flmttrt with ilameni united bf thtir anlhtrt. N'lHZTEEXTM CLASS, or Heptandria, haring flowers compusile, with all the anthers in a flurrt united into B tube, whilst their filaments are not united. If all the florets ara eaual, they belong to the first order, Folygamia aqualis ; if the flureu uf the circumference hare piitils without stamens, to the second order, Polyguniasuperfluai if theflorcu of the circumference hare neither floreta nor pistils, to tlie third order, Folygamia .—:■ t- inea i if the floreU of the circumfe- rence hare puU'i without stamens, and those of the centre stamens without pistils, to the fourth order, Folygamia naceeaaria ; and if the florets hare a pariisj flower-cup all within a general flower-cup, to the fifth order, Folygamia sagragata. Fhiten irilk the ilamen and fiilili uniled. TwEKTlETH Class, or Oynandrln, having flowers with the tumenr inserted npon the style or seed-or- gan. If they hara one stamen, they belong to the first order, Monandria ; if two stamens, to the second or- der, Diandria ; if three stamens, to the third order, Triandria; iffoiir stamens, to Ihe fourth order, Tetran- dria ; if lire stamens, to the fifth order, Penlandria ; if six lUrens, to the sixth order, Hexsndria ; and if eight tiamena, to the eighth order, Ocundria. Ftovtrt oftm^jf one tex. Twr KTY- FIRST Class, or Monwcia,havin(^ flowers, some with pistils only, and some witli stamens only, on the same plant. There are nine orders, uken from the number and bundling of the stamens as before. TWEKTT-SECOWD CLASS, Or Dimcia, haring Bowers with pistili only, ur with stamens only, on tn-o sepa- rate planu of the same species. Thore are nine orders founded as in the precedint; class. TwEXTT-TitinD Class, or Polygamla, baring flow- erf with both stameni and pistils, nnd also with only one of these, Imth on *he same and on separate plants of the same species. There are three orders. XoJIoteera apparent on th* plantt. TwENTT-rounTri Class, nr Crypiogamia. 8la- meni and pistils, if present, cannot, from being rery minute, lie ascertained. The class contains fire orders, ferns, filices ; mosses, musci ; liverworts, hepaticu | sea- weeds, algn ; and mushrooms, fuugi. Huih is a plain rlew of the Liunan system of clas- alficatlon. It is ceruinly Imperfect) for iuitance, in the twrnly-fourlh clan, it fiiils altogether in asiisting t|ha student. But it dues not seem to he less so than the natural system, which, howerer, Is rapidly gaining ground In Uiiuin, and is very generally foUowadup- No.— Then it belongs to I. Yee.— Then it belongs to . . . III. on tha Coatlnaat. Wa akal'. now praeant a biW ri«w of it alao. JUUI>II*acLAaiirilX4TI0ir,0ITHC*ATDBAliTtTIll. Tha author of thia ayitam, riawing tha seed of a alani aa ■ moea lapertant organ than tha ttauana and lnd out< growing fKing a m s ). AlUr a knowledge of thaaa three great dTrlaiona is acquired, the beginner then «om. mancea with tha fifteen olaaaas and thair order*. PbaUt wMant M«l-/et«, or top and pulp mmU. FinsT CLAsa, or Acotrledonea. Tha teed whan ,t can ba disoorered Is simple and without paru Than^ are Un orders — saa-weeds, mushrooms, Ao. SttdM with OM ued-tobe ; Plant* with tap andpmlp vnteh (Monocotyiedoaes). Szi»XD Class, or MonubypogyueB. Flowers w'th Ihe stamens inserted under tAe aaed-orgaaa.^Th«re ara seren orders — pond-weada, graaaea, Ac Thibd Class, or UonoparigynesB. Flowers with tha sumans Insvtad around the aeed-organ.^Thara ara Mn orders palms, nishea, Ac. FouBTii Class, or Monoapigynew. Flowers with the stamens insartad ahoire the saad-organ Thara are Un orders— black bryonies, gingers, Ac Setdt Kith two or more tted-lobu ( Dieotyledooes). Without Petals, or ApetalR FirTHCLASs,or£pi- stamineae. Flowera with the stamena inserted abora the seed-organ. — There are thne ordara— asarabacoas, cytiui, and sanuli. Sixth Class, or Peristaminew. Flowers with the stamens inserted around the seed-organ.— There are laren orders — eleagnl, laurels, Ac. Setcxth Class, Hypoetaminew. Flowers with the stamens insertad below the seed-organ There are two orders— amaranths and marral of Peru- Wiih ont-petalUd 6/ossonu (Monopetalai). Eighth Class, or Ilypocorollew. Flowers with the petal inserted below the seed-organ. — There are twenty-one orders— plantains, primroaee, Ac Niktii Class, or Pericorollea. Flowers with the petal inserted around the seed-organ— There are four orders— heaths, Ao. Tekth Class, or EpicorolieBsynanthereB. Flowera with the petal Inserted above the seed-organ and the anther united— There are two ordera— chicories and boopidiu. Eleventh Class, or EpIooroileB oorisantheiww. Flowers with the peul inserted ir> the seed-organ, and the anthers not united— 1 L ,-e are five ordera^ woodbines, teaales, Al Ifith manj/'pHalttd l 'Kmu ^Polypetslen.) Twelfth Class, or EpipetueB. Flowers with the stamens Inserted abore the seed-organ.— .There are three orders — rhisophoras, Ac Tuibteekth Class, or Hypopetalew. Flowers with the sumens inserted below the seed-organ There are iblrty-nine orders — ranunculi, ruee, Ac. FounTEENTii Clahs, or Peripetalen. Flowers with the stamens inserted around the seed-organ. There are twenty-six orders— ruptureworts, gourds, Ac. iVith the ttamna and piMlili in arpariitejluwert. FirTEEKTH Class, or Ueclinew. Flowers without petala. — There are eight orders — spurges, nettles, Ac. distbibutiok or flaxts oveb the olobe. Almost erery region of the glotie has its own pecu- liar regeUbles, and tliese are so suited to the climate, soil, and height at which they flourish, as in most in- stances not to bear a change, without the fostering care and art ni' man. Fortunately, iinwerer, from a care- ful provisiou of nature, those vegetables which are moil necessary as the food of man will be found to bear a rarietv of climau belter than most others t this is the case with the rarious kinds of greens, carrots, the grains, and that invaluable article of food, the po- iBln. Altitude, or the height above the sea at whicli plants grow, has an effect somewhat similar to the neat and cold of climate; and thus we find, In some of the high mnunUlns of the tropical regions, that a baaullful succession of vpf^jtitlon tak.» place from their basii to the summit. Thus, below, whara tha haal It graataat, planu of warm cUmatee nrtrall i aa wa aacnd to th* middle ragions, thoaa of a temperata eliaaau grow and flourish i and towards tha top, planu only fit for b froian ollma make a partial appear. BBC*, till Bt laal w* gain a point of arar-durlng snow and froat, whara lio ragMBbIa product dar* ralia lu tmdar head. In warm diaiBtaa tha proftuion of rag*, tatlon la mneh mora abundant than In oold t thus, within tha arctic eirda, or region of tha pole, only a ftw flowBTlnf anaelaa of planu arc to be found, al. though tha nnmbarof moiaaa Is conildarablei whereas, in tha warm raglona of tha Wast Indies, In Made. gaaear, and th* ooaat of Coromandal, on* botanist alona enumcrBMa from fear to fire thousand dilTemit kinds of planta. In warm moist climate*, too, th* piogrtaa of ragatalloa la amaBlngly rapid, and It Is no unusual thing for racda and palm-planu to shoot up II ln«ka* In 14 hour*. By cultlrBtion, aad the aru of agriculture, regatablee ara greatly Improrad, and rendered more auiiabia to the uses of man, and la some InMBnc** their naturae ara altogather changed. Aooordlng to Bnffon, onr common wheat Is an artlfi. dal prodndlon, improrad to lu pr**ent (toU by th* aaaldnou coldrBtlon of man i and It Is moat likely that rloe, ry*, barlay, and OBta, war* originally but insignificant grasses, till improrad by cultiralhin, for wa nowher* meet with any of thea* graina rageuting In a tuu of iiBtor*. Thiia, too, tha common garden oalarr, which In lu original atat* Is an acrid poison- ous plant, la co n »«tl * d by blanching Into an agreeBble and healthy aalad. Th* cobwort in lu nstural ttatek a plant Triih r*ry aeaoty laares, has baan reared, by cultiration. Into the dillerant kinds of cabbagee, cauli- flowers, broceoli, Ac Poutoas bar* no doubt undor. E>n* great ImproremenU In quality since first mad* nown aa an aatabla root, and th*,*ngr*ftlng of fruit- traes baa already been ipokon of. On* groat nwant of tha lmpraT«n*nt of r*geublee seems to b* th* fr*. qu*nt changing of th* soil In which th«y grow. All rageubles more or less ezhauat tha soil of the pecu- liar nourishment whieh th*y r*quli* | thus, if whtat b* sown for two or three y**r* In th* sam* field, It will degenerat* ao aa to be of no ralna as a grain ; and It is the same with almoii any other regeUbU pro- duct. Un the contrary, when changed into a well- prepared and richly-manured soil, erery regeuble Im- proraa greatly in quality and tise, and in the rigour of its growth. DISEASES OF rLAMTS. Veg«Ubles being organised substancee, are, like anl- mala, liable to rarious kinds of disaesa This proceeds from a rllialed suu of their juicee, from a derang*. ment of the minnu structur* of their porous organs^ from the rariationa of tha atmosphere, the aiiaoka of minuM animals, and other parasltio planu fixing on them and absorbing their proper Juices. Blight la a disease brought on eiMnsirely in growing fields, or supposed to arise from a particular suu of the air t per- haps it is mainly owing to iu electric condition. It generally occiira abont tha end of July, in hot sunny weather, and after a shower. Fields of wheat, hop planuiions, Ac ar* oftan blasted by it; sometime* only a part suffering, while at other times a whole field is destroyed. A kind of miuuu fungtu is ufun fr'ind atucking the leaves and sums of our grasses and grains, such aa wheat, barley, and oau. It Is in appearance a brownish-looking powder : hence the ap. pellation of nut given It by agriculturists. Upon close iuspecthm it will be found tu ooiuist of thousands of minuu globulee, arranged In groups below the skin or covering of the plant. Sir Joseph Banks ascer- tained them to be a kind of fungus, or minuu moes- plant, the seeds of whiou, floatiug about in the air, euur the pores of Ihe leaf, aspeciaiiy if the plant la sickly; or they may exist in tlw soil or the manor*, and may be taken up by the absorbent veesels of Ihe roots. There is souther kind of fungus, called Ihe red gum, which attacks the ear of the plant, and of course is much more destructive than Ihe former. Smut is a disease which alUcks the seed nr grain it. self, Gouvertinn it into a black substance like soot ; and Ibis alsu is supposed to be a minute fungus, or some diseased condition of the farina or mealy part of the seed. Minute animalcules and worms produced from llies also infest the grain crops in particular sea- sons ; and many planu are preyed upon by myriads o.' a small insect, the apKii, or plant-louse, which, pierc lug the skin of the pisnt, extracu lu nourishing Juices. There ara also mildew and honeydew, attacking th* leaves of tree« and vegetables, coaling their surface with a tbiu whitish covering. A dropsy of pluiu also occurs from too great a profusiuu of juices, and this particularly happens In bulbous-rooted plants. Another si/nilsrity that plants have to animals is the power of renewing lost subHiances, and of eulirely re- novating parts of their structure. Thus, when a cut ur wound is made in Ihe bark of a tree, it i> speedily filled up with new matter, and Ihe edges oomuleuly closed up and reunited in a very short period; and Ihe periodical decay and reproduction of leaves, and buds, and blossoms, are weU-known operations of na. tare, thereby affording perpetual variety, and renewed freshness and beauty. M'heii trees are eutirely de. urived of their bark, they immediately die ; they wili bear large pieces to be stripped off lengthwise ; but if a complete circlu be cut in the bark rouud the trunks it is destructive of vegeuble life. Edlnburih i Piiutad sad puliliihcd by W. snd R. Chasslxn. '.«s*s«;(!a.>».- CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BV WILLIAM AND BOBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE "EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 14. Pbicb l^d. EMIGRATION TO VAN DIEMAN'S LAND. OCOOHAPHICAL POSITION AND OENEBAL HISTORY. This ikland, which, from its extreme remoteoeu alone, furnishes us with a remarkable instance, amongst many others, of the restless and daring spirit of Bri- tish enterprise, is situated in the Southern Ocean, and is the first land of any extent, some rery small islands only intervening, which occurs on the outward voy- age after rounding the Cape of Good Hope. It is ■ituated between lat. 41° and 44" south, and between long. 164* 40' and 148" 20' east of Greenwich. The length of the island is about 210 miles, and its breadth IfiO. It ifi thus about 34 miles less in length than Scotland, and about tliree miles more in breadth, and is therefore altogether considerably less in size. It ia separated from New Holland by a strait of about 100 miles in breadth, the island lying this distance south of the most southern point of the former. Tlie strait alluded to is called Basils Strait, in honour of its discoverer Dr Dass, who, in the year 1707) first ascertained that Van Dieman^s Land was an island, and that it was separated from New Holland by the channel which now bears his name. Previous to this it had always been considered as a part of the former, and was so laid down in all maps and charts.* The island itself was first discovered in the year 1642, by Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutchman, and was by him railed Van Dleman's Land, in honour of An. thony Van Dieman, at that time govemor-general of the Dutch possessions in the E(^st Indies. Nothing, how. aver, immediately resulted from this discovery, and for upwards of a hundred yean the island was again lost sight of. In 1773, it was visited liy Captain Fur- neau, the first EngHsh navigator who had ever touched at it ; after this It was visited from time to time by several celebrated navigators, and amongst those by Captain Coolc, in the year 1777. It ^as not, however, untU 1803, that any settlement was made upon the island ; in that year, it was formally taken possession of by Lieutenant Bowers, as a receptacle for convicts, with a party from Port Jackwn, in New South Wales, where a penal establishment had been already fixed; and to this purpose Van Dieman^n Land was exclusively devoted until the year 1819, when it was thrown open to free settlers. It is thus only since the very recent period Just named that it has exhibited the character of a colony. Its progress, however, has been since then extremely rapid. With a feeling which does credit to the colonists of this island, as well as those of New South Wales, there Is a strong disposition with both to call the island Tas- mania, ill honour of its first disr^verer Tasman, in place of Van Dieman's Land, the name of its adopted godfather. Tasmania, therefore, is the favourite name by which the island is recoguiaed, as well by its own inhabitants as by those of the adjoining land of New Holland. OEKERAL DESCRIPTION. Van Dieman's Lnnd has an exceedingly picturesque and beautiful appearance from the sea, presenting an endless succession of lofty mountains, covered to their summits with wood ; while tall rocks nnd precipices, glens and hills, contribute to increase the interest of this romantic island. Nor does a nearer inspection materially alter this general character of the scene. On traversing the island, it is found to present a constant alternation of hill and dale, with occasional flats or plains ; but these are comparatively few in number, though some of them are of great extent, consisting in several Instances of not less than from 81)00 to 10,000 acres, and one in particular is said to • Braldn t^e authorillet coniultcd in the compoiltlon of the pa- per on New South Walpi, wc have been Indebted for facta tor thti pn»ent anlcle to s variety of colonial newsiwpcni the V«n Die- m»n'i Und Alnistiocki for tlOO-31-.u j Evani' Deacriplion of Van *"'- A'i Land, Ac, u wull m olUviitl ilucutnent*. MAP OF VAN DIEMAN'S LAND. be six miles in length, and from two to three in breadth. These plains are in general exceedingly fertile, and being often but thinly interspersed with treeS; present n most delightful appearance. There are some of ^vm again, however, very poor, present- ing a cold thill soil, of little value. Van Dieman's Land, though it cannot he called a well.watered country, is yet much nuperior in that respect to Now South Wales. Besides several exten- sive lakes scattered throughout the interior, it pos- sesses a considerable number of rivers ; and in almost every district of the island water is to be found. The names of the two largest rivers are the Derwent and the Tiimar. In another important partinilar, this island is pe- culiarly fortunate, that is, in the number and capacity of its harbours, do plaoa of iimkjar extent in the world probably bf>ing equal to it in this respect. The prin- cipal of these are, the Derwent on its southern side, Port Daveyand Macquarrie Harbour on the weatcrc. Port Sorrel and Port Dalrymple on the northern, anil Oyster Bay and Great Swan Port on the eastern coast. Besides these, there are many other harbours, bays, and creeks, distributed all olongst its shores. The coast is in general high and rocky, particularly on the south, east, and western sides of the island i on the north, however, it presents a line of low alter> nate sandy bead ', on which the surf rolls with great imiietuosity during the prevalence of northerly winds. From the extremely hilly nature of the country, thera Is but H comparatively small proportion of it adapted fur the plough, though presenting abundance of ex- rellont pasturage. The extent of really nvailiible land throughout the known part of the islaiidj has be« ip mamamm mm J CHAMBEftS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. IMi iii ntimntrtl nt one. third of the nlmle, -ind this ngnin divided into four parts, giving one for the plough, and the oiher three fur pasture i thiii, nut of IfMM) acres of land, ahout 100 will be found fit for cultivation, and from 300 to 400 for grazing. This is, of course, a rough estimate, and will be fmind not to hold good in many instanou, but in general we hellfve it will not be far from the truth. CLtTtfATK, SOIL, AVD XATUIAL fBOOVCTIOlTi. Tho climate of Vim Dieman's Land is exceedingly pleasant tuid salntirioiis, and is especlallv adapted to tho constitutions of the natives of Urent tiritain ; the )i^at En summer is not so Intense as thnt of New South Vulcs, not often much surpassing that of London or tho southern jiarts of Knglnnd; while the mornings end evenings, even at the hottest poriodn of the year, are ulways cool and agroeable. The cold in winter, however, though mild when compared to what we ex- perience at that season, is mnro intense and of longer durntton thxn that of the neighbouring land, snow Iving frequently on the higher mountains throughout thegreater partoftfaeyear;but inthevnlliesand lower districts it seldom remains more than a few hours. There have not yet appeared anv diseases which can he said to be peculiar either to the climate or to the island, and, on the whole, the chances of life are esti- mated to t>e considerably more in favour of Van Die. mun'i l*aiul then of Britain, or any other of the most healthy parts of Europe. It is not subject tn any ex- tremet m heat ur cold : the seasons are regular, mild, and agreeable; the atmosphere coostantly pure and elastic; and tho sky dear, unilouded, and tirilliant. The average numl>er of days on which rain falls liiroughout the year, is from dO to 60. The soil ul' tiiis island, generally speaking, presents a diversity equal to that of Now South Wales, but, on the whole, ibere is a much less proportion of indifferent soil in tfie former than in the latter, and it is probably less «ncuml>ered with trees aiul brushwood. Such tracts of laud as are good, are iitTariabty of the very best description. The land of this kind in Van Dieman's li:tnd has been represented, or at least spoken of, on t" - one hand, in such terms as might lead us to sup- that it was of unequalled fertility^ and on the ak4ii;er .hs if it were worth nothing ut all ; bnt the truth •ppefcrs to be, that it is neither the one nor the other ^-neither rentarkobly productive nor the reverse, but & in this particular niurh about what we are accus- tomed to at home. As might be expected, this mild and detightAu chmate is exceedingly favourable to \ e- { station, producing a constant verdure and tho most i:airiant herbage on its plains and undulating hills, and exhibiting Irequent instancies of v^^table growth altogether unknown in less favoured regions, and al- nost surpassing belief. Trees are here found mea. Viring U3 feet in circumference, and often stretching ap to the height of IBO feet liefore throwing out a ■ingle branch ; but it is remarkable, that with all this axtraordinary power of vegetation, this universal ac- dvity of vegetable life, there is not one natural produc- tion of the island which affords the smallest subsist- anoe to man. There is Itttia variety in the description of its trees, the whole of them lieing nearly of one sort : all tall, straight, and branching only at tue top — a Aireumstance which gives to tlie forests a peculiarly ■olemn, but not un[3eaaing, character. The bark of the trei>s is in general of so white a complexion as ID give them the appearance of having been peeled, and their leaves are h>ag» narrow, and pointed. The Vopical prtKluctions which attain such {wrfection in )iew South Wales, do not thrive here, in consequence •f die greater degree of cotdneis which prevails ; but all '.y ' vegetabUs and fruits known and cultivated in XngiaMi and Scotland, are raised without diflicultv : apples, pears, plums, gooseberries, &c., to which tlie varmer temperature of New South Wales i» unfavour. able, are produced here in great iibuudance, and of •xoellent quality. Both the climate and soil arc suf- flciently favourable to the produniou of most descrip- tioQs of grain ; wheat is found to thrive remark- ably woll ; potutoea are iu general a good crop, and of good quality. The island is altogether, in short, lit fur all the purposes of agriculture aimed at in tliis country, l>eing neither more nor less favour* able to them, but in oU respecu nearly the same ; iu climate being ours, only somewhat moditied, and its •oil in general not materially differing in q\iality. Its animal productions are nearly the name with t^ose of New South \V'ales, omsistinj^ of the kangaroo, opoea found in man v lostanceslo mea- sure six feet from the snout •„, the extremity of tho tail. The birds of Van Dieman's Ibe. This is their being provided with bags, or pmichcs, on their bellies, in which thoy carry theh* young. It is not yet known how tho latter get there at the first stage'of their existence — every Inquiry which has yet been made into the subject having failed to discover any channel of communication be- tween the interior parts of the animal and the ponrh — but it is certain that there they are found immediately after they have begun to exist, and that there they continue until thev have attained sufflrlent maturity to shift for themselves. Tho parent animal has a nip- pie within the pouch, from which the young one draws Its nourishment in the usual way ; and, when some- what advanced, it is an amusing and interesting spec- tacle to see the creature leajdng out of and into this bag, as its humour or any alarm prompts it ; nor is it less amusing to see it peeping out of the pouch, with a look expressive nt once of cnriositv, and a feeling of safetv and mnifort. It is pretty wcH known that this peculiarity lielongs to the kangaroo, many of which have been exhilnted in this country, but it is by no means confined to them : with very few exceptions, the young of every quadruped in that quarter of the world is brought up in the same way, the mothers having all pouches. The wonders in the vegetable world, in this region of the earth, are not less remark- able than those of the animal. We have already spo- ken of the nnxligtous size to which its tret** ettsin; they have also tho singular peculiarity of those of New South Wales, of being nearly all evergreens, few of them shedding their leaves, as ours do, once a-year; the consequence is, that they want that freshness which belongs to the latter, and are incapable of pre- senting the pleasing process of renovation so delight- ful in our spring, and which is scarcely compensated by their immunity from decay. In this land of con. tradictis a man can carry, is the only part of the emus that is eaten, buttheireggsare reckoned delicious. Theseare, OS might be expected from no large an nnlmal, of great size ; they are of a beautiful dark-green ci^our, and the shell is strung enough to admit of its being con- verted into a drinking-cup. This iiieciee of food is in great request by the natives, who liva u])on them al- most exclusively at the season when they are to be hail, M'itb all the variety of birds, however, which Van Dieman's Land possesses, and the splendoar of the plumage in which thev ai'e decked, there are few " wootl. notes wild" to be heard amongst them — none of the music of the English groves. Few of the birds here slug, and those who do are not very melodious. AVOItlUIHES, OR KATIVE INItAIlITAKTS. The natives of Van Dieman's Land aro in com- plexion perfectly black ; their hair is w^Milly, with flat features, and remarkably thin limbs ; altogether, they are an exceetiingly ugly race. They wear no covering of any sort, nor do they erect any huts or dwellings, bnt live wholly in the woods, with as little dependence een yet more decidedly ineffectual than in the case of tho natives of New .toittli Wales; and no part of the internal policy of the island has been found mure pu7.zling than that which relates to the aborigines. Hovering around the settled districts, they committed, from time to time, the most shocking atrocities, firing houses and co. -* "'"ks, and freouently murdering the proprietors or their servants. This hostility, however, on the part of the blacks, was not without adequata provocation. The male native wan shot without mercy by the settler, and tho female, when tttken, met but too often with the most infamous treatment at the hands of her brutal captors : mothers were torn from their children, and fathers were murdered before tha eyes of both j while the whole were hunted from plaoe to place with the most savage and unrelenting ferocity. The wretched native, then, had — we say had, because there now appears to be a better undersUnding be- tween the two parties — a sufficient apology for the crimes which he committed ; but ns this state of mat- ters could not be permitted to continue, it was neces- sary to fall upon some meth jd of putting an end to It* One if the methods adopted was to drive the bl^cki' into a ptuttcnlar corner of the island by a simultaneous movement of the whites. 4000 of the colonists volun- teered their services on this occasion, :ind, .ogether with the whole of the military on the island, proceeded to carry the design into execution. After keeping the field, however, for upwards of two months, and en- during in that time much privation and fatigue, the scheme was found to be impracticable, and was in consequence abandoned. Rewards were also offered for the capture of hostile blaclr — L.5 for every adult, and L.2 for each child that should be ukeii, and de- livered alive at any of the public establish menu. Some late indications, however, of a better temper on the part of the natives, have induced the colonial go- vernment to withdraw this offer. The reason is thua announced in the Hobort Town Oa/^tto of 8th June 1832, '^that the present tranquil sUte of the cotony has rendered it unnecessary longer to hold out any {lecuniary reward for the capture of the aborigines." Though sufficiently savage in their nature as well as habiu, the natives of Van Dieman's Land are but a weakly race, possessing very little physical strength, and atill less personal courage. Their intellectual powers, however, are not at all of so mean an order as might b« expected from their condition and appearanea — 4uany of them have discovered an acuteness of senaa and a quickness of perception which are nut often to be met with amongst their civilized brethren. Their principal food is tiio kangaroo and opossum, but they readily eat any other native animal they can lay hold of. They merely warm the flesh on a fire, then de- vour it with the most sa\'age eagerness. Their ansa are the spear and waddy, a short club, both of which they use, it is said, with ^reAt dexterity. The spear, as with the natives of New South Wales, is merely a pole reduced to a sharp point at one end. Although the unhappy natives of Van Dieman^a I^and have receivvd much cruel treatment at the hands of some of the settlers and their servants, it is but jtu* ticc to say that it has been far otherwise on the part of the colonial government, all of whose orders regard- ing them breathe a spirit of the utmost humanity and forbearance. The colonisU are strictly enjoined, not only to refrain from offering them the slightest violence but to tieat them on all occasions, excepting of course when they come with hostile intentions, with kindness and gentleness, and on no account, bnt in the last ex- tremity, to have recourse to fire-arms, either in cap- turing or resisting them ; and that, when taken, or when they may have delivered tliemselvea up voltui- tarily, it is enjoined that they be treated with the ut- most care and humanitr. The captured natives are sent to Gun Carriage island, situated in ilaw's Strait, at the distance of 11 miles from tho mainland, whera they are furnished with ample means of supplying themselves with food and clothing. The hostility which the natives evince towards the colonists, has in a great measure, if indeed not wholly, originated in an unfortunate occurrence which took place at the first formation of the colony. An ufifiow of the New South Wales corps, who had been left iu C4immand of the military during a temporary absence of the governor, being :klarmed by tlie approach of a large body of the natives, whom he perceived advanc- ing towards his station, ordered the discharge of a cannon amcngst them, loaded with grape and canis- ter shot. The havoc was dreadful i numbers of them were killed and mangled by this murderous proceed- ing ; and to add to the regret which the circumstance ought to inspire, it was afterwards ascertained that the natives were approaching with the intention of paying a friendly visit to the strangers who had come aniongst them. They aupear, however, never to have either forgotten or forgiven li. The tale is handed down from father to son, for it is now many years since, and to revenge it seems a part of their luherit- .ice. Previous to this, they had always evinced the most friendly disp<»8itioii towa>'ds the whites — a dis- position which the latter were themselves the first to interrupt, and that in the tragical manner just spoken of. The spirit of hostility which that unfortunate occur- rence naturally engendered, has l>een since fostered by the wanton cruelties perpetrated from time to time on individuals of their unhappy race by the colonists, and more especially by the bush-rangers, of whom wa shall speak nereafter. These ruflians have been u- eused of treating those of the poor, miserable, defence- less natives who fell into their hands, with a brutality and inhumanity which is scarcely paralleled In the anuals of human depravity. The female alHtriginet are treated with great harshness by their husbands, who compel them to carry heavy losids, to perfuna all kinds of work, and to hunt fur their subsistence. To escape from this state of bondage and servitude, thay readily desert from their tribes, and placo themMTM EMlGftAflGS TO VAN DIEMAN'S LAND. under the protection of Kiiropeans, and express great delight nt the chnnge of clrcumstiinces whirh nttends It. Relieved from the drudf(ery to whirh they were mbjected while in their uriginnl condition, they ac. knowled^ the ImproTement which they perceive in tlieir situation, and make it matter of contrnit with their former state. Thus, many of them hare at- tached themselres to the sealing parties itationeil on the coast. They are said to be exceedingly gentle and affectionate in their manners and disposition, and ca- pable of the wannest attachments. There is nothing which those who have connected themselves with the 'whites dread more than coming again in contact with their countrymen, the latter never failiing to treat them with the utmost barharity on every ocouion of their getting them within their power. The fear, therefore, uflieing abandoned by their protectors, and left to tliu mercy of their native tribes, ih conHtantly (iresent to them, and makes them extremely jealous uf any rind in the affection of their protectors. The first child born by a native woman to a white man in the island, and who was taken under the pro- tection of and brouffht up by a gentleman and his ladv at Lauuueston, is thus described by M'entworth : ** Sue is called Miss Dalrjiuplo, and liko all the other children since produced by an intercourse between the natives and the Europeans, is remarkably handsome, of a light copper colour, with rosy cheeks, large black eyes, the whites of which are tinged with blue, and long well-furmed eye-lashes, with the teeth uiicom- raouly white, and the limbs admlratily formed.** The women altogether of Van Diemairs Land are described aa being much handsomer, and pusNessing n mucli mure intercstinguppearaiice,tlian those of New South Wales, especially those ia the neighbourhood of Port Jock- fton. DIVISION, DISTRICTS, &C. The island was originallv divided into two counties, Buckingham and Cornwall, both of nearly similar ex- tent, the former occupying the northern, and the lat- ter the southern part uf tliu island, but without any definite Hmits interiorly. They include, however, the whole line of coast on the east from South Cape, on the south, to Cape Portland, at the north-eastern extremity of the island. These counties are again ■ubdivided into districts, and it in by the latter parti- tion that il will be most convenient and most satis- ftclory to speak in detail of the various localities of (he island. The districts into which the county of Budcingham is divided, are, Holtart Town district, New Norfolk, RIchmoDd, Clyde, Outland, and part of Oyster Bay district. The subdivisions of Cornwall, anin, inoluding part of the last-named district, are CSimpbeUtown, Norfolk Plains, and Launoeston. The first of these districts, beginning at the southern end «f the island, is BOBART TOWy DISTRICT. This district, though the smallest in extent of any in the island, is yet the mott important in the colony, «• well from the circumstance of its including Hohart Town, the capital of the island, aa from its possessing many superior lociU advantages ; and, amongst these, that of its being acceMible by water on three different Bidet — by the Uuon river, which fumu its southern boundary, by the Derwent on the north and east, the ■ea on the east. The whole district, including the island of Bruny, which lies off the mouth of the lluon river, and forms part of it, comprises 400 square miles, ' or about 26,000 acres. The country in this district, however, is in general to hilly, that out of these 25,000 meres there arj not above IbOO under tillage; and it la oaid that the first cost of clearing and preparing tlicae lauds for the plough greatly exceeds what they would now bring altogether if put up to public sale. The best and principal farms here are situated on the bonks of the Derwent, and south of Hobart Town in the direction of Fairlte's Core; behind this interiorly there are but few locations, nor does the appearance of the country tend much to invite future settlers, the •oil being in general so thin, and so heavily encumbered with trees, that even its vicinity to the capital is scarcely an inducement sufficient to any one to attempt its cul- tivation. The farms here are, in general, of a very •mail site, averaging little more t)mn /K) acres each. The whole number of inhabitants iu this district, ex- clusive of Hobart Town, does not exceed 800, or about two persons to each square mile ; and of these, 220 are oonvict-tervants, leaving only 680 freemen settlers and others. The number of live stock in the begin- ning of 1831 waa estimated at — horses, 400 ; cattle, SOOO I sheep, 1200. In this district, Hobart Town, the capital of the colony, as we have alreadv said, is situated. Hobart Town is built on the left bank of the river Derwent, at the head of a beautiful core or bay, distant abi>ut SO miles from its junction with the sea. The town ia pleasantly situated on a c:ently rising ground, which, gradually retirintr, terminates ultimately in hills of conslHerable height, covered with wood, and present- ing a mott romantic appearance. These, again, are overlooked by one of still greater altitude, called iMonr ' Wellington, which rites to the height of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Hobart Town it thut hap- pily plocrd between highly picturetque hills on the «ne hand, and a beautiful bay or orm of the sea on the other ; for, though the Derwent be here called a river, it can be so called only in a very extended sense, the water being still lalt, and of coitsiderahle width. The view, than, altogether, of the bay, with iuihips, 107 the town rising gradually fr«na ita shore, and ttie wooded hills In the dfetanoe, with a clear Italian tky over all, Is one of the raoit Interesting and striking that can well be conceived. The town itself ctnrert somewhat more than a square mile of ground ; the honses are constnicted mostly of wood, though many of them ore of brick and freestone. The streets are regularly laid out, and those of them that have been compieted are macadamised, and preseut on either side long rows of large and handsome shops — tuffi. dently singular this, when we consider the very short space that lias elapsed since thit remote spot was te- onnted only by the rnamin-r savage and the kangaroo, ^he town derives a peculiar and highly pleasing cha- racter, too, from the circumstnnue of the houses in general ktaiiding apart from each other, each having a small plot of ground, from a quarter to half an acre in extent, attached to it. Its public buildings are nu- merous, and many of them of such u description as would, even here, be contidered handsome, llere are breweriet, tanneriei, distilleries, flour-mills, two or three bauks, hospitals, churches, ttchoult charitable and ati lendiary, inns, taverns, hotels, and f^rt^-shopt, ad itiftnitumj and every tiling else whiru liespeakt a thriving, bustling, industrious, ard civilised commu- nity. Nor are they behind in tbis department of lite- rature: two or three newspapers are here published weekly, besides a yearly Almanack,* containing a great deal of statistical and other inturestiug informa- tion regarding the colony, and an otHciul gazette. The total number of inhabitants is estimated, including the immediate suburbs, the prisoners, and the mili- tary, at from 7000 to 6000. House-rents are here im- moderately high, L.60 and L.80 being very common for H house of only three or four rooms and a kitchen. Houseii of this and lower rental are generally paid fur weekly, or once a-quart«r. Altogether, Hobart T<^ 'n it an exceedingly expensive place to live in ; provi- sions are high, most of them much higher than in tliis country, aud all articles imported from England bring a most extravagant price. It has been, therefore, reckoned that the living uf each iudividuai iu Hobart Town will average L.50 per annum, exclusive of house- rent. The next district to that of Hobart Town is HEW VOEFOLK DISTRICT. This district lies immediately behind the former, and is entirely inland, no part of it approaching the sea ; its extent, from east to west, is about 60 miles, and from north to south about 30 — tlius comprising 1500 square mtlei, or 960,000 acres. This district u in general much more fertile than that of Hobart Town, returning on an average from six to eight bushels of wheat pei* acre more uian the latter. The farms, too, are of much larger extent, many of them amounting to 2000 acres, some of these delightfully situated on the banks of the Derwent and Jordan, a small river, which, after passing through an exceed- ingly beautiful tract of country, ultimately falls into the latter at a place called Herdsman's Cove. In this district there is also a large proportion of rich sheep pasture. New Norfolk is intersected, in a north- westerly direction, by a chain of lofty mountains, co- vered with the must magnificent timber, and exhibit- ing tnow on their summlta throughout the greater part of the ^'ear. The average returns of the culti- vated lands in this district are — of wheat, 20 bushels ; barley, 28; oats, 30; peas, 20; beans, 15; potatoet, 3; turnip, 7. Of the 000,000 ocret which this fine district contains, there were not, up to the year 1831, more than 90,000 located, and of these not more than 3000 were cleared and brought under the plough. From its vicinity to Hobart Town, and the advantage of water carriage which the lower part of the district poasesseti, there is a greater proportion of agricultural produoe raised in it than many of the other districts. It is remarkable, however, that, with ail itt superio- rity of toil, its crop of potatoes is about one-seventh lets than that of the Hobart Town district. The live stock of this district is estimated at — horses, 260; cattle, 6400; and sheep, 00,000. Here it a pleasantly situated little town or village, bearing the name of the district, viz. New Norfolk, and distant from Hohart Town about 22 miles. There are here two excellr t inns, besides three or four public houses ; and a coach and van, the former with four horses, and the latter with two, run daily between it aud Hobart Town; besides these, there is a steam-boat plying on the Der- went between the two places. The total population flf this district only amounts to 1200 ; and uf these, 450 are canvicts, in the employment of the government and of the different tetUert. North-eatt of the Hobart Town district, and nearly direotlv east of that of New Norfolk, liet RICHMOND DISTRICT, Extending on the eattern tide, or tea-coatt, from Prosser*t river to Tasman's penininla, a tract of un- interrupted sterility, being rocky, mountainoua, and barren to the lost degree. The ridge of bleak and unproductive hills which run through this whole length are heavily timbered, and never can be mode in any way available to the purposes of man. On the tide next the Derwent, however, which bounds it on • Wbn ipaaklagof thcM-pubUcnUons, weoannot refrain tmm Qollciim, in un eaptciti liiannor, a little woik eiultled " The Van Dicrnan'i Land Annlverur), and Hobart Town Almanack," f..r tho yHir 1(131, edltrrtand iirinu>d b> lhrlnf|t:iiouc DrJami-s Rot't, Hubart I'owit, and tiR'h eacellsni eolonlil production we iMie (urx)ircii uui^elv«a imrUtulArly indubictl Iu tlic udiDtMiahiim of the prei-ent arik-le. the south, thou^ still hilly, there are a number of beautiful and fertile vaUies ; and around Pitt Water, a talt-water lake of six milet in length, and three in breadth, there It a considerable portion of comparo. tively level land of the first description, and well adapted for agricultural purponei. In thit district there are two towns or villages, lliclimond and Serrel f the first 14, and the second 22 miles distant from Ho- bart Town. In the latter there are several good iuntt, a parsonage houte, church, jaiL &o ; in the former there it just now only one inn, but there are several respectable private houses. Serrel is situated in the fertile locality of Pitt Water, and is surrounded on all sides with rich and higldy cultivated farms. This district contains altogether about 672,000 acres, or about 1050 square miles ; the total number of the for- mer in cultivation does not exceed 12,000, and, not- withstanding that it pusscases many of the finest farmfl in tho i,s]nnd, the average return of its crops ranks /erjr low; wheat, 12 bushels pur acre; barley, 14; oats, 20; peas, 10; beans, 10; poUtoet, S( tons; and turnips, 8. The whole population of Richmond dis- trict amounts to 2600; of these, 1100 are convicts. Coal and limestone have been found in this district, but neither of them has been yet wrought. The number of its horses is estimated at 420; cattle, 14,200; sheep, 95,000. Next to the district of Rich, moiid, and bounded by it on the south, is OATLANDB DISTRICT, Separated from the sea by part of the Oyster Bay district, and bounded interiorly, or on the west, by the district of Clyde, and nn the north by that of Campbelltown. This district is comparatively but of small extent, and formt a square of aliout 30 miles on each tide, and contninH, therefore, 900 square miles, or about 570,000 acres. Though one of the tmallett Bubdivihiont of the island, Oatlandtis one of the best, possessing, perhaps, a greater proportional extent ot* cultivatable and grazing land, and these of the finest quality, than any other locality of similar bounds in the island ; its beautiful open and extensive downs afford the richest pasturage, and its arable lands are equally fertile and productive with the best in the colony; it is besides most af^vantngeouslv situated, occupying a central position between Hobart Town and Launceston, the next town on the island in ex- tent and importance to the farmer. The advantages which this district presents have been duly appreciated, and a greater proportion of it, taking its limited ex- tent into account, has been located than tbnt of any other district in the oolonr. Itt average return uf produce ia — wheat, 20 busnelt to the acre; barley, 23; oats, 25; peat, 20; potatoes, S^tont; and tur- nips, 6. The town of Oatlands, situated in this dis- trict, and 51 miles distant from Hobart Town, con- tains a military barracks, a jail, an inn, and several extensive stores. The total number of acres in culti- vation is 2700. Its live stock consists of 250 horses, 10,000 horned cattle, 90,000 sheep, and 240 goati. Coal is also found here, but in too remote a situation to afford any profit in the working. Within this dis- trict are situated what are called the Salt-pans Plains, a beautiful level tract of fertile country, of many miiei in extent, terminated in the distance by lofty ranges of the most magnificent hills. These plains derive their somewhat singular name from three small laketi or ponds, which are to strongly impregnated with salt, that they jield, by a natnnd process, many tons of that essential article uf life annually. This salt is not equal in quality to English salt, but, nevertheless, brings lOs. a hundred-welght in the colony. The po- pulation of thisdistrictamountstof^souls; of these, 480 are convicts, and 450 free persons. Next to Oatlands, on the interior, or western side* lies the CLYDE DISTRICT, Bounded on the south by New Norfolk, by Camn- belltown on the west, Norfolk Plaint on the norto, and terminating in tinsettled tracts on the west. It comprises about 1700 square miles, or 1,088,000 acres. This district is in general hilly, but affords excellent and extensive pasturage. Its remoteness from Hobart Town, and the difficulty of transport- tug agricultural produce to that market, from want of good roads, has tended to keep it almost exclu- sivdy a pastoral district. The prouortion of culti- vated land here is exceedingly small. Some of the best grazing farms, however, in the island, are to be found in this district, many of them covered with the immense Hocks and herds of the various settlers. This district has the advantage of many of the others in the colony in the essential article of water, no lets than fiveditferent rivers running through its bounds ; these are the Dee, Ouse, Shannon, Clyde, and Jor- dan. From its elevated situation, the climate here Is '' considerably colder than in the districts nearer the tea ; and even in summer, slight hoarfrosts are not un- usual at a very early hour in the morning. This cir- cumstance bas particularly affected the crops of pota- toes which have heen attempted to be raised there, and which (n oonsequenoe exhibit such a poor return, as al- most amnunt^ to a total failure. The principal town- ship iu the district is Bothwell, distant 45 milet from Hobart Town : there is an excellent inn here, a court- house, church, and a considerable number of re8))eot- able private houses. An assistant clergyman, called there a lecturer, and who Is paid by the government, performs divine service in the town every Sunday. The whole o*iltirated land in this district is estimated CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. '»;. ^ If|-f mt SttOO acret; the average return of produce ti — wheat, Ifl bushels per arre { barl«>y and oats, 17 ; peu. 90; potatoes, i{ turn, and turnips eight. The num. benof Itj live stock are — horses, 2A0t homed cattle, n,000; sheep, 83,000; and goaU, tX»0. lu total po. pulation amonnteid, In 1831, to no more than 700 oouls, and of these 400 were conTictt. ^ OYITEk B/Y DZSTKICT. This district Is bounded by Richmond on the south, OatlHuds and CampbellCown on the west, and the sea on the east. Oyster Bay district takes its name from a Wautiful bay situated within its Hmiu, and which aflPords excellent anchorage for ships, and it reckoned altogether one of the finest harbours in the island. It is separated Trom the adjoining districts l>y a loftv ri^nge of mountains, which run from north to soutn throtifthout its whole length on its interior side. This district is about the same extent with that of Oat- lands, comprising 000 sqtiare miles, or about 676,000 acre*. It does not exhibit any general traits of cha- racter differing from the otliers. In common with these, it possesses large tracts of fine pasture lands, hilt there is little yet under the plough. The whole of the located land hero does not exceed .'U!,000 acres, and of these there are only about 12(K) cleared and in cultivation. Its average returns of crop are nearly the same with those of the Oatlands district. From the small portion of it which is yet located, its popu- lation and amount of live stock is very small, the for- mer amounting only to 320 souls, and of thrse 170 are convicts. The latter are represented to be — houses, 25 ; cattle, 2500; and sheep. 17»000. A great portion of the wealth of this district is derived from whale- fishing, a considerable number of these being every year taken in Oyster Bay. There are no towns nor Tillages yet withiit its bounds, nor any civil or reli- gious establishments of any sort; it possesses, how- ever, the usual accompaniments of a military station and a police magistrate. CAMPBELLTOWV DISTRICT, Lying between Oyster Bay district on the east, and Norfolk Plainsun the west, oomprisesabotitrifiOsquare miles, or 65,000 acres. This is one of the lihest districts in the whole island, and is every day increasing in prosperity and importance. The peculiar richness of Its herbage adapts it in an especial manner fur the rear- ing of cattle, and this is so well known and so univer- •ally acknowledged in the colony, that the butchers of Hobart Town come hither to make their purchases of fat stock, though i\C the distance of 70 miles, in pre- Hsrence to drawing them from the more immefliate districts of less celebrity in this particular. Amongst other delightful tracts of grazing land which this dis- trict presents, there is one of superior fertility, called formerly the Rots Reserve, from its having been kept possession of by the crown for its own purposes. In June last, however, this reserve was exposed to sale by the government, and sold readily in lots of 4000 acres each---the whole tract comprismg alwut 32,000 screa — at from lOs. to 20s. Id. per acre. One lot sold aa high as 2tfs. per acre. Each of these lou has a frontage to the Alaoquarrie river, from which they run backwards alnrnt six miles. At Kor« there is an annual cattle-market, and a yearly display of horse, racing. The agricultural produce of this hne district is equally remarkable with iu pasturage, and for bar- ley especially it seems to be singularly well adapted, the average return of that crop being not less than 40 bushels per acre. Wheat exhibits 20; oats, 26; peas and beans, 11; potatoes, however, only 2^ tons per aere; and turnips, 6. More than one-third of the dis- tHct {i already located, nearly 300,000 acres being in the possession of settlers, and of these 0800 have been cleared, and are now under the plough. The quan- tity of live stork on this district is fully proportioned, when compared to others, to its superior fertility. Us numlwr of horses has been estimatml at 450 ; cattle, 13,500; and sheep, 180,000 — sH of the^ of the best description. In Campbelltown, the emporium of this district, there are two excellent inns, storehouses, &c. Not- w-thstanding its extent, however, Its amount of popu- lation is comparatively small, comprising in all only about 650 souls, and of these no fewer than 550 arc convicts, leaving only 150 free settlers for the whole district—aproo^ though probably otherwise disadi-on- tageous, of the great Individual wealth of its inhabi- tants, who can thus afford to hold in their hands such a vast extent of fine pastoral and cultivated land. NOarOLK PLAIWS DISTRICT. By includin Island from n' of Bass's Btr from New So prises 2250 s This division ( aspect from that oi district, we have now crossed the south, and arrived at the shores r.h separates Van Dicman's Land les. Norfolk Plains district com- .liles, or alwut l,r)00,(MM) acres, 'land presents a very different :ch we have juit been speaking, being generally mountainous and barren ; and when it Is nut absuliiiely either, the soil is often poor, thin, and comparatively unproductive. About 123,000 acres have been here located, and of these 5500 are under cultivation : the average returns of the Utter are — wheat, 18 bushels {ter acre ; barley, .12 ; oats, Xi ; }H>as, 30 1 potatoes, G tons; and turnips, 6. From the ureat extent of this diitrict, though nut at ^11 remarkable far its fertility, its amount of live stuck is very con- Mernble. These nre_borses, 400 ; rattle, 23,000 ; •U ihnp, 7ftieen lately advertised for snio, was stated to have realised to the proprietor and teacher, one and the same per- son, from L.900 to L.1000 per annum t! It has a lecturer, who performs divine service every Sunday to the surrounding settlers. LAUNCE8T0N DISTRICT. This district completes the catalogue of the political divislrns of Van DIeman's Land, and is the largest of them all. It occupies the north-eastern comer of the island, ending at Cape Portland, having Bass's Strait on the north-east, and the PaciHc Ocean on the east, with a coast-line on the former of about 70 miles, and on the latter of about 55. It is estimated to contain 3800 square miles, or ahnut 2,500,000 acres. The greater part of this extensive district is wholly useless for any of the purposes of man, being barren, sandy, rocky, and motintainous, and In many places altoge- ther inaccessible. Notwithstanding of this, however, it is considered the next in importance to the Hobart Town district, from the circumstance of its possessing the second largest town in the island, vlx. Launces- ton, situated at the head of the navigable portion of the river Tamar, which discharges itself into Bass*s Strait, about 15 miles below the town. Launceston contains about 2100 inhabitants, many of them enter- prising merchants and traders. The number of Its I'Uildings amount to about 500 or 000, and amongst these are some very handsome public edifices ; an ele- gant and capacious church, government house, mili- tary barracks, jail, cnnrt-hnuse, school, &c. There are here, besides, several spacious 8torei< nnd warehouses, together with a great many well.itocked shops. From the favourable nature of its situation for commercial purposes, the river being navigable for vessels of 400 tons burthen up to the town, its maritime trade is very considerable, and is every day increasing. The chief exports from liaunceston are wheat, bark, wool, and whale oil. Of these, L.CO,000 are shipped an- nually. The custom-house revenue of the port, for the quarter preceding July 1832, amounted to about 1^.12,000. With all its prosperity, however, Laun- ceston does not appear by any means to be a cheap place to live in. Potatoes sell for 14d. to 2d. per lib. in retail ; butchers' meat — beef ar.d mutton " sCArcely eatable," says the Ijauncestou Advertiser — fid. per lib.; prime joints, 6d. ; and pork, 8d. ; and candles, so wretchedly had that they are next to useless, Is. (Id. to 2s. per lib. Amongbt ill. other public establishments are a bank, post-ofl^ce, several good inns, and two weekly news- fiapers. A direct communication having been estab- isned l»etween this port and London, its inhabitants, and those of the surrounding country, are thereby saved the great expense to which they were before subjected, uf bringing their imports by the circuitous route of Hobart Town. Of the extensive district in which Launceston is situated, consisting, as we have already said, of two millions and a half of acres, there are only al>uut 83,000 located, 7000 of which are un- der cultivation. Its average returns of crops are es- tinuited at — wheat, 20 bushels per acre ; barley and oats, 30; peas and l>eans, 20; potatoes, 3^ tons; and turnips, G. Its amount of live stock is in the following proportions : — Horses, 380 ; cattle, 30,000 ; and sheep, 05,000. aUVMARY CHARACTER OP THE ISLAND* The several districts of which we have just spoken in detail, include the whule colonised portion of Van Dieman's Land, with theexceptlon of t!:e tract belong- ing to the Van Dieman's Land Company, to be after- wards spoken of, and three penal establishments. On looking at the map on the tirit page of this sheet, it will be perceived that these districts occupy nearly the whole of the eastern coast uf the island, and that their interior line passes nearly through the centre of it ; or, in other words, it will be perceived that about one-half of the island, on its eastern side, Is included within their limits ; beyond these, in the interior, the country is yet but little known, and, indeed, there are many tracts within the districts themselves not only unlocftted, but even unexplored. From the local details alluded to, we gather, on the one hand, that, on the whole. Van Dieman's Land is decidedly moun- tainous and hilly ; that it is much encumbered with W(kk1 ; that a large propurtiun of it Is entirely useless as regards human purposes; that much of it is sterile nr unproductive; nnd that its best lands are not mure than usually fertile. On the other hand, we learn that it possesses a large proportion also of the finest and most luxuriant ','asturaget that it is, on the whole, comparatively a tolerably well-watered country ; and that iu cultivatable lands are, if not more than ordinarily prodU'.nive, at least sufficiently so to reward any care or labour that may be bestowcNl upon them. The statistical portion of the pret^eding local de- tails gives us again the following results, with regard to its live ttock and h>cated lands ; Of the former we find the numbers in the whole island to be, of horned ruttle, about 11.1,000; sheep, about 66fl,000; horses, 3000 ; goats, 640 ; and that of the Utter there is In the possession of private individuals an extent of land amounting altogether to about 7^3,000 ncrcs, of which there are 42,400, or abimt an eighteenth part, undar cultivation. But tis these estimates refer to the year 1830, and as it has be<-n computed that 20t\000 aoraa are now annually located, with, uf course, a propor- tional incr')aseof live stock, we may add, for tnetima which has elapsed between the period named and tha present moment, one-third to each t that is to say. there will now be in Van Dieman*s Land one-third more cattle, sheeu, &.c, and one-third more of located land, with an eignteenth part more for each year since of cultivatod land. Of the whole island, then, which comprises 15,000,000 of acres, there will be about 1,018,000 located, or little more than one-fifteenth part, andol these there are about 50,000 in cultivation, or about a three-hundredth part of the whole island. PENAL ESTABLISHMENTS. We at home here are apt to conceive, that. If m criminal be banished to New South Waies or Van Dieman's Land, that particular description of punish- ment ends there, and can be carried no farther ; wa are not, all of tis at least, awnre that In the lowest depth there Is a lower still ; that, in short, a man may be banished from the place of his banishment: this, however, is the case. There are throe places set apart, and exclusively appropriated for those incorrlglblea who continue to onend after they have reached their first destination. Their original sentence sends them merely to the island; but when they commit crimea there, they are again brought to trial, and, if the of* fence be not capital — in wnich case, of course, it la death — they are again sentenced to a further banish* ment. The places set apart for this purpose are Mac- quarrle*s Harbour, Maria Island, and Port Arthur, all uf them unapproachable excepting by water. The first, Marquarrin's Harbour, is situated on the west coast of the island, and is by sea the only way in which it can he readied— -distant about 250 to 260 miles from Hobart Town. The harbour runs up into the land about 20 miles, and it is to an island called Sarah Island, near the head of this harbour, that tho con* victs are banished. The country around Alacquarrie'a Harbour is wild, desolate, and barren, exhibiting no* thing hut continuous rocks and precipices, and rangea of bleak rugged mountains. No parf of the neigh- bouring cmmtry is located, or worth locating, for fifty miles round the settlement. Upon the whole, 31ao- quarrio's Harbour seems to have been admirabi/ chosen for the purpose to which it is made subservient, for a more dreary or more miserable place of abode could not be readily found any where. The next penal establishment is upon a small island situated on the east coast, called Maria Island, about four rollea distant from the shore. It Is a very beautiful ra> man tic-looking little spot, covered in some parts wJUl wood, and exhibiting several lofty hills. The con- victs here are chiefly employed In sedentary pursuits, stich as weaving cloth, makmg shoes, &c The esta- blishment is situated at the northern extremity of the island, where there are spacious barracks for the ac- commodation of the prisoners. The third and last penal establishment is at Port Arthur, on Tasman's Peninsula, half-way between Cope Pillar and Capo Kaniil, and almut 50 miles distant from Hobart Town. The country around this settlement is also rocky and barren, and that part of it wlilch might otherwise be made available is so covered with stones, that it wmild not repay the lalmur of clearing it. The timber, how- ever, which is In great abundance, Is of verv superior quality, and It Is In felling and cutting uu tnis timber that the convicts here are chiefly employed. Port Arthur is celebrated for the variety and abundance of its fish, aa also for Its beautiful basaltic rocks. VAN dieman's LAVD COMFANT. This company was formed during the joint stock mania of 1825, and is incorporated by a royal charter of that date. A grant of 350,000 acres, situated oa the north-western extremity of the island, with aa allowance of one-fourth more for bad lands, was con* ceded them by government, for the rearing of sheep and agricultural purposes, these Iwiug the leading ob- jects of the company. Iu alTairs are conducted on thtf island by a manager and several sub-agents, who are still actively and vigorously pushing furward its inte- rests, forming roads, building steading*, store, and farm-houses, throughout its territory. The company annually ship large quantities uf agricultural produce to New South Wales, and send a great deal of wool to the English market Their dairy produce, which is also very considerable, is mostly, If not entirely, sold in the island. The affairs of this company are but little known in the colony, their lands and esta- blishments l>eing all situated in a remote part of the island, with an almost Impassable territory between them and the settled [:ortiun of the country. There is scarcely any intercourse with them, and the little that Is, is by water. There are said to be from 250 to 300 people employed at the various stations of the company. Their capital at the outset was reprevented to Iw L.260,000. Theii expenses on the colony in the year 1830 amounted to L.8857, fls. Od., and the re^ turns from their agricultural and dairy produce sold in the Island at L.2305, 10s. 5d. — leaving an actual outlay of L.0551, 7i* Id. Their possesbions there have been valued — Land at L.125,000--live stuck, •hipping, Ac, L.50,000 — annual produce, L.10,000. Total, 185,00(». This company have juit fuued a teriet of "fr«» EaMlGllATlON TO VAN DIEMAN'S LAND. all an extuntof land i,000 nrrci, of whlflk ttteeiuh part, undar ttoi refer to the yaur !d that 2(K\000 MrM of course, a propor- lay add, for th«tini« eriod named and the Kh; that ii to tay* in*i X^and one' third third more of located re for each year line* 9 island, then, which there will be about 3 than one-fifteenth M),000 in cultivation, of the whole i ' llEWTi. cniiceire, that, if ft ioiitb Walei nr Van tescription of puniih* pried no farther ; we e that in the lowest , in khort, a man may lis banishment : thli, throe placet set apart, r those incorrigible! ly have reached their sentence sends them thev commit crimM trial, and, if theof- caae, of course, it it 1 to a further banish- this purpose are Mac* d, and Port Arthur, sting by watPr. The situated on the west the only way in which 250 to 200 miles from uns up into the land I Island called Sarah arbour, that tho con« around 9f ncquarrie'a arren, exhibiting no- jrecipices, and rangM lo parr of the neigh. 3rth locating, for fifty pon the whole, Mao- lave been admirably t is made subservient, eralrlo place of abode Ly where. The next nail island situated on kud, about four raila* a very beautiful ro* Rd in some parts with ofty hills. The con- n sedentary pursuits, hoes, Ac The eita. ern extremity of the barracks for the ae« Tho third and last Irthur, on Tasmania pe Pillar and Cape from Hobart Town, lent is also roclcy and might otherwise be stones, that it would The timber, how- ce, is of very superior utting up this timber 'fly employed. Port ety and abundance of >asa]tic rocks. COHPANT. iring the joint stock «d by a royal charter 00 acres, situated on the island, with aa bad lands, was con- the rearing of sheep being the leading ob* are conducted on thtf suluagents, who are liing forward its inte- iteadingi, store, and itory. The company ' agricultural produce a great deal of wool dairy produce, which *-»tly, if not entirely, of this company are ;heir lands and esta- a remote part of the ble territory between the country. There them, and the little said to be from SAO to rious stations of the utset was repreiented on the colony in the , Gs. Od., and the re- el dairy produce sold ■leaving an actual uir pfisReskions there I25,rH)0^lire stork, ,1 produce, L.10,000. ad a serlet of *' jft^ posals," for the encouragement of emigrants ai tenanta to their settlements in the island. These will be found ■poken of at length under the head " Kmigration," to which we refer the reader for this particular descrip. tlon of Information. TBADE AND BEVENUE. The principal articles of export from Van I)ieiiian*s Land to the mother country are wool and oil. For their agricultural produce they have to look for a nearer market, and this they find, nitliongh only to a limited extent, and but occasionally, in New South Wales aad the Swan River — the latter ntall times In- ooosiderable, and the former uncertain, as Van Die- man's Land grain can be in demand there to any ex- tent, only when their own crops have fallen short — a circumstance which hns Indeed more than once hap- pened, to the great benefit of some of the settlers on the Utter island. Until, therefore, some new outlet for theagricultu. ral produce of the coiuitry presents itself, it does not appear thnt it would be advisable that they should raise more of these than is sutKcient for their own consump- tion. In IU31, they exceeded in this way, and were then at a loss to discover how the surplus was to be disposed of. The whole quantity of wheat grown up- on the Island in that year was estimated at 383,IN)0 bushels, with an excess over the consumptiim of the preceding year of 70,000 bushels, making in all a stock of 453,000' bushels, while the consumption was not reckoned at more than 250,000, thus leavinga surplus of 253,000 bushels. Theseditticulties, however, neither apply to wool nor oil, both of which will always find a ready market in the mother country, and to any ex- tent. It is evident, therefore, that, m the meantime, the farmer of Van Dieman's Land must betake him- self chiefly to the growing of wool, and the merchant to the trading chiefly in both — In so far nt '^ast as regare of seven years* transportation. Soon after his arrival, Howe absconded, and, joining a gang already in the woods, or in the bush, as they prefer saying in the colony, commenced his career as bush- ranger. Deing a man of a fierce and relentless dis- position, and withal of daring courage, capable of every enormity, and of facing any danger, he was soon chosen leader of the gang with wnich lie had connected him* CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ■ V > I i ■' a ; 1 II Mif, and continued In that cjipnclty Tor nr Arly kix yfftrt, tke terror of the whole isliini). At one period of hii I career, Hnwe, diitniiting the faith of hit pftrty, left | them, nnd fonned the dfti^ of givinir hlratelf up to the rorernment, on a rhunoe of mercy being ext(>nde4l •b him. On tht» ocr«ilon he wrote to the deputy-go- ■ V«mor— Van Diemin'i liiind bfing then dependent •n New 8oHth Wsles— ntntiiig that ho was pn'parud to lurrender himself, provided that an uiiurance wa« ' prerlounly given him of penonal Hafcty in the meuii- | time, and that tuch a favourahle reprebentatinn ahould ' tfierwHrdi he made to the gorernor-in-chlef as might I firociire hit ultimate pardon. The conditions were i ramedintely agreed to, and the desi>erado yielded him. telf qnietly to the autliorities. Either a dread, however, of tho result, or a long- ing for the joys of tho hush, having conui over him, he shortly again nhsconded, nnd recommenced, with additional vigour nnd ferm'ity, the career of crime which he had so temjKirarllv resigned. Howe was ■rcompaitled in nil his wanderings by a native girl, who followed his footsteps with the moflt persevering aitacliment, ihaHng Iiis hardships and fatigues, and incurring with him all the dangers of his desperate trade t vet, on one occasion when hani presMd by a party o^ soldiers, the ruffian suddenly turned round and rired on the unfortiuinte girl, who, worn out with fktigue, was struggling to keep up with him. Cunsi- tfering her as only an incumbrance In his flight, though intending to hare killed her outright, he tucceedetl only in wminding her slightly. liowe was at length cntr.ippnl and killed by somtj of his own assm-iutos : he was enticed into a hut hv being told that amnuini- tion was to hn had In It. dn his entrance, one of the eonspirators suddenly discharged a musket at him, but missed him. "Is tnat j'our game?" said the des- perado, coolly, and he levelled nls piece ut his antago- nist, and fired in his turn, but also missed his object. He now rushed out of the hut, but was instantly pur- tued by the persons who had nllured him in, and, be- ing soon overtaken, a savage combat t(K>k place with the butt-ends of muskets, and Howe, after defending himself with tfTf at coumge, at length fell and cxpiretl on the spot, nls head being battered to pieces by the hlowft with which it had been visited. The bush- rangers have had many leaders of note, thoijgh none of equal celebrity with Howe. One Peter Geary, a ^Merter from the TTki raiment, seems to h:ive ranked next to him as a bush-rtinger captain : this man also himself committed, and encotiraged hia gang to com- mit, the moat horrid atrocities. Geary was at length •hot by a party of the -lOth regiment, after maintain- ingwith his g^ng a smart engagement with the latter. Theae days of bush-raoging are now, however, al- moit entirely over, both iu van I>ieman's Land and ^« lister oraony. Depredations of this kind are hut of extremely rare occurrence, and have no longer the ■•nguinary character which they formerly had, acts of nolenoe being now seldom perpetrated. The estu- Wiahment of the police magistracy was one of the most olflMtive roeasorea adopted for tne extinction of this tnrni^ of the colony, as its local openition Uid every p)irt open, as it « ere, to the light, lessening the coverts 4if the marauder, or driving him at any rate to agreaicr tfietanea. flOClETT. It has been said by one writer (Ifenderson), that the British character in both colonies. New South V ales nnd Van Dieman*s Land, has deteriorated. It may be sti; but in both there is still to be found a preat deal of highly agreeable, if not highly retined aoeiety. In the more remote settlements of the colony, toHety of any kind is scarce, and indeed this would tie found one of the greatest wants of which a well- •odacated grown-up family wmtid have to complain in locating in the interior ; init even this would not cer- tainly be greater, nor even su great, probably, as occurs In the HIghlandt of Scotland, where many miles of •Imoet inaccesaible country often intervene between ^ouse and houie. There are, beiidca, a number of hoarding-schools and seminaries of various kinds, throughout the colony, and In particular in and about Holwrt Town and Latincestou, conducted by persons •f the highen respectability, and etiually well adapted fur their purposes, hoth with regard to acconunodation and arrangements, with any similar institutions in the mother country. Though society of any thing like a superior kind is scareo in the interior, and throughout the more remote portions of the varioui districts, yet it is to be met with. There are now a great number of well.educBted peraons amongst the •ettlers in Van Dieman's Land — people of property, who hare been accustomed to all the elegancies and re6nementa usually attained by the better classea here. Theae are scattered over a grettt part of the colony, living on their estates in baiulsome cottages, or more atately edifices, with g.<.,*denfl, parka, lawns, shrub- faariaa, tec around them, and all tlie other character- btica of nmg genteel English country renidencew. It has been remarked, loo, and with truth, that the latter •ettlers have brought more money with them than the first; that, in abort, there is now a better class going out than weut before. Kroigronta with L. 10,000 or L.12,000 are now by no means uncommon there, and chore have been aereral initanoes, both fnim India and England, of fortunes from three to Ave timet that MDOunt having been brought into the island. In Ho- bart Town the moat select society ii to be found, and oertalnly, perhapa, also the wont on the face of the •vtii. The fbirmer, however, ii not only select, bat, no being situated in the very heart of the enemy's coun- try as it were, the very metropolis of roguscy, the emporium of petty larceny, and other little peccadilloes, it ii hedged In and defended with triple walls of brass. Candidates for admission aro examined from head to foot with tho moat anxious and scrupulous inquiry— they are can>riilly welghwl In tho haluiicc, tried, tested, squet-zed, and hot-pressed. If they stnnd all Utia, they may walk In ; if not, they must turn to tho right abouL An intelligent correspt udent, whose letter now lies Iteforo UB, thus sjwaks of Ilobnrt Town : — " The town is wonderfully enlarged — fine streets, wharfs, and shops. We have three steamers ahmnt ready fur a start, coaches on the various roads, and hIa qfprivatt earriapea." It Is this last assertion which has inducee expected where these in- dications of property, wealth, and refinement, are lo numerous. The omvicts in this country are under similar ler- veillance with those iu New Suuili Wales, and are not permitted, cither by thu government or the C4donists tlieuuelves, to approach tlie precincts of atciety. The emaiicipats, again — those whose term of hanislimeut has expired — though afterwords becoming wealthy, and supporting a ifood moral character, are, never- theless, always cunsideretl inadmissible to good society ; and though there ia no objection to the maintaining a mercantile cuniicxion wltli tliem, it is rarely allowed to extend further, .Several of this class have liere, as well as iu the sinter colony, acquired extensive and valuable property, and many of them have become wealthy by other lawful pursuit^ and at this momcut one of the liuest estates In Van Dieman's Land, com- prising 3200 acres, is the property of an emancipated convict. XMioajtTioir. As in the case of New South Wale Land Companv to emigrants for their own particular territory, which, capital of the emigrant; and although less will cer- tainly do, it would yet aeem that about L800 would he necessary to commence with a fair prospect of suc- cess. The outlay on a farm at the outset is calculated to bo somewhat less than L.IIU; and as it will take some time before any return ran be expected, the means of subsistence until then must also he taken into consideration, beside* other incidental expenses, so that an emigrant ought not to count on leas than probably double this sum being necessary'. The first indibpunsable outlay is thus estimated : — Eight bullodis, at L.6 each One cart or dray . . . Two ploughs .... Two pair of harrow* BuII' tottage, which they will also erect for him, furnishing doors, windows, fastenings, See. The rent of their forest lands they propose receiving in produce, giving the flrst year gratis to the tenant ; and of their grass lands they demand but half rent for the first year. They will alan have no objection, under particular circumstances, to receive payment in labour, as well as In money or produce. They farther propose to advance money to tenants, for the purpose of improving their lands, when it shall appear that these improvrmentA are calculated for the general interests of the company, as well as the par- ticular interest of the tenant, fteod-corn wlUbe lent to the tenant, to be repaid out of the first crop; clo- ver and grass-seeds will lie supplied to him gratis for his pastures ; and timber cnrriages will he lent him to assist in clearing his finest lands : In short, every en- courngement and assistance which can tend at once to place the tenant In a comfortable situation, and Eromote the infeereits of the company, will be afforded Im ; and all their r^ulations and proposals are justly fminded on the principle, that these are inseparable without injury to both. On the whole, this scheme of the Van DIeman*! I^and Company seems one of the most eligible that haa yet been suggested with regard to emigration, whether it be to America or Australia, or any other quarter of the world One of its best L.48 IS 7 S 10 (1 . 3 10 !0 features runiuins yet to be Lse, the Van Dieman's Land Company are now inviting emigration to tiufir territories,* and we think them well worthy tho consideration of all those who would seek to improve their condition hy migrating to a foreign land. Without recapitulating, as we think it unnecessary, the description of per<(oni best auitvd ti» eniigrnte to Van Dieman's Land on the onlinary footing, we now proceed t4> apeak of them in the order origiiially pro- poaed, beginning with the rABHEBS. From all the accounts which we have of the agrt- culturul state of Van Diemau's Land, it appears Oxut jToet/ farming, at least until very lately, woa not by any means curamon there ; and when we conKider huw much depends upon a thormigh knowledge of that science, and perceive, at the same time, how ratuh has been done in tliat country with a very slight rcauuint- ance with it, it will lie evident how greatly the cuances of ultimate success are im-roased on the part of the emi- grant hy his being experienced in huabandry beforu going out. A» we have had occasion to remark before, however, the growing of wool will l>e, or at least oughc to be, the principal object of the aottler. For a cer- tain proportion of' grain, and i>ther agricultural pro- duce, he will always find a ready and remunerating market in the island, say — for wheat, utwut fie. 6d. to 5s. Od. per bushel ^ but this, in the meantime at least, must be limited, and he cannot count on any other demand than what arises from the immediate wants of the colony itself; he ought to ailtivate land, thert- fore, with this prospect alone in view, and proportion it aocordiugly. With regard to wool, again, it isother- wise: he cannot have too many sheep, provided be takes care that they are of the right awt. He may grow uuy quantity of wool, and he will always find a ready sale for it at Holiort Town, or he may aliip it to Kngfand, if he prefers it, or aees it for his advantage* But let him pay every attention to the breed, and the improvement of his flocks iu the quality of their wo(J, fur on this, of course, depends the price which he will receive for iu On this subject we qtwte the follow- ing extract of a letter from a highly reapectable set- tler, dated tiie 18th July 1833: — '* I am happy to lay tliat the settler's prospects are as favourable, indeed more so, tlian they were some time since- Hbeepkeop up their pric^—lZs. to l.'te. per head, and wool has much advanced. I sold ours this season for lOd. per pound ; it is our Intention to amid it to England for sale after another year. We are getting rid of our coarse flocks, and improving the wool with Saxoay rams. I liave no doubt, in the course of three yean, that the wool in the Inindon market will yield ua 8s. per pound.'* And there is no doubt, that, if due at- tention is paid to the quality, and to the preparing of the wool for marke(,f in the washing, sorting, pack- ing, &C., that thia price will be realised, for in the London soles of New South Wolea and Van Dieman's Idiud wool for December 1831, the Utter brought even then, the Ifetter sorts from Is. 3d. to 2s. 2d. per pound, and the former, some of it, as high as 2h. 1 Id. ; and we have no doubt that the iroprovoroeuts which have since takeu place in the cultivation of tliis article, will entitle it now to still higher prices, provided !io un- foreseen change for the worse takes place in the wool market. Besides the growing of wool, there is an- other exceedingly promising source of wealth t^n to the settler — tliis is the dairr, which seems to he strangely neglected in the colony, although the de- mand for this species of produce is great, and the prices even extravagantly nigh ; butter readily bring- ing 2s. fid. to 3s. per pound, and ailonlal cheese Is. to Is. 3d. per pound. Vet, with all its vast extent of rich paftturuge, and its innumerable flocks anil herds, Van Dieman's Land imports both of these article* from Nflw South Wales and tha Cap« of Good Hope. Indeed, in the former country, there is more thaa ooe • Vat htthtt pvtimlsn on this sukfcet, «t rcte the r the " \'joiMMa.\ir ihemwlvet. publishiil in the form of m paraphlst* by Richirdtnn, '.)\, flnyal Exchsngc, Londoti. ItESa. t Sfe nur wtieto nn N»w South Wslea. torasrlof " DInetions** on thu UniHictaiit iut^tet EMIGRATION TO VAN DIEMANS LAND. pnrwm who, wiiieljr davotlnff themtelTpii to this pro- fllable bninch of fum produce, iiro rnpiiily rpnliiing fortunM. Any p«non, therufore, ffninf( nut with k tkoronf(h knnw)fil)feprev{ouilyufiliiiryiimtt<>rs, would attiiruilly find hii account in it. Tho cattle there are certainly much inforior in general to what they are In thii country, and therefore a ilmilar return as to quantity could not bo eipected, but Hill that return would )>e amply iiifflcient to reaKie a rerr handsome yemrly profit to the dairyman. The person going Dill there, or indeed any other who Intends grmi- ing cattle, would do well to take with him a qnan- tily of Knglish grass-seeds of various kinds, anil particularly Dutch clover, which, when once set- tled, he should ulwnys carry about with him, sprink- ling it here and there as he goes over his pasture Itinili. as the Nnmnneas of the grnises In Van Die- jnnn's Land, notwithstanding of thi-ir richness, has been found injurious to the health of the cattle. On rearliing his destination, he will learn that a little salt iiNti placed in situations where it may be at once kept t\r\\ and be within the reach of his cattle, will be ex. ceertingly Iteneficial to them. Land is obtained in this island precisely on the sime terms as in New South Wales, via, either by the purchase of crown lands from the government, or of private property from individuals ; the lowest price of the former is 6i. per acre, rising higher in propor- tion to its value as regards local situation or natural ndrantages. A deposit of ten per cent, must be paid on making tho purchase, and the whole amount in one month thereiifter. In the case of private property, it is, of course, impossible to say what the price may be, since thiit will depend upon cirnimstances, on which we cannot fmmd any previous presumption t but good land, already under cultivation, may be had liere, as iu the sister colony, at from l(h. to 15s. per acre; and, as in the case of the Ross Reserve already spoken of, even unlocated crown lands will bring this mm and n good deal more— in one instance nearly double — but these were particularly fine lands, the very pick and choice of the island. There are fevr other uncultivated tracts that would bring any thing like these prices. The intending agriculturist emi. K'ant must not think of going out to Vnn Dieman's and, any more than to New South Wales, without capital i or rather, it is. If possible, still more neces. sary, or at least a larger amount is necessary in the ftn'mer than in the latter case, for the expense of clearing and bringing the land into cultivation is greater. A farm of a hundred acres In New 8oath Walss requires, upon an average, an outlav of about Ij.700 to make it fit for the plough, while in Van I>ieman*s Land it will cost L.1000, or L. 10 per acre. This difference arises from the greater expense of maintaining convicts in the article of clothing in the one colony than the other. In Van Pieman's Lani!, this item costs toe settler from L.7 to L.8 per head, while in New South Wales it will not average more thin L.5; this is of course a difference in the price of labour, operating against the Van Dieman> Land settler. Neither tbo one colony nor the other, then, are places for a ruined man to go to; without t>eing In possession of some capital after he lands there, he can do nothing i be cannot move a single step — no, none — nay, less easily than he could probably do at home. There, at the outset, he will get no credit ; no honesty of intention, no integrity of character, will avail him; nothing but the money, and of this, too, ho had as well have a pretty round sum, rr he had better remain where he is, wherever that may be. Kven in the best cAse, all idea of making a fortune must be abandoned. There is no such thing as fortunes being made, either by agriculture or grazing, in either Van DIeman's I^nd or New South Wain ; but a competency, and a great degree of comfort and independence in clrcum- fitanC'i, are readily acquired in both, much more readily than here, by industry and perseverance, when aided at the outset by a little capital ; and, in- deeii, if it he allowed that wealth raav assume another shape than that of money, that to have abundance of all the necessaries and comforu of life, with a cer- tainty of your children inheriting, if not forfeited by their own misconduct, all these blessings — if t!iis be wealth, then wealth is to bo acquired in both Van Bieman's L4ind and New South Wales i but accumu- latioiis of mere money are entirely out of the question. The following *' advice to emigrants," that class of which we are now speaking, viz. farmers, comprises nearly all that can interest him with regard to his si- tuation, and tho conduct he ought to pursue after landing in the colony. It is from the Van Dieman'a Land Almanack, 18:12: — *^ In several respects, the si- tuation of a newly-arrived emigrant is peculiar. Kvery action, thought, and word, are for the moment in- fluenced by tiie spirit of excitement, which is inevi- table to oil who have left their native land in order to settle in a new and very indistinctly-understood coun- try. With expectations highly raised, a strong feel- ing of self-consequence, and being keenly alive, too, til whatever is likely to affect tho success of the enter. prise, the emigrant is apt freqneutly both to overrate and to underrate dilficulties ; to form opinions upon light grounds, and afterwards pertinacioualy adhere tu them : in short, altogether to go wrong, mei'ely for want of having been set right at starting. One of the chief things to he impressed upon tha emigrant, Is, that the sooner ho reaches hii ultimate destination, wherever he purposes this should be, the better will it prove for him. Kvery shilling expended at intermediate places, every hour jiassed nt hotels or lodtfing-hoases, is an aburactlon of capital, which he will bitterly rvMnt before he has lived one year in tha colony; for it Is Idle to conceal from him, that upon his own frugnhtg and industry^ more than upou any other ca«se whatever, will his success depend ; and he should besides bo told, th^it money is of so mucli more value here than In England, that if he purpose relying upon such aids as are common there, and should thus Ite led Into an outset that is in the least lieyond his own resources, or beyond such means as he has immediately at command, independent of any other quarter whatever, he will be preparing the way to his own cttrtain destruction. <>iiee let niiu be in the hands of th>.' money-lenders, and tho rapid man- ner in which ati Interest of fifteen to thirty per : oot. (which is the least he will find he has to pay) swal- lows up principal and every thing he has Iwsides, will astonish him. Houses, land, possessions nf over)' sort, ail become swept away liy the fell hand of the sheriff's otHeer ; and years of anxiety, toil, and deprivation, finish by ploinng him iu a prison. But all this may he avoided by attending to u few plain rules or guides of conduct, upon entering the colony, and among them may be euumerated the following ; — 1. Beware of what acquaintances are formetl. It sometimes ha{rpens that emigrants are thrown, upon arrival, among classes who have formed a jaundiced opinion of every thing around them— of the colony — of its administration — its resources — its general state or condition — and whose chiet delight now is iu gain- ing proselytes to their own notions. Whatever infor- mation tliese communicate, will be tinged by the state of their own minds ; and, as a general rule, therefore, every thing that so reaches the ear of the emigrant should be received with extreme caution. Equally to be guarded against are another class, or those who al- ways view things in their brightest colours— for a young cobny presents of itself a peculiar field for the man of enterprise and speculation ; and if these be nourished by ton much encouragement, they will bring ruin upon the projector. 2. Ucware of becoming a politician, or of belonging to a |iartv^-an emigrant should leave all things of this sort in tte country to which he has bid adieu. He t;annot afford to have his mind or his time divided be- tween what his new avocaUous deiaand of him, and such pursuits m these. Delighu'ul as they may be also, they are perfectly out of moot in a young colony, the governing principle of whose inhabitants should be, the moral conveyed in the fable of the bundle of itidu. 3. Never forget that you are In a conntry where, for a few years at leabt, prudence requires that the veil of oblivion should Ite drawn over many of the comfi)rts, and still more of the luxuries of life, to which, perhaps, you have been accustomed for many years. Whatever may l>e your circrmstances, things of this sort cannot be indulged in for a time, without depart- ing from those maxims of prudence which havu been already inmlcated. 4. Be extremely cautions how yon are led to make purchases, or forming bargains of any sort. Almost every one you meet will have the best horse, the best cattle, sheep, Ac, tho island produces, for sale; but let the second best he good enough for you ; or rather remember that there is nothing so good that something else may not be found which will equally answer the purpose; or again, that it is better sometimes to be without a thing a week, than to have it one day too soon. The settler should never fsi^^ that his indepen. dence— his true comfort-..wili depend upon his being able to obtain, without money, tlie greater part of those necessaries of life which money is elsewhere required to purchase. He should aim to produce every thing within himself — to raise all from lis own ground. Ue who does so, although his Income may be small, may still be a wealthy man if he be true to himself ; but, as before said, much depends upon how he sets ojt. A few words will now be odded by way of acquaint- ing the emigrant with certain routines that may assist him upon first landing in his search for land. His most important business, generally spenking, is the selection of land — desirableness of the early settle- ment upon it, of himself and family, has been already mentioned. The piece of information that will prove most useful to him with respect to the selection of land, is, that infinitely more depends upon his own energy than upon any thing else whatever. Ilia first business, after landing in the colony, is to ob- tain from the surrey department a printed form nf application; and, having filled it up, and forward- ed it to its proper destination, he will soon receive an answer, acquainting him witli his excellency the lieutenant-governor's determination upon his case. Presuming this to be favourable, his next step is to fix upon the land he may desire to have ; and here, it must he confessed, a most difficult task is before him. He will, no doubt, have been permitted to examine the charts of the Island that arc in the surveyor's office ; but what information do these afford ? — what can be leomt from them, even by persons who fancy they know every corner of the colony ? — and what, then, do they impart to the newly-arnved emigrant ? However, he will, of course, havestudied them a little previously to departure for the Interior — a measure that is imperative, pergonal inspection being the only dependence whereon he can reasonably ground any I hopes of success. Hut here, again, obstacles will be The dielrict-Mirveyors will be surveys, and other similar causes, to give him half his lot at every step. The dUMrlct-wrveroi unable, in conseijuenoB of the backwardness of the Burrryv, nu sides, the person in quest of land has always to exi)ect to be misled by persons who are in tlie habit of^ as- suming a right to crown land to which they have x\q pretension, merely twcause they have found it con- venient as a pasturage for their sheep and cattl". In addition to all these, it must not be overlooked that there Is really very little good land, except in remote situalinns, remaining ungranted ; so that, upon the whole, the task of searching fur it may well be termed difficult and perplexing. Still the active energetio searcher of land need not despair; but, as before said, much, very much, de- l>ends upon himself: in fact, he may Iw considered either the maker or the marrer of his f(>rtnne through* out his whole career in the colony, for it Is the vcre worst place In the world for the idler, the spendthrift, or the lounger; whilst, on the other hand, it presents amp itv^al though perhaps he may at first consider it slow — encouragement for the man of sober and Indus* trious habits." The greatest difficulty which the new settler will have to encounter in pr<>paring his land, is from the trees with which he will find it encumbered. To free the land from these is an expensive, tedious, and ex- ceedingly laborious process, but as It of course must be done, it had best lie set about with cheerfulness, and ' ': at with unremitting perseverance. The settler X now cast hia coat, and set fairly to work with his assistants^ A great many settlers have contented themselves with cutting the trees u little way above the ground, leaving the stumps and roots to decay of themselves, without grubbing them out entirely, as they ought to be. This is n saving of labour Pnd ex* pense in tho first instance, but it will not be found so m the lung-run. These stumps take ten or twelve years to decay ; and oven In the state of decomposition to which they are then reduced, they still require to l>e taken up, and not having the tree to act as a lever in tearing them from tho earth, they are often found more troublesome to root out than the whole tree it- self would have been ; while In the ground too, they interfere sadly with the operations of both plough and harrow, deform the ridges, Interfere with proper draining, rendering it more expensive by making it more circuitous ; and as neat and regular husbandry is always the most profitable, and as a crowd of blac. kened stumps sticking up in a field must entail thif reverse, so must the farmer's profits be proportionally lessened, to say nothing of the ungainly appearance which they must present in a cultivated field. The manner nf feeding and rearing cnttle is in every respect exactly the same in Van Dicnian's Ijand as in England and Scotland, and their farming Is also nearly the same, differing only in so far as a greater degree of heat in summer requires that it should. There is an idea gone abroad, that all the good land In Van DIeman*s Land Is already located in the possession of settlers, and that there is none there worth having to be had. This is untrue : there are many millions of acres of fertile country there still to dispose of: pro- bably by much the greater part of the best situated lands, In so far ns a contiguity to market or to points of embarkation is concerned, are already in the pos- session of private persons ; but chero Is much valuable ground In the interior unoccupied, particularly a fine newly-discovered tract at the back of Mount Welling- ton, which will alone afford excellent locations to ^ who may seek them for some years to come. IIZCHAKICS. The demand for this class is equally great here a!i in New South Wales, and the encouragement the* same. Wages from As. to 8s. ]>er day; sometimes as high as 10s. for first-rate workmen! Living, how- ever, is considerably higher here than in the sister colony, especially in the article of animal food, as will be seen from the list of prices in the last page of this sheet, and by which it will be perceived that beef and mutton arc 5d. toOd. per lb., and hams the enormous price of Is. I>d. ; while in New South Wales the for- mer does not exceed 4d., and moy be bought at 3d. Tea, sugar, &c. are tho same price in both places. The encouragement which the government of this country offers to emigrants of this class, viz. an ad- vance of 1^20 to married mechanics taking their wives along with them, and for farther particulars regard, ing which we refer our readers to our sheet on New South Wales, applies equally tu Van Dieman's Land as to the former colony. On the whole, New South Wales seems to be the most desirable place of the two for both the meclianic and the labourer, since Wftges are not higher in Van Dieman*a Land than In the former, while provisions are cheaper; besides, the other being the elder country, every thing there is more matured, and placed on a firmer and broader basis ; the extent of countr\' is all but unbounded ; the population is nearly double to what it is in the for- mer ; and, In short, it miut always be considered, from CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. y I I' thcH ftiid uthvr cinmmiUncM, m th» prind|Hil ciiluuy, Bolwith»uiidinK ll la iio lotifrar moofiniMd ai luoh In ft yulitir*! point of tImw. It if iha wiwlthlffit, and, u a aacaaaary roni(N{u*nr« of lu l>aintf the rtnt nubllihadi ftnd ai being liniK held na thrdtimMttltftnant, itia wv». Tftl atepa In advaiu'u of lite c>ih»r la variuu* iin|>iir(ant SarticuUn. Tho dearriptinit nl mnhanici niiMil In amand hero la much aUml the* aanie lu in New Htiutlt M'alri, via. ciKipara, thip and h(iu»i> cjiriH-'ntcrii, cabi. lialtaakera, Juinera, whfulwrifrltli, brirkmakera, and •awrvn t atone- qnaniera, cutlera, and maaoiii t ail klnai, however, will be made weU-omp ; nor will any be at the tmallval lots tu lind employment ; and the lib«raliiy of the home (pivarnment relievm them, until thav ihiul ba lung enough there tu repay it, of one- bal/ taaaage>muney fur themaelvet and wiveit In other worda, they have only tu advance L.'iO for thli purpoae, the itato advancing the other l*.20, the u'hole ainount of piuaagu-muuey being about L.4ti for •ach mnrried couple. rAHM-tCKVANTI «NI) l.AHOL'UEnt. Theie are alau greatly wnnted in the cuhiny, and Veadilv o'<>tain emplovnient on thu aanir temia a» in New ^uth M'alei — tnv fonner from L.10 to L.lft per annum, with ample weekly ration* of provtiiuna; and tlia latter U. per day, nitli fully aa much hreud, nii-at, &c. ft! they tan conaumi*, and in aonte inataniva atill Li-ttor termi may bo had ; but aa the government diH-i uot nfTord aa>litanrc tu them in any ahape, they aro Ifft to find their way out na they beat ran ; and there is no other way hut by paying 1*.30 for a paaaage, a aum which very few indeed of the latter class tn par- ticular are able to cummauO ; and if burdened u-iih a wife and family, whirli would coniiderahly more than double tbia anunnit, the idea of auch going either tu Van Dieman'a l^nnd or to New Kouth Wiue*, aeema eutircly out of the question ; that ia, the idea of going otit aa mere labourers, and without nuy capital. It might he thought that where llie want of labour is to much felt, and the demand for it so great ai it is in tlieae oolunlea, that tlie remuneration would be pru< portioned tu this scarcity and demand ; but this ia nut a necessary cunaequence, and, In fact, in thet« very Initancea dut-a not f(«Uon' ; fur this reasou, that how- ever much thvv want lahuur, they cannot alfurd to go Irayond a certain pric« for it \ and if it cannot he hwl upon such terms as will make it worth the colonist's while tn perform certain work, he must juat leave that work undone i this operates seriously against the co< lony, but ia nothing in favour of the lalM>uror, or ra- ther it is ultimauOy equally injurious to him. Both the mechanic and labourer should be informed, also, that the colonists pay as little in money tu any oi their workmen aa they puaailily can, always stipu- lating fur a portion of their wages being taken in pnt- duce. This does not apply so much to their principal towns, such as Sydney, nuhart Town, Launcestun, &€• t but in the country It is the universal practice. Money, in short, is an exceedingly scarce commodity in the colonv, and Its place is as /ar as puaiibla aup- plied with the produce of the soil. i;KMAKniED rEMAl.ES. Free servants of this description are alio greatly wanted in Van Dieman's Land. The govurnnu-nt bounty uflfered to tlifxe equally applies \a t>olh colu- nlea, via. a gift of L.l'J, to enable them tn pay their passage out, tu all between the ages of fifteen and thirty yeara, who form part of a family nltout to pro- ceed thither, that is, under the protection of parents or relations; and a similar sum to all unmarried fe- males between the a.'Tea of eighteen and thirty, who intend going out alone. In hoth these caxea. certili- cates of good moral character from the minister of the parish in which the applicant resides, and from a re. spectable householder, are roouired, before any fe- male ran be admitted as a candidate for this bounty. Printed forma of certitirute and applications, both fur unmarried females and mechanics, may be had ut any emigrant ship.agenU in London, Liverpool, or Leith. Farm-servants uf this class are particularly wnntfd ; these, and stout active servants of otlier deVriptions, are just now obulning L. 15 per annum of wages. The preferences given by government to candidates are of three different kinds — the first, tu thusu who go out in company with their families : the next, tn those who can make Uiemsclves useful in a farmer's family i and the third, tu those who uffer tu pay a largrr pro- portion than others of the cust of their pasui^e. In the absence of these claima, priority of a;>pliiiitton ta the only guide. The form of application contains blanks, to be611ed up — the Hrst, with the name of the 'applicant: the second, with her age: the third, with the amount she proposes to rontribuie towards the ex- panse of the vuyitge : the fourth, the name and address of the minister of the parish in w Inch shi.* resides : and fifth, the name and address of anv ri'vpectahle house- holder tu whom she is known. The female goinx out upon these terms la in no way bound to the govern- ment, but is perfectly free to go where she chmisea on landing in tne colony, and to follow after whatever employment she thinks fit ; she is, in short, in evtry resMC^ as free then as she is bcfure leaving Britain. There is yet anuther mode by which single women, between the ages of eighteen and thirty, if possessing good health, and good moral character,' may get out to tlie colonies ufeither New South Wales or Van Dieman's I^nd, at a small cost. At our sea-ports offers are made, including provisions during the voyage, tu take out women of the deacriptiuu above nametL on payment of Ii.6| or If nnahle to make this advance, on payment of l«.II, they ctnning under an obligatiun lu pay the further sunt of L.Auutof their eaniings after their arrival In the colonv. The difference of the passage muney, which is altog^-*^"4r L.IH, is In those oaiiea made up by tho colonlats, and Is a free ^\S.\ ; none who avail themselves of it being placed uri'<> r the smallest restraint in consequence uf tneir accepimtce uf it. PASSAUE. Although, when looking at a map of the world, the distance from this country to Van Uieman's l^nd and New South Wales seems to be much the sam««.and, Indecil, \vhen compared to the whole suat'e between, ll is but as a mere point — yet the actual distniice be- tween llobarl Town and Sidney, the capitals of the twu colonies, Is coiiaidtrably upwards of 4IN> miles, the latter 'wing much farther away than the former. On l^is accuunt the amount of pasange- muney tu llulmrt \ wn Is In general several pimnds leu than tu Sidney. Ft . a single man in the cabin, including provisions, it is about L.Tri) to the former, and L.ftft to the latter i and In the slwrage alHmt L.itl and L.2:i t the differ- ence, in short, is about L.A in the case of a cahii. paa. senger, and fmm L.2 to L.3 in that of a steerage passenger — in both, the paasage-money fur a married couple is somewhat less than duuhle. Kat'h passenger I' allowed a ceruln quantity of Inggage freight free, generallv about half a tun each, although in this par- ticular there is a cunsiderable difference with different ships, sume giving mure, but a greater number less. With the pro»)>ect of such a lung voyage before htm, it would l»e well for the intending emigrant, lM»lh fur his own sake nnd that of his felluw-pnssengers, tu make up hia mind, befure embarking, tu put up, as fjr as he possibly can, with any 'itlie disagreeables which may occur during the vf>yage. He ahould de- termine neither tu give nor take utfenre on slight oc- casions, hut keep on giN>d terms with all about him, overlooking little inadvertencies and hasty expressions on the part of his fallow-vuvagers. He shuuld rather try huw pleasant a companion he can make of a man than quarrel with him t>ecause ho does not find him so ready-made to his hands. \a\ this experiment be fairly tried, and It will be found, in nine cases out of ten, that unfavourable appearances or first im- pressions are not criterions uf character. Above all things, keep upon good terms with the captain of the ship, lie bos it much in his power to make your situation comforuble, or otherwise, during the voyase, and most assuredly you will make verv Tittle by placing yourself in an attitude of hostility with re- gard tu him. Vou will tfain nothing by getting upon your high horae, and talking big about what you have a right to say, or to do, or to expect ; for though really a disagreeable man, he will take care not to go the length of doinf any thing which can bring him within the reach or the law, or regarding which you could have any good hold uf him ; but huw miserable can he nut make yuur situatiun, and yet keep short uf this ! How many things cau he not do to annoy you, fur which, though giving you much unpleasant feeling at the time, you could scart>ely afterwards find a name I — annoyances, iu fact, which, though painful enough to feel, appear exceedingly trilling in relation. All this, however, may be easily avoided : 1« at some pains tu study the man^i character ; humour his foibles, if he have any ; aud be not readv to uke offence at any thing he may say or do, ihougn it may not appear tu you at the time altogether what it ought tu be. By doing this, you will consult your uwn comfort, and with ninety-nino chances lo a hundred in favour uf your finding yuur captain a very honest fellow. VAN ni>:>IAN*8 I.ANn PHICi:S CUHRENT — 1032-.*). Ate. Rn>{liih, )x-r (tnx. I,.fl IH 0{ Mest. berf, (K-r lb.4d. to (' . : . ... ^ ^j ^j| imUI»n,(Jo.a.l.tot( ( oloiiial, hhrt. lUrlc. (K-r tun. . , HUcuitt bni, )trr rwt. -' wctmrli ditto Drca t, jM^ \ III. loar Rrlcks, |«r ttiuuuiid Uutlcr, fmh. pit lb. bacun, ilo. . U (i 't I u 01 — . h ami, do. . . o I o 1 (>l Milk, fwr quart . o o 1 Oil, iprnn, pei Kollon li in o - block, III). "" " " I 1.1 I) I) .1 -i « l*ntstnet, i', fi>wU, pifT pail o ;> t'aikdiM, (MT lb. . 1 (( - — ~^ duck),' do.* Clk-ew.Syiliiey, lb. RtoO 1 3 Bc«c, Mt-h, V. I). Lfbi. 1t.toU I 41 lurkryi. do. Capo «lue, per pi|ie, L.l(i Salt. ColuaUI. per I" • . . . 16 10 0, Ciffsra, ManlIU,M.-rb€) CixU, N. K. W., per iua3 3 t" fliiiimrari. i!ci. o 7 (i K-rin, |«T(lus. . . II a KiTDWood. prr lo«d U 8 Kkur, fii>t, luu Iba. ll lU •rcomU, do. . 1(1 (iruin— wlti-iii, beat, per buitt. 4i. ikl. to HmIiI. do. . Iiarley, . u oats, do, 4i. 3d. to Pino, jKT lb. fnoiu.) u Hay. Kiivlith Mt>d, i>pr ton, \.A Ui . . fl — ~ Colonial, ditto . Midct, A4. to l.i:nc, ihell, prr Inuhi;) ttonv, do. 0^ Straw, |KT load I 13 U| Su^w, (vr ton . S^l U Oj tipiriti. rum, la Ixind, o^ perftallon . .040 brandy, do. ilu. 41, 3a. to . iti f{in,dado.4«.'VJtoO 0{ (To*fi»')*1uty n 3«. tkl. do. . . 6 Soap, Knc.|ierlb. (box) o Svilnry do. . Tea, per cheat . 3 > Tobat-co, BraiU. In bond prr lb. Wool, per lU ed. to 4 r> 4 !) 10 A 1 9 1 U THE COLONIAL OAlinEK. The seasons of the year in these colonies fieing very different from whot they arc in this country, wo bog to offer the following observations on the proper pe- riods and mode of planting in the kitchen garden, abridged from the Appetnlix to tliu work uf W. C. M'entworth. The observations apply to New South M'ales in particular, but may with a reasonable allow, once he &tso useful as regards Van PieinHn's Land : — Potatoes, for a generaJ winter crop in field ur gar- den, should be planted from the end of January to the end uf February, or even the beginning of March, rather than lose tlie planting { and they will come inu> use In winter, when cabbages and other vift« tables run to aeetl. The gruund should if possible \m prepared a nu)iith befure tlie planting, and a prefer* enoe given by the e fit for digging ; in which firowss every r^re shuuld lie taken to prevent their wing bniisedi aud If possible, they should be due In oloudv weather, to avoid exposure to the sun, whlck wuulti rut them t whereas. If carefully preserved, they will keep sound for a length of timet which will be the more desirable, at at this season vegetables aru mostly scarce and dear. In August the planting should be made, ur even In Heptember, if necessary ( and at the end uf the latter, or In October, they will require to lie hilled and earthed, and well cleansed from weeds, which must also now and then be dune as weeds make their apiiearauce. In the choice of seed for this crop, a middle-sised |H>tato should be pre- ferred, without any objection va their being rut, as ia the cuBiomary lumle uf planting. In October vou may alao plant potatoes fur a latter cropi and tnli, though perhaps less abundant than that sown In Au- Kist or the beginning of September, will neverthelest I aulRctently productive to pay well the expense and labour of planting. The potato la so essential and de- sirable an article of food, that too much care cannot Ihi bestowed in their culture and preservatiun ( fur should other rrujis fall short, this will afford the grower a certain means of supporting his family. Curruta and parsnips, for a general crop, may be best sown in Decemtier and January. The ground shuuld he dug deep, and bruke up very fine. If the soil be light, the seed shuuld t>e sown w\ a calm day, and trod in. ('arrots and parsnips may also l)e planted in July, aud also in Nuvemljer. They thrive best In an open situation, ur a light sandy suilt and after they oome up, should Iw thinned and set out with a small two inch gar.len hoe. Cnubages, for a constant supply, may be sown in January, April, May. J ''y, August, October, aud early in Nuvemt>er, ai a tune when the ground is in a moist state. The plants sown in Aoril will not run to seed, ('are should be taken tu set out the piantl in a richer and stronger ground than the bed thev are taken from; otherwise the crop will be potir. Ihelr first bed should now and then be weeded with the hand in dry weatlier, and the freshest and strongest plants removed first. The ground for turnips should be prepared in Fe- bruary, and at the latter end of the niuuth some may Ihj planted, fur whicbj>urposfl gentle showery weather is most favourable. Turnips for a general crop should be sown early In March, and they will be ready for food for sheep in the beginning uf May. During their growth they require hoeing once or twice, to thin and keep them clean, if the hind be fuul. Turnips for table use may be sown at any time between Alardi and Septemlwr, or the beginning of November, when absulutely necessarv. The seed of cauliflower may be sown at any tima between November and February, but best in De- cember. Some sow about the middle of May for a summer crop, and this practice is found to answer. In March prepare the gruund fur uniuns, by break- ing it u;) well, and richly manuring it At the end of the month, and beginning uf April, sow a light crop uf oniuns fur immediate use. In April prepare for a general crop, which should be sown at the latter end of the month, or beginning of May, to keep them trom going to leed. When they grow lo a proper size, which will be from the latter end of October to the l»eginning of November, they should be carefully laid down, so as not to break the tups ; for should the tops be broke, and the wet penetrate, the onions will inevitably spoil. When fit to draw, they ahould be gathered on a fine dry dav, and laid under cover, la as not to be at all exposea to the sun. The ground should bo prepared in March for peat and beans of all kinds, by well working and manuring ; and at the end of the month, and in April, thev may lie sown for a spring crop. Some sow from the be- ginning of March till the middle of June, as occasion may require. Prepare in August for a later crop; and French beans may be as well sown in October as at any other time. In Van Dieman's If niero chance, and are now perhaps far lets comfuruble und happy than they might otherwise have been. They have hitherto been excusable in a great degree for this ignorance, on account of the science having never been explained, either in terms which they could understand, or in a form which was accessible to them. 8uch, however, Is no longer the case. Here, for a sum of money which even to them Is a trifle, and In language which we hope will be within tho comprehension of the most unlearned, will be laid be- fore thtm, all of this branch of human knowledge with which it is of particular importance that they should be Boquaintod. CUtTlVATlON OR NO CULT IT AT ION. Originally the surface of the earth was a mere waste, and the men that could live upon its spontaneous fruits were in a most unenviable condition. M'e see this proved before our own eyes by the state of certain Inrge uncultivated tracts in North America, where there is not above one man for a thousand acres of ground, and even the few who live tliere by hunt- ing and other rude arts, are exposed to the most uLtif-il wants, the result of which is frequfut cases ti( starvation.* Human reason Informs us, that the design of tlie Creator in plimting mankind upon the e.irth. WAS, ihat they should labuitr to ailtlvate it, and live upon the produce. l)y this means, it is evident timt they not only acquire far more comforts as Indi- \ itluals, but enable more to live tipon tho snnie space of ground. Two hundred and twenty persons, for instance, live upon every square mile in Knglnnd, and (von u greater number in the Notherlanils, while iKit one man can subsist upon that space of ground ill the siivage purts of North America. There niny be nirro ditliculty in demonstrating that some Kngllsh Workmen are better off than tho generality of Indians ; tui'the advantages of the onu cannot be exactly ba- li.nced against the disadvantages of the other. Hut ii^ is to l>e presumed that few rational men would pre- ifcr the wild fri-edom of these naviiges, nccompanU'd as / it is by privations of tho severest kind, ond whicli fie- ' qiiently abridge life itself, to the toil of a common lal>ourer or workman, in such n country ns Kngland. It is clear, then, that labour was necessary to improve and extend tho natural bounties of the earth. LADOUR. In one sense, labour has existed from the very be- Klnntiig—for even to pull a M-ild apple or httnt down 11 wild iinimal requiiTS some exertion. >\'lmt is here iiH-Hut, however, is, that regular con.tistent exertion wliich produces regular couxistent resulu, und tends to something beyond supplying the necessities of the moment. Labour properly Iwgun when the first field was ploughed and tho first grain sown; and its utility • Till! I* put bcyund qucHlon by the Mrmoir* uf John Tiin- «ter(who hwl twvn thirty ycsrs smong the Indtani), iniblljlic.i at Mt« York In isau w.u first felt, when it was found that the pluugher and sower could either live better himself in conse- quence of the process, or enable others to do so. A step was then taken towards the improvement of na- tural advantages, and the Increase of the species. This species of labour Is called agricultural i It is entitled to the first consideration, because its produce was an article of first-rate necessity, and because the earth, upon which it acted, Is the natural lourco of all things. Another kind of labour is manufacturing. Any operation of the hand, by which a thing In a na- tural and insufficient slate is adapted fur the use of roan, or rendered more agreeable to him, Is an exer- tion of manufacturing labour. If the first agricultu- rist made hib own plough, or converted the straw of his first crop Into a rude bonnet to shelter him from tho rays of the sun, he was also a manufacturer. EXCHANGE. In the first condition of human labour, every man would havo to plough and reap for himself, and also to make with his own hands all the rude articles he required for his personal conveniency. Having plenty of time, he would feel this as no great disadvantage. By and bye, his time would become more valuable, and in order to make as grxid use of It as possible, he would find It advisable to conf.ne himself to agricultural la- bour, and purchase those manufactured articles which he required, from a man who, fur the same reason, had begun to make the production of such things his exclusive business. Thus, society would lieconie di- vided into distinct classes, whoexchanged labour with each other for the general conveniency, and for the purpose of making each individual more productive. riOPEATY. One thing was from the very first necessary, before any labour could be undertaken upon proper princi- ples. It was necessary that where a man sowed, he should be certain he would reap t where he fabricated an article, that he should be certain of having lllwrty to use it. If he could not calculate pretty safely upon Oie product of his ]a)>our becoming his own property, ho would want all motive toexertion, would neither sow nor manufacture necessary articles, and both himself and his fellow-creatures would be de- prived of the advantage of his labour. Hence arises tho idea of property. At first, as among the North American Indians at the present day, a very faint no- tion of property would obtain, and perpetual attempts would bo made to despoil a neighbour of what he liiid endeavoured to mark out as his own. By and bye, however, wlien men began to understand better what was for their general us well as particular interests, men would be permitted to fix themselves upon cer- tain tracts of ground as their own, and would be pro< tecled in the enjoyment of them by regulations culled laws, which every sensible man would support in the cm(f of a wronged neighbour, in order tiiat tbey might be supported when it was his turn to be injured. It would be found better that the land should be thus divided among a limited portion of people, v.hile others only lived upon it indirectly, than that there should be no property at oil, and, consequently, no labour. Kven those who were worst off by this arrangement, were better off than if it had not been formed, for in the one cane they could still sell their labour to the man who had property, and thus gain a livelihood, while in the other they would cither starve, or be killed in the disputes which would be sure to take place, or, what is most probable, not be called into existence at all. To make it plain how useless is any natural product of the earth, if it be not claimed and guarded by some man as his particular property, lot us instance a cherry-tree in a hedge-row, the fruit of which is sure to be seized by wayfarers before it ripens. Bet- ter it would be for society to give up this tree by go- neral consent to one of their number, whether A^had any pretensions to it or not, and thus let it be pmtecu ed till Ita fruit ripened, than permit It to remain o^ no use to any one. The mtrilt upon which the tint proprlet• R UtMiiirnr or wiirkmtn. Tli« eapltaliit run ii(>* m f\y hl« )MMHt»iiiMig ti) UiD uurrhusiif « itiH'k lit trH4l«, iir a wc of |4hili ttr inai'hinM lur ■ mKUurRCtHry, ami ihiMi h« fi ny4 to bMimM rMh«r •dlrwlir of U^ituwrt %hAn « UlM>ur«r i th«Mtt(k| I* <*»• Miiw, avrry niiin vho iktM Any ihfnip to Mrvt* nil rfHnw.'.'rt^titrcB, || IliihU to thit ii I whtlvnvHry wurkiittf ntiiii, tin tha other IihihK nmy b« lermoJ * capllAliet. if he tmly pon. wiira n Mfiaite or a |>ii'krtxe, or, whitt \% f- for all tlifm* thin^ra mi-k alike the rraiilt of u kioring u\t. ('h)hiaI nihI UlHiur •rvin many ihlnKt, Iiith»e4, conftHinriMl utf^iheri hut, In |ii titit-al M'onoiny, i)it< Uttt*r ia Ki*tiiw( other ia held ni thitt aiipttrtlumta wenllU which ha« Itevii tre^aiirrtl up liy careful itieti, and ia eiitployed in furiti\h'ng tha maierlali of lahuur. AOVAKTAaill or I AflTAl. NUT IXCLVaiVI. Mill who Hud ibeuiielvra obUgrd u> UUiur are very natunllv inclined to aiiTy thuae whom the [MMteaiion of i-'i|iilal hai eieni)>t4>d from that neifvaity. It i-onld •aaily W ahown, however, that the advnntHgea are not all on iMts tide. Tapital ohvioualy prudutvii the foilowlnn i^nod re. •ulUi It euablee niwn tu huy the raw nntteriala fur maniifacturea in autReieiitly lart(« tiuantitiet. and to arret und vinploy ma('hini*ry, htiniaii aiid niethaniral, on a iiiifHrienily fxtenaivp arale, to prndtire kihkU at a (heap rate, and thiia fmilitati* tht*ir *nlv. Of roiirte, thiHlK)unila ni entploviiiattt. Cuiiaiderinf labottrerk, ninreover, aa part of the puhllc, they enjoy their fair thare uf tha a4vitnta(fi>a whiih that IhnIv derivvs from the fruploy. ment of i-apltal. If rnpUnI layi an fxtenaivi* railwity, •r entrta a pier nr a li^hthouap, whirh rt'diirit tile pricea at which thiiin can lie proditrmi, tbi' lalhiiirrn, •o fur at tiiey uie tlia artiilea hi ch»4ip«)iur uf iia ((rand iw«N it the enahlini( a M Reeled t and without i>apitiU, tliey timld nut exerriae Uiia uaefiil hrancb uf huiiiieaa. tM rourae, the la- bourer hai hit own thareof tlieud\aiitaf our suh- jert. Tho pnaaetafon and iite nf lapitul la what chiefly diatingiiiahea arivillaetl from a aavnf^ anriety, and all who lieloiif( tu the fonnir atata miul be better otf than if they beluiigud to the latter.* DIVialON or eHPLOrHRNTR. Ae iociely advanret, employiiienta alwsyt hemme mora mi-ii moru diMJed and aiil>div'ide(!, nniil fMi'h uiHfi ac leiiKlli takaa only a minute piirt uf un iniploy. meiu whit-h formorly uveu in iu entire aiate, ilid niit ■erhapi owupy one nmii. The ad\antagis uiinid at In thia. are Jit'fnilow : By diviai*'.! of employmenta, time ia saved. A mui rarryinK on dilferentiNxupatiunf, m iMaaiiifC from one b) Hiiuther, nmat chaiiKe either hiii |H>rk ia perhapa ftniahed Imfore he liaa utuitied the lull ripidity of exei tition which it nii^thi allow oi. Tla- present writer, forinatanrtv haa found tlint he aluMva advanced three time* mure rapidly, lowanli the centre and termiimtion of any euinpuaitiuu in which iiu wai angnged, than at itt C4Haiiiencenieiit. (ireater akill ia attutiied in a amall hramh uf e»u ploynient, and nttained hy a hriefir period uf initnic- tion, than in a mure extensive one. The habit o( tlie liody, the tniiHTular avatem, be- comei more powerful when exerted cunttaotly in ona direction, than in mar.y. M'hen an empluymeut ia divided, the matter can buihand the »kill and forte of hit operativca l>y upply- • " Whm w» l«N)k At the tutun- of llir aci-umuUted wciilth fif aoctrt¥. II w )«iy u, k« that lUv iHj».ri-*l ii.ciiiI«t uf it *tiu )lublr lalMiur U in « crrtam M-n-rirh-iKfi a« WMiiiiarttl with tlie uuriMlu«Mc miJ iturrvUna imar imUvidual* of any unrfvthfed iribw. I^a' very •camridln^. if wi* may ■oi-xi>rp>.> il, of thf MicuJ •trurturc, aiwl ih« motal fmcfi by which lh»l Onic- tun- waa rcarr-l, luul ii uptu-l.!, are to Imn ru-Iu,.. Tu Iw rich m to pnawaa the meant of Mvlii|{ our waiil*— to W |>€>or ia to l>e dMttluta of lh«a« meant. Uk-tira Ou itot t^DtiBt iMiIy nf inonn aiMf lai.il.. ,rf »ton-a wf ftytd »utl cI.hSu-k. ,.i machiiie* aii.l Uh>U. 1 he particular k(iii«lf--thr facility <*( comiimiin-aliim iilru by wrlt- tm Uii»(u.i^c-it)i.#r.j4»yro«;t.t t,f ni*uiutKJii«miiceiie«l In the ii^tt .*^ , ,""'"^*"""'*~'^'" "•*■ '*'' 'f^"' IP''""! c"iivetili'n«B. of i-i- viiiu^l lifj., ,uch u io*k— thcMi idvuitaitw* whk-h ihr wximt mail in Kii^|laiiil |»uura*« or may pui«»M. wiuuiuU liidlvUluid Kopefty. There an- nn-ana for the utipply i>f wniiik, wtiiih iii cnwtvn are t>ueitii4lly intitv vaJuahlo /or (itfUintiiK hu full MUret>r «hat h af<}irwrr. i" !■■- .*■ ....i.. .^ ..* ^ _ ^ ■b'Ublr capU'ity (if a t^Hiai mil |)ri>- VMllh— 4rf t)iM« grettt intbunirnUby which Die tiroductire power ^laboio la rmrri^A to lU hi«hc»t |*.)int. — Workimii JWneraily exeniled by women, we cunaider a aeparate pruoeaa. To make .VViU pint, weighing oiiu p^innd, ucciipiea, in the different pni- reuet, rather more titan aeveii huiira and a half( and the total exp«inae of tha labour, each peraun being paid arrurding to hia aklll and hia uropnrtioii nf the time, (B nearly tbtrtoen )ien(v, h ia evident, that, if ten [Hiriuua were not emphiyetl, tite workmv*< would lone time ill tnrnitig from one operation tu . tthnr, and pvrhnpN havL* to apend a tlegree tt{ akill and ttruiigth ii|H)n particular departiihuita, above what waa really reipiired. A man would be iluing the work which could l»edepiiti>d Ui a boy, and vk require a nian'a wagei, whict^ of uuurae wuiild euhauoe the price of the articiu. AVatihin:iking preaenti anotlier atriking uittanivnf diviainn uf labuiir. One hundretl and une peraunt in all are empluyad in forming and preparing the differ- ent [Htrtaul a watch, and only une of them, the riniaher, is itiatrucud in two of the uperaiiona. No dmtbt, at ill pin-inakiti|(, the Kulnlivition uf the employ nieiit hni ciHidiiced to fwility and chenpneta. UiriHTK w .*■ ( IIFAP PnoDUCTIOM. It taiif iinpurtance touhnerre, that, while thme luh- di. iaioua priMluce the effect Jii<«t atatinl, the etTect alao tendt tu rtfprotliina thetnlHliviaiuna. If watnhet acre II. (I cheap, and geiierully lu-ceaaible, there wuul.) Iw very few aold i confletjiienily, perhapt, there would ho no eatiihlNhment fur wauh-making where do many aa one hundred and one peranna could he employed, 'i'wenty perhinti, perbapa, at the ntmoat, wuittd hu engriKed lit the whole o|>eration — would, of coune, uoik at comparative diaadvatititgi* — and render a H're.uer price indiHpenaable. I'lireHectiiig peraumi are MMnetimeit heard tu say, that it were better thinga in ^'enerul were dear than cheap. Hut it it ahnwn, that, iinleat we c-'ient to die ahatract advantage uf the utinutt poaaibla cheapnea* in all thinga, we almndun the vary advantaget which tho nature uf nocial life hii'-la out to ua, wjint artielea which we could other- « iae have, and ubatrnct employment rather than eti- cutimge iu The uae at i»pital it ahnwn here at the aamr tin ". if there were nut capital ur aavingi to employ one hundred and one men in une place for the priMluctiun of thia fltnalt article, it would he much dearer thnu it ia, and not nea.-ly ao many men would tw emphived : in other wnrdt, the population would be to much le«i, or to much tlie worae off. (ONCRMTRATION Of I.ABOL'h. It ia advatitageout fur the cheap pn>durtinn of ar- ticlet, that each article ahould be prudui-ed in certain plaint or dittticta. The exiftteiico at' minet of metal at particular placet, render* it nece^tary that the artielea loi nu'd from those inetalt thould be retpeetively prodncvil a* near to them at poftkihie, for tha aaving of carriage. Or, if coal be required in large quantitiea fur the preparation of any kind of giH>da, a medium mav be atiuck lietween the locality of the coal and the locality of the matt-rial, with a reference to the comparative weight and faci- litiet for nmveytng i«ch. On the whule, it ia of im- porunre that .t nmtre for the iaaue of the prepared gotMia ahould tie found aa near aa putaible to the placet where the mecuii uf preparing Uiem can be obtained cheapeit. The cliiiteringof men of one occupation ia not only rendered nnavoidalde by thia governing circitraatanre, hut it ia of poaitive advantaae in itself. The oorape- titiun it the more active where the number iu utte trade it the greater, and tbua the public ii apt tu be M.rvei| un ttte hiweal termt, and w.th all o,her advan- lagea, in their grentetl extent. It it perbapa uf itlll greater tervhw, in at far aa It temli ui auggeat and en. oimrnge the invention of uaeful marhiuerv, and to Improve every other mode and practlmi connected witk the b«ialiie«. I| la of ceii*«nieii(« U tW cutMrnien, or inMdIe dealer*, ia aa far ae it aivei ihea tita trouhla of inuvlng Sere and there to ronaiderahle diataiirea fur n proper and advantageout aupply of what they re- quire. It alao caiiaea a kind of mert ur rxchanga to lie formed, tending to the aacertainment and diffViaion of all kindt of Information neeeaiary for niea eii- gatfetl in tho trade. Kinally, it tenila to cheek tha iinfiappv fliirtuntioni of price, which am m often the caiiae of lota to the capiulltt, and the aource of inlaery to the working man. 1 AROK rAcTnnica. Tha adTentag* of ronraniratlng labnnr It found In another way, namelv, In the erertkm of large Inalend tif aaiall faoterlea. fhe more eatantlve the faetorf. If all iw paru are pniparly attended to, the more ex- actly ia each man likely to lie adapted to hit employ- ment — the more likely (• it that no part uf any man'n akill and ftirrelteapended nmlia or uteletaly— -and the cheaper duea tho lyatem uf tnpervialoti (a very Im* poruni item) become. Trouble and expenae are anved III cuiiveying the variant kiiida uf raw niuterial from mia Wfirkman to another, and In many Initanraa an expente may tie aaved ttpon thote offlciali, uf whom one at leaat \n in every rate necetaary. If iirfi of workmen are refiulr*ry may be neceaaiary in order that there may be no imperfect le/— which wuuld t>e the cauae o( n lots. Where one engine or powtr la requlreil, It may lerve for n great establtahment at well aa Air a tmall, and thna cauae a very Important anving. There may even be an advantage, ne Mr Babbage ingeuionily ahoiva, in having a factory of auch extent, that enough uf en. ginea are eiitployeil to render the aervicea of an entire, iiixtend of n frHctlnnary man, necetaary for keeping them in repair — a regular hired workman Iwing cheaper than one called in occjitionally. Iu fact, there ia no limit to the advantage ot Urge eatablithmenu, except the difficulty whluh a oauitaliit nlwaya flnda In getting agrnti who will tuni thingi to aa giKM) nccotint aa hlmaelf. A maater'a eye li pro- rerbially advnntaiteouB, and It la not good fur any raaa to axpeitd capital much beyond the range of that ute> ful organ. At to the advantage which the publio derivea from extentive and concentrated tyttema of priMluctiun, we are not aware of anv limit to it. Kvcry thing that tenda to cheapni^aa, aa tnia doea, muit he of aervica to them. The workmen, on their part, And itt ailrantage in the aame degree, tince cheapneai in- creaiea cunaumptiun, and therefore Unda either to tha increate of their wngei, or to the increaae uf their own numtwr. MACIIINKItY. The quetthin nf niachin«'r\ it one of imne delicacy, hut it would l>e improper to Htnitall notice uf it in tlio present nheet. Aa the whole pnigreM of thlngt fruni the tMiginning bat been fnrni ae toola to lo»Ia, mnn no motita i^f th4irl0niHfi iabtvr to modta t\f doing to ; and at tho commuuity baa botti been increaied iu nitinlwr and improved in comfort by thete proretiea, it would tie tmpoaaihle for any philotophlcal Inquirer not only to deny the advantages of mnohinery, but to aaaigii any oonceivable liniita to thote advantaget. Tha iiueiUon, however, haa not been ingenuuutly met hy the tvritera who endeavoured lately tutranqii'illiae tho popular mind in the diatiirlied diatricla of Knglund. ** At well," aaid they, " fall out with n apnde, or any common tool, rh witti a machine, tince they all alike tend to tborten lahmiri aa welt might the plmigh be denounced for preventing the onipluyment of tha • ►"Ua," flic. There it thit difference, in our ettinia- tr^ii, Netweeu the one caae and the other, that tools t-e t I a %rrM meaaure the Impleraenti re<|uired t»y iu^J'.viduai lalionrerfl, before they can w.rk at all't ^ '.lie macbinet are a c* hli'h will Accntfi fnim nhat i'MiiimI th^lr pi-tAftil 4tnr«M. The rhMi|mMi Mtalnrd I>t mn- rhlncrf alwiiy* t«nA% tii lnrrr*M Iha r(mtiimvii<)n In ■ |)ri)pnrtinn«tft •mt^nt, not Mtif l>y brlngiiitc tna artl* «i)v Intn pnwKrfiil comMtllloii with mh<«r liiiurlM In Aiir niTit rmititry (which fi not ku undlvitlii'l kWihi. tagtt, ulrice It mu«t illinlnlih einpl<»ympiu tniituwhure rlw), hilt by rrmhllnfr tha Hrltish innrrh«ni tn (nil. chraupn lb« fnrpitpt manufkrturar. Hiui, thnra «rt Inflniifly ninni pvofjU ititw Miiployftd in the nottiin in«iitirart*ir« than what thera wprn iHrfnra tim Invan- tlon i*f niarhinrry. To |^ no farthrr than thfl pl«et of literary latxnir miw in tha handi of thi* rrndar t— It i* iiiit htn^ Hlnrr thn pafwr-makliiff marhlnalrtatned t'l n frri*at extent thn niimbftr nf lalHiurf ri Iti tha pro* diirtion of thitt artirt*. Of laranty ppinona, fnr In- at:inre, In oih* Mii>( a rery (bw, wrre in una waak paid oA : wbrn, IwinK tinar- quiiiittrd with ary art or craft, and iinahlft to Uvr on apprrntli'a's wagfi, alnioil ihi whola uf tlieia poor mftn wars n)))lf(ad tn baooma itri«rved, at the axpenM of some lm> mediate nufTeriitfc t^i a iniall iilaan-^a lulfarinK which nothing on earth rmild avert, no bmg ai every man ii lit llhprty tn purtue hia own interait— the whole of the working nien In the empire may be lald to have ft»r the ttnit time had pretented to them, at a price they rouM pny, and in ti>rmi they conid nndwitand, a •peclei of knowledge, the u*ei of which in bonetUing tneni are altogether beyond rnlculation. rBoviaioMS aoaiwit it krcomhkndkd to woniMKir. It may aUn he repreiianted with tome force, tliat the •mptoying claMeii are nnC alone mputiilhle f»r the connequenrm of abbreviated labour. The rm/i/oynf may rennonably }»•> Imiked tn, linre they are most fieiirly concernei!, for nil exerti(»n of Home kind or otlier, to alleviate what appears tn be an unavoid- able ralamltv. By bringing up part of their fn. m\\\p% tn different triutea — by ntoring up a little In Having^ Ranki or in Friendly Six'tetim, during a period of g«M»d employment — by opening their eyot to romintj machinery^ and looking out in time for a re- Crent — much might be done tn soften the ralamity, tiefore it. arrived. After it dnex arrive, the pnweed- Sng^ of the workmen might in many caset l>e amended. M'e hold it not creditable, for instance, to the cotton- weaver)! in the west of Scotland, that, after their art wan destroyed by the power>Inomf, they thould hare clung "o long to it« reduced wages, and perniited in bremllng up their children tn It, ns a means nf In some enmll degree increasing the fiimilv resources— thernliy entitilingrertaiu misery alnng witfi existence. It might linve sorely been expectwl that where so many more profitable trades were going on around them, they mi^ht have more generally contrived to ('hnngc their employme.it, and thus, by allornting a small portion of their linses upon their neighbours, put an end to hy far the greater part of their dtitrcss. Much of ivhnt is Iicri' blamed may nrtse from that feeling nfat- t.iclinu'Ut wliich men come naturally to feel towards a nnrticnlii' line of life, nod a particulnr place of re> ■iilenci'. Hut we hold that these feelings are only good to u certain point, and were never meant tn In. terfero with butter principles. It rniiy aNo be re- pnKptited, that the very comlitinn of n working man implies that he ciinnoi nmass any capital, as, when he does so, he is tempted to l»ecome nn employer or mas- ter. Hut, on the other hand, there in iipwnrds of thirteen Tnillions of workmen's spare earnings in the FiiiitU (through the Snvings Banks), which showa that tliere may ho a surplus in wages, which neither is reiiuirearing no proportion In comfort lo their own. M'e would advise all workman, If existing rlrrum. ■laneet will |>ermlt, to frust solely %n themselvee for tmvialon during old agi*. It Is atiiy for a mim of to. trable rwwilution to lay by aimall weekly sum, whlrh ha will not miss at the time t and he may depend upmt It, the money will never do him any barm. raortTt. The object at the capitalist la pn\Ht ; that of the workman Is wag«». In tconmou ipeecit, an rrniiloyer or trader Is ounveivad to aim at proAt nJone, though ha may alio exert himself arUvely. Rut In reality, •rery such employer or trader Is a workman besides, and in so Car aa be U lo, a part of his gains thould he ranked as wagea, while on'y that should l»e deemed pruAt, which accrues to blni as a remuneration fi>r his disbursement of capital. On the same principle, that part of the gains of any operative which arises from nis poe»4'Hing touli or acquired ikill, should be ranked ua pnitit, ■eeiug that it arises from capital, while only thai (generally nnich larger) pi>rtH)n shuuld he const- tiered as waget, which be iturns by the actual exercise oi his natural itreiigth and Ingenuity. Ai capital ia the reinlt of former Industry — the ga. therlngi of either somo existing man, or of some dc- ceated fiersnn wl.o Iwqueathed it to him — and may thus Iw conildered as the reward of past self-denial ; ■o is proHt the reward nf a continued self-denlnl in the potsesHor of capital. If a man possesseSr '''r Ins* e, a hundred pounds, which he has it •' to spend in personal Indulgences, oi to put ou<. m ac- tive use, iinner his own industry and superintendence, or under the Industry of ttnother, hu will, if be can abstain from spending it, realise a certain addition to it, which falls to l>e cimsidered as proHt. Hhould he think proper to emphiy it In setting up a small shop, he may, by the aid of his own industry, and the exer. tioii and dispUy of other good qualities, probably dou- ble it Iwforo tlte end of the year. If he prefers letting others exert their Inchistry uptm it, lie may put it into a bank ] In which case, he wilt only get u per-centuge for the liberty of using it, l>eiiig something much smaller than he would probably aci(ulre the other way, but only so in proportitm to the absence of liis own la- ttour, andhlscoinparative exemption, :nthelattecomes in itself new capital. It is II law of profits, that tlu^y must, at every par- ticular time, he pretty nearly nliko in all hriiiiclieH tti eiMployment. Capitalists are gene . 'ly \ery nuicli ijive to the superior a* .tutages '.il'itii may exist in nny ])articular line of husinesn; . "•. . tliey see an cpportunity of turning their 8t4>rt"i to better purpoiie in one way than another, they instantly destrt the present citannel, und throw their money into the new Mie. C'uniuetition, of course, soon rciljues the ailvan- lages of tfie new line to the fcenerat level. There may, it is true, he circumstances wliich protect tlie said new line. Other capitalists may find it ditliciilt, from personal connideratnuiH, to make u chanf,'e; or the cost of the change, and loss incurred by it, may exctH'd tlie probable profits. The inveuti4>n of im- proved processes generally produces nn iucrense of profits; and this superiority continues as long as it is difTiciilt, or inconvenient, or impoerfei4 light f WAUKt. We now come, it may be said, tn the kernel of tha whole snkjecl. Wages ara what the indnitrhnis mnii habiiuallv regards a« the motive and object of all hia toil*. \\ RgitR lupply bim with his own share ipf tho earth's uUmentary productions — often too small for his comfort — itnd give him the means for a dearer pur- pose stlJ, tha gratification at those helpless beings n ho dajwnd upon him aa their sole rsAig*, guard, and stay. Wages, indeiil, liave an intereat In the eycH of tho rioor roan, which the capitalist can never ex |>ertenoe, a almost any degree, respeelina the same sum af money. To the employer, a shilling, In one weeklr Initimn), in nothing i to the workman or dark, It Is hold as a thing of the last moment — appreciated if gained or adiled, and dephired when taken away. M'ages, then, it is necessary to inform the poor man, are governed in a groat measure br the proportion be- tween the demand for any partlnilar article, and tho rate at which he or others may be then supplying U. Drmanii and Hiif pi.r are the great niling powers of llie coinnierrial worlil t and hardly any shift can tnkn place in their relative position, but, like the sun and mnun, they aflTert the tides of that orean of woAmeit who lie l»etween. If the public he requiring more of a particular article than tne ordinary rate of mann* facture, or theexisting stores, can conveniently supply, the niiinuf.icinrern take advantage of theclrcumstanrw to lay on an additional price, knowing very well that tho puMic will rather stand that exaction than want the goods. The direct consequence of thin is, that he to iucreasH the wages of the labouring producera ot the article, to induce them to work, for It is not U* bo exiiectefl that they will nufTer him to reap the wholo benefit of the rUe, wlien, by declining to work, they can bring him at once within their power. The sam« train of events takes place when there is even an op- prehrn»ion that the public will want mom of an articln than wlint can be readily supplied. The dealers nearest to the pul>lic, called retailers, then press fur anticipatory supplies upon the general merchant, who in hio turn presses upon the manufacturer, who in his turn presses upon the workman. A decline of prices, from over supply, produce! n result exictly tlie reverse. Tlie workmen, in that case, snoa hud that the nmnter does not so highly appreciate their services, and has to pay ofi' a low nf them, besides offering tlie remainder n lower wage. At first, the workmen who remain in employment are reluctant to accent this; hut they soon find that their discharged brethren, by ofTering to take It, leave tlicni no other course. In all declines, ns in all rises, the effect goes even beyond its proper natur.il bounds. A falling market, when once set agoing, gains from tho imngination of the merchants, and the necessity for the last-hidden sum being under the precedinif one ; and it requires a time to come to its proper level. It forms a great addition to tho unhappy condition of the workman on this iH-casion, that he ^as no fort of vantage to set his back to, for the purpnue of bear- ing up against the ebb title. He cannot, like a mas- ter, stand u)inn Ink capital, and rather sufTer a littlo than just ininiediatety give way. His needs aro ur. gent : he must every irrrk have a wage, and to gain that in any i-hape, lie is compelled to come down from what we uiny call liin prices. It is obvious that, if ho had a little store laid up from former gains, he would not be ill ne:irlyso defenceless n state, but would often keep lip the market of his own lab(mr. Hut tho grand protection of workmen from low wages is a shortcoming in tlieir own luimlter. Under urdinury circumstances, it is the supcrllnous tincm- ployed man, who, hy bating down his neighbour, re- duces wages. And it must ho clear to every capacity, that, if more are born than wlmt there is employment for, the result must be a declension in tliat exact de- gree. It is always pood times for a workman while ;i country is on the advance, as Itrilaiii has been, or iras { for then the natural increase of th(> pi>o])Ie does not pntss so much upon the sources of support. Hut when a country is stationary in resources, the iifitiiral increase of people, if not nimierated by some means or other, is sure to reduce the wages and comf'urts of tho working clasees. There is a {general impression that wages have, of lute years, sutTered so great a depression, as to have materially lessened the workman's command over the necossoriesof life. This, however, is hardly made out by Rtatistical inquiries. Husbandmen of 'Iit^ year 1832, in receiving 12s. a-week, could purchase i/U pints of wheat, which is us nuii-h as the wages of husband- men liavebeen able to purchase nt any timeduring tho last two hundred years. Domestic artificers, such as carpenters and masons, whose average wages in 1R33 are stated to have been il3s. a-weok, could for that stim purchase 26fl pints of wheat, being a considerably larger {piantity than the wages of the same artificera could have purchased at any time during the last two centuries, except within the last ten years, when the www CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ' 35 M i, 1? qunntity was on oiie or two u."siioiii alightly eltvaieH. It is, we nuiiH-ct, in tho comparative addition tu arti- cle! dilFcrinK in loine degree from tho ''haracter of n«t.,-.arie», and almost all of which are h«avHy taxed, that the aliei^rd disability of the operative U) make liIinMJf as comtofwi'it as (ormcrlv, lie*. Out of 17i., calculated as generally spent wwkly uy working men, Himn bread, baron, butter, cheese, tea, BU^^ar, beer, fonlM, JLC, 3fi. A^d, or one-third, goes for tax and mo- iiopulv, Winif a much larger proportion than M-hat we ran suppose to have been enucted at any time before the late war. The liabili y of wage* to be affected by the number of hands competing for employment, brliigi ut tu the question of POrULATIOK. We hare the ascertained fact thata population, where there ii unlimited KUpport, will double itself in Jiftem pears* Tiiis proves that, us one grain of any kind of •eed produces many grains, so thero li a principle in the human race tending to increase. ' Surn « princi- ple would appear to have been necessary from the Ant, in order that, from the original pair, hU the earth to its uttermost corneri might be peopled ; and, con- versely, it is important to observe, the principle is a pTOof q/ all having proceeded from one pair. Nothing can be more certain than that men, if unchecked, would very cpeedily outpetnle the regiont to which thv^y are in the habit of confining themselves, unless they will or ran obey the lav which nature meant .0 impoje upon them when shf conferred this ten>'ency, and move along over the su face of the earth till it is a'* brought under cultivation. Unfortunately, an- other law, which nature ))rohahly imposed for the moderation of the diffusive principle — namely, a dis- position to become attached to particular scenes and persons— prevails very str ingly among us, beiiig greatly enforced by our txianTar situation, and ou. appreciation of generalb' good institutions, The'o is therefore a decided lik';liboodin population ezceening employment in this ccjn^rv. unless it bo outstri i.,ar'B labour, or do that which will sub- divide n morsel already too small, and make all, him. xelf included, the more wretched. He will nut do this, if he hare good feelings and just views ; but he will lio it, if ho want the&e great distinctive features of an estimable character. Tlu're is a proverbial expression, very generally used by the common neojle in refer- ence to a too rapidly increasing family, to tnu effect that no more mouths are r^nt than what there is bread fur. There could not bL> a greater fallacy ; and if all men were to bring children into the world in the same spirit uf hceiUesaness, an univers:d starvatii-n would very sunn take place — at least in such countries ns (treat Ilritain. No, no; it ought to be present to the mind of every man, that, without a reasonable pro- Kpect of maintaining his offspring decently, it is an of- fence against s«'iety — an act of unutterable nieuniess and criii'lty— to marry. It is obvious that much must here depend uput'^ what dilTercnt penple may citnsider as the standard of a de- cent maintenance. The Kiiglihhnian has erected the Iiighest krown staiulard, in requiring wheattu bread, aiiimnl fumi, and a malted liquor. The Scotsman is contented with oat4*n bread, very little animal food, and water fn'- his drink. The labourer in China, where the population h^s been eomfleUd^ and no moril check ex i his, 'feeds on garbage. Some individuals are I'usily induced to marry, compared nith others : we once knew a p^xir author who married on the score of tiro pounds, .vhich hu had receivol from Kimic un- usually lii>eral publislier. And the poor Iri^huian, it is well known, marrien alni<>8t without the hope of a pt>tato. Ihit it is certainly of im[tortanc8 on general views that men should keep up a high standard. Hot- ter, (lei:idi>dly. thut fourteen millions should now live in England on the exi*ellent fare which they usually enjoy, than that eighteen millions should i-xist, end the uhe.tten loaf U* exche'^ged for hindOL-ks. I*; them inale aguinst mptrinumy: if they fcrbid any thing, it should be the tianns. (The writer is aware of the p.i-jr:Mre which exists In many cultivated as well r.- uncultivated minds, ^g..ini*t what ii called the Ma.tliusian d.H-trine of iw. piilatinn. Tn meet this, he liegs leaver to preneh' the lullowing extrai't from Mr M'Cullo. I's Principle* of Political llf-onnniy : — " It has Iteen ipfteii said, that if the doctrines now laid down, with re-tpert to jwipulatton, were n'ally well founded, they wnuld go far in subvert all ll;3 best fs- uMishcd opinions with TV^^\m I to th«f gt^idness of the Deity, and would etfeiitiuillv paralyM all attempts at irap/uvemen*, by showing it to Iw in a threat degree boptltll. There is nut, however, any real ground for these statements. Not only ore industry and fore- thought natural to man, but bis advancement fn the scale of being has been made to depend on their cul- tivation and improvement. .M> should infallibly die of hunger and cold, did wu not exert ourselves to pro- vide fotMl and clothes. Hut could any thing he mure ludicrously absurd thun to object to the e wlio simply sUte a fact of this sort, that iht;* a** mipeaching the order 0/ Providence ? The puwetd and capacities im- filanted in man, seem capable of an almost indefinite mprovementt but instinct did not direct him in their use. The more remote the epoch bi which we carry our researches, the more barbarous and uncomfortubb do we lind his condition. Pressed on the one side by the strong hnnd of necessity, and stimulated on the other by a desire to rise in the world, our powers have keen gradually developed, according as observation or ac- cident taught us tho best method of effecting our ends. Want and ambition are tho powerful springs that gave the Hrnt impulse to industry and invention, and which continually prompt to new undertakings. It is idle to suppose that men will be industrious witliont a mo- tive ; and though the desire of bettering our condition be a very powerful one, it is less so than the pressure 'of WHHt, or the fear of falling to an inferior station. Were iii.. :iot the case, invention and intlustry wotild be exhibited in the same degree by thr heirs of ample fortunes, as by those who have been educated in hum- bler circumstances, and compelled to exert themsjlve^. But every one knows that the fact is not so. The peerage cannot boast of having given birth to an Ark- wright, a V/att, or a Wedgwood. Kxtraordiuary ex- ertions, whether of mind or body, are very rarely made by those who are enabkd, without thjtr assist- ance, to live comfortably. The principle of increase has, however, pravented this from ever becoming the condition of the great mass uf mankind, and unceas- ingly applies tl.j ;iost power''-'i stimulus — the duris urgent in rebus egeilaa — to iud\istry and invention. .Much, indeed, of the effect usually ascribed to the do- sire of rising in the world, may be traced to the ope- ration of this principle. It is not solely un the lower classes, nor by the actual pressure of necessity, that it exerts its beneticial influence. At that period of life wl.^,1 tiabits are formed, and man is best litted for ac- tive pursuits, a prospect is {.-esented to every on», whatever may lie his rank or sttviiuu, who is either married, or intends to marry, of an indeftnite increase of his necessary exp(>r'^es; and unless his fortune be very lurge indeed, he tinds that economy and industry are virtues which he must not ad.nire merely, but practise. With tie lowe- classes the existence of pre- sent, and with the middle and upper classes the fear of future want, are the principal motives that stinui- late intelligence and activity. The desire to maintnir a family in rei^'M'«''V''''»v and comfort, or to advance their interests, makes tKo spring and summer of life be spent, even by the moderately a-ealthy, in laborious enterprises. And thus it is, i.iJteithcr'for ourselves, or for thLsc with whose welfare our own is insepara- bly connected, the principle of increase is perpetually urging individi'Js to new efforts of skill and economy. Had this principle either not existed at all, ur been comp iratively feeble, activity would have been super- scdf.: :>v indulence, ar.d men from Iwing enterprising and uinttitious, would have sunk intoa state uf torpor; fur in that case, e "ry additional acquisition, whether uf skill ur wealth, Kuuld, bv lessening the necessity fur frctth acquisitions, have infallibly occasimied a decline in the spirit uf improven'ent ; so that, instead of pro- ceeding, as it became older, with accelerated steps in the career of discovery, the fair inference is, that so- ciety would either ha\'ti been entirely arrested In its itrogrpss, or its advance rendered next to imperceptible, tut it has l>een su ordered, that whatever may at any time uccasion a decline uf the inventive powers, must he uf an accidental and ephemeral character, and can- not originate in a diminution of the advantages re- sulting from their exercise. Kven in the must imptuvcd sucieties, the principle of increase ir.spires by far tho largest class^ihosi ''0 depend on their laliuur ft r the means uf suppor*^ —with all th %e innverful nuuives f.o contrive, pruduce, ant.'i accumulate, that actuate^ the wh<>!e community in more early ages. No pem>le ran rest satisfied with arqtiisitinns already made. Tlie constant pressure of popuLttiori again u dvilisation, to those who are com- paratively harl «rous. It sometimes, no duuhi, hap- pens, that notwithstanding thin resource, and the moat strenuous efforts un the part of the indu^l^ions chuses, piipiilntiun so far uutruns prmluction, that the cunili. tiun uf society is changed fur the wurse. But the evils tnence arising, bring with them a pruvisiun for their cure. They make ull classes better acquainted with the circumstances which determino their situation in life ; and while they ''all forth fresh displays •.'' inven- tion and econuny, they at the same time dignify and exalt the iharucter, by teaching us t4> exercise the prudential virtt.?s, and tu subject the possums to the control uf reason. It does, therefore, seem reasonable tu conclude, that the law of increase is in avery -espeot consistent with t'le beueficeni arrangements of I'ruvidenoe, and that instead of being subversive uf human happiness, it has increased it iti no ordinary degree."] It is eminently satisfactory to know that marriages artf progressively decreasing. In 1010, the number In Kugland was one annually in 122 persons ; in 1630, it was only one in I'JO. Of course, as the population is still on the ailvance, there can be no reason what* ever fur complaint, even among those philosophers who rejoice in the contemplation ui matrimonial happiness. N«^ , there is much reason for congratulation tu a be- ne. olent mind, for Is it not thus proved, that, of the children born, fewer are cropped off by misery ? It may bo desirable that people were married rather than single — but not surely if the only result be to increase the number of deaths, without adding to the births There is an au^.iahle but pernicioiLs weakness in so- ciety on this subject. No sooner does any one hear of an approe'.hing marriap;e, than he pricks up hia ears, and, though the parties bo far beneath his notice on ordinary occasions, he dwells upon them note with a ludicrously profound sense uf interest. Under the influence of"^ this feeling, weil-meaning people often encourage and contribute towards a. marriage, when they should rather administer a solemn advice to the contrary. There is b contingent advantage In keeping up % good standard uf fuod. Supposing a great and sud* den reduction of wages, or any other severe calamity* which would make provisions less easy of purchase, the workman can resort tu cheaper kinds of alimenty with which he may keep up existence till better timet. The Knglishman has alwavs the reserve of potatoes ; hut if the Irishman should wont that root, lie has nothing tu interpose between himself and starvation. It is desirable, however, that tho standard should be as rarely departed from as possible, lest, becoming ac- customed to the meaner fare, the population should lose relish in some degree fur the l;etter, and forego the prospect of returning to it. CMIQItATIoy. To press onward over the earth till it be all peopled, seems part uf the general destiuy of mankind ; and indeed >t is quite impossible fur the principle of in- crease to act otherwise, without producing misery. Men should therefore luok upon emigration as no strange or painful necessity, but as one which hat been utJained by nature herself. It is obvious, that» for every act>vu lubuurer who leaves the country, there is the nture employment and fu4)d for those uho re- main, provi creast'. It is evitlently absurd tu sufTer any appre- hensiiui, even abstractly, ou this score, aftei seeing so much dune in our ou-" ruuntry in a few years tu ex- tend the means uf m- ntenanre. Alter seeing such immense additions tu human power — the steam-engine, fur instance — rec'ently cunferred upon mankind, who were previously altogether unconsctuui uf them, we are entitled tu presume that there are stil! many latent bttunties in natiire, which are hereafter to bedei elui>ed» for the yet farther aiil of man in his endeavunrs tu support himscK Tu doubt this were only to imitate tho ninduct uf thusr gentlemen, whtt, on the first at- tempt of t'ulton to iniu'l a Ixiat by steam, prwlicted its Inevitable fuilure. The cotton-s;<[nning mnchinerjr has einihled thousands tu live where there wcieunce ouly hundreds. The steam-engine has dune, or is doing, something of the same kind. Nay, there is not a n..tWBy ur a canal formed in the cuunlry, but a cnl- cnlation might be made uf the increaio which it givea r>ccasion fur and jttstiHesin tho nuni)>ers of mankind* Why, ihen, this lud' runs donpair of philosophers, ar to a suppusiHl uverc.iK-kiug of the glube 1 It is at least clear tu uU, that in the tncanttmt rmigratiun oug^>t tu l>e encouraged. Tho rising of kiudre*! and enlightened nations in the neighbourhood uf such a country us Urr ,1 Britain, holds out the moat POLITICAL ECONOMY. \ The riling of neigiilKiurhood li out the mOit exolted hopoi to the philanthropist, ai it tendH to itrengthcn that minority of liberalised beings, who coiiiticute the only really entimahle portion of the hunan race — to the merchant, as it tends to extend CO* imeroial relationa— ana, though last not least, to the poor labourer, since it promises him either n better liome than what he now possesses, or increased means of enjoying himself where he is. There is little reason to fetef an universal surplus of people in our own age —for the worlilr. which at present contains about a thousand millions of inlahitants, is calculated ar able to support fully ten times that number, even by the present modes of raisin , victupl. And, indeed, cal- culating the one thing against the other, there Is no reason to suppost that this surplus will occur before the period of eq>.ally universal moral improvement.* COMPABATIVE SEMUNEKATIOMB OF TRADES AND PK0FESSI0N8. The great iner^ jality in the condition and comforts of men is a thing obvious to every eye. It is often the source of discontent to those who feel themselves low in the scale ; and it is hardlv to be expected, per. haps, that the poor man can behold, without a sigh, the superior s^vle of living in which the rich one can Indulge. Fer ^oor men, howevei, are so blind as not to perceive some of the causes which render this in- equality unavoidable. We shall here explain these causes. In the Bi'st place, it must be already plain that a great part of the advantages of the wealthy arise from tlie industry, talent, and economy (if their forefathers. To be the descendant of a family which has ac(|uired, in past time, either land, or goods, or the respect of the community, is a piece of natural good fortune, which such an individual must be permitted to enjoy, because it is evident that, though he did not creat? these advantages, he has still a right to them, through the will and pleasure of those whc did create them — and further, because if he were deprived of them, or in the least disturbed in their enjoyment, existing men would want one of the greatest motives to exertion, and the commonwealth be injured accordingly. The contemplation of wealthy people, instead of inspiring poor men with envy, or any other malignant feeling, should make them cheerful and happy, in so far as it HSkurea them that, whatever they can gain, they or their children will be permitted in the same way to enjoy. It will be less plbin, howoi-er, to common under- standings, that the men engaged in certain trades and professions should realise large incomes, while others nre kept at the merest pittance that will suffice to re- tain life. There are reasons, nevertheless, for all these itieriualities — reasons quite sufficient to satisfy ctte sense of even those who enjoy the smallest deno- niination of incomes The five following reasons are stated by Adam Smith, in his celebrated work on the Wealth of Na- tions, as tlioso which chiefly tene resorted to; and, conse- quently, its wages must be somewhat less than in trades otherwise corresponding. The business of an executioner is paid higher in proportion to the time, strength, and ingenuity engaged in it, than ai.y other, in order to mako up lor its want of public r«.:pect. The trade of a tailor is also paid very high in these proportions, in consequence of the silly ponulnr oblo- quy which attaches to it. (Mergymen' and oflicers of the army and navy are not, in general, pnid so high us men exercising the same learnuig and talent, nr en- countering the same risks luid diHHil vantage 4, in other employnientti — and this purely liocausu a ilcrgyman and an officer en^oy mut h pnhlic respect aiul eclat : their profession is styled tlnit of a gentleman, and j'trtly remunerates itself. *J The comparative difficulty of learning a trade or profesjfinn, ,ind the comparative time and money em- phiyed in so doing. It is evidently quite fair.'thu, where a trade requires an apprenticeship of sc^en years, or a pntfessiou can only bn exereised after a te- dious auii expensive education, the said trade and pro- fession should afterwards bring greater remunerittion than others more easily and more cheaply acquired. ;i. The constancy or "nconstancy of employment. Nothing can he more clear than that a trade' which fan only bo exercised at a particular season, or which depends u|ioi> (M'casional cnances to be called into ex- ercixo, slionid be paid higher than one which enjoys regiibir and permanent employment. Stone-masons, for instance, wlio are hiiu otf'work by bad weather, bhould be better paid when they do work, than n craft, equiil in other respects, whfch can he exercised nt all hours throughout the year. Street- porters, on the same prittciple, must be paid as high for their oc- • In treatlnn tliU (U'parlinciil nf mir iiibJiTt. wr Havc not ml- v.iuil ID thf iliffereni w^yi m wlikh eminrmum U tri>Aled by dif- icirnt iH>Utlt!Bl tlilftkrrt, Tlw Turlvf, ue iHlicvf, In gtmcral, toconiinmd emigrRniin, d« a inonni ui n>licviiit{ ihu itl*irvuea nf tlio )M)or I while ihe Indciicntlriu or IladK'sl y»>*v A«Hr(, that tt wt)uM not Iw nrcniuv, ii die Uiulltiidi would fixe up tlicir mo- ntpsjly i;i thr j«Ulii(j v( briiwl. \\v truit it will bu ircii that wc Dsirc arjjucd in favour ufciiiliimttoi ujnm abslrait vlcwi alone, casional jobs, as may enable them to live, upon the whole, as well as other persons who exercise the same degree of labour ind ingenuity (such as it is) in a more steady way. 4. The comparative trust reposeublic curi- oaii 8, a mere chambermaid is in tl' erHtion, is apt to proceed as formerly to the extreme of over-production, and then comes the glut once more. Thus Mugs proceed, not only in jiartlcular trades, but in tne en- tire business system of the empire. l^luctuations arise from minor causes, as the seasons, the changes '4 fashion, the abbreviation of lalwiir by mitchinery, and tho shiftingof manufactures from one (tisti-ict to* another. It may be said that all variations I in the rate of manufacture are of detriment to the la- ! bourer, as the periiMls of depression, whieh invjiriiibly prtMluce real suffer! ig, are not conipensaicd by tlio j rise, tho results of which aro seldom tnrnetl to their firoper accimnt. The workman, moreover, limling , lis wages fall, is apt to taku a method for increatiig them, which can only tend to increase his own dit- tr( ^s or that of his nelghbourt. He works a longer time each day, and thus addt to that over-production which it woiild tie his interest to diminish. Hence, in Manchester, there Is always most work done in bad years. Distinct and powerful causes of fluctuations are found in alterations of the currency, in erroneous legislation, and in political events. None of theaej however, is it our present husineta to di^-^st. We conclude the subject by quoting and recommending the following excellent suggeations from Dr Wade^t "History of the Middle and Working Classes;" a work that would be a treasure to the industrious part of the community, if Any considerable portion of them could afford the treasure (eight shillings) necessary for purchasing ft i— - '* To provide for changes in employment occasioned by periwlio alternation.^ of prosperity and depression, two tuffgettlont may be offered. First, the workman, by saving out of hit- high wages during years of brisk demand for labour, might lay by a fund for a jierird of stagnation of trade ; or, secondly, he might enter into an agreement with his matter to serve at an ave- cpge rate of wages foifsuch a ttfrm of years as would embrace the ordinary commercial cycle of depression and prosperity. Various other expedients might be suggested; but it appears r porary stagnauons of trade. In the one case, on the (emand for go< is becoming slack, the quantity made 18 diminished ; .. less amount of work being given out, and the workmen p:iid (by the piece) nearly as much as before. Having, however, but three or fimr davs* work per week, they are obliged eitl.or m economize their expenses, or resort for support during the other days to whatever fund their forethought moy have provided ; thereby, the quantity of goods made beinj; reduced nearly to the real demand, no glut is formed in the market, and en the revival of the trade the men again resume full work without great loss. This is the case with several trttdes having a fund to fall back upon, and is beneficia! to all parties." rOMBIKATIONS. Combinations ai.iou^; workmen to keep up their wages, are, upon the whole, the characteristics o( a fieriod of decline — in other words, it perir>d when eitlier nboiirers are increasing ton fust, or the means of tin- ploying them are diminishing, The last few years have notoriously been a period of decline, -not owing, apparently, to any failure of the natural resources of the empire, or to an impru- dent inrrease of population, but to some unfortunatft regulations respwting money, which have rendered the quontity of that articli? too small for its proper functions ns a representative of capital in transition from one hand to another. One of the primary re- sults of this state of things has lieen the embarrnst. inent of men who would otherwise have had bnth the will and the power to give t-inployinent ; another h;i8 been a largo reduction of income to almost all men whatever, lo as to render them urable to purchaao 1 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. illi I-.?. 'Hi' ' Ml ii'. goodi which tbty oould loimitriy purclia»e. It is now luarut that no «xpentiv0 kind of article will now b« bought to uearly the same «xt«nt aa lorinorly, but that cheapness haa become a lewling priiiriple in every thiuK. Where formerly thare were splendidly illus- trated works, which amjily remunerated their pro- 4urer», then are now anuuali at half a guinea t wttere formerly there were ougactne* Ht half a crown, there •ra now raagasinaa at three-halfpence and a penny. U is not M much an extended appetite for literature which tupporta works, for initnnce, like our own — aa it is an abeolute inability in the public at Urge to piirciiaae denrer ones. Hence the branches t>f book- telling which apply to more ez<>ensive kinds of litera- ture, are experieucing a severe deprttsiun, from which there can Im) no rise, witliout a restoration of former circumstances in the public, if even then. One of the notorioui resulta of this state of things, ii an almost universal combination of the labouring classes to keep np their wage*. A general Trades Union haa been fiirmed for this object, and an aliena- tiun of' the affectiuni nf maatera and workmen from each other is rapidly advancing. If thinga were upon the rise, and if sudi a thin^ cuuld be as a disposition on the part «f masters to exclude workmen from a fair share of the advanta^^e, such a combintttion would be decidedly noceesary. Uut it would be a mere die- honest flattery of the working-classes, u> tell them, that, under the contrary state of things, their efforts are eithar laudable or likely tt> l>e attended with any good effect. The misfortunes of the country, from whatever source arising, befall masters and men alike; for not more certainly does over-pioduction, or failure of demand, or erroneous I^slntiun, diminish the wages of the one, than thoy diminish the proHts of the other t 84) that the relative cirrumstanous of employer and employed must at all timi>s he nearly alike. If the capit:ui«t deserves a urtnin share of profit during f^ood times, he deserves a proportionate share in bnd tirotM ; and it would lie ei{uauy unjust Ui ask work- men to l*lK>ar for nothing, that masters might thrive, as to expect masters tu lay out mnuey for nothing, that workmen might thrive. Uryond this principle, tliere can l>e no claim f.tmi the workmen to the mus- ters, fnrtlier than what henevdleniw may sanction, or wl'-'t the latter may hi< plea»i advance, in order to se ^ the services of eatimahle workmen against hptter times. Nor can the pressure of a general combina- tion \te of any permanent lienetit, except perhaps to urge an alt<;rat)on of parlianientary enactments, so far ax those may lie proveil to have occasioned the decline. While thus unavailing for good, it is certain that a general combination must produce harm, but in the lint plaoo to the workmttn only, in so fai as it tends to embitter their employers against them, and, if tem- porary idleness should mtcr to injure their per- sonal benny such, we are ar^of the numl>er. Neithtr do wel>«Ueveik there any indiffivt<)id the li'iter ut the contract, and compensating in ...nni' me»sure for the unavoidable pHrtiality of fortune. It is for the nU- vanta^re ot workmen that this feeling should not be inmtiired or Imnislied. To conciiute, there ts one advanta^ which miflht oriiefrom traden 'ssiNUHtioiKH. and prove of vast Kercice to the lulmuri .^^Mrs. This is the possible diffusion, ''ysnch nieA..3, of jusland really protitable knowledge on the general interesu of the manufactures and brauchvs ul businvks with which they are connected. JIONOrni.IES AKD BESTRRTIONJt. While i^neral ftimbinaliori to prevent decline of wugcs nre rcprt»enle the I'.eiglil of toj'iHtiue to den;' that the )iri'serv:ittoii of a free market here should l*e accoinp:inied bv a free market all over, ho that ro other ohis* shoulif gain at tbti expenw (d the lal>ouring rLsses. All kinds oi rekttii^tioiis wliittevor upiOi tiie U-ie exercise nf indti^try, inid the rHiigf oi crtnimercijil h|H>('tir.s of an ignorant people -4ind Kelt-destrutlivu in their ef- fects, lireat Dritaiu, which ut pre»entsiruggleit with tlie sloughft of all kinds of antitjnuted institutions, has, ;tnforlunately, to deul with u«uy of tht'se legacies of fnnniT ami leits iMiliKhtvned a^jCH, Ity which her iiu- •xainpltHl prosiwrity, so far from being favoured, bus lifen only kept under what it must havj otherwise been. It is customary to trace these evili almoat exclU' lively to iiiterestetl le^iiklatiou ; but we nre inclined to think that they hsvi! in ii ureat ineknure arisen from the narrow prejudicei with wliidi tliM Knglish nation in general has Iteen heretofore rt^tilete, and front which it Is only now .twxkeuing. 'ihi iigricnltural, and hitherto ruling class, have not solely institutt^ re* Mrictions in their own Tivoiir : they have, at the sam« lime, permitted Llmo^r evirv other trade and interest in iho cuuotiry to do the suirtu ttang. Their utteiiuooa t to themselves were only to have lM?en expected where all were attended to. The sin and blindness appear to US to have be«n qu'te general. The first uiul leading prejudice is that nf omintry. It ii no duted in the minds of the people, by which they wili lie placed aimve all risk of having their senses impoaed upon by toys and sounds, and enabled, when necessary, to check the rushnens of statesmen. ^len are now Ite- Kinning to overlook, in a gi-e.it measure, the ideal hounds of par(icular countries, ond to extend their Kvmpathies over the whole familv of man. It is a hiessed change, and ought by all means to \>e en- couraged. IW such means, we have no doubt, dif- ferent nations will soon liwk upon each otlier ns friendly customers and leclprtK-'al assistants, instead of rivals or aliens, and commerce will he permitted to go to a fur greater extent amongst them t'laii has ever heretofore been known It will s)K'edily lie seen that \he best way to cause other nations to buy from ns, is to buy also from them. Wo nnmt wean ourselves from a notion which has possesietl us, that all tho ad- v.. »uges of the ctmimerco of this world are by a law of i.ature due to Ureat llritaiuj and that other im- tionit must suirve that we may enjoy, hike all un- just notir)ii8. it is eminently nhfturd. Next comes tho pivjudice of district. When men live for a while in any place, intercM aril fan' y con- spire M give thrm a notion hat tlirre is un abstract ailvantage in favouring this pUce by all possible means, aitliough it may \k^ notorious that the same good cuuld he ditneutleiiii expense and more convenience elsewhere. " The garter trade of t^ticklettm ought by all means to be eiu'ouriiged*'— for— for — we live at Stickleton. It all resolves itself into n delusive prepossession. I'ndcr the inllnence of this feeling, a gentleman a few years ago laid out twelve tliniisaiid pounds in forming a sraidl harbour at a rock-girdleil part of the const of Ayrshire, whert^therequisitespace had to he cut from the solid granite, and nothing but a small village ex- iated wifhin many miles, to consume the articles pro. postal to be impi>rtod. (»f cour e, the ciipii.-J, instoad of being turned to profit, which wri perhaps the «•- condary object of the expender, was completely sunk. And every d;iy we se:- instances of litnilar attempts to force trade and nianufactiiros where ratnre pre&iMits 1,0 ndvantagei for the purpose—though it seldom happens that the folly of the pnMcHiire is so viTy oh- vtous as in thin partimlar raae. Men muft clear their ■ninds of this ridiculous propensity to think the inte- rests of their own place of re!iiden<:e uliove all othei'S, before they can ikserv^ a free trade, even in the ar- ticles which it most concerns thrm tu obtain without restriction. The third grand prejudice is that in favour of par- ticular trades or branciu^ of commerce. Having ex- peMdvd time in learning an art, It is natural to cling to it very earneilly, and to detire toiee It sui^reed be- yond air others. Such a feeling, in so far as it pro- duces competithm, may do a ftenenl gotal. Hut it is iniquitous, and, like idl iniquitous things, absurd, to linlge round these interests with corporate pri**'leges and Irgisl.itive restrictions, lly such practic*-*, the public is the first loser, neighlxmring trades the second, and the privileged trader Itself the third — for in the long-run his trade is liniitlVby unuaturd priroi'. No man, we hold, who belongs to a pnrfes«ion in tlie least I favoured, or atwrnpied to La favoured, by tuch reatric- titms. Ins any title to (*nmplain of either the corn mo- nopoly or anv other. Kuch, we arc glad to see, is an incipient feeling among the trades themselves, for within the liwt year several coriKiratinns in Scotland hava ipontaneously resigned their privileges. THE COHH MOXOPOLY. This ii well known to consist in an exclusive f^ght, with which the proprietors of British land are invested by Parliament, to supply tho people with the chief ar- ticle of human aliment, at prices higher (exn^pt under verv particular circumstances) than the same article could l>e obtained from some of our supposed "ene- mies,** the other countries of Kurope. The argumenu generally presented in favour of thit monopoly are chiefly grounded on an aiiumptinn simi- lar to that expressed by an tdd Scotch proverb, that it is proper to ket>p the offal of our own hah for our own sea-mews. It is presumed to beof service to all classes within Uritain, that the bread of the people should be purchased from British rather than from foreign f growers, because the money is thus, at it is said, kept n the country, and apeedily distributed again among the people for their own goods, whereas, if it were sent abroad, very little of it would ever again return. Aga'iist this it is ar^ed, that it is not money which is giv« . for h -ead i it is, in either case, goods or ma- nufactured articles. The true interest of Britain, jt ill alleged, does not consist in its agriculture, but in its manufactures. The country should be esteemed as only one vast factory, aiming at the supply of all other countries with goods, ana tokina; the bread of its workmen from such producers as will givoitcheap- etive nnmhers.* If landholders are to bu considered u^ only jiroducers, like other people, which tliey really are, why, say the anti-mouopolists, should the two be sacrificed for the one ? We believe it is now pretty generally conceded by c raised. Agricultural capitalists, however, are entitled to expect that all kinds of n._..opo1iea should he given up at the samo time, ami bv eipmt steps. It would be unjust thai the manufacturer should get free bread, while the bread-grower could not get every thing he required as free. Nor can we see any moral or political difference between agrirulturipts making laws for their own behoof in Parliament, of which they happened In the course of things to havi) poesBion, and tradesmen makinjf lawH for theirs, within tFiu circle, and under the pro- tecti the mono|K>lies in com and certain kinds of goiMls. It favours or st5emB to favour f certain rlani of peraoiiK, at the expi^nte of the commur.ity at lurg**. As in the other cases, there remains little doubt any where, ah to the expediency of abolishing such practices ; the only ohjeciion is a tenr to inert the distresses which their atiolitiod wimld (H'casion, among tb<>*o who aie inti>« rested in them, and the vr ,>tu wide-spread cnnnettituip of those parlieii. An abstract of the popular argu- ments on this subjei't may here l>e given :— • " In Italy, the |)n>|M>rtion of agrlruliuntti tu iioii~a 'nnjitii- riiti li M one luuidrtHl t>i tliirty one i In Kisiwe, si otiv itunilml lo flfty 1 In Kticluritl, u niic liundml u. Ivrn liuiulrct). Hut the inmt rvnotrkahre fiirt, ■< irfi'Mt* ihti inmniry, ti thi> I'hnti)^' that h«i taken plnve in the enifhiymmt nf Ifx* pcrpio tiwev ^nt roin- ntirnr -incnt of ihu iircsmt u-Mtury. la lOOi. tliu nuiDluT nf |)cr- »i'iii nittJMtetl In irMk; nitd mniinrirtiim la KngUud, Ai n ii)Hir«l wUh thoMT rn||«mt hi at;ncu)lurftl iHiMuit), wsa at As. tn Ovr t kn IHKI, it had InoriwMNi i twii fi otm la SiiiilJtn Itevn tiill urt-juvr, l:.t>>ii|i iHcn fmin flvt- to III tn tWII, III wwn ta Are in Mil. nml t< now rill'tifttt-il lit ii(i«Hy twol'tnnr, its in Knilanrt. Iinrlnir the ' holt: ni-t iM r>f thirty >mrf, lh»){rn«rt' tMipulatloD of the tiitintr' hw (nrn-uhl ne«ily lirtv-iriif (wr i-rti... wliirfi rxiiHiU ihp )>t mnrltimaU.' *n- rrt'iM* III ln» Mintiuf«rtiiTing 'lli'l.'i***. In fiHtr ni it' ti*lw"«, t'v InoriMM' of pul.ilii>i<, rturlna ihr l« of tilings n»oro in any quarter lalists, however, [i of n.-.-opoliea e, nnu hy e»iunl jif manutuciurer [ad-^rowtT could frer. Nor can fiire lietweeu own liehoof in .ji thp rourse of jdesnu-u making under the pro- bv any other [ip*>tUinn. Tha 111 reciprocal in- ,ri uiiiveniiU and J that foreiffn •r- Ithe productTs in Lv l>eiidvnulnp;fd Itibjet'tiifns hi> the IdH of i^oods. It IclaM of piTa.inti, lirfC*. As in the I anv where, as to jictiresi the only IBM!! whifh their |c who are iiite. Ireiideonneitioii? jM'puluk' iirgu- Iven :-— mat tu iinn-n 'n<*jltua ■tUi'i OR one itundml Tt Imiiitn-il. Hut the f, H the vhnn(p> lh»t I th« imitiOfi *•( \xt' ligUu'l.w^r' n|iiir«l Amu 'I^ tr> (Ivrt in ■>, to tw» (') one. In T |;;i\iii(( tiwn fnun [ill |< now rillmaUil J the V ttflit p-iinrt of »p pt iiiortistantial evidence that you did not get them for nothing; and so has every body else. They must have been paid for either with goods of Engliih pro- duce, or with giMMls of some kind (gold and silver in- cludttii) which have been bought from abroad with goods of Knglish produce, or with bills, which are only HU order for payment in one of the other waj-s a few tluys hence insteatt of to-d»v. Unless an Knoflishman has tlie art of getting any thing for nothing, in one or other of tliese ways must thev infallibly have been paid for. Here, then, are, at all events two shillings ao- counteil fur out of the three, which are as fairly ex- pended for the benefit of British producers and manu- fucuirers of tome kind, u they would be if the gloves vere bought from a British glove-maker at tha same price. Tiiev are paid for to the Frenchman, it may le, in Shetrield goodM. But if the gIove>maker pro- cures a law that gloves shall not be brouglit from franco, it is pUin that Sheffield goods must stop. The glove-maker may gain employment and trade by the alter;- tion; bnt it is equally plain that the Shefheld man nust lose. So much for the part which consists of the tteo shillings — next for the part which consists of the other OM. And tliis, says the glove-maker, is to be a cit-iir gain to British commerce, and it Is a horrible wrong if it is deprived of it. Now, mark the jugglfr— look sharply to the shufBing of the balls. If the wearer of gloves is- 14) be forced to expend a shilli ig more upon 'he glove-maker, he must expend a shilling less upon -1 ^indy else. It may be that he would not have tended it tu Sheffield, but at Birmingham; or that it would have been divided among fifty other places which it is impossible to assign by name. Jlnt still it is as dear aa ever, that the Hhilling which it is pro- posed to make him expend noienn vohn* [willingly or unwillingly] upon the glove-maker, must be taken from the custom of some other British manufacturers aomuhow and somewhere. There is no deception aris- ing from the paymeutit l>eing made in moaey ; if, in- itead of shillinga, they were made with pecks of wheat, it would he just as true that the third peck which the glove-muker demands a law to put into his own pot, must ho taken from the pudding of some British ma- nufacturer, to whom it would otherwise have gone. Sift this ; turn tt over ; see if it be true or not. Do nut allow yourself to be tamely taken iu, because the men who try to do it wear good clotheii. Kither it is true or it is not. If it is not true, let somebody show vhero it is fulHe. Till then, we account it correct. Here, then, are the whole three shillings perfectly accounted for. It is shown to l>e a hocus-pucuHund a fraud, that states that any gain arises to liritiah com- merce or protluctiim in the aggregate from the prohi- bition of tlie comuierc-e in French ghivet, or that any aggregate lows ir> intSioed hy the permission. The whole aiaou(it!( ^'u'v to a ptim for robbing a SheHield man ur a U' ' 'i- >u-t', who can make what people will voluutt' ■' . r r the benefit of the glovL murk ^, Id B\it:*i8 indictmL.u. ill the habit 01 w> loser of a shilling J;, 3ommerce of some individual [ skill enough to command u \i. * Y>ho is without. J la ^e is another count in the ."iB>M. ?t, the unfortunate who is n ^Uw s is to l>e the gratuitous the shilling was to go to the benefit of c.(.mii)ei''\v ..e might wrap himself up in his patriotitmi, and be consoled. If it was really to cause any increase in the safety or strength of the coumiunity of which he is a member — if the thou- sandth part of A fartliing of it was to appear in the shape nf national wualth, security, or splendouiv.-liti Blight lay aside the feelings of an injure intelligent and effective one — his situation presenta tself in ail its nakedness, his niurage sinks under the view, ' ftfelings of humanity prevail, ht. dropN a teat- :■• \)es it on his three-shilling gloves, und Hits dov.-'< - .: lanrbo.v monument of what it is to he Mhe •nv- .'■ Ifl- - jiattoi.:. tnd »he wonder of the world.' TU'ii' i; *i ^am ou of one single act; the next ta to nii:i >'.'<, ihe or es, as is the fact in nature Sup- pose that i^very individual in the cummuuity was a prodiioer of some kind, and that every one bada'pro- tection* upon his particular trade. What would be the result, but that each would steal stmiething out of his noigbbour'a Imu, with a general loss to be divided among themselves in their character of onnsumprs, •^ual to what might have been saved by buying goods ol all kinds where they were cheapest ? But it will Iw ittid thnt thia is not an exac: state- ment of the cose ; — that all men are not >roduoert, no but on the contrary there are large classes that pro- duce nothing. And hereupon it will he attempted to infer, that tlie whole is a patriotic machine for draw- ing wealth from the unproductive, and giving it to the industrious. There might be some show nf rea- son in this argument, i/lhu indvMtriotui elaasfa trere to gain by it. Biit the Industrious are in the aggregate to gain nothing — all that is to be given to one of tht-m ii to be-uken h-om another; and tho unproductive, as they are called, are to be robbed for love. A great proportion — a large and important share of the sum thus stupidly thrown away — must of necessity fall on the indufltrioQS ; for though ihey do not consume all, they consume a great deal. And it is no remedv to /A«m, that somebody else is to lose the rest. Besides this, the dasMs so unceremoniously voted unproduc- tive, are in a very great measure compiNied of those who have producetl. There ia no reason in saying a man shall be protected while he is producing, but shall \te robbed whenever he begins to enjoy. Men do net labour for the simple love of labour, but fur the love of the enjoyment they may ultimately proaire by it. No man in hia senses would consent to an arrange- ment, by which he should be protected while he was a hard-working citisen, but should be exposed to all roblieries whenever he had the impudence to think of retiring to live upon his savings. Vet this is the very theory of those w'lo talk nf robbing the unproductive with as much lightness of heart, as if men really pro- ducod and saved with no other view but that some- body else might take it from them. It is clear, therefore, that what is really recom- mended, is to incur an assured loss in the u^i^n^gate ; but men are exhorted to struggle and pull caps, for the chance of what they may individually get from others in the contest. That all the traders in a coun- try, and all the inhabitants in general, whether they trade or not, must lose by such a principle, if the ef- fects were evenly distributed, is as plain as in the case of a lottery ; hut they are to be cheered on by the pro- bability that the distribution may not be even, and that they may be the lucky rogues who win. It is a political I'Mle-gOy in which every body knmvs the con^ cern to be ruinous in the main ; but jolter-faeadod in- dividuals are to be encouragee shown to them hy the state. But after the first difficulties are got over, it is still more clear that a C4mtinuance of an exr''isive system only confers an undeserved and unnatui iX force upon capital employed in thene particular directions, und makes a limited number of people wealthy, while (Wpital otherwise employed is just so much the less productive and use- fni, aiul other jteople of wMirse mi much the poorer. It could be shown that much of the evil arising from these causes was owing to a well-meaniug and almost unavoidable, but nevertheleaa reprehenstbln compas- sion, which the state was calleil upon to show towards thoM latereiti) at various tines when tney were suf- fering under a natural depression. Whenever uny brunch of manufactures, or any of these larger sys- tems called '* Interests," happens to get the least de- ranged, or less prosperous than usual (even thcmgh this may be owing to an imprudent use of former ad- vantages), up it comes to the government with a load complaint, perhaps referring to opposite and jarring interests; and it the government be eithc- weak enuugn or Kind enough to lend a pitying ear. It is ten to one that it comes track with some additional restric- tive privilege, which, though only designed for tempo- rarv relief, is never after resigned, but becomes a now and regular bead upon that string of millatonea where- with the public neck is adorned — the said public (uiut this is the most curious part of the affair) sympathia. 'ng deeply with the event which confers upon it thia new distress. If it could be asceitained that all the various pri- vile^ and protective regulations enjoyed by different bodies throughout the empire, are so exactly balanced with each otjier that capital and industry are alike remunerated in all, in proportion tu their deserts, there would lie little objection to the system, except that it was a ridiculous one. It is impossible, however, to prove that this .s the state of the case ; and hence, ac- cording to the principles of even-handed justice, ic is desirable that a different plan should ho instituted. As in other cases, the only valid objectKtn lies in the difficulty of reforming so vast and intricate a system. without producing a greater degree of immediate mi. aery th^n is to be coolly contemplated ; and caution requires that, be it reformed when it may, the process sh(mld be one of slow and hardly perceptible degrees. THE CURREHCT. Coined money, it has been found, is only fully ser- viceable in a country where mercantile transactions are very limited ; for the expense and risk of trans- porting large quantities of it would absorb groat part of the profit of most transactions.* In a country where transactions are extensive, a lighter and mora transportable representative medium is necessary. What is called paper-money presents its stxvices fe ob- served, a nation requires two capitals : it requires both the actual goods, and a thing for representing theiu which has an use and value in itself—for the metals from which ctiins are made, are wunted for making a certain kind of articles always more ur less in request. If a nation waa composed altogether of honest men, none of whom would issue a bit of paper without being certain that he could at any time give goods equivalent to the a\un written on it, it might escape the expense of keeping up any part of this second and expenttivo capital. But just in so far as men are less honest und wise than they ought to be, this expense is unavoidable — an unhappy necer>sity, partaking in degree ie considered what ge- neral fornn and regulations shall he assumed for creat- ing it. The government, unquestionably, aatheraostcredit- worthy and .ixtensive dealer in the country, ought to be the creator of paper-money. It draws and disburses fully as much annually us serves the whole countrv, and would thus promote circulation. The profit, moreover, on the creation of the national m at Umdon— the f^ttmA oefiira of ihe mermnille truiiadfont of K^iptand— flvr iiiiilioni uf money exchmnse hands everyday. The tnteri'hance of thin in eohi, with all the cum'^iKmiliiitf trDniactiriut of cr.rriiiK^. Ate. thmufthnut th« country, anrruscncs to the oharaetsr of a uhyilcal UnpiMBlUlllr. *^ I > V-'ifc CHAMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. HI h ficial. A numlwr of individuiiJt, potwisfd of a Ur(fe Bg^ro^iitu ra|(itnl, fi.rm a bank, and iisiio notei (or reprt'st'Mtatioiu of fraetioni of thair cnpiul), on which ihey make u profiu /*s their whole hmn are within the anumrit of what they can answer for hy producing i«al ^ouiIh, the puhlio in > jmpletely lafa m receiving their iiotcR. TheM hanki, moreover, gire a certain ipterest on tiinnry deptMited with thera, and lend it %gain nt a profit to persons of credit who want it [hy ducounting billsl ; and thut, becoming aa it were centres of interchange, bring about the great general advantage that no part of the country's money is ever idle. This is the Scotch system of hiuiking, and to it ia to be attributed a great part of thiit prosperity, which, in less than a century, has raised our country i'rom the poorest to one of the most comparatively pro- ductive and we:ilthv on earth. £ngland, with uU her advantages in other respects, has wanted this great good fortune. A great privi- leged bank—the Hank of England, as it is called, hut which should rather be termed the baik of a few Kngtishmen for the misery of the rest — has contrived, by obligations to the government, and other influences. Id get into that old -constituted system of abuse, which there is hardly any altering. Hy forbidding the esta- blishraent of iither banks (whicli is done by prevent- ing a BuHicient number of partners to render them credit- worthy), the whole of the *a/e business of the country centres here, producing illimib\blc inconveni- ence, obstructing trade to an inconceivable iimuunt, and inducing the necessity of all the representations of capital in the country, in sums under Hve pounds, being in the expensive shape of coin. It is of the last importance to all men in the coun- try, from the wealthy cajiitalist to the jm^rest la- bourer who lives upon the nsing f>f capital, that money should nt all times bear nenrly the same value. The least increase or decrease in the full amount of existing mnncy, has nn immediate effect in diminish- ing or increasing the prii-e of <*<>mmi)ditics; and if a man contracts a debt under the one set of circiim- ktances, and has to pay it under another, or If he hires himself for a wage at the one thing, , and live at the other, he is a loser. Now, owing to the decrease of gold and silver from the failure of mines, and the partirular circumstances and modes of action of the Bank of England, there is not now nearly so much money in existenra as there was twenty years ago, while, in the same time, the numbers of the people and the rate of their productive ingenuity have greatly increase*!. In 1797i in order to obtain money more easily for carrying on a war against France, the government ^franted to the Hank of Kngland the tremendous boon of issuing as much pnper mtmev as it pleased, without the necessity of possessing equiva- lent giK>ds to back its issues. I'erhaps there was not the advantage taken of this privilege which there might have oeen ; but the result, ns is well known, pnidured an undue plenty of monev, or appar^'nt money, and as it thus becHme less valuable, all com> modities rose in price. All seemed to Iw prosperity then ; but, by and bye, in 181U, came the time -tor re- storing things to their rif^ht footing, by compuiting the bank to issue no more than it could account for by a show of real capital or goods — in other words, by paying gold lor notes, on demand, Since that diiv, money has become every dav scarcer and more valu- able; and it is n<> unfounded calculation, that the debt contracted during the furmcr period is now worth half as much again, and draws half as much more interest than it ought to do. Some political econo- mists urge the propriety of an expansiim of the value of money to its former amount, by which means it vould become as abundant a commodity, and worth u little, att before. Itut, n-hile this would equalise the obiigitious of the public, it would tie unjust to ull who have bought of the debt siucp its fir«t aintract- ing, and bring about a partial distress, and react against the public in some other way. It may also be represented witli nome force, that the debt ron. tracted between 171)7 -'md UMO, cniild not have been contracted, if the money had not bpt'ii of reduced rahte, and thus rendered more than usually attain- utile by the lenders ; that no provision was made in the contract for the consequences of u return to gold pajinentR, which formed a contingency alike beyond the calculations of borrowers and lenders; and that, 5o Ane, the larger sums we now pny and stand in- debted for are just a natural penalty of our hnvinn r.*mtracted debt nt all, under such lircum^tnnceF. There is, however, no dnubt that the extreme Hie, is now to all intents and purposes mere capital— the same as a factory or a stock in trade. Alimoy is every day invested in land, with the purpose of obtaining a return, which generally ctmsists partly in money, and partly in pri- vileges and honours attached by custom to land. True, it is almost always committed to the hands of au in- termediate class of capitalists, called farmers, who ttke all the risk and trouble of cultivation for the sake of a certain share of the produce. But in what is this arrangement dilferent from the demission of a factory, for instance, in full operation, into the hands of u per- sor not possessed of enough to purchase one for him- seK, but enough to carry one on, and who, undertaking the risk and trouble, agrees to pay the proprietor a fair consideration, out of the profits, as a reti:rn for the capital sunk in the property? Landlords, it is true, are almost invariably deputers of their property, while manufacturers are as invariably the reverse ; but this is a merely optional matter, depending on the respective convenienceand taste of the parties. Land- lords are, simply, manufacturers of fd, disposed to purchase an exenp>t'on from the trouble and risk of additional cjipital % «ary in carrying on their bi*- ainess, at the expt > ' (»'U to a deputy. SUfl 1 K .'OOU. It has been already . • .t the natural doom of all men is, that they si. >r for their own sup- port. The wealthiesC ca^iii in tho country has either lalHiured himself, or received the t>enefit uf the labours of his fon'fathers. There is no getting from him, by violent menus, the least fraction of what he possesses, without taking away a great deal of the general inducement \o labour, and thereby injuring the interests of the community. Kven n legislative enactment for forcing away a snred of his gains, for the sake of others, is injurimis in the same way, and irreconcileahle with all the just notions of property. Tlie idea, then, of a natural right of the poor to relief, which some writers have advocated, must be abandoned. It may l>e expedient for the rich to sup- port the poor, or they may do as much voluntarily towards that purpose as suits their inclinations and omvenience. Hut there can be no enforcing a right of those who do not work upon part of the gains of those who di>, without striking at the root of one of the most im{>urtant and salutary points in the consti- tution of society. The choice lietween a voluntary and irregular, and a compulsory and regular method of supporting the ilestitutti (both resting npim the mere plea of expe- diency), is thus left as the only question liable to dis- ctiBsion. It is it point which huf been very keenly de- bated, and, as usual, much may lie said on l>oth sides. The following are the chief arguments for and against t 1. Compulsory assessment for- the ptwr breaks in upon the right of every man to enjoy his own gains. Jniiiri>r. Ordinary rights always sink, in the eye of the htnte, under general expediency. '2. It only tends to increase the evil, AfiMWfr. From tables it is ascertained, that, ever since lOlUl, tho nunilier of paupers has kept steadily nc about in 100. 3. It enrotirages improvident marriages, as the par- ties III ways know they have the parish as a last resource. ^-huwer. It is;^certnined by parliamentaryevidence, that it tioet not. The idi i of the poor-house rather acis as a beactm to warn the poor against rash marriages. 4. It encourages the Increase uf a mean-living po- pulation. Amtfvfr. The reverse would appear to be the case. In hngland, where there has Wen a coiiipulMtry as- sessment for upwards of two centuries, the Ht:uidard of living is higher than in any other cmintry where there are no ptKtr-laws. The knowledge that, if a pauper population increases, its support will coine up- on the rich, induces the rich to see to the keeping down of such {>oputation. 6. It chills the hearts of the rich aguinst the poor, and prevents privnttt charity. ^ntwer. Private charity is an evil, as it is always carried on by means of Imposture, or somelhing else on the part of the asker, which degrades his charac- ter more than the workhouse. It is also uncert^tin, and admits the hant- hearted to throw upon the bene- volent the whfde of a burden, in the discharge and l>e- netit of which all are conremed. A'ofr. It is to lie regretted, however, that, by totally reprcssinif private charity, much sur|)lus food in the kitchens of the wcallby, which would be a blessing to many p'N)r persons, ia left to waste. It. It tends to take away the forethought of the poor. Antwer. In general, thote persons who refpiire pa. risb assistance would have no forethtmght under any itrninutNtiCfS. Is it to be supposeil that the fore, thought of the poor in IreUuid, or of (he Laiciaroni uf continental countries, is improved by the want of poor-laws ? I n short, it is argued by the friends of a compulsory assessment, that such is just the price paid by tlie rich, as H matter of police, for repressing the numbers, and diminishing the power of annoyance, of a set of peu. pie, who, imder any circumstances, uH// exist in acer* tain proportion to the general population, and whnse destitution would be incompatible with the enjoyment of life and property In the more opulent, prudent, and industrious. In favour of this view, we must acknowledge that, before the institutior of poor-laws in 1601, Kngland nlmunded in vagrants, whose idleness and vice proba- bly occasiimed a greater propnrtionste loss to the rest of the community, than the amount since paid fur keeping it in check. The complaint of vagabonda'^e and mendicity rose steadily in proportion to the eman- cipation of the poor from slavery (under which condi- tion, of course, all were supported by their proprie- tors) \ and hence poor-laws assume the complexion of a necessary result o** the personal liberty, now and for a bmg time enjoyed by the working-classes. ** The legitimate purposes of a poor assessment," says I)r Wade, ** I take to be the raising of a prnvi- sional fund for meeting, in the least objectionable way, a positive evil, inseparable from the existing know, leuge and habits of society ; that this fund ought to he so disbursed as to leave no one an excuse for being a beggar or a thief; and, at the same time, so sparingly disbursed, as to make it the interest of no person to he a pauper rather than live by honest labour. The object of the poor-laws is to relieve real and imavoid> able distress, not distress wickedly .uid wantonly created ; and if the poor-laws are perverted into the fostering of tho idle and the dissolute, the fault is not in the laws, but in their administrators, who apply the poor when they ought to apply the vagrant laws. This i.'.uisage suggests some important considera- tions. In the first place, how far is it possible, by improving the knowledf? and habits of society, to re- duce the necessity for a poor assessment, or its amount ? For the explication of this point, we are inclined to contrast the condition of Scotland with that of Lug. land. In the former country, begging is no more frequent than it is in England'; the poor assessments ore comparatively trifiing (seldom producing to any single pauMr above a shilling or eighteenpenco a- week, while these paupers are very few in numlier) ; and a spirit exists very generally among the common people, as to the propriety of avoiding, by all possible meant, a state of dependence upon parochial relief. If we contrast this with the state of Kngland, where, in 11130, nearly seven millions were expended upon the poor, and where, although the character of the Knglish labiniring classes is remarkably independent and manly, still there prevails a far less disinclina- tion to accept of the parish bounty, we might almost trit tempted to conclude thai the poor-laws of Kngland had in a great measure pn>duced the necessity of their own existence. Hut mark the real cause of the dif- ference. Kvery Scottish iieasaut, however humbly horn, learns to* read and write. His mind is under the immediate and constant ministration of a clergy, man, who takes a close and brotherly interest in his religious and moral condition, and exerts himself to see that he never for a moment forgets the decencti>s of life. The very penury of his country, though now in a great measure past, has conferred upon the people so much economical wisdom, that the relation of in. come and expenditure is in general preserved with singular exactru'^s. It might be invidious to specify the particulars in which Kngland differs from Scot- land, as to the religious, moral, and ectmoinical cut. tore of its lower inhabitants. Hut no one cwhlL^scrt that it approaches its ]>oorer neighbour in ailj^e o^ thene n>s{>ects. And hence, it apjwars to us, arises a great deal of that necessity for poor-laws in the south- ern state, which is esca|»ed in the northern. The pressure of this tremendous assessment is just tho pe- nalty which the Knglish landholders pay for their in- attention to the moral interests of the working classes — the price of that security which they think they enjoy in the ignorance of their fellow. creatures. In the second place, how far is it possible, by icn- riroved managemeitt, to reduce the assessment in Knjf- and ? We are decidedly of opinion that much niiglit Ih) done in this way. From Parliamentary evidence, it appears that in tho pour-house of St Lawrence, lU'Hding, fmiu forty to fifty perums seldom consume less than one hundred and fifty pounds of meat weekly, or more than three pounds each per we-.k. Now, theie surely is no ruaKon that pau}>erB slioiild live so well ns this. lnde|iendttnt labourers in Scotland do not at nn average, we are safe in saying, eat alH>vfl ri tltird of this quantity of butcher meat. Oreater vigilance, moreover, on the fiart of the overseers, might pRrha|>4 inecliirle part of the imposture which is complnineilof in the applicants for relief. As it is proved that t!iu raU'd have of late decreased, in r^msequence of im- proved management (bein({ less in IKtUthan ten yesrs itefore, when the populatitm was not so great by half a million), we are entitled to hope that much might Ix' done in this way towards a Imseniiig of the evil. / fr fo Pl in •JH wh of. doe me the nev no. iiU tion (he KtUMRi'RKii: FulilUlicil liy W. and It. Chamrkhs. lU. Wstrr. lou riser I oUn by Smith mil <)flH. Psifrnitttcr Row, I,o»«ible parochial relief. England, where, e expended upon character of the :ably independent ir le«l dininclina. we might almost ■-laws of Kngland necessity of their , cause ol the dif- however humbly lis mind is under ntion of a clergy- rlv interest in his exerts himself to geu tlie decencies utry, though now ■d upon the pi'ople he relation of in- al preserved with iviiliouB to specify idilfers from Scot- ul economical cul- . u> one '•a>iI4*»»<''^ • four in any'^ine m !ars to us, arises ii .laws in the south- |e northern. Tlui lent is just the pp- ,-s pay for their in- Ihe working classes I they think they iw -creatures. it possible, byjm- Usessment In Kni;- [, that much might imentary evidence, of St Iiawrcnce, ,is lehhun consume Lis of meat weekly, Iwe.k. Now, there ihoubl live so well Scotland do not nt eat al«>ve ii thiiil (Ireater vigilance, ers, might perhup* I'll is couiplaiiieil"f I is proved thnt tlm kin«e<|uenco of iin- IlKUl than ten years lot so great by half i thnt much might ining of the evil. iTHAMSsas, HI. «•"■'• lilcmmlor H"W. l.im- 1ckTlll> SliW. Dublin, hi other llocik«nm in tlwl once • ti.rlnUlit. 'i Oy UtllantTne * (-»• ■^ ■-''■'■''• CHAMBERS'S ' • INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS Ci' THE " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEW8PAi-ER." No. 16. Pbiok Ijd. THS DOG. The Kh^herd'i Dog. The KngliBh MustilF. Tub l>og in nil unimal which leemn tu have !>een des- tined by the CreaU)r to be the friend imd asBistaiit of man. Throughout the dangers and difficulties which beset the human being, particularly in an inartitidal ■tate of lociety, the dog hai ever proved himself the kindly defender of his life and proplHIy, as well as a powerftil and essential auxiliary in subduing other animals to his purpose. M'ilhout the assistance of the dog, man would not even yet have obtained a he- ueficial dominion over the various races of wild ani- malH (if the earth, or l>een able to watch with sufficient care thnw creatures formed for his food. In entering upon the history and character of this valuable animal, nothing astonishes us su much as the extraordinary variety of its form. M'hether sprung from one root or not, it is obvious that there now ex- ist dogs fitted to perform purposes entirely peculiar to their peculiar varieties, in which respect this animal resembles no other in the list of animated nature, and therefore possesses distinguishing characteristics pos- sessed by no other creature but man. In this respect, therefore, the dog in its numerous varieties answers every end that could have been gained by the crea- tion and existence of many distinct races of animals. By it, we have an animal which watches our flocks i another which tracks and hunts down noxious wild beasts : another, which destroys and digs out vermin from tlte earth i another, which guards our houses and lirai, while we are asleep t another^ which seeks out for game in our field sports t another, which will plunge into tlie deepest waters, and save us from l>e- ing drowned ; besides many other varieties, all less or more distinct in character, yet all consorting to- gether, and endowed with certain uniform peculia- ritica of character, which identify them as all of one species. Widely^ different as are the varieties of dogs, it has been suppose by Duffbn and other naturalists, who are certainly beet entitled to judge, that all kinda of dogs whateoever had their origin in the Bhepherd*s dog, and that climate, food, domestication, and treat- ment, hare l»een the prevailing causes of producing the departtire from the primeval parent stock. It is nevertheless certain, ^t there is no variety of the dog now existing in an unreclaimed state which exactly agrees with our domesticated shepherd's dog; and tt is likewise evident to our observation, that no descrip- tion of treatment seems to have an effect tn changing the appaMDtly fixed oharaoterofa breed of d(^. If we trace the genealogy of a greyhound fbr centuries, we ■hall find that its forefather was just a greyhound like Itself; or if we eend a pair of mastiffs to the hills, It will similarly be remarked, that, at the end of a period of years, their progeny have not retrograded to the ori- ginal shepherd*! dog, although there Is reason to be- lieve that they may have somewhat degenerated from the true mutiff brwd. M. f. Cuvleri a nodara French naturalist, has devoted much attention to this curious subject, and has formed a new arrangement of dogs, founded on the shape of the head, and length of the jaws and muzxte. These hu has separated into three great groups, as follow : — I. Matins. — These have a head more or less elongated; the parietal bones insensibly approaching each other, and the condyles of the lower jaw placed in a horizontal line with the upper cheek-teeth. II. Spaniels, — The head moderately elongated ; the parietal bones do not approach each other above the temples, but diverge and swell out, so as to en- large the forehead andr cavity of the brain. In this group are included all the varieties of dogs which are of the greatest utility to man, and also the most in- telligent. III. DoouES. — The muzzle more or less shortened ; the skull high ; the frontal sinuses considerable ; the condyle of the lower jaw extending above the line of the upper cheek-teeth. The cranium is smaller in this group than in the two previous, owing to the formation of the head. Captain Thomas Brown, a Scottish naturalist, has formed an arrangement, In whioh he has followed M. F, Cuvier in the three greot groups, but has divided these Into distinct sections, agreeing in particular characters, fur which tlie dogs which he has Included in the several sections are remarkable. The table of his divisions and sections is as follows;— iJivisioN I — Head Elongated. Stction 1. Wild and half-reclaimed dogs, which hunt in packs. Seetion 2. Domesticati 'J dc^, which hunt in packs or singly, principally by the eye, although sometimes by the scent. Section 3. Domesticated dogs, which bunt singly, and always by the eye. Division II. — Head less elongated than rOMMES DIVISION. Section 4. Pastoral dogs, or such as are employed in domestic purpoaes. Sectiotk 5. Water-dogs, which delight in swimming, having their feet in general seml-webbed. Section f). Fowlers, or dogs whose natural inclina- tion is to chase and point birds, and hunt singly by the scent. Section ?• Hounds, which hunt In packs, by the scent. Section 8. Mongrel hounds, which hunt singly, either by the soent or eye. Division III.— Head much bhohtened. Section 0. Watch-dogs, which have no propensity for hunting. . OCWEKAL CHAVACm 0» DOOI. Th* dog has six Incisory or cutting teeth In both jaw«|.^eyand which there are, od each side, both above and helow, a canine tooth ; and still farther in- to the mouth are six cheek-teeth, or molars, in each side of the upper jaw. The three first are sharp and cutting, which Cuvier calls iislse molars. The next tooth on each side Is a carnivorous tooth, furnished with two cutting lobes, beyond which the other two teeth on each side are flat. There are seven cheek- teeth, on both sides, In the under jaw ; four of these are false molars, a carnivorous tooth, with the posterior part flat, and behind It two tuberculous teeth. The muzzle is elongated, subject to great variety of length in different varieties. The tongue is smooth and soft ; the ears erect in the wild varieties, and in some of the tame ones, but, In the latter kinds, for the most part pendulous. The fore-feet are provided with five toes, and the hind-feet with four toes, furnished with rather longish nails, obtuse at their points, and not retractile. The females are provided with ^th in- guinal and ventral teats. The pupils of the eyes are circular. The female goes with young sixty-three days, and generally produces from three to five at a birth, and sometimes even twelve, which are at first blind, in which state they continue for from nine days to a fortnight. About the end of two months, their facul- ties begin to develope themselves. They shed their first teeth at the end of six months, which are replaced by others that do not exfoliate. At twenty months, or two years, dogs arrive at their full vigour. The males continue to propagate for nearly their whole lives, while the female discontinues having young ones at about the age of eight or nine years. The average age to which dogs live is about four- teen years ; they frequently, however, lire to sixteen, and even hare been known to attain the age of twenty years. In their latter days, dogs frequently suffer greatly from decay, and various diseases. They are extremely subject to rheumatism, from their liability to exposure to rain and damp beds. Until dogs have attained seven or eight years, tfaef r teeth are white, smooth, and acutely-pointed ; but af- ter this age they become yellow spotted, and their points assume an uneven and jagged appearance. At this time, also, the hair of the muzzle and around the eyes assumes a hoary appearance, and becoines whiter as they increase In years. The dog, independent of the beauty of his form, hi s ^iraoity, force, and swiftness, is possessed of all those internal qualifications that can ooneiliate the affec- tions of man, and make a tyrant a protector. A na- tural share of courage, an angry and ferocious diipv- sition, renders the dog, in a savage state, a formidable enemy to all other animals ; but these readily give way to very different qualities. In a state of doHMMi- cation, and his only ambition seems th» deitre to please t he Is seen to oome crouching along, to lay his tontf his eouragt» and all his useful talenti M the 1 ii ^1 / ...* 4 CHAMnERS'S INFOki»iATIO''J FOll THE PEOPLE. »V hV V - I'trt nf bis niattpr : ho wmiis liix onlurs, ti> uliicli lie pHvi implicit obedipnce: he ciniRuIts his \iy\V.%^ mid n •irigle ffinnct* U miWcifnt to put him in motion i he i^ mnrt rnithrul than even the ramt h();iitf d among mt* n : he ii ooimtant in hit alFpiitinni, friendly without in. tereit, anti f:;ratflful for the sliKhteiit favours : much mure mludful of hpiiefltn recelvwl than injuriei of. ItTPd, he is not driven ofT hy unkindiiesH ; he still con. liniitri humtde, suhmisiiv*, am) imploring; his only hope to he nerviceahlef hi^ only terror to di^pleane; hu lickt the hand that has junt Iwen liftetl to strike him, and at last disurnis reteiitnient by submissive perseverance. Alore docile than man, more ol>edipnt tlinn any other animnt, he \* not only inatnu-teil in a xhort time, but he alio conforms to the riispositioni ami manners of those who conmiHnd him. He thkes his tone from the house he inhabits : like the rest of the domestics, he is disdainful among the great, i.-:t require hnnmu protwtiou. The fltwk and the hf rd ibey his voice more reudily even than that of the shepherd or the herdsman i he con. diicti them, giu rds them, keeps them from caprici- ously seeking da iger, and their eneniits he I'onsiders as his own. N >r is he less useful in the pursuit: when the sound iit' the horn or the voire ot the hunts. mnn call him to the field, ho te^tilieti his pleasure by rrerv Httle art, and pursue* with persevernnce those animals, which, when taken, he nmst nitt expect to dtv^ide. The d 'sire of hunting is tndeeil niitural to him, as well s i to man, since war and tlie chase are the only emu) lyment of savages. All animals that lire upon flesr bunt hy nsture ; the lion and the tiger, whoi»e force i so great that thev are sure to omqiier, hunt alon" ..nd without art. I'he wolf, the fi>x, and the wild dif;, hunt in packs, and ussist each other, and partakj the spoil. Hut when education has per- fected thir ulent in the domestic dog — when he has been t«i:^ nt by man to repress his ardour, to measure hifl mi»ti( nt, and not to exhaust his force bv too sud- den an xertinn c^ it— lie then hunts witn method, aiifl alw ivs with xurcess. As tbi* dog is of the most complying disposition, so also is I e the most susceptible of change in hia formn. The VB rietie , ' this animal seem almost endless. Cli- mate, loff- .:. education, all make strong impres- •ions u)<0n t ■ animal, and produce alterutinns 1ji its vhape, *i hair, its siae, and in every thing but iu nature. The same dog taken from one climiite to an. other, S( ems to l>ecome another animal, itnd different breeds an as much separated, to all Hp}>earance, as any two a>.ut that organixa. tioti which servea to continue ti> ' species, and keep the animal distinct from all uthe-s. It is this pecu. liar conformation, this power of producing an animal that can reproduce another, that marks the R)>ei:ies ; for nature seems to have established a law, that one deviation from specific distinctions can t>e permitted, but no farther, as she has doomed that all mules shall )m! sterile. The extremes of size are tntly wonderful in this S{)er!es, as dogs have l*een known to reach four feet in height ; while there is one in the museum nt Dres- den, quite perfect in its form, and only five inclim in )en,fth. ]>ogs* flesh was lately an extensive article of food i:i the Sicilies, and we oave the follou-iug interesting ■icrount of it, given by 8winbume in his tnivels iu these countHe* :—'*Caialnuova is a considerable town, containing about four thousand inhabitanta, noted for nothing hut their taste for dr^s* flesh, in which they have no competitors that I know of, except their neighbours at I^eeoe, and the uewly-disaiverml volup. tuaries of Otaheite. We did not see one animal of the canine species in the streeu, and wo to the poor cur that follows its master into this eannittal settle- ment t I could not prevail upon my conductor to own whether they had any flocks of puppies, as of •beep t <*'' ^'^^^ *"y I'^ns, by castration, or particular food, to fMten and iweeteu the dalnt/ l>efore they Aruufffat tt io the ihamlileK. 1 hav« sinoe procarvd Boino int'oriniition itptut the sutijei't frmn inipHitiuJ periDni, and lind that the people of this neigh, hiiurhooti nre looked tipon by the rest of the king. dom as dog-enters; and it is cert.iiM, tli:ii, lioth ^it Leece ami Cftitftlnuov.i, many of the Iowlt sort relish a slice of a noII-feg the next iliiy, the g\iard told nie that these cunh. This feast is held in the hut or tent of the chief warrior, to which all those who intend to act^mpany him in his expediti(m serul their dishes to be filled." This prnclice does not pcoceed from any want of frwid amongst these ]>eople, us they on ordinary uecu-^lons live upon the liesh of the buffalo, the elk, the wild boar, the ri>d deer, bi&on and ract>on, with which their uuintry abounds. Wr shall now proceed to give the ch:iracters of the diffeiout dogs, according to the arrangement of (ap- tain Dnnrn, and to intersperse these with a series of anecdotes. P1VI8IOX I. — DOOSWITII LENOTIIENEn HF-ADS. Section I. Half-reclaimed dogs, which hunt in packs. The Dingo, or Xeir Holland u.~ --The head of this dog is not unlike that of a wolf, on h hich account liewick calls it the New Sou:' NV'ales wolf. The muxzle is long and pointed, with short erect ears. lie is two feet six inches in length, aner, who states, up*ui the authority of the peasants of Khaysa, which borders the frontiers of ('hina. that a tiger is often killed and tt>rn to piecei by the wild dogs, which give tongue like foxhounds or harriers. It is in the unfrequented wilds of the western frontiers of India that the dhole takes up his abiNle, lurking amongst the extensive jungles which cover mighty tracts of that territory. The Fariah is the common village dog of India. He has a small sharp head, with short pri(;ked ears, a slender body, and particularly drawn up nlmut the al»dominal region; his chest is deep, his limbs light, and his c^ilour is of a reddish brown. Tlie native In- dians use these in hunting the tfger and wild boar. They are very tierce, and follow their game with much aridity. The Ekia ia the native dog of Africa, and in all likelibood Hprung from the same sUH:k i\'\ the dbole. Ther are said to (>«• of various colours, as black, red, whiU', brown, and sandy yellow. They are eaten by the negroes. The Afi-ican wild doijs, like those o.' Ii*. dia, hunt in pucks. The South Amtrican Dnoloured spots on tim legi and flanks. In their genenil aspect, they greatly resemble the wolf, but are much smaller in size. There is another South American dog calleil iIih AIco, of which there are two varieties. The head of the AIco ia very small, and thu ears pendulous; thie had. They renewed their search next day, with no bettei success. The hearts of the parents were wr ng with grief, and they were at a loss what steps to take for the recovery of their lost child, when one of the nutive Indians, named Tewenissa, happened to passj^tway, acconipa?iied by his dog, named Oniah. He calleil at Irf* Fcvre's, to refresh and rest himself. He found him in deep grief; and being informed of the camie of his distress, he requesteil that the shoes and stockings which the lost child bad last worn might be brought to him. He applied them to the nose of his dog, and desired him to smell them, and immediately after, wards departed for the woods, accompanied by the family ; and describing a semicircle of a quarter oi a mile, he urged the dog to discover the scent of th« lost child. 1 hey had not proceeded far, when the ilog began to hay; he followed up the scent, and his notes of triumph became louder as he proceeded, and at latt he bolted ofl^ at full speed, and was soon n auultuteil him to ihv spot where thts Inst chilli lay sciiithleis at the font of a lar^t* tree. Tuweuissa anatclied him up In hia arms, and nith a joyful hrarc ipt-d his way to whert) his distressed parents and friends were advancing with leas speed than the son of the woods was able to do. He restiired little Uerick to his father and mother, when a st-ene of gratitude and tendernest ensued, which may he more easily imugined than described. Section 2. DntnesticHted dn}(V which hunt in pnuks or siufily, principally by the eye, although sometimes by the sVent. The Iriih Greyhound ranks among the noblest of the ranine race; his mien is atrikiutf, full of dignity, and hia conformation beautiful. In liis general shape he l>eara a strong resemblance to the common grey- hound, but is much taller, and moi-e robust, lie is not fitted for pursuing the more speedy animals of the chase. His use in parly times was to free the coun- try of wolves and wild hoiars, which abounded in £ng. land and Ireland. The hatr is short and smooth, and the colour of theMe dogs is fawn or pale cinnamon. The Marquis of SHgo had some of this breed, which were of rarious colours ; some were brown and white, aneeu dragged more than three yards from the bush under which he had lain down ; hut what WHS his astonishment tm getting up, to find a large snake almost torn to pieces, no doubt by his faithful guard!" The French Matin has an elongated head, and flat above; his para are erect, and blightly pendulous to- wards the tips; the hair of a yellowish fawn-colour, with darker, oblique, and parallel indiatlnct rays traversing the whole of his fyr. His height Is about two feet, and his length three feet. He is strong, muscular, and active, and very ruuragrotis. He evinces great eagerness in hunting the wild boar and wolf, in which sport he is frequently employed. Pennant tbinkH this variety is a descendant uf the Irish greyhound. The Great Danish Dog. — This variety is oomewhal allied to the maiin, hut with a blunter muzzle ; he is also somewhat like the Dalmatian in api>earnnce, but ditTers in his body being all covered with large black patches and spots, whereas the fur of the latter dog is universally sp pulled it down, and, in defiance of all attempts to take it from him, lay on it all night, and would not even allow any per^on to touch it. Every evening afterwards, about sunxet, he left Ita- ranamue, travelled t4i the churchyard, and reposed (m the grave of his late master, and returned regularly in the morning, between nine and ten. And whut was very remarkable, he never would touch any meat which was oflTered to h all the canine species. In Noveml>er 179*^ as Kichardson, gamekeeper to the Earl of Egremont, was leading two greyhounda, coupled together, near Ulndale, a hare ran across the road; the dogs instantly bn)ke from their conductor, and gave chase, fastened as they were to each other. The pursuit began at Ulndale Urow-top, and afforded a very entertaining light to several siwctators; the frequent windings of the hare embarrassing the dogs greatly, particularly in changing their direction. At one time puss was very near giving them the slip, but she was baffled in an attempt to escape through a t^ate \ audi by tb« sudden luroiog of oer punuerij after a run of about four miles, she fell a saorifiee M Pikeless gate, being actually killed bv the coupled greyhounds, whose eagerness fur the cliase could not be restrained by any efforts uf the gamekeeper. As a party of gentlemen were coursing at Wiwley, the seat of ii. W. Wentworth, Esq., on Monday, Ja- nuary the 21st, 1622, a brac« of dogs, which had run together about half an hour before, being led by a bov at the top of a large atubble-field, hy a handkerchief tied to the couples, a hare started within twenty yards of them ; hereupon the dogs gave a sudden pull, and the boy lost his hold. Thus they run the hare, fas. tened together, nearly to the bottom of the field, when they gave her a turn, which was repeated about half way up the same field ; here she got considerably the advantage, made for the hedge, and imuted ; the dogs following up, fenced in grand style, and turned her twice In the next field ; whereupon, slie took to- wards a lane, and ran through an opening betwixt a atone post and the end of tnj hedge, not more than Sfteen inches wide : here it was expected that one or both of the dogs would be killed ; but they, as if quite conscious of being faatened together, »tid knowing, instinctively, it would be impossible to pass abreatt^ darted through (as it were) one over the othety when, to the utonishment of all present, they killed the hare, after running about ten yards down the lane. During the whole course, the dogs kept as regularly together as soldiers marching to the attack ; all the while the red handkerchief waving almve their heads, u If they had been conaoious of ivnning under " fly- ing colon ra." The Scotch Greyhouna — This dog is formed exactly like the common greyhound, and differs from it merely by Iwing of a larger size, and in the hair being longer and hairy. Its general colour is reddish browu, or of a sand colour. The Ilaiian Greyhound. — This dog ia merely a mi- niature of the common greyhound, being only about half the size of that dog. U haa a very tine akin of a silky texture. '1 he Turkish Greyhound is still smaller than the Ititlian greyhound, being little more than half its hulk, and is entirely divested of hair, except on the tail, where it ia few and scattered. Its usual colour it blackish lead colour. DiviBioN II Hkat) less elokoated than FORMKR DIVISION. Section 4. Pastoral dogs, or such as are employed in domestic purposes. The Shepherd*M Dog.-^Thin dog ia covered with long flowing, somewhat woolly, hair ; his muzzle is long and pointed, and hia ears erect, and slightly bent down- wards at the tips; his tail is long and bushy, and the usual colour of his fur black and white, or varied with black and grey ; the bocks of his fore-legs have also long hairs. ,^ The peculiar and highly useful qualitiet yf this dr^ seem to be rather intuitive than acquired ; indeed, no- thing can hardly exceed the quickness with which he can be taught any leuon ; and certainly no other dog haa the same patient perseverance and courageous fidelity, and at the same time potiessed of the greatest discrimination. The labour of a shepherd, with the auiatanee of tUfi faithful and intelligent animal, is «}mparatively an easy task ; and it is hardly possible to fancy a more arduous employment than it would be, if divested of the services of the dog : for without him, how could he col- lect extensive ffocks scattered over high and widely- spread mountain ranges P The shepherd's dog is IKMsessed of great sagacity, gratitudn and self-denial. Mr Duncan Stewart informs us, that it is extremely common for tho shepherds* dc^ in the Highlands to point game, and tliat manv of the young farmers in Argyleshire use them for that purpose. He has se«ii them as good finders as the pointer or setter, and as steady on their point. Mr John Macintyre, farmer at Cuoll, had a cross Itetwixt a pointer and shepherd's dog, which resembled the latter in every particular, and was of a black and brown colour— -bis body being black, and legs a blown tan colour — which was constantly used during the shooting seaHon. One year, at the commencement of grouae-ahooting, he was sporting, when be met with a party of gentlemen from the aouth, and accompanied them. It turned out, that, aHer a long day's shooting, the d(^ in question beat every dog in tho field. The gentlemen were so highly delighted with the qualifi- cations of this animal, that they offered a pretty large sum for him, which Air Alacintyre refused ; and from that day he prized his dog more than ever, as he found, on competing with celebrated dogs, his qtmlifications were greater than he before was aware of. This dug was not mily a good hunter, but also excellent as a sheep-dog, in which capacity or in driving cattle hi^ was ffenerally used the whole year. He waa also an excellent watch-dog, and took the water very readily. He was up to every kind of sport, for he would find hares, roes, and all other kinds of game. During a snow-storm, in February IB30, a remark, able Incident of the brute-reasoning kind occurreeen seen that dfty nev the houie the attention of the family CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. wu ratitcd liy the entrance of the houH-dng>, having in hU mouth a hen appareotly dead. KurclnK his way to the Are, the cautlotii animal Inid hii charge down upon the warm hwarth, and immediately Mt off. He toon entered again with another, which he de* poiiled in the same plaoe. and ao continued till the whole of the pour birds were rescued. Wandering abiNit the lUck-yard, tho fowls had become quite be- numlted by the extreme cold, and had crowded Uu 5 ether, when the dog observing them, efreoC4Hl their eliveranoe. They bad not lain long before the glow- ing riha, ere they started to their legs, and wallied off to their hawktt oackling the hen't rnnrcA, with many new variations, in thanks to tlieir canine friend. A shepherd, named John Lees, of U'hitelaw, parish of Seliiii'k, bad a yoiiiig Aog of little experience, but which evinced great judfrment. One dav a ram broke away to a ne.ghbourhig flock of ewea. The shepherd Mnt his dog after the ram to fetch him back ; he had, howfver, got in amnngit the ewe* Iwfore the dog reached him. The dog, on getting up to the flock, darted amongst them after the ram, and out him off, with about a score of ewes, frmn the flook, and drovii them to aome little distance { then ttopt, and survey- ing them fiir a short time, he darted amonoat them, separated the ram from the ewes, and brougnt him up the hill to his m'^sle^. The distance where the ram joined the ewes was more than a mile from where tlte shepherd stood ; therefore he could have no inl^ucice on the d(^ at that distance. The abovn anecdote was furnishad to us b • Mr Thomaa ilaokaill, an acute observer of the canine species. On Saturday, the flth Junuary IR22, as Mr A. Byrea,of llighstune Kidge, accomiMtniml by MrJohn- •Con, of Chapel HiU, was travelling over Kakdale Muir, Oumfriosshira, a eommon sheep-dog, which had been trotting quietly along, ci>mmenoed barking at some dtsunt object, and, springing forward, wu iOMi out of sight. At Ant they paid little attention to tlie drcumatance, imagining the dog was attracted by some moorland hare, with which he was taking a gambol ; but upon riding a little out of the way to pvtake of the sport, how greatly wer»they surprised at ttnding etiU^ busily employcHl in turning and re- turning a full-grown (qm athwart the hoe of a pretty •iMp hilL In point offspeed, the pnrties were prettv well matched j but thtfitrength and cunning of (oxe^ being very well knowoi the gentlemen expectod no- thing leas than that sly reynard would shortly *' turn a OoriMr Juking," and earth htm in some lirathy re- treat. But no; in this they were agreeably disap- pniuted. In spite of every ft>x-like effort to get away, tlw aow courageous cur kept close at the haela of his acented prey, or fought him in gallant styU, until he at length succeeded in faiHy killing him; and he was borne off in triumph, to atteat in all timo coming the lueitla of the dog of Jlighsbme Kidge. In December 1830, A. U'. (mrdner, Kaq. of Mel- rose, near Banff, hired a shephrrd fnmi Htiss-sliire, who, wiMii ha had entered his service, brought with Itim two aheep dsgi of the coUey breed. In the be- ginniiig of August 1631, the ake^erd had an errand to Ma^uff, alwut three miles distant from Melroae ; and as there was a boM going round, ha took the op- portunity of going to it froni t>iu Hlate quarries below Melrose llousa. Wken the shepherd went inM» the boat, bo left one of the dogs on toe rock, refusing to allow him to follow : there the poor animal continued to remaia for some days bewailing the loss uf his mas- tar; at any rat*, be was seen on the morning of the third day bowling moat pileously. The afaepherd nevar imagined, when he left the dog, but that he would return to his house, not a rig distant ; but fiading that he did not, and after making aearch for him la vain fur at Uast eight days, be at last t>ethought biauetf of writing to Koss-thire, to know if he had Aand bis way there. He received an answer in oourae, ptitia^ that tna di>g had returned there quite exhausted and dupirited fruni the loss uf his master, and even r»- fmmd to bttcomturtod tMMauise he was not there. He bad occupied aUmt two ilays la his journey ; but how he crvsaed tlie ferries, or was supplied with food, will ra> naain a mystery. The difUnoe ha bad to travel was at least lio muei, aftar a sojourn at Melroae for nine months. The r«r Dog differs fbios the shepherd's dog in be- ing neuriy smooth ; he is stronffur in his wake, and bas half-pricked ears, and his tail is rather short, and alightly fieathored beneath. He is a trusty and iiaelul •errant to the fanner and graxier, and is chiefly em- Ikloyed in driving cattle ; and being larger and stronger than tha ahet^erd's dog, from which he is sprung, he is bette'' qualified for tlie graxier and farmer. He bites with grioat keenness, and alwaya makes hia attack at the heids. His sagacity is very graat, and btt soon knoa s his mast«r*s Adds, and watches with great assi- duity the cattle which are in thum. Aii a farmer of good oircumsuucea, who rwalded in tba neighbourhoid of Bowbrink, in the oounty of Norfolk, was taking an oxcursiim to a ronsiderablc ilistance from home, during the frosts in the month <.f Marok 1706, be at length was so benumbed by the in* reuse cold, that he became stuplAed, and ao sleepy that be found hiaisalfuD^btopruoead, andlaydown, and wuitld have perished on the spot, bad not a faith- ftkl cur dog, which Attended him (as if aenalble of his dwigeruus situation), got on hia breaat, and, extonding Itself or«r him, preserved the dreulatiim uf bis blood. The Aag^ ao situated for many hours, kept up a oonti- Qual barking, by which meana, wid Iha aHiMance of some passengers, the fanner whs roused, and led to n house, where he to«m reuuverod. S0clinn fi. Watar-dt^, which delight In swim- ming, having their feet in general semi-weblwl. The /'otArrnniaff, or Wolf Hog, liss the hair on the head short, ns iti mIs4> that on the feet and ears i but it is long and silky on the body and tail, which last is curled up in a spiral form. His colour Is white, black, gray, or sometimes yellowish ; his head is long, and his muule pointed t his ears are short and priuked. He is possessed of intelligence nearly equal to that of the shepherd's dog. The Siherian Dog haa much the appenranre of ttir Pomeraniau dog, and is very nearlv allied to him, except that ho ia covered witn long fiair even on the bead and paws. In their uative cinintry, four of these dogs are attached by pnira to a sledge, and in front of them is placed a leaiier, on the projier training uf which much of the useful services of the others de- pend. Tnese aledgcs are just large enough to contain one person, wlio directs them with his voire, and In which be is partially assisted by a stick. The retnn are fastened to the dogs* necks by a collar. These dogs, thus yoked, have been known to drag a sledge from seventy to eighty miles in a day, and so powerful is tlieir scent, that they contrive to keep on the beaten track by that means alone, even although it be hid by abtnvers of snow. The iireenlami Dog ts of a large nice, strong in the bene, and its fur oousitis of long, thii-k-set, wotilly- like bair ; his musule is sharp, and his ears short and prkkedf his tail is thick, very buibv, and spiriUly twisted. Tho Iceland Dog is shorter in the bair than the altove variety ; his ears aiv pricked, but slightly Iwnt downwards on the tips. Hia general colour is white, with patches of black, differently disposed. The K$f]mma%iM Dog — This highly useful variety is described by Al. Desraarest as having the head shaped like that of the wolf dog ; the tail is spreading and curveil, and the ears erect. The hair is thinly scattered, and cunnists of two aorta, the one silky, the other thick and fine, and soniea'hat curled, and so detached from the other, that it nay be milled off in flakes from the nuiniul. 7 The Itare-indian Dog has a narrow, elongated, and pointed miirjcle; his ears ure bnmd at the bate, and pointed towards the tips, and perfiHtly erect ; his legs are long and slender, and his tail thick, bushy, and curved itigluly upwards, but by no means so de- ddetUy curved as that of the Ksquimaux dog. His body is onvejvd with long straight hairs, the ground colour of which is white, marked with large irregular patchea of greyish b'^k, intermingled with various shades of bnnrn. Vr Hichardsim says it baa neither courage nor sti*engtli for puUing down any uf the larger animals. The Xetr/oundland Dog. — This beautiful and intel- ligent tlug is remarkablu fur the symmetry uf his form and the acutene&s uf hiiiunderslunding. iJo measures from tlte tip of the nose to the point of the tail, six feet and a half, the length of the tail ibielf being two feel 1 from tlie one fore-foot to Uie other, over the shuiildera, tive fuet eiglu inches : the girth behind the Rhoulders three feet four inchrs i the length uf his heiul is fourteen inches. He has webbed feet, io con> sequence of which he is a dexterous swimmer. His hatr is long, flowing, and sUghtly curled, and his tail very bushy, particularly in the lower side, and he car- ries it in a very graceful manner. The dodliiy uf the Newfoundland dog is very great ; there are innu- merable molt striking anecdotes of hia sagacity and benevolence of disposition. A gentleman who had for many yeart been onm- maniler of a ship in the H'est India trade, had a Ane old Newiuundland dog, which accompanied him In all his voyages, and which was found to be very useful, for he would tell when land was near much better than any man on iHMnl. Kome hmira liefore land was made, the dog used to get to the side of the vessel, snuff the air, wag his tat), and seem much pleased, which was the signal for seeding ^ man aloft, and in a short time the shor>.) was diso^n-ered. The vessel no siNmer came to anchor in ports «-)iiuh she had previoualv visited, than the dog would jump overtH>ard, and tivini to the shore ; he there visited his friends, and after staying some time would return, and, on coming to the side of t!>e ship, howl till he was taken on board. The captain retiring from the sea-ftervice, took bin tUtff with him, and went to reside at a village within a few milra of I^ndon, where he reenlarly attended nhureh uringthegaleon Thursday, June 11, 1RS9, aves- sel was driven on the beach at Kydd t no Inrnts could get off to the assistance of the crew, who wei-e, how. ever, all saved and brought ashore, through the ac- tivity of a Ane Newfoundland dog. The surf was rolling furiously, and eight poor fellows were crying for aid, which the spectators could not afford them, when one man directed the attention of his dog to tiM vessel, and Iha intoUlgent animal at once swam to- wards It, and the crew joyfully made fast a rope to a pieea of wood, which the dog seised and swam with to iiU ouutur oo ahoni « a line of oummunioatlun wks thus fiirnipd, and the eight marinuri renciu'd Iruni a watery grave. Mr'Smith, master of the William and Ann, whalnr, has a very \mUi and docile Newfoundland dog, to tvhirh he Is particularly attached. When at (Ireenlunri, dur. Ing the Slimmer, his son oliser\'ed a large seat, which ho Ared at and wounded slightly i the dog instinc- tively leaped into the water, and pushed dirvrtly for the spot where the seal dived when it was hurt, and on reappearing, the dog seixed It by tho forefoirt, and a desperate combat ensued. Huring the struggle, the combatiints were frei|uently under water j hut the dug resoliiti-iy kept his hold, till ii boat was launched to his usxintiince; and, when seised bv one of the Huilum, he fairly pulled the seal aboard with him. On unothci occasion, when seven men were on an iceberg, it gave way; six of them got hold of the bow-ropos, but the seventh sunk, the waters closed over htm, and his comrades concluded that he was lost. Mr Hmith was In bed at the time, but hearing the noise, he promptly sprunff on deck, and. In obedience to his signal, boati from tne other vrHseli Immediately came to his assist- ance. His faithful dog was at bis flMit, and while gaxing intently, h« obierved the head of the sulLtr altove the water. He mdnted It out — gave the wnrd — the dog leaped from the Ihiw of the vessel, and, while swimming towards the man, he barked, either with anxiety, or with a view to cheer the perJnlting sailor with tne prospect of assistance. When within a few feet, the man was picked up In a strite of titter insen- sibillty, by a boat from the Hainbler of Klrknldy. Observing the rescue of the man, the dog returned to his own ship, and when taken on board, his gambols, frisking and fawning on his master, Indicated that though he had not saved the man, he was aware that he had done his duty. On the ttcvasion of opening the faniUy vault of Iha BosviUes, at RavenAelu, a short time ago, for the in- terment of Mrs Bosville, a large Nenfoundland dog, belonging to the late Colonel Bosville, who was iiiterrnl eleven W3eks previous, found Us way to its muBter*s cuflln, and placed Itself upon it, nnd remained there until the funeral of Mrs Bosville took place, from whence it could only be removed by force. It Is wor- thy of remark, that, though there were several cofHni in the vault, the dog instantly proceeded to that of his old master. The Hua$ian Dog is somewhat larger and stronger than the Newfoundland dog : he is a cross hetweon that variety and the Hiberian dog, and boa now become a distinct race. His head is large, with his ears pen- dulous and rather full sixed ; his uil Is curled over his back ; his bair is very long and shaggy, cunsistlDg of black and white patches. The Greai Hough Water-Dog \% web-footed, swima with great ease, and dives with mucli dexterity ; hit hair is lung and curly, and he Is of various colours ; bis legs and feet are also thickly covered with thick and bushy hairs. The Large fVater-Spaniel is about the slu of the English setter, but of a stronger make. His face is smouUi, as also the front of his legs, while the rest of his body is cuvei-ed with small criii[ied curls, usually of a dark liver-bniwn colour. This dog is very valu- able in the sport of Hhuoting wild-fowl. TheSmalf'yat9r.}ipanMorPootih This is a breed between the large water-dog and the springer | be is thickly covered with Ane hair, all of wliich is in dis- tinct small curls, more like an effort of art than of nature. It it one of the most active of dovs. Its ge- neral colour is white, and sometimes it nas various black patct.ji. It dives with much dexterity, and will leap from a very great lifight into the wetter ; we have seen one leap over Tynu Bridge at Newcastle, a height of nearly Afty feet. At the moment when the ranks of the imperialists were broken, at the famuus battle of ('lutiglfone, and the heat of pursuit was in promirtioti to the obstinacy of the conquest, Bonaparte coming to the spot where the thickest of the comtwt hail taken place, where Krencb and Austrians lay strewed in horrible profu- sion, be perceived one living object amidst those pile* of corpses, which was a small water-spaniel. The faithful creature stood with bis two fore.feet Axed (mi the breast uf an Austrian oflicer ; his long enn hung over bis eyes, which were rivettetl on those of his dead master. The tumult seemed neither to distrtu« the attention nor change the attitude of the mourner, ab- S4irbi>d by the object to which he clung. Bonaparte, struck with the si^ctscle, stopped his horse, called bis attendants around him, HUd pointed out thesubjectot' his npecutatioits. '* The dog," said Bonaparte, *' as if he had known my voice, removed his eyes from his master, and throwing them on me for a moment, re- sumed bis former posture; but in that momentary look there was a mute eluquenoe beyond the power oV Ian- guage I it was a rrpnwcb, with all the pdgnancy of bit- terneu." Bonaparte felt the appeal tn<^ construed the upbraidinga uf the animal into a ctmiprehensive demand of mercy. The sentiment was irresistible i it put to flight every harsh und hostile feeling-^Bona- parte gave orders to stop the carnage instantly. Mr Frazer, Minut StreeuNewingfiu, had a poodle dt^, callud IhMW, which ^P poasussed of great saga- city. Upon (menooasion, Mrs Fraaer, l>eing ucrom- panied by Doon, had gone a-shopptiig, and having Purchased some small articles, which, after being rolled 1 paper, she put it Into her muff. When nearly home, sIm miasad the parcel, and immediately turned baok M» look for il, wbeM *^ *» aipreaubly tttrprisMl '.'i^k^aMi,. d Iruni » , wtinlor, to which tn*, rtuf. Ill, whioli ( Initlnc rwtly '•' hurl, nn* nA, »i"l » iKK'«i •'" lit the il'ig .uiichud to he ituilorK, )ii HllOthll rtf, H K»" », but th« n, and hi* Smith wni e promptly gnsl, bonti I hia aiiiit- ■n4 while f the »aili»r the wnrd — , and, while either witU Miing »allor »ithln a fe» utter inwn- ,f Klrknldy. retvirned to hl> K<"»l>"''> dicated that I aware that vault of the II, for the In- iudland dog, , wM interred , it8 matter'i mained there t place, from ■e. It U wor- leveral coffins [ml to that of r and ttronger cro«» between aa now become J hli ean pen- in curled oyer jpf, contiiting -footed, iwitne dexterity t hit larious colour" t red with thick the •!« "f '*'• r. Hia face it hile the rest of curia, uaually ,j( it very Valu. .Thiaianbreed ,.rin(»r t b« '• hich ia in dia- of art than of Aoft. 1» K»- it haa varinut terity, and will ater; we have caatle, a height the imiierialiti* lliialigllooe, an* to the obttlntoy , the »pol where m place, where horrible profu- nidal thoae ^il«» r.apaniel. The ire-feet fixed ou ■ louu eata huBK tlioae <»f hi* dead r to diatrai* the he mourner, »h- „g. Bouaparie, horte, called hit jutthetubjectot ^Bonaparte, " a« lit eye* from hia r ■ moment, re- moroent»rylii"k he power of laii- oignancy of bil- ,hc conatrued ■ araiprohentivn laa irreaiatible l i» feeling— Boua- f iaatantly. [iim, had a poodle ' 1«f great aaga- lor being arcom- >lng, and having liter being nitlod f When nearly [mediately turned ' 'ily turpritod THE DOG. hj iMing Uuoii tr«VtiUiii(( ut hvr hiH-I* with tli« yurcel iu hii mouth. The Slumk Uog li the imallMt of the water-dog rariutiei, mid is urobahly hred Ifutwrnii thu smaller ipaniel tir Kiiiv Charifl«*« dug -iiid the pm>dle. Iti hair it extremmy lung and Ihtwintfi bo uiuuh mi that iu ean and eyei are nearly coucealed from view by it. It U uied as a lapdug. Section 0. Kowlerti, or don whose natural incll- iintloii li to chase find point birds, and hunt singly by the scent The Springgr This rarlety Is shaped mur.h like the Kntcfish setter, but shorter in the body and legs in proportion to his tlKe, being about twu-flfths less thnn itiut dog; the hair is long and ihaggv, and the fan very long and pendulous, and covered with long w.ived hulri. He ts usually of a white colour, with patches of liver.colour or cheilnut. He is, however, iumetimi's black, aud at other times entirely of a liver- coloured brown. Tho following circumstance occurred In 1703, at l/xbridgej— A Rue springer, who, during the heat of the sun, was iu the practice every day tft enjoy the shade of a stately ehu, the pride of that part of the (»uutry, one evening was observed to quit his favour- ite retreat rather suddenly, and plunge into an ad- joining pond. The singularity of the circumsUnca Induced tho attention ofthe genilemnn to whom the dog belonged, who, on approaching the pond, diiro- vered the pour animal panting in tlie water, with the extremity of the moutn only above the surface t on dragging it on shore, it died in great appftrent agony. The body was opened, when the throat appeared much Inflamed aud swelled. Variuusconjectureswereformed on the occasion, but the cause remained undiscovered. iSnme weeks after, a hornet was disuwered in the vil- lage, and, as is usual, a long thread was fastened round the body, and let fly, that, on returning home, its nest might be discovered. It rz&s truceu io the very tree under whose branches the poor animal was wont to ffpoKc, and who, it now appears, had most probably been stung in the throat by one of these poi- sonous insects. On examining the tree, a numerous iieit was found ; and in eudeavnuring Co smother the latter, the former was C4)nsumed. Thu following slngiilar instance of animal adoption occurred in 1704, at Dyun's Hall, Essex, the seat of J. Sparling, Ksq. i — A favourite spaniel bitch, remark- able as aharea they together contentedly sought another place of repose. It so happened tliat these favourites had puppies at the same time, all of which, except one, were drowned. About this single puppy the mothers were for the space of a week coutinuaUy quarrelling, after which they were observed to agree perfectly well. On watching them, it was discovered that one mother nuned the puppy during the day, and then resigned her place to the other, wlio nursed it through the night. A Mr Forbes of Glasgow was In possession of a little spaniel, who gave strong proofs of his having an ear for music. One day, when lying below bis master's chair, in a room where a few friends had met, the cooversation turned upon the sagacity of dogs, when Mr F. said his little dug never failed to show his displeasure, If he happened to make any dis- cordant notes when playing on his flute. In oraer to try the animal, and to satisfy those In company, a flute waK produced ; and while he played a tune without introducing discords, the canine amateur raised his ean, and listened to the melody with evident signs of satisfaction ; but in the middle of it, wheu he intro- duced some infanrmonioui notes, he got out from un- der tho chair, and barked moat fiirlously in the face of hia master, till hecbijjWed the (ones to uth«rs more consonant to the taste <^be little n&iiical quadruped, which at once allayvd his rage. On Wednesday,' the 33d of Jtity lait, a child (says a letter from Paris, of 12tb August 1783) thirty.five months old, belonging to a Swiss, a porter to Monsieur de Caumartini proroit de Marcha, or mayor of thU 193 city, disappeared between six and seven v*clock In the evening t at the same time, the father misstd a fa- vourite lapdc^. The fnw houn that remained of the Wednesday, and tlir whole of the fidlnwing day, were employed in search of the child t every place and cor- ner was looked into, hut to no purpose. At length, on the Friday, alwul eleven o'clock In the forenoon, the valet-de-c ham lire bethought himself of a reservoir 6f water, situate at one end of the dwetling-lLOuse. On a kind of terrace that leads it it, stands the dour of a store-room, from whence the servant heard the howl, ing of a small dot i be opened the door ; the lilwrated animal, being tor.i>eiited with thirst, went to the wa- ter, and returned m hast* to the siore.room. Word was brought to the 8wita that the dog was found ; but how light and insignificant was such a comfort t« the parents who were lamenting the loss of a child 1 But It soon appeared that the dog and child had been shut up In the store-room ever since the preceding Wed- nesday. The faithful animal, seeing that none of the signs he made were undentood, returned to the room where the habe was, plunged in the deadly slumbers of inaction. The little dog gently dragged the child to the terrace, and thlDking to have secured the child's life, he ran skipping to the porter's kidge, now and then turning his eyes and head towards the place he had just left. Ills mute language was at last under- stiKid { he led the way, and the joyful parent* were so happy as to arrive soon enough to restore to life their long lust and almost expiring child. When 8t Michael's bridge fell, a child wae buried in the ruins, hut luckily slipped in between two beams, which supported each other In such a manner as not to receive the least hurt. A small cooker dog hap. pened to fall in tlie very same otmdition, and not be- ing aide to tmnpOi barked incessantly. The noise attracted several people, one of whom released the animal with much ditticulty ; but the poor creature's joy was not of long duration, when it no longer be- held its infantine companion. It ran to the place, jumped into its former Hituatioo, and continued hark- ing till they were both released. The King CharUt't Dog ia still less than the cooker, and distinguished hy the very great length of his ears. The Cmforter Is another diminutive variety of this race, chiefly used as a lapdog. It is supposed to be a cross between the Maltese and King Charles's dog. The Maltttt and i.ien Doyt are dc«cendanU from nearly the same stock. The Aljnna 6>MniW— This dog exceeds all other varieties ofthe spaniel for sir4 and beauty. Its usual hciglu is two feet at the shoulden, and be Is six feet iu length from the noxe to the tip of the toil. Two of these dogs are sent out from the monasteries ofthe Alps of Switserland, to scour the mountains during snow- storms, in searoL of lost or wearied travellers^the .one with a warm cloak fastened to his back, and the other with a bosket tied round his neck, containing a bottle with some cordial, and bread. In this employ, ment they manifest great judgment, and seem to un- dentond perfectly tlie import of their mission. They are frequently of tlie greatest use in meeting the tra- vellers who in those stormy and dwigeroiu regions often fall victims to the inclemency of the weather. It is said that If they meet with a traveller who has sunk under the fatigue and inclemency of the Uust, that they will lie close to him, until by their warmth they restore heat and energy to the animation which is nearly suspended, and thus frequently will save the life of the sufferer. Should they discover a traveller to have fallen into some deep pit or fissure, from whence he is unable to ascend, and if they are unable to render him any assistance, they will return to the oonveiit, and give the alarm to the monks, and then conduct them to the phwe where the unfortunate tra- veller ii immured. The Oid SngHah SeUer.—U Is supposed that this breed was produced l>etween the large water-spaalel and the Spanish pointer : they were muuh nore curled than the present breed of setters, and were very steady ill the held, but not so rapid in their movements. The following may be relied on m a fact ; — In 17M, a clergyman in London was possessed of an old Eng- lish setter dog, which had a strange custom of going every morning, during the summer season, to the New Hiver, and plunging into the water, after which im- meniun he trotted home again in a very orderly man- ner. This peculiarity attracted the attention of an- other clergyman, who in his morning walks had more than once been a witness of the fact, to his no small entertainment. Nor did he escape the notice of the dog ; for honest Rover, finding he had crept into some little favour with the parson, resolved, ns will appear, to cultirate a farther acouaintance. Upon one of these occasions, instead of making the best of his way home- wards, he made bold to arrest the clergyman, ny seiz- ing the skirt of his codt, rather sportively. Indeed, than with any vicious or sanguinary intention. But yet he seemed unwilling to let go his hold. The oddity of the circumstance, as may be Imagined, awa- kened the curiosity of his prisoner, who, wisely think- ing it would be to no purpose to remonstrate, put himself under the conduct of his canine companion, and walked on, musing on the whimsicality ofthe ad- venture, at the same tmie what would be nie issue. " Around (Vom all tihe ne(gfab'rtng itrseti The wuMl'rtag ptoph na, And Milt the dm Ua lesl Us alts To follow ihua the man." Throufb many hywayi And windings did they tOk vel, till at length Hover released his captive, an4 roaile « Mi, which wae saying as plain as a dog could say, that their Journey was at an end. 8o in foot it was. And now the last act of civility remained to be performed on the part of the dog, which he acquitted binuelf of (to his credit be it spoken) very handsomely, never losing sight of his charge until he had lntro> dueed him to his master. The dtiwutmtmt was n(\t inconsistent with the whole tenor of the dog's deport- ment, theclergymeB having contracted an intimacy, and lived on hauits of the greatest friendship ever sit terwards. The MnalUk StUtr Is a mixed breed between the wae ter-spaniel, Spanish pointer, and the springer, which has atuined a very high degree of perfection as a sport- ing dog. He is one of the most beautiful, lively, and active of dogs. The Spaniah Pointtr is the stock from whence the English pointer has sprung. He Is one of the most staunch of all dogs used iu the sfmrts of the fleld, al- though he is considered too heavy for the preaent Im- proved mode of spurting, and haa now nearly heooone extinct in Great Britain. A pointer dog, which wu brought from South Car** Una in an Eiigiiiih merchant vjssel, was a remarkable prognosticator of bad weather. Whenever he was ob- served to prick up his ean in a listening posture, scratching the deck, and rearing himself up to look to windward, where he would eagerly snuff up the wind — if it was then the finest weather imaginabl»— the crew were sure of a succeeding teropeet; and the dog became so useful, that whenever ta«T perceived the fit upon him, they immediately reefiid the sails, and took in their spare oanvasi, to prepare for the worst. The Enatith Pointtr wae obtained by a cross of the Spanish pointer and fox-hound, and is unrivalled for the rapidity of his movements in the field, and the beauty and symmetry of his form. Since his first production, be has been improved by being re-croesed with the harrier. He is subject to ooneiderable variety in point of siae. Poiuten have not unfrequeotly been known to point otters. In the beginning of Febmary 1702, oa two gentlemen were sporting In the fields. In the parish of Pilton, in Devonshire, theie pointer stood at a brake in a hedge-row. When they opme to the spot, suspect- ing it to be a hare, the pointer rushed in, and out bunt a large dog-oUer. The pointer seised hlro, though he was soon obliged to quit his hold, having been sorely bit; but after driving him aliout for some time in a turnip-tield, they strhck him several violent blows on the head, and killed him. What is rather lingular, It was at a distance of at least five miles from any river where this animal was found. " I have frequently endeavoured," says a sports, man, in the third volume of the Sporting Magasiue, aftor stating that he has a pointer bitch, the ei)ual of which he had never met with, although hunted witk numberless first-rate dogs, '* to learn of my sporting friends what were the most valuable qualifications of a pointer. Their dlfierent replies were, to find the most game, steady when found, in back the find, come into charge, bring the gome, &c dcc^this last quality is now exph>ded). I will add, in my opiniuD, the greatest of all qualifications in this list, and that ii, when, having several times found a struggling bird, or birds of a scattered oovey, at a remote part of the field or heath (for she ranges wide), but sulflGiently within rake, in makinf^ the point more frequratly trod upon one or more birds (perchance I killed), tha game has often dropt in her sight, an>l several times within a few yards of her ; and provid<)d the game at her nose withstood the first report, I never vet lost the advantage of her find. At two yean old she fint avired this habit, being out with a frie.id the seaioo ore last (1701). In beating the first iwipe-ground we catoe to, she being soon found iu making u^ wiUiin about thirty pe<^* *^^ ^^* point, I sprungll snipe ; it fell olo&e before her ; she turnfti her head towards me, as if to r^uke me for trying he." patience 80 long i then to the point as before. I rathei delayed reloading, as I wae foremost, and wished my c mam JMMHKBC ORMATION FOR THE PEOPLK. *ell«d ihuway, but not for nt«ny y««r«i k«pl th« nxite h« IimI fortnorly kiiown, hy tho ilde Bf the rivfr .M«niey, whiiM atrMnt hitd In nn« plM-e undermlitiKt lu Imiiki, aiif thi* wntitr. When hit rvkchml thlt plu^ it luiik witli hia nret. •ur«, and ha muit have inevituhlv pfrlBlird* had imt hia ffun, which he oitrried tindttr hli arm, i-inirht two iTMl that had ini-lliied, hut nr.l t«ttally upnioted. Here he muit have rMiiiUned while hii strength eiu abted him, or tiare fkllen into the mii'!f(« rvarued him from hia periloui lituatioi). Had he himself »(• tempted to more, hia gun would have loat tu hold ; and he felt quite at a hiaa what to do, when liia faith- Ail w him fnmt kin pendant aitiiation. The ffentleman, when delivereil, lay for aome time on the f^roiind, thundentnii-k ami motlonleaa, hardly al>le to fancy hiinM>lf sufe. Hia faithful dog watched him with apparent lolicitiide ( hut when he pernfivtil him riie, he hounded round the Held, in an ecntHcy of tranaport, leapt up aa high aa hii head, affain hounded about, and uted every other conreivable geaticulation to manifeat hii joy. The Smati roinlfr.^Thln it a diminutive breed, beinff only abtmt two feet from the point of ihn nti«e to the tip of the tall, and acarrely a font in height, and it a complete and beautiful miniature of the Inrtte pointer. They have proved thcmMDlvea pxcellttitt oport- in({ dogs, hut their amall tixe reiulert them unAt for tiae in rough land. The l9»Mii0n Hoint^r it much like the Hiwnith poin- ter in thape, but hit hair ia long and hairy. The Dmimatian i* that well-known di>g whfrh it uaed aa an attendant upon carriagea. He la a hnnil- tome dog, and the tpotting on hit akin tfivt^n hJm it beautiful appearance. He li a native of Dalmntia, in European Turkey, where he it uted at a pointer. S0ctioH 7- Houndt, which hunt in patkt by the toenu Th« F.npHth Ffrrifr— Thifl beautiful dog it too well known to require any dMcription. He in pot aetted of great ouuraga, and it famous for killln;; -til kindt of vermin, and la a useful attendant upon a)>Nck of fox-hounds, for getting Into the earth when the fox ha* taken to his hme, and driving him out. Hia hair is smooth. Hit general ooh>ur Is black, with tanned oheekt, and the inttdea of hit legi are of the tamero. lour. They are now to be met with of n brown, and even white colour, but these have unquettionably an admixture of some other breed in them. The Scoleh Tgrrier. — Thlt breed ha* short wiry hair, .nd it much ahorter in the legt than the Knglitn terrier. Hit utual colour ii aandy, but be is also Ut be found blark, and alto grey. He bites with great keenness, and it a bold and determined dog. He will attack dog* of anv aiie ; and when he Axet on an animal, he maintaini his hold with great (wrtinaHty. He it much uted as an attendant upon packs of fox- hounds. In 1B92, an engagement took t)l»r« on the bHuka of the Monkland Canal, 8cottand, fwtween a terrier pup and a weatel. After varied succ«aa on the part of the corobatantt, they went into the canal, where thu pup waa gaining a decided advantage, when the weaael teiaed him by the snout. To get free from such a peril- out hold, appeared impracticaMe ; and the terrier, at if aware nf the only way to terminate the ttrusgle, thrust hit head under water, and drowned hit aover- tary. Kir Webiter, of Leven, had a dog of the tmrier kind, but in appearance reti'mbllng a l>utrli pug, wiai which Mr W. Keith, ]Kirtrait-painter, amused him* t«lf lately by taking a likeness. On the picture being shown to the animal, he ran off, and has not since been heard of; he had been ten yeart about the houae. Thli reminds ui of the ttory of Northrote, the cele- brated pupil of hir Joahua Heynoldt, who made a por- trait of one of Sir Joahua'a tervanta to like, that it was mistaken by a tame macaw for the man himself t ami the bird having a grudge at him, flew on the picture with be^k and claws, rouiidering his quietneas there •uW aa a good opportunity for getting revenge. 'the TtUhot is one of the primitive br«edB of Uritinh doga, and is the same whiclt waa used by the ancient Hrltont in the chaae of the deer, and other wild aui- maia. Several gentlemen in the town of Pretteign, in Radnorshire, were concerned in a pack of hounds of the Tallwt or auuthem kind. The gentleman who had the principal care and managfinent of them, one day met with a badger, in Novemt^r 171)3, which he determioad to turn out before hit bimnd*. This he did the next day, and tha badger had ten minutes* Mw given to him ; they took him alive, and bagged him in reserve for another day*i iport. They ran him three mile* only, this ftiit day. On the second day, they had a rerynumoroua field of honamen i they turned the badger out, to give him half an bour't law ; and )>eing determined to have a better dayof this, the manager, who waa mounted on a very fleet bloodborte, rode after bim, to flog blni on, that he might be m far aa he poatibly ooul>i, liefore the houiida were put on; and he aasured us, that it wu with the greatest difltrulty he now and then got a cut at hUoy with a very long hunting whip, for the hmign rftP ao fiut. At 'he eud of the half nour, the 130 him, the tiuuuds were put on, and they ran him tw«ntp-Hi'f miltt, in full cry all the way, when he was agnln taken alive, and bagged ; for whii'h uur- piwe, the huntsmiin i nrrled a bag under hi* saifdle. Me was again put liy In reserve, for Hiinther day's a|Mirt, when a Counsellor Jenkiiia, of that town, (>eg. ged, if they ahouM kill him the next run, tbiit they would gire him the hams, aa he would have them cured t it being a very common practice of that coun- try to cure the hind-quarten of badgera, and eiit them for hams. The next day they turned him out, giving three qiiHriers of an hiiur** Inw, resolving. If he could get away, they would not prevent him. They tlo^^ed him in the same manner as they had done before, but nntwithstHndlng the extra time they gave him /nrA, they only mti him eighteen miles, tiel'ore tliey t<>nk htm alive, and bsggetl him. This whs the Utird time he had escaped death. He was again amveyetl bHck to his hiihitation, t«) be preservetl for some future Kport ; and all the sportsmen returned, hoping tf murdered pirKnns. He is it large and iHild-lookJng animal, unti posH'SHed of great strength. He can discover the M'cnt of a nian or luiniai hour* after tliey have paused ovei the gmnnd. On the night of Tuesdav, Jnniinry the 22d, IfT^'J, a lalK)uring man, namnl Tipper, of Forestside, Ntaii- atead, had a fat hog, of twenty stone, stolen from his stye. He made application to the park-keeper of l^wis M'ay, Ksq., to aaaist him in its recovery. A conulp of uleuih. hounds were IhIiI on, which ran on trail six milcH and a half, to the diNir of a Mittage in WestlHuirne, where James Unble was taken int(» custtNlv, he having killed the hog and denned it. In the island nf Cuba, a certain s|iecies i>f blood hound ia trained to himt and destroy the negroes who escape from slavery, just as in Kngland the do^s are insknicted to pursue linres and foxes. In that Island, and in city of their nature, that, unless they were chained up, or kept in confinement, no negro would be safe. In the island of Hispaniola, during the late revtitutlon which gave independence to the black population, many famillei were torn In pieces in the woods by theac femciout animals, stimu- lated tothesedeedsof barbarity by the inhuman white men. To go a negro-hunting with blixidhounds, was, in the last-mentioned island, a spot Jve emplovment, which exiateil before the French revolution Itegnn ; and frequently, an soon ns the fugitive negro was overtaken, hit head was severetl frnnt his iKMly, The latter was then given to the dogs for their repast, while the former was carried in triumph to the up- pointed ortice, to procure the otferetl premium, with which the hunting vagabond! of Hispaniola thouirht themselvea honourably rewarded. It it obvious, from hence, that a similar training under the blacks would call forth the canine appetite against the whttrK ; and that Mgainst persons of either colmir, the mvenous dis- p4witinn may at timet break from all artificial re- straints, through riie influenceof exciting causes with which mankind are but imperfectly acqualntefl. The Staphmimi it the largest of all the British dogs of the chase ; he has a noble and dignified aspect, and possesses great sagacity and endurance in the chntte: this dog is also supposed to be a direct descendant of one of our original British dog*. The Foxhound has a much larger miixxle than the staghound, and hi* head it amall in proporti remuiuder of a hard chaae of many milet, to the great aituiiiKhment of a numlier of tpectatort, alter which the returned to the place where the bad drup[>eortunity to her native haunti, abandoning her progeny to chance. It hfep]»ened that about thii perioo a favourite hound of Mr Hornybidd's hud dvsiroyed her whelpa i iiiul ul- tliuiigli she had for six vcurs dituini^-ikished herself al a determined and relentless puriuer of the species, .t waa resolved to iilnce the cubs wiibin her kemud t the anticipated result was their Instant deitnirilon i hut the generous animal, on the deserteil little onirs being f:tven tn her, Inatantly softened down the sterner qua- itirs (»f her nature, and adoptetl them as her own, HulTering them iinuiudiately to suckle, and continued to foster and nurne theui with every appuitranctt of maternal attention and anxiety. Mr Bailand's Kentish foxhounds hud n famous chase of nearly five hours, in Jnnnaiy lir2*J; in the course of which, the fox criMsed the orchards and leaped the garden-wall at Milcldwich, and secreted himself under a water-butt; but finding he waa dta- oovernl, he again mounted the wall, and, repassinf the gnrdunti, durti'd through the kitchen window of a ladv of the nauieof Btck, and thence into the parlour, niiif there seated himself. Being quite spent with futigue, he here sulfered himstdl to be tpiietly taken alive. The following circumstance proves that the dog will in simiu insiaiices devour human flesh, and we believe It Is not uncomntun lor wild dogn to do to :— On Friday, the Ath January 171*^t as the hound* of Mr Onrdon were hunting at Whitley Hlirnlm, near Seven Oaks, in Kent, a hound wits perceived with a head in his mouth, which, on exniuiukttion, puivetl to be H human one; and, in searching the wood, the remnining part of the iNHly was found, with tho flesh nil eaten from thu bones, and supposed to hiive been there from October XlVi^ ut whiclt time a hoy waa liMt from the workhouse at Beresrord, and who waa then advertised, but not *iiuv heanl oi. On AInnday, November 'ii^ I?!*?, a hag-fox wai turned nfl' In the pariah of Pngletham, in Roachfuvd Hundred, Kssex, which afl'orded much diversion in that neighbcnirhnod, and, after a long chate of hard running, took acroti the water to Creekscu, In Dengic Hundred, where he was puraiieil by four of the beit hounds, Drummer, Bluenian, Tvher, and Trueman. The three young hounds took the lend after crossing the water; but nuing rather eager, quite hivlth, and no way to be dependett upon, overshot the fox, leav* ing only poor Truetnan in the chaae. Trueman, how- ever, came up with reynurd, fastened upim hlin, and a strong contest ensued ; but pmir Trueman Wing ra« t her lame, and otherwise much disabled, reyimrd broke from biin, atul ran off in full view of the three young hounds, without their stirring one step to purnue him. Mr Newman, in Essex, had a pick of foxhounda) which were remarkable for their ntaunchncst. On Monday, Hweralter the 2d, 1793, they found a fox at nriMunAeld IlKlUwoori, near Chelmsford, and, after a chase of more than twenty-six milea, without the least check, ran into him, at he was attempting to got into Lord Alaynnrd's garden, atDumnnnv, and killed hlni. It {• worth remarking, that the hounds pursued thu fox through several herds of deer, and uniay.ing quan. titles of hares, in Lord MaynardV park, with a slendi- new not customary to some crack packs which ■ouiu- timet hunted that country. A little after nine ip'cWk on Saturday morning, the 7th Dfcoiiiber X'iVtS, Mr t^urnnn't hound* started >i fox upon Moutray, wlihh they p iraued through the line of n(H)ds from Isell to within averythmt distance of Whitefield, when he tiKik up the side of Skiddaw, and went clt^ar over to Thielkeld; then skirting the mountain* tuwardn Ormthwaite ^he scut of Dr Brownrigg), he asceiidtsl Vklddu'V a *cu>iid time, passing over the highest parts of it, and cmaaing in his route a contideratue drift of anow. Night com- ing on, the font-hunters durst pursue hitn no huiger, and most of the dog* were wltli difTicuIty taken off*. The whipper-in followed the greater part of this very remarkable chase on All** France*, the mare " Uica had won the hunter's whip at Carlisle, on tho Thurs- day previous. They who know the country will Ih* astonished at this relation; every circnmBtance of which ii, however, matter of fact. For extent and difficulty of ground, this chase has probably never l>een exceeded ; and perhaps It is not easy to intt.(.iL« one in which it hat been equalled. In 1704, a sitigular accident happened toMr Roche*t foxhounds, in Pembrokeshire. In a thick foggy day, four of the t>e«t hounds were lost in the Hoak \VuO(t ; Htid, notwithstxnding the strictest search was made by the colliers in the c ^' 1^ recorded, being rather an uncommon feat : — Ou Friday, the 4lh January 1R22, Mr Best ajid some of his friends enjoyed a great treat ill hunting a v«ry fine doe, which had b^n known to be reaurt- luff in the woods near Rochester eight or tun days bwore, and having l>een seen by a woodman, Mr eitfx 1 h^tr ai-e .I I)oi 'iimI poac tine : TI kiMi *'xtin TJ short ttie ^] Src fur ht THK DO(;. muiAV) ml »t tn- ng lf> itir, tlth km dng I «• i>*. — It of iili » eil ln>- Dnhiiund*, neu. O" id K f0» »• lid, »tt«' » ^t tliele»»t to «ot inta killed him- jiKued tho ring H"°"- ih a «W«di- lilch ioiii"- mornind, il« «t»vti'd thro"K'' , very ih"'* ihe •'*• "' kdd; il'«" ite ^tVe "I'l' .V a lewHd iiid crowiiilS jii^htami- 1 no Umi!". , ijkeii off. of <1>1» "7 ni»re " ''ii" itlioTlJ""- iitry will ii» „ro«t»ii« "l r «xUin' ""* ,b»My n*"" y to inii^'ii* ck foggy •'•y- f loak Wufx* 1 :h WM man" colisideralilo aid !«• had of ,B collier ftt"- road-«lde: lv« Ihere be found m, tli« 'kulla if a fox, I"'" mot one of Jhare-hU"''''K* Icroaat)*'*'*" 1 He U ""y In are h* !",- 1 hunt*d witli In aa liurlen, nrded, b«in« J Mr Beat and lat In hiiuilng In to be roaurt- 111 or tun *»)[* ■vavdnian, Mr \\vn w»l Informed where kIim miHht lie I'ir.iiiit, That KenUi'inan tiHik out ten ciiii|)Ih of hh hurni'm, and lUNin ilUrovert**! hiiMi helilA, and then took adii-ectinu for >shart«tead and lleinhteuil, and through the greater coveia be- I'liiging to the crown, once the entate* of the Karl* if .Uii'kl'iiril nnl 'I'hanet, in the nelglihourhood of llaiuhaiii, through Air Staoy** preservei tit KttH'k- bury, and wit* at lait killed between .Stockbiiry and liiiiliiirv, iil'tcr a run of exactly three hour*, in wliich the harrier* scrrccly came to a check. Thi* eliMse excited the aKtonUhinent of all who witneimed it, a* it was Bnii|ioRcd iinpoxtiible that a few low.acented harrier* could overtake an animal poBNe**ing *ncb ■ irengtli and Rpeed. Five of the kori«>nteti only were in at the death. On Tne*d»y, the Kith November IHSa, the liarrierit belonging to Sir Hill of I're**, and Mr HoIhtib of \V'em, had one of the longeat and Reverent run" ever iiwrhii|t* knoivii to have bettn mirformed by a puck of liurrier* In thi* kingdtnn. Thev Rt-irtHl a fox on Twemlinv* Mieir, and he era* killed under Ileeiiton t'astle, in Ohevhlre, after a run of at least sixty mih>s ! Of thirty ho>84>tnen that started with the hounds, only six were in tit the death. In Febninry 171*.*!, an extrnordlnnry clrrnnistance ocrnrrcil with iMr Maimer's harriers. Finding a hitre lit .'conning, she made a circle to the turnpike road near Twylord, ivhore, with an excellent chasing scent, the hound* pressed her closely; sheewain the decjieit part of the river l,oddnn, followed by the hounds with the rapidity of u fox-rhase, leaving a nuineriins field of horsemen to explore their way through the only paMahte part of the river, which, with the waters he. log out, was 0)1 to the skirt* of the Kaddtes for half a ijuarter of a mile, before the opposite *hore could be gained t thi* they had no sooner accomplished, than tlie hare, making a semicircle on that side, recnnsed tho river near Horst Lodge, In so rapid a part that many of the hounds were unable to recover the land, but were extrit*ated by the hunting whips of the com. pany ; though it was much to be regretted that nei. ther her fortitude nor her sagacity cinild resist the severity of her fate, the leading part of the hounds having run into, killed, and consumed her, before a single horsetnan could get in to save her — a matter that had liecn ptvvlonsly determined on, could it have been luckily etVected, On .lloiitlay, Di-cetnlier the tilth, 17!I3, the hounds of .Mr hnep, of Hnreinare, immediately after killing a hare, struck off on a fresh samt, whiclt was supiKtsed to be from the fotit of another hare ; but after follow, ing it a while, the game appeared in view, and proved to be a luarten-CAt, which produced most excellent sport. The little animal was treed and dislodged six times before It was killed. Rut the most extraordi. nary circumstance tliiit atteiideil this hunt, was that of a man's tlusbtng, and catching a woiKlcm-k as he \v*% preparing to climb a tree after the marten. The lintj/le is the smallest of the dogs of the chase. oillen iin4 mT* lid is excellent as a watcli-do|| t hli VoTiM (• k; Mt> is possosseil of a very acute some of 8mcllii)({, and iirHUOH the liaru with uiiwt>arie«l steadiness, and wliat .<• \vtint9 in ttpi-ed and iitr«n({th he makes up lor by liis jtiTsoviranre. The OUer-HoHndxuxcTQU Iwtweeu the large southern luMiud and the lar^ rouKh terrier. He has a large head with ]>eiidul(U)s ears, oud hii whole fur ii uf a wii-y textur« Mi»t rather hnig t his colour is either sandy or black. Otier.hunting was a favourite sport in ancient tinu'rif but is now nearly lust in this country. The Buli-Terrier is a cnwi between the hulUdog and the terrier, as its name Implied, and has ni>w as- sumed the i-harnrter uf a distinct breed, It.is much used by Uie gentlemen uf the fnucy ms a lighting dog. Sfclhn R. Mongrel hounds, which htint singly, either by the scent or eye. The f.tircher is a cross betwwn the greyhound and h:trrier, aiul rc-crosseil with (ho terrier, Ilii limbs are xtrong ; bin head less sharp thuit that of a grey- ]umnd;hlB oan are short, erect, and half-pricked; and his hair coarse and wiry. He is much used by pitai'heri, and it famous for killing rnhbits, as he has a line scent, and runs his game without giving tongue. The Lej/mmer and the Tumhter are imperfectly known dogs, which are now nearly, if not entirely, efttinct. They hunted Imth by the'suunt and eye. The Turn4i)U is a small dug with a lung body and tthitrt cntoked Umhs, and was much used in turning \\h' hpit tef.iro the inveiUion uf Jacks. IhVISmS HI.— M'lTH IIIOKT iicads. S-v/inn I) — Watch-dogH, which have no propeniity fitr hunting. The Mattiff haa a large flat head, and a short a»d bluntttil musale; hii lips are full, and hanging con- »ideruMy over the lower jnw; his ears, although ru- 1^7 thpr ntnnll, nre |if«iidiilnus. 11m bHs a HM|»w't, and is exrollent a limd and doep-tonod. He is a dog nf jar^ ilce, and is supposed to have lieen pr4Mluceil hetwlit the Irish greyhound and bull-dog. The following aniKwf.ita of the fernolty of a mastilT li recnnled by <.'olnni>l 'I'biirnton In hln Spurting Ttnir : — ^' After brenkfust, having advHOCcd tV ciirrlnge and homes a mile, as wu walked smartly of), an accident (recurred which had hke to have proved serlotii. A favMuritn pointer that attended us liappeiinl to >** playfully rambling aliout, when on a suddnn he was aitacken by a very large and furious maiititf, which rushed forward, and apparently with an intention to destroy him. U'e immediately interfered, and thi attiu'k in an instant was changed from the pointer lo US. Mr i* had iu> other otTensive weitpims than stones, which he threw at the creature, who, contrary to the general custom with these animnli, valued them lint, and was In the act of flying at my friend, when I gave him the severest crack I c^mld with my gig- whip. This changed the attack to me. I had no defence but parrying as skilfully as I could with my whip and my hat ; the latter I took ofF, to allow him to seixe it when he had broken the whip, which he snd to have some pointers nursed by her, and fur this purpose her own pups were drowned, and the yuting pointers put In their place. On the following morning, when the gentleman went to see his pups, he discovered, to his astonishment, that they had )>een devoured by the mastitf bitch, and nothing remained of them hut the claws of their feet. A mastiff bitch, belonging to Mr William Fyfe, in Kutherglen, in June Xitkit litteretl nine pups, one of which was dead. Tu this dead carcase, however, she was more attached than all the rest of her family, and re- sisted with great bitterness any attempt to deprive her of iu .She kept it in this manner ten days, after which she t(M>k the putrid remains in her muutb tothe gar- den, where she dug a hole, in which she deposited her defunct offspring, and with mouruful howling care- fully covered up tho grave, A gentleman, some years since, who resided in 3Iac. cleslield, possessed a lurge mastiff dog, remarkable fur liis great sagacity. One day a maid-servaut Itelong- iug to the house, being particularlv busy, desired a pour woman, who occasionally paid t'liem a visit, to go into the market aiul purchase some vegetables, which were wanted fur dinner. The poor woman excused herself by saying that she had no shoes At tu wear in su'.n a puiflio place. The servant, in reply, said that 8tie should ptit on an old pair Irelonging tu l.er mas- ter, which were then in the kitchen. The woman, thus etjuipped, set off to the market, where she was unfortunately met hy the dug that had been uut on his ramb|f». Tho dug) on coming near, began to exa- mine her fe^t; when, discovering his master*s shoes, he attacked her, threw her on the ground, pulleeen known to hold his adversary so determinedly, that his legs have been cut off without making him desist. Many instances have been recorded of the invincible courage of the English bulUdog, but we scarcely re- collect one in which so much unconquerable spirit and tenacity of life have ever been displayed, as on the following occasion;— A short time since, a large dog of this a|»ecies, from some cause that was not ob- served, suddenly flew at a line cart-horse that was standing at the end of the salt-house dock, Liverpool, and, flxing his lacerating teeth in his shoulder, defied every effort to get him off. At first he was beaten with cartwhips and sticks with such fury as seemed to break his hones; but this being unavailing, a car- penter with an adae in his hand came up and b^at him with the blunt iron head of the Instrument, till it was thought he had pounded htm tea jelJy; but the dug never moved a titoth. A rmin then touk nut a liuxe pniiiteit clasp-ktiite, wiili wlijrh he sUilthtNl him repeatedly in the back, loins, and ribs, but with lut better surcesa. At length, one of the speetators, who appe^reJ to have more strength nf sinew and arm than the rest, sqneeted the ferm-ions beast sn tiKhtIv alHiut the tbroot, that at length ha turned up the w)iite uf his eyes and reliiied his Jaws. The man thr^w him off to a distonce, but the dos Immediately went round the crowd, got behind tne horse, and again seized him hy tha under part uf the thigh. As no terms could now be kept with this untamoabU brute, he was again loosened, and thrown into the dock to drown. He Instantly, however, rose to the surface, when a sailor struck' him a supposed deadly hhiw on the beaii with a handsptke, which again sent hhn to the bottom. He arose once more, and was again sent down In the same manner, aitd this pro- cess was repeated Ave or sii times. At length one of the bysunders, wbnelther possessed or assumed some right of property In the dog, overcome by his amaaing tenacity of life, and weary of jiersecution, got him out, and walked off with this prodigy of Knglish courage, to all appearance very little worse for the horrible punishment he had undergone. On Monday, February Ifl, HIU*i, a large brindled bull-Hug flew at a gentleman's cabriolet horse. In Mtmnt Street, (trusvenor Hmiare, and, horrible to re- late, fastened tm the ptNir animars shoulder, where he held on with the most surprising tenacity. The L'entteman leaped out, and providentially etoaped with his life, as, in a second after, the horse set off at full speed, the dug hanging tu his shtmlder, when, turn- ing into an adjoining mews, the cabriolet upset, and the owner of the dog with difficulty got him off, no other perKon daring to approach Mm, The horse then fell from exhatistion, when the traces w .re cut, and the pfKir animal was extricated. The Pug Dog is descended from the hull-dog, by a cross with the small Danish dog, and resembles the former so much in appearance, that he may be con- sidered as a miniature of that variety. He is a use- less dog, without a single quality but his uglluess to recommend him. M [SCELLANEOUS DOGS, Whow rarivtiei vet not known. TIIK ISLE or DOOS. The servants of a gentleman who had a house near the river*f< side, opposite to the little island In the ri- ver Thames nUled the Isle of Dogs, ubverved that a dug cnme constantly every dav to them to be fed, ond ns soon as his wants were satisfied, took to the water and swam away. On relating this to the master, the gentleman desired them to take a boat and follow the dog the next time he cam^. They did so ; and the dng, on their landing, expressed, by his emotions, great pleasure, and made use of all the gestures in hit power to invite them to follow him, which they con- tlnuefl to do till he stopped, and began scratching with his foot on the ground, and from that spot he would not move. Kither that day or the next, they dug up the earth in the place, and found the body of a man, but it was impossiblti to discover who it was ; and alter every requisite step had been ineffectually taken to find out the murderer, the corpse was buried, and the dog disctnitiuued to visit the Island. The gentleman, pleased with a creature which had shown such un- common sagacity, and that faithful attachment to his former master, caressed him greatly, and succeeded in gaining his attachment: he became an inmate of his domicile, and made him the frequent companion of his walks. When he had possessed the faithful ani- mal for some time, he was going tu take a boat at one of the stairs iu London, when tlie dog, which had never before, been known to do such a thing, seized one uf the watermen. The gentleman immediately thought that this fellow was the murderer of the dug's furmer master, and taxed him with it ; and he directly confessed it, on which he was taken into custody, and soon afterwards suffered for the crime. WILDBRAT. Tlie fldelitv of the dog is immortalised in the nohle order uf the elephant, instituted hy Christian the First, king of Denmark, so far back as the year 1463. The origin was, his l>eing deserted at a most critical period by all his friends and courtiers, at the time he stood in great need of their assistance ; and having a favour- ite dug, called Wildbrat, who loved and constantly attended him, the contrast between this grateful ani- mal, and the infldelity of the vipers he had formerly cherished, struck him so forciblv, that he commemo- rates the fact by having the following initials placed under the elephant*8 feet, which hangs at the bottom of the order : — T.LW.B— rrew is WildbraU THE rebel's dog. At the battle of Ballynahinch, Ireland, one of the insurgents who fell in the engagement was followed by a dog. The faithful creature fur three davs lay across his master's bosom, until he was hurled, and then for some time afterwards constantly attended his master's grave, except at intervali when nunger forced him Into town in quest of food. His remarkable at- tHchniont and fidelity being observed, a person took him under bis charge, who, by caressing him, and kind attention, so gained hii allcctions that he seemed riTAMnEnss information for the people. j •I Iwt Ui (ar§9i hit ^H«f for (hs Ium of hii unha|ipy BMWr. nuM« KioavKMrR. In lit wvtr* winter 11/ l7lKft « hftlnlrMi^r at H*. •OT»r wtnt mil of Ik* rtljr ffaM* in Ui« diiik uf ih« trauinf , with (in* of hii fH«n4f, who had hiuiriMi si ■ n«ighlH>itriMt( villuv, in nrdtr to Uiow him th« nwd. Ai tn* KniiiuU wu ln«n oovvred with bmow, thvy w«r« btit A ihurt wmy In th« euiintry, whan thay in»t a tlofp, whii ownM ninniiitf fmm • tmrk whirh lay unl of ihsir VKy, aatl hy hit whining tnil ^it(*miii firtturrt t«ttmml dMirouii til fpiln tbvlr MI«ntHiii. On thtir nntiring kim, k«i ran hark a littla p»rt nf tha way, ihnn rt- tumad bi thiini. and, hy hit wtluna, indiratad hit Ja- •Jra that Ihay ahw Im, and tharafora Itimad ti>warri« tha way from whanm ha cam*. Thay had not gono many yardtf whan tha diw, by hit fritklnfc nUiiil, appaartid to ai- pmi irraat joy at thit ciroumtt«nra. Ila than con. linuad nmning a liula wav bafora tham, and at timat nturnaJ to piiJnt ntit lu tnam iha roid frnni whanca Im oune. After fiilUiwinfr him fiir ttima lima, the dug tuddanly ttnppad, whan, un aiamtninff the ptiu-a. they ditoiverad tne Uxiy o( a man, apparently Inntaii to death, amund whom the diig want mnaning in a |il- touiii manner. They cnnveyed the btidy to » ni'itfh> biMiring village, where, by uroper rare, lutpenued ■nlmatlon waa reatomi i ana to:; Aou wai tkui iba provldentiftl preiervar of hit maiiter't life. Mt/Tt/Atf ATTACMMKVT MKTWKKK A tMO AMD A MOMS. The lata IM r Thnnuit Walker, nf ^linrheiter, hAd Ik diig, which wBt AccutUmiad to he (u the ttahle with twii of hti rarWaga hnrtet, and to lay in a ttaJI with nnanf tham, to whirh be wat particularly Altarhad, Tha tvrrsnt who took nare of the hurin wat orilarfd In go to ^itockporl (\ dltUnce of tii ihilen), uimn one of the hnrtet, and took th» one to whirh ttia dog wat ■ttAched with him, and laft the other wttl\ tha dog in the itahla, being afraid he might lota him. Alter the nAn htii haan gone About an hour, tome perwin C4im> tng ArridantAlty into tha lUble, tha dug took the up. portiiiiity of niiittlag bit conAneinant, And lmme> diataly taC off in queat of hit rompanion. The man, who hud flnjihed the butinaet he wat tent upon, wit Ju«t Iraving Stockport, when ha wet iur[iri!i*-tl to meet thadoghanAd )en i* the itabia coming with great ^aed down the bill into liMtown, and teemed greatly a'utoed to meat hit friendly oompanion, whom ha bad lowed to fAr by tmnt. Tlie friendthip lietwean thete two eniraalt wat raeiprocAl ; for tlie tarrant go. ing one day to water lb* carralge bonaa at a large •tone trough, which wat then at one end of the Kx. Aanga, the dog, a« utual, acoompanviug them, waa attacked hv a large msitilf, and in a anger of being much worried, when bii friend, tha horta, which wat M br Uw lerrAnt with a hallar, luddauly bruka louaa Atm hJBi| And waut to the pUca wb«rfl im 4og« wtra ftgkting, andf with a kick of one of hit baala, itruck ue mattiff auch a lavere Mow, that bedrore kirn into $ cooper't pellar oppntite ; and haviiig thut ratcuad hit companion, retunHwl quietly with him to drink at Che conduit. tODIROO'l DOO. There is ■ trait nf Englith hiitory, which w e ini to be well authenticated, provet that the firtt land- ing of the Danat In ihii country wat occationed by the tagadty and Affartion of a dog. Lodbmg, of tha hkNid. royal of Denmark, and fiitbar to HinguAr and Hubha, being in a tiont with hit hawki And hit dogt, wat driren by an unexMCtvd ttorm on the conit of Norfrfk, where, being aitoinrered, and luipeeted at a E, he waa brought to Bdmund, at that time king of East Angtat. Having made himtelf known^ h« waa treateo with great hoapiulity hy the king, and In parti 'ular cheriibed on account of hit dexterity and activity in hawking and hunting. Berick, the klng*t falooner, grew jealmtt of fait attention ; and lest it ahouM letten hit merit in hit royal maiter*i opiniim, and to deprive him nf hit plaoe, had tha tr«a* chery to waylay Ixtdhrog, and murder him; which done, he threw hit body Into a buth. He wat pre- tantly miiecd at court, and tha king grew impatient M to what waa liecome of him t when the dog, who had ebUd in the wood by tha oorpae of hit matter till famine forced him theno^ came and fawned on the king, and enticad hlra to follow him. The body waa found ; and, by a train of evidence, Berick waaprored to be the munderer. Af a jutt punLahment, ne waa fUcm4 alone in Lodbn^'t boAt, and oommlfted to the mercy of the tea, which hora him to the very tbore the prince had Quitted. The boat waa known, and TIarick, to avotd tha tortura, fakwly cenfataed that I 128 IMM, at which time tha ground wat let nt two thlU lingt and aightpema p«T annum 1 biii in the year \l&i it waa let on laata ul L.KMI par yaar, and a Ane at l«.HO(>, and it now a«tinittad to be wnrtk Ij.SM vaarly. Tha raatun allagail for llie pediar't ra«|ueat. It, that, lialiig very poor, and patting the afore-men- tloned piece of gnmnd, ha ctHiId hy no maaut get hit dog away, who kept MrraU-hIng a particular tput of earth until he attrnctml hit mattar't notita. who, flning baik to (rukiniiia tha rauta. and prtttirig with lilt itirk, found «'iUM*tiung hanl, whlib ha dug up, and on int|MM-tioii it turnnl mit Vt lie a p«>t of gultl. H'ith part of thit money ha purcliHMHi the land, anf her plrtiira, whan taken down from tha wall, and Itidon the ffiMir tobertaanad. Ha bed never l»Mtn ohtarvad to tiotloathe picture pre- viiHit to thit inridant. Here waa evidently a caae of pattiva ramamhrAnre, or of the involuntary renewel of former impraMi«ina. EXTftAOR»<*«Aar INHTINCT. A dog, tha prupertv of a gentleman who died, waa given to a friend in \ orkahire. Several yeart after- wardt, a brother uf the dereated, from the M'ett In- diet, paid a ihort vitit at the houte where tha dog wat than kept He wat inttantly recxjgniied, though an entire ttranger, in nmHatiuiMice, probably, of a ttroug peraonal likenata. The div fawned upon him, and foUowad him« with great aifetitlon, to every place be want. UAHVRLr.oni INCIDIMT. On tha 13th of November IHOH, aa Mr Petcye, a baker, belonging to BHitim, in Vorkahire, and hia wife, were returning home in their bread.rart, on turning into the yard tha cart wat itverturned, when Mra rettye Ml with bar neck dirartly under tha wheel, and her hutlwrid wat placed ttetwean the wall \nd the cart. While in thit periloua titiiation, hia dog ruthed forward, and aeiia hind dte prince, aa were alao aaveral of hia aervanu. The prinoe, to ahow hia gratitude to hia deliverer, not only alndlv praaerved the faithful animal that had thua been matrumental in aavinf hia life, but alao kept one of hit race until tha day of bia daMh, which ex- ample waa followed by many of Li« frienda and ad- honota. ME LACIIVOTOIl'a DOO. Mr Laekington, apeaking of the portrait annexed to the volume of Memotra of hit liife, tayi, that, be- Cara tha original painting waa finithed, Mrt lAcking. ton eallad on the artiat to ozamiaa it. Being intro- dueed into a roaaa AUed with ^rtraita, bar little dog being with har, immediately ran to that particular portrait, paying It the tame attention aa he waa alwayt aoeuBtomod to do the original t which made It neoea. aory to remove it from him, Icat ha akoold damage it, though tfala waa not aeoompliabod withant axpraaaiont of ditaaliafartion on the part of the dog. AH oMDeaLT ciraTOMn. A gentleman at Ramagatc, in the yenr I7O8, had a dtw with which .he uaed to amuaa hit friondt and othen, by frequently atandin.g on » cliif which looked Into the inner baiin of Ramagate pierj and calling hit favourite dog, thnwad him a halfpenny, and than threw it down the clllf among the ihlngtea. Tha itotf Immediately took a rlrrnlt tit the iHittum of the cliff, and aearahail till ha found the halfnanny, which he carried directly iritoihe town to a baliar'tahop, whera he obuinad a mil for hit m.may. The baker declared ha wat better rilaatad with the orderly behaviour of ihia fonr.ftMttad niitirmar thnn with one-half uf tho Mpeda who fraiiuetitad hit ahop. A iMia pROTrrTa am iniOT. A poor Idiot wito lived with hit fathar, and wat In- humanly traatad Uy him on HD-uuiit of hit InArmity, wat one day tarari'ly heatan for tnme trifling rauta. The father kept a dog, who wat than atandlng hy during hit brutal hahavlour. Tha Idiot wat ramnrk. ably fimd of the animal, and utad to rarata him. While hit father waa beating him, ha bnrat Into laart, and exrlalmad, at he eyed the dng with compaailonf *' At there ia no one u* take my part, I am lure tha d ing over tha Imdv of the perton tlain t and hearing that the dog bad haan there three dayt without meat or drink, yet would not furaake hit dead matter, or* derad tha nody to be buried, and the dog preterved, and brought to him. A few dayt after, there waa a mutter of the toldiera, to that every man wat forced to march peat In order liefora the king. The dog lay t|iiietly by him f»r tome time, and among them nnp« pened to ne the rourderert of hit late matter 1 he in« atautly Hew upon them, with morelhan ordinary fury, tailed tham ny the throatt, and frequently turned rmind and hmked at the king. Thla led him to lua. [lact that they were the murderera, aa it did alto all that were about him. The men were apprehandad, and though the eircumttancetwere very tlight which otherwite appeared agalnit tham, yet they cuufetaed v the fact, and were executed for It ^ DOO DCTKCTa A TIUP.DOOH. In the Duke of flemilton't roomi, in llolyrood* houte, it a dog't collar, with armorial bearingt, which it taid to have belonged to a dog who aaved tha llfii of a marquit or duke ohT that familv, when on hia tra- vela abroad. At an Inn thit nobleman waa put into a bed, made to aink hy a trap-door, a method contrived by the hott to murder hit gueatt with impunity. But the dog niBda luch a acratching tinder tne bed, and diiturCed hit matter to much, by pulling him by the clothea, &c., that the door waa diaooverod, and bytUa maana hia auMrtar*a Ufa wm aarad. OWAOCOOKTABLV nraTivoT. A gentlemen, who had l>een In Ireland for aoraa yeart, returned to Scotland, and ia now rciiding at Oatatide, in the vicinity of Neiltton. Two moutha after hit arrival, a favourite dor, which he had left at Belfaat with hit ton, made hia appearance totut at Oatealde. Thit appeared the more extraordinary, aa the AiiimAl had never before been In Hcotland, In a few dayt, however, information wat received that the dng had been put on board the Rapid ttCAm.boat, under the charge of tefure, and had tnrcaaded in tracing him to hia realdence, a dlitance of alght milea. TEUBT MOT 8T«AyoKia. A aerioua accident happened on Friday morning, the 30th Heptember, about (me o'clock, near LvtCtown. While Mr Jackton*a carta were proceeding Mfhii road to Edlnhnrgh, It it auppoaed that tha lailiiipi'lOlliiii off hit cart, and tha Edinburgh night mail conteif for- ward u»me time after, the coach ran over the (tody of tha man. The coachman peneivlng aomething wrong, pulled up; and on the guard attempting to lift tho twdy, the man*a faithful dog, which had been watch- ing itt matter, aeised the guard, and tore hiaooat; nor waa it till the dog reoogolaed aome People who came up, that it allowed the body to be luted. Tho unfortunate man waa conveyed to hia owa houae in a very dangeroua atato. rSIEWDLT TKATELLXBa. An innkeeper, at Aitlay ('hapel, once tent aa a pretent by tha carrier, to a friend at Warringtoti, a dog and a cat tifrd up in a bag, who had been cnm- paninnt more than ten months. A abort time after, the dog and cat took their departure from Warring- ton together, and returned to their old habitation, a distance of thirteen milea. They Jogged along the road, tide by aide, and on one occaaion tha dog gal- lantly defended hia follow-travaUar tmn the attack of a dog they met. Km baf mfll Edinbiiruh: PublUhed by W. tnd R. CiiAMataa, 10, Water toe Platti aUo by oaa tad Smitk, Pa ianwm a r Row, Loa- 4on ; and W, Ct'fiav, Jun. and Vo. ftaekvllta Siratt. UuMm. Holil by John MiicltHKl, d, and primed by BaHaaiyiM * Ctk ' FauI-tWork. y !• i informatioTfor'the CONDUCTED „v „,,,,„„ ,,„ „,.„^ "^ V^ XV X Jl ij. No. 17. ..U« AND „0„.„ e„.MBK„, KDrrOHS orXHtr. ^^ ^^OPLE. "'•XTOR.CAI, NWSPApL " "^ ^»'Nm;H0„ JOUKNAL" AND PlIIOB Hrf. *o.n.„;I.' " .r "' ""' '"'<• ">. '.a."!, of yZl, ». 1.0 know """Zit: n '""[' "■'""""" < ""' «« who h.v, „* ,w7 , "">■ "•""••■"i" of per. "or .u ">«n:o;p„tJ:;:;',;r"''>'/"f, "•«'"•"- •'■or. .h„„»,. .ufflclen.ly.xp,,","'."""","'"^'" P'wtiM Of cookery, .„d Iv ! r Pf'"'^'!''''' •"■! o.....„eJs:!::rst;^::;:-r N.,f„ii I """.'"■"•^ *'*'""'«:me»t. '• f. th. du,y of «7-no^" ?" "/ "'^'' '=""''"«• •o»«. „ ne^Iy „ tcf ^ «Pen ,„. W. ,h;e. h „d4d poTn i?"' '■""" ""'• " » f-mily it should do wl"h at mn, * ""'>' ""« '"'"'i™d, "J .nu.. be proXi t rSrlT™""* d.yof .,ck„e„ a^d ' 1,7? ''™r'"™'«'«"'« the '•"■nlly I. exempted tlV Intr"""'™'" "■•"■^'' -o l-t .heir 'n.en.,„„;Ce,. ■.„«:'"" """■' '-»'"' K«nt habit,. Tliev »r. ™ "" """ "•''tmvn. may have better InconL ,1 m? ^ ! '"""■' "^ «•'"»» "Okie., of ho,v rohder ."''"■ '" ""y l"" «'v.y into the commUon „f ' "'^ '"T""'- '^•'"'^ • dreading to be ridfi Tr "T.T '' '''""'''' »-' oumberlea f,n,ilie. brin ' .). I"'"*" '" """'" ''»•" Principle/aSd not^'^fr^'"' '"■;'""!""'« '" -' '""«>"' »n the .ubjeet by ti^mlt- ." T.^:" " "^"^ thi. species of investiiratinn „.i , ?\""^'" «»<-ertain bv •'■-^Ir mutual h.pp e , „ " " " '","'"' ™'»"""«» »j-.t hold. on, the' ;;„'„',•.:<,, r " ''"•' ■■' '"■" " <■ 'rtthoutmi.chi.f b„,r,o .em..l *" °,"'^"' '"'""-^ «act length to which hey ma\ ''■",""'' ""'»"• The fortable living, i„ alreTt^r' ""■'" " ""«'» <"■"" ■!«aln.a„ce,, or « haf.h y ca r'-^b"''''''?''^''' "^ '«'• w»e exceedingly worihv nf i • " '™''"'" " "ke- '»1..I«e in an .«r.vagl„, ...E*"' ""'"^ <••"■«-. *e «lm. that thev a^glin ntJ '^ ^*' """king all »nd dduding the»„',eire,?n.„ .f ""''' ''^ '" ■'"i-ft •souring happinesa'TrWe '»!"""" "'" "'"y" ^orlamllie. ....ei„g t^fr frLj l!^ ""'""""'vance ->«.. .hut out .h/k„„:;edg:,ta, ("tTb"'""'^' "" ' ■ """ " " by mean, of ■;"• "- theatre o'^' ••ave their proper '""a,.dlf ?''-«'««". thu.e They who ne'er re erve af ^r * ''""«'""« learly. "Ith "hich iomeer«,7v,!„r "« "' """ '"^-o. ''"•r for the ^Zh'ZT"" "'''"""y- 'P"y'oo 'O^y may derive fl'.oc rXlf'T'"?'^ ■«""«" Ion to the narr„,v„c„ of vln. i ®''"-'''""'''- '" P'-Por. '«' '•'0 happiest a-ld ; t' p'3 "'""-'""""y and your,. If „„„ are r,L.,' """'" '"' }"» '"lu.try will n„'t fairtoX' "'"', P""""™"" and »» your ambition co A. 'and i^" " "*''' " ""»"'"" <"". It will bo ,vell for Vo,^r 1. , "" "? ""' ''™P"- "o. b^n educated o hilrr 1, "^T """ "'"y ''avo rcnlijo. *''*'^ ''"P" than they will ever tended i > incre K ^ a" you?,::„; " „ -•'" » '-""o, do ...t .pe„d ■^aoty of .hi, 'hi,,; 'a^d '":/"""• 0» no. let the y- .to buy unnecerr; a ,:^"''r,''^'i:'"' """'' •nax.m w„, a wi,e one 'No Mi ' • , ■" ^"nklin-. ""t want.. Jiuy m rJlvl ,*■ " "'""P "'" *" 1o ""«• I. i. ouly'by ^rp/rirnZ^ '? ^^ "»'« >''"> at "111 bo the wa/., 'o;;r t:i "' T '■'•' '«" -"'at your money, you will (!„d ™ " ""' 'P™»«Hche.i„cre„"rUi'" ■"",• ""^""""n- crea,o in hospitality I'd 1 . .""■"'"' P'''""""' '"I"- painful and Jconvf.i^^^'.'i'l'""'""" ■"" " I' nlu'ay. thing, are viewed Z their n,"' ''''"»"■ «'"=«« J"diciou, and retpectabll ''7" "«'" ''.v 'he t,uly a."! good .en,,., m.';Teh;w„ '','"'' '"'""-"'ne"" a small household, and .h? '" '"»"»8«">en. of f"rni.ure, a, well a, u„o , . r""^"""'"' "' « "'tie ^...li.ie.are.lway prXi "T^ '™'" ' """ ""«« respccta„dattenti™.Cr„ /'"'■' ""'•''"«'' "Ith _P»™ha,e by living beyo,,d th™ rt""""" '"™'' ""a")- l'vi"ff upon other,, ilZ, „',"""'*' »"'' "f «»'rse The glare .here i, abou, ^u f f " ,*""'''" " ""''■ '' "eceptivo , it does no.t fa:'" """ "'''"«' Parado able friend,, or extensive („« ''"""" " ■""" 'ain- 't I. -ouglmora ly to g .™r 'T '""" "■"'> is concerned , and injurir? , °' "'° individual i"'.ra.„ of oir counTy "i'T"" °^^"''"-'''" '" "'« beggary and discouraoB!) ,"'''"' are the increasing -owing, ,:rudrr,::&r£ . lease the evil . |„„ .1 " " ■ "■•"«r I. the extravaga, 1 7' "["""""•" »'""» "" never .hall be prolper", in ' ''""•• "' P«"P'«- vanity yield ,„ „„ dic.„rof , "" ° ''"^'' "'' W« never .hall b. free frl .^.T"^ ■"'" P""i'"ee. "»• to be ashamed of hTu..:^";;;""""'" ""'" "" Women do their •!,.» .» ,'"y and economy. Ut father, and htbtd" ITmT""""'""- '••'"'^' •"d if their h„.bani.^„dr.hl,°'''',''""'""'"'""y' the case). f«,„.h prid, ,„.'•"''"" ("' '• "fter. 'hen, gently .„d «™d«X cb°«k ?hi f!!:^™''''"''' "" '"« 'hat they have better .n^su'*^*' ''^ "'""■- m.ndlng resp«,,. I ', "h ' """ ■"«"• of com. °f Insennlty iTd economl .h T'' ''^ "■" """-"» «"■' »-ti„.y, a«T.S|,. ":■-'"-. Kood taste, pen..." ""'• "'thout very great ex. f..l"Tri^^.vVhYch^vl^'!,"r'"'''''"'"p«'•''■• • woman by the few .„|1' '.? '" "" ""'"'»■■ "' ■narriage ! she wh!,h.? '""^' P'-onnced at her -rejosfmember^'rofSr'fltr-ir'^"^'" ""agio, at the head of anoth., 1, """"' " If hv of 'he highestimp„,;"c";"'Y; """ """'"' '" "■"'« her earnest wish will bo m „ . , l"'"" """"l '«n»e. ■- sphere. The mat , "d 'a ,7 in.r""^'"^ '" ''" demand the exorcLe and I™' ? ^'o ""'» "I'-aHy q»«litle.„f the hear! aid tl? T""' "' ""' >«"' ''re'lon, , welLgovern^teT, r"**' '*'"""'y. dis. "harLableallowanceJor .1?^', '"'«"*'"'"»> of self, are all requi.lte ^nbotV 'n^™' '""' *""""> "a'ure woman l»i„g i„ ge„eral r n',"' ""' "'» •i"Kl» """ «i»iy.Vca7;Ted *■'"■; !■«— ™- our which di.turh f-OMly arrangen'em. '.''rr "'"" '" """ ">« '«"d in aU "'» and -. andparticularTya Th, I" ''■"^V"'^'' "' "■«'' resource, .ball have lo" .u" J""" P"'""' when other '■■« to proportion, no , ".t„ L"?"", '" '=''«™- «ho pergonal expense, mer;^ b, ., "''l" f"""' h" »»■' of her household, to the ilicnm , "'.^"''' "P-ndl.uro eommand ; and in thi, ZTT, "^ "■" ''"' '"" "»- '« "ercise for .elf.denial a^well "iT Z """ ■'' <""" ™nd„i„„ of h„ ,,„,»' -* »» for Judgment. The not only habit, of expense i .^"'™ ''" '» abandon »">•• It may dema-Tf"; her""" "l""' "' «-«- economyneitherea,y,,„rl,. »"'[''' adherence ..> ■■■"and,a,,es, underZe'^ltraTci:''"' ™"'™'->-''"-- heeu (!.xed and cul.iva.ed wi 7"""™' ''«vo 'nay at first be regarded n. ■. """rations in habu "■ey will mcetthe!r cl':: :""'^'"' """■ ''" "'" -'1. "ver, 'hemeanaofinSlrr-, *"""'"">". how. pensitics are extend" dbTm •™'''"'' '''■"'^'■""- P'e- 'he c„e, that e„„7, .l^""'^''- "hero .hi, i, f cumscribe, the expenZre? '" """"">■• "hloh honndarie, of .he inco'm t "id ,?. """" "■""'■■ "- -"an .plrit, and would Wel'e effT," T"'' """ hle^mg, which by affluence may lid ' T"'"-" "'" ^<> woman .hould place hi S!P°""''''round. fan>lly without feelint «! '"'' "' ">« head of « "hich she ha, roZtX?"™ "','''"'-"-««' afford be..er in.tn.ction"han e the^"?'" "'""' ""^ mon.tion, boih to her children !P™"P" " ad. r I, v^j &. CHAIMBERS'S INFORMATION FOU THE PEOPLE. B; m^ J vMfl «.(f I?,] ¥ ''^ ■^v. m- ' / the station iu which wo find ourreK .' plnwJ. Of nil the lociul dumostii; ami persuiial olili^atioiii of tlie ynu.ig wife, her huslumJ i» tlut centra : when they •re |in)i)erly discharged, his wclfiire mid hiippiness are ourtuinly promo .d, and his esteem, iitfection, und a)nfidence established on a permanent haAis. la ne- glectin{( them, he is nofflected^ his respectahility dinii- nistied, and his domcntic peace and comfort destroyed. One who, sellishiy rpgardleis of family duties, leads m life of dissipation and amusement, whose heart and ■out are in the world, and never at tiomr, is u'orthless as a wife and mother. Shu neglects the chief and po< ■itive duties of life, without futtilltuK those uf a minor character witii an^ ".od effect. At Konic her example is injurious, and if abroad sho possess any inlluence, it is merely of a temporary nature, n*9t)ii(f, probably, on no securer f^round ttian that of fashion. In pour- traying the o<-7H'iver that the amount of sewing to t>e given out is Incalrtilable. liufrnd of doing so, they ought to be able to cut out and make all their own gowns, bonneu, and other articles of oppurtl : to mend all kinds of small hole* or rents in garments, whether for the mute or female members of the family : t^) darn Bti)ckinKS; and at least be able to s«'W htosebutttuts un the clothes of their huiband or children, A woman who can do all this will save her husband many pounds in the year, and herself a great deal of trouble und vtxation. Kxperience, and the odvi.e of the best physicians, Inform us that plain simple fcKMi does nut only agree best witit our stomach), and cunstitutious, but keeps us lonifpst in .t healthful condition. By adhering tn the practice of dinii.gon one substauiial dish, and aiistaiu- in< aliiie frnm pickles and stimulating liquors, we h^VB the bt«t chauie of escaping epidemiutl e'M other disi ases, and oi c:ijoylng a good state of bodily action and .' pleiisiuH* sert-nity of miit'l. A liberal indulgence in mui^ dishes, as wvW as in tti<"-ituous liijuors, wlie- tfcer niixi'd or otherwise, mav not immediately cause dikea^« ; ami tm that acnmut little care is often taken M to what ii either e it<'u or drunk. Hut the mis- chief Jii's in \.[.e prtMlicposiiiuu to disease nhlch such iuduJ^utes trtate. A I'ersou, for iiiiiauce, li always 130 more liable to take colds and sore throats after being intemperate than liefore. The human being, in short I'fquires no pampering ; and the more simple and ete- meutary our food and drii.k ure, we are the more likely to enjoy gotd health and long life. We arettdd by those best informed on *.he subject of 'liet, that in taking' our daily food, we ought to drav our .neali to a point; that Is, beginning with a sut'.cient and nu- tritious breakfast— in the middle of Jie day taking a mK>d dinner — and from that time till bed- time ponrey- ing as little a* possible into the stomach, und by all mears ahstaiaing from heavy suppers. A gO'jd housewife shoiUd endeavour to impress these rules on the m'nds of those about her, and, by her in. gcnuity, prepare such meals as wilt l>e both gratifying to the palate and gtH>d for the health, and of such' va- riety as will not pall by repetition. Some housewives, under the idea of being great savers, have a prac"*. cf aaking and storing up large quantities of CU' .v jellies, jams, preserves, h.nd pickles. Dut experiei.ce will soon convince the young housewife that there is little economy in laying out money in thii wiy. Currant jellies and jams are certainly useful to form drinks iu cases of colds, but tlie quantity used fur (his purpose is small iu compa- rison to that which is needlessly devoured by ctiildren, or perhaps wasted. The economical should therefore make but ^ small quantity of such confections, and they ---' - ,,;bly find it cheaper to buy 'iiim the sho|>s of confi 'tioners, as required, than lay in .in ex- pensive store. Pickles are far from being salutary to most constitutions, and the same d % -ee of care shoutd be taken in making such preparations. Scotch mar- malade is a confection which, from its agreeable bitter ((Uailty, is ollowet'. to be beneficial tu Uie stomach, and may 1^ saftdy administered. COOKEHY. It is of great consequence to housewives that they should )K>ssessa proper cooking apparatus, for on this depends :«iuch of the comfort of their establishment, and the saving of a deal of money. It wuuM l>e need- less to give here any recommeuiliition with resptnt to the numl>er and variety of utensils, for common judg- ment directs on this point. Hut It may l>c of use to Htate, that the utmost attention should l>e bestowed in having a proper kitchen range or grate. In Scolliind, \ii :tarticular, the grates aie all too large for small fa- milies, and are caleuluted to consume tooflikch coal. By want of care on lliis point, a family iniMmburgh, where coal is 10s. per ton, is put "jo as much expense for fuel as a family iu London, where coal is three times the price. One of the chii* points in bouM'- ket>piug, is to cook victuals with the smallest pusxiblu (piantity of fuel; this may l>e attained by one of the smallest- si zed ranges, having a narrow fire.place in the centre, only large enough for one vessel, with re^^ulated by tlie state of the weather. It should be wi|)ed, to free it as uuich as ponsible from the nuisti- ness that g:«thers upon all meat when kept for luany days. Wiien preparing to be roasted, if too fat, rnt out [lart of the fuet, which does admirably for pud- dings, dumplings, &c. ; wash tliu beef in salt and wa- ter; wipe it quite dry, and put it on the sjiit, balancing it nicely without nuich handling; phicu it ut a gond distance from the fire, t4i allow Ic to get warmed to the heart before the outside is scorchtMl, The fire nnist be quite clear and brisk. Allow a quarter of an hour to every pound of meat, and baste it very frequently. For gravy, ww only its own juice and boiling water, of wliich ptmr a little over the bruwnud part of the meat. TO nOAST MUTTOH. The best parts of mutton for roasting are the leg (called in Sc«itland the gigot), the shoulder, nod tbe luin. The piece may l-e kept longer than would he desirable for mutton for boiling. It should have a quick fire. A leg >vill take two hours to roast ; but this, as well as tliu time required for rofisting the other parts, must be regulated by the fire 'uid the weight of tlie uieat, and can only be learned by at- tention. The best sauce fur roast mutton i.i its ovm gravy, drawn by a little r.-ilt and boiling ^vutcr, poured over the part which is the most Itrowued. TO ROAST VEAl.. l*OHK, ANI) I.AMII. The best parts of veal for roasting are tlie fillet, the breast, the shoulder, and the loiu. Directions are given in another iiloce for stu/ling the fillet, auil the breaii shoutd have the stuHiugof tlie snnie lugrcdienta. Both veal aiul pork should have a slow lire at lli^t, and finished with a brisk quick fire; thty reqiilie more time than beef or mutton. I'ork should be soired in neat regular slices, to enable theititvirio get through th« uiu* Loub requires a fuu similar I to veul and pork. The best sauce for either is their own gravy, drawn liy salt and witer. Apple satire is by many considered an improveinent, as taking awav from the insipid and sickly taste of p.>rk. LaniD should have tuint suuco served alung with it in a Muoe tureen* TO ttOAST PIOEOHn. Pick and wash them well, keeping on tho feot} make a stuffing of the liver chopped, crumbs of bread, minced parsley, pepper, salt, and a bit of butter ; put this inside; make a silt in vwie of the legs, and slip the other leg through the slit; skewer them, and rovst them for half an hour, basting tl m well with butter. Serve with brown gravy, the grav/ of roast beef doe* very well for birds of ttiis description. TO ROAST DUCKS. rick and sln^^ them well ; dip the feet In boiling water to take o(f the outer yellow skin ; tniss them neatly, turning the feet fiat upon the back \ wash them well inside, and make u stuffing of chopped sags, onions, bread-crumbs, pepper, salt, and a bit of butter | fill the inside with thin, skewer them nicnlvi and roast them before n clear fire. TO nO\ST FOWLS. Pick and singe the fowls; wash them well Inside; break the hd.siied fowL TO KOA'tT .. TURKKY. Pick and singe your turkey , draw and waah it well iiisidu; break the legs iu i.h»> .liddle of the first joint, and draw out the sinews stufl'tlie breast with minci^ suet, bread-crumbs, par ley, salt, a little Cayenne, and a scrape of nutmeg ; tl >n it with milk, and stulT the breast. A turkey will lake f.'uin an hour and a half totwohoo'-a; dust with flour, und baste frequeutly with fresh butter. TO ROAST A GOOSR. Pick and singe the giawe very carefully; wash and dry it ; ininc4.> half a yit; make a hole between the sinews ■>. one of ,he legs, and put the other leg through it , twist th-.. neck round the left wing, and skewer dfivn the pinions; put them down before a clear fire, and baste them with butter ( when abo '.t half dune, dust a little flour over them. A partridgs will take from twenty minuu's to half on hour, aufa » pheasant three quarters tif un hour. They must b* laid on toasted breatl, soaked in the dripping-pan, and a little brown gravy poiiiwl over them. Melted but- ter or bread-sauce must be served in a sauce-tureen, (troiise and blackcock should be dressed aud served in tbe same uianner. A UEEK STEAK. Cut slices of three quarters of an inch or an Inch thick, fi'oiit tbe rump; In-at them, and put them on a gridiron, on a clear sh)W fire; turn them constantly, to preserve tbe juice as much as poisible; when done, put un a hot plate, and sprinklo a little salt on each side; the juice is much better preserved when the Kleak is done in a snuiU Dutch oven, with hooks in* sidu, u;Mm which i)u' steak is hung, with a plate un- derneath to catch the gra\y. This method Is much su)>erior to the cmnrnon way ui dressing R steak, as it also does it without scorching. A SL'l'KINd PIO, Procure a young uig, not excetMitng three weekt old; scrape otf tbe iiuir, !iy scalding it in boiling water; take nut tbe eutriiils, and soak it well In cold water; rut the feet off by the first joint, and draw down the skin of tlie egs over the joint. Fcr stuffing, take a handful of sage, eight or ten onions, a large cupful of gruti'il bread-crunilts, a good pie^-e of butter, and plenty ill' pepper aiul sail; sew up the opening, and spit it with the head next the point of the spit ; baste frpf|uenlly with fn-sh butter, and, when warmed and moisteiuHl, keep wiping with a damp cloth, to make the skin clear und crisp. A pig will take two hours und a half or three hours to roast. A little veal or beef gravy pnurcd uver tho pfg, and mixed with the stulfing wlicn the pig Is cut up, does very well, and uppte.sHiice served tn n sauce tureen. A FILI.KT OK VFAI,. Cut nut the knuckle neatly, without disfiguring the veal; make a stulfing of grated bread, minced stiet, chopped parsley, a little grated nutmeg, a little grated lemon peel, and pepper nud salt. (Kggs may Iw useu 111 thi^ siiidlug, but we do not approve of them, cither for this or any slufling, as they only serve to harden it.) Stufl^ the flap of the fillet with this; roll it up neatly and tirmly; bind it witli tape, luid roust it before • clear fire; cover ih.e ends with butteix'd paper, aud baste frequently with butter; take oJF the paper a short time before the niciit is ilone; a llttln suit laid on the bronno«t part of the roast, and a little boiling water poured over it, will ektruct u rich euough Mttce. GaruitU with sllcvU lemou. ™ lUfll ««'i, ml In ft rf inior ,1 •"d /I.J P''fl'iiilJ wmm BOai.VG. , Pick and .inKe"S„nJ'""''=''- Joint, and pull ,„,,,? •'>^' ™' "'e Ioct at th. i- put pepper inside, and maj,'. i"" "'" 'W i.f.lde • O'Kratednutme^i itufftV.i ' ""' ""'' "little mace f "W, and boil i? "a el,, 'h "^5 "'"' ""• i 'i^edt •f «nd .ize of the „frke ''•,?'' '«'" "wording ,?,'e .n„u«h ; if old and S^V« iffl"*'."" hour*will "e •wo hoiira and a half aL , require two houm „r »y.t.r...ucep„u\';f-,„S^J^'« '-i.h paraley. coler":; . W'aah the ^eaTu'ein ffT"" "' ^"'•• '', "P firmly, aud'b'^ «^ uVRT "?"' "■• ■«">• ' ™11 »W „ „„^ ^j ^j with tape, ,,„„,. fc„ •„«« •hrown over i, l,„fore 4S* ' n '"r", '"'iling water ^^ .''?,"■ '" ke'P it rno.y' jrV'"," "''<'. cover i ^:^tdtSttr^F^"ii-,i.avervde. ^"e^ :::r\" "^'- "--/".n/r^p- ■' -fK £?!^<^-^rS;S'"^--.and IS^SHSiP^^^I&v^ S£p^^rs«.£tS?''-'^^ «a^ "n-on., . Utt,„ .^ ZZlf "V''^' ' '«» ,">"•«• borve wi.1. parsley, ceTry^'r T* ' '"'"•'« «f «h«y«reeobeMled TL^.^'r"'"-- ""onnitny'SL7™rn»^-iJVo„;^^ coekaleekie. ''"^' ^' '» •'''n caUed' in 8coS"„1 uniitu. .'.. . ■ . ' "• billow (hum -'»--.^^rhr;;,i;;;;:;t£-"p""S .'H'..h.l.e„^:,:|;'/;,»*"«.T,w„o„. ill ^■^?^»;^r:;;ii^i^?;^«..aii„„.. - put in the rice '^^^H'l^^l.ZilZ Z^Zy^ Sj?^'rtt.SS'S-''-«r.ri™„i„, Iwnes are preferable, b«U T, "^f* """' "<• roaat bi^ -ir"- ^r^£?S?--^..b,e.andF-^i:^ If 1" ' ■iw i imirl >i HS#" t " i TTir-irir 'nt ii j a cha:^iberss information for the people. STEWING. -:^ TO STEW BECr. Tftkeilx, eight, or ten pounds of a Iriiket of beef ( letitbroimfor teni.iiiiut«a in the Imttom of your itew- pott whoi fj^cientlv browned, lift it out, Hud lay " — "^^ipltftkeweri in the bottom of theunt; put in %I(mg with ns much water as will half cover It slowly for two hours, and, when rjady, ^^Indn off the gravy, and thicken it with a little %tOwned butter and flour ; cut down into handsome •hapes a boileti carrot and turnip, and add them to the gravy ; season highlv with pepper, salt, Cayenne, and a g\aMt of ketchup ; 6oit nil together for a few minutes, and pour orer the t>eef. The meat will be improved by lying In salt for two days before being used. TO STEW A tHOnLDEm OF UUTTOH. Take a pretty large shoulder of mutton. When to b« used, cut out the shoulder or b1aderown, lay two skewers in the bottom of the pan ; add some stock or boiling water, and let it stew for an hour and a half; the gravy drawn from itself will be suffi- ciently rich for sauce, seasoneti with pepper and salt, and scummed before being poured over the meat STEWED VEAL. The best parts of veal for stewing are the fillet, the breast, and the shoulders ; the shnuldcr must be stuffed when the knuckle is cutout, which munt bedone neatly, without disfiguring the meat ; the stuffing should con* fttKt of breadC0TCH DISH.) Take t.wo pounds of beef, and having cut out the •kins and gristles, mince it very fine, with a propor. tion of suet ; either mince a few onions with the col- lops, or fry them in butter before putting the coliops into the pan ; beat them, and stir in a little flour, Mme water or stock, and season with pepper and salt to uste; add a little ketchup before they are dished. TO STEW riGEoys. Pick and nash the pigtKins well, tniuing them as fowls for boiling ; put a piece of butter and pepper inside; dust them with flour, and brown thvm in a ctivered stew.uan with a good piece of butter; put in a little more flour ; aad some stock or water ; Reason them highlv, and let them ktew slowly for twenty minutes or hulf an hour. Before dishing, add half a |iass of port wine, if the flavour be approved. TO STEW mABBITS. Wash the rabbiu well, cnt them Into pieces, and put them on to scald fur a >ew minutes ; melt a good piece of butter ; fry the rabbits in this for a few mi- nutes; when slightlybrowned, dust in komeflour; then add as much stock or water as will make sutiicient sauce; put in half a dozen large onions, or more in proportion if small, two sponnmis of mushroom ket- chup, Rome white pepper and salt to taste; stew for un hour slowly, TO HAKE POTATO-ITEW. Take anyci>ld fat in«at you may have, salt or fresh, urn fffxid bit of^ fresh dripping; pare some potatoes, and nit them \»f -es ; lay a few slices of your meat, or pii*c«s of dfvpping, and then the jKitatoes, two or three alio^l onions, some black pepper and salt, and a little water j cover it up, and let it itew for an hour, taking flare not Ut let it stick to the bottom of the pan. This is a very savoury and cheap dish. AH IRISH ITSW. Take two or three ptmnds of back ribs or loin of mutton ; Tilt It Into chiips; put It in a »tew.p«n with pared p^ttatoes, sliced onions, pepper, salt, and a Utile water; put tliii on to Mew slowly for an hour, nhsk- ■im$ it occasli'nally lo prevent it itivking to tlie bottom i;ia ° of the pan. Cold mutton or lamb is almost as good made up in this manner as fresh meat. PIES AND DUMPLINGS. VEAL PIE. Cut chops from the back ribs or loin ; trim off the bones and flatten them; shake minced parsley, flour, white pepper and salt, over each layer of the meat ; add n little gravy drawn from the trimmings, and co- ver the pie. Some add slices of bacon. PIOEOK PIE. Pick and clean the birds well, cutting off the wings, and tnissing them in the same manner as boiled fowls ; put a little bit of butter, flour, shred pnrsloy, pepper and salt, in the Inside of each bird ; lay slices of beef or veal in the bottom of the dii>h ; lay in the birds, and the wings and gizxards round them, and. If ap- proved, a few sliced hard-boiled eggs ; add water or gravy ; cover the pie, and bake for an hour. OiatET PIE. Ciean and scald the giblets ; cut them Into neat pieces; lay slices of beef, mutton, or veal, in the bottom of the dish ; pnt in the giblets, and strew in a small shred onion and parsley, pepper, salt, and a little flour, to thicken the gravy; cover the pie with a common or puff paste. RABaiT PIE. Soak and wash tlie rabbits well, and cut them into pieces ; lay some thin slioej of bacon in the bot- tom of your pie-dish, or. If the br.con flavour be not liked, some slices of l-eef mav tw suhstitutod, or the pie may be made without either, only this serves to enrich it ; lav in the rabbits ; season it well with pepper and salt, antj a dust of flour ; add some stock or water ; cover with paste, and bake for an hour. The oven should not be too hot heefsteak pie. Take lome slices of beef from the rump, or hock- bone, tender and well mixed ; flatten them, and sea- son with pepper and salt ; roll them up, or lay them in the dish ; put in some stock, gravy, or water, and a little flour to thicken it; cover it with paste, and bake for an hour. LAMB PIE. Cut chops from the back ribs, loins, < thick of the leg; lay the meat in your dlsK. son with white pepper and salt ; add some gravy or water ; cover, and bake fur three quarters of an hour. HOOK PIE. Sl^in the birds, cut out the backbones, and steep them in water fur twenty-four hours, to extract the bitter flavour ; season them with pepper and salt ; lay a beefsteak in the bottom of the dish ; add a little good gravy, and cover with a common crust. They will require three quarters or an hour's baking. MIKCK riE. Mince a pound of rich beef-suet, a pound of grated bread, a pound of apples pared and cored, minced separately from the suet, a pound of currants washed and picked, a pourid of stoned and chopped raisins, an ounce of ground cinnamon, an ounce of ground ginger, an ounce of orange and an ounce of lemon peel candiml, a tea-spoonful of Jamaica pepper and a little salt, half a pound of raw sugar, one nutmeg grated, two glasses of brandy and two of sherry ; mix nil to- gether, and lay the bottom of your pan or dish with rich paste; fill in the mince, and cover the top with barred paste. A marrow pasty is made In the same way, with marrow instead of suet. This will make a great many mince ptes ; but a proportion of the ingre- dients may be taken, or It mav be put Into a can, and it will keep for a long time. Add a litrle more spirits before using. AN APPLE PIE. Pare and (wre ten or a dozen large apples ; rut them down, and lay them neatly in a baking-riish ; season with cinnamon, sugar, and a (ep cloves ; add a little water, and cover with a puff paste, Iced on the top, and bake In an oven. A UEEF DUllPLlNa. Take a pound of suet; mince it very fine; mix it up with a pound of flour and a little suit; pour in as much cold water as will allow It to mix up to a paste ; roll it out, and lay in slices of Iteef as for st«ak», pep- per, and salt ; dip a cloth in water, and shake a little flour over It, and Imil the dumpling In it, or In a ba. sin tied in a cloth ; Iwil it for an hour and a half or two hours ; a few sliced onions put in along with the beef will be an improvement. A imnnd of suet will make a verv large dumpling; for a small family, half a pound will be sufficient, and the same proportion uf flour. AN APPLE niTMPLlNO. Take a pouud will moke a rvry large dumpling. A c;oo!>rni:itHV dumpling. Make the paste as directed for apple dumpling, and have the gooseberries picked ; lay them in the paste along with n good hondful of brown sugar ; gather It up, and boil as alwve. i^ervo with cream. PUDDINGS. PLtrsI-PUDDINO* Take a pound of the best muscatel raisins ston«4 and minced, a pound of currants washed and picked, a pound of ricn Iwef.suet minced, and a pound nf ktale bread-crumbs, six eggs well beaten, an ounce of cinnamon and an ounce of ginger In powder, half a pound of sugar, one nutmeg grated, the grate of a le- mon, a tea-spoonful of Jamaica pepper, and a HtUa salt ; mix this all together with as much milk or cream as will make it sufficiently thin, and add a glass ol mm or brandy ; butter a ^udding-p&n well, or if to be boiled in a cloth, wet it and dust it with flour ; boil it slowly and regularly for four or Are hours ; turn it carefully out, and serve with pudding sauce. This will make a verv large pudding; but the pro- portion of the Ingredients mav be taken, as three quarters of a pound of each, or naif a pound, if suffi- cient. PLAIN PUDDIKO. Take half a pound of suet minced, a good slice of stale bread broken down, a quarter of a pound of currants cleaned, a little cinnamon and ginger, some brown sugar, and a scrape of nutmeg, a little spirits of any kind, two eggs, and milk to make it up to the K roper consistency wanted ; boil for two or threo ours in a pudding-pan or cloth, and serve with a little melted butter, sugar, and a scrape of nutmeg. AN APPLE PUDDiyo. Pare, core, and cut down, as for a pie, six or eight apples ; butter a pudding-pan well ; butter also a few slices of bread with sweet butter, and line the pud- ding.pan with the bread and butter ; lay In the ap- ples ; season with ground cinnamon, sugar, and a few cloves ; cover the top with a slice of brMd and butter,^ and bake before the nre in a Dutch oven. When done, turn it out, and serve with cream in a sauce tureen. A DHEAD AND BUTTER PUDOIXO. Bent four eggs welK with a little ginger, a little cin- namon, and a scrape of nutmeg; butter two or three slices of bread, and also a pudding-pan or shape; lay a slice of bread In tlte bottom of the pan ; shake a few currants over it, then another slice of bread and but- ter, then a few currants, and so on till all the bread is in ; mix up the eggs with milk, and pour it over the broad ; either bake it before the Are In a Dutch oven, or steam It, and serve with pudding sauce. PUDDINGS IN HASTE. Take half a pound of suet minced, the same of grated bread, a quarter jraund of currants, the grate of a le- mon, a scrape of nutmeg, some sugar, and a little salt; mix this up with three or four eggs, into little balls; Eut them in a pan of Imiling water, and boil them for alf an hour; when ready, they will float on the top of the water ; pour over them a scuoe made of a UtUe melted butter, a little sugar, a imall quantity of spirits or wine, and a scrape uf nutm^. A BREAD PUDDING. Boil as much milk as you think will be sufficient for the size of the pudding you want; break down a thick slice of stale bread, and a small piece of butter, into a basin ; when the milk is just rising in the pan, take it off and pour over the bread, and cover It up for a few minutes ; l>eat three or four eggs, with a tea- spoonful of ground cinnamon, and the same of ginger, the grate of a lemon, and sugar to taste; sUr this amongst the bread and milk; a little rum may be added, etirHnff all the time. This pudding may be baked before tne fire, or boiled in a pudding.pan well buttered, and turned out. Herve with pudding sauce. A HATTER PUDDING. Take four ef^ and beat them well, with as many table-spoonfuls of flour, a little cinnamon and ground ginger, the grate of a lemon and the grate of a nut- meg; mix this with milk, until it h rather thicker than the consistency of a pancake, and boil it In a but« tered pudding-pan for an hour. A CUSTARD PUDDINO. Take four eggs and heat them well, with two spoon* - fills of flour; seapon with sugar, cinnamon, and lemon grate ; pour on uis boiling milk, and either boil it in a buttereil ^tu'ijing-hhape, or bake for half an hour before the Are in a Dutch oven. A HICE PADDING. Take acupful of rice well washed, and boll It amongst water ; when ready, drain the water off, and put it on again with a good piece oMjutter, or a little suet minced very fine, and as much milk as you think enough for the site of the pudding ; when cmd, mix this with four beat eggs, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and the grate of a lemon ; sweeten with sugar to tuste, and bake for half an hour bi>fore the fire in a Dutch oven. A RICE PUDDING WITHOUT EOOS. Toke^ quarter pound of rice, washed well, and two or three table- spoon fills uf brown sugar, a little ground cinnatnon or nutmeg, and a gtmd quantity of milk t • few currniits m^y be added, and liake In an oven. POVATO-PUDDINO WITH EOOS. Pare and boil a few potatoes; when ready, pour and mnsh them with a gtmd bit of butter; beat them with a fork, to make them light ; beat three eggs, and add a little cinuamuii, ginger, nutmeg, the grate of e "~f^,J*" ^7r^ ..Jim i F j| I W H»1Wg!tW| l) l | iil UM | JW '-^^^ DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND COOKERY. 1 i tlher It I itontA 1 picked, lound ti ounce of r, half » le of a le- d s Httl* ;orcreeni t eIu> o( 1, or If to 1th flour ; re houn ; Inn •»"■*• X the pro- «• tnre« id, It luffl- ood tliceof a pound of ^nger, loin* lUda ipiriw it up to the ro or three larre with » )I Dutmeg. , tlx or eight Kr alto a fe" line the pud- l>y In the ap- nr, and a few iA and botwr, . When done, lauce tureen. wo. , . ;er, a little cin- ir two or three lorihape; lay iii .hake a few bread and but- Ill all the bread nd pour It over fin in a Dutch ling iauce. leiame of grated he grate of a le- UndalitUeiJts into little ball" ; nd boil them for Boat on the top „»deofalltle lantitjr of iplnta »1U bo lufficlen* I, break down a J piece of butter, filing In the pan, 1 uid cover it up egg., with a «- ',iame of ginger, _ tante; wir thii ■tie rum may bo T pudding may b« l)udding-l>an weU |h pudding lauc*. lil, with a» many Imon and ground |e grate of a nut- 111 rather thicker IdbolUtlnabut- ,, with two ipoon. lamon, and lemon [,| either boll it in I for half an hour IndboilllamonK"* >oir,andputit"n I little met minc'ii J think enough for |miaihi.«l'<'f"" leg, and the grate lutte, and bake for Itch oven. It cooe. Ihed well, and two Tnr, nll"l«fl'<™"" f„mtityofmllk;» lie In an oven. 4 rocs. Lhen ready, P™' I.,it three egg»,an« |,P(5, the grate of a lemon, and a little bro^rn sugar; mix the potatoes with milk, till the consistency of a batter pudding ( pour in the eggs, ami bake it in a Dutch oven before the fire. MISCELLANEOUS DISHES. A SCOTCH IIAOOIS. Procure the tripes and pluck uf a sheep, and clean the tripes very carefully ; parboil the heart and lights, half of the 11 /er, and a small part of the tripe, for an hour ''nd a half; let them cool, and then minco them rery fine ; mince also a pound of fresh suet, and grate the parboiled liver; mix this along with twohandfuls of oatmeal (previously browned before the fire), a few onions, black and Jamaica pepper, and salt ; take the large bag, and wash it first with cold water, then with boUing water; when quite clean, fill in the mince, but do not let it be more than half full, else t^l bag will burst in the boiling ; add a little of the lio' cir in which the vneat was parboiled, and sew up the bag ; put it r 1 the fire in boiling water, and prick it frequently th a large needle, to let the air escape ; boil it for . .ree hours, with a plate in the bottom of the pot. POACHED Eoaa. ' Put a pan upon the fire half filled with boiling water, and put in some salt ; when It has boiled through, take it off, and break the eggs gently into it, and let it stand upon the table for three or four minutes ; in tho meanwhile, toast some slices of bread on both sides; pare od the cnist, and butter it; lift thf. eggs nut with a fish-slice or flat spoon, and let them drip fur half a minute, and lay them upon the tuast. This is by far tho best way of poaching eggs, as the boiling breaks them. A spoonful of vinegar dropped into the water serves to firm them. rOTTED HEAD. Take the half of an ox head and mash it well, tak- Ing out all the blood and slimy parts from the nose, and the black part of the eyes; pcrumbi, onionii, and parsley minced, pepper, salCt a little suet, and then roasted ; the lights may be dressed as above, and the liver fried, and the hash and liver laid round the heart. A IIARRICO OF UUTTOK. Take two or three pounds 6f the back rib> or loin of mutton ; cut it down into chops; skin ami flatten ni!> them I rliipping, irriivy. A I he chops, ;;:.iji; or, :or a>Kort them ; season them with pepi>cr nnd salt with flour, and fry them in butt'<- and put them on to stew with - little stock may be made of the tr an onion or two, and a piece of i put a little water to them, and let tin time very slowly; purbuil a carrot and turnip: cut them down into neat shaites, along with n few 'iiun h must be eaten along with the rice. GOOSEBERRY JAM. Pick and clean your gooseberries, and to every pound of fruit take a pound of brown sugar ; boil them in a preserving pan ; keep stirring till lln'V ImhI lioil them for twciitv minutes or half an lionr in. .uey come Ut tht' iKtiling point, scum it befm -^ n liing. Put into earthen potx, aud paper when cutU. RASPKEBRY AND STRAWBERRY JAM. Take equal weight of unit and lump sugar; pick the fniit, ami put it onwi the sugar in .i preserving pan^ t u spiionful or t^^ f water in tlie bottom of tiie pan, and stir it frequeiul> till it t">il» ; allow it to boil fur half an hour; scum it. aud i it into earthen pots ; when cold, cdver tho toi)s wii aper. RED CIRRAHT JELI.V . Take some fresh -il or white currants; pick tho stalks from them, n : put them on the lire in n pi-e- serving pan ; whei: < med, take them ofif, and squeeKe tliem through a cl For every Scotch mutchkin or English pint of juii4s take a pound of lump sugar, and lioif for twenty minutes, i)r, if the fruit was wet before being gathered, allow it half an hour ; scum it before dishing it, and, when coid, co\ the tops of the pots with paper. CRANOF. MAH'' .. .VDE. Take six or eight {inun < bitter oranges, and the same weight of loaf tii pare off the yellow skixi> taking off as little of thf >^ Into interior part as possible; cut the parings down into small stripes, or cut them again across, which will make them still smaller; put them on in a brass preserving pan, with as much wa- ter aH will cover them ; boil them for an hour, to take out the bitter, and strain them through a sieve; quar* ler the oranges, and scrape out the pulp, keeping out the seeds. When the pulp is all scraped off, steep the white skin in a basin uf cold water; when they have soaked a little, scrape them again, and you will hy tins means use almost every part of the orange ; put the pulp and thu parboiled chips on to boil, with the sugar and lialf uf the water lirwhich the skins were soaiced ; keep stirring till they boil, and allow it to boil for half an hour ; scum it, aud U into earthen pots, and, when culd, cover the tops with paper. If the flavour uf lemon tie liked, fuur lemons will be sufficient for this quantity of marmalade. The outer yeiluw rind should be grated, and the pulp scraped down amongst %he oranges. CUSTARDS. Boil A quart of sweet milk, with a italk of ciniiR- mon, a little of the rind of a leinou, a bay leaf, or two or three bitter almonds, with sugar to taste ; beat the yolks of si\ eggs, with a spoonful of flour, and a little milk ; pour the boiled milk through a piece of lauilfn Hmm 1 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. iDloatfaiin, oiid Btir tltu egg* intoiii set it on the Are, itirriiig conitantlv; let it coiuu to the boiling point, but not more ; stir it till cold, and fill the cupi, ttrewiug a little cinaiunou or grated nutmay over tne top. CHCEIE-CAKE8. It 11 oflen iuconveuitiiit to procure curd for making cheew-cakei, but thei-e in un exoullent tubttitute in po- tatoea, and, at the name tiinti, nioro ucouomical. Pare and liotl a (ew potmotft ; beat theui very finely, with two oucvai of ineltud butttir, two of sugar, the grate of two lemons, a little einnamuu, the yolks of four or six egga, and a glass of brandy (currants may be addad» to make them riclier); mix all the ingredients well together ; line palty>paua with puff paste, and Bil Ihem up j bake fur fifteen or twenty mmutes in a ^uick oven. PANCAKES. For every pancake that is wanted, allow one egg, and a proportion of one table- spoimful of flour to each egg, a little sugar, a little ginger, and a little cinna- mon or nutmeg; put in as much milk as will make a thick butter; put a small pit^ce of sweet butter in u frying-pan, and when hot, pour in the batter ; brown it equally, and turn it, or brown the upper side Iwfore the fire, which makes them lighter; roll them up, aud ftrew white sugar over them. APPLE rniTTzns. Make a thick batter, as for pancakes, only lubstU tuUng beer for milk ; mix minced apples amongst it ; melt a piece of butter in the frying-}mn, and drop the fritters Into it ; brown them nicely on both sides, and ■trew sifted sugar over them. ANOTHER WAY. Make a batter the same a« above, only a good deal thicker; pare and slice two or three large apples; dip tliem in the baiter, and fry theui iu plenty ot butter or fresh dripping. BLAVCMAVOE. To a quart of sweet milk ur cream, take an ounce and ft half or two ounces of isinglass— (but the quan< tiiy of isinglass required must depend greatly upim the shape or mould ; if it be a plain oval or round shape, it does not require so murh isingluis as if it were a branched shape, where it dejwnds upon the strength of the isinglass alone)— bulled fur a quarter of an hour, with the rind of a lemun, u blade of maoe, and white sugar to taste ; blanch and pound to a paste six or eight bitter almouds, aud four times that num- ber of sweet ones, with a little waa>r; put this gra- dually to the hot milk, and strain it through a muslin ■iave { let it settle for a little ; then pour it into the mould, keeping back the sediment ; when to be turned out, lay a cloth dipped in hot water round it fur a few moments ; run a knife round the edges, and turn it out. C* **l-rEET JEI.LY. Take two cow^s feet, well cleaned ; take off the knoft, and break the feet in several placet; put them on with two 8rotch pints of cold water ; boil them slowly tintil the )>ono8 loosen from the meat ; strain it, and let it stand till cold : it should now be quite firm, and if not, put it on again to boil down for an hour ; when cold, uke oft the fat carefully from the top ; put the Jellv into a preserving pan (kef oing back the sediment] vitn the peel of three lemons a i the juice, two stalks of danamou, half a bottle of sherry or Madeira wine, eight eggs, well whisked, and white stigar to taste; •lir it ."til together, and put it on to boil lur a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes; take it off, and let it Mttle, with a cloth over it, for a few minutes ; then pour it through a clean jelly Iwig until it be quite clear ; keep the bag covered, and let it stand near the fire. Plain, and almost ua good jelly, nuy \*e made wiUiale instead of wine, and vinegar instead of lemons. Many persons keep back the yolks of tiic t>t;gB, hut it is equally clear, and a great deal more firm, when they are added to the jelly. ITALIAN CKEAU. Whisk up a pint of rich ontam with the rind of two (Cmons rubtW off with sugar, the juice of the lemons, and pounded sugar to taste; when well whisked, add half an ounce of itinglatt, meltet) with a little boiling water, and a glass of brandy; whitk it up till it is quite stiff 1 fill the shape, and set it in a cool place to freeie. tfalt is a vevy good substitute for iue, topUce tbe shape amongst damp salt in a cool cellar. This cream will have a delightful flavour, and also a Iwautiful colour, by rubbing a little raspberry presen-e through a tine sieve amongst tbe crei?m. pirrr . \ste. To one pound of Initter take a pound and a half of flour ; mix the third i>art of the butter amongst the flmtr, by nibbing it through the hands; if the butter be sweet, add a little salt ; put in as much water as will make it into dough; work it up quickly, and roll it out ; take the other two>thirds of the butter which remains, and divide it into four or five parts, aud stick one of the parts in nmall bits over the paste t strew a little flour over it; fold itto^etlier, and roll it out again, and so an till all the butter in used. If it has to stand for anv time before being bi^ed, cover it with a damp rhith. ' fOMMOK PASTr. Take three quarlera of a pfiiind of buttir t will cover two or three pies ; when only one is to be made, a proportion of the ingredients must be taken ; but this IS left to the judgment of the oook^ •weet PASTK. Take a pound of fine flour, and half a pound of fresh butter, the beat yolks of two eggs, two ounces of pounded white sugar; make it into a paste with hot milk, and knead it until it is quite smooth. Fruit pies, and all sweet pies, should have the white of an egg well beaten with fine pounded sugar, laid on the top with a feather brush. ■HOMTBUAD. To two pounds of fiour, add six ounces of fine su- gar pounded, an ounce of lemon, and an ounce of orange-peel, candied, cut into small pieces, and mixed amongitt the flour ; melt t pound and a half of butter, and pour it amongst the flour, and knead it upqulckly ; roll it out into oUcet of an ineh and a halt tliick; pinch them neatlv round the edges, and prick tliem on the top with a fork. This will be equally good, al- though not so rich, by leaving out the peel, aud it may be made richer by adding chopped almonds. TO MAKE EOO.BALL8 TOWL MOCK-TUBTLE SOUP. Boil four or five eggs till they are quite hard ; take out the yolks, and heat them in a mortar with salt and Cayenne pepper; make them into a paste with the white of one or two raw eggs ; roll them into small bolls of the size of a marble ; roll them in flour ; fry them in butter, and put them amongst the soup. SAUCES. [Gtnerai Directions Care must betaken. In preparing the following sauces, to remove them from the fire on their reaching the boiling point> as they become thin by boiling.] MXLTSA BUTTZl. Take two ounces of butter, and two table-spoonfuls of flour ; add to this a small cupful of cold water ; toss it round well, and do not allow the flour to get into lumps, which It will do if the water be not put in by degrees ; keep stirring or tossing it round tlU it bjill. In stirring melted butter, it should be always stirreil one way, as there is a danger of its oiling ; if It should oil, It uay he recovered by putting a little i^ttwutcr into it. aP^ CAPEn SACCE. W^-' Melt a piece of butter, and, when to be used, stir in two table-spoonfuls of capers i the "ne-half of them may bo minced, to give the flavour more freely to the sauce; add a little vlnt^ar or lemon-juice. MINT SAUCE. Take a few leaves of fresh green mint; wash them, and chop them very fiti«y and mix thkdu with v iuegar and brown sugar. APPLE SAVCE. Pare and cut down two or three baking apples ; put them on with a little water to stew very slowly, until quite soft ; beat them up with sugar and a small bit of butter, and serve in a sauce tureen. BREAD SAUCE FOB GAME, Cnmible down a thick slice of bread ; put it on in a sauce.pan, with ai much sweet milk as will make it a thick sauce; beat it well with a sprNin, till quite smooth : season with white pepper, and serve in a sauce tureen. CAUDLE SAUCE FOB PLUM-PUDDINO. 3Ielt some butter, and stir into it a glass of sherry, half a glass of brandy or rum, the grate of a lemon, the grate of a nutmeg, and sugar, to taste ; do not al- low the sauce to boll after the spiriu are added to it. OTSTEB SAUCE. Take n hundred fresh ovsters, and scald then^ for a few minutest take a good piece of butter; melt ii in apan; shake in some f^our; stir It constantly uuti) it be of a nice light brown ; pour in some stock, or ihe liquor of the oysters, to thin it ; season it highly with Cayenne pepper and salt to taste, and smmip musnroom ketchup, but do not add the Slit until vftu have put in the ketchup ; pick and beard the oystera, and put them amongst the sauoe. Half a glass of sherry will be a great impmvement. PLAIM OTSTEB SAUCE. Melt a good piecv. . >utter, aud edd to It half a hundred uynters, scalded and picked, and season with Cayenne. A spoonful of ketcliup will m:ike this a very nice sauce. LOBSTBm AHD CBAB SAUCE. Melt the butter as directed above; pick ont the red meat of a boiled lobster, or the meat from the claws of a lK>lled crab ; chop it down very fine, and put it amongst tlie butter ; season with Cayenne pepper. PABSLEY SAUCE. Melt a good piece of butter t scald some parsley, by immersing it in Iwiling water for a minute or two; chop it down, aud add it to the melted butur. Kaa SAUCE. Melt a good piece of butter the same way as for other sauces, only subatltutlng milk for water ; boil oue or two eggN very hard ; peel and oliop them down, and mix them amongst the umltwl butter ; add a little Cayenne. cELEnr «aui:e. Cut donii a head or two of celery Into piecos of an inch long; parboil them in water; make a nuuce, the same as fuv egg sauce, cither of milk or cream ; put the volery to this, and a«a»ua with grated nutuieg aud white pepper ; let it come to the boil, but uot moi% OS the cream is apt to break by boiling. ONIOK SAUCE. ParlHiil a dosen voung onions ; make a sauce of melted butter; if toe sauce be wanted very white, use cream or milk Instead of water ; put the onions to this, and season with white pepper and salt. If the onions he old and large, they sfiould he beat through a sieve and put amongst the sauce. FISH. TO BOIL BALMOH. Clean the ftsh well with a wet cloth, without elthei washing or scaling it; put it on in a fish-kettle, with plenty of cold water, and a handfiU of salt ; allow twelve minutes for every pound of fish, and, when ready, lift the drainer, and place it across the top at the fish-pan to drip before dishing. It should b^ served on a dish covered with a napkin, and garnished with green parsley. For sauce, plain melted butter* or parsley, or lohster-sauce, may be served, besides a sauoe-tureenful of the liquor in which the fish was boiled, as that is sometimes preferred to any othar sauce. TO BROIL SALMOW. Cut slioeH from the thick of the fish, dry them, and dust them with fiour. Broil them on a gridiron ovsr a clear fire ; when ready, rub them over with butter, aud serve hot, with any of the sauces used for salmon. TO EIPPER lALMOK. Cut up and clean the fish without washing | mb it over witn salt, raw sugar, and a little saltpetre. The fish should lie fur two days with a b<»rd placed above to press it down ; it should then be hung with pieces of wood across, to keep it from folding together. When to be dressed, it must be cut Into slices, and broiled on the gridiron ; and wheu done, rubbed over with sweet butter. TO BOIL TURBOT. Choose a thick fish, and of a cream-coloured white ; before boiling. It should be soaked In salt and water, with the addition of a little vinegar; put It on in a fish-kettle, with plenty of cold water, a handful of salt, and a cupful of vinegar. A turbot should be bulled for half an hour after it has come to the bolL It may be gnrnished with any small fish fried, or with parsley. For sauce, lobster or oyster sauce should be used, or plain melted butter. TO DRESS TDBBOT. Cut a small turbot into slices ; dip them amongit beat eggs; roUtbcm in bread-crumbs, minced parsMjN white pepper, and salt; bake them In a dish ww buttered, and haste frequently. The sauce used ft>r this is made of the trimmings of the fish, butter, and fiour, browned and thinned with stock or water, to which must be added part of a lobster parboiled, or oysters scalded and pickled, and seasoned with Cay- enne and salt, and a little mushroom ketchup ; lay tbe fish neatly on a dish, and pour the sauce round them ; or, the fish may be prepared as above, and fried amongst butter, and served with plain sauce. TO BOIL HALIBUT. M'osh and clean the fish well, and boll it in cold water, with a handful of salt ; scum it welL Ten mi- nutes is considered enough for evcrv pound of fish. Garnish with parsley, and serve wiln melted butter or oyster-sauce. TO DRESS HALIBUT. Cut the fish into slices, rub it over with flour, dip it it) tteat egg, and ntrew bread-crumbs over it, and;' fry amongst fresh dripping; or, it may be fried with- out the eg^'fl and bread-crumbs, only dusted with flour, and fried with butter, and served with plain melt4>(l butter or oyster-sauce. TO FRY FLOUKDERS. Cl( them well, taking out the gut ; dr^ them witb a clotli m with ihe back dowuwards. Oarnish with parsley. TO DBr.8S A COD-HEAD AMD SHOULDERS. Procure a gr>od grey c^od, clean It well, and take out the gills ; lay it all night amongst salt. M'lu-n to be used, cut off the head, and an much of the flioutders as you think may be requiri-.l for the sise of the diah you want ; skin it, and hind it *vith a cord to Itp^p it firm ; a small piece of the tail part put Into tbe mouth preserves It from breaking down; boil it in cold water, with a handful of salt, from twenty minutrp to half an hour. When ready, set it on vour drainer, over the top of your fish-paVi tfi drip; tirush it over with a beat egg; strew nreiti umbn over It, and stick pieces of butter thicklv •' the top; set It liefore a clear fire to brown ; take h piece of butter, and brown it with flour in a stew.pun ; thin this with Iwef stock or gravy, or the akin an , Hmmingiof the fish, boiled witli an onion and a ig or two of parsley, and strained amongst the tmtter ; then add a little Cayenno |wpi>er, salt, the nsMreru of a lemon, two or thrBB spoonfuls of ketciur and aglassof sherry wine; scald ami pick a hundreii ovsters, and put amongst the sauot. When dished, lay the sauie round tbe fish, not over the to]i, us that xpoils the iipjicurancc of the fish. ANOTHER WAY. Vk'tiix the finh as before, and bdii It with the skin on; boil it for half an hour, unit when to be dished, sorape off ili« skin, aud pour oysiur-sauce over the fiBh> ■\ b, Ul D, CU it ill '& " wit| over I 't ma| oniy t ' Cln, sgixxll or ,kT POnlej Pick! with 1 •iveet L i^t thj •P<«ufil Pick I "•fain il *•»!> lirT • 'itiie I Arakol dip tiio ,r 'n tlii'irl fryin^.pj mnv lit. I ''Utter (il "UB.I „.yj littlo liell •' "■• il J ■"a luni, Take ! •ijiing [ mfimr^mttmi I > iM DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND COOKERY. ■H itei twr. in a a of Id b« bolL jldb« nongrt ited fo* [er, »»* Iter, to ,i\c}* : Ilea "^tb- lied wiia ■ Lth pW" Itbem wlt^ I bmt«RK> It a« «»"* nniceliaM . minute*. (jKrniut lens. |,d take out VMun '" "* ■olbenioutb Tcold«»te'> iiitri' to lid' Irainer, ov«r lit over ««n I;; an.l •»'* I it tipfore » I, »nd brown Iwo or tbrtj |..„inci«a^ lnttbt.«uo- >ithtl>e«W? TO DUKSB THE MIDDLE CUT Of A COD. Clean and ikin th« flih, and make a stuffing of braad 'Crumbi, panlsyi and onions chopped small, pepper and salt, and a bit of butter ; skewer this into the open part of the fish, and rub it over with beat egg ; strew bread-crumbs, and stick pieces of butter over it, and set before the fire to bake ; serve with beat butter or oviter>sauce. I TO FRY COD. Cut slioas from the tail rbont an inoli thick t dust them with flour, and rub them over with beat egg t ■trew bread-crumbs over them, and fry them with dripping. When nicely browned, lay them on a drainer before uie fire for a few minutes. Oarnlsh with pars* ley, and serve with oyster-sauce. TO DRESS HADDOCKS. Take two good well-sized haddocks ; gut and wash them clean, but do not scrape them ; they are firmer and better if they lie all night among salt ; dry them, and cut olf the fins ; slip a knife in at the neck, and take off the skin, taking care not to tear the fish; cut them neatly from the bone, dividing each side into two parts { dust them with flour, and dip them amongst an egg wdl beaten ; then strew bread-crumbs over them. In die meanwhile, have some fresh dripping in a flat pan, •affldent to cover the fish ; be careful that the dripping is not too hot to scorch the fish ; the best means of knowing this, is, when it gives over crackling, and settles quietly in the pan ; then put la the fish, and turn them carefully. When they are nicely browned, lay them before the fire on a drainer for a few minutes to drip. Garnish with fried parsley ; put the dripping through a hair sieve, and it will serve again. TO rar wuitikob. Clean the fish without washing, as that softens them, and from the delicate nature of the whitings, they will not fry whole after being much handled ; dust them with flour, and dip them amongst beat egg, and strew bread-crumbs over them, and fry them amongst dripping, with the tail turned through the eyes. Oamish with fried parsley. to dake haddocks. Take two or three good haddocks, clean them, and lay them all night amongst salt When to be used, akin them, and out off the heads t make a stufling of bread-crumbs, chopped onions and parsley, pepper and salt, and a little bit of butter; sew this into the belly of the fish t rub them over with butter, and strew bread-crumbs over them, and bake them in a Dutch oven before the fire. FI8II AND SAUCE. Take two or three haddocks, clran them, and lay them all night amongst salt. When to be used, skin them, and cut off the heads, tailr, and fins i boil these for half an hour, or three-quarters, to make a little stock for the fish; brown a little flour and butter slightly in a stew-pan ; strain und pour in your stock amongst the butter ; add sliced onions and chopped parsley, salt and a little Cayenne pepper, and a spoon- ful of ketchup ; when this is nearly ready, put in your fisb, cut into several pieces, and boil for ten miuutes. TO BOII. SKATE. Choose a nice thick grev skate, with prickly back ; It is more generallv liked when salted slightly, and hung for a day ; boil it in cold water, and liefore serv- ing, scrape off the skin ; servo with melted butter, or lobster or oyster sauce. TO FRY SKATE, clean and skin the tish, and cut it into slices ; rub it with flour, dip it in beat egg, strew bread-crumbs over it, and fry amongst butter or fresh dripping; it may be fried without bhe egg and bread-crumbs, only rubbed with flour ; verve with plaiu beat butter, or parsley sauce. TO CRIMP SKATE. ' Clean and skin the flab, and cut into slices ; roll them up and tie them with tape, or fasten them with a small wooden skewer ; buU them in cold water, with a good handful of salt ; drasi them, tako off the tape or skewer, and serve with plaiu melted fesUter, or parsley sauce. '^* TO STEW OVSTERS. Pick and beard the oysters, nnd put them in a pan with a very little of their oivnlJ<|uur, a goud piece of sweet butter, a little flour, andsome Cayenne pepper. Ijet them stew fur a few miniCes, and add a table- spoonful 0* two of sweet cream. Serve hot* TO SCALLOP OYS1ER8. Pick and scald the oysters in thuir own liquor; strain them from the juice; lay ih.m on a dish, and heap bread-crumbs over them mixkl with pepper and a little lino salt ; stick pieces of buter thickly over tlie broad-urumbs, and bake before lie fire. TO FRY OYSTERS. Alako a batter of eggs, flimr, popttr nnd salt, and dip the oysters amongst it, having nat was>icd them in thiMr own liquor; brown a piece pf butter in a frying-pan, and frv them over a quickflre. A sauce may be made of their own juiue pourdl amongst the liuttur (having first lifted out the oyites)^ and thick* eued with flour, and seasoned with Ck-enne and a little ketchup. A grate of lemon pet-1 my be added, if the flavour be liked, itlussels may h, dressed in the sunir manner. TO BARE IlERHrKOS. Take tiMi or n dotcn fresh herrings ; e\o\ them, by wiping lia-iu with a wet cloth, but do not W.ih theoi, as that takes away the riehiusa of the fish ; split them, and out out the centre bone; cut off the heads, and roll them up with pepper and salt inside; lay them neatly in a pie-dish, and stick bits of butter over the top; shake pepper and salt, and pour vinegar over them, and bake in an oven. TO BOIL HERRINGS. Clean the herrings in the manner directed above ; boil them in a flat pan, with half watar half vinegar. BREAD. It Is more difllcult to give rules for making bread than for any thing else, it depends so much on judg- ment and experience. In summer, bread should be prepared with cold water ; during a chilly, damp spell, the water should be slightly warm; in severe cold weather, it should be mixed quite warm, and set in a warm place during the night. If your yeast i.i new and lively, a small quantity will muethe bread rise; if it bo old and heavy, it will take more. Flour bread should have a sponge set the night be- fore. The sponge should be soft enough to pour, mixed with water, warm or cold, according to the temperature of the weather. One gill of lively yeast is enough to put into sponge for two loaves. I should judge about three pints of sponge would be right for two loaves. The warmth of the place in which the sponge is set should be determined by the coldness of tne weather. If your sponge looks frothy in the morning, it is a sign your bread will be good ; if it does not rise, stir in a little more emptiugs ; if it rises too muiji, taste of it, to see if it has any acid taste ; if so, put in a tea^spoonful of pearl-ash when you mould in your fl.iur ; be sure the pearl-ash is well dissolved in water ; if there are little lumps, your bread will be full of bitter spots. About an hour before your oven is ready, stir in flour into your sponge till it is stiff enough to lay on a well floured board or table. Knead it up pretty stiff, and put it into well>greased pans, and let it stand in a cool or warm place, according to the weather. If the oven is ready, put them in fif- teen or twenty minutes after the dough begius to rise up and crack ; if the oven is not ready, move the pans to a cooler spot, to prevent the dough from becoming sour by too much rising. Common sized loaves will bake in three quarters of an hour. If they slip easily in the pilMk.it is a sign they are done. Some people do not NHHjjpft sponge for flour bread ; tliey knead it up all rwH^to put in the pans the night before, und leave it to rise. White bread and pies should not be set in the oven until the brown bread and beans have been in half an hour. If the oven be too hut, it will bind the crust so suddenly that the broad cannot rise ; if it be too cofd, the bread wiii faU. The chief error fallen into in preparing braM|At home, is the giving of it too firm a consistency, iM not raising it so well as the bread of bakers. Those who make their own breati should make yeast too. When bread Is nearly out, always think whether yeast is in readiness ; for it takes a day and night to prepare it. One handful of hops, with two or three handfuls of malt and rye-bran, should be boiled fifteen or twenty minutes, in two quarts of water, then strained, hung on to boil again, and thickened with half a pint of rye and water stirred up quite thick, and a little molasses ; boil it a minute or two, and then take It off to cool. When just about lukewarm, put in a cupful of good lively yeast, and set it in a cool place in summer, and warm place in winter. If it is too warm when you put in the old yeast, all tlie spirit will be killed. In summer, yeast sours easily ; therefore make but little at a time. Bottle it when it gets well a-work- ing; it keeps better when the air is corked out. If you Hud it acid, but still spirited, put a little pearl- ash to it, as you use it ; but by no means put it into your bread unless it foams up bright and lively as soon as the pearUash mixes with it. Never keep yeast in tin ; it destroys its life. The most wholesome bread that can be eaten is that made from wheat ground alt(^ether, tlmt is, the fine and the common flour mixed, with the atMition of tho rougher particles of the Inner rind of the .^ruin. Thi* mixed flour makes excellent and nutritious brown bread, and to most people It Is much mt^re pleasant to the palate than pure white bread ; but i*: is seldom prepared for sale by bakers, from the prejudices of the public in favour of clear white loaves, and will in must places require to be made at home. Those accustomed to make white bread will have no dilliculty in nmnug- ing it. The inhabitants of London have a strongpre- judico against any bread but that which has a certain degree of whiteness, and suffer accordingly. To pro- cure the necessary standard whiteness, tlie very best wheaten flour or certain adulterating substances must be employed ; and as the finest flour is too dear, the process of adulteration is preferred. The principal Bulmtances alleged to bo employed by various bakers in the adulteration of bread, are, gypsum, or plaster of Paris, chalk, Cornish pipe-clay, bean .flour, peas- meM, potatoes, bone-ashes, alum, carbonate of ammo- nia, and bhte vitriol. The object in using these in, generally speaking, to bleach the bread >vlnto, and raise it, so as to have the appearance of lightnens. Some of the ingredients are lar from being noxious, but others nre most injurious to the stomach, cause contrartion of the iiiteatines, .ind so hurt tho health of the consumers. BEER. Beer is the best family drink, and is preferable to either porter or strong ale. Beer may be easily brewed. The ntensils are a large pot, a tub, and bar- rel. The estimate is a handful of hops to a pailful of water, and a half-pint of molasses. Alalt mixed with a few hops makes a weak kind of beer; but it is cool and pleasant, and needs less molasses than hops alone. The rule is nearly the same for all beer. Boil the in- gredients two or three hours; pour in a half-pint of molasses to a pailful while the liquor is scalding hot ; strain the beer, and when nearly lukewarm, put a pint of lively yeast to a barrel ; leave the bung loose till tha beer is done working, ^-hlch can be ascertained by ob- serving when the froth subsides. Beer keeps better bottled than in casks. The beer should have an agree- able bitterish taste ; should sparkle in some degreo when poured out ; but It is not necessary that It shoultl have more than a mere surface of cream or froth. If any kind of beer turn sour, it may be cured In drink- ing by putting a pinch of the carbonate of soda into the glass. This makes it effervesce, and gives it au agreeable pungency, while no injury ensues to the drinker. Carbonate of soda is a white flour-like sub- stance, which muy be purchased from chemists. Inasmuch as the brown bread above noticed is bet- ter for our constitutions than white, so is good plata beer better as a beverage than porter. Loudon por- ter, however innocent to strong constitutions and those who take a great deal of exercise, is allowed to be injurious in many respects, if not procured un- adulterated. Alany people think that porter should have froth on its surface, otherwise it is not fresh^ and so, to give it the desired head, a variety of ingre- dients, particularly green vitriol, alum, and common salt, are used : other compounds dre eu&o la requisi- tion, as tho extract of a nois'>"c;iS berry named cocu- lus indicus, extract of quassia and liquorice, powder of gentian root, sulphate of Iron, sugar boiled down, &c., nearly all of which less or more injure the sto- mach, promote headach, and cause other evils. There is no doubt that there is much genuine London por- ter used ; but it would be advisable to be caretul from what source it is procured, as well as to remember that frothing is no proof of its puri\.y or excellence. GINGER BEER. Ginger beer is made in the following proportions ;— . One cup of ginger, one pint of molasses, one pail and a half of water, and a cup of lively yeast. Moat peopio scald the ginger in half a pail of water, and then fill it up with a pailful of cold ; but in very hot weather some people stir it up cold. Yeast must not be put In till it is cold, or nearly cold. If not to be drauk within twenty-four hours, it must be bottled as soon as it works. SEASONS FOR MEATS, &c. Among the best works on cookery now in nse, are the "Cook and Housewife^s Manual, by Mistreat Margaret Duds, of the Cleikum Inn, St Konun*s,** and the " Practice of Cookery, by Blrs Fraser." The work of the former is an instructive and amusing publication, and has had a large sale among the higher classes of families. The accomplished authoress baa the following notices of the principal meats, fish, and vegetables, in season in the different months of the year :— January. — Beef and mutton, which are to be had good all the year round, are both prime in this month, though they begin to get dearer than in the fall of the year; veal to be hud good, but dear at this season t house-lamb and pork generally both dear. PoM//ry— Turkeys, geese, ducks, fowls, pullets, tome pigeons, wild ducks, hares and rabbits, plentiful ; the latter about the cheapest. FUh — Turbot, halibut, skate^ cod, haddocks, soles, plaice, flounders, oysters; prime turbot is now scarce; lobsters and crabs hardly to be got at this time ; prawns plentiful. Vegetables— The same sorts of vegetables are in season, with little va- riation, from the beginning of November till the end of February : they are i>avoys, cabbage, and greens of all the sorts, Brussels ttprouts, broccoli, sulphur-oo- loured and purple ; spini.ch, leeks, unions, beet-root, parsnips, turnips, celerv, carrots, potatoes, cresses, parsley, cucumber, endive, and forced asparagus, and mushrooms. Fkuruauv iKIeat the same as in January, but voal and house-lamb generally rather cheaper. Fish the same, but cod und haddui-ks fallen off; lobstere more plentiful ; barbel and dace got. Fottlgniul Gams the same, and spring chickens und ducklings in addi- tion, but always enormously dear. Pea and Uuineft fowl now come in, and continue till July. VegetabUi$ the same. ;\lAncif Meat as in Jiuiuary, and grass-lamb; house-lamb now cheaper ; and mountain-mutton, which begins to fall off about mid-winter, now not so good, particularly in severe seasons ; veal gets cheaper. Poultry the same as last month's ; no hares, close-time till iSepteinber; green ifctse, ducklings, tamo pigeone (cheaper) ; wild •pigeons ; nioor-game close. /'r«A— • Salmon is now got, but deiir ; indeed, it is to bu had In London almost the whole year round. Fish, in an open spring, aro plentiful about this time, but stili more so in April ; miukitiil, ihriinps, nnd piawus, are now been. Vegeiabies — Forced cucundwrs, voung tur- nipi;, -ind turnip tops, spinach, broccolij radishes, and fjrced sulud lierbK. I m 'w,.- r K CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. !v 1 f '' i ArniL. — Meat of alt kirult—Vviil mid lamb (ft't oheiiper. Poultry Mme an Intt threa nionthi. r#//e- faA/f< lame m the last months, with chervil and lut- tuM: voj^tables nnw beirin to ffet cheaper. Fruits — Green guoKberrlei and rhubnrb fur tarts. ^Vhlte 6&h plentiTul. Mat The same In meat as the preceding months, and about Whilsimtlde Imck.voniBon cumes in lenion. Fkh — Turbot, lobater, trout, snhnon, eels, and plenty of the smaller white fish In favourable weather ; oys. Im go out of season till August, %'egetablea of all kinds as before, with forced peas and early potatoes ; •ea-kale, saladlngs, and carrots, are now ubtaiiied of natural growth. JuHE — MHtt pf alt kituUt and generally begins to mt cheaper. FitH — Salmon, turbot, tkate, halibut, lobsters, soles, eels. In high season, and getting cheaper. VepetabltM in great plenty and variety, and cheaper; early cauliflower ^t, asparagus plentiful, and about the cheapest towards the end of the month. Fruits in fine seasons are strawberries, early cherries, melons ; also apples for tarts. JuLT. — Meats of all kinds — Lamb and veal cheap. Poultry of all kinds as before, and also plovers and wheat^TS. Ijevereu, turkey-poults, and ducklings, art now worth eating, and cheaper. Wild-duckl are often got about this time. Fish is now good of all kinds, and the rarer sorts, as turbot and uilmon, are ■boat the cheapest. VegttahUs of all kinds good •Bd plentiful, as cauliflowers, peas, and French and Windinr beans. FtMits^-AW the small fruiu at their best. August AND Septembei Meato/aiik-indst and tknp — Mountain.mutton now excellent. Orass-lamb growing coarse. Veal scarcer. Poultry as before ; with moor.game of all kinds after the Vitii of Aiiffunt, and partridges and hares from the beginning of Hep. tamber. Gfeese and ducks now full-grown. Fish — Cod ?)ecomes good, turbot goes rather out, as does salmon. Fresn-water flnh now plentiful, as pike, ^earp, perch, and trout. Herrings, which are in sea- son from July till March, %V9 now excellent. Fruits of all kinds plentiful. Alushrooras must plentiful at this time, also cucumbers. OcTOBEm. — Meat as before, and doe-veniion. Pas- ture-fed beef and mutton are probably at the best in this month. Poultry and game in all variety, but young fowls get dearer. Pheasants now got, and ge- nerally wild pigeons, snipes, and wild ducks, begin to appear. Fish~-Cody haddocks, brill, r^ncli, and all sorts of shell-fish. Oysters, which come in at Ivon- don in August, and at Edinburgli in September, are now ozoellent. Vepetabies — Beans, broccoli, and calu bage of all kinds; bt^et, onions, leeks, turnips, carrots, lettuce^ cresses, endive, celery, cucumbers, spinacli, and dried herbs. Fruits — All sorts of apples and peata. ^fOTEMnEa AKD Decemiicr. — Afeat — Deef and mutton prime. House-lamb and veal. Sucking-pig. Buck-renison goes otit. Fish — All good about tliis time. Salmon dear. Poultry get* very dear in large touiis about this season, but is to be got of all kinds ; aUo woodcocks and sni|)et. It is, however, quite impossible rigidly to flx the •tasons of provisions, and much less their price. Meut, generally speaking, ii cheapest in the latter end of auiumn, and dt-arest in spring, lleef is found prime all the year round, Init sniuU natural pasture.fcd beef is at the best in October; so is beginning of Novem- ber, both from (quality and price. ON CHOOSING PROVISION.S. Mrs Fraser's work r)n cookery in of a useful nature, and has been many years in repute among practical oooks in Kdinburgh. Home of her remarks on the dioosing of provisions are worthy of being attended to. Ueef. — Ox beef, if young, has a fine, smooth, open grain, of aplcaHing rarnnliuu rfd, and is very tendur; the fat rather white tlian yellow, and the suet Avhite. The grain of cow beef is cliner, and the fat whiter; but the lean not so bright a red as the other. Tbc grain ufb\ill beef is still closfr, the fat hard and skinny, the lean of a ('»*ep red, and smells str-'-'ijer than cow or ox beef. Mutton. — If young, it will feel very *:.ider; but if old, it will he h'nrd, and the fat fibrous and clammy. The gi-ain of rnm mutton is close, the flesh of a deep red. and the fat rpongy. The flesh of ewe mutton is pal'ir tlian the wedder, and the grain closer, tihort- snanked mutton in the liest. Lamb. — If the vein in the neck of tlic fore-qiiarier appears of a fine blue, Jt is fre«h ; I'Ut if green or vel- luw, it is stale. If the hind-qunrter hits a faint tliit. agreeable smell near the kidney, or if the knuckle lie limber, it Is not gon:|. The head is goi>d when the eyei nro bright and plump, but stale if sunk and wrinkled. Vval Tlie flesh of cow-calf is wliiter than that of bull, but not so firm ; the fillet of the former is gene- rallv preferree limber if fresh, but stiff and dry if stale. Oreen geese are In season from May to June, till thev are three months old. A stub- ble goose is good till it be five or six months old, and should Iw picked dry. The pame rules will hold as to wild geese, with respect to their being young or old. Ducks The legs of n new-killed duck are limber ; and if fat, the Iwlly will be hard and thick. The feet of a stale duck are dry and stiff. Those of a tame one are of a dusky vellow, and thick. The feet of a wild duck are smaller than a tamo one, and are of a reddish colour. itares W^hen old, the claws are blunt and rugged, the ears dry and tough, and the cleft wide and large ; if young, the claws are smooth and sluM|the ears tear easily, and the cleft in the lip mucluH|H. The body will be stiff, and the flesh pale, if iwny killed ; l>ut if the flesh is turning black, and thO body limber, it is stale ; thev are not always considered tne worse of being kept till they smell a little. Fith The general rule for knowing wlicther fish are fresh or stale, is bjM>bserving the Hniell and co- lour of the gills, which wmld be of a lively red ; whe- ther they be hard or eairfly opened, the standing out or sinking in of i)ie eyes, the fins stiff or liml»er, or by the gills. Fish taken in running water are always better than those from ponds. Trout All kinds of fresh-water fish are excellent ; but the best are red and yellow. The female is moat esteemed, and is known by Its small head, and deep body. They are in high season the latter end of May. Salmon^ when fresli, is of a fine red, and particu- larly so at tlie gills ; the scales bright, and the fish very stiff. The spring is the best season for this fish. Pickled salmon is good, if the flesh feels oily, and the scales stiff and shining. Butter. — In buying freah butter, trust more to taste than smell. In choosing »alt butter, tru^t rather to smell tlian taste. If it is in a cask, have it tinhuoped, and probed to the bottom. F.ggs To judge properly of nn egg, put the greater end of it to your tongue, and If it feel warm, it is new ; but i>' cold, it is stale; ur if, by holding it up before the sun or a candle, the yolk appears round, end the white clear and fnir, it is good; but if the yolk is broken, and the white cloudy, it Is bad. ders them drier and more pleasant in eating than boiling with water. Thev may be easily steamed bv a tin pan, with holes In the bottom, and closed witn a Hd. fitted Into a goblet or stett-pan, in which water is mu "* raise the steam. It is a good practice to have all stoneware, china, or glass articles, washed In wooden bowls, as it saves the edges from being chipped, or the vessels from be< ing broken. It is a I good plan to put new earthenware Into oold water, and let It heat gradually until it bolls, then cool again. Brown earthenware, in particular, may be toughened in this way. A handful of rye, or wheat bran, thrown In while it is boiling, will pre- serve the glaxing, so (hat It will not be de&troyed by acid or salt. Clean a brass kettle, before using it for cooking, with salt and vinegar. Skim milk and water, with a bit of glue In it, heated scalding hut, is excellent to restore old, rusty, black Italian crape. If clapped and pulled dry, like nice muslin, it will look as well, or better, than when new. Do not hare carpeta swept any uftener than Is abso* lately necessary. After dinner, sweep the crumbs in* to a dusting-pan with your hearth-brush ; and if you have been sewing, pick up the shreds by hand. A carpet can be kept very neat in this way ; and a broom wears it vary much. It is not well to clean brass andirons, bandies, &c, with vinegar. It makes them very clean at first, but they soon spot and tarnish, lluttenstone and oil aro proper materials for cleaning brasses. If wiped every morning with flannel and Jamaica rum, they will not need to be cleaned half as often. If you happen to live in a house which has marble fire-places, never wash tbem with suds ; this destroys the polish In time. They should b« dusted, the spot* taken off with a nice oiled cloth, and then rubbed dry ADVICKS FOU THE ECONOMICAL. The follonin;; are a few short advices on house- keeping nut unworthy of attention:— SoniP people are fond .if corned or slightly salted (.i*-f, which forms u gnod winter dish. When yon lunely want t<> cure meat, all you have to do is to nil) in salt plentifully, and lay it aftidu till it is impregnated with tlie saline properties. A little saltpetre may be rubbed in before applying ttie r< mmon salt, to make the meat tender ; but tliis bhuuld unly be done in the winter season. ^uflii-ient care hhould be taken in summer to pre- si'rvu fresh meat from wastinj,'. As noon as it Is brought into the house, it should be carefully covered frimi the flies, and put in a cold, nud, if possible, airy siluiitlun. If itconvistof pieces, tjeysho.ild be spread out, separate from each other, on a Urge dish, and <'ov>ered. If not to be cooked soon, it should be siirin- kled M-ith suit. Tho fut and flabbv parts sh>iuld be raised up al>ove the lean, and a little salt strewed in. If there be danger of its wasting, in spite of these pre- ciiuiinns, it should l»e scalded. All herbs should be kept carefuUv from the air. Onions should be kept very dry. \Vhen green peas become old and yellow, they may )>e made somewhat tender and green by sprinkling in a pinch or two of I>earl-Hsli when they are boiling. Poutucs should, if p^siibltf, always be prepared with steam, which rtn> wiihj soft rag. feiitb ^ tathors should be very thoroughly dried before they are used. For this reason they should not be packed away in bags when they are first plucked. They should be laid lightly in a basket, or something of that kind, and stirred up often. The garret Is the best place to dry them, because they will there be kept free from dirt and moisture, and will be in no danger of being blown away. It is welt to put the parcels, which you may have from time to time, into the oven, after you have removed your bread, and let them stand a day. If feather-beds smell badly, or become heavy, from want of proper preservation of the feathers, or from old age, empty them, and wash the feathers thoroughly in a tub of suds ; spread tliem in your garret to dry, and they will be as light and as good as new* Jamaica rum, constantly used to wash the hair, keeps it very clean, and free from disease, and pro- motes lu growth a great deal mure than Macassar oil. Brandy is very strengthening t4> the roots of the hair ; but it has a hot drying tendency, which rum has not. About the last of May, or the first of June, the little millers, which lay moth eggs, begin to appear. There- fore brush alt your woollens, and pack them away in a dark place covered with linen. Pepper, red cedar chips, tobacco — indeeil, almost any strong spicy smell —is good to keep moths out of your chest and drawers. But nothing is so go4>d as camphor. Sprinklo vour woollens with camphorated spirit, and scatter pieces of camphor gum among them, and you will never be troubled with moths. Home people buy camphor wood trunks fur this purpose, but thoy are very ex- pensive, and the gum nnswen Just as well. Pulverized alum possesses the property of purifying water. A large spoonful stirred into a hogshead of water will so purify it, that, In a few hours, tho dirt will all sink to the bottom, snd it will be as fresh and clear as spring water. Fosr gallons may be purified by a tca-spoonful. Woollens should be waihed In verj' hot suds, and not rinsed. Lukewarm vnter shrinks them. On tluMMtrary, silk, jt any thing that has silk in it, shoijft^Se washed iii water almost cold. Hot water turns it yellow. It may bn washed h. suds made of nice white soas, but no soap should be put upon it. Likewise a^uid the use of hot irons in emo4>thingsilk. Eitheinibthe articles dry with a mtt clotli, or put them betveen two towels, and press liieni with weights. Do not let knives be dropped into hot dish-watt'r. It is a good plan to lave a large tin pot to wash then/ in, just high enou^ to wash thu blades without u-ei* tiny tho handles. Keep your castors covered %wth blotting paper atfl green flannel. Keep your sait- spoons out of thenalt, and clean them often. Do not wrap Uiives and f )rks in woollens. M'rap them in good stl>ng paper. Steel is injured by lying in woollens.* • Rome ofthnerraps arc from MnChlld'i "PruoalHouiewiret'' s imall volume. *«■! worUiy of the txtonslvc ulu it has mvt with both in Ihli counry and America. EDiMntmiiH; Biblbhrd by W. and R. riiAMnRRii, If), Water- loo Plu«) alo by Oaa and Hmith. l'«lemiifti>r How, l.im- doni widWt'uaav, Juii. and Co. Sat-Vvmc Slrwt, lUihiiii. Nold tty Joh> Madwid, Olartfpiw, and all niticr ll(HikM>ll<'ri in I^icoUand. iPglsnd, sad Irelaud.— Publlilicd once s fortnlghu rnAMflKHii'MNrnRliATiON roa THi rsorLB will he comi'U'tml In one voltfne niisrtn, fhrniiiiK • oomprehpnilve body of huuisu I knnwtcdgf m the most Important sub)*cU. 8wnoty|)d by A. KUkwood, and prlatsd by BsUsntyne h Co» % ">^ latiiift than ■teamed by closed wUn fhich w»ttr »«ro, chlii», , ultltTM eli from b«- ire Into «oU ; boiU, then ticiiUr, m»y I of rye, or i((, will pre* lestroyad by for cooking, t glue In It, -^^ reoU, rortyt ■ , Ued dry, like r, than when j ' than ii abiO> ie crumbi in- I I and if you by hand. A t and a broom , handle!, &c., m at fir»t, but ine and oil arii If wiped oiery I, they will not ch hu marble i; thltdeitroya iited, the iputa len rubbed dry ly dried before thould not be I firit plucked. :t, or something; he carret ii the rill there be kept be in no danger put the parceli, e, into the oven, I, and let them ime heavy, from eallicri, or from then thoroughly ur garret to dryj as new. waih the lutlr, iitense, and pro- lan Slaca»»»r oil. roots iif tlie hair ; ich rum ha» not DfJune, the little ) appear. There- ick ihcui away in 'oiiper, red cedar trong spicy smell best and drawers. Sprinkle your ,nd scatter piews von will never be lie buy camphor they are very ex- is well. pertyof purifyinff ito n hogshimd of ;w hours, the dirt ill be as fresh and IS may be purified erj- hot suds, and nks them. ng that has silk m Iniost cold. Hot o washed 1.. suils oap should be put . of hot irons in ^Ics drv witli a soft els, an'd press ihcni ito hot dish-w.ntpr. > pot to wash tlienf blades uiilkotil «<''• itors covered with Keep your sult- tem often. n woollens. V rap is injured by lying ■' Frugal Hou"*"?.'" 1. ^olclt hM nii'l «ltli CiiAMn.ss, m. W.OT- I'alenwtler lliiw. •""• si-VvUlc S1I.-.1. •'■"'""; Uliol OBO s toltnlj'"- HorLt will t»! comi.l'li"! UnulYsbodjofhuiuWi by Dsllanirns * •""• CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. COMDUCTSD BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THS " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. la PaiOB Hd. PALESTINE. OR THE HOLY LAND, I ' ' ^.■' VIEW OF JERUSALEM, FROM THE HEIGHTS ABOVE THE VALLEY OF JEHOSHAPHAT. pALESTiNE, or the Holy Land, it that portion of the Aiiatio continent, in which took piece thote remark- able transactions recorded in the books of the Old and New Tentament. It lies within the 31st and .H4th degree of north latitude, and forms part of Syria, a country situated at the eastern extremity of the Medi- terranean Sea, and bounded on the south by the exten- sive district of Arabia. On the north it has Mount Le- bnnus, and on the eust the river Jordan and the Dead Sea. Within these limits the country measures from two to three hundred miles in length, and about lifty in breadth ; and is therefore, In point of sixe, of nearly the same extent as Scotland. It has been called Pa- lestine, as is supposed, from the Philistines, who wero once its possessors ; hut in the Scriptures, from vari- ous circumstances, It has received the appellations of " the Promised Land/* " the Land of Canaan/' and ** the Land of Judea.'* In modern times, fvom its con- nection with the events which occurred widhfh It npnn the promulgation of Christianity, it is more generally spoken of under the name of *' the Holy Land." In hi physical character, this celebrated territory is com- posed of both a mountainous region and level plains, as will be subsequently descril»ed. T)ie prevailing character of Palestine scarcely cor- responds with its ancient fertility. This is chiefly to be attributed to the miserable state of vassalage in which the inhabitants are held. The devastating ef- fects of perpetual wars, and some physical changes, have alttn contributed to the destruction of ngricultu- ral Industry. Vet, after all, so excellent would the soil appear to be, and so ample its natural resources, that Canaan may still be characterised as a land flow- ing with milk and honey. Its pastures are extensive, and of the richest quality { and the rocky coimtry Is covered with aromatic plants, yielding to the wild bees who live in the hollow of the rocks such an abundance of honey, tha* the poorer classes use it as a common article of food. Dates, which are found springing up In the midst of the most arid districts, are also another tAiportant article of consumption. If to these wo odd olive (rfl, an artide m etwntial to an Oriental, the an. cient fertility of even the most barren part of Judxa becomes easily accounted for. Delicious wine Is still produced in Nomo districts, and the vnlHes bear plenti- ful crops of tobacco, wheat, barley, and millet. Among other indigenous productions may be enumerated, the cedar and other varieties of the pine, the cypress, the oak, sycamore, mulberry-tree, fig-tree, the willow, accacia, aspen, arbutus, myrtle, tamarisk, oleander, oshar, doom, the turpentine, almond, peach, chaste, and locust trees ; the mustard-plant, aloe, citron, apple, pomegranate, and many flowering shrubs. Other indigenous productions have either disappeared or are con6ned to circumscribed districts. Iron is found in the mountain-range of Libanus, and silk is produced In abundance in the plains of Samaria. Generally speaking, the climate is mild and salu- brious. From May to August the sky is clear and cloudless, but during the night there falls a copious dew, which moistens the soil. Intensely cold nights, however, frequently succeed to very sultry days — a vicissitude more than once referred to in Scripture. Kaiii fulls iu sufficiency during the rest of the year, to which, in the absence of springs, the fertility of Palestine is mainly attributable. The streams with which it is watered, with the exception of the river Jordan, are merely brooks or torrents fed by the co- pious periodical raius. In the dry season, not one of them retains its water, and the only resource of the natives is iu the wells, or tanks of water collected du- ring the rainy season, when the torrents pour down from the hills with a violence which sweeps every thing before it. To avoid the destruction consequent upon such visitations, is probably the reason why the towns and villages of Palestine are ulmoit uniformly found built upon elevated ground. With respect to the xoology and ornitholog)' of this country, our information is very Imperfect. The other objects of interest which It contains teem to have the effect of almost totally withdrawing the attention of travellers from its natural blitory. The wilder anU mala referred to in Scripture, sucli as the lion, wol^ leopard, &&, have almost totally disappeared. Has> selqulst says, that the only animals which he saw wer« the poraipine, jockall, fox, rock-goat, and fallow-deer. Captain Alangles describes an animal of the goat species as large as the ass, with long knotty upright horns. The horse does not appear to have been adopted till after the Babylonish captivity, the wild ass being deemed worthy even for the purposes of royalty. The breed of cattle reared in Bashan and GJlead were re- markable for their siae, strength, and fatness ; but this Is far from being the case now. In omUhoI<^y, the vul- ture, falcon, jackdaw, green wood-spite, bee-oatcher, nightingale, field-lark, goldfinch, partridge, quail, and the quail of the Israelites, the turtle and ring dove, are found, and various descriptions of land and water game are abundant. The Holy I^and is infested with a frightful number of lizards, different kinds of ser- pents, npers, scorpions, and various insects. Flies of every species are also extremely annoying. Ants are very immerous in some parts : one traveller deaoribei ! the road from El Arisch to Jaffa, as, for three days' journey, one continued ant-hill. THE inaToay of Palestine. .^^'i-. In thtt patriarchal ages, it appears to have been & pastoral country. Inhabited by indeiiendent chiefs si> miiar to those who now traverse the cxteiisivo plains of Arabia. On the return of the Istaflites from Egypt, it is descrilwd e^ a land flowing with milk and honey; very confide* able progress had been made in agriculture, and the vices of luxury ha** ir.aub --lami- ing progress. A series of events having dclivct *d this country into the hands of the (sraelites, it w..s divided by Joshua among the ten trib -s ; Judah, Ben- jamin, Simein, Dan, Gphraim, Ze oilun, Naphtali, and part of Manasseh, had their piTtion allotted on the western, commonly called thU side of Jordan ; while Reuben, Oad, and the remai-ing part of Mb* nasseh, were placed on the eastern dde, commonly called beyond Jordan. Israel, after rt^maining with, out any regular -government, but ruled by occasional 'Mi CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. judgM, wM u lao||th, on ika dtrouid of tlia people, eoQMMt»A into • 0on«raliy, oi whkh Saul ww the flrdMng. Snifttttfigu ol Dmli and 8ol«aon, k taavD* (wa of *a ma* •oufiahtnf kiniioiai of Atla. On iha aaat It aztandal aa iar aa the Euphra- laa, and having obUiaad porta on tha Bad Baa and Iha Madiierranaan, waa wwa m to nsmmaraa tha riTal of Tyre. Thit proaperily suffered a great decleniion In eoBae^ueaae of the whiim which took plaoa in the Unsdoin by the nipanllnn of tb* ten Iribaa, and the ■atablltbmeni of die rlra] Ungdomi of Samaria and Jiidaa. They continued both ooniiderable, howeveri till the riie of the great empirea of the Euphrates which were deatined tu iwallow up all the weat of Aaia. Tht kiogi of Ntnenb and Baoylon experienced euoh an obatinate reaiitauce, that t&ey conceirad it Impoaaibla to complete the a«^^^ea^, tuuaaa W carry- ing eartiTt tnt laraal ami than Jadah, into the eaat- •rauorlnraofthaireiuln. TUa eolipae, kowerer, of «ha Jewiak omm and Battea, laaiad ooJy tlU tha dowaMl of Babylaa. Cjmu, aa eaOgklenai and «• neraa* a»»tiMW» i daMnaiaad to beria Ua iainl>T aaaalaf aliaMMjrloiUaaiiWfaoria. BeaUDwad thai «• Mtam !• Ihair aaaalry, ta rabnUl Ihalr temnia, I m* Ikair acdaalaalleal aonalltatioa. Uaad tkaf a proirUMe of Fania till afkar I «f Alanmdar, to wkom It aahaitlad wMb a. AAarikapartitloa ofUiampl-a, it J aadar Ika pawar of tha klnga of Syria, laaaialdaalBthalBTaalonof tha Ptalamiee. 8iaaas af tha empire. The Jaws hare never Maeaal Craas this fetal oratthrow. Yet, though dis- li iaiay all aaliasia, and arary where oppressed lanlaaC thay have never mUed with any other ah, MM hars rataiaed uaJImlalahad all the peeu- llaa of Ihair raUgiaa and manaeft. The Romans, on ehtalalng ftiU sumssilaii of this ooontry, divided the part on this side of Jordan into three tatrarchiea, Judaa Prcner, Samaila, and OalUeaL The country ceotlmied long In a tnmblad state, la ceaseauenca of ska insufiacticiw af tha remaining part of the Jews. Ob the conveiaiaa ef the Rcsnaaa, however, to Chris, tiaaity, Judma became an object of religious vcnera- tioo. The Empreas Helena repaired in pilgrimage to the Holy Land, viewed all the spots which had Men Iha eeene af the greet erenia of goepel history, aa rated by a line drawn from north to south through the whole length of Palestine. With regard to the civil gasremroent of theoeuatry. It hat been remarked, that the pacha* are aa fireaueatly ahaiwed, or ao often at war with each other, taat the Jurisdiotian of the ma- gistrates ib citiea is so undefined, and the herediury or assumed right of the sheiks of particular districta so various, that It is extremely difHcult to discover any tattled rule by wkkh the admlaistraliou la con. ducted. The whole Turkish empire, indeed, has the appearanoa of being so precariously balanced, that the slightest movement, within or from without, seems Ukely to orertura it. Every wkece la teen ahaehite power stretched beyond the limits of all apparent con- trol, but inding, nevertheleea, a countanoting prin- ciple in that axtraaw degree of aeutaoeea to which tha instinct of aalf-praearvation la sharpened by the con- stant apprehension of injury. Henae springe that conflict betweao force and firiuid, not alwaya vialble, but always operating, whieh oharactariaae society In all deapoue countrlee. In tha atinute eubdlvislon of which In all oaaaa pvriakaa of the arbitranr nature of the aupreme govemiaent, tha traveller la ofUn reminded ol petHarchal tlaiea, whan ihere were found Judges and even kings eurdsing a separate dominion at tke dialanoe of a abort Jeumey bwa one another. This affactation of Indapisndence is every where exhibited in the Holy Land, from the pachaa of dtiea down to the sheiks of vlllagea, who, aware of the uncertain tenure by which thur maatera nmain in ofllce, are disposed to treat their orders with con- tempt. Like tkam, too, thay turn to their personal advantage the ^o^»I of Impoaltloa and extortion which belongs to every one who is dreteed " In a little brief authority i" and thua they sell Justice and many to the Ugliest bidder. Palestine has been conquered and occupied by such A variety of foreign racea, that it would bis difficult to decide who form the basis of its present population. The Turks, as elsewhere throughout the empire, oc- cupy all the civil and military posts ; while tue inha- bitants of the eaatem empire, under the name of Oreeks, form a very n. .;.erous part of the population. Tke oeunlry districts, however, are HUed to a great extent with noaudic A rabt. IIm dress ol this people in the Holy Land Is very simple i It ea a a l a l t of a biaa shirt, liaaeaidlng behnr the kneee, the legs and ftat being exposed, or the latiar soaietiiaee eoretad with the ancient oothnama* or buskin. A cloak is worn of varv coarse and heavy camal-bair cloth, almoat uni- veraally decorated with bUck and white atripee pasa. ing vertically down the back : this is one square piece, with holes for the arnu i It has a seam down the back. Upon their heads they wear a small turban, or dirty rag like a coarae bandkerchief, bound across the temples, one corner of which generally hangs down, and this, by way of distinction, is generally fringed with strings in knots. The Arab woman are not so often cosumled from view as in other paru of tiia Turkish empire : they render their persons as dis- agreeuMe in appearance ai any of the natives who in. habit the islands of the South' Sea. Their bodies are covered with a long blue shift. Upon their heads they wear two handlierrhiefs, one as a hood, and the other bound over it as a fillet across the temples. Just above the right nostril thav place a small but- ton, sometimes stu Jded with pearl, a piece of glass, or any other glittering siibstanc , Their faces, hands, and arms, are tattooed, and covered with hideous ecars their eyelaalies and eyes being always painted, or rather dirtied with some dingy black or bine pow- der : their lips are dyed of a deep and dusky blue, as if they had been eutmg blaektierries : their' teeth are jet litack I their nails and Angers brisk red : thei^ears are loaded with ponderous rings ; and, altogether, it might appear as if some demon had euployed his in- genuity to disfigure the loveliest work of the creation. Tlie true Arab is always the i.ihabitsnt of the desert, a name given to any solitude, \vhether barren or fer- tile. Their tiniai weapons consi:>t of a lance, a po- niard, an iron mace, a battle-axe, £=i sometimes a matchlock gun. The moveables of a whole family sel- dom exceed a camel's load. They reside always in tents, on the open plain, or up Hicting accounts we shall make aa judicious aMlactlan at pceslble, after giving a abort HItTOBT or Till CITT. A oontemporary of Abraham, Mekhlsadec, Is called Kiag of talem, MOO years befora Christ. ThisSalem Is supposed lobe the dty subsequently called Jerusalaia. Afiar this it caaw lata Iha peseeteieisaf the Jakudieai aad when tha Iara*ilte*aaai|iiered the land of promiae, ISM years bafore Christ, It was aadgned in tha dlvU iion of tha aamttry ta tha irthaeT ■■laailn Tha Jabuailaa, hawavar, Maar aftwawda to has* awa. laa e/ «a alaaat far Da»M d It after hie aaaw, aad haOi Tyre, tal of Iha dty, ealM It IhaillthaeaMla lead tha taomla ta ha hadt br tha ifcUM artfatt of re. Under hla iBrfin. JanitiliM was tha eapi. ' hbtgdata af J*Uk. Ftsa liwa it «ai pl aaiii a d i Itat by flka ■ HP lliiM » ihea hr the AraMonti by Oa landllaai aoi agafai by tha Egyptians, tU yaan haigra Chiiat. Hatadataa ako manlkms the hat eestfuett ef it, caUiac tha ally Ka- dytus, which rasoabiee Keduihah tha Holy < aad Iha Moharaaiedana atill call tha d«r n Kada. At ktt, Nebuchadneaaar, during tha nlan ef fadtHsk, ooiu quered the kludsB, rated the dlT ta Iha giaaBd U6 years befiua Christ, aad aarrlad tta Jaw* captiva to Babylon. SereBly year* after, Oynu gara them par- misalon to return aad rehaild laa taiy aad leaipla This waa don* nndarthadlrectioa of Ihefr high prieels, Eara and Neheealah, whoae niiiisaiiis govanied thesis ahuigtia*. Tha alary ef Aliiaai*r'* aiaklng a pa- dCc viall to Jemsaleia, eAer hit **a«iitit ef Tyra, la conaidered a JawMi laraathia, a* JaaMhut I* Iha only author who aiantfaiaa It. Alaaaadai't luntttm. Ptdemy, captured Jeruaahat, aad artiad a giaat number of the hettar east af Jaws ta Akaaadria. For a long time afkar it wa* takaa by Aalloahui the Oiaat, it remained under the jurisdktIaB af the Hrrlan kings. Under the Maccabees, the Jew* ware ^alB fne far a cons i der a ble tioM^ aad ehoae their ova rules*. One af tha Isal af th**% Aii*t*hBht, laviMd Poiapay tha Oraat iMa Iha aaaMfir. aM^a* Janadaa cwa* Chri*!. But a* hi at laaat In with tha Roaian gavar a aia, *b~ troublaa, which w*te AaaUr *•<*( h« tha i of tha dty, and extermhiatint af iha lahiHiaiiH. by Vespadan and TItua, a**r 8 bbady titga, A. Bi JD. Some buildings, hossavar, inaaM aaaiw tha mia. The Jew* ifldB e*U*elad lafMhar, baOt aa Iha plid*^ and once more rebelled against the Romans, whiehao provoked the Emperor Adrian, that, in tha year lISv he ordered all that TItua had spared to be destroyed. He eomnuKi'l^d a aew dty v> be balk on its puaa, called .Slia Cai litoUaa, in which no Jew wee permitted to dwell. Coaslaatiiia the Oraat, aad bis mother Helena, from pious motives, ordered all the Heathau monuments to be destroyed, and erected many new Christian edifices. Julian conceived the idea of re- building the old temple of the Jews, but Is said to have baen hindered from executing his plan by tha eruption of subterranean fir*. The city ramained under the gorerument of the eastern emperors, till Chosroes, King of Persia, conquered it in the year 614. It was recovered, howevpr, by the Emperor Herodius, in the peace of flOS. This prince prohiUlad th»Jews from dwelling there, and ao alieiialad tk» patriarch of Jerusalem, Sopbroniua, by sectarian dit ferences, that the Saracen Caliph Umar fimnd little dllficulty in making himself master of the dty, a. d. 637. The Saracens, unwilling to forego the profit* of pilgrimage, aUowed the Christiana to resort thithar as formerly, upon the payment of a considerable tax, so that lirasuem was nearly as much frequented a» ever, till the inroads of the Turks In 1076. That bai^ barniis ).. pie committed suc!i outrages on the pilgrims, that tkey could lu longer visit the holy sepulchre ia safely i and this InrBiad eoe of th* maring cause* of the crusades, in one of which Jerusalem was taken, and ruled, along witk the surrounding territory, dur- ing upwards of sixty years, by five Latin kings, when it yielded to the arms ef Saleein. After changing suc- oeMively its Modem masters, it waa annexed, in lftl7, to the Turkish empire^ of which it hw ever since formed a part. OEaKBAl. DESCBIPTIOM OT JiaOSALBM. This celebrated d'y of Paleatine is siti ued at tba distance of about furty-five miles east from the shore* of the Mediterranean Sea, within the jurisdiction ui the pacha of Damascus. Its envlroas are barren and mountainous. Tke dty lies on the weetem dedivity of a hill of baaalt, surraundid with rodu and deep valliea, with a much colder dinul* than one would expect from its geonaphical situation. It is now only between two and three mOa* in drcult, and can be walked ronnd in fetty-tva minute*. The town la built irregularly, saaseakal In the fima of a eauara, has pretty high walla, and dx gala*, which still bear Hebrew names. The honsas ai« of sandstone, Cfarca stasia* high, and wldunit window* In Iha lower itory. ■'■^i%i PALESTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. Thlt lifaUu uotformity i> only dlvenlAed hare and than by lb* if 1cm of tho ■waquM, tho towon of tho charcMi, and • faw eyp mm . Tlw populMion haa baan nrioiulT aitlmaud u bam tafiot to 30,000. <■ It aaa hardly," layt Mr Cama, la hla Letlan frain dia Katt, " asaaad twanty thouMHidi Mn thoutand of lliaia ara Jawa, Bra Uuiutaad ChrJatlana, aud the im* nankar of Turka. The lower dlnalon nf the dly,** he oonlinuei, " towaida the eael, ii ohielly oo. cupied br the Jewa i It ii the dirtieit and moel ima. live of alL Sarenl of thia people, howerer, are ra- dial affluent, and lire in a Tory cnnfoctable itvlai both man and women are mora aitractiTa in tneii fartooi than thoae of their nation who reeida in Ka- tuft, and their fbaturea are not so •tronfly narked with tha indelible Hebrew charastart, but mueh more alld and intareatlnf . But few saaaangera In lenarai •re mat with In the itreaia, which hnea tha atpeet, where the eonrenta an iltoatad, of fer ta ai m, from the height and ttrtngth of tha walk the monka hare thought nieiinry >' <>>^ defbnoe. BandMimely drataed paraooa ana aeldom iee% ea tha Jawa and CSiriatiana ratbar atndy to preaern an appeafanea of poverty, that they may not anaila the jealouay of the Tutu. Tha women, fai their elaaa vnila and whlu dieaaee, look like waking oorpeea. Tha ttraeu am napaTad, and Oiled either with heapa of doat or with Bin, Nothing la to ba aaan but veiled fignrea in wbha, intolent Turk*, and ttupid or nwlanobaly Obriitiani." That Jaruaalain i> no place for the cuU tintion of the aita or lolenoea, one may aaaily oon- jeetura from tha malignant ganhii of Turkish lieapo. tini, and tha iorbidoing aapect at Chriatian tuper. ■tttion. Weavera and ilipper-makan are the only artliani. A muhitode of nlica, which an probably not all manufactured in the citv, but are Mul in alio from the neighbourhood, ara told to tha craduloui plU grime. Nererthaleea, this city ibrma a central point of tnda to the Arabian* in Syna, Arabia, and Kgypt. The people export oO, and import rioe by the way of Acn. The necetsarlaa of life ara in profusion, aud quite cheap, tha gam* ezcellenl, and the wine rery good. Tlie pilgrims are always a chief source of sup- port to the inhabitanta at Easter ; thty often amount to fiOOO. But few ct them ara Europisaos. Jerusa- lem haa a gorarnor, a cadi or supreme judge, a com- mander of the citadel, and a muni, to fireside over re- ligious matters. The citadel, which u pretended to haTe been the castle of David, is a Gothic building threnghout. It it called the Pisan Tower, probably because it waa built by the Pisans during the cru- ■adaa. All the pilgrima go to tha Franciscan monas- tery of the Holy Saviour, where they are maintained a month gratuitously. Besides this, there ara sixty- on* Christian convent* in Jerusalem, of which the Armenian is the iargeat. They ara supported by be- nevolent contributions, principally from Europe. The ehnrch of tha Holy Sepulchre has been for ISOO years the most sacred place in Jerusalem. The temple of the Mohammedans, which is regarded as one of their Sreatest sanctuaries, i* magnificent. No Jew or hrittian is permitted to enter the inner sanctuary. Besides many old Jewish monuments, there are a great many Greek and Roman, several Christian, and ewpedally Gothic monumante, which originated in tlie time* of the emtadea. THE IKMOin or OKAI. ' ' ' The meet splendid ediflce which Jerusalem, and indeed the Turkish empire, contains, is the Mosque of Omar, the St Peter'a of Turkey. We have said that no Ckriatiaa la allowad to enter it. Or Biohardson, however, euaoaeded in obtaining admission, and was eondueted through the interior by tlie sacristan, who pointed, " in the pride of his heart, to the elegant marble walls, tlie beautifully gilded ceiling, the well where the true wor^ippers drink and wash (with which wa also biassed our palates and moistened our beards), the paltry reading-desk with the ancient Koran, the handaome eoliuuus, and the green stone with the wonderful nails. A* soon a* we had com- pleted this circuit, pulling a key from hi* girdle, he unlocked the door of the railing that separates the outer from the inner part of the mosque, which, with *a elevation of two or three step*, l*d u* into the sacred reose% Her* he pointed out Ue patchea of Moaaic in the Aoor, the round flat stone which the prophet carried on his arm in battle; diiectad us to introduce our band through the hide In the wooden box, to feel the print of tha prophet's foot, and through the posu of the wooden rail, to ieel as well a* to see the mark of the angel Qabriei's fingers, iuto which I carefully put my own, in the sacred stone that occupiaa the centre of the mosque, and from which it derives the name of Sakhara ur Locked-up, and over which is suspended a fine cloth of green and red satin. It was so covered with duet, that, but for tha Information of my guide, I (houldnotbavebeen able to tell the comi Finally, he pointed to the door that leada'inu the •mall cavern below, of whiah he had not the key. I looked up to the interior of the dome, but, there being (swlampa bamiag, the light wai not sufficient to show ae any of It* beauty fariher than a general glance. The columns and curiosities were counted over again •nd again, the arehea were specially examined and •nnmeraied, to be sure that I had net mlseed nor for- gelten any of them." Dr Richardson having been permitted to visit this •plendid ediUce during the day, be (bund that the di- '— s of the enohMure in which it stand* are about gan at Jeruaalem, and wa* used by those who were endowed with the gift of vaticination. Like the stone in the fairy tale which changed it* hues with tiie for- tunes of the possessor, tliis stone manifested sympathy in the fate of the prophets when they were compelled to evacuate Jerusalem, even so far as to give indica- tion* of a desire to accompany them in their flight. But, by the interposition of the anffel Galiriel and Maliomet, it was found immediately in the place where it now stands, and around it the Caliph Omar reared his gorgeous temple. In the interior of tlie rock whereon the Sakhara stands, there is a cave into which Dr Richardson could not obtain admittance. It is a room forming an irregular square of about eighteen feet surface, and eight feet high in the middle. The roof is that of a natural vault, quite irregular. In descending the staircase, there is upon the right hand, neiir the bot- tom, a little tablet of marble, liearing the name of £1 Makam Souleman, the Place of Solomon. A similar one upon the left is nnmed Ei Makam Daoud, the Place of David. A cavity or niche on the south-west side of the rock is called Kl Maltam Djilirila, the Place of Gabriel ; and » «nrt of stone table at the north-east angle is denominated El Makam El HoUer, the Place of Elias. In tbe roof of the apartment, ex- actly in the middle, there is an aperture almost cylin- drical through the whole thickness of the rock, about tiiree feet in diameter. This is the Place of the Pro- phet. Leaving tlie Mohammedan temple of worship, we shall now proceed to descritie one of far more intereet to the Christian reader, namely, THE CUDBCH OF THE HOLT aErULCBBE. Mount Calvary, the spot on which the crucifixion of Christ took place, was originally a rising ground witliout the walls, but was afterwards enclosed within the city, altered, entirely in its outlines, and made the site of a church founded by the Empress Helena. This Church of the Holy Sepulchre, as it is called, is about one hundred paces in length, and sixty in width. It is in the form of acircle, havinga heavy dome or cupola, the frame of which is made of the cedars of Lebanon, and covered with a kind of stucco. It has a spacious and magnificent appearance, the Corinthian order of architecture prevaihng.* Mr C^ne, in his '* Letters from the East," describes it aa follows i— " There waa a guard of Turka in a reoess just within the door, to whom every pilgrim is obliged to pay a certain sum for admissum; but we were exempted from this tax. In the laiddle of the first apartment is a large marble sbib, raised above tha floor, over which lampa are suspended i thl* 1* laid to ba the (pace where the body of the Redeemer wu anointed and prepared for the sepulchre. Yen then tnni to the left, and en- ter the large rotunda, which tarminatea in a dome at the top. In the centre of tb* floor stand* tha holy se- pulchre I it is of an oblong fef«i, and cenpesed at m very fine reddish stona broaghl boa the Red 8«a, thai haa quite tha appeara n ea af marUa. Asoending two or three low stape, aad taking off your tlioes, you Iter the first small apartaiant, which is floored with na>t.N, and the walls linad with the same. In tha centra k- a low abaft of white laarMo, being the spot to whiuh the angel rolled the stone from the tnducta you to the eide of the sepulchre. The tomb is nf a light brown and white marble, about six feet long und three feet high, and lb* same num- bar in bread b, being joined to the wait Between the sepuichr.i and the oppoeit* wall the space is very confined, rji'i not mora than four ur five persons can remain ir it st a time. The floor aud the walls are of a beF.utifui marlUe ( the apartment is a square of aiioot seven i wt, and a small dome rises over it, front which are sus^ cnous. The very spot where the cross was fixed la shown ; it Is a hole in the rock, surrounded by a sil- ver rim, and each pilgrim prostratee himself, and kisses itwilh the greatest devotion. Its identity i* probablt/ls strong as that of the cross and crown oi thorns v/ond a few feet below the surface ; hut whera is the scene around or within the city that is not da- faced by the sad inventions of the fathers ?** The priests connected with these sacred pUcmkenp up a system of religious ceremony, in aome of which it would be impossible to say whether solemnity, fer- vour, superstition, ignorance, or sheer madness, most ftredomlnatea. The ceremonies which take place dur- og the season of Easter are ridiculous and absurd la the extreme. Upon Good Friday night the monka enact a sort of tragedy of the death of our Lord, in which they severally perform the various characters, such as Joseph of Aritkmathea and Nicodemus. They have a figure of Christ as large as life nailed to a cross. This these solemn tragedians parade before them aa they walk in procession, and go through a representa- tion of the awful drama of his death, in which no cir- cumstance of moment is omitted, from tliesinging of the hymn to the anointing of the body for burial, and it* deposition in the sepulchre. The transaction* of Eas- ter day partake mora of comedy tlian tragedy. It ia a scene of superatitions riot and pitiful aHurdity, which we think it unnecessary to describe. The reader may have same idea of it by imagining to him- self what would be the consequences if bedlam were let looee upon the holy sepulchre. It is only doing justice, however, to thee* who have the keeping tun to Ii«tiav0 the ouiild identify the spot wliera tha i^«|iiilclira wM, the took «pMi«l cara tu rumov* evtry iritoa iif it, in ordar to introduce the fanciful and mo. uuen (vurk which now rematus/' The place may be ilie Mtiiin pdinted out to her, but not a remnant of the oriifiual Mpulehre can now b« atcertaiued. MOVNTl XlOlf Ann MOKIAH. f)ii rroiiii.^ the tmall n vine which diridet the miidem ritv from Mount /ion, the attention It al- tractM t4i tfim ancient mini, covered with buildinffi oonipamtivelv modem — the hotiie of Caiaphaa, the place where Chrtit held hit last lupper, and the tomb nr pftlace of IHvid. The Ant of thete is now a church, the duly of which ii performed by the Armenians i iho eecwid, ooneecrated hy the amrcting solemnity, with the memory of which it is still associated, pre- sents a mnuue and a Turkish hospital { while the third, a small vaulted apartment, contains only three •epulehret, fanned of dark-ooloured stone. This holy hill is equallv celebrated In the Old Testament and in the New. Here the surretsor of Haul built a city and • royal dwelling t here he kept for three months the ark of the covenant ; here the Redeemer Instituted the sacrament, which conimemoratet his death ( here be appeared to his disciples ini the day of his resur- rectlon. The place hallowed by the last supper, if we may believe the early fathers, was transfiirmed Into the Ant Christian temple the world ever saw, where St James the l^ss was consecrated the first bishop of Jerusalem, and where he presided in the Arte council of the church. Finally, it was from this vpot that the Apoatlet, in complianoe with the injunc- tion given them, went forth to teach all nations. A shnllow vale, called the valley of Milln, separates Mount Zion tnwn Mount Moriah.'on whirh the temple stood ; this wal originally an irregular hill, sepiirate t'uym Mount Zion and Acra, ai well ns from Uervthn. For the pukpose of extending the appendages (if>^he temple over an equal surface, and tit increase the artiud the summit. It became necessary to support the sidM, which farmed a square, by immense workx. In order to connect It with Mount Zion, it was necessary to throw a bridn acrou the vatloy of Jeho^haphat. Ac- cording to Josephut, the execrable but magnificent monarch, Herod, rebuilt the second temple ; but theie ii reaaon to suppose that he only addeo considerably to Its extent. Jta ftite is well known i the prediction of otir Saviour, that one stone should not be left upon another, was literally fulAlled. After the Caliph Omar took Jerusalem, buildings were erected on the fpot where 8olomon*s temple stood, the ruck was eaclos^ with waits, and, by kubsiMjuent addilit)ns and <*mbellikhmeuta, it btn^methe splendid moeque which we have already described. lieavlng the diy at the gate of St Stephen, the pil- grim is conducted to the spot nearly contiguous, where it is considered he suffered martyrdom. He is then shown the church of the sepulchre of the Virgin Mary, situated in the vallev between the Mount of Olives and Jerusalem, founded by St Helena. This is a small square building, flat on the roof, with u door on the south side, by which thero is a descent into the interior by steps, having on the right hand a sm^l chapel, with the tomb of St Aim, the mother of Mary. On the left is another similar to the former, where Joseph, the husband of the latter, was interred. Although tlie authenticity of such ansertious depends on the probabilities of tradition, yet the solemn stillness of tho place, the sepulchral f^liKmi, and, above all, the asaociations which are calculated to affect tlie mind in seeing every object about this city, combine to render a visit to this consecrated spot so deeply inte- resting, that a traveller of tho least sensibility never can forget it* jiotryr or olives, &c. Pasting along a small bridge thrown over the Ked« ron, tiie Mount of Olives next presenu itself. Altout half way towards the summit, there are several gnittos excavated lahyrir.thically in the rock. Higher up is another cavern, or subternineona ehurch, as it is now formed, consisting of several arched vaults, where the ApostleM citmposed the creed (tearing their name; but this is almost tilled with nibbish. About Afiy yards farther, tlie spot is ih>inted otit where Christ looked down upon Jenisalem in grief, and pronounced that ever memnrHtde prophecy which has Iwen so awfully end strikingly fulHIled. ' On the top of the Mount are the reuinins of a small church or chapel, in the octagon form, with a cupola, denominated the Asoeiiiion. This was built by 8t Helena, who, through the means of her ton Constantine, may be Donvidered as possessed of the treasures of the Roman world, and has left behind her, not only in and al>out Jeru<(n1<*m. but in other parts, Innumerable monu- ments of " her fnith and lnl»ours of love." Here there It shown the impreitition of the left foot or sandal of R mttu, which is ten inches in length and four in breadth, made on a rock or stone, said by the guides to be thut of Christ, when hia foot last touched tha earth, though of eoune tlili is one of those modem inventioni which prevail throughout the region. UO OAauiir or ucthsemanr. The garden of tiethiemnno, of all the vardeni In the world the m«>iit hallowed and Interesting, is si. tnated at the foot of the Mount, and near ibe Hrnok Kedron. It is a piece nf ground lurrounded by a cooriM) loose wall of a few feet in height, and about the third part of an acre in extent. There are seven olive trees of enormotis magnitude remaining, and separate from each other, said to have been in exist- ence since the time of our Lord i they are highly vene- rated by the Christians, who oonsider any attempt to cut or injure them as amounting to an act of profana- tion. Should a Catholic be known to pluck any of the ieavea, it subjects him to a sentence 4if axrommu- nlcatiun from church privileges, llend* are made of the stona of tbe olive, and a string of tbirn Is the most sacred ul*Ject that can posaibly b« pretenied to a tra- veller. It was to this garden that Christ had occasion to resort with his diBciples|. to engage in devotional me- diution, and a view of It is well calculated to impress the ('hristian mind with the deepest religious awe. At the upper end Is the place where the Apostles, Peter, James, and John, fell asleep during the pas- sion of their divine Master, and, in the middle of the garden, the place where Judas betrayed him. Many other interesting )>laces and grottos are here pric pillars of small sixe, but of just proportions. In the interior are three chambers, all of tbetn rude and irregular in their form ( in one of which were several gravestones, removotl, we may suppose, from the open ground for greater security. Like all the rent, they were flat slabs of a long shape, fnun three to six inches in thickness, and evidently a portion of the limestone- rock which compotes the adjoining hills. Chateaubriand is of opinion, that, except the pool of Ilethesda at Jerusalem, we have no remains of the firimitive architecture of Its inhabitants. The tombs n the valley of Jehoshnphat display an ullianre of Kgvptian anil Urecian taste, mixed with the peculiar style of the Hebrews. In the valley of JehnshRphat the Jews have a place of senulture, wliich contains u numlwr of grnvestones, where those who renide in Jerusalem are In the habit of going in procession at certain seasons, for the purpose of observing a re- ligious festival in memorv of tho dead. There still exists a strong desire in tliis people to mingle their dust with the aihes of their fathers, and man^ of them, as well as Christians, entertain the fantastical l>elief that the valley of Jehoshaphat is to l>e the scene of the Anal resurrection. With respect to its present aspect, Chateaubriand beautifully observes, *' What with the sadness of Jerusiilem, from which there as- cends no smoke nor hsues any sound — the solitude of the mountains, in which we perceive no living Iwing — and the confusion of the tombs, all bmken, shattered, and half open — one could almost believe that the trump of doom had already sounded, and that the dead had begun to rise In the valley of Jehoshaphat" Uesldes the places already descril»ed in and altout the city which tradition has hallowed, are the follow. ing: — llenenth the gate of Bethlehem ii the iipot where Bethsheba wns Imthing when David tieheld her from the roof of ills palace, and the present tower of the king is built upon the site of the ancient palace. A small distance within the gate of St Stephen is the fiool of Uethenda. It ii one hundred and lifiy feet [ing, and forty broad. The sidci are walled with large stones Joined together by iron cramps, nn4 covered with flints emMdded in a substance resem- bling plaster. Here the lamlw destined for sarriHoe were washed, and here the Saviour Sbid tu tlie para- lytic man, ** Take up thy bed and walk.*' It rereiree a melancholy interest frtmi the ctmslderation that ll is the only remnant which remains of Jerusalem as It appeared In the days of Solomon. A wretched street leads from this to the governor's palace, u ipacioni and rnther ruinous building of Roman architecture. It contains some good apartments, the windows of which command an excellent view of the Mosque of Omar and its large area. In this palaro the innnki point nut the mom where Christ was onnflned befor* nis trial ; and at a short distance Is a dark and ruin- ous hall, shown as the Judgment-hall of Pilate. Yon then proceed along tbe street witera Christ liore his cross, in which, and In the streets leading up to Cal- vary, are the three places, where, staggering under the'weight, he fell. These are narked by three small pillars laid flat on the grotind. The very house of the rich man also is here, and the spot when Lazarus sal at his {gate. A pilgrim who comet to tha city must set no bounds to hti faith, ae he ii shown the place where the head of Adam was found, the rock on which tho martyr Stephen was stoned, and the place of the withered flg-tree, with the milk of the Virgin Mary, and some of the tears that St Peter wept on his hitter repentance. ■ETHAXr. After leaving Jerusalem bv the gate of St Stephen, crossing the valley of Jehnsnaphat, and passing the garden of (lethsemane and the Mount of Oliven, the pilgrim arrives at the village of Betlinuy, situated alKTut two miles from the city, where Jesus once re-, sided, and appeared tu his disdples after his resurrec- tion. On the road, we meet with the village of Beth- page, now a heap of ruins. Bethany Is noth small !inu poor t it Is, however, beautifully situated, nnd tbi view Jun above It is very magnificent. The cultli'a- tion of the surrounding soil Is much neglected. The object whirh first strikes the traveller, is a rulnnua cnstellnted pile, which It Is said Lacarus occuplu(h This, Iinwever, is one nf the oral legends which uboiind In this Interesting roumry, and, notwlthitundlng the great and superior claims' that all Us hallowed spota have upon our most serious affec-tions, weaken the impression of the best authenticated memorials, and etfect the association of piety with incredulity and dintrust. Not far distant are the ruins of a building, ■aid to have been the house of St Mark. A little to the right are tho vestiges of tho habitation of Mary Magdalene. But by tar the most interesting object is the tomb of Laxarus. The traveller first descend* to a cave, probably from fifty to sixty feet under ground, and lands on a small quandraiigular space, where there appears tu have been a communication with a church adjoining, which is now built up and converted into n mosque. In the wall of tliis apart- ment, there is an aperture of about three feet In breadth, formed by the raising of a large stune, as If by some convulsion of nature, which conducts into aa arched vault, said to l>e the spot where the body wai laid. It measures about fourteen feet in length, tea in breadth, and eight In height. With respect to tha identity of the tomb, Mr Carne observes, ** Its iden- tity cannot be doubted — the poeltionof Bethany could never have l>een forgotten — and this is the only se- pulchre in the whole neighbourhood." nETHLElIEll. Bethlehem, as being the birth-place of Christ, ii one of tiie most interesting plares in the Holy Land- The road leading to it is extremely rocky and barren, only diversified by some cultivated patches t>eMrlng m scanty crop of grain, and a profiision of wild flower*. On tlie way lies the ruined Tower of Simeon, who, upon lieholding the infant Meeiiah, expressed his willingness to leave this world; tha monastery of Klias, in which there is said to be a large stond, still retJiinlng an Impression of his bodv ; and the tomb of Rachel, rising In a rounded top, like those em'ted to the memory of a Turkish sultan. Farther on is the well of which David longed to drink, and of which his mighty men, at the imminent risk of their lives, procured a supply. To distinguish this town from another of the same name of the trit>e of Zehnlun, the Bethlehem we now approach is usually distin- guished by the addition of Ephrata, or bv'a refer- enre to the district in which it is situated. It Is a fine village, situated upon a mountain, and surrounded with gardens of fig-treet and olives. The houses are very humble, and flat on the roof, with stairs on th* outside. • THE coNTcyT or raAVciscAMs. The convent of Franciscans stands to the east, and is separated from the town ; it is contiguous Ut tho church of St Alarv, which was built by Constantine and the Krapress Helena, over the place of their na- tivity, and forms, with the adjacent monasteries, a vast pile, in the shape of a cross. The church Is of cuusiderHble magnitude, and was considered atone pcriiHl tu be unrivalled in point of lieauty and magni- ficence. Tbe roof is constructed of the cedar of Lelia- nun, and sup|>orted hy four rows of l<^ty marble columns, lieing about fifty in number. The interior of the whIIb whs encrusted with marble, but rubl«d of it to Hdorn tbe piilace of the paeha at Urand Cairo. The choir is spacious, and terminatee in a semlelrcl^ In which the principal altar is placed. This partuf PAI.KSTINE, OR THE HOLY LAND. •nipt, nn' nca n!««fn- rur imcriflot 10 tlie i>*ni> It rre«i»«i tliin thkt It mnlfiin •• it Icliixl itrwt , a tjindinii irchUiH-mre. winildwi of n MntqiiB of till) iiiniiki fliieil tiefor* rk and ruin. PiUte. Yon rlit Ixm hit ig lip to CbI* [(ring iiniliir y three imaU f'hnuioof th« B liAxnrilR tat :hB city mint «rn the placa rock on which I place of th« Virgin Mary, t on hit bitttf »f St Stephen, ,d pavtlng tho of Olives, th« lany, litunied leius once re- r hli renirrec- lllage of Beth- Is tiotU «niall Atated, r.nd tha The culll>'»- (glected. The r, la a nilnoua ani« octiipleif. I which abound Ithitandlng the hallowed apott ni, weaken the memnriali, and incredulitv nnd IS n, and aurrounded The houiea are with tttin on the _:iiCAXi. di to the eaat, and contiguout t4t tho lit by Coniiantin* place of their na. tnt munasteriea, a The church ia of coniidered at one lieauty and magnl. tlie eedar of Kelia. of lofty marble bar. The interior rble, but rubbed of IB at Urand Cairo, ktea in a lemlcircle, icod. Tliii part uf the edjtlce la eovered with a cupola, adorned with ilgiirea in Mnaaic A imall •taircaia conducts to the cupel of the Natirlty, which it under ground. Before the altar levaral many lilver lampt arekept cnniuntly burning) and the >pot where it ii tald Chrlit wat bom, it marked with a lur, formed of white marble, Inlaid with Jasper, and surrounded with a radiance or glory. On thit ihtt* It encircled the following in- scrlpiion I — Hie lie virgin* Jrtui rhrlatui nslui rat Hciv Jmui C'hrhl wm bum of Ih* Virgin Mary. To the right of this is shown the place where stood t)ie manger in which he waa laid. It apiiears to be cutout of the natural rock, and lined with marble. Lamps of silver are always kept burning before It. A itiirniw pusage leads fnnn this chapel Into that of the limiirents who were slain by the command of Herod, where Is a cell, in which, say the miiiika, St Jerome nmde a translalliin of the Bible. A short disUnce fVom the convent is a grotto, where, according to tra- dition, the mother of Jeaiii ooneealed herself and child, whilst Joaeph wat making arrangemenU fur their Mght. Four milea to the south of Belhlpb . In a moat secluded situation in the middle of mm. iilns, are si- tuated the celebrated pools or fountains of Solomon. These are three in number, of a quadrangular form, imt out of the living rack. About half a mile lielow there Is a deep valley, embnaomed In high bills, whore it it said the gardens of Solomon 'vere laid out. From the top of the church at Iwthiehem there is a fine proapect of the surrounding country, extending to Tekoa on the south, and Kii-gt'di on the east. In the latter place Is the grotto where David, a native of Bethlehem, cut off the skirt of Saul's garment. Be- tween this point and .lerusalem are several small de- tached towers, of a square form, built in the midst of vine-lauds. These are for the aixaimmodatiim uf watchmen appointed to guard tlie produce Crom thlevei and wild beattt, at alluded to by the evauge- litt 8t Mark. With regard tu the tradition respect- ing the cave of the Nativity, even l>r Clarke admila the Indubitable authenticity. This has been estab- lished by an unbroken chain of evidence, which ez- Mndt from the lint aget of Christianity to the pre- acnt time. With respect to the number of inhabi- tauta which it oontaiua, much diversity of opinion prevails. Mr Buckingham says they' amount to ibbove 1000 ; Dr Hichai^son sets down the number at 300 t and Mr Came at 700, adding at the same time *' that they appear tu live very meanly." This ap- peart to be the nearett approximation to the truth. Near tu Bethlehem are the ruins of a church and convent, which were erected by tho pious empress over the place where the angelt appeared to the shep- herds. Hardly any part of it haa survived the detola- tion to which every edifice in Palestine has beeu re- peatedly subjected. rOSVEKT or tT JOIIK. On the way back to Jerutalem, the traveller alightt on tlie omveut of St John, in the desert. This mo- nattery is built over the dwelling where the Baptist It tupposed to have been born. The spot on which he was brought forth is marked with u star of marble, bearing this inscription t — Hlo proc-unor Domini ChritU natus est. Hen) Uie furcniiiiwr uf Christ tho Lord was bom. The church belonging to thit eitablishment haa been deaorlbed aa one ol the best in the Holy Land. It haa an elegant cupola, and a pavement of Mosaic, with aome paintings i but the appearance, notwithstanding] is mean and indifferent, as if its votaries were few, and but little concerned in preserving ita ancient grandeur. The cave which the secinid Klias is said to have inhabited, ia situated on the brow of a steep mountain, In a moat dreary and desolate spot. The ICrotto, which wimtd seem to lie cut out of the rock, IB twenty-fonr feet in length by twelve in breadth, and in front of it flows a spring of water. To tho aouth, and at some distance from the desert, is pointed out the well where Philip baptised the eunuch, at re- corded in the Acts of the Apostles. Quitting these places, tho traveller turns his face aouthward to Tekoa and Hebron. The former, which wat built by Rehuboam, and is distinguished as the birth-place of Amos the prophet, presents some con- aiderable ruins, and even a few remains of architec- ture. It appears to have stood upon a hill, which is deaorlbed aa being alwut half a mile In length, and a furlong broad. On tho north-eastern corner there are flragmenta of an antique building, supposed to have been a fortress ; while about halt way up the atcent there are similar indications of a church, now in a Tuinoui condition. Towards the south, varioui mani. ftitatioat of ancient dvilixation present themselves. Pooooke mentiona a ruined caatle called Creightoun, iltuated on the tide of a ateep hill, and a church dedi- cated to St Paiilaleone. At a short distance there is a grotto, which uu uiie occaalon la said to have con- tained 30,000 men t and hence it is supposed to be one of those retreau in the faatneuet of Kn-gedi, to which David fled from the purauit of Saul. About two milea to the aouth^aat is the Mount of Bethnlia, near a village of the same name, a position which is thought to agree with that of Beth-haccerem, men- tlonta by Jeremiah as a proper plnre for a beacon where the children of Benjamin wero to sound the trumpet in Tekoa. This strong ]Kitt Is said to have been held by the Knighit of Jtnualom forty year* 141 after the capital bad fallen i but on what authority, we know nut. BEiaoit. Hebron Is considerably removed from the common track of pllgrimi and tourists | it is a large tour, and contains a monument, dedicated to the memory of Abraham, and his immediate descendanu. M. Burek- hardi, wlio saw it In 1007, bean testimony to the fact that the sepulchre, once a (Ireek church, la now ap- propriated to the worship of Mohammed. The atcent to it it by a large suircase that leads to a long gallery, the entrance to which is by a small court. 1 uwardi the left Is a portico resting upon piliara. The vesti- bule of the temple contains two roomt i the one being the tomb of Abraham, the other that of Sarah. In the Ixidy of the church is the sepulchre of Isaac | and in a similar one upon the left is that of his wife. On the opposite side of the court Is another vestibule, which has also two rooms, being respectively the dor- mitory of Jacob and of his spouse. At the extreniitv of the portico, upon the right hand. Is a door which leads to a sort of long gallery that still serves fur a mosque I and passing from thenoa, Is observed another room, oonuining the ashes of Joseph, which are said to have been carried thither by the people of Israel. All the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magniflcently embroidered with gold ; those of their wives are red, embroidered in the same way. Hebron is said to contain about four hundred fami- lies, of which about a fourth part are Jews. It is situated on the slope of a mountain t has a strong cnstlei can boast abundance uf provisions, aconsider- able number of shops, and some neat houses. The whole of the country between Tekoa and Hebron Is Hiier and better cultivated thaa in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. We shall now, with Chateaubriand for our guide, proceed to Till DEAD SEA. On leaving Bethlehem for the Dead Sea, the tra- veller goes eastward, through a vale where it is said Abraham waa wont to feed his flacks. This pastoral plain is succeeded by a range of mountainous and bar- ren ground. Descending from this, two lofty toweri rise from a deep valley, marking the site of the con. vent of Santa Saba, a very ancient church. Ita situa. tion is very dreary, being built amidst precipices on the brink of a deep and gloomy dell, whero the brook Kedrnn flows. In advancing, the country still presents a desolate aspect. The road at length seeks a lower level, and approaches the rocky border which bounds the valley of the Jordan t when, after a toilsome Journey of ten or twelve hours, the traveller at last beholds tne Dead Sea, and the line of the river j the landscape, how. ever. Is by no means grand or prepotsessing. Two long chains of monntaini run in a parallel direction from north to south, without breaks, and without un- dulations. The eastern or Arabian chain is the high- est ; and when seen at the distance of eight or ten leagues, it resembles a prodigious perpendicular wall. Not —1 summit, not the smallest peak is distinguish- able t only slight inflections are here nnd there ob. served, as If the hand of the painter who drew this horiaonul line along the sky had trembled in some pla't if inanimate existence ; their leaves ara covered with salt, and their bark has a smoky smell and taste. Instead of villages, you perceive the ruins of a few towers. In the middle of this valley flowi a discoloured river, which reluctantly throws itself intu the pestilential lake by which it is engulfed Its course amid the sand can be distinguished only by the willows and the reeds that border it ; among whi the Arab lies in ambush to attack the traveller, and to murder the pilgrim. We now arrive at the celebrated lake which in Scrip- ture is called the Df ad Sea ; among tlie O reeks and La- tins, Asphaltites; and among the Arabs. Uahua I^ooh, or the Sea of l^ot. Considerable diversity uf opinion has prevailed, both among the ancients and moderns, regarding the exact dimensions of this lake, which as yet are probably not accurately ascertained. Mr Carne says, its length may probably be about sixty miles, and its average breadth eight. Mr Banks, however, who took observations from several neighbouring heights. Bays that its utmost extent does not exceed thirty miles. This discrepancy places the inaccuracy of travellen, with regard to their topographical de- seriplions of Palestine, in a very strong point of view. It ii surrounded on the east by lotty billi, txhibiting rugged and frightful preclpiceti on the north It Ii bounded by the plain of Jericho, through which It re- ceives the river Jordan. < >ther itraami are dischargfd into It t and there being no visible outlet, while iha banks are not overflowed, some have thought thero It a subterraneous channel communicating with tlie Me- diterranean I others readily account for the phenome- non. In the evaporation which neceisarilv takes place In a hot climate. ThU lake Is clear and limpid, re. sembling the colour of the sea. lu waian are of greater apecilic gravity than any hitherto discovered | they are in general fatal to animal life, nor do vege- tables flourish in their Immediate vicinity. The fishet carried hither by the river Jordan, according to the concurring testimony of travellers, speedily perish | but the latest observen aflirm that there are aoma small ones in the lake peculiar to ilaelf, aa alto that a few Inferior vegatablet may be seen in it. The water of the Dead Sea holds the following substancaa In b». lutiun I— Muriate of lime, 3.»!I0; Magneaia, 10.246 1 Soda, 10.300 1 Sulphate of lime, .OM. Pucocke, after bathing here, found his face covered by a thin crust of salt, and the stones which it oo- casionally overflows ore encrusted with the same substance. Mines of fossil salt are found in the neighbourhood. Many absurd fables were formerly circulated ratpecting the Dead Set. It was ainrmad that tlie pestlierous vapoun hovering over it were fatal to the birds attempting to fly across i but recent travellers aflirm that numeroua swallows skim the surface, and from thence imbibe the water neressary in the construction uf their nests. We would have passed over in silence the fact, that bodies are battel buoyed up in this Uke than in fresh water or in the ocean, did not travellen dwell upon the circumstnuce as something marvellous, and look upon the settling of the point, by tlieir swimming upon its waters, at a feat equal to that of Ilyron'i crotsing the Hellespont. A gluiico at the analysis given above will show tluit it is denser than sea water, and, hence, will bear up substances which there would sink. Great quantities of asphaltum, or mineral pitch, are always seen floating on the surface of the Dead Sea, and It is driven by the winds to the banks on the east and west t but the statement that a pestilential efflu- vium hovers over It, is rather apocryphal, Mr Curne inlorma ua that there is nothing of the kind. The neighbourhood of the lake abounds with volcanic pro- duct! ; and although eruptiont have coated for many centuries, eartliquaket are ttiil common in Syria and Palestine, The Dead Sea it always attociated with that dread- ful catastrophe recorded in Scripture, tho destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. With respect to the ageuta employed for executing the purpose of divine ven- geance, various conjectures have been stated — Kome suppose that the great cities were swallowed up by a volcano. The opinion of Chateaubriand, who had carefully examined several volcanos, is decidedly np- iwsed to' this view of the subject. The learned Freiich- iiian inclines to the opinion of Michaelis and Buschin^, that Sodom and Gomorrah were built upon a bituiiii- nous mine ; that lightning kindled this combuitti)>le mass ; and that the cities were engulfed in this sub- terraneous conflagration. Malte Bmn ingeniously supposes that the stones of which the towns themselvet were built might be bituminous, and thus have been kindled by the fire of heaven. These views appear very plausible, when taken in connection with the Alosaic account of the place, that the vale of Siddim, which is now occupied bv the Dead Sea, was full of "slime pits," or pits of fiitumen. There can be no doubt, however, that oiiiliustible matter descended from heaven upon the dtvoted cities of the plain, for the language of the Scriptural account is precise and explicit : " The Lord rained upon Sodom and Oomur- rah, brimstone and fire from heaven.'* According to Stralio, there were thirteen towns swallowed up in the lake Asphaltites ; Stephen of Bvzantium reckons eight ; the book of Genesis, although it names five us situated in the vale of Siddim, relates the destruction of two only ; four are mentioned in Deuteronomy ; and five are noticed by the author of Kcclesiasticus. Several modern travellen assure us that they oliserved fragments of walls and palaces in the Dead* Sea, and theancienta speak positively upon the point. Josepbiis, who employs figurative language. Bays, that he per- ceived on the shores of the Dead Sea " the shadps uf the overwhelmed cities." Strabo gives a circnmfererice of sixty stadia to the ruina of Sodom, which are like- wise mentioned by Tacitnt. Recent travellers have done nothing to throw light upon this interesting sub- ject ; and until something is osce'rtained with regtird to the fact, we are forced to the alternative of looking upon it aa apocryphal. THE RlVSa JORDAV, The river Jordan rises at the foot of the Antlliba- nUB ; forms the lake Geneseretli ; traverses Palestine, of which it is the only important river, from north to south ; receives the Kedron ; and, after a course of l&O miles, disembogues its waten into the Dead Sea. HaBselquist informs us that the plain, which extends from this to Jericho, a distance of more than tliree leagues, is, generally speaking, level, but burreii und uncultivated. The soil is a grayish sandy clay, and so loo^e, that hones often sink up to the knees in it. The surface of the eartlt is covered with salt, in the same manner as on the banks of the Nile, and would yrove no lest fruitful, were it irrigated with equal T CHAMnEUS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLR f: M «r». Th« iluttM on tha bMih ara «ll vftrious-ou. lound qtmru. Muflh 4iff«r«nc« of opinion urevBilt ftMiM(tt •iilhon with riMpMt lu tha wiilth uf tha Jur. 4tm* Tha Swada abora mautionwl Mya, that, al Jvriabot ll tt algfal P«cm ov*. tha banki ilx faat in Iwlfht, an4 par^ndlcuUr. tha walar d««p, niudtly, MM win rathar than coJ4. Ohalaauhrlaiid maa- Mrwl II In aavarai plaaat, and fuund it Afty rr«t in k, aiid ill faat >i«ap, down to tha ihora. This .NUiey mutt nrita fmiu tha diifaraiit taaaoiia uf dt« y^mr al which iha maaauranauu wara niada. Mr Cmim •baarvna, Utal* whan h« aaw It, It waa abous Ivwuy ymrdt aoraaa, aud appaarad to b« vary daap. JaHaha, uhleh mt at mcpaHod danomlnatad tha Ghj of Pahn-lraaa, waa anclMtly eonatdarad only In- hnar hi polm of oDnaa^nanM, wanlth, and mafpilfl- aaaea^ to Jaraialtm, and ma ancloaad hv waUa thraa hi droimfaranaa. Of lla tplandld baildlnfi, Ihara ramalna onlv the put of ooa «mar, which li auppoaed to hara baan tna dw dih if of Zaochaui tha puMlonn. A hoaf of nibMah maraa tha Una of lu Ucianl walla. It ftPpMra, liidaad, eithar m If aoma omaa, flMal to poptilathni, vara atlll aaaanBtinf from tba paatiforoai ridnity of tha Dand San, ^\d doatlned 10 axtlrpata tha rnj anarwiat ai Mh, or thai tha Jtidir- manta anriantly dMianaead a|i«hial It by th* Almlffhtv wan Mill In foil forea. It waa tha flrtt rlly whirh Iha laraaHtaa radnoad npan antaring tha Holy Land. Piva bnndrad and thirty yaara aftaTwarda, it waa n*. built br HalW of BalM, who raalorad Ita population •nd ipwndour, In whlnh flooriahlnf condition it ap. pann to hava oontjnnad ffar aaveml oaniiiriaa. Mark Antony p i aaan lad to Claopatra tha whola tarrltory of Jaricho, lu walh wara laefcad by Vaapaalaa during tha war which ba earrlad on hi IM eonntry. It wai aftarwarda mora than on«a rattorad ; but in tha twelfth oantury It waa orarthrown by tha infldala, and haa not dnc« amargrd rmm Iti reint. ft la tha opinion nf Mr Buckingham, thatttiatniaaltaaf Jaricho, aidetcribrd by Flaviua Joaaphna, tha Jawlth hiitnrinn, waa Ht a graater dlatanra from tho Hrar than the rlMaga of Rahab, eomraunly tnppoaeri to rapment the ritv- In deaeanding tha mmmtaina whIrh timind the valley on tha wattam aide, he aaw the niina of o larf(p net- llemant, cuvarfng ni leant a ti|UBre mile, whence, aa wall aa from oihar ranaainr, ha ronrluded ti.at It rnvint hava baan a pfaut of aoma ronaeqnenea. The diatanre «f Jerkho fnm Jan a * al a t ^, -* liaad br Joarahua at tnm hiinAvd and fifty mrionga, ."nd, rmm tha river Jordan, at aUty, tof Hher with hia learription of the country, anawara av actly to thr aitun^^on of the mini Juat mantioiMd. The apoc Uea at tha « ^ry foot nf tha alarila moiintaiaa af Judcai and tha«a'-«re atlll aa barren, mggad, aad daatlinta of Inhabitants, aa for- ■urrly, tkrongbout thalr whola extant, fnmi the .'-aka of Tiberiaa to tha Dead 8aa. Tha diatanca, hy the oompotMiun In lima, amounted to aix honra, or nearly twanty milaa, from Jeruaalana—the apaoa baiwcen tha tappnaod city and the rirer twiag littla oaore tlifw ooa-third of that amount, pradaaly tha proportion in. dioatad by tha Jawiah hiat^trian. Formerly, tha aoil around Jarirho waa oalakraiad for a praciinia balaam, bat in the preaant day not a tna ia ftmod tovegatata (M thia daanlala ipul of Judwa. Rahab aian^ aboni four milaa naanr tha near. It cona iat a of abaat (iUj vary maaw dwaUingt* aeary ona bavitig in front a fanaa of thoma, aa a prtttcetion from tha aitacka of tha Badauina, whnaa horaea will not appronrh tkeae formidabla tkickata. Tha inkabi. tania arc all Mohammadana : tbay ara aheyherda ra. ther than ruluratnra of tha loil-ltkia Inat duty, in- daod, whan parfortnad at ail, being diHia principally by the wonwn and chitdren, aa tlia men roam tha plain on horaeback, and derira ttiair principal maana of aubiustanca from robbery and plunder. They are governed by a ihaik, whoaa ln6uenoa among tbam ia mora of a parenul than a magisterial deaoription. It may lia obH^rred, aa a remarkable ooineidance, tkai tba name of thta viliafa corraiponds to Kahab, the luuna of the hoateaa who rocaivad into her Imtiae tlu; Hebrew apiet, and aigniAea odour or perfume— the alight cLange tm iha form uf the Arabic t«rm implying nu ditfarenoe in tha Import of tba root whanca thay are both originally derived. Tha trareUar whoaa journey liee between Jeruw- 1am and Jericho atiU rune tba riak of falling among thievat t tha )oumay is moat pariioua, and aeldom un- daruken. 8ir V. Uannikar, bowavor, aconmpliilusd it a few yaara ago, and aucordingiy suffarad for bia temerity. We maat arith numy InterMting Jocalitiea in thia Una of road. Amoog tba muuntaina on the aaatern aide of tha Jordan is Piagah, a lowering paak which tha travallara delight to recognise. »om iu summit Moses was permitted to behold the priHuisad inheritanre, att'etchiiig iowardt the west, south, and north. When entering the mountains which protect tha westam side of the plain, tha actantion of taa tra- vaUer is invited to tlio Fonataln oi Klisha, tha watara of which ware awit t aaad by tha power of the prophal. Th«y ara now vaaalvod In a haafn, wbeaca thev iama la a coploua atnam, whi^ apUu into aavand riUa, Irrigating tha land as far aa Jaricbob MOWTAIV or QtrAlAMTTVA. The toorist In his pnii||Tasa to the capital toon ftuda hlmf^f at tha foot of tha mountain called Qntrantlaa. from being tha supposed scene of the temptiition am Ihat of otir Sftvlour ; the neighhourhood of tha lofty I to a barren place. Leaving tha moaatafau in the pilgrim returning from tha Jordan Amis hiinaelf on a beaten path, which, since the dnya of the Jewish legislator, It ia prnbable haa cnnnerted the rucks of Halem with the banks of the sni'red river. Ohateau. briand laya that ll Is broad, and In arnna parts paved, having nndergona, as haeoajaeturea, several Impmva. menta while the country waa under the Rinnan yoke. On tba lop of a mountain there la the appearance of a aastle, which commands, and mav Iw suppnead to have pnHadad tha road i and at » little diaunce, In the botlom of a valley, la the Plare of lUiwd, called In llabra'v. Abdomlns, where formerly iloiiri a amalt town baionglag to the trilw of Judah, and where Uia goad Samarilaa Is Imagined to have luiwoured tha wounded travallor who had fallati among thlevea. That dee* and ghnnny dell ia still the scene of robbery aad mnnier, and poaaaaaaaunquaattonalda right to the horrible dlstinetlon whkh It has so king enjoyed. Having uraveraed tha cnuntrv smith and aaet of tha capital, we shall now prooaed In onr account of thai which Haa to the north ward of ll. CATK or JBaBMiAii Axo iiruLaiRis or TBK KIMOf. Ijaaving Jerusalem by the northern gate, we pro- reed on the road which leads to Damaacus. Near tlie entrance to the holy city there Is a grotto, said to have baan for some time tha reaidenca of Jeremiah the Pro- phet. The bed of the holy man la shown In the form af a rocky shelf, about eight feet from the ground ; and tha suot is likewise pointed out on which ha is nndenitooa to bare written his bunk uf lAmenutions. At a tittle distance from the city atand the sepulchres of the kings, oonuactod with which there still prevails «mie nbacnrity. Hut whoever was buried here, tba place discovers so great an expense, Ixith of labour and treaaure, that we may well auppose it to have been the work nf kings. It is approat-hed i>n tha east side by an entramvoiitoulof the rock, wiiich opens into a emirt of about forty parea aqnare. On the south side is n p4)rtiro nine pares long and tour broad, likewlte hewn out of the living rock, and having an architrave running along lu front adorned with sculpture. The pauage into tlie sepulchre is now so greatly obstructed with stones and rubbish that it is nueasy matter to creep through ; but, having overcome this difficulty, you arrive at a large room seven or eight yards iMjuare, excavated in the solid body of the hill. Its sides aad celling are ao exactly square, and iu angles so just, that no architect ooukl form a more regular apartment. From this mom you pass into six others, ail uf the same construction. In every ime of these, eacapt the Arst, are cothns of ilone placed in nirhea. Thay are of the siia of thoae used in Kurupe, aiut h<»ve the form of a parallelogram. Thev had ul Arst Imh-ii covered with luuulsome lids, but the most of them have been destroyed. One of white marble was observed by I>r '.'larke, adorned all over with the richest and most beautiful carving. There is much taste and skill dis- played in the execution of these subUirraniMns, as waU as in tha ornamenU with whidt they are emliellished. But the most surprisiug thing ouiinecled with them is their doors, wbitih consist of oua eutira piece uf stone, haudsomaiy carved. BCKa, 1.CBONAIC, AXD THE MOUNT or OEaiEIH. The next object of imporlanoe which we meet with is a village supposed to be the Mickmash alluded to in ^k;riptu^e. It ia at present dialinguiahed by the name of Beer, signifying a well, and adopted, most likely, from a delicious spring of water llowing through Itt near Ul which ure the ruins of a church, built in cum- mernonition of the parents lanieniinff tha loss of our Saviour, who, not being fouud by th«n> there, was afterwards discovered with the expounders of the law in the temple.. It was to thin plare, als4i, that Jotham had ret^mirse In order to escape the fury of his brother, lleyond this hamlet, at tha diaUnca uf about four hours* walk, is Lebao, called Labonah in the Dihla, a village situated on the eaatem side of a delioioua vale. The road betwetm these two places is carried through a wild and very hilly country, destitute of trees or other marks of cultivation, and rendered al- uHist totally unproductive by the barbarism of the government, lu a narrow dttU, formed by two lofty precipices, am the ruins of a monastery, lieing in the neighbourhood of that mystic Uitbel where Jacob en- Joyed his ciele«tiai vision. We next arrive at tlie well ol that patriarch, the scene v( the omfarenoe between our .Saviour and the woman of Siimaila. Over this fountain Helena erected a large ediAce, of which, how- ever, alraoat nothing now remiAins. N^r this is the narrow valley uf Shechem, the Hychar of Scriptare, overhung on either side by tha two mountains Geri- aim and £bal, memorabh* as being the theatre on which waa prunuunoed the aituctloii of Uia divine Inw. The Samaritans have, us is well kuown, a place of worahip on Mouut Oerixim, where at certain aeaions they perform tlte rites of their religion. According to their var^ou of the Hentaiaucb, it waa here tha« the Almighty commanded the childron of Israel to set up great siooea covered with plaster, on which to la- •crfbe the body of their law ( to erect ao alur to offer peaoe>offarings ; aud to rejoice before the Lord thalr God. In the Hebrew edition. Mount Kbal Is aaid to have bean the scene of these pious servicea— a vari- ation which the Samaritana aaoriba to the malice of the Jews. Iu the vidnity of the town is a small raoaqusL which ia aaid to cover the aapolchra ef JoMph, and to be situated ia the field beugLt by Jarob fnm Ilamor, the father of kihecbem, m U rakt«d la the book of UeiMiii* MABLUtJa, oa ■uacHCU. The road from Laban to Nabloua, or Ihodiea^ la mounialnoua and ruoed. It yreaanli. however, • remarkable picture oflndtutry and cultivation, aiMt In abundance and wealth, nay be styled tha JBdea er the Kaat. The aaolaat liheahem la tha malropolU o# a rich and exieualva aountry, abounding lu a^eul* tural wealth, and la one of the moat flouruhlng towM In tt.a Htdy Land. It has a vary Impodng appear- anre whan viewed from the surrounding belghu, and looks as if It were emboaemed in a delldous paradlaa* The p<^ulation, who are principally Mokaamadanii have been eatimatad at 19^009 i but this Mr Bu«k« Ingham thinks an exaggarallon. The SaaMtrllans do aol eaeaed forty In niinber* They have a ivnagoma^ where divine aarvica la per* farmed every Aalorday. Poor tinaea a-year they g* In solemn preaesaloo to the old temple on Moual Oerixim, on which oceaston ttey aaaM sunrise, and read the law till noon. They have but one aehool in Nabhma where their huiguafa la taugh^ though they take much pride In preserving anM«M maiiuscripU of their Pentateuch In the orlglnuohamaB ter. Mr Connor aaw a oopv, which is reported to bt three thousand Ave hundred years old, but be waa not nllnwed to aiamlna nor even to leuch ll The erenW transacted In the AeU of Sheehem reader the localitiN conilgiioua to this city peculiarly latareallng. liar* itan« tha well of Jacob, and here the aoua of uie pairU arch " drove their flocks a-Aeld,** and here they aolA to the lahmaalitea their brother Joaeph, tha future all but pounuta of the greateat klngdem then upon th« faiv of tha earth. Hera, aa of old, tha •hapherda fraso their flock a iipon the bUto of Samaria, and tha ihmaelitea conie from Ollead, "bearlaf sploea and halm and myrrh" — ao Imperlakable are the ouatonaa and mannara of the east. aABtaai^ HamarIa is now called Hebaaie, or the Venerable, aa Bppellatioa eoafvrred on ll by Hered. It la eompuled by modern tourtou to be more than forty miles die* unt from Jeruaalen. The situation la eatramely beautiful, aud naturally itrong, occupying the turn* mil of a hill, encomaasaad all around by a «np valley* Hut the city which Herod adorned with priiieelT iMiildlngs is now a mere vlllaga, amall aad poor, exht- liiting only the miserable wreak of former greatneafc Hero John tha Baptist waa decapitated, and the Kaa- preaa Helena ereeiad a chnndi over the piece where ha pined and suAred ; but it haa shared tha fote of tha real »f the dty, being now a mere min. Tha prisoa where tbe holy blood of the deeerl-bred waa spilled, is, however, pointed oat by tha Turks, who hold It la high veneration. We shall now eroaa the Jordan, and enter the land ofOilaad. aaEASJu In this section nf PaleRtine, the inheritance of Ren- lien and Oad, several very important discoveries were miide by l)r Saetxen in loOtf, among which were the mine of tha anoieni dty of Oeraaa, or, as It now la called by the Araba, Djerash. Approached from tha soath, tbe city la entered by a triumphal gateway, nearly entire. The workmanship Is remarkably Ana, and beara a striking resemblance to the remaiiu or .\iitinoe, in Upper Kgypt. It appears to have been a detached triumphal Mrcn^ erected for the entrance of iioine victorious hero. Within this gateway Is itn ex- tensive theatre, for tha aahltdtion of sea-Hghn, and, a littla onward, there it seen a second gateway, almUar in design to the other. To the left Is a large and beautifiil colonnade, arranged In a circular form, all of tha look) order, and aurmounted by an archi- trave. Next succeed a long avenue of oolumna, in a straight line, suppoaed CD mark the direction c>f soma firiocipal street that apparently axtended the whole ength of the town. These columns are all of the Corinthhui onder, and the nnge on each side la ae- ceuded by a flight of stepa. The attention of the tra- vellrr Is now attracted by four magnlAoent pillars, oi considerable di—nalona, which probably adorned tha front of aone prioalpal edlflca now deatmyed. After passing a square, and varlotu masses of buildingi, the tourist oomea to the rulna of a temple of a semlelreu- lar form, with four cohunna In froat, and facing the principal street In arl^lllne. The spring of lu half dome la still remaining, aa well aa aaveral onlnmna of yellow marble and of nd granite. The whole seeraa to have bean ezaentad wmi peculiar care, especialljr the sculpture of the friexaa, cornices, pediments, and capitals, which are all of the Corinthian order, and considered t^ot leaa rich and chaste than the works of tbe best agea. On a broken alUr near this ruin l» ob* served an inscription having the name of Marcus Aiu reliua. Beyond Ihto aretemplea, colonnadaa, tbeatraay arched bnildlngs with domaa, datat^ed groupa af Icstia and Carlnthlasi cohimas, brldfes, aquadnciey mid per* tiona of large bnildlnga aeai i m ^ here and there* The ground oeenpied by this city, which waa nearly in the form of a sauare, might havaheen four milet ia circumference. But so complete Is aaw tbe deaolatioa of thia once magaiAcent placa^ that Badnnln Araba encamp among iu raina, for tha aake of tha rlvulH by which they are washed. With lu s i ia tu to tha swient history of tiria dty. ae nnch dWenlty ef opteloa pv^ raila, that It wera idle to atttar Into i ' af tha ■objeai. Waaaw arrira at tha hiUa of OUaad, the rich pa^ tnra-landc of tha tribe af Rauban, and fonaariy tba hliitdamaftkagifuilcOiithaMurdtdrr ' PALESTINE. OR THE HOLY LAND t f M tT'-^ howavOTt • vstlon, UMt Iha Eiiaa «f BttropolU of tluicrlmt- Unf U>WM holiihu, MM out p*n ikiminwlsnii U Mr Du I In niimlMr. nrviiK U J**" .vMtr UmjT (• la oQ Moult WBbI* Iwfcra rlunbuloM f* It uuaki, rrinf andMl Hlilniu chuM> TtfUat to h» lUl b* WH HOI , TbtarwiM ir Um lacalltlM MtlllC. U«N u*o(th*p*tri> hart tbay Ml4 I tba (utura all tfcaa upon tha tha ahapkarda narla, awl tba iBf ivicaa and « tba euuona Vananbla, aa It la aomrulad torlf aillaa dia> 1 If araanaly ^nr tha nina- f a daap *aUav. with prtiicalT aad puor, axbi- riMr ffraatnaaai 1, anil ilia Em- plpoe whara ha tha fat* of tba n. Tha priua rad waa •plllad, , vbo hold It la I aatar tha land ..itaace of Ran- liicovarlei wara thich vrre tha ., aa It now la •ebad from tha nphal gaiaway, amarkably Sna, tha ramalna of _ to hava bean a tha antranca of itaway li an ox- ■aa-Aghtt, and, [Itaway, ataiUar la a larga and milar fona, all by an arohU .. otHumna, In a Iraolion itlon of tha <»• Aoant plllart, at biy adoraad tha itrovad. Aftar ifbiiUdlnaa, tba of a lemiclran- and faidng tba iprinfof ItahHlf raral onlnmna of 'ha whola aaama aara, npecialljr padlmanta, and lian order, aad —a the worka tt tUt rain It ob- lof MaraiaAn. nadaa, thaatraa, ipoupaaf Ionia gia, and por> and than, hiah waa naatly • tar milaa ia rtkadaaotatloa Badanln Anha rtharitrulalby >ifaaaiioianl [ at opiaioa pi»i Karan nr aiaht hundred lm» tbmt tha laral nf the Jai^aa It a dialrlat iif aatraotdlaary IWUHty, ahaand- Inff with tha moat baautlhil praaaaola, wblah yield In ■MhinK la the Haatt parte af OaUlaa and Mamarla. Thit toenery eoatlaaea liU Ike Irareller reaihaa Iha Nakr el Serkak, ar riear Jakbak, Iha aaeleni kntindtry kalwaan Ike Aawritai and Ike ehlMran of Ammon. tin Ike aortk heglna Ike klnnrinm of Baahan, nnea aabbraled far IM naka, Mt aaule, and the bodily alrenfib ef lu lahaMlaBlt. LABS or aiHiaAasTM. We aoiae now In iha laka, wkleb hat paaaed nsder dilfaranl appellatlona tram Iha aaeied wrilan i aiieh aa ilia " Ilea of Ualllaa," from haln( eneloaed by Oall- loe I the " I«ke of (ienatarath, or Uaaaar i" to thaaa were added, the " l«ea of IJInuetalh aad Tlheriaa." Thii piotureuue ikeei of water, aa aMael of tueh kiih veaerallun, whirh, with that af the Dead iea, may ha conaldarad at the two ariaaipai lakaa la Ike Holy liaiid, appeura to owe tu orlfin to ika walara of Jordan, which flow frnm L«ban<«. The river Joidan antara at the uoriharn, and tawt out at Ibe toalhem eztremltY and iu oDurte It vltibly teen all the way Ibraugh. The raafe af numalalna, hming lu aaalem there, it Tory lofty, and their tleep and rooky tidat are harran i the watirrn ihore wbeia the town tiandi It lower i the hilln are more picluiaaque, and divlilvil hy •wrrt Talliai ckithad with verdure, hut deatlliita of tm». WItli raapaci to the liae of the lake, we mutt ckuoie again aniutigat conflicting itatanientt. It uemt to be about HfiMn milea In laiiKlh and Ave in breadth. The walert are perfectly twMt and clear, and the 1th are taid to he M a dalidoui flavour. It It alnoal unnaoetaary to remind tha reader that tkla lake and neighbourhood ware phkcea whtre many Important eventa occurred, mentioned in the New Tetument. Here, It will be remeniliiired, Chritt embarl'tHl in a thip, u> en tn different plHcct about Itt horde ^ r the proeeeutloii uf hit errandi of mercy, and fi "II which he lni;ruoled the multitude wku had aatemliled on the there. Capernaum Ilea at the upiier end of the lake, and it now railed Talhewm, or Tel lloom. It it iiutbing more than a tutlon nf Bedouint, but there are trasea of Ita former Importance. The foundatloni of a mag. nIRoeut, but now much dilapidaled edifice, aau aiiU balraeaid. TIberiat, which maket a oontplcueua-figure iu the Jewiih aniialt, it tha only place on the tea of Qaiilee retaining any markt of Itt ancient importance. It it underat'iud i.> cover the ground formerly occupied by a town uf a much remoter age, and of wtUon tome traoet can ttill be dittinguitbed. Tabaria, aa it it now dcnominati^d, hat the mrm of an irreguUr cretoent, and is onrltiaetl towardt tha land by a wall. Hanked with rirr' ' Uiweri. It liet nearly north and toiith, alunir the uuj:** of the lake, and haa itt eastern front to cluti. 1 the vter on the brink uf which it atandt, that I.-, u 11 t houtee are wathed by the tea. The whole dii«! nnt appear more than a mile in circuit, and cannnt, from the manner in which they are placed, conuin above MO teparate dweilingt. Here there are a mi)ti|ue and two Jewith tvnagoguet, alao a Chrintian place uf worthip, calleo the Houie of Peter, which it thought by lunie to he the oldett build. iiiff iiKtMl for that purpoae in any part of Palettiiie. The structure it of very ordinary detcrlption ; but it derivet nu tmall Intereat from the popular belief that tt it the very houte which Peter inhabited at the lime of hit being called from hit boat to lollow tlie Meuiaa. The populatiuu of the town duee uot now exceed 2000. Of thete, about one-balf are Jewt, the rett are Muhnnimedaat, with the azce|jtian of a few uf the Chrittiao creed. Tha warm hatha, which have giveu celebrity to that neighbourhood, are atill found at the dittanoe of between two and three inilea touthward from the town. " TIberiat," tayt Cariie, '* it a toeue where nature itiU teemi to wear aa tuhlime and lovely an aapect at In the day when it draw the vititatiooa of uur Lord. No curte retu on ita ahoret, aa on thoee of the Dead Sea, but a balbiwed oalm attd a aaajettic beauty, that are irrcaiitibly dalightfiiL" ^ Iha rich fa^ M fonamly tha mCICT TABOI. An alrooat uninterrupted atcent conducta from TU beriat to Nazareth. On thit route, we hav^ Mount Tur, or Tabor. Thit mount, which it datted in SiTipture with Hermon, and lomething in tlie retem. blance of a tugar loaf, it iniulated on all tides, inde. jiendent of the mountalnt around it, and ttaudt with inexpreailble dignity at one end uf the great plain uf Ksdraelon, which may be ascended on all pointt, ex- n-pting towards the north, where it it rugged. There Is not, perhapt, to be found, In the whole compaaa of the globe, one spot, from which a believer in tlie goa- pel can potttbly enjoy a more tubllme or gloriout pro- ipect, than from the tummit of Mount Tabor, which hat been to celebrated In the aaorad volume, and held during all agei In luch high veneration by Chrittiant. In the flrtt place, there ia pretanled to view an exten- tive plain. On one tide of it, on the Uk hand, are the monntalnt of Samaria, towardt Jaruaalem i on the other, to the right, thoea about Naiaralh, atpe- dally tha memorable hill from which the Jewt at- tempted to preelpiiata Chritti with tha tap ef Mount Carmel, waahad by tlia ocean, at an oppoaile extie- aiity of Ihif plain. In aaotbar, Harmon, in lu loftv dignity; Endor, and Naia, withthemnuntainiof Oil', boa. Nan, the valley of Jordan, the ipMioui plaint of Oalllee, with lit tea of flentaareth, and itt enrlo- aiire of mountalnt i Dothan. where Joeeph wat told, with lu rivtrt, valllM, and little hill, and the Tillage of gaphrl, anciently called Bethiilla, on an aailneaea, and preanniad tn have been the point of elevation al. ludad to by Ohrltt in hit termon on the mount, from whieh It It alto remarkably eontpiciiiius. and not at a f^rent distniii'e. Again, the tuhlime height nn which iH delivftrt'il this iiieniomble oration ] tha route tn Itamktmit. Iianiiv, Mount Iiabaaon, towering with pnidigiout alpliit dignity in tba haekgmiind. Dlnarent uplniuiis have lieen enterlHlned by wrilen with regard to the extent of ground on the summit, and the rultlvatlon of It. Taklax the whole Into cal- culation, it may lie nearly two milaa In dianieur. To the wvat, there are niaaaet of toatured mint. At one period, a governor of Cialilee surnmnded the top of It with walls, whieh la cui. '' rnied by llie toattared frag- menu tlill to be teen. . Helena, alto, la pmaaeu- llon nf her aeal In the eauta of Chritliaally, founded two monaaurlea, one to the memorv of Meeea, and tha other of Kliua. Variuiii hittorloal iaeidenU are mniieoted with thia m.mnlaln. Here It waa that Barak, deteending with hl> ten Iboutand men from Tabnr, ditcomlMd tiiteri . d all hit ebarlalt. In the tame neigbbourliooil, Josiah king of Judah foiiuht tn disguise against Necho king of Kgypt, and fell hy the arrows nt his aiiugunist, deeply lamentad. Vespasian reviewed hit army in the tame great plain. It baa been a choten plaiw for encampmentt In every contett carried on in the country, from the dayt of Nebucbadneaaar king of tlie Auyriana, down to the ditaatroua Invation of Napoleon IkmaparU. NAzaarTH. Among the placea which were honoured with the presence of t-hrist, and rnnserrated at the tcenet of hit lienerolence and good. will towardt men. No- aareth of Kebnlun, and itt neighbiiurhoud, present strung elaima to our allentinn. It it about one bun. dred milea diatant from Jerutalem, and it romanticallv titiiated upon the bottom and lidet of a bill which overlooka It. It would be tedionl to enumerate all fhat are shnwn tn a traveller, but the folluwini; appear most deserv- ing of notice 1 — The church belonging to the con- vent, which is rnther elegant, and it erected over the grotto or cave where Mary tiKik up her abode. It lias no other ruof than that which is furmed of tho natural rock, and is in the shape uf a crusa. Among many piolurea which adorn this church, there is a preunded likeneta of Chritt. The second object thown it the shop where Joeeph worked ; It is now used at a place of worship. Over the altar, he is represented with the implemenuof hit trade, huldiiig our liord hy the hand, as if in the act of imparting tlie knowledge of his vocation. Thirdly, a chapel, in the centre of which isanenur- mnus atone, aliont nine feet iu length, and six iu breadth, on which It it affirmed that Christ tat and eat with his choten few. Fourthly, the tynagogue where Chritt. agreeably to hit practice, read tu the Jewt, from the tacrcd vo- lumes, on the Habbath. Fifthly, near the town ia pointed nnt a hill, from whicli, disregarding the sanctity of that day, tliey threatened to throw him, in ronserjuence of the die. satisfactiun which his addresses had given. And, lastly, u well of the Virgin, which supplies the inhaiiitants uf Naaareth with water. Mr Carnesays, tho population may amount to about twelve hundred, and are mostly Christiana. After croasing the plain of Esdrnelun, we come to Mount Hermuii, t!.8 dew of which is so beautifully al< luded to by the Psalmitt. Near thia place ttaudt Nain, whicli it so called from its pleasant situation, where the widow*s son wat rettored to life by the Sa- viour. About two milea from Nain, is teen Endor, where the sorceress resided who was cunsiilted by Saul, and in the vicinity are the mountains of Gilboa, where tile forces of Israel were collected. CANA or OALILEE. Kaifer, Kenna, or Cana of Galilee, falls next under notice. Thit village it pleaaantly tiluated on a small eminence in a valley, and contains two or three hundred Inhabitanu. Many pou, answering to the description given by the Evangelist, are fuuud lying about amongst the mint; from which it would ap. fiear evident, that the practice uf keeping water in arge stone pots, each holding from eighteen to twenty- seven gallons, was once common in the country. Near the bottom uf a Acid, which is said to be that in whicli Christ plucked the ears of corn upon the Sabbath, ttands the Holy Mount, which has been to eminently distinguished at the tpot from whence the multitudea were addretted. It haa an elevation of from two to three hundred feet. The landtcape which atretcbei from the lake of Tiberiat to the sources of the Jordan, is In many parts uncommonly Ane, pretenting luxuriant crops, thriv- ing viilagea, and other tokent of security and comfort. The mountains that terminate the pnitpect are mag- nificent, tome of tliem being covered with perpetual inow. hlllt that divide It lnl«C ,. , -_. is occupied by Jewt. The whola may eonula Ml hundred kauaee, of which one hundred and Afty k» hing to the people Jutt named, and nearly aa many 1 the Chrittiant. The tummit uf the pr'ncipal eniii Is crowned with an ancient castle, part of which it n. garded by the deeoendaaU al Iiraal at being oontaiD- paravy with ikalr aaalaal kiaga. The Jeera kava hara tevea tynagnguaa, aad a tori of unlveraliy for Iha adueaOaa itf tkatr lakMa. Their aUachmanl la Ihl* plaee ariaaa eapeoially froaa Ika tradlllmiary baiiaf Ikal the Mectiaa la kara la raign forty yeara bafora ha a*. aiimat *he governmeat at Jaeuaalam. From Naaaralh ui Ana we pmeaed aver a bamn rocky Iraat of ooun> try I on tlie way we meet with gephonri or tepphnrla, the Zippor uf the Habrawt, and Ike Diocaaaraa of Iha Homana, onee Ibe eiiiaf lawn and bulwark af Oalllaa* The remalnt uf iu fortlAcaliont aahlbii ana of tha workt uf Herod, wlui, afur iu detmction by Varna, not only rebuilt and fortidad it, but aiada It the prin. etpal city of kit lalraraky. lu chief eelabrlty It eannaetad arllh the tradition thai it waa tlia laaidanea uf Joaahim and Anna, tba paranu of the Virgin Mary. Conetantina bulll a mag- niAeent chureh over the tpot where the devout ouupla lived, the mint of wfalah will be (bond minutely dfc teribed in Dr Olarha'i Iravala. The vale of Zebiilun dividet the above vllh«a from tha rldca of hlllt which look down on Acre and tha ahorae of Ike Ureal Sea. Thia plain every where preeanU the moat beautiful teenery. On the ruad, varloua mint ocour which ex* areite the inganuliy of tka antlqaariaa traveller. All remalnt of the ttrong dty af Zabulnn have ditappearad, and lu admlrabU beauty, rivalling tiiat of Tyre, Sidoiiy and Uerytut, it now tought fnrln vain among Arab buu and heapa of rubtHah. We ahall new enur upon tliat part of Palaallna whieh liaa upon Iha tharit of Iha Mediterranean. aArUCT, tEPROUBI, AND ZEBUL17M. The only town of oonteqiienoe between the mini uf Capamaum and the alpine range of Hermon and Djibbel el Sheik, it Saphet, being one of the four citiet eonteerated by the religiout veneration of the Hebiewi. Aecordiag to Burokhardl, it atandt upon aeveral low .\cre ttaudt close to tha tea at tha and of a bay as* tending in the form of a bow, about twelve milaa la the puint uf .Mount Carmel at Iha oppoaita part, and has a population uf Uu ihoutand people. It waa ori* giiially called Accha^ and la alluded te in sacred writt uf thit name Acre it evidently a corruption. It is preceded by the wordt " St Jean," in ountei|uence ot the place having lieen given by Hichard of England to the Kiiightt uf St JuEa of Jenuaiero ; at one lima it received the name of Ptolamaia. Thia place waa. vliiied by the Apoatlet, but panieuUrly by St Paul. It hat been the tcena of a varietv of bloody oontaai%. especially during the period '' the cruaadaa, and was the last place from wbicl. the Cbrittiane wera driven. The Turkt ultimately laid hold of it with a numerous army, after a furioua tiege, when lerribla outrages were committed. They have been in poatca* tion uf It tinea the year 1201. Aa Acie la the key not only of all Oalilea, but, in general, of the Holy Land, having the beat port, it may account for tha violent elTurtt made by the French to grasp it; they were however, at it well known, tucceasfuily repelled by British gallantry and peraeverancv. The moat distressing sight in' the town is the number of da* plorahle objecu to he met with, whota facet have baett di-tiai'.fiilly disfigured by that Implacable Uerod or tyrant of the day, who struck such dreiul and terror over this country — namely, Aohmet, the funuerpacbat or Djeaxar. Thit latter appellation it tyiionymoua with cutter or butcher, which he iuatiy merited, froia the frightful catalogue of atrodtiea ii whieh he v/m the author. St Jean d'Acre ia very ttronglv fortiAed, bainf newly enclosed with high walla, and la conaidered tha ttrongest place in Syria. Tlie memorable tiege whieh occurred in March i71'0, tinoa it gara a blow to fatal tu Dunaparte, waa a remarkable event, and will be a brilliant page of our national hittory. The houses are uf stone, with rooft like tarraoea, the entrances to which are narrow, and many appear ta conununicala with each other. The itreeu are dirty, and the air impure, from their being contracted, where a loaded camel, in going along, may be contidered at occupying the breadth of It. The baxaara are mean, and tlie iii* habitanu miserable. MODHT CABMEL. Mount Carmel forms a promontory or majestic head* land. It mns from eatt to west, and it about 2000 feet from the level uf the sea, by which its base la washed. Near it runs Kithon, one of the rivert which It particularly alluded to in the tacred writing!. Car. mel it the mott beautiful mountain in Palestine ; it of great length, and in manv parte covered with treet; and a part of iu summit it pointed out aa the place where Elijah prayed for rain, and saw the humid cluud rise out of the tea. On the 20th of July, the Chrit- tiant proceed to perl'-rm acu of devotion In memory of the prophet. There wat formerly a monaatery hare, but it It now abandoned. Between this point and JalFa we meet with the ruins of several ancient villaget and towna, amongat whitdi it Cetarea. " Perhapt there liat not been," tayt Dr Chirke, " in the hittory of the world, an example of any city that in to ihort a tpace of time rose to such an extraordinary height of splendour at did thit of Cetarea, or that exhiUu a more awful contrast to ita former niagniAcence, by the present deaolate appear, ance of lu ruini." In fact, uot a Military inhabltaat remaint wbere once stood Ike proud city of Uerod. Ita M TfTC*™'?!^ •vni^wiir^._ il,),.(iiii,l,i|pipi||^ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i li P'^ §'"■■ w n j' ^ i n ¥ ■ h ' thentrei its piUcas and tein|))e«| form ■ inBrbJa d»« ■en — " WhoM fchori, ind whoie emnt) trmdt Sound llk« th« voice* of the ffeatl.** The other plua are not of tufflc1«nt imp.-)rtance to detain ui from entering upon a description of JAVrXf OR YATTAy THE ANCIENT JOPPA. This if one of the moet ancient tea-porti in the world. I*liny amigns it a date which itictchei far back into ihe twilight of time, anterior to the deluge itself. Tradition has even auigned this at the place where Noah biiilt his ark! It wu here, ^ however, at the most authentic of all records Informs us, thut ^^olomoii ordered the materials of his temple to be brought hy »ea from Lebanon ; here the prophet Jonah embarked (or Tarahiih; and here, in apostolic times, St Peter restored T.-ibitha to life. During the m'arlike era of the crusades, Jaffa made a conspiciiotis appearance ; and latterly it has been dragged Into a sort of dis. graceful notoriety, from the well-known circumstance of Napoleon having massacred son.e prisoners there. Tho town occupies an tirainence in the form of a su- ^AV loaf, with a citadel on the summit. The Imttora of thu hill is surrounded with a wall tx-elve or four- teen feet high, and tK'o or three feet tliicJt. The en- virona are occupied by extensive gardens, tho soil being - -y favourable for the production of fruit. Accor' ng* to Dr Clarke, the harbour is one of the wiirntupon the Afediterranean, and uuHt for shipping, The ruad is protected by a CBStle, and there are some kiure-liouses and magasines on the sea-side. The coast is Inw, and but little elevated above the level of the sea. There are no antiquities in Jaffa. The Inha- bitanta amount to between four and five thousand, will) nre mostly Turks and Arabs. Beuveeu Jaffa and HI Arisoh, the extreme point of the Holy Laud in this direction, lie the towns of AKIIDOD, OATH, ASKF.I.ON, AND GAZA. It is "erhaps unnecessary to inform the render that these > ,.t oiice famous cities of the Philixtines, nnit rcpeateai/ brought before our notice in the Old Tes- tament. The pathetic "xclnmation, *' Tell it not in Gath, publish it not in Askelon !'* mftat be familiar to •very one. Ashdod ij situated on the siiniTnit of a gras.iy hi.l, and, if we are to believe Viistorinns, wns nnciently as strong as it was Iteautiful. It now, h o( the prophets Amos and Mica, is now similarly ci.'- I'umsianced with Ashdod. Askr^Ion, once one of the proudest satrapies of the Philittinv lords, still, to px- terniil appearance, maintains something of its nnrion^ chamcter. Its position is strong, and its walls, which arc of great thickness and considerable heij^ht, are built nn the top of a ridge of rock, winding ruiind tlie town in fi semicirnilar direction, and trrinituiting nl each end in the sea. Hut, ains ! they enclose not a living Iwing. How tnily has been fulfilled the yrn. phecy of Zachariafa, ^''I'he king Rh:ill perish fri>in Gaza, and Askelon shall not be inhabited." CiiiT:\ is truly without a king. It is now only a large villa^'c, with narrow streets and houses, which in general aru destitute of windows. There is some trade, liowevi'r, carried on inGaxa, particularly in cotton, nnd the in- habitants, according to Mr Buckingham, exceed two thousand. This place was formerly of great m:igni- ficence and strength ; for two months it baffled all the efforts of Alexander to take It. Kl Arisch, the natu- ral frontier of Palestine on this side, is situated upon a slightly elevated rock in the midst of drifting sanda. It has a substantial fortrPHs, and contains about two thousand inhabitants. According to Ali Ilev (Hurck. hardt) almost the whole country of the Philistines is beautiful. It is for the mnsi part composed of undn- lating hills, of a rich soil, and clothed with exuWrant v^etatfon. Vhere is not, however, either a river or « spring in the whole district ; so that the wells nnd water collected during the periodical rains are the only means of irrigation within the reach of the inhabi- tanu. It will be necessary to return to Jaffa, in order to take a view of the road which lies betw«>en that town and Jenisalem. About nine miles from Jaffa staiidji Ramla, or Kameli, the ancient Kama of Kphraim, and very probably the Arimathea of the New Testa- ment. It is situated in a rich plain, and contaiiiK about 2000 families. Here there are several c^invents and mosqoes ; and, tm a hill to the west of the town, stands a venerable ruin, called the Tower of the Mar- tyrs, a name probab'v derived from tho martyrs o' oebastia, in Armenia, whose bodies have been heil. Farther on is the Arab village of Bethoor, supposed with much proba- bility by Dr Clarke to be the Hetfaoron of Hcrtptui-e. M'e enter now into the country of Jiidnna. It is very mountatnoui ; " and its scenery," savs Ur Richard- •on, " bnnight strongly to my rerollertion the ride from Sanquhar Ut Leadhllls, in Scotland ; and to those," he continues, '* who have visited this interest- ing part of m;^ native country, I ran assure them the i-'rmparisnn gives a favourable representation of the hilli of Jiid»a." He goes on to siiv, that the great difference lies in the (VMitrast which the roimtriek pre- •rat in Uw chvacter of their roadi and inbabitimu, those of I'alestine being of the very worst deKription. Auuiug the places of note which lie in the route to Jtirusuleni, is Modiu, well known as the site of the city and tombs of the illustrious and patriotic Macca- bees. It is itill a place of strength, and goes by the saute name. IWtwejn this and Jerusalem we meet with nothing of importance, except what has been al- ready described. TTRE. Returning to the sea-ihore, we hare the ancient Tyre, once the mart of nations and the glory of the earth. In the early ages. Tyre, in Phoenicia, is de- scribed in Scripture as a renowned city and a strong- hold, encompassed witli walls and towers : it was allotted to tho tribe of Asheri it is now frequently called 8ur, and perhaps, of all other maritime cities in the globe, was more highly renowned for riches and conunerce, since her very merchants were de- clared to be as princes, and ** every deck a throne;" and a most interesting description of the trades car- ried on within its walls, has been transmitted to us in the 27tfa chapter of Exekiel. It was not, however, merely in a commercial point of view that it was re- presented to the world at large as an object of wonder and admiration. Among the variety of trades exer- cised in this city, that of dyeing was most distin- guished, on accotintof the beautiful purple tint, which poets have celebrated as a chief ingredient in the mag- niticence of the vestments worn by the principal in- habitants. During the time of our Saviour, consider- able importance must have been attached to the city, as it is frequently aMuded to, with its neighlwurhood. Tyre waa Iwsi^ni and taken by Alexander the Great, after whose death it began to recover, and mrJntain a commercial churucter. It afterwards submitted, first, to the Roman, and afterwards to the Aloh.unmedan yoke, umler the power of which it now remains. It was enrloAL'd with walls, which originally must have been of great strength, furnihhed with towers, having holes (T apertures for making observations, part of which n\\\ reinaiiiB. Tills town does not appeor to be so de»''late a pliico as has JH'en sitnietinies represented. It c<)ntaius n few gi)od houses, und nearly JOOO tnhit- bititnts. The is]:tnd upon which the city anciently stood, Ins of course long disitppeared. M'ith Tyre in always a&socinleit Siilon, probably from the expression of our Lord, ** It shall bo more prifitublc for Tyre und i?idon," &c. sinoN. Zidon, or Sidon, owes it name to the eldest of the sojis of Caneun, and was comprehended under the '* lilt," or pnssu:(sions fornmlly ussignt^d to the tribe of Aslier. It flppe.kr-1 to have been higher in p :int ot aiitii|iiiiy than Tyre, although both hiivc Ih'CU classed in tiiL> character ol sisters, arising, nioKt likely, from their contiguity, and publicly considered as a city nf large extent and importance, »inco it has been distin- guished in Scripture by the title oi "«'^idttn the (i rent." Among variotisarts and sciences, the Invention of the ulplmliel and arithmetic, making of glass, and skill in casting and sculpture, have l>een celebrated; and an unrivalled dexterity in hewing of wo'mI will hand di \vn the Sidimian name in the page of histoi v to the la'.est period <'r*J*ne. The commercial pursuiu of this \*':.i\>iQ were also as lU""""*'".** .;? »'jey were extensive ; and it was likewise celebrated for its maritime enter- prise. Sidon is now a simdl town, rising gradually U'Wi the »ua-shore, very pleasantly situateil, and surround- eil with rich gardens. The climate is j>eculiarly mild : tlio streets uru excessively narrow, many of them un- der archways, as at Jerusalem : tho inliabiiants are estimated at about seven thousand, of whom two thou- sand are Christians, who have places of worship ; the Jews, als(t, who may Iw calculated at two hundred, have a synagogue, t'oiisideriug its small extent, the trade of this place is pretty considerable, particuUrly in silk. The next object of importance is MOl'NT I.inANON, •• Who«c hf«rt in wlnlnr p tnMvr towns, Whiteni withe'emaitlcttt While luinniL-r in « « ale uf nuwcrs* 1 1 ilecping r«y nt ht» Svt." This mountain has received the appellation of I^e- liunon, from the word Ijcban, signifying whiti*, and, in all probability, from the snow which remains on its heights (iuring the whole year. It has Iwen pecu- li.iily marked in Scriiitore us affording many glowing images and beautil.il im'taphors to the sacred writers. The cedars of it have in all ages l>een celebrated as objects of grandeur, and touched upon as images in auciei.t pniphecy. It may be further added, that the cedars of this mountain, iiuiilng so many qualities f Tiers, hut similar in their love uf independence, the .Mrroiiiu-i nnd iho Driues. The country of the for- r.ier iRciiUtMl Kearaouu, the Caatravau of tlie historians iif the cruMdfs. U rtaohvt from tbt river Kebir io the Kelb. The Maronites, amounting to 130,000, dwell in villages and hamlets. The fervour and da. votion which pervade this people recall to us tba ideas of the primitive church. An imposing super- stition has constipated a cedar forest which is said to have furnished the timber of Solomon's temple. Only twenty large cedars remain, and this old veg«tabl« race verges fast to its extinction. Erery year, on transfiguration day, the Greeks, the Armenians, and the Alaronites, celebrate a mass on an altar of rough stones raised at the roots of these venerable trees. The Druses, also 130,000 in number, live to the south of the Maronites. Their country has several subdivisions, differing from one another in their toll and productions. It is by religious peculiarities that this pet>ple is separated from the other inhabitants of Syria. They believe In one God, who, for the last time, showea himself in human form in the p' son of Hakem, caliph nf Kgypt, in 1J30. Persuade, that all other systems of belief will finally !>« united In that which they prnfeu, they regard them al.' with equal indifference, although the ChriHtiani have considered them as entertaining a niarked ctmtempt for the Mo. hainroedan religion. On the eastern base of Lehanus Ii the fertile plain, watered by numerous streams, where the ancient city of Daninsons stands, the Demeshk, or Sham-el. Demeshy of the Orientalists. DAMASCUS. This cltv was once famous for the manufacture of sabres, whkh appear to have been made of thin lamf. nuu of steel rmd Iron welded together, so as to unite great flexibilitv with a keen edge. The art of making tbem is lost, since Tamerlane carried off the artisans to Persia. Sabres nre still made here, but of inferior quality. It has a manufacture uf excellent snop, and. of stuffs nmde nf a mixture of cotton and silk. The cabinet work of fine wood, adorned with ivory and mother-of.penrl, h;i« excited the admiration of tho Euroj'eans. This city is enliveneii by the bnstlo of commerce, nnd the passage of the caravans to Mecca. The great street which crosses it presents two rows ol slinps, in which the riches of India glitter nlong with those of Kurope. Damascus is seven miles In circum- ference, and nt present the population may amtninl to 100,000. The private houses in Damascus, simple in external appearance, exhibit in the interior all tho splendour nnd elegance of a refined luxury; great ningiiilicenre is also displayed in the mosques, the chun^het, and the cxiffee-houses. The large mosqtio is a line and sp:)cious building, but no traveller is permitted to enter. The ('ban Verdy, or Coffee- House of ]{()9r!t, is considered an one of tlie curiosities of the Levant. \'arious plac.'S asHrH'lated with ev mts mentioned in i^cripture are pointed out in the citvand neighbourhood. The street still called Straight is that whure St Faul is, with nt, is shown as the place where the Aj mtle was let down in it banket t nnd in the way to Jerusalem is tlie RiH>t where his course was arrested by the light from heaven. There is a tradit'on that man was made in a meadow to the west of the city ; to the east of it Ir (tointed out the place where the h(»t of Naaman the Syrian <(ood. At the ( ommencement, we gave a view of the pre- sent state of the country. Change and mutability are leading r'taracteristics of all other amntries but those in thf east. There they remain the same, century after century; and the descriptions of them by tra- vellers, of two hundred years* standing, exactly cor- resptmd with those given by travellers of yeaterilay. It was anticipated by some that Palestine would have been materially affected by the operations of the Pacha of Kgvpt. Nothing, however, has yet occurred which wouM justify us in drawing any conelniinn as to u change in it's civil administration. It would be un- pardonable in any account of the Holy Land, to omit mentioning the present state of the Jews, its ancient and liighlv-favnured Inhabitants. We learn, from a statement lately published in Germany, that their num- bers amount to between three and four millions, scat- tered over the fare of the whole earth, hut still main- taining the same laws which their ancestors received fron^> their inspired legishttor more than three thou- sand years ago. In buro|>e, there are nearly two minimis enJo}-tng different degrees of political prlvi- lege, according to the spirit of the several governments -, in Alia, the estimate exceeds several hundred thou- sand; in Africa, more than half a million; and in America, about two thousand. It Is sup|>osed, how- ever, on good grounds, that the Jewifh population on both sides of Mount Taurus Is considerably greatei- than is here given, nnd that their given number doei not fall short of five millions. In Palestine, of liiti^ years, they have greatly increased. It is said ih:.t not fewer than ten thousand inhabit Snphet and Je- nisalem, nnd that In their worship they still sing thuhe pathetic hymns which their manifold tribulations have inspired ; Iwwailing, amid the ruins of their snoicat capital, the fallen city and the desolate tribes. KniNnt-nnir: IHibllihH by W. iixl II, Cham ..iin, ID, Watcr- Itm IMiHvi »l»o hy«)«n tnd Rmini, I'^tonimtir Iltiw, l.on- limit «»( W.t'rHnVi Juii. ■ml I'o. h;ii-ti%lll<' Sircvt. Dublin. Sold by .toliu Mai-lvtid, (llatgow, anti all othiT |lo(ik»cllrra in Heotland, Rnfflamt, and Irvland.— 1*uMlkhctl once n fonnijthu rii.lURPtliR'fi iKronMATioN FOR INS PBoi-r-M will he eonipli-trd I'l t>ii« viiluiMtf nuaito, fi»mlnf( a rtHnpriht-nalvc btHy of huiTia^i kii(>nk>t1f{c nn l!u' iiKMt lm|Miriaiil i.ulij"'t'<- iitcitfiiiyinil jy \. KlrkwiMtil, K a brief, but, it is hoped, Intelligible and correct view of the pro- gress of British history. THE REMONSTRANCE. It was generally allowed by moderate people, that, In the autumu of IC41, by which time tlie labours of the Parliament bad continued one year, the King hud granted redress of all the abuses for which the earlier part of his reign, and the British constitution in general, were blameable. If he could have given a guarantee that he never would seek to restore any of these abuses, or attempt to revenge himself upon the men who had been chiefly concerned in causing him to give tbein up, there would have been no fur- thor contention. Unfortunately, the leaders in the House of Commons felt thitt, if they once permitted the King to resume his authority, tliere would be no longer any safety for them; and it was deemed ne- cessary by this body of men, that things should be prevented from falling into thoir usual ourriMit. They therefore prepared a paper called the Remonstrance, containing an elaborate view of all the grievances that had ever existed or could now be supposed to exist, and this they not only presented to tho King, but disseminated widely among tlie people, with whom it served to increase the prevailing ditiadfectiou. COHMGNCEMCKT OF THE WAR. From this time it was mtin that the sword could alone decide tlie quarrel tmtween tho King and the Parliament. C'liarles made an unsuccessful u^empt (January 4, Ki^li) to seize six of the most refrac- tory members, for the purpose of striking terror into tho rest. The effort only served to widen tho breach, In the early part of the year just named, the two parties levcridly employed themselves in preparing for war. Yet, even now, the King granted some ad ditii:nal concessions to his opponents. It was at last, upon A demand of theirs fur the command of the army — a privilege always before and since resting with the crown — that he iinally broke off all ami- cable intercourse. lie retired with his family to York. The Parliament found its chief support in the mercantile classes of Loudon and of the eastern coast of Kngluiid (which was then more devoted to trade than the west), and in the Puritan party generally, who were allied intimately with the PreiiSyterinns of ficutlaud, if not rapidly becoming Bssimilated with them. Charles, on the other hand, looked for aid to the nobility and gentry, who were able to bring a roniideruble number of dependents into tho lield. The one party was by the other styled Hijundhtadt, in consequence of their wearing short hair ; while the friends i>f the Parliament hcitowed upon their opponents the epithet of MaiignanU. The Hoynlists were also, in the lield, termed Cavaliers, from so many of them being horsemen. On the 2Ath of August, the King erected his standard at Nottingham, and sotm found himself at the head of an army of ten thousand men. The Parliament had tiiperior forces, and a better supply uf arms ; but both parties were very ignorant of the art of war. Tho King commanded his own army in person, and the Parliamentary forces were put under the charge of the Karl of Essex. The first buttle took place, Octol>er 23, at Edgehill in Warwickshire, where the King had rather the ad- Tantdge, though at the expennc of a great number of men. He gained tome further triumphs before the eud of the campaign, but itilt could uot muster so large an army as tho Parliament. During the winter, the parties opened a negociation at Oxford ; but, the demands of the Parliament being still deemed too great by the King, it came to no successful Issue. CASiPAiON or 1643. Early In tho ensuing season, the King gained some considerable advantages : among the rest he defeated a Parliamentary army under Sir William M'^aller at Stratton, and soon after took the city of Bristol. It only remained for him to take Gloucester, in crder to confine the insurrection entirely to the eastern pro- vinces. It was even thought at this time that ho might have easily taken possession of London, and thereby put an end to tho war. Instead of making such an attempt, he caused siege to be laid to Glou- cester, which the army of Kssex relieved, wlien just on the point of copitulating. As the Parliamentary army was returning to London, it was attacked by the royal forces at Newbury, and all but defeated. Another royal army in the north, under the Marquis of Newcastle, gained souieadvontages; ond,upontlio whole, ut the close of the campaign of 1043, the Parliamentary caune was not iu a flourishing con- diiiun. SIILITARY CITAnACTCn OF THE PARTIES. In this war, there was hardly any resirectablo mi- litary quality exhibited, besides couruge. Thu Itoyal- iats used to rush ujion the enemy opposed to them, without any other design than to cut down as many as possible, nnd, where any part of the army was suc- cessful, it never returned to the field while a single enemy remained to be pursued ; the consequence of which was, that oue wing was sometimes victorious, while the remainder was completely beaten. Tho Par- liamentary trotips, though animated by an enthusias- tic system uf religion, were somewhat steadier, but nevertheless had no extensive or combined plan of mi- litary operations. Tho first appearince of a superior kind of di.sciplino was exhibited in a regiment of horse commanded by Oliver Cromwell; a gentleman of small fortune, who had been a brewer, but was des- tined, by great talent and address, joined to an unre- lenting disposition, to rise to supreme authority over these kingdoms. Cromwell was one of nature's cop- tains; though himself inexperienced in military af- fairs, he showed from the very first a power of drill- ing and using troops, which no other man in either army seemed to have. Hence his regimeut soon be- came famous for its exploits. SOLEMN LKAGUE AND COVENANT. The Englitili Parliament and the ^cottinh nation were alike distressed by the royal successes in 1C43, which threatened both with the loss uf all the politi- cal ameliorations they had wrested from the King. They therefore entered, in July, into a Solemn League nwl Covenant^ for prosecuting the war in concert, with the viow of ultimately settling both church and state in a manner consistent with the liberties of the people. In terms of this bond, tho Scots raised an army of 21,0U0 men, who entered England, in January lti44, and, on the 1st of July, in company with a large body of Lngliih forces, overthrew the King's northern army on Long Alarston Moor. The conduct uf the Scottish nation in this transaction was not sonnexrep- tionahle as might be wished. They had been grati- fied iu IG41 with a redress uf every grievance they could name ; siiu'e which time the King had not given them the least cause of complaint. In now raising war ag:tinst him, they had no excuse but the very equivoi-al one that it was necessary to guard against the possibility of his ever being able to injure them. They were also acting on English pay, which was un- worthy of a nation, which, on many occasions, made very clamorous ussertioni of its being Independent. The mainspring of tbeir proceedings was a hope uf being able to establish the Presbyterian religion in England. The Episcopal church being now abolished, divines were nominated by both nations to meet at AVestminster, iu order to settle upon a new form of worship and church government; and after a long course of deliberation, it was agreed that the Preitby. terian system should be adopted, though in England it was pr vided that the new church should have no connection with or influence over the state. VEW-aiODELLING OF THE PARLIABIENTARV ARMY. The defeat at Long Marston was severely felt by the King, who gained a victory over Waller at Co* predy Bridge, and caused Essex's army to capituluto in Cornwall (September 1) ; but in consequence of a second fight at Newbury (October 27), in which he suffered a defeat, he was left at the and uf the cam- paign with greatly diminished resources. A new ne- gociation was commenced at Uxbridge ; but the tcrmi asked by the Parliament were so exorbitant, as to show uo sincere desire of ending the war. In truth, though the Presbyterian party were perhaps anxious for peace, there was another :>nrty, now fast rising Into import- ance, who had no such wishes. These were the Inde- pendents, a body of men who wished to see a repub- lic established in the state, and all formalities whatso- ever removed from the national religion. Among the leaders of the party was Cromwell, whose mind seems to have already become inspired with lofty views uf personal aggrandisement. This extraordinary man had the address to carry a famous act called the Self- Denying Ordinance, which ostensibly aimed at de- priving all members of the legislature of commands in the army, but was intended solely to displace a few noblemen who were obnoxious to his designs— and also an act for modelling the army anew, in which process he took care that all who might be expected to oppose his views should be excluded. It wai this party that prevented any accommodatloa taking place between the King and his subjects. M0NTR0SE*8 CAREER IN SCOTLAND. While the negociation was pending, the Marquis (formerly Earl) of Montrose produced a diversion in Scotland in favour uf tho King. Having got fifteen hundred foot from Ireland, to which he added a few Perthshire Highlanders, he fell down upon the Low- lands, and on the 1st of September (1644) gained a complete victory over a larger and better.armed furco at Tippermuir. At Aberdeen, whither he went for the purpose of increasing his army, he gained another victory over a superior body of Covenanters. He was then pursued by a third army, under the Marquis of Argyle, and, after some rapid movements, seemed to dissolve his forces in the Highlands. Ere his enemies were aware, he burst in the middle of winter into the country of his grand enemy Argyle, which he did nut leave till he had made it a desert. Finding himself timidly followed by Argyle, at the head of a large body of Campbells, he turned suddenly, and falling upon them at Inverlochy (February 2, 1G45), gained a complete victory. He then moved along the eastern frontier of the Highlands, where he found himself opposed by a fourth army under General BaiUie. After lacking Dundee, and eluding BaiUie^s troops, he en- countered a greatly superior force at Auldearn, in . Nairnshire (May 4), whom he also overthrew. Then turning upon BaiUie, whom he met at Alford, in Aberdeenshire (July 3), he gained a fifth victory, al- most as complete as any of the rest. In all these battles he carried every thing before him by the spi- rit of his first onset, and the slaughter was In general very great. He now descended lo the Lowlands, and at Kilsyth, near Glasgow, was opposed by an army of ()U00 men, whom the insurgent government at Edin- burgh had hastily assembled from Fife and Perth, shire. These, with a much smaller force, he alto ^. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. J^^-i- .( defeated (Augunt Ifl), killing iinmcnao numbers in the piirsuit. The Cttmmittees of Chiirch and State then broke up and left the kingdom, leaving him in Appearance its sole master. Ills successes had in the mean time given the King hopes of carrying on tlie war with success; bat Muntrosc had in reality gained no sure advantages. Ile-Mdei bis small army of min- gled Irish and Highlanders, there was hardly any portion of the nation who did not regard him as the greatest of traitors. While lying with a diminished force at Philiphaugh, near Selkirk, hu was surprised (September 11), by a detachment of the regular Scot- tish army, under General David Leslie, who com- pletely defeftted his troops, and obliged Mm tn leare the kmgdom. His having gained six victories in snc- cessiutd no looger keep the tit-M. He had no resource but to retire into (Ixl'ord, a town KeaJontly affected to his cause, and well fortified. the xino takrs rrrcoe with the scottish ahhy. He endeavoured, from this forlorn position, to re- new the uegociationa for a peace, but every attempt of that kind wan fruhtruted by the Independents, who, though a minority in the Hnuic of Commons, pos- sessed great power through the army, and, as already mentioned, were desirous of elfecting greater changes in church and state than those for which the war was Oi'iginalty undurtuken. Dreadir-g the inlluenceof this body, Charles retired pri\-ately from Oxford (May lC4u), on the nipronch of the Parliamentary forci-a, and put himself under the protection of the Scottish army at Newark. It was now the policy of Charles to set himself up, ^s ic were, to auction l>«tween the Pre-ihyterian and i> ct pendent parlies, tfnd put himeelf at the head of tl at which sliould offer him the betit terms. The Frobyteriiin paity, including all the Scotch and a v&^t pnipiirtion of the Knglish puT)1ic, would have reinstated him in power, if he would have sanction* ed that religion wliiih, as already mentioned, whs now dei-'lared to be tlie established woiship <»f iing- land. On the other h;nid, if ho would have n-n- Sented to alMdish all f atahli^hed fonus of worship, and permit every congri^ation to e!ect and pay for iti own clerg}*m:m, the Independents would have perhaps ac- cepted him as the president of their repuhlic, though ft IS more likely that the leaders of this furtton would have been as well pleased to see him Kirtk into ruin through tlie crooked pxljcy he was now )iur5uing. As thL> views uf thr Scots throughout tlie war had been steadily rvmfined to the (tecurity of the l*reshy. terian religion, along with the safety of the King's person and the establishment of a limited nuMiarchy, they received him with great respect at their ramp, and entered into negitciations forctrectitig thtir grand object. If ('liarlcs would have acceded to their views, he might have immediately resumed a great part of his former power, and the agitations of many subse- quent yearn, as well as his own life, might have been •pared, Uut it was the misfortune of tins monarch to entertain a bigoted favour for the KpiMopal forms of wxrithip, and an obstinate con\ !« tion of the tinjios- lilitlity t>f carrying nn a monarchy witluMit bishop<«. He therefore Bplit with the Presbyterians on the very |K>lnt which they roniidered the moat important. THE KINO nn.ivrHEn rp dt the scoTi. From the time wnen he first threw himself Into the Soottiah camp, the Knglish Parliament had maile re. f»eat4>d and Btreiinoua dcuianda fur the surrender of tis person into their hands. The Scots, however, though ai:tiug partly us a mercenary army, atsurteil thfir right, as an independent nation under the an. thoritv of the King, to retain him in tlnir own hands. They had a large claim against the blnglinh l^arltument for arrears of pay ; and it was not till tliat was com- pounded fur at L.400,000, that they consented to deliver up their munanh. Partly through this ce his fate. It must also be stated In favour of the Sroti — who have suffered much obloquy on this luxmint, eren from a nation whose Parliament would not discharge a just debt without an Inducement — that they rould not hava rruinrd possession of the King any longer without a war with tho £ngli^h, 14U whitli would have Involved a breach of tho Solemn League and Covenant) and a doncrtlon of all their rcligimis objects. In favour of an Episcopal and hMtile inunarch. After surrendering the King, the Scottish army retired (January 1G47) to their native country, and was dismissed. ASCSKDAKCT OT TUB ARMT. The King was now placed in Holdenhy Castle, and uegociations were opened for restoring him to power. ^V'hiIe these were pending, the Parliament deemed it unnecessary to keep up tho army, more eapecially ns its spirit was plainly observed to bo of a dangerous character. On the tirst proposal, however, to dismiss this servant, it rose upon its master, and, inspired and led by Cromwell, put tho Parliament completely uiuler restraint. It aKo contrived to take posaession of the King*s person, which gave it a great advantage over iti opponents. TRIAL AND KXKCUTIOM OF THE KINO. Charles subsequently escaped to the Isle of M'ight, where he was taken under the protection of a kind of neutral p >wer, the govonuir of Cariibrook Castle. Here ho renewed his negoctatioui with both parties, hoping to turn their mutual diead of eacli other lo his oM-ti advantage. But he only, by this means, wrought his own ruin. Upon a promise to give i^rcs- bytery a trial of three years, he engaged tho ScoUi, or at least a moderate iiartyof them, to take irms in his behalf, and invade tne kingdom of Kngland. In July lf>4(t, Cromwell defeated this army, taking its leader the Duke of Hamilton prisoner; and as there was then no Presbyterian force, and no Cavalier or mode, rate party of any kind, able to meet his army, he might be considered as the military dictator of his country. He immediately proceeded, by violence, to exclude the Presbyterians from the House of Commons, and to obtain from the remainder, who were his own cren. tures, tho appointment uf what was called a High Court of Juitice, in order to try the King on a charge of having levied wiir against his subjects, which had recently been pronounced treason by Parliament. This extraordinary trial commenivdon the 20th Jnnu. ary I64H, in ^^estminste^ Hall. Charles from tint to last protiv.ted ngaiftKt the right of the court to judge of him ; but he ware determined to listen to no plea of mercy. On the IHlth of January, the King was beheaded' in front of his palace of \V'liitchall, to the horror of bis subjects in general, who, however, were unable to interposo In his favour. An army uf about eight thousand men in Ijondou, and some smaller parties scattered in the provincefi, were at this par. timlar crisis sufllcient to bring tiie sitvereign to the block, against the inclinations of his people, (.'harles tlie First was altogether a martyr to the Kpiscopal form of church-government, previously and since es. talili>hed in Kngland. He was altow^-d, even by his enemii'^, to he a virtuous prince. If he was too strongly prepoisesied in favour of particular systems in civil and ercle:«iastica] government, he only partook of the character of the age in which he lived— an ago dis. tinguislu'd by the wildest extremes in alt kinds of doctrines. liut it is in a great measure absurd to re- fer the fate of this monarch to his own particular clia. racter. It is evident, from the current of popul ir feelirifT, that about this time a struggle was to lake place in Kngland between the kingly power and the pttpuhir privileges, and it appears to us to have higui- lied \ery little who uhs to conduct the contest on tho former side. In tlio morn important order of events, men are of no more avail to control them, than are \ pAsels able to check the tide by which they are borne along in their course. rSTARMSIIMrNT OF A RErfiiMr. The small remaining part of tho Houst of Com- mons, which gained the ridiculous epithet of the Kump, now estitblinhed a republic, under the title of theCommonwealih, theexecuiive being tnistid, under great limitations, to a council of forty.ono members, while ill reality Cromwell possessed the chief ihllu- ence. The Hiiuse of Peers was oted » grievance, and abolished, and the peinde were declared to be the le- gitimate source of all power — a propoaltinn which fewer might hiive dunieo. If tlie Hump had been it- self a fair and free representation of the popular will, srnjroATioN or iuei.and and Scotland. The S.Mts, on the other hand, heard of the execu- tion of the Kiiu' with great ind them Into the reiinlt of k-ho followed enenil Lestle rentier of hlf cteriin troops he ScoU fled tads by their lie possession oviners) but pponrance at ■ in the coun- trtther ftctloiw [), the Scots t of the cere. Bolemn Ictiffu* , Cromwell at n of the ScoU linrles led hit , and iimdo a ital. Kre the Iromwell over, fier a stoutly B proved corn- cat difficulty, L>r possessed of tmitted to the ih church were ) privilege but le country wu Jeiieral Monk, irocliimation to lie independent B single armed during twelve inonarciiyr bad ta tired of even by the Hump, icrs, and, tum- ours, locked the ;keu This cou- » called, which Lt an early stage p» consent to au •ing it without mitck Parlift- «rsnns, who got nt, in refereuoa , w))o bora that public respccty cers then pro- ealth of Great ncil the supreme he empire, and and involving ijilcs of liberty, 1. Uewansuc- mcd the British ,i neiKhlMiuring , or bus tilmofct ,ing prt'ferencoa •d u pi'rfecl con- exLCpt Dcrhaps lurch. His go- to luHt the child lucli meana. It IS of the people, the railiiimeuta tned, and which ndtr the autho- |«d him BO mnrh I oblige him t» .ed by the difli- !, though Crom- 1 tho empire, he i«t he could not ■ppineia. He had to know that the urh poxver were ity was not com- mntry. He wa» »sas»i nation — for in tbe monstroua •dient. The last ItMI; I «f ides the remaining peers, of bisoWceri, te Tbii asiembly jfs, and be con- ^lure of a repre- .e tbe late King, ,;illy sunk \inder id he died on the I thouglil to he reriary of several of his victories. Ills eldest son Richard, a mild and Jnenergetic person, succeeded him as Protecuir, but oould nut long maintain a rule, which even his I'ucher "had found the greatest ditflculty in managing. He quietly slunk out of public view, leaving the supreme authority in the hands of tbe Rtunp, which bad taken the opportunity to re-assemble. THE OESTOnATIOlf. This remnant of an old Parliament C4)ntinued In power till the autumn of 1659, when it sunk beneath B council of the Gromwellian odicera. This latter government, in its turn, gave way to the Rump, which sat down once more in December. The people beheld themselves made the sport of a few ambitious adven- turers, and began to long for some more 6xed and re- spectable kind of government. Their eiforts for li- herty, conducted from the fiist by armed violence, had «ndeil in a government of which violence was the only principle; nnd they contracted an unjust disrespect for fremlom, and every thing relating thereto, from Uie elTecta of their own imprudent ways of seeking it. A( this crivis, Ueneral Monk, commander of the forceit in Scotland, conceived the defllgn of settling tbe nation. He left Scotland (Januai'y 2, ttitiO) with a considerable army ; and though he kept his thoughts •crupulously to himself, all men l>eut their eyes upon him, as a person destined to realise their hopes. He re^whed Londou (February 3), and was received with assumed respect by the Kump. Some resistance was attempted by Lambert, one of Cromwell's olhcers, but In vain. Kre long, i^Ionk was able to procure the re- storation of the members who had been secluded from Parliament by Cromwell; who, being a majority, gave au immediate ascendancy to anti-republican views. As Ruuu as this wiis etfected, au act was passed for calling a new and freely elected Parliament ; after wliicb, the present assembly immediately dinsoived it- aelf. The new Parliament proved to be ciiietly composed of Cavaliers and Prc^abyterians, men alike favour- able to monarchy, though differing in many other views. At the tirst they proceeded with great cau- tion, for such terror had been inspired by the late military tynmnies, that, even wlien the breathings of almost all men were evidently in favtmr of a re- storation of tbe munaruliy, they could hardly trust themselves to take any steps towards that purpose. At length (icnt:ral Monk informed them that a mes- longer was in wailing with dispatches fnmi the King, and it was instantly resolved to receive him. The didpatches were found to contain a proposal for the King's restoration to power, with an oDer of indem- nity for all i.iist oiFences which the Parliament itself plight not think tit for punishment, and a toleration for all tender consciences in the matter of religion. The documents were read with shouts of applause, and money immediately voted for the purpose of bringing over the royal family. They were so glad to esc.'i{>e frt)m the severe and lawleKS oppressions of the hiHt few years, that they never thought of making any definite arrangement with the King as to the ex- tent ot his prerogative. They, and the nation in general, seemed to think there could be no safety ex- cept in tliat almost absolute rule, which they had be- gun to dispute twenty years before. Charles the Second arrived in London on the 29th of i^lay, his thirtieth birtli-day, and was received with such a phrenzy of joy by all ranks of people, that he could not help thinking it his own fault, ho said, that he bad been so long separated from them. KEACTIOM OF I'UBI.IC FEEI.INO. Excepting in the execution of ten persona, who had been concerned in the deith of the late king, and of three popular leaders in Scotland,* the restored monarch showed no desire of revenging the misfor- tunes of his father, or his own exclusion from the titrone. The Parliament which called him home was eonstituted a legol one by his own ratitication of an act for that purjwse. lu the settlement of other matters, it seemed the prevailing wish that alt the institutions of the country should be made as nearly what they were before tlie civil war as p lug himself a Catholic. Some other well-contested actions took place at sea, and the English, upon the whole, had the advantage. Owin^', however, to a failure of the supplies, the King was obliged to lay up his Irest vesseln in ordinary, and to send only an inferior force to sea. The Dutch took advantage of this misfortune, to send a fleet up the Thames (June 10, I6G7), which, meeting with no ade- quate resistance, threatened to lay the capital in ruins and destroy its shipping. Fortunately, the Dutch admiral did nut think it expedient to make this at- tempt, but retired with the ebb of tide, after having sunk and burnt nearly twenty vessels, and done much other damage. Tbe King, finding himself rather im- poverished than enriched by the war, soon after con- cluded a peace. I'LAOUF AND FIHE OF LONDOy. In the meatitime, two extraordinary calamities had befallen the r "tropolis. In tbe summer of lf>C3, Lon- dou was visited by a plague, which swept off about 100,000 people, and did not experienea ;iny abatement till the approach of cold weather. On this occasion, the city pretiented a wide and heart-rending »cene of misery and desolatloi]. Rows of houses stood tenant- less, and open to the winds; the chief thoroughfares were overgrown with grass. The few individuals who ventured abroad, walked in the middle, nnd, when they met, declined on opposite sides, to avoid the con- tact of each other. At one moment were heard the ravings of delirium or the wail of sorrow from the in- fected dwelling; at another, the merry song or care- less laugh from the tavern, where men were seeking to drown, in debauchery, all sense of their awfnl si- tuation. The second calamity was a conflagration (vulgarly believed to have been caused by the Catho- lics), which conmienceii on the night of Sunday the 2d of September (ICOlij, in the eastern and more crowded part of the city. The direction and violence of the wind, the cnmhustible nature of the houses, and thedefectivo arrangements of that age for extinguish. ing firef, combined to favour the progress of the flames, which raged during the whole of the week, and burnt all that jHtrt of the city which lies between the Tower and the Temple. IJy this calamity, 13,200 houses and JIJ) churches, covering in all 430 acres of ground, were destroyed. The flame at one time formed a co- lumn u mile in diameter, and seemed to mingle with the clouds. It rendered the night as cleor as day for teti miles around the city, and is said to have produced an elTect upon the sky'which was ohherveu on the bonlers of Scotland. It had one good effect, in cans- ing the streets to he formed much wider than before, by which the city was rendered more healthy. THE PrnSELlTTION IN SCOTLAND. Meanwhile, in Scotland, gi-oat dissatisfaction had been occasioned by the imposition of Kpiscopacy upon the church, and advantage had been taken of various acts of recistunce on the part of the clergy nnd people, to visit both with measures of confiiderable severity. Heavy fines were irnpntied upon such as failed to at- tend the miniKtrutions of the established clergy, ui the suspicion that, when not at church, they were hearing the ejected clergymen in some private pl.-iee. A small standing army was kept up to enftirce the fines, aiul, till these were paid, free quarters were exacted. Tired o( suffering, a few of the peasantry in Galloway rose in rebellion (Novenilter IfHHi), and, advancing through the disatfeited districts of Ayr- shire and Lanarkshire, gradually assumed a threaten, ing appearance. An unfortunate movement towards Edinhurffh, where they expected accessions, thinned their tunnbers, and they were overpowered by Oene* ral Dalyell at the Pentland IMls. Thirty-four of the prisoners were executed as rebels, chictlyat tbe insti- gation of Archbishop Sharpe, who, with the other prelates, was peculiarly cealous in behalf of the g<^- verument. Itesides these sufferers, fifty persons w ere forfeiteil, including liftceu clergymen. Some attempts were made, at the desire of the Kinr, to induce the ejected clergy to come Into the church ; but very feir took advantage of a leniency which the sovereign would have extended also to Catholics, and which m- volved their acknowledgment of his supremacy in spiritual affairs. About the year 1070, these divinei began to hold conventicles in secluded parts of the country, to which the country people used to come with arms. At thew places, afar warmer kind of devotion was felt than could be experienced under tamer circumstances; and, as may be supposed, such meetings were not calculated to diffuse or foster a sentiment of loyalty. Sensible of thiit, the govern- ment obtained an art, imposing very severe fines on all who should preueh or listen at conventicles; but without producing any effect. The penalties with which they were threatened, teemed only to make *he people more attached to their peculiar modes of wor- ship and church government. THE TRirtE ALLIANCE — THE FRENCH ALLIANCE. The kingdom of France was at this period rising into adegrec of power and wealth, under its monarch Louis the Fourteenth, which it had never before known. Louis had some claims through his wife upon the Netherlands (since called Belgium), which was then part of the Spanish dominions. He accord, ingly endeavoured to possess himself of that country by force of arms. A jealousy of his increasing power, and of the Catholic religion professed by his people, induced the Englich to visa that his aggressions should be restrained. To gratify them, Charles en- t<. ed into an alliance with Holland and Sweden, for the purpose of checking the progress of the French king. In this object he was completely succeasfiil, and consequently he became very popular. The Par- liament, however, having disappointed him of sup- plies, he soon after entirely changed liis policy, and, with the assistance of five. abandoned ministers, Clif- ford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauder- dale, who were called the Cabal, from tbe initials of their names forming that word, resolved to render himself, if possible, independent of Parliament; in other words, an absolute prince. In consideration of a large bribe from Louis the Fourteenth, he agreed to join France in a war against Holland, with the .iew of uCterly exterminating that example of a Protestant republic. War was accordingly declared in JMay 107^1 and the naval force of England was employed in meeting that of the Dutch by sea; while Louis led a ]K)werfu1 army across the Ithine, and in a very &hort time had nearly reduced the whole of the Seven Pro- vinces. In this emergency, the Dutch could only save themselves from absolute ruin, by laying a great part of their country under water. The English, who had not entered heartily into this war, soon began to be alarmed for the fate of Holland, which was almost their only supporc against the dread of Popery, and, though forbidden, under severe penalties, to censure the government measures, they soon contrived to ex- hibit so much dissatisfaction, as to render a change of policy unavoidable. The Kir^g found It necessary to assemble his Parliament (February 1(j73), and it wai no sooner met, than it passed some acts highly unfa- vourable to his designs (among which was the Test Act, for excluding Catholics from oflice), B'td, above all things, declared it would grant uo more supplied for the Dutch war. The King resolved to prorogue the assembly ; but before he could do so, they voted the alliance with France, and several of his ministers^ to be grievances. Charles, who, in wishing to bu ab- solute, had been inspired by no other motive than ft desire of eose, now saw there was a better chance of his favourite indulgence iu giving way to his buhjects, than in any other course ; and he at once abandoned all his former measures, and concluded a separate peace with HuUund. This country wns now beginning, under the conduct of the Prince of Orange, to make a good defence against the French ; which it was the better enabled to do, by obtaining the friendship of Germany and Spain. In the year 1670, after a war, which, without any decisive victories, will ever reflect lustre upon Holland, a peace was concluded. The Prince of Orange, in the previous year, had married tbe Princess .Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, and edurated in tliereformeii faith— an alliance which pleaseil the English, from its f^trengtluming the P.-'o- testant interest, and which was destined, some years after, to bring about wonderful effects. THE roriSH PLOT. Throughout tlie whole of British history for a cen- tury past, one of the grand nu>ving*sprlngs was an intense detestation and fear of the Catholics, though these religionists were not only of limited number, but cannot be observed during the whole timetoliave ever combined for any purpose against their Pro- testant brethren. This sentiment was now inflamed by the avowed Catholicism of the Duke of York, the heir.presnniptive of the crown, and by the late in- trigues of the King with France. It raged, in short, to such an extent as to give the whole community the appearance of suffering under a fit of lunacy. Iu 1070, an account of a plot, supposed to have been formed by the Papists for burnuig London, massa- cring the Protestants, and destroving the King and the Protestant religion, was circulated by oive Kfrby, u chemist ; Tong, a Avcuk, credulous pe^^on ; and Titus Uates, one of the most abandoned miscreantt that ever appeared iu history. The ciicumbUucei 'It m CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE IP «|?| .; •' ^ f' i' ■ i 11 : :i i mm attending thii pretended disct)%-ery were so perfectly Incredible and moniitrous, that, if the natiun bad not been in a state of hKlliicinalfon at the time, they never could have been fur a moment listened to. However, the plot was not onlv i^nerally believed by the people, but also by the Parliament and the court ; and »uch was the extent o( the excitement, that a ge- neral mauBcre of the Catholici wai apprehended. Even the King, though incredulout, was obliged to t^ive way to the prevailing delusion. Aleanwhile ett«rt were seized, which discovered the Duke of York's correspondence with France, in opposition to the religion and interests of his country ; the corre- spondence of the King's minister Danbv, which in- volved the King in the disgrace of similar machina- tions, was detected; and, to crown the whole, Sir Edmondxbury Godfrey, the magistrate, who first Save publicity to the plot, was found In the fields ead, with his own swnrd stuck through his body. For two ^ears this horrible delusion reigned over the public mind, and unde** its influence many innocent Catholics were Judicially murdered. At length the execution of a venerable nobleman, the Viscount StatTord, excited a general sensation of pity, and the people gradually saw and repented of the excesses which they bad committed. THE EXCLUSION BILL. The Parliament having impeached Danby, the King resolved to dissolve it, and call another. Tlie new assembly, however, proved aa iucontrollable as its predecessor. It cairied, by a majority of 79* a bill excluding the Duke of York from the succession ; declared the King's guards and standing army illegal ; and passed the liabea* Corptu act, which has ever •ince been considered as so effectual a protection of the personal freedom of the subject. The House of Commons now for the first time began to assume the forms and character it has since generally retained. The court party were called Tories, from the word loree (give nie), used by the Irish banditti, who were Cavaliers ; and the party who opposed the court in favour of the people, acquired the name of Whigs, from the sour milk so called, which farmed a chief part of the food of the proscribed Presbyterians in Scotland. The latter party always greatly predomi- nated in the Parliaments of Charles the Seamd, and their measures were of so liberal n casit, that Mr Fox considered this tyrannical re\(rn as- 'i one respect, the brightest era of British freedo..:. Though the bill for excluding the Ouke of York was thrown out by the Upper House, that prince found it necessary to retire from popular odium, first to Ilrussels, and after- wards to Scotland, while the Dukti of 4Munmouth, eldest natural son of the King, and believed by many to be legitimate, began to be looked to by the Presby- terians and liberal partv in general as a preferable heir to the crown. In these agiutions, the populace of London was particularly active ; and it was at this period that the term mob whs first used. The word was an abbreviation of mobile vulijuty a phrase signi- fying "the unsteady vulgar," which the court con- templuouxly applied to the crowds which daily as- sembled. PCRSECt^TION IN SCOTLAND. The persecution in Scotland for field.meetings was •o severe, that, before the year 1C70, it was supposed that seventeen thousand persons had sutfored by it, many of them very severely. A bond was attempted to be imposed upon the people, in which conventicles were renounced ; and to enforce it in the west coun- try, an army of ten thousand Highlanders was per- mitted to range there at free quarters. Notbins', it was found, could break the resolution of the people to mdhere to their favourite modes of worship; on the contrary, all these severe measures inspired a deep re- •entment against the government, as well as the pre- lal«s. On tb«> 2d of May Ifi?!}, as Archbishop Sharpe was going in his coach to St Andrew's, he was beset by a body of desperate men, who cruelly slew him. An insurrection of the west country conve'nticlers im. mediately followed, and a pnrtv of drag'tons, sent against them under Captain Urnham of Claverliouse, was gillantly repulsed. In a brief spnce, about five thousand men were found in arms against the state, among whom were many of the minor gentry. The rebellion was considered so formidable, that the Duke of Monmouth was sent down to head the troops for Its suppression. He found them posted advantBgeoutly at Bothwell Dridge (June 22) ( but divisions on cer- tain religious and political points unfitted them for making a good resistance. After defending the bridge fur a while, they turned In a panic, and fled. Three hundred were killed in the pursuit, and tn-«lre hun- dred taken prisoners. This unfortunate insurrection, being followed up by fresh severities, effectually sub. dued all disposition to resistance, except in a smiilt party of the non-conformists, whose principles were of an unusually enthusiastic kind. Twentyanned men, profcuing these principles, were assailed by a detach, ment of dragoons, in Airsmosi ^ItittO), when their leader Cameron, a clergyman, and several others, were killed, after a desperate resisunce. Cargil), another preacltier of that extreme sect, soon after held a con- renticle at Torwnceedings had a highly injurious efi^ect. In so far as they gave occasion fur tresh severities against the whole party ; but tliey wpre inspired liy such pure and pious motives, and broiight down such calamities upon the unshrinking heads of those concerned In them, that they have ever since been regarded in Scotland with great respect. The more uncompro- mising party soon after arranged themselves Into what they culled a Secret Society, and (Jiinimry 12, 1582) openly anpenrcd at Lanark, and published a declara- tion of tiieir principles, among which a renunciation of all allegiance to Charles the Second was the most remarkable. The dispute between the government and its subjects had now arrived at such an extremity, that individuals were shot In the fields by military law. if thoy merely refused to acknowledge the royal authority. The nmst of the people, unuble or un- willing to resist, were therefore obliged to give an ex- ternal reverence to the prelattcal church imposed upon them, or at least to the irregular clergy who had re- ceived an Indulgence. A great disposition prevailed to emigrate to the American colonies, as the only means of escaping the oppressive restraints under which they laboured at home. THE KINO BECOMES ABSOLUTE — THE BTE-HOUSE PLOT. In the meantime, an extraordinary revolution took place in England. Abuut the time that popular feel- ing was recovering from the Popish Plot mania, the House of Commons had shown stronger symptoms than ever of a determination to seek the exdusion of the Duke of York from the throne. The time was unfortunate, for men were beginning to suspect that they had been deceived in many of their surmises about danger I'rom the Catholics. The object, more- over, however necessary it might ho to freedom, was one which touched upon a principle which many men in that age deemed sacred — that of hereditary succes- sion; nor was it possible to blame the King for op- Easing a measure so unfavourable to the interests of is nearest blood relation. In fact, the liberal party of the House of Commons pushed their favourite mea- sure to such a point as to cause a kind of reaction against them. The King called a new Parliament to meet at Oxford, resolved, in the event of its not proving more tractable, to dissolve It, and call no other such assembly. It met on the 2l8t of March 1081, and the Whigs simn showed that the Kxclusion Hill was still paramount in their minds. The King permitted one of his Ministers to propose, that, at his death, the Princess of Orange should reign as regent, and the new King l>e for ever banished five hundred miles from his dominions. Itut they would not listen to this concession. Charles then dissolved them, as utterly intractable, and, strange to say, was generally applauded for the acL Popular feeling had now taken a deciued turn in favour of royalty; and the representative branch of the legisla- ture, long regarded with veneration by the KngHsh, was permitted to go dow.i without a Btrugfy this mood of the people, Charles caused all the corporations In the kingdom to give up their old charters, and accept of new ones, by which he became nil-powerful over the elections of magiKtrates, and, consequently, over those of Parliamentary representatives, should ever another election of that kind take place. The leaders of the late majority in Parliament, comprising the L ike of .Monmouth, Lord Uusscll (son of the Karl of Bedford), the Karlof Kssex, Lord Howard, the famous Algernon Sydney, and John Hampden, grandson of the patriot w^o first resisted Charles tbo First, being reduced to absolute despair, formed a project for raising au in- surrectirin In London, to be supported by one in the west of Kngland, and another under the Hurl of Ar- gyle in Sc.itland, and the object of which nhould be confined to au amelioration of the government. They were betrayed by an associate Kumsny, and implicated, by a train of unfortunate circumstances, In a pint for assassinating the King (styled the Rye-house Plot), of which thev were perfectly Innocent. Russell and Sydney perished on the scaffold for this ill-starred movement, and the triumph of the King was rendered the more complete. After a drspolic reign of nearly four years, he died (February 8, ItiSd), professing himself a Catholic, and was succeeded by the Duke of York. ACCESSION or JAMES THE SECOND. Charles the Second, with all his faults, had conducted himself towards his subjects with so much pleasant- ness, and had so well calculated his ground before making any aggression upttn popular lil>erty, that he might probably have pursued his arbitrary career for many years longer. But his brother James, though much more respectable as a man. more industrious and more sincere, wanted entirely that easiness of carriage and that penetration which wore the grounds of the htte King's popularity and success. He was, moreover, a declared Catholic, and inspired by an ar- dent desire of reforming the nation hack into that faith. These ciraimstanrps, though they at first seemed to threaten very bad consequences, will soon be found to have proved the means of saving these nations from the complete osubllshment of a despotic government. He began his reign by declaring before the Prlry Council his Intention of governing solely by the laws, and to maintain the existing church j and such was the confidence In his sincerity, that he soedience to the regal will, began to see that there might be a danger in that doctrine. James having commanded that his proclamation of toleration should be read In every pulpit in the country, only two hundred of the clergy obeyed. Six of the bishops joined In a respectful pe- tition against the order; but the King declared that document to be a seditious libel, and threw the peti- tioners into the Tower. In June Ififttl, they were tried In M'estminster Hall, and, to the infinite joy of the nation, acquitted. Blinded by religious xeal, the King proceeded on hii< fntJiI ourse. la defiance of the law, he held open intercourse with the Pope, for the restoration of UrU tain ti the bosom of the Romish church, lie called Catholic lords to the prlvv council, and even placed some in the cabinet. Cnapels, by his Instigation, were every where hntit, ami monks and priests went oiwnly alntut bis palace. A court of high commis- sion-^tbe most flagitious iosUumoat of tyranny undef . . ^li'-Jy-. idi-:^^ \ m II ijj HISTORY OF THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN. iroc«eded on je held open ition of BrU He called even pUccd initigatlon, prietu went if(h commit* rpiwy undef Charlet the First— wai ert'< iM, and before this every clerical person who gave any offence to the King, wai ■ummoned. He alto excited great indignation by vio- lently thrusting a Catholic u{Mn Magdalen College, at Oxford, as its head, and expelling the members for their resistance to his will. To crown the general feeling, a son was borii 't the K'.ig (June 10, l(jfl6), who promised to perpetu..:' **.e Catholic religion in the country, and whom many suspected to be a sup. poftititious child, brought forn'ard for that purpose only. OEKERAL DISAFFECTIOK. The disaffection produced bv these circumstances extended to every class of the Ring's Kul>jects, except the small body of Uoman Catholics, many of whom, even, regarded the royal measures as in the highest decree imprudent. The Tories were enragbJ it the ruin threutened to the Church of England, w..fch they regarded as the grand support of conservativt. principles in the empire. The Whigs, who had al- ready mode many strenuous efforts to exclude or ex. pel the King, were now more inflamed against htm than ever. The clergy, at this time a popular and Infltiential body, were indignant at the injuries in< fflcted upon their church ; and even the dissenters, thoiiffh comprehended in the general toleration, saw too clearly through its motive, and were too well con- vinced of the illegality of its manner, and of the danger of its object, as affecting the Protestant faith, to be exempted from the general sentiment. But fur the birth of the Prince of Wales (whose birth they sus- pected erroneously), the people at large might have been contented to wait fur the relief which was to be expected, after the death of tlie King, from the Prin- cess of Orange, who was a Protestaitt, and united to the chief military defender of that interest in Kurope. But this hope was now shut nut, and it was necefisary to resolve upon some decisive measures for the salva- tion of the national religion. PBINCE OF OUANOE CALLED OVER. In this crisis, some of the principal nobility and gentry, with a few clergymen, united in a secret ad- dress to the Prince of Orange, calling upon him to come over with an armed force and aid them iu pro- tecting their faith and liberties. This prince, who dreaded that England would soon be joined to France against the few remaining Protestant powem, and also that his prospects of the succession in that country (for he was nephew of the King) were endangered, listened readily to this call, and mimedlately collected ft large fleet and army, comprising many British re- fugees. His preparations were conducted with great secrecy, and James was partly blinded to them by a tumour that the only object was to frighten him into a closer connection with France, in order to make him odious to his subjects. When he was at length as- sured by his minister in Holland that he might imme- diately expect 1 formidable invasion, he grew pale, and dropped the letter from his hands, ills delirium of power vanished, and he found himself on the brinit of a dreadful precipice, which Iiad hitherto been con- oealed from his view by the illusions of religious zeal. He now saw the necessity of providing for his own safety, as well as of endeavouring to conciliate the af- fections of his people. He immediately ordered his fleet to be assembled, and his army to be recruited with new levies. He sent for troops from Scotland and Ireland ; and to his no small sutisfitction, found his land forces amount to forty thousand men.* Nor was the King less liberal of his civil concessions than vigorous in his military preparations. He had already issued writs for the meeting of Parliament on the 27th of the ensuing November. He followed these with a declaration, that it was his fixed purpose to endeavour to establish a legal settlement of an uni- versal litwrty of conscience for all his subjects; that he hnd resolved to preserve inviolate the church of Kngland ; and he protested that It was his intention Roman Catholics snould remain incapable of sitting In the House of Commons. He gave orders to the I^rd Chancellor, and the Lord Lieutenants of the se- veral counties, to repface all the Deputy Lieutenants and Justices who had been deprived of their commis- sions for their adherence to the Test and the Penal Laws against non-conformists : he restored the char- ter of London, and the charters of all the corporations in the kingdom : he annulled the court of ecclesiasti- cal commission : he reinstated the expelled president and fellows of Alagdalen College ; and he invited again to his councils all the bishops whom he had so lately persecutetl and insulted, assuring them that he was ready to do whatever they should think necessary for the security of the Protestant religion and the civil rights of his subjects. . But these concessions, though important In them- selves, were made too late to be allowed much merit ; und being generally supposed to be extorted by fear, they were coldly received by the nation. Nor was the sonduct of the King, in other respects, nnswernble to ■uch conciliating measures. He recalled the writs for the meeting of Parliament, without issuing any new ones ; a step which created universal suspicion of his ■incerity, and begot a belief that all his concessions were no more than temporary expedients. He showed, however, a laudable zeal for his own honour, in ub- • Tti« rullnwlnn nccount of the RcvoluUon Uftotn Ruucll'S HUtory iif Minlcm Kumjw. The reit of the thvtt t« cnrefull> MtndffnipH fmin ihi< largrr hhiorlr* of England and ScoUiad^s prvceii uf no ■iiwll Urgnv or ilitflniltyi U9 taining a legal pnwf of the birth of the Prince of Wales; but by an imprudence approaching to insa- nity, the heir of the crown was baptized in the Romish communion, and the Pope, represented by his nuncio, stood godfather to the boy. Meanwhile, the Prince of Orange continued his pre- parations, A powerful fleet was ready to put to sea; the troops fell down the Alaese from Nimeguen ; the transports, which had been hired at different ports, were speedily assembled ; the artillery, arms, ammu- nition, provisions, horses, and men, were embarked ; and William, after taking formal leave of the states, and calling Ood to witness that he had not the least intention to invade, subdue, or make himself master of the kingdom of England, went himself on board. His whole armament, which sailed from the Brllle and Helvoetsluys, on the lOth of October, consisted of fifty stout s^ips of war, twenty-five frigates, and an equal number of fire.ships; with five hundred 'ransports, carrying about fifteen thousand land forces, in.'Iuding five hundred and fifty-six officers. Admiral Hei'^rt, who had left the service of James, led the van ; t'>e Zealand squadron, underVice- Admiral Evert- zen, brought up the rear; and the Prince of Orange in persoi. commanded in the centre, carrying a flag with Eng.'sh colours, and his own arms surrounded with these -topular words — "Tiic Protestant Re- ligion ANL THE LiuEHTiES OF Enoland." Under tills inscripti.m was placed the apposite motto of the house of msmut— .c^d maintiendraif ** I will main- tain!" This grea; embarkation, the most important which had for sor.ie ages been undertaken iu Kurope, was scarce conpleted, wlien a dreadful tempest arose at south-we.t, and drove the Dutch fleet to the north, ward. The storm raged for twelve hours, and the Eriticc was obliged to return to Helvoetsluys. But soon repaired his diimnges, and again put to sea. An east wmd carried him down the Channel, where he was seen from both shores, between Dover and Ca- lais, by vast multitudes of anxious spectators, who felt alternately the extremes of hope aud fear, mingled with admiration, at such a magnificent spectacle. After a prosperous voyage, he landed his army in Torbay (November 5), without the smallest opposition either by sea or land. The same wind which favoured the enterprise of the Prince of Orange, confined the English fleet to its own coast. Iban(1 of (tie King's wcond daipghtcr, and who wai a man uf weak ch.iraeti'r, iiivd to cxpreu himu?li~ to liii S\t- Je»ty a> vciy much lunniMa at tlie dofettloni which every niftlit totik place, »lwny» •")'»(?. when any Idid or nfflnT wis mcnliciir-d a« hnvingrellnil, " E»tu (MwiibleC* At length Prince Ceoriic Mm. M-lf IVrtluivcd the nenrrnl cxamjik ; which l«mg toUl to the King, lit ctlcd, wliha»necr| "What, »( it pcstibit gone un)\" i : I': t'l lii. m 5C '■ ; CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. f' I'- ll mi w ill the B;iviotir uf the nsiiun. The populace rote in Lou- dun, and nut only de»troyed «U tn« i'opiih rhnpcU, but even ritted the houses of the ambASsadnri of Ca- tholic princes and states^ where many of the Papists had htdged their most valuable elTects. Itiot and de. vastation every where prevailml. The whole body of the people, reJeasod from the re:(trainU of law, felt Oil* general movement ; and new violences were ap- prehended from the licentious soUiurs, whom Fever- sham had disbanded wiihout either disaiTniu^; or pny> iff them. In order to remedy these evils, and restore public tranlvc(l to apply to the Prince of Orange to 6i>ttlu the affairs nf the na. tion, deserted by tho King, through the induence of evil counsellors. William was not backward in assuming that autho- rity which ihu imprudence of James had use belonging to the Duchess of lAudetdnle; and the following nl(;ht, as he was gotn< to root, the Hutch guanis, without further notict*, took poftscssion of hu palace, and dix- placed the KngUsh, to the irreat dingust of the army, and no inconsiderable part i>f t'ne nuiion. Jame:« set out neat morning, by penninsion, for llochcster, in preference to Ham, under a Hutch guard. Afraid of being taken off cither by poison or a^snssi. nation, and mortilied at his present abject condition, ke continued to meditate hia escape ; and n« the back- door of the house in which he Intlged was intentionally left without any giiord, he found no diftirultv in ac- oumplishing his design. He privately withdrew at aaidnight, accompanied by his natural son, the Huke of Harwick, and went on lK):ird a large sloop, which waited for him in the river .Medwny. After some oh- Mructions, hesafely arrived nt A mbleteuse, in Picanly ; whonM he hasteneil to St Oermain's, where the Queen and the Prince of Wales had arrived the day before. The same day that James Kft Whitehall, William arrived at St James's. It happened to rain very heavilv, and yet great numbers came to see him ; but, after ikey had staid long in the wet, he di»appulttvclated. An order had been Issued, com- manding till the Highland chiefs, under pain of tiro and sword, to give in their suttmission before the final day of the year lti!H. One individual — Macdonald of filencoe — wns prevented by accident from observ- ing the day, ond letters of fire and aword, signed by the King, were accordingly issued against him. The military party ciitrnsiea with this duty, instead of boldly advancing to the task, came among the clan na patcheo by W ilham. w,th a few troous. tojom wuh I fiends, partook of their hospitality and amnsementi, sucn forces as he conld obtain in Scotland, and endea- g,,^ ^^^.^.^ indicated their intentions till ' vour to suppress the insurrection in the HiKhland?, lie enaiuntered Dundee at Killiecrankie f Julv 271, and, though his troops were greatly superior in num. her and discipline, experienced a complete defeat. Dundee, however, fell by a musket-shot in the mo- ment of victory, and his army was unable to foHow up its advantage. In a short time the Highland clans were induiYd to yield a nominal obedience to M'illiam and Mary. In Ireland, a far more formidable resistance wns offered to the revolution settlement. The people of this country, being chietly Calholiis, and gicatly In. ceiibiMl agaiii!>t their Protestant musters, regarded the cause ol King James aa their own. He landed In Ireland early in spring, and was soon at the head of a large, thm'i;fh ilUdisciplined army. To gratify his Catholic subjects, he pasted an act in the Irish Par- liament, annulling what was called the Act of Settle- ment, hy which the Protestants had been placed in land oriirinnlly behinging to persons of the opposite faith. The Protestants, finding themselves thus dis- possessed of what they considered their property, and exposi*d to the vengeance of a majority over whom they had long triumphed, fled to Londonderry, Innis- killing, and other fortified towns, where they made a desperate resistance, in the hope of being speedily suc- coured hy King William. That sovereign now led over a gallant army to Ireland, and (July 1) attacked the native forcea under his father-in-law at the fords of the Ikjyiie, near the village of Dnnore, where he grtined a complete victory. James was needlessly dispiriie*! by this disaster,' and I ist no time in sailing again to France. In reality, the Irish made a better appearance, and fought more vigorously, after the 1>attle of the Itoyue, than before it. The Duke of Iteruick and the Ihrl of Tyrcounel still kept the field with a large biKiy of cavalry, and the infantry were in the ine:iiitiine effectually prutcctt^d in the town of Limerick. Witlinni invested this town, and, in one assault upon it, lost two thousand men, which so dispirited him, that he went buck to England, leaving his officers to prosecute the war. The Irish army afterwards fought a n-gular battle at Aghrlm, but,' partly owing to the btss of their brave leader, St Ruth, were totally routed. The remains of the ('atholic forces then took refuge In Limerick, where tbe^' finally submitted upon very advantogifous terms, not. Illy to themselves, but to all their coniitrymen of the same persuahion. It was sigreed th:it they should receive a general pardon; that their estates should be ^e^tol ed, their attainders annulled, and their outlawries reversed ; that Koman Catholics should enjoy the same t«ileratlon as In the daj.t of Charles _ the Seciiiul ; that they should bo restored to all the j p iTllegei of subjects' on merely titlting the oittht of I allegiaiu'e ; and ttiat siu-h as chose to follow the f<>r- I tunes rf Jauien (of which there was a vo»-t nnnibi r) IfthouM be conveveJ to the Continent at the exjicnte of government. the morning of February 13, when they attacked the unsuspect- ing people in their beds, and mercilessly slew all that came in their way. Thirty-eight persons, Including the chief and his wife, were ilmughtered, and many others died in the snuw, as they vainly tried to escape* A more atrocious action does not stain modern his- tory. Two or three years after, the Sctittish people began to turn iheir altentinii to commerce, by which they saw such advantages gained by neighbouiing stittes, and they planned a colony on tho Isthmus of Darien, which they thought might become an empo- rium for American and Indian produce. They sub- scribed among themselves, fur this purpose, no lesa than L. -100,000; to whlih waa added more than as much again by the merchants of Ijondon and Holland. The jealousy of other trading companies, and the re- monstrances of the Spaniards, who apprehended some interference with their culunics, induced the King to uitlulraw his countenance from the scheme, after he hud sanctioned it by act of Parliament; hut never- tlleh'^s (lO'MI), a gallant expedition was Kent uut by the Scots, who fiMindcd a town called New Edinburgh* about mldwuy between Portobello and Carthagciui, and under the ninth degree of latitude. During the winter nu)nths, every thing teemed likely to answer the expectations of the colonists; but summer brought disease, and, uu their provisions running low, they found, to their infinite consternation, that they could get no supplies, the SpanlHh and Hritish culonlsts of ttie neighuouring countries being alike forbidden to deal with them. In Alay and Septenilwr lGt>0, ere intelligence uf these circumstances could reach home» two oilier expeditions hud sailid, oontdining eighteen hundred men, who wete involved on their arrival In the same disualers. After disease had swept off many hundreds, the remainder were attacked by the Spa- [iiuia.t, wuu pretended a right to the country ; and to these haughty enemies, who were countenanced in their proceedings hythe British sovereign, the unfor- tunate colony was obliged to surrender. Very few ever regained their native country, and the large sums ve%ttid in the undertaking were irrecoverably lo:it. The massacre of Glenccte, and the Darien eape- diiion, were thenceforward words to call up the most Infuriated feelings ugaiiiM the King, in thti brcasU ijf the Scottish nation ; amungwhom the Jacobite party, or friends of the exiled James, thenceforward oegnu t«i assume a liiriuid.>iblu appearance. i:Nn OF THE REION Of WII.MAH THE THIRD. The peace of Ryswirk, concluded in Ifif)?, by which the French pouer'wus confined to due limits, permitted William Ui spend the concluding years nf bis reign In peace. In 17**0, in consideration of the childlessness of Williitm and bis sister-in-law Anne, the famous Art of Sncce^Hion wiiS passed, hy which the crown, f.iiling these two itulividuals, was settled upmi the next ProtesUnt heir, Sophia, Duchess of Hanover, daughter uf Elixubcth, tho eldest daughter uf Junus '-•' -^'t-rt*-i^ «.. HISTORY OP THE ISLAND OF GREAT BBITAIN. the First. The wars carried oii hy Willi«iii hming bMii lu expeniive at to outrun th« reiourcea of th« nation, It wai in hit time that a public debt fint began tP b« contracted. About thit time, the Cannes of a nevr war took their rlw In certiiin ditputei refipectinf( the succession to the orown of Spain. The title to that soveretgntv, in the event of the death of the existing King witliout belrt, wua claimed by the King of France, the Elector of IlHTsrlu, and the Kmperor of Germany, through rarious female lines of descent. A treaty, to which England was a party, wai entered into for' preventing the whole A-om falling Into thu hands of Louis, whose empire would then have been so great as to be incon- sistent, it was thought, with the independence and safety of the neighbouring states. Wnen the King died, Louis, without regard to the treaty, CBtubllsht'd one of his grandsons as King of 8paln, and other iin- liortant dumlnions belonging to it, among which wns the kingdom of Naples. About the same time, In de- fiance of the treaty of Kyawick, he acknowledged the Hon of James the Second {this exiled prince died in September 17011 us King of (liuat Britain. The Ilritlsh monarch was indignant at both events, and the nation at the Utter; and war was accordingly in preparation, when King M'ilHam died (March 2, 170S)i in conaetpience of a fall from his horse. MABl.BOROUOH*B WARS. The movement rtgainst Louis bad not been confined to Great Britain : it was a combination of that ]Knver with the Emperor of Germany and the states of Hol- land. Anne, the successor of William, found it ne- cessary to maintain her place In the Grand Alliance, as it was termed ; and the Duke of Alarlborongh was lent over to the Continent with a gallant array, to prosecute the war In conjunction with the allies. Now rnmmeuccd that career of glory which has ren- dered the reign of Anne and the name of Marlborough so famous. In Germany and Flanders, under this commander, the British army gained some nignal suc- cesses, particularly those of Blenheim and JKamillies : in i^pain, a smaller army, under the chivalrously bravo Earl of Peterborough, performed other services of an important kind. The war, however, was one in which Britain had no interest — for it has been seen that Spain has continued under a branch of the House of Bour- bon, without greatly endangering otiier states. A party, consisting chiefly of Tories, endeavoured, in 1700, to put an end to the war; and France was so much reduced in strength as to concede all the objects for which the contest had been commenced. The peo- ple, however, were so strongly inspired with a desire of humiliating France, which in trade and religion they considered their natural enemy, that snmo am- bitious statesmen of a contrary line of politics were enabled to set the treaty adrift. Among these was the Duke of Alarlbnrough himself, who, being per- mitted to profit, nut only by his pay, but by percpii- sitcs attached to his command, wished the war to be protracted, merely that he miglit make his enormous wealth a little greater. It was by these unneces- ■ary interferences with continental politics, which yet were urged only by the people, and by a popular class of statesmen, that the foundation was laid for the ex- isting national debt. UKIOK OF ENGLAND AND SCOTtAND. Since their religious enthusiasm had been laid at rest by the Revolution Settlement, the Scots had been chiefly animated by a desire of participating in the commerce of England. The shameful treatment of their expedition to Uarien had now inspired them with a bitter feeling against their southern neightiours, and they resolved to show their power of counter- annoyance, bv holding up threats of dissenting from England in tue matter of the tucccssidn. In 1703, thetr Parliament passed the Act of Security, by which it was ordained that the successor of her Afajesty should not be the same person with the individuu adopted by the English Parliament, unless there should be a free oomnmnication of trade between the countries, and the atfairs of Scotland thoroughly se- cured from English inlluence. Another act was at the same time passed, lor putting the nation under arms. The English ministers then saw that an in- corporating union would be necessary, to prevent the Pretender from gaining the Scottisl'i crown, and to protect England from the attacks of a hostile nation. For this purpose, they exerted themselves so effec- tually in the Scottish Parliament, as to obtain an act, enabling the Queen to nominate commissioners for the arrangement of an union. The men appointed, thirty on each side, were, with hanlly an exception, the friends of the Court and of the Revolution Settle- mcntt and the treaty accordingly was framed with. Out difficulty. In October I70U, it was submitted to the Scottish Parliament, and was found to contain the following principal points — that the two nations were to be induEoluldy united under one government and legislature, each, howevor, retaining its own civil itild criminal law; the crown to be in the house of HeHtowed on the greatCRt na- tional benefactor; and the Tory and llitfh Church party gained so much strength in a new Parliament then etocted, as to expel the M'hlgs. A Tory mi- nistry — tlio famous Tory ministry of Queen Aiuie-~ then came into power (I7IO), being headed by Ilarley Karl of Oxford, and the celebrated Viscount Boliiu{- broke. PEACE OF UTRECIIT. The members of this new cabinet immediately ap- plied themselves, though very secretly, to the busi- ness of bringing about a peace. A\'heu their plans were matured, the consent of the House of Commons was easily gained, seeing that that ussemblycontained a majority of Tories ; but the l^ords having shown some reluctance, it was fnund iioce«fiary to create twelve new peers, in order to overpower the sense of that part of the legislature. After a tedious course nf negociaiion, Britain and Hulhtnd concluded a peace at Ihrecht (1713), leaving the Emperor of Gtiimany still at war. By this arrangement, Philip the Fifth was permitted to retain Spain and the Indies, but no other part of the dominions which his ambitious grand- father had endeavoured to secure for him ; and it was provided that he and his descendants should never inbeiit the kingdom of France, nor any future king of France accede to the crown of Spain. Britain oh. tained nothing tangible bv all her exertions, except the enviable privilege of being exclusively employed to carry iflaves to the Spanish American colonies ! In fact, the wart of William and Anne had no object but that \^( preventing certain continental territi>ries from iHMiig amassed by certain sovereigns— an evil which, in hardly any extent, could have ever done serious i'ljury to Britain ; whilo it is evident that the people supported these contests through the influence of the most besotted sentiments, nor saw their inuti- lity till they felt the increase of taxes which they oc- CBb. jned. There was then, it must be observed, little principle among statesmen, and little information among the people. The Tory ministry obtained the Ceace only for party ends; and though it really was eneiicial, as the termination of a course of error, it was not received very generally in that light; for, after all, the new* of a victory in Flanders had a great charm for the public ear ; and the army is not a tiling that the populace are ever tieen to dislike, eitiior in reference to its expense or its liability to become an instrument of oppression. ACCESSION OF CEOUGE THE FinST. Queen Anne, who was a good but wcok. minded woman, had for some years entertained a whh that tlic act of settlement should be het aside, and the crown restored, on her death, to the main lino of her family, in the person of her brother James, now styled the Pretender. Toryism wns hardly so popular as to make it possible to avow this purpose bnhlly ; mid ac- cordingly the greatest caution was observed by her- self and her ministers in their intrigues for bringing in the Pretender. Before their plans were matured, the Queen took suddenly ill, and died (Aug. >, l/U) ; and the Tory ministers, finding themselves tinder the necessity of acting according to the existing law, pro- claimed the Elector of Hanover, son of the late Princess Sophia, under the title of George the First. The new sovereign lost no time In coming over to Britain, and fixing himself in that heritage which his family has ever since retained. He was fifty-four years of age, of a good thmigh not brilliant undentandlng, nnd very firm in his principles. Knowing very well that the Whigswere his only true friends, he at once called them into the administration 1 the Tories he treated with contempt, if not absolute rudeness, being of opi- nion that it is needless to seek to conciliate enemlM. The former party continued In power during the whole of this and the subsequent reign. REBELLION OF 1710. During the first year of George the First, the To- rles kept up very threatening High Church riota 1 but the Whigs, gainlnff a majority m the new House of Commons, were able to check this a little by the cele- brated enactment called the Riot Act, which permits military force to be used in dispersing a crowd, after a certain space of time has been allowed. Being com- pletely disappointed in their hopes of ofHcc and power^ and treated with unnecessary insult by the King, the party resolved to attempt bringing in the Pretender by force of arms. For this end their means were to> tally inadequate ; but it is the characteristic of thia party, that they always think their cause so very good In itself, that it cannot fail of success. They believed that all England and Scotland were ready to take anne for the Pretender, when in reality there was but a li- mited portion of the people so inclined, and that por- tion unwilling to move, if they saw the least risk. Blind to these circumstances, and without design or concert, they opened the unfortunate civil war of 171A> The Earl of Alar, a member of the late administra- thm, raised his standard at Castleton, in Braemar, without any commission from the Pretender, and was soon joined hy Highland clans to the amount of tea thousand men, who rendered him master of all Scot- land north of the Forth. There, however, he weakly permitted himself to be cooped up by the Duke of Argyle, who, with a far less numerous force, had posted himself at Stirling. Mar expected a co-opera- tive invasion of England by the Duke of Ormond, and a rise of the people of that country. But the duke completely failed in his design, and no rise took pliico, except in' Northumberland. There Mr Forster, Al.P., and the Earl of Derwentwater, with some other noblemen, appeared in orms, but unsupported by any considerable portion of the people. Itlar detached a party of eighteen hundred foot, under Macintosh of Borliun, to join the Nortburabrlan insurgents, who complained that they had no infantry. The juuctioa was managed with great address, and at the same time some noblemen and gentlemen of the south of Scotland attached themselves to the southern army. The government was singularly ill provided witn troops; but it nevertheless sent such a force against Air Forster as obliged him to retire with his men into the town of Preston, In Lancashire, where, after au ob:>tinutc defence, the whole party (November 13) sur- rendered themselves prisoners at the Kiiig*8 mercy. On the same day, the Earl of Mar met the Duke of Argyloa'.Hlterritfmiiir, near Dunblane, whereabattie was fought, in which, after the manner of the battles In the civil uur, the right wing of each army was sue* cessftil, but neither aitoKether victorious. The duke wiihdrew in the face of his enemy to Stirling, and the earl retired to Perth, resolved to wait for the newe of an invaiiion from France, and for the arrival of the Pretender, whom lie had invited to Scotland, Ha did not tor some time become aware of the hopeless- ness uf the former object. I^ouis the Fourteenth, upon wliom the hopes of the party greatly rested, had died in September, leaving the government to the Regent Orleans, who had strong personal reasons for wishing to cultivate the good-will of the British monarch, and of course declined to assist in the present enterprise* The Pretender, nevertheless, sailed for Scotland, and on the 22d of December, arrived incognito at Peter- hcHtl, bringing nothing but his own person to aid hla adherents. The Earl of Mar, who had already at- tempted to negociate a subniikalon to the government, brought him forward to Perth, where he was amused for some time with preparations for his coronation. But before ho had been many days there, the Duke of Argyle found himself in a condition to advance against the insurgent force ; and on the 30th of Janu- ary 17 IC, this unfortunate prince commenced a retro At to the north, along with his dispirited army. On the ■tth of February, he and the Earl of Mar provided for their own safety by going on board a vessel at Alon- trose, and setting sail for France : the army dispersed itself Into the Highlands. For this unhappy appear- once in arms, the Earl of Derwentwater, Viscount Keumure, and about twenty inferior persons, wera executed ; forty Scottish families of the first rank 1. st their estates, and many excellent members of society were exiled for ever. ADMINISTRATIOK OF WALPOLE. The Whig government of Oeorge tlie First derived great additional power and stability from the sup- pression of this insurrection, and, to secure itself flfTainst the inconvenience of consulting the people too often, soon after carried a bill for extending the dura- tion of Parliaments to seven years — a blow against li- berty which the Tories in vain endeavoured to ward off. In 17-20, the financial schemes of Law, the comptroller-general of France, inspired the British public with similar visionary projects, one of which, entitled the South Sen Company, ended by producing a wide-spread scene of ruin. Peace was slightly dis- turbed aliouC this lime by an attempt of Spain to re* gain her Italian territories, which was, howeverj speedily suppressed, and by some schemes of the Ja* cobltes, or friends of the Pretender, which were still more promptly defeate<). During the twenty ensu- ing years, the country was managed chiefly by Sir Robert Walpole, without the occurrence of any event n :ii u: 1 V CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE n t- \\ It fcif of imDonnnc*, exotpt Ihs dMih of Qtorff th« Flrtl, ■nd the acceuion of U«(irg» th« S«c4>iid, in \^2^, Thli tniniit«r hai the merit of having prewrved peace during thai long period, but will ever be Infamotit for the aystem of corruption bv whiuh he maiutained hUaicendancyiit the llouteor Cummoni. Hiigrand principle was, that every man had hii price, nnd, when that was ascertained, that there remained no iUBculty but to raise the necessary sum, or confer the requisite ravunr. He acted to regularly upon this principle, and with lo little decency, that the Uritiih Farltament l>ecame a mere mockery of a representa* tire or deliberative body. Not that there wai wanting A minority who, calling themselves uatriou, declaimeil loudly ngainst the base practices of^ihe ministry, and .aiTected to stand up fur the country. iSir Kobert, however, looked upon these persons — and he porhnps was not far wron^ — as only individuals nhnse price he had not been alile tocompaM, or had not thought it worth while to disburse. ^ WAR WITH BPAIK, 1739. After twenty years of peace, M'alpole wai urged, much against uis will. Into a rontc»t with (>pain, on Account of some eiTorts mude by that country to check an illicit tradti carried on by Ilritisb nuTcliHuts in iu American colonies. In searching vennels for the pre- vention uf this traffic, the Spaninrds lind made tome trifling aggres&ions; and British spirit took fire at the indignity of being lialile to a s«trch by anv power on earth, even for the prevention of a iiotorii>us brerich of treaty. The community therefore deniamlcd a war, and the miniiler, with great reliictunci!, wiin obliged to comply. One fleet, under Admirnl Haddock, was sent to cruise off the coa»t of Sp.iin, and aiiuthei, under Admiral Vernon, was sent against the Ameri. can colonirs. The latter gnined liii^ire by tuki:ig the imp.trtant ton 4-1 of Portotiello. Another and Inrffor ex}>edition, wiih ten thousand soldiers, uas tlieii sent tn reinforce A'ernon ; but, owing to dinputes between him and the commander of the troops, no fnrtlier lrium[ihs were gained. A timid, ill-concerted, and ill-conducted attack upon the fortilicutlons of Carlha- gciiA, lou Drilain about twenty thoiisarurmen. Mean- time, a third fleet, under Anson, t-ailed to the eastern coa&t of Spanish America, In order tu co.nperHte with Vernon ; but only oue of tho vessels reached its des- tination. An!((in, thus reduced in naval force, took several pi izes off Chill, and plundered tlie town of Paita, but coulil venture upon no moru hazardous en- terprise. He cruined across the Pacific, in the hope of uieeliiig one of the Spaniiih gulleonx, u hicli usually CiUitained great quantities of bullion ; but did not sue*. ceed, till, on his return from rflUting iit (.'anton, he to«»k the Manilla trnii^port, with trea«ure to tl>e amotint of three hundred thousand pouiidii. Thou^'h he had failed in alt the proper objects of the ex)H-tli> tiiin, the nuniey he brought to the public treasury canned him to be very well received by the peitple ; while the flagrant mismanagement atCnrthngena was the suliject of general execration. WAR WITH ritANCE. The Spaiti^h war now lan;cuished for some time, while the attention of Britain was attrnttrd to the proceedings of France. After the death of the Km- parar Charles the Sixth of Oermany, lus doniinions fell by inheritance to his daughter, the celebratcil iUaria Theresa, Queen of Hungary. She whs luppoacd, however, in this succession bythesoveretf;iisof r'rance, Saxony, and BAvaria, who all pretended to have roine claims on her dominions. A war was commenced against her ; the Klector of Bavaria was crowned £mperor ; and such was the success of the French arms, that she was soon redu(<>d to the greatest dis- tress. With this quarrel Britain had no shadow of excuse for interfering; but the King thought his do- ninions in Gennany endangereil, and the pcii|ilc had all their usual taste for fighting with the French. War was therefore entereil into, \Valpole sinking con- scientiously tieneatb the prejudices of his two ma»lerii. The phenoinemm was then observed of Great Britain paying an army of 10,000 Hanoverians, besides many of her own native troops, tu fight the battles of thut people. During the progress of the contest, an un. usual bitterness animated the ojiposlng parties iu tliu House of Commons. The ^^liniitry had been recruited by the most popular men of the lute minority — among whom the most conspicuous were Lord Carteret and the Karl of Bath. It was of course expected that these men would line no time, after they were in power, lo effect some ot those improvements in the coitstitntion which they had formerly clamoured for. Indeed, no- thing less than n total ren')vaii(Hi of the constitution was expected. A nuinlier tif motions to (his purport were accordingI< made 1.1 both Houses of Parliameitt; but, to the B';oinshment of the nation, they were all violently Cjfpiised ami quashed, by the very men who had lately maintained the principles on which tJiey were founded, and whose former speeches had sug- gested many of them. The most important of these motions were the following three: — One for appoint. Uig a committee to 'Mnquire into the conduct of affairs during the last twenty years j*' one for bringing in a bill to ** repeal the act for septennial pHrliumentSf" and one *' for excluding pensioners from the House of Lords.** Though German subsidies, standtuff armies, and continental connections, had been the i-oustani objects of the indignation of these men while out of placa, and had furnished them with the occasion of ■ome of the finest strokes of their popular eli>qnence, they extended their complaisanre to the King In all these particulars, much farther than their execrated predecessors. Besides Droriding for subsidies to Den. mark and H esse- ( 'asset, they procured a vote of half a million to the Queen of Hungary; they augmented the land forces to (i'i2,5(M); they trans])nrted to the Low Countries l(i,000 British troops under the Karl of Stair, to make a diversion In favour of Maria Theresa { and they ordered these tnwpi to be joined bv 0000 Hessians, and the almve-menttoned 10,000 Hanoverians In British pay. The community of the present day, whatever they may occasionally think of those at the head of affairs, have certainty reason to congratulate themselves on the great Increase of both moral and political principle which has taken iilace in that exalted clans of men since the days of the U'al- poles and the Buths. nATTI-E or DETTIXflKK. About the time when Great Britain entered Into this struggle, the alfuirs of the Hungarian queen took a Kurprisiug turn, and her armies, under her husband the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Prince Charles of Lor- raine, and other eminent commanders, began to drive all I.er enemies forth from her dominions. France, having lost 100,000 men in the contest, sued for peace; but this the queen haughtily refused, in the hope of gaining itill greater triuntplis by means of Britain. The aid of that power, ns it turned out, was of little service to the queen. The Karl of Stuir had permit- ted his army to get into a position of grout ditiictilty at AschafTenburg. on the Upper Alaine, and, luit for a blunder of the French, It would probably have been starved into a ^urrende^, along with the Ki.ig and prime minister (Carteret), both of whom had recently joined it. The blunder consisted In an attack made by the Dukeof (irammnnt, with :<0,000 triHips, upon the British and Hanoverian infantry, tipou a plain near tho village of Dettingen. The lufnntry, cheered by tite presence of the King, who rode between the lines with his sword drawn, received the charge of the French civalry with great firmness, and compelled them to retreat — a movement which communicated a panic tuthe whole French army, and might have been attended with the merland, though able to withdraw In good order, did not venture after this disaster to face the enemy dur- ing the whole campaign. Nevertheless, the Queen of Hungurv at this time gained the summit of her wishes by the ejection of her nusband to the imperial throne. iteuEM.ioN or 17-15. The misfortunes of the British arms on the Contl. nent, and the distractions which prevailed among the people and the Parliament, encouraged Prince Charles ..tuart, -'Idest son of the Pretender, to make an at- tempt at this time to recover the throne of his ances- tors. In the previous year, he had been furnished by France with a large fleet and atnule stores to Invade the British dominions, but had been driven back by a storm, and prevented from again setting sail by a su- perior fleet under Mr John Norris. The object of France In this enterprise was to produce a diversion in favour of her own army in the Netherlands i at present. In consequence of their victory at Fontenoy, such a division was not necessary; but though the French monarch would not grant him any farther supply, Charles iM)vertlirlen ! aiul \\. C'inav, Jun. and Ca SackviUe tttrcct. Dublin. Suttl by Jo)tn h'ai-lcoil, CAiifow, snd all olticr UtMfkMllcn in bcutland, tngUind, anil Ireland.— PubllthtHl uncc a fortnight* StCTVotyped by Alexander Klrkworal, and )irlntc4 by BsllaatTne snj Co.. Paul's Wurk. A CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONniTCTEl) nv WII-IvJAJI AND ROUKRT CHAMIIKHS, KDITOHB OF THE " KDINDirKllH JOURNAL" AND m ■MIISTOKICAL MJM'.SPAPKK." No. 20. P"'"" 'K THE BRITISH EMPIRE, AND ITS RESOURCES. I by Billuitvni Thk pijwer, eoinmerfe', hiuI weiilth of Oreiit Hriuin, III fur iiiu-|mfi» till tliiic Itiu Iteou witneHiied in former limes ill the world, thiii tliey have heooine an object of wonder to every thinktiiff portion, both in thi« and other countries. It Is nuttirully asked, What ran have elevated so small an islund to power and intlneiice so unexumplfd ? What I'un have given to a people of only twenty millions in nunilwr, wfulth and resourcfs lurpuisinff tbiwe of tho inoxt populoiii nations on the face of the globe ? The phenomenon of Uritiah great- ness huvinfr L'xrited so iiinrh curiosity, both among the learnud and uti1eariie>), it is the purpose of the following sltuet brti-fly to untold its origin, and to ex- hibit iui great mid almost incredible extent. The lirst cause undoubtedly of the internal prospe- rity of llritnin, has been her insuhir situation, which placed Iter iiloof from inuny of the wars which devas- tated the Continent. Kvery invader wai there a de< •troyer also, and tiiined not so much to possess the country, ns tocrnitli its rising manufucturei and insti- tutlous : white, in the civil wars of I'Jngland, the dif- ferent cmididitieH for the crown sought rather to con- eiliate the people, and to preserve from devastation what they hoped to inherit : hence, whatever manu- facture was orice cdtabliiihed ir. Kngland, took root there fimily, atid liad little lia/ard of being eradicated. Another principal cmisu of British prosperity, has been the happy form of her government. From a very early period, tlie comnums of England had a v(doe with thu great bnrons in l)io enactment of tiie laws, and in t)iu grutitiiig of taxe.t. They had it, therefore, 10 their power to do the king ctiiisiderable service or disiervice in the matter of supplies ; and it became his interest to conciliate them, by granting such privi- I^es as assured them in the iguiet prosecution of their t-r;ifiH, uiid in the possu&Hioii t>i' their property, Au* other of themo\ ing causes oi tlieproHperit,/ 'tf Britain, was the early revolution \n the state religion, !>/ which the people were bronut t into the enjoyment (if an e;^tra- ordinury degree of liberty of opinion or ainscience, lie- fore they wei'o put in puHsessiou of the t^ivil rights whicit they hu^u latcerly fojoycd. In other coun- triec, where '.lie political r'ivolutioni have preceded that of reli'jMm, every thing has gone wrong — their sfwial system has been rendered defective, and will not wink. This bad management of surrounding nations has been an additional cause of theprusperity of thiH country of freedom. Those ai-eannieof thorausea which lirnt sowed the seeds of Itrltiah prosperity; but one of the most remarkable sources of her wealth, it njust never be forgotten, lies in the unexampled in- dustry of her people. Habits of activity and enter- prise are common to most islundeis, and are generated iu them by the natural itecessities of their situation j hut in no other case have these been (|uickened and directed by that (juenclilcss thirst for improvement, whone results have raised these countries to such a pitch of eminence. The iiiduktry of the British na- tion, fnim the wealthiest merchant to the meanest tradesman, is unceasing and unwearied ; their very hours of leisure are generally employed in some use- ful pursuit. The country weaver, who is eleven hours every day at his loom, finds yet another hour to hoe his potatoes, to attend to his pig or tame rab- bits, or to cultivate hiit garden ; and v-e have seen se- veral whoemployed their spare momeats in construct- ing optical iuHtrumenta, or toys in bone and ivory. Thousands of those ingenious inventions iu the me- chanical arts, which have amtributed so much to fa- clUtati* the working of machines, and the saving of labour, have been contrived in the leisure hours of industrioiia woiknien. Kveu apprentices struggle to have some spare time, that tliey may devote it to read- ing and acquiring knowledge, or to tome pursuit which haa become a favourite with their. We do not usert that :C\ arc so occupied ; but we lay that a habit of unceasing Industry it the general character of the people ; and that It is ttiis national trait, oyar- ating in all the conuerns of life, which renders the British so wealthy at home, and so powerful abroad. Such industry could not indeed exist, except under n government which assure:! to every one the possession of tho fruits of his own exertions ; and it has beeu the fortunate chaiioe of tho British isUnds to possess in- stitutions which fulAl that Ineatimahle condition to its greatest extent. rORM or THE BRITISH aOVERNIIENT. Every regular government nmy he divided into two parts I one which frames the laws of the country, and which is called the Leyi$tativet and another, called Ejrecutivey which is charged with the duty of seeing the laws ubeytd, and of preserving the public peace against foreign or internal enemies. In Britain, the le^iiilative pare of the government is composed of two deliberating bodies, with the king at their head, with- out whose sanciiim none of their resolutions are valid. Ttie one of these bodies is called tht IIoMt of Lordtf the other the Ilouit of Commoner The persons who compose the House of Lordt form a separate class or rank io the nation, which is called collectively the Peerage, and whose members enjoy certain exclusive privileges and honours in virtue of their hirtl.i-ight, which will bu explained afterwards i this body con- ?4ist8 Ht present of ataiut 430 members, but may be enlarged at pleasure by the king, a power which is ia gcnerid very sparingly used. The other legislative body is called the Uotue of C-*mmoHt, and is composed of members who are cho&e:) fur that purpose by cer- tain classes of the people; the privileged electors in each district appointing one, and in sjmo populous places two : the whole number is U5U. These two houses, with the king, have the power to pass laai, impose taxes, burrow nmney, make inquiries into the management of the public revenues, or tho transac- tions of tiie great officers of government, and even to bring thu latter to trial, if necessary. They inquire into the manner iu which all great public institutions or hoards of management »v^ oonduuted, such as those fur eilucatith paities. It still remains to obtain the sanction of the king, which is hardly ever refused, when the &i7/ becomes an ac< o/^r/ia. ment or /air. The members of both houses have certoJn personal privileges, which are deemed necessary for enabling tliem properly to attend to their public duties. In Parliament, they enjoy absolute freedom of speech, and cannot be questioned out of the house for any thing said in the debates ; they and their servants are exempted from arrest (except i n criminal cases) during their attendance in Parliament; and they can receive and send a cevtuin number of letters daily tlirough the pnst-ofiice, without payment. The Executive — The king, who forms tho chief of the legislative body, h also the head of (.he executive part of the government. Iu this capacity he is charged with the duty of Keeing the laws enforced which Par- liament has enacted, of levying taxes granted for the public service, of protecting the internnl peace of the country against crime and violence, and of defending it against foreign enemies. He also conducts all In- tercourse with the rulers of other nations, forming treaties and alliances, declaring war or concluding peace. He has theduty of protecting the persons and trade of British subjects in foreign couniries. For this purpose, he has the sole appointiifut of the officers who perform these duties ; of judges in the several courts of law ; of officers in the arniy and navy ; of public ambassadors, and of consuls at foreign ports for the safety of trade ; and of the officers who levy the taxes. He has also large forces, both naval und mi* litary, at his disposal, which are stationed indifferent parts of the empire where he or his advisers tliink that they are wanted fur the time. The task of ma- naging all thexe extensive cmicerns, which would fall into confusion in the hands of one man, is deputed by the king to a number of persons, who are denominated his Minislerg, and sometimes the CabineL These are nominally selected and appointed liy the king himself; but as his choice would lie in vain if it were to fall on men who were disagreeable to Parliament (whicn CHAMBKRS'S INFORMATION FOR TIIK PEOPLE. ■ * fni)[ht in thM omw ral'iiM in ffrarii mmhimv tor CHrryiuK on tliH )tul>|iu buiinoiiii), ttm mhiinry in Kiiimritlly chiMifn tnitn mvanng »\wh men an viijny the (*(inridi>iit-a nt tiie uulilttt. They hMve nil nome liigl) |iulillo iMv**, The lihief la ihe Firsl Lnrd q/* M# '/V^Mwry, wliiitifMi» nr at Iruit wit)i his full luiirni. Next Ii the /^onf High i'haherUor, who pr*- . lidea in the hit(hefli la<4'-a>iiri nf ihe kiiigdoni, and in Spenker of the IJioi<>e of Infrdn t he it chief Hdvi»«r ^^t' the kinif In all Ihitt relateii to the lawi nf thp country, and haa ilie ditp>i-«Ml of a K''fnt niimlwr of clerical iirid law offlcAi. After him nvo ilie principal MH:ieuriei of iiate, who are Hvp in nimiher, each hnvltiK a lepa- rale <'harK« j the Hntt in Setrretnry for the Home l>e- pnrtineni, after whotit are the Sttc'retariHH for Korei^n .\lFiiri and for llm Colonifii, the hw:rfi«ry at War, and the SiTrf tnrv for IrfUiid, Theae^ with the Chan. pfUnr n/ihe Kjrtke^ner, and leveral other* of rhu hi>rh fifllrcn of atat«>, hirin what in ralM thff -Ifinijfry, I'lt* CmHnel, or the CmMntt Cnuncit t nnd all the meiuuiwi • >f the exiH-'iitive gor«rnrai>tit are wttled by their dvli* t)«rHti.tns. This reKnUrdlrlkion of lalmiir which ii entalilli^luMl ill the ltriti»h rf<;rernment, Ji nnt* of iti chief exri-U lencin t bpcHii^e every wcri'tary, or other olIi(vr nf Htale, having a pHrtlinilar dt>)mrunent atniKoetl to him, the renponsihility fur any i>rr<>r or niitniMiiaj^emeiit U estahlikhwl at (Mice, and innv tie either rettirted or piinlRh' d. rarllamvnt Itself hai itit lovn dutieR ; mid when thefe are not )H*rfonntKl to the wititfaction iit violviiru u> the ^iieral nysteni ; and by thi^ priiicip)»> it h.m iic- cnmmoilnietl itulf, without nnv convuNinti, m the ohan^t^ and improvements wlnt-h for many t{t*iii-ra. tioiti liave been goin^on in siM-iety. Xhe lut« rtfiorin bill i» an ipRtanre of thin, iiid others (though nut ull to the same exti*nt) tmve laxiirrtMl in every ugu within the reiicli ol hiiiUiry. RFVENVE AMD KXPENDITURR. The revemie of tho British empire hii» vnrii'd ex. c'wiinglv ut lnt« years ; from 17^1 »»' I77». «-I ich whs H peritMlof peace, it increased fnmi h.H.MiK»,tNH) to i«.lU,'.^d.\fI73 : nod sintw that lime, fniin the vnriotis wars m which the (Miintry was engnged, the inime- diHte expenses, and the interest of public debts, it hus cnntimted to autfinent till within these lavt ten or twelve years. Kmm l??-** *« 17S3, which was the pe- riod of the Anwrican war, it ntse from ten millions to twelve million'*, and during th i peace which followed till 17l'>^ it %vas increaited to seventeen and a half mil- lions, a.yrar. After this period the French rerolutloiiary war com- menced. That war was by no meami uii^Mipnlar with the nation; and it wis l^esides gilded by the many splendid victories which continniMl u> be nlitained by lliitifth Keameii as long as Iheenemy hud a fleet tonp. pe«r at i«a. Heavy taxeH for deiraylng the ex}>eniies of this war were iherefore submittetl to without re- monstrance, and the public revenue roae accordingly Ut a very lanr*^ amount. From 17M u* the ueace of Amienk in lUUl, which only lasted two years, the reve. nu« was incrwukHl from seventeen and a half millions Uitwenty.«lght millions: and from 1003 till IfllO, the year after the final cnnchision of peace, it had risen to l<.7fi,«n4,-im, which wan the largest sum raised by taxes in one year. After this it was gradually re. diMV'I, till it now amoiinu to atioiit L.40.(HN>,OOO ( IKinj. The Kums thus rained in taxes, large an they were, did not. hou'ever, meet theex|ienditiireof the country during th we periods of ivar. In order to dufray the grejii rhargea which arn^e, it Itet-nme neeeasary also to titirrou- ti a great nmouut. The folbiwing'uhle will "Wr the sums raised by the Uxes, the sums iMir- rowed, and the toul expenditure for each of'the years spectt^ed. Total Expeckflttuie. L.22,7<'»4,94W OI,UI7,!'mi (J2,:i73,4uu 7«,OJ«,7«i HH,7t«,.'»ftl l:M,3U5,»dH These sums will npjienr »Uoi.'i>tlier ennrinnns, and must give tlie most exiraordinarv titex of the !-«• ■oitrresnf agnrernmcnr, which, wbile it raised tuch n large yeirly amwint in tnxen, had vet credit to hor- rine the immense addiiio.^al sums wMrli were wanted. T(ii« hs|>j>ened too, it must h- /ecoIlecMHl, nt the most critical [>eri(Mls of a nai, wherein it was continually •saerted that the jndepcndence, nay, the very exint- enre of the nation, was at stake.* It mav he easily believtd thai when ahrewd c.-tpitalists were'willing tit \».t. Rilx-'l In Tk"^ nontrwwl. i;!)4 KI7,(i7-t ;^!l.^ i..ft.079,i»7l iimi :;ii.ini'.,itt» »»,(««, IW ifun 3H,4ll|,7:tH !W,l)7i.742 i«(i« KI,(I9II,1S4 22-S.VI.ll74 IIIMI «;,t luu ■/it.aria.iit, M.mtAM IHUi 7 Jutv taan Alaau aAot. is I w« enter into no Immlry th«CUIUH uitvauie out It »ihuii on me ciedii ut the raveiiuei aiiu publiv faith of tbe OtHinlry, there was little re^il ilan. ger in the iwoie t these men saw that the iMnindleia re- souri'es of HritHiu were sufflcieni to carry her tbroi>gt the ctintest in which she was engMged, and si-rupiei I not to lend her government (retttiures which wer* fieater than the revenues of anyempire In the world, and which will tie the aHtonishnient »( ull history. The whole sum which was vxnendeil in the win ot the revolution, from I7&4 to lllin, amounted to 17(X> millions of p(«inds sterling, a sum so far beyond all ordinnry dealings, that ne can have little conception of its aioount or value. All the mines that are at pre- sent wrought in Knrope and America would not nir- nish gold ami silver ei|iinl lo it in le^s thnn «110 years. AV/>«n(/i/ur«(/ llCtl ami IKVJ Having noticed the ex)>eiidituredurlngwar, we shall now give an accouii of tliHt ol the present period of peaee. The whole charges of government amounted In Ut^tl to about fifty millions I which are dislributml in the lollowiiig mninier : — 1. inter fti itHit chmrfff§ on monrjf bormtrrd i$i the limt !>/ tear, — .'I'his Hniouitts to twenty-eight millions Yearly, uiid forms h {termauent fharge, u hii-Ii cannot n« reduced excvpt hy piiying otf the debt iisell. A nmull part of it, wliicli was bnrro\ted by annuities on lives, is termiuHble. *i. 7'A0 />rA'f H'fiyAf.— This is a phrase employeil to denote the niutie> paid hy governmetii to persons ^t Im are not at present reiidering .my service in return. It includes the peiisiniis granted to itgeii or dinKhleii soldiers and irtHret* ; the half-pay i>f olflceis wlome ■ervices rare not requinil, but who, by the regul:itiiMiN, canttot be discharged t pensions to widows ol (ifHcerK; and, Iftxtly, aUowances to retiied Hiiibussadors, Uiw> officers, tu the tn r.ibers of tliu roy:>i family, and to various others, '.'his portion of tlie public expendl. ture amounts toa'MMit sis millions, and is, like the for. nier, nearly a )r«rmanent charge from year to year ; its decrease de|>endiMg only on the death of the pen- tioiieiii, The total pensions, allowances, half-pay, Ac, to persons connecteil tvith the army, is three millions ; of nhii-hthe pcntinns to disnhled and aged soldiers lormL.I,4:M,Mri, Thetotnltoihenavyis l..l.'.>lN),:fHI ; of which the pensioDi to privHte sMilors huni L.'iAO,, Another class, comprising the myal fautily (not the KiiigK retired aTaba^slolors, &u., receive i<.ti4U,7ll'ii i of ivliit'h the royal fainilv have one-thiril part. And the fourth cIhss, called the civil denti tprii/hl, con^lsth of persons who hare been employed in the piihlic oC- licefl, such as the Treasury, I'ost Ottice, Kxflie4|Mer, •.Sic, and who are now Kuppt>sed to lie nntitted for their duties. The anu t is I..1MU,37'^ ;t. Cfiiiryea/ur I'.fffctivt Service. — The sums yet men- tiooeil do nothing towards rarixing on the guvern- meiit of the ctiuntry, paying itn armies, fleets, magis. iniieH, ciMirts of law, &c. Alter defraying iheinterest of the debt, and the dead weight, there remains out ol' the whole lifty niillimiM, about sixteen millions for r);eN« purposes. ' Thiit is distributed as follows t — f^harge for collerting the reveinie I/,n,4[H,.')4A Managtunent of the debt and linaiife 417,401 Kx^wnses of the army navy A, 123.164; a.2uri,25i l>ll''i,477 22U,373 Kxecutive, legislution, law, and justice KxfieiiKes of the ctilonies \ KxpenxHS of amlmisadors and consuls in foreign countries 264,610 Civil government and miscellanies . ttlll,7l0 Public works . . • . 4UO,7M Trade and niauufaetures (houiities, qua- rantine, expenses. Aic) . . , 273,uflO Kxftenses of the royal estiiblihhment and household .... 43A,00() Some farther partieiilani on the principal of these items is ^ivoii in another page. TAXATIUX. The taxes are ruiscil u|niii a great variety of different articles, which are all, however, reduced to the ful. lowing heads, t. The Cuttomt. — These are taxea levied upon the foreign commerce of theonintry, lieing the duties paid npoji articlea imjMirted from abroad, such at sugar, cotfee, Hic. Tliey inrJude also i\ few on some g4buc»i and sniiHTi from corn and grain of all kinds import4Ht, Ii..ti46,(i(Mt ; irom sugar, four and a half millionB ; from titnlier, one millinn and a quarter; from colTee. hnlf a mil- lion : liesides snialier sums from & vast viirieiy of other articles. 2. Th* Excise — The excise taxes are tlnnie which are levied on giMids of Uritinh mHiiufacture, such ns ghiKi, malt, paper, &c. The duty is paid back again to the maker, If tbe cominiNtity is to lie exported to foreign conntri«!>. This class nf'taxes yields altogether L.nia^tf.tiH. The principal articles are malt, which yields about four and a half millions t home-made api- I'itH, yieldinif live millions t lea (wliich is reckoned here, thougn a foreign priKluct) alimit three millitms and nne-thtril. (iIhsn yields half 4t million { puper, tw'i-tbirds; snap (now lowered) gave above a million. 3. S'mmp DuiieM.~^i'Ut!Hi eoiiiitt of the prices at- lixed to fttiun)ied papers, upon which tlie law makes it imperative that every Ui*ctfmeuifur(li«(r«iieferof^n>- i periy, or other obllga'ion, shull lu' written i deed*, tetitetneitt*, and hillsi bills of exi hange, r.-reipu (above a certain nomll amount), and n great varietv of ntbiT instruments of business, are required to Im^ Ktampsd in this manner; and the prices aibxetl to the slumps, which are often higlt, bring a larue revenue. • Under the head of stamps, are also Included indtn- tnres, enrds and dice, iluties on plate, and tther nuo* mahms items. The whole amount is I. 7.(I7<>,7|3. The principal sources are from deeds, prolmtivof wIDn, legHctes, &c., thiee uiilliom ,(iid n hair; from bilN, receipts, siiinipHou banker' imtes, and other (imiiner- cial instrtimenta, L.8tl«VAI0; marine and Are insur- ances, onemillltui ; newspapers, almanacks, pamphlets, and advertisements, |,.(lJt.'^,IAI ; stage-coHches and post- horses l(.f(.M,H4lM ipild and silver plate, L,74,*JUt; quack medicines, l<.3li ICIH, 4. Thtf TaxtM — What nre tevhnicaPy called "thM taxeH," are thtise duties whirh are levicil on land and' huuses, on wiu hiii»i'> and CHrri)*ges give L.(t4l),3Ul t game dutitS, l..l'.!^4;tl ; nod ifugs. L.inl,0(»-i. A. /•»()./ (\(firr 'I here is a considerable reveonif derived rroin the Post Othre, nfter pitying all the ca- I>4'itseH ol the e>t>ihltHhnient ; ar.d from the great inu. venience ami regnbtrity of the system, which iji ke| C woikifig at all hours from one end of the country 1 1 the other, the lultlitiomil charge Is not much felt or grudged. The amount is L.'J ■.*27,3.%4. 6. The income derived fr(nn reiitMls of cruien pro* Ct^y and the sale of timber, bark, ^c, from the cron n [|h (with other iiu-idents), jitild a yearly revenue of 1..373.7*fT'. 7. There are some nmnll mintf/faneoua hraticheii of revenue, which amount to L.I.*)fr,:i:iO. Of this sum the duty oti hackiiev coaches give.* L.3A,(>Uoi that on hawkers and peillars, I(.3A,207t Hiid those on otKiMH', )>etikiimH, and permMial estates, li.3!h2AA, (I. .Some incideufiil rnfimra uie derived from mat- ters connected with the regular taxes ; such as duties collected atthe Isle of .Mao, L.2I,IHJ0; lines, and goodi> seized for taxes, 11,24,(1.^4: these, with a number oi other cu>ual receipts, Hnmuuted, in 1IU2, to Ii.(l7ilt31t. The whiile r.'venue derived fioiu these sources in the above i was L.-WJifKI, lit/ : last year, as we have aire ted, by a better inanagemeut, unly about I'ortv 1 millicms were lequired, Thiit Buiii ^liil rerkoiied large; but, besides it» amonnt, it is ^ald that the same sum nii^ht lie levleu in a nmnner whith would do inncli less injury to the variiMin intereut. Otberit, ttiuh as those gal trHtiic. 'J'lie yearly cost 'or and the middle classes than by the rich ; so that the weight of taxation is made to fall ehietly on these who lire least able to liear it. The following taxes are mentioned to show that this is the cam) I'-On butter and cheese (imported); on hops, tnau, soap, home-made spirits, and tobacrt^— these taxes are sup- posed to fall almost entirely on the jHhir, and amount (o nhtnit fiHirteen millions. Tho next are a set i^ taxes whidi are reckoned to fall chiefly on the mid- die cJaties and people in business, such as those on liieiir^s and certifn-ates, Idllsof exchange and receipts, insurances, stage-coaches, brandy, and gm — (he'd; amount to atmut four and a half milliims. In short, by thoae who hold tlilt doctrine, it is cnalniained, thai, uf the vvhule taxea, th« neb pay only about htvvjt THE BRITISH EMPIRE, AND ITS RESOURCES. iiilllitiMii, in wliioh li includail llm iHiidaux. TttvrH iiiii Iff ni» iloiilit uf th« truth ol' \\\\» KiHiemi'iitt it i* •tlivliMiM, tiitl«t>K IhM wiM-kin^ clntitm thmi thay utm hy the fnw whi> ■ ri> rich I ftndt th(>r«Ntr(t, lhi> fiirnier Hre iiecetMrtly Itfl'i to pHy thu Inrffer )mrc ol' thH tux. Taxes lm|><>R«a oil cnniiritHlitiun whifh are iiieH niily hy tha wattlthy, proflurt* linnlly miy thiiiff if thry nr'n low t mid when they arH mlftinj, Ow rich givo ovur iiiing tha article. Tha duty on rara horNfii, tVir limtimcx, prcHluceii only l<.!HI7:'thutmiK<>M hikI rtilviT |iliitu (irliiK" l-lit-HHi on armorlHl IwariiiKNi It.M.HHOi Imt if the diitiei nn tl "NO iHMt M-ara raiint, fen-ar wonid uie tliain, and the am.-iint rnlh'cipd would not Increanr. Tha most odloiiR tftxpfi to ilia ((anara) contmmilty are tho-ta which are •if a iiirect nature, tuch ni the h()iiiiit. These ara faltitdditionMlly hurdaitiioiita in tuwiiR where the Im^al ■RNetivniant^ ara ^iiarally liaavy. We nhiill now inantjon the taxaa levied upon a few of thi< |>rinr{]>itl artii^lan of una or hixury. HritiHh RpiritN, In Kit^lnni), par ^ntlon . 7x 'hi Do. in Ii aland and Scotland .1r -Id Hrandv and t[in .... 2*2h (Jd Kii'ii ' . . . .Oh fid Sui^iir, fiiMM hntiflh Want Indian, par Ih. . On 2^d I to. iV.mi foral^n colnnias (hraxi), Ac.) Oh ll^d t'"lfai!, from KritUh U'ant Indian . m (Jd Do, from itritibh KaRt Indian . Or UA '|.'a-..TIia duty In ai|iial to tha pricT on tiiia taitii, and a Ntuall I'rnction lass when tha pricd is halow 2r, (Thi^ in to ha rhan^rpd soinowlmt af>ar April next yaar, whan the liHBt India Company chiirtar aiid».) MiiHi*r (importt')l) . . . Cliai'nn ( Do. ) Alalt, par qnartar Tohitcco, fi-ion Itritiith poisannltuii in Ama- ricn, par Hi. Do. from i.jiy other country Do, in sa^aiK, or utharwiRe mnnnfai'tiirad fU Od Starch . . , . On ;il(I Olive oil, per tun . . . )(m Od HalMmi, from !..2,3M.0d. to L.I, 2.\. Wlnc!! — rnpa, Sr. Od. ; Frani-h, nod nil othrr foraifrn wi:ias, of whatavar quality, par^jiil. .'s fid IfamouR and orangan thraa-fourthn of thair vhlna. SaadR fnun foratgn plarai — Carrot Reads, (M. I>er Ih. ; clovar inul ^tiinh Kaadx, h.\ pa." uwt. ; all rmatt and ^^ardan Huads niit man- tinned in the lists, (Id. per lb, ; onion and laak, Ir. fid. par lb. ^c I'lpar, j«r lb. . Os 3d (iliKii_PUta, parent. 1^.3; crown, L.a, 13m. 2il II, Id 20» UJ 2h !M :<■ 0,1 r*ni/r*. •inniiU. 9 ilctiti. tU» l-iiic. i\ Utvt*, &.iw ImUtitii/, OuinU. .1 Rafitft. L.iriL>, id Uriit** Men. iiun-cf ■loiieil ofHrt r». I h» I'll a.iau i.-tiititi'-^, Oil'. «7-I-*S I'M. 074 Totnl l-HHigts. fi.ma 7i|..tt7 ll),(VW ?((4i.lWI 7*0 the account of expeuKa mentinmHl above, thai a in t.i ln» added nhont l*.»4O,r»70 for rarruitint?. for tna- diciiMx.ch.Hpluins, &c. ; and there is nNn whiit is called thf civil dap.irtniant of the army, or ilia army in; nagamaut, t uii^tistinK of tha salary of tha Searatarv ai, Wurund bii of .a, the Commandar.in.diiaf and his ollica, tba niatli il it"i.vther to L.l'il.'.MO. Keckoninif the military ac- tiiftlly int duiv. ilii' (ivi'rjiTa va».-|y ro*t "f anch mitn Vprivitiafe ;uid oiinai!. i.. :i-iin'i ) <& ;.b.mt L.3(>. There Hre ua:trly Ml,<^H> oitu'em in the Hritiiih army, or onu to every six men t this number is considered greatly too bign, the French, with a welMlRoiplintfd army, having only one to each ttU'nty'fotirmen, Itasidei the cavalry and toot rerimenti, there U an. other ilaHcription of force aslled trie ordnance, which itntiidai artillery, engineers, minarR, Ac. Thay have the raanagemaii't ot fortit^uati'is, with their guns, Rtnras, &c. i tha mnkingid' rockutR, and dllFarant kinds of shot for graut guns. The niinibar of men is 7(M1, and the yearly axpaosa of Uie forcu, with Its equip- ments, Ii.uio,77!). The distribution of the armv mnv Iw Rtated ai foU lows:— InOreat Hritaiu,UA,tt»() ; In Ireland, a0,4iat in the colonlei, 30,437- Tha Rtatementa which we have made above re- late entirely to the etfactive force of the army, which Ih either on aciiva duly or ready to be so amploywi. Hut, as we have alraiuly remarked under the head id Kxpenditure, there is a great iinui)»erof parsons attached tu the army, who do no duty, though rmvlv. iiif< pay like others. Some of thesa are pensiimers, wild Imva either Iwen long in service, (y have suf- fered hy woniidp, &c., so that thair allowances are not grudged ; but thaie are also a numlier of young people who have pureha.sad half-pay commissions, upon which they go on rei:aiving pavi and some of tbam ara even promoted to high rank in that condition, uitboutaver having raully haen in tha army at all, 'I'liaia has liaen aim* a large numl>er ol gaiiarai otKcerH created, who all reeaiva the pay of their rank, though there ara no duties for so many couiTiiundars. ISy the terms of iha.coiiHiiLiitiiin, a pai'tnaueiit standing army is not held to be legal ; tha army is therefore maintained from yadr tu year hy the passing of what is called tlia •Mutiny Act ; and if this act ol Parlianiaiit were not regularly puistMl, tha wlmla of the standing army would ba virtuiilly dinbandL-d. The army now acts almost entirely an H military police, and, ns such, in idiiafly ra<|uired in Iialand, and in the vicinity of tha large towns in Kngland iiud Scotliiud. Tlir NAVY. If the army of Britain has been diitinguiahed for its elhcJancy and tha triumphs it has gainail, her navy liHH addati not laioi to tba fame of the country. The series of victories, indeed, which ware achiavad by the fleets of Mritaiii during th^ late war, ware alto- gether nnpiirallelt'd in hintory ; nothing approaching them either in importanca ut s)i!auduur ImH liean writ- ten In tha annalx of any ther nattuii. In regard to the navy, iJia truth of tin- laoLtrk which ua made concerning the affect of the iiiitioi,at characiar on the composition of tMir military force, will ba still mora clatrly »iaen i there is no one who doubts that the whole afftaiency of our marina is owing to tha axcel- laiit utirKery afforded it by tha inarchaiit sarvica i a aaUor who has nav ei haen at sua but in n mnn-of-tcar, U hardly thought worthy of the H:nna; it is only in merchant vansals thut good inuriuars are trained. A law existn, hy which mau may he premeil into tha service of tha royal iiav v without their consaiit. This in a most unfortunate cfuirurtaristic in tha furmation of our nen forces, and its continuance is held as di^i- graceful by the country at large, especially hincagoud pay would form a snfficteut temptation toaiilistuiant. \Vesball first mention tha expenditure for tha navy, and than tha nature and ilisiribution of tha forca. Tba civil lU' flit >imeni vo»\.» altogether L. 13U..VJ4 ; tiiis in- (dudas the salaries of tha Lords of tha .Adntiralty anil thair oflica, survayors, store-kuapars, driinghtsmaii, \<;. 1 pay-utbce, naval collate, anil school for ship- building; royal ol«arvatary at tiraenwich, Ac. Tha navy expanses, properly bo called, nuiy iiastate.l as followH :— Wages of 2lt,0Uri seitmen and marinas lv.!*2.3.I7.'( Dnck-yurds for rejiairing and building shipn bU\\TM] .MatermlH, timl>er, sailcloth, cordage, &c. 4.'>7,2<>7 V'ictn.illing Office — proviRions, ]i.41ir>,A17; managamant, L. 17t>,tN)5 . , (17.^,322 .Minccllauaous . . . IA(l,4.Vt The average pay of a flallor i.s L.2. 7''- per mimth, iMili victuiilN, which ara ahtiniated at ab.mt L.l, 4s. iiilditional. Much complaint i-^ made of tha high sa- Iiirias paid to people about tha dock-viirds • tlia inas- ti'r-vvorkmen receiving L.'J.'il) par aninun, :inil the ar- tiiiccrs from 58. to l*2s. (id. perduy. Duimg the war, (treat Hritaiu had upwards of lOiH) Khips, nmnnad by DUlKliJ seHmeii, Tiiepiaseni number of vassals, and liit-ir tle^criittiou, uill appear l;oiit tha fidrivving ta- ble ;— Sht))i In u)nimluion >W\\\y in onUiiRTy .SItijw IjuiMiug Number uf Guns. 5i>H4 4;t-4H 84-.-1H lit IH |!l 101 (i-.t -Hi TotaM400) Sii 1.17 117 4]| (U This does not include tha smaller vessels, sloops, yachts, bondis, &c., which itnumnt to about 200 addi- ti 'U.il ; making the whole b'lHi (Dt-27). Tha sl'iptt in ordinary ara vassals which are dismnn- llad, and put aside in a harbour, witli oily a few per- sons on board to take care of them. A nliip in sar\ ice, or even thus taken care of, will witsia and rot, it is Ruid, in fourtaeu or sixteen yaar> ; but a plan has lately haan devised by whiili those not in service may bo baulai) up out of the water, and placed uuderadry shed, which would make tham stand much hmgar. There are six marina aracnalri ordock-vnrds — Dept- ford, Woolwicli, Cimtiiatu, anaernassj Portsmouth, Plymouth. Tha principal foreign Rtationr for iha navy areOihraltar and Malta, In the Mediterranean i Halifax andQiiahar, In North America! Jamaica and Antigua, In the West IndieR; Trinuomalee and Bom- bay, in the Kast. MAHUFACTtrnEO. The manufactures of Oreat llritain inrpaas in ex- tent and variety thoRe of any other country, and In- deed of all other oountriaRi they are sought for and exported to the most remote and unknown regions, a» wall as to the most reAned and wealthy. Thair prin- cipal branchesare those of cotton, woollen, lUk, linen, and hardw.'tra. The Cotton Manufacture is the most extensive of the whole, both In reHpact to the capital which It occnpfas, arnl tha number of people to whom it gives aniplov- maiit; It is snpposeil to form ona-b>urtfi part of tfie total industry of Brlthin. Tha numbar ot work-peo> pla ill Us various departments (reckoning splnneri, weavers, bleiicliers, &u. ; engineers, smiths, and othere angagad in the works) Is estimated at 1,21)0,000; and their wages at Bve and a half millions. The capital in- vested in it at present Is reckoned at about sevaiity-flve millions t the total value of goods made Is supposed to be above thirty-six millions; of wh'ch nearly one-half Ih consumed at homa, the other half being exported to foreign ciMtntiien.* The raw material, orcotton-wool. Is brought chiefly from America, uiid a part alio from the East Indies and Kgypt. The chief i>aatH of the manufacture are Manchester, Glasgow, and Paisley; and tha magnificent apparatua of factories, machi- nery, warehousaH, with which these citleR are tilled, for this sole business, are tha astonishment of all visit- ors, Tha reason why tha cotton gmids of Urlliiln are so much mora In demand than th>><(a of any other coun- try, is chiefly the superior axcallanca of the machinery wliich her manufacturers have contrived and applied to this purposa; it i» calculated th:il the vurlouR In- vantiims now In use enable one man to do us much work as one hundred and flfiy conid have done when Ruiuning and weaving hy the hand ware the onlyme- tluKls known. Kven altar deducting the cost of tha machinery, tKe goods can therafine ba sold graaiiy cheaper t)ian formerly ; and us no other natiftti ban either such a variety of exparlencad workman for Oio dlfl^erant klnda of machinery, or fur the other dapan- nients of the business (such us printing, dyeing, kc), none of them offer to compete with Britain. Tha (vhole of this manufacture has bean created since 17'>0, at which time its produt^ did not amount to Ii.2tX),000. The Woollen Manufavture.—T\\\v> mauufaciure was tha aailiast established in Kngland ; it gives employ- ment to abova half a million of people, who receive on an averuga, man, women, and children, altout L.16 I»er uniium. The goods manufactured are valued at twenty millions ; the finer ipialitias of tha raw mate- rial art' imported from Germany, or from ourcidonia.s of Auv ilia; the coarser are produced at homa i tha value ot tha whole is asliniated ut six millions. Tha goods a.'cported amount to alautt five millions and a quarter. This mauufactura, particularly the finer kiiuls, in cliiatly cariiad on in the north ot Kngland : Soma of the coarse fabrics, such as plaidings, duHles, &c., ara made at UalasbieU in Scotland; and Kil- marnock and Stirling drive a tliriving trade In car- pats, bonnats, &c. In the tinast kind of t)roadclothK, tha Prussians of Kfi|»en are said to excel the English. The Silk MannfattHre has been carried ou In this country tor a lung time, having haen Hrst introduced in ilie iitiaanth century by ainigi -iiin from Franca. It WHS lor many years confined chiefly to Spltalfields in liondou, and to C)>vaiilry. Tht^ia were then pro- hibitory duties ou all foreign silks, but this, Instead of fonteriiiij tha manufacture, as wa;* intended, only encouraged its proprieLors in indolen^'e, at they knew that they had the home market tothein-ejves. Tt;a^e prohibitions lii\a bean partly lemoveo i^ince Ib24 and those regniatious wliich continadtha luanufacturi- to some particular spots, are also done away with ; so that tha trade has l»aen roused from its inactivity, and a great deal more business is dotu' than formerly. 'I'ba qiianitty of silk for working iniporiad in 1823 (the va^tr before removing the restrictions) was two anil a iialf millions of lbs. ; the average ()uantity of the .^nma material Iin))orted niuca, lia.s bean three and a hull millions. The consuniptiuu ot silk gootls at home haii itiiTeased mora than a half. Tha annual produce ol tba manufai'tura Ih now estimated at aigiit Qiillions ; and it In suppo.sad to give employment to700,0(K> work- people. Us chief seats an; I-oiidoii, Coventry, and latterly .tlanchester, Paisley, and Olusgnw, 'where >iima of the most beautlml fabrics arc now niada. The Leutlter Mau'tfaciure is nf tonaidarable i.nport- ance. Tha value (d tha ditfer^'tit articles of which it Is tha matari.il, is estimated ht li,lo,000,000 ; this In- eludes gloves, saddlery, bo>>ts and shoa.s, .Sec. Tha Increase id* this trade in lata years has been very great; hides ara impiirted from ;ill quftrters of the world, and the qu;tntity h'ltt doul^ed u ithin a few years. The numlnr of lamb luid kid skins iinporiad, ui 1630, u a.i about three niiliiuiis. Iron, Cutli'r;/y and Hardware. — This is one of the miiniifactoras in which Britain particularly excels. 1 he abuiidanca of her mines of iron, copper, tin, lead, I i • In America, the whole proiiuce of tlie co^um manufacture U leu than six inilHciw, or une-slxth of llmt if Hr*tain ; yet, cUhti fntm w.uiiofukill, antlc«m»ei|Ui'iUli)*s<>f u> u, <* I'HmithtrliM'K'' nil' Hi wliich WDrk-iKf)])!!.' .irf paid, tin- nM.i.ni ui w-ijc* ia iihimi two uud a half mUiiunaj or Ltnrly one haU ut' Ihute of Bittaui. 7 CHAMBERS'S INFdRMATION FOH THK PEOPI-K. f Kt «nmi, nnd ili«euy an-Mt tvhii-h nui ht* had to iheiii Mt nil piiiiiti liy ifia, rivar, or raiial. Kivv> tiuittilM whit h Bra uiwwaMd liy no nther country. Tlitf ttiiimkl valiia I ^r th« roanufiicturf^ ^tMidt ii 0MlimaleU tu ba »liove Ii.l7,*MM»,000, aiKi Pinployniffiil ii (('v^n to .17U.MH) urn in lh» working olH>pjM>r, brats. |)ewu»r, itvel, tin, wid other m«|hlB. Tti« dwlar««l Talus of the eFpirt*, in 11^7, wat L.1,3tt7.i04. The « liii^i neat of the ma- nufat'tuni of the tlner ftiid more ekiUeil articlM, ia BlrmiuKhun, HbetHvld, end the immediate vicinity ; end fruoi theae diitnctt metal goods of all deicriptioni, lm|ilt>menti of war» and tlie moiit el«f(ai)t ornaments of \te*c0, are dispatched to all parts of the world. Kor h«.ivy casteii, the greater nuii)- ber nf which are in the went ol Kngland and in W'OfK. The h'lirthtitipart, China, anti liitua Mann/aciurfs, rank nest U* those we hMve mentioned. The nnmlwr ni )ieopleeHiphiy(U ciinnot be easilv estimated ; but as no money has lo Iw Kent altroad to purchase xny part of the material of these worki, the whole priHtwds of thetfiHMis gu to pav wages at home. The annual vaiue of the glass manufactured ti ab4mt two and a half mil> Huns, and that of the pottery and earthenware about three and a half. The whole value of the manulWtnres of all kinds pntductnl annually In (f reat Hritain, is reckoned U* be ab^mt a hundred and Hfty millions of pounds sterling. COMMIRCE. The roranierre of Britain next demands our atten. lion. The Iim^I sitttation of the llritish Istaitds gives them many advantages for carrying on tralflc with their own people in different districts, and also with the couutriee by which they are in tome manner sur- rounded. Their abundance of minerals, tin, salt, coab, iron, gave them malarials for trade in vary early aget. As soon as the monarchin of Europe t>^an to have Intervals of peai« after their feudal commotions, tha Rrltiah set about to avail themselves of their advan> tage«, and to prosecute cotumeroe in earnest. They gradually sluMik themselveM free at home of many m(»- uo|M>lief> and restrictions which hmg continued tufett«r the internal trade of oth»r nations., ('tdoniee were settled, which by degrres gave them civilised ctimnm- nities to purchase their goods, where formerly there had l»een only savages and a wilderness. These ih> ourrences began to take platwchleAv during the peace- ful rvigu of James the Pint (10111-1024). At that time tlie exports of Kngland amounted to two and a hnlf millions; tha numoar of seamen in merchant-ships to Mt.rNNti but the gimd-wilt of the mcrcantila interest began now to be an Important consideration with the government, from the cases which it paid. The ctvil ^vars of 1A43-VM) did not interrupt its progress, both parties willingly con<«ding it their protection ( and the imval successes of the republic over the Dutch, with the increased rrsfiet t which these briHight to the oeuutry umong the othtr nations of Kun)pe, grwilly aeaelerated the rapid steps which It was now enahM 10 make. Jamaica, the poitession of which was thf origin of mir Weat Indian connection, was first occti ■led by <'rorowell, in 1fI6.V .Since the middle of th< last century, the rttpiil progrens of improvement in mir manufaeturee has ctmtinued to afford new mata- rials and goods for exportation, and the iitcraasa of trade has l>een in proportion. The following tatde and explanations will give an idea of the trade of Urilain with all purts of tha world, in I83»:— OIBrul vftliM erf impuru. Guropa . . L.U,.'010 Total I..42,;t3t2.M0 K.fJ([,IWf,r>(Itl In the Curupean trade, the impuru from Itussia. chielly tallow, hemp, aud timber, are about four mil- liuns ; the axporu to that C4Uiutry a little aliove threu. To Uemiany, which sells a greiit deal oi' our niatm- factures to other countries (Poland, Hungary, 'I'ur- kay, &c. ) the axp4iru are ten and one-fourth millions ; tite irap4iru from thence only one and a half. (Jur trade with Franor is very inrmisiderable, owiutf to the numt>ar of restrictions and high duties on both sides, which fetter comnierr«, Oui imports are only two milliuBS, and the exports not one million. (ttt>- raltar ukes nearly a milhon of Hritish manufactures, which are principally smugghil into Spain, aamntry where all manner of difhculut's and high duties tin* thrown in the way of trade. Italy takes aUmt f>rts, In-long t^rthe East Indies and China. The trade of our settleraent:i in Australasia amminis to L.12''},720 Imports, and li.M4,04!» exports from Briuln. Ot the American uimmerce, eight and a half mil- lions imports, and six millions exports, belong to the British West Indies; nearly one million imports, and two exports, to the <:anadiAn colonies. Tne L'nitfd titatet iimve, of imports and expnru, each aliout six oiiUiona. UiMlUN Ayret, about half a million im- ports, tmA aa* ani a third mUliou aswirts, cfaieflv Ib6 I manufaoturad goods. Brasil takes, of manuAivturvtl goodi, four and a half mtllloui. I Kinds ^ BfiHak CooHs •JtoorttH — The following table will akow what were the iintiiipal ariicleii of British aiport in IBtffl. ('J'ha declared value is suted.) Brass and copper manufbrtiire li.fl7H,7WI i Bacon and beef, butter and cheese 7I2,IM7 I Cotton manufacture* . . 17<'J44,4I7 . Karthenwara of all kinda ^ . aOii,Hti I Herrings l57,A:ii j Ulau MiKMU , Hardware and cutlery I.3II7,:I4M ' Tin and tinwara . 4la,M-J I Iron and steel, wrought and unwrmight 1.2-*H,H17 ' I.inen manufarturfs . . U.tNHt,lHN> lHMithermanufactur«*(aaddlary, gloves, &c.) 'i7>V»7'i .Maohiimry and mill-work . . . *J(i'J,IIA| .Silk mauufacture* .... U>U,H7I Woollen manufacture* . . .^,lL*A.UU:i I DMcrip4ioH eif uHieita imporltd. — The following ' Jinautitiaaof foreign gao^ were inipiu-trd and returnetl ur himte consumption In IttUl, l»eiug sihuv of the prin- cipal articles of foreign commerce l ~ ii.rttf. iiw. I7,n4.fm torn — Wheat, quarters HIWk,H4U Do. All other grain . . .161,072 Do. ^Vht>H^ meai, and flour, ewu. 126, 70» Hemp, undressed .... 4fHt,M4 Flai, tow. and codllla 4,.1ll Hides untaiinad, cwts. . . 214, 7S>'^ Indigo, llw. . . . . 3,064,ttlA .Mohisaas, cwt*. .... .HA»,7ttl (>iU4>ave, gallons . 1,7A3,.H38 Do. Palm .... 120,fl09 Pepper and pimento, lbs. . 2,2:i7.900 (lover seed. cwts. . l.tU.OOO t-'iax saeil, btishel l,(>6A,aOO Silk (mw materi:il), lbs. 4.:>40,att SpiriiK (brandy and geneva), galhms 4,fM8,070 SuifHr, unretined, cwts. . . S,,H06 Tiia, lbs. .... 21f,3lW,7ft7 Timber — (Prom the various different shapes in which this article is imported, it is im- liinnilile to guess at the whole iiuantity. ) Tiibiirro nnnianufactiired, lbs. . ' IH.MM.AIO fotion w,K»l . . . 20fl.J»fl7,744 >heepS wool . . . .'41.(i:tl,4(il Wine of hI) different kinds, gallons 'J,lii-2,^'Jti Inttrmt'. Trade — These ubies, and tlie explana- tions we huve given, will convey some Idea of the fo- reign I'ommerca of Brituin. But an equal simrce of activity and wealth remains in the inland trade, which is far superior in imp4»rtance to that with foreign na< tions. To prove this, we need only ittate, that, of the wh(de quantity of cotton goods manufuctured, one-half is consumed in the home market. r and porter, in which th*f mere wages of lahmtr (exrhistve «if the material) Hmoiint to h.:i.200,(NN). Halterdanhery, hats, stnw manufactured into btmnets, makini; of furs into muff*, &c. ; in thetie the wa^esof hiltmir otilv amount to about L.3,0(Mt,(NM>. In like mHiiner, the wages expendeil on soap, rardles, brickii and tiles, and gunpowder, amount to \*.%i\^A)yi¥^). Those on steam- engines, machinery, Ac to L.l,2U0,0tM>. All these articles are for home consumption alone ; and as there are a vum viriety of other articles «f the same kmd, it will h<* seen, that, tbioigh the foreign trade ul tlie country is important in furnishing mnltriaU for many manufuitures, and eniphiynuMit to others, it hy no ni'-'aiot ronttitutes the largest portion of the industry of the ciuntry. The people of Britain are in trutfi their own best customers; and, from their great wealth and unceasing industry, this fact cannot sur- prise any one. , 7*^^ Commerciai Afnrinr.— The number of ships employed in the trade of Britain is In proportion to its great extent. The foUowing is an an-ount of their number, tonnage, and crews, in IfCIO : — VMMHt. Toniitjir. Men, Tnlted Kingdom - IfJ.fiJ'V 2,I(W.I)I0 l.Hrest of tlie money Iniv- Mwed for roustrnciing them. Tlie total length at the canals, in the siinie year, wits 2flll!f miles ; the iM> come on these canulk aaiouitted lo I..i:i,2(>A,ll(l, which, l»esiitea keeping theni in repitir, alfordad an average nrolit t«i the proprietor* of &j |H>r cenL on their capital. The Hriityet, Aquttfueh^ un'l Tunneh, which hava l»een erected in coiinei^iion with roads and canals, ara mora mugniHcent and numerous iIihu tlioii« uf aity other ciHiiitry in the world, 'i'o tstimale their nuro- l*er would Ire difficult; hui we nmy mention, that, in Ivondim, the Waterloo and London bridgen alone cost very nearly two and a half miUiona of money, fha Iron bridges which have been erected iu different places, are the admiration of nil turei)(ners. Thvir arches are constructed ot a number uf strong ritia of metal, standing apart from each other like the jol»ts of a house, and on tliene the t1r or ruadway Ii formed. Bridges of suspension are ni>w mIsu cimmion, in which the roadway Is suspended hv iron burs, frum strong chains which are fixed in tfie earth, and then hung overhigh pillars at ench end of the bridge; by this means Itridges can be constructed over deep and briMitl waters, where it would have been aliogether impi»s- sible to stretch an arch of any other kind. There is a line specimen of this kind of bridue at Montrose, over a tide current, whose rapidity did not admit of stone arches and piers; it carries the road over 4.*t2 feet of water ; the nmt was K.20,000. On a wcll-fra- qnented road, bridges costing I..14,0(N) or I..18,00U are often constructed merely to shorten tlie distanca hy a mite or two, or to avoid an inconvenient ascent in the old track. Were It poksible t > estimate the amount of capital laid out on this kind of impiuveniuni alone, it wmild t»e a matter of aatonishment. The numlier of Raitroad$ at present in active em- ployment la above sixty. They are of various magni- tude ; but few of them, except the yet une«|ualled oua lietwixt Manchester aud LiverpiNd, are more than twelve or flftaen miles In length. The latter cele- brated work is thirty-three miles hmg, having doubla tracks laid with Iron; and it Is constructed almost on a perfect level, over Intg*, thnmgh banks of ruck and gravel, and at some hollow places raised several feet abtive the stdl in order to preserve the level. The cost was atmut one million of money, and the yearly expenses of the movrshle steam-engines which ara employed to drag along the carriagex, are high, from their liability to wear and to accidents ; but yet tha uMnpany, notwithstanding that they have grestly re- duced the prii« both of carriage iind travelling on this road, make very liberal profits, amounting, we under* stand, to eight or nine per cent. 011 the capita! ax- |>endeil. Theorlginalsliares, which were I«.2o, are now selling at L.ri2. The succeM of this great enterprise has encmiraged the undertaking uf a great nuny others of a similar kind. Nine new railways received tha sanctltm of Parliament this season ; among whivli, thara is a remarkable one from London Bridge tu (■re«nwich,of3j miles in length, which itispropok-dto carry over the tups of houses and through htreeu, for two miles and a half, upim an'hes and pillars nl iron. Another of great extent Is also begun from l^mdon to Birmingham ; this will cost two and a half millions, and is to )m of 1I2( miles in length, with ten tunnels; the rate of travelling to be twenty miles per hour. As it may gratify our readers to know the dlstrlhntion of the money laid out in these undertakings, we subjoin in account of the estimates for another magnificent work of the same kind, that hi proponed to he muau lietwaen l^mdon and Briiud, which will Iw 120 miiea long. The cmintry, except a short distance next Brib. tid and Bath, is remarkably lave). Parliaraaittary aud other preliminary axpensesL.AO.OOO Purchase of land, including oompeusations for damages .... :t4IMHN) Iiintrances to I^ondim, Bristol, and Bath, with the erection of warehouses, &c. 223,(KM) Excavations and embankments, including tunnels and their masonry . . 835.300 Bridges and masonry, exclusive uf that of tunnels 474,iUn) THK nillTISH EMPIRK, AND ITS UKS()in<( KS. «sL.so,ono 340.000 835.300 474,>ltK) hMtlt. Mint Ihviiik ditto, mHkiii)( nmH, A<'. K.A'iOJOO l^iiH>r df>|>i^u, HtdpptiiK pUcM, And lightiiiff luiiiitU .... 88,000 Miiv«hM« nr drH({i(iiiK "iNiim-«nK iie>, fend water iUtliiiia 7S|A0O TnUl Mltmfttml sspttnM of rallwBy L.'i,AAO,:M)0 On thM« rii(l«'iyii, ii niitvi>aMii or draff itnam>eiiKina drawi lilting wufdrunii roiivcyin^ nKHTliNMillKfi nl J Hi toim, lit ttip rntt< of riiiirtiti, n'nrkiiift for a tl.ty on h ^nhI liitiipihc-nmH, tn do whnt u iIiikI*^ Nirain-itnf()<»^ >'aii i^ifmn in an liour and a hull' on a railrond. From the ohi*apiii>iti with which all kindi of fttmth or paurnKeri can tw carri«il In either directltm on thene Iron roaiU, avfiry diipotahle article Ctftchei a higher price by the iiiH'eiennt nl carrlagei and «ome that could not Tor- mi-rtv lie notd at all, become highly vuhiahle — loi-h ni hiiilding inaDtrialn, Ac, for the newerectioni that atart lip nliHig their line. From tlieatt reaiioui, the voii- mniitlon of a railroad in a track Judidomly chotpo. iitcreawei at once the value of land and the rate of wagea along im whole Hue. In making the Hriittol railroad, about two niillloui will be expended in pay- ing work-people. W9} i have beei. a little partlnilar on the iiibject of raltroa'U, from the vnit employment which the new works of that kind now conAtructing are thni afford- ing to ail kiiijH of indiiitry, from the engineera who plan the line or couRtmct the iit«am-eng1neR, to the ihoiiiiandiofn-orkitien who areoi-ctipied in the manual tabotir of I'le inimotine operntioni which are re<|iiired. The Improvemrnt which they promise toatfurd in the matter of carriage, the Having of time, of labour, and of eapennH, will bf to thin generation a boon si- nillar tn tnat ol the new mtton machinery of the laHt. Oockt, Fitn, ami l.ighlhoHsea l>ockK are artificial baninii built of mone for the reception of shipii they lie of two kiniN wet and dry. A dry ditck is a re- CHptHcIe where ve^^flx are built or repaired; after H-liii-h the tide fs admitted by niM>d.gateit, and they %re floated out t(» m'a. ^^'et dockd are cnmtnicted for the uie of ihipn whttn loading and unlnading, U hein^ toiind that when they are albiwed to lettle down un. i e(|ually on the mud i>r ttnud of river* and harbourc, tlieir timbei'!* are utrained, aiitl the veniels coimider- ably damaged t In the wet doeks they are kept alwayn «Hoat. The capital eapetntcd by aome of the dock eompaniea in London ii immenHei that of St Cii tiierine'a it i,.%'l^'l^MMi \ tho diH'kii and buibliiig^ ufver twenty-foor acrei of ground, and ibipi of HiM>k Company in piirchaaiiig ground (chiefly the site* of homes and ktreeta) was more than one million ; and the whole uitt of Ui« works was L.3,(KiU,3lO i this undertaking, bowevefi has not paid the original subscribers* the ttharet baing now worth only alnnit I>.60, 'I'lte diMiks at Liverpool have a water>room uf one humlred and eleven acres, and the quay space is eight milts in lotnl length. The business trannacted may be C4niJHCLurud from the fact that the dues paid by vMKels using them in ItCIOwas L. 151,329. Thednes received at Mristol in the same year were L.24,7>'V4 ; at Hull, in IK'J?, L.2'4!,3H1. Few of the largu sea- ports are without the anc4Hnmi>dation which docks yield to commerce ; those at Leith ctrntain ten acres of WBter-room, and have cost L.*i(E5, Klfl. It would be idle to attempt a description or even enumeration of Uieimmeiiie number of piers and harbours which have l*eeu constructed at the different aea-poru. /it every plai'e where the protits of trade u>eined to authoriite hucb erections, capital was Kehlom wanting to com- plete tliem. I'he Liyhthoiuu of Britain are perhaps the most re- markable part of the nautical apparatus of the islands, 'i'bti capital expended upon them has hotin large, and the akill with which some of them, such as the Hell. Hock and Kddvstone lighthouses, are uoiiktriicted for durability in tKe midst of a tem|teBtunus sea, could only liave been erected in » cxiuntry where mechanical hciunce existed in its highest perfection ; and there is hardly a dangerous or doubiful |hfint along the coast where the iniiriner is not gnideil by a light on some headland or ntck. There is, however, much t omplaint concerning the dues levied from ships for ligbthoitse expenses \ some ai them are held as prohtubte tnlls by private families, and in others money is applied to purposes quite unconnected with lighting. Many of the dues are thought, by cjinmiercial people in geno- ral| to be greatly too higli. AOHICULTUttE. The improvements which Itritihh industry hns In- troduced ink) agriculture, h:ive not dune less to ad- vance the wealth of the country than those etfected in commerce and mechanics. Too regular and sciun- tiflc rotation of crops, according to the nature of soils and of the ditferent plants; the creation of the tur- nip husbandry, and of artificial gi arses ; the manage- ment of ditferent kinds of manure; the syhtnuHtic attention to improvement in the breeds of ciittle, horses, and sheep; the perfection of the diHereiit kinds of agricultural machinery. In a11 these, Bri- tain haamade advances which no other nation has yet thought of : so lie have improved their breeds of sheep, uChsrs have stiils whidt raitte large crops of grain with less expense than ouis, but the total produos of a given quantity of laud is in no country lu be cum- |)arcd to the value of that in Ui-itAiu. Tiiis produce U7 also is raised with less labour thiin the snuiltur ii'- turns of foreign countries. In France, twii.fhlrds of ilie population are requiretl for the mere cuUlvanoi. of the soil, while in Kngland snd Hcotland that buR> nets ts performed far more prottiicilvely by nne-tliinl part of the people. A great pnrt of the work which It done in Kruitro by men in in this couiitiy perfortiii' I by machinery (such as fitnmrt for wlnnotviiitf, iind mills fur ihrunhing the corn)* or bv horses and other Oiittle'. It i*i celculaied that by the two Utter aids (I'tttile and machinery] the raniung Interest of Itriuiin have bruuglit into ont>ration a forc4i grentfr than twelve times the number of lahmirers whom they em- ploy. In France, the asuintance derived from the siime sources Is only Hve times the force of the lalionreni employed. Rengnl Is reckoned one <)f the iiXMt fertile countries of the Kast, and it is iiniirly of the same sise as Oreut Hrltiiin ; yet, with all its advantages of rich soil and wiirm clinmte, the Inhabitarts can only raise fnnn it crops of the average viilui of L.l per acre, of which, from their want of skill, th.etj.fuurths are consumed In the expennos of cultivation. In Itri- tain, the avfragt prmluce of the cultivated land of mH qualities is L.A per acre; and the expiMise orniltivn. tlon does not rxceni one-third of this return t so thttt the prortt or remslnder for rent and outlay tA' ciipitiil Iti lien^iil i« only five shillings, while in Kngbtud it is L,3, (in. Htl. Hiirh is the unskilfiilness of fHiniei » in that country, that it takes four-Hfths of the p«>ople tn do the worti of cultivation, leaving only one-tiftli f.ir all other trades i in Ilritain, as we have seen, fann- ing work hringi Ovo times u much groKS proiluce, and leaves eleven times as much fitr rent and piotit uf capital — employing only a third of tho populutiim, and IdHving two-thirds fur other occupations. Thexe resnlia are entirely owing to the sii).erior industry at d ingenuity of the people, for our noil and climate are grutitly iiiferitir either t4) those of liengul or France. The following ntatement is taken from n report of the emigration coininitie>*, Ittift:— Wasio cs- psblo uf tm. Ai'iTA. rull)vnlM>. nruvriii'i.t. Kn)clsn>l & Wales vajji.t"))) a iW.mo sroilund . ft.'.m.onn a.hmmin) IrflsniJ . , IV.iy^.iiiM 4 fSiO.O'N) itritUti Mniid* :ii>,1.(i!S) l(ii„<'i,uiivuoi> iro, i,tU3 77.301, 4:u In Kngland and Wules, it isiatmlated that the cul- tivated land is distributed in the following proportions ; Three and a quarter millions of acres are in wheat ; lour and a half millions in tlie other grains — barley, oiitM, rye, peas, &c. i 2,40[K(NM) iti ^M-een crops, one )ja)ff()r);rai>s, and the other for turnips, \c. ; '.i, 100,000 litllow; 17i millions pasture; lll.fKtOplciiKure gnninds; IJIHMHK) hedge-rows, ci»pses, and wtKids ; and there are 1,:10U,000 acres in roads, highwjtys, and water CoUTiOH. RF.LIOION AND THE CHURCH. Atl riOigioiiH are allowed to exercixe their different forms of worship in Il).7:i'i,UH< k,tU>.IK4 ht4tl,!tM .'U;:i,me of the parish ministers td' Sc«>tlaiul t— 172 parishes at L.lfiO each . L.2MltH> 200 do. 200 . . 40,mH> 200 do. 260 . . .Vt.OOO 2m» do. 34K) . . UO,(NH) too do. 32ii . . 32,&00 78 du. 350 . . 2tf,6(K) 048 L.234,900 U4tl houses and glebes, valued at L.30 each, 2U,44U Total income of Scottish Jiurch h.2<«,:uo In Scotland tlie stipends of tlte established clergy are paid by landholders, who have all hud their tithes cum- muted upon an old and very low valuation. In no part of this country, thvrefure, is the church felt to be burdensome in a pecuniary sense, except in Edin- burgh, where the clergy are supported by a money-tax levied from a certain class of the inhabitants. The iucomes of the Edinburgh clergy average about Ij.600 B-vear each, which enhances the amount in the above tafile. The aggregate revenue of the church of Ireland is reckoned tti be nearly ij.l,3U0,t«>r« l..A,»417,47l>. There are many compliiints, in En^l.ind pHrluulariy. as tu the diKtribntion of tliis money, iiri0 per annum; 'J4t' i. ive under L.40, and eu raised at the public expense, hut to others ertictud by differ- ent dunominatiuns of Chrisiinns, which decorate soiiu' of the tUieht streets of our citien, or givn int^'rest to the solitary beauty of many of our remote villagef A nchooi or a dissenting i^hiipel. in the lai(i>r kind of places, are proof't at once of iinluotry and devotiunal feeling among their liuinl»le inliabitaiiis, which are the surest ptedK'^s <>f ui4ti"iml prosperity- In Eng- land, the niiniber of rongregiitions of the establish- ment is 10,000 ; uf dissenters, UuOO. FDI'lATION^. There are several great and richly endowed uni- versities for the erlncatiou nf young men devotiMl to the learned prole!i*ions. 'i'he cstahliihment of ('am- liriilge and Oxford in Engliind, those uf Edinburgh, (llasgow, Alurdeen, iirid St Andrew's in Scotland, with the Duhlin I'niverHity for Ireliine that tie would principally direct the reader's at- tention at present! the academies which are rising ii> every town of any considerable sixe, for the education of young people of the middle anil commercial classes, are an object of deeper iuteresc, and of more extensive utility I of these we .ire sorry that we cannot estimate the number, nor their proportion to the population ; we can only say that there are few of our large towns, where, by the exertions and subxcriptionitof the iiibu- bitants, one has not been established, in which all thf rem year to year, but the Parliamentary (^imniisKioners saw reason tn think they were gradually increasing, and that they have been augmented ctmsideraldy since I8I8. (Ireat exertions are tutw niitking by the people to educate themselves, in which tliey are a good deal ai'sisted by tlioseof the wealthier chisses, who have the Kt-nse to reflect that knowlnlge promotes industry, and leads the labouring people to have a pride in depend- ing for ev4>ry thing on their own exertions. In the unendowed schools, the number of children under tui- tion at present is about one million. In Ireland, the number of teache" Is about 12j500, and the scholars fi(IH,!K)4. Many of these kcIiooIh are of tiie piHuent kind, with teachers of a very low class, whose aopearanceand character can inspire their scho- lars witn nu recpect for learning, (iovernment has lately apuropriated funds for the assistance of such school-districts u may consent to use lessons that can be read without uffence by either Protestants or Ca- tholics, so that both may attend the school ; and this measure promises todu nnich fur the diiriiMun of edu- cation in Ireland. The country parts of Scotland are much henuHted by their parihli-schooln, an institution whith has long existed in that kingdom: this advantage, howevtr, is not felt by the popiilation of towns and liurghs, where the original form and use of the parish-school, as ap- plicable to the wants of the wi^rking cli.KKes, are no longer known. This Inequality is the more felt, that the population it becoming continually more c nuiU iiiountf of all cUues o( p«»pl« in llritHhi, with the aKK'^ff"*" value of tli« artidm of me ami luxury nliicli each pntducm in ttie iMurse of the year. Ttiii rnitiiiiC of ouurw Iw miiKidyred a« perfectly accurittc, ^ut it tervtta an an apiiroxiuiation, lo t'xitlbit tlie lur- ^iriKing anioiMit of gnodn or wealth ci*eute0 tirwn crop* of alt kimlk 122,(MM),i'<'^ ,0(K» . !..2:m.ooo,ooo :5nlt and uhiia .Meiul<( Coal 7,lKH»,tHMt Inland trade — Profits t nailing trade — On. ^'islieriea— Proilui-e . >ikippiti^ and forri^ couuncri'L* — IVoiits iiiinker»' prolits .... i "reit^n incuine, from eniHifs in \Vv%\. Iiiilies, intureiit on money lent .'ittrnnd, &.C. .... AlHinit'iiciuret— (Tlie RpparatK artictpk iihiierthii head are menttoited in an. iitliar page) .... Ti'tal nf produce end property annually 21,400,000 4H,4'i.J,0(J.» :t,400,(»K> :i4,:i.'iu,uAu 4,AO0,O00 4,500,000 I4K,050,000 created In (treat Hrithin L.o0:»,«23,059 K^TIMATt: OP THE IMIBLIC AND PUIV4TE PKOPEMTT IN IIIE EMPIUK. .\n eMtiniiite hait also lieen ftirmtd of the value of ii;u whole pniperty, public .tnd privtiif. vlitch hiu iH^n cn-'aitd and accnmuUte*! hy tlie pf(i|ile nf thiit iDuntry, and which they now w^tnaliy ptiM>e»]*. Thii vitliii', when the sum is expreueU hy li^nrcK, is* so iin< inen^e, that it elude* the imagination to conouive it : t.ie rulntive pntporiions of tiie ditft^retu partx may, liiiiverer, tie undeniood, and are really iiiterfHtiuff ; »« for insta^K'c, wht'ther there ts more mortey Inidout )>v the codiitry in shipping;, ur in af(ncuttnral pro- u-ity and imptenicntt, ^c Wesntijuin the table:— Capital inwstett itt the fnHQwing artklrn. !. I'nHlf-tive Hroi>crty. In cl'JtuUmI land of nil kindH . L. I ,fi(Kt,(H»O.OeO Tithed doe to Ihvuu-m . . KiM.OiMt.tKH) .Mines and mine'ruis .... l(R),H'.Nl,(K)l) I anal:*, t4>JU, riiiir4mils,nntl nni;fh tinihi-r 0,UOO Dwelling- houKH, wurehun^ett, facto- ries, Jic .Manufucturtnl goods unfiuishflH, tinik}i< ed, and (»ii uile . . • . roreign nierchitudtHu paiil for liritioii shippiiit; l, honu*s, cat'le, hhei'p, lilies, K*"*''') akseit, pdnliiv, g:.me ' . 242,0O0,(tlJ0 Fi.0,0l)0 iU4;,3oo,noo r);t,:«!0,(H>o 30,:WH),00« AIf,00O.(M)0 Total productive private pniperty :!,lll>6,000,(H)0 II. LninotluctiTif Pilvate l>r<.]<«ity. Waste lands, ut prriient unproductivt* lJ.17^.(^^000 lloim-hold furniture m dwelling.hou»is •J4i:.004M^*0 WtttriiiK apj) :»rel .... 'Jl.lMW.OOll 1 iiu), jewels, uud n.(l(H),OtK) I'liin aud specie in lirculation and hoarded 19,0(K>.()1M Money in saving '^ank^ . * . l4,4(N),mM* Aloiivy litilongti.g I • buktuit In CItaiicery :}U,UtX),(H){> Total unpr-Klnciivc jirivate properly JlKJ,7"0,iWHl Totul privatt! property . . L.3,.'i7!j,700,IKW Hi. TuUic 1'mjt.ri). Pultlic Iiuildfngs its p,ilait.s, rlmrclu \ hospitals, p TsoDs, hridges, i^c . L :t\200,000 Puhlic araeiiuls, laitles, forts, Slc^ wri'i , 'iJ,000,000 i:i,o'.),(MI0 ptfr/y, again, is given to snch articles aa are held without any purpose of lieing mwte useful in produc- ing new commodities ; under this head ar« household furniture, horset. not kept by Ini mi ness- people, plea- sure ground employed merely as such, and to forth. The wealth of the empire is diniributed in the fol- lowiug prtipuriions between the three countries i — Pmcluvlkvtf private Utipm«lui-tl\-e Public (WO- )>r»|K.Ttv. privatt property. iwrty. Rngland 2,0,'i4 fHKi.OOO 374,3it0,000 43,000,000 ^>cotland :iin,liNM>00 fit, 10(1,000 3,0(;0,0')0 I rehind 62:!, lU.'t.OtH) 1 10,400,000 1 1 ,t>00,O0U The |iroportiou which these values liear to the po- rmlation in each country is not suggested by the table; Mit in Knghind (taking prtnlnctive and unprtxluctive firoporty Uigethnr) the ratio is L.lOO tt> each person \ in Siotland, UKiO; and in Ireland, L.OO. Wei 9 it jHiicHilile to procure tables of the same kind IIS iheau two, with regard to the other countries of Knrope, the compiirison would show in a strong light the immense HU|>eriorJty of Briuin in the industry and wealth of her inhabitrv ^s. Instead of there be- ing L.lWi 4tf property fur each person ns in I'^nglaud, L.lliOas in Scotland, or L.UO as iu Ireltind, it would be found that in moHt of ihtfse countries there would liardly Iw L.11V for each, in some much less, a»d(tta- eluding Holland) not 1<.30 in any of them. CFrECTiVE ivwen at wohr in uhitain. In the abstMicu nf ttails, machinery, and trained ani- mals, every kind of labour would have to be performed by the mere strength of lue n. There are many things now done, indeed, which no nn're human strength could effect, such as the draining of deep mines, and iniiny others ; but supposing that some method went dtacovered of applying inen'a strength to all these, it would be A niriiinii inquiry to discover what numlrer of men would be able to exert power sutficient for pro- ducing all the force now yieldetl by steam. (Hiwer, ma- chinery, and the power of animals, in (lre.it Hrituin. The researches of a foreign statist, Alons. Dnpiu, have enabled us to give an ankWcr(or at least an approxi- mation) to this curitius i|nestioii, 'i*he population of England and Scotland may he taken in round numkeri at fifteen millitniH ; fi-omthis iiuni(H>r are tot>e di>ducted females, children, oh) )>eo- ple, men nut engaged In any productive or inechaiihal emphiyment ; -ind the remainder, actualtv at work, will be «,;tU7,,«»3. Agriruitural force. Men — eOeciive latMiurers . *J,l3:.*,44(i A iiimalv— horses, a numl>er e*|ual in power to . . . ff,7aO,(KN) man l>o. oxen, a number d^ual in pi>wer trt . . i:i.7*>0,(U)0men Estimat« for Ireland : power of men and animals, equal to . 7,4Ad,70l Total living forcein agriculture, eipial — — — to . . ' . . :t2,OOU,l47aien ^'orfe- emvhyed in Mami/acturet, IMpu — (idcrtlve ' hirers 4,'Jb'4.1U:i Animals-— 4'qnal i l por.er to . l,7*>fl,nieii 1-istimaie for Ireland — men and animals l,:^(>0,(t(M do. tbc artillery, stori't, &c, tbu^eio hoiking Diick.yurds, and all nititerlaJs of ; ."bl^is of wor of uu di'scripli w^ . ililiiaryj, uaval, ajid urdacitc.^ ^tl>u'S Torn! public propertv . U103,WK).4tt,Ul>') \rind and nuvir;;itton I'.! OOM,(HMI SteHm-enKtiius . li.-tOtMHHl K«..im;ite(?fnieob!inicHlfor(vfor Irt'laiiil l.'Mfi,(i(i7 'i'otnl iimnimiiii' or iiun^lmnical force — — in manufiu-tnrcs . 2U,t)l-i,(Ui7 Taking all ttiese together, it appearn that the wholi- force of nn'ii, aniniiiU, and machinery, whii li t(» itt uiieratitm in (ireat UHtain and IrulamI f>'/ agricul- tuie ivd manufartiires, i«i*4)uul to the ^triMuth ol more thau sixty niillioiis «f wn--.:n„" men ; ami tuts power, it mtut he rei-< llet-teit, is created and manHu''-'i by lit- Hi' ni.iro than i tt^i.th p rt (0,S07,:U]I) of tu.it actual iiuTii<<*>r4if pt>i pie, which is the whole pi oihirtion really at tv.irk. In l-'runcj, notwithNtMruling that the popuhition ih much larg-T (:il>outtbii'U'.une inillioiis;, the fora' ap- plied to iii.-iinifnctures is only abmu eltneu millions anri .. iialf ; while the tot.il foicu einployvtl iu Hgricul. ture, and the nrts of alt kinds, alFonis oiilv tht* result which wuul.i U*. given by the strength of' fort) .nine iinlliuns of WMtkiiig men. Thus, though the popnla- tinii iif llritidn be less tiuin that of Krance iu the pro. poriionof tweuty-thnti intllions to thirty-oru* millions, the flower of labour in Uritain is greater in thi< \iut. pouiiiii of sixiv to furty-iiiiie, or nearly live to four. Port'LATION. A n ai'CfMint of the population of the empire has )ie*n taken at intervals of ten years from IfMM ; and the foltiiwiug table will hIuiw the gradual increase whu-h has occurred during tliene intervals : — )>t> 1. mil. )WI. imi. EngluidaitlWaJM ti,H7i.\f'*i I<>.i(w.n7n ll.ttTH.mA l:i,»M,M) ■Nvutldtul l,.iV.'(SH 1 .^'.'..(i.tfi ^Mt\,*M tf..iii>.»i7 In'Uiid _ 4.,V't.aw> 1 ^l-.V*! mij.TKi m.-i: T"Uii* ui.<.tij..%,H I? uv.rn* ■_'I.liU,rJ4 M,V7».7.Vl Tl'fii cremeiitfrom Kill ttillCll is forty-one per cent. W'lieu the piipniaiion of a t^mntrv is thus steadily on the iticreaHC, it ii ibe liest proof that the ctHnforts and lufitUH of living iniiong the |ieoplf are aUo grniluatly imfir.ivin.,' vrhmiilie petiple, *>u large and steady, while that of the merely rnrai districts has remained th«i same, or has in soinc raises even diminished, particu- I irly in Scotland. The rensmi of this difference in I'dth CMoes is the same, vik. ttie greater facility of pru- (UringVinjiluyment in m;tiiulHcturing places, and in towns which attract M>ttlers from the farming dia. tricts, and the more mpid iocrcnse of population, srin- iog frtun this greater ease of making a siihuatance for families. .Much diacusMiiin has taken plaiut amoiur pMiple tdAini'd iu sucii mattt^rs, wbetiier the meanh of tha lOiititry to mainuiin her people has iucraaaiMt at an »-i1mhI rati' with the |>opuii(tion itaelf; cli&t is, whe- ther there be an itinul auick oi necesaaries iu tht* tonntry for giving einploymenc tn each person now. wliHii ibe popnlution ih twenty-four inillions. aa their WHS ill lltll, when it wiia oniv sevenuifn inMtiii v ll;i<« thec«/ii/ii^ (or auak of giHids, machinna, ;ain sui- likience) iiicrtmsetl at au p({uhI raw with the:i«min»ni ••f ititi |»e(ipte y This is a i)tieiuiin which wtimw of it \ t-ry rciily answer ; for, as it ih muiiBaaMl on ait bands tb«t tlie hulk of the poople unt now in luoiwnnintort iible cinMiiifttniices than liiev wuro in IfUi. «r at any former period, and us tlo' iMifne fact la {tmvwri try the t^'teitter average lengtli •re cannot lie n doubt hut thai rapiial has increased much fuster tluin i'Opiiltitiou ; Ui.it is, that cvcrv provident individual ia rill r or lu more couiioruble circunistaiices, than be coul.1 hiivc been iit aU) lornier (leriod. When wi- lihik into the bouies ol any of the lai Miring clasi>e», >gcli «■ liklmrii>«i., btr example, and liinl them stivkeil tviib iitnt and conifurtabla i-btthlng— ilieir room fur- nished witii a wainacuC ur iierhajw u rnithngany table, a large bible, and an eight-day rjock—wlit'o w'e see that thry aii< now able to provide these thingn for ibiTOM'lvi'.s by their o\ui iiidij>;ry. wl.ilt- thirty or forty yearn iigo it woiihl have ht in impoHHtblo— u htt is this but a prtNif that the rapit.il or ihene men has iiiureaii^l fasier than the auml«r of limir fHinflies > The same observHiiun may be f-xtendcd ut all dashes. for tbfl i-trcumstance<« of ntl nrv much more cumfnrt* able til Ol they were fifty year« ago; at whteb time (Uiu hihUen grttff coat (home-done gray) wm made to hihtwith a countryman for his Sunday's dress diirint.' a a'hole life; when country houhe\ liud if) fire-pb-n'n but a corner of the floor, and no chimnieM Imk ^t^Hw )d:ist«red with coar^u clay. It it* surely needUas to rav, that every iternoii has better ineniia of living now iliHu he bad then ; and if the giaals of each indlvidiul t>e increKNcd, the capital of the country is increnwd in the sa>rie proporibin ; thta is, it litis incrensnl a grent deal more mpidly than the numler of the people J and erti h of the people, though their numberx lie gnt.tttT, has a better stock of necciHarius and com. forts than he bad at former periods. We do not meiiri to de'iy tbiit there are several classes who are in di^. tress (such as the band-work weavers, who are oblige I to Lompete iignltibt the cheaper ttunin-loom), or iTint there are some Important interests which labour unddt heavy ilJd ruitiesi out ponitbm refers only t.i the ge. uerai ^tate td' tlie couiilry, wliicb is i.itii.ififtly iin. proved. nil rCRRNT I I.AMF.S OF PEOI'IC I'hf P»t-rin(v. There is, properly ii|>eaking, only one boily of ludU vtdu'i's in the empire wblch can \h> auid to form n se- parate aun dtHtinrt clasi, having riiiik and privilege* different trotu ihosn of iheolher sibjects. 'ihii il ss ifi t-aiied thfi prrra-ia^ nnd somelline^ the n/i/'ri'/j^, f>r ririi>/(icra<-jr: iti members ar^ distinguisbed by rertniu titles, which uiw the badges ol their rank, soiiit »i THE BRITISH EMPIRE, AND ITS RESOURCES. Uiwii Itctiitf of higlier dvgreu thiin otbuin. The titltii huiid in the following ordur^ frum the lowest tu the liitfhMtt— •lUroi), TUcuiint, earl, niurqtiiii, duke, and |irVi)cei the la«t title ii rouferred only on memtmrs of the royal family. Theoe titl«ti are at Che il)eromes hereditary In th« representativeB of tlie tlrst posseB^or : hence the ■existence in the country of ari^tocraticul or titled fa- iniUes as a distinct class'. They are in general wesltliy, lu well Hs titled} and, by iniermarriagus vltlt the rich iiieruantile clashes, they preverve in their families a hhow of great opulence. There is an oider, however, • ommur-fv called the Mffh arUtnoraf^^ which intur- uitirry only amongst themselves i the incomes of some of those ai-e very Tsrga. reaching, it Is said, in two or ihree instances, to Ii.300,00r) per annum. It mav be mentioned, htiwever, that, rich as many of the aristo- c rue V are {ndividiially, their whole income Is but a drop in the bucket compareil with that of the other rJasses: on the largeKt calculation, they cannot have loore altogether than fourteen or fifteen millions frttm their estutes annuallv; while the rest of tlie oouutry Uas two hundred and forty-six milliniihfiomugiiculture (done, and from all botirtex more than Bve hundred millions. The circumstance of the aristocracy living much tiHrfiiher as a body, and possessing certain pri' vilegen nhich cmfer distinction upon them in Purliu- nient, Hod about the coiat, attracts an attention to thek families, wiiich, were wealth abme regarded, they rouTd not enjoy. Any individual peer in entitled to •mmand an nudienoe of the king, and to state to hit najeuy his opinion upon public meHbures under di|. ouBsicm. British peers have seats in the Ho.irc of liords in virtue uf their birth, and tlione of Ireland und Scotland elect a c^Ttain proportion of their own numher to sit there; the Irish elected peers sitting 'or life, those of Scotland during tho Pailiament for which ihey have Imen cboBeii. A peer can only be tried, ill iiny criminal ciise, liy a Jury of persons of his nwii ra-ik. These privileges, and somp others, give to individuals of this rank an ch'v iitinn and distinction in the eyes of the other classes, which generally makes thiir company or alliance much ctHirtud and sought iil'tt>r. Of iHie years, many dilTeretit opinions hnre tieuii broached as to the utility of their legislative fnnc- (ionti, but this is not a pUre to argue such a point. The number of the peerage varies from time to time. by the creation of new fan\Ilies, and the extinction of titles to whith heirs are not found in the prescribed lines. The nuntlwr of tho British petn, oi those who sit in the House of liords, U about 400 t of wbii:h titles, about ime-hnlf have been conferred within the last fifty yc:trH, and onlv forty-seven existed beforu the year 1700. Tlie \\\f\\ peerngu is about one hun. ..red and sixty in number ; of w hom twenty-two have titles of enriler diile than 1700. The Scolii peers iire about eighty, whose titles are all ditted before 17I>7| rtiid about twenty lu'lore 1000. Twenty or thirty of the 8c4its peem are also British peers, and have seats in the Ilous« of l#ordi. Tht rletgt. The clergy, though apparently existing at a separate ■ rrilrr, are so in regard tu their profession only — in till? itumu nninner as lawyers, inerohants, and others. 'J'hev aru composed of men hprung fn)m all orders of the ciimnHinity — the rirher l»ene(lces in the church bring open to all young nu>n of the wealthy clasnes who firo not dissenters, ami the leNter livings and cunicie* to every order of aspirants who can prtaruro tlic reqiiisito eduratlon. The revenues of the ohurrb have been alrendy mentioned, titgether with simie nnrticnlars in regard to their dintributioit. The Kng- li^hclergy have a gradation of rank nmong themselvei, with a number of titles unknown to the Presbyterian rhnrches i as, forinstance, archblshopn, of whom there fire two in England ; biHbops, of whom there are twenty-five; deHns, and sub-demis. There are also certain clerical olHres belonging to the cathedrals, such a^ pret>endarieN and others. These dignities are ge- nerally held by some of the psrish clergy ih cunjnno- ttun with their parochial office. The Law. The nature of their education and busineH dotaini lawyers chiefly in the cnpitals of the three kinfrdoms, at least those of them who aspire t^t eminenoe in their profession; and a« they are an influential body, ai- ■ortant otticeaof the Hlate, ami thoie on which peace and justice through the country monf immediately de|»«nd— as the Lord Chancellor, the whole of the iudges, the aBsesnors (or i tterpreterx of law), who are appointed to assist ma- gistrates of townit in the dJBcharge of their duties, and many otherit. .Men of property or large business are generally obliged tti have an adviser from the same body, to inform x\w\\\ on matters whore there Is any dilhi-nlty of law. A greHt part of the most important iranBaeiiims of the ciHintry, thitrvfore, past through r'-f hands of men of this profession. There appeari to Iw a dlspositiun at the present timSi among the highest IA0 menitwrs of this t>ody, to reniovu Bome ut thoie anti- quated legal inciimbrancet whove delay! and txpeubes tlie people so often feel tu be a denial of justice. Th« Morcantlle and llknufticturit.g, nr Mlddlo CLrucs. These classes ar0 united more by being engaged In similar occupations, and having the same Inieresta, than bv standing In one rank in society i for they are uf all gradations, frum the small capitalist ur manu- facturer, who struggles for a living, to tho wealthy merchant or owner of factories, who could raise and depress prices ind wages almost at his own pleasure, were It his interest to do so. It is on the industry, foresight, and economy uf this large class, that the prosperity n^ the cunutry mainly depends. M''ere they rasa and ill-informed, initead of a continual firugress of the whole body to increased opulence and arger capital, there would only be a succession of bunkruptcies and connnercliil panics, which would ruin the trade uf the country in a few years. But they are in getteral men of sound views, trained to a practical! acquaintance with the objects of trade, and the means which are necessary for its »uccesk. The merchants aitd great manufacturers of Britain are frequently the best educated and must liberal men of thu coiintrv; for as their uccupations lead them to associate wiili porsiuis of ditferent countries and ol all profesBiont, they acnuire a kintwieilge of the iii- teittsts and hubits of all, and huve both their know- ledge und their curiuslly enlarged at the same time. M'itli regard to the lesaer mass of CHpititli^ts and manufactureri, we geiierallv find them tu be men who have rlstin in life by the skill and econoiry they have displayed in iurtnii utii&u of lute than it »a!) twenty years ago t leiiU, it is alleged, have nut fullen in proportion to tloi fall in the prices ufgrainand otlier agricultural pi udtM u ; so that thu farmer has no encouragement for laying out nmney in improving either his liiiid, his breeds of stock, or his modes of bibour. Vet there is us great a conipetitjnn for furins as ever ; and the farmers thenntelves, by their olfitii*, will not allow rents, of which they complain, to fall. Tiie reason of the latter circumstance (which is the source ot the whole) is, that the family of a farmer, living witii hitn ilia kind of secluHioM, apart even tVom villages, Nee and know nothing as they grow up but their fa- tbur's business, and that of other farinertt, su that they learn to neglect every other as matters in which they liitve iiociiiicerri. It is dilTerent with young persons bronchi iiji In toniiB or lurge villages, who daily en- counter ueopti! uf many illlferent prulessions, and lel- d iin adopt tnat of their father. The sons ul farmers, uu the other hand, see no occupation but une, at least so as tu become familiar with them ; hence most of the young men become passionately attached to that one, and theiu are almost always too many bidders for every farm. Though the profits of agriculture have fallen, the wages of farm servaittti continue nearly steady, which is - ^ving to the lui:reascd deinimd fur men in inannfactui-ing places. Hfi-ohnmca aiitl othfr OjitrAtivet, There id a great ditfereiice between the value of tho time of di^erent mechanics, according to the dif- ferent degrees of strength, skill, or delicacy of hand- ling whicli their businesses require, ilence there are almost as many dilferent grades of siaiety and ways id living aiiioog the class of tradesmen us among tliuse uf higher rank. Those whose businevs requires great skill and tedious apprenticeships, receive very high wages ; and if they have a ta-^te for neatness and com- fort at home, they are able to furnish their dwellings in ti style of much good taste, and even elegance i beKides giving their ctdldren a correct and useful edu- ration. ' *ition of the opera- tive classes, that nothing need here be added on this branch of our subject. Summary of Cluset. It has been aBcertainod, that, in 1831, there were of the classes l>el(),000 fttinilies ; of artizans, 2(H>,0tH) families ; of manufacturers in all lines, A4N),IN)0 families; uf la- bourers, porters, and servants, (iOO,(K>0 families; and of destitute p»upers, soldiers, &.C., (100,000 families. Till: COLONICS. The foreign possessions of (^reat Britain are mnch more extensive and popuhms than thtwe of any other ooiintry iwoorded in history. The/ may bv itJviddQ into three tlilferent classes: — First, C4ilonies uccupietl and cultivated by people who have emigrated frnni this country, and which, in respetit of language, man- ners, and religion, are nut dilTerent fmni Britons. Second, slave colonies, in which the greater part uf the population are black slaves, and the proporriun I'f BritiMis who live among them do so in the capacity of proprietors, masters, overseers, merchantN, skilled workmen, &c., being in every respect the ruling and superior cIubn. Third, countries which have been cuirquered from their own Inhabitants, und whic;. Britain itlll hrilds as conquests; the people having the occupation of the roiI, but the right of ii tkin>: and enforcing laws, uf placing anrf dinplacing inagi>- trates, &c., being in the hunu.tof the conqueror*, ami .such servants as they may appoint for lliat purpose. 1. With regard to the first Ind uf cidoiiieH, ur tliuse which are occupied entirely by emigrants from Bri- tain, und their descendants, it may be remaiked, tliat this country has been the only ono which has ever succeeded In rearing such establishments, and making theni tliiive. The experiment was tried by France in Lower ( jtiuula, and in nettleinents on ftie river Alississippi ; but tbo colonists wlm were sent out, though the best for the ptirpu^e that France could ai- ford, have never made any advances in prosperity ; and Instead of berouiing weaiihy or powerful, eii'ier retained, aH in Canada, alt the old-fashioned and in- eonvenient practices of French agriculture, ur fell, at* in the settlements o.. the Mississippi, into association with the savages of the forest, und adopted their ha- bits. Canada, after It had been 210 years in posses- :iion of the French, had only 27,000 inhabitants ( I" U). The .Spanish colonies, though noich ohier than tiionf of Britain, are, except in the yreut towns, in a statf little removed from barbarism ; the mixed ilesceodant> of the European settlers are (ew in number, and con- tent theinMelves with the pride of being dest^jnded frtiin white people, without seekin,; any distinction from su- perior intelligence; and the black and copper-coloured population are mere tillers of the gnMind, without knuwleilge, without arts, ami with'int trade. Were we askee.i»i away. 'i'he principal colonies of this description whicii Brituiti retains in her possession, are those of Canad,i, .New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, in North Ame- rica ; with New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land, in Australia. The colonies uf L'pper and Lower Ca- nada, particularly the former, are those tu which the attention uf emigrants is at present principally drawn. This country possesses resounds for maintaining u population many times larger than that of Kuro|ie. The following t;iblo will give an idea of the present state aud rcsouries uf these wlouiof : — (^ 3! Z i » c a » (» ^ ** oe 3 ? 3"L C _, D. ™ J] ^ « 5 ^ lag 3 G. S =•: c X' o CO 14 i 3. I MS wjs 25 i§ 3 5 IS r ^mi s i *. nil )>artK of the adjulnintf cimaii, both of the British iMia. •tiuiuni and thine of Amerit'u. The avurtiKe expendituru for the gnverriment and protection of the:(e eolouiei is about L.348,(H)0, (mrt ot which is delrayed by Hriuiin, part by the colunioM themiwlres: the Intter portion is L.23U,:idti; so that llriuin pays l<.n5,31il. Au4traiian Coiiinies.-^TUe other cohinies i>ettlt>d bv eniigrantH Irum Itrituiii are tho.s(< in the si>uiherri beniisphert- — New South Wuleti, Van Diini:in*ii Ijaud, and Swan Hivlt. The lirNt ol these settlfincnts wan ' nly planted in 17Bi>: their prnf{r«ss simo that time has been rfi.iarkahle : the population in IffJft whs :il1,884. The estiniiipd viihie of pnipertv in linild- iiHTB, ships, nienOmniiisp, money, ^c. L!2,Wfl,(KH>; luid they had about :i(Kl,0(MI acre* of cultivated land. Their unnuaJ ixpnrtK fi om Hritain amount to L. 96, 1^3. They produce finer wihd than any Kuropean U'untry, and import lar^'f t^iiHntttirs of it into Britain, which are twn^ht willi avidity. folltiwini(inte"estint{ I'ur- amenlary document will bhow : — Einigranli ftoiii Htitiiii in (lie untltfr-nipnlMmi' : yean— 10:^7. ItSM. IMK IKU: 1!UI. IUt». *; o the BrltUh colimti-v N'u*a Scoiia. &«. li.MA U.OM I3,lffj .10.574 S» r«7 (»,XN TorhrC. ofdoud Hope tl4 t.Ti Iir/ in, in lui ToitwAintrsliAii i-olon. 7i'> I'Wi wift i;.'4-' i:;il .T7:ii( luthc U- >(cd suut lt..'ga( )<>.KI7 \i,ii7H v'4.W7 £1.418 ».K7^ ToiAl ^,up;i ni,t*.a ;ti,i>iH .vj.!hi7 ii:t.l.iu lu-i,MO The number of emigrants who have sailed for (.'r- iiada this year (luCt:!) h'i» not lieen so lar^i^e, not per- ha(*» exceedittff :tO,0(H), on account, it is believed, of ti.e alarm excited by choler;^ ainoof: the iohabiunts (iiid konie t migrants Wst season. A larice number al>o uitw priiceed to ('aiiada by way -if the I'niteti Sutes. HH bcru^ nuire Ciimmodtoua. Of thehc it is im- p<>s.\ihle tk< say how many reach and settle in Canada. SlavfCnl.miM— We»t liulkt. Tlie pnnri*»al of (he British klitve colonies rtre in tho V\> d at '/Ifi^MHt^ • t( wlitim li'2(i,fiQ** are slaves. Jamaic0 slaTt'- ; Barhadoeii. the next in ^•^pect of po- pniatton, ha- l,V(Nh> white;*, 50!tO f r< e iitacks, and 7!(,(N>() klaves: Trinidad, 4000 whites. IO,0(M» free {•eople of'cohiur, and 'J4,.'>00 slavt>». Th" other ifdandi, t\ Inch are smaller, have th ir ptipulacnin from I0,(NM> to ;{0,000 divided into similar proportion* of free peoide and slaves. The quantity of cultivatefl l.ind in th< ie islands is itiout two and a half miltitms of acre», ^r altiiut on*-. twentieth of the cultivated land of I', iitland. The CttiniAted value of their Knmt no tn.il pro^lm'e i-* tiventy-tuo hthI a half millions of pi nuflK sterling, i,f which they eK|)ort li\ ' and a half miltion^, chietly to Britain. The ealinniced value of public property, in lortitirationa, artillery, court-houses, A:c., is alKint four millions; of private property, tbirty.nine mil- lions, including hgiicultural suH'k, wurehmises, mer- I haiidise, shipping, spe<-ie, Kv. 'I'l • value of the ne> gro staves, whom it wai ruHtomarv to reckon as part uf the stiH-k of their farms, wat stated by the cokmnttK so high as |iirt>-lwo and a half inilliun^. Oovern- nient Ufwe agreed to allow them twtMiiy niillMins us I 'nnpen«atipoit, caist niucli longer in any part (It America. Thf expense of governifig ih** Wftt Indian colmiii's aniMunin to ]j.&>'Mt.34);t, irf ivlnch tiie tool Iter country payioiity r.70.213. In this. howrev«i>, whuh falls upon Bri- tain. In umcIudMig our notiic buy and sell in th'tse markets whirh bi-st snil their nerei«itie» ; and, in the umtlier «>untr\ . to-. it'ft ih%fi*') to tlirm bv a like unprofitable l>ou(j |i t« aido said that much wista and favotiritistn has taken pluce in regard to ibeir temttUM. These nmipluinti have all Koinr 180 fouitdaiinn, bmh in the West Indian and Canatlian colonies; hut it is evident, notwithstanding, that thej have iHith been bettar managed than the ndouiea vi any other European umncry, 6tfcaMj(0 they are oomjut- rafi/y more tfirivhiff. In rnlsing itifsc countiics (as «ell lis our old c^iloiiies, the United States of Aine- rii-a) to their prenent state, the Ilrttinh g. The quantity of cultivated land, 10*J,(iC0 acres ; tlie exports, under half a million ; anil iniport.i, sonifwhat above that sum. The value of private property, In houses, InlIrcharllli^e, Bhi|i^800, to which the planters add fimr and a quarter millions more, a* the value uf their negroes. T/ie Ctiiie f/f,"'V ■' Hope — This African colony ori- giually belonged to the Dutch, and must of the whit* )K)pul»tion is originally from Holland. This is an important aettlenient, in l'e^pect of our Indian pohses- sitniSf and might afford many usefnl resources fur their defence, slunild an Htt:ick l>e uieHiutied by any IJiirnpean power, all of whom are sensible that tliey could neither t\ke nor hold India »)nli> we octnipy the Cape. Kniigratiou ft-oni Briiitin hut not lately ihnved in that direction, though tb>> wages of mecha- nics are fully Gs. per day, with a fine climate and cheap provisions. The iinpnitanre of )i:(ving a Bri- tish population gradually inii'i duiud into such a colo- ny, c^iiinot l)e easily appreciated, and vhonld not be forgotten by go^'erument. 'i'bp population of the Cape odony, in 1331, was 5r),b7.'i whitet, 37,il''»2 free cohuired people, and 3.%SO0 shites; in all, IJ0.03K. The land under cuUivatimt is e:<^timHti'd at -lt>l),0tl0 acre.-*. The vdne of pri\Hto prop4'rty 01" iill kinds {excrpt land) is l<.3,H70,(KH». Britain has some other possess! nis in Afrii-a, such in Sierra Leone, Senegal, (ioree, and Fernando l*o. Iiittle national ini|H>rtance or value in utt'irhml to these settlements; their popnhition aIto;;ether anion nts to 14H7 whiten, and l!3, 153 free coloured peo|'le. Their exports from the I'nited Kingdom are altmit tutif a million ; the private property ab.nit 1j.1I00,U(H\ (O.SUI'BREl) I'OL'MTniKH— BHITIHII I.VDU This is bv far the mos-i extfusive and important of all the foreign ptissessrom of Britain. It has lonir hcen under the separate loatKigement of !in ini'or|Mt- rated cnmpanv, whoconrinrted laith its trade, militarv defence, and civil government. Their charter has now expired, and in future they are not to inter'ere at all in commerce, while the business of government is still to r«>st with them under the superintendence of the ministries of this country. India affords no direct revenue or tribute to Hng- land, aseomfiiere*! countries are iu gt>ueral suppos<*d t" :lo. 'I'he onlv advanlagea which we deriw from oiir oci-iipatioii nf these immense c untriex. are the nn- ouputwl |M(SHt^»ii»n of their trade, Had the biriunes {■onii-tinies very lar;^e) saveii out of ilieir salaries by I British subjects who are app.«inte■ aHLonishtng : the iMipuhiiioo of a certain portinii is auppo'.fii 10 have iieariv doiible«l in the periiMl of cmnp^rative peuie (loin IHll to HKVi, Iteiui^ in the former year 01 h forty. Hve and in the latter almost ninety milljon^. 'I'ill she came under British rule, India utjv«r«njoyC4l twentv years of peace and nrderiy governim-nt tn all her forniiT history. There are nianv faults and Kp- prei^sio'ift laid to the charge of the Kngiinh in Indiu, Iroin which it is impofaitda to defend them. The laxeM (whuh tall chiefly u|Hin the Aim/ mid the laair (,4 cuotiyj Mn* very oppressive. uimI are reiuleied more H.i by the unpriiiripleti i-onduct of the natives »Ii'>ait' employed to cidbfci them. Justice u1m> is adminis- (ere>) in a foreign lan/uai{e (Bersic), and the (VMirU iiCf NO few that ili-.trirli* which ai-e larger than Scyi- i.ind h.ive liardly one to each. Not^viih^ta^Mlirig .ti! thia, the preservation o( public order and ut pca<'> hat cxmferreil adtalilaget on the couutry of the nio»l inestimable kind. The lerritoriHl extent of the British po^seMions in India is ril4,tlM> s verned l*v our eiblishments ; these have an area of (114, (ilO '•tjiiura milea, and a population vttiinated at forty millions. J'he fiiim)M*r of Kiiropeana ifsideiu in India not in the puhlic service was, in lUIh), 2itl0. The am Mint of exports frum (ireat Britain in lff2D w»« L.4,hK/,'ifi4{ the imporu to India, L.O -.MU,'JK4. t'he total ri'venue of Briltsh lailia tn tlo* khuii- f.ii wa li-'li 7'3.U4*I ; the expense and charges of >i" uo vtr iMer.t L.J2.1U.:.t01. The lullowiny tahlu will IftVi! »uin« "Ibfr pn-t'-utirs • — Unthh Imlu Population 100.577,2n«i Dependent states 4(»,0(K),0 Troopi^ Native in7,OA7 Kuropean .... 30,(Wd Cultivated lands, acrei . . . 134,200,000 Publiu or government property , L.1A,621} 243 Katimate of private property, hou»i, Kton>s, merchandise, &c. .' . L.80n,000,000 Colonial shipping .... L.&93,OD0 lu thia estimate Is not inolnded Ceylon, a fertile island, and capable of great improvement, lying near the south point of India. It contains two millions and a half of acres, cultivated or ctpable of cultiva- tion, and hat a population of one million ; tho pro- rerty on the Island is estimated at four millions near, y; its eipurtt to Britain Lt.202,(jCtt, and its importt from thence KAnAWl Theiminher of Christians in Calcutta, the capital of India, as repfirted in 11122, was 13,13fl; of whom 10,8H4 were half-ciwtes, or children of native women by l:Iiiropean8. These are now Iieiaming a numerous ai.<« influential class; and as they are educated in a fauuliar knowledge of the Knglish, aa well as of tome native languages, they are exceedingly iisafnl : their total number in Indi.^ in 1K22 was alHmt 20,000; the attornies generally belong to this clasn. Britain has several other foreign possessions which are useful in a political or military view, though not ofgreat extent—such are (Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islandt, in the Mediterranean ; and St Helena atid Ascension on the African coast; Bermuda, in the North Atlantic. I.XTKNT OK THE HRITIitH K>IPinC. The great extent of the British empire, and the im- mense space over which its pacta are distributed, form one uf the nio^tt retnarkable phenontena ever exhibited to the world. She lias dominions in Nortli America, whiih are tlicmselveK larger than the Iloioan empire at its greatest extant. She ptaiseHses seventeen rit^h islands in the VVest Indies; the cmm tries of Australia, which are tliemHclvea Jar^'^r than all Kurojie, are en- tirely at her dinposal, and will inie dnj' be ocuiipliid hy it population speaking her language, and proud \4 their descent from her peiiple. In India she has an- other large and populous empire, which i.s her own not only in right of roni)ueKt, but alniottt in right of creation ; for it is the regular government, the sup- pression of internal wars, and the leisure for agri- culture, U'liich she has tiestowed, that have rendered India what It now is, and what it never was forniei ly, either in respect to popnlatiun or cotnnierce. The pr the regulation of their laws and gi>veriiineiit, and for the continuanc* of a prosperity which the foreign possessions of no (fthi-r country have ever cnjoyetl. The iiuml»er i>f peo)de in all the different British posscM>ions may be retapitulateil as follows :— Eiliiit and P'j(iuUt!iin of the Empire, i'lpulat.on. British Islands . L»4.271,7.»» ( Britishdepenilenciesiii Ivumjie 247,701 North Amerii-H, Canada, ^.t. l,0(tff,201t MVt Indies 864,i».'>0 Australian colonies . 31>.0Ho Islands of Ceybtn A >lanritiu.s l,o;t4,7't<> British posse^siouh in Africa l.'>4,mo Kast Indian euijdre . t)0,577.-(^' S4. Mik». oo.Me 1 !t:to,0(io 1,41X1,000 2:i,ooo Ol,<»«HI IWO.lJoO 117.37fl,'.M»0 4,4B7.'dW This table shows that Britain rules ovi>r n popuU- tion about five times as numerous as her own, and (tver an t* vtent of country lifty timet us larj^e as the whole British Islands. wi I. vuv. PttDsi'iMtirv or hhitain iostikkk r T..(i iptt'tttioii is often asked, Vt'ill I'lis Hingular peo- ple always remain as prosjieroua, aud a■^ much Mipu. rior U> the other nations uf the world, as they now ure ? Will not tlieir t.tr-.ext«uded empire, madf np of to many tiiffe'-eni elements, one day crumble ni piercts '' Will nut their unrivalled uianuf:tccuring sktll lie one day huriMiiised, and driven Iroiii the market 'r—their |iiii itt, uu w^iicli tJieir grandeur ik t.iunded, be givtnt to I tber« :' — uud their immense national wealth disM- paifil, in vrtiti rivaUhip with more skilful competitors : Wt< m-iy answer tbiarne causes which ha'e liestoued. will maintuin it, till koine other nation lie found better governed, more secure from foreiifii in- vasion, fiiniinhed witli better roads, can dn, an>. bar- bl)sbfaa «aii<>li«h4il fini'** l«>n>ilfhL (•itri'olvned by A K.tUw>wal, Cdtiitunuli, snd piltucd by Dmd- but) tiiM i;> *t.- !• *3r ■ INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED By WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE '* EDINBUBUH JOURNAL" AND ^ « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 21. Pbiok H(L A POPULAR VIEW OF ASTRONOMY. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. SATURN. IIXVITAATIOK or THB 8IAI0KJ. St). Mil». 'i:i,i>oo cuKTtNur r itlt'tl MlpU* tlit-y itiivv Mi'e ? .1(1'- II); of »n ,bli' N< (nf'ttk !' i>f nkill In* one iiiikci r— lliftr Itlt'tl, t>e f(ivt!it il wKuUh ilisAi- I r(tiri(iat>taietl ^ivf Mrtli to tjiitiii'nt, tht liiT itmiiUr li. iHlrv iiiid prr- Ofi'ii her h«r •* which hr e itlirr iiEitiiiii III iDri'lifii in- t, HMi. hlU'- ifltriuiia and iiRnH. IV, Wftltr fMUr Itow, t-OO. sum, DutiltiL it nk>.-Ikn U> intmrrt by tttwl- Luitvlun. The term Aitronuray is derived from twoGreek words, flignifying the laws of the sturs. This science, thpre- fore, treats vf the mogniludes, mc ioni, periods, eclipsei, and all other phenomena connected with the heavenly iKKlies. It is aiuhlime subject of investigation, perhaps the most luMime to which the human mind can turn its attontinn, as it undoubtedly was the ear- liest. The barn aspect of tlie sta. ry firmament, as it appears to the naked eye, is calculated alike to excile curiosity and astonishment. But when it is examined by those subtile instruments made u!>c of by aKtrmin- mers, and we ascertain that the solid contents of the sun exceed those of our globe, gigantic as it appears to be, nearly a milHon and a half times, and to an ab- solute certainty that it is removed from us to the dis- tance of ninety-five millions of miles, the imagination becomes overpowered, and seeks in vain to form any thing like an adeqimte idea of such magnitudes of mat- ter and quantities of space. In proportion, bowevtT, as the magnificence and grandeur of the subject deve- l<^s itself Co a reflecting intellect, it more and more excites a desire toknnw something of its details. It id for the purpose of gratifying in some degree this de- sire, that we have undertaken to give such an acc>>unt of utronomy as will be generally intiilligible, and at a rate which will place an acquaintance witli the subject withir. the reach of every one wlio wishes it. The ftlgebralc formulae in which the sublime truths of the kcleuce are usually disguised (of course with rcfer-nco to the general render), has hitherto kept back many from follinviug out the study ; am) although we con. fesi that ilic universe, in all its grandeur and magnifi- cence, can only be displayed to the eye which contom- plu',c8 it through the rndlant atmosphere of a suMin^p gfrometry, still a very intelligible idea of the natuii> and laws of tlie heavenly IkhIics can )>e obtained with- out It Others, again, are deterred from proceeding fftrther than tlie threshold of inquiry, from the natu- ral vastness of the subject overawing them into a hopelessnefis of ever attaining to any thing like a de< finite understanding ot it. But this is a very erro- DMus idea. The pyramids of Kgyp: present nl a dis- tance a very formidable appearance, and to reach their summits seems utterly impossible. But whi^n we op- proach nearer ro iheni, the illusion vanishes. We find them provided niih a series of steps which reach from the bottum to ilie ti>[>. and render the accent compara- tively easy. This will t>e found to be the case with astronomy, and indeed every science. M- eover, by frequently contemplating vastness of nizf, we become familiar with it, and it soon oeasee to overawe, almost to excite astonishment. The mind enlarges, as it were, its owudimensioiwito the measure of that which it surveys. SYSTEM or THK ITNU'EiSE. The idea to which astronomers havf arrived respect- ing the universe, is, that it consists of an infinite mul- titude o( suns, like that in our own sky, round which revolve planets- aimilrtr to our own i^lobe, being in all probability the resideuoes o( intfUi^enl beings akin in nature to nursel\ es. These suns are so distant from us, that the nearest of tliem appear as only little sperks of HghC in the sky ; while others are far beyond the reach of evun tlie most powurful telescope. Astronomy chiefly concerns itself with tiie system conneiied with our own sun; which consists, so far as ascertained, of that luminary, as a fixed centre, eleven primary planets whirling at different distances aroun IMUslhlllty oruiitlrtly extrif.iUiijt llie subjrct. From thp oI(kl> atiJ thUicatu niftiuurt in whk'li Hw dtff^n-nt bni>u-ho» of it nre iiUer- [ wovin with PHth «ither, in or»ltr to pmvc ihf trulli of one (■iveii I piitnl, we must iK.f.-uli)n*Uy tnkff siinttipr f-ir griintoil, the rtcmfMi- I einttrii of yrlitch rill appe;u inciwiMl. iit lituwn {imiwr pin-r. PROFEUTIXS OF HATTER. The essential properties of matter, or those chiu racteristics of which it is impossible to deprive it, are, extension, figure^ diviaibililyy imjtenetrabilUgj attraC' tion, and what is called inertia: it is only in the two latter that we aro at present particularly interested. Motion is sometimes denominated a j roperty of raau ter; but, strictly speaking, it is no mure so tbou cn- loui or sound. Alotion, however, is an accidental quality, or one with which it can be endowed, and, as such, is intimately connected with tl e succeeding ob- servationv. The tendency of particles of matter, however minute, and of masses of matter of what, ever kind and magnitude, to unite together, and form, as it were, one mass, is found to operate uni- versally wherever man has been able to extend bis scrutiny, either upon the objects of which the globe lie inhabits is composed, or upon the celestial bodies which without number people space. Examples ot it arrest our attention wherever we turn our eyes. We witness it in the globular form of the dew-drop which lies upon the flower, in the descent of a stone to tho earth when thrown upwards, and, as we shall see, in the motion of the heavenly bodies. Like the puzzle of (^olumbuB, thifl law appears very simple, and easily comprehended, wlu>n once shown to exist; notwith- standing this, Itowever, its universality is a discovery of comparatively recent date. onAVITATlON AND INEItTfA. The descent of a bin!y to the earth, when deprived of support in the air, was witnessed from age to sge, without the occurrence giving rise to any speculation as to the cause wcu'th mentioning. But, in th.} >:e-'en* teenth century, there spring up a man, whoso ap- pearance may be compared to the rising of tl.*ur'';hi- cst of thoiie luminaries, for a correct knowledge of whose laws we are so much indebted to him. T!io ■ fall of an apple before the eye of Npwtoii, laid th« foundation of that noble superstructure which the science of astronomy may be now entitled. TIm doctrine which ho deduced from this every-dav event, was, ttiat all the heaveu'iy Imdieiv mutntilly at.-, tract each otlier. Might not, he ail-wisely reasoned. tho flame power which draws the fruit tn the gronud be that which draws the moon to tlu> eartli, the earth to tho sun ; and, if so, may not the law */• extended to all the heavenly hi dies 7 But, beVofa 'i ASPBSKi^,':' »•.-,> 7- CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I. the reader can fully npprei'iato the important nature of thli profound conjecture, and see the beauty of the tkeory which resulted therefrom, he munt Rnt be in. Ibrrned of anothor equally importanl principle wjiioh > fc«lonf(i to matteiv nftin«ty, if tnertim, or that fnnato diaposition which jt hs*'to resist any chang'e. Dr Arnott calli it ftgurativeljr an obitinaoy, or ttubbom- ness, and the words very well empress the idea. I)v this we are to understand, that a body at rest wouli't forerer mnaln so, if something external to itself did not set it in motion ( and that, when once set in mo* tion, it would continue for ever to move, if its course were not interrupled by some other power. If, fur instance, we project a stone through the air, that stone, we are certain, would proceed onward through intinite space, and never come to rest, if it were not Impeded by some catise or causes t the principal one is that power or property which the earth has of drawing every body towarda ita centre. Wo have not said any thing with r^rard to the resistance of. fored by the atmosphere to al) bodies passing through it, becuuse that is at present foreign to our kubject. Here, then, we have two grand antagonist forces ope. rating continually in nature — centrifugal forcti, from two Latin words, signifying ctntre-Heeing ; and centric petal forcvy from two words in toe same language, signifying centre-tfeking. The former is Uie result of gravity, and the latter of inertia. In philosophical works, the jiower of gravitation is said to be directly, as the masses of matter \ and inversely, as the squares of their distance fmm each otlier. Thu», the greater the i)uantity of mntter in the attracting bodies, and the nearer they are to oach other, the more is the force of the gravity exercised. It may be added, tliat the large body invariably draws the small one towards it ; not that the fatter is entirely destituto of attrac- tion for the former — for it is mutual between them — but its strength depending upon the quantity of mut- ter, the *arge body, being superior in thin respect, at. tracts the small one to its centre; and this is the cauno of a stone, or any other subsunce, falling to the earth. CEMTBiri;OAL ANn CENTEirETAI. FOHCE. Centrifugal force, as may have been gailiereii fnnn what we have already said, is that force with which :i body, revolving r>iund a centre or alxjut anotlier hiMly, endeavours to nsa'de from that centre or htHly. Thus, if a stone be whirled round at the end of a iMrd, it will stretch the cord by its tendency Ut fly, or centre- fleetng force; and if tlie velocity be sufficiently in- creaHHl, the cord will at length lie broken, and tlie stone will fly otf nt what in railed a tangent. There are two kind* olcentrifirgul fort*e, viz., that whitli isfiiven to bodies moving round another lK>dy as a centre, usually called the projectile force, of which we have i'ust given an example ; and that which l>oi]ies acquire )V revolving upon their ovn axis. We shall have to frlre an example of both in the diurnal and annual revolution of the earth. But in order tha^ tlie reader nay clearly understand this important law, we shall in the meanwhile illunirate it by a familiar one. We have seen, in the (^ase of the stone whirled round by the string, that the greater tlie velocity, the greater the tendency of the stone to fly off, or the greater the centrifugal force. Suppose, then, any circular body, as a ooacJi wheel, is placed so hi in turn freely round upon au axii. I^t small pieces of any tena- cious Rulntance, as clay, he attacned u> the «|Mikeii, beginning at the upper extrentity, and gradually cuniing downwards to the nppoaite ends next the nave. If the wheel l>e now set in motion, these p>ec«s of clay on the outnide will tly off firftt, tlkose Irelow them next, and no on, in a pnigressive degree, ti> thoee situated undermost. This plainly ari>es from the centrifugal force Iwing generate)! to n greater ex- tent at the plai'e where the motion is most rapid ; and this depends u|Km the distance at which it is ptace)>e, we mean that it is nearly so. It measures 2fl miles less la dia. meter between the north und south poles, than be. tween anv two poiutH in the contrary direction. In order to demonstrate this in a more satisfactory man- ner, it will be necessary to take a view of the terres- trial globe, us it appears delineated by geographers. GEXKMAL LAWS OP MOTION. Motion is the art of thifUng front one place to another ; it is the opposite of remaining at rest ; hihI the power which putt the lK)dv in movement is called force; and If the force art (mt momentarily. It is called force nf percussion or impulse; if it uct con- atantly, it is called secelerative force; if constantly and equally, it is called an uniform acceleratire force. Ill that immortal v/ork, Newt*>n'ft Principia, are the three foilowtng laws, usually railed Newton's laws of motion. He was not the flrst Inventorof them. how. ever, since they are foutjd in a work of )>es ('artes (ani>ther gmat astronomer), which was published lie- fore the rriucipia. Tmic I. Kver^- body perseveres in its state of rest, or unlfnnn motfc.n In a straight line, unleM it Is com- TIIE TERRESTRIAL GI.ODE. Astronomers, for the CAinveniency of their science, have supposed certain lines to pass through and an>und the glolie. One passing through the centra, between north and south, is called the axis of the glolie, from n Greek word signifving axle. The two extremities are called the poles, /rum the Ureek word ;Wojt, signifying a pivot. A line girding the glolw in the middle is styled the equator; all to the north and south of which are respectively called the northern and southern hemispheres. Tike circuit of the earth, both in its girth l>etween east and west, and lietween north and south, is divided into 3fJ(> parts, called de. greea. At the distance of twenty-thret! and a half nearly of these degrees from the equator, in hgthdirec- ttons, arc two parallel lines cnlled the tropics, and at the same distance from each pole is a jjurailel circle, xtyNI in the (me case the nritic, and in the other the antarctic circle. The spate Iwtween the tropics is called the torrid zone, tiecause the sun, being always vertical in some part of that space, produces a greater degree of beat than what is felt elsewhere. The spaces Iretween the tropics and tho arctic and antarctic circles are called the temperate, and the spaces within these latter circles the frigid rones. liastly, a Hue which cuts the equator obliquelv, touching upon op- posite (Kiints of the tropics, is called the ecliptic. The ecliptic and equator are called greater circles, l>erause they cut the earth at the thickest parts; tlio others are railed lesser circles. A series of lines dra>vn fnitn pule to pole over the earth's surface (like thedivixinn lines iif a ]>eeled orange), and cutting the equator at ri^ht angles, are railed meridians (from the Katin word mtridifiiy mid-day) or line* of longitude. Kvery place iijNin the earth is supposed bi nave one of tliese pass. ing through it, altliough only t wenty. four are dttscribcd upon the terrestrial glol«. \rhen any one of these is opposite the sun, it Is then mid-day or twelve o'clock with all the places situated on that meridian, and, con- sequently, midnight with thitse on the opp4Hiite me. ridian im the other side of the earth. Ttte exact si. tuatiioi of a place upon the earth's surface, or its la- titude and !(fngitude, is determined by means t)f th»»o cirrles. They are all divide*!, as already hinted, into 30<> parts, which parts are called HtgrecM ; these degrees again into 00 equal parts, called minutes; the minute intn (iO others, called seconds, and so iiu. They are all iiidjcateil by certain siyns placed Iw. hind the flguri*, and neiir tin* titpof it— thus, fi' .'V'?" is eiglit degrees, five minutes. %v\n\ seconds. A decree is W geographical miles, or (S» ruglixh statute miles; a minute is the ^iOth part of that; and so on. The/a/i/uiic of a place is its distance measured in that manner from cheequattir. If it lies north of that line, it is in north latitude; if south of it, in south latitude. TKere being only SfW degrees in the tircnmferenc*' of the earth, and the distance from the equator to either of the poles lieing iiiily a fourth part of it, a place c^n never liave more than IMI" of north or south latitude. The longitude of a place is the distance nf its meridian from another, w htrh is railed the first meridian. The firii meridian is quite arltitrary, and it is a matter of in- difference thnmgli what point we draw it, provided it be settled, and well known, which iitie we adopt, wi as U) prevent mistakes. Foreit^ners Axed upon the prin- cipal observatories of tlieir r(>t)Kdu all the way nmtid the filot>e. /Iflie in. T(i cv^rr anion there Is alweys opposea •0 eqiial rearli'-n. or the mutual aciittn of iwn t'odies upou each other, ire alwnyk tt4)ua], Bud directed to coatranr pototi. meridians on which they are reckoned are all of tho same dimensions. The other great cirote ealled the ecllntte U UlvUed Into twelve parts, called aigni, which bear the nvnn of the constellations through which this circle passes in the heavens, as shall Iw afterwards explained. There are other smaller clrolei whidi run round the earth parallel tn i equator ; these are called parallels of latitude, because, being every where at the same distance from the equator, the latitude of every point eontained in anv one of them Is the same. In this manner are artihcial glolws and maps of the world, and of particular countries, formed. A globe, or ge- neral map of the heavens, may also be constructed, and the stars laid down in their proper situations. This is called uranopraph^^ from two Greek words, uranoty the heavens, and praphoM, to write ; this sub- ject will be afterwards treated of. In geography, it is necessary to take notice of the parts of the earth's surface occupied bysea and land, the configuration of the latter as broken Into mountain and valley, and also the changes which its figure undergoes from va- rious causes, such as the action of the sea on the land, lint as these liavn been fullv described in our "Ac count of the (Wobe," No. of this work, we refer the reader to it. MEASDREMEMT OF DEGREES. The earth, we have said, is of a spheroidal shape ; that is, somewhat of an ovaJ. This notion originated in observations on pendulum clocks, which being fiu ted to beat seconds In the latitudes of Paris and Ijou. don, were fouiul to move slower as they approached the eiiuator, at which place It was found necessary to shorten the pendulum about one-elghth of an inch, to make the clock keep proper time. It is well known that the longer a pendulum is, the slower it moves; and heat, by expanding bodies every way, of course in- creases Its length. The first conjecture was, that the error might bo easily accounted for in tliis way, be- cause the heat continually increases as we approauh the equator, where it is greatest. However, Sir I. Newton, and Iluygens, a celebrated Dutch niathema- ^cian, tlHMi^htthe difference much greater than could result from heat alone, and separately they discovered that the earth was flattened at the poles. It is weight which Cannes the pendulum to move; and if weight Iw decreased, it will oscillate slower. Under the head centrifugal force, we have explained the way in which gravitation is affected by it, or, what is the same thing, weight; the latter decreasing as the former Increases. Suppose, then, the earth to revolve upon its axis, the farth(>r bodies are removed from this centre o{ motion, the greater will be their ten- dency tt> fly off. Weight will thus vary at various ai- tttations of Uie earth's surface; in mountain eleva- tions less than on h>w.]yiitg ground ; and at the equa- tor more than the poles; and this has been proved to be the case bv incontestible experiments. Hut still this was not Hutfirieut to account for the dif- ference; mid Sir I. Newton clearly demonstrated, that the distance from the centre of tlie earth ti» tho equa> tor must )>e greater than to either of the poles; in other words, that the earth is heightened at the equa- tor, and flattened at the poles. He finally arrived at the conclusion, that ** the diameter of the earth at the eqiiauir, is, to iu diameter from pole to pole, as ^30 to 221*." It is evident that the measurement of a degree of latitude at various parts of the earth's surface, wa* of es»enti.il importance in determining its exact figure and dimensions. The king of France, at his own expense, ordered the measurement of two degrees, one as near the pole as possible, and the other at the equatorial regiuns. The result ci>nfirmed the calcu- latUHis of Newton. Sinre that tinu', degrws have been frequently measured, jnd calcula'tions made regard- iiit: the earth's figure and magnitude ; and it has been louud that its equatorial diameter is "JU'I-i miiea, and ita pnlur diaiueter 7B1)S miles; the mean being 7U16, ind the differeiue twenty-six mites. M'hat its exact shape is, has never been ac4-urately demonstrated; and all that cau l>e gathered from works upon thi- HulijecL, is, that the earth is iomething more flat at tKe polet t/utn at thefuuator. The flattening is accounted for by supposing that it was originally iu a fluid sutte, lut tlie spheroidal furni is th;it which a fluid body »ould take in revolving upy experiment. Uut lit lilt ermnetuis inipresition Ik* entertained upon thia pninl. Hft.iies arc relatively of the same weight on all parts of the t-arth's surface. A pound of tea, be- ini; weiglied at thn equator and at the poles, on the tejushore and on the top of Chimboraaao, is neither more nor less than one pound v change from beaviiit>ss to lightness as the subaiance that is weighed; ^'| that tltey reniain alw»y» »i ih<- same weight in lelalion ui eacli oUwr. U tfer earili, then, revolves iiuon its axis, the elevated ptiriioiu of iis surface will thus ino\e round ^n\t tiin greuLcsl vclu. tho shhf»f of tho earth, which we have observed is flat I city ; but there Is iin nccasinn to he alarmeil in scaling ar iht* (olea, the degrexf of longitude derreaiie as ne n mountain of any height ; for even at the equ.itor, approach ihvw iu eilhn dirotioi. The ilegnen 'if wheie the ii the ixUf ik iieiUwr or it i« evliient Mntv rhttiitfe h«tAiwt« thnt IS tltc tame itrtii, Uimi> )H>tlllMl« of its ^I'l'ULCBt TJ*1p of any iiuildtng — say St Michael's Tower, in U&mburgh, where a Geriiian philosi^her performed the experiment — moves more rapidly round than the liase; hoiice there is greater centrifugal fonv there. Now, a hall of, say a pound weight, let fall from it, having a greater velocity tt the time it was drnpt than the ba^e of the tower, must move a Iittl<^ more in the direction in which the earth moves, than a plumb-line which is m:ide to strike the foot of the tower; because tlie plumb-line twing lower down, has less impulse eastward. On the other hamL a bull shot perpendicularly into the uir returns to tiic exact spot from whence it departed ; )fecau!«e, however high it may have ascended, it doen not on that account receive any additional impnlu^ eastward, but only retaiuH that which it podsessed whtu tired off.* Miiny additional reaMms might be given, some of wliich will appear in the sequel, but these are quite decisive of the point. It is no argu- ment against th** uarth's diurnal motion that we da uot feel it; fur it U be familiar to every one who has been carried along in the rabin of a ship in smooth water, that neither hit own nor the ship's motion was perceived. Neither does the earth*s motion cause I'odieii to fait from it, or ratlier scatter them about by its centrifugal fiu'ce, because they are held firm til the earth by the power of attraction. Under the liaad " Trade- Wiudn" there will be found a most c< y- iucifig pnKif, if any wiue wanting, of the earth'b rutatory motion. We are. then, fullv entitled tn conclude that the earth has a -nuriwti w »uon upon iu axis, from which evidontiv rekuju> iNi- ricissituck of day and night. Thi» moU«»n. vva.cii t- trom wpm tw east, aoconntn for itu! u|ipHnMt dturnid motion ot ail ttie heavenly boditts ; I^euco tiirv term u* rise and sft by turnii aiTording to their t^rions situations. CIVIL ANi> flil>f:iiAL my. TherwnhMion in performed in twenty.three hours fifty-*« miles per hour; and we do not feel it, liecanse every thin^ around us in the earth and the air is carried along at the Hame time. Thin motion, however, has an effect on the atmosphere, and influeuceii the direction of the trade-winds, as we shall afterwards find. For the ap- pearance of twilight, we are principally iiulobted to the light reflected by the atmosphere ; us, were it not for this, the moment the kun went below the horizon, or edge of the civile uf the earth, we would have com- plete darkness. On the c<'Otrary, while the sun is sinking to a certain distance l>eiow the horizon, his i-ays are projected to a portion of the air visilile to us, from whence liglit is reltected to the earth ; and all that gorgeous array of many-coloured clouds results from the refraction of the rays of light. As we have mentioned the rettective power of the atmosphere, we may also mention anotiier singular and importtuit property which it has, namely, the power of refraction. THE ATMOfPHEHE, AND nElIlACTION OF LIGHT. The atmosphere is that invi»ible fluid called air, which surrounds the earth all round to the height of between forty and fifty miles. This aii'rial ocean, which has the sea and laud for its bed, is considered to beof nearly equal thickness at all parts of the earth's sur- face, but of very unequal density^ the lower portions being much more compact, and containing agreat deal mnro matter, bulk for bulk, than those higher up. This arises from the pressure which tlie under portions ^uHtain from those superimposed upon them. Clouds (which are just thick mists, or particles of vapour drawn together by attraction) float in this thin en- velope of our globe, just as mud doeK in water ; and the greatcHt height to which they rise is aJtout ten miles. The atmosphere is subject to great fluctuations, of the uuture of waves similar to those of the ocean. These are well known under the name of winds, for which see below. One property which air possesses enters as a provision to be allowed for into the nicest culculatioii!i uf astronomy; that is, its power of refracting the ray$ uf lighty or bending them from the RtraigfatJforward course which tliey would other- wise take. M'hen a ray of light proceediug from the sun, moon, or a star, enters the upper regions of the air, it does uot descend iu a straight Hue to the eye of the spectator, but takes an oblique path. It is a law of optica, that light pas-sing from a rare to u dense fluid or substance, such as water or oil, and called technically a medium, is b«ut to the denser niedium. Now, iliere being something ap> prouchiiitf to a vacuum, that is, a place destitute of auy natter whatever, beyoud the atmospheric region, when the beam of light peuetrates the compai-atively dense medium of theair, it is of course twisted from its rectih- uesr course to one nearer a perpendtvuiar to the aciM/i ■>/ the observer. Hence, all the heavenly bodie» f^^i«mr higher than they really are; and tito ueaivi ttwv are to tlie iiorizon, the greater will bv Ute r«tnK-«K»u or differcnct: between their appanuK smI Irue atfutudes. At noon tlie refrac4MMi is the (wna, TW aun and the moon appear ol *b oval l^puw SMMMliaw near the liorixun, by reason oit refrttcbion, for tlM> under side being more rel'racL»d 01 raiied than tttt upper, the verti'ul diameter will i»e 1n» then tW nwiaont&i one, whi.;h renuiins oiiultered. Tbia^ ^^wtfver, is not the reaKon »l the dilat^^d siae wbiuii ibe huh and mtNin assume iicir the horiiou ; this is a mere liluaiou ol the Judgment, arising from the proximity of these bodlM to terrestrial objects, with which they are tlius brotight into close comparison. Insulated in the boundfeM expanse of skv, we have no means of valuing their magnitudes, which are hence underrated, TRADE-WlirDl. V". ids ill general are caused by the heat of^ thiv^iin expanding the air, which becoming thiia J|i£utlkM]hp I'ghter, rises upwards in a current, while colder idr rushes in to supply the place which It has left. Btit two other causes operate in the formation of the trade- winds — the unequal exposure of the earth's surfaoo to the sun's roys, by which it is continually mora heated in one place than at others, and also the rota- tion of the earth from west to east. The sun is con- stantly vertical over some part of the tropics, so that the earth in that quarter has a temperature muoh, ttlmve what obtains in those regions to the north or soiuh of it nearer the poles. Hence two currents of ah* are continually flowing to and from either of tha latter, over and above which is the rarifled air of tha equator, and are lielow the cold and dense air uf the poles, which rushes in, according to the laws of hy- drostatics, to occupy the comparative void which haa been left t thus a perpetual circulation is kept up. It is self-evident, that, if there be no disturbing cause, these winds will be simply northerly and southerly; but this is not the case — they are permanently north' easterly and south-easterly winds. The cause is to be sought for in the rotation of the earth. On that point we explained that the equatorial regions were whirled round with greater velocity than the polar. Now, aa any thing upon the surface of the earth just has the same motion as the earth at anyplace where the object is situated, columns of air setting in from the north and south pules towards the equator, will come into con- tact with regions travelling a great deal faster than themselves ; and unable all at once to acquire this new velocity, they are left behind the general movement, or rather they are partially impelled to follow a nenr direction, and from being south and north become north- east and south-east winds. Their easterly tendency di- minishes OS they approach the equator, where it is lott altogether; and, besides, the two currents there meet and mutually destroy each other. The result is the production of two great tropical belts : in the northern one a north-easterly, and the southern a south-easterly wind, always prevails, while between them there is an equatorial belt, where the winds are comparatively free from any particular tendency like the others. Tha south-west and westerly gales which prevail in our latitudes, and the universally westerly direction of the North Atlantic winds, are due to tne heated air which flows from the equator. It is evident that the drag which the polar winds hang upon the earth and atmosphere will have a tendency to retard the motion of the former u{Mm its axis, but, on the other hand> the upper .vinds which blow from the equator have a tendency to accelerate the earth's rotation, and thua an equilibrium is maintained. What wisdom, what de»> 0^ isapparentinthosethings, which at brst would appear only irreguUrities of nature \ In fine, we may leniark, that the direction of the trade-winds afforde another proof of the diurnal motion of the globe. ANNUAL MOTION OF THE EARTH. The annual motiou of the earth will be readily ad- mitted after its daily rotation has been granted ; for either the earth moves round the sun in a year, or else the sun revolves round the earth in that time— a supposition which is at total variance with the lawa of matter and motiou. To conceive uf the tun as re- voiviug roimd the earth, would be to suppose that Uus lesser body had the greater power of gravity, wbich is cimtrary to nature and fact. Attraction is invari- ably in proportion to the quantity of matter; and as the sun very greatly exceeds the earth iu siae, it must follow, therefore, if there be auy consistency in the laws of uiture, that the earth moves round the sun. It is also evident that its motion is from vest to eaai; for if the siui be observed to rise with any fixed itar near the ecliptic, or line in^whioh the earth revolves rouud the kuu, in a few days it will appear to the east- ward of that star, and in the course of a year it will arrive at tlie same star again. But a direct proof of the orbital motion of tiie earth is aflPort • by the ab- lieration of light, for which see below. The earth is at a mean distance ~A>rni» its revolu- tioii round him iu a slderol ye:i:. «hich Is 3tf5 days 6 hoursMminutes 1 1 seconds, meHi^ ••oiar time. The earth travels at the rata of (Ul,UtMt miteK per hour. Besides this motiou, which is comiAoa to all the inhabitants of the earth, those at the equat4>r are carried 1042 miles ei'ery hour by thediurnal revidntfnn of theeartli uptm lU axis, while those in tlie parallel of l^ondon are car- ried only about <(4-l miles per Irnur. The earth's orbit IN nnt a circle, but an ellipse, the sun being situated in otM> of the toci, timt is nnt in tiie centre, hut near one tjt' the ends of the oval-.ihaped figure, a discovery which was made by Kepler, a celebrated (ierman ns- tronumer. Neither 4immi ^e earth go round the sun in aa uptight or paeiwndtvulur position ; ^ axis is slanting or oblique. Tiie degree 01 obliquity is 23" 28', The points it which tlie ecliptic eutu the equator, are called ntt^ett : the }H!riod of timu at which it does this, diem)uiiioxe«(a Imtin temi, !iignifyiiig equal nights, lor thedayi and nights are then of eqnm length aliover the world), in couseqtienitf of thit obliquity, during r CHAMBETISS INFORMATION FOR THE PKOPI.K. oue MitiiltUn earth's mil rM> the iKirih polu iiturii0fl lt>- wardiiheiun, mid theiu«thi«diirk;Bnd(i(i ring another part of iu coums the toutli jMiIe is turned to the luii, ttnd the north Ii dark; and thin \t the cauK uf the dftferenc« of leasoni, which will bo better underortion of his rays will shine on any particular 8|K>t of the Tiorthcrn hHlf of the globe, and the periixi uf day, or sunlight, will exceed that of darkness by the propor- tion of the light and shade parted in the circle of thu earth. It will be observei], uIm). thut within the cir- cle of the north pole, the sun will shine continually as the earth rtvolves on its axis, or, in short, to the inbabitaMts of that part of the globe the sun will never set for several numths. M'lien the earth has prmccd- ed on to D, one-half of its annual course is tinishcd, .•or this it the spring equinox, or equal day and night. At C, again, the earth has arrived at our longest day in summer, when tho axis in turned to the sun, and the regionH around the pole are in the light for a greater period, while darktietis, or night, prevails for m less. It will be seen, too, that now the polo and circle anuind it revolve in perpetual light; or to ihe inhabitants of that region, the sun never sets for tome months, but they have one Ciintinneil and un- interrupted day. At the other, oi' south pole, the same changes take place, only matters are reversed — there it is summer while we have winter, and the win. ter of the north pole is the summer of the south — In the middle regions nf the earth, or around the equa- tor, the sun's plac* does not suffer a very great change; and, accordingly, there the beat is nearly of the tame intensity all the year through ; and 'the length of their dnyi and nights is nearly equal, or nearly the same as at the periods of the equinoxes. But the orbit in which the earth travels round the sun Ii not an exact circlet it I", fts we have alrrndy mentioned, an ellipse, and the sun is placed near one tfnd of it, «K at the small circle and letter S. In con- sequence of this circumstance, the sun is mucli nearer ns at one period of the year than another, and this hnp- pent incur winter; accordingly, the sun appears abitut one-thirtieth part larger in J^tuiary than in June, But in proportion as the e«rth approaches In her or- bit the sun, her motion it quickened, and she passes OTer the winter half year in nearly eiglit days* less time than the summer. It is principally from this eircumstancie, as »'ell as the ihtirter periiKl of the dav, that although the sun l»e nearer us in winter, and, consequently, his power of imparting' heat greater, -yet the ><"ual ouantity imparted is. on the whole, much > - '< the one seaiMm than the other. U'e haT* • tt* north p -itready shown, that, aa the earth approaches the ^mh, her motion i attraction, or eentripelal fort^, compenaaten for the increased ten- drncf nf the earth to tte drawn lA the sun ; nay, more, it overcomes it for the time Iteing. It dor« not, how- ever, overcome it so much ss to cany tiM planet ntT at a tangent, but iutt to an extent si:thrient to take it a little farther away from the sun, as it appears at B. It in by the unerrni|; operation nf the aanw laws, that the earth, at its apbelioit in ite opposite extremity of the ellipw, instead ui going Ix-Yond tlie aun's at- traction aluigether, is made to twtid m its course, and move rinind it la a curve; for, aisfaoitgh gravity l>e there laaat, centrifuge is also there leaat. Thus, tfiese two grand powers of nature go on incmasing and de- crvasing at equal rates, aud acting coMinually as rau- tnal checks upoit each other. ludsed^ tlie verv cause whtcb augmenu the one, lucreaaea the other likewise, snthat. error or derangement is impossible. Perhaps there is uuUuug in the whole system of the universe to grand yet b in design, and mi rtficient in operauon, its this law. We may observe, that th«- earth is nearer tlie sun wtieii in jieriholion, than in aphelion, by somewhat mure than three mil- liuna of ABBIKATinw op LIGHT. Althofi({h the most convincing proof of the earth's avhiu) motion is not to be found in any rirrumsunce «I whkh the senses can lake immediate cognisance, 164 but is afforded by the lull devetups/neiit of the pU- netarv system, there is, however, one direct proof of it ill a pnenomeuon discovered by Bradley, an ittustrlous astronomer. It is calleil the aberration of light, and is manifested by a small difference between the ap. parent and true places of a star, occasioned by the motion of light combined with that of the earth in its orbit. Vision, it is well known, arises from rays of light procet'ding frotn any object, and entering the eye ; and we see the object in the dlrecliuu in which the rays have cnmo. If both thu limly giving forth light and that one whiuli receives it be at rest, the former will be seen in its true place, at least in so far as alterration is concerned ; but let either of the bodies move, and this will nut be the cuxe. In order to ren- der this plain, suppose a shower of liail to full perpen- dirutarly upon a number of tubes-~siiy the pipes of un ortfun ; if tnc organ remain stationary, the hailstones will tiescend sheer from the top to the bottom without any deviation right or left ; but move the organ iu any direction, and they will strike the side opposite ti> the direction in which the mutton is made. Now, it is just in tltis way that the eye misses the perpen- dicular ray, and, meeting nn oliltque one, receives an impression that the star lies in that direction. The oliject thus appears displaced, and tho amount of dis- placement is aderratioru The earth travels at the rateof about nineteen miles per second, and therefore is every instant changing its direction. Time is also occupied by light in traversing space, which it does at the amaxing rate of 1U*J,Uniimers. The olTect of aberration is to make a star apparently de- scribe a small ellipse in the heavens, in the centre of which it would bo seen if the earth were motionless. The ivader must carefully distinguish between aber. ration and refraction ; their effects am the same— - namely, to displace the ray -projecting object — but they prvtceed from very diffii'ient causes. Besides these corrections which astronomers have to make in their calculations, there is another, resulting from what is culled parallax, which may be as well introduced in this place. The word parallax, in its general signification, de- notes change of place; but in astronomical books it has a conventional meaning, and implies the difference (tf apparent positions of any heavenly luminary when viewed from the surface of the earth und from its centre. Thu centre of the earth is the general station to which nil astronomicul observations are referred ; the situation of a heavenly body, observed from the surface of the earth, is called the apparent place; and that at which it would be seen from the imaginary place of (disorvation at the centre of the earth, the trite or mean plaoe. Hence the altitudes of the beivenly )»odies are depressed by parallax, which is greatest at the horixnn, and decreases as the altitude of the object increases. This may be rendered very plain, by supposing that two persons placed individu- ally at t)ie end of a straight line, look at a candle re- moved at, say, 100 yards* distance from them. It is evident that tlio burning body will appear to lie pro- jected upon the wall uf un apartment, or any other backgrtfund, at very diffierent {Hisitions to each of the spet tators. The angle which this diff'ercnce of posi- tiuu makes, is simiUr to parallax. The farther they remove from the light, allowing them still to re. main at the saiiie distance from each other, the mure obtuse the niiglu would become, aud the less the pa- rallax. Thus, the fixed stars, being so far removed from us, when \iewed from any two positions U(iun the earth's siirfictt, are Keen at the same place upon (he celestial sphere, and hence have no perceptible p.ir.illax. It IS different, however, with the lumi- naries brtongiiig to our system, and by this means astronomers have been enauled to estimate the quan- tity of space whivh sep.iriites u\ from them. For a complete acci'unt of the- moans by which this is ac cfimplished, «-e m^'St refer the reader to more elaborate treatises thai) i\h- jiresent A general and correct enough idea of it may tie formed from the familiar ex- ample we have given. In the same manner, suppose tno observers, one in the northern the other in the nonthem hemisphere, at stations on the same meri- dian, observe on the sanu' day the meridian altitudes of the Bun*s centre. *' Htiving thence derived the ap- fiarent zenith distances," says Sir J. llersche), whose anguage would be depriv4'd of clearnrss were it abridged, " and cienre^l them of the effects of refrac- tion, if the distance of the sun were equal to that of the fixed stars, the sum of the xenith distances thus found would be precisely equal to the sum of the lati- tudek north and south nf the places of observation ; fur the sum in question wouhl then be equsl to the meridJanal distance of t)ie stations across the equator. But the etfert of tlit* ]>arnllax Iteing in both cases to incrtnui! the apparent r^nith distances, their observed sum will be greater than tlie sum of the latitudes by tho whole amount of the two parallaxes. 'I'liis angle, then, IS obtained by subducting the sum ol the lati- tudes fnmi that of tlie zenith distance ; an<< this once determined, the horizontal parallax is easily found, by dividing the angle so determined by the sum of itiu signs of the two lntitudi>s." It nmy be observed, that the angles are determined by means of very nice in- strnments. Tlie parallax thus obtained in called the tiailff or gen — whcu ho returns to the samu equinox at which lie was before; when he returns to the same point in his orbit, or the ecliptic ; and when, being In perigee (least distance from the earth), or apogee (farthest distance from the earth), he comes back to either again; or, which is the same thing, when, hav- ing been at a given distance from any of these polntS) he returns to the same point with respect to them. Koch of these may be said to lie a <'eaking, it is a revolu- tion of our own earth round hiin), and a revolution tiius performed is culled a year. The first and short- est is the equinoctial, solar, or tropical year ; for hii lime of returning from tropic to tropic, they being si- tuations holding the same relation to thu equinox for the time being, is obviously the same as that from equinox to equinox. The value of this year Is 36IV days 6 hours 411 minutes nearly. But although the earth has thus returned to thu samu equinox, It hat not made the entire circuit of its urhit, but must tra- vel a little farther to arrive at the same point it was in a year before. This arises from a backward move- mentoftheequinoctial point. (See " Precession nf the Kquinoxcs.") Tbesecondisthesidoralyeor, which con- sists, as we said Iwfore, of UOO days (1 hours U minutes 1> seconds 6, reckoned In mean solar time, or a dap more^ reckoned in slderal time. Here, then, there la a remarkable difference lietween solar and sideral time, which requires explanation. If the reader will recollect what was sui tiiues round upon its axis; and had it uo other motion, there would lie as many days in a year. After the earth or sun has completed a sideral year, before it can finish an anomalistic year it must describe a far- ther arc uf U" 8 to arrive at its original position ia perihelion, thu latter having moved forward to that amount. In so doing it occupies 4' 30" 7, which must b« added to the sideral period, making the anomalistic year 3CSdays6 hours 13 minutes 40 seciuids3 in length. All these periods have their uses in astronomy, but the one in which mankiud are most particularly interested is the tropical year, or that on which the seasons depend, und which is a compound phenomenon depending chiefly and directly on the annual revolution of the earth round the sun, but subordinately also, and In- directly im its rotation round ita own axis. MKASUREMCHT OF TIME. Although the nideral dav, from Its uniformity, Is well aeapttd for astrommiirWl purposes, yet it is scarcely sutlicienth- marked for the ordinary wants of life. No person btitan astrononrer ever attends to the culmina- tion <•! a ftiar ; on this aronint, the diurnal return of the sun to the same ateridian has been universally adopted as the nieaure of time ; and tliis is called a eirxi liajf, Alost nai^asis reckon the beginiilngof their day from midnight, ^ut astronomers count from noon to ntMin. The day thus determined is called the as* tronnmical or stdar day, and, being regulated by the true motion ot the sun, the time which is measured by it is called true or apparent time. Two causes con- spire to render astnmomical days unequal : first, the variable veha^ity of the sun in his orbit, and, second, the obliquity of the ecliptic A mean astronomical day, which is independentof any causesof inequality, has been oltiiiTied by axtronnmers intniducing into the system two imaginary suns. These two fictitious bo- dies are supp^ised to move uniformly, the first in the eidintii;, the second in the equatiir; and as the circlet iirt^ hoth equal, the actual motion of each of the bodiet is equal. To those desirous of studying thi:^ part of the subject, WK would recommend them to p*iruse the article AMiruuomy in the new edition of tliu Encyclopsdia Bri- tannica, pageTVi^i where it is well illustrated. Thecor- rection oi equation, by wliich iipparunt time is reduced to mean time, is technically called t\m equation t^f liinf. There are tinly four days in iliu year when the appa- rent and nienn time are tliusame, and the equator of time iii'thing. In the interval between thu first and sm-uiid uf these, that t«, Becemler 24th and April tOth, aud, again, in that bctwiMin Uie lliird und fourth, that A POPULAR VIEW OF ASTRONOMY. It, June Ifith mid September 1st, the apparent is aU wayii later than the mean time, ur the clock In before the sunt In the other interval)! which complete the year, the rere me is the case, and the clock Is after the sun. The greatest difference between solar and true time amounts to between Hfteen and sixteen minutes. Tables of uqimtion are constructed fur the purpose of correcting the ditfercnues. With regard to terrestrial tfme-kecpers, we have clocks, chronometers, clepsydras, and hoitr-glasses : the two former are now all that are in use in a.-lro- nomy. The pendulum clock and Imlance-watch has been so improved and reHned, as to constitute it em- phatically n chronometer (from two Greek \/ords, sig- nifying to measure time). To such a degree of per- fection hiiTO tliese instruments now been brought, that they do not vary more than a few tenths of a second in twenty.four hours. But the ttest of these must bo corrected liy those means which nature has afforded. The fractional parts of time only are measured liy cloekj; nature counts out for ns whole days; and hence, aitronomers correct the errors of their clocks, by the transit (or passage over the meridian of an ob- server) of a bright fixed star, which is always equal. The subject of dialling we have not limits to enter upon. THE CALENDAR. It Is obviously necessary, for many purposes, not only of chnmotogy and hikt'iry, but even of every-day convenience, to have the means of dividing time into definite periods of considerable length, The moat obvious period to adopt is that which comprehends the natural plu-iiomena of tlie seasons; seed-time and harvest, summer and winter; iind all these are in- cluded in an equinoctial year. It is the position of the sun, with re^^ard to the etiuinox, which determines the character of the season ; and in hi^ passage throtigh his whole round, from one equinox to another, he occasions the vicissitudes of the seasons, no matter what time he takes to it. This revolution, there- fore, has been adopted as the unite of long duration by all civilised nations, and is termed emphatically n yeati or the civil year. It is evident that great In. convenience would result from the year not com- mencing with the begiuning of a day, which, from there being odd hours in the year, would happen, if the leogth of the civil year were not fixed in some de- finite manner. In this consists the adjustment of the calendar; and many attempts have I>een made, at dif- ferent times and in various countries, to establish an nccurate and complete one. It is unnecessary to enu- merate here all those which Mong to distant ages; but there is one we must notice, famous alike by the celebrity of the individual under whoso auspices it was made, and as being, besides, the groundwork of the adjustment now used. The Roman calendar had fallen Into great confusion, tJu-re Iniing no regular method of i-orrectlng it, utitil the time of Julius Cnsar, who, perceiving that the year was longer than 3G5dnys by neiirly six hours per' annum, added a day every fourtli year to the calendar. It is evident, how- ever, that this was too nuich, becauno the difference is only fivr hours, forty-eightminutes, andodd seconds; so that, .iiultiplying these by four, they do not make a day in four y»'ars. The error began to accumulate to such an extent, that the derangement of the sea- sons was perceived by everyone. Accordingly, Pope Gregory theThirteenth, in 1^>(^J, reformed thecalendar, by cutting out ten days, and calling the5thof Octot>er the I9th. It was also provided, that, in future, the intercalary day should at certain lutervals be omitted. As the excess is obout one day in 130 years, it amounts to rather more thaji three days in -IIK) year? ; and, accordingly, it was ordered that the centenary years, 17(H), KMM), mid IfKM*, tlumch according to the Julian correction bissextiles, should not be coiisidered leap years; the intercalary day should not be inserted ; but inserted irt the year'JOOi), not inserted in 2100, 2200, and 2H0I), and so on, for 8ucree degrees of longitude in a year. When any other celestial object has the same longitude as the sun, he Is said to be in conjunction with him ; and when the difference of longitude amounts to IMO", half the circle of the heavens, it is said to be in nfim. sition to him. Both these terms are comprehended In that of syzygy, which, when applied to any celes- tial object, means that it Is either in conjunction or opposition to him. What is called an equinoctial co. lure, is a great circle supposed to be drawn through the pole of the ecliptic and the points where it inter- sects the equator. The solstitial coture Is a similar eirrle, which passes through the solstitial points ut right angles to it. The former cnlure is a secondary to the ecliptic, and the latter a secondary to both it and the equator. The equinoctial points are Aries and Itlbro, where the ecliptic cuts the equator. The solstitial points are Cancer and Capricorn ; and when the sun is in either of them, he is at his farthest dis- tance above or lielow the equator. Thus, then, bv "comparing things In heaven with things on earth,'' has the stsrry sky been maped out, and the plat observing them from their proper centre of motitm. Several facts regarding tlie planets will strike every nhnerver, that they are exactly circumstanced us the t-arih is with regard to tho lun. They are fouad really to be globetf of a size equal to, and sometimes surpassing, that of the earth. Their distances from us are In a state of continual change, periodically Increasing and deoreaa- ing within prescribed limits, which hat an obvioni relation to tneir elongations from the sun, and not to the earth, as a centre or focus. Lastly, some of them exhibit phases like those of the moon. If we refer their movements to the sun as a centre, all the appa- rent irregularities disappear, and every thing ossumM an aspect of perfect order and beauty. We peroeira a striking resemblance l>etween all the planets — a familv likeness as it were. One influence pervodet the whole of them, one impulse directs their movementi. We shall hercr only notice facts about which there is no dispute, leaving out of view entirely all those Inge* nious conjectures which are calculated to amuse th« fancy rather than to satisfy the judgment. Irf't us, la the first place, attend to the laws by which they are retained in their orbits, which are known in astro- nomy by the name of THE LAWS or KEPLEK. Previous to the establishment of the law of univer- sal gravitatiou by Newton, several great discoveries had been made which cleared the way for it; and amongst the most remarkable and impintant of these, were the laws of the courses of the planets round the sun. These were deduced by Kepler, a great German astronomer, from observations by Tycho Brahe, and are known in philosophy by the name of the I^aws of Kepler. Thev form the basis of the science, and a knowledge of tliem will greatly facilitate a right under- standing of the movements of the planets. The first is, that the planets do not move In circles, as Coper- nicus had supposed, but in ellpses or ovals. The second is, that an imaginary straight line fvom the sun to the planets always describes equal sections in equal times. And the third, and by far the most remarkable, and fraught with momentous results, is, that, in the mo tion of the planets, the squares of the times of revolu- tion are as the cubes of the mean distances from the sun. It is not compatible with our limits to en^cr into any details respecting these laws; it is sufficient to say, that the application of them affords a beautiful explanation of the movements of the bodies composing the solar system. The expression of the third law^ however, requires a slight modification when we come to extreme niceties in calculation, arising from the in- fluences of the masses in the greater planets. The following table shows at a glance the magni- tudes, relative positions, &c. of the bodies which com> . pose the solar system : — O to •— 9^ O fid-ij - 10 ^ «i SjJ C5 i' ^ ft/i « O W CJ ^ -^ W 9 10 *>-1 O to ceo 5* If THE SUN. The mata of this magnificent luminary exceeds that of all the planets which revolve round it put together, eight hunared times. The density of the sun is, how- ever, a great deal less than that of the earth, so that it must consist of far lighter materials, especially when we reflect how much the central parts must be condensed by the force of the immense superincum- bent mass. Hence it has been supposed, that a great beat prevails in its interior, which gives it an elas- ticity suffirieiit to neutralise the effect of this tre- mendous pre>nnre. The extent of solar gravity we have already noticed. The rotatory motion of the sun, which, like that of the earth, is from west of east, has beu*i nsccrtained by means of a variety of dark spots which are discovered by the telescope ou his disc. They lirst appear on his eastern limb, aud« ^ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPI E. 1 H m i I aftar a period of atwut thirteen davti, dimippear in the WMIern. Them ipoU rary both in number, marni. t|^^ tod thape ; lumetimee forty or Afty, and at other IWmta only one or twu, are viiible. Moftt of them have a vary dark nudeuiu or central part, lurrouiided by an umbrof or faint thidow. Some of the Rputi are m large ai woitld cover the irbole coatiiiont of Kurope. We hare already ipoken of the apparent mution of the lun, and ihown that ll results frwu the real move- rnent of the eurth. The tun ii affected by the itttrac- ttve poirer ot the planets, frum which a minuio mo- tion results. These variuut "perturbations'* will he •Kplalned afterwards. From tne observations of 8ir Ifniliam Ilerschel, it appears probable that the sun is a solid and opsone body, surrounded with luioiuous clouds, which (lost in the solar atmosphere, and that the daric nucleus of the spots is the opaque body of the sun appearing through occasional openings in iu at- moephere. Tne temperature at the visible surface of the sun is supposed to lie very elevated ; but bow the enormous conflagration is kept up, if such it really be, there is no sati»ra(-tnry means of aocotinting fur. We hare alre,idy enumerated some of the benefits which we derive from the mn. *' His rays," saysHIr J. Herschel, '* art* the ultimate source of almost every motion which takes place upon the surface of the earth" — we may ndd, and that of every other planet in the svstem, of which he is the aetitm verb. It is by his heat, as ve hare seen, that winds are pro- dnced, that vapour is exhaled into the atmosphere, from whence it descends in showers to fertilise the soiL In a word, by the efficiency of the sun, the ele- ments of matter have imparted to them that vital enerffv by which they are enabled to go through their endless rotation of exititence^ and per{>etuate tne mul- tiform vitrietieK of organic life which people the globe. About the months of April and May, after sunset, or at the opposite months of the year before sunrise, there is a curious phenomenon observed, called the MOdiacai light. Extending frum the horizon obliquely upwards, and following generally the course of the sun's equator, there is to l>e seen at these times and seasons a faint stream of light, and of a conical shape. It Is supposed to lie a thin lenticiilarly formed atmo- sphere, which surroumls the sun, and certainly extends wvond the orbits of Mercury and Venus; but any thin^^ more definite regarduig it has no: benn ascer- tained. In his apparent motion among the stars, he is said to enter such and such a sign, at such and such a definite period of the year. These signs are con- stellations belonging t*) the zjdiac, a region uf the heavens which we hare more than once mentioned, and one to which we shall hereafter frequently refer, so that an account of it is necessary before we pro- ceed farther THC ZODIAC. The word codiao is derived from the Greek, and signifies animals ; the region uf the heavens to which it refers has been so entitled, because its various di- risions hare been named after animals. It is an ima- ginorjf ring, or broad circle, in the firmament, in the form of a belt or girdle. It extends eight or nine degrees on each side of the ecliptic, which runs thr.mgh or round the middle of it. It is divided into twelve parts, each of thirty degrees, called the signs of the zodiac. The names of the signs, and the days in uhich the sua enters them, are as follow: — Spring iigru — Aries, the Itam, 31st of .March ; Taurus, the Hull, lilih of April ; Gemini, the Twins, 2er; .Scorpio, the Scorpion, 2.'id ofOcto)>«rt SttgittariuK, the Archer, 22d of Novem. I>er. WinUr tiyn* — Capiceruus, the Uoat, 2lsi of December ; Aquarius, the Wator-ltcarur, 20tlt of January; Pisces, the Fishes, IDtli of Fel)rtiury. These are called southern ■'K'^^ Within the xodiac tire performed the rerolutituts tif all tlie principal planets. The accounts given of the fcigns of the xudiac, and of the constellaiioUK, aie cuntnidictory, and involved iu fable. It is conjecinred, however, Uiat they huve re- ference to the leasons uf tiie year, and are a hierogly- phical representation of ihi' charucteriRties of each muntlt. Thus tlie sprint; signs were distinguished for the production of thtise animals whii^h were highlv esteemed, such as sheep, hi u:k tttlje, and goats ; the latter, l>eing the most proliiic, uere represented by the twins. When the sun enters Cancer^ he changes his Tiiurse backwards, and this letrograde motion was typilied by the crab, whidi apparently goes back, wards; and so on with the other signs. The ooiutel- lationi to the north of the aodiac aj-e called northern consurlUttuns, and those on the smith of it, southern consteliatiotui. 'J'hey are named iu the samtf fanciful manuer tis Uie xodtauil signs. The whole cuuateila- tions amount to between ninety and a hundred in number. With regHrd to the sun's entering the itodiwal signs, some itiiport:tut particulars nill be found under the head ^' rrecessutn oi the f>)uinoaes." THI: MCOK. Next to the sun. the m»K»ti i^ to the inliabitants of the earth the mn^t rem^irkable and importHnt of all the heavenly tmdies. The menu hnrizontiil paraHax of the niMnn is T*1' W ; !■•' 't her mt-jui distiuiee from 106 the earth 336,84? miles. Like the sun, the moon ad. ranees in the heavens in a motiuu contrary to that of the stars. NotwithsUnding the vast distance she is from us, it is little more than one-fourth of the sun*s diameter, and the glolw of that magnificent luminary woulu nearly twice include the whole orbit of the moon ! It has various motionsras a secondary planet, it rerolres round the urth, which is iU primary. Along with the latter, R revolves round the sun, and it has a rotatory nioti the time which elapses between two new moons, or two conjunctions of the sun with the moon. It hap- pens that iu revolution upon Its axis is performed in the same time as its revolution round the earth, so that the same side of her orb Is «ilways presentetl to the Utter planet. Although tlie moan's rotation on her axis is uniform, her motion in her orbit is not so, and we are by this means enabled at limes to obtain a peep of the equatorial portions of her eastern and western sides. Her axis, eXm, Is not perpendicular to her orbit, and a small part uf each of her poles alter- nately becomes visible. These phenomena are known by the name of /jfrra/ionjof the moon, and they are of two distinct kinds, the lesult of different causes. The moon being the nearest to ns of all the bea«enly bo- dies, by the aid of teleHCo|>es we have been enabled to examine her more minutely than any of the other planets. In the first place, great ineuualities are dis- covered on her surface, which are evidently caused by mountains and rallies. That mountains of consider- able height exist, is certain, from the ja^ed appear- ance which the illuminated edge of the moon presents, and from their casting long black shadows on the plains. The height of these elevations has, from mea- surements, been ascertained tobealHmtuueand three- quarters Kuglish miles. These mountains are very numerous, occupying by far the larger portion of the surface, and are almost universallv of a circular cup- shaped form, with fiat bottoms. Many of those with broad bases have a high conical summit, exactly cor- responding u the form of vokanic mountains on the evth. Indeed, in some of the principal ones, decided appearances of successive deposits or layers of ejected matter, may Iw clearly traced. Dr Herschel more than once saw vulcanok burning with great violence in the moon. Nothing corresponding to the appear- ance of oceans or large sheets of water is discernible in the moon, although there are large portions of the sur- face perfectly plain and level ; neither has the moon any clouds or indications of an atmosphere. PHASES AND ECLIPSES OF THE UOOK. The phases and eclipses of the moon depend upon the position which she is in with re^i" i to the L-urth and sun. At new moon, this body i a direction Itetween the sun and the earth. As * .gradually re- volves in her monthly orbit, she receti. - from this po- sition, until she comes to the first quarter, when she is half illuminated, or seen with oue-iialf of her face turned to the sun; another quarter's udvance brings her to a position optunite to the sun, when his beams shine full on her disc, and it t>ea>mes full moearance is often witnessed at new nuN>n of the faint illumination of the remaining part of the disc, or the new mtton is said to have the old ia its arms. This atises from the strong refiected liftht sent from the earth. The uiidom and Ifeneficeiue of the Deity are strik- ingly displayed in the economy of moonlight, as dis- tributed to our glolw during vartoui ^eHsons of the year. The remarkable phenomenon of the harvent moon i^ familiar to every one. Dnrin}^ the time that our satellite is full, and for a few days before and after, in all almut a week, there is less difference l)e- tweeu the time of her rising on any two surressive nights, than when she is full in any other month of the year. By this means, an immediate supply nf light is olftained after sunset, so Ifeneficial for gather- ing in the fruiu of the seaums. To conceive of this phenomentm, it must !« recollected that the moon is always oppinite to the sttn when she is full ; that she is full in the signs Pisces and AHes, these being the signs opposite to Virgo and Libra, which the sun pa»Mni tnroiigh in Seplfniber nnd (>t'tol>er, onr har- vest months. Thus, although, whenever the mtMm enters the two fornicr signs (imd she rioes so twelve times ill a year), the same rircume nearly covered, in August 19, 1887. The eclipses uf some of the satellites are of great Importance in astronomy, and will be noticed wheu we come to speak uf these bodies generally. TIDES. The ebb and flow of the sea evidently result from the attraction which the moon exercises over the earth. The land is as much attracted as the water; but tha cohesion of solids prevents their parts from being af» fected as those 4>f fluids are, which easily yield to the force of gravity; and, in consequence of this, th« waters immediately below the motm are drawn up in a protu Iterance, producing a full tide, or high water, at the place where it hsppens. So far all is perfectly simple. But since the earth only turns once upon her axis during the twenty-four hours, and, in conse- quence, can only, in the same space of time, show any meridian of her surface to the moon no more than oneti or, in other words, that any individual purtioa of the sea is once under the influence of the moon's attraction in the course of a day, how comes it, then, that there are two full tides in that time ? — and, what is still more singular, how d(»es it happen tliat our antipodes should have high water at the very same time as ourselves ? The opposite tide is rather mor« difficult to explain than that which Is drawn up under the moon, and yet it admits of a perfectly satisfactory explanation. IjCt the reader suppose placed before him a glo1»e, uf a foot diameter, wnich is for the pr»> sent destitute of any attraction but that uf the partidea for the centre of the one-foot globe. On the outside of this sphere, there is a fluid, such as water, which is ^ae inch thick all ronnd. Bring another globe, of similar dimeiisions, within two feet of it, at whidi distance we shall suppose the latter has the power of attracting the former; the point atuacted is, for the moment, say the north pole, that dlrectlyupposlte belnf the south jHile. Now, at this vanishing north pole, the waters are heaped up by the attractive power of the last introduced globe, say to the depth of one and a half inches. A little farther on either side of the point where the watermen circled globe is nearest to the other sphere, the deptli will l>e less, say an inch ; because the attraction must tliere be less, for the force uf the latter always decreases according to the disuiice. As the latter increases, the former loses its Intensity, and the depth l>ecomes less and less, until we arrive at tliat part which is equi-distant from either pole (cor- responding to tlie equator), where it is least. Still, however, the attraction is greater there than at the south pole, where it evidently muFt be smallest. But, observe, it is not the irnter alone that is attracted, it is the xnhoie globe; no that the latter is drawn away from one extremity of its moveable Kurface, and thus leaves a ]irotuberaiice. The tide at the point most strongly attraoted is produced by the waters receding from the earth ; at the opposite side, it Is the earth fleeing or receding from the waters. The earth is coiitinnally/ eftch other, we hare neap or imall tldef. The iprlng tidni happen twice a-month, when the moon ii at full and at ooange ; and the neap, when the moon U 00' from the lun. The reason of the tidei being ahout tiiree-quarten of an hour iBter, li, that.the earth takes that time altove the twentr-four hours in bringing any given meridian again oeneath the moon. The tIdM are thus retarded for the same reason that the moon rises three-quarters of an hour later e 'f>r/ day. It is evident that the tides will be grea' .dt at that point of the earth's surface which Is neiiren to the moon) or where the latter Is rertlcal. She Is so at the torrid lone ; and, accordingly, the tides are there greateit, and they diminish as we approach either poles. The moon Is not vertical to any given spot where high water may be, because, as tne earth re- volves from west to east, the waters of the deep have u motion In that directum, and, by the law of inertia, formerly explained, hare a ttulbornruts to resist any charge. Tne waters, therefore, do not immediately gh-e way to her attraction, and the effect is not com- plete till three hours after she hai passed the meridiau, ivhen it is full tide. Twice a-year — namely, in March and September — the tides are higher than at other times, because then the attractions of the sun and moon are the strongest. A number of causes con- nected with the relative position of luud und water conspire to disturb the regularity of the tides ; but u detail of these we have not spare fur. The inllueniu of the sun and moon, also, produces a minute tide In the atmosphere. THE OTHEE LUMlMAftlES OF THE BTSTBU. Some of the peculiarities of thf inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, we have already noticed. The intense brilliancy of the latter luminary precludes oh> ■arrers from dlscarning any thing distinctly. A uni- form brightness, however, can be perceived, and neither moimtains nor shadows similar to those per- ceptible in the moon. These two planets perform their circuit as attendants upon the sun. They are •ometimes seen to the east of it, when they appear just after sunset in the west as crMnin^ stars; and tometimes to the west of it, when they appear before the rising of that luminary as mominff stara. Mar»t however, exhibits a different aspect. Seas and continents can be distinctly traced ; the former are greenish, and the latter of a ruddy hue; In both cases the colour no doubt arises from that of the re- flecting surface. An atmosphere of some extent has a'.ao been ascri)>ed to it, and a whitenexs at its poles has led some to conjecture, and with a degree of pro- babilitv, that snow is by no means a phenomenon. Jupiter Is a remarkable planet, being furnished with four satellites, which revolve round him aa the moon does round our earth. A series of dark Iwlts cross his disc In one direction, which never changes, smd is parallel to the equator of the planet It Is sup. posed that they are the opanue body of the planet ap- pearing through tracts of clear skv. The figure of Jupiter, as wo formerly observed, is spheroidal, like that of the earth, and it has been calculated, with a remarkable degree of correctness, that, comparing its oblatiiiess at the poles with that of the earth, it ex- actly corresptmds with the dimensions of the planet^ and the immense rapidity of its rotatory motion. maturn. — This is probably the most interesting of all the planetary bodies. He has no less than seven moons revolving round him, and is more«)ver sur- rounded with two broad. Bat, extremely thin rings, nearly of a circular fbrm, both lying in one plane, and separated by a very narrow interval from each other throughout tlieir whole circumference, but at a oonsiderable distance from the boily of the planet it- self. An idea of them may Iw formed from tlie en- graving on the tirst page, entitled Saturn. Kound the outer edge the exterior ring measures one hundreil and seventy-six thousand miles; the interval between the body of the planet and the interior ring Is nine- teen thousand miles; the interval Iwtween the two rings nearly eighteen hundred miles, while their thickness Is about one hundred miles. The ring is known to be a solid opaque substance. Saturn exhi- bits the appearance of an atmosphere, with belts run- ning parallel to the supposed equator. The rings have a revolution of their own around this planet, and with nearly the same rapidity as his daily revolution, and the adjustment of form and velocity must l>e nicely balanced, in order to preserve such comparatively thin and fragile bodies from falling in, and becoming part of the planet. It is evident that this catastrophe is prevented by their rapid motion producing a high de- gree of centrifugal force. Uranua was discxivered by Herschel the elder, in 17ttt. This planet presents only a uniformly illnmi- nated disc, without spots, rlngV, or l>eUs. It is at- tended by satellites, two of which are dearly distin> guishable, and it would seem to have six. Cena, Pallas, Juno, and Vesia, the four very small planets discnvpred almut the beginning of this century, are too small in dimensions, and too distant from no, to present any thing remarkable. or THK PLANETS IH OENEKAL. A glance at the tabular view which we have given of the solar system is sufficient to show us, that, as Ht as we may judge, by appearances from the dif- ferent distances at which the bodies composing It aru from their common centre, the sun, some of them must wperianoe a tcorehing degree of heat, and others an 167 extreme of odd, which would hermetically seal up the vital energies of man ; and alto, that what we call wtiffht and Jn#rKa must exhibit, taking tham coUaiv tlvely, as great varlatlas as Umperature. That tha power of gravity at the surface of any given planet will just Iw according to the mau of matter which the planet contains, there can be little roawmable donbt. Hence It has beeojAilculated, that bodies weigh three times more on Aplter than they do on the earth, and at the moon only one-sixth, whUa Saturn Is supposed to consist of materials not much heavier than cork ! But, with regard to temperature, various difficulties present themselves, which preclude US from drawing any satisfactory t-c)ncluiie bound up for ever in chains of **thick.ribbed Joe.** But the fact is, that the manner In which heat is excited upon our own globe is br no means a settled point We know Tery well that heat and light apparently proceed from the sun I but, instead of supposing heat and light to be material liodies lent off from that luminary, may the effect nut be produced by some |>«culiar action which it exercises U|M>n an exceedingly rare ethereal medium, which tills thu void betwixt the planets and sun, and probably exists throughout all space? This appears by far ttie most plausible conjecture that can be formed upon the subject. But even allowing that the sun Is a body in a state of conflaf;Tation, there may be cir- cumstances which modify extreme heat at the surface of those planets very near him, and compensate for the want of it in those far removed from his influence. With r^ard to their being inhabited, all we can say is, that, reasoning from analogy, there is every likeli- hood that they are so. If, upon the earth, there is not a withered leaf which the autumn blast strews upon the heath, but teems with animated existence, we carry reason along with us when we say, that the stars are the abodes of races of beings, whether simi- lar to ourselves or not we cannot determine, and it would be of little moment although we could. or xnE SATELLITES. The earth, we have seen, is attended in her annual circuit round the sun by one satc-lUte, the moon, which revolves round her as a centre. Strictly speaking, both move round a common centre of gravity in an elliptic orbit, the regularity of which is disturbed by their mutual attractions, so that It is undulated or waved, thus, .»<.. The number of undulations in a whole rerolution is, however, only thirteen, so that the deviation from the ellipse is exceeding, ly trifling. Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, are all at- tended by satellites, as we have seen ; and they form, as it were, each of the primaries with its attendant moons, a sort of miniature system, entirely similar in the laws by which they are governed to the great sys- tem to which they all belong, where the sun may be termed the primary planet, and the primary planets the satellites. Their orbits are circles or ellipses of small eccentricity, the primary occupying one focus. Of these systems, thatof which Jupiter forms tliu head, has been studied with the greatest attention. Tlic discovery of Jupiter's satellites by ** the starry Gali- leo,'* was one of the Hrst fruits of the invention nf the telescope, and forms a remarkable era in tlie history of astronomy. From it resulted a solution of the great problem nf the longitude, and the grand discovery of the aberration of light, of which wo have already spoken. It also established completely the Coperni- can system, and contirmed tlie laws of Kepler. The satethtes of Jupiter revolve from west to east like the mo\vn, entirely differ from these. They are callod comets (loma, hair), from the stream uf faint light or uebulosity which frequently attends them. Shooting down front tlie remote regions of space witli inconceivable velocity, and suddenly appearing amongst the mure steady and regular bodies of our system, accompanied sometimes, too, with a luminous tail which flames over many de- grees of the heavens, they are calculated to excite both »error and disnmy. Accordingly, iu superstitious ages. their sudden au4 unexpected app*riUoa was mere tha* once mistaken for the aaaouuoameat of that eataatn»> phe which, w« a-« led lo baUere, is to coosummate the deetinlee of ell tarrettrlal thinga. At flnt, their ap- pearance li small, and their light fheUet aa they ap* proach the sun, their magnlludai and brilliancy increase, and frequently present a magni6oent spec- tacle. Uaving reached tne point of their orbtta nearest the sun, they again recede to enormous dislances, and dlsaDpearlng gradually, at last vanish altogether. With respect to their motions, Instead of bdng oon- flnad to a particular aone, and moving from west to east like toe planets, they range the sky Indifferently in all direction!. The eUlpses in which most uf tham move are so eccentric or ehmgutad as to approach the form of the parabola. They are visible only iu a small |>art of their orbit, which, being that nearest the suit, IS passed over with prodigious rapidity. They seldom continue visible longer than six months. Their nud^ her is entirely unknown; but, during the last ivvii centuries, upwards of 160 have been observed, and their orbits computed. Comets, for the moet part, consist of the head, which is a large and brilliant, but Ill-defined body of light. The centre Is usually brighc, and has the appearance of a vivid nwleuMf like a star. Opposite to tne direc- tion in which the sun is situated from the comet, shoots off the tail, a magnificent appendage, though not au invariable one, consisting of two streams of light, which sometimes unite at a little distance behind- the head, sometimes continuing distinct for a great part of their course. The matter of which comets are com- posed must be extremely light and filmy, as stars are visible through them. For a more particular account of comets, see Chambers's Journal, Nus. 91 and 3S. PERTURBATIONS. The name of perturbations has been applied to those inequalities In the lunar and planetary motion^ which arise from the universaHt\ nf attraction. Thus, not only does the sun attract . c earth, and the earth the moon, hut the latter attrai ts the preceding, and both are again influenced in their movements by the great centre of the system to which they belong. Not only is this the case, but every Individual planet in the system attracts^ and is attracted by, all the rest, al- though certainly In a very trifling degree, when com- pared with that exercisea by the sun over the whole of them. But In those miniature systems, snch as the moon and earth, Jupiter and his satellites, Ac, the perturbations thus arising, though Insensible in short intftrvals, becomempparent when accumulated, and derange the elliptic motions and relations. The calculation of the effects of these disturbing forces is famous in the history of analysis, under the name of The Problem of the Three Bodies. It is so worded, because the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and the Sun, Jupiter, and Saturn, form each separately a system little influenced by the rest. Any thing like an at- tempt to exhibit the method by which these nice cal- cnlatinns are made, is Impossil 'e In this place : of its difficulty, some idea may be formed, when we con- sider, what is apparent to every one, that the situatioMS of the bodies under invcKtigntion aie continually shift- ing their relative distances from each other, and al- tering the intensity of the disturbing force, which evidently nnist materially increase the abstruseness of the calculation. One of the principal effects pro. (tuced on our globe by this play of gravitation is called THE rilECEESION 01' THE EQUINOXES. The equinoctial points we have already explained, are, Aries and Libra, where the ecliptic cuts the equa- tor. They ore also termed nodes, und the liiui which joins the two is called the lino of the nodes. The longitudes of the stars, us has been also observcil, are counted on the ecliptic from the vernal equinox Aries Now, if the line of the nodes is invariable, the longi. tude of the stars will of course remain the same from age to age. But, on comparing the actual state of the heavens with the recorded observations of ancient astronomers, It is perceived that the longitudes of the stars have considerably increased : so that, to explain the circumstance, we miist either suppose thai the whole firmament has moved in the order of (he zo- diacal signs, or else that the equinoctial points have gone backwards, or retrograded westward; since these points depend entirely upon the motion of the earth, which was far more likely to be disturbed by some cause or other, than that' the countless multitude of stars should have a motion relative tu these points. Accordingly, the phenomenon has been explained, by attributing to tliem a retrograde motion from east to tee»l, in consequence of which tne sun arrives at them sooner than if they had remained at rest Hence the equinoxes, spring and autumn, and the other seasons, happen lietore he has completed an entire circuit. This motion, however, is extremely slow, amounting only to a degree in ahout seventy-six years; so that the eq\iinoctial points will t.ike nearly 20,000year» to make uu eutire revolution of the heavens. This mo- tion was kimwn in very ancient tinieii, and its disco- very it, ascribed to llipparchus, who lived aliout 140 years before Christ. The consequence uf this retro- grade movement is, that the sun's place amongst the zodiacal signs, at any season of the year, is greatly dif- ferent fnmi whit it formerly was. The vernal equinox imw happens in the cunsteflation Pisces ; the summer solstice in Gemini ; the autumn equinox in Virgo ; and the winter solstice in Sagittarius. Astronomers, howerer, still cuunt the signs from the vernal equinox. ^' m T CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR^ PEOPLE. which alwftyt cnrmpnntli to tha InMrMotlan uf |h« tcllptlc wUh the Miuator ; and on ihii account It ti nfCMwry earafully to dlitiiiKuUh IwtwMn ihitm. Th* MUM uf pr«c«uiu.i i« «> be fminil In the com- hined action of the tun and moon u|ion the protutw- rant roaaa of matter accumulated at the earth's equa- tor, the attraction of thit planeu being learcely md- lible. The attracting force of the tan and moon upon thia »hflU of matter, ii of a twofold character t one It parallel to the equator, and the other iierpt-ndlcular tu it. Tbtf tendency of the latter force it to diminiflh Che angle which the plane of the equator makes with 4tie ecliptic 1 and were it not for the rotatory motion af the earth, the plann would toon coincide t but by Ihit motion the planes remain constant to each other. The eAtct produced by the action of the force in ques- tion, Is, however, thut the plane of the equator Is cnn- tuntlyi thout()i slowly, shifting Its place in the man. ijlr we have described. MUTATIOir. The action of the lun and moon in producing pre- cession is various, at different periods of the year, ac- cording to the relative distuico of the e;irlh from them. Twice H*yeiu-r tlie effect uf the sun in pioducing it is nothing ; and twice a-year, naoiely, at the solstices, it is at maximum. On no two auooessive days is it alilte, and, conMquently, the ureceasioo of the equi- noctial poinu must be uuequal, and the obliquity of the ecliptic subject to a half-yearly variation j for the sun's force, which changes the obliquity, is variable, while the rotatinu of the earth, which counteracts it, la omstaiit. Ity this means, the plune of the equator is Anbj<>ct to an irregular motion, which is technically called the je/or nuUUipru Its amount, however, is so eiceedin|[ly small, as uot to ba appreciable by uliser- vatiou. That reaulting from the moon's action, how- ever, Is sufBcicntly so, as tn have been discovered by Bradly Itefore theory had indicated its eiistence. Its period depends uptm the revolution of tlie moon's nodes, which is uerformed in 18^ years, and iu about that iwriod of tune the axU of the world describes a ■mall circle in the heavens, BU>ut eighteen seconds in diameter, contrary tu the order of the hiaits. This apparent vibratory motion is denominnted the nuta- ttou of the earth's axis. The twu phenunienn of preoeuioii and nutation are iniimateiy dmnecteil, or rather are conrtituent parts uf tlie same phenu- menuu, and depcndf nt upon the saiia' cause, as no- ticed abuve under Preceuion. It is impuMible heru to enter mure minutely into Ljie subject, or explain it more in detail. For an admirable accoiiut of it, we refer the reader to Herscliel's Treatise on Astronomv, p. U3. We also to the same admirable wurlc would direct the iuquirer for furtlier iuformatiuu upon tlie subject of perturbations, comprising all the compli- cated varieties of motion. In general, they muy Le said ti) arise fnmi the play of Httrut'ttuns kept up by the whule of the planets amongst themselves ; ihey with the sun, and the sun with them ; the diiunccs of the b4>dies fruni each other, whitli are always vary, ing; and ihe masses of mitter. and the shape of the bodies, which are iuvari.il le. In concluding this part of our subject, we mitv remark, that it is by means of the perturbations of those iilauetn which have no sa- tellites, that aKtrononiers have arrived at a knowledge of their masses. Kvery pUnet pr>Kluce» an amount of perturbation iu the mntious of any otliur, propor- tioned tu itn mass, and to the degrett i>f advantage or purchase which its situation in the sy&tem gives it over their muvements. OF THE FIXED STAllS. We have nuw passed in review before ni tlie bodies belonging to our own system, and, lieingmuch nearer us tliun the other luminaries which itud the ethereal vault, .'re more within the range of cor. rect oluervaliou. They, however, form but a very minute portiuu of the surry multitude, which .{M>uule tpace Ui an tjxteut far beyuud the most powerful tele- Kope toembract^, ur even the Imagination to conceive of. The fixed stars, we hare already observed, have been divided into various constellatious or dusters. These, again, are separated into classes, actnrding to their brilliancy, and so un. The brightekt are called stars of the first magnitude, those iiiferiur to them of the second magnitude, and so on, to the sixth or seventh magnitude, which are the imallest vtNihIe to the nakedaeye. Uy the aid of powerful telescu[>efl, however, others a K^cat deal smtller can be detected, and astronomers are familiar with those whose mag- nitudes arc as low as the nixteentli j indeed, no rea- sonable limit can be asnigned tu tlie progression. The classification is wholly a matter of cunvenieiH«, and the lines of demarcation are exceedingly equivocal. Sir William IJerschel, from experiment, concluded the light given by the start uf each of the classes tti be comparatively as follows i~.The hrit magnitude was equal to a hundred, tlie second totweuty-five, the tliird to twelve, tlie fourth to six, and fifth tt> two, and the sixth to one. The son uf that eminent astronomer, iieir to his genius as well as his name, fuund thut tlie It^ht of .^irius, the brightest of all the fixed stars, \v»% 321 times that uf an avera^d star of the slxtli magni- tude. COHSTCLLATIOMS. The Rf-irnre of the constellatiims Is called astrog. ftOiy. The diviki(m of the £Urs into gniups was be- gun in the earliest ages, and, with regard to the wliule nt them, it is sufiicient to mention, that their names ;sro entirely arbitrarv, and that any rcsvinblance which irw they l>ear to the terrene realities Rf*.rr*.r!.!;!. uif> huva l)fen called, is entirely Imadnary. Fur instance, the best known of the conitellations, tbe Oreat Bear, might with equal propriety have lieen denuminuted the great tree, ('liarles's U aln a steanibout, and the plough a cart or horse. However, tlieie fanciful ap- ]>ellations answer the mirpose very well, nnd any por. tlon of the heavens, ||j|ien referred to, can, liy thiii means, be turned up at once like a hiMik that Is pagnl and parographed. t'onstellatlons have been formed front age to age, and some of the oM ones have been cut up to form new ones. Thus, Orion was curtailed of his fair proportions to form a Napoleon. There is something very remaritnble in the liH*al distribution uf the itars over '.he heavens. " If wo uinhne uuritelves," says tiir J. Ilerschel, " in the three or four lirightest classes, we shall find them distributed, with tolerable Impartiality, over the sphere t but if we take in the whole ainmint viiihle tu the naked eye, we shall perceive a great and rapid increase uf nunttwr as we apprtwrh the borders of the milkv way. And when we come to teletcopic mag- nitudes, we find them crnwde% and cuts it nearlv at the sol- stitial (sun-standing) points. It Is divided in one part of its course, sending off a kind of branch, which remains separate from the principal Inidy fur alwut lAU", and then unites with it. The ancients had many kingularnutiuns respecting this plienomeuun, and from the acc4iunts of it which they have left us, it would appear still to maintain exactly the same relative si- tuation among the stars. M'huu powerful telescopes are brought to )>ear upon this radiant belt, it is found to be entirely cuniposed o( stars, which, as they pass the aperture of the instrument, are counted otf at the rate of nearly half a milliun per hour ! Sir William Jlerscuul informs us, that, In the must crowded part of the milky way, he has had fields uf view that con- tained uo less than 5tUI stars, which were continued for many minutes. The same eminent astronumer supposes that it is a nebula, uf which the sun forms one i){ the cumponent stars; and hence, it appears iinineiisely greater than uther nebulau which are scat, terud over the firinammit« Taking this in cunnectiun with the fact, that, nutwithstanding the apparent con- tiguity of the stars which compose the milky way, their distances from each other c:innot be leas than foo,(NH) times the radius of the earili's orbit, how aro our viewd of the extent and magnificence of the univerke en- larged ! Iniagiiiatlon wanders over the general hea- vens, in tbe quaint hut f^raphic language of .Milton, *' powdered with starit" — ^Uttering like a desert uf sand befieath a tropical sun, and seeks for some liouudury where it uiigbt rest, and again renew Its fiight in search of a tei'ininatiuu; Imt it seeks iu vain. Clusters uf stars, each a separate universe, stretch out before it in nuinberluss array, and teem to lengthen as it fiies. NEniTL.T. riustor* cif st.irs, for the most part imperceptible to the nakeil eye, are no called fnim their confused lurninou!!, or rather ctoiuly appearance. Aluch Inge- iiMity has been expended in conjectures rcKpectrng ibcir nature. They are very numeruus and of dif- ferent kinds. In some of them, stars are clearly din- tingiiiiihalde ; In a second class, their existence is only fairtly indicati'd, and in a third there is no iip- pearance of starH whatever. In some inslutices, the nebula presents the phenomenon of a faint luminous atmoitpheru of a circular form, and of large extent, surrounding n star of considerable brilliancy. There is a remarkable nebula in the constelhtion Andro- meda, which, fnnn its Iwing visible to the nuked eve, has Itecu known from the earliest agesi. It lit deHcriF>«tl as having the appearnme of a candle «etii through horn, tliat is, a diluted light, iiicre:i5iiig in itenkity to- wards the centre. A class of nebula-, which, from presenting the appearance of planets, are calletl pla- netary nehulK, are very extraordinary oIijnLs. Their e bright Sir Wil- discs are round, ur slightly oval ; and Rome parts e<|ual in vividness tu actual planets, liam Herschel, whu devoted mucli of his attention to this subject, givre a catalogue of 2004) nebulie. He in- geniously conjectiireil that they are the matter out of wliich nature elaborates tlte suns and systems of the universe; and those whu wish a full accinuit of his viewK and reasoning upon the point, will find them explained in the Phib»op)ucal Transactions for 11)11. "What," says the distinguished son of the above-, named astronomer, "What, we ask, Js the nature and distinction uf this nebulous matter ? Is it absorlH-d liy the stars In whose neigh tmiir hot id It is found, t^i furnish by Ui condensatinu their supply of light and beot ? Or, is it progressively concentrating itself by the effect of its own gravity Into masses, and inlaying the foundation of new lideral systems, or of insulated sturs ?'* PRHIODK'Al. AND VARIABLK ITAnS. Some of tbe fixed stars undergo p«rloear, or, as we havtf ubserved, where light undertfoes great periodic changes. One of the most remarkable of these periodic stars is that called OtnieroHt which appears about twelve times in eleven yenrs. There are on record several striking instances of stars suddenly blaxing furth with extra- ordinary lustre, re main ing fur a short while, and thou dying away, " Leavlnti In yoiitlvi itilutU iky No vwU^v whvru thay flew." MUMIPI.E ANDCOI.OUHKD STAMt. Mai.y of the stars, wltich tu the naked eye appear single, are, when examined with the tvleicoue, found to consist of two, and occnsioiiHlly three inolvlduols, placed near each uther. Sir W. Herschel hot enu- merated upwards nf MK) duuMe stars, In which the individuals are within half a minute of each other. The number uf double stars in general has been greatly iidded tn since his day; and they now amount to se- veral thousands. The most remarkable circumstance connected with them, is the regular motions which some of them possess. There is a double star, called IJrta Afnjoria, in which the two stars perform a re- gular revulutiun round each other in sixty years. Others accomplish it In a much shorter period ; and some again are calculated tu take ISOO years I Their orbits are eccentric, like our own. Quadruple and quintuple stars have likewise been observed, which also appear ti» revolve round a common centre of gravity, like the planets uf the solar system round the sun, Some of the double stars present the remarkable aspect of contrasted colours, '' communicating mala and female light," as spuken of by IMilton, and float- ing before the eye of the observer like atoms of the rainbow. They generally assume the complementary tints, the vellow being opposed to blue or green, and so on. Hir J. Herschel endeavours Ingenuously to make nut n case of beautiful provision in nature with respect tu these coloured start. DISTANCES, UAOMITUDES, AND MOTIOVa OV THC STAnS. SiriiiB, the brightest of the fixed start, and whoto parallax hat Iwen gneseil at, it tupposed to lie twenty billluns of Knglish miles distant from the earth. Imagiuatiuii can scarcely conceive uf an object placed at such a distance; but it may derive assistance from the statement that a lay uf light, which darts from the sun tn our globe in ei be twenty millions of tiinra that of the sun. With regard to their number, no butisfactory cunjecturu can be formed. It is sup- ]Mist>d that tlu^ 1 ye, through a gocHl telescope, can take in at once seventy-live millions of thpio ; the number of sands on tbe sea-shore affonl uk, therefore, scarcely an adutiuate object of comparison. The science of at. trononiy is not yet matured enough to allow uf its ))rofessors f-irniing uny sure conclusions as to the motion:* of the stars. It may, however, lie stated ge- nerally, that their appanMit directions are various, and seem tu havu no marked tendency to one point more than another of the heavens. The sun, fur in- Htaiue, am) his system, have a proper motion In some direction ; but whither he is tending with his shining train, it is neediest to conjecture. The same nmv be haid of the other boilies of stars, In whom proper mu- tiou has been observed. CONCLt'DIKU R£3fAnK8. It is usually tbe case in treatises upon astronomy, tortHnre to present to the reader, as tai- as wai compatible with our limits, a picture of what the science ti ut present, in preference to exhibitini; the successive steps liy which perfection hat been ut- tiiined. Tlu* plan of a temple is sufiicient for the gretii mujoritv of those who wish to examine tbe fabric ; the architect alone ro()uiret to tee it in $ection^ nnd know the quarry from whence tho materials have Uien brought. An account of afltn)nomical instruments, also, generally forms a part of such works as the pre- sent; hot, to continue uur metaphor, the introduc- tion of the tnmel and the plumb-line into the fore- ground uf the building, would not increase itt eifect : and the methods by which they are employed in ela- borating the rude and stubborn blucks into beauty and NVinmi-try, can only be uf material importance to those who aie cnKngcd iu such uccupatloiit. Cmnrt HUH : I'uljlikttol tiy \V. and II. Ciiamiikhn, VJ, Watci- Iki JMiu-f, Al>i. SAckvUk* }^tre«t, Dulilbi- tiold Ijy Jolm MaclctHl, GlA-tnow, ind sU oUicr llocikidku tn Scotlsnti, Knjilanrl. and IteUnd.— Publlshrd nncf « fonnlgTiL From thtt }iU sm-l^ots ef W. attd R. Chsnibcis. I i.'. - . X' >«rj«jnw^ • » ,ii/-.»,;i> 'j'n'O urfVtf LtJ.irU i 1/1 (ii ir,l V I k< , '\ l.vtirJ U') CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. D Prior l^il. CONOUCTKD BY WILLIAM AND BOD) 'IT CHAMBKRS, JpITORB OK THE «£DINBUUUM JOUHNAI ' AND NWwa IISTORICAL NWWSPAI'EH." No. i2a. mm^Mm^aaik c< •,: , .1 "[ EGYPT. H \n the cvitirf of Uw abovf o^ rftUedShamy j ; U a rriueunution of one of the PyrwnltU of Eftypt- The Heei. on tlic k-fl iiJo li lh»r. of the ctltbnte Sphinx. On the rinht sre t»» giK^ntlc SUtuea vulgarly ly. one of uhlch U BUppoud to be the Vocal Memnon. t'ur e rirtlculoz wrcount of these exuaordinary ruoaliu of aatiquity. tee pagee ITS uul 173. KoYPT ti an exteniive and important klnf^om of { >orthern Africa, alike remarkaltle for iti aiicit'nt hUtury and present »ut<>. In arts, leariiinK. and ru \ iUaatiou, it preceded llrncce and Italy by manyaKe**, and there is nu nmntry whose laws and institutions lull be traced to a remoter aiitiqulty. One cirnim- stance above alt others attractn '-.r attenti<,>a to niu- deru Egypt; that is, the ttupcMiiuts munumeaU o( nncient grandeur with which i< '^^ iiteraily covered. The eitei of Babylon and other : tcnirirtMit capitals, once the glory of Asia, are now only to be identified with heaps of ruint, the magnitude of the cities Uiing estimated by that of the piles of rubbish whicli are now all that represent them. The sculpture and ar- chitecture of Urevce and Rome have come down to us shattered and impaired, but the edifices of Kgypt, vhtrh go back far beyond the records of auUientic history, bear scarcely any traces of the lapse uf time which has had such a destructive influence over the •>ther memorials of the mechanical skill of mankind. They dn not exhibit, indeed, that perfection of ta&te and skill which was reached iu succeeding ages by Greece and otiier nations, but they are probably mure interesting, as they display to us entire the arts and the power of the ftnt generations oF men. Th^A' are idso remarkable, inasmuch as theirmagii'' •>, r. menturate with their antiquity. In both :\^^ j< ( ' ' remains of ancient Kgypt far excel ih%*« cf ; ■• y other country. Thenamehy XI Iiich we recognise thiscou ." < ■ s touifnmi the (ireeks, by whom we are ,.i .' jd that a certain king called ^^gyptus gave his name to his dominions, which previously were called Aiirio, which signiBes the land of bent and blackness. In the Hebrew Scriptures it is enf 'M Mizraim; Mlxr, evidently the singular of that woi.l, being the appella- tion by which it is recognised amongst the Arabs at the present day. Hy its ancient inhabitants it was called ('hernia, a name which it still rctainn amongst the Copts, and which hai probably some connection with Cham, the son ot Noah. The word Kgypt it- self is IU very doubtful >i igin ; this, however,, has Seen asi^^rtaincd as certain, that amongst the ancient Ureeks. /Frvptuswasemployediu reference tothe land, to the n ^'ilft, and to an ancient sovereign. The etymolog :b« won) sharit* the obscurity which veils the ai. of the river an-r with conjectures upon the subject, hv bo <-h ^ an immense vnllt^V or longitudinal basin aWout 600 n lei in length and uf various breadth, the mean of wh^h is sup- posed to I' about nine miles. On either side it isen- close the AlississlppI, and some other rivers* Near Beni Suuef, which Is sixty miles south of Cairo, the valley, much widened on the west, has on that side an opening through which is obtained a view of the fer- tile plains uf Fnyoimu These plains are, properly Hpenking, a sort uf table land, separated from the iioinitaina on the north and west by a wide valley, a >art of which, being always laid under water, forma 'hat the inhabitants call Birket-el-Karroon. Near Cairo, the inpltal f the country, the mountains di- verge on Null lidett , 'he one ridge, under the name of Djebel-el-Nairun, m ling in a north-westerly direc- tion to the iVIeiiiterruitean; the other, called DJebel- el-Attaker, running due east to Suez. In front of these chains extends a vast plain composed of sandsi coven'ii with the mud of the Nile. At the place called Buhr-el-Bakara, the river divides into two branches ; the one flowing to Rosetta, the other to Pnmietta, and containing between them the present D< We here see the river Nile occupying bo impi t a place in the physical economy of Kgypt, that, :-e proceeding farther in our description of the on. . , we shall introduce an account of it. THE NILE. The source of this magniticent stream is still co:. cealed from tlie eager gaze uf mankind. The origin of its name is also a matter of learned dotibi, with which, however, we shall not interfere. Amongst the Oreeks and Romans, it excited the greatest int*>redt-~ from its being the largest known to them — from tta inundation, of which thoy had no other examples, mud inS> ^.w> 2# IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1^121 12.5 |50 mm us I: I 12.2 1.1 l."«ll^ 11-25 i 1.4 liil 1.6 -^ Photographic Sdences Corporation i3 WeSY MAIN STRiET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716) •7i.4503 ^'^^ m i CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. r were ignorant of the rauie— and from its unknown orlffin. The truo Nile in formed by the confluence of the Bahr.el-Abind (white river), and the Bahr-eU ABiek (blue rivmt), In Jau W40' iierth. The roraer, ffiting in AfcyMlni^ to the eoulh-wert of lake Dem- bw. comet from the »outh.ewt, aud was conildered byBruce ai the Nile. The latter, however, which oomes from the eouth-wwt, and in uippoaed to riw in the Mountains of the Moon, in the centre of Africn, bri.'^gt down the greatest mass of water, and is consi- danS bv Cailliaud m the true Nile. In lat. 17° 40' It TecciTM the Tacaixe fhim the east ; entert Egvpt in U4\ following nearly a northern course ; and below CaiwfSO* 16' north) divides into the two main arms, H we have already mentioned. There were anciently reckoned seven principal mouths, hy which its waters were poured into the Mediterranean : only those of Damittu and RotetU are at present navigable ; the flUiart hare been choked up. The distance from the confluence oS its two head branches to the tea, is about lAOO mile^ ; from its highest sources probably not far from WOO miles. The Cataracts, so much oetebratcd by the ancients, modern disooreries hare shown to be insignifloant hardly any thing more thaa what are called rapids in America. In Upper Egypt, it is con- fined, as we have aera, between two ranges of moun- tains, which leave only a narrow strip on each side of the rirer. Near Cairo, the river raUey widens, and the lerel nature of the oountry below allows it to spread ittelf or«r a broad plain. The depth aad rapidity of the Nile vary in diflier* «nt parts, and at different seasons. In its ordinary state, no vessel •zoofNling sixty tons can aacsnd as high as the CaUracts. The mouth of Damietta ir be- tween aeren and eight feet deep when the waters are low : that ^ Rosetu doen not exceed fonr or Are t but when the waters are hiifh, each has forty-one liset mor*, and eararek Af 34 gnns can sail up to Cairck The grand phenomenon cunneetad with the Nile, is its annual ortrflQW of the b^nks which border it — an event looked for with as much certainty aa the daily rising of the sun. These inundations of the Nile are owing to the periodical rains which fall be- tween the tropics. They bflgiii in March, but have no eiect upon the rirer until three months later. Towards the and of June it Iwunns to rise, and oon- tinnee rising at the rate af about feeD deposited by the river, by digging pits at different intervals. It wa: \o attempted to ascertain the annual rate at which this substance is deposited, and by this means ascertain the antiquity nf the monumenu of art In tlie neighbourhood of the rirer. Nu reliance, howorer, can be placed upersof uannls on the It^ft bank of the rirer. Mehemmed Ali, the present naclia, has opeiusl many of the old canali, which hsd been cIohhI for centuries, and dug new uies ; »,mong the latter, the canal of Mahmoud, run. iMcdng the harlKmr of Alexandria with the Nile, Boar Kouah, forty^aight miles long, ninrlv limad. and ei^'hieen deep, is a magniltoent work, 'rhe Delta is b^rrdered by a nnml>er uf maritime lakfs. or K^ >'er Egypt ; whilst to the secjtnd, c«lle<) the Hepunttmia, was allotted the intermediate space. lit modern times, the Arahn have diangnd the claaaioal •fipellati'tn of Thetiaid iuto Aaid, or I'pper Egypt, and the Hoptftii'mii* into V'oatani, or Middle Egypt, and the Delta into Bahari, or l^wer Egypt TIfK DELTA. The Delta of the Nile Is that tract uf laud at iha bottom of the river formed by the mnd which is de- posited by the latter. It owes its name to iu shape, which somewhat resembles the Greek letter A. or delta, answering to our 1>. The base oi thir triaugtef whlab iswashadbythellediteiTaneanSaa, isabsntlMmilas long ; and the two angles, which, prm-eeding from the extremities of the base, converge till they meat at a point, are each abont WQ miles In extent. This piece uf insulated land was Vformar times mnoh larger — being bounded on the east by the Pelustan branch, which is now choked up with sand, or converted Into marshy pools. On the weit, it was bounded by the Canopic branch, which is now partly confounded with the canal of Alexandria, and partly lost in lake Etho. The correspondence of the lerel of the surface to that of the preient Delta, and its depression as compared with the level of the adjoining desert, tMCther with iu greater verdure and fertility, still man the limits of the ancient Delta; although irregular encroaohmanta are made by shifting banks of drifting sand, which are on the increase. The tract compnuiended in tha Bahr-Bilama, mora properly Bahr-bela-maeh, and tha basin of tha Natron Lakes, is one of the most re- mark^la foatnras in tha gaograahy of the oountry. It !ias(m dia western side of tba Delta, Aftaen miles dis- tant from it at tha naarost. These two rallies are sa- paratad by a low ridga, and run parallel to each other for about sixty mUaa. Tha mountain of Natron skirts tha whole length af tha valley of the same name. It aoMtaina none of tha rocks which are found scattered abont in tha rallies, each aa quarts, jasper, and pett-o- sllex ; and title dronmstance has given ri»e to the opinion that tha stenaa must hare bean conveved thithar by a branch of tha NUa, which is supposed to hara found its way formeriy In this direction through what is called tha Walarless Valley, to tha Meditar- ranaan. There is now a sarias of six lakes in the valley of Natron, the banks of which, as wall as the surface of tha waters, are covered with erystalUiMions Imth of muriate of soda and carbonate of soda or natron. The v^fetatkm m these vallies has a wild and dreary aspect ; the palms are mere bushes, and bear no fruit. Caravans occasionally visit it in quest of natron. Tha valler of Barh-bela-maah has, for the most part, a breadth of eight miles. In the sand, with which tba surface is every where covered, trunks of trees have been found in a state of complete petrifaction, together with a vertebral bone. That these countries have nu* dergone violent revolutions, is certain; but at what period or periods the changes took place, can 'mlv be conjectnred. With ragrrd to the extent of the rooaem encroachments of the dee ert , anthoritiea are much at variance ; hut it appears eridmt that the Drita has been reduced by them. Almost the whale productive soil of Bfypt oonsisU of mud deposited by the NUa, and the Delta is entindr compoeed of it and sand. Middle and Upper Efypt may be described aa a narrow bdt of IuhI strswiing ftbm SyesM to Cairo, a distance of AOO miles, and hemmed in on each side by twu ridges of grey sandstone mountains, spproach- iiiK sometimes within five or six miles of eacli other; and down this extended valley the majestic Nile ndla the waters whicli it had ilrawn from the Meuntalns of the Moon, to the Meditt-rranean Sea. Egypt con* tains about 200,000 square miles, of which uuJy about Ift.OOO miles in the vallcv of the Nile arc susceptible of cttltivation. Iti rtnxnh numbers, this is 10,000,000 of acres, or noarir one-half that of Ireland. The h»tal population nf Egypt is estimated at about 2,500,000, which would give about 166 to every square mile. Itfi relstive population, therefore, though not equal to that of Ireland, almost tvimes up to that of France, and for exceeds that nf Austria, Russia, or Spain. Nearly one-half of this territory, it is sup- posed, is either periodically inundated, or capable uf artificial irrigation. The remaining part requires a more laborious cultivation, Aiid yields a more scanty produce. The inundated lands, thouffh thry have snccessirely home one crop, and frequentTy two, yearly, without intormiuitio, for more than 9000 years, still retain their ancient fertility without requiring any tillage. M'here the iimndation does not reach, tha crops are, hcwever, very poor ; hut for maize and millet, the rail is particularly adapted. TakfuKt then, into amsideration the quantity of land once arable, whiclt is now coverarf with sand, the double harvest, and, of some productions, more than semi.annual cropn, the smaller quantity of food which ii requisite to RTiFtWln life in southern latitudes, and the extent to whirh the more barren soil was ft>rtnerlv rendered available ny the cnltiration of the olire, tkie fig-tree, the vine, and the dale-palm, we shall no longer be at a hws to account for the immense fertility and pt^Mi- lousness of anrient Egypt. PIODUCTIOMS. The following are the principal productions of the cminlryi — Wheat, barlevi rice, millet, maice, flni, anise, lisnmum, mustard, tieans, lupins, lentils, vetches, Egyptian trefoil, the Hdgar-cane, indigo, safl^ron, hin- neli, and tobacco. Melons and cnruinbisrs grow " al- most visiblv t" they gain an inch in l«Uk every htnir. A few pot-tkerhs are cultivated in the neighbourhood of the tftwna. Fayoum is diitinguished for the culti* ration of rose-bushes, from which ii obtained tha rose- water, which is m so great request all over the East. There are also some olire plantations In this provinne, and some Christians manufsctnre an Indifl'erentwlne. The vine is no longer niltirated in any other part of Egypt, except for Uie sake of iu shade and itx prapes, aud tljfl olive-tree is only to be met with in gardens. The almond, the walnut, and the cherry, will not grow iu Egypt ; aud neither the pear, the apple, tha peao hj Bor the plum, oomes to any perfootion ; bat the citnia, the lemon, and the pomegranala^ tha aprico^ and Aa banana or plantain, lloumh luxufiandy. Tha sycamore or PharoDh*s fig.tree (less valued for Itt fruit than for its Jeep brud shade), tha carob-tr«% the Jniube, the tamarind, and other trees, ara alio found here. But, in point of usefulness, as well ai number, tha date-palm is pre-eminent. It Is ealt • vated both in the inundated and tha irrlgatad landi , and groves of it ure to be seen, consisting somet{ma.\ of several thousands, valued st a plaster each. Another celebrated production of Egypt is tha lotus. The plant usually so denominated is a species of water- lily, which, on the disappearance of the inundation, covers all the canals and pools with iu broad round leaves, amid which the flowers, in the form of cops of bright white or aiura, expand on tha surface, and hara a moat dafant appaaranoa. Tha roots of thla regetabla were used aa food by tha anelant Egyptians. There is also tha papyrus, not less calabratad in ancient times than tha u>tus. The oolocasium is still cultivated in Egypt for its large esculent roots. Tha banks of the rirer and of tha canals sometimas present coppices of acacia and mimesa ; and there ara groraa of roaa-laurel, willow, cassia, and other wrubs. Fayoum contains impenetrable hedges of cactus or Indian fig. But though so rich in plants, Egrpt ia destitute of timber, aud all the fire-wood used li Im* ported from Caramania. CMMATC AVD SEASONS. The soil of Egvpt is never at rest, and the harreste are rery rich. They follow each other at the distanca of about six oreighr weeks, according to the dilTerent kinds of grain, le )g time in most cases for a suc- cession of crops ' ver there is a full command of water. The ool<: -i commencea with Deoembery and continues fui .t two mor ''.s. Early in Fa* bruary, spring appears, when the atmosphere aoquirea a deUf^UFul warmth, and the trees put forth their blossoms. The period of summer may be said to com- BWQce in June, and to and at tha cloee of September. Tha transition fiom tha one season to tha outer is so lmparcq>tibla, that it Is seareely poasibla to sa^ when the one begins and tha other ends. During these fonr BMOtlu, the heat is intense; tha fields to which the swelling rirer has not attained, ara parched like adesait, and no greea leaf Is aeea tmt aooi aa ar dticad by artiftdal Irrigatiaa. Autumn, wUoh Is only B pro- marked by a slight dhnlnMiaii of tamparatura) com. moMOS abont tha mMdIa «f Oetobar, whan tha leaves foil, and tba NOa retiraa wMiin its (Aaaaali and till the appraach of that saaaaiH which can oaly ba called winter fnm Its sitaatian in dia calendar, tha foce of tha countnr i a emb l cs a beantiftil ana Tariegated aeaadow. VolneyH daa ai ption Is thus a matter of fact, that Egypt assnmet in succession the appearance of an ocean of fresh water, of a miry morass, of a green level plain, »nd of a parched desert of sand. From the nature of the surface, and the universal aridity of the surrounding desert, Egypt is much hot- ter than most other countries under the same parallel. From March to November, the atmoiphere is inflamed hy a ficorcKing sun and a cloudless uty, the average height of the ^ermometer being about 90* ; during the othOT six asontha, it is about 00". Atsunset, thewlnda fall, and the nights are generally cool, and the dews heavy. Except along the Bea-shores, rain is a pheno- menon in Eg> fX. At Cairl^ there are on an average four or Are showers in the year; in Upper '"'(Typt, one or two at most: nor are they considered as beneficial to the agriculture of the omnu-y. Thunder and lightning are still more unajmmon, and are likewisa completely divested of their terrific qualities. Showers of hail, sweeping from tha hills of Syria, are some- times known to reach the confines of Egypt ; bat ice is a commodity £» extremely rare, that instmioft hare occurred of its l»eing sold at a high price. The winds are almost strictly periodical on the banks nf the Nile. The northerly hreexes predomi- nate, blowing nine months in th ) year. Those from the south are the most changeable, as well as the most unhealthy. At their apprtMch, the sky becomes black, the air is darkened with donds of impalpahle sand, lo that it is sometimes necesi^ary to use candles at noon-day. The efTecU thus prfn^uced upon the ani- mal and vegetable creation are most pernicious; and when the simf>om continues longer tnnn three days, it becomes quite insupportable. It is remarkable that the southerly breeae, which in the spring f>f the year is attended with an intolerable heat, is during the winter noted above all others for an intense and pene- trating cold. In the latter season, the rays of the sun fall more obliquely on the desert, and the current of air which descends on Egypt is chilled by tha siio"'y mountains of Abyssinia. NATUaAI. HI8T01IT. In ill /eologiral features, Egypt presfmu great rarietv, including apecimens of ahnuiit every firrnia- tlun, ^rnm the earliest to the inoit rcceut. Several granitic chains of hills stretch to a considerable ex- tent. These contain vast qnarries of syenite, from which the andents drew the sttipendmis masses re- quired for thei r colonud lOatues and obelisks. Betwesa Assoun snd Ehhb lien the Haiidstnne, or middlt* dls- trin, which supplied stuhii for the temples ; and lieynnd It, the northern or ralcareotis Hintrlrt fltreiches to the southern angle of the Delta. This last chain supplied EGYPT. iMttrlali for the Py^ramids, and miny public batld- fagt. The limeitone extendi from Syene to the Me- ^terrmneiin, and, in Lower Egvpt> from Alexandria to the Red Sea, in the vicinity of Saes. Other valuable rocki are abundant in Egypt, and rarioua fteeioui minerals are found. In soology, the camel, •o emphatically named the ihip of the desert, has long been domeiticated In the counU7. The gtraffe, or eameleopard, has been occasionally seen. A qu^. raped, called Tirrera ichneumon, is one of the most oenbrated animals In the country. Amongst the an- cltnts, It waa Tenerated with a species of worship. Idineumons are domesticated in Kgypt, where they perform the duties of our domestic est, in ridding the Bonies of the smaller animals. The names of the cro- codile and hippopotamus are familiarly associated with Egypt and the Nile. The number of the latter animal ia now declined, and he is seldom seen below the Cata- racts. A species of lizard, called the monitor of the Nile t the common cameleon ; the lisard ; the sorex, or shrew; and, of the marmot tribe, a particular genus called the dipus, or jerboa ; the goat, Bhi.dp, •nd the animals which figure in the Egyptian mytho- logy, such as the dog, ape, buffalik &c ; still belong to thm loology of the country. Of birds, the ostrich, the ibis, of which there are sereral species, and the Egyptian rnltur^ are most famous. With respect to Amm, the country presents nothing remarkable. 1NIIABITAKT8 OF EOTTT. The present natives of Egypt consist of— 1. The Copts, tnu supposed descendants of the ancient Egyp- tians, and more certainty the feeble remnnnt of a once numerous Christian population. 2. The Fellahs, who compose the bulk of the labouring class, and who are •uppoeed to be a mixture of ancient Egyptians, Ara- bians, and Syrians ; they are rigid Moswms. 3. The Bedouin Arabs, the same in character, manners, and customs that they are every where, and apparently ever have been since the days of the patriarchs, re- garding with disdain and proud independence all ether classes of mankind, but more especially those of their own nation who have degraded themsRlves by taking up their abodea within walls. 4. Arabian O reeks; that is, the descendants of ancient Greek colonists, who have lost their ancient language, and speak a kind of Arabic. Many of them are mariners, but, in general, they pursue the inferior and handicraft trades, ft. Jews. To these must be added, as Inhabi- Canu of Egypt — 6. Syrian-Greeks and Maronites, who have, within the last century, greatly increased In numbers, and have proved euccessftil rivals of the Copts and Jews as merchants and agents. ^. Arme- nians. 8. Turks. 9. Franks. 10. Mamelukes. U. Moggrelins, or Western Arabs. 12. Ethiopians and other Africans. The following is as near an approxi- mation as can be (^)tainc4 of the relative numoers of the different divisions of this motley crew ; — Copts 160,000; Arab FeUahs 3,250,000; Bedonin Arabs 160,000; Arabian Greeks 3A,C00 ; Jews 20,000; Sy. riansa0,000i ArmemanslO,000; Turksand Albantans 20,000; Franks or Levantines 4000; Mamelukes iMW ; Ethiopians, Ac 7600 ; which amo!\nt in ail to 9,607,000. The Arabs have been divided into three classes ; first, the wild independent Bedouins who occupy the desert : lecond, the pastoral tribes, who feed their flocks upon the borders of Egypt, and occasionally «itcr the cultivated provinces; and, lastly, the pea- aants, or Fellahs, who are devoted to agriculture and the arts. The lauer, who form the bulk of the popu- lation, are described as a line race of men in their persons, active iu agricultural employments, and pos- sessed of many good qualities. In their dreae, and household economy in general, though not strangers to comfort, they are so to every thing like luxury. Their food is very plain, and none but the higher orders, or those uf diuolute lives, ever taste wine. The Arabs carry on the common trades of civilised life, but in a very unikilful and imperfect manner. We shall have wcasion iit'turwards to hpeak of the ge- neral state of trade and manufactures iu Egypt. The Arabs have seldom more than two wives; in ^neral only one. The women fur the most part can neither read nor write ; but the better sorts are taught Mubniidery and ornamental needle-work, in which they muitly pass their time. The features of the Arab.EgyptJan women are by no mean- '^regular. The^ are taller in general than our European women. Their hair is blacl^ and long, their skin of a disagree- able mulatto colour, and they stain various parts of their body with colouring mutter. The tented Arabs ■till maintaiu their ancient character of proud inde- pendence, and in manners and cuntoms are the same people they were throe thousaud years ago. COPTS. This singular and equivocal race of people, the sup. posed representatives of the ancient Egyptians, have been very var.juily deicribed. Vohiey and MsJte Brun say they have exHcity the ctitmtHniince of a mu- latto. Dr Hume differs frum them materially In his 4lescription ; and Dr Hiohardson remarlts, that " nei. ther in their fcitures nor in their complexion have the Copts the smaliect reiemblance to ibu tigures of the ancient Egyptians represented in the tomlis at Thebes, or in any other part of Egypt." He with much probability supposes them to be a miied race, bearing traces of an alliance to the great Circassian family, and distinct fnmi the aboriginal Egyptians. On the other hand, the Nubians found on the island 171 of Elephantina are described by him as black, and possessing features almilar to those found pourtrayed upon the ancient Ecryptlan tombs. A third and dis. tinct race is also mentioned by the learned traveller; and, upon the whole, it may be concluded that the Covta are a mixed race, and not the pure descendanta cf uia original inhabitants, who were, as rwards co- lour, black, but without anf mixture of the negro physiognomy. The conclusion seems to be, that they are Egyptian Greeks, with not less Grecian blood per- haps Uian the modem Albanian of the Morea. Compared with other languages, the Coptic Is naid to exhlhit some feeble Irdications of an undent con- nection with the Hebruw and the Ethiopian, while it htis received a mixture of modern Arabic. Arabic Is now the language of Egypt, while the Italia' . is much used both by Franks and Copti. The Cr Mc is for the most part a dead language, belnff un/ .ritood by '.'W, ''.ough used in the service of the c?' troh. The Copts and the Jews are the general shopkeepers in Egypt. Thi) Turks have grave features, an Indolent habit of boJy, and In every thing an air of w^lghti which tb-^v associate with the idea of nobleness. The Greeks, who ara now reckoned foreigners, present the r^ular features and the delicacy of their ancestors. There are said to be about fiOOO descendants of the ancient Greek ,';olonists, who form quite a distinct raee fram the modem Greeks. They have loit their original tongue, and speak a kind of AiaWe. Something still remalcs to be stated with regard to the present Inhabitants of Egypt ; but It Is neces- sary that we should advert, in tne first place, to its ancient history, and also to present such a picture of the ancient iniiabiunts as Is to be gathered from the written records of the past, but more particularly from those ample and splendid memorials which they have Ht to all future ages — their works of art and mecha- nical skilL HISTORY OP EGYPT. The history of Egypt carries us far back " Into the 'depth of ages past.** An olucurity, however, en- velopes it on every side, and the inquirer recei'/es but little illumination upon this subject, by being told that the first king was called Menes, and that he reigned, according to Dr HalM, 2413 years before the birth of Christ. This monarah is said to have greatly improved Egypt by works of extensive utility. He was succeeded by a race of native prinoee, who, with their founder, reigned 203 years. The country was then invaded by the Shepherds (supposed to be the progenitors of the Pnilistiues), who esuliUshed a new dynasty, which lasted 260 years. During their sway, it is supposed that Abraham visited Egypt, and the first pyramid wu begun. After their expul. sion, we find a third dynasty of native sovereigns, from the commencement of whose rule, and the ex- ode of the Israelitee, 251 years elapsed. Then a fourth dynasty began o mle, which lasted to the death of Mceris, embracing a period of 340 years, and bring, ing us to tho year 1308 before the Christian era. We come now to the renowned conqueroi Sesostria, the son of the last-named king. This monarch, the first Alexander, if the name of the Macedonian may be used as the generic appellation of conquerors, spread the terror of his arms over Asia. He, however, de- voted himself to the arts of peace as well as those of war; and the erection of many magnificent temples and public works, of great extent and utility, has been ascribed to him. The reigns of the successurB of this monarch ara not characterised by any thing remarkable. Up to the year 679 before Chriat, when the annals of Egypt begin to be divested of fable, the names of Amasis or Ammosis, Cetes, Cheops, Saba- con, Sethon, and others, fill up the void of history. This period embraces the fifth and sixth dynasties, and a period of 636 years. The seventh dynasty commences with twelve contemporary kings, t«i whom succeed the famous names of Psammetichus, Neohe, Fsam- mis, Apries or Pharaoh Hophra, Amasis, and Psam- menitus. Between the reigns of the two latter mo- narchs, Egypt was conquered bv Cyrus ; but that famous warrior exercised a liberal policy towards the inhabitants, and allowed them a degree of national independence, which it is supposed they atmsed so much, as to draw down upon their heads the ven- geauce of his successor Cambyses, who reduced the country, at the same time blotting his triumphs with the most wanton cruelties. The government of Persia lasted 112 years; then came a dynasty of Egyptian kings, who reigned 61 years, when the name of Alex- ander the Great is added to the list of Egypt's subju- gators. Upon the division of the Alacedunian empire, Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy l^ugus, one of Alexander's generals, qud in every respect worthy of the throne of the Pharoahs. To this prince litera- ture and philosuphy owe many obligatious, of which our limits will not permit us to speak. It may be mentioned, hnwever, that he was tho founder of the celebrated Alexandrian library. The period embraced by his successors, the reuowned Ptolemies, it one uf the brightest in the annals of the country. With one uf the last of these princes, we find the name of Cleopatra associated in the government, the admini- stration of which, however, was in a great measure in the handA of the Romans. The joint rule of Ptolemy Dion vsius and Cleopatra was of short continuance, and a civil war consummating the dissension, the latter was compelled to seek refuge in Syria. Soon after tbii, the fate uf Rome and the world came to be decided upon the plains uf Fhartali^. The exiled sovereign wm protected by the situation of affairs, and succeeded In obtaining, throurii the Instm mentality of C»sar. tho share of power wntoh she had lost This gave rise to a Irar, in which Ptolemy, and the last rems'na of Egyptian independence, perished together. Cleopatrm was indeed nominally tae tororelgii of the country, conjointly with herbroUier, a mere child. He, how- ever, aoon aftor ftU a vlotim to the furious passions which at that period dishonoured the deuendanti of the great Ptolemv, and the beautiful and accomplished, but abandoned Cleopatra, becamo at once the mistrete of Egypt and of Casar. After the vlctorv of Oetavlna at Actlum, she committed suidde, and Egypt becamo a Roman province. This took place 30 years before Christ, and remained 670 Tears In the hands of the Romans. The Christian religion, during this period, gained footing in this countrv, and was acoompanied by the same enthusiasm, sectarianism, and mental gloom, which, in the earHer history of Egypt, had accompa- nied the pagan mysteries. Anchorites and monka had their origin here. After the division of the great Roman empire. In the time of Theodosius, into the westem and eastern empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sunk aeeper and deeper In barbarism and weakness. It was the pray of the Saracens ;Amra, their general, under the Caliph Omar, taking Alex- andria, the tApital, by aauult. Thii happened a.d. 640, when Heradlns was the emperor nt tne East. As a province of the caliphs, it was under the govern- ment of the celebrated Avbasides (Haroun-al-Raschld and Al-Mamon), and that of the heroic saltan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes (I2A0), and under these formidable despots the last shadow of former greatness and civiliiation disappeared. 8elim, sulun of the Turks, eventually (1616, 1A17) conquered the last Mameluke sultan, Tumanlai, and Egypt became altogether a Turkish province, governed by a pa^ha. It has since been the theatre of continual internal wars of the Mamniuke beys against the Turkish dominion, which has been several times, especially under Ali Bey(1766), nearly extinguished in this country. Before giving a akoteh of the more recent hUtory f ' Egypt, we snail here present a view of its andent literature, science, and civil and religious institutions. AHCIEKT COTPTIAK CHAttACTER. If we contemplate the ancient Egyptians in their private life and political character, taking Into view their manners, customs, and laws, we shall find a so- lution for many perplexities respecting this peculiar people. The gloomy religlonofthe Egyptians banished gaiety from their private circles. They were serious, devout, and superstitious ; longs, dances, and sports, they disliked : but they nevertheless posiensed good temper and politeness. The government of the st<\te was mostly In the hands of females. Eveiy priest might have at least one wife ; to the laity the n-imber was not limited bylaw. The Egyptian was distin- guished for temperance in eating and drinking, and his dress was very simple. The sovereign, however, and those who immediately surrounded him, glittered in oriental pomp and munificence. The power of the Pharoahs (the general name of the earlier kings of Egypt) was unhmited ; but the will of the ruler was subject to the control of the priests. Justice was administered by an efficient police, who took care that criminals should be constantly employed. As early as the time of Joseph, there was a workhouse for imprisoned slaves. Written laws were handed down by Menes, Tnephactus, Bocchoris, and Amasli. All causes were tried before a supreme court of justice. The parties themselves were obliged to conduce them in writing without the aid of advocates. The children were brought up to the ti'ade of their father, and in- structed by the priests. Few were taught reading and writing, although the Egyptians were the first people who could write, that history mentions, after the Babylonians and Phcenicians. The people were divided into seven castes — priests, soldiers, shepherds, swineherds, mechanics, interpreters, and fishermen. At the head of them all stood the priests, the first and most influential caste. They maintained this rank as teachera of the people and patrons of science ; from them ell the offices of state were filled ; they were the physicians, judges, architects, astronomera, astrolo- gers, &c The religion and philosophy of the Kgyp. tians differed at different periods of their civil history. The former was wholly founded upon astronomy. Oiiris and Isis, the sun and moon, who were revered as beings of unlimited power, were the two principal deities ; and the Nile was supposed to be very nearly related to them. The period of 360 days, computed from the regular inundation of the river at the sum- mer solstice, constituted the n)llgtous year ; the na- tural solar year consisted of 305 days and 6 houra. The planets and the signs of the sodiac were reve- renced as deities and rulers of the several seasons of the day and year. To each divinity was assigned a particular order of priests. Pilgrimages and sacrifices were a part of their religious i^stem, and till the time of Amasis, even human victims were offered. Besides the heavenly bodies, some kinds of animals were wor- shipped, not as mere symbids, hut as actual gods, like the Apis and Mnevls. The most singular part of the Egyptian creed was the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, in which they believed. COHMXRCr AND PHILOROPMT The first important impulse received by the Egyp- ^1 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. tUni la Intgllectual cuUum, wu lulMequaBt lu tb* aubjugatloii of tlia coiiatry by Awtlgn nMiau. Pn. vloutly ti> thia, howtrer, then wen aatronoimn ia tha country. Th« Eg^fllu loUr year coaUtoW twdvi) monthi and 6v« ■uppbaMBUrydayii, Ilk* lb* rapulilicaii calaiidar uf lb* Fnnab. Tba ionn of the earth wu kiiawn to Earyptian ubolan. Solar and lu- nar ecliuHi ware calculatad. Tha moon tb*y ragardad aa anothar earth, tha fixed atari a< Qaming torchaa. Sun-diali and water-dooka war* known to (ham ; tha immania ring of Otymandyaa Mama to liara baan uaad for this pur|HiM i and thay would aspear to hara baan acquainted with the quadrant. Thair procrtia in aritlimatic muat therefore have beeti contldarable. Their acquaintauoe with nametry and mathamatiea ii eartaini and, from tnelr watar-acrewt, cauala, iluices, &&, they muit alao have poeseaaed a know* ledge of niaohanlca, liydrauUoi, and bydroatatlca. Tha Egvplian music it the baaia of tha Hebrew, Uraek, and lloman. Tiia Amt musioal inatrunant, the thraa. atringad lyrv, waa Invauled amongst them by Hennas. Tliay had alio other inatrumeuta, but musical nota. ti vama celebrated in other couMriea. Car* ot tha skin, a thorough daanlinaea, preserved by frequent bath- ing, and the practice of circumcision, were thair prin- cipal praseripiioaa. From their skill In embahainit the dead, we may judge of tha anatomical knowledga at the Kgyptiana. Tneir aoqua'.ntanoa with naviga- tion thay owed lo the great Saeostrts, by whom com- merce waa aatablished. It prospand most under the Ptolemiee. Alexandria bacaiaa tha Brat emporium i the bmous Pharea waa erected i and the canal, 1000 stadia in length. Joined the Red Hea with the Medi. terranean. When Egypt became a Roman province, it lost its previous commercial distinction. The Egyp- tians were particularly devoted to agricuitura, and their measures for promoting It were bold, both In contrivance and execution. Their trade was confined for a long time to the sale of their own |iroductiona to foreigners who visited Egypt to purchase tham. In the ume of Psammetichua they Dagan to export for themselves. Measures, weights, and monev, thay were acquainted with ; and their skill In weaving ana colouring aupplied them with articles of exchange. LITEaATUBI. The ancient literatuie of Egypt does not call forth our admiration, like that of Oreeca or Rome. No splendid specimens of oomposllIoD have survived the vidssitudesof time, and come down to usi but that thay had made eoniiderable progress, is beyond a doubt. Taiian informs us that tlie Greeks learned bow to write history from perusing the Egyptian annals. TIteir chronicles seem to have been originally written la verse, which ware inscribed on st4ines in pictorial characters, of which we shall shortly speak. From various ancient authorities, we learn that historical treatises were numerous in Egypt. 8trabo even praisee the simplicity nf their style. As early as the reign of Osymandyas', 1308 years before the commencement of our era, a' library was established at Thebes, and an- other at .Memphis, the two capiuls of the country. Indeed, much of the admiration which the Oreaks call forth from us, belonp in some respect to tba Egyptians t for tliere is every reason to believe that mou of the identific and literary acquiremenu which distinguished tha (ireeks, while the rest of Europe waa in a suia of barbarism, were derived from ilieir intercourse with tha icnolari of Thebes and Memphis* The Egyptians had a peculiar method of notation, an inquiry into which haa lately eogaged much atten- tion, but the subject is too exieasTve lo be here en- ured upon. As to tha poetry, eloauenoe, aud polite literature of that remarkable people, we are still too ignorant of the Uoptic language to form any jndgment upon. Their progreaa In the arte will be seen when wa come to examine the gigantic remains which they have left us. \V« may only here remark, that tha architecu of Thebes, the pyramids, Ac, must have iiad cviisidarable knowledge liuih of mechanics and chemistry. HIEWMII.TrHIC8. The method em^oyed by tb^ ancient Egyptians for ei'presting their ideas was that of pictorial writing, the original expedient of mankind in every age and aiuntry for giving permanency to hia koiioeptions. WlienAmerica was first discovered, it was found to be in use amongst the natives, and it is the vehicle of thought with the Chlnne of tlie present day. The term hieroglyphic literally signifies sacfd writing, but it has been extended to the embiematical style in general, of which thera were three kinds, named ac- cording to the characters of the individuals by wfau.'u each was u^ed. These diitincttuns are recognised by Clemens Alexandiinns in a passage of his works, a Ciphrastic tranilatiun of which we shall give by the ned author of "A View of Ancient and MiMlern '^ lOH who ara educated among the Eg\ptiins," i;a says ha, "laarn first of all tha method of writing called the Kpistelegraphio t secondly, the Ularatlc, which tha sacred scribes amphiv i and, lastly, tha moat mysterious daacrlption, tha Hlerogl/phlc. of which thera ara two kinds j the one denoting objacu in a direct manner, by means of tha initial sounds of words, the other symbolical. Uf tha symbolical signs, one class repraanu objeou by exhibiting a likeness or pic- ture I another, by a metaphorical or leas complete re- sembknce i and a third, by means uf certain alle- gorical enigmas. Thus, to give an example of the three methods in the symbolical division, when they wish to represent an object by the first, thay fix upon a distinct rasamblanoa, such aa a circle when they want to indicate the sun, and a orescent whan their purpoae Is to denote the moon. The second, or me- taphorical, allow a eonsidarable fraedom in selecting the emblem, and may be such as only suggests tha object by analogous qualitiea. For instance, whan they record the praises of kings in their theological fables, they exhibit them in connection with figurative alluaiona which shadow forth their good actions and lienign diapoeltion. In this case the repreeenution I* not direct, but metaphorical. Of the third method of symbnileal writing, the AiUowIng will serve as an ex- ample : they aMlmilate the oblique course of the planata to the body of a serpent, and that of the sun to the figure of a scarabaens." In tha above extract there it mention mada of that species nf hieroglyphics which exptees objects by the initial letters, a remark that is now perfectly intelligible, but which, till the year 18U, presented amostperplexlngenigma to the ablest scholars in Europe. For thia discovery we are in- debted to Dr Young, whoaa Investigation, with those of Champulllon and othare, have thrown oontiderable light upca thie mystical subject. But notwithstand- ing all the discoveries which have been made, our knowledge of ancient Egyptian literature Is still very limited, and we must not, thcrttfoiv, estimate the extent of their acquirements by the scantv re- mains of their labours which have survived the wasting hand of time and the violence of man. Dlo- dorus HIcnIus informs us that in the tomb nf Osyman- dyaa 10,000 volumes were deposited.* These works were unquestionably of high antiquity, for which, aa ivdl as for the Importance of their subjects, they were ascribed to Thoth or Hermes, an individual of extra- ordinary intelligence. In oonclnsion. we may re- mark, that, from the Egyptian hieroglyphics sprung the reguUr alphabet, and that Cadmus conveyed his gift of sixteen letters acrou the Mediterranaan fh»i Egypt. This Invention contrlbnted In a great mea- sure to the improvement of the Oraeks, and laid the foundation of their literary fame — perhape their fu- tura glory in all respects. The arrival of the re- nowned adventurer above named, from the Iwuiks of the Nile, continues to be recognised as the epoch when civlllaatlon and a knowledge of the fine arts were first received by the barbarians of eastern Europe. Before proceeding with the topographical details. It may be proper in this place to introduce a descrip- tion of some of those magnificent remains of art and mechanical ingenuity which thay have lalt us. By this means we will obtain a more complete view of tha Krogresii which they had made in clviliiation, and ow much other countries have been anticipatisd In their ditroveries by that remarkable people who in- habited Egypt three thousand years ago. We shall here only bring forward those whic* are the most re- markable, and with the names of which the reader is probably most familiar, leaving the remainder to be noticed aa they occur in their local order. rraaHina. Amongst tha extraordinary remains of mechanical ingenuity and an which the ancient Egyptians have bequeathed to the admiration of all ftitura times, the pyramids ara conspicuous. Their number scattered over Egypt is very great, and in magnitude and an- tiquity are alike remarkable. Thay ara nf a qnad- rangular shape, having a broad base, gradually con- tracting towarda the top, generallv built of' large limestones, of different heights, nsnallv having a base equal to the height, witn their four sides facing the cardinal points. During several thousand yeara they have attracted the cnrinalty of the traveller, and exer- cised the ingenuity of the' learned, lly far the moat magnificent ara those of Ujiaeh, Sakh'ara, and I>a- shnur, in the neighbourhood of Urand Cairo, the ca- pital of the country. The pyramids of Pjiseh, the largest and most re- markable of these stupendous ramnanu nf the paat, stand n|Km a bed of rock lr<) feet above the deerrt, and lO feet above the river, which contributes to their being seen tmn a very great distance. The largest nf these, which has been aacril>ed to Cheope, a tyrannical and profligate sovereign, is a square or 740 feet, and its perpendlcuhu' height is 401 feet, helngM fret higher than St Peter's at Rome, and 117 feet higher than Kt Paul's at I,nndon, The elFect which it produces upon the mind fnmi a distance is very fine. From tile purity of the atmosphere, the upper grada- tions of tite pyramid are as distinctly visible as the up- per layers of a pile of bricks, which materially in- the illusion of tha vast dimensions of the structure, and accounts fur the discrepancy that pre- vails amongst travellers as to their actual height. From there being no neighbouring object with which • Msnnho mlucM tht nunibtr to bstetva thna and ftwr Uiuuiand. to eompata tha fabric, no adequate idea is loruicil at Ite real magnitude until tha traveller arrirea at lie baaa, and finds the first tier of stones on a level wlllt hia chest; of thase there arc MO, which vary from one to four feet in height, the squora uf each tier being smaller than the one below, so as to leave the apace of two or three feet alt around, forming wliat ara called the steps. >^ach step is from a fimt to a foot aud a half in breadth, and the average height is about two feet and a quarter, to that the ascent is comparatively eaay ; and about the miiiiUe the steps ara much bro- ken, but at the angles tliey are perfectly entire. On the summit is an area, about thirty feet square, ooiu sisting of six squara blocks of stone irregularly die- poaad. Thase maaanraments of the great p; ramid art those of Davison, who was very oaraful in making tham, aud ara probably a very near approximation to the truth. Six millions of tons of stones are supposed to have been consumed, and 100,000 men for twenty yeara ara said to have been employed in the erection of this the moat stupendous sepuichra tliat ever con- tained the ashes of man. The view from the summit, though limited, is, from association, imprassiva. The internal aspect of this wonderful structura Is not leu astonishing than its gigantic exterior t upon tha six- teenth step, and nearly in tha centra of the tide which faces the north, an entrance is obtained. A small narrow passage descends into the Interior fur about ninety-two feet. After various circuitous windings, the traveller arrives at an npartment, called tha ?ueen's chamber, which is 17 feet long, 14 high, and 3 wide ; immediately above It, Is another, called the king's chamlier | It is nearly twice the siae of tha for- mer. In this room stands a saroopbagus of red gra- nite, which, however, oontaina nothing but granita and diisL Above this, is a third apartment, called Davison's chamber, and named in honour of the dla- ooverar. To the same ludlvldual wa are Indebted for the first examination of the well, which la raferred to by Pliny as being eighty-alx cubSta In depth. Thia achievement waa acoamplished by Ur Davison alkar great labour and skill, and even parsonal danger. It was ' forwards explored by Mr Cavlglia, a travellor who has now been familiarly aaaoclated with Egyptlam antiquitiea, but he added little to thainformalion pra- viooaly given by the individual who prscedad nim. Wa an indebted to him, however, for the latest and moat complete survey of tha cavams In the pyramid of Cheope. In proaacution of his indeiatlgable laboura to penetrate thaaa mystical labyrinths, after having diacovered a new paasage, and aiuceedad In ventilat- ing tha interior, he arrived at a chamber sixty feet long, and iwenty-aaven broad, 7lth a fiat rooi^ and nearly filled with large stones and rubbish. It haa the appearance of an unfinished exciivation, and waa probably employed for tha performance or solemnlaa- tion of sacred myataries. Utlier passages won found, but their discovery led to no results of importance. To the calahratad BaUoui we ara Indebted for a knowk'Jgeof the inwriorof the pyramid of Cephranee, brother and success.->r of Cheops, but any detail of hia laboun would carry us far beyond our limits. Sufloe it lo say, that they wen directed with remarkable skill, and a peraeveraoca which no ohetniclion could arrest. It stands upon a rather higher elevation than that of Cheops, aud is builk of the same sjMciae of limestone, and joined with the same kind of cement. Ite base is 084 feet, and ite height 4A0. The slope an much splintered and broken, but it can be aa- cended to a certain extent on the eonthern side with- out great difficulty. The opening of this pyramid pnsenu to us a striking instance of discrimination and tact. Herodotus had declared that It conteined no chambers, and modern mvellera had taken this e» dll for granted. The practised eye of Belionl, however, detMted rartein Indicetlons of^an entrance, and, after many days of labour upon the hard stone, ho found himself at laat ia a chamber hewn out of the solid rock, from the loor to tha roof, which last is of the same stone as the pyramid Itself. In the ssroophagus wen the iHinee uf an animal, verv generally tupnoied to ba those of a oacted bull, an object of veneration among the aiideni Egyptians. On the wall at the weal ena of the chamber he perceived an Arabic Inscription, from which It has been inferred that the two larger pyramids had been explored, at the distance of many yean, by some of the caliphs. The third large pyra- mid i< that of Mycerlmusi but It Is n god int ieee, and not s of nunj pvrs* yariod bmwMa 1000 ind 800 y—n Uton the Chrli- tianwa. iranrx axd tdhvli aioitxd thx muMioi. ManMnnM ruined adltces and tumult 11* Mattered •boat at random among the other py ramldi, like graTea - in a ohurchjrard, and extend north and wuth along die left bank of the Nile u far aa the ejre can reach. The ilone bulldinga, luppoeed to be mauioleunt, are nnerallf of an oblong form, baring thirfr walla illghtly Inclined from the perpendictUar inwardi, the peculiar diaracteHitlc of ancient Egyptian archlteetura ; Aat- roofed, with a urt of parapet round the outtide, formed of itonea t rounded at the top, and riaing about a foot ■bore the lerel of the terrace. The walla are con- ttructed of large maeaea of atone, of irregular ahape. The rarloua chambera of theae edlflcea were found to be profiueiT embelliahed with aculptnrea and baa- relief paintinga, manr of which wet* apirlted and beautiiuL Tn one of tnem were found the remaioa of aereral mummiea, and in another the fragmenta of a Bgnre aa large aa life. An important orcumatance rraiaina to be noticed i In eadli of theae edificea then waa diacorerad a well, from the bottom of which a paaaage led to a aubterranean chamber. Carlglla cleared out one of tbeee ahafia, which waa alzty net deep < and in the chamber be found a plain but highly. finiahed aarcophagua, nearly of aimilar dimenalona with that in the pyramid of Cheopa. Thla auppUea a atrong •iwument in farour of the hypotheala, that the pyra. mMa are tomba. By far the moat brilliant of Mr Cariglla'a diuore. rlea, are thote to which he waa led In the laborioua taak of uncorering the great aphinx in front of the pyramid of Cephrenea. On the atone plallbrm on the loreground, and centrally between the outatretched pawa of the aphliix, waa dlacorered a large block of Kanite, which fronted the eaat, and waa highly em- lliahed with aculpture In baa-relief. Two other tableu of calcaraoua atone, almilarly ornamented, were auppoaed, with that of granite, to have conttituted part of a temple, by being placed one on each aide of the latter, and at right angfea to it. One of them In Ihet waa ttUl remaining in ita place. Of the other, which waa thrown down and broken, the fragmenta are now in the Britiah Uuaeuip. A amall lion oou- ohant, in front of thia edifioe, had ita eyea directed towarda the aphinx. There were, beaidea, aereral fragmenta oF other llona, rudely carved, and the fore- part of a aphinx, of tolerable workmanahlp. In front of the temple waa a granite altar, with one of the four ■' homa" atiU retaining ita place at the angle. From the elfecta of Are erident on the atone, thia altar, it would aeem, had been uaed for burnt-offerlnga. In- acriptlona were found upon the digite of the pawa, but of no moment. Like every thing elae In Egypt, thia aingular monu. ment baa been the aubjeet of rery oppoaite repretenta- tion. The general aoouraor of Dr Xlohardaon Inducea ua to lay hia account of it Wore the reader. " The breaat, ahonldera, and neck, which are thoee of a hu. man being, remain uncorered ; aa alao the back, which ia that of a lion. The neck la rery mnch eroded, and, to a peraon r jar the head, aeema aa if it were too beary for ita anpjx 7t The head-dreaa haa the appearance of an old-rathioned wig, projecting out about the eara like the hair of the Berberl Araba ; the eara project oonaiderably; the noie la broken ; the whole face haa been painted red, whirh ia the colour aaaigned to the ancient inhabltanta of £gypt, and to all the deltiea of the country except Oairia. The featuree are Nubian, or what from ancient repieaentation may be called ancient Egyptian, which ia quite dilTerent from the negro feature. The expreulon la particularly placid and benign, ao much ao that the worahipper of the aphinx might hold np hia god aa auperior to all the other goda of wood and atone which the blinded na- tlona worahipped.** Aa to the dimenalona, the aame author informa ua that the atretch of the back la about 130 feet, and the elevation of the head above the aand from thirty to thirtr-fire. The head of thia aphinx ia auppoaed to be tnat of a man, a ktard whicii waa found betw apolia. In reapect to the magnlfleence and beauty of ita aeveral parte, thia temple haa been pronounced'aa bar- ing no parallel in the whole world. It haa twelve principal entrancca, each of which ia compoaed of ae- reral propyla and coloaaal gatewaya, beaidea other buildlnga attached to them, In themaelrea larger than moat other templea. The aldea of aome of theae are equal to the baaea of the greater number of the pyra- nuda in Middle Egypt. One of the propyla ia'en- tirely of granite, adorned with the moat finished hleroglyphlca, and manv of them have been furnished with coloeaal atatuea. !rhe avennea of aphiuxea that lead in aereral directiona to the propria, one of which waa continued the whole way acroek the plain to the temple at Luxor, nearly two milea distant, correapond totne magnificence of the principal acructure; and the body of the temple, which ia preceded by a large court, conaiau of a prodlgioua hall or portico, the roof of which ia aupported by one hundred and thirty- four columna, aome twenty-six, othera thirty.four feet in circumference t four beautiful obeliaka then mark the entrance to the ahrine, which conalata of three apartmenta, built entlraly of granite. The di- menaloiu of thia great edifioe aro about 1200 feet In length and 420 in width. But the principal fane, grand and linpoaing aa it la, ainka into nothing when compared with the extent and number of the build- lnga which aurround It; the prodigioua gatewaya of poliahed granite, covered with aculpture and adorned with colMaal atatuea; the auboi'dinate templea which any when elae would be esteemed magnificent pilea; and the avenues, which approach it from almost every point of the compass, milea in length, and guarded by rowr of apblnxea of vaat size, cut out of single blocka of ayenlte. The field of ruina at Karnac ia about a mile In diameter. Probably the whole of the apace waa once, in the prouder days of Thebea, conaecrated entirely to the use of the temple. About a mile and a quarter above Kamac ar« the village and temple of Luxor. Thla temple, though not of auch vaat dimenalona -:> i that of Kamac, ia In a auperior style of architecture, and in moro com- plete preaerration. The entrance ia thought to aur- paaa every thing elae that Egypt preaenu, and the two obeliaka are conaidered the fiueat in the world. But the objecta which moat attract attention an the acnipturoa which corer the eaat wing of the northern front. They contain, on a great aca!e, a representa- tion of a rictory gained by one of *.he ancient kinga of Egypt over their Aaiatio enemies. The number of human figurea introduced amounts to ISOO, 500 on foot and 1000 in chariota. The diapoaition of the flguree, and the execution of the whole picture, are equally remarkable, and far aurpaaa all preconceived Ideaa of the atate of art at the remote era to which we muat attribute them. After paaaiug aeveral gatewaya, we enter what ia con- jectured to he the palace of the great Oaymandyaa. Theae ruina of LuTror and Kamac repreaent only one- half of ancient Thebea. The templea of Medinet Abu are alao aplendid, and upon a grand acaie. It waa ao placed as to be exactly oppoaite to that of Luxor, on the other aide of the Nil^ while the mag- nificent atructura at Karnac waa fronted by the Mem- nonium or temple of Dair; and hence all theee grand objecu formed ao many atagea or prominent pointa In the religioua proceaatona of the prieata. Though the tabernacle of Jupiter dwelt at Kamac, the proper DIoopolia, yet It waa carried over the river every year, and remained a few daya in Libya; and we find, from a general estimate, that there waa a apace of between nine and ten milea over which they might exhibit the pomp and parade of their superatition Imth going and returning. Almost every part of the road through thia immense theatre was lined with aphrnxea, atatuea, prepylaa, and other objecta calcu- lated to inflame the ardour of devotion. MEMNOHIUai AND aTATRE OF UEMNOK. Thia celebrated relic of antiquity, the palace of King Memnon, facet the eaat, and ia fronted with a aiiiptindaut propylon, of which 234 feet of its length are still remaining. To the minute Dr Richardaon we are indebted for the meet elaborate aoomnt of It, only a amaU portion of which, however, we can afford apace for. The temple la in a nther dilapidated con- dition. Erer' ^toiie In the propylon appeura tu bar* been ahtker ' .J looaened, aa if from the coiicussloa of an earthquake. The poaaagea which conduct to the chambera an ao broken and filled up, aa hardly to udmit of examination. The walla are In vari(m> parte ornamented with aculptnrea, and other pictorial devicea. One of the most atriking ia a buttle acene. The varioua aituation. it victora and vanqiiiahed nre repreaented In a very lively manner, and the whole aculpture, though but roughly executed, ia full of fire. In the Memnonium there ia atill to be Heen the atatue of Oaymandyaa, or Seaoatria, which ia allowed to be tht fineat relic of art which the place conteina, although ahattered and broken. It ia about twenty- aix feet broad between the ahnuldera, filty-four feet round the cheat, and thirteen feet from the shoulder to the elbow. There are on the hack hiernglyphlcal tableta, extremely well executed, which identify thia enormoua atatue 'with the hero whoae achievement! were aculptured on the walla of the t'.'inple. The abore figure haa sometimes been confounded with that of Memnon, so lung celebrated for its vocal qualities. The latter, however, ia one of the two atatuea vulgarly called Shamy and Damy, which atand at a little diatance from Midenet Abou, in the dirMtlon of the Nile. Theae, we are told, are about fifty-two feet In height. They reat on thronea, which are reapectlvely thirty feet long, eighteen broad, and between aeven and eight high. They are placed about forty feet aaunder, are In a line with each other, and look 'towarda the eaat, directly oppoaite to the temple of Luxor. The aouthera one appean to be of one entire atone. The face, arma, and front of the body, have auffered ao much, that not a feature of the countenance remaina. The head-dreaa ia beautifolly wrought, OB alao the ahonldera, which, with the back, are uninjured. The maaay hair projecta from behind the eara like that of the aphinx. The aidea of the throne are highly ornamented with elegant devicea. The colotaua ia in a aitting poature, with the handa reat!ng upon the kneea. On the outaide of each of the limba there la a amall atatue, and another between the feet The gigantic atatue which atanda on the north Btda^ would appear, from varioua oircumatancea, to be that of the vocal Alemnon, who waa aald to play a lively atrain when the aun rose, and a melancholy one when be set. It preaenta the same attitude aa ita compa- nion, with a aimiUr figure between the feet and on each aide of the lega. It haa, however, been broken orer at the waiai, and half of It taken away ; but the figure haa been again completed by couraea of com- mon aandatone. It ia entirely faahioned like the upper part of the other, having aereral hieroKlyphica, and other emblema, aculptured between the ahonldera, but they are not of ao elegant a chancter. Theae atatuea stand on either side of an arenue leading to a place of worship, and eridently were followed by a series of other colossal figurea, aa the remaina of aome of them are atill riaible. Beleoni here fonnd a hand- aome atatue of black granite, which ia now within the preclncta of the Britiah Museum. Dr Richard- aon ia of opinion that thia ruined temple ia the Mem- nonium, and not that where the broken atatue of Oar- mandyaa ia to be met with. iil •EPULcnsEi. ■h Nothing about the ancient Egyptiana appeara l« our European ideaa mora remarkable than their mag- nificence in adorning their placea of aepulture. Wiui them the abodea of the dead were aa carefully oon- atmcted, and aa lariahly decorated, aa thoae of the liring. The number of caves, and grottoes, und suite of catacomba, not only for the reception of human bo- dice, but thoae of the lower animals, aa we ahnll after- warda aee, ia prodigioualy great. Some of the moat remarkable of theae tomba are in the ridnity of Thebea. The mountaina on the trealern aide of that once gorgeoua metropolia, hare been nearly hollowed out aa tomba for the Inhabltanta ; and a aolltary val- ley In the neighbourhood ia alao full of theae gloomy receptadee for the dead. Thoae farther up the river, at Klelthiaa, though leu aplendid than the Tbeban aepulchrea, contain more lllnatratlone of the private life of the Egyptiana. The Egyptian aepulchral chambers are in general entirely covered with freaoo paintinga and baa.raliefa, and frequently contain ata- tuea, raaea, &c Some of them, the royal aepulchrea for inatance, conalst of auiu of apacloua oalla and long galleriea of magnificent workmanahlp. Those of pri- vate individuala vary according to the wealth of th« deoeaaed, but they are often very richly ornamented. Mr Belxoni, who poeaessed an Infailible inatlnct for detecting the aecret acceaaea to theae gloomy abodes, dlacorered aereral vaulta of a moat aplendid deacrip- tion. The chambera were of ample dimenalona, and lariahly adorned with paintinga and aculptuna. In one of them waa found a aarcophagua of beautiful workmanahlp, and in all raapecta auperior to any thine of the kind ever brought to Europe. Dr Voimg diacovered among the drawlnga copied from this tuinb, the namea of Necho and Paammia, kings of Kgypt, the farmer of whom conquered Jeru> aalem and Babrlon, and the latter warred with the Ethiopiana. tience, it appeara evident that thoae n i. m Hi CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. tank* oonUlMd tk* uhM of th« iwa Pkanalu aliar* B*BMd, who flouriilMd iMuljr iUW nm ■«& K«wy OM muM b* buUiw with IhoH unbi »f th* ■Bdml EfrMiaiu, nlM catwoaki. ThoMoTAlu. u4riB ki* UM imt MtobrMri. bnl Id •pMioOHMW, MMnl MTiiigiiiit, u>d MBMlbhimnt, thay an biBriar lo tlw Mpulohns nlrMdy dMoribcd. Tk« udmt Emliant mbImIibW all th«ir 4m4, ■ad dapMltad tbdn in •ubCerraiMoui raulM, tuch m m kandMcribal. AninmuiwiiuiiilwrofdieahMbaan fimnd In the plafai of 8Mni»i ntv Mnnphil i Imiim wlM th* PUn of llw Mnmmiai, contliUng not anljr of bunun bodiat, but of rarioua animtli. Many of the BommiM on two or thno tbouund yoon old, •ad an >U In « •tow of wondorful pnoomtlon. Wo ■oy *bo obMTTO, that mat of iko lowor animal* bad llko bonoura paid to thorn, and that eataeomba lot •part for thoir nsoplioa bad boon diteonnd. BOUli or DXKDUA, 0% TEMTTajk. Thii Hono of mini la about half au hour's rid* from tho rlrar, and akoot UO milaa below 8raoa. Tkay •TO moro than a mil* In lanjfth, and half a mil* l» breadth. Tho grand object of Inioratt hora It the tomplo, a Tary celebrated ruin. Thi* magnificent tullding praaent* one of the mott ilriklnir uxamplee at that lumptuoui arohiucture and profuM orna. BMOt which the Egyptian* laTithed upon their wored odmca*. Some idea of It* grandeur may be gathe.-cd feom tho drcnnutance ncorded of the rcanch army during iu campai^ In Egypt. When the uJdier* lr*t Mbcld the rami, they were to overpowered with their gigantic else and extraordinary tieauty, th*l they exclalnied, a* with the heart and voice of one man, nich a li/jht more than repaid them fur all the tuffoiaga and danger* of tho war. It ii auppoied to bar* beat ooniecraled to the worship of laii, who waa tho principal doity In tho Egyptian raiithaon. The tample Itaolf *tiU retain* all IU original magnifioence. Tfaae ha* only rendered It more venerable and lin- poalag In appearance. Tho gateway which lead* to iba temple ha* in particular excited universal atten- ticn, on account of it* magnificence. Un the corners of the roof are several apartaieots, iu one of which i* the circular xodiac. Danon, who is extravagant in his prai*e of thi* eel*. brated place, copied the audiac, and tho celcatial plb nlnibere. TheaehaveexcitodmuchdiacuBsiounmongst jbOoaopkoia, a* tkoy are euppceed to Indicato aa an- •ifaily iuconeiatent with the ohnnolagy of ficripture. Bat nothing •atiafactory ha* re*ullad Itma thie learned tofairy. LAKK MdUa A«D CAHALS. Amongst the great wurka of the ancient Egyptian*, lake H ttri* Is worthy of a pl'usu, both for Us vaat •xtont and for iu patriotic object. It la a lt a atod in Middle Egypt, ahoiit 48 miles above Caink Berodo- tiu informs us that the circumfereocoof this vast sheet of water waa 400 milae, and that it had two pyramid* of great height in the centre. He add*, that it waa •nurely the product of hunwn indui^try. At pra*ent. the lake i* betwoon thirty and forty milo* hiog, aad ■iz mile* broad at th* gnate*!. Tba dolail* ooltectad by Berodoto* aad otlier writer* mu*t therafon have appliad to tba worka which were n*ces*ary not oaljr to connect tha Nile with the lake, but also to regulate the ebb and flow of \he inundation, The canal called Jceeph's River it atjut 120 ntiles in length. The most remarkable of the many Egyptiaa oaaale is that which connectsd the Nile, uear Bubaatis, with the Red Sea, near Arsinlie, In tlas vicinity of the mo. 4en Sua*. The length at it waa about uinety^wo BiUaa, of which it appeara that alxty^fiva war* ascoo. fUahed by huasan baour ; aad of that portioa aboat nai h*lf y*t exi*u ia a *tala more or lea* perftet. Iu breadth varied from 100 to SW Caet, aoeacding to the •haraalar of the ooantry which it traretaed. Iu depth hm aot keea *o accarately detaraaiaed, but it aieo mu*t Jura varied asoording to ciraaaulaaoe* i ia aooM paru it waa tan aad ia othei* probably thirty feet. Botae have aaeribad tha exocutioa of tbia great work to 8a- •eatria, aad oikar* lo Nacha* ; bat the aettliqg of the faiat i* a autter af imall maasaaL Tha Lab)'riBtk is m aa t io n ad by Herodolu* aa oaa of the gi aa wat wander* of Egypt, aad a moM sur- r rising effort of kaman ingenuity and peraeverance. I esMeded, ke saya, all that can be sard of it, and fkr sarpeaaod tba lemplae of tireeee. ronaiderable Ambt raau aa to ike liiaation aad remains of thit ex. traordiaary fabric The Oreek historian places it bayood tha lake Mnris, near tha city of Croeodilet, ■ow kaown a* Aniniie, or th* Arabian name of Me- dlnet.«l-Fayoua i aad here, accnrdiagly. It baa been diligently sought A>r by vari<«a mowm traveller*. FUny place* it at the weet mi of the fadie Mori*, in the neighhourbood of Term* ; and here Bolaoni, the •agaciouB and indefatigable, found some beaatiftll aiarble and granite remains, which induced him to adopt tlic opinion of the Roman naturalist. lu use le also a matter of learned dmiht, and so we must still lot it remain. After what we hare already seen of the remains of Kgyplian art, he would be a bold tbaarisl who would e overthrown, waa the cause of It A crowd of fanatical Christiana stormed and destroyed the temple of Jupiter Serapis, where the library waa, and the volumes were either burned or dispersed, and, like llie loal tribes of the Jews, they have npver been found. When Alexandria succumbed to the ca- liph Omar, it conulntd 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres or piildic edifices, and 13,000 shops, and a population which may be estimated by iu including 40,000 Jews. Iu appearance now Is moet melancholy and wiTtched, resembling, at a distance, according to one traveller, with iU ruin* grey, and flat-roofed houses, a town newly laid desolate by an enemy. The streeu are narrow, dirty, and irregular, and usually crowded with " half-fed,' half.clad, half-sarkil" human beings. The very climate of Ine place has been cursed. From having been once salubrious, it it now very unhealthy. " still Alexandria," says Sir Robert Wilson, *' must be pronounced the kev uf Egypt, although Insulated by water and desert m>m the surrounding conntry, since in iU harbour alone security cau be found for shipping of any burden throughout the year." The modern town does not occupy the site of the old one, which lies to the south, and preaenu an immenie field of confused niins. Over a space of from six ui seven miles in circuit, is spread an assemblage of broken columns, obelisks, and shape- less masses of architecture, which are inlersperMd with some more modern buildings, such as churches, moequea, and monasteries. Amid this scene of wide- spread devastation, a few objecu rise conspicuous, the moat remarkable of which Is " Pom;^v's Pillar ;** it Is about ninety feet high, and consisu of a pedesul, a vary fine shaft, and a Corinthian capital, each be- ing composed of one entire piece of granite. Vulgar belief ascribe* the erection of this pular to Cvear, in ot'ounemoration of his triumph over Pompey, but this is DOW generally considered as erroneous. The most plauaibb conjecture is, that it was reared by a gover- nor of Egypt, named Pompey, iu honour of the Em- peror Dtodesian. The next remarkable obiecU ve the two obelisks vulgarly called Cleopatra's Needles, one standing erect, and tlie other laid prostrate. They are composed each of a single block of granite, Doarly sixty feet high, and entirely covered with hle- raglyphiea. Thia clrcumttanoe indicates an Egyptian origiDi and it is conjectured that they were con- veyed thither from Memphis. The ancient lanal be- tween Cairo and Alexandria has lately been restored by Mehemroed All, and the commerce of the place by this means gr-atly improved. We cannot leave Alex- andria without noticing that spot the most Interest- lug to a Briton, where the Frvnch were defeated by our troops under the gallant Abercrumbia, who fall In the actiou. The field of conflict lirs three or four miles from the town, on the road to Roaetta. Of the maritime tract which ilea between this place and Alexandria, our topographical knowledge u limited, aad th* tilas of several ancient utiet ia £mblful. BoaCTTA. This plaea ia aituated on the weatwa hank ef tke Bolbitiaie branch ol the Nile, aboat four miles fhan iu mouth. Iu proper name ia Raachid, and here, say the natives, the renowned Al Raachid wa* liorn, Ro- aetta ia rather a handaomely built town, and i* nearly mrrouaded with gardens. Th* gnat maequa i> vaiy large, and iU roof is supported tiy a number of co- litan*. The Fmch finind in tai* place a stone oovared with hiaroglypblc*, whieh haa alnee become ealebratad under tb* name of tho Roietu stone. The town, however, is not of high antiqolly, hiving been built, it is supposed, by the caliph* In the ninth cen- tury. The potation is about 9000, and It* trade rather good, but on the dedina i and, beside* itt gar. den*, there is no object of curiosity to retain the tra. vailv from praeaeding to nAHlETTA. Oa tha road thither, besides aavaral lawaa, is the viUaga of tia-el.hajar (tulation of 70,000^ 3000 wen the only remaining relids. At prasent tha number of InhabitanU Is supposed to amount to ha- tween 80,000 and 30,000. Damletta ia the grand em- porium for rice, of which great quantllle* are ban stared In Immense magaxinei. Of the country lying between Roaetta and 'lie Damletta arms, we have no detailed description, netween Damletta and lake Burulloo is . tt extensive tract of deaert or moraas, supposed lo be the Klearchia or Bucolic of the sndenta, the country of marshes and buffalo herds. The lake we have named extends across a considerable portion of the basis of the present Delta. It takes its naaie from the ancient Paralos for Paralion), situated on the western side of the Sebennylic mouth. On the southern side of the lake vas the ancient Buto, Pha- neto, or Phlhenothes, which possessed several splen. did temples, now to bt traced to a few scattered ruins. Nearly in the centre of the Doha, In a fertile tract, is situated Tantah, or Tandeta, a populous town. It owes its prosperity chiefly to the crowds of pilgrim* who at the vernal and summer solstice come to visit the tomb ot a Moslem saint who lies burled here. On the southern bank of lake Menxaleh are the remains of the ancient Tania 'Tobably the Zoan of the Ha. brew scriptures). Tb.f place is now called Saun, a^d the French found here fragmenu of seven obelisk*, remain* of a colossus, monolithic temples, and other edifices of vast dimensions scattered over a great ex. tent of ground. Upon the Syrian frontier are the remains of the ancient Pehuium, which are a few fragments of granite. On our way to Cairo, beddea several less Important places, we meet with Buhaatai^ one* famous for iU tample and other magnificent buildings, of which a few scattered fragmenU remaio- OXAHD CAiao. The whole way from the coast to this place la strewed with ruined sites aad decayed towns, inter* sported with wretched villages, at once indicative of extinct grandeur and present misery and oppivsdon. New Cairo, the present capital of Egypt, or a* the oriental* call It, by way of eminence. Grand Cairo^ waa built about a. d. 071, by Almanaor, the first of the Tatimila dynaaty who reigned over Egypt. It It aituated about a mile and a half from the Nile, and extends eastward nearly two miles to the mountains, being, according to Pocock, seven miles in dream, ference. It is surrounded with a stone wsM, Bar* mounted by fire battiemeuU, and fortified with numa* roua lofty towers. There are three or four beautiful gates, which unite siroplidty with grandeur and magnificence. It it traversed by the canal which en- ters on the south, and goes out at tha north. It ia from fifteen to twenty feet broad, and ia kept in bad repair. When the water* of the Nile begin to in. crease, the mouth of the canal Is dosed with earth, and a mark placed upon it to Indicate the time for opening thi* *nd all th* othtr canal* in the Idngdom. Thi* i* whan the Inundation ha* raachad Iu height, and tha opening ia celebrated with great festivTtim and rojnicing. Like avery other Mahommedau capi- tal, Cairo, of course, conuins a great number of mosques, some of which are very splenilid, being adorned with the plunder of Ueliopolis and Memphis. Tha largest mosque Is that of Aahar, which stands in the middle of the city i on the east uf the town is the castle, diuated on a projecting point of Mount Mo- kattam, It completely oommands the city, but is it- sdf commanded by a mountain ridge behind, where a fort ha* been erected by th* present pacha. Tha in- terior of the castle is spacious^ and contains the pa- cha's palace, the mint, and, in the middle, thefamoua well of the famoua SaUdiu. It is 46 feet In drcumfa- reace at the orifice, and descends tLrougb a calcaraoua rock to 370 feet, where it opens a spring on a level with the Nile. The water is raised by machinery. Tliere is in Curo another celebrated well, which is named after Joseph, but It has iiotliiiig to recommend it but iu great siae. The new and the old citadd oover aa immense extent of ground ; they were for- merly separated, but the French united tliem. AU the splendid remains of antionlty are in the new cita. dd. Old Cdro, now called Tasut and Miar, is sup- posed to occupy the tile of the Egyptian Babylon, which wa* *dd to have been built by the foliowen of *' the great Persian conqueror, Cambyses." It is now about two miles in circumference, although, in tbe twelfth century, iu length and breadth were nlna milea each. Here there 7s a Coptic church, In which it is said Joseph and Mary dwelt with the inhnt Ja. m*. Adjoining to it I* tba ca*tl* of Babylon, in whicb rmide* the (iraek patriareh of Alexiuidria. Accord- ing to Mr Mengin, Cdrooontdns 340 prindpal street*, 46 public place*, II baiaan, 140 schools, 300 public cisterns, 1106 ooffeaJiouses, Od public baths, 400 mosques, and I hospital, a wretched affair. The po- pulation Is supposed to exceed 3M),000. Amongst tba remarkable placvs near Cairo, are the ruins of tba dty uf On, the Heliopolis of tlie Oreeka. They aia a mile and a hdf in drcumferemv, and consist of dial* tared obelisks, suiues, and the other ramdiis whiab EGYFr. iih«noMriM *D uoitnt Egrptian oily. Tht pyrunldi «• h*n tlrwiljr dmcrtbed, and ulio the numaroui tumuli which lurmund them. The whole InMrme- dUte ipace between the borden of lake Mosrlt end Djluh is 80 completely occupied with cetuomba, teni- plea, pyrainlda, and mauioleunii, aa to render the iup- poaitlon probable, that it waa one vaat cemetery, in the iiantra of which stood the far-fomed citv of Memphii. Of theM we have already glren aa detailed an account u our limit! will permit of. £- - it the«b and lome other rem.iantt of antiquity, of iio particular import- ance, together with a few intigniiieant modern townt, there la nothing to detain ui from entering upon a deMcrlption of HIDDLI EOTTT. The ieven gotrernmenia into which Middle Egypt waa divided, ate now comprised in the five prorincea ~ Beni Souef, or Beh. ol Djiseyeh, Atufieb, Fayoum, Beni I nesawiv eh, and Ushmunein or Minyat. The first of theso presents nuthing of importaaoe. The second is an inlaud which divides the IViU at the most southern pyramid of the Uasbour group. Attafieh, the capital, is said to be a place of aama consideration i but it haa been seldom Tisiied by traveUst*, so that we are but very imperfectly aci)uainted with it. The others we shall notice as tliey occur In our peregrinations up the Nile. Nut to Cairo, the most considerable place in this part of the country is Benl Souef, tlie capital of a be^ dom of llie same name under the Mamelukes. It is'situateil at about lU miles above Cairo, in one of the richest and most extensive tracts of corn land io Efypt. Penetrating a pass of the sylvan chain of mountains, at about fifteen miles west.south-west of this town, we enter the district of Favoum. Mcdiuet- el-Fayoum, the capital, is situated in lat. 2U° 20' nnrtli, long. 31° 1' i)0" east, built from the materials aid partlyoQ the siteof the ancient Crucodilopolis,thenai.>e of which was changed Ui ArilnBe, by Ptolemy PhilB- delphus, in honour of his sister. It cmtains about iMKM) inhabitants, chiefly Moslems, with the usual proportion of mosques and baths. A ritual from the Bahr Vousuf divides it inui two psrts, which are connected by five bridges. The principal remains of the ancient city lie to the north of the present town, occupying an area nearly two miles and a half from north tu south, and two miles from east to west. Amongst the ruins are numerous fragments of statues, obelisks, &C. The name of Arsinlie waa one of the most celebrated in Egypt, and so late as the time of the Kuraaiis con. tuned a flourishing popuhUion. Favoum is still reckoned the most productive part of bsypt, and all the country as far as lake Ma>ris is well cultivated. This celebrated lake, and the interesting ruins on its banks, we have already adverted to. The next place of any umsideration is Miucet or Minyeh, which is reckoned furty-seveii leagues from Cairo. It is the f principal town in the province of Oshmunein, and is arge and handsome. About three leagues higher up on the other s:de of the river, near a ruined village called Boni Hassan, are some remarkable caves and grottoes, formerly the abodes of eremites. About eight miles to the south.aast, are the ruins of tlie Uonian city Antiniie. They are extensive, and exhibit the remains of considerable architectural magnificence. Nearly opposite them, on the western side of the river, is a considerable village called Al Kairamnun, where All Pacha has t tublished a sugar-manufactory and a distillery. In the environs are extensive sugar- plantations, and there is a saltpetre-manufactory in the neighbourhood. About six miles to the soutli- west of this place arc the remains of Hermopolis, an ancient town, whose represenutive is a largo village called Oshmunein. About a league to the south of it Is tlie large and well-built town of Mellaiie ; and ten leaguos farther on, and near the western shore, that of Manfalnot, anciently a plaoeof great trade. It is a sort of capitsJ, and the see of a Coptic bishop. The adjacent country is very fertile, particularly iu fruits. About two leagues farther up, on the eastern side of the river, are several pita in which are do- posited the mummies of croeodiles. But we have now entered the Said, or Upper Egypt, which properly be- ?'ns with Manfsioot, which Is a sort of frontier town, he valley of the Nile is iu tills part about eight miles from mountain to mountain, and, above Munfaioot, a cultivated place, commences on the eastern side of the river. For many miles the lefi bank of the river is perforated with excavations, which, however^ have not been explaiued. UFPEK EOTrT. Upper Egypt, or tha Thebaid, is now divided into the three provinces of Siuut, Djirdjeh or Ikhmim, and Keiineh or Thebes, ctmiprisiiig a native popula- tion of rather more than 000,000 souls. This estimate Includes Maufelntiyeh. Siout, or Suyut, situated in lat 27' lO* N., long. ii\' 13' E., may now be couaidered aa the capital, l>e- ing the residence of Ahmed Pacha, the sou of Me- hemmed. Under the Jilamelukes, the capital of the Said was Djirxeb. Siout is well situated, about a mile and a half from the western bank of the Nile, an amphitheatre of hills rising behind it. This town, which would appear to be barely re- spectahle in appearance, contains about 20,000 in- habitants. It is supposed to occupy the site of the andent Lycopolls, wiilcli tierived its name from the worship of tha jackall. The only vestiges of this an- dffit city are some mounds of rubbish outside the town, and soma lepulchral excaTationi In • ntlgh- 171 bouring mov itain. Thay are adornad in tha same manner aa the other Egyptian tombs which we have already dascribed. About thirty-four miles to tha south of Slant, on the opposite shores of tha river, are the villagu which bear the names of the eastern and western Kau orut the emiilems seem to indi- cate that it was dedicated to the genius of population, rather than to the destroyer Typlion, whose dreadful image frowns down upon the lieliolder from several parts of the building. A short diitince above Edfou, are some ancient quarries, of consideraliie size, which have Iteen fashioned into dwellings and shrines, and covered with sculpture and hieroglyphics. Dr Ri- chardson observed in one part a sphinx, half cut out in another, stones merely outlined, and in other In- stances blocks nearlv disengaged, and the splinters lying about with so fresh an appearance, that it seemed as if the labourer had left his work only the evening befor«, and might be expected to return to resume it. But that yesterday was 2000 years ago, and the mor- row never came. Along the banks of the river are numerous tablets, devices, and excavations, resem. bling tombs or temples cut In the perpendicular face of the rock. After passing a strait, and entering upon a well- cultivated soil, the noble ruin of the tempie of Umbos Ere*nts itself to view. It stands upon the western ank of the river, and froiits the mat, rather a sin- gular circumstance, aa all the other temples face the 9att, The Ombites seem to have worshipped the cro- codile as an emblem of Osiris, as the sei'iient, tlie ibis, and tho hawk, were symbolical of other deities. still reiaain, and, though slight and of snn.drltd hrkk. are very entire. They are flanked with lowan M unequal dlstancM. Many of iht walls iif th* kmitta are also aunding, lint thay art *U unrooAHl. Fram tha Interior of many of than, paiaacaa lead down la tha chambers of bouaaa balonglii| to tha anelaitt dly, wUoh ara now under ground i of tho old town a wv lasignifioant ruiai arc all Iho raaialai. litAirD or xiiriiAMTiMA. This Island Is now eallod DJtalrM-iolditMr, Iht flowery Island, and It about SOOO faat in length, an4 •M feat in breadth. The iiortharn end Is low and alluTlal, wall cultivated, and shaded with palm.ttwa. Hero are tho ruins of Koman fortlflcallons, oppoalto tu which, on tho eaatorn bank of tha Nile, art romalu of Arabian works. There Is an anelant quarry, fimn which latfe oolumns hara bean excaTalod i the marka of the workman't ehlaol and wodgo ara aa draah aa li thoT were of yesterday. Soma ara lying Uookod out and partly wrought, and a largo taroopugtia la two> thirda cut out of the rock, Thora an a numhor o( arehltectural ramains, toulpturaa, and hloroclyphtaol ubiou. This heautlAil Island li inhabited by Nu. hians, who ara porfaelly black, witlioul haring any raaamblanca In their featurea Iu tho nagto, ■IRIXICB. In the moat southerly part of tho raal deaart of th* Thebaid, which lies between Iha valley of the Nlh and the Bed Sea, it the site of tha anelent city of Berenice, delightfully situalati In an oxiootivo plala almost surrounded with mountalna, lla rulna ar* still perceptible even to the arrangomeni of tho stroMa, and In the centra Is a small Egyptian tamplo. adomad in the usual manner i it is nearly covoraa with Band. Opposite to the town Is a very fine natural harbour, open towards the north, the ontranoa of which haa been deep enough for small vessels, but tha bar is ntiar Impassable at low water. Helauul supposaa this oil* may have no .talned 2000 housea and IU,000 inhabl. tautt. THC oani. Oasis is a Coptic word, and meant an InhnMled place. Thr Oases of Egypt ara thoae tpota nf fiinUo land whicV are found at Intervals " Ibw and (hr be- tween," i.i the middle of tliat vast plain of arid Hnd called the Lybian Desert. There are several nf Iheni, and are named, according to their tiao or tttuattun, the Oraat, Little, M'estern, Niirthorn, dio, Tht Xorlhtm er Otitis q/AlmiA, — This place, which is about 300 miles distant from Cairo, and about 100 from the Nile, is peculiarly interesting, from Its lieliig supposed to encliMe tho far-(bmwl taniule of Jupiter Ammon. The Ossis is abotil six milea long, and from four to five broad. It Is pretty fertile, ami con> tains almut 8000 Inhabitants. The capital Is »1M Siwah. Besides the splendid ramains of tha tempIO) supposed to be that of Jupiter Ammon, ara the riitna of other sacred places, and a number of aeptilvhral ox* cavatioiis. GrMi Oasis.— This Oasis Is formed of a number of fertile isolated spots, wliich lie In a lino parallal tn Ik* course of tlie Nile, and to the mountains whl^h bound the valley of Egypt on the west. It Is aluiul two dava' journey from the nearest part uf the valley nf the NO*. The patches of firm land are separated frmn one an- other by deserts of twelve or fourteen hours* walk- so that the whole extent nf this Oasis is nearly 100 miles, tho greater pmpiirtlon consisting of a deaart. It contains many gardens watered with rivulets, and Its palm groves exhibit a perpetual verdure. Ad> carding to n more recent account. It contains Egyp- tian ruins covered with hieroglvphio inscriptions. The principal town is called Kl-Kargeh. Mara ara the remains of a temple beautifully aituatad In tho midst nf a rich grove of palm tn*es. Near El-Kargoh there is also a regular Necropolis or cemetery, ctmlain- ing 200 or 300 builiu^s of unliurned brick, chiefly of a square shape, and each sunnounted by a dtmto simt- lar to the small mosques erected over Iha gravoa ol sheiks. At distances of a few miles, some otliar ra- mains of ancient lempies are found. This whole oasis has always been and still Is dependent tm Kgypl. Nona of the other oases of the desert present us with any object worthy of being dwell upon, ■ECKNT IIISTOnV ANO rRtSEKT ITATK Ot IflTrT. The civil and political asiiecl of modern Egypt, la. Tolves In It tho history of Mehemnied All, the present ■TKNE. The next town of any consequence Is that of Syeiie, or, as It is now called, Assoun, the upper froiltior town of Egypt. It is situated in lat. 14° 6' 23" north, long. 32° A4' 49" east. lU natural position, so well adapted for a frontier town, has rendered it at all times a place nf impartancc. It was formerly a bishopric, but no Christians are now found here. Ruined churches and convents strike tlie eye of the traveller, but th>j Christian fuith Is unknown. Not only is It the last town in E,(ypt, but it is the lait place in this direction in which the Arabic is spoken as the ver- nacular tongue. Thn present town of Assoun hss been built a little to the north of a fiiriner town of Siiracciiic origin, the ntliis of which are seen above it, and which was itself built upon the ruins nf a Roman city. The whole .own is encompassed with Tf stiges of bu'ildiiigs ; tho most interesting are about the old town, which occupies a Strang and commanding position ; the walls pacha. On thelandiugof lite French Iu Egypt, lie hatl a contingent of 31)0 men placetl under his oommand, witii the title of Birt'IiouthL In the first battle in which heengagetl, against a division of tlie French, heiiulttho greater part of his men t but his splrlteii civ viccniy iHtCttinu very un- popitUr, iiiid iht» |wi)pl« cMllnl out fur Ali to Minme Ui« lupreiue nutltnrityt and Ui« wiihei or the people were very eooa ecomled to by the Porte, which ounitl- tuted him * raoha uf three uilty •*iih the f(overument of Egypt. Hit elemiion wu tif^nehwd by a rictory obuined over the Kngliih before Rueetta. By the liberal policy which he adopted, the prosperity of the ootinti-y advanced with extraordinary rapidity. He wai piilty, hnwererj of an atrocity, wh'ch not a little auint hla character. In 1811, he invihed the Mame- luket tft Cairo, with a show of friendship, whllet he had laid plans for basely assassinating them. Ue ef. fected Iiis purpose, but not without creating a dreadful tumult. Mild Wing nearly blown up himself in the train he hud tired, ile next carried the terror of his arms into Arubia, from whence, however, he was recalled hjr the news ut' Napoleon's escape from Elba. The victor:' of Waterloo, however, soon left his mind easy retarding the designs which his great contemporary mtght have upon Kgypt. He next directed his attt>n> tiliu tolhearmy, which he attemptedy-guards and at- tendants, with those of the prinHpal officers of the state. Colonel 8eve, formerly aid-dey means «f which he has creaietl for himsell' au inllueuce in- calculably great, and which is dilTtified to the very verge i*( the vast province ovor whicii he presides. Virtually independent, he has hitherto nmtinued fiirmally to acknowledge the Ottoman luperiority, whilit, at the same time, he wields the sceptre with as little restraint as the most arbitrary of oriental deepots. The administration is in the hands of the following officers : — The Keaya Bey, who may be •tWed prime minister; the Aga of the Janistn'rieii, svKo is at the head uf the war department ; the Ouali, or bead of the military police ; the Mohlosib, or su- perinlendant of the markeu ; and the Bash-aga, ur master of the civil police. In every district a heuds- inaii is appointed to determine differences by arbitra- tion, and to watch over the peace and good order of his neighboitrhood. The civil officers have no fees, but are allowed hxed lalaries, and so effectually are the duties of police performed, that the streets of Cairo are as safe as those of London. Criminal pro. secations are settled by a Cadi or judge, sent annu- ally from Constantinople, and nssisted by a certain number uf rheiks learned in the law. The cost of a civil process in about ftnir per rent, on the value Htignted, of which the cadi receives four-tifths and his assistants the remainder. Besides the public officers above men- tioned, there are many subordinate functionaries in the civil and military departments. The domestic e«tjU*lishmcnt of the'Pacna alone romprehends no fewur than fifteen hundred irdivlduals. Before the accession of A.i, the representative of the sultan was satisfied with a Jtiri or a land-tax. The Rrrsent viceroy, however, has taken the greater part of tbe territorial possessions Into his own hands, and granted a yearly pension, in name of compensa- tion, to the former proprietors; and those who still hold possession of the land cannot dispose of any part of the crops until the government agents take away as much as they think tit at their own price, in place of tbe cstabUsmd mirt, the retainers of the court are served with agricultural pn>duce nt one-half its cur- rent value, and the Pacha himself regulates the price of what can be spved for exportation. No wonder then that travellers should view with astonishment the richness of the harvests, coutrarted with the wretched state of the villages. The fillahs 4>r agri. cultural labourers are liable to be cailetl frcmi their mud hovels to the ramp in case fif emergency, but the improvement in food and clothing seems no ade> ouate ooropensstion for the precarious liberty of which tlunr are thus for a time deprived. The revenue of Egypt is estimated at L.3,340,379, ariaiBg from land-tax, customs, the resumed lands •mounting to almost the whole of the cultivated soil, the conquered territories of Darfur, Hennaar, Nubia, and a large part of Arabia, a monopoly of nearly all iha Efyptian commerce, together with an excise on OBBufacluree and raw productions. The annual ex- ModiCura is calculated ut l*.l,7S7,0OO: of this, one- 170 half is reaulred for the army i L.UO,000 remitted by way of tribute to Constantinople! L.U.OOO to the support of the church and iba law t nearly an equal sum expanded on the pilgrimage to Alecrsj and about L.SOO,U00 on the Pucha*s own household. The Improvement in manufactures, in arts, and sciences, effected by this wonderful personage, are truly astonishing. Having experienced much diffi- culty and disap^ntmeut, so long as he had to employ foreigners in bis different undertakings, he has perse- vered in the srheine which he adopted some years ago, In sending young men of talent to Italy, France, mid England, to study the respective arts of these enlight- ened countries. Many of the Egyptian pupils have visited lK)ndun, and other parts uf OruiU Britain, where they have made themselves acquainted with every philiMu>phical discovery or ingenious mechani- cal Invention likely to contribute to the pleasure of their sovereign, or tlie benefit of their country. 8chot)Is have been instituted, where young persons of all ranks, and especially the Arabs, are instructed iu mathema- tics, fortillnation, guuuerv, foreign luuguagcs, and the best Europpuu tactics, 'i'lieluteit inventions are im- ported from France and Kuglund ; the must expensive apparatus and instruineuts procured t >u u word, all the mysteries of gas, steam, and lithography, nre not only known, but are tuples uf familiar conversation in the Egyptian capital. \\'e riiunot here omit mention- ing one of his most niagniiictiut undertakings, u canal which connects the harbour of Alexandria with the Nile, near Fouah ; a work forty -eight miles in length, ninety feet broad, and eighteen In depth, and which supplies the means of bringing the whole prudiice uf the country tu the liest place of exportation, without danger or delay. For his indefatif^able exertions in fonvarding this grand undertaking, he has received universal praiie. The whulu fxcavation was com- pleted in little uure than six weeks, and \he canal was opened with great pomp on 7th Deoemlier ItllD. The great increase of trade at the port of Alexandria has already compensated the Pacba for Jiis exertions, and evinced the wisdom of bis plan. Accident, however, has conferred upon him, as upon many othen, in the cultivation of the cotton-tree, a boon far greater than could have been derived from even the previous wise arrangement of his gifted mind. The discovery of the plant liy M. Jumel, in the garden of a Turk, lie pro- pagated afterwards with so much success and skill, as almost to have changed the commerce and statistics ot Kgypt. Near ('airo, a most superb establishment, equal if nut &u}iurfor to the finest Kiiro]tuun manu- factory, has beeu erected, for the spinning, weaving, dyeing, and printing of cotton goods. Here, also, are thu lateit iDiproveuients in machinery— •steam, the moving power—gas, tlie artificial light. And so great is the achievement of the Pucho, notuithstaiidiiig the infancy uf the nianufaclure, and manydisadvuutuges, at this moment ho is able to compete with the Euro- pean mauutacturer In every market to which he is ad- mitted, and .'an even undersell the merchants of India in their own ports. Besides cutt4iu, liiniiar attention hasbeenbestowcdonsilk,tlax, and the sugar-cane. As an additional proof that Egypt is keeptug pace with the progress ul the age, we may add that a newspaper is published under the auspices of this enterprising monarch. In fine, nothing seems wanting but a more enlightened experience, and the enjoyment of greater free,000 purses, wliivji tb« people readily paid. Interest soon prevailed uvrr gra- titude; for the rachaof Acre, conceiving there was far tduru to be gained from Constantinople thau from Cairo, sought every opportunity of leparatlng himself from Alehemmed All, and exciting the jealousy of the Porte against him. borne Egyptian fellahs having taken refuge under the guns of Abdalloh Pacha, offered un admirable opportunity to AH. He demanded the nieii, but the governor of Acre refused tu deliver them up, at the same time referring the arbitration tu the Porte, whu, w;;h a singular expression of humanity, bewailed the condition uf the ErypUan peasantry. Hence the origin uf the war. This was at the close of the year 18JI. The moment was favourable for the viceroy's great and ambitious deeigni. The exactions of uie Ottoman government had extended to every object of productiou and Industry in Syria, whilit the military conscription decimated the most industrious part uf the population ; and, therefore, it ts not at all sur- prising that the Egyptians ihould be hailed ai their deliverers. Ibrahim Pacha, the ste|*son of All, was placed at the head of the Egyptian army ; and associ- ated with him was Solyman Bty, formerly an offioer in the staff of Marshal Urouchy ; and to him may be chieflv ascribed the success of the Egyptian arms. At the head uf :f'J,000 n»ular tra ps and 4000 Bedouin Arabs, Ibrahim took the same route as Bonaparte, and advanced rapidly against Ht Jean d'Acre. Of Jaffa, Caipha, Jerusalem, aud Naploiiiia, he made himself master without firing a shot. Taboneh and all th« country between Qaia and Acre submitted at his ap. proach. On the 37ih Nor. 1831, he planted hlmstlf before 8t Jean d'Atre. The defence of this place by Abdallah Pacha was obstinate, and the siege was car* ried on with various success for nearly six months, when, on the 37th May 1833, a general assault was made at day-break, which lasted twelve liours, and was Anally successful. The capture of this place in- sured to Ibrahim the possessiou of Lower Syria, and enabled him to continue his progress with perfect security. Whilit Ibrahim thus actively pusbcd ou the campaign, the Parte organised an army of twice the itrength, and placed It under the command of MahummeJ Pucha, who displayed culpable negligence upon the occasion. She hIs<» Vulminatcd her bull of exrommunication, aud nt the same time proclaimed to the great powers of Kurope thai Egypt was in a state of blockade. Nicholas of Kussia recalled his consul from Alexandria, and even proffered a fleet with an auxiliary corpe d'arm^ ; Austria, alike hos- tile to revolution as improvement, threatened also the viceroy; England preserved the strictest neutrality; white France was employing all her influence strenu- ously for an accomnujdation, but in vain. The Divan, having refuKed tu listen to All's demands, the matter was referred to Hussein Piicha, the fteld-marshal, who bv his formal delays retarded the advance of the army. Uhe news of the fall of Acre having reached Huiiein, he found it imperative to occupy the passes of Hyrla, aud march immediately to Antioch, In order to caver Bevlaw. Before thii movement was effected, Ibrahim had descended into the valley of the Orontes, and en- tered tbe town of Damascus, after an unimportant sklrminh. All tbe operations of thu Turkish army were marked, as usual, with the most unaccountable inertness; aud it was not till July that HusMin waa ublu to effect any proffressivc movement. The march at last rommenced; but neglecting to issue rations to the troopn, when they reached Horn (a place he should have marched upon immediatelv after leaving Antioch) they were almost lifeless with )iunger and defeat. Ac the gates of the city was encamped the 8eraskier of Aleppo, with his irregular tnxips ; but without deign- ing even to think uf the enemy, or Issue rations to their stJirving troops, they spent their time In vain and iisrless ceremonies. Intelligence at length ar- rived, that the Egyptian army was within two hours* march of them. Dreadful was the disorder that en- sued. The half-famished soldiers dragged themselves in masses to meet the Arabs. Jt Is unnecessary to enter into details which must be familiar to every reader of the newspapers. The wholn Turkish army was dixi^rncefully put to flight, and pursued by the enemy's cavalry, till the approach of niffht alone saved the Turks from utter destruction. The loss ot* tlie tSultan's forces amounted to 2000 killed, and 2000 prisoners. Meanwhile, Ibrahim still advanced, re- calling his garrisons, and making new levies In the mountains. As he prosecuted his march, the whole country declared In his favour, and the castle of Alep]io was delivered up to him. On the 5th of August, the Egyptians made themselves masters of Antioch, after an action of only two hours. The route continued more like an easy march than a conquest ; and it has been asserted, that nt one time the viceroy had the idea uf attacking. In person, the Turkish capital by sea, whilst Ibrahim should threaten to invade it from Hcutarl. It was well that Alehemmed abstained from this attempt, as most assuredly Uusaia would have Interfered. An armistice for Ave months uwk place, when All, finding that the Porte would agree to no equitable terms, commenced another campaign, and almost annihilated the second army of the grand seignior; and Kedsched Pacha, the field- marshal, after performing prodigies of valour, fell severely wounded into the hands of the Kgyptiana. This was a decisive stroke, and nuthing but the timely Intervention of Russia saved the empire of Mahommed. Mehemmed Ali is now an independent sovereign, aud It is to the manner in which he appreciated the mili- tary genius of Europe he owes his glory. He now lays claim to .Svria, and that part of Caromania which lies l)etwe«u l^uurus and the sea, a territory where she will find those resources she most requlreiu-^mate- rials for Mhip-building, &c ; but, above all, a Chris- tian population, umonr whom, it is . he hd. n contemplating this grand consummation, however, one reflection forces itself upon us. It is, that, al- thmigh Egypt under Mehemmed All has made rapid and extraordinary strides in the march of civilixatlon, yet she has to push forward many a long day's jour. ney before she can bring herself in a line with even the rear ranks of European sutes. Indeed, it is im- possible, that, during the life of the present ruler, the miMlern Innorationi will have had time to take root in the S4>il, so as to propagate themselves spontane* ously, independently of the individual who may be the supreme head of government. KptMRVRtiK: Pubhihrd by W. and II. ('HAMnxNi, ID, Water- lm> Pttcvi also by dSR and Smith, I'ltemmtvr How, Lon- (tmtt onrt W. <'i!MRv, Juti. «h1 Co. Sacktille 8trwt. DebUik ^l>l(l by Jiihii MarU:nftUnd, and Ireland.— Publlahed unce a Ibftnight rroin the strsm-HrcN of W. and H. Chambera CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE CONDUCTED BV WILLIAM AND ROBBRT CHAMBRRS, BDITORH Or THB '< EDINBUROU JOURNAL" AND * HISTORICAL NEW8PAPKR." No. 3a P>ioB Iff. LIFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. PAAINTAOB AKO BOTnOOIl. Denjahih FftAMKLiN wu bom at BmIoo, in New KiigUnd, North America, on the 17tli Jimuary 1706, and wai the yonngnt but two of a Hunlly of ■aventaen chllilreof, two daughters being born after him. HU anceitora, aa f ar aa they can be traced back (at least three hundred years), were petty freeholdera at £aton, In Northamptunthire ; but if we may Judge by the sumanie of the family — the ancient Norman appella- tive for a country gentleman— we may conclude they had originally been of some consequence. After the Heformation, the immediate progenitors of Benjamin •ontiniied leiUously attached to the church of Eng- land till towards the close of the reign of Charles the Second, when his father Joelaa, along with his uncle Benjamin, became dissenters. These men were both bred to the trade of sUli-dyeing. Josias married early in life I and about the year 1G83 he emigrated, with his wife and three children, to America, on account of the persecutions to which he was exposed for his dii- aenting principles. On arriving in New England, he embraced the occupations (rf soap-boiler and tallow- •handler, of which businesses he previously knew no- thing, but only from their being at the time the like- iiest to provide maintenance for his Increasing family. if e appears to have l»een a man of great penetration and solid Judgment t prudent, active, and frugal ; and although kept in comparative poverty by the expenses of his numerous family, was held jn great esteem by his townsmen. In no respect wu his practical good sense more conspicuous than In the education of his children ; and his illustrious son frequently alludes, in terms of thankfulness and gratitude, to the many exemplary precepts and sound moral lessons he re- ceived while under the paternal roof. The following passage may be read with no little instruction by the heads and memlters of all families similarly circum- stanced t—** He was fond of having at his table, as often as poiiible, some friends, or well-informed neigh- hours, capable of rational conversation ; and he was always careful to introduce useful or iugepious ti>pics of discourse, which might tend to form the minds of his children. By this means, he early attracted our attention to what wu just, prudent, and beneficial In tho conduct of life. He never talked of the meau which appeared on the table ; never discussed whellier tht-y werb well or 111 dressed, of a good or bad flavour, high-seasoned or otherwise, preferable or inferior to this or that dish of a similar kind. Thus accustomed, from my Infancy, to the utmost inattention as to these objects, I have since been perfectly regardless of what kind of food wu before me ; and I pay so little atten- tion to it even now, that it would be a hard matter fur me to recollect, a iow hours after I had dined, of wliut my dinner had consisted. M'hen travelling, 1 t.avo particularly experienced the benefit of this ha- Itit ( fur It hu often happened to me to be in company with persons, who, having a mora delicate, because a more exercised taste, have suflTered in many cases con- siderable Inconvenience; while, as to myself,^ have had nothing to desire." Benjamin wu at first de. signed to be a clergyman, and at eight years of age was put to the gramniar.Rchool with that view, hav- ing previously been taught to read. His uncle Benja- min, who had likewise emigrated, encouraged this pro- ject. This individual appears to have been an equally eccentric and ingenious roan. He cultivated the Mnses with a success that gave himself, at leut, en- tiro satisfaction. But what he was most proud of wrr n spf cieft of short-hand of his own Invention, whers- M'itb he had carried off from the oonventiclea in Kng- laud several volumes of sermona whole and entire ; niid these he designed for his nephew*s stock-in-trade, i\ hen he should set up u preacher. But young Frank- lin had not been a year at school when his father per- ceived that his circumstances were quite Inadequate to the expenses necessary to complete his son's educa- tion for the clerical profession. He accordingly re- moved hlffl from the more loanitd Mminary, and placad him under a hnmble teacher of reading and writing for another twelvemonth, preparatory to binding him to some handicraft trade. APPRKNTICEIHIP. \Vhen his term at school was expired, being then ten years of age, he wu taken home to usist his fa- ther in his business ; but he soon testified such repug- nauce to the cutting of wicks for candlen, running errands, waiting In the shop, with other drudgery of the same nature, that, after a tedious and ilKbome trial of two years, hid father became afraid of his run- ning off to sea (fur which he confesses to have had a predilection), u an elder brother had done, and re- solved to put him to some other occupation. After much deliberation, therefore, he wu sent on trial for a few days to his cousin (a son of Benjamin), who wu a cutler ; but that relative being desirous of a larger apprentice-fee than his uncle could spare, he wu re- called. His brother James, a short time previous to this period, had returned from England, whither he had been sent to learn the printing business, and set up a press and types on his own account at Boston. To him, therefore, after no little persuasion, Benja- min at lut agreed to become apprentice, and he wu indentured accordingly for the term of nine yearsj that Is, until he should reach the age of twenty-one. The choice of this profession, as it turned out, wu a lucky one; and it was made after much careful and correct observation on the part of the parent. He had watched his son^s increulug fondness for bo4)ks, and thirst for informa^i, and that, too, of a solid and In- structive sort; and he therefore judiciously resolved to place him in a favourable situation for gratifying this propensity in the youthful mind ; while he would, at the same time, be Instructed in a profession by which he could always independently maintain him- self, wherever almoat bis fortunes might lead him, within the bounds of the civilised world. Franklin thus speaks of his early and insatiable craving after knowledge : — " From my earliest years I had been passionately fund of reading, and I laid out in books all the money I could procure. I was particularly pleased with ac- counts of voyages. My first acquisition wu Bunyan's culltction, In small separate volumes. These I after- wards sold in order to buy an historical collection by It. Burton, which consisted of small cheap volumes, amounting in all to about forty or fifty. Itly father*s little library was principally made up of books of prac ticul and polemical theology. I read the greatest part of them. There wu also among my father's books, Plutarcli's Lives, in which I read continually, and I still regaM u advantageously employed the time de- voted to them. I foundj besides, a work of De ^— " t have since remarked, that men of sense seldom fall into this error ; lawyers, fellows of univenitles, and persons of every profeuion educated at Edinburgh^ excepted !*' But to proceed : Franklin aud his companion having u usual got into an argument one day, which was maintained on both sides with equal pertinacity, they parted without bringing it to a termination ; and u they were to be separated for some time, an agreement wu made that they should carry on their dispute by letter. This wu accordingly done ; when, after the in* terchange uf several epistles, the whole correspunduncu happened to fall into the hands of Frankliu*s father. After perusing it with much interest, his natural acuteness and good sense enabled him to point nut to his son how inferior he wu to his adversary in ele- gance of expression, wangement, and perspicuity. Feeling the justice of his parent's remarks, he forth- with studied most anxiously to Improve his style ; and the plan he adopted for this purpose is equally iute« resting and Instructive* m ^PMRIP Pi CHAMBERS S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. *' Amidit Ihew rpwlve*," hewyi, *' ■»» ixld vwliim« of tlM 8p«cuuir feU into my handi. TUi wm k pub. liuttoa 1 had narer M«n. 1 houghl th* volume, anil remi it feMJii nntl airalB. I was rnchwitpit vlth It, thoufcht the itvia eic«ll0ttt, and wlihed It war* In my piiwer to iniiu'tfl iu With tbii view I wI«cUh1 aoin« of th) pHperi, made short iiimmarifti nf the ««na* of each p«rl(Kl, and put them fur n few day* anidr. 1 then, without lookiiiff at the 1>4m>Ic, endeavoured to Mature the ewaya to thair due form, aud to aapreta each thought at length, .i4 it wan in the original. em< pliiym^ the motit appriiprinte wordi that iK'curred to niy'iiiind. I aflfrward* compartnl my Kpeotator with the ttrJKinal. I perreived nome faulti, which I cor- rected ; hut I found that I ohieflv waatad a fund of WDnla* if 1 may w expreia mvMlr, and a faoUily of i»4>ollt>cting and ttropkiying tfaa'm, which I thought 1 aluiuld hy that time haveaoquiredt had I oontlnued to make veraek Tlie continual ni>«d of words of the aame meaning, init of different lengtlis fur the mea- •iiret and of diifvrei.t Munda for the rhyme* would have obliged me to leek for a variety of lymmymei, and have rendered me maater of them. From thii belief, I UMtk tome of the talei of the Spectator, and turneeen fortunate enough to iin< prove the order of the thought or •lyle ; and thii on* flournged me to hope that I ihould aucceetl In time In writing decently in the Knglith language, whioh waa mtm of the greateit objects of my ambition/* But It was not only by such rigunius salf-impoaed tasks that thiR extraordinary man, even at «n early an age, undeavoured to chasten his mind, and make every animal propensity suhservient to his sense of daty. He also began to exercise those acts of personal satr- danial which the hevday of ymith, tfie teaion for ani- mal enioyroent, foals as the must inlolurubtu of all xastrit^oni. liaving met witli a work rcconiiuending u ▼^fetablodlet,hedetfrniiiit>dtoiuloptit. Finding, after aome days' trial, that he was ridiculed liy his fellow- boarders for his singularity, he proposed to his brotlier to take the half o( what was now paid by vhat relative for his btiard, and therewiili to maintain himtelf. No objection was, of course, nude to such an arrangement t and he soon found that of what he r oeived he was able tosavvone^half. " This," says lie, " was a new fand for the purrhase of l>ooks, and other advantagvs ivaitlted to me from the plan. When my brother and Ua workmen left the priuting-luiuse u% go to diaitrr, I remained liehiud ; and dispatching my frugal meal, which frequently consisted of a biscuit only, ■' a slice of bread and a bunch of raisins, or a bun .''rom the pastry-cook *s, with a glass nf water, I had the rest of the time till their return for study ; and my progress tlierein was pntportioued to that clearueis of Ideas •od quickness of conception which are the fruits of tomperance in eating and drinking.'* Another remarkable Instance of the resolute vtkv \\\ which he set abont making himself master of what* •ver aeouirement he found more immediately nrces* aary to him at the moment, is the following t — liaving l>een put U) the blush one day for his iguoniuce in tlie art of calculation, which he had twice failed to learn while at school, he procured a copy nf (,'ot^ker's Arith- SBOtir, and went through it all, making himself com- pletely master of it, before turning his mlud to any ihing else ! lie soon after, also, gained some little ac- quaintance with geometry, by perusing a work on na- vigation. He mentions, likewise, his reading about this time Locke*s Essay on theUndersunding, and the Art of Thinking, by Ateaars du Port HoyaL Having found, in some essay on rhetoric and logic, a model of disputation after the manner of Socrates, which con- aists iu drawing on yitur opponent, by insidliius i|ues- tions, into making admissions which militate against himself, he became exi-essively fond of it, he says, and practi^Md It for some years with great suocasa, but oitimately abandoned it, perceiving that it could be made as available to the cause of wioug as that of right, while the prime end of all argument was to convinoe or inform. Abfmt three years after Franklin went to hla ap- prenticeship, that is to say, in l?*-'!, his brother bagan tt> print a newspaper, tlie sei'ond that was established in America, which he called the New KiiifJand (!ou- rant : the one previously entublished was the Itostun News fjetter. The new publication brought the most of the lUertiHnf lloston alhHii thenrinting^flire, many of whnm were onntributora ; and Franklin frequently overheard them converaing alwut tl>e various articles that appeared in iu columns, and the approbation with which particular ones were received. He b«» came ambitious to participate In this sort of famet and having written out a paper, in a disguised hand, ha slipped it under the door of the printing-office, where it was found next mon^ng, and ■ubmilted, aa vsnal, to the critics when they asaerobled. " Thay nad it," he says ; " commentca on it io my hearing f «ad I had the exquisite pleasure hi And that it mat with their approbation : and that iu lite rarioua coiu J78 Jaoturea they made respecting the author, no one was mentioned who did not enjoy a high reputation In thaomuitry for ial«it and gtoiaa. I nowaupposad mfself Ibrtunate In mv judges, and Wgaa-tn saapaal that they were not ineh exrellent writemaa I bad HI* therto supposed them. He this as it may, ent mragtd by this little adventurat I wratt and sent to pra^^s, In the same way, many ochar pieces which ware eq. tally approved — keeping the secret till niy olcuder stm'k of information and kiuiwledge for such performances was pretty completely exhausted,'* Ho then discovered n'nuelf, and han, however, recommended him to go to Philadelpnla, where he had a son, who, he thought, would give him work ; and he accordingly set off for that place. His journey was a most disastrous one )»oth by water and land, aim he frnpiently regretted leaving home so rashjv. He reached his destination at last, however, and in a ulight which certainly did not bode over. auipicioualy fur hit future fortunes. His '>wn graphic description of his couditioii and appearance, oti his firH entrance Into Philadelphia, is at once interesting nnd amusing t^ " 1 have untered into the particulars of my voyage, and shall iu like mauner descritie my first entrance into this place, that you may be able to compare be- ginnings so unlikely with the Hgure I have since made, f was in my working dress, my best clothes being to come by aea, I was covered with dirt; my pockets were Ailed with shirts and stockings ; I was unacquainted with a single soul in the place, and knetv nut where to seek a lodging. Fatigued with walking, rowing, and having passed the night with- out sleep, r was extremely hungry, and all my money consisted of a Dutch dollar, and about a shilling's worth of coppers, which I gave to the boatmen for my passage. At first they refused it, because I had rowed, but I insisted on them taking it. A man is sometimes more generous when he has little than when he has much muney, probably l»ecause he is, In the Arst place, desirmis of concealing his poverty. ** I walked towards the top of the street, looking eagerly o» Imth sides, till I came U) Market Street, where I met a child with a loaf of bread. I inquired where hi> had iMiught it, and went straight to the twker's shop which he pointnl out to me. I asked for some biscuits, expecting to find such as we had at Boston ; hut they made, It seems, none of that sort at PhiUdelphio. I then asked fur a threepenny loafj theymsde no loaves of that price. I then desired him to let me have threepence worth of bread, of some kind or other. He gave me three large rolls, I was siir- prived at rereiving so much. I tmik them, however, and having no room in my pockets, I walked on, with a roll under each arm, eating the third. In this manner I went through Alarket .Street to Fotirth Street, and passed the hnuM> of Mr Read, the father of my Ajture wife. She was standing at the door, observed me, and tlumght with reason that 1 made vary singular and gnuesque appearance. I then turoad the corner, and went through Chestnut Street, eating my roll all the way t and, having made this round, I found myself again on Market Htreet wharf^ near tha iHiat In whleh 1 arrived. I sMppad Imo it to talM a dtaugU ol the livar watert andfftndlng dm. aeir aatlsied with my flnt nUl, 1 gave dta olhav tw to a woman and bar child who had ootne down the river with us la thebiial, and waa waiUng to continue her jnurnoy. Thus refreshed, 1 regained the street, which was now full of welUdressed people idl going the same way. I joined them, and was ihua led Id a Quakers* meeting- house, near the market plaeii I sat down with the rest, and. after looking round mo for some time, hearing notlting said, and being dniwsv from my last night's labour and want of rest, I fell into a sound slaep. In this state I continued till the assembly dispersed, when one of the congre- gation had the goodness to wake m» This was 4wn* saquently the llrst house I entered, or In which I slept. In I'hiladalphia." Having with aone dlfllouUy peoairad a lodging for the night, he next morning waited on Mr Bradfordf the prl^nterto whom he had l»een directed. That In. dividual said he had no work for him at preeant, bnt directed him to a brother In trade of the name of Keimer, who, upon application, made him the sama answer ( but, after considering a little, sot him to put on old press to rights, Iteing the only one indeed ha i*os%u*Bed ; and in a few days gave him regular work. I^poii this, Franklin tonk a lodging In tha houaa of Mr Head, his future father.in.law. l\anklin had been some months at Philadelphia,. witliout nither writing to or hearing fram home, and, as ho lays, trying to forget Boston as muoh a^Mia* sible, when abroUier-in.Tawof his, amastar ofa^lnal, having accidentally heard where ha was, wrote to him, pressing his return home ia the moat urgans terms. Franklin's reply, declining oomplianoa wItJt the request, happened to reach his brother-in-law when tlie latter was in tha company of Sir William Keith, governor of the pr^.vlnce, and the composition a>id Denmanship struck him aa to much superior to the ordinary style nf let tar- writing, that ha aoowad It to his excellency. The governor was no loaa pleaaaA with It, and expressed the utmost surprise when told the age cf the writer.. He observed, that he must ba a young man of promising talents, and said that If ha would set up business on hi^ own aooonnt at Phila- delphia, he xvould procure him the prinUng of all tha public papers, and do him every other servloo In hla power. Franklin heard nothing of this from hla brother-in-law at the time; but one day, whila ha and Keimer were at work In the office, they obaarved through the window the governor and another gen- tleman (who proved to be Colonel French of New. castle, in the province of Delaware), finely drasaed, cross the street, and come directly for the office, when they knocked at the door. Keimer ran down, in high expectati...! of this being a visit to himself; " but the governor (says Fmnklin) Inquired for me, came up stairs, and w'ith a pollteneas to which I had not at all been accustomed, paid me many oompllmenta, de- sired to he acquainted with me, obligingly reproached me for not having made myself known to hini on my arrival in town, and wished me to accompany him to a tavern, where he and Colonel French were going to taste some excellent Madeira wine ! I was, I con- fess, somewhat surprised, and Keimer waa Ukundan. struck. I went, however, with the governor and Colonel French to a tavern at the corner of Third Street, where, while we were drinking the Madeira, he proposed to me to establish a pnnting-honse. Ho set forth the probabilities of success, and himself and Colonel French assured me tliat 1 should have tbetr protecti(m ajid influence in obtaining the printing of the public papers for both governments ; mild aaaiit me that he would woald recom* a light wliirli [i agieK III ilii Id return to •tter of recom- ather. Mean, lid I continued overnor lubM* II to dine with honour ; and verted with me T manner Ima- lent, Fr^klin ^e end of April nonths, dunng had heard no- law never hav- waa. Alt the ^r Jamea, were te to, perhapi, B new ault of and about five ither waa ex- the object of te of Oavernor he came to itb the requtit, [ to undertalie ; adding, that la ditaivtioa in wh^ hla ton hewtmld tup- ply him with what money hu roiiiiirud to Ht hlin up In buiineatf praising him highljr, ttt the Knm« tiini>, for hli indniiiry and good conduct. I'ruiikiiii, acciu-. dtngly. waa neceultatod to return to Philadelpjila wiln tne newa of hii bad lucceu, but lurt IIoruiii on, thli oeoaslon aecoinpanied by the tilaialiiga of lili pa- xeuts. When ha arrived at Philttd«lphia, ho linme. diately waited upon the governor, nnd roniniuiiicated the remit of hti Journey. Sir William uliwrved that hla father waa <* too prudent j" but added, " Hince he will not do It, I will do It myielf." Il wai ultimately arranged, therefore, that Franklin should proceed liersonallr to Londim to purchase every thing neoas> aary for the projioMtd eitattliihmeiit, fur the expenie of which the governor promiiiml him a letter of credit to the extent of L.104), with rutiommeadations to va- rious people of iufluonra. ■AILS rOtt KKOLAirD. It had been arranged that Franklin waa to go tollng- had In the reguUr paoket-ahlp t ftud fts the time of lier sailing drew near, he became Importunate for the Svernor*s letters of credit and recommendation, Init a latter always put him off under varioiiH prettmcei. At last, when tlie veniel was on the point uf depart- ing, he waa aent on Itoard, under the assurance that Colonel French would bring the letters to hini imme- dliUely. That gentleman accordingly came on board with a packet in dlipatches tied togetner, which were put into the captain s bog, and Franklin was Informed thftt those intended for him were tied up with the rest, and would lie delivered to him lieforu landing In I^nj^and. When theytvrrived in the Thames, ncror- dingly, the captain allowed him tnsuarch the bag, luit J'rankiin ouuld find no letters directed either to liimaelf or addressed as to bis care; but he selected six or seven, which from tlie directions on them he con- oeived to be thoso Intended fur his service. One of these was Ui the king*s printer, aud Franklin accord- ingly waited upon that gentleman with It ; but the lat- ter had no sooner opened it, than he exclaimed, " Oh, this is from RiddleitdenI — la well-known rascally ■ttomev at Philadelphia) ; I have lately discovered htm to lie an arrant knave, and wish to liave nothing to do either with liim or his letters." So saving, he turned on his heel, and resumed bis occupation. In abort, it turned out that none uf the lottera were from the governor ; and he soon learned from a gentleman of the name of i)enham, who had l>een a fellow-pasHen- ger with him, and to whom he explained his awkward altuatlon, that the governor was a complete cheat, de- ceiving people, from vanity and a love of self*cunHe- quencft, with promlaes which he neither intended nor was able to fulfil ; and laughed iit the idea of a man ffiving a letter of credit fur LAW who hnd uu credit forhuniel^ jnMUIftV aitnatlon was now even more desolate thaoi when set ashore, ragged, hungry, and almost peunikw, at Philadelphia, little more than a twelve- month before. But the heart, at eighteen, is not naturally inclined to despond, and never was one lesa ao than that of Franklin. He Immediately applied for and obtained employment in the ofiice of the cele- brated Mr Palmer. Amongst other works un which be waa set to work here, waa a second edition of Wollaston's ileligion of Nature. Conceiving some of the positions assumed in it to he weak or erronennit, he compoKed and publinhed n smiill mutaphysicHl trcii. tlse in refutation of them. This ]iamphlec ariinlred bim considerable credit with his master tin a man of talent; but that gentleman reprobated, with the ut- most abhorrence, the doctrines maintained in his pub- lication, which, truth compels us to say, were com- pletely irreligious, so far as regarded the Christian faith, or any other acknowledged system of belief. Free-thinking, however, was then In fashion among the higher and more learned classefi, and his pamphlet procured lilm the countenance of vnrions eminent in- dividtiola ; amongst the i-est, of l)r MandevIIle, autliur of the Fable of the Bees, and Dr Pemlierton, Sir Isaac »wton*B friend. Ho was Itkewiie waited upon by StrHaiis Klnane, who had been Informed uf his bring. iug some curioBltles with him from America; amongst others, apurseuf asliestna — a natural substance which resists the action of fir^, and then very little known — for which he paid Fniiiklin a high price. From M r Pal'nt'iV office he removed to Mr Watt's,-- for the ounitiderHt n of n higher wage. Here he gave a atrikliig proof of that resulute adherence to temper- Jince, industry, and frugality, which were amongst the leading featnrea of his character. AVhilst Mr Watt*s other workmen spent generally live or six •hillings a-week on beer, which was brought Into the office to them during the day, he drunk nothing hut water ; and they were surprised to see that he was much stronger than any of them, while he himself bad the additional co.nfort and satisfaction of being always clear-headed. At ftrst they ridiculed his af)- -■tinence, and oonferred on litm the soubriquet of the American Aqttatic ; but as his character rone amongst thera, his cxnmph), he says, *' prevailed with several of them to renounce their alwrninable b.-eakfast of brand aud cheese, with beer ; and they procured, like ne, from a neighbouring house, a g<>od basin of warm (ru^ in whlioh was a small slice of butter, with toasted bryad and nutmeg. This waa a much better breakfiut, which did not cost more than a pint of beer, namely, three halfpence, and at the same time preaerved the head clearer.** His assiduous application 40 bmiiMaa, at tht Mune time, together with remax^* 178 able quickness In oomposiuff (setting np the types), ruvuinmendud hini to his employer, and proourecl him all the most urgent and best.paid work i so that, with his frugal mode of living, he itulckly laid past money. RCTlTRVa TO AHKRICA. After having been about eighteen months In I^on- don, munh to his advantage In everv respect — for, be- sides lifciiming m — in short, I was, in every respect, the factotum.** But he likewise, ut this time, gave another remarkable instance uf his ver- satile ingenuity. *' Our press," says he, *' was frequently in want of the tiecessary quantity of letter, and there was no such trade as thttt of letter-founder in America. I had seen the practice of this art at the house of James, In London, but had at the time paid it very little au tentlon. I, however, cimtrived to fabricate a mould. I made use of such letters as we had for punches, founded new letters of lead in matrices of clay ; and thus supplied, in a tolerable manner, the wants that were most pressing." Franklin*8 inveotive mind would seem here to have obtained a distant glimpse of the principle of itereotypinff, which has since been carried to sucti a height of uscLilness and jierfectlon, as exempllHed in the various publications uf the eili- toni of this miscellany. Keimer having engaged Franklin solely with the view of having his apprentices so far Initiated in the art as that ho could dispense with their instructor's services, took the first occasion to quarrel with him when he thouglit he had sutticientlysttained hlsobject. l7pon their separation, one of Keimer's apprentices, named Meredith, who, like all the others, had conoeivml agreat veneration for Franklin, proposed that they shiiuld enter into partnership together— Mereditirs friends under- taking to furnish tlie capital necessary for purchasing the materials, &c. This offer was too advantageous to he refused; and types, press, &c., were forthwith commissioned from liondon ; but while preparing to. put their plan into execution, Franklin was Induced, during the Interval, to return again to Keimer, at the urgent solicitation of the latter. The Motive for this humbh^ entreaty was that indlviduars having taken a oontiacc for the printing of some pajier-.. juey for the state of New Jersey, requiring n variety of new cuts and types, which ho knew well nobody in that place hut Franklin cmild supply. This also pre- sents us with a very striking Instance of Fnuiklin's remarkable gift of invention. " To execute the order,** says he, ** I constructed a copperplate printing-press t the first that had been seen in the country. I engmved vp»b>n« n>^ amenta and vignettes for ttie bills, and we repaired to Bur- lington together, where I exerutod tlie whole to the general satisfaction, and he (Keimer) received a sum of money for this work, which euHbled him to keep his head above water for a considerable time longer." At Burlington, Franklin formed acquaintance with ull the principal personages of the province, Vt-ho were attracted by his superior anilities and intelligence. Amongvt these was the Inspei-tor-general, Isaac Deoon, ** who," tavs Franklin, "was a shrewd nnd subtle old man. He toM me that his first employ- ment hnd Wen that of carrying clay to the brick- makers ; that he did not learn to write till he waa ■omewh«t advanced in USt \ that he wm ftft«rw»rda employed as underling to a surveyor, who uuehl hlai his trade t and that, by Industrv, he had at ust ao* quired a comfietent fortune. 'I forvaoe,* said he, *that you will soon supplant this man (speaking <*\ Keimer), and got a fortune in tlia business at PbiHh delphla.* tie was wholly Ignorant at the time of May intention of esulillshlng myself there, or anv wheaa else.** EifTEna INTO BU8IHKSI. Franklin had scarcely returned from Durlington^ when the typae oommlssloned fur himself and Mere- dith, from London, arrived { and having settled mat- ters with Keimer, the iiaitners Immediately took m house, and commeniiwd b)teen In existenvo for some years, but was such a miserable affair, that It only preserved Its vitality because no other arose to knock it on tho head. In order to keep down Kuimer's publication, however, Franklin saw the policy^ of supporting the old one, until prepared to start his own. He there- upon set aliout writing a series nf amusing articlea fur It, whidi the publisher, Bradford, was uf course vory glad to insert. ** By this means," says Frank* lin, " the attention nf the public was kept fixed on that paper, and Keimer's proposals, which we bur- lesqued and ridiculed, were disregarded. He began his paper, however; and, after continuing it for nino months, having at most not more than ninety sub- scribers, he offered it to ine for a mere trifle. I had fur some time been prepared for It; I therefore Instantly took it upon myself, and in a few years it proved very profitable to me.'* In fact, it obtained notoriety and applause at tlie very first nuTiber, in consequence of some observations therein by Franklin, ou an import- ant C4)lonial question; and various members of As- sembly exerttnl themselves so well in his behalf, that the printing of theiluuse was speedily transferred from Bradford to his two young rivals. In the ma- nagement uf his newspaper, Franklin pursued a sys- tem of unflinching integrity. He itteadfustly refused to give admission into his columns of any article containing personal abuse of ])articular individuals. M'henever he was requested to put)li8h any thing uf this sort, his answer was, that lie would print the {liece by Itself, and give the author as many copies for lis own distribution as he wished. He very wisely considered that his subscribers expected him to furnisu them with useful and entertaining information, and not with personal slander or private discussions with which they had no concern. COMMENCES BUS1KF88 BY HIIISELF. Lnokily tor Franklin, almost at the com lenoe- ment of the newspaper, an opportunity occurred ef getting rid nf his partner Meredith, who had become an idte drunken fellow, and had all alorg been of C4)mparatively little use in the concern. Meredith*a father failed to impMnent the bargain for advancing the necessary capital to pay the demands of the paper merchant, and other expenses necessarily attending their speculation, when they became due. A suit : WW Moordingly uwtitutvd aiainit the partnora, and / CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. M >Ur«llih*t fmhvr dwUrvit hit tiishllUjr to jny lh« uniMntor lh« rlaima u|Km thmn, th« vm offttrvd to nlinquUh tb« whole conMrn intit Kruiklin*! hkndi, on eiHidilion that the htur wimM ukt upon him tlMd«bU of th« oompaiiv, rtpay his fftth^r whtt h* h«d Rlrtmdy tdvum-fftl. ivttla hti own liitia pcrMinal dchu. ftiid gtvvhlmihlrtjrpotindi — antl % n«w$^dtUtt Dy the kindnvu of iwu fHtnda, who. unknown to •«ch Mher* Mtneforwftrd ilinulunffotiilyftnd iinaikvd 10 Ml ftnUunot, Franklin wu enahtcd lo wxwpi the ulf«r. Tho wrwrnant wm carrifld Into elfMt, and ibui do w« And this •xtrftordlnary in«ni «t iht %^ of tw«niv>four, and in iho pl«e« whtr* he hud nrrivMl CsnnlI«M only tevvn veari Iwfora, Milled down In uiinMii, wtlh A ihrivjug trsda ( pnipriMor of an ea- tenaively rirctilatad nvwapnptr, tnd n Anniv MUb- llihad ivpuuiinn of no ordinary kind. All ibia luo- CMa, howarar, iba mnll of hit own food c^mduct, par- aavannea* and fni|r*l't)^i bad no undue effbct on bla well-refpilMed mind, or could Induea bim loaaiume thoM aira uf arrofant auparforUy and prttantlun, wKi^'b have hut too I'raquantly hlerolihed the charao- ler of iboae who have pralaeworlhlly achlered their own aleratlon fn loclety. On the contrary, -he dreiied more plainly, and deported hlmwlf mure humbly, than ereri and to tbow that ba waa not above hii bailneae, he lometlmea wheeled bi>me on % barruw, vlib hla own bandi, the paper which he purcbated at tbeatorae. Althouf h we are, In a manner, only urired at the canmentMnient of that long career of tiaefulnett ai a dtiaen, a auteimaa, and a phlloaopber, which baa rendarsd hU nam* lo llluitriuut, mni, to uat the ex- j^reeatre lanfua^e of the poet, ■ ■• Maito him lorrd at home- W Tifid abroad." wt hare undoubtedly foc ^rouf h the moac inlertatlnf part of hii biography. U'ehave noted by what mrani —^ly what patient exertion, telf-contrul, liiduttry. frailly, temperance, and intefrlty, he orercame all obttaclea, and attained the station it which we have Been bIm arrive t Atted hlmaeir fur the diacbarge of thme Important dutiea to wblcll the voice of hii coun- try called him ; and ad^uired thoae Axed bahiu of ■tudv, obeervation, and inquiattlve research, by which he aiterwarda penetrated ao deep into the arcanum of nature*B myater'^s. It will lie needlni for ui, there- fore, to trare hiw private hiitory lo inquiiitorially nt we have hilhert« done tbnmgh the remainder uf hit rminetuly auooeaaful fortunea. l^oofi after gettlnfc the whole printing and newspaper eoiitym Into his handi, thrre wni an nutcry among the ^'Sople for a new emission of paper-money. Frank- lin took up the cause, and by his argiiments in a pamphlet which be publiibed on the stiifject, contri- buted no ffreatlv lo tlie success of the propoiial, and obtained himself no much popularity, that upon its bring resolved to Issue the notes, Franklin was select- ed to print them. He then opened a itaiinner's ihop, •nd from his success in hntineKS, began gradually lo pay off bla debts. He Umk care^ he says, not only touerM//|r Industrious and frugal, but aluo to avoid every appearance to the contrary — was plainly dressed, and was never seen in any place of public amusement i never went a-Asbing or hunting. A book, indeed, «ntired him sometimes fnmi his work, but even that indulgence) was seldom, and by stealth. Aleanwbile, his old master Keimer went fast to ruin, and, with the exception of old Mr Bradford, who was rich and did not care fur bnninrss, he was the only printer In the Kce. He shortly afterwards married Mihs Read, the y named in a former part uf tliii memoir. Frank. ]in*s behavifflir Ui this young lady had not been klto- gether blameless. Previous to his sailing for England be hod exchanged pledget of affection with her; yet, aU the while he was away, he only sent her one letter. Her friends and herself concluding that her itiier never meant to rettim, or that be wished to drop connexion with her, she was Induced to accept the hand uf an. other suitor, and on his return to America Franklin found her married — an event that seems to have given him extremely little uneaiineis. The lady*« husltand proved a great rogue, deserted her, and it was subse- quently ascertained that he had still a former wifb liv- ing. After )>eitigest»li)ietweeu Franklin and her fa. mlly waa renewed, and it was not lung, ere, deiplte Iter dub'imis aituatlon, they hazarded a fulHIment of their early vows. The iady was about Frankl(n*s own age, and proved, according to his own testimony, " an ho- iiuur and a blessing'* U* him. In 1731, Franklin drew up proposals for a public suhfcription library at Fhiladelphta, being the first project of the sort that liad Wen started In America. Fifty persons at first lubscrllfed forty shillings each, and agreed to pay ten shillings aimtially ; and the establishment was put under such judlcioui rules of maniigement, that in the courte of ten years it lieiame an valuable and important as to Induce the proprie- tors to get themselves incorporated l>y royal charter. Thin library afforded its founder facilities of Improve. anent of which be did nut fail to avail himielf, setting ■part, as he telU u9, an hour or two every dav fur atudy, which u-m tliu only amusement be al' -ed himself. In 17^, Franklin begnn to publisb bis Po> Ki- chard's Almanack, m called from hii giving it lnrtli under the name of Uicliard Saunders. It was chieAy nmarhable for the numerous and pithy maxima it cun'> toinad, all taodisg \6 exhort to industry and fruga- lity. It was continued annuallvfnr twenty. Ave years, and the proverba and trite mora/ ohtervations sca'tterea thnHigbnut It were afterward* thrown together Into a C4>nnertsd discourse, under tba title of the '* Way to Wealib.'* Ho highly eiteemad li this production amongst his countrymen, that copies of it are to this day lo lie found framed and glaiMl tn the bouses even 4if the wealtbieal peoole In Philadelphia, and Indeed in every province of North America. As It la replete with that practical wisdom, drawn from experience, wbh-h it applicable tn theevery*day ronoernt of buny life, and which cannot l>e too amstantlv kept before the eye of mankind, it falls as appropriately aa legi- timately to be iiuoted In a work, the prime object uf < which ii to fartner popular instruction. *< Th0 Wap to irra//A, a Prtliminarp AddrM to th* Pnmifivmnim MmanaCt fntUitd Pour Hichar^t AlmanaCj/or tht poar 17A8. I stopped mv horse lately where a great number of people were collected at an auction of merchants* goods. The hour of sale not being oome, they were convers- ing on the badness of the times t and one of the 00m- panycalled toa plain, clean, old man, with white locks, " Pray, father Abraham, what think ye of the times ? Won't these heaVY taxea quite ruin the country } How shall we ever be able to pay them } What would you advise ni to ?" Father Abraham stood up, and replied, " If you have my advice, I'll give It to you in short t 'fur a word to tlie wise is enough t and many wordi won't All a bushel,* as poor Richard says. Thay joined in desiring him to apeak his mind 1 and, gathering round him, he proeaeded as followi : — " Friendr^ys he) ana neigbboura, the taxes are Indeed very heavy ; and if those laid on by tba go- vernment were tha onlv ones wa had to pay, we might more easily discbarge them t but we have many others, and much more grievous to some of ns. We are taxed twice as much by our idleness, three times as much by our pride, and four times aa much by our folly i and from these taxes the commissioners cannot easa or de- liver us, by allowing an abatement. However, let us hearken t4i giiod advice, and something may be done for us % * (lud helps them that help themselves,* as poor Kichard says in bis Almanae. " It would ^ thought a hard government that should tax ita people one tenth psrt of their t!me, to be employed in ita service t but idleness taxes many of us qiucb mo, , if we reckon all that is spent in ah- scdute sloth, or %.jing of nothing, with 'hat which is spent in idle employments, or amusement . ihit amount to nothing. Sloth, hv bringing on diseases, ab ilutely shortens life. * >«lntn, like rust, rtmsumes faster than labour wears, while the key often used is always bright,' as poor Hicbard says. *■ Hut dost thou bive life ? then do not squander time, fur that's the stuff life Is made of,' as poor Kichard says. How much more thin is necessary do we spend in sleep I forget- ting that 'the sleeping fox catches no poultry, and that there will be sleeping enough in the grave,* aa poor Hirhard says. ' If time be of all thlngit the moat precious, wasting time must be (as poor Kit-hard says) the greatest prodigality t* since, as he elsewhere tells us, ' Lust time is never found again ; and wimt we call timt enough, always proves little enough.' I^et ua then b9 and be doing, and doing to the purpose : so by dilig.*nca •thall we do more with lavs perplexity. * 8loth mi i' ym all things difficult, but industry all easy,* as poor hichard says i and ' He that riseth late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night t while laiiness travels so slowly, that poverty soon overtakes him,' as we read in poor Kichard ; who adds, ' Drive thy business, let not that drive theet* and, ' Ksriy to bMl, srnl rsriy to riw, Mak«t a man healthy, wralthy, snt) wlw.* " So what signifies wishing and hoping fur better timet ? We inake these timea bettar If we tiestir our- selves. * Industry needs not wiab,* as poor Uicliard save; ' He that lives upon hope will die fasting.' * 'there are no gains witlinut pains ; then help, hands, for I have no lands : or if I nave, they are smartly taxed;' and (as poor Kichard likewise olMerves) * He that hath a trade hath an estate, and he that hath a calling hath an jffioe of profit and honour ;* but then the trade must be worked at, and the calling well fol- lowed, or neither the estate nor the office will enable us to paymir taxes. If we are Industrious, we shall never starve; for, as poor Richard siys, 'At the working-man's bouse hunger looks in, but dares not enter.' Nor uUl the bailiff or the constable enter; for ' Industry pays debts, but despair increaaeth them,' says poor Kichard. What though yon have found no treasure, nor has any rich relation left you a legacy ? * liiligeuce is the mother uf ^(kkI luck, as poor Kichard says i and * (iod gives all things to In- dustry I then plotigh deep while sluggards sleep, and yoit will have cnrw to sell and to keep,' says poor Dick. Work while it is called tif-day ; for you know not how much you may (« hindered tu-morrow ; which makes poor Kichard say, * One to-day is worth two to-mor- rows;* and, further, * Have yuii somewhat to do to. mormw, do it to-day.* ' If you were a servant, would voti not be ashamed that a giHid muter should catch you Idle P Are yuu, tlien, yniir own master ? lie ashamed tocntch yoursrlfldle,' as poor Dick says. When there is so much t4) be done for yourself, your family, and your gracious king, he up by peep of day i ' I«et not the sun look down, and say, Inglorious here he lies !' Handle yuur tools without mittens t remember tliat * The eat in gloves eatchee no mloa.* as poor RIehart* •ays. It Is true, there Is much to ne done, and per- bapa you ara weak.handad \ but stick to ii steaally, and yini will sea great atflictsi for continual dn>ppliig wean away atones, and by dltlganoe and patience the mnusa ata Into tha cable \ and night atmkea fstl great inks,* aa poor Richard savs In his Almanac, the year I cannot Just now remamber. " Methlnks I hear tome of yon say, ' Must a maa afford himself no lalaure ?*.-l will tall thee, my friend, what |oor Richard says, ' Kmploy thy time well, if thou meanest to gain leisure ; and since thou art not sura of a minuta, throw not away an hmir.* I«elsnra Is lime for doing something useful 1 this leisure tha diligent man will obtain, but the laxy man never 1 so that, as poor Richard savs, * A life of leisure and a life of laslness are two things.* Do you Imagine that sloth will afford you more comfort than labour } No 1 for, aa poor Richard aaya, * Troubles spring from Idle, nets, and grievous tofls from naadlaaa easei many without labour would live by thai r own wits onlyi but they brtak for want of sttwk.* Whereas industry gives comfort, and plenty, and respect. ' Fly plea- sures, and they'll follow ym\ \ the dlMgent spinner haa a large shift 1 and now I have a shaep and a eow. everv body bids me good-morruw 1* ail which is ww said ny poor Richard. " But with our li.dustry, wa must likewise be steady, and settled, and carafiil, and oversea our own affairs with our own evat, and not trust too much to othan % for, aa potir RIcnard says, • 1 oevar saw an oft-nntoTtd trse. Nor ytt an oft-rfmoved Ainilly, « Thai throve so well as one that sttllsd bt.' " And again, * Thraa removes ara aa bad as a Are t' and again, ' Keep thv shop, and thy shop will keep thee t and again, * Ir you would hava your baiiiiMi dona, got If not, send.' And again, * Mt that by the ploufh would thrive, HlmMlf must ^thsr hold or drive.' " And again, ' Tha eve of the master will do mora work than Dotb his hanils 1* and again, ' Want of care does us mora damage than want of knowledge :* and again, ' Not to orertaa workmen is to leave thorn your purse open.' Trusting too much to others' care Is the ruin of many t for, as the Almanac says, * In the affairs of the world, men are saved not by faith, but by the want of It t but a man's own care Is proAtable ; for,* saitb poor Dick, * Learning Is to the studious, and riches to the careful, as well as puwer to the bold, and heaven to the virtuous.* And, fiir ber, ' If vou would have a faithful servant, and one toat you likat serve yourself.* And again, he adviseth to clrcnm- spection and care, even In the smallest matters, be- cause sometimes *A little neglect may breed great mischief;* adding, ' For want of a nail the shoe was lost ; for want of a shoe the horse was loati and for want of a horse the rider was lost :' being overtaken and slain by the enemy, all for want of care about a horse-shoa nail. '* 80 much for Industry, my frienda, and attentloit to one's own btislness ; but to'these wa muse add fni* gality, if we would make our Industry more certainly Buccessful. A man may, if he knows not how to save as he gets, ' keep his note all his life to the grindstone^ and die not worth a groat at last.* ' A fat kitchen makes a lean will,' as poor Richard saya j and, ' Many MtilM sr« ipent in the {vltln^i Sincv women ftw lea (bruiuli t|)lnninf{ and AnUlLnf, And men fur punch forsook hewliig and spUltlng.* '*'lf you wmild be wealthy (saya he In another Almanac), think of aaving, aa well as of getting; tba Indies have not made Spain rich, because heroutguaa are greater than her incomes.* *< Away then with your expensive follies, and you will not have much causa to complain of hard tlmae, heavy taxes, aud chargeable families; for, aa pool Dick says, • Women and wins, Rsmt and deceit, Make the wealth imsll, and the want pesL' " And, further, ' What mainUins one vice would bring up two children.* You may think, perhaps, that a little tea, or a little punch now and then, diet a little more costly, clothes a little Aner, aitd a little euteruinment now and then, can be no great matter ; but rememlier what poor Kichard says — ' Many a little makes a mickle :' and farther, ' Beware of little ex- penses; a small leak will sink a great ship;* aud again, * Who dainties love shall beggara prove :' and moreover, ' Fuels make feasts, aud wise men eat them.* " Here you are all got together at this tale of fine- ries and nick-nacks. Vou call them yoodM; but if you do not uke care, they will prove evih to some uf you. You expect they will lie sold cheap, and per- haps they may fur less than they cost; but if you have no occasion for them, they must lie dear to you. Remember what poor Richard says — * Buy what thou host no need of, and era long thou shalt sell thy ne- cessaries.* And again, * At a great pennyworth puuie awhile.* He means, that perhaps the cheapnesti it apparently only, or not real, or the bargain, by straite.iing tnee in thy business, may do thee more harm than good. For in another place he says, 'Manv have l>een ruined by buying good penny- worths.* Again, as puor Kichard says, ' U is foolish to lav out money in a purchase of repentonce ;' and yet tliis folly is practised every day at auctions, for want of minding the Almanac * Wise men (as poor Dick sayt) learn by others' liarmi, fools scarcely by wm I.IFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. tluir own I but f'tiU qutm /aeiunt mUtnm ptrieuUt mulum,* M»ny » ona, for th* Mkt oinniry on tha bud, hMV«iron« wIlli « huiif{ry b«l)y, Mnd ha)riiitrv«d tbfllr famlllM I *H[lk and Htliii, loirlal ami vcIvmir (m po<>r RIchtrd mvi), put nut the kitchau lir*.! Th«M nre not th« ntOHMriai of lir* i they caii irarcaly Iw <'»ll«d thfl c<>nveiil«nc«i t and Vfil only' Ii«c«uib th«y look pretty, how tnftnv want to have them * The ar- tilirlal wanti of nnankind thui l>«oome mora numeroui than tha natural i and ai poor Dick sayi, * For one ]MM>r person thtra are a hundred Indlntit.' Ity thcM and other extravagaticei the K^iituel are rediuwd to poverty, and forced to twrrow of thoie whom they litrmerly deiplieU, hut who, through induilry and fruKalfty, have maintained their iiaudiiiff t In which u^iae it appear! plainly, * A plotiahman on hU lege is higher than a tfenileman on Tili kneee/ aa poor Kit-hard layi, Peruaui they have had a imall eatate left them which they knew not the getting off they think * (t It day, and will never Iw night; ihat a little to be spent out of lo much Is not worth mind. Int(.* * A child and a fool (as poor KIchard says) Imagine twenty shUllnn and twenty years can never be ipeiit ( but always be taking out of the meal-tub, and nerer putting in, soon ramea to the bottom i' ihen, ai pour Dick says, * When the well Is dry* they know the worth of water.* But this they might have known before, If they had taken his advice i Mf ymi wmild know the value of monny, go and try to borrow some ; for he that goes a-borrowinggoes a-sorrowlng, and, Indeed, so otiaa he that leu• to run In debt for thete Buperliuities ! We are offered, by the terms of this sale, six months* credit, and that perhaps has In- duced some of us tn attend it, because we cannot spare the ready money, and hope now to be fine without it. But, ah't Ihinlc what you do when you run In debt. You give to another power over vour liberty. If you rjinnot pay at the time, you will be ashamed to see Tour creditor : you will l>fl in fear when you speak to him: ymi will make poor, pitiful, sneaking excuses, and by degrees come to lose your veracity, and sink into base downright lying; for, as poor Kichard says, ' The second vice Is lying; the tirst is runnint^ in debt.* And again, to the same purpose, * Lying rides upon debt's back ;* whereas, a freeborn Knglishmaii ought not to be ashamed nor afraid to speak to any man living. But poverty often deprives a man of all «pirit and virtue. ' It Is hard for an empty l>ag to Ptnnd upright,* as poor Richard truly sayt. What would you think of that prince, or that government, who would issue an edict, forbidding ytm to dress like a gentleman or gentlewoman, on pain of imprisonment or servitude? Would you not say that you were free, have a right to dress as you please, and that such an edict would be a broach of your privileges, and such a government tyrannical P And yet you nre about to put yourself under that tyranny when you run In debt for such dress ! Vour creditor has authority, at his pleasure, to deprive you of your li- berty, by confining you in jail for life, orhy selling you for a servant, if you should nut be able to pay jiim. When you have got your bargain, you may, perhaps, think 'little of uRymeiit ; but * Creditors (poor Hichard tells us) have better memories than debtors ;* and in another place he says, ' Creditora are a super- stitious sect, great observers of set days and times.' The day conifes round before you are aware, and the demand' Is made before you are prepared to satisfy it ; or if you bear your debt in mind, the term which at flrst seemed so long, will, as it lessens, appear ex- tremely short. Time will seem to have added wings to his heeU as well as at his shoulders. ' Those have a short Lent (salth poor Hichard) who owe money to be paid at £a?ter.^ Then since, as he says, * The borrower is a slave to the lender, and the debtor to the creditor,* disdain the chain, preserve your free- dom, and maintain your independency : be industrious and free; be frugal and free. At present, perhaps, you may think yourselves in thriving circumstances, and that you can bear a little extravagance without injury ; but ' For age and want uvc while you miiy. Mo moralng lun luu a whole dsy,' lUl Oaln may be temporary and tile you live, expense is con* stant and certain ; and * It is easier to hulld twocliim. aa poor Hichard says, uain may be uncaruin ; but ever, while you live, expense is con* nics, than tu keep one in fuel,* as iKMir KIchard says, ho, * Hather go to Ited lupperlass than rise In debt.* * 0«l «li«l you MQt and wImI you (M hold, 'TIa Iha •t cimclude, * Experience keeps a dear school ; but fiMls will learn in no other, and scarce In that; for it Is true we may give advice, but we can- not give conduct,' ns poor Hichard says, llnwever, remember this, ' They that will not be counselled can- not Iw helped,* as poor Hichard says ; and further, that * If vou will not reason, she will surely rap yuvr knuoVles.* '* Thus the old gentleman ended his harangue. The people heard It, and approved the doctrine, and Im- meoiately practised the txinlrary, just as if It had been a common sermon ; for the auction opened, and they began to buy extravagnntly, notwithstanding ai) his cautions, anil their own fear of taxes. I found the good man had thoroughly studied my Alr."nacs, and digested all I had dropped on thofe topiiBi, during the course of twenty-Hve years. The freipient mention he made of me, must have tired every one else ; but my vanity was wonderfully delighted with it, though I was conscious that :u*t a tenth part of the v. Isdom was my own, which he ascrit»ed to me, but rather the gleanings that I had made of the sense of all ages and nations. However, I resolved to be the better for the echo of it I and though I had at lir^t determined to buy stuff for a new coat, 1 went awav, resolved to wear my old one a little longer.'* As Franklin advanced In worldly pr i.^perity, be endeavoured to make his persoual a''quireaients keep pace with his upward progreu lu fioclety ; and amongst other accomplilieil himself se- dulously to the study of the dead and modern lan- guages, of which, besides his native to-i .'le, he as yet scarcely knew any thing. The following Is his own account of his private currieuium : — " I had begun In 1733 to study languages. I soon made myself so much a master of the French, as to be able to read the iKNiks in that language with ease. I then undertook the Italian. An acquaintance, who was als4> learning it, used often to tempt me ui pluy chess with him. Finding this took f youth, and a m[lltia> for the ilelence of tne province. In short, every de- partment of the civil government, as be tells us, and almost at the same time, imposed some duty upon him. " The governor," says he, "put me into the commis- sion of the peace I the corporations of the city chose me one of the common council t and the citixens at large elected me (17-17) a burge» to represent them in AsHcmhly. This Ik.ter station was the more agree- able to me, aa Igraw atlengtli tired with sitting there to he;tr the debates, in wh^h, as clerk, I could take no parti *nd which were often so uninteresting, that I was induced to am*' . mvself with making ms^io squares, or circle* oranytKlng, to avoid weariness; and 1 conceived my becoming a memlwr would en- large my power of doing good. I would not, however, insinuate that my ambition was not flattered by all these prnmotionaJ-it certainly was 1 fur, considering my low beginning, they were great things to in«; and they were silTl more pleasing as Iwliig so many sponuneous testimonies of the publlo good oplnloo, and by me entirely unsolicited.'* About this period (173U), the celebrated preacher Whitfleld arrived at Philadelphia from Ireland. He waH at tirst permitted to preach in some of the town churches ; but tha clergy soon t<»ok a dislike to him, and he was compelled to exerciiie his elo(|uence in the open streets or fields. This circumstance, however, like all displays of persecution in matters exclusively connected with private opinion, only rendered hirn the more popular ; and the effects of his oratory speedily manifested themselves. " It was wonderful,'* says Franklin, <*to see the change soon made In the manners of mir inhabitanta. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, It seemed as if all the world were growing religious, to that one could not walk tliruugh the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street; and it being found incoB* venlent to assemble in the open air, subject tn its in- clemencies, the building of a house to meet in was no sooner proposed, and persims appointed to receive contrihutioni, than sufficient sums were soon received to procum the ground and erect the building, which was one hundred feet long and seventy broad ; and the work was carried on with such spirit aa to be finished in a remarkably short time.'* OnleavingPhiladelphia, Mr Whitheld went, preach. ing all the way, through the colonies to Georgia. The settlement of that province had then been recently commenced, and was attempted by people entirely unfit for such an experiment. They were unabie to endure the fatigues and hardships of their situation, and perished in great numbers, leaving many helpless children with nothing to feed or clothe them. 'VThe sight of their miserable situation," says Franklih, " inspired thr benevolent heart of Mr Wjiitfield with the idea of building an orphan house there, in which they might be supported and educated. Returning northward, he preached up this charity, and made large collections; for his eloquence had a wonderful power over the hearts and purses of his hearers, of which 1 mvit If was an instance. I did not disapprove of the design; but as Georgia x^as then destitute of materials and workmen, and It was proposed to send them from Philadelphia at a great expense, I thought it would have been better to have built the house at Philadelphia, and brought the children to it. This I advised; but he was resolute in his first project. rejected my proposal, and I, therefore, refused t<^ contribute. *' I happened soon after to attend one of his ser- mons, in the course of which I perceived he intended to Anish with a collection, and I silently revolved he should get nothing from me. I had iii my pocket a handful of copper, three or four silver dollars, and five pistoles In gold. As he proceeded, I began to soften, and concluded to give the copper. Another stroke of his oratory made me ashameu of that, and determined me to give the silver; and ' e finished so admirably, that I emptied m^ pocket wh »r »•>• P"*""*- BU uawer wia— ' At mj other time, fr:ead Hopkiii. ■oa, I would lend theo fieeljr i bat not now, for thee ■ema to me to be out of Ihr ri|*t ••"«>• i;", . . . Fnmklln, who wee employed i>y Mr WhitlieM to ■rbit hit aermoni, Jnnmah, &«., end had otherwiae ■ludi Intertoune with Mm, warmly repudiitea the Chargaa bnogfai agalnat him uf epprop riatlnc any ■art of the eoUectioni he made, oatenaibly (or charll- •hk purpoaaa, to hia own nae. 8peakin( of hia atyle •f enondatloii, he a«v^ " He had a loud and dear voiee, and articulated hia wnrda ao perfectly, that he might be heard and iinderatood at a gnat diatance, enedaOy aa hia audit '>i obaerred the moat perfect alfanoe. By repeated ^al, in retiring to a dletaBce frem him while pniaehiug, I eomputed that ho aiglii wall be kaard by mor* than thirty Ibouiandi and I waa reeondled to the newapaper aooounta ot hia hav- ing preached to M,900 peo| guag* of tha poet, his truly waa " A ailnd ■» vsi lino thsl liv Menwd to be Mot one, bul ul) msiikmd'i tpltom*.'* Dxru to tba cluae of the sixteenth century, all that m was known of tha prindpla of electrlelty waa tha dla- coreryof a power Inherent In amber,* and imeertwo other subatanoaa, to attract totham, when mbbad, light bodiea, sneh aaamall bluof paper, atraw, Ac hi the rear MM, Dr Oilbart at London conaMomMy «n. largwl the eaialome of th«« aleetrloal or attractive substances, Inoluding tha diamond and other precious stones, glaaa, aulphur, iaallngwax, main, die For above a century aftarwaidt, however, electrlelty wu little attandad to, although Or Well, Sir laaac Naw. ton, Ouerldka, and othara (the Utter of whom 6nt ob. served the rapulalve powar and axploalTe quality of aleclridty), added soma impartaiu facta. In ITU, h was dlsoovarad that elactrlclty may be oommunkalad from one body to aitottir, even without them bedim being In oontaeb The beginning of tha ymi 17d8 I* mamonhla In the annala of elestrielty for tha accidental diacorery of the potelblllty of accumulating large qnantitlm of the electric fluid, bv meant of what wm called the Leyden Jar, or phlaL H. Cuneua, of that dty, hap- pened one day, whila repeatli.g tome eaparlmenu which had been orlglnallT aiiggcaiad by M. Von Klaiat, Dean of tha Cathedral in Camin, to hold in one hand a glau vessel, nearly AiU of water. Into which he had been sending a charge from an aiactrl- cal machine, by means of a wire dipped into 1^ and commun. eating with the prime conductor, or Insulated non-electric, exposed in the manner we have already mentioned to the action of the exdted cylinder. He was grmtly surprised, upon applying his other hand to disengage the wira from Ihe conductor, whan he thought that tha water had acqnirad ai much electri- city aa the machiita could give It, by receiving a sud- den shock In his arms and breas^ much more severe than any thing of the hind he had preriotialyencoun- trred in the oourM of his experimenta. The aame thini;, it was found, took place when the glaas was covered, both within and wlthirat, with any other conductor! than tlie water and the human hand, which had lieen used in this instance ; as, for exam- ple, when It waa coated on both sidea with tinfoil, In such a manner, however, that the two coatings were completelv aeparated from each other, by a space around the lip of the veaael being left uncovered. M'henever a communication waa formed by the Inter- position of a conducting medium between the inside uiid outside coating, an Inatant and loud exploalon took place, accompanied with a flash of light, itnd the sensation of a sharp blow. If the conductor em. ployed waa any part of the human body. The first announcement of the wonders of the l.eyden phial excited the airiosity of all Europe. The accounts given of the electric shock I'v those wh» first experl. enned it are perfectly ludicrous, and well illustrate how strangely the Imagination is acted upon by sur. prise and terror, when novel or unexpected resuha suddenly come upon it. The extraordinary phenomena of the Ijevden Jar, soon, of course, attracted the attention of Franklin, and his inquisitive mind set itself to find out the rea- son of siicti strange effects, which astonished and per- {iti>xpd the eldest philosophers of Knrope. Out of his sfierulations aroae the ingenious and lieautlful theory ol tlie artion of the electric influence which is known by his name, and which has ever been received as the liest, tiecaiise the simplest and most complete, demon- stration of the phenomena that has yet been pro- pimnded. His earliest inquiries were directed to aL- ccruin the sowrce of the electricity, which frictbn made manifest in the glass cylinder. This he demon. Btrated, by experiments, to be in the pores of the glass, and not in the coating, as previously supposed. Alter the rj'Iinder, or piiiat (ns it is frequently term. ed), was charKi*d, he remoi'ed the coating, and found, that, by applying a new coating, the shook might still be received. He showed clearly, that, when charged, the cylinder contained no more electricity than bemre, lint that as much waa taken from one aide as was thrown on the other, and tliat by making a commu. nioatioo between the inside and outside coating, by which, as has already lieen seen, a loinl explosion wa* caused, theequilibriinn was at once rastinred. In order to determine whetli' i the virtue was created by the friction in tlie elecinc, or only communicated to it by other bodies, he resorted to llie very simple experi- ment of endeavouring to elei-irify himsell—that is to say, having insulated himself, and excited the cylin- der by nibbing it with his hand, he then drew off its electricity from it in the usual manner into liia own body, liut he found that he waa lUA thereby electri- fied at all, aa he wottld have been by doing the same thing, had the friction lieen applied by another person. No spark could be elicited fnini him, after the opara- tiou by the presertmeut of a conductor. It was plain, therefore, that the electricity had paaaed in the first place out of his own ImmIv into the cylinder; whicli, therefore, in coinnniiiicating it to him in the second lustanoe, onlygitve liack what it had received, and, instead of electrifying him, only testored him to hii natural state. To prove this stiil farther, he in- sulated two individuals, one of whimi he made to rub the cylinder, m hile tlie c Jier drew the elm-tricity from it. In this case, they were iHith affected t the one having given out as much electricity to tha cvUiider in rulihiiig it, as the other had drawn fnrni It. In proof of iltia, he made them touch one aiuitbar, whan IwA were Initantly reetored to their usual state. Tha •mrit pmduoad by theh- contaiit wu also greater than that wblah tank pfaue whan aiiher of them wen touofaad by annnelaetrifted parmn. Fma these ra- anlta, Ihaa, FrankMn coustmetad his theory, that •eary body in natura hm a natural quantliv of eleo. tridty, which may be dimlnlihad or inoreaaed in the wav WM k*«B tiMS itssi I III ill In «!.. r«__ -L^ • Till- una sl«!trldti Udnltsd tmo the Cnsk woni tmrm, siiib^r. ^ 1 ^ •^■""'ii'.'V ■- i ... '. ^T M"*uiiM quanmy oi electricity t •nalttji, ther eteea, atippodng it to be composed of aiaetHdty an d tsiuui ion matter, the usual equilibrium or baMnea between iu two oonstltueat ingredlenu WH for tha thne nmat or dmtroyad. Bnt to ratnrn to dm LaydanjAlali Franklin waa not mntmitad with manly aacartalnlngthe prindple of It. «a made abo a vair happy appUcatlon of this priii. dpla, whIA affardad n itiU mora wonderful manifea. tatlon t han had ym been obtained of the powers i^ aeenwnlatad alaotrlolty. Cirasidarlng the waste that took pfawa, In the tMmmon axparlment, of tha fluid apdM, during the prmeaa of charging, from tha ex. tarior cmting, he eoncaivad the idea of employliw it tooharge the innar surface of a second Jar, whicn ha aSntid, of eoiirsa, byHiasimplaeTpedlentaf drawing It oir by maaae of a metal rod communicating with that surface. The electricity expelled from Ihe out- aide of this second Jar was conveyed. In like manner, into the Inside af a third ; and, in this way, a gieat number of jars arere clouded with the same facility as a afngle one. Then, having connected ^ the Inaida coatings with one condintor, and all the outeide coat- ings with another, he had manJy to briag these two general conductors intr contactor oommunicaiion, in order to dtaehaiga (he whole accumulation at onoa. Thia contrlranoe he called au Ehclriiml Bailer^. The general sketch wa hare thus given will put tha reader In potaaaaian, at least, of the great outlines of Ihe Franklinian theory of electricity, unduubtadly one of the moat bmutifiil genenUiiations to be fouiid In the whole compass of science. We now advert to another brilliant discovery by this illustrious philoeopbei namely, the similarity lietween hghtning and eleotrici r. The Abln! Noll.-t had, be- fore Iilm, hinted his suspicions of this resemblance, but only in the most loose and distant way. In a paper, dated Nov. 7, 1749, Franklin enumerules all the known poinu of reaemblance between light- nlng and electricity. In the first place, he remarks, it is no wonder that the effecu of the one ahould be ao much greater than those of the other ; for If two gun.banela electrified will strike at two Inches dis. Unce, and make a loud report, at how great a I'laUnce will ten thousand acres of electrified cloud strike, and give its f re ; aud how loud must be that crack I He had known for some time the extraordinary power of pointed bodies, both in drawing and in throwing off the electric fire. The true explanation of thia fact did not occur to him i but it is a direct consequeuce of the fundamental piliu iple of his own tlieury, ao- cording to which the repulsive tendency of tlie partiche of electricity towards each other, occasioning the fluid to retire, in eveiy case, from tlie interior to the sur- face of bodies, drives It with especial force towards points and other prominences, and thiu favoura ita escape through such outleUj while, on the other hand, the more concentrated attraction which the matter of a pointed Imdy, as compared with that of a blunt one, exeru upon the electricity to which it i.' preaented, brings it down into its new channel in a denser stream. In possession, luiwever, of the fact, we find him concluding tliuiinpor we have mentioned as foUows I — " The electiii fluid is attracted by poiiiu. We do not know whellier this property lie in light- ning ; but since they agree in all the particulars in which we can already compare them, it is not impro- bable that they agree likewise lu this. Let the expe- riment be made,*' Full of this idea, it waa yet tome lime lieforo he found what he conceived a favourable opportunity of trying iu truth In the way he mediuted. A spire waa about to ha erected in Philadelphia, which he thought would afford him farllities for the experiment; but hia attention having been one day drawn by a kite which a boy waa flying, it suddenly occurred to him that here waa a method of reaching the chiiida preferable to any other. Awordiiigly, he imniMliately t.wk a large silk hankerchief, and, stretching it over two crow sticks, formed in this manner his simple ap- paratus for drawing down the liglitniug friim^Hs cloud. Soon after, seeing a thunder storm approach- ing, he Mok a walk into a field in the nelghliuurhoiid of the city, in which there was a shed, conimuiiicatiiig his intentions, however, to no one but his son, whom he took with him to aaaist him in raising the kitei this waa in June 17S'i. The kite hefug raised, he fastened a key to tha lower extremity of the hrni|icii string, and then insu. latlng It by attaching it to a post by means of silk, ha placed himself under the shed, and waited the reeull. For aomr time no signs uf ehictricity appeared. A chiud, apparently charged with lightning, had even fiassed over them r.ithuut urudiicing any effect. At ength, however, Just as Frankllu was begiuning to despair, heobmrveJ some louse threads of Uie iiampan string rise and aund erect, exactly as if thrv had been repelled from each other by hi'in^ charged with elec. tricity. He immediately presented his knuckle ioiIih key, and, lo hit ioexprcaaibla delight, draw tiimi It LIFE OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIK. (S« wdT-known electrical tpuk. Ha laid afiarwaidi that Ua emotion waa w ptac at thlt completion of a tone produced by nibbing the brim of a drink- ing glass with a wet l...g(-r, had been generally known. Tliis suliKequently gave rise tn the nrt of playing tunes on a variety of glosses of dilferent sizes, now caLed " musical glasoea." The sweetness of tile tones induced Dr Franklin to make a variety of experiments ; -iiid he at length formed that elegant instrument which he called the Armonica. ^ Perhaps no philosopher ever stood on a prouder eminenuo in tha world's eye than Franklin during the latter half of hi i life. The obecurity of hit origin served but to m>' 4 his elevation the more brightly nnispiouoiis, aim /lononrs were showered on him from aU i|uurtera of llie civilised world. In 17al Aatambljr of Pennaylraiiia aa biug«M for tha oity of PhiladalpbU in 1747. Waria diafutaa at thia tiiw aubais««l be- tween tha aaaembly ud tha pmpriataain,* eosh con- taudlnir tor what t&ay concaivad to ha tfaair juat rigbta. Frankun, ■ friend to the intaraau of (A* many from hit infancy, speedily dlstingviahad Umaalf ai.a steady opponaot of tha daima of the propriatarias, and he waa toon looked up to aa the head of tha oppoiitiun. Bis influence with the Assembly is said to have been very great. This arose not from any superior powers of alocation) he spoke \M seldom, and ha never wus known to make any thing like an eiaboeate harangn^. " His speeches," sava bia intimate friend, the late Dr Stuber of Philadelphia, " fre. dred who fell into tha anare, AJl the aitillery en4 •turaSr of coune, were left to the tatuf. As soon as the newt of the defeat, anf* the loae of the weggoiu and hetaes beoeate generally kiunra, tha ownera eama in.a body ueoa FiaiiUinfw the aaumn* ef theU slalma for which hahadgieaa h^zi,niKKtat- ing to noariy L.^,0(W I It waa wldi difUcalty that many of these elalmanta were prevented firaan tuiiig him, until gOTernmeat had time teexaaiiaa into theia chargaa and order payment i but the matter waa at length satisfaetarily settled. tai the abore affair, ynaklin gave a ttriking proof ef hia prudent and sagacimit ohaiacter- Before re- ceiving newt of the defhat, two gautleiaen came to FranUin with a subscriptloa paper, for raisins laonejr to pay the expense of a grand ueworb, which it waa intended to exhibit on receiving the newt ol taking Fort Ouqueene. Freaklin t^them gravely t>- ' ^ - thought it wonid he time entragh to prepare f'M; re* joicing when they knew they should have oocaaion: la rejoice. They teemed surprised that he did not in- mediately comply with their ptoposaL " Why," said one of themi fort will not Franklin, " that It will not be taken ; but I kaow that the events of war are subject to great unoer. tainty." The plan wai ftirtttnately abandoned. The assembly now laid a tax, to raise money for the defence of the province, and Franklin waa ap* pointed oneof Aecommisiionera tadlspoaaof it. H» hod also carried a bill through the bouse for eatablith- ing and disciplining a voluntary militia. To pro- mote the association neoesaary to form the miuda, he wrote a dialogue upon the subject, which waa ex. tensively circulated, and Aonght to have great dfeet. While the several eompaniea.in the citv and country were forming, and learning their exeroiie, the govar* nor prevailed upon Franklin to take charge of the north-western frontier, which waa infieated by the enemy, and provide for the defiance of the lahiUiiteati^ by raising troops, and bnilding a line of fbrta. Rnnk. lin did not think himself very well qniUlfled for the military, but was willing to be of all th^ tervloe In his power. He rvceived a eommistion from the go. vernor, with full anthority, and a punel of bluik commissions for officers^ to be given to whom he thought fit. Five hundred and sixty men were seoU' raised and placed under hie coaunand. The first place seleoted for the erection of a fort waa Onadenhutten, a small settlement of Moraviana, and thither Franklin set out in the middle of winter, snM torrents of rain, and through alaMtst Impaaiahle roadt. Upon arriving at tha village, he lost not a memeat in pUnuing and marking ont the fort, with a oireun. fetence of 456 foot t and the men were instantly set. to work with their axea to cut down trees for pall, sades. Seeing the trow foil so fast, Franklin had l^e curiosity to look at hia watch when two men begoii to* cut at a pine. In sUt minntea they hod It upnn the ground, and It was fourteen indiea'iadiainet»,\ Each pine made three pallsadee of eighteen feet long, point* ed nt one end. While these wera preparing, other men dug a tronch all round, of three test deeps io which the palisades were to be planted. When tfaaea were set up, the oarpentera built wilhhi tbsan a ple^. form of boards all round, about six feet high, for the men to stand on and fin through the looplulea. They had one swivel gun, which they mounted, and fired aa soon as it was tixed^ that the Indiana might know they had such pieces. Thus their fort, such aa It waa, waa finished la a week, though it nlned so hard every other day that the men were almoat unable to work. " This ghve me occasion to observe," says Frank- lin, " that when men are employed idiey are best eon- tented. For on the days they worked, they wera good-natured and cheeiful, and, with the conscious- ness of having done a good day's work, they spent the evening jullily. But, on our idle days, they wera mutinous and quarrelsome, finding fiuUtwIth the pork and the bread, and wera continually in bad humour; which put me in mind of a sea captain, whose rule It. was to Veep his men constantly at work ; and when his mute once told him that they had done every tiling,, and there was nothing further to employ them about,. ' O,* said he, ' make them scour the anchor,* *' This kind effort," he continues, "however con- temptible, is a sufficient defence against Indians who- have no cannon. Finding ourselves now posted ae.- curaly, and having a place to retreat to on occasion,, W() ventured out in parties to scour the adjacent cnuntrv. We met with no Indians, but we fmmd the placea, on tlie neighbouring bills, where they had lain to watch our proceedings. There was an art in their contrivance of those places that seema worth mentioning. " It being winter, a fire was necessary for them ; hut a common fire, on the surface of the ground, would, by Its light, have discovered their position at a distance i they had, therefiira, dug holes In thesrounA about three feet in diameter, and somewhat deeper| we found whore they had, with their halcheta, cut at the charonal Iron, the sido of burnt logs lying In the woods. With these coals they had made small firea in the liottom of the holea, and we observed, among the weeds and graat, the prints of their 1 dies, made by their lying all rnnnd, with their legs hanging down in the holes, to keep their feet warm | wbitili, with them, is an eaaentlal point. This kind of fire, so managed, could not ducover Cem either by iM »;« CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THK PF.OPKK. llNhl. Il.-imr, rparkf, or e%'eii tmoltei ft aMvartd that III* iiiin)Wr wai niH gr«al, mud It vttmt tliey Mw w» werv tiM mnny to (w attacked by lltvm witb prmpcct of advniitafre.' " We had for oiir chaplain a xealniii Pretbvterlan mliilktrr, Mr U«attv, who complained to me that the men did iint irenerafly attend hl« pni\-era and exhor. tationi. Whrn tliry eiilUted they wer« promiied, Wtldr^ fKiv and pmviilotii, a gill jf mm a-day, which wa» piMH-tiinlly served out tn them, half In the morn- ing .iiid hnir in the evening, and I iiliserved they nere |iuiit'tti.il in nttciidlnfr to receive it.*' Franklin ad«ri«ed that the mm ahoiild he diitHhitted Just only iilier (irayert, and net-er were prayeri mure genrrally ur nmrv uniirtnally attended. Fr.iiiklin*t military career waa* however, a short iitif ; ftir he had M'arcely completed his defensive pre- inrn'innii, when he rei-el\*ed a summons to attend the nMemblVf where his advice aad aaalsunce were found IndispenMlile. The disputes Iwtween the pmprietarlee and tlie pe vince of Pennsylvania, and departed fur England in June 17^7. During tiiis time, tlie governor ptissed a law imposing a tax, In which no discriminaiion waa made in favour of the esutce of the Peiin iainlly, whith were immensely large. The Fenns theretipoit used their most strenuous exertions Ui prevent its passing into a law. After long debate and delibera- tion, a proposal was n:ade that Franklin sliould jter. fortai/^ engage that tlie proprieury esutes should pay no more than a just proportion or tlie tax. This he agreed to do— tlie proprieuries withdrew their oppo- siiion, and tranquillity was once more restored to the province. The manner in which tliis dispute was ler. minated sullidently evinces tlie high confidence eii- teruined o( Franliliirs honour and .integrity, even liy tlios* opposed to his political viwws. After this, Franklin remained some time at the Uritish court, liaving, besides Pennsylvania, been nliHi appointed a^etit for the stuea of Maaaachusetts, Maryland, and Georgia. The French in Canada still oontlnuing to molest nnd interrnpt the trade ot tlie other colonies, Frank- lin published hilt faniouK Canada pamphlet, in whicli ImTN n fonible manner pointed out the advantages whlth would result Irom the conquest of that provini-e. An expedition wAiacvordin^yseiitout under General Wolfe, the result uf which is well known. At the treatv in 1 ?(>:{, France ceded Ca.ivla to Urejit Uritain, and by her cession of Ijouisiana at the same time, re^ntjuikhed all her posseuious on tlie continent of Anerica. In the summer of 17f^i, Franklin returned tn Ame- rica, and received the tlinnksnf the Assembly of Penn- sylvania, as well for the faithful discharseuf his duty to that prA'tnce in particular, nit fur the many and important services doTieui America in geuenl, during his rrkidence in Orrat Britnin. A compensation of ^..^lOUO, Pennsylvania currency, was likewise decreed him for the services he had performed in England. He wns mIw immediately re-elected to hi* Mat iu the Awemblr. Upon the brt'.-iking out of the fatal disturbances in cimsequenre nf Mr (irenville*s stamp act, Frnnklin had again returned to England, ns agent lor Penn. sylvania and mlier KUtes. During his residence in Kngland, he ninsulted. with unremiittiig industry, tite l>e«l mtere»u uf his native ronntry. He was every wttere received with lespect, on acrmint of his reputation as a writer and phitimiipher. In l7f**N h> made a vi»I( to Hnlhind and (Jermnny, and reieived tiie greatest marks uf attention from men of science. In the following )*enr he travelled into Frame, where 'he wnmmendlng the aduptiini tf the moat rignmus c>iercive measures, and Inveighing In unmeasured terms against the leading characters uf the state. Bv sume unncconntable means, tliese let- ters fell into t-'ranklhrs h.indN ere they reached their «!r«tiii>iii He insuintty transmitted tliem bavk to the Asibcniblv at M.issicliusetts, who, enra^e«l at the <*iiidii( t of the governor, sent a petitlmi to the king, praying lor hisdikniisval, nnd Franklin whs iippoiiited pt prrSfot it. As might li.ive liet'ii rxpected, the )h*- tiUun wudiimtisrd ai ** frivoloul and vexatious j" and m Franklin Incurred ao much obloq;iv for Ills Intercep- tion of the governor** dispau'hea (tiie mode of which was never discovered), that he vat dismissed from his office of depiitv*poatmasterconntry and the ivlonlea t but llnding all his endeavours unavall. log, he returned to America in l??**^- The day after his arrival, he was elected by the legislature uf Penn- sylvauiaas a delegate toCongress. Hostilities had the>i ciimmenced ; but It would be repenting a thrice-told tale to enter Into any account of the pnitracied and bloody struggle that ensued, or the nature of Iu termination. In I771(t Franklin was sent as ambassador to the ctmrt of France, where he soon brought about an alliance between that nation and the North American states. Wlien the British ministry at length saw the neces* sity of recognising the Independence uf the states, the deiinitive treaty tn that elrect was signed at Paris on the 3d of September 17R3, by Dr Franklin, Mr Adams, and Air Jay, for the sutes, on the one hand ; and by Mr David Hartley, for Great Britain, on the other.' Franklin continued at Paris for the two fol- lowing years; but at last, by his own urgent request, was recalled. Shortly after nls return, he was elected president of the Miprenie executive council, and lent all his still perfect energies toc^insolidating the infant government. A^e and inttrmitiest however, claimed their usual ascendancy; and iu 17B8fae retired wholly from pulilic life. Franklin's last public act— and It was niie In lieau- tiful accordance with the whole tenor of his life— was putting his signature, as preHident of tlie Anti-Slavery SiKiuty, to a niemtirial preseatetl tn the Hoiute of Ke- presentatives, pr:iying tUem to exert the full powers entrusted to them to din'ourage the revolting traffic in the human species. This was un the I'Jih of Fe- bruary 17ll!>. From this day forward, he was cun- Hiied almost constantly to l>ed witli the stinie, from which he sulTcred the most excruciating agony. Vet when His paruxvsms of pain drew forth, as they did occasionally, an irr'^preAStble groan, he w(Hildubser\'e, he w;ia afraid lie did not bear his sufferings as he ought — acknowledged his grateful sense uf the many blessings he had received from tlie Supreme Bel.ig, who had raised him from small and low begiuuings to such high rank and cuuhideration among men, and made no doubt but his present affiictlons were kindly intended to wean liim Irom a world iu which he was no longer fit to act the part assigned liira. He latterly sunk into a calm lethargic state; and, on the I7tfi April 17^0, a'mut eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired. He was then aged exactly eighty-four years and three months. The foElowing epitaph, written by himself many years previous to his death, was in- scribed on his tombstone I— ^'TheBtKly of Benjamin Frawki im, Printer [like the cover uf an old tiouk, its contents torn out, and strfpt uf Its iettering and gilding I, lies here food for worms i yet the work itself shall not he tost, for it will (at Itr '.rlieved) ap(>ear once more in a new and more b«0ti('ji edition, corrected and amended by The AlITII C'MAHACTEH. In kMiioir bark on Frank!!n*t career, it It evident thattNtprincipal feature in hischaractei was teorldlji prminutm not in the tikual and telfisli acceptatiim nf the term, but that prudence, founded on true wisdom, which dtrtaies the practice of hofiesty, indtistry, frn- galitv, temperance^in uliort, a!i thoke qualities which mav lieclBhHiliiHl under the name ot "mural virtues/* as being the only certain means of obtaining distine* tion, respect} independence, and mental cheerful. nets. There is no other writer who inculcates les- sons of practical wisdom In a more agreeatijt* and popular manner, and we much regret that the limits ol this work prevent our giving many extracts illus- trative of this i)uality. His whole cconld not for a moment make him lorget or deviate Irum the principles with which he started in life. Ever keeping Ifefore his mind hlsown origin and rise, he juktly cnnitidered every man to lie urJginahyun a par in as far as regarded real in- trinsic worth ; and, equally by precept and example, cinuHbiited more, perliaps, than any individual who ever existed, to Ireaking duwn thttte invidious bars to eminence and snix-ess in life which the conventional habits and artificial feelings uf society had thereto- fore interposed to the elevation uf tlnmi unblessed by birth and fortune. As the present biography rnunt be considered ns mure immtHliately instructive to the industrious and {iruductive portion uf mankind, we shall conclude it ly giving the following " Advice to a ^'mttig Trades, man,*' written by Frnnklin at the time when his In. dustrions and frtigat haliiis were just beginning to be rewarded vvttli independence and worldly luvpect. ** Remember that time Is money. Ilethntcaii earn ten shilling* ii-day by his Inbtiur, and goes abroad, or sits idle one-half' uf that day, tliongh he spends but sixpei.te during hla diversion ur idleness, ought nut to reckon thai tlie uuly ex|K'nset he has really spent, or rather thrown away, live shiltiiigt bMldet. Kememlier that credit Is money. If a man lett hit money lie in my bunds after It Is due, he vires OM the interest, ur'su much at I can make of Itduriiij^ that time. This amininu in a cinislderable sum whura a man has giHid aud large credit) and makes gooti uie of It. Reinemlier that money Is of a prolific, generating natnre. Money can Iwget money, and lis olTspring can b^fvt more, and so on. Five shillings turmil m six ( turned again is seven and threepence ; and r» oit till It bectmet a hundred pounds. The mure thero It of it, the more it producea every turning, m that the pruflu rite uulckar and quicker. He that kilK a breeding tow, deatrovt all her olfsprlng to the thou- sandth generation. He tliat murders a crown, de- stni)t all that ll might have produced, even scores of poundt. Rememlter that tix pounds a-year it Init a groat a-day. Fur thit little sum (which may be dally wasted either in time or expense, uuperurlved) a man ot credit may, on his own security, have the cnusiunt posseasiun and use of a hundred pinuids. So much in stock, briskly turned by an hiduttriout man, pro- duces great advantage. Remember this saying, * The good paymaster fs 1 d uf another mairt purse.* He that is known to pay punctually, and exactly to the time he promisee, may at any time, and on any occasion, raise all the money his friends can spare. Thla it sometimes of great use. After industry and frugality, nothing con- tributes more to the raising of a ymiiig man in the world, than punctuality and justice in all his dealings t therefore never keep borrowed money an hour beyond the time you promised, lest a disappointment shut up your friend*s purse fur ever. The most trilling actiuns that affect a man*s credit are to be regarded. The sound of your hammer at the in the morning, or nine at uightj heard by a cre- ditor, makes him easy six months longer; but If he sees you at a billiard- tatila, or hears yntir voice at a tavern, when yini should be at work, he sends for his money the next day ; demands it before he can receU*e it In a lump. It shows, tiesides, that you are mindful uf what you owe; it makes voii appear a careful as well as an lio- nest man, and t)iat still increases your credit. Beware of thinking all your own that you poaseu, and of living accordingly. ' It is a mlhtake that many people who have credit fall Into. To prevent this, keep an exact account, for stime time, iMith of your expenses and your income. If yuu take the pains nc first to mention particulars, it will have this giMHl ef- fect — yon w'li discover how wunderfully small trifling expenses mount up to large sums, and will discern what might have been, and may for the future be saved, without iKcasioning any great inconvenience. In short, tlie way to wealth, if you desire it, is at plain as the way to market. It depends chielly on two words — vuiitttry and fmgnlitjf ; that is, waste neither time nor monci/y hue make the liest use of iHith. Without indiistry and frugality nothing will do, and with them every thing. He that gets all he can ho- nestly, and saves all he gets (necMsarv expenses ex- cepted), will certainly become HcA— If that Beir.g who governs the world, hi whom all should look for a bless- ing im their honest endeavours, doth luit, In his wlie providence, otherwise det .'rmlne.** About forty years later, after a long life of expe- rience, he penned the following similar admonitions, entitled, '* Neccssarv Hints to those that wutild be Rich :**_ " The use of money is all the advantage there is U\ having money. — Fur aix puu'ids a-year yon may have the use of one hundred pounds, provided you are a man of known pnuteiu-eaiid limiesty.— He that spends a groat a-day idly, spends idly about six piHtinis a- year, which Is the price for the use of one liuudretl pounds.— He that wastes idly a groat's worth of bis time per day, one day with another, wastes tlie privi- lege of using one hundred ptninds each year He that Idly lu%es five shillings* wurth of timci lusex live shillings, and might as prudently tlirow bve shiUingH into the sea.— -He that loses live shillings, nut tnily loses tliat sum, but all the advantages that might lie made by turning it in dealing; which, by the time that a young man liecomes old, will amount to a cor. siderable sum of ni4iuvy.— Again ; he that sells upon crc'lit, asks a price foi .vhat lie sells e<(uivalent to the principal and interest nf his money fur the time he Is tu l(e kept out ul it ; therefore, he that buys upon ere- dit, pays interest fur what he bnjt; aud he that pays ready niuney, might let that money out to use ; so that he ttiat possesses any thing he has bought, |iays interest for the tise uf it Vet, In buying goods, it is best tt> pay ready money, because, he tliat sells n|Mni credit, expects to lose live oer cent, by bad debts; therefore, he charges, on all lie ^«lls iiptni credit, an advance that will make up that der, l!i, W.iiii. (•Ml 1'I.HTi nlut tiv »»i.u .111.1 HMiTti, r.unn't*ti'f n<"w. I (I>it)i .mil W.I riiHV, Jui)..iii.it'k\>llt- ••itiil. Iluliliit. Soil) by .t oh 1 1 M.ii-tuxt, l.!.n»:il>rr tl<» ^hhi ii('l.iiiil.— Putillilird niirr .i luiiiii^liu . rrlittctl by BslUntvnaanil L'a, Paul'* tVuia W9^ .'immmsi ,«, CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 24. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBKR8, EDITORS OV THE « BDINBUROH JOURNAL" AN? « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Pbiob Iff. HISTORY OP THE ISLAND OF GREAT BRITAIN, rrara Om lUtKlllim of i;4>, tlU llw aU of Uu nifa of 0«>|t IV. BiiiLLioir or I74i covclddeo. Deut wu the otma(t point of that daring Inroad into England which wai iJ««irib«d at tha end of the preceding aheet. The dangan which lurrounded tha Bighland army on all bandi except in the rear, now determined the chiefe of tha enterpriie, all except Prince Charlea hinuelf, to return to Scotland. The retreat waa accordingly commenced, December 6, and condnctad with tuch ikill and expedition, that the army of the Duke of Cumberland nerer came up with the Inturgente. A garriion, which had been left In Carlitle, surrendered to the duke, who, being recalled on the rumour of a French Inraalon on the iouthem oout of England, left General Uawley to proaecute the war In Scotland. Prince Charlea conducted hit forces by Glasgow to Stirling, where he waa Joined by large reinforcemeatt fniro Perth, while the English general concentrated bis troope in Edinburgh. The two armies, nearly equal in number, came to an action, January 17, 1746, at Falkirk, which ended in the disgraceful re- treat of the royal army. The prince, huwerer, being unable to make any use of his victory, soon after found it necessary to wiUidraw his forces to the neighbour- hood of Intrerneas, where he spent the remainder of the winter. The Duke of Cumberland now returned to put himself at the head of the royal troops, which had been augmented by 6000 auxiliaries under the Prince of Hesse. During tlie months of February and March, the Bighland army was cooped up withiu its own territory, by the Hessians at Perth, and the royal troops at Aberdeen. At length, April 16, Priuce Charles met the English army in an open moor at Culloden, near InTerness, and experienced a total orerthrow. Ha had himself the greatest dilSculty i.-i escaping from the country, and the Highlands were subjected for several months to the horrors of military violence in all its worst forms. To complete the sub- jugation of this primitive people, the hereditary juris- dictiuus under which they and the rest of the people of Scotland still lived, and by which the nobles and gentry were enabled to administer justice at their own discretion, were abolished by act of Parliament. An> other act put an end to the tenure of wardholdings, by which tha land-proprietors were enabled to com- mand the personal services, In peace and war, of those who lived on their estates. A third act prohibited the use of tartan and the ancient Highland fashion of clothes, which were supposed to have the effect of keeping alive the warlike spirit of the mountaineers. The two former of these measures produced a marked improvement In the todal state of the Scottish people, and, wi;h the auppreiaion of the Stuart caute, enabled the people to direct their energiea towards commerce and manufactures. This is indeed the era of that rapid ndvancement In wealth and domestic comfort, for which Scotland has latteriy been as much distin- guished, as she was formerly for poverty and sloth. riACE or AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. '' During the remainder of the war la which Britain and other powers were now engaged with France, the latter was generally successful by land, and unfortu. nate at sea. It is indeed a curious fact, that, from the time of MarlborouKh to that of Wellington, Great Britain hardly ever succeeded iu any military, or failed Iji any naval enterprise. In 1748, the two countries found, after nine years of contention, that their losses were equal, though in different departments of their strength. Thirty millions had been added to the na- tional debt of Britain, and France had expended an equal sum. They therefore agreed, by a treaty formed at Aix.la-Chapelle, mutually to restore tlieir respec- tive conquests, and to go back to exactly the same coaiiitiou in which they had stood before tlie nar. A more signal illustration could have scarcely been held lortli, of a truth which ou){ht at every opportunity to be impressed upon nations— that var is to the parties m general only a meant of waste and loss, and can do no good to any man, tsoept at tha expenaa of Ms neighbour. ADIIIIIItT>ATIO¥ or MB rELHAH. For several years after this parkid, the national re- sources were greatly improved under the peacehil ad- ministration of Mr Pelhaiii, whoaa commercial and financial schemes ware generally vary succasaful. Tha pmperity of Britain, unfortunately, roused tha Jea- lousy of the French, who, seeing the great advantagaa which their neighbours derived from coloniea and naval force, were extremely anxious to take the same means of bettering their own circumstances. Nations were then, and in soma measure still are. In the same suta as Individuals before their moral facnlties are cultivated. A child or a savage can sea no better way of bettering himself than by violating the rights or diminishing the propert;- of his neighbours ; while an enlightened person knows, that, without a respect for the interesu of his fellow, he wiU not reap nearly the full advantagaa of his own laboui. The Frendi on this occasion acted like the former t instead of honestly and peaceably endeavouring to extend their own ex- ternal resouroea, they began by trying to dhninish those of the British — a mode of procedure which oould only produce general lose, and retard the period of their own prosperity, as a man by robbing or cheat- ing only Injnrea others In order to mar his own good. M'hile many parte of tha world stlU remained open for the occupation of an European people, the French, from their settlements in the East Indiea and in Ca- nada, commenced an aggressive system upon the neighbouring possessions of the British ; in particu- lar, they drew a line of forts along the back settle- ments of the whole range of the British American colonies, from tha Gulf of St Lawrence to the Missis- sippi, so as to prevent the settlers from advancing be- yond the Appalachian mountains. For two or three years, the British government suffered these aggres- sions, and even insults of a more decided character, to pass unresented ; but at length it was found neoea- sary In 17A6 to proclaim war. A campaign of a novel and difficult character was opened In North America, for the purpose of driving the French from their forts. All the first movements were attended with defeat and disaster. The French had gained the exclusive affee- Uon of the native Indians, who proved a dangeroua and barbarous enemy to the British. Several of the forts were attacked, but without success i in one In- stance — that of Ticonderago — two thousand men were killed. At length, a more auspicious era commenced under the administration of Mr Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham. Tha British troops and provincials be- came more experienced in the nature of the service. One after another, the principal forts fell into their hands ; and a diversion was created by an attack upon Canada. >;i September 1730, General Wolfe reduced the town and fort of Quebec, though at the expense of his own life t and the whole colony soon after sub- mitted to the British arms. In fact, the French were punished for their Improper attempts to extend their coioniee, by losing those which they formerly had. While Britain was thus successful In one quarter of the world, she experienced a different fortune on the continent Austria, Kussia, and Poland, had combined with France against the new and rising power of Prussia, which was at present directed by Frederick II., commonly called Frederick the Great. Britain on this occasion became the ally of the Prus- sian monarch, not firom any regard to her own in- terests, but in order that the king might be able to protect his Hanoverian dominions. Immense sums of money were raised from the British people, for the purpose of paying the troops of those very countries which the king was anxious to defend i the Duke of Cumberland was appointed their commander. Tills prince, who never was successful except at Culloden, was so unfortunate, Septamber 1757, as to bring an army of forty thousand men into an angular piece of country, item whieh ihara wm no aaeapiag, so that the wb burg-Strelita, by whom he had a large family. THE BUTE ADXINISTBATIOX— PEACE or 1703. One of the earliest measures of the new king waa to introduce his preceptor, the Earl of Bute, into the cabinet at secretary of atate. This, with other al- terations, infused a peaceful dispoeltion Into his ma- jeety's councils, which was not much relished by Mr Pitt. That minister, having seontly ditoovered that Spain waa about to join France againtt Britain, and being thwarted' in tha Una of policy which ha eou- seqoently thought It naeessary to atiume, retired with a penaioB, and a peerage to hit-wife ; after which the minlatry wat rendered ttlU leu of a warlike temp^r- A negotiation for peace wat entered into with Frauoe^ which oflfered, for that end, to give up almost all he.- oolonial possessions. The demands of the British were, however, rather more exorbitant than Franoe expected, and not only was the treaty broken off, bat Spain commenced thooa hostilities which Mr Pitt luul suspected. Nevertheless, Britain continued that tplaa* did career of conquest whieh, except at the beghi- ning, had been her fortune during the whole of thia war. In a very few months, Spain lost Bavaanalk Manilla, and all the Philippine isles. The foiees at that country were also driven out of Portugal, which they had most unjustly invaded. At sea, the British fleets reigned every where triumphant, and at no period of her annals was she in so proud a situation respecting her neighbours. The ministry, however, were sensible thn war, even with all this good for- tune, was a losing game ; and they therefore, much against the will of the nation, concluded a peace Iu February 1703. By this treaty. Great Britain gave up a certain portion of her conquesta In exchange for others which had been wrested from her ; but she was nevertheless a gainer to an Immense amruut. She acquired, from tha French, Canada, that part of Lou- isiana east of the Mississippi, Cape Breton, Senega], the islands of Grenada, Dominica, St Vincent's, and Tobago, with all the acquisitions they had made upon the Cornmandel coast In the East Indies since 1740. From Spain, she acquired Minorca, East and West Florida, with certain privileges of value. The conti- nental states in alliance with Great Britain were also ief^ as they had been. These advantages on the part of Great Briuin had been purchased at the expense of an addition of sixty millions to tlia national debt (which now amounted In all t« •upaoRorttocimltryiirtoflliapMMk. AIW*«t mMoi, wh«» lEo anuit cklM mfi to !•»• wB if. ftot In kmlng tho gonniMiit In alMok, • dlrltlon •ppaui in Wo Bwra ur kMWMQ Ih* avfualM Mi4 the gonrned, which wu mulhuod In rarioui rormi •TOB boron tin JmiIm of Oooifo 1 1., but brako out In a WT ilolinl Bonnor during tho ouIt nan of hli nin---- Ooot^o 111, hnd ^Mlmi Tfooy frfat«l|Jo» from tho Earl of Buto, u4, on Mnnding tho throno, •hovad an orldont dUfoaliloii to axland un pewor of the orown, and to amaot Iraaa tho pooflo • Bat* Im- iiliclt obadianea to tho naamrta of tha lUto than had iiMn damandad by aajr aoiroraign ainoo tho Rarolution. Tho admlnlittatioo, iudaad, tl tha Earl of But*, waa the uumiiiaawanl of that iaag yo ri ad of Tory aacan. danej, wU ralga, Qooigo III. had abown thai ditpmttlait which ck«faolirl«d him tiNiHigh Mt, la phaa hIa •anfldaiMt ahMy In •ome flirnuriM near hIa own | mpomlklo aUulelen only lk< the policy to auggaatod waa t It wu genarally baUavad by of Bute itill had tha chiefs yioTlded with a genorai warraat agaiau the odlior, arinlara, and pulAakera of tho North Briuin, entered Ska hanae of Mr Wllhea, and apprahanded him. After baiagoaaadaad before the ncieuriea of atala, ha waa unmaritted to tha Tawcr, and hia papera waia aaiaad aad aaalad ap. A fcw daye aftar, he waa hraught to Waatmiaala* Halt by Jkalcaa oerpti*, and laleaaad by Chief Jaaiice Pratt, in ooaaidaratiaa of hia beiag a m a mb a r of patUaaaant. Tha parilament aadaaad tka ladl tlu aa paper ta ba hart kyiha kaada «I tha eemaae n fcaagmaa aa eai i a l laa tkat praduoad a lioti not in Itaelf aaagamua, but tarrlag ta diaaonr Aa a^ry aplrii of the aopulaca. Mr Wllkea waa aoon alter eapelled fVom iLo Hoaie of Conmont, and foand it conTenient to retire to tke continent ; bnt the aCacia of kit caee wer* hTouraMo to liberty. A pro- aaanliiin which ho inalilulad agalaal the tacratary of Mm»% oa the ploa that hii aelBura waa illegal, larmi. ■atad In a renlki uf damagaa, and a declaration by rUef Jualice Pratt, that Kcneral warranu were in- t with the lawa of England. AJUaiCAll iT*ltr.ACT. The adminialrattun o^ Mr Orenville la memorable for the lint attempt to tax the American tolonica. In March \^9&, an act fur impoainft tiampa on thoae oeuntriM waa paued, almoat without oumment, and by a K*****' maj(»rity; no oiio apparently dieeming of the r«>i>uuce it waa to maet with. The peuple of America were the deaoeiidanta, in m&ny initancea, of peiaonn who had Had trom their native country, in order to enjoy more liberal hiititutlana In a world nf tliair awn fomiiag. They might In Kima meaeuro be 4taoribod aa a mora llbaialiaad daaa of Kngliahnuin, vUh none of thuae ariatucratic gradea and inatitutiona which served to control the popular tpirit at home. The iitrerapt to aubject them to taxation, while they had H" repreaentatiun real or fiippoaed In the Houae af CuHimona, appnared to them aa the commencement «f a aytlem of tyranny, which. If nut reaiatad at the ftrat, wouJd in tune reduce thorn to aba them by government, to redun the price uf the article ao biw aa to cover tke duly, which waa only tbreeiience a-pimnd. In the oonAdent expectation that the Americana wuuld give way lotbii expedient, immenie ahipmentt of tea look place to American porta. Hnch a traniaclion only demnnttraiea kow little able tke Britiah peopla wen lo appnelaw the nature of tke Ameriaaa diaeantentk It waa not fur a trilling addition to the price of tea that they wan threatening resiatance to the mother ouuntrv t it wee to the principle of a right in tha Houae of Commona, where they were not repreaeuted, to impoae taxea upon them, or u Interfere with their iaiemal aifoira i it waa, in fact, aa they alwaya moat pathetically repro. aantad, tha oueation uf thair alavery or ft aado m . Ak cerdlngly.Bt Ntw Vorka^ PM l adji foh h , *aau^ of m wa« fottMlan (• ha»t Ut OkmUmu It iMa iwrakta4 to lead, hat pal lato Morea, and proMMM noni being aoM ; wklle at Boaton, a ahip-load, which Ud kaaa latfodueii lata Ika hailur, waa aaiaad by a lawleaa mob, and toaaed Into the lea. Thia laat act of violenca waa reaantad by the paaalug of a bill for interdicting all commardal intarmurta ariik the port of Beewn, and anothar for taking away Ika lagiilatlva aaaembly of the atate of Maaaaohuietta. The farmer meaiura waa eaally ohefotad hy local arrangemenu t and In rafoianoa to tha bttar, a eongreaa of the varlona iUtaa mat at Plilladalphia In September 1774, when It waa aaaerted that the eacluaiva power of l^|lalati lead by a aplrii af arkitnry and vindMvo barbarity. Tha iinngiMi alee ftaaaad a aevaaaal of aou-lnien. couraa, by which the whole utility of tha colooiae to the mother country, aa objecta of trading apaculation, waa a< onoa laid praatrtte. Tha cokwilata atill avowed a daain to ba nconelled, on tha enndltloii of a rapeal af the obnaaioaa tialnlae. But tha gDV«rameat_ aanly anoeuaaaad hy thab aw» immadiaia ankjeclfc— had now raaolved to attempt tha redaction of tha culoalata by force of arma. Henceforth, every pro- poaal ihom America waa treated with a proud lilenca on the part of the Britiah monarah and hia adviaera^ aa If they had o e n a l deied Ih a m aaleia andar no oMIga. lion to depart a tingle lota tram their amnevue pwi> lion, when the aaorifice of a amail aum of money, and a few Uvea to both paitiai, waa ao ton lo bring the atenaanu to their Ibel. Aa ll la prokaMa thalwa ikaO have oceaainn la aa. olhev paft of tha preaaat aariaak la gin a lull acxrant of tha Amoiicait laralallaa, wa ahall ba vary brief la thia place. The war waa opaaad in aummar 1773. by ahirmlahae httwaen tha Britiah. troooa and armed pnnrlneialB, lor the poaaeaaton of certain magaainea. At the beginning, then aeemad na hap* of tha con. Mat being pntnattd beyonA eaa aaaapalgai and in. daad ona unhiaky Britiah (lillaar a Colanel araiit— o fc a d ta aalar tha tmarlran tarritary with dva nffaaanla of tha llaa, aad dilra the rebala, aa thay arm called, from one end of thaoouatrTlolheolher. The popuhktioB of the ookmiaa waa r* ma time only Ihaen aailllona, aad thay wan gnatly taUbrhir In die. ciplloa and appointment ta tha Britiah Iniapa. They poaaeaaad, however, an Indwnllahia laal in tha cauaa they had uraod to defend, and fought with the ad. vantage af neing In the country of their IHenda. The BTltiih govammeat wm r a t h e r tarpriaed to 8nd at Ike end of one yaar tkat no program had been made towarda a reduwoa of tha Americana, and aaut out an offer of a ar d aw to the colanlala, oa condition that they would lav down thair arma « a propoaal that only excited ridieufe. On the dih of /nly 1778, the Ame. rican congnaa tooh tlit daolaira alia of a declaration of thair liMependeaaa, ambodyiaf laair malimanta in one of tha meat lolemn and aignlied daeumenu that ever waa penned. For two campaigni, the war con. tinned, and the alender forcaa nf the new npublic wen hardly aide any when to Ikee tha large nd well-ap. pointad armiee of Sreat Britain. Much mieery, ae may eaaily be auppoaed, waa aedwad by thia palriiitis people, in reaiating the inaadara of their country. Beaidea the civilited aoldien brought agalaal them, they had to protect themaelvea f^om the aavagee of the arild, whom the Britiah minlatera had deemed It proper to bribe aad debauch lata their tarviae, and wheae warfan waa one of ealarmiimtian. NMwiih. alandiug every dlaadvantaga and many deieata. Aire, rica remained unaubdued, to tha infinite aatoniahment of Otaat Britain, her king, har mhiatara, and her peuple, the laat of whom had r ellte t ed lam upon the juatice of their eauw againat Ameriea, than upon tha hupw which wen heU fartk af tha ehiap and apeady ooBiittMt of tha country. waa WITH raaiicg, araiir, juib MitKaiilh So much had Britain now reduced her reaonrcet, Increaaed her expenaea, and engroeaed har naval and military ttrengtn In a diatant aad nnprnapefoui war. fare, that one after another afaneat ail the powera of Europe heeeme her enemlea. The French, in 1778, farmed an alllanca with America aa a teparale itate, and aent out large auxiliary forcw to aid In the ae- airing of her Independence. The flpaniarda aoou alter joined the French In a war agalnil Britain, and in 1780 Holland waa added to tha number of her ene. mice. Ruiela then put hanolf at tha head of what area called an Armed Neotralltv, embracing Sweden and Denmark, the object of whi fore* raarrd thm powara luirad abniit hundred lay annually, Eren htr loag time to mwlilaa, Inr Uird NotAi hM tha aOT««i«n hiMalf waa the ahhf dfalo t rf afcla fc Had lhaijyrllMwiH ■aan bmnv wttMtj a BvpnaaBMMIaii at pnin) fftannf , it aaamaJiigkhr yairiwaaWa «ht auafc a oaraar of na- tional lim and injury wobU ban avar baan eatand upon. But tha gaaMral aana of tka paapla fnud no raponM within tha Haaaa af CaaMiona, except from a email minadljr, wkioh, though aalnialad hy tha alu. f aanca of a f aa and a Barha, apaU Ita fona In Tata upon a eahinat fartMUd by ao laaay tamUa ttaa. Tha miniuara raeaiead tbair Aral alarm at tha aad af 1777, In tha turraadar af aa acmy «f tea thonaand naa under Oaaarai BargDyiia to taa Aiaarleaa eaaaaaadar. But br a la^ liai^ Ihay ware aa baaad «p la Iha idm that there oiiuld be ■• feed trithaat the eubjan> tioa of Anarlaa, and thai that oeeat waa oartata, that erery I'.iiaatar and obatraalioii waa o ta rl oal r ed aa oaly • tenporary Inaonraniaaeh Tha dataaa put fwwaid by the frieade af the (ovanMnl ahMy rakned la tha naoeeriiy «f earMof tha aplrit ef hnabotdlnallaa, both In Ameriea and at hoaaa, wMeh waa J waya r*. rraianiad aa af a daagaroaa and rkloM eharaeltr. I muM be aakoaeriadgad that Iha aepnlarehach apoa the Baeaaaiae af elala, WM not thw ea aoHfihlaaed or — waUrfiaaalalad an aa|aa aa h hae aiaee ka- umphaat o*ai tha miaialry, feraad tb a m aa l vaa upon Iha king's aauneila. Than waa formed, April 8, I78:k trhat wasaallad ihaCeaUlionMiaistry, ia whieb Lord North and Mr Fax acted together as saereiariea af elala, though two yaaia had hardly akpsad slaca Iha latter had h r aa t be d the mast vloleat ihraau ia parllaaseat agatatt aal onlr tbe power, but tha life of hit praaeni brother. This unprincipled and vidoua stale « things, ia which the eriatoeralic iuAueiuiee of tha Uoaae afCemmaas ihnelened la ueurp both the raya! pnrogaliva and tha eupaoeed privilagm of the ' r for a abort time. Mr Fea had pra- doaary war,the rellaneaupon the Sinking Fund tended to reconcile the paople to an axpaudilun against whlak they would have atoarwlae ramonstralad la a moraaf- la the Sana yaar eoamaacad tha parUaawatarv pta. caedlnp ualnat Mr Warren Haallnga, for aU«i cmally aad robbery exardsad ufoa tha natlvae of la- goremi Theeei loiahlp of that dependency af I, laitad only pared aad eazriad through the lower house Ua fiunous bill ibr aha raguhMtaii of the East India (Jeespaay, by which all aalhority waa lo davclra aa seven directors aligiUa by the Uouaa ef Coouaoiia— ia other words, by which the isamaaee palroaaga ef lUi ofshoot of the empiia was ta Call law tlm haada of tha ministry. Tha paople had behaU the uaueemly aaaedalioa with diagiult aad miw the Uagparaeived that a power was rietegiiaderhim,wUch would eeoa beahktosetUm atdafiaima> HethereforeiisedhispersonaliBfluenoe, ia ao very oeeert way, to Indina the House ef Lords to throw out the bill t a maesure which certainly saved the ooontry from a tyranny of a very ominoua kiad. Ha than sent, Deosmber IB, to deaund the seals nf oAea from hie •var-amWtiana ministers, appointing Mr Pitt to be the prime minister and chancellor of the exeheqner of a new eabhiet, consisting chiefly of bis majeaty's friends. The beneficial usee of a king and house of lords under such a constitution as that which then existed, was shown by theie trsusactioui in a very marked manner. The varloui departments of the state wera now thrown Into a ralative poiition which had never been known before, and has never recurred since. The klnr and his ministers, backed by a decided majority of the public, were oppoeed by two powerful aristocra- tic factions in the House of Commons, who defeated every meainra that waa Introduced, refuied the usual suppltee, and voted again and again resolutions against the continuance of the present men In office, which tliey denouuced as unconstitutional. In the course of a few weeks, however, the influence of the Op- position was sensibly reduced ; the public sentiment and the power of the court liegau to take effect even on tnis intractable body ; and when at lenoth their majority had been worn down to orir, which happened on a motion by Mr Fox, tbe king dissolved the parliament s a measura which, whatever it might promise to him, ha did not previously think juitlflable. Ho far wei'O the motives of tbe coalition from being based on popular support, that, in the new election, no fewer than one hundred and sixty members lost their leati. The new Home of Communs was of course 10 favourable towardi the king and hie young minis- ter, as to enable the public service to go on without farther interruption. MiNiaraT or k* riTT — raoM 1784 to the com- HXWCEHBMT Or THC rBMCH RXVOI.VTIOV. In 1780, Mr Pitt eetablished Ills celelirated but fal- laelouo schema for radaeming tbe national debt, by what waa called a Sinking Fund. The revenue was at this time above fifteen milliona, beInK about one inttlinn more than was required for tlte )tiiltlir. nervioe. This excess he proposed to lay aside anntinJly, to lie at compound inlereet i bv whiuli means he calculated that each miliion would be quadrupled at tbe end of twenty-eight yean, and thui go a great way towardi the object he nad In view. T(» this laheeBa JVIr Fox added the lifinllely man abiurd amendment, that, when tbe government required to borrow more oaoaey, one roillioa of every aia ao obtained ihould l>e laid uide fiir the Hme ptirpea*. The scheme waa so well received as to increesa tha pepnUrily ef the minister, and it was not till HIS, wliaii it waa axpoaed by the late ProfMBor HamUlon, in hia work on the National Debt, that IM fallacy waa ganarally ackuowledged. The discovery, unfortuaataly, waa made twenty yean loo late— for, during tha whole of the Franch revolu- iiy dia, during hia 9raal Britain. Thaea arocaadlaga ware urged by Mr Burka and elhar mambara of Iha Ubararor Whigr party, aad axatlad so much pabllo santlmant agalaat Mr Uaatinga, that tha ailalatry area ahligad, tCou^ unwiUlagly, to lend their countanaaca to his trial, whleh look plasa before parliament In iha moat solemn manner, and oceupiad one hundred and Cany-aiaa days, aataadlag over a spaaa of sever a l yaara, Tha result waa tha aeqalttal of Mr Haadngs. The rldeet son of the king had nowbaaa tor aavaral yean of ags!, and exempted from tha aantral of hislh. ther. He had no sooner been set np In an aetakllah- meat of his own, than ha plunged Into a eareer of viae and prodigality, Ibrming tha most striking ooatraat with Iha ohaataoed ilmpTleltr and daoorum of the pa- ternal abode. He also attached himaalf la the paKjr of tha Oppoaldon, though rather appanntly from a men prfndple af ooatradicdon lo hia Ibther, tlam a slaoen appsvbatlon of their political ebjeota. Thar*, suit waa the complete allanaiian of Iha Prince r redressing th» political grievances under which they had long h- bonred. commenced In 1780, and wen at first very ge':^rally applauded In Britain, as likely to nlia that nation to a rational degne of fnedom. Ere long, however, the abolition of hereditary privileges, ma destruction of the Bastlle, the open disrespect for re- llgion, and other symptoms of a violent spirit, mani- fested by the French, produced a considermble chauga In the sentiments of the British people. Tbe proceed- ings of the French wera still iuitified by the principal leaden of Opposition in parliament, and by a Iarga class of the community ; but they iaspired the govern- ment, and the propertied and privileged olus-ies ge- nerally, with great alarm and distrust. Under tlia impulse of the example of France, a number of assu- olntinris were formed throughout Uie country, for tha purpoae of urging that reform in the House of Com- mons, which had so long been called for ; Uie socletv In London being headed by Mr (afterwards Earl) Gray, and Mr (afterwards Lord^ Erskine. Then also appeared a profusion of pamplilebi In favour of a general ameliorBtioii of the loclal and ruling nystema — particularly several by Mr Thomas Palue, a writer who had formerly dintinguiHlied himself as a literary partisan of liberty in the United States. The piiblle mind was grcaUy agitated by the various events and discussions which were constantly taking place ; all the men ardent, and sp' .illative, and benevolent minds entaring heartily in o tlie views of the French, while the more cautious, and the more wealthy, and in general all those who are least ready to think well of tne species, expressed their fears for tlie result. A coniililerable niinilier of those accudtomed to oppose Kovernment took this opportunity to join Its ranks;, the chief of whom was Mr Burke, who. In November 1700, published his celebrated pamphlet on the Franch Revolution, In which he employMl unexampled elo- qiienoe, and a vast range of historical illustration, to allow that it was fminded on prinolplea advene to real liberty and to piililic security. The improvement of the puhliclnstltntloninfFnnce would have probably taken place without any material consequences. If It had not been deranged byextemal events. That national weaknms wnich Bad been tha main cauneof the revolution, prompted two ambltloua powers— A iistrla and Pnistia — to (brm a sch ime (sum- mer ITi'i) for overrunning France, and, #hlle they restored tbe king to full apparant authority, disahUng his country for opposing them In futiira, by a patltiona I of its best provinces, after the manner of a recent "HAMBEIWS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. truMCtbm la Poland. ThU tmty »w bcUtr*! lo hn* wmiML Ihu Aiutri* ihouM ollala ^Bnnl* ta •xokun for tb« NMharhadi, fwt of FUok l»- loond to Franm, but wu to bo aeniurol by Urn, no tniuAnod In osekuic* to iho (Motor ot Bonrlo. Tbo orahlnk* Chulo wu to bora tho ducky of LomlMi 8trMbiir« ud Alawo won to bo roMorod to OormanT t Iho kioc of Sudlnla «*• to hivo Dau- ykln^ prarldod ho dionld oooodo to tho oooUtlon i odwr port* of the Pranoh domlnloiu wan to bo ba- •towod on Spain and Bwitaarlaad. Tho IntalllgaDoa of thaw dailgni prodoead tka utmoM Indignation amoof tke FroniS, and waa tha Int cauM of Iha mora violaat proeaadlngt at Paris. In reply M a quaitlon from n«neo roipoeting tho troopi auen blinif on tha fran. tlor, Francaa II. of Anitria mada no Hrupio to arow an intention, with hia alljr, to Intorfbra in the lettla. mani of the Praneh foremmant | the caniequonoo was a pmelamallan, hv Franoe, of war agalatt Auitria, Prania, and Sardinia. In the •ummer of 1703, the eomMnod powara phwed an army under the cham of tke Dnko of Bmnawiek — reinCoroed bv large bodiai of tha Itagltlra noblaeao of Franto— for tho purpoea of in. ndinc tkat eeiintry, .which they had no doubt, after thair lata eaceees In Poland, they wonid tpeedily 6nd at their oMToy. A manlfeato Inued by the duke at CoManta, caUad upon all tha French authorltiee, In tho moat Iniolent termi, to lubmlt to the Una, ubder tha pain of millurr exaentlnn, and threatened to (In up the city of Parit to tpoliation, if tha leaat Injury •hould be offered to the royal family, who wan in- Tiled to come under the protection of the allied army. The result was an uniTsnal riling of tha military rslrit of tha Freneh againat the Inrader, who, before Ike end of the year, w« Ignominioaily delbatad, and driran from the oonntry, by troepe of raw but enlhn- •iaitic raoniilai while tho king, baring, by an at- lempted light, gi«en reaioa for miplclon thit he wae disBoaed to regain hie former p-nror bymeana of foreign auietanca, waa depoaed (Anguil 10, I7V1), md thrown with hla foaaily into eonflaemont W4B DCCLAKD AOAIXiT FBAMCI, ITUS. The dnumitances attending tha latter rerolutlon ware unhappily of ao riolent and eren bloody a charaa- tar, aa, together with the eatebliihment of a republic, lo convey unaroidabia alarm whererer heredilanr in- atltntiona were known, and adte, ainongat guod but timid people, a apirit highly adrarae tii the pnigreu of liberal ideaa. The French oonTaniion incraaacd this nnhTourabIa feeling, Norember 1703, by a de- cree, intended aa a retaliation for the conduct of Aus- tria and Pruaala, proffering aid to anv people who mlabl be inclined to reform their inatitudooa; and •tin (hnher, by bringing thair depoeed king to the block, January SI, ITU- Prarloua to the laat inei. dent, they had orerrbn the Netherlanda, and opened the narigation of tha Scheldt, which Oreai Britein waa obligad by treaty to keep akut for the adraotaga of Holland. The decree, and the opening of this rirer for general commerce, afforded to the Britiah gonra- ment an axeuM for entering inte a war with Fraoce, while tha real moilres were exactly similar te thoee which animated Atiatria and Pniuia — a deain of re- aterinf monarchy in France, and preventing the oon- t^ion of French doctrinea in Britein. The Franch conrention, who made peace one of their first prin- ciplee, offered to explain away the decne, and U give up Iha qneadon of the Scheldt ; hut the minlatry, with the aame iU-omanad hanghtinem which had b«ni dla- played towarda America, paid no attention U the pro- poeaL It waa confidently expected by the king, hia minlalera, and the great body of respectebla persona who rallied round the throne and the ariatocracy on this occasion, that tha French republic had not strength to stend a single campaign a^nal Britain and the other pow ^ combined i^nst It. The bulk of the nation, high and low, wu eithar eager for the war, or made no oppoaition to it. Comparatively few of the common people wera then capable of nflecting upon such a anbject i and there baa even been rir>u u Birmingham, July 1791, agalnat the friends of liberal Inadtutioaa. The fow who penetrated the evil oon- ■Ofaaneea likely to ariu from the war, and atiU main- tained a demand for reform in our own country, were overpowered bv numbers, and branded u enemies to religion and civil order: some wera tried for high treason and sedition, though only in the cases of Hnir, Palmer, and twn or three others, in Scotland, were verdictt obteined. Through a feelina of alarm respecting her monarchy, her rbureh, and ner arislo. cracT, Oreal Britain plunged into a war, which wu 10 add six hundred millions to her debt, and deeolate Baroite, and retard civilisation for twenty years CKEXPECTCD si'ccxsaca or the raiMCH. After alliancM had been funned with the other Antu flsUican powers, Oreal Britain sent an army into the Netherlands to co-opereu in reducing the fortrcssee In possession of the French, while the town of Tou- lon, being Ibdinad to rayaltv, put Itself into the hands uf a British naval eommanaer. At first, the Frenok wemad to fail somewhat in their defoncu ; but on a more ardently republican party acceding ty power under the direction of the infaoious Kobaspieira, the nutiooal energies became much increased, and the Puke of Brunswick experienced a series of disgrace- ful reverses. Prussia, having now taken new views lit the cau of France, began to withdraw her troops, on the pretext of being unable to pay them ; and though JSftaia lent k«r oearljr a miilioa and a •juarter to kttf IN her aiar BMOths an ika laM, she eontrived to do aoihinf towarda the ganeral eaiiss, and saon retired altogether frees tha ooateel. la I7M, the French expeirieneed a aaran defoat at seat but they aol oaly drove tke caiabined anaiea out of the Netherkuds, but, teking advantage of aa iiatisually hard frost, id- vaded HolCuid by the Ice wblek covered the Rhine, and ladueed that country to a npublio under their own eootroL The succeesw of the British were U- mitad to the above naval victory achieved by Lord Howe, tha temporary posseesioa of Corsicr and Tou- lon, the capture of several of the French colonies in Iha Weet Indies, and tha spoliatioo of a great quantitY of the commercial shipping of Fnnce i against which were to be reckoned um dlagracaful expulalon of her army from the Netherlands, the lose of ten thousand men In an unsuaoesafUl deecent upon tha west coast of France, aud soma considerable Iosms of her ship- ping— not to speak of immense sums squandered In valBt and an Increase of annual expenditure from about fourteen lo near forty miliiuus. In I70fl, the French invaded Italy under Bonsparta, and were there so successful u not only to add greatly to tha territory of Uie republic, but to bring Austria to a hnmiliating peace. The British government would han now been gUd to obtain peace also, and took some steps for that purpose, which were u deficient In dignity u its decWallon of war had been replete with pride. But France wu fonnd unwilling to make sulleient ooneassfons of her oonouastt, to satisfy O real Britein. Theyearl7»7wudlstlnguished by the great naval victories of 81 Vinoent and Camperdown t but the finanoM of tka eonntry were now becoming so much embarraaaad u to compel the goremmenl to rellere tha bank of England from Iha duty of paying gold for their nolee i a meuure which had tha effect of Inereaaing the pricee of all gooda, and rendering tke money that wu borrowed by the nation greatly leae In value than what they afterwarda stood indablM for, when caah paymente had to be reaumed i la fkM, the natianal obligaliooa ware, by thia alagle act, Im- Bieaaely iacreased. It is almost IncaocaiTahle to a Briton born since that period, how the nation should have advanced so far in so hopeleu and minons a course. Much of the delusion Is attributed to the dread of an invuion by the French i an event, from lu very singularity, regarded with horror by the Bri- tish people, and to obriate which, almost every man In the country took up arms. In fad, the two partlea mutually Invlgoreted each other during the cuurae of the war. The British, by their atlempU to overturn tha new Fnnah government, gara It a firmnau it could not olherwiu hara bad, and drew forth such powers iu the natioa u it had never exhibited even in ite best days, under Louis XIV. and his famous finander Colbert. The Franch, on the other hand, by their threaU of invading Britain, touched on a string whick vibrated u strongly, and rendered a peaceful country of merchants one universal camp, In which deftsnce to French doctrines and induence wu every where breathed. ■XrSDITIOlt TO EOTPT— VKW COALITIOV AOAIXST rBAKCE. In 17B8, the French overrun and added to their do- minions the aadent republic of Switserland, which gave them a frontier contiguous to Austria, and en. abled them eventnally to aa with increased readineu and force upon that country. The great eutero powers, which had commenced the war with the de- sign of parting France like the garmenu of a criminal among themselves, thus saw her after a few years of warfaia, not only preserve her own proper soil, but add to it all the nei^libouringcountries. In this year the directon of the trench republic beginning to be afraid of the ambition of their ganeral, Bonaparte sent him at the head of an expedition to reduce and coloniie Kgypt, Intending from that country to act against the British empire in tke But Indies. The expedition wu sucoeesnil in Ita first object ; but the fleet which had conveyed it wu attacked in Aboukir Bay, by Nelson, and almoat totally deatroyed or cap. lured. While ao much of the atrength of the French army wu thua aeduded In a dlatant country, the cut- ern powera thought they might aafely recommence war with the republic. Auitrla, Naples, and Russia, formed a confederacy for this purpose ; and Britain, to supply tha necaesary funds, submitted to the griev- ance of an income Ux, amounting in general to ten percent, in addition to all her previous burdens. Uur government had at this time to contend with a per- plexity of a new kIniL— namely, a rebellion In Ireland, which, though fomented and aaaisted by the French, wu suppressed without much bloodshsd, and led two yean idur to aa iiworporating union of the two conn- uiee. The new confederacy against France wu so mc- oeeeful in 1799, u to rwdeer' the greater part of Italy from her dominion. In the campaign which produced this ruult, the Rumian army, under the famous Su- warof, acted the most prominent part i but at the doee, attampting to expel the French frpm Swilier- land also, this large force wu nearly cut to piaCM in one of thie defllee of that mountelnous country. In August of Iha same year, Oreal Britain auda a eor- rMooodlng attempt to axpel the French from Holland. Tbirty-fin thousand man, nadar the Duka of York, fcrmad tha militery part af tha expedithin. The fleet wu successful at taa Aral la taking the Dutch ships i but tbf irm^, liariof iandfd andtr itr«M of wattker u an unfavourahle place for their operations, waa obliged, after an abortiva serlee of sklrmishee, tomsha an agraement with the French, purchasing parmlfskm M go back to thair oouatry by a surrandar of eight thousand prisonen from England. BOKAPABTI ELECTED riEST OOIISOL—BII OTEB- TUIES or PEACE. The reverses vhicb France experienced In I7IHI were ganenlly attributed u the weakness of the di- rectory— a coundl of fin, to which the executive had b«en enlrustsd. Bonaparte suddenly returned from his army in Egypt, and, bv a skilful management of bis popularity, overturned that spades of govertiment, and caused himself to he appointed the sole depositary of the executive power of the stete, under the deno- mination of Pint ConsuL He immediately wrote a letter to King Ueorge III., making overtures of peace, bulwu haughtily answered, that no dependnnce could be placed by Ureal Briuinnn any treaty with Fnnce, unless her government were sgain oonsolldaled under the Bourbons. IkmapArte wns so sincere In his de- sire of peace, u to replv to this note, vlndirstlng Franca /rum the charae lirought against her by the British seoretery, of having commenced a system of aggression inoinsistent with the InwretU of other steles, and asserting her right to choose her own go- vernment — a point, he said, that could not decently be contested by the minister uf a crown which was held by no other tenure. But the British govern- ment wu at this time too much elevated by the ex- pulsion of the French army from Italy, and the late changM In the executive, which. In their estimation, betokened weakneee, to make peace with a country, which. In the favourite phrase of the times, wu " at enmity with order, religion, and morality." Tw» yean biifora, when this moral war wu at a still greater height in Franca, Britain had thought proper to make peaceful ovarturee, Ikrongk n channel which might almoat be called mean; but at that time the Antl-Galllcan cauM wu bleeaed with Infbrior auoceu, and Kngland haraelf found some rather alarming dif> ficultiee at the bank. In fact, the profsesion of Bght. Ing for the support of " order, relicion, and mora- lity," wu only heard of when Britein and the other powera were flattering themselvee with a hope of ex- tirpating this example at a republic < SUCCESSES or BOWAPAaTI. Tha evenu of IflOO formed u complete a pnnlth- ment for this Infidelity lo prindple, u thoee of 1709 and the fisw subsequent yean had proved in regard to original design of dismembering France, and dicttung to her respecting her internal sffslrs. Sir Sidney Smith, who commanded the British foroea in Syria, hsd made a treaty with the French sn.iy after it hsd been deserted by Bonaparte, whereby it was agreed that the French should abaudon Egypt, and retire unmolested to their own country. The Ilrltish government. In their present elevation, re- fused tc ratify this arranaement ; the consequence wu, that the French overthrew an immense Turkish army at Orand Cairo, and made themselves more ef- fectually than ever the masten of the country, so that Britein had to send an army next year, under Sir Ralph Abercromby, to accomplish, at an Imraenie ex- pense and a great wute of human life, what the French hsd formerly agreed to do without firing a shot or shedding one drop of blood. In Europe tha same cause wu equally unsucoessf^ By one of his moat dexteroua movementa, Bonaparte eluded tha Auatriana, led an armv over the Alpa by the Great St Bernard Into the Milanese, and, having gained a decisive victory at Marengo, at once restored the bet- ter part of Italy to French domination. Contempo- raneously with his own roovemente, Moreau led an- other army directly into Oermany, overthrew tha Austrians in several battles, and advanced to within seventeen leagues of Vienna. These reverses obliged Austria to make a peace next year, by which Franca became mistress of all Europe wast ol^ the Rhine and south of the Adige. CHAHOE or HIHISTIT, AXD PEACE Or AMIENS, 1801. At the commencement of 1801, Britein had not only to lament this unexpected turn of fortune, but to rec- kon among her enemies the whole of the northern steles of Kurope, which had found it necessary to place themsdves on a friendly footing with Bonaparte, and, lhon|(h they did not declare war against Britein, yet acted in such a manner u to render hostilities un- avoidable. Nelson sailed In March, with a large fleet, against Copenhagen, and provwl so successful sgalnst the Danish fleet, u to reduce that country to a sute of neutrality. The death of Panl, irhlch took place at the ume time, and tha aoeassien of Alexan- der, who wu friendly to Britain, coraplelaly broke up the northern conMeracy. Vet the great achleve- menu of Franoe on tha continent, joined to the dis- tresses of a famine which at this time bore hard on Iha British people, produced a deeire for that peaoa vhlch only a year Won migbi have been nined upon so much better terms, but had been so insultingly rejected. With a view, apparently, to uve the ho- nour of Mr Pitt and his friends, a new ministry wu appointed under Mr Addington, by whom a peace wu at laugtb, In the and of the year (1801 ), concluded with France, which wu left In the stete of aggraa disenant we have jnil described. ■ ESULTi rr THE WAX. ' The war of the French ravolutioa placed Oreal Britain lo poiteMloa of * ooniideraU* Dunber of HISTORY OF TI!E ISLAND OP GREAT BRITATO. ttiandi *nd eolonlM In ih* Eut ud WmI IndiM tnd •iHwiMra I ud whib two war-ihlpt wu tht wbol* moant of oiir Iomm M mo, w* h*d Uktn or dwtnmd dihijp uU of tho Uno, 181 MplM, ud 194 tnuiUt •hlpi bolonging to tho ontmy, togelhor with 74S pri- T* »m, flniNn Dutch, ud MT«nty>ilx Spulih ihl|».' T' ^ trlumpbi of tho Brititb flatt* wtra Indoed on. nwroiu tnd tpUndid, and hmd t'.o oirMt of hMplng tho nitional conmorco ihnott inTioUlo, diurinf tho wholo of tho wor, vhilo thu of Fnnoe wu noorljr dittroyod. Thoro ww, howorer, haidlv tho moM trifling initanoo of luoooM bjr lud ; itnd tho ozponoM of tho oontotl hod boon anormoiu. Tboiupplloiiuu> tUy Tolod baforo tho wor woro fourtaon miUiooo) thoM for 1801 woro L.da, 187,000, baing doublo tho ■nnunt of tlio wholo land-rant of tho countrjr. Tho raault wu ilotod not mora opIgruiBwtleolly tbonlruly bj Mr Sboridu in tho Houio of Commona. " Tho Uto Dilniitor (Pill) had told ui," taid ho, "that tho ozampla of a Jaoobin goTommont in Europo, founded on tho rulna of a bhiody altar, ud tho tomb of a mar. tmd nionarah, wu a 1000101110 ao draadful ud inlao. tiona to Chrlttandom, that wo oould narar bo lafo whilo it axiatad, and couU do nothing aliort of our laat affort for iu daatmotioo. For thau ftua words wo had Uld out naartwobindiod thouiud liToa,ud naarly thrao hnndrad mluiona of mouay— and had ■alnad Caylou ud Trinidad." Tha wholo oonlaat la to bo loohad upon u ono of the moat ozlantire dia- playi of the waahor and wono of tha human paiaiona that hu avar taken plaoa^ WA* BEVZWED WITH rBAHCC, 1803 — BOKATAETE MADE EMPEEOE. Tha otII, howerar, wu no* yat at an end. It wu only ono of the rotulti of tha war againit French in> dependenca, that the country wu led by the cnurte of erants to place hartelf under the Aintrol of her chief military genlui, Napoleon Bonaparte t a man whose •pirit, though relleTOd by i|uallt)n which men hare hitherto called illuitrioui, wu Innatelv narrow and •elfiih. It wu aoon' perceptible that Bonaparte did not rellih the condition of peace. Haring taken un- due adrantage of lereral polnta left looao in the I reaty, Great Britain retaliated by retaining poaMiaion of Malta ; and the war wu accordingly recommenced, In May 1003, Britain Immediately employed her lu- perlor naral force to Miae the French west India colonleii while trance took ponaation of Hanorer, and excluded Britiih commerce from Hamburgh, which, during the late war, had been one of ita prin- cipal depoiltaries. Bonaparte oollactad an immense flotilla at Boulogne for the arowed purpose of invad- ing England t but so vlmroiis were the preparations mada by the wholo British population, and so formid- able the fleet under Lord Nelson, that ha nerer found it poulble to put his design in execution. In the year 1804, he wu eleratod to the condition of Emperor of the French t and France once more exhibited the for- malltiaa of a court, though not of the kind which the European sorerelgns wished to see established. In April of tha same year, the Addington administration wu exchanged for one formed by Mr Pitt, and of which he formed tha chief. aUBJDOATIOlt or AnSTBIA BT HATOLEOH. In 1805, a new coalition of European powers, con- sisting of Russia, Sweden, Austria, aud Naplea, wu formed, under the fostering iofluenca of Great Britain, against Napoleon. He, oo the other hand, had drawn Spain upon his side, and wu making great exertions fur contesting with Britain the empire of the sea. A fleet of thirty-three sail, partly French and partly Spanish, met a British fleet of twenty-seven, under Nelson, off Capo Trafalgar, October SS, 180S, ud was complelelr beaten, though at the expense of the life of the British oomman«r. Britain thus fixed permanently her dominion over tha aau and couts of the civilised world. At this time, however. Napoleon wu asserting with equal success his supremacy over continental Europe. By a sudden, rapid, and unex- pected movement, he conducted an army into Ger- many, where the Austrian troops were alrndy makiug aggressions npon neutral territory | on the 17th, took the fortress 01^ Ulm, with its artillery, magulnes, gar- rison of 30,000 men, and the commander. General .Mack i entered Vienna without resistance on the 10th November i pursued the fugitive court of Vienna, ud the allied armies of Russia and Austria, intoMoravia i and on the M of December, gained the decisive victory uf Austerllts, which put au end to the coalition, ud rendered Napoleon the dictator of the continent DEATH OP MB PITT — AND OP MB FOX. This series of events caused a gloom in the British councils, and prova prthansivaly oallad Whig, aotwithstudlng tha modi- tad Torylan of tha fomar IndlvldnaL Thia n«w caUnat, In tha conra* of 180S, mad* a sirannons but not undlgnlflad allanpt to obuin a peace ttcrn Fruoa, which now threatened lo bring tha whole world to It* feet. But the (Irenville administration •neonatwwl sarloo* dlfliculties tnm the king, who now nior* than aver had reoonrM to that oonflaantlal and Irraaponsl- bt* eaUnal, which wu formed In his own coart, and wut by tha name of the Baok-elairs Influoica. Ex- hsnsl** by his nogrataful labours, Mr Fox died. Bap- l*mb*r 13, 1806. " Frank and simple," says tta writar Just quoud, " he knew uo tbaatrio artiflce, no politic concealment, no factitious divtrslty of nenonag* iMtween the statesman and the man. Tne errors which prove the weakness of humanity werv In him u undisguised as the endowments which ennoble it. Without those weakneaeee and errors, his charaeiar would have bean nearer perftclion, but not mora grand — ud his generous sympathies might bar* bean lasa aetiva and redundant, tils last effort u a minister wu >o procure peace i his lut aot to propose the abo. lilhm of the sUve trade." Tha war wu thus, among lla other evil consaqueneee, breaking the hearts of the moat able and worthy of tha sons of England. PBUSSTA BEDUCED — THE BEEtlX DECBEES. A new coalition, excluding Austria, but Involving Prussia, had been subsidised by Britain, and wu now preparing to act. With his usual decision. Napoleon led what he called his " Grand Army" by forced marches into Prussia ; gained, on the Ulh of October, tha batilaa of Jena and Averttadt, which at once de- Jirived that country of her army, her capital, and her brtreues i ud then proclaimed the famous " Berlin Decrees," by which he declared Great Britain in a slat* of blockade, and shut the ports of Europe against her merchandise. The King of Prussia, Frederick Wil- liam III., took refuge with his court In Ruuia, which now wu the only continental power of any import- uo* that remained unsubdued by France. BUSSIA COMPELLED TO MAXE PEACE. Towards that country Napoleon soon lient his slapa, taking aasistance on his inarch from Poland, which he promised to restore to independence. After a seriu of skirmishes and battles of lesser importance, he met tha Russian army in great strength, June 14, 1807, at Friedland, and gave it a total overthrow. He might now have euiiy reduced the whole country, as he nad done Austria and Prussia t but he contented himself with forming a treaty (at Tilsit), by which Russia agreed lo become an ally of France, and en- tered into his views for the crippling of Britain by the exclusion of her commerce from continental ports. France had thus the glory of disarming, in the course of a few years, the whole of Europe, excepting Great Britain ; an amount of military triumph for which there wu no precedent in ancient or modern history. CHANGES OP ADMINISTBATION. The OrenviUe administration watdisplaced in spring 1807, In consequence of the difference between il:. members and tha king, on tha subject of the Catholic claims, which had long been urged by the Whig parly, with but an Imperfect support from the people. The nex> ministry wu headed by the Duke of Portland, »;id included' Lords Hawkesbury and Cullereagh (af- terwards Earl of Liverpool and Alarquis of London- derry), and Mr Canning, as secretaries ; Mr Spencer Percival, recently a soticilor, being chancellor of tlie exchequer. It is generallv allowed lo have been one of the most Incapable ministries ever known ; yet II wu as good u cmild be obuined at the time to conduct the affairs of a country, where, on the one hand, the will of the sovereign and borough-proprietors, and on the other tha clamours of the people, presented so many obstacles to an efflcient course. One of the first acta of this cabinet wu the dispatch of a naval armament to Copenliagen, to seise and bring awav the Danish ship- ping, in order that il might not be, oy possibility, em- ployed for the injury of Britain. The end of the ex- pedition was euily gained ; but it wu the meant of lowering the honour of Britain In the eyes of foreign states. FIRST PEHINarLAB CAMPAIGN. The time seems lo have now arrived when the re- taliation of France upon Europe, for ita interference with the revolution, was completed, and when farther measures against neighbouring tutes became offen- sive on her part, and accordingly indefensible. France, however, was now given up to the direction of a mili- tary genius, who had other ends to serve than the defence of the country against foreign aggression or Interference. The amaxing successes of Napoleon Bonaparte had inlpired him with the Idea of univer- sal empire! and so great was the iiilluenco he had acquired over the public mind and physical energies nf France, that the attainment of his object seemed by no means impossible. There was a difference, however, between the oppoeition which he met with befura this period, and that which he subsequently encountered. In the earlier periods of the war, the armies brought against him could lie considered u little else than the mercenaries of the dominant classes In England, and of the despotisms of eutern Eu- rope I henceforth a fiercer and more patriottc spirit rose every where against him i he wu looked upon In England and elsewhere as the common enemy nf hnmuttj ud of fraadom ; and every exertion made (or th* huBlllalloii of Frane* wai aa h ia m l by a saa. tlmaal of d*ip*fali«ii, la whMi (k* goTanon aB4 fontntt allk* partlalpattd. ■ Th* Snaolsh pnlaaula wa* tk* first part nf iMa prostraMd oontiiunt| wh*r* Ih* JM^ otuild b* >al4 to hav* taken a d*eld*dl]r hoatll* part against Napa- loon. H* had thar* apa* n fcr M to delhrtma the ralgnlnt fhmlly, ud glv* th* erawn lo his elder bro- ther Joseph. A i*Bt* of wrong and Insult, mingled with religious Auwtleism, rals*4 the Spanish |iarlno*M Oanillne of Brunswick, Oram whom h* had livad leparalad nl. most ever since, indulging freely in thus* tIom which most tend lo degrade our oommon nature. Il nnw appeared that the Duk* of York, though also mar. ried, revelled In the gioatwl debauohtrin, ibr which he did not pay out of his incoma, but from tl<* pnblio Eurs*. The censure of parliaaitnl wu only avoided y his resigning his ofllc*. AUSTBIA AGAIN PBOaTBATID BY KAPOLCOH. In 1809, Austria wu inducad oao* more In ctm>- mence war with a power by which she had liiwu so often overthrown. Upwards of half a million of man were brought Into the field, under the command nf tha Archduke Charles. Boaaparta, leaving Spain comparatively open lo attack, moved rapidly forward Into Germany, and, by the viotoryof Eokmuhl, opanad up the way to Vienna, which iurr*ud*r«d to him. After gaining a slight advulag* at Ealing, th* aroh. duke came to a second daalsiva enoountar al Wagran, where the strength of Austria wu complaMly brokon to pieces. The peace which succaadad wu aaaled bv the marriage of Napoleon lo Marl* Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, for which purpoe* Ih* (hr- mar divorced his wife Joeephin*. WALCHKBEM EXPEDITIOH. In the autumn of 1808. the British goptrnrntBI dispatched u armament of 100,000 ia*n, for the pur. pose of securing a sMtlon that would comiud the navigation of the Scheldt. The expedition was placed under the commud of the Earl nf (Chatham, elder brother of the laic )artu- gal, and then made a rapid mop* upon Madrid. King Joeeph, a weak voluptuary in charaaiar, oame fiinE with a considerable force under the command of Mar. shal Victor i and on th* 18th of July, aiucked tha British and Spanish troops In a strong position at Talavera. Th*ounl*etwu«b*llnat*udiugulnarr( CHAM»eRB« INFORMATION FOR THE P)f ▼laooum WaUinatM of Tahra*. iU wu Mifi liniiMdl««*l)r tu Ml bMk «paa f»rm§»l, whtn hm ns. M»M ( ilfaaf millM vmt IkiiMran. Narljr in lalO, N*poiMa niatotfi (tw voiy la Itoala, mU fan onlan to Ma wwi a to ** itin ih* BiiiUi out af SMnliuula." WaUli^laa fg m i kit ina|N ua ih* ku iif Bauco— ai||lil)r ikaaaaiMl la auiiilnr> in. In( Poftiniiiaa anil ii>n% oa tka I7ll> ul !!•»• anabar, w(« aMaakad by aa a<|ual anmkar at tmm. Both Briltoh and Partufuaia bahaaail walii liia Francb wara r ayiiliaJ atlik ftaat loaa, and, far tka (m lima In tha war, oonaalwad a raapMtAU noiina af th* forniar troofa- WaiUaftoa aaw ratlnri In ih* Unaa oT Tama Va4ra^ eautlaf Ika «bab aanairy la ba i l taa l aladaafcawani, fat Uia yiufaaa af ■nba n— InclhaFraadk Whan Maaaaaa »b w »a* ifca awaaglli of Iha BrlUah Botltioa, ba hatllata< i aad •aaOr, la •ha tarliw af 1811, paifoaiad a diaaatniaa and lw> laiMd rauaat lalp Sjala. Ii now bacaaM aa a^jact af bapartanea with Wak Unflon 10 okula a n aiai a laa af iha Saanlih fwi iaaiM which had baanialaad by tha Fnaah. OathaHdaf April, ha raomaaltrad Bad^^ aad aooa alter laid alap 10 Alautda. Miiiiai adranainc to raiM tha •laga waa sal oa iair tanaa at Faantaa d'Oaan^ Hay •, and l a p i il aad. Abaaida eoaaaf aanily Ml tato tha handioflhaBrltlih. Oaaaril Ba r ai lor d, at t h a haa d af anotbar body of Brldah CMaai, niaaa tha klaady hatlia of Albuva ofar 8obI^ aad thanaliy p r ataa l ad Iha liaga of BadaJoi, which, howarar, wai aaon alter abandunad. Darlai tha lana aiaii i i u O iaaial Oca- ham, in command M a IhM body of troopa, rainad Iba baitla of WareMa At tha ana of a campaifa, in which ^ Fraach wara upon tha whola unanccaiaful, WalMttftoB ratirad oaoa mora late Portufal. coMMiTTai. or aia pbawmi (uamr*. Tha draamla traaiaatiaai af thii pariod ara tela. ■aMiof, ihaugh thay ara far fniai ahowian lhalaitlMr tha (nvanuaaal or tha poblia waa iu a haalthy ataiat Tha aaaluaion of wranaan Iron tha Haaia of Caab •ana duriaa tha inaultiw iaio tha Wilnhaiaa aapa> 4iliiHi, had haaa mada a auljaot of dlaoaaiiai la a da. hidng^ub, Iha pcaildaat of wha:h waa tb aia fcr a aMuilnadlaNawaalalw'akraaehafprtoihva. Mr F^aad. Baidatt, maaihar lar W< r Iha aui^Ht af laa lanar «• hia anteilaaaa^ daay t Mt Iha iM* af Iha Uaaia af Oaaiiaaaa lo imprlaan withattt Utal, aad imcriUag that badyao " a part of oar fcH aw^aabJaam, aoUaNad Mtathar kf aaaaa wUi* It ia aal ■irimry far ma to dmnrlbat** Tha lauar waa aolad a libal aa the hmua, and a wamnt waa itaaad by tha apaakar for committiasSirFranciatalhaTowar. Aaaaaaura •o uncoaiaaa and to rioiaat, It may aaally ha baa- gioad, oould oely happan uadar a |o«ankaiaat la whiah tha paaular iplni had f Iran oocwkm for alum, liir Ftaacu, daaylnf iha lanlity of tha warrai nalalad It! eiacutioa Dy taaialnlng in hia own huu u, wkara ha waa amWclad fioo tha ottoara by rf pagala. Altar auArlnf a kind of liaia lar two dayi^ Da waa fardbly takan by a laraa irsia af Mi> diara, and Indaad ia liib Tawar. Tka capital waa eoaTuiaad by uiii bold maaaura (at Mraral dayai aud la tka aoana of tka inmulu wkick look pfaK% a aaau bar pointaiant ofoilcan aad othar braachai uf tha royal prarafatira. The Tory parly had not now tha lama reaion to draad tha actaMion of iha princa wkick tkay bad in I7W. Hia •antimanta ou tha CatkuUc daima, orlfinally bnmrabia, had in 18IM ojipariauiird a daoid- ad cban^ whiiJi provrd iba maajii uf alicuaiing him cooiidarably from tka Wkup, wiik wlu»a enuuicipn* tioa waa a Indiiig aud uaaUarabla priaaupla. Tkuuiik ha did not at Irat akow aay dinindiualiaa to uka kia old (riaadi into tka mlaialry, ha caatrirad, wkan tka fint yaar of raatriaion had alaptad, to kit iham raniaia in Ikair wanted aula of oupuutian, witiuiul wanuvn to kara daiired it. For ike man purpoaa af priierr- iii( kia ooaaiMency, he made oranunn In tka laadeia of Iha Whiga to tmltr tha eiUHing oabiaet ; and, aa might bare been axpeclad, thay rafuiad to awla>ca wiu man differing lu much with tkeniielvoe in pria. cia la. Ia truth, tki prince regent wan loo well plaaaed Willi the eaaalaiianoa »l the pmeal nilBietera, and too lenubla of the adrauiaga of tka praient habitaalir oom|iliaai >tata gf parliament. In wiah for ihrir raaaoraL Nor did he lute with tlie public fur tkua overlooking the Whige. "Tlie Whigi," uya an acuta writer, "had more of parliaraanury inluaooe aad talent, than of populnr tupport. It ikould have tiacome ap* parent tti tlirm, from the aeceeaion of tiaaraa lll._ at laaa from t>;e drvriupement uf kii princlplaa uf gn> varnmrnt at tiie aanmencement uf hie reigfi — that thair only hope of |Miwer wet iu tlie support li the ua- I yal did tliey >tiU limk tu the crown a> the tnki er of uific«, and never frankly ideiitifi«d thnn< •alrei with any great pupulai- uiiiio. The cuitlaeced aartiaa of Leru Oray and (ireuviUa jolBad, it ia uu», IIW In aa enllgklaiiad vlea of tha gniBl i|uaWi«u uf reli- gious frssdnai But thay w«i« ia advaiioa uf oplaiao aad Iks age, aad ikair ganaroua support and promo. ttaa of VatkuUo libany allaaaiad at tka laqa time^ke •oearaiga and tka paopk Hanaa tka Prinaa of Wakw faioad ratkar tkau lost wiik tka puklio ky diacanUug tha Whigs, and adopting tha IViriaa." oaaaT Baraaaataa iv saai.aaih Tha yaar lUl ia gaaarally hwkad upon as iha pa- rted of^graaMst dapaamlon and dlatrsaa wkiah Ika Briliah ampire haa haowa for several ages. At thia linw, with Iha aat ap tlaa of an uncaruin fiiatlnf galaad la Spain, as ameh by Iha Mparatilloa and pa- ' ' I of tha aatlaaa aa by British valour, tha in- af Eaflhad was anhaown ou tha aontinaiit. aa Armly sealed oa Ika tkraiM of Fraaaa as any of kar fcrssar aioaaraka, while avary olhar eivilisad Surapaaakiagdamaitkar awnad am>- narah of kia aapraaa lapslalmsnt, or waa in some aihar way pr a alrals U Us powar. By tha Berlin and Milaa daasaaa, babad shat iha parte af the ODnilnant MS last Brillah gisdi, aa «hal thay aonld only be imMfllJ lata Ihatr asaai aiarhala. By Hriilih or. deaala eaaaatl, whiah, though Imaaded to be raialia- Mry, anly iaanaied Iha avil, ao vassei bekmging to a iMWiial pawar— audi. Car iuataaaa, as tha Uaitad Htaiaa — was paiasittad la earrv goods to liiase pons, unless they skuuld previously land aad pay a duly la Bri. tain. Thus we at onco luffated bom tka ikort-slgkied despotism of tka Franok amparoe, aad from our own narrow and impartet views of eaasmeroa, for, by crip- pling America, we only deprived ounelves of one uf our neat and almoat sola-raaiainlag auatoaiara. Tka eoasaqueoce of tbeea maasuraa, ana of the eaaessive isaua of bank paper wkick kad aaw for soaw years baea In progrsae, waa, that tha paaar curraaey sunh consMambly bak>w lie usual vahw tn tha predous w»- tais ; in other words, all neoaesariaa becama consider- ably dearer than thay had fonaerhr been i white fo- reign eashaiyea ware aaacutad at a loas of from fiftaaii to twenty per cent. At this lima^ a iitiaaa aould not be obMinml for leas than Iwaaty-aaian shiliinga ia bank notes. On the causes of this derangement being explained by a committee of parliament, a panic took pnea, followed by a number of mercantile lUhtres. Vet even at this lime of unexampled ditlrass, the means of redamptloii weiv in preparation. BUSBUjr caairAioN. Tha paaar of Baaapanst proouaad aad beoagbl akoisl hf aa auagaaiam ta ika old dmpntiaas, migkt If msnagad wiik disoratioa. It ir, iu aock away aa to proiiuca a de- cided laa ct l a a tkrougkout £aropa in favour uf tkuaa •■tiaaalad systaaM, wkick, twaiisy year* beCore, had tnaablad nadar tka baa ef paputer sentiment. The aadutiaa of British goods— a maaaura which ba kad dialalad la raaantaaant agaiuai England— proved Ike sauresof faisosMdvabtedistioss, oppreesion, and hard- ship thranghout tha coniinant, ajid was graattv in- Btnimental in aaciling a ipirit of husiilily sgaiiiit oim. Tha very circuroatanoe uf a foreign puarr douiaeer- ing over their native princes, railed a (idiiig in fa- vour uf those prraouages, whicli, being IdenlifiMl with the cauM of national indapaadeiMe, acted aa a vary powrrftil itlmulant. On ua other hand, a lansa of ike grasping amUtioa of Napalaon— 4if liis hostility to real fieedom— of his uiucrupalnuaiieu in throwing away the lives of hie subjecu for his own peraoaal eg- grand isamant— had for soma lima been gaiiiiug ground In Franca itself. In 1813, when already the trausactioDS iu Saain had dona a little lo sliaka the Idea of his infk'libility, Alexander Emperor uf Russia ventured upuu a de. fiance of kit decrees sitaiuit Ilritisk merchaiidiia, and provoked kim lo a reuewal of the war. With up. wards of kalf a million of troops, appointed in ike knit manner, ke set out for tkat remote cuiuitry, deter- mined to reduce It Into periaci subjeciloik Here an accident of nature did ikal fur nuuiklnd which tliey liad beau unable, witk their uunaet elTons, to do fur tkemsdvas. The city of Moscow, after l>eing pos. ■esied by the French tmupe in September, was de- stroyed by incendiaries, » tkat no shelter remained for them during the eiiiuin|r winter. Napuleou waa »l>ll)red to retreat i hut, ovsriiiken bv the direit Incle- mency uf tka season, liis men perished ky thniisandi in tka snow, Uf his splendid army, a mere ikelelon regained central Kuruue. KeturniiiK alnunt alone to Paris, ha contrived with girat ezertiuus In reinforce hia army, though there was no replacing tlie vetersHS lust In Russia. Early in 1813, he iipeiird a campaign iu nonharu Garmanjr, where the Empenir of Kupwia, now joined by the King uf Pnissia, and various minor powers, appeared in uprn fidd against him. After various succeesrt on either side, an armistice was agreed In on the 1st of June, and BonspMie waa of- fered peace on condition of restorinfc only that part uf his Influence and his dominiuiM which ke bnd act}tiired since 1805^ Inspired with nii overweening ounlidriioe in kii resources and military grniuii, he refuaed tlieie terms— aud lost all. At the end uf tha armiitice in August, his father-in-law, tha Empernr of Austria, joined Ike dliea, making up a force nf Mie,00(l men aeaiiisl 300,000, which was ilia utmost ha could at Kraaeni briuc into tha Held, liancafurth ha might a ooBsidaraa aa ovarpowerad by numbers. By steady though caaUoua laovamenla, tha allies advanead nearer and naartr to Fnacai dririnf him rduotantly before than, aad Innr— lag (hair awm km m tho varioaa alatea bnanw amanilpaiail by tlieir praeanea. At iha sloia uf 1813, they rested i^in the fmnliers of Frana^ white Lord Wdlliigion, altar two splendid campalgna In Hpala, had advanced lu like manner to the Ppi» ooMUTic arraiaa— WAR with aiiiaiva. flosaa ohaagas had la tha meantime adien pUaa In Iha Briliah admialalraiiau. On lU I lib of Uay Ull, tha piaatiar, lUr Perdval, waa ahal ia iIm tebbjr of tha Hausa af CommoaSL by a man named Balllnf. ham, whom eeasa private fosses had fondered Insana. Laeda Uvarpod and Caatteraagh ihaa bauame Iha minlsierial laadara la ihdr iispsi t lve bouses, lint aaeea auidslf voiad daapn by a aiajnrily of (wr, iipoa a matkM by llr Slaan Wantev, aaw Lord Wharn. dlFa. Aaoiher treaty with Lsrds Oranvilte and Ofay, whiah thIa vaia laadarad aacaieary, waa raii> dared inaffsaloal by tha Intrlguas of tha regent's persond frieada, tha Kari af Mdia aad Mr Mhcridaa —two men of geneially aopahur muUitlae, but wba saaridoad tiatlstsnay aad avaa ahatacwr for their rayd patrao. Tha mtalalry waa HaaUv rendered sailsfoourT la parUamant, by tha admlsaion of Bart Harrowby as pmldant ef the coaudl, Mr Vanslltaat aa ohanodlor af the axcha^uar, and liord Bidmonth (foriaerly prasnlar white Mr Addinglaa) aa sacraury for the b o wia deaa i tm aat t Lord Llvarpod oontlnulag as pramter, and Lnrd C as ll araagh aa faraign and war aaeratary. NoKrithalanding tha siieeassee which wara at this pariad brightening the proepeem of Britdn, her sovereign and his minisian wara highly uapapa- lar. Tha UlUr were generally stlgmatisad as the weak tools of three Inlluencea which at this time presided over public affdra— the aristocracy and borough pro- priclon, tha ragant, aud the aaorot fiteads of that latter persooaas^ among whom wara reckoned tha Hertford famUv, whoso oonnaction widi his niyal highnese was of a natui* highly obauslous lo scandal. The regent biaiself had lust the favour and eatean of his subjects, lo oonse<|uanca of the frivolous and lan- sud tenor of his privata lib, aud of tha perseculioa which his GOBSort had suffaral for many yeara under his express agency. Tha geiiard disconunls wera incrsased by ute etfecU of the orders in cimncll, for pruhibltiiig llie commeice of ueutral slates. Vaat multiludee of the lower orders were thrown idte by the stsgnalion uf manufiictures, and wreaked ikdr vengeance in oommoiiun and riot, Tha middle claaaea expramad their dissatitfsniliin by ctemoiui for paalU- maatacy refoiai. At this uukappy crlda, provokad beyoad all paliaace by tka ordecs in uounci^ as vdl •a by a right aasumad by British war-vaaads to laarah fur and imprest Euglisb sailors on board the commar- dd shipping of America, thai country, June 1812, dedaredwaragdnstut. Ikfore the oawi had reached our shores, the orders had been revoked by the iuOu. enca of Lord Liverpoul ; but tke Americans, never, tkeleis, were loo much incensed by a lung course of iigury and sulleriug to reUace their steps. During the summer aud autumn, severd rencontres took place between ungle American aud British ships, la which, owing perhaps to superior numbers of men, the former were successful. It waa not till June I, llli:i, when the Shaniun and Chesapeake met on w|ud ttrms, that Ike British experienced any navd triumph in tills war with a klndr«d people. On land, the Americans endeavoured to amioy tke British by aSRaults upon Canada, but met witk no derisive sac- cess. The Brititk tended severd expeditions on the cuast of the Slates, and were sncccssful at Washing- ton, at Atexandria, aud one or tou other pninu, hut experienced a binudy and disastrous repulse st New Orleans, The war ended, Deiemher 1814, witliout settling any of the prinriples fur which the Ameri- cans had uken up arms. But while thus simply usdess lo America, it waa scriuudy caltmituiis for Britain. The commerce with the Butes, which amounted In 1887 to twelve milHunt, was Interrupted and nearly rained by the orders in cnundl, and the hostilities which they nccaduiied : henceforth America endearniired to render herself commrrcidly indrpeu- dent nf Britdn, h^ the encuuragemenl uf native ma- nuracnires— a policy nnt Immediately admnlageous, perhaps, tn herself, but iufliiitely lets so to nrriit Britiin. The fstdity of the Berlin aud tlilan de- crees to Napdeon, and of the orders !n council tn the intareite of Uritdn, shuws huw extremely dangernus h Is for any governmeiit to interfere violently — for any avowed end whatever— with tlie large cummer- rid systems upon which the Immediate interests of their subjects depeud. rr;tcE or 1811 — abdicatioh or xatolcon. At the cluse of I8I:I, it was evident tliat Bunapsrie could hsrdly defend himself against the vast arms- meuts collected nn all hands against him. At the end of January 1814, having wning from Franca dmnst every yniiih capable of bearing arms, be op. pa«ed the allies on the frontiers, with a force rourh lent ntiiiiemus snd worse disciplined. Even now he was olTered peace, on oundliioii that he should only reuin Franu >■ It existed liefore the revoliit:i>ii. But tills was too hiimillaiing lo hit spirit to be accepted ; lie trusted tno much ui the failliless hope that, at the worst, his falher-lii-law would not permit him to lie dethroned. Two months were spent iu dmost lu. cessant conflict with the advancin); nllies, who on the aOth of March enternl Paris in triumph, and, in the course uf a few days, suhstituled the ancient rule uf the Bourbons for that uf Napoleun, who was graniad HISTORY OF THK ISLAKD OF GREAT miTATHT. oalv lh« Mftrtigntjr of Elba, t umU Idud Id lh« MwllMmawa. ooaauM or vu»>a. In Um aiMiuraa far HttUng FniM* nadtr LouU XVIII., OraU Brluln •oncurrail by hw n|inMaw. Uv* liurd CaMbnif h, who Mindrt ih* tUlM iuiia§ f polnu, but uft ¥1 iba umpslfn of 1814 1 tut fm wu prooklnwd In London ua Ik* SOU af Juno, rnuoo wu dofrivoi of all tba HauitltloM gtlnod both uador Uio rmubllo and Iho ompfio, and raalarad W Iho rub of a hiulljr of v'hicb it waa •myhatlcalljr Mid that ihay had far. ■M nuthinf and Mnud nothlnc durloa tbdr oiUo. rlio Emporur of Ruuia and tho Klu| of Fniaala vUtod England In Juno, and woro rooairod with all th»h». nourt duo to man who woro oomidoiad aa tho Ukora. ton of Europo. WalUagton, oow oroatod a duk% ruxivad a grant of L.400,000 from tho Uoum of Com* moni, InaMltlontoonoof UIOOXMproolaiulrfOiadr and had tho honour to rooolTO tho thanka of tho honao In porMHi for hla Hrrlooa, whioh wora Moarallv aatooanod ai oomparablo only to thooa of MarUwrougb a oontury bolbro. RhproMntati'OO from tho vorioiia Europoan powora oonoornad In tho war, mot at VIoana, Octoboi 9, In ordor to Httlo tho diaturbod Umiu of tho rarioua oouoirloa, and nnnrldo antnat Iho nnowal of to diuatroua a porlnd of war. Idoaa of UbonlliBi and of national and individual Indopoadoaoo wora now niirering undar (moral obloHuy, aa having boon tho original cauia of th* war i it waa thorofaro aatu. rat, howovor wrong, that tha oongroM of Vionua ihould bavo boon low aotuatod by a Nnw of Juitico tlian nf oxpodianoy. Tho powora in ddiboratlon car. talnly violatod avory corroct prinaiolo in tlwlr troat- inant of Norway, of 8uony, of Poland, of Bolgiuni, of Oenoa, and of Italy, whioh thoy tnuufarrodfrom ano domination to anothor, without tho ioaat ragard to tho rigkta or prodilootiona uf tha inhabilanli. It wai raproMntod hv tho (Honda of tin oongrou, that thaio utorattoiia of boundarioa ware diolatod by a vlaw •olaiy to tho gcnoral Intoraala uf luropa ; but otliora •aw mora Immadlataly a ■pollatlon of tarrllory, by which arary powtr oaoost Graat Briuin diraotly pro. fitod ; whila tha oomplainta of tlie natloui thua tarn- pored with appaalad to a prlnclpla with whioh ovary paoplo could tympathiao. TEMMBABT BHTOCATION Or MAMLIOH— BATTLa nr WATIKLOO. In March 1816, tha prooMdInga of tha ooagioaa ware Intarmptod by Intalllgmoa that Napolooa bad landed In Franco, and waa advancing In trlnnph tu thK capital. Ho had boon enoooragod by varioui fa. vourabla clrcnmiuncaa to attompt the recovery nf bii throne | and M unpopular had tlia naw govarnnient already beuime, that though ha landed with only a few men, he wae every where received with affection, and, im the 20th of Inarch, wu reiniuted In hli ca- fltai, which had juit that morning been deierted by louli XVIII. Tho latter ■ovaralgn had granted a charter to hit people, b) wliich he and hit iiicceiaori were bound to rule under cerMin rMtriclloni, and with a leglilature compoaed of two chambon, inme- what reiembllng tue BHtlih houiea of parliament. Bonaparte now came under HJmliar engagements, and oven iubmitted to take the voteo of tho natiim for hli reatoratioii, on which occuion ho had a million and a half of afflrmativa volcee, agaiuit leu than half a mil. llim nf nwative, tha voting being performed by ballot. HIk exerttoni to reorganlie an army were lucoeuful to n degree which thowed hit extraordinary influence over the French nation. On the lit of June, he had 569,000 eifective men under arma, of whom 217,000 were ready to take the Sold. A Pruulan army of more than 100,000 men, under Bliiuher, and one of about 80,000 Britiih, Oermana, and Uelglina, under Wellington, were quickly ren- deavoiised In tha Netherlandi, while itill larger armlu of Attntriani and Ruuiani, making the whole force above a mlilinn, were rapidly approaching — not, it wai prnfeiMd, to make war on France, but againit Bonaparte alone, who wu denounced at having, by hit breach of the treaty, " placed himielf out of the pale of civil and ioeial reUtiou, and Incurred the pe- nalty of I, mmary execution." Napoleon, knowing tliat hit en miea would accumulate futer in propor- tion than hil own troops, crossed the frontier on the Hth of June with 130,000 men, reeolved to Rght Bluoher and Wellington in deuil, if poniblo. The rapidity of hit movements prevented that omcert be- tween the Pmnlan and English generals, ' which It w»> their intemt to establish. On the 18th, he Wat tlie former at Tjigny, and compelled him to retire. He had at the same time entrusted to Haiahal Nay the duty of cntling off all cimnaction between the two hottiie armiat. His policy, though nut fully acted up to by his marshals, wu so far successful, that Bluclier retired upon a point nearly a day's march from Wel- lington. After some farther fighting next day, he brought his whole forces to bear, on the IHtli, against Wellington altme, who had drawn up his troops acrou the road to Brusuls, near a place called Waterloo. Tha battle consisted of a constant succession of at- tacks by the French upon the British lines t usnults attended with great bloodshed, but nevertheless re- abnd with the utmost Ibrtitnde till tho avaning, when Blueher came up on the left flank of tha Brititii, and tnmed the seal* against the French, who had now to operate laterally, u well u in fronu Tha failuro of a Anal charge by Napoleon's reserve to produce any impmtlon on tha two armies, decided tha day against IM him I Ell baited and broken host retired hefore a fu- rloui eharga af Ika Vraaaian aaealry, wh t out iham down unaoKlAillr Ihr iavaral mllu. Oi hli latum to Vhrfi, Napolaon ■■<• an tffbfl M m now the !of hMtliltiw exeeeded seventy miUionii and the ifonal debt, which In 1709 bait baenn0,0Oi),00D, ■aMmnled to (80,000,000, or nearly thiaa Mmaa Itarmarium. ■OtT AltlAXCI. It hu bean stated thu a naellon had taken place throughout Europe, during the latter ywra of^Na. poleon, agaiaat the lo Bu e MM y daaMaaa, which, by pfodniilnf tha Franah ravalution, had been the aante, mnownt ar guilty, nf M mueh minooi warihra, u n iagad by this aasMlmeal, the ihiaa Auetnai Prusala, and lluMia, had no i tha new (ovemaaai of Prancik lliaa ibay aniarad, September M, ISIS, into a paiaonal league or bond for urimpg eaoh other on all aaaiaiena whan the least eommoilon took place among their napectlva inbjeeM, Thia treaty wu eaeapoaed in aoauwhal ob- ■onra tarma, and from lla prohulng religion to be tha lala pnper gtilda " in tha aoundls of prineea, In eon- aolldalliig kuman InititHtione, aad remedying their burlaa^nely termed the Holy luparfaauoas," Alllanea. It wu published at the end of the Tear, and coaimunleatad to the Prince Regent oC Bngiand, who approved, but did not aceade to it. By the liberal party in Bngiand, It wu denounced u a by- pnaritloal ooniplraoy agaiast tha llbartiu of manhind. Tha reaollon had also lie effut In Chau Britain, in fliing tha power of that strange mixturo of aristo- crmtie influancoa, which, by appointing and oosapoatng tho two honsu ef pailiamont, might be sold to eon> stitiuo tho goTomment. Tha Honrlty of thIa pra- desnlnatlnc power wu indicated by saswral aeu la which riwir paeoliar inierwta were eoneolled u the expeme of all the romalniag alaaau of the ooaamuiiity. In tho praaading yoor had bean paend an aat, pro. hlUting the importxHon of grata from Ihonoir oponoA ooiitlnenl, when tho price in this oaounr should ho lam tlian eighty ehiUngo f»r fuartar. An attempe to continiw the inODae and property tuee, wUah f tressed with gruloet Hvority on the waallhy and ended ciisiii, wu alu negattved. THE PaiHCIU CHABLOTTC. In Hay 1818, the Prlncesa Chulotte, only child of tlie prince regant, wu married to Prinaa Leopold of Saxe Cobiirg, a young ofllcar who had gained tier af- fections when attending tho allied sovereigns M the British court. In November 1817, to the Inexpresa- i hie grief of the whole nation, tha yonng princan died In childbed, after having given birth to a dead son. Her surviving huiband omtinued to enjoy the allow- ance Axed by parliament upon the pair (L.80,000 a-year), excepting L. 10,000, which had been given undar the denomination of pin-money to the prinoeee. In Augnit 1818, a British armament nnder Iwird Bxmonth bombarded Algiers, and redneed that pl- ratieal Mate to cortain deiirable oondltloni reepool- Ing the treatment of Christian prisoners. TEMOD or OiyEBAI. DISTBESS. Tlie vew 1816, and tha four following vaars, will alwoyi be memorable, u forming an epoou of extra- ordinary distress, affectin|( almost every clou of the community. The liberation of European commerce At the end of the war, produced a proportionate dimi- nution of that trade which England had previously enjoyed, through her exolnsive poeseuion of the seaSL While all pubflo burdens continued at their former nominal amount, the prices of every kind of produce, and of everv kind of goods, had fallen far below the unnatural level to which a state of war and of bank reatrietion had railed them ; and hence the expenus of tlie late contest, which had never bun felt in the fictitious praepprity then prevalent, came to press witli real severity upon the national retourcee, at a time when there wu much less ability to support them. To complete the misery of the country, the crop nf 1818 Ml far short ef the usual amount, and the price of brsad wu Incraaiad to an amount more than double what hu aince been the avenge rata. Tu- multuary prooeedingi took plaae In varioui parte of the country, and a duire for a reform hi the Hmiu of Commonll by which alone wu there any hope of reducing the public expenditure, liegan tn Uke deep root among the lower orders. At a large metropolU Uii meeting of the working duses. In December, a IHirtion nf tlie mau bteame suddenly animated with what appeared a ipiiit adverse tu the pnhlio paaeo, and, rushing in a rioloai mannar through the streeM of liondon, gave urimis or auumed alarm to tho go- vernment and its siipporteia. An apothecary named Waiann, and three other peraone, ware seiaed and imprisoned iur lieing concerned in this riot. Oil the 3llth of January 1817, when tlie prince regent was returning from the ceremony nf opening parliament, ilia carriage window wu said to have been perfiirated liy a Mane and two buUeta, tho latter supposed to have proeaaded from an air-gun. Tba gaveriiiiiaiii i adopted axpedianit, wUih kavo sinaa osai with geua^ rol aondairaalioa, for aauaterHtinf tho force uf iii» popolar spirit. Thoy aadaavuurad to make It eppeaK that an axlanilva ounaplraay had baan farmed foa the oranliraw of the (ovamaant— though tba iepu>l» of their ■arUaaontare eoaaltlaee, uyen the duo*. aonti luhmltMd u erldenoe of that fact, only •ervad by their vagoauau af axpraaaiua to excite suepiciuaa against their miniaterial policy. Of the four riotsra who weia charged with high Iwuni) a coiivliiiim wu enlp obleiaed egniut oiw. Hook nnanimity, howavar, praeailed katwaea Ike arinlilry uid the pan. I l aae nt , thai, u Hwcleuef rebnury, an art ww paaaad lap tha mtpewian of hobeu eorpni, and for uvaral other objoea koelUa a aopuhH' righia. Tho m lnlitaH aba laai aoateaoriu Inw tha oountry, not otly to tho lagMmaM purpon of gathering Informa. tlaii eu p ui l ar tho atau of the pablie mind, liut to mingb with tho unaupfoyad and Harviog woritman, to fam ani their disaanaute, and bod them into snob partial demonstrationa of violence, w might at once enabb the minlilan to obtain a law victlmi for the terror of the rut. and, by coovluoing tha wealthbr oidan of the raollty of a coniplruy, IndoM them to giro mora effectual lupport to hli m^Mty's govem- mant. Many peraone were aooordiBgly Impriwnad. and, by virtue of the auspanaion act, detained M tha will of the minbton. Evan tha liberty of the preea, which hu olwavi bun so dear to tha Engllih bosom, wu fniatly yielded by parliament to Lord Bidmouth, the homo.seoretary, who, upon the authority of tho crown bwyen, gave parmiMlon to juitlcu of peace to hIw and hold to bail any panon whom they might find guilty of pabliihing lodltioua or bluphemoua papera. It li mora gratifying to mention, that, in April, parliament granted half a million fur publlo worka, in order to employ the diuharged operativM. By another array, however, of proofi of the alleged conipiracy, the suipeniion of the habeu corpui act WM eontimad beyond the clou of tha lasalon. In autumn, the minlstara experienced a noted defeat, in the proeeoutlon of Ur William Hone, for publishing wku were styled bluphemoua p: Mm upon tha li- tany, and other porta of tha obnrch urvica. Tho savan mauurU of thU adminiatrathm are chiefly at- tributed to Iiord Cutlereegh, a itateiman deiorlbed u poreanally amiable in a high degree, but actuated by pri n dpbe whioh have not for a long period baas tonlUar to Iho Britbh pooplo. Tin MAncHitTaB MaaTnto or adoiht I8IS. A tampororr revWal of proepority ocenrred In ISIS, but wu quickly fbllowed by the fonner diiueM. lu thoantamnof 1810, the misery of tha working claaseo had reaohod ita graotMt height, and still pariiamen. tory reform wu demanded u the only nieunra whlob could permanently improve their proepecti. On tho' 13th of July, at a public meeting In the unrepre- lentod town nf Birmingham, en attorney wu elected toproeeed to WmiminiMr, and openly chim to be re- calvad u a member nf parliament on tlieir behalf. On- the 18th of Augnit, a rut body of operativM usem. bled u Manohuter, in an open space of ground called St Peter's Field, for a similar pDrpaea> though pro> faasedly to petition for parlblnenury reform. Though they had oome in a kind of regular array, and hear. Ing bannera with Inscriptions, no symptom of violeneo wu observolib In their proceedlnga ; whan suddenly a bodv of troops, consisting chiefly of yeomanry, duhed Into the mau, trampling down manv persona of both sexw under tho horus' feet, and killing and wounding othera with tlieir sabres- Tha mutinr s'U dispersed by thew means, and Maura Hunt and .Jobn- ston, tha principal nrators, ware apprehended. But the tragio nature of the event, oombiaed with a con- sideration of ita being an invuion of the popular right of meeting for redreu of grierancae, produced a very general ieeling of reeentment throughout the country, even among some who woro habitually tha defendera of ministerial meuurw. The magistrates who con. duuted the attack were Instantly thanked by the go- vernment ; but their fame is not of an enviable cha- racter. In a ciMintry where social advancement is so groM u in Britain, no proceedlnga, public or private, by which the poorer cl s sai may be led to think themselvM objeote of peraecution or even of iie- gleet with the rich, can receive tba unqualified appro, nation of any considerable portion of the community.. Tna " SIX ACTS." MHion parliament reassembled in Novambar, therr wu on evident inereau of attachment to the minis- try, and, in addition to the slroiw maaauraa already taken for suppieming popular disoontant, sis acta wora peaaad, which have since bun frequently stig- matiiad u Inimical to the liberty of tho subject. One took away the eoromon-bw right to traveru an infor- mation or Indictment from one somion to the next. Tha soaond impoead a stamp dnty on all piibllcationi commaaioating events or occurrencei, or conveying remarka on anirs of church and atato. If under a cer- tain number of sheets, or published periodiailly of- tener than once in twenty-clxdaye. The third enaote4 thu the piibllsliers of siioh worka should give secu- rity before commencing them, aa<> that a second com- misrion of the oilhiice of pnblisi >ag a blaaphemous or seditious libel should lie punisl' ble by traiiaportatioa. The other acts were for the pi jvention of seorm train- ing to arms, wliich was declared a capital offenco— the seiiure of arma— and tha raetrietion of the right CHAMBERS 8 INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Si •r mUIb( k imUl* lOMtlat to iu(lMnl«. Earl Oray 4«ioaiic*d Umm OMUurw m ■ iww •yium nf ginniiiMnt by Mmr ut caardon i hot tk»y w«n MnnhtlMiiiiprondhTgrMtn^JorliiM. Th«y km mut sliioi bMn rapwlad i Iml no pwty now niMm from Ihm nwpl ihM by which ihiy wtra onMiMl. Tho ynr imo «u ramtrkabl^ unnntolhtr ihinn, In Uw prorlilon mtdo, by ul of pullunmt, tat ui* ntumption of OHb poynunu u tht b*nk. MJCSMIOV or OBOBSt IV, On tkoMth of January IBM), Utmrco III. 4Mtt Wlndaor, In hia •IffhtT'Moond year, without havlnif •sparianrad any lucid inlarval i hliuonMirt, Ckarlotia of Macklanburiih, had diad In Nmambar IIII7. Tka rrinca rrifant wai immadialaly prudalmad aa praa»mptlva. CATO ITIIEKT CONIPIKACY. "Tha Mondihail at Manrhe^lar, and utiiar minlitartal maaauri'ii, inipirad a Kinall band of deB|irn to mm wit)) tha atntcioiu drtign of aniaBaiimtinK tlia miiiittvrH at a ral)inftt dinnar, and tharrnfter attiunpliny to art thamvalvat up aa a proviatona) gnvrrnmritt. On thii 23(1 tif Febntarv IU2I). thry w«ra aur)>iiard by tha poDra in thrlr pfacaoi'meetlnt^, anil, after a deaparata mlatnnca, fire vera aaited, arnon^ whom ona Tnlatlu. wihhI WH8 tha chief. Thaaa unhappy men wara tried for hf^h treaaon, and axacntad. Nearly about tha aama time, an alcampt was mada by tha workman in tha waat of Scotland to bring alNiut aoma alteration in the state ; and two men, auppoaed to hava been da* Itideil by irnvarnntent apiaa, were ejcecuted. There la llttK* reaann to d'lnht that tha vioieiica of tha pauplu at t')ia period waa aolely the raanll of thoaa aaverv me.'i'*iiri>a which the frovernment had takaa Ibr tlia reDre,a)oii of what had prarloualy haan only Ml li&ft> (Inary diapoiitloo to inaurractiuo. THC QUKKM'l T«I*I., On the Bcreaalon of tha kinff, hia conaort*a nuia had lipen omitted fnrni tha liturfry. Thia and othar inaiilta indiicad bar to return to Kn^land, Juna IBM, to tha inliiiita ambarraaament of tha kinff and bit ml* niltera. Her majeaty, who had long liaeu liafriwidad by tha Op|nniiiori, waa received by the paopla with the warmest exiireaaitoia of aympathy. liar fulll. If any really allachad to har, waa orarlookad on aocount of the infinitaly mora notorioua dalMtuchariaa of her huaband, and the paraacutioni which aba had aufferad at hia handi for twanty.four yaara. The king, having had a ayatem of obaarvatioo planted round har ma* jaaty during her lata raaidanoe in Italy, cauaad a bill of paina atid penalttefl to ha brought into parliamant, July 0, a^fttinst her majeaty. Tha Houaa of Lorda thui berame a court for her trial. Tha axaminalloo of witnesaea occiipied aeverai weaka, and daily during that time were tha moral faalinga of tha public ahookad by delaila of tha moat revolting kind. Vet no evi* denca of criminality could aofteu tha iudlgnatiun with which almoat all daaaea of tha community ragarded thia acandaloua proaecution. Though tha bill waa read a aecoiid time by a m^rity of 2H, in a houaa of !il8, and a third time by lOU againat W, tha govam- ment waa compelled to abaadou it, laavipg tka quaan and the people triumphant* noTAL viaiT TO llEI.ANn, &V. In July IH3I, the coronation of George IV. took place under circumatanoea of alalmrate aplendoiir, cnn* traaiing atranfely with tha depraaaed atata of the country. On thia occaaion, tha quean mada an at- tempt to enter Waatminatar Abbey, for thapurpoaa of wiinesaing the ceremony, but waa rapallad by ina ml* Utary nfficera who guarded tha door i an inaull which gave auch a ahock to her health aa to cauae her death mi the enauitig 7th of Atiguat. l>nring thii month, tha king paid a viait to Ireland, where tw waa racaived with much cordiality by all claaaaa of that axeitaabla |ieopli>, notwithatan'ding hia known huatility to the Clathiilir elaimt. In September, he paid a viait to the kingdom of Hanover. I n Augiiat of the enauing year, he romT>1e*ed thia aeriea of viaita by a vn\*age ut Scot* land, .*'re he waa alao received with extrama kind, neaa ; a feeling, however, attributable in both caaea rather to the novelty of tha occaaion, and a national leeli;ig of the honour of the roval preaeuce, than ui a aincere approbation of either tlia public meaaurea or the private character of tha king. During hia abaence In hciHland, hia leading miniater, the Marquia of Lun* dimdcrry (formerly I^iird Cnatleraagh) put an end to hia own'life, in conaequeiice of a morbid aenia of tha diriimtUyof hia poaition in regard to continental affalra. He had involved bimsalf and hia onintry in tha policy nf tha arbitrary governmenta, to a degree which threatened to bring both into diagrace, and he did not know how to retrieve hia Biape. Both in Italy and in Spain, there waa a atrong dtapoaition to popular aa* oanftancv, and while thia waa deeply aympathiaad with in Kngland, tha miniater waa plnlgad to co>operaia In lu auppreaaion. Thia, indeed, waa jiut the cHala be- tween the late reaction for controlling popular move* menta and the preaent reaction for giving iham play ; mad liord Ijondonderry waa tha victim at onca of hia own raahnaaa and of the altered viewa of hia country* man. AICKNDAXCY or Hit CAXXINO. Hia ioccettor in the diraction of foreign affain wai 1«3 Mr Canning, who had laft tha aablnal two yaan ba* ftire on acoouni af Iha proi«ntloa of tha onaan, and waa Jnat at ikit time nraptrint *» '**'* *" Mnnlry aa gnT«Tnar.gmianU of India. Though ap^uantiy • willing partldpalor In all Uia aniUpopular maaauraa nf tha lati fiw yaan, and a laalont anamy to parlla* mautarv reform, Mr Caanlng waa a man In many ra> •pacu oakiuUud to plaaat and gain the aAetlont of a panpla Ilka tka Engllik. Ha vary quickly ralaHad the omintry fhm tha obllgaHona under which hit pre- dacaaaor had alaead It regarding the movamania In I taly and Spain, and, from being a tama foUowar of tha contlnanul daapotlama, raitorad tha country to IM mora proper condition of an arbilraaa among other na- tlona. From thlt lima, moraovar, ihara wai a marked amelioration In tha tyatam of home affaire, whiah, united with tha raatoration of eomparallva proiparlty, had tha ultimata alhct of pniduclnga degree of Inter- nal tranquillity beyond what had been experiancad ilnoa tha aariy daya of Mr PItl. ooHHiiciAL DuaaTiM or liiaA-d. Tha twoantuing yaara ware charaetarltad by an axtraor-linary activity In almoat all departmenu of trade and commerce. Mr Huakiaaon, an able commer- cial miniater introduced by Mr Canning, originated aavaral meaaurea of a highly Important kind i aapo- cially tha raaeal of all dutiei on gnodi paiting be* taraen Oraat itriuin and Ireland— an altaralion m tha duilee affecting the lilk manufacture — the repeal of the combination lawi, and of the law agalnal tha emi- gration of artlaant t while the axaoullva tanati com* marelal •'aatlea on tha radproeity lyetam, with va* rfama oou. 'ae of Europe, and, adinowledging tha Indapendanoa of tha levoliad Hpanlah eolonlaa In AiMriea, drew than aa additional cntlomara into the Briilah market. Capital ao far exeeeded the ordi- nary maana of ila employment, that many Jolnt*ttaek oompaniaa wen formed aa a meant of giving it a wider lalfy limited. rang* than that to which it waa utui of ihaea auooiatlona profeaeed objeeta' which were by long aaubliahad utaga tha bualneaa of Indivlduab aione, and of a comparatively humble data. In truth, there tee m ed to be no kind of employment or trallle eo very mean aa to lie beyond the reach of thia mania. The depreaied aute of trade in IBSII and IBM had lad to a dimlniahed importation and pnductlon of goodi, and to an advance of prieei in I8SS. The conae- quanoee of thia waa r andden and unuaually active de- mand, and a powerful inaction of aupply, which did not reaae till production had proceeded far beyond the boundt of moderation. The delualon waa Kept up hmger than It would otherwiaa have bean, through the fadllliaa afforded bv large iatnee of paper. The flrat ayraptom of aomething Iwing wrong waa the turn- ing of tha exchange againat Kngland. A diminution of liauae at Iha bank followed. Merchant! began to feel a dIAculty in aniwarlng pecuniary obligatkina. Then took place a run upon ilia banka, which began to girawav, drat in Inindon and than in the country. Detwean Octolier IKU and February IfUfi, fifty.nine commiaaiona of bankruptcy were Itaued againat Eng* Hah country banka, and four timea the number of privaui oompnaitiona were calculated to take place during the anmn pei-iod. While tha merchant and manufacturer were without credit, their inferlorawere without emplovmrnt, and dittreaa reached almoat every claaa of the ciimmunity. 8, WaUr, luo Placet alM> by Onn and Kmith, Patemnatcr How, toa. dim 1 and W. Ci'nav, Jun. and Co. Sackvtile Street, Dublin. Sold by John Macleod, tilaigow, and all ollit-r Uouluellcnia Seotland, Kngland, and ireland.~PublUli«d once a fuilaj|iil. rnnn ibe tuaam- Praaa sf W. and R. Chaaiboia, CHAMBERS'S — ... INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. N0.9S. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE •■ £DINBUROU JOURNAL" AND •• HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." \ MECHANICS. Ik th« itrlct mum nf the word, Mccuamio •Igniflm lb* ntthud of cooitructing mwhlntt to b« put iu mo- tion, and to Biiiwar tome utaful tnd, by certain povert, which ara ailbar natural or arllAoial. It will thni ba evident that the nature ot the powera themieWei li not tlie ohjecc of mechanical inveitlgation, but rather the elFiict of Iham upon the paitlra bodlee, which have received the conventional appellation of Mtohaitlci, and the conilructloi of theu In luch a manner that the power* may act upon them with the unalleit poHlble ohetnictlun. We thall treat of thli lubject In III ap. plication to the varloui praoUcal purpoees of humau life, embodying theie In our deicrlption of what are uiually denominated the mechanic poxetrt. IKTROtlVCTOBY DKriHlTIOHI.* I. Hatteb ii a term denoting that inbitance of which every thing perceived by our ^iv.y z ii ooinpoeed. Ita relation to mechanic! coniiiM in 111 extenKiou, im- penetrability, and Inertnesi. 9. BoDT li matter rendered palpuhl^ to our lenin by Iu being collected In quantity. Solid bodies nre ■uoh at are oompoaed of particles of matter, with such nil adhesive afliiiity, the one for the other, that they cannot be separated without eifort i as exemplided In wood, sloni.-, the metals, &C. There ara also JIM bodies, whusi particles adhere so slightly that they can easily be separated one from the other j aa iu air, wine, water, dec 3. Divisibility is either a real or imaginary qua- lity of bodies. Every substance may be divided into Burprlsingly minute parts by meuhaulcal means ; such aa grinding, hammering, wiredrawing, dec d. Space is usually defined by the order of things which co-exlat; in this sense, however. It Is a mere abstract Idea arising from our notion of the actual or possible lituatiou of things amongst themselves. We msy rathei call space an extension considered as wUh- uut bounds, immoveable, but penetrable, by matter. In this sense it may be termed < icolule ipacc. C. Relative Space is that variable dimension, or measure of absolute space, which our senses define by Its relation to bodies within it. e. Place, or attolul* ptae4. Is that limited portion of infinite space occupied by a body. Relative place \» the situation which any body occupies when uken In relation to another body, or set of objects. 7. Mobility is that property by which bodies are capable of being transferred or removed from one part to another, or of existing In different parts of space. 8. MA88ES.-.-A11 bodlea are porous, from which cause, taken with the extreme minuteness of the par- ticles of which they are composed, it so happens that ilnids hive the power of insinuating themselves Into all bodies ; so that a mixture of two fluids will be less in bulk, and occupy leu space, than when they are separate, and that the same bulk may contain different quantities of matter or maute. 8. Demsitv, strictly speaking, denotes vicinity or closeness of the particles of which a l)ody is composed. In mechauioe, however, it is employed to signify the proportion of the number of eqnal particles, or the quantity of matter In one body, when compared with the number of equal particles in ihe same bulk of another body i density, therefore, is directly as the qtiantity of matter, and Inversely as the magnitude of the body. For example, a pound of fir-wood will oc- cupy a much larger space than a pound of lead ; hence it Is said that lead is a more dense body than wood. 10. Motion is a simple idea. When a boy whips a top, it tmna round, or is In motion; but when he desiita, it falls down, or is at reW. The motion of bodies is considered either ahtoiute or relative. A body is in absolute motion while it is actually passing from one point in fixed space to an- other; and in relative motion while its position is varying with respect to other bodies. • For an account of aome uf the mott linponsnt iiropetUes of ituutar, and lawa of motion. Me " A rultulax VIsw ot Astro- nauy," No. 91 of this work. Wnen a body Is In montm, as much force ia re- quired to make It reel, aa Is required, while at rest, to put It In motion. Thus, suppose a hoy strikes a ball from a trap, aud auolher slaads by b> catch It, it will require as much strength or force to stop the ball, or put It In a suie uf rest, as the other gave to put It In motlou, allowing for iha distance the two boys stand apart. No body or part of matter can give Itself either motion or rest i and, therefore, a body at rest will remain so for ever, unless it ha put la motion by some external cause t and a body in motion will move for ever, unless some external cause stops It. For example, the reason why the top slops wheu the boy leaves off whipping. Is, that the friction of lU point upon the ground (or. If a boy wera driving a hoop, and desisted from striking it), and the resls. tiince of the air, soon put it at rest. Somewhat, loo, might be said on the gravity and atlraotion between the lop and the hoop, and the earth. A body in motion will always move on In a straight line, unlets it be turned out of It by tome external cause. Thus we see that a ball rolled along the Ice, If the surface be very smooth, will continue Its mo- tion in a straight line till it is stopped by the friction of the Ice and air, and the for>» of attraction and gravitation. The swiftness of motion is measured by the dis- tance of place, and the length of time in which it is performed. Thus, if a golf-ball and a cricket-ball move each of them twenty yards in the same time, their motions are equally swift i hut If the cricket- ball moves two yards while the golf-hall Is moving one, then is the motion of the cricket-ball twice as swift as the other. But we must also consider the quantity of the mo- tion measured by its swiftnefs, as in the above in- stances, and the quantlly of matter moved at the same time. Thus, if the crickel-ball be equal i> bulk and weight to the golf-ball, and move as swiftly, then It hath an equal quantity of motion. But If the cricket- hall be twice as big and heavy aa the golf-ball, and yet moves equally swift, it hath double the quantity of motion I and so in proportion. With respect to relative and abtolmte motion, Dr Oregory says, " It la obvious that these two kinds of motion can only coincide when the bodies to which the reference Is made are fixed t In other cases, a body in relative motion may or may not be In absolute mo- tion. The determination of the absolute motions, by means of observations on the relative motions, It al- ways a matter of great difficulty f nay, is generally absolutely impossible. Thus, when a ball Isdischarged from a piece of ordnance, it Is possible, by means of the ballastic pendulum, and other contrivances of In- genious men, to aacartaln ita relative motion i that is, its motion with respect to th it place on the earth's surfkce from which it is projected i but. In order to determine its absolute motion, the diurnal and annual motions of the earth about the sun, and probably the motion of that luminary about the centre of some more extensive system, must be taken Into the account t so that, on the whole, this apparently simple Inquiry be. comes sufficiently oomplex to baffle the proudest efforts of human intelligence." 11. TiUE. — As motion cannot ba Instantaneous, the consideration of time is necessarily involved In it. 13. Absolute Time Is a portion of duration whose quantlly is only known by a comparison with another portion : the relation, therefore, between any two parts of absolute time, it not to be discovered. Relative time is a portion of duration which elapses during any motion of a body, or any succession of ex- ternal appearance*. " There is a striking analogy between the affections of space and time ; hence ills, that time may b« le. presented by lines, and measured by motions. Hence, also, we say that an inMonl is the boundary between any two contiguous portions of time, as a point Is the boundary of any contiguous lines. A momnt is any small portion uf time. To render time susceptible of mathemalioal discussion. It must be conceived as mea- surable I and, to this end. It is necaasrjry to return In some event which we imagine uniformly requires equal timee fur llaaccompllihment. Wearefurnlahed with such an account in the complete rotation of the earth upon Its axla, which makes out a natural day a> an apt and obvious unit of ihnei this It dividsd Inm twenty-four equal parts, called hours i each of theau into sixty equal parts, called minutes i and each of these, again. Into sixty equal parts, called seconds. A aecond Is the unit of time generally employed In ma- thematical diaquisitlons." 12. Velocity — The quantity of motion Is deter- mined by velocity. Il is that term which expresses the relation between the space described, by a body that is in motion, and the time which elapses during lit description. This is determined by the space uni- formly descrllHid during a given time. 13. The Dibection or a Motiox This is the position of the line, along which a body moves from one point to another. If a body moves on a straight line, Il Is termed the direction of the body i but if It moves on a curved body or line, lie Mreelien is con- tinually changing. 14. FoBCE on Poweb. — This, when applied In a mechanical sense, is that which effecta a change in the stale of a body, whether that state be real or mu- tton. The musculsr power of animals, as well as pressure, impact, gravity, electricity, galvanism, &c are considered as forces, or sonrces of motion. Bodlea exposed to the free action of either of these ore put Into motion, or have the state of their motion changed. All forces, however various, are measured by the af- fects they produce In like circumstances, whether the effects be creating, accelerating, ratarding, or deflect- ing motions. . 15. EuviLiBBiUM signifies an equality of weighu, powers, or forces of any sort. When bodies are at rest, they are in a stale of equilibrium, or when they are acted upon by different forces, so as to be com- pletely balanced, and have no tendency to move in any direction. Bodies are iu motion when in a stata of equillbrium^when the resistance to motion and the power producing It ai« so adjusted, that the result shall be uniform motion. It is by an accurate know- ledge of both kinds of equilibrium that the theory can ha applied to good practical purposes. Mechanlce, therefore, comprehends the doctrine of the reel, the eqnUibrium, and the motime. It hu been divided into two branches, namely, meehaniei, pro- perly so called, and Aytfraufjoi. The former of these embraces ttatiet, or the balance-rest of solid bodies ; and dynamite, which Is a consideration of the motion of solid bodies, and their force during the continu- ance of motion. The Utter branch comprehends hy. drottatice, which refers to the retting equilibrium of liquids or non-elastic fluid bodies | and hydrodynamict, which treaU of such bodies in motion. Pntumatiet, or the doctrine of the weight, pressure, and effects of elastic fluids, u air and gaseous bodies, is also re- ferable to this branch of mechanics. OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS. The mechanical powers comprehend such simple machines as are useful in comparing the velocity of varioua bodies, and impressing on them at pleasure a greater or lesser degree of their power i sndi aa mak- '"(f » P'««t weight overcome a smaller one. By any of these powers, we may cause a weight of on* pound, by moving through the space of ten feet, rail* an- other of ten pounds through one foot, or vice veria. But none of the mechanical powers will be abia to move a weight of ten pounds through elerun feet ; nor by a single pound moving through a space ot nine feet are we able to raise a weight often pounds through the space of one foot ; so that the mechanical powera cannot make any absolute increase of the power ap. plied I they can merely alter the velocity of that power, and thus transfer it either to a larger or smaller body # CHAMBKRSS INFORMATION KOR TIIK PEOPF-K. M pl*unn>. Th* whi>l» prirtlnl (■•rt «f Mwluiiln teptndi npita ihii frlniil|ilt. Th«BiKbulri>l powan an lii In nnmlMr— luBMly, tk* Ur»r, tht wIimI In aila, ll>« Incllntd pitiw, th« vif, iha puU*]ri «iul >>>• •on*- or Till iiriii. Tk* bnr It U< mutt ainipla iif all tha machanlral ^•••n, u4la(MMnUyaalraMnl|klkMaf w«a4or Iron lupportad by a prop, aa In tka folluwinn Agura i— rig. 1. I e Tlifl wHfflil to bt rtiMd li iitipeniltd at the thnrt ■rm of the Itvtr A ; m\A nmetly iu ih« (iivtrM prt>- portlim (if th« diitnnce of the wrl^bt frtim the fiilcnim, ur } If i\ (■ the i^iinntUy of weiithlt m l\, iiecMury to kMp it iu eqiiilibrifK ThiiR* If tlio wriglit at A Im dlitftnt on« fo«it, or one Inrh (for ft ilgniriM nnthlng which), from th« prop, it will rtqiiirit ui 9«iu:U weight plued lit the uuiw distance on the other itde to ba. lance itt that It, If the prop were plaeed vtjiiidlitaat between where U li at preaent anil the end to which the two balla art iiitpended. But where It it l.)w placed, it only reqtilree half the quantity of weight to keep it in equ'librio ; and if It were removed a tenth part nearer the centra, then only one-third will be re- quire '.o balance it. It uiuit atlll tie remcmbennU iioWever, that, if the lerer ti put in motion, the iroall or •inffl* weight miut rouee tbrouf(h a ipace ten timet ■a ffrsat aa that through which the l^rge one puiei ; •o that, in point of fact, thero Ii not any act{uliitlon of power by ineani of tlie lever, although it it una of tlte initrumenti moat commonly used in mechanics, •n4 extremely Mrrlceable in looaening stones In quar< rlea, or in railing great weights to a small disunoe from the ground; aflw which, they may be elevated to greater heighta by machinca. TheruUuwing cut re- praaanta the moat limpl* application of the lever : — Flf.9. The weight to be ndaed la » log of wood t the lerer or handipoke Is Ui the hand of the man i a itoae ia laid oo the greuod to ad aa a prop or fulcriun ; the log of wood ii to be raiaed and suapeadad at the short win of the lever, oo that portion of it which ezteada beyo«d the stoaek In Making azparimanta with ihli sort of lerer, it ia iMoaaaary either to hare the short arm greatly thicker than the long cae, au thai it may exartly balanoa the longer end, or that portion of it whlrh extends beynad the fulcrum, or a weight nuai be appended to U ex- sctly fuficient to keep it in eqoUibrio, otherwiae no Accuracy can be expected la the ezperiawnta. The lerer ti the foundation of erery kind of ha* lanea, whether the oomraou kinds or thoae known by tho name of steelyard, which latter Is simply the lerer repreaentod iauar6raccut. ITorif a scale is appended to tka end A of the lerer, and a weight, snppoee of one pound, be uaed aa a ommterpoiee to the body whlck ia to be put into tba acale, It wUl ahov exactly the weight of that body, by putting It at a proper dist&nee from the fulcrum upon the long arm. Suppoae the lerer to Iw dlrided iato I welra parte, and If the weight, whan plaee4 at the dirialon Are from the longer arm, conntarpotaea that placed in the scale, it shows the body wel^ exactly fire pounds i if it balances at the sixth dirialon, then it prorea that the body weigha six pounda. To this kind of lerer may be reduced several nseAil inatnunenta, auch aa ids. •ors, innfTen, pincers, Ac Lerers are generally dirided into three kindi, ac emiiag to tho reipeetire dispoaltiona of the Ailcmm, tba power, and tka realftannet of these, two are rvry difTereut lii their nition. Ona of tbeae !■ whvre the fiwees aet en vonlrmrp lidea uf the centrti «f laatlon e# fulernnk and ani>tkar wklih aru on the mm» side. Tliv irst kind ara iliaae whitre I'l*' fttlrnun la b*. tweeii the power and ilia rraiitancet ax ttiw balance, •niilfers,,ieIiaora, stealyiirds, Aa. The secfrnd kind Are th<»s« wkare the realilrtnre la Itetwetm the prop and the (Hiweri aa oars, ruddurs nf boatu, and i-utilitg. knives whlrh are Ased at one end, and Amnn wboae kingea aerre aa a fulemm. Those nf ike third Filnd are where the power mti Itetffreu tlie prop and the re- sist iniei aa Iu iheep'ibews, t^mga. Ao. To this tail kind of lerer helongs animal artloni na the bonps which are turne*! upon their Joints have musclirs (or the means of doing so, whosn Insertions are mu«'h nearer to the centre of motion than the point li to the rentre nf gravity of the height tn be raised. * nr THE wiixri. and avir. This power arte entirely on the same prinelple as the lever, and has In eonie^uence he**n termed the perpetual lever. Jn the nils the pownr Is applird to the rircumferenoe of a wheel hv means of a rope or olIiiTwiMi, the wplghta raised l»eln^ tN«titnrd to n roue whlrh winds round thr ails, in oril«*r lo overromi' th# resistance or elevate ihe weight. Ry mmmn of this pit\rt«r, with a small foree a grrat burdaii may Ihi ele- vated by a rope wlilctt warpa round a cylinder, by the aid of a handle, or by roeaii« of vog« or bars used as lvveri| acting on the t-ln-umrer«nce. Fig. 3. A Buppuae that B C represenu the radiiia of a rylln. der, and iliat It A representa the arm uf a levar, by which the power A acu ; if the length uf U A Is to that of B V as three to imt*, a power of one hundred pounds at A acting In a pfrpendicular direction at A H will balance a weight K of one hundred ptmnds. Hence it follows, that to elevate a wvight by means of this machine, it Is requirud that the power A should l>e Vi the weight E as the radius of the cylinder B C Is to the lever B A t or, which amounu to the same thing, aa the radius of the cvllnder Is to the radlui nf any wherl or handle by which It Is turned. If In a slato of equilibrium, the power Is less than the weight, and that in the proportion of the radius of the cylinder to that of the handle which turns It; so in a state of motion the power has more velocity *han the weight, and that in pioportlon as the radius uf the handh or wheel that tnms it is w that of the cylinder. Thia mla snppoaes that the power is alwaya perpendicular to tlie radius bv which it acta ; fur the direction of the weight Is afwavi perpendicular to the radios of the cylinder, since tlie C4>rd that sustains it is always a tangent tn Its clmimferenrp. This machine is often ronstnicted with a Cylinder, at the ends nf which are placed pirota or axlea, turn- ing on Mlid plecea of tim)>er t and tbe wdght InUnded to be raised is AximI to the end of a rope, which is roiled round the cylinder; the power being applied either hy a rord or h% m^ans of a handle, name- times instead of the wheel we And this machine made up of lerers fixad into the cylinder, as apokea Into the nave of a wheel ; at others a simple handle serrea fur the application of the power, as under t— The effect fi itUI the same, only that tbe roUtion Is less uniform. Iu some cases the cylinder Is horixon. tal, aa In the above Agnre, and In some kinds of these machlnea called cranes ; in others ft Is rtfrticnt, as In the capstan, A.c But whether the cylinder be horU Kuotal ur vertical, this machine has a manifest adran. j tage over thr simple Irvrr In point of conreulencf) ; for by the continual rotation of the wheel, the weight mav be raised to anv height, or from anv depth ; while by means of a lerer It can only be eierated a little way higkar than where il raata. U'livre A 11 la tbu whfid (as represented bebiw), anil K n P III Hil>, r %h* moTinv wiwar, aid W th* w»li(lit I.I h* ml,,, . by ninna iif tha nip» K «illlii» iiaalt alunii iha >i < . . II nitiit U OTlilml tkai wiMn Ilia Um I wbaal I i lada mis rtrolulloii, lb* walgkl V v" ara iUiomiumI ikruuKk a tpa<'« a<|Ual Iu tk* clrnimrrrtnw, aud aa uiuch of Iha ixinl I by wlilrh It li nuprmlMl will la nniind iilT. On ika nthar hand, llie walKlil W will hara airandad only Uirailgh • ■pant r<|ual In Iha ciranmraranra of Iha a»la i aud keni;* Juil aa niuili of Ika nipa K nrill Iw wimiid upon it. Ai Iha clrininifarania iil Ihf whni, ih.rafora. ia III Ihal of tha (all, an will iha raluHly nf tha marine pnwar ha to ihal nf Ihit wrluhl In ha ralicd, and nf i'(iniaf|iii*nrn nticti will Iw lk« fome of Ihn machlna. Thua, ir Ilia drcumfarauaa nf tha wkanl ha al|thl, laii, or iwrlra limu a< lar||« al thai ii( tlia allc, una pound amiHad to tha lireuinfaranfa will .oiinterlialanff alfrhl, tan, nr twalrr pound, appllad tn tha ail*, and a amall addiiinnal walKhl will raiaa II up. In Knal afforu, aa It ia nataatafy that Iha arma of Iha larar of pnwar ahoiild be rary lon(, whan, thara. for*, it il tiimni-ly inconTaniaat to maka thirin lo, and whrii In multiply iha niunhar nf them would weakm the head nf th* cylinder loo much, Il haihem till' praciicn III unite th»'«irrmiiici of lb* radii, or co(tn hy a cirnimfrrvni'e, and form a kind of wheel tn which oiher nya are adapted, by which It il lonud hy men i aa may lie leeu iu Ihe wheela uied in quar- ries, and for oranea, aa repreiented below* Flf.C •MlrtiKI 1 '((rtl ■rfj I : • liw lODia ioltnicUra dtaoi-iim on DiU bitereMliit loflc la Pibli'i Natural TbeoWigy, dupun 7 mil 1 1 aliak Animal Ma- Hunlfi— Llbtary of LKl\ii Kiiut* IidgA SoaMilnwa craiMa are morad by fcudlaa 8 8, Ac. (Ag. a.), placed In Ike clrcumfenno* of Ike wkaeL which II tiirne...r r* y .^..^(..i .. tm! !;m ' ' 1. ■f'ttm*.,- i«i i ' i'..lM-. - .■>• ')•[•■ ». Thus, lup. MECHANICS. Uilt CM«i the MquUidiiu uf p Uh lu un« / but If iha Ulflgtu iif llta wluch tM twflvii lilt:lii>i, tti« u«w«r gftJnad wlU t>« m Iwnnttf toun*/ aiij iTnlfiltifwii lUihM, whluh U ■iitHiiinlit Ittttgth for tliv utntt fal wiirk wltlif lh«ri tliM HUiuliiUiiu uf uuwitr will li* iia thirty tu i}fl# / biiCBuM th« valui'itv uf tue hHiiiila wmiM bii thirty clmM as crMt u thai <>i tUa railing waight. Au|)4irtlim lit iha valoclty uf ttia waighl raiutcl by it ( tor luine of iba machaiilMl powara ara upaUla of galnlug both IKiwer and vfluvity nt tha aama limi*. Ill arary kind uf craiu*, It ia necciinry to hftra a raekttl-whaal, ai raprasvutrd at U, ml uiin and of thn ul«, with a t'utch n to fall Into Ita taalli, wKicli will at anv tima ittppurt tha waighl, and kttnp It frum du- •vaiidtng If iba wurknian tnoiild happan to ilip hit hold I iur in aiiuh a caaa, If ihara wara not a rackfd or aafetywliaal, diuailfiil arcldanta would occnr In cua «( luddiinly leltliiK fa tha winch, which wunld run l«ck>ardi with auch irraalatlbia furoa, thai it wuuld Inaviubly kill tha man working ik Fur want of thii pracantiun, alto, tarrihia aooidanta ha*a happmiad to panpln incluaol in cnnai, by thair InidTarianiiy nilu- ing a at«p. Tha capat*n li • raal windlaii, and dilTera only In ih* piMltlon of tha cylliidar lining vartical in pliica of horltuiital, aa In tha wlndlui> or crkna. Tha miinnar of power acting iipun u miitanca or bnrdan, i>y lueaiiR of • whmi aiiiTaxl* or wlndlaia, ii antirely appilcalilu to tha rapntan, but tliu Inttt' il mora advanta^vous. ('apitani are often Hieil in nhipa, to raiia iincliom or other bur4ms, to which cablea are faatenad, wliich •re rnlied ur oollad upon the cylinder, aa reprcieiiled below 1 — Fig. 7. The vartical paelllon of Ike «yllii4«r In the oapalu it obTletuly adTtntageoaa, m It ptrmlla « immlntr of am to ha mploytd at oae time, b)r liuertiag iavera in holea mad* to i«mIt« tlwm s thea* man walk rimnd with the cylinder, and laore It upon ita aile, hv puih. ing the levari liefore themt and with thin additional Hdvautage, that than it no lattrmitaiaa of the powei employed. One of the moat uaeful machine! bv which a great miitance or weight may he inrercumt by a imall force, ia the crttk ai ja^. It eontbta of a perpoudlculur iron bar, aa at A B in the rollowiug cut i— ,' Tblt bar It prorldtd with tteth on one of iu aldn, tat warkt In a moTtablt cata C O ; tha taelh of the fcar At into ibota of tha nnt D D, which turnt upon an axis by the meant of lu handle O N. Tha action oC tha nut protrudat the bar, and tha weight it raUed Ib eouaiineoca, and placed at iu head A. Whan the •urtlon tltat each tooth of the nut malita In D to raita tlM bar, it oontidered a« a weighlvappUad to a larar, it it evident thai the power applied to the handle ia to tliat weight at the ndiut »' the not It to tha arm of tha handle O N i from w. xh It ma; be obtarved, that, by making tha radlut of the nut vary tiaail In proportion to that of the handle, a varr con- ddtrahla waltht may ha raitad by a moderate force. mCLmlD FLANK. Tha laolliMd plana it that which fomt an angle whh tha phaa of tha horixon. Thit angle BHiy be iadnitaljr tmaH, and than it it eonlnuded with an boriiontal Uaa i on tha aoatrary, it may baa right aaglat and than tha pUaa bacotnat vartical ; between thaea two axtramat aia comprltad all tha other da- gviti of IneHaation. Tha piindpla on which the whole theory of the In- allnad plana it foondad it thit : That the timu which a rolling body taket to daMand upon an inclined pUna, la, «• tha tiaw In which it would detoeud vertically by lit abtainta fnvlty from the highatt part of ik» plane, in th* tall* or proportion which tha length of tha plana heart to IM perpendicular height ; a boijr, thara- lOo fura. placad upon an iiivlinad plana, la partly auitainad ^ tna plana llaalf l and, tharafura, a waitfht or powai- Cuntlilerably lllfarlur to that uf iha biuly lualf la able tu lupporl It In lu illuatiun uii the plana, and a« aii to cauia II to atcaiid. On this account it ia, that, in luakiitg ratervulri fur waUr, traochat, or fortmca- Ilont, ur lu etaarlag tlie earth away from the loiinda- tlona of biilldiiiKa, tna wliueltiarrowi or other vehlclea amployad ara made to aacand upon a plank In aeaf- fuldlug, which It phiced iu tha direction uf an iiKlinad plana. Thia power la ntpreaentad by the following cut, and tha advanlaKci Kaluvd by II are viacOy lu the pro- tiortion of tliu Itiigtli uf tha plane tu the perpaadkular height of It b— Plj. 0. I I -'"^■ I lo •'vJii Thua, lat A B ha a plane parallel to the horU •on, and C D ana InuUned lo it i tuppoea, alto, tha whula laogth C D to be three tiniea aa great at at the perpeniiicular height U Ft In thia cate tha maahina K will lie lupportud upon tha plane C D, and kept from rulling down upun it by une.third part of ita weight. The force with whioh i rolling boily datoendi npnn an Inoliaed plane will ha to that with which It would detcend by the power of gravity, ai the hvl^iht of the plane la to the length of It i for, tuppoaiiig the above raaehine K lo lie placed on a piaiiii parallel to the ho- rlion, Il will remain at real on any part of It where it may be placed, and would contiuun in that illua. tiou for ever, unleaa Impalled by fome power. But if the plane C D, on whlcn 11 ia above repreiented, were to be to elevated that Ita perpendieular height C U wuuld be equal to one-half of iu iangth C 1>, then tha machine £ will roll down with half lu own weight) for it would require a power (acting in tha direction C 11) ecual to half ita weight lo keap it from rolling. If the plane (J l> lie elevated ao aa lo Da perpendicular to the luirliou, thn machine >1 will deacand with III wholu force of gravity, for thia aimpie reason, that the plitnu contributes nothing to itn Riippo-cu.. hiadvranca of It I for which reaaon Ic mutt require a power equul to the whole force of gravity to keap It from da- loandlng. At tha wheali of the machine E are made to move on axles, and the machine It furnished with a staple 11, nt tho back part, for tha reception of a rope I, which Is fastenea to it i If this rope go over the fixed pulley K, and have iu other end lied to the ring in the weight I, ; if the siwciflo gravity or weight of the weight L were equal to the machine E, together with the weight placed on It ; and if the length of the perpendicular O F were equal to the length of the plana C D, the weight I, would just support the ma- chine E with lu sppandaget i and the application of a very small force would either make il ascend or de- scend. In the time that the machine would move from C to D, It innat rise through the whole height of the plane O F, and the weight will descend from K to N, through a space equal lo the whole length of the plane V> V, If the plane warn now made to move on rollers or wheels placed al N O, and the machine lo be sup- ported upon It, the same power will draw the cylinder up the plane, provided the pivots of the wheels be small, and the wheels themselves pretty large. For let the whole machine C O N O be equal In height and length, be furnithtd with iuur wheels, and the machine K be laid upon the lower end of the Inclined plana C D, and the rope I ha extended from the frame of the machine E ah«ul six feat parallel to the plane C D, and fixed in that direction to a hook In the wall, this will be sufficient to keep the machine from rolling off the phuie. Let the end of a ropa lia txed to the end uf this apparatus at D, and to the other extremity of thit rope let a weight be atuched uf the same spe- cific gravity at that which drew tha machine E up the plane before t and If thit it put over a pulley at a little iisMnce, it will draw Ike whole apparatus C N O D along a horitonul plane, and under the machiue £ ; and when the apparatus has been drawn the langUi of a plana equal to the length uf the appa- rattu O D, the machine will be raised lo C on the in- clined plane, which is equal to the perpendicular height O C, above that part B A which may be sup. posed to rapraaent tha horiton. llenca 11 it evident that the mechanical advantage gained by Iha inclined plana is In proportion at Ue length of tha plane axceads iu height. Thus, if a weight of four ounoei it laid on an Inclined plane, the length of which is to lu haight as two tu one, at is the case with that repraantad dwve In our cut. It will be caunterbahwcad byawaighl of two ounces, drawing in the line of the ropa front ll to K, parallel to the pUne ; or if tha length of the plana U to iu height at four to one, than tha body will ba tuitalaad bv an ounce only. Uanc^ In drawing aoart up ahill, If the power of the waggon « will e hurse bears tha same atouurtiun to tbi* Height u( Ui« cart ua tha height of tna bill to lis di'clivil), then tha ill iu>t run bai:k, and a ■" M additional forua vlialiie it to advaiu-i*. Tha incJInad plana, v ewed aa a k-eokanlcal puwer, may tatil V lie reduoed to ika Isver, beaauaa tha power a«|ulred by II italwayain the |:apurti>m of the biigth tu the height, upon Ike I4' la principle at the power acqiiirad fiy a lever la li he proportion of tlie lung exhibit the reaton of the the anil to tha short one. 'V ti)A\ pttirtr of an Incline-* lane, r.erefore, we have oiilv construct a lever, «.ir loa .4.p< ul' whioh ia equal to the lengtli iii he plana, aj' le short arm to the Iwlghtofi.i jnte^eiit' .. • ixcvtrweight put iiuon the long » 1,1 coiintorpio. . equUlbriatet aiiuther weight put upon the short la, will also keep the same weight from rulling down uie Inclined plane. It is upon the principle of the Inclined plane that all ruada leading over eminences are conatriicted. W» ran easily aee that It would be next lo an ImpotslbU llty to ascend a prtclpllinis mountain, as represented la the following oul, wllhoul this simple contriviinee. The road iiaing cut In a kuriiuntal inclined plane. In the manner uf a screw, the incllnatiun Is rendered gradual, and it can now be ascended with comparative case. Waggons filled with aKmes may he dragged Id Its lummli by the aid of a power riiiial to ahum hall their weight (varying of coiine with the Incliiuitlaa of the plane), by the means of horsee or other animal power, rig. 10. Allhengh the wedge is ranked as a distinct mecha- nical power, it must be regarded at halungiug to tha inclined plane, at it la, in point of fact, uothTug mora than a doubit iiuKntd plant. To the tame wechaal. oal power may also be referred all catling iattrumenta which act as wedges, as knivca, hauhela, &c From the tame theory uf the inclined plana) all* combined with that of falling bodlet| wa deduce toa>» of tha mott remarkable propartlaa of Ike pandulniu. TUB WIDOK. The wedge It one of the six simple mtchli M oalled mechanical powers. It Is of a trlangnlar fbrm ; the thinnest part It called the point, at m the following cull— Fig. II. B <■>■: : l,.|,. . i .-KHv^ . ., ; ♦ * Ih .-^t, ' . .■■ ;■ and th* thicker end B, the httt «f h«M Of Ih* w^kfe. The action of the wedge agreea most with that of the inclined plane. It is made use of to cleave, t* raise, or to compress bodies ; and to put II In action, the blow or stroke Is usually given with a hard body, such as a sledge-hammer or mallet, although soma- times the pressure of a weight ia employed. The re* sittance which may be overcome by meant of the wedge often depends upon the tanaaty of the partS) whioi Is difficult to estimate. Tha percussion which putt the wedge into action is also dimoult to Judge of DV the effects of pressure ; on this account tha theory of the wedge Is not susceptible of great pradslon ; ai* though approaehet may be made towards accuracv by snbiutntlng powera, the aheoliite force of which la known, at of welghtt, and then obterving what propor* tlon there exlttt between the power and the real*, tance when a wedge Is Inlroducad. The wedge may be conttdered at two equally in dined planet, at repreiented In the following figure t-> rig. 12. L a ■ ■TATION FOR THE PEOPLE. buet E F C>, D C in the whole thicknesi of the wed(;;fl nt itR hack A II C 1), where the power i* np- plledf K F is the depth, A O the length of one of tts liddfi, ei\\iA\ to C F the length of the other side; and O F ai iu sharp edge, which Is entered into the wood, or other matter to be split, by the force of a hammer or mallet striking perpendicularly upon its base A B C D. Thus, A B in tne following cut is drawn into the cleft C D £ F. ,,• .■,.,.. i'J«. 13. B The vedge repremt^d In this 6gare baa a truncated .tr blunted point; wedges of this shape being always u:.ed where the opening Is sufficiently wide to admit of an obtuse point being Introduced. If the wedge is used for cleaving timber, there is a cleft made fur iu reception, and it is forced at the back by percussion, as ttlready observed. The friction of the faces of the v/edi^e with the timber should be sufficient to prevent its recoil. But to prevent this, recourse is had to making the sides of the wedge rough ; for after the etroke of the mallet, the wedge, unless its weight were equivalent to the attraction of the parts of tue timber to bu separated, would presently be forced back from the place to which it had been driven by ♦'e mallet ; and it is chiefly the roiighrr^ of the bides of the wedm, and the parts of the wood in contact with it, wnich, in that operation, keep the wedge from receding. It is that roughness, too, and the bluntneti of the edge, which sometime- prevent the wedge from being moved by the stroke of the mallet ; for were it not obstructed by roughnetis and bluntueu, it would, according to what we have just now observed, be always driven forward, even by the least percus- sive force. When the timber does nol cleave at any distance before the wedge, there will be an equili* brium between the power impelling the wedge down- ward, and the resistance of the wood acting against the two sides of the wedge; if the power tw to the resistance as half the thickness of the wedge at the back is to either of its sides, and if the fwwer be in- creased so as to orercome the friction of the wedge^ and the resistance arising from the cohesion of the timber, the wedge will be driven in, and the tim- ber split. But when the timber splits, as it com- monly does, before the wedge, the power impelling the wedge will not be to the resistance of the timber as half ute thickness of the wedge is to one of Its sides, but as half its thickness is tu the length of the other side of the cleft, estimated from the top or act- ing pan of the wedge; for if we suppooc the wedge to be lengthened down to the Imttom of the cleft at E F, tliesame proportion will hold — namely, that the power will be to the resistance aa h>'/ the thicknMS of the vedge is to the length of either of the aides ; or, which ik the same thing, as the whole thickness of the wedge is to the length of both its sides. To prove this, let ua Imagine the wedge to be di- vided lengthways into two equal and similar parts ; in which rate It will evidently tierome two equ»lly in* cltued planes, as may l*e seen in fig. 12, e U K (' K. This shape of a wedge may be advantaf^eously used i'or removing a moulding, or other projecuon, which is attached to g IUc wal!. It is evident, that when this half wedge is driven its whole length C F between tlie wall and rauuldings, its inside c K F will have separated a quantity of moulding ei^ual to its own length at least. But from what has already been shown oiucerninglhe inclined plane, it appears, that, to have au ei|iiililiri!im betweeii the power impelling the half wedge snd the resistance of the moulding, the former must be to the latt«r as K B to C F, that is, ai the thicknesa of the ba&e which receives the stroke it tu t.he length of the aide against which the moulding acts. Since, therefore, the power upon the half wedg« is to tbe resistance against ita aide as the half Imck K F ia to the ^hole aide C F, it ia plain that ifae power upon the whole wodge, where the whole thickness is double the half back, must be to the re- sistance of both its sides ai the thlcknesi of the whole back ii to the length of both tides of the cleft, when the timber splits at any distance before tbe wed^e ; for, when the wedge ia driven quite into the timber, and the hitter splita at ever ao small a distance before it, the top of the wedge then becomet the acting part, because the timber does not touch it any where elte. And tiure the bottom of the cleft must be considered at the place where the whole resistance is accumu- lated, it it ,)Uin, from tbe nature of the lever, that the further the power is from the r«jii/anrf, it acts with the greater advantage. It hnt been imagined by some that the miwer of the wedir(4 was in uie prop thieVnett to the length nf itt tiidei| but this cannot )»e the rate, from what we have alrouly shown. We have proved that the wedge it cmipoted of two inclined iilaues, Mclt of which baa a perpendicular height of only une- l&tf half the thickneHs of the wedge itselt. It is therefore evident, that, as the power of the inclined plane irf always as the length to ita perpendiailar height, that the power of each of these inclined planes of which the wedge is composed, must be as the length of one side to half the thickness; and, consequently, the power of Imth must be aa the length of both aides to the whole thicknesa.i If one tumbler is placed within another, as ahown at Bar. 14, and even a gentle pressure used to the inner tumbler, it is certain to burst the tides in one or mure parts. It will l>e manifest upon a KJIght consideration. There ia one general theoretical principle, which alwava aeems to hold good respecting the wedge, via. that Its power ia increased by diminishing the angle. Fig. U. All inatrnnienta designed for cutting or stabbing, such aa knives, aworda, punchea, and r»tchets, are clawed with the wedge. In abort, they hare at least two inclined planes, tometimea four or more, which form among them an angle more or leas acute ; nails, pins, and needles, are also included in this class. or THK PILLEY. The pulley it n small wheel of iron or wood, which ia moveable upon itsaxia, with tho circumference hol- lowtd, to receive the cord, which ia attached on the one hand tu the moving power, and on the other to the resiating force. The wheel or pulley ia usually fixed in a block or case, which admits the rope or cord to paas freely over the circumference of the wheel ; and the gorge of tho pulley, that Is, the hollow part of the circumferencewhich receives the cord, isusually hollowed out angularly, and not round; so that the cord, being in some measure pinched or compreased in this ingle, will not be liable to glide or slip in its motion. The pulley it said t() hejuted or moveahU according as the block is fixed, or rises aud falls with the weight. When several pulleys are aaaoclated to. gether, they are called a mujfls or pol^tpattony ol which some are in a fixed block, and others In a moveable one. Some authora have explained the nature nnd efTecta of tho pulley, when fixed aa a lever, of the Urtt orner, and a moveable one at belonging to that of tbe uecond order. Othera maintain that it ia not applicable to the lever; among these was Professor Hamilton, who saya that " the puUev cannot properly be contidered aa a lever of any kind ; for when any power suatains a weight by meanii of a ayttem of pulleys, that power will sustain tlie tame weight if tlie pulleys be removed, and the ropet t>e brought over the axles on which the pulleys turned. If the weight were to be raised up, there would in this case be a very great resistance from the friction of the ropes on the axlea ; and It ia merely to avoid thia resistance that pulleys are used, which move round tbe axlea with but little friction.'* " One ot' the moat almple and natural methoda," aaya Dr Gregory, ** of computing the power and explain. Ing the effects of the pulley, it by considering that .•very moveable pulley hangt by two parta of the tame rope equally stretched, which ..nst sustain equal parta of the weight ; and, therefore, when one and the same rope goea round several fixed and mcveable pulleys, slice all Ita parta are e<)ually stretched, the whole weight must lie divided eiiually among all the ropes by which the moveable pulley hangi. And, consequently, if the power whlcli acts on one rope be equal to the weight divided by the number of ropes, that power must auitain the weight. This p !nciple may be applied to many of the cases which ocxur, with great facility, particularly when the corda niu in directions nearly parallel." This is exhibited In the following system:— Fig. 16. Fig. IG. But when th« ropei ar* drawn In directions which are not parallel, tnla method may lead to error. In fig. 1(1, the ballt A II are equal in weight to the balls I I>; ronsequci.My the weight it equally di- vided by the ballt A B, atid are In equillhrlot each of the corda G E F H have an e^iutl lenalon, and the slightest power applied to either of the balls A B would overcome the power of tho balla C I) ; and by pulling the oordt, the central balla would be elevated^ while the ball A would sink, and B would remain sUtionary ; and thus, by dividing the retistance or weight upon one or more cords, you are able, by pull- ing the one, to overcome the resintance proportionally. Upon this principle the man represented pulling the rope in fig. 15 can consequently raise nearly twice his own weight, by drawing a cord which haa only half of the retistance. A fixed pulley, fig. 17, A, has no mechanical advan- tage, aa the power and the weight are equal. It ia, however, of conalderable convenience ir. nccommo- dating the direction of the power to that of the resist- ance. Thus, by pulling downwnrda, we are able to draw a weight upwards. By means of this simple machine, a power, in whatever direction it may be, can be opposed to a resiBtance in a contrary direction. The single moveable pulley, or runner, ia shown In flff. 10 above, to which the bulla C D areatuched. I'"ff. 17. Fig. 18. In this machine the same ropeextenda from C, which represents the power, to the fixed point of the rope, and has an e«tual degree of tension throughout ita T hole length. Consequently It la evident that thia tension Is eipial to the power, for in that part of the rope V A between the power and the fixed pulley, the power would be supported by thia tension. Tfie weight W is supported oy the four corda between U and £. The effect of the weight of the pulley B, if taken into account, It is only necessary to add to it tbe weight. In fig. 18, the tension ia equally divided among the six ropes, between A and B, which sustain the weight W; and If there were fifty such pulleys, and the ropes running from one to the other in the same manner, each of theae would bear Jta proportional share of the tension. This principle applies to th* lacing of suya, beds, &o., aa repreaented below« Fig. 19. By the aid of pulleya, burthena are elevated with greater ease, and in a more convenient mann.^r, than they otherwise could l>e ; because the motion is con- tinued, and ita direction may be changed so aa to bring the whole force which ia applied to it Into im> mediate action ; for by thia meann a horse, which can only exert hit force In an horizontal direction, is able to overcome a vertical reaiatance. Burthena are moved more eatily by pulleya, becauae a great weight may be elevatea by a tmail force properly applied. Thua the power ap^.'ied to a pulley draws in all directiuna without impediment, in conaequence of tbe cord by which it acta being alwaya a tangent* to the circum- ference of the pulley, and consequently always per- pendiculai to the radius. In proportion as the dis- tance of the powers applied to pulleya ia more distant from the axia, so is their force the greater in propor- tion, whether the cords run iu several grooves, or se- veral pulleys of dilTerent diameters turn upon the same axla. Consequently, those powers which act at the greatest diatanue from the axis will hare the ad- vantage over the other. Pufliea are of much uae In practical mechanics, for by their nuana great weighta may be: raiaed to aii/ height more expeditiously ihan by any other known metliod. Betides, their lightness and amallness fit them fur being readily and eaally conveyed from one filace to another. At sea they are of univ<>raal utl- [ty, for hoiating the aaila aud yards, and tightening ropea, &c. It la aald that Archlmedea, a famoua geometrician of Syracuae, who flourished about 230 years twfore the birth of our Saviour, by meana of a machine com- posed of palleys, drew up a ahlp along the strand, in the preaence of Hiero, king of^ Syracuae. But Uiis, although it appears well authenticated, la doubted by variuuR writers, In consequence of the great friction which is attendant on the application of blocks and pulleys, which arises from three causes— Ut, The di- ameter of th'j (ixit bearing a coutiderable proportion to that of the wheels ; 2d, Their rubbing againit tbeir blocks, or against one another ; Md, The stiffneas of the mpe that goea over and under them. • A 'uigenl li ft right line ilrtwn prrpendlcuUr from the ex* irriDlty nf the rwtlui, and whkh tuuchet tha drcwalHeiWs of a riffle without cutting tL . ^ .fm'i&^' f>p genrnctriciui yeart before mschine coni- the •Iruid, ia ««. But thit, il doubtml by (TMt friction ol block! and _ltt, The di- Ifl proportion ; aiitltut their he aliirneu of ISIECHANICS. The following Jijpire will explain how a pulley way b« oomidered u a lever of the woond order :^ Fig. 30. This pulley has all the propertien of a lever of the second order, when the resiitance R ii attached to the neck c t, and one of the endi of the cord which pasaes under the pulley is attached to the fixed point a, while the other is drawn or sustained by the power d; the pulley then becomes what is termed h moveable pulley, and is elevated with the weight; which, consetiuently, rendera it analogous to a lever of the second order b e, of which the fulcrum or prop is at 6, and is divided into two equal parts ft c, o e, by the direction c I, of the resistance K. It is on this' account only neces. sary that the power d should possess half the force II to keep it in equilibrium ; and if the weight is ele- vated, the power d acts through twice the space of that of the resistance R, and consequently with double the velocity. For suppose the centre c of the pulley is carried to the point A, then there only remains under the line d a the portion of the cord wliich passes under f'lie pulley ; the two portions l> a and e rf, wliich mark the space, run through the pulley ; then the power has a vclncity double to that of the resistance. In this case the cord embraces half the circumference of ihe pulley, and the directions of the two powers are parallel. The arm of the lever of power is then the dtiimetor e L of the pulley, that of the resistance is only the radius a b ; because, to keep an eciuilibrium, it is necessary that the power should he tu the resis- tance as the radius is to the diameter. Hut if the direction of the power Is obliqtie — as for instance if one end of the cord Is attached to the fixed point g^ while the other Is sustained by the power P — it still represents a lever of the second order m /, of wlilcli the fulcrum will be at m, and which will be divided into two equal parts m i, i I, by the direotliui a I, of the resistance R, as the radius c 6 is to the space / m of the arch embn eed hy the cord. If Instead of drawing the cord upwards it is neces- sary to draw it downwards, a fixed puUey Is placed above the moveable pulley, which makes no change in the effect of the power. By means of a union of pulleys, a very great weight may be raised by a small force: for it is demonstrable that the force necessary to sustain a weight by means of several pulleys, is to the weight itself as unity is to double the number of moveable pulleys. So thiat *he number of pollt^s and thn pnwor being given, the weight which the system of pulleys is capable of sns- tainir:? is easily found by multiplying the power by douhrt the numoirof moveable pulleys. For example, suppoae that the pon'er is equal to xixtj/ poiinds, and that the number of rioveable pulleys is three : aixtj/ multiplied by six (b?i) g double the number of three) will be equal to thre«< i.'undred imd sixty ; which is the weight that this Kystevo ol' pulleys Is able to sustain. By the same mode of t^alculation, the number of moveable pulleys beingglv en, togetherwith the weight which the tackle is oapitble of sustaining, the power will be found by dividing the weight by double the numbe** of moveable pulle vh. Suppose the weight equal to \f}Oii lbs., and the number uf uoveable pulleys tu be 8: UiOO divided bylO (that is, doiible the number of the pulleys), gives the quotient "(K) lbs. i which is the force necessary tu subtain UHK) lbs., with such an union of pulleys. '~ To fi'xd the number of moveable pulleys wh^ch are requisit' to sustain a givKU weight, with a given power, it will be lecessary to di\ide iheweight by the power, an ' in that cafe I'lulf the quotient will be the number sought. Supposing the weight tube 1000 lbs., and the power 100 ; the apparatus >mght to have 10 moveable pulleys : for 1000 divided by 100 gives ^0 tu the quotient, the half of which is 10. Air Nicholson, however, says, ''it maybe observed that, in all c\,.itrivances by which power is gained, a proportional loss is suffered in time. If one man, by means of a tackle, can raise a» much weight as ten men could -by their unassisted streugth, he will l>e ten times as long about it. It Is convenience alone, and not any actual increase of force, which we obtain from mechanics. This Is shown by the following example : — " Suppose a man at the top of a house draws up ten weights, one at a time, by a single rope, in ten mi- nutes. I^et him have a tackle of five lower pulleys, and he will draw up the whole ten at once, with the same Mse as ha before raised up one ; hut In ten limes xhu time, that 1»| la ten mlinite cumference.or rim of the wheel devoid of inequalities ; if there were no friction hi^tween the nave and the axle ; and if the direction of the power remained con* stantly parallel to tho plane, then a small force would draw a very heavy carriage or carriages, as may be witnessed in one horse drawing on a railway from ten to fifteen tons of coals or other goods ; for the resis- tance which proceeds from the weight rests entlrdy upon the ground by the radius or spoke A B, or by another spoke which immediately sue:, .ds it. But on common roads these circumstances are seldom or never found to obtain, as roads are never perfectly level, aud the wheels of carriages are often so unevenly constructed, besides having the heads of the large nails, by which the rims are attached, left protrud- ing ; all of which tend to diminish the animal power employed in propelling carriages and other machines. The consequence is, that, from these causes, the wheels are supported by a radius A C or A D, which is oblique to the direction of the power A P, or to the direction of the resistance A B. Consequently, the weight which is presumed to press at A resists the power, which can only make it advance by causing it to rise as much as the point C or D is above the point B. The animal is wheels aud pinions, and which have their prop al the axle Fig. 21. D . „„.„. therefore obliged to sustain purt of the weight of a car- Thlfl species of wheel is considered as a lever of the | riage as if it wero placed upon an inclined plauc. Even first order, the arms of which are the radii of the i when the circumferences roll upon perfectly level sui- faces, there is considerable friction between the axle- tree and tho nave. These Inequalities in the roads have the effect of even changing the direction of the power. For a horst placed higher or lower, in consequence of the unevenness of the road, instead of using his force In the line A P, or parallel to the portion of the plane which supports the wheels, is frequently constrained to employ it by the line A £ or A F, which Is in an ! oblique direction to that of the resistance A B, and I consequently with diminished power. A single horse may drag a waggon, cart, or carriage, upon a plane j with ease, while it will frequently require several to move the same machine up a road or inclined plane. It has been found by experience, on rough or uneven roads, that to make the horse draw in a ris- ing line is the most effectual, as tn the direction of A F ; consequently the axle of the wheels should be somewhat lower than the breasts of the horses; as by this means the direction of the power approaches more to the parallelism of each of the small inclined planes which form the inequalities of the road. Let ABO, fig. 21, be three wheels, of the same diameter, and a 6 c their corresponding pinions ; the pinion, or what is the same thing, the cylinder c, sus- , - „ , , . .■ - i ■ . ■ . i^ i. tains tfie weight W ; the wheel C, which has the same I J^-^^? ^*'*» }}\^ precaution above pointed out, it be- axle as thecylinder o, catches tho pinion b ; the wheel : monies impossible to overcome some of these ohstruc- B, which has thelsame axle as the pinion t, catches ! !iT.'^L"]l^!!flT!l*i^""^!*" '^l"i?^l^^ the pinion a ; the wheel A, which has the same axie as the pinion a, is supposed drawn at its ulrcumfer- ence hy a rope passing over it at D, tu which a power Is attached ; and the whole system is in equilibrium. In this case the weight W acts by the radii of the pi- nions, but the power acts hy the radii of tho wheels. Suppose the radii of the wheels to be four times those of the pinions, and '/.lat the first are eight inches, and the other two inches i to preserve an equilibrium, it is necessary that the power should be to the resistance as the product of the arms of the lever of resistance is to the product of the arms of the lever of power ; that is, in an inverse ratio of the length of the arms of the lever i these products are found by multiplying the one by the other ; that is, the radii of the wheels and the radii of the pinions. The first product will he 512, and the second Bj In which case the supposed power at D ought to be the weight of W, as U is to 012, or as 1 Is to 04. It consequently follows, that, to preserve the equilibrium, whatever is the diameter of the wheels and the pinions, the power Is to the re- sistance as the product of the radii of the pinions is to the product of the radii of the wheels. Machines of this form appear capable of giving a great advantage to the force or power over the resis- tance; this advantage, however, is gained at the ex- pense of time or velocity, when the machine passes from a state of rest to that of motion i because ther; is a reclprucallty betwixt the timu lost and the time which is gained. Respecting wheels of the second order, which have two kinds of motion, such as those of carts, the centre of which advances in a straight line, while the other parts turn round on it, they may be regarded as a lever of the second order, the action uf which la re- peated as often as there is suppoeed to be points in the circumference. Each of these potnti or spokes to is, to employ larger wheels, as it is evident that small ones are more liable to be entangled and retarded by ruts and hollows in roads than those which are of large diameter, as the radius of the small wheel, which bears against the ground. In rising out of a hollow in the road. Is greatly more oblique to the direction of the power than the radius of the greater wheel to the direction A P. Besides, the circumfer. ' ence of a larce wheel measures in rolling more of the road than that of the small one, its volutions are swifter, or it makes fewer revolutions in passing over a given distance, which must necessarily save a con- siderable portion of tho friction. OF THE SCREW. The screw is the sw^ongest of all the mechanical powers, but must not be accounted a simple one, as It cannot be wrought without the aid of a win.h or lever, to assist in turning it. The screw is a !ong cone or cylinder, as represented below. Fig. 23. Fig. 24. mOT CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. fjfi A B i« tlie cyliiuler, upon thecircumferauce or whioli U flut a tpiral ((rouve or K^rge C 1) K F. Th» partition O H IJ K is termed ilie thread of the screw, and the diiUitce h M which iiiterreiies between one thread and anothtT, it called the itep or face of the screw. The ttiread and gorge are wimetimeit litted into a cylindrical cavity, made in a piece of metal or woiid, which iii lometime* termed a socket, hut more gene- rally HfcmmU icrew or nnt (tig. 'J4), while the other is Crtlled live mat* or principal screw. It niiixt he ertiient, ou examining the thread of the screw in tig. 23, that it h an inclined plane, and winds round t)tc cylinder in the same manner as a road, formed on the principle of the inclined plane, would wind round a precipitttns mountain, us repres(>nted at lig. lU. Uiit Chit will be more eaailyunderituodhy the following cuc« repreaenting part of another Brrew, where the threads are triangular, or acute, on their ittrfa*^ The height of thit inclined plane is the face or spiral of the screw, or, which is the i in>e thing, the distance of one thread from anothei , it4 base is the circuml'ereuce of the hcruw, and its length is esti- mated by that circumference, and the height of the face ; fur if one of the threads a 6 is developed, it «iU form with its pace it c n triangle a b c^ and a reetaugle at c, of which it ts easy to find the side a, A, since the two utner^ are known, as well as the ang!« St : heuce by a screw turning on its socket, they constitute two i iclined planes sliding the one upon file other* See fig. 2o, beneath. FJ-. 25. The threads of iorewx are diHerently formed, being made in general to answer some particular purposes Wooden screws have usually angular threads, a* in f}g. 25, C O F. This form adds greatlv to their strength, as their base, which is placed on the cylinder which supports them, is greatly larger. Conical imall iron screws ending in a 'point hare aUt> this form of thread ; as also those which are fitted fur entering wood, in which thev form a socket for them- •elres. Upon this principle also, are constructed drills and gimlets, wnich enter timber with ease, in proportion to the acuteness of their pt^nts. Large metal screws which are used for preBse», vice>i, &c., are generally formed with square threads, as in fig. SSf tor the purpose of increasing the friction, by aug- menting the surface of each thread ; as it nnt unfre- qoently happeLS that the principal effect of screws arises from the closeneu of the friction ; aud as it is found that this form has the effect of preventing the «heAs or chops of vices from swerving backn-ards, to which they have a natural tendency by the re-action of the meral or other substance which they prcu be- tween them. If fig. 25 be attentively examined, it will be evident that the winch E which turns the cylinder must move once round in the time that the thread performs one revolution; and, conseiiuenily, if any weight or great jpower of resist^iace were applied, the winch must turn once round in the time that the weight would move from one spiral thread to another ; for example, &om F to H : consequent) y» ibe force of the screw will be as the circumference of the whole circle, defiaed by the leva- or winch K by which it is turned, is to the distance between the threads of the screw itself. BuMUMlng, therefore, the threads to be half an indi, •od the length of the winch twelve inches, the circle deecribed by the extremity of it, where the power acts, will be nearly sri' taif; masses of a detarmloaln quantity. For this pur- poso, a male and teub screw are made use of, one or the other of wUdt aarvas as a futcntm or prop Uw the other. H e w e iim ei the mde screw is fixed, and the female m«v«aUe, or nctf twria ,- but ia both casee the effect ol the tetcw is the same. la the applieatioa of the screw, oae of the two parts Is appliai to tW r«iiatan':e which is to be overcome, whilst the odMr aots as a fulcrum or pn^ to the ma- chine : thm^ bjr the act of moving, the sookot b made to more apoa the K-rew, nr the screw upott the soc- lUtf ket. Supposiug the machine used to he a handvice, or smith's vioj, for example, one of the cheeks is pressedl against the other cheek by means of the action of the screw ; from which it appears that the puwi»r must move one complete round, in order to advance the resistance one pace, or spiral revolution of the screw ; that lit, the distance of one thread from another. Wlien the power is applied directly to the screw, the space it passes through, or its quantity oi motion, is a c, fig. 2t% which is the measure of the circumference of the screw ; aud the motion of the re«>Ktance is mea- sured by A, which is the width of uue space of the screw. It is, however, a common practice to turn screws, more especially large ones, with a lever or .rinch ; hence it follows that a o does not measure the motive force of the power, which is, on the contrary, measured by the circumference of the circle, of whicli the lever D £ is the radius. And as it is necessary, in order to maintain on equilibrium, that the powers should be in the inverse ratio of their velocities, it may be estiihliithed as a general rule in using screws, if we make no account for the friction, that the power is to the reKistance as the height of the pace of the screw is to the circumference which the power de- scribes. The PrurKTVAL Scnrw differs In many particu- lars from the common screw. It consists of a cylin- der always turning in the same direction, which will be rendered more evident by the following representa- tion :— Fig. 2fi. B > A and B are its two extremities ; these being carried npon solid pivots, so tliat its aor.on is perpetuated — hence its name. The threadj (' P of this screw, which are nsuallv square, agree witli the teeth of a vertical wheel EV, which rarrips npmi its axis a roller or windlaxs (i with a cord, to which is fixed the weight M', which is required to he elevated. A very small force, therefore, applied to a handle, nr a light weight I, nuapended to a line H, coiled round the cylinder, is sufficient to raise a considerable weight at W. But this operation requires considerable time, from the fixed law in mechanics, which should ever he borne in mind, that whatever is gained in force is lost in velocity. In order to find the relation between the weight W and the force nr power I, it must first be considered that the weight Wis counterhidanced immediately by tlie resistance which the thread C 2) of the screw np> Koreit to the tooth of the wheel, keeping the direction [ L perpendicular to the radius G A(. This thread C D, therefore, acts by the radius of the wheel E F, while the weight W acts by the radius or windlass A B; so that, to maintain an equtUbHum, the force Rt M should be to the weight W as i.V (the radius of the roller) Is to the radius of the wheel O M ; hence the relation which the weight W should have to the power I In case of an eaulubrium, may be expressed In this manner : the weight is to the power as the pro- duct of the radius of the wheel multiplied by the cir- cumference which the radius of the handle descril>eR (if one Is used) Is to the product of the radius of the windlass, multiplied by the height of the pace of the screw. The motior ' the wheel being exceedingly slow in proportion to ; tt of the handle, it follows thai a very small power is apable of raising a considerable weight by means of the perpetual screw, which will be proved as follows :— If a wheel £ F, fig. 2fl, had only nine- teen teeth, and a screw which has hut one thread, and which, at each round, causes only one tooth of the wheel to pass ; supWMe the circumference of the wind- lass G, nr axle, to W one ftHit, and the circumference which the radius of the handle descril>es, to be fiw feet I when the wheel K F sliall have performed an entire revolution, the weight W will he raised one foot, and the space run throogh by the power I will be nineteen times five feet, or f)A fo* t. The speed of the power I will then be to the speod of the wekht W SI 05 is to one ; so that this power, with the effort of one pound, is capable of raining Ud pounds ; and if iu effort was equal to 3f teeih as the first, and to which should be annexed the « Indless which Is to sustain the weight W, then the same supposed power would be capable of raising a weight nmeteen timet as great ; in othav words, this power, Intriusicall/ only thirty pounds, would be capable of raising the amazing weight of 64,150 pounds. Fig. 27. B 7 To enable the reader to perceive the evident con. nection between the inclined plane and the screw, the accompanving diagram shows that, if instead of the body moving against the inclined plane, the inclined plane be made to move against the body, the same ef- fect is produced. A represents a cylinder, with a spi. ral plate attached In the form of a screw j and around the top a cord Is wound, to the extremity of which is fastened a weight £, and which, by being laid over a pulley, would cause the cylinder to turn on its axles F G Is a rod with a ball at the end, while it turns at the other end on a peg, fastened to the upright post at I. By placing the weight H on the rod F G, the ball leans with considerable weight on the spiral plate; but the weight E causes the cylinder to revolve, and to raise the weight H, although it is much heavier than itielC Fig. 2a The above diagram repreieoti wltat ii termed the eccentric wheel. This is coostrtioted in various ways, but the above is one of the most useful forms. It will be observed, that the axle of this wneel is placed off its centre, and that the whee! is heart-shapinL Tho use of this wheel is to produce a rising and a falling motion, and is employed in cotton and fliuc k iohinery, to effeet a roring motion, by gradually raising and depressing the board on which the bobbins are placed, and thus covering the surface equally and gradually with the thread as it is spun. Suppose A B to !»« the bobbin-board, in its prosont position it will have nearly gained its highest poiat, which Is, when the point of the heart touches the bottom of the board, after which it gradually sinks, until it has reached the hollow top of the heart at C, when the thread will be gradually wound downwards. Another kind of encentric wh! a rod of Iran bent In the middle and hooked at the eztremitiea, B ia a itraiglit bar, with a forlied head to support the centre of the twnt bar C. In figure SO, K li repreunU the board into which the wrewi A A are fixed, >o that the ho face down, wards, and placed on a piece of paper with cloth under it. The bar M i« then put down on the back of the wood.cut, as represented by the dotted line. Then phu:ing the hand to the top N, and drawing it up to O, when the whole wUl be perpendicular, the wood-cut is pressed by the middle bar with great vio- lence, sufficient not only to take a sharp and clear impression of the wood-cut, but even to sink the end of the bar M into the wood, or to tear out the screws from the frame. The nature of this power is exhibited in fig. 31. F (} represents the middle bar ; D U the beiit bar. ^V^len the middle bar F O turns on its lower end, it would describe the dotted line O U ; but when the )>«ut b.ir G D is brought up, it would describe the line O I, and therefore the end of the bar D F.jould be forced down to the point £. As these two pieces uf iron serve all the purposes of the liar, the mechanical power, and the cheeks uf a printing-press, we consider this the mont ingenious and simple printing-press which has yet been invented. Having given the mechanical powers In the order in which they are generally placed, we now beg to submit a tabular view of the principles upon which these powers depend. In the manner in which they ap- pear to us naturally to arrange themselves : — Meghakical Powers are methods by which we gain power by losing motion. ^3 ?* t> f -. 2W256 or Tire ACCUUULATIOK or TOWEB. ' When we have made ounelireii acquainted with the influence of the mechanical powers taken iiepurately, or combined, we will perceive that they can only nc cumulate power, or cumpresK any degree of velocity into a small space. It is thiit compreBsed velocity which we call power, and this power is again capalile uf impressing the original degree of velocity upon a body of an equal, or at least nearly equal, iIm to the Arst, from whidi it uriginally received the im- pression or impulse ; hut the absolute quantity of motion remaiiiH the same without a possibility of augmentation or diminution, by means of levers, screws, pulleys, or wedges. It is by the preserving a small quantity of motion for a, certain time that Ht the end the great accumulation of power has been accumulated. For example, no man can by his own physical power or strength raise a tun weight from the ground, but he may be i apahle of raising one hundred pounds weight; and l)y repeating this for twenty successive times, the tun weight will have been raised by him. But even by the assistance of a lever, before a man could raise a t«>n weight one foot from the ground, with a power or force equal to one hundred pounds, that lever must be twenty or ttrenty- one feet long, and a continued force of one hundred pounds must be applied, while he goes up through a Hpace of twenty feet, or, what ia the same thing, pulls a rope down through that spare. Hence it is evident that the lever only accumulates the power exertKd in pulling or carrying the weight of one hundred pounds through twenty feet, and discharges the whole uf it upon one foot; consequently any thing which could do this would raise the ton weight as eflfectually us a lever. The accumulation of a great power can be effected by means of a long thread, chain, or rope, of suthcient strength ; and to this Is suspended a heavy weight. The body thus suspended may be set in motion by a degree of power little more than is required fur bend. Ing the rope or chain, and will vibrate like a peodu. lum ; and, by continuing the impulse as the iHidy returns to the place frcn v/hence it was originally projected, it will acquire greater and greater force, or action, as the reversed arcues, through which it moves, by becoming contiuually larger, might be made to act with such amazing furoe, that the suspended body could overcome almost any force opposed to it. It was upon this principle, that, in ancient times, bat- tering.rama were constructed, fur forcing opea gates of fortifications, and elfecting breaches in walls of garrisons. Still it must be kept in view, from the principles already stated, tliat the power of one stroke of the battering*ram could never exceed^ nor even quite equal, the accumulated power of the impulses given to it in order to produce that stroke ; because the stitfnesa of the rope, and the resistance which the weight would naturally meet witli in passing through the air, would always diminish to a certain extent that power. To effect an accumulation of power, various other devices are udupted ; such as by using a very heavy wheel or cylinder, made to move upon an axis ; either of which may be easily put in motion, and, if loug continued, will accumulate to such a degree as to have the effect of raising weights, and overcoming re- sistances, as could not be effected by the application of the original moving force by itself; but which now becomes easy through the means of these agents, the wheel or the cylinder. Mr Attwood proved, that, on thli principle, a force of twenty pounds, applied for thirty-seven se- conds to the circumference of a cylinder of ten feet radius, and weighing4713 pounds, was capable of giv- ing an impulse— at one foot from^its centre— to a mus- ket ball, equal to what it receives from a full charge uf gunpowder. Still, however, the cylinder has no ab- solute principle of motion in itself, and, therefore, can only give that motion w%ich it receives. An accumulation of motion, however, in heavy wheels, is of great service la the construction of ma- chines for various purposes, rendering them greatly more powerful and easv to be worked by animals, as well as more re^ilar ana steady, when set in motion by water, or any inanimate power. It is from this cause that flys, ballast-w heels, and others of a like nature, are usually itupposed to increase the power, though, in point of fact, tue^ rather diminish it, and act on a principle totally different. In machinea where flys are used, the 6nk force em- ployed must be considerably greater than what is ne- eessarv to move the machine without it, or the Ay must )iave l>een set in motion some time before being applied to the machine. It is this superfluous power which is collected by the fly, and serves as a kind of reservoir, from which the machine may be supplied when the animal slackens his efforts. It is obvious that this will always be the ease with animal power, as they are unable to maintain constant action, and require intervals of resfj and these, even In the very time of their progressltc motion, although in many cases this is imperceptible to an observer, but for this an aniroal*s strength would soon be exhausted. The first efforts of a horso or other animal when applied to a machine are vigoront, and the power ^ t- erted very great, by which meani he overooroen ine resistance of the machine itself, and oommunicatps to the lly considerablt power. While the machine is iu motion, it yields for a certain period to a smaller im- riulae, during which time the fly ItMlf acta as a muv* ng power, and the animal in the Interim recovers the strength which he has lost The machine, however, by degrees begins to slacken In its motion, which ren- ders the renewed efforts of the animal necessary. The T^ocitv of the machine in this caie would acquire In* creased rapidity, but for the resisting powei of the fly, and the greatest part of the superffuoui power being lodged in it ; hence the increase of velocity in the ma- chine is hardly perceptible. Thus the animal hM time to rest himself until the machine again require* an Increased Impulse, and lo on alternately. The same thing Is applicable to any machine which I« moved by a water-power, or by means of weight ; for although the strength of these cannot be exhausted la the same manner as animal power, still the yielding of the parts of the machine renders the impulse muc£ less after it Iwgins to move; so that the velocity !• accelerated for some time, until the impulse becomes so small that the machine requires an increase of power to keep up the necessary motion. Archimedes is represented on one occasion to have boasted that he could move the earth, provided he cuuM find a place out of it to stand on; and Bishop Wilkins said he would engage to pull up the most etoto- ly oak by means of a horse hair ; but both of these were vain and extravagant boasts ; as, whatever great effects are to be accomplished, a great power must originally be applied ; and the great room that an immense lever would occupy, together with the excessive length re- quisite to make it act with sudicient force, as well as the vast weight necessarily lequired to give it suffi- cient strength, must at once show the in" issibility of the thing. C0MDINATI0N8 OP THE MECUANXCAX. POWERS. From what we hare already said on the vitiaes of the mechanical powers, it will be seen that none of them are capable of augmenting the actual force of any acting substance; neither can any combination of them effect this ; nay, on the contrary, these com- binations have the effect of occasioning loss of power by the friction attendant upon their application. This is an obstacle in mechauics which it is not likely will ever be overcome; and the more complicated the ma- chine, the greater must be the loss of power. It mnst therefore be evident, that, in all mechanical inven- tions, the simpler 'heir construction the greater mtut he their effective 0|;e.*at{ons ; and that raulciplied com- binations should never be resorted to, except for the sake of convenience. When weights are to be raised to a small disUnce, the lever should always be used, because in the ac- tion of this simple machine, there is lesifrictiea than in any other of the mechanic power*. Where bodies have but little elasticity, and are to undergo a kmg. continued degree of pressure, this madiiue should u- ways be applied. In this case, the lever of the second kind is the one to be used, which we have given be* low. Fig. 35. It is this kind of lever which Is used In press- ing cheese, hi wUch case the pressure is required to be long and equable, wltbout any very great exertion of force. A is ^he point u. '^i lever with a hook, which is put throvgh s stAple fixed into a beam. F is the fuioniM on which the lever rests, and which bears upon .lie cheese-mould, and W is the weight which gir^'S power to the lever. Where much force is required, screws and wedges are to be used; but these, it must be evident, have both the disadvantage of losing their power of pres- sure as soon as the materials under their influence have yielded to their force ; so that wedges, to have the eflTect intended, require to be constantly attended to, and driven home, or their power is lost ; and, fos the very same reason, screws must be frequently turned by means of the lever, to produce a C4uistiuit pressure. To the first of these are referable the mn- chines called oil-mills, where the pressure is produced by wedges, which are constantly driven home by means of great maPets, lifted by the force of the mill, and allowed to fall, after having been raised to a cer- tain height. To the action of the screw belongs the apothecaries* oil-press, which is constantly turned by means of a long lever, aided by a capstan. When it becomes necessary to raise a weight to a considerable height, the pulley is resorted to; but then there is great friction. The axis, combined with a single pulley, will generally effect the ||U(U> WMW of lima ud powsr, Exparlenc* liu proved that tlia baat maihod of ob- taloing • vary gnat powat ia bjr oombiBiug a acraw with r loothad whaal, whieh asu in an uia in |MM> tnehio, ai rapraaaotad in fig. 16; for bjr making tha ibreadi of tha iorair rarjr doaa, and the wbaal in which thay are to act of a larga diamaur, wa may increaaa tha sowar to almoat any da^raa wa plaaaa, without tha riik of a |n*at dagraa of f rictiun. Tharo- fitre, upon tha prinoipla which wa bara already pointed out, if apace will permit, it will ba better to increaaa the diameter of the wheel without adding another, aa a Urge wheel augment! the power without producing any lentible augmentation of the friction. Another thing abiolutely neoeaiary it to have the axle aa email aa it can be made, to that it hai lufBciant atrangth to bear tha operatlona of the wheel. or THE CKHTIE OF OSAVITY. Dr Gregory defines the centra of gravity of any body, or •yitam of bodiea, to be that point about which the body or lystem, acted upon only by tha foroa of gravity, will balance itaelf to all poaitions ; or it it a point which, when supported, the body or tyatem will be supported, however it may be situated in other re- «i>ecta. Or, to render this more plain, gravity is that uni- versal dispoaition of matter, which inelinos or carHea the lesser paru towards the centre or greaMr part, which is called weight or gravitation in the lesser body, but attraction in the greater, because it drawa, as it were, the lesser body to it. Thus, nil bodies on or near the earth's surface have a tendency or seem- ing inclination to descend towards lu middle part, or centra ; and, but for this principle in nature, the earth (oiniioeiiug iu form in the universe) could not subsist as it is, for it being neatly round, and sus|>ended in a mighty void or space, and always in motion, what, but this principle, or universal law in nature, of at- traction and graviution, should hinder the stonei, water, and other parts of matter, from falling from tha aurlitos. To illnstrate this, let us suppose two men standing opposite to each other, on uppoaite eatremee of the ^be ; and if each of these were to drop an iron ball from his hand, and the balls had sutbciaut weight and IMwer to displace the other paru of matter of which Uie earth is compoied, so as to make way to the cen- tre, they -vould there meet, unite together and ramain fixed, and would then lose thair power ofgravltUion, aa baing at iha centra of graTity, and unable to fall, and only main in toemsalves the power of attraction. " The centre of gravity of a body Is not always laiMiii the bodv itaetf ; thus, the centre of gravity of a ring is not in toe substance of the ring, but in the axis of iu dreumpcribing cylinder t and the centre of gra- vity of a hollow st^, or of a bone, is not in the mat- ter of which it is constituted, but somewhere in its imaginary axis. Every body, however, and every sysum of bodies, has a centre of gravity." If a heavy body be sustained by two or mora forces, their diractlons must meat either at the centre of gra- vity, or in tha vartical Una which pasaaa through it, as may ba obaerved in the following diagram, repnaent- ing a painter's palatta, whose oantra of gravity Fig. 34. Fif ■ 3A. A more firmly the body stands, aa may be seen at B A, fig. 30. irlU ba ibund in tha following manner i — Supposing it to be bung upon the thumb-hole at A, a perpeudi- eular line from the point of suspension will pass through the centra of gravity, which in this case will be between A and D. Take another point of suspen- sion, aa at C, and tlie line will always cut that lii\e, or, in other words, they will coincide, as mav l)e seen by supposing its point of suspension at I>, by which it will be seen all the three lines cut the same point. A tower, or other object, may be liuilt off the plumb, and still stand, if the centre ni Kravity be supported ; which can easily be ascertained liy raising a perpandi- ciOar iin% or by a plumb-line suspended from its top ; and if the Vprtical line passing tnruuKb the centre of frravlty falb within the base on wbicli it sunds, but if that vertical line passes without the base, the tower will fall, nnle«- ;« be prevented by a prop. There are many i>':Unoee of waUa, steeples, and towers, being built off the plumb, and which have stood for agct . When the vertical line falls upon the extremity of tha base, u at D, fig. 36, the body nay stand, but *.ha equilibrium may be disturbed liy a very trifling fiiroe I and tha nearer this line passes to any edge uf the base, the more easily may the body be thrown otar ; th« nearar it falls to the middle of tha basu, tha It is therefore erldant, that, as tha vartical line F cula at such a remote distance from the bate, that tha caudlestick K could not possibly stand. It was from due want of attention to this most im- portant nrindpla that ouachee were till lately built too high, which subjected them to the continual haiard of being upset, when running on roads or other situ- ations where their sides were transverse to inclined planes, as represented above at H. The centre of fravity being, as above shown by the vertical line L, so much ueyond tha range of its base, it would be quite Impossible for this carriage to move forward without upsetting, and more especially with such n load of luggage O I placed or. Its top ; liut if tlie coach were built no higher than the line at L, the centre of gravitv would be In the vertical line H, and therefore It would be less liable to fall, especially aa the baggage is placed beneath the carriage, as It now tlie case with moat modern-built stnKiscoaches, where the base is broad and the gravity Tow. I n our observaticis on the inclined plane we did not mention a curious fact, which should be borne in mind^that is, that when a carnage of any kind is in motion on the inclined plana, ita weight is equally divided between the rope bv which It is made to act and iu central pressure, wnich mav be seen by the prop supporting the plane at B in ig. 37 ; and that this balance will continue until the plane assumee a vertical position, as at C, when ita whole weight is supportnl by the rope. Hence it is evident that a rope of half tha strength required to support It in this po- sition would have the efiTect of sustaining it while moving on a plane of almoat any inclination. In that fiart of the diagram A, it will be noticed that the prop I placed perpendlctilar, in consequence of the plane being honxonul, and hence the weight or gravity is entirely on the whaela of the carrian— that is, press- ing perpendicularly downward, and no atndn what- ever it on '.he rope, which, under these circumstances, requires to be exactly of the same strength as whila on the inclined plane, so as to ba able to move it. Fig. 37. tha line of diraelion m»y ba Ibrawn befora hla iket, in walking down a hill ha ntiiar laatu baskwaida, to prrmt th* Una of dlraotioa from b«ing too fbr- ward, which wwald occatioB Ua fidL" In using tha laver, tha ntmoat attention is to be paid not only to tha dlraatloiu in which tha tanm are exerted. Tm want of this haa In vary many laataaoaa been tha eauM of much error in machanlats wb'Ia aaak- ■ng naw Innntlona. One of Ita moat slapia prindplea haa bean tha cans* «f much dbappointtBaM, whica is tha property of tha straight lavar, that aquiU waighta, acting ai equal diatancaa from the fnlcram or prop on opposite sMaa, will ba In aqulUbrio i while at un- equal dlttaneaa, tha one haa mora lluia one* baan ■ source of error in unskilful hands, or aacHia. The principle on whieh arshaa ara bnUl is that of ■ series of wadge.shaped slonaa plaead in a enrred Una. However, to give a clear account on atrietly sdtntiflo principles would wcnpy i. much largar spaca than wa could spare, and indeed would flU a rolnma. Arcbaa are one of the moat important branchea of archlteclnra, aapecially those over broad and rapid rivera, involr. in« diScultiaa of no ordinary kind. In securing with certainty their durability and firmneas, which ought always to ba rigidly attended to, where not only tha omvenlei «, but alto the safbty of human bainga, ara concerned. By an arch is meant an artful dispoaition of a caries of stonaa or bricks, the under part of which is shaped like a bow, and their weight produdng a mutual pressure, so that they not only support each other, but are by their combined resistance capable of bearing the most enormoiu weights. If wa ooncalva an arch In equilibrio to ootuist of a series of verv smaU hard spheres of poUshid anrfseee touching eaah other, and centree Joined by right Unaa (being in Csct an inverted simple catenary or chain), and that tlia spharaa are so connected that they can- not yield to any other impulaion than that of gravity, it is vary plain that tha equilibrium wiU not be dis- turbed by such inversion of the curve t no part of it will m pushed outward or inward by other parts- but the whole will be supported if the feet ara finnly nxad. Fig. 30. Anatlentire consideration of these prindples wlU show that the various motioaa of animals are regu- lated consistently with them. ** Thus," says Oregorv, " when a man endeavours to rise from his seat, he tnnisu forward his bodv, and draws his feet backward till the vertical line from the centre of gravity folia just before his feet i this en- ables, or indeed compels him to rise, and, to pravent falling forwards, he advances one of his feet, till the vertical line of directiou is brought l>etweeii his feet, in consequence of which lie may stand firmly. In walking, he first extends bis hiudmcit leg and foot almost to a ciglit liue, and at the same time bends the knee of his fore.leg a little i by this means his body is thrust forward, and the line of direction from iu centre uf gravity faUs lieyoiid the fc sfoot, on which account he is ready to fall, but preventt it by imme- diateiv uking up the other foot, and putting it for- ward ueyond the liue uf direction. After tne same manner,' he thrusu himself forward by the leg which is now the hindmost, till the line of direction from the centre of gravity be lieyimd his fore.fool, when he again sets bis hiiid.fimt fonrard, and thus he con- tinues the motion of walkijg^ at pleasure. While walking, n man always seu down one foot fa«fore the other is taken up, so that at each step lie has both upon the ground. Hut in running, he takes one up before he sets the other down, so that his feet touch the ground aiternalvly for moinenu of time, and in the inurmedlate portion he does not to-joh at all. In walking up a hill, a man bends his body mora for- ward than in waUtlsg on a horlaonlal road i and that K r B A To render this more pUin, let us suppose A, fig.)l& to be an abutment, B a pier, and C a wedga-shapad stone laid brtwan t h aa e, It Is evident that the graatar tha praaitifa which Is applied to iu the mora firmly It wlUDecomaflxad between A and B. This is the most ' simple construction of a bridge, if we except the still ■ more primitive one of a place of wood or stone laid acroas a hollow, and supported at both ends from be- low. Advandng another step, we have only to anp- £ placed between two piers B F, or two abutments, and it will be evident that no presaiire, however great, could force them down. Carrying the principle atiU farther, we have to suppose an arch composed of three stones GUI, with its sides resting against tha piers F K, and it ^ will be observed, that, although thia third stone is added, it does not endanger tha ttabUity of tha arch, being wedge.shapad i and the greater tha breaaure ap- plieil,lhegTeaterwillbatharaalstancaof tnearch. Iu building arches, the last stone which is inserted, how- ever many Ihera may be, Is the central stone H, wliich is termed the key-s'tone ; as n;> sooner is it put into its place than the whole are locked firmly together. In short, to whatever extent arches are built, the name geheral prindple applies ; for when we consider the very great quantity of heavy materials suspended in the air, such as is represented in the foUowing cut, and compare the small cohesion which the firmest cemett con bestow, we must lie convinced that that cement is incapable of keeping the materials of the bridge together i and it cannot poulbly be explained by any other prindple than tha just balaooa and aqui- Ubrium of iu parte. Fig. 39. In conclusion, then is not an action performed by man in hir progress through life, but wliat has refer- ence to some one iir more of the mechanical powers, although he ia ignorant at the time by what law thin action ia performed. The knowledge of the mechanic powers, tberafore, it must be obvious, is esaentially necessary to every human being; as by our acquaint, ance how to apply principles so simple, we might over- come, with comparative ease, those obstacles whicli are daily presenting themselves, and which, without this knowledge, but too often baffle the attampU of man- kind to obviate them. EntHBURSHl PuMliherf bjr W. snil R. Cuambsss, IB, Wsl,^. Ino Plsosi sho by Mrr and Bmivh, Pslemoslsr Row, Loii* don I and VouNO and Cunninoiiam, Dublin. Stildby Jol. MsslMd, Olaar>w, and sU oUwr Booksslton la BcoUand, Kn(- land, and Inland.. -PubUiksd am s tonnlfhl. gram the &tsan.rrsas of W. and a. Chsmbsrs fMI, udt, I for- Uthr Mtra idplu righu, r prop Mun> bwns At or a ought nly th* Iwingt, turln ihaptd mutud bsr, but buriug ■lit of « •urliHW (htUaw r chain), h«7C«n- g™»i«y. t badlt. lutof it uti, bal ilrfind. F=7 A I, fig- 38, |e-ihap«d legcMtar g Armly It I the nKKt It the atin [stone laid from b«- m to sop- iween twu ., erident iree them we hare a HI, J and it , . itone is the arch, leasun ap- arch. In rted, how- H, wliich put into jfither. [built, (he » consider lutpended |wlog cut, la firmest that that als of the explainea and ewind, by short Ucks, the line of the latter couree subtending (to speak math*. mHtically) the angle deecribed by that of the former. These two rvAineaofnavigatlon are rmpectlvely termed the f reward Aixd IV-ndward pasiages. It muat be ob. served, however, thnt the Ftjnch and Spaniards affix d liferent meanings from the British to these terms, and apply them respectively to the relative position of the various Islands. That portion of the ocean which is thui in a man- ner separated from the main body of the Atlantic by this huge chain of islands, and contained betwixt them and the respective iborea of North and South America (which are connected by the narrow Isthmus of Darlen), ii alao divided into three great basins— the more nor- thern one being called the Gulf of Mexico ; the middle one, the Bay of Honduras ; and the iouthern one (as already noticed), the Carribean Sea. The latter takes its name from that data of Islands which bonnd this part of the ocean to the east, and anciently inhabited by a nation of cannibala, denmnlnated Carribi or Charalbs (to be afterwards noticed), and from which Columbus afterwards styled their possessions the Carribean ItUnds. The Oulf of Mexico Is almost completely separated from the other two baaine, by the near approximation uf the southernmost point of the Island <^ Cuba to the northernmost part ot the coast of Vueatan, South America. The channel ' ^tween these two point* is so shallow that It Is supposed they must have been at one time connected. DIBCOVKBT— MATITK IITHABITANTS. These islands were first discovered by Christopher Columbus, when engaged tn his adventurous attempt to find out— not a New World, as some historians and geographera assert— but a new route to India by a western navigation, which he was led to think would prove less tedloui than by the coast uf Africa; and this conclusion would have been found just, If the geography of the ancients, on which It was founded, had tieen accurate. So Amly, indeed, wae the navi- gator convinced of the truth and certainty of his theory, that even after the discovery of Cuba and Hlspanlola ( Hayti or St Domingo), '&e continued Arm to his creed, not doubting that thew Islands constituted some part of the eastern extremity of Asia. Even when the dlsoovery of the f*aclfic Oeean had proved his mistake, lUJ the countries which he had visited still retained the name of the Indieaf which ho bad originally given them ; and after the Portuguese had succeeded in reaching India by donbling the Cape of Good Hope, they were called, tn contradistinction, the " Indies of the West*** Some of the olden navigators and writers, indeed, in Jerislon of Columbus*s assumed title for these islands, designated them Antiim Amerkmf or the AntllleB, by whirh name even some modem geogra- phers distinguish them. But we shall continue to call them by their original designation, by which they are best known. The boldness and resolution of Columbus, in hid first adventurous voyage across the Atlantic, can scarcely be imagined at the preient day, even by those itho have personally visited tliese tropical regions ; and it is Little to be wondered at that it was with dif< ficulty he could restrain his companions from breaking out into mutiny, seising the vessels, and taming their prows homewards. They had got into an entirely new creation, and the various phenomena they wit- nessed, and of which they had uever before beard — the heat every day becoming more intens^^he wind blowing conUnually In one direction, the nrtations of the compass, the fish fiying In the alrJ-alt these things must have struck them with equ^astonlsh- ment and terru. It was an era of mIraoM, and the modesty and sftlct adherence to tnith manifested by Columbus In speaking of bis wonderful discoveries, renders him a singular exception to the generality of navigators in those early times, and even for many ages after him. The first land discovered by thd voyagers was the Bahama Islands, the most northern of the group. He afterwards visited Cuba, Jamaica, and St Domingo ; and, In his subsequent voyages, touched At most of the Carrlbeftn and Leeward Islands. to one of which hegave his own name— St Christopher *.s " Columbui utled on hii flm voyago Sd Au^u't 149S. In i4M, Danholcmui Dlu dticavered th« Cipf of Qond Hope I tnit H wnt not doubled till t>:e year 14fl7i by Vuquca de Gama. ^M'( r CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. lUtpMting thtinhmbitantt found In the Wait liidlft Itl»n4« hf Um tvlj TOTigan, It li impoMibU to trao* thdr orifin with ctrUinty, tlthouv h It U moRt pro. h«bU th»t th«f muit b«*« beat tli« dMoendanu of WfilgnMl f^om tht oonttntnts of South iind North Amrltit which oounlriM, affmln, were uiidoubtedlv orlfliuUy pwpM br AsUtl<». It «u evident, at all •TtBta, fram ttie dlureuoe which exlitvd In language, peraoQW •pptftranci^ and hablta, that there weru at l«Mk two dlitlnct tribee amongit them. The roost powerAil if not the mott namerotit of theie were the Charall>«, alreadjr mentioned, who nre by HOtne uon* iectured to have derired tbeir origin from Florida t J othera, from the loQthern amtlnrnt. The latter theory aeema to be the more proliable, from the fact that aeveral limilar tribea or Chiiniihi were lubae- quenlly ditoovered to exiit in Oiiiana bv other Toy> ngert, with one of whcim Sir U'alter Halcigh funned an alliance during hit romantic j;xpeditloD to that ouaat iu 1505.* At the time of Columbus'i vinit, too, and for ages afterwards, the Charnllts maiiirested the moat Implacable hereditary hontility tnwardi the iii- habitantaof theotheriBtaiidii, whom they hrlicred to 9 deioendanta 01 a trit>e of Aroankt, a nation ni' Mouth America, with whont the Cbarathi of that continent were continually at war. These men, Indeed, were the constant acourge and terror of their follow -Island era. They seemed to contiiler war as the prime occupation of their lives, although amon^t themselves they were peaceable, faithful, and affectionate. Like all warlike nations, they were extremely lofty in their sentiments of freedom and personal independence. Neither kings, magistrates, nor laws, existed amongst them. Their frames were extremely robust, muscular, and active; but they di^itigiired tlieir complexion, which waa na- turally a clear Spanish olive, with painu and dyes in the most extravagant manner, and even made the most hideous scars nnd gashes in tbeir cheeks, to rrn. iler their appearance more terrible to ihelr foes. The children were early initiated into their parenu' bar- barous habiu, Iwing taught to feed on the lK>dien of the captive Aroauki, and to anoint themselves with the fat of t)ieir victims. M'hen a youth wished to assume the duties and privil^es of manhi>od, he was •objected to d read fulhndily tortures, In order to prove his fortitude and endurance of suffering; and still more exiiuisite tortures were inflicted on hnn when he •spired to the honour of being a leader or captain. They took as many wives as they felt Inclined or able to maintain t and, as In all savaf^e nations, the women were treated with great brutality, and subjected to every species of domestic labour and drudgery. It has been well 1 ^marked, that the tint decided symptom of apeople etnerglogintoclvitiiatliHi is a display oftender- uesB towards the female sex. The Charailis were like* wise addicted to that most disgusting and unn5t11r.1l practice — which seems, indeed, to have been in all ages ^ custom amongst the savage tritws rf tropical climes— Namely, flattening the headsofth«ir offspring. This un- couth fashion is, we understand, still kept up amoogst the remnantof red Charaihs still existing in the island of 8t Vinconu Notwithstanding all these barbarous traits of character, however, these savages had, at the time of their discovery, nttained astonishing proficiency in many kinds of maiutfactnre. Columbus observed abundance of substantial cotton cloth in all the islands be visited, whidi the natives possessed the art of dye> ing of various colours. Of this cloth they made hammocks, or hangUig beds, such as are used at sea ; for Europe has not i^nTy copied the pattern, but pre- served the native name, amack or hamack. Tiiese aavages likewise possessed the art of making clay ves- sels for domestic purposes; beautiful specimens of which are still sometimes dug up in Uarbadoes and other islands. Their religion, if it can be so called, was a mere compound of revidtiug Idolatry and super- stition, such as has almost uniformly been foiina to prevail amongst all savage nations ; ; et it is well wor- thy of remark, tliat tliey entertained those opinions which may be described as the first ftmndailons of true religion— the belief of a Deity, and of a future state of existence t a fact which ctirrolmrates the sentiments of the eloquent Bishop Chester, that **such belief is no less conformable to the first natural apprehension of the untatored mind, than to the soundest principles of philosophy.*' Such were the rharaibs, to whom the inhabitants of the larger islnudi — llispaniula, Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Kicn — presented the must striking contrast In every respect. The latter were indrdent and sensual In their Iwiits, but of a peculiarly mild, kindly, and forgivlDflBlspoeition, affectionate to their wives, and placing weir whole happiness in domestic bliss. Tliey Were particularly fond of dancing, and various other pmceable^piutements and games. Unlike the Chs. railwan, nelr government was m>>niuchictil. Their kings were callf*d caciques, and tlieir ^wci was here* ditary t but there were likewise subordinate chieftains or princes over each district, who were tributaries to the sovereign. They had like«I»n an establiHhed priestli(><>d, although (excepting their belief In a (iod, "id a future state of rewards and punishments) their "stem of theology wm little else than a medley of lolly and superstition — the fruits of ignorance and terror. Oilumbus experienced the greatest kindness ' U !• s curknii and Inienstlng fiUi, that tha dasecndantsuf thU irt)gan, the American chieftain, which consisted chiefly in an egotistical reiteration of the virtues common to savage nations of almost all ages— tidelity towards a fi>e, and a punctilious observance of the rites of hospitality. It was upon these amiable and hospitable people, never- theless, that thetipaiii^rilti afterwards i>erpetratcd such cruelties as make the blixKl curdle to contemplate, and which we will require in their due place to notice. Iu concluding unr notice of these two very different original tribes of West Indians, we cnunot help re- marking a remarkable similarity betwixt them and the two distinct castes which people the Polynesian, or South Sea islands; those just described resem- bling (except in the colour of their skin) the pacific and indolent trilie of the South Seas, called Oceanic negroes ; while the CharHitis, in their active and itar- Itke habits, bear the closest atfintly to the natives of the tieurgian and Society Islands. NUMHRR or ISLANUtt--PREREKT POSSrsSORB. Ni> reguliir ntfirial survey liaving ever been madeof the Went India islands, it is impossible to state with certainty the actual number of them. It must, how. ever, \m iinmense—n fact which will be evident when Wv state, ihnt the Bahamas atone are calculated to amount to 500. A great proportion of ihem, however, are mere bsrren uninhabited rotks, although furnish. ing generally fine wator, and many of them excellent harbours and roadsteads, which rendered tbem % rnnvenlent rendexvous for ships of war, during the period of hostilities with for^i^n countries, and for Kur rrtiisers, wliile eo>pl<>vuii m rej-ressing the hlitve- trartic. U'e nbitll, therefore, otily enumerate the principal colonial possessions in that hemisphere lielonging to the Orilisii and other Eunppeun powers, and the free native settlements, with a short historical and topo. graphical sketch of each ; and then proceed to give a general view of tlieirappeamm-e, productions, climate, inhabitants, government, trade, &c. And Arst In point of Impt)rtance, both as to number and value, are the BRITISH POSSESSIONS. I. JAMAICA is the third Island In point of size in the western he- misphere, being inferior only toCuba and St Domingo. It liCH about 1^ miles south uf the former, and about the same distance west of the latter, bt>tween which islands lies what seamen term the *' windward pas. sage." The latitude of Kingston, the prinripal town, is IU" N., and that of the eastmost point of the island (called Morant Point) 17° tUi\ and Us long. 7(1*5' W. This island waa first discovered by (.'hristopher Co. Jutiibus, during his second voyage, on the sJ uf May 141)4, and will continue to \te associated with his me- mory with many painful recollections, having been in a manner the Indirect cause of his misfortunes and death. After a slight contest with the natives, he effected a reconciliation with them, and, as the cus- tom then was, t mk possesklon of their territories in name of his prince, with tho usual formalities. But it was not tintil his fotittli ami last vnynge. In 1A03. that he ascertained any pnrticulars as to the eiteni and value of Jamaica. This informatimi he ac'|uired under moat disastrous circumstances, twtng forced bv tempestuous wenthcr to run ashore the twii vessrfs that turvlvi'd the storm, atasmiillharhnurintheiiorth side, called from thnt circumstance Sf Christopher^ t Cr^rc, to titia day. The vessels Iwing too much da- maged to lie again rendered sea-worthy, and the crew hHvitig mutiitietl and deserted him, tUdumbus con* clti'lml that lie niuot there terminate his miseries and his life. He abode on the island for upwards of a twelvemonth, snljury and hulf-starved for want of provisions, but was at length rescued and conveyed t'l his naiivH country, where the disgraceful neglect and iDgraiitiiite of liis sovereign, together with the hardships he hud endiircil, proved Um much for hli generons spirit, and ho mink uiitler them«~leaving a name which will only lie forgotten with titeextinctton of that world whoso boundaries he rontrihuied so greutly to extend. Mis son IHrgo, who inherited much v( his father's furtlCude and firmness, soon after compelled his unarateful loonarch, by legal pnMdas, to acknowledge his patrimtmial privileges as virenty and admiral of all tne nmntrlM discovered bv his fa- ther, with a right to a share of the mineral wealth found in them; and having himself sailed for HIs- paniola (8t Domingo), he dispatched Juan de Esoul* vel with a large retinue to take possession of Jamaica, as deputy -governor. This was In 1000 ; after which, for many years the colonists were engaged In a per- petual struggle with the natives, whom they at last completely extirpated, not a singb native of either sex being left alive when the English tiM>k popsesslon of the island in lOftA, nor, it Is said, for a century Ifefore. The traditionary aocounu of the cruelties Inflicted by the Spaniards npen them, are beyond every thing horrible and revolting. Caves h ere after- wards discovered literally filled with human bones, supposed to be those of tne poor fugitives, who pre- ferred death by starvation to the lingering tortures inflicted on them by their Inhuman conquerors; and it is calculated that not less than fiO,000 of them were put to death In various ways. They did not perish in silent devpuir, however, for it appears they suc- ceeded in demolishing the town of Sevilitt, the first founded In the island (by Eiii|iiivf1), upon the site of which DiegoColumbusafterwurds(lA26)builtthetnwn of St Jagi) de la Vegt, still the seat of government In the Island, und now c«>mmonly called Spanish. Town* Kmm it Diego's son Louis derived the title of Mar- quis de la Vega, the first and last of his family who bore that distinction. The followlngis Alr£dwards*s account uf the manner in which the heredltaiy sove- reignty of this and the rett of their great ancestor's discoveries passed from the descendants of Culumhus, and which cannot fail to be interesting to every reader: —His son Diego left three sons and two daughters. Hla eldest son, l^nuis, succeeded to his father's honours and extensive claims. f)f the daughters, the eldest, IsaWlla, intermarried with the Count de Ualvex, a Portuguese noblemin of the house of Uraganaa. Louis Columbus was an infant of six years of age at the death of his father, hut wtia generally considered as hereditary viceroy and high admiral of the West Indies. The emperor (Churlea the Fifth), however, though he treated him with sin. gular distinction, and greatly augmented his reveiuies, absolutely refuited lo admit his claim to such extensive authority; and Louis, as bis minority ex|(ired, insti- tilted, ai'ter his father's example, a leg.il pro<'ess for the recovery of his birthright. He found It prudent, however, to compromise with the emperor, whereby ha tmnsferred all his hereditary rights to the crown, for a grant of the province of Wragua and the island of Jamaica, with the title of Duke de Veragua and Marquis de U Vega. At his deatli he left no issue to en;ny these posseshions and titles; and his brothers also dying without mule Issue, his sistei' Isabella, wife of the Count de ilalvra, became sole heiress of th«» (!olumbus family, and conveyed by her marriage all her rights to the' house uf Bragansa, whose property they continued till the year 1040, and then reverted back liy forfeiture to the crown of Spain. In conse- (jtieuce of the revnlutlnn which placed JdM Duke of Uraganza on the throne of Portugal. From the continued warfare between the natives and Spaniards, Jamaica was long exposed to the de- •oent of the Buccaneers, who were then roving the southern seas, by whom It was twice taken and plun- dered between the >ears lolHi and l(i3U. In lOtiA, the Protector Crumtvdl, in defianiv of a treaty of peace then existing between England and Spain, st-nt nut an exi>editiou agalnit J»niatca under Admirals Penn and Venables. They arrived on the 10th May i and so expeditiously and successfully were their ope- rations conducted, that the fleet sailed ttgHin for Iwig- tand in the following month, leaving Ueneml Fortes, cue In command of the army. At this time tlie whole numlier of whites in the island (excluslvu of the arnn ) did not exceed 1500; yet so anxiously did Cnimwoll encourage British settlers, that, in leas than three years afterwards, the pnpulation amounted to 450O whitM, and 1400 negroes.* It Is curious enough, however, that the first great influx of British settlers consisted of about 3000 siiidiers of the disbanded Par- liamentary army. " The confusion which overspread England, " says Bryan Edwards, "after the death of Crtuuwell, Impelled many to seek for safety ane nu'ii who I y iheir Tcilon III |ta('k ml eh tro- Udd Htiy wrioul effurti io rrgaiii p li^e^e the royal naval station, and containing the naval hospital, soldiers* barracks, and other public estab- lishmeots. The only other historical occurrenre which it Is needful to mention here, in reference to this island, is the celebrated Maroon war, which broke out with great fury iu the year 1705. These people, as already noticed, continued tf be the vcourge of tlie Engliih from the moment they became masters of the island. TItese savages liveil in caves a.nongst the fastnesses and forestK of the hiLrhestrldgesof the mountains, where they substHtetl by h inting and fishing, and upon tlie wild roots and fruits which there grow spontaneously. They seir^id every opportunity of making a descent upon the Knglish plantations, where they uniformly murdered every white person, nmn, woman, or child, who fell into their hands. En short, their war with the settlers was oneofextflrmination. Kvery expedient WHS tried either ti» awe them or pacify them t but, ronfiding in their almost inacceasitile retreats, they rejected ol! overtures of a friendly nature. At last tliey l>ccttme so formidable, that, tu 1737i the assembly re<«iilved to import a body of Indian huuters from the MoHquito shore, to assiiit in supphenaing them, and likewise formed all the free negro^ and muUttites of ttie iKlaud into companies for the same purpoi^e. About two hundred Indians were accordingly imported, who, being liberally paid, entered on the service with spirit, Hiid, by their activity and cimragu in the practice of bush-fighting, and their Nkill in tracking the fugitives, harasiM the Maroons no much that they were soon glad to cHpitulate. AcoordJutflv, In 1730, articles of peace were ratified, by which tne MariKtns were declared free fur ever, and 3JV00 acres of land were assigned to ihein HMil their descendants in perpetuity. Except- iog as respected outrages on the settlers and their pro. perty, they were otherwise placed entirely independent 'tfthe English t the onl^ omditlonal services they were required tu perform, being toasaist In repelling foreign invasions, and In apprehending runaway slaves, for Aach of whom they were allowed L.3 per head. After this, the Alaroftis rumainetl tolerably quiet, '^'^^<"|>Rh their conductwasalwayit auspicious, until the year 170ft. At this time they amounted to 1000 men, women, niid children, and piissessed four villages, or encamp- mento, called Trelawney Town, Acoompony Town, Crawford Town, and Nanny Town, all lying on ihe north side nf the island. In July that year, twu Maroons, being detected stealing plg« In Montego Bay, were ordered to be publicly whipped. Upon this, the whole body, conceiving tnemseives disgraced by this ignominious punishment, rose In arms, and, but for a providential occurrence, would have made themselves masters of the whole Island. On the very day of the insurrection, the Itritish fleet sailed for England, with all the trt)op» on board except the tl3d regiment. Luckily thev took the windward passage, and the governor,' Earl Balcarres, aware how fre- quently the vessels were detained In this course by calms during the night, with a strong lee current, dis- patched a fast-sailing boat after them, furnished with oars for rowing during a calm, which luckily overtook the last of the war-shipa five dnys after they had sail- ed ! There is scarcely a doubt, that, but fur tlie re- inforcement thus miraculously obtained, the whites would have been at this time completely overpowered, as the Maroons prevailed upon a great part of the slaves to join in the revolt; the latter lieing the more easily persuaded, from the recent successful example of their brethren in St Oomingo. In the conlliut wliich ensued, the Muroons were at first com- pletely successful, from their covert mode of lighting In ambuscade. Concealed among the bushes and in the liranches of treex, they tired upon their opponents without being themselves exposed — always marking down the ufhcers first; and several detachments of regulars and militia were thus aimthllatod without the Maroons losing a man. They had retreats in precipices accessible only to themfletves, whence they issued to pillage and burn the neighbouring planta- murdering the owners with circumstances of tlo^ . most atrocious barbarity. They weie every day re. infuroed with fresh numbers of revolted slaves In pro. portion to their successes, and their force at last l>e- r^me so formidable, that many of tlie settlers fled from the Island, all business was suspended, the courts shut up, and nothing but terror and anxiety prevailed. In this fearful state of mutters, and havfuf^ to deal with a foe against whom the umrage and skill of the best disciplined troops could avail nothing, the assem- bly came to the resoluthm of sending to Cuba for a supply of the Spanish-American bloodhounds, not, as has been alleged, to hunt down the Maroons, like wild hensta, but to assist in discovering ambuscades, and tracing the savages to their secret retreats. The Ctilonints have been much but most unjustly blamed for this step, which had become not more u measure of necessity than of positive humanity. The Maroons were, not an unarmed, innocent, and defenceless race of men, like the ancient, natives, but a horde of plun. derers and merciless assassins. They hud taken up arms withoutcause, and conducted the war upon the avowed firinciple of routing out the Knglish settlers from the Bland, to which, be it observed, they had originally no more (if not much loss) rijjht than the settlers themselves. The speediest metliod, therefore, of re- ducing to submission a body of men who had cause- lessly vowed extermination against all the rest of the community, was unquestionably the must ju»lili- able, and, as the event in this case proved, the most humane. In fact, not a drop of blood was shed after the arrival of the dogs In the Island. Uy the assist- ance of these canine allies, ambusrades were detected and defeated ; the strongholds of the insurgents were discovered, and the passes to them blockaded ;* and they were soon reduced to such extremity for want of water and provisions, that they began to open ne- goclations for surrender, through means of some of the revolted slaves whom they dismissed for that pur- pose. Although now completely at the mercy of their conquerors, the only atonement demanded of them for all tneir enormities was, that they should ask pardon of the king upon their knees ; that iheyahtnild reside on whatever part of the island might be allotted to themt and surrender up all the fugitive negroes that had ioined them ; and they were allowed ten days to consider of thef>e terms. That time having expired without their giving any reply, the Knglish comman. der (Walpnie) ordered the troops to advance upon them t but they had only proceeded a very short way, when a general supplication for mercy was sent In, up- on no other umdition than the promise of their lives. From the Aerce and revengeful disposition of these people, it was judged prudent to break up the com- munity. Six hundred of them were arcordingly ship- ped on to Nova Scotia (Ijower Canada), where lands were purchased for them at a cost of Ij.25,000 to the Island. The descendants of the others still reside at Trelawney Town, upon the same terms as before the Insurrection. This war cost the island nearly a million sterling, independent of the private damage sus- tained by the owners of slaves and plantations. From th« «bov« |Mrlotl, ttnlU Um l»tt»r Md of th« year 1831, tha tntanuU pMhO* of Jamaleii WM| fM*. rally spetUtInf, Utik dluuriwd i but U ikM tlntt owing to tht uftnwtiad boMt of ih« a«gniM Iter l»- mediate enwikoliMlioiii tnm |K« awtmslott of tW WhUt to offloe— •noouncod, m wm ftll«|od, hy Iho BafUM mlulonariea—an oitonilvo rivoh broko oiit, tho dt* tails of which muik bo ilUI to timk In tho roooUoetloii of our roadora, u to roador o rtooBllukltoa of tbtm unnecessary. On* olrcumttonooi nuwovtri moy bo noticed, as a fbtturo dUllnculthlntf tho lot* Insuitootton ttom all previous onaa, thoti oTlhough obotit o mlU llonVwnrth of property wm dostroyod by tho tlovoa, not the sUghtost vloltnoo was offorod tu ony whlto portoii, beyond m fbw hours* pereoDiJ oaptWUx» and there wtro ovon very IWw luitanoos of this. Jamaica ti dIvldiKi Into thro* oounilea^MiDDLS* BEX, SvaasT. and CuaNWAtt. Middlesex Is dlvldod Into eight parlshta, Surrey Into seven, and Cornwall Into flvo. The teat uf government is St Jaoo db la Vkoa, or SPANisii-TuwN (iu Middlesex). It l« si- tuated OH the lonth-weal tide of the ifland, about sU miles fmm the sen, nnd sixteen from Kingston. Thoro is a superb palace her*, maintained fur the governor or commander-In. chief; and It Is here lliat the huuso of assembly meet, and the court of chancery and tho tu« prame courts uf judicntur* ar« held. Kinustoh. aU though not the seat of g\ivernment. Is, tteverlhewWi from Its Imtmrtance, considered tlie capital of tho Island. It Is situated to the soulh, um>n a genilo sh'- '' of about a mile In length, whicn runs right down to the harbour, the rtncst, i»«rhaps, in the world, and where the largest mert'lmutmeu can ride dose In to the shore. Tho streets are built with almost ma* thematical regularity, like the New Town of Kdln* burgh, h contains' upwards of 40,000 inhabitants, of whom there are Ifi.lHK) whites, the rest l»elng slav.s and free people uf colour. Thero ar« ext^llent nuir* kets fur butcher-moat. Ash, fruits, and kitchen v«g** tables. On a plain, at the top of the declivity on which the town Is sttuatrpuvts of great trafflo. There are Innumerable stroama and rlrart In Ja- maica; but only one — Black Klver— is navlgabhi In* land, and whivh adutlts the passage nf flat-botlomad boats and canoes fur about thirty ntllas. BRITISH LEBWAIU) CAnUIBK.XN ISLANDS. * The NpanUh-Amcrlcsn n»m9 tor hot/ hunUn t to called tVom tltfl peat Duiiiljcr uf nlM ivrln^ wlilcN s>K>onitnl In th« wihmIs of tiitf West Indis Ulandi, and Ituuth Ameriaia cuotiuoat SI'S ■ " The eavn tn which the Marconi conoealetl their ammuni- tion ami praviBloni, snd secured their women and chlldien, were inocvMstble to thu whites. One place, called the Codt-pUs, eoulit Iw n-ai'hcd only by a (tath lAO feet In almiut pcnwindicular height. Sttant^ aa It may anpt-ar, thin ohttacle woi surnioiniUtl by the ManNinn »>lhout dllliculty, Kabilualnl lo cniploy tticlr ii;ik«l ffot wnb MiiHular etfwt oi eUtnbliig up ireei and preclplow, they ha:l !irtiuir<.il a UeitviUy in the praetUw. which, to BiUish truupa, wa» satoniihlng, and wholly tmmltable.''— Etfwardi. vol. f. Ap- ptaUlx. No. D. II. ST CliniaTOt*IIKK*ll| usually abbreviated Into St JTiH't, la one of tha Ii«o* wuid l>lands, and was dit\Hiverod hy Cutumbua In 1<1U3, who liestowett on It his own Chrtstlan nam*. It was never (Kxnipleil, however, hy tlie ^paniar\l% or any oiliers, until an KngUshmau, Thomaa Warner, with fourteen aitsoctutes, tn driven in on Ukv coast by stress of weather In \^^i^^ tho crew Joined the British in an attack on the native Chnraibs, whom they totally exiwlled. They then divided tho Island betwixt them, which thev sharad till the year 1U90, when they were both driven out by the ^|lanlards, who, after having laid every thtiig wasta in mertt wantonness, departed fur BriaiK The Kugltsh aitU French then returned, but livetl tu ctmtlnuat warfkre, alternately expelling eadi other, nutU, at the peaco of Utrei'ht (1713), It was wholly CiHled to the l^i^llsh, and tlie French ptwsessions sold for the lienetU ot the Urltttth giivernmont. In l|il3, L.HtMHH) tif the mar- riage-poitlou of thu Prlo'-ena .Anne (with the Prtnca ttf Orange) were derlve^l I'r^mi the sale uf these |i)und, couslsllug onlv of a sin- gle niiMintain, which rlsw> like a oono out or the sea, green, unbndten, and verdant to the sumM\it, w*as ilii. covered by Columbus tn UlKl. at the same time with St KittV and other adjoining islands, whklt lie ^utte close and in sight of each otlxer. It was^rst taken fM>s«esHion of in UHH bv a small iTohmy of Knglish sent by \Variier from St Kitrsj vet so rapidly did the settlers increase, that iu UUO the population is said to have aoiouniad to 4m>0 whites and l'J,tHH> blacks. In 1(180, half of the jHipulation were swept away hy a dreadful mortality j nor ban It ever again nwched the same cenxus. ItVeemsnnacctHimable, IndiHMl, how it wmld over-have niatntalnetl such a number uf human Iteingi, as it is only about *» mllw in clreu inference. Small as It ts, hitwe'ver, it is divided inti> five parlshaa. The princiiwl town and seat of government Is Charlea Town ; and there are ttesldes other two shipping plaoa«« Indian Castle and New t'astle. Us sole pr\idura Is sug:ir. The entire |utpulatlon In Utt^M was estimatad by Humboldt at ll.lKH), of wti In oli«Qinf«iM«». T|ia mcwt rvoitrk- ^Ui pMnltvltY of iiih l«lMi4 U^ UlM, notwItUtuAlaff Itt eoyiM«imbb «Im, m oamparai mtb MVH of Ui« otbvn, It !• th« oiUr on« of IMm |h»t Iim aoi » ilul* ■f ring or rlrabc of frtah wMtr In ll. It wm 4o«M- l«M from thl» «Mue that U wm feaii4 uniiU»bli4d bv Colon bo*, ood ^ that U VM loof bfc uiioooupUd by Boropm |ulr«atorf n tAor lU duoovtry. Notnro, homvor, prwooM low obft«el«t which tbo ovortoo or ia4a«try oc roaii will not luraiouot i tbo loo4a wiro loond to bo fertilok «nd Urn o|»<«mt woro oontrtrwl CO rotalo tb« w»t«r which Talb in tho nUoy mmqb. Tht water thua proMrvml Km al woyt boon foua4 lif hl« puro, sad wholaaoiKO* The A rat wiUora woro • low XofUah Ih^ailoa aont fnwi 8t Kltt*a, lo 1(02, by Watw aofi who appiitiited hit «on gOTOmor* Tbo quabor of InhabltaoU, howvv«r, did nut mueh loorooao until 1663t when Lord Willoughby, who had ubtidnod a Imnal grant of the ialandfroin Charln tho Soooadi M«t out a largo body of lettlorB M hit own osponao. In 1660; this colony waa almoat entirely daatrayod by a French anaament from Alartlnico, whui with a bodv of Charalbi^ ravaged the Island with Are and aword t but It waa raatored to the KngUah In 1600, br the ttoaty of Breda. Up to thia UmOi tobaooo waa tne only vego* table oultiratedf but, (n 1674. angar-plantiog waa introduoed with great lucoot* from Uarbadooa, by a Colonel Codringion, and the oolony theroallor rapidly roeo Into Importanoe* In 1700, a Mr Parka waa ap- pointed gorernor of this and tho a4jolning roan whoae horrible character and tragical death bare few parallela In hlitory. He waa hj birth a Virglulan of hiw deaoent, but havinK aucoeeded in mnlrylng a lady of fortune In Araeriua, he abacooded with her money to England. Here he auoooeded In gettlitf in- to Parliament, but was aoon azpeUed forgroaa briMrr. Ho i)>flu ealered the army unoer the Duko of Mftrl- horough, in wboao good graoea he rose ao rapidly, that Queen Anne preaented nim with a purae oi 1000 gui- iifM, and her own picture set io dlauoiida; and, iu 1 706, CMiiferred on him the goveroment uf the Lee< werd lalandf, of which Antigua was then, as now, the ■eat of the executive. After nia arrival there, he gave unreatralned licence to hla brutal p^lona. Mur- der, violation, and robbery, he committed openly without tbaine or aeruple ; until the whole country roeo aa one man against him, attacked bti houae, aeiaed his pcraon, and literally tore him Into a thou- nand piei«s I Yet so Aagrant and monatroua were his niAuy Crimea, that no pruoeedinga were Inatltuted against the colonists, for this act oi insubordination, by tbo home government, who even se em ed to ap- prove of i^ by promoting two of the principal actors to high official situations. Besides the occurrence of a remarkable drought of seven montlis. In the year 1709, whereby the whole crops were dostroyod, and :)000 head of cattle perished from thirst, there la no other historical fact respecting this Ishmd daaervlng uotlre. Antigua la divided iuto sis pnriahee and eleren dia- tricta. St John's, the capital of the Island, situited on the north-weat, and English Harbour on the aouth, ifcre the two principal towns. Both are wcU fortified ; and, at the latter, are eaubtished a royal naval yard and arasnal) and convenieocea for careening ships. Antiguit WHS the tirst island which ameliorated the n^ro slave laws, by affording the accused the benefit of trial by Jury. The iuhabilants are chiefly Uatho- dists. V. MOMTSKABAT. This isonoof the smallest of our British West India eettlemonta, being only nine mllea in leutfth, and about as many in breadth. It was diacovered in 1403, at the aeme time with 8t Christopher*a, Nevis, and tho other adj(4alag islands, by Columbus, who denominated ft after a m4>untaiii in Spain (near Barcelona), to which it benra a reaembUnce. Like Nevis and Autigua, from each of which it is distant only about twenty miles, it was first pe9pled by a few Kngliih (or rather Irisb) settlers, from St Chrtttopber's, by Warner, in l(i33. There is little or uothiotf worth noticing in the civil history of Montterrat, iwyond the rirrum- stance of its having twen invaded and laid v .m by a Kr«nch armament in 1712. Itisestremet tilthy, fruitful, and beAiitlful, with alternate hills .- ..t vnles, the former covered with wood, and the latter watered by flue streams. Almost the only staple articles cul- tivated are gugar and cotton. VI. & VII. BAaavuA and anouilla. These are the oulv others i>f tlte British Leeward <\rrib«an islands (all iiuluded under one branch of gitverument, as will lie alierwnrds uotieed) that re- main to be mentioiivd. We have classed them to- gether (although loCi&lly fur separated), on account of the somewhat fcinxulitr fact, that beoaiuae they do not ('4)ntribut« to the annual iuiportAtiuns of Great Bri- tain. U«ey have hitherto been left entirely unnoticed, l>oth iiy government returns uf our West Indian pos- nessiuus, and by our various British gougraphersi as if unworthy even of a nominal eiiumontlon t We owe the ftiliuwing slight descriptive partleulars con- cotniug t)k«m, cherctore, chiefly to the notes of pri- vaio visituiK. Barbitua i" situated alxmt twontyrollea aorth-east of 8t Cnriufphcr's, and ten north uf Antigua. It is only about twenty miles bmg and twelve broad. This IO ODO of Culumbiu*a dlsenverlea, al- tkoogk tboro la no other klaiorlcal noUee conooralng ll doora to Iko tlHO of Quoa.« Anno, when wo And It glroa la a porpolual grant lo Ooneral Oodrlgton and hla poatoriiy. by whom the groaler pen of It Is atUl owiwd, and who bav« all along distinguished tkeiBaeUes for their pkllanthrople kindness to their and prorldlnglhom wIlK the bone of Chrls- IghiooiMnt. Tho population of the island aoaounu lo about 9000. Amouilla la the meal northerly of the l.e*teard Oarriboe lalands, and Ilea about 100 miles north of Barluda, and iho same disUnce N.N. W. of 8t Chris, topher's, In the latitude of 10° north, and in the longi- tude of 04* weal from Ureeuwioh. It Is thirty miles long, and only three liniad, and received its name (signifying in Latin an «t/) from the peculiar wind- ing akape it presents, being also, for the same cause, aomeUmes denominated " Snake- laland.** It waa first dlaoovered by the Engllah in 1600, who found it tenanted only by alligators, and other noalnus anl- malai but finding the soil fruitful, a oolony was left on it, who aoon multiplied In an amaalng manner. It la ourloua, however, that, for nearly huf a century, It waa placed under no regular government, civil or eenleslaBtioal, and the settlera therefore became aproy loevery rapodous Invader of whatever nation. " Tuelr chief aufferlng (says one writer) was from a party of wild Irish, who landed here after the revolution, and treated tbem worse than any of the French pirates who had attacked them before." The new and old settlers, however, afterwards united and harmonised together perfbctly well, as is evident from the fact, that they, in I7-IA| although then only about 100 stronff, repulsed a body of 1000 French who came to attack them, and obliged them to retire with the loaa of IfiO men. In 1706, the latter retaliated In a man- ner worthy of the atrocities of the Kevolution. Two ships of war were sent with 400 picked troops, by Vlrtor Hughes, of ** red-hot memory," with direc- tions to burn every settlement, and exterminate the whole InhablunU (British) in the island. These emissaries set about their work in good earnest, and committed the most barbarous atrocities on the de- fenceless inhabitants, but were happily interrupted by the arrival of Captain Barton, in the I«apwing man-of-war, who brought the French ships to action, sinking the one and taking the other. Since that time the island has remained in undisturbed posses- sion of the British, but haa never regained ita previous prosperity. The Interior aspect of theae two lalanda Is quite dif- fereut from that of any of our other We«t Indian set- tlftmcnts, being in many respects indeed quite £n^/lsA. The sole occupation of the inhabiunts is farming, rearing stock, and cultivating provisions, for which a ready market is found in the uelghbourinK Island*. There are no groups of masts in tbo bays and harbours \ and instead of Uie lalnwioue bustle, amoke, and noise incidental to the sugar and coffee plantations, there are to be seen only numerous little rural dwellings, surrounded by waving crops of grain, and verdant fields covered with sheop and cattle. VIII. VlftOlM ItLAHDS. This name waa given by the discoverer Cnlumbiia (In 1493) to a group of about forty small lalanda lying to the northward of the I^tttard CarribH lilatuUt and between them and Puerto(or Porto) Rico. Theyox- tend about twenty-four leagues from east to west, and about sixteen from north to south. They are divided Iwtwoen the British, Danes, and Spaniards, but much the larger and more valuable number belong to the former. The names of these are Tortols, Vlrgiu Gorda (or Penniston, and sometimes corrupted into Spanith Town)f Josvan Dykes, Onana Isle, Beef and Thatch Islands, Anegada, Nicbar, Prickly Poar, Ca- manas, Ginger, Cooper's, Salt laland, St Peter*s Island, and several others of little or no value. Those belonging to the Danss and Spaniards will be noticed in their proper places. The first poaiiessors of the British Virgin Islinde were a party of Dutch buccaneers, who fixed them- selves ut Tortilla aUHit tlu year IMO, and built a fort for their protection. In lUOfl, ihey were expelled by a stronger party of the same prol'essiun, who took possestiou in the name uf England ; and the Knf(lish monarch (Charles the Second), availing himself of this circumstance, shortly thereafter annexed it to the lieeward Island government, in a fiOBunisslon granted to Sir William Stapletoti. Up to 1773, the govern- ment of these islands was onlruslAd to a deputy- governor, with a council, who exercised lnasumauu7 manner both the legislative and executive authority i but, in the latter year, a local legiaUture, almilar to that of the other isUndii, wH^couferredon them, with rourts of justiue, in cousiiiurutiun of the Inhabitanta voluntarilif offering to pay an annual irapoat of 4| per cent, to the crown upon all the natural productions uf the islands. The Dutch had made but little pro- greaa in cultivating these islands when expelled i and the merit of agrarian improvement was reserved for a few Eiulish settlers from tha little island of An- guilla, who removed thiiher in the year 1004. Their chief aud almust their only articles uf pn>ductiou aro cotton and sugar ; aitd the number of acres under cul- tivation is about l'^,OOU. The entire population in 1013 was ab(nit 11,000; but, as will be seen by the tabloo subjoined to thia article, a great decraaao in this respect has taken ptaeo since In theae, aa In all our other M'est Indian Islands. IX. DOMINICA. Although elaased by geugraphera among the British J^tfwortf Carril>ean Islands, Dominica may bt do- uribed as locaUg and legislatively distlnel both from them and the British fTlfuftranf r.arrlbean aoltlomentai having a governor and Iccialaturo of Ita own, and bo- 1^ aeparatod from the fomier by tho largo French island of (Juadaloupe on tho north, and from tho lat. ter by the French island of JUartlnloo on the south. From Its central situation, Indeed, aa well aa Its im- portance otherwise, it seems the beat calculated of all the possessions of Groat Britain, In that part of the world, for aecuring to her the dominion of the Cha- raibean Sea. This fact was entirely overlooked bv the British Ministry during the whole course of the Ame- rican war, when all the faculties and means of Great Britain were directed towards the security of our West Indian settlements, and preventing co-operation between the French and tha iiiiurgent culunisut no more than 100 soldiers, ullicers and privates, being aaalgned to garrison the island. From thia criaainai "Bgngenoe It suffered severely during that contest, and waa repeatedly captured by the French. In 1770, an armament of several thousand soldiers arrived from Martiuids who soon made themselves master of the island, after u gallant defence hy the British militia, who did not exceed 120 in number. The conduct of the officer left in command of the Island (Marquis Duchllleau), towards the English Inhabitants, was most diiigraceful. He placed them under martisl law, forbidding tbem, on pain of death, to auemble together more than two In a place, or stir out of doors after nine o'clock at night ; and several of the jtrinci- pal inhabitants were rhot by sentinels placed for the purpose, for disobeying the latter order. Upon the pretence that the Knglish were foruung designs to re- take the island, he net fire to the capital, Kofeau, by which upwards of 500 homes were destroyed, with merchandise to the value of L.20O,O0O sterlloK* Theso continued barbarities ended In the ruin uf the whole English Inhabitants, who were nulTering all the hor- rors of starvation, when, iu 17^11, the island was re- storifd Ut the British guvernment, under which It haa since remained. In T7U<>, the French made an un- successful attempt to retake it, the whole troops that landed being either killed or taken prisoners. In lOOJ^ Dominica was again attacked by the French, who burned Hoaeau, levied L.7000 sterling from the in- habitants ; and, after committing many atrocities, de- parted on the tlfth day after landing. Since that time, the island has t>een undisturbed, unless from insur- rectionary movements amongst the •-unaway negroes, who, about the year 1013, made iilabtly incursions from the mountains, and threatened thedk-trnctionuf the whole colony. This dangerous confederacy whs at last broken up in 1814 by the death of their dii*>f, named Jacko, ^•'hii was shot by a party uf rsngeja, af^er a desperate re«iKt.'tni*e. Dominica is 20 miles in length and 10 in breadth it ewtains about 100,000 acres of land, and ie divided into ten parishes. The nominal capital, Ro'ieau, is iu the Interior; but the great mart of trade ia Priuce Kupert*8 Bay, on the south-west side of the island. It is situated on a point of land which forms two bays — M'^uod bridge's llay to the north, and Charlotteviiie Bay to the south. The principal productions are sugar, ciffeo, Indigo, and ginger ; it is watered by up^ wards of thirty fine rivers, besidaa a great number of rivutcls. In the woods are innumerable switrms of bees, which lodge in the trees, aud uroduie gieat quantities uf wax and lioney, both of which are equitl in goodness to any iu Europe. It Is precisely the same speclea of btu us iu Europe, and munt have been transported thlthi'r ; the native bee of the West ludieH tieing a imaller species, without stings, and dlffeivnt iu iu habits from the European. Several of the raounlaiua in Dominica oootaln living volcanoes, which frequently discharge vast quantities of burning sulphur; and there are many springs of lu)t water, some uf which are said to be warm enough to coagulate an egg. Air T. Attwood, in liis history of thin iftUnd, gives a description of a miraculous in- iect peculiar to it, which he calls a vegelable Jty, *' It Is of the appearance itnd sixe of a small cockchafer, biid buries itself in the ground, wherditdies; and front its l)ody spriugs up a small ptunt, which resenu bles a young conee-tree, uwly that its leaves are smaller. The plant la often overlooked, from the supposition people have of ita being no other than a coffee-plant; hut on examining it properly, the difference is easily distinguished— the head, body, and feet of the iuMct appearing at the root ii» perfect as when alive." This is a most extraordinary relation certainly; but not mure so than the Uev. Nicholas Collius's description, in the American Fhiloaophioal Transactions, of a cer- tain xouphyton in the Ohio county, which, he declnres, is both vegetable aud animal; for, having crawled about the woods in iu auimal state till it grows weary of that mode uf existence, it fixes itself in the ground, HUd becomes a MUiUtu pianiy with a »tem iuuin^ from ita mouth t There are still a few of the desoendanta of the an- cient Clutraiba residing In Dominica. They are of a clear cupper-colour, with long, black, sleek hair ; their perstms snort, atout, aud well made. They live clilelly by fishing in the rivers and the sea, or bv fowling fn the woods, In both of which pursuit they use iheu- rm?r r mm mfm ■HE THE WFST INDIES. bowi Md Arrows with graai 4uuriiT. Tbvf kill iht taiftUMt bird At a graat dUtwiM with an arrow, and traiuflE a flth al a oonaUlarabU daplh In tba wa. BRITISH WINDWARD CARRIBEAN ISLANDS. X. BT LUCIA. ThU li tb« lOMt northerlv of the group of Wind, word Cfaaralbaan lalaiidR bvlonginff to Britain, lying about Iwonty mUat louth of Alartinloo. It waa 6rit dicoorarad by Colnmbui, but In which of hli Tuyagoi la not exactly known, mad It remained totally u^n- habllad by European* until the yttar 1030, when Lord WUlougbbv Arrived with a UArty uf Eugllih to oulo- niM It, Bud lucceeded in obtaiiilng a peaceful lur- render of the lil«nd from the nitive Charatbi. Few of our Weit India Mttlemenia hare undergone lo many alternationi lu ownenhlp ai thlr liland. In 1640 (the year Bfter Iti ketUement), the natlvee ruee upon the Eiigliah, e>ery one of whom they Blew, with the exception of a few who escaped to nlontaerrat. For ten yean aftarwardi, the C'haraibs remained tlie Bole poBBeBBora of the liland i but In ItiAO, a ctdony of Frenchmen settled In It. These alto, ai well as va> rIouB subsequent settlers, were killed or expelled by the Cbaralbs. In 1604, the Kngllih purchased the island from the latter, and a ooluny of 1400 men were Battled on It ( but of these only about ninety remained two years afterwards, the rest being destroyed either by sickness or by the natires. For nearly a cantury arter this period, St Lucia was an almost incessant scene of contest and bloodshed between the Rngtiiih and French, by whom it was alternately uken and reukun, notwithstanding repeated treaties declaring it neutrul. Uy the treaty of Paris In 176H, it was al- lotted to FrAUce, but was retaken Ity the British dur- ing the American war in 1770. It was again restored to Fraure at the peace of UHIli retaken by the Ilri- tlsh In 1704, evaeiiated In 17ttA, reoccupied in 1704), rtmtnred to France by the treaty of Amiens in 1801, recaptured by the British in 1603, and has aver since remained under the British crown. These altamations of fortune naturally deteriorated the prosperity of the island, but it is nevertheless one of the most valuable of the group to which it beWjgs. It is twenty-aeven miles long ami twelve broad, and contains 1H)3,000 acres, 3A,000 of which are cultivated. It must still b« fresh in the reoollectitm of our readers, that one of the last victims to the unheal thtness of this island, was the late lamented Ueneral Stuart of Oarth, who went out as governor in the \ear 1830, and died a few weeks after his arrival. The cause of this Insalubrity Is to be attributed entirely to the hitherto uncultivated state of the isjand, owlnv to its unsettled cnnditiun. TLe soil Is excellent! and there is little doubt of iu so«»n becuminf one of the moit important of our oolo- ni«s iu that hemisphere, under Judicious manage- ment. A somewhat fanuit'ul writer on the West In. dius* gives the foUuwlng uninviting acoount of the capital t — *' Casthiks is one of the dirtlest-looking holes I ever wiuinsed . my short stay did not permit me lo see, and therefore I cannot describe, the nouses of note therein contained. 1 landed on the wharf; and those alonff the Carenage presented the general appearance of West Indian buildings. My Arst ride WM to the garrison, an excursion which, under the favour of heaven, I will never repeat. It Is a jauut tmly At for such aa love to risk their bones, and even thmr important necks.** XI. BABDAUOXt. This is the miwt easterly of all the Charalbean Itlands, and was the iirKt Htttlement which the Brl. tish madeiu the West ludiett, in KiSSl ItwA« fmind without inhabiunti in that year by the cntw of the Olive Blossom, of London, nho took pMseailon of it by fixing up a cross where James's Town is now built, so called aftar the Arst monarch uf fingland of that name. In lfI27, Charles the First granted the Earl of Carlisle the whole inland, upon his agreeing to pay his rival MarllHirough L.300 a-year out of ita revenues, thus excluding tlie righu of 8ir WilllAm C'ourteen, an eminent liondon merchant, under whose patronage the Arst expedition Itad bavn undertaken in the year 1624. About this etm it had hec4>me fashionable iu Englaud for men of high rank and dis- tinction to engage iu sen Adventures, proclaiming themselves tlie patrons of culoniBatiim and foreign commerce { and James Hay, Earl oY Carlisle, distin- guished himself amongst tbe resu Cmirteen arter- wards obtained a recognisation of his rights from Ciuries the First, hut these were again »et aaide nt tlie suit of the Earl of Carlisle, under that system of favouritism which proved the ultimate destruction uf the unhappy noonarch. Thus, by an act of power, which its repugnancy and abnurdlty alone rendered illegal, the Earl of Carlisle again found himself lord paramuiint of Barbadoae \ and in order completely to ruin oil the inUrests in the colony but his own, he pruceeded to distribute grants to such perMins as chose to receive them on his own terms. A societyof London merchantsaccepted 10,000 acres, onctmditions which promised great advanuge to the proprietor, and these were allowed the privilege of sending out a governor of their own, who superseded Courieen's settlement, and the interests of the latter were cast ttsida. After thia the emigrations from England, dur- • " Four Vean' Rnldenos In the Wot Indlw. By ¥. W. N. aw iBji tba dvtl eomaaotions. warn bo numefoua, that, la l6M|.*il was oomputed ihera Wf upwards of 90,000 British in Barbadoea. " ThaBo advantarers,** says Lord Clarendon. " planted without any bodv's leave, and without being opposed or oontradletad by anv body,** and the colony htiag thus lef^ to Its own ef- forts, flourished without ■xample. After the resto- ration of Charles the Second, the clatma of Lord Wll- loughby, the Earl of Carlisle, and the crown, again came into competition, and formed the subject oflltl- gatlon for many vaars, In which the conduct of Cla- rendon was thougtit lo reprehenslbla ae to form one of the articles of his impeachment before the Uouso of Commons in the year I607> Throughout the whole civil war, the Island remained faithful to the exiled family t and to punish, such stubborn defenders of a ruined oaose, an armament was sent out In 1651, by the Parliament, to reduce it to subjection, who inflicted such barbarltlee on ;he Inhabitants and their pro- perty, that they have never since regained their pre- vious prosperity* This is proved by the fact, that, in 1670, there were computed to be 50,000 white and 100,000 black Inhatittanls, while at present there are estimated onlvahont IK),000 inhabitants altogother. Barltadoei Is divided into five districts and eleven parishes, and contains four towns— Bridge Town, Ostins or Charles Town, 8t James's, and Speight's Town. Bridge Town Is the capital and seat of go- vernment. XII. ORENADA AKD ITS nEPENDCHCIKB. Grenada is situated lietween l*i* JNK and U* AS' N. latitude 1 and 51* 31' and 61* .HA' W. longitude. It Is alwut 20 mileB in length from north to south. The Caoa of the oountry is mountainous, but nut inacoes- sibltf in any part, and it alHiunds in springs and rivu- lets. It wu disovered by Columbus in his third voyage, in 1408, being then Inhabited by tlie native Charaibs, by whom It was possessed unmoleited until ttie year 1060, when it was taken possession of by the French from MaiUuico, By a succession of calami- ties and revolutions, the "trratlun of which would interest few readers, tl .sperity of this island was so much impaired, iu«^ In the year 1700, there were found on tlie whole island only une hundred and flfty-three persons. From this time forth, however, its pmsperity every year Increased. In the wars which ensued between Britain and France, it whs alternately taken and retaltcn by each, until, by the general peace of 1783, it was Anally ceded to Britain. The name uf the capital is Fort Hoyal, situated in a spscious bay un the west Kide of the island. The Orenadlues are a chain of nmall Islands, run- ning towards St Vinoent on the north, the chief of thesa being Carrincou and Redouda. XIII. BT VINCEKT AND ITS DEPCMDEMCIES. This is A beautiful ialand, about tweuty.fitur miles long and twenty broad, lying Aftv-Ave miles west of Barbadoea. It was discovered by Columbus, but never takeik possession of. It was then iuhahited hy the native C-arribs. From IG?^ to 1748, conten- tions prevailed between France and England respect- ing the sovereignty of this hUnd i but, in the latter year, it was mutually declared neutral. It remained thus till 1763, when it was ansigiied to the Britleh. In 1770» it was captured hy tlie (rench, but restored to Britain at the general paciBcaiion in 1783. St Vincent is extremely fertile, and produces sugar of the best quality. In 1U12, an awful volcanic explo- sion took place. Tbe matter thrown out not only cttvered the whole island more or less, but alio many ships at a great diitance at sea : it even reached Bar- badoes, where quantities of the lighter particles were depf>aited i and the nuise was hwd at a distance of 300 miles. In consequence uf this calamity, the Bri- tish parliament voted L.25,000 to the Bufferers. 8t Vincent has attached to it eight small islands, which it is unnecestutry to enumerate. XIV. TOBAOO. This is the most southerly of the West India islands, iieiug 120 miles south uf Bartiadoes, and lying next to Trinidad. It is 32 miles long and 10 broad. It is equal in richness and variety of produce to any of the other islands. In 1746 it was declared neutral, but in 1703 was ceded to the English. It was taken by the French in 1781 ; conArmed to khem in 1763 ; but retaken Ity the English in 1703. The principal town is Scarborough. The island contains 204,000 acres, uf which only about a fifth part is cultivated. The tnilitttry and political history of tliis island is exactly similar to that of St Lucia, to which we refer our readers. XV. TRINinAD. This island, whicli measures ninety miles long by fifty broad, lies near the coast uf South America. It produces sugar, cotton, maize, Ane tobacco, indigo, and fruit, but Is said to be unhealthy. It was ceded to the British at the peace of Amiens. The capital is Purt d*£spagn& XTI. THE BAHAMAS OB LUCaYOB IBLAMDS. Tlivee are the most northerly of all the West Indian isUntls, stretching towards the coast of Florida, and fuming with it tlie channel called the Strait of Flo- rida. They were the Arst land discovered by Colum- bus in 1402, and amount in number to fully 500. The island which gives the name to the whole is the most northern, as well ae tlie moat Important of the group. A settlement waa esCabUahed by the British In I6S9, In the tslaod eaBeJ New Pro* Idenoa, and wbleh erni- tinned until 1763 to be the BMI of fferarnakaat. TkaB« Islands wart hmg Inlsetad by the buoaaaaara, and tkay were only axpelled by the gradual anetlon of Ibrtfc Ulnoe that time tba Ulanda hav» been ffradnally Im. proving. The chief article eultlvalad in ihese Islanda is cotton, neither sagar nor coffee having suooeedad. All sorts of proviitona grow In great abundance, and cattle and sheep thrive well. XVII. BEBMUDAB OB BITMinK IILAMOS. These are a cluster of small islands lying almost fn the form of a shepherd's crook, In long. 06' W., let. 32" 20' N., and about mid- way between the BaSama Islands and tbe Baiik« of Newfoundland. There are upwards of 400 of them, but few of them habitable; aud even these so innignificant, that they are generally left out of tbe list of uur ci>l')nieB by geographers 1 we notice them here only from their Ireing uniformly euu- merated in the gxyvemment returns. BRITISH SOUTH AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS. These settlements, although not properly belong. Ing to the West Indies, naturally come to be no- ticed here. They are called by geographers British Oulana, extend over an Immense space of the great Hfiuth Amerloan continent, and Include all the ma- rltime tract between the river Corentln and Cape Nassau, in north latltnde fl" 40'. The whole coast (being part of what navigators call the Spanish Main) is so flat, that It Is srarcely visible till the sho -« is touched. The tops of the trees only are discernible ; and even they seem to be growing out of the sea 1 no- thing is to be seen but water, and the same monoto- nous appearance is presented far into 5he interior. These settlements are urn^wrly three in number Berbice, Demerara, and Essequlbot they are, how- ever, now one united colony, and denominated British Oulana. BKBBICF. Berbice Is situated on the hunka of the river uf that name, which discharges itself into tlie Atlantic in 6" W north lat., and 57* W west long. The plan- tations are situated on both sides of the river, and extend nearly 100 miles from Its mouth. The sea- coast extends about 50 miles; and since it fall Into the hands of the British, a huge embaukmont has bef n raised against thi sea along the whole line, on which Is a carriage road sixt)* feet broad, with six-feet para- pets on CHch side, for the convenience of travelHun. This colony was captured from the Dutch in UUid, and conArmed to Great Britain at the general peare In 1814. The two principal towns In this colony are Old Amsterdam, and Fort Nassau, or New Amster- dam. The latter may he considered as the seaport, being situated on a point of land on the eastern shorn of the Berbice, about a mile up from the sea, thi* houses extending about a mile and a half abmg the banks of the river. It has been almost entirely builc by the British. Old Amsterdam la also situated 011 tbe Berbice, about 60 (and, as some say, 100) niileK from its month — the river itself being navigable to ships of burden for 200 miles. There runs across thp mouth of it, however, a bar of sand, over which, even at high tide, there is scarcely sixteen feet of water. This greatly deteriorates the trade of the river, aiul the prosperity of the colony; aa large ships, rather than ineur tbe danger of crosslngthe bar, prefer anchoring' off the port of Oemerara. The principal productions of the colony are sugar, ooffee, tobacoo, and txHton. DCMEIIAKA AND E9SEQU1II0. This tract is of much greater extent than that of Berbice, being, aB near as can be ascertained, about 650 miles in length and 150 iu breadth. The principal rivers are the Essequibo, the Demerara, and tlie Pi>- meroon. The former is one of the largest of the iiu. mense rivers which roll down from the South American motjntains into the Atlantic. It Is composed of thret^ main streams which Join together about jOmiles from the sea — Essequibo, the MassarounI, and Cayouni, all of whluhare great navigable rivers, and are composed of Innumerable tributaries. The Demerara is a mere streamlet compared with the Easequitio, although na- vigable 100 miles into the interior. Atits mouth it is ft mile and a half broad, and sheltered frum every wind ; but, unfortunately, as with the Berbice, there is a bar of sand across the mouth, which at low tides is only covered with nine feet of water, and in spring-tiden with eighteen. The dcenery along the banks uf the Demerara is peculiarly Iwautiful, from the fine regular ranges of plantations on each side; the sugar-estates aud cofrife-plautations all active and bustling; while crowds of boats passing up and down the river give life aud animation to the sceue. Every plantation has a wharf or landing-place of its own on tlio river ; and being surrounded wiUi canals or sluices for drain- ing tlie land, admitting tlat-bottomed boats, &c., each is in a manner insulated from the other. The capital uf Demerara is George Town, which is defended by a fort, and situated near the mouth o( tbe river. There are several other towns, or rather villages, which it is needless to enumerate or di'ncrilie; iwsides the fort of Zelandla, in tlie Essequit'o, ul»iui( 40 miles from the sea, and the fort of New Altddle- Burgh, situated at the confluence of the Massarouiii and Enseiinibo. This town has consideraliiy increaM'il in ekteat siii>. ^ the colony has come into posM.'Ssinii ol Great UrJtaiu — it voutains a populattua of I2,O0U suuls. A 1 CHAMBKRS'S INFORMATION FOR TIIK PKOPLK. i UaMMrtrm wm onlonlMd by tha Duuih In ItlMt (ml II Mttd* eompftnUvWy UlU« pmrrvw unill afbir I7MI. wban ti WM raplurwl by lh« Brilltk. AUmg with KMMulbo, ft «ru motl ineoniMarmMir r*****'** ^ *^* Ihiich In IMOl, tJuu MVflrnl milDimt M money h«4 hMNi axpandad on U hy ih* UHiich filuilan «nd nwr. cluttU. TItvy w«r« raUk«n In IWin, kii4 Anally ■•> uui«4 to Driuin at th« p«a<« ul IH14. A oompanillTaly imttU poriiun nf BriiUh Ctulana Is vM culllvaMd, and an Immanaa ArlJ fur niloiiial induttTT M miC, aa in tham« w»ar out, Nn h^rrlcanr* visit thlt i- umiclogy, mav succeed in doing S4> i — " The AeferoNj^a lays the foundation of a tremendous ulcer. In a mo- ment yun are curerad with ticks. Flies gel entry into your' mouth. Into your eyas, into your nose i rou eat lliee, drink flies, and breathe lllas. Liaarda, ouckriHichaSi and snakes, get into the bad i anu aat up the books t scorpions sting you on the foot. Krary thing bites, stings, or bruises « every second of yonr life you ara wounded by soma piece of animal life nohuidy hai ever seen hiirore, except Swammerdnm and Alerism. An Insect with eleven legs Is iwlniming in your tea-cup, a nondescript with nine wings is struggU ing In the amsU beer, or a caterpillar with tevaral <1iisen eyes in iu Iwlly Is hastening over ili^ bread and Imtter. All nature Is alive, and teems to l« gather- ing all her entom illogical busts to eat you up as you are standing, out of your coat, waUtr<>al, and breeches. 8uch ara tropics. All this reconciles us to our dawa, fogs, vapours, and driaale— 4o our aptitbecarlat rush- ing about with gargles and tinctures — to our old Bri- tisD constitutiiHial oongh, snra thniau, and swellad facea.'* In addition to this humorous deuil t^ ani- mal pests, it may lie mentioned, that the woods are crowded with snakes, some of them 3U and M feet Jong, and very dangerous. The ornithology of Demerara oompriies all that I* rich and rare in forinatiun and plumage. Nature hus exhausted her faucy lit the i-«>n)binatiou and ointrakt of hues in the aame Individual, frorn the tiny hum- ming-bird, not larger th»n a humble-bee, sutklng its ftubsislence from the bntom of the flowers, to the huga pelican and scarlet curlew, standing with their droop- iD|r wings in solemn rumination amongst the river mud. Our limits forbid us dwellmg on this enticing stihjecL The colonial population consists of three classes- whites, mulatuies, and negioes. The slaves ware shockingly treated by their Dutch masters, but live in nimpsrative hspiiineu under the Engliib, l>aiiig well treated iu every respect. FOBEION POSSESSIONS. FKKNCII. Pravloiislyto the nrgr.t Insurrection In 1703* Hi Dnmingo appertained to the French, and was by far the most vttluabie cohrny In the Weitt Indies. 7 heir only possesslonn now are (Juadahmpe and Martiiilci (or Alartinlaiie), and the iiuigniticant Inlands of .Marie (lalante and Peseada. These are all ftiluated in the windward ('nrrU>ean group. <'^; negroen, lOl,.''».%i ; total, 13A,6IU. Marttnlmie — White*, n!K*7 ; free-coloured persons, 10,7B6; negroM, Bl,182; l'»tal, lOl.UOA. SPAMIflll. A few years aifo, the colonial posveiuioni of Spain extended from the frontiem of the United States al- most t4i Cape Horn. Now she has not a foot of land on the whole American nmtinent ; and of the Islandii, is mnsessed of only two worth mentioning— Cuba and Porto Rico, whose situation hns l»een belore men- tioned. These, however, are of great value and im- trtance, especially the fitrmer, which is hy far the argest and finest of the West India liilaiid« ; only about one hundredth part, however, is supposed to lie under cultivation. The capital Ik liavannah, on the north coast, with a harbour capable nfctintalnlng the largest fleet in safety. The entrance into it Is si> hmg ana nurmw, that only una vesvl lan pass at a time. The other principal towns are He Jagt) (formerly the capital of tbeialand), Puerto del Principe, St Salva- dor (on the east side), Tilntdad (on the south), with Aanu Crua, Harac4»4, and Cid'K (all on tha north or north-eaal i*f the island). There are inppoaed to aiist »«iua fii gold in the island, from tha dust bflng tfOO uoi lar fimnd In iha sands of tha rivers ( and Ihara ara also soma valuable mloat uf ooppar. niiTcii. Tha Dutch possastiuiis In tha M'ast Indies are Cu- rsoiia and St Kusiatius, Saba and part of 8| Alartln— all In the Carriliaan group The two former are iht- turmllvba«...N CunuNta, from Its proximity to South Amerli'a, was furtnerly m |iUua of grast cimtraband trarflc) but finoe the iii«ure to he an tntrepot. It is 30 miles long and 1 1 broad, and uroducrs sugar and Uibacoo. Like some of iu sivter isles. It Is entirely deuandeni on tha rains fipuIatiou is estimated Htah4M)t90,l)(K). S| Kuhtatius eoniilsu but of one mountain, which Is tlU miles In eircumfereiu'e, and cultivated to the vary suminiu The prodiu'tions are sngsr and tubanon, and the population may be about lA.tNHl. It was first oidunlfted by the Dutch in Mllti, and continued for many years a subject of contention between iham and tha rmirh, by whom it was alternately wissetsed, until 17'llt when it was captured hy Aoiniral Uoil- iiey. The tNHity which fell into tl-e hands of the Kng- liith on this nivai>tori was estimated at I«.4,000,(XN) Kterling. It «hs restored to the Dutch by the peace of 171)^1 and alter lielng aguin raptured by tha Kng- liith, was flnnlly secured to tha Putch by the paare uf 1 1114. Saba and St Martin are loo incouslderabla to need further mention. HAH 11 If. The Danish settlements, all beWgIng to tha Carrl- baan uroup, are three in number— Sc Cmia (or Santa Cms), Si ThimiaN, and Nt John, of which the former ahnia is of any inr^i>rtani*«. It Is nbout eighty-one milet stiuare, and cnntalna about :m>,00(I inhnhitatits. Tha soil is fertile, and well cultivated, prtMlucing su- f[ar, mm, and t4iliarro. St Thomas is alHml six eMgiieH iu rircumference, and St John about the same. Thay are both 4uita incoukiderdbla. IWEDI8II. Tha nuly oniony belonging to tha Swedes Is the small tslaiid of St llartliolomew, In tha leeward Carribean group, and about fifteen mites In circuin- ferenca. It ban only one town and one Imi hour— (lus- tavia, and La Careuage. Tha ptipuLtion is about uooo. INDEPENDENT ISLAND. ST UOHINOO. Togivaa proper historlcul account of this, formerly the Aneitt of nil the U'ast India Islands, would requiie almost a full sheet of our iNi'nitMATiuM lor the pur- p«>sa; and a mutilsled sketch would only fervu to confuM our readers* Ideas on tha subJM't. We will, protmbly, coon recur to this interesting topic iu the JotHKAL, iiut are here neoassltated to oontiua our. selves to the folbiwing slender particulars i — St Domingn lin lietwaan Purtt the cotttMit Iwtiveen the niyalist and republican nutilers, the natives and slavei* nise ill a body, ma&SNcred the whiten, and estalilinbed their indapendencat Chri&topha, funnerly a slave, was elected chief, and after govt^rnlng with great wisdom until Dill, WrtS cniwiifd king. In tlnb dignity he formed a court of prini*es of tiie bli; but his measures having i>econie tiMt despiitir, his subjects ruse in revolt, and, alter an unavailing contest, se«'ing his alFjiri despeniie, he shot himself. A rnpubiic was then established, and still continues the f.000.(>(H) lbs. to 000,000 lb«. t indigo from 700,000 lbs. to nodiing, JUv. Such is the acumnt, uC leant, urrsanted by recent travellers, whti Rpeak of the population as being sunk in sloth and ignorance. The capital of St Domingo Is Port au Prince, on the weHt side of tha island, within a targe and l>eau- ilful Imy. The population of the whole island may lie estimated at flOO.tNtU, the wholeof which are blacks, with the exeaptiun of a few white traders and casual residents. Having now given a brief histnrical sketch of the West India Islands, wa now return to give a mora minute eeeount of the govariunanl, climate, produc- tions, &C. of Ihe British jHMaeasions. uaVERNHBNT or THE HIITISH WEST IMU|«». The gnvernnienl of all the originally British Wa«t Iiiitla islaaus Is exactly alike, UMislsltng of a governor and »>unoil, and a house of assembly, tha membart of whieh ara elected by all the colonists pcMseHsed <'f a frefl'idd lo tha amount of ten pounds. The gover. nor is also ciiinmandar-ln-ohief. Several islands ara somalimas included In one government, who send thair reuresentatives to the island which Is tha seat of teglslatura for the time being. Thus, iu the Lee- ward Islands, St ('liristooher's, Nevis, Monise/rnt, and one or two other small islands, send their repre- sentatives t» Antigua, which is the seat of guvern* ment for them all i or. In other words, tha residence of the governor. The superior and Inferior courts of Judicature resemble, of course, those in England, the laws Iteing the same i unli'ss as they may l»a af- fected by the special cohmial enactments passed from time tu time. Assiae courts are frt quentty held, lo expedite tha course of jufttice. There are, likewise, parish courts, wherein Justices ofthr peace decide siiin* marlly In small debt cases. There are ollices where all deeds, willn, Males, ami patents, are rei^ordt^d. All persons intending to leave the Island ure obliged to give notice at the oHit^ uf enrolment three weeks Iwtore they can lie entitled Ut a pass, or tu find security iof what debts tbey may leave unpaid In the islaiid t i*iid, for further precaution, masters of vessels are tukuu bound, under heavy penalties, not to carry olF any per. Rim without such pass. The procedure of the assetn- bly follows as near at may L-j tlia formula of the Uri- ti»h legislature, and all their bills have the force of laws as MKin as the governor's assent is ubialued. The power of rejectiim, however, Is vested in the crown, but, unlU rejecltfiy the laws ara valid. The governor can also refuse his asurnt to all such laws, and caa dissolve and call lugetiier the assembly at pleasure. His salary Is paid paitly by the crown, and partly fnmi the island revenues. Those btlimles not url^inaUy BiitUh are governed in amoiearhitrary manner hy agoveriior only, though possessing their former laws, wliether Freucu, Dul«i, or Spauiih. The year may he divided Into four seasons i— The first r.Miin '.icing with the mild vernal rains in April or Ala), wuiv.h usually last six weeks; the svcmid in- cludes June, July, August— hut and dry ; the third iucludea September, October, and November, which are the hurricane and rainy months ; and the fourth, Detrember, January, February, and .March, which are the most serene and cool uiunths. The climiite of the MVit Indies is pretty nearly alike iu alt tlie islands. The average of the' thermo- meter in tlie towns may be set down at BO* during the summer months (from July to November). It often attains to above 00°, but in the mountains it hns been known to be so low as 44", so that a fira at noun is there necessary a great part ol the year. Tlie temperature is kept cool by the alternations of ihe sea and land breeaes, the former blowing only during the day, the latter only during tlia night. Uf the latter, which always blorts from the centre of the Island (Ite it ever io small 1, the only sclentitio acc^mnt aver given is that uf Dr IrankUu, w^Ich Is as follows; — '* As soon as the sea.braeae din mwm^ (iu the afternoon) the air of the plains, being rarihed, ascends towards the tops of the uiountains, aiiil Is there condensed by the cold, which miiklng it speciticully heavier than it was before, it descends b!ick to the plains o;* b'>ih xides uf the ridge ** It is u singular di^pHiisatlon 'il Providence, i\\%i in Parbadoe>t uud the t>niHller wind- ward CharailHian islandn, wjticli are without the»e landward breesfs, the sea-breeze (or trade-wind) blows liuih night and day. The most delightful time of day In Jamaica is at day-dawn, belore the sun has yet Wgun to ptmr his etfulgence over the hemihphere ol the ("arritMNiS, and before the land-breexe has died away. The ses- brer/e, or ** doctor,'* as It is gratefully designated hy the inhal'ittnts of Jamaica, which invariubly hloHS I'roni the south-enat, or some other point ranging from south to east, generally sets In about nine o'cltHrk A. M., at lirst only gently lippling the surface of the (H:«aii, and iiicreusiug grudualli, until it often assumes the strength of a temporary Inirricane. Its C4)ming is hailed by ;he panting, and literally melting inhabitants, with a degree of thankfulness and a sen- sation of relief, which can unty )>e kiionn hy those whose lot it has been tu inhale the oppressive and suf- fucating atmosphere ol these climes. Weie it not for this regular alternation of trade- winds and inlund-breeces, the islands uf these seas would, to Europeans at least, lie perfectly uninhabit- able. Let such of our readers, therefore, whose des. tiny has never led them Iwyond the cool shores of Itritatn, conceive, if they cuii, the suflTeringa of their brethren In the tropics, when it happens thxl tha * dortor' absents himself for a whule lurtnigbi at a time. In the afternoon, the sea-hreexe dies away, as it comes — gradually ; after which, for a few hours, enrih and sea are again locked in a stillness of repost* — a syncope of motion, which, to a new comer, has some- thing almost ominous 1 and as his imagination is ge- nerally saturated before his arrival with descriptions uf ihuaa fearful visitations, the earthquakes — which are thera so frequent, though seluom uccasiuuiug ■;fe' THE WEST INDIES. k ..ih iiJ- hit w tieii* Hbiu de«- > of their tha M it tfnrili ae — H iige- »lioui vhiuh ;iuiuf much 4«nftf«— helnitlnctlvaly lUicni, In tbiit parliid ufpruli. nd Mlllnni, fur t)i« rtrtlmmlillitfr ffntwl fra- oadlnir tha Tolo«nia axt>l>Mloii. Kanhqimkei, how. avar, hava fur many v»«iiri haan hardtnliig riirt>r and rarer hi tha Wail Indiat — a fa4^t whh'h t«!m»4o nin- Arm iba hypiithaaU ihft. thi«M Ulaiidi IihvImKi at otia tlma or otnar, had ihalr urtgln In viilcniilc erupthmai Are grmdiiaUy eoolliiKf and that thaae fearful vUUa> tloiii will MMin allofathar caaw. Thara It irarcaly a iimiiei hfpwavar, of many yearn* Htandlri)(, lu th« walti of which lavaral huge craiki are uitt to be aeen— « ulmimitance which called forth a wUdcltm from a late visitor, who ohiiarvad, that althouKh the valuti of We«l India propHrty was daily felling, the rtnU of the homes were yearly litcreailng. The miMt diaadful Hcour^fe of these lnlaniU are the burrlctinei, which have dvvNitated them all repeatedly from time t» time, llatwren the yean 17'I0-II7| « inroeiilt>n of hnrrlcanei dtttotikted Jamftlra to audi an i*xtertt, that, uomhined with the scarcity of prorliiuni pnMliired hy the Amerloun war, no less than 10, ni*({r(H*s perished from faniliif. The more mountain- ous islands also suflfer sevemly from ttia violent ralni, which pour down, as they actually appt^ar tu do, In bncketnili, sometimes swefpinir the entire soil, and ail Knowing thereon, from wholublantations, and leav. Ing mithing )iut the bare rock I Hiiice the gradual olaarlng of the islands from woi^d, thunder is muih lees frequent now than fornietly, and seldom does any demage. It 1^, however, terrmcally loud. PNOnUCTIONI. Having exhibited In the annexed tables the staple artlvlfts of co*nmerce produced by the various Isliinds, we think It unaeceasarv to recapltulMte them here, find shall, Instead, shortly enumerate the productions, animal and vegetable, which form the principal ar- Itcles of colonial oonsumpfc—a luhject lets generally familiar to our readers. The naturHl productions of all tiie HVst India Islands are sti uniformly alike, that a description of those in one colony may be regarded as a general enu- meration of those peculiar to ell. A late writer In our JournHl, who was himself a resldenter In Jamulca for a onnsiilerable time, thun nnumerates the more common varieties of animal and vegetable food, iMith in the seaportt and the Interior j — " There are few pla«^ in the world where people In t'«'neral iive bet- ur, I believe, than ii/ Jamaica— from the highest to the lowest — the governor to the planuition negro. Food of all kinds is In abundance — flesh, 5sh, fowl, fruit, and kitchen \egetablea. Tobesure, theaisort- Mient varies in different districts, but all are equally well supplied with some kinds or other. If fresh beef and mutton abound most In the towns, the mountains have a still better supply of pigs, poultry, kid, and game. The l>eef Is setdom good, otving to the unU veraal practice of drawing tlm oxen in teams for seve* rala years t besides, the netit of thedimnte obliges lu consumption, or at least ciKiking, within four-and- twenty hours after Iwing killed. The mutton is tioane, and, from the appeumnce of the sheep, one wuaders that It Is not a great deal coarser. The )auug kids are much ured, and highly prized, and, wheu properly roasted, look very tempting and tender, but stiU there is a ranknessof llavour about the flesh which besiieaka the future goat, and which I never could recouctln myself to. The pigs, efipeciully those fed on the sugar estates, are the most dulicuto and de- licious, I shtmld think. In the universe. What the acorn- fed poikers of Westphalia may be when young, I know nut, hut they must be fine Indeed to excel their West Indian brethren, educated ou the juicy cane roots and uluntain stems. The veal 1 never tasted. As for toe fish, there are few places supplied more abundantly, or in greater variety. It would occupy, indeed, a wholo page of letterpress to enume- rate tliem; therefore I shull name none*. iMaiiy of them are large and rich, but their flesh is in general ■oft end pulpy, nor is there any one of thein at all to be compared to our own SHlmon. One small kind, railed the Mnapperj with various other soits, are to he seen swimming about near the shore of the clear pel- lucid harbour, and und«*r the numerous quays. In thousands. In the inland streams, the mountain mul- let, a line rich trout, is the prevalent flsh. ^tHjaklng of tish, I must not forget the thell-flsh ; but I refer to them only for the purpose of noticing two siwcies— tilt* oyster and tlit; black crab, Th^ former literally yrote upon trefi \ that is to aay, they adhere to the pendant branches of the willows that gn>w on the margin of the water, and in this state are brought liitii market, where they are sold at so much per xtick. Hut, assuredly, uule^s informed, I should never have guessed ilu*m to have been ovsters. Their shells ge- nerally resemble those of the mussel rather than the pandore. They are very sweet and wholesome, never- thele^ The black crab (which rexeinbles exactly our ftootrh pnrton^ but smHtler, and darker in the co- lour) Is griierally considered a great delicHcy in Ja- maica. The hiibits of this animal are as sreat a pus- xle to the West Iiuliiiits as those of the aaluion are to the natl■^Hli^tt of Scotland. They are found in all parts of the ititeiior, and It Is believed they migrate every year from one side of the island to toe other; at least they have often been met with, in hundreds together, slowly traversing the country. At these tur.es it is dangerous to meddle with them, as, should they lix upon a man, mule, or horse, nothing but wruuoliiug their claws off theli- bodin oould make , m them quit their hold, ll la a curious oharaoterlstle of this animal, that, during these migrations, nothing can make them swarva from their path. Ue the ot^ stai'le which comes In their way stone, tree, or preci- pice, they go direct over it by means of ihalr adbwive claws. Whilst sojourning im the seashore, they bur- row In hnlee like rabbits. Tbedomestlu fowls aie the common ben, the guuiea-hrii, the peaoork, the tur- key, the duck, and, 1 ihiuk, the gtNne. The llrst of thesaara chiefly dlspoaed of uivessali leaving port i but the guinea-hen, although seemingly a more delicate bird, is easier kept, and stands the voyatfe much bet- ter. The turkey thrives uncommonly well in Jamaica. The game, or wild-fowl. Is eaoeedinglv limited In va- riety. The guinea-fowl and the quail are plentiful \ but owing to the rank vegetation that covers the coun- try, any thing like regular hunting Is impossible. There ts likewise abundance of snipes, and also nu- merous varieties of the pivvon irllio. Of the fruits In Jamaica I need scarcely speak. They oiMnprlsa almost every s|>ecles known In the western trnpiot. The vIiih and pomegranate duster every veranda where the owner takes the troubia to pitnt them. A large delicious plue-Hpple may 1m (■ought in the market for a flppeiiy (ltd. sterling). The juicy wuier-melon, which retains its delightful ctHitnesa even when exposed, unsheltered, to the burn- ing sun, Is atHindant, and grows to a very large slse. Oranges are In the utmost profusion, and better 1 never taAt«-d tbun what I met with someilraes. Tbe tnmariiiils aid literally allowed to rut on tha trees. The mangoes are so cuinmon that they are little re- garded, unless by the ne^^roes, scores of whom are every year carried otf from eating them ere they are fully ripe. Besides the fruits 1 have mentioned, there are tho shaddock, the sur-apple, the uappaw, t!te bread-fruit Introduced by Captain Jtlign from the Houth Sea Islands In I7!in, and a host of others. Wild strawlwrrles are found In the higher parts of the moun- tains. The English apple, also, grows In Jamaica, hut is very dwarfish i nor must I omit to mention the pears, which are not eaten, as with us, as a des- sert, but t<» meali, with pepper and salt I They bear no athnlty, however, to the British pear, hut have a large stone in the heart of them, and the fruit It of a fat tasteless nature, which few strangers relish. I have eaten the ripe Ags from the tree, too t but to ray taste they are nothing to tw uoniparod lu their green to their preserved state. The cocoa-nut tree takes, 1 believe, tully a doxen vears ere It begins to bear. While the nut Is green, and ftefure the white kernel, or rather coating, begins to form on the Inside of the shell, the c«vity la quite Ailed with a watery liquid of a sweet rich taste, which Is reckoned very nourishing. I have taken an Kngllsh pint of this liquor from one nut, and drunk It t There Is a great similarity of appearance between the palm and the uuciw-nut trees { and although the former is the statelier plant, the branches of the latter excel It In freshness of cohmr — bright green. There Is no scarcity of kitchen vegetables In Ja- maica. The potatoes endeavoured to he raised there are. as In all tropical climes, very bad — small, waterv, and waxy. The want of them, however, Is amply made up by the yam in the mountains t and In the seaports there Is at uU times a plentiful importation of potatoes fnmi Ireland, Ilrltiiin, and America. There are green peas all the year round, and a nume- rous variety of small delicate beans. A plant called oallalifo grows wild, which Is much used In the in- terior, and resembles exactly our spinach in taste, colour, and medicinal properties. I'erhups I should iiUn include the plantain among the vegetables for table use, as It Is used instead of loaf-breud at all meats by the planters In the Interior. There Is a rihit. tiNi, called the cassa, which In its green state Is rank poUon, but, when dried In the sun and pounded, makes a white and pleasant cake. One of the greatest treats of the vegetable species which I met with among the mountains, was, ' the garden marrow,' which, when sliced down and fried, bears the nearest possible resemblance to a rich, well-c»uked pancake." INSECTS, BEPTILE9, DIHD8. One of the most annoying pests of the West Indies Is the myriads of ants that every where swarm as well within as without doors. There are innumerable varie- ties of them— 4ome black, some brown, some large, and some very small. But, likuull the other creations of Pni- vidence, these little animals, whidi, hysome superficial writeis have been called tho " plugue of th«) West In- dies,*' prove of the most beneficial consequence to the health of the island. They are caruivorous, and pre- vent the accumulation of putrid animal matter. Their scent is remarkably acute, :ind a dead fly, wasp, or even mosquito, will not lie on the flcK>r for two mi- nutes, before a procession of ants will lie seen issuing from some distant corner of tho apHnment, who drag otf their prize bodily to their store-house, to be con- sumed at their leisure. Perhaps the greatest annoyance experienced by new settlers in those Islands is fnmi the httee of the mosquitoes, although these animals are not nearly so formidable there, in size or sting, as on the South American continent, in tho laiter they are so dread- ful a plague, thtt pwiple obliged to steep out of dthirs can ottly Ant) protection from the smoke of rank and green weedi* thrown upon a fire to windward of them. It) the Islands, however, they are bad enough, in all ouusuieuce, and a new settler may olmost be re- oofnlsed f^rom the blotched and awelled app—raaw of his foot, hand*, and auklea— In short, every yon of bis person expoacd to their venomous proboecM. Thayn- •embleemacllymir Briilsk midge, and are In faetoftlM tame fiunlly of Ineteli. Afterashort rtsldenee, they oease to be any annoyance to Kuropeans, who bfl«om* callous to their stinga, and whom. Indeed, they coMe to Ax upon after getting (lull of their rich Kuropmn blood. They do not at all trouble the negroes, wIkmu oily skins are Impervious to their stlngt i they am most tormenting during the nighl, and, to guard against their at'acks, gauxe curtalna ar« hung round the bed of every respectable Inhabitant in town or oountrv. The process of gottlng Into bed without admitting auv of these tiny persecutors, Is on* requiring fTeat dexterity, and not a little scIantlAo manceuvr- iig, as will be seen hv a most humorous description, given hv Captain llaall Hall In the third sedea of his eiitertarnlng " Fragments ;*' and which, although ap- plying to the eastern hemisphere, la equally appricable to the west. Another of the pests of the West Indite Is the chi- grt, a small Invisible insect, which enters the skin, and, unless extracted speedily, breeds the moat dis- gusting sores. They atwuiid chlcAy on the coffee Elantations. After getting into the fleNh, they will atch a colony of young chlgres In a few hours. They will not live together, but every chlgre seta up a se- parate ulciir, and has Its own private portion of pus. Their presence Is known by a sharp Itching of the part. The cockroach Is a large and disgusting animal, but hannless. It resembles our cricket In appearance, and abounds In thousands. One of the miMt singular of the animal phenomena peculiar to the West Indies, arc the Are-files. The light emitted from their ImkUcs Is phosphorescent, and only glows during the night. " I was in the habit," says a late writer iii our Journal, on Jamaica, ** almost nightly, of enclosing a doxen or more of fire-files un- der an inverted glass tumbler on my lied-room table, the light from whose bodies enabled me to read with- out difticulty. They are about the site of a bee, and perfectly harmless. Their coming forth In more than usual n.umbers lu the oert;iIn harbinger of impending rain ; and I have frequently, whilst travelling, met them in such myriads, that, he the n'ght ever so dark, the pathway was an plain and vlitblfl almost as at noonday. The light toey emit resi»mblai exactly tho lustre of the diamond, and I have betn t4>ld that it is no uncommtm thing for the Creole coquettes to insert a few ofthem, confined In pieces of thin gauze, amimgsl their hair, and In various parts of their dress, just as our belles at hotne avail themsclvee of the Ingenuity of the paste-jeweller." There are few poisonous reptiles In the West India islands besides the scorpion, which is very numemua. It lodges principally alHmt old walls, and the trunks of felled and decayed trees ; its bite always produces fever, and often causes death. There are many varie- ties oi'serf^ents, but they are almost all harmleos. The kind most common In Jamaica is tlie yellow snake, which Is frequently found of seven and eight feci in length. It often comes Into the houses; and one of them is reckoned an excellent prize by the negroes, from the great quantity of oil It yields. One of the most common of the reptile tribe Is the lixard, exactly resembling the alligator In shape. These animals are to he seen frisking about in thou- sands thronghiuit all the Interior, especially about the public roads. Home of them are two feet long ; and many of the inhabitants consider them a great deli- cacy wheu stewed. Their flesh Is quite white, and resembles that of a chicken or rabbit. Amongst the nu}^t destructive of the animals which infest the We»t Indies, is the rut, which is very Ihrga in size. The history of this animal Is somewhat pe- culiar. It WHS introduced Into several of the AVest India Islands about fifty y^ars ago, by Sir Charles Price, for the purpose of extirpating the native rat. This it soon did most efl'ectually, but at the same time overran the island Itself, proving by a thousand de- grees a greater pest than their predecessors. They annually do great damage to the cane-grounds. One of the first animals which attract the attention of a stranger in thu West Indies, Is the large carrion crow, called by the negroes the " John-crow," It is a large, heavy, stuggish bird, about the size of a British tur- key, the head exactly resembling that of the latter. It is black in colour, and In the interior is seen flunt- ing at an immense height above every hamlet. Its sense of smell is so keen that it will discern the efilu- vla from the body of the smallest dead animal at se- veral miles* distance, and has been known to scene the dead bodies in wreckt when the vessels themselves were out of sight of land. They are found so bcMC- ficial to the h^th of tho island in thus consuming all putild animal substances, that a fine of a doubloon ( L.5 currency) is exacted for the killing of every one of them. M*heA sickness prevaiU in a house, these birds perch upon the roof even in tho midst of towns, whore they will remain for many days, asif waiting for their loathsome banquet — In the same manner as sharks are Mid to attend sick ships at sea. SLAVES AKD THE SI.AVE-TRADE. 8o much has been said of late on the subject of slaves and slavery, that wc C4miiider it necessary to give only a brief detail of the origin and history uf that abominable aystem, which ii now happily lu vUe i! CHAMBERvSS INFORMATION FOR THE PROPLK. INWMH *f talaf ullMsUlud fur nm, ll UB<|ii«k ikimMy nmktti lu *n< fi«M ImintiM iiu\t lk« rn>«H4 !•• Mckl irliM U k«rr" *• mtalfMt • *»• i-iitt 4bUk* M ikU MmliiMd latu oT th* wrMobtd aMmm. W* IU •iw^ hoa *>» nMA* "I Im> cMMry, l»i—t, ny M»»* " ■■■Mraww w«r« ntida w Ik* koaw g»n»ii— » ky M traMa i but In »lu. la 1774. u ■ fiMtt a wM lat ia Juitloa, rwululkmi w«ra fiinri la Ika affiM Ikal Ik* " l»d« lo Afrln r»f >terai WM iMllkar mhuImwi witk —»md p»Uct, Ikt («Myaa*>r», nariaanlllr." In lli< uom ywr tba looai bflilaMafa fuu t Uwt raMrletiiiii Um Irul* i liui Ika nMnkaaU In Mtlat, Lirtnaai, Umtoi, ■n4 iha iXkar irnTtif*"* r«rl* in Knchad (whooi aloM ih* iraO* vat Mirleklnt), raliwl nidi m oulsry, iku ik« mliUilrjr nfiuad lo nuify lb* colonial lav. In lalu of Ikia waal af lympalky la Briula, bolh for tha laal- Ib||i of Ika aakailaM, and Iha auflkrlan ol lk« D.ia> Ahkiaaa, va Dad ika bnaar aTiarwarJi doing all in Ikalr foirar M 41aaoBta«a tka IraMe, and raaalna lawi from ilnw to lima fur amalloratinK Ika condlUon of tkair ilaraa. A batlar faalinc aoon bagan la tprln* uf in Britain, and, in 1771, Ika Am (raai blow waa glraa lo tka tyalaai of alarary, liy Iha dad- alon at Lord ManiAald, ihu " na Man HtH It a ilmtn uftK limekini At uM itf BriMn." From ihl« lina fonraird, ika adroeaua of ika abolltkm of Ika tlaia. trad* kaaaaa* arary day bmw* nuawroua and aatkuii- Mtic, anongal itkoo, Mr OrasTlUa 8karf and Mr ClarkaoB vara Ika aMailadafatlgakla. Tbaaaaaprln- rlplaa apraad abo rarMly ikrangb olkar eounlriaa, and ■oalaUaa war* fcnaad lo nwaoM ih* CkriilUn objost. Br Ik* soamaaaamanl of I7y tka Ul» Mr Wllliar. fore*, «ko aaana, ualU Ikan, to kara ukan liilia fuHie InUiait In tk* nallor, Inlroducad ika lulijaol lo ika kooM In a i p aae k of lar** and a kalf houra hmy, and by propoaing Iha aniira alwlltioii of ika alara-lrada in a aarlaa of Iwaira rawlutlon*. Tkaa* wan tapporiad ky Mr Pill, Mr Kox, Mr OranTlUa, Ac. Tka kouia want into commiitar, wliioh ■« and adjonmad f»oai lima lo lima, until tlw yaar i;»l, wkan tka bill fuandad on Ik* raaolullnol wai thrown out by *nlmmaBt*BuiJorlly(*mon«a«lka(brainoalnf wkom it in h* found, enriinuly mougk, tk* naai* of Lord Jiphn Ruaaall). At Ika aaaw lina, a proapaotlra and inda- AbIU motion forlkaprarfno/ nbolition uf alarary, pro. poacd by Iha lata Lord Mal'illc (than Mr Unndu), waa carried by a imall majority. From thla lima for- ward, an almoil conliiiual ilriifCKla wai uirriad rrao- lutlnnt, thai tha alarp-trada U abolithad within a liT.:;H pariodi but the bill founded un tham waa thrown out by tlic Homo of Ixirdi. The death of Mr Fill In 1000, tkouKh it deprived tharaiuanr oneof III warmeal iuppcirtera, brmq^ht in a minialry unnni. moualy faroiirabla to it i and. lo the lama year, a bill wai accnrdlni(ly paaMd, alwllthlng for arer Iha luhu. man Iraflic of impiirtlng ilaroa fmol Africa, and iiegoriatloni war* at the tama lime upeuad with fii- reign oiiinlriae fi:.- co-operating in luppreatlng ll. The carryinif of thi« gi-eai meaiiire aatii«ed the friandl of emancipation for lome time i liul, of cinirta, in the eyes of humanity, the art could only be re. girded ai a preliminarv itep to the culiro ealincliciii of alarery llaelf. It la needleaa here to rarlew the Tarioua efforu made in Parliament of l»te yeart with tbia riew, aa the nation may lia isid to have lieei perfectly unanimoua In the praiieworthy caiiae, the only difference of opinion beinjf aa tn kow and ultn tucn a maaaure oiignt to coma into effect. SuMcs it toaay, tklt, on thaaial May IISW, a aeiiea of rcio. lutiima ware propoaed to tke Hmia* of Cummona by Sir Hunley, aecretary fur Iha railuniea, of tlie follow. Infc purport 1—*' 1. That immediate and effectual mea. •urea bo taken for the enllr* abolition of ilavery ihronghout the coloniea, under auch prorialoni for rfitulatlng the condition of the negroei, aa may com. blue thair welf*r« with the lntere.t» of the proprie- lori 2. That it ia eip«dl»l to aJrauie, by way of loan, to be raiaed from time to iliiie, a tuni nut i-xcciidiug in the wlmle Still IA,OUU,OIIU. Ill ll* repaid in inah manner, and al of Inlaraal, aa ahall b* praaurlbod by Par- pecuiiarly grallfylag lo know inaiit of Ihla graal oajael aaam dial ciMiperailon from moal of i auvh rata liamanl.— k. Thai kia majaaly ba'auakbd to ilafray any luck axpana* k* may liiour lu aalahllahlug an aM. • iMirillMndiary aaglalraay In Iha aulonlaa, and in aiding UM kwal Uglalaluraa I* pruiiding fur tha rail. {[bma and moral aduoallon of tk* liagro populalbin la M efflanclpatod." Tbeaa raaoliitlona, with rarlniia alfaratloni and ad- dlilnna during Ik* diacuaainna irkick MIowad — ika meal imporuni of wkick waa Iha aubitilullon uf »y\fl u/ L.lin,INM>,OIMI fur tko prariimily proptiaail limn of LlS,IMMI,0«k-wai« alllaalalr earrled, and a bill fuandad on Ikaai (nally paaaad both liouiai, and ra- alvad Ik* rayal a w iai on tka Mih of July, ll la * now thai tha accompllih. ma to have mat with cor. r ration from moal of tha oolonial lagiilalnraa, ibjectlon baing la ih* appranllaaaklpalaoa* — aaveral of tha lalanda prafarrlag ImamMoM aaaonel. /MiMnn to the priiapaeilva term. Hecaul araonnia kav* lirmifht th* plaaaing Inulllgenc* of ik* paaaing of tka emanripallun ael by the Aiwmbly of Jamaica on tka IStli l>ec*mliar IHM| and aa tha other coloniea will dotibtleaa follow iha axaropla of the principal laland, w* ihall h*ra glr* an abridgamaiil of the land, lug proTlilona of tka act t..- " From Iha lat Auguti IBM, the alarm, aged ill and upward!, ara to iMcom* apprantii'ed labimrera, Willi. lut any formal Indenturaa. — Tha alavea are dl. vlded Into three claaaea i Fraidial lahou/era, ampiuyad on Ihair maatara' landa i Prwdial litliourera, employed on other landa t Non.prwdlal la'Hnirera. — Tha ap. pranllcaahipa lo ceaaa in Augual UNO, and tha huura of labour not to etcaed forly.ftve houra lu th* week. Non.prvdial apprentlcaablpi lo waa* lu 18311 — Mai. lara to lie liable for tha malnt«nauce of diackargad la> hoiireri above flfly, or ihoae that ara diaablad. — Ap. prenttoc* may ptirchaaa their diacharga, wltboiit con. aani of Ihe maater, by paving the appraiaed value. — Tha value lu lie appraiaed by thraa. Juaticea of peace, who ara to order auma advanced on the aecurily of the negro, to b« paid out of tha purchaae. money — No apprentlca to be removed from tha laland, nor to an. other eatate. If the removal aeparntea lilm from hia wife or child. — An einployer'a right bi an apprenllce'a labour may lia Iranaferrea by bargain o<- aale, but f». millea not lo lie aepirated. — The employer bound lo lupply the apprentice with id, cluthea, and medl. cine. — Children under twalva, ,io;liuy ra. pidly declined. Even after the war-.-r .I'HSjd, Jl direct Ititerciiunie hetwran the ttrn r na Im'rdlcted ; and the planteri have ever aln(« been tt.r.iiiallad lo aupply thnmaelvei with lumber, alavea. I^utir, and otharaof thelrmnat indi»penaablearlirlei, b^adlllant royag* from our llritlah American cnloiiie*. Thia moal nnualural ayitem of policy ii the main cauae of the praaant depreaaed itate of the ^V'eat Indlea. ** All clrcnmitancea,** aaya Mr Edwarda, ** neccaaarily and naturally lead to a commercial lnter."our«e between oiir lalanda and the United Sutea. It la true we may niin our ingar cidonlea and ouraelvea alao in the at. tempt to praveiit it, but It la aii experiment which fiod and nature have marked out aa iinpoasibie to aucceed. Theprettnt reitraining xyttrm ig/nrtiitUing mtn to help racH other ; mm who, by their neifntitirt, their cfimafe, nitd thrir produetioiiM, are ttanding in perpetual need iid*r Ih* pr«a*ni lyiMaaaf pall*Ti lad**d, ll I*b» torluna Ikal ikaa* An* lalanda to* anry day itaktaa loniin. Tk*pl*nl*n*r*t*Mlntaa*Tatdaklyda*rar and daeuar In dabi lo Ik* awrahaau (wka ara ikair li*nk*n), Inin wkoi* kand* ikair aalalaa ara gradually paaaiag, and lk«a*, tuny muat of amm* k* ruiaad k* bavlag Ikalr fund* lunk In arapaillai yialdiag n* r*. turn, ll ia lo b* kop*d that Ik* lat* likaral aa« af aoMnelpaiiun ia onlr Iha arallmlnary la a more likaral ayiMai uf iw ani ar u lal patley. TALUS or ixroBTa aim inpoaTi. Total oAlolal rain* of Impona from Ik* Wt*t India eolmila* Into ik* Tn'-taid Kingdom, and aspona lolk* Aar Ik* y*ar IBWi— . tarn* from Ik* Mm*, I Antigua Imaiifla. . 4WMm Kaporta BarhMloaa . 48*,fU »m,tm Ihimlnlea Ul,»ll •7,d7« liranad* . . iu«,ais w,oia Jamaica 3,741, I7» *.7«i,4n Montaorral dO.OM a,sot Navli 7S,17» IMS HI Kltfi . . in,am »7.1S4 Ml Luola I»7,»SII »I,SM Ml VIneenI . 4U,MII M,MI Tobago Tortola A Virgin IM.3M si.sm lalanda 33,143 ft,OM Trinidad . . 004,001 381,077 Babamaa I7,0I« »I,AM Ilarmudaa . 4,WI M,817 I)em«rara . I,7m,40t SOt,lM II*rblo* . 31«,0SI ai,M7 lluuduraa 1M,7W 7W,17« Toul X9,087,SI4 £B,A1I,IM raoniTCTiom. Account of the quantlllei of the three great arllclai uf ingar, coffe*, and mm, Imported from Ik* Britlik Waal Indlaa into Ika Unltad Kingdom In Ih* yaar 1830 ^ Ciilonlaa. Antigua Barhadoea Dominica Grenada Jamaica Moniaarrel Narla 81 Kill'* ■ Ml Liid* Ml VInccnl Tobai lago Tortola for VIr. gin Iilanda Trinidad Babamaa Bermudaa Deniemra Ombio* . fata. iirs.lba. lA«,tlll I 10 3a«,«8l II M,06S M 113,100 I IS 1,3711,347 3 1 10,fl4« 17 M,33« 1 11 13a,4M 31 R0,»7I U 10 NI,MI 'i 03,471 1 4 Iba. 141 334 I,Olfl,H»l 18,MI 1»,7(MI,«03 i,301 44 113,117 114 Ram. Ptunf nl. 1M,AI4 1,S»7 30,311 i0B,wn a,ll3,M)3 ' 40,070 61,143 110,700 11,817 173,101 418,810 17,000 3 7 lM,«tl7 10 1104 1 13 7no.1l8M 9 12 110,1)87 1 11 A A4,IM>1 IUA,ICt7 3,447,426 1,RI8,UUV 11,041 l!lHI7 I,8IM«,7I0 184,618 Total ' 112,(118 3 11 17,418,877 <1,7A1,7»7 rori'i.ATiox ur aarriaii weit ixDiair coLoHiEa. WhMM. (laa roldiirwL BUvea. Total. i i i \ i i Mill ft (tilonln. I 1 1 Kniialt. s a. ** Aiillgua Bartadoaa I.KO Ml I.Mn L.tM U.lM 13,773 33,714 7.MI 7,ulii *.»» « IW 37,«)l 44,all 111 «» i.mi «,iw la,KM Qranada ana ti« II.1UI i.nH li.lM Jaimka ( :i7.i'u in in 310 m •,1I17 3..'U 7.416 7l« n.oni 4.S7t l.uia s.ao H.ltM 111,113 man «i ini 1.711 t.ni •.aw 7.31,1 l»,3»l aw 4M \jatl \.ra 477 em II.WS IWMl »7.7i« Toluao Toilula (or Vlriin Isltla. \nioiuta au 17 WITH I4,wa n» iia ua 7W >.ila ?•"? 7.171 UM HEl IJO 177 T.KU H,XVJ i,.'N« l,HU3 13, Kl i.im >,.'HI S« 4.10 1,9m 9.*>l J.liai IMI i,KU 3,iai '>7.I4I li.aiu X,3» Uvrtilw o 1„ (IH« and Smith, Palcmmur Bo", ton Son iSd Vovi,,, ,ml <■.„».«,.«»«, IJublin. Sold b, Jola. MaelecMi. tiUi^w, mid all other ttookmUcn In beoUand, to, laud, and lieU'id.- I'ubli'l'e'l onr* a fonnl«b'. t'luio It f *uatr. Pie»» of W. uiid R. tramuer* V CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BV WILLIAM AND ROUBRT CHAMBERH, EDITOHN OK THE <• BDINBUROU JOURNAL" AND " IIIHTORICAL NEWHI'APER." No. 97. Paioa I^W. THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. \: Thk AmartcAn War uf Iiid«|>«nilinc« \t ut •vtnl not BMrly to funtlUr Hi the prtMni f«Q«»liun uf th« Brlllih pvoplei m, from Iti lmp()rUno«» U ought tu hv, II Is 0110 of thot* tmniaclloni whkh aro lulflcietitly ramoM to \m bayond th« panonal kiiowMf* of th« paui f ganvratlun, anil yat nut remot* titough to havB baoom aiubjact for «ilb«r|K>|mUrur tlaMical MttUtry. Hanca, that Amarica did randcr hurulf indrpandant of Oraitt Brllaliii U tha iiini of knowladfa which four ttut of Ava pariuiii In thii country ara found (o potMii upon tha lubjaot. Tha cauiaa of tha war, iu Irani- actloni, and Ui cUmbi io happy for Araarioai and lo diiaatroiii for Oraat Britain, ara oirviimiUncaft of which few iwraoni hava more than a ilrfam.llka notion —though nuthiitfT can ba more cartaiu than that thii war hat caarctiad ao influanca upon tha furtunei and daftlniai o( every modern nation, and even, parhapa, of avary clviliied man now exiitlnff. In our artiula on Dritiah History, the objects and circums|>ni'as of tha contest were adverted to, but, necessarily, in too 'brief a manner ta convey a full idea of their sigiilA- canca i we shall now endeavour to make our readers acqusinted a little mora eitansivaly with the affnir, by preBflittIng to them a narrative iIlKhtly abridged from an American work, the title uf which is quoted below {* only premising, that some allowance must bo made for a litUe oulourlnf in favour of tha Amariosn cause, which was perhaps unavoidable in such a production. The narrative has so many qualities suitable to our pur. pose, such as simplicity of an. ''ngement, and a certain amusing quaiotness of style, that we can easily over- look this fault, as we doubt n >t the most of our read- ers will do also. BTATK AKD NUMIl 'R OF THE COLONIES. The colonies which athievad their independence on tiiis occasion ware th rteeii in numlier, extend- ing along the eastern shore of North America bo- tivaen the 8t Lawrem-e anc! the Alissiisippi. Massa- chusetts, including what ii now Maine, New Hamp- shire, Connecticut, and Rhide Island, were togetlirr known, as they are now, by Oia general name of New JSogland. What is now Vernont was tlien claimed by New York. The othei nine colonies were Vir- ginia, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Neww v- seyi Maryland, North and tJouth Carolina, and Georgia. Tha number of Inhabitants in all was not much lass than three millions. As the colonists, or their ancestors, came, most of them, from England, spoke the Knglish language, and lived, like every other paiC of the great British empire, under the Knglish laws, it may seem singular, at Arst, that any thing should have taken place to unite the whole American people in a common cuuse of rebellion, as tlie Knglish called it — or of civil war, as they called it themselves. M'e shall see, however, in the sequel, that, considering the course of policy pursued by the British governmeuti it could not well happen other- wise than it did. Many of the provinces, or colonies, were settled between the years 1(107 and lUltO. At first, the Bri- tish government did not pay much attention to them ; but as thoy increased in wealth and population, they became objects of deeper interest, and the king and parliament passed many laws respecting them. These laws, at a very early date, were framed more for tho benefit of Englsnd than the colonies. But previous 10 the year 1700, they were generally submitted to. About that period, the American affairs began to ba managed in a more arbitrary manner. TAXES IMPOSED ON THE COLONICS. Tlio English thought, as the Americans had be- come a great people under their protection, in some uieaaure, it would be just, or at least expedient, to derive some profit from them. They began to make laws, therefo;^, in patliament, about the time we have just mentioned, to regulate the American trade * The Story of the American nevolution, llliutrated by Talcs, Skstrtns,atHlAncrdntes. By LtmtMrt Lilly. PlillAaelphla. 1831. Thay required tha oulonlita to earry to iha English every thing their rich lands might produca beyond tliair own wants t thai is, if thay exported any thing, it muse ba santtoiha English. The country abounded with fine pastures, as It does now. A great irany sheep were kept by tha farmers, and they r.^ra glad to diBpi>fa of large quantlilas of woui. All this thay ware obliged, by tho acts or laws of parliament, to sail to tha English alone. They were required, also, to buy of tha Engllih whatever foreign cloths or other m'^nufaoturas they had occasion for. Tha colonists ware not much displeased with these ragulatlons, how- ever. The English merchants, richer than themselves, not only supplied them with their manufacturea at moderaie prices, but lent tham large sums uf money, which tne Americans used in Improving the appear- ance and incieasing the wealth of tho country. On tha whole, it is likely that things might have gone on quietly for a long time, had not tha British begun lo lay duties on the American import trade, which was felt as a grievous interference of tha rou. ther country. In tH" ear 1704, this taxing system was re' ... ^ as possible, by the most ri- gorous restrictive measures. From this time, the Americans, some of them at least, began to question t^" opricty and necessity of ubeying a government Luree thousand mites over the ocean. They very generally determined, at all evenu, to purchaso as few as posnible of the English manufactures, and lo make as many and as good as possible for themselves. In Boston, especially, a rich ond large town, even then containing more than 10,000 inhabltfintSj the people were exceedingly dis- satisfied with the new laws. Tliey had botight, and used, and sold agnin, rast quantities of English goods ; but they determined, now, either to do without them, or manufacture similar articles fur themselves. They used no more Knglish gloves, for example ; tite practice of wearing mourning was given up. In fact, there was near 50,000 dollars* north less of Bri- tish merchandite suld in this single city, during the year 17ing troubleson e, that GenerHl<.>age was ttbout khi& time, \^fiii, ord< red to station a regiment or two of troopa among tb(!m. A fngate and four ^ *hfr anned Kng. Uth ve^^li were kefit upon the consv to aid the revu- nue-iaen. Meanwhile, as the lovernor hud not yet oalle I together thu Assembly ^ley took the matter into ;hetr own hands. Hearing t> at trtxips were com- ing, they agreed to provide themstivesfcith arms, and to inv>e all the towns in Massach.^spt^' tu seod dele. gates to nittcr at Boftim. Ueputle*. met accordingly, from Un out of 97 to.'ui, Iu Septrmber. Tliey could make no gcod teiras, however, with the governor. The da;- before they left *K< -Uy, the troopi arrived in the harbour. It being apprehended that the peo- ple Tuuiu v.o*. suffer them to land, the fleet, fourteen «nipa .'n all, sailed slowly into the harbour, and ar- ranged themselves, with their- gims pointed, and crews ready for action, so aa io cimimnnd *he whole town. The two regiments landed at one o'clock, and marched into town with great parade. The selectmen were desired to provide quarters or barracks for them, but refused to do so. The r )veruor then ordered them to make use of the 8tate.houne ; and a large guard was ^actfd in front of thai building, now called the City Hall, with cannon at tlie door. TrMITTS IW BOSTOK. Feelings of thu deepest enmity to England noiv grew every day stronger, and the peopU> . nerally ■greed to give up tht use of Kngltsh giNtd; I'liiirelv. In the spring of I770, tumults broke out in Boston betwixt the cttizen.1 and ths soldiery, and continued at intervals throughout the year. The British mi- nittry now aaw they had gone too far, yet they hesi- tated in making reparation. In March I77I, parlia- xnent repealed the taxes on glass, paint, aud other articlee, but retained a duty of threepence n pound on tea. This was a great miAti>ke- and did no good. If parliament had repealed all, and said no more •bout 'Axet, the Americans might still have been sa- tisfied ; as it was, they Wgan to buy the goods of the English merchants again, tea atone excepted ; this they would hare nothing to do with. So matters went on duriag the year I77I. The officers of the revenue were every where despised. In BiMtun, one of them undertook to seize upon a vessel for some violation of law. He was seized upon himvelf by the people, for wliat they tlunighi n violation of law, ■trtpprd, carted through the city, besmeared with tar, uid platterMl over with a coat of feathent. In I77'i| the English government, intending to put down the rebellious spi.it of the Americans, nmde several new laws, wh'ch serve*! only to make them more angry; ^nd they no* began to think of doing •omothing for themselves in earrest. rommitttws were chosen in every part of the cotintry, to attend to public atfairs, and to write to each other. In 1773, large ships, loaded wiih immense r.irgoes of tea, were sent out to America by the East TndU Ciimpany. Bu» 'he colonists managed so well in IMii- ladelpltia and New York, that not a man could )>e found to rrceire lh« Ei.glish tea, or have any thing to do wiib it ** few chests, which one Captain Chamber had br.mght to Fhiladet;ihia, were let down Tery quietly to the tiot*om of the n 'er, by some peo- file who went ilylyon i. 'srd the ship. InCharleston, t was tanded, and liKlged In cellars so damp that It was %tMn spoiled. The people of Boston liMik a keen inurest in this businesi. The English faoon there, 310 when the tea was flrit known to be eomtng, were called upon to j^Ive up all concern with it. 7'hoy made no answer, bst withdrew a* fast as convenient Into the fortress. Captain Ball soon arrived in port with one hundred chestsof tea. The people collected in great fury, ordered him to keep It on board, as he valued his life, and pUced t\ guanl and a strict watch close by the vessel upon (>rlflfin*s wharf. Two other vesseN having arrived, they we'e obliged to anchor by tb side of. llalPs ship. A town meeting, mean- while, was summoned ; and the people agreed to call upon the governor, and request him to have the ships sent off. ^'at t>-d governor weuld do no such thing. A great upro. . began. A person in the gallery of the hall, dressed like an Indian, sh- submiasivo to the mother country. The consequence was, that nut only the people of Boston, but the whole people of America, nortK, south, east, and west, were mure indignant than wer. Town lOeetingfl ^ ) held, days of fasting appointed, and news of the port bill spread over thu whole country. An agreement to stop all trade with Kngland, called the " league aud covenant,** was signed by immcnnc numbers. lIOSTIMTIf.S COMMEXCtlJ, On the first of June I77-I( the port bill was put In force. At tii'd.day, all business cussed In the custom- house, and no v::^oel wis sutfered to enter tlte har. buur. This harsh procedure was the filgnal for civil war. The people provided themselves with ari'-s, former companies, and learned, as fast as possible, the business of aoldiert ; and, being most of them used to buntinp'. they were good marksmen, tipecially with the ridu, a most destnictive weapon. The country now assumed tlie attitude of defiance ; and, in 8ep. tember, th;' first American congress, or a collection of denutiea from al' the provinces, met at Phitadel. phia. These wrre the most reipectable men nf the whole country, und ev^ry thing they did and saiil had a great effect. Among other things, they approved of tleen collected at the last-named place, eighteen miles from Boston, for the American armv, and Oeneral Uage determined to destroy them. Wishing to do it with."it fighting, he sent out BOO grenadiers and light infantry from Boston, nt elev«m o'clock in the evening of the lUth, as hilently as pos- siblr. It was heard of, however. In the country. By two o'chM-k in the morning, VM of the Liexington militia had assembled on the green, at the meeting-house, to oppose them. They were dismissed, but collected again between four and five, ut the beat of drum. By and hys, the 000 British troops came marching up the road, Major Pitcaim at their head. " 1 Isperse, vou relwls 1" cried the major, addressing the militia t ** throw down your arms, and disperse I" They did not disperse, however. He now rode forward, dis- charged a plstoli brandished his sword, and ordered his soldiers to fire. Thevdid so, and threu or four of the Americans wore killed. The soldiers shouted, firi't! Again, and shea proceeded toward Concord. At tlii.t plac? Aey disabled two large oanaon, threw 690 pounds of bn!) inio wcllSf and staved about flO barrdU of dour. They ?red upon the Concord inilitia, and two men were killed; a skirmish followed, aud the English retreated, as i'.:st as possible, to Lexington. The people were coming .'pon them, by this time, from all parts of the country. The British were fised upon, on all sides, from the shads, houses, and fences* At Lexington, where they halted vt rest, they were Joiiuid by iHH) more troops, sent out fro.n Boston un- der Lord Percy. These brought two ca>?uou with them, and the country people were kept back. They still fired upon the troops, however ; and belng^ene- ralty good marksmen, made terrible havock. The regulars, as the English troops were called, reached Charlestown at sunset, and returned tlm next day Into Boston. Sixty-five of their number had been killed^ one hundred and eighty wounded, and twenty-eight made prisoners. Of the provincials, fifty were killed, and thirty-eight wounded and mlHsIng. There were never more than three or four hundred of the latter fighting at one time, and these fought as they pleased, without order. The regulars were obliged to keep in the main road; but the militia, knowing every Inch of the country, flanked them, and fired upon them at all the corners. The news of this first battle pro- dnoed a tremendons excitement throughout the coon* try. The dead were buried with great ceremony and pomp. Great bodies of militia marched towardi Bos- ton. Agrifements were entered Into by thousands of people to defend the Bostoniana to the last gasp. 7be English forts, arsenals, magaaines, and public money, were seized upon by t le people ; and more money waa coined, and more troops were raised. At this period, the Americans were far from being well trained as soldiers, yet they were brave, and the British committed a serious t:rror in despising them. The English nation was at that time, as It is still, the richest on the glo^wi. They had beaten the French and Hpaniards > few yeai» hifore; they had large armies und navies ; and they therefore believed the poor American colonists could no more resist them than so many children. The people of Oreat Britain, In the present day, deplore the fwly which their pre* dncessors committed in thus rushing headlong into a war with the Americans, fur, but lur this act of folly, the colonies might stiU have belonged to the motbw country. rxPEDlTION TO lICONDEaOQA. In Connecticut it was resolved to undertake an ex* pedition to Tinconderoga, a very strong place on lake Chnmplain, near Canada. As this place was full of storen, and stood upon *he great route by which every thing and every body passed between Canada and the provinces, it was important to conquer it. The Connecticut assembly voted KKH) dollars for the pur- pone ; and powder, ball, and whatever would be needed for a siege, was provided. The troop:) assembled with as little display as poa» sible, at Castletown, on the hanks of Wood Creek^ on the great .'oad to Tlconderoga. Some of these troops were from Connecticut, some from the Boston army, and some were people from the Green Afoun- t%ins, in Vermont. These latter were called Orecn .Mountain Boys, and were famous for skill in the use of the lifie. The Ithiders of the expedition against Tlconderoga were Colonel Ethan Allen and Colonel Kaston. They wure joined at Castletown by (.'olonel Arnold, from the Boston army. They marched on quietly, and arrived in the night on the bank of the lake, opposite Tlconderoga. They crossed over and landed on tlie other side, cIoko by the fortress. They entered it under the covered way, by daybreak, with a tremen- dous shout. The soldiers of the garrison were roused, ran out half-dreued, and began firing. A hot scuffle, with gun-breeches and bayonets, hand to hand, en- sued. The commander of the fort came at last. Co- lonel Allea ordered htm to surrender. " To whom ?'* said the officer, in great astonishment. "To the Ame- rican Congress !** said Allen, in a voice oi thunder. The commander saw it was in vam to resist, and so he gave up the fort. Here were found 124 fii'.e brass cannon, and a large (|uanilty of ommunition. A hundred cannon more were taken by the Americans at Crown I*oint, another fort on the same lake, de- fended by a small garrison. HATTI.E or nrSKCK*S HIM,. Meanwhile, the English were skirmishing ^ 1 the provincials at Bostmi. There were some lanjj in the harbour, where ' he English found forage for their horses and cattle. The Americans undertook to carry off these cattle from Noddle's Island and Hog Island, and succeeded, after some fighting. They scoured !*ettick's Ishmd and Deer Island soon after in 'he same tvay. The English were thus put to a good deal of V -uble to get fiH>d, and were ;:hially so much presided by the American army, that General efore mornings Uwy uad thrown u^ a redoubt "bout eight rods i^uar% andi_ till d| redof the i worll the I thed o%[ open I r * 'u or four of "limited, >hnv6«> V> barrafa I "ilia, and '> nod the .exlngton. '■li' lime, ""•re Bted md fcnotfA. they were '"«ton iin- Mon with k. They rk. The . reached •tdayinto iea killed, wty.eighl 're killid, here wen the latter y pleaaed, " keep in very inch 1 them at Kile pro. the coon. nuuvaad irdi'Bot. isandi of >p. The money, niey WW THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. Md 10 Bilently, tl.at the Brftiah knew nothing of it till day-break. The latter, when they diicovered the redoubt) began firing upon the people in the furt; hut th« Americana wurked on, till they raised a breast- work, reaching from the eait nide of the reduubt to * the bottom of the hill. Aft Breed's Hill commandi the city, tlie British saw they must cither lie dri^nen o% or drivci off the proriucials. They therefore opened a tremendous fire from the batteries and armed vessels that floated on all the waters about Boston. Showers of Lomba and bolla were tired. A terrible battery was raised upon Copp^s Hill, opposite Breed's; but all in vain. The Americana worked on, paying little regard to the batteries, and they had tinished a trench, or ditch, befur? noon, which reached to the bottom of the liill. It vvas now the 17th of June, and on this day was fought the famous battle of Bunker's Hill. The Bri- tish were determined to make a great etTort. Tho provincials lay ready fur them on the hill, (ieneral Patnam, of Connecticut, commanded the whole force. Titty had muskets, but few of them bayonets or rifles. They were sharpshooters, ho>vever, ftuu were brave men as i;ver breathed. About noon of a terribly hot day, the whole British camp -.eemed to he in motion. A vast irultitude of ■loops and boatt> started from the Boston shore, cover. ingthe water fur i;nd wide. Tlie sJdlers landed at Moreton's Point, in Charle&town, protected by their batteries behind them. The Americans took this op- portunity to protect themselves stlEl more, by p< ' !ng up some post and rail fenceiT, which they set b«.iure them in two rows, and filled khe space between with fresh hay, which thoy gathered from the hill. The British began to march. The inilltia left to de- fend Charlestown retreated. Tho British entered it, and set fire to the ItuilJiiigs. In a few momenta 500 wooden buildings were in flames. The wind blow high, and tho fire streamed up, and roarbd la the ZDost terrible manner. Thousands of people were gazing at the Kcene, frum the Boston steeples, and waiting with great anxiety for the fate of the battle. There were multitudes, also, on all the high roofs and hills round about. Never wak there such a bustle &nd stir. The English march- ied slowly towards tho redoubt, halting now and then for the cannon to come up and lire. They came, at laiit, within musket-shot; and the redoubt, .vhich had .een as still as the grave, till this moment, blazed ^ all at once with a tremendouc volley. '^ The British were soon thinned off, and compelled to retreat. Many fled for their lives, and threw them- ■elves into tho boats. The green field u** battle was covered with dead bodies. The officers ran hither and thither, to rally the troops, and after some time persuaded them to march forward again ; but the > mericaiiB waited for thei. quietly, ana received them once more with a flood of .>. lis. The British now fled uown the hill to the shore ; ,nd General Howe was alone upon the field; all his officers being kilted and wounded around him. General Clinton, who had been watching the battle from Copp's Hill, now came to his aid with new troops. They made a third effort, with more spirit than before. Clinton led on the whole body; the cannon still firing from the ships and batteries, and the flames and smoke of the burning town sweeping over them like the blast of a fummte. The powder of the American* was now exhauK'^cd, imd they were compelled to draw off. They retired to Froapect Hill, hghting with their muskeu as if they were clubs, and there began throwiug up new works. The Briti*u were eutreuched on Bunker's Hill, and neither army seemed willing to attack the other. Of 3000 British truops, 1054 were killed or wounded. A large part of tnetfe were oflioers. The ■harpshoote*-8 had taken th'j poor fellows -town like •o many gra/ 'iiuirre!s. The Ameriudns luKt five cleces of cannon. Their killed, of about lr>00 engaged inthe battle, amounted to 134; their wounded, to 314. The Battle of Bunker's Hill, as it was called, tt;est men of the country. General Wa^ingtou went directly to the army at Cambridge. He arrived there '>a the 3d of July. Though lie used no parade, wearing only a smul sword at his side, epa'.lettei on his shoulders, and a black cockade on his hat, he was easily known by his fine figure and noble couuteuance. He was treated every where with the greatest respect. Having re- viewed the army, he found only 14,600 men iu a con- dition for service ; these hud to defend a line of twelve miles. They were now arranged and trained as well and as fast as possible, no man understanding this huslne&s better than General Gates, who was an old soldier, as well as AVashington. They had not 10,000 pounds of powder, at this time, In the army, being only nine charges to a man. Had the enemy known this, and attacked them, t'\ey must have fled like a floct. of deer. Great efforts were made, however, and several tons soon arrived from New Jersey. More also was procured from the coast of Africa, in ex- change for New l^ngland rum. This was managed BO shrewdly, that every ouuce in the British forts there was bought up for thu American army. Tlie Massaclitisetts rulers passed a law, aUo, that no pow- der should lie fired at any beaxt, bird, or murk ; they wished it all tu be suv^d for the war. Congress took reasures for the coining of money, and the raising of troops iu .ill quarters. The people obeyed the directions of congress with alacrity. Every man, from sixteen years of ago to fifty, was a member of some militia company; and one-fourth port of the whole, called miuute-men, were to keep themselves ready for action, at a moment's notice. Among other military bodies, a company was formed of eighty old Germans, who had most of .them fought a loag time before in Europe. They were called the Old Alen's Company. Instead of cockades, they wore black crape, to aiguify their so*-rowat taking up arms at such an age. The captain was near a hundred years old, and had hecn in seventeen battles. He had been a soldier forty years. The drummer wh^ ninety-four, and the youngest in the corps was about seventy. . TREATIES WITH THE INDIANS. About this time, congress took the necessary steps to keep peace with the Indian tribes. But they never employed them to fight against tho Kngllsh, though the Knglish hired them to fight against the Ameri- cans. One objection that the Americans had to em- ploying them was, that the Indian way of fighting was entires ;' too barbarous and cruel to be suffered among civilised people. Another was, that they could not be depended on. 1 hey were greedy for wage?- '" so deceitful that they could not be safely tnist 4K story told of a serjeant, who travelled thr/^tigh the woods of New Hampshire, on his way to the American army will show the character of the Indiana : — He had twelve men with him. Their route was far from any settlemont, and they were obliged every iiight 1 ncamp in the woods. The serjeaut had seen a grod deal of the Indians, and understood them well. Ka.'ly In tho afternoon^ . neday, as they were march- ing on, over bogs, ''wamps, and brooks, under the great maple trees, a body of Indians, more than their own number, rushed o-u upon u hill in front of them. They appeared to be pleased at meeting with tlie Serjeant and his men. They considered Uiem, they said, as thblr beat friends. For themselves, they had taken up the hutchet for the Americans, and would scalp and atrip those rascally Knglish for them, like so many wild rats. " How do vou do, pro ?" (mean, ing brother), said one ; and " How do you do, pro ?" said another ; and so they went about, shaking bands with the serjeaut and his twelve men. They went off at last; and the serjeant, having marched on a mile or two, halted L'^ men, and ad- dressed them. *' My brave fellows," said be, "we must U8e oil possible caution, or, bef -e morning, we sb:ill 1.11 of us be dead men. Vtm are amazed ; b.A, depend upon )ae, these Indians have tried to put our suspicion to sleep. You will see more of them by and liye. ' They concluded, finally, to adopt the following scheme for defence. They encamped for tlie night near a stream of water, which protected them from behind. A large oak was felled, and a brilliant fire kindled. Koch man cut a log of wood about the size of his body, rolled it nicely uu in his blanket, placed his hat on the end .if it, and hud h before the fire, that the encinv might take it for a man. Thtrteen logs were fittei) out in this way, repi ^sealing tht^ser. jeant and hix twelve men. They tbet placed them- selvee, with loaded gi.ns, behind the :i. t'\ tree. By this time it was dark, but the fire was kept burning till midnight. The serjeant knew that if the savages ever came, they would cjmo now. A tall Indian was seen, at length, through the glim, niering uf tl fire, which was getting low. Hl moved cautiouBlytawardsthem,8kulk'n^ ax an Indian always doci*. He seemed to suspect, at flrst, that a guard mi^ht be watching; but, seeing none, he came for- wart. more tnildly, rested on his toes, and was seen 10 move his finger, as he counted the thirteen men, sleeping, as he supposed, by the Are. He counted them ngaliK aud retired. Another Indian came up, and did the same. Then the whole party, sixteen in number, came up, and glared siiently at the logs, till they seemed to be satisfied they were fast asleep. Presently they took aim, fired their whole iiumber uf guns upon the logs, yelled the horrid war-whoop, and rushed forward to murder and scalp their supposed victims. The terjeaat and his men were ready for them. They fired upon them; aud not one of kUe Indians was left to tell the story of that night. The Serjeant reached the army in safety. Treaties having been made with the Indians, con. gress recommended that the 20th day of July 177j should be observed, in all tlie provinces, as a diy of fasting and prayer ; and it was so. The people were every where disposed to implore Heaven to prevent war, and to soti^.i the hearts of their enemies. In Philadelphia, congress attended church in a body. As they were just entering the house of worship, they received news from Georgia, that this province had at last concluded to join in the common cause, with the other twelve. Until this time, the people there iiid srid and done but little, but they determined new to make amends fo. lost time. DECLABATION OF U1GIIT8. A declaration uf rights was soon after written by congress, and sent over every part of the country. It gave a history of the wliole difficulty, from first to last, between England and America, and ended with an account of the burning !K>d to leave Williamsburgh, and fearing that it would not be safe for him to remain upon the land, went on hoard a royal armed vessel. Having collected a fleet, he resolved tu harass the Virginians as much as possible, if he could not govern them. He was joined by all the torles, that is, the Americans who favoured the English. He laid waste the coast at various places in the most shocking manner, mur- dering and burning like a pirate. He burnt Hampton, on the bay of Hampton, among the rest, an ' under- took to establish his camp there. Butthe Virgiuiant soon drove him back upon the water. He then de- clared all the negro slaves to be free, and invited them to join him. A few of them succeeded iu doing c >. He landed again at Noifolk, where tbe tories wi^ij numt^rou t ; and a battle was fought, a few miles frum that city, at a place called Great Brid^'e, with a rugi. mp.'.t of Virginia militia and minute-men. The go- .ernor had only 200 regul »rs about him ; tbe rest was a mere mob of bl.ck, white, and grey. The flrst attrck was made by the British on thn American entnincliment. The battle laBtcd some time with a gui d deal of spirit. At last the British captain was Iil>ed, and the troopb fell back upon tbj bridge. 1 aegovernnr did nut like flghtlng; so, dur- ing the bat';le, he contented himself with looking on at a distance. The negroes loved fighting as little at the governor. They found it by no means pleasant to have their flesh cut to pieces with bullets ; so, after a few shots, tbey ran away a> last us they could. The governor also thought it best to retreat, and, accord- tngly, he and uis men went on board of their vesselit :'l ^sa^sm CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. % Thii fcffmlr did not nerve to iweeten Oovarnur Dun- more*! temper, nor did it put him in m better humour to And that his friends the torie« at Norfolk had b^n handled roughly by the people there, after hit retreat with hit negro alliei. He now returned into the bay with a ihip of war, and lent a mwtage aihore, de- claring, that unleM the people furniined him pro. riiioiia, he ihould batter the town down about their •art. They refund to tupply him i so he ga%'e them notice, ill the morning, t4i remove the women and children ; and then, with hit own iloop of war, the frigttte Liverpool, and two corvettei, he biased away Upon the place, till scarcely one ttone was left upon another. The provincials, to disappoint him of his provisions, burnt the whole country round about. No- tiling was left for the governor, and so he went away. rKOCSEniMos ix the soutiiesk states. In South Carolina, Governor Campbell arrived at Charlestown from England, about the same time with the news of the Ijexingtnn battle. The people were on their guard, and he tried in vain to get the better of thfm, by inviting the tories to assist him; but the tories were afraid to do so. He Iwgan to ba frightened m little himself, being a man of less courage than Go- vernor Dunmore ; so he said little or nothing for some time. To unmask him, the American leaders sent privately to him one Adam Macdonald, captain in a militia raiment He called himself Dick Williams, and offered his services to the governor. The latter was delighted, and told him ^ his plans. Having heard them attentiwly, Adam went away, and tnlil the whole to the persons who employed him. They immediately sent a conimittee, Mscdonald among ibe number, to waitupim his excellency, and request him to show his royal commission, if he had any, as go> vernor. He declined this proposal. There were some hints then thrown out about putting him in confine- ment. These came to his ears, and he retreat«d, with very little ceremony or delay, to an English corvette, Muwored in the harbour. The assembly requested him to return ; but he refused. Nothing more was seen of him, or his government, in Charleitown. The toriet were numerous in other sections of the province, however, and he mustered them together in great force. The people were alarmed. The militia were ordered out, and the two parties were on the eve of an ciiragement. But at lenf^th the tories were dis- |>er«eir, and they gave no more troubfe at that time. The provinniala in South Carolina coutinueil to be very active. They captured Fort Johnson, on James's Island, in Charlestown harbour, and placed batteries on Point Uuddrel. The KuKlish ships were at last driven off. The next thing with the pwple was, to send an expedition after an Kuglish vessel laden with powder, which was anchored on the bank, called the Bar of f$t Augustine, a town on the coast of Kast Florida. She was taken, and 15,000 pounds of powder were carried to Charlestown. In North (^rolina, the provincial congress raised 1000 regular * '*-tia, and 3IMH) minute-mcn. The Eng- lish govern jfartin, disliked the appearance of things, and endeavoured to muster a force of the Irish and Scotch part of the ithabiunts. He also fortified hit own house, at Newbcm, with artillery. The peo- ple seiaed upon his cannon, and he fled to a furtupon Cape Fear Kiver. The provincials n.arched after him, led on by Coliwel Ashe. He retreated on Iniard a vessel, as the other governors had Jone. Colonel Aihe burned the tort to ashes the same > 'v}\t. The assembly declared the governor a trnitor. He an- Bwered them in a very lon^ letter, whiih tliey ordered to be burnt by the common hangman. A larire quan- tity of hall and powder was found in his cellar and gardens at Nen Sern. In PennsylvaLta, the people prepared actively for war. A single ' 'tM, near Phflndelphia, manufnctured Ave hundred pounds of powder a.week. Oovernnr Tryon, after endeavouring a hmg time Co manatre the piovlnce, folip'^ed the example of the other govprnnrt. In other parts of the cnnntry, the enemy was nut ■sleep. One Captain Wallace, commanding an Kng- "■■ fquadron of small vesoels off Hhnde Inland, whs «.i>ing all the damage in his power, by ravaging the coast, and making priie of the merrhant vesseli. His chief object seemed to be, to supply himRelf and his force with provisions. With this view, !»e made a furious attrrk upon the town of nHiilol, and fired, from tAorning till night, tipnn iheir houRes and churches. He bored them through and through, till, finally, the people Mipplied him and his squadron with freili meat, and he sailed away. A)»oiit this time, a body of American troops were sent from Alasia^'huiietts to Uhi «fe Island, under tie. ncral l work early the next dav with his cannon. The town had lieen twice sacked by the Indiana;' but never suffered sq severely before. EXrEDITIOH TO CANADA* Tlie most important affair of this nar wu an ex- pe Mtiun to Canada. The provincials had done so well upon lake Champlain, that the scheme of another ex- pedition in the same quarter was much approved of. Congress hoped, that, if C/anada was invaded at once, many of the inhabitanu Would join the Americans. Three thousand men, commanded by Generals Mont- Stmery, Wooster, and Schuyler, were fitted out. oats were built fur them on the lake, at Crown Point, and the sum of A0,'}00 dollars was collected to pay the expensaa* Goven .or Carleton, of Canada, entrenched himself with * strong force at the entrance of the river Sorel, which leads out of the lake, and which the Americans would be obliged to pass. The latter took possession of an island in the lake, at the mouth of the river, and from that place planned an attack on Fort St John, where the governor waa. This fort stood on the left bank of the Sore), and commanded the passage to Canada. The Americans moved oii without cannon to m swamp within a mile and a half of the fort. They defeated a bodv of Indians who attacked them in crossing a small river, waited for re- inforcements, and laid siege to the fort. Farther north, on the Sorel, was a small fort called Chambly. The English had no idea of the prov - ciais passing St John to fall upon Chambly; but they did so, took the garrison prisoners, obtained 124 b:ir- rels of powder for the siege of 8t John, and sent the colours they had captured to Congress. Other detach, ments icoured the country between the Sorel and the St '^awrence; the Canadians supplying them every where with arm:* and provisions. Just at this time Colonel Allen and Major Brown undertook an expedition against the city of Montreal, which sundson an island in the St Lr «rence. Allen found boats ready for him at Ijonguei .lie, and creased the river in the night, below Montreal. Here Brown was to have joined him with his troops, but missed his way, and Allen was left, with a small force, in the neighbourhood of the citv. It was just sunrise. The murmur of the city was heard at a few miles* distance, and by and bye the roll of the English drums came upon the ear. The Americans now saw that they were discovered. Before lung, a column of British infantry came marching down the bank of the river. There was an almost hreatl'-!t;ss silence in Allen's small baud as they came up. Even Allen himself stood fast, and gazed at them. ** To the boats ! to the boats!" cried a dozen of his soldiers; '* there*a a thousand of them.*' *' Silence 1 every man of ye !" roared Allen, brandishing a huge horse-pistol. ** The first man that turns his hack upon the red coats, shall smell gunpowder." They were satisfied with this ar- rangement, on the whole, examined their rifles, and stowl ready fur the onset. "Sundyour ground, boys!*' shouted Alljn. A partv of British soldiers wm mov. ing t(. vardR them from the main IhmIv, at double qtiick time. *' Let them come !" cried a tall, fine looVing hunter 91 his side ; " 'et them come !'* He brought his rifl', to his eye, as he spoke. *' Fire t" shouted the Fritiih officer, and instantly the hunter dropped dend at the feet of Allen. His hardy followers shrunk back. They were sprinkled with the blood of the pour hunter. " Fire I fire !'* shouted Allen, with a voice of thunder. They fired, and a hot kklrmish commenced. Several of the Kngliih fell, and several of tlie Americans i others fled. Some defended them- selves behind rocks and trees. Allen was at last left alone, surrounded, aud compelled to surrender. He btu»b^ a fe tears away fur the fate of hit friend the young hunter, and marched on with the English. He was kept a prisoner more than two years, and then was exchnnged for some English 'vfficer, whom the Amerirani had taken. The irons pat upon him were so faiti-n<>d about him, and to heavy, that, for a bing time, he I'ould lie down only on his hack. A chest was his seat bv day, and his bed by night. He wns sent to Kngland, to be triedasaprituner of state, not us u fair and open enemy, but as a rebel. At this time, sll the Americans were called rebels, and the Kngilkh used to speak of hanging great numbers of them when the war was over M'e lert the Ainericans Iwsieging Fort St John, on the left bank of the river Sorel. They continued the ■lege, while the expeditions were going on against Fort ( linmb'y, nnd agaiuht Montreal, aa we luve de- scril»ed them.' After the capture of Allen, however, ] Governor Carleion, who had gone to Motiticitl, col> Ircted about UOO Canadians, Indians, and Knglinh re- I gulars, iind started off irotn that place, intending to raise the siege of St John, and compel the Americans to abandon it. But the AmeritHUS were always on thb watt'h. They thought it probable th^t the gover- nor would set out about this litne, and wire rendy fur him. He embarked his iVMi men in a large number of iHiats, aud undrrMxik t4>croiiRthe St Lawrence, pre- cisely wbfre Allen had cntnseil it, at l/ongueville. But Colonel Warner, with 300 Green Mountain sharp- shooters, and a few cannon, lay among the imshcs on the river bank, as the governor's boats came over. The Americans waited quietly till they were fairly within reach, and then poured out upon them a tre- mendous vulley of grape-shot. Ti.o governor's party retreated in great haitei with tottm loss of liven and nothing more was seen of them. News of this defeat soon came to Major Preston, the British commander of the besieged fort of St John. He began to think It a desperate case with him, and soconcTuded to sur- render to the American general, Montgomery. This he did on the 9d November 1770. He had held out like a brave man, the siege having lasted six weeks. The Americans found in this fort seventeen brata cannon, twenty.two iron ones, and a large quantity of balls and bombs. The powder had been used to the last kernel, and the provisious to the last morsel. The capture was an important one. St John, stand, ing on the Sorel, which leads from lake Champlaiia to the St Lawrence, commanded the passage to and from Canada, and waa therefore called the key of Canada. The next movement of the Americans was to take MSMtalon of the mouth of the Sorel, where it empties into the Sc Lawrence. The point of land which it formed by the meeting of the two rivers, was fortified with batteries, which swept the river in such a man- ner, that no English vessel could pass, without being bored throuffh and through. As the St Lawrence ii wide here, the Americans provided a fleet of boats and floating batteries, to guard the other side, and thua completely stopped the passage up and down that river. Just at this time, Governor CarUton bad left Mon- treal, which stands farther up the St Lawrence from the sea, with a fleet of English ships under his com- mand, and without having heard of these fortir-'»- tions. What added to the difficulty of his situation, was, that, the very day after he left Montreal, another body of Americans, under Montgomery himself, ap- peared under the walls of that city, and called upon the people to surrender. This detachment had march- ed acroaa the counlrv from Fort St John. The land it flat and marshy, and their Jouruey had been slow and difficult. It gave them great satisfaction to hava reached Montreal just as the governor had gone off with his force. The city, having no defence, waa compelled to surrender. General Montromer^ treated the people so well, that they supplied him with soma clothes for his troops. These were very much needed. It waa now the middle uf November, and they were weary of a long, cold march. Some of the sr'diers, during this severe journey, would have gui^ I>ick i- their snug homes in Vermont aud the other provit - < ; hut General Montgomery divided the c^ l' *» uv them, and encouraged them to proceed. Governor Carleton was now unpIea^ i >. . on the river, with Montreal, In tho po« >'vmi>.w of Montgomery, above him, and the fortifications at the mouth of the Sorel below. If he could have been taken, all Canada would have been easily conquered; but he contrived, one dark night, to pass through among the floating batteries, in a small boat, with the oars mufRed. Thus he escaped safely to a town on the northern bank, called Trois Kivieres ; and from that place he went to Quebec The English fleet, which the governor had left behind, surrendered to the Amerienns in a day or two, with a large nttmber of soldiers ttnd oflicera aboard. General Montgomery left garrisons in Mon- treal, ant* Farts Chambly and St John, on the Sorel, to keep the Indians iu awe, and marched on to Que- bec, with a small force of three hundred men. Arnold's expedition to quekec While these things were ^ .ing forward. General Washington, In Ms camp at Oiimbridge, hail conceived the plan of sending an expedition against Quebec, by way of a rough wild route, known only to the back- woodsmen and hunters. This was through the dis- trict of Maine. He selected ('ulonel Arnold to com- mand the expeditif)n — a rash but brave man, who had assisted, ns we have seen, in the cnptureuf Ticon- deroga and Crown Foint. Fourteen ctmipanies were put under his c-ommand ; three of riflemen, and one of artillery, under Captain Lamb, being among the number. In all, there were about eleven hundred men. A few others joined them uf their own accord ; and among these vulunteera was Aaron Bur, after- wards vice- president. He waa then twrnty years uf age. Maine is crossed, from north to south, as a map will show, by the river Kennebec, rising in the mountain* between Maine and Canada, and empt)ing into the Atlautii: Ocean, nut far from Casco Buy, near a town now called Bath. On the other side of the same mountains, and dose, therefore, by the small \ipper streams ol thb Kunnehet-, another river rises, called the Chaudiere. This emp:ies into the St Lawrence, nearly op}HMite Quebec. In crossing these mountains, Iwtweett the sources of the two rivers, on tlie two sides, it is necessary to paas verv «teep and wild places, over marshes and toncnts. No human ^:.^•g dwelt there then, ..od nobody lives there to tf>.s day. Such was the nni'.e Arnold nnd his brave soldiers wi*re to travel. He left Bonttm in September 177'^< ^"^ >^i'- rived at Newhuryport, near the ti.otiih ul the Alerrl- mHC The vessels that waited f.ir him here conveyed him ami bin men to the mouth of the Kennebec. With a fresh south wind tbeyNttil''d up the river fifty miles, t» a town called (Urdiuer. Here werr two hundred batleaiix ready fur them. These wsre long, light, flat boatH, much used by the Canadians, hunu eis aud others, in hitoal waU'rs. Having Indeti these with hli arms aud provisior.i, Arnold prot^eded up the river to Fort Wenter, on the right tiauk. ilere he divided his corps InK) f Mt« detachment*. Th« rifleil as al fordJ crosi are f aooof boatl banlT are i and I Al aftef ter 1 botti hou| dan iinl^ Jim the! bant arm! wiie naviKable, on ecoount of ihoaU, falU, or rocki. The lading of the boata mint therefore be carried forward upon •the banki by hand, or by beasu of burden. The batteaux are then carried on aUu, till the river becomes deeper and imoother. Arnold*! keoond detachment marched the next dajr after the Artt, and the third detachment the day al- ter that. The current of the river was rapid, the bottom rocky, and utten interrupted by falU. Kvery hour, the water entered lome of the batteuux, and damaged the provii>ioni and arms. At every porta^'e .—and these occurred very often — the boats were to be unladen, and carried on the shoulders of the troops. Ju pluceh where the river wai rapid, yet free of rocks, the Imtteaux were hauled up slowly by soldiers on the banks, who dragged thcin along with ropes. The army, however, aWunced, and at length they had wild mountain* to cross, steep precipices to climb, vast shady forests to pass under, and quagmires to wade through. They had alio deep vallies to traverse, where the piiie'treea were tossing over their heads in the stormy wind, and where the river was rushing and foaming over the rocks with a noise like the ocean. They were sometimes a whole day in travel. Ung four or tive miles, with their baggage laced on their backs, and axes in their hands to hew a road through the wilderness. Some of the men died at last with weariness ; many others fell sick ; and all of them were at length surely pressed for food. Many a young soldier, as he lay down at night, hungry and tired, on his pillow of green boughs, thought of the warm bright tireside where a mother was weeping for him. But these thoughts were vain. They rose in the morning, and pressed on patiently, brave men as they were. By the time they had reached the sotirce of Dead River, a branch of the Kennebec, their provi&ions were atmoHt exhausted. The soldiers were living, or rather starving, now, upon the poor lean dogs they had taken with thorn, and even this food was a luxury. At this place, Colonel finos received orders from Ar- nold to send back the sick to Uoston. He took the opportuniv/ to return himself, with his whole detach- ment. He was afterwards tried for this desertion, by a court-martial, and acquitted, for the reason that the men must otherwise have starved. But Colonel Arnold continued to march on. For thirty.two days, not a single human dwelling was met with. The army arrived at last upon the mountiiins, between the Kennebec and the Chaudiere. The little food still left was divided equally, and then the troops weredi- rected to look out as they could fur their own living. They discovered, finally, with inconceivable Joy, the sources of the Chaudiero, and the first log.hout>es of the Canadians. These people received them well, and assisted them. Arnold addressed a proclamat on to the Canadians, waiteil for his rear-guard to overtake him, pressed on, and arrived, November 0, at Point Irfvy, nearly opposite Quebec. The people of the city were as much amazed at the sight of him and his men as if they had been so many goblins. The Knglish colonel, Klaclean, had heard of their coming, however, by a letter, which Arnold had given to an Indian on the Kennebec, to carry to General Hchuyler. The Indian gave it to Maclean, and the latter removed all his batteaux from the Point l^vy side of the river to the other hank. The wind blew a gale, too ; and so the city had time to prepare for defence. Alt the people of Quebec were immediately armed, and brought within the walls — soldiers or nnt sol- diers, Kii(ecember 1776. after » weary march inim Montreal. The weather was "jcessively cold, and the roads were blocked up with si. iw. His force was about three hundred men; and never were peo- ple more delighted to (>ee each other than were these three hundred and the little band of brave fellows who had followed Arnold. Montgomery hai' brought iiluthlng for the latter, and they stood in gieat need uf It Indeed. ASSAUt.T or QITEQKC. The ■oldleri now marched in &)mpany, and arrived 213 ill sight ol Quubeu on the fiih. A summons was sent to Carleton to surrender, but he i>rdered his triHips t4i lire upon the bearer. Alontgomery then planted a buttery of six cannon within 7^0 paces of the walls. They were laid upon banks of snow and ice; the pieces were small, and the Are had little effect. The snow had now fallen in huge drifts, and the weather was excessively cold. A council of war was called. An immediate Msault on the city was resolved upon. Two detachments, under Montgomery and Arnold, were to attack the walls of the lower part of the town. This taken, the rest would probably submit without fighting. On the last day of the year 177^, between four and five in the morning. In the midst of a heavy snow. storm, the American columns advanced. An Irish captain, going his rounds upon the walls of the town, observed the guns fired by the Americans as a signal, and at once caused the drums to beat, and roused the garrison to arms. Montgomery, with fait detachment, passing along under Cape Diamond, came to a smalt battery of cannon. The guard threw down their arms and fled. Tlie Americans had nearlv taken posiession of it, but the road was impeded with immense masses of snow. Montgomery with his own hands opened a path for his troops. Two hundred of them came up at last, and rushed on. Juit then, a cannonier, who had fled on seeing the Americans halt, returned to his post at the little battery, and, taking a match, which happened to be still burning, fired a cannon charged with grape-shot. The Ame- ricans were within forty paces. Montgomery dropped dead upon the spot, and his troops soon fled. Arnold had made an assault, meanwhile, at another point ; but he soon received a musket-ball in the leg, which splintered the bone ; and he was carried off to the hospital, almost by force, as he was unwilling to quit the field. Captain Morgan, with two companies of riflemen, now advanced upon the battery. His sharpshooters killed many of the English through the embrasures. The guard fled. Morgan rushed forward, and some prisoners were taken. But here the courage of his troops failed them. Morgan alone stood firm. As the morning dawned, he rallied his riflemen with a voice of thunder, and they rushed forward. A detachment saliied out upon them, at this moment, from the walls; and the English cap- tain summoned them to lay down their arms. Mor- gan aimed a musket at him, and shot him dead. The English retreated ; a hut skirmish ensued. Some ladders were planted against the walls, but a terrible fire was poured down upon the men who attempted to ascend them. A detachment of the British now a>> saiiited the Americans on another side, and they were compelled at lant to surrender. Arnold, with hts remaining force, retreated three miles from the city, and entrenched himself. His subsequent operatioas we shall notice by and bye. Go- vernor Carleton kept within the walls of Quebec, sa- tisfied with waiting till reinforcements should reach him from England, in the spring. So ended the fa- mous assault upon Quebec PROCEEDINGS AT BOSTON IK 17*6. Having given some account of the most important events ofthe year 177^) the first of the war, we come now to 177^. In the winter and spring of this year, Boston was still surrounded by the American army under Washington. The British in the town, mean- while, were roduced to great extremity. For fuel, they \i8ed the timl>er houses, which they pulled down for the purpose. They were In want of food, and some armed ships were ordered to Georgia, to buy up rice ; b\it the people of that province opposed them with so much success, that of eleve;\ vessels, only two got otf with their cargoes. The Old South Church, in Washington Street, was entirely destroyed inside, and used as a ridlng-room for a regiment of dragoons. The pulpit and pews were taken out, and the floor covered with earth. The framework of one pew, carving, silk-furniture, and all, was taken out, and used fur a pig-sty. The North Church, so called, was entirely demolished. All this time, notwithstanding there was much suf- fering in the town, the English otficers and the loyalists contrived to pass the time, v/\wn they were not fight- ing the Americans, in dancing, and other amuse- ments. They had a small theatre, and, in the evening of Febniary Bth, were acting a farce, called ** The Blockade of Boston." One figure, meant to ridicule Washington, was ligged out in the must uncouth style, with a large wig and a long rusty sword. An- other character was an American serjennt in his country dress, with an old gun on his shoulder, eight feet long. At the moment this figure appeared, one 1 of the British Serjeants came running on the stage, and I cried out, " the Yankees are attacking our works on Bunker's Hill." The audience took it for part of the play, but General Howe knew It was no joke, and called out, " Officers, to your alarm-posts t'* There was some shrieking and fainting among the ladies, of course. The American army, at this time about Boston, was but little better provided for than the English. Manv fell sick with fatigue and exposure. They had provfsitHts enough from the country to he sure, while the English tninjis were said to be living wholly on salt meat, and the Boston loyalists upon horse-flesh. But the whole tuimber, in January, was redacod to lets than ten thousand ; jand these, having enlisted for a few iiiuiitlis unty, were every day going home. At one time there were hardly men enough to i.mn the lines. As for powder, they had but four rounds to a man, and but four small brass cannon, and a few old iron pieces, full of holes, with the woodwork broken olf. They were fitted into logs, like the barrel of a gun into the stock, and lifted up and down, and wheeled about in this way, but to tome good purpose. The British kept up a continual cannonade in return; firing about two thousand shot and bombshells, it li said, in the course of a few months. But the whole of this firing killed only twelve Americans. We have mentioned the miserable condition of tba American army in the early part of the year \^^G^ but they soon after received five brass cannon, small arms of all kinds, cargoes of provisions, tt.c. These were all captured from the British off tbo coast by American privateers. Privateers are armed vessels fitted out by private individuals. PBOCEEDINGS IN BRITAIN. In England, the year 1776 opened with new reiO> lotions, on the part of tbe ministry, and the majority of parliament, to continue the war. The party called the whlgs were violently opposed to it; but tbe tories, the mlinstry, and king, regarded the Americans as rebels, and resolved to spare no pains to punish them severely. They found it difficult to enlist soldiers ia England, for the war was unpopular with the lower classes. Recruiting officers were sent about, the royal standard was raised in all the cities, and large boun- ties and wages were promised ; but to little purpose. In Scotland, some thousands were raised ; and a bar- gain was made with some of the small states of Ger- many, for about seventeen thousand German troops* These we*, e called Hessians, because a part of them came from Hesse. BOSTON EVACUATED. In the meantime, the American army at Boston b««an to form plans for seizing upon the town, for taking the British garrison prisoners, and for deutrov- log their fleet in the harbour ; but they kept quietly in their quarters till March 1770, the British nov and then sallying out on the American lines. At this time the red ground of the American flag was changed, and in place of it thirteen blue and white stripes were inserted, as nn emblem of the thirteen colonies that were united in the struggle fur liberty. These stripet are still retained in the national flag. There was something of the same feeling in con* gress as In the army. Stimulated by the conduct of the king and parliament, they resolved, from this time, to follow up the war at all hazards. Hearing that an attack would be made upon New York, they urged General Washington to press, as closely as possible, the siege of Boston, so that the British might not be able to spare troops to send against New York. He wished to attack the town at once, but most of hit generals opposed this plan, and he concluded to for- tify the Heights of Dorchester, which command the entire city on the south side. Heavy batteries were opened from the American works in Cambridge, Rox- buiy, and Lechmere Point. The bombs fell into the town every hour, and houses were constantly set on flre by them. All this was to employ the British upon that side, while the Americans, on the night of the 4th of March, secretlv marched over Dorchester Neck. The frost rendered the roads good ; and such was the silence of the march, and the tremendous roar kept up by the batteries, that two thousand troops passed over, with three hundred loaded carts, and nothing was known of it till morning. Had tbe British suspected this manoeuvre, they would have taken measures to prevent it. By four o'clock in tbe morning, two for- tificatlons were raised upon the two heights. A ter- rible cannonade now opened from the British forts, and the shipping, upon the American fortifications on Dorchester Heights. But few men, however, were killed ; and the Americans worked on in high spirits, taking no notice of the cannon-balls, as they came, ploughing the ground about them. General Howe saw that he must either leave the town, or dislodge the Americans from tne heights. He resolved upon the latter ; but a long storm, and a very high sea, prevented his troops from crossing over. He finally concluded to give up the town, and trans- port his whole force to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, knowing that his shipping might be prevented from passing out of the harbour by the Americnu fortifica- tions, he prepared a great mass of stuff for setting fire to the town, and then proposed to Wai^hington and the selectmen, that if his troops were suffered to pass safely, the ttiwn should be left standing. This was agreed to. He had lAO carrying vessels, called trans- ports, in the harbour ; and' he embarked on board these, with all his force, on the I7th of March, taklr.g with him 1500 uf the Ami end English rein- forctfments were expected every day by the governor. An attack was made upon Quebec, hut it failed of success ; and Arnold was now obliged to break up his camp and retreat, leaving his ha^'gage behind. Go- vernor Carleton pursued, till the Americans reached the muuth of the river Sorel. Im CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. About the Ust of May, KiikHiU forc« arrived at Suebeo, amounting to 13,0(HI men, commandwi by urgoyne, PhiHius, and a German general, called ReideMl. Arnold, meanwhile, wan iklrmishing with the Canadian* and Indians about Montreal and the Sorel. In a short time he went dowu the St Law- rence to Trols Rivieres, where there wan a large body of Engliih. Ha expected to surprise them in the night, but was misled by his giiide ; and when he arrived, late in the morning, the enemy was drawn up iu buitlo array. A ikimiish began, and the Ameri. cans were defeated. They fled over a wild, swampy country ^f woods, leaving many prisoners behind them i and having crossed the St l*awrenre, at last arrived at fort St John, on the Sorel. The English jmrsned them to this place. Arnold's force was too nnall to resist a siege. He therefore set fire to the niagaziiie and barracks, and retreated further south 10 Crown Toint. The English, having lost their batteaux, cmild pursue him no farther, and soon after retiiroed t^i Quebec The Americans, under Arnold, had suflFered exceed- ingly iu the retreat. They sometimes wuded iu tlie wmtcr ut the waist, and dragged the loaded bntteaux up the rapids by main strength. Two regiments, at «ae time, had not a single man in healui ; another had only six, and a fourth only forty. On the first of July, they reached Crowr Point; and thus ended the oourageous but uufortuuate expedition to Canada. During the RUmmer of 177li, Crown Point wua taken by tlib Uritish, and the Americans, now commanded by General Oates, withdrew to Tioonderoga. A fleet was built on the Uke, atSketuiborough, consisungof a aloop, three schooners, and six gondulas, which are Urge iiut vessels. They carried, iu the whole, more than 100 guns, and more thau 400 men. Arnold commanded the fleeu By the month of October, the British had collected n much larger uaval force { and as nothing could be donov by wuv of invading the proviuoes from Canada, till lake Chamulaiu should be cleared of the Ame- ricans, they sailed up the bk«, vid engaged them. The two ileeU fought till uight. Amuld then very •kilfuUy made his escape, and, iu the morning, ni>t mu Americsui vessel was to be seen. The British fleet folh>wed on, however, and found them again ofl^ Crown Point. Some of the American vessels escaped to Tioonderoga. Seven of them remained. They wei« attacked, and the action cuntinuud srt suddeiUy stopped. Their powder was exhausted. The enemy ihouglit themselvei sure of the victory, %nd the ships mcived nearer, with their flags flying, And their drums beating. But tlie Americans were aoon supplied from the shnre, and the battle IsKted, Itotler llan ever, till seven in the evening. The Eug- lish drew off in tlie uight, and the enterprisu was abandoned. This defence of Fort Moultrie was uue of the most galUnt actions of the war. The British pUn now was to direct the whole English force upon the province of New York, and to make it, with the city of New York, the centre of alt their operations in America, ^rom this point tliey could march south upon the southern provinces ; here they could retvive stores from Knglatiil by water, and provisions from Statf.i and Long IsUnda; and here they could ascend the Hudson, and meet Burgoyne, in his route soutli from Canada. DCCLARATIOM Ol INm.rKNIlEKCE. The revolution bad now reached a point from which it could not turn baokward. Tha feelings of a great part of Uie people were alienated from EngUnd, and a deep hostility was planted in their JMisoms. They had originally asked for justice, and that was denied. Uppresaioa followed, and that they rwusted. Then cam* the British armies with fire and sword, to oon- ■uma thdr dwellings, and shed their blood. A hiffb-apirited j>eopl« were not likely to look tht Iheae things but with rvsentmeut. Their love and resiwt for Kuglaud w(*rt> uritjiusHy very strong. 'Hi These, Indeed, lasted up to the period of which we are now speaking. But now all thoughts of reconciliation were abandoned. The people no longer asked for re- dress ; thev cast rff their u]le}?iance to the king, and determined to bo free ; the "spirit of *70," which is often ulluded to, was thu earnest voice of n nation, re- solving that tht'y would risk every thing for inde]>eQ- denco. In June 1770, congress hr : "hoson five of their members to consider the grea: >\uv..- ion, whether the provinces should declare themseu.j a frte and ind£- wndent nation. These were Je/Tursun, Adams, Frank, lin, Sherman, and Livingston. They reported iu fa. vour of so doing ; and congress agreed with them. Independence was solemnly declared on the fourth day '.( Julv. The declaration was written by Jef- ferson, and signed by John Hanrook, presiduaU It was then olgned by every •■♦.hor member of congress. The people received and read it with great joy. Independence was procluiinod, with great parade, at I'hlUdcljihia, on tne nth. Cannon were fired, the Iwlls ning, Imnfircs were kindled, and the petmlo seemed to be mad with joy. On tb^^ 11th, tha declu- ration was read to each brigade of the Anwrlcan army, then assembled ut New York, and received with pro- digious peals of applause. The same evening, the sta- tue ef Gettrge the Third, erectetl in 1770, was dragged through the streets by the ** sons of liberty," and the lead it was made of was mtUed into mubket-balls. An immense multitude at Palltmore received the de- claration in the same manner, the air ringing with shouts and the roar of cannon. The kiug*s efBgy wns made the sport of the populace, and burnt In tlie public square. In Bost4in, the declaration was read from the gallery of the State.house to an immense crowd, gathered from all quarters. Men, women, and children, assembled to hear It, and erory moment the air resounded with the shouts of the multitude. The troops were drawn up, splendidly dreued and armed, iu King Street, which from tnat time was called State Street. Tito bells rang, the people shouted, the cuuuou thundered and bU/ed, and the striT'* '1 banners waved from the steeples, till the whole air .. i to be alive. Iu the evening, all the en- sigi- t "'ngllsh lions, sceptres and crowns, whcL. : <•. painted, were turn in pieces, and burnt i: 't. Such wii. taration of independence, and such the mannei v .ich it was received by the Ameri- cans. They had now decUrvd themselves to the world as a free people ; but ero their freedom could be esta- lilihhed, tWey had yet to pass through a long, bloody, aud dukoiating war. AWERICANB tETMKAT riOH NEW YORK. General Washington now occupinl New York and Long Island, which Hm a few miles from the city, with seventeen thousand troops. On the 'Jid of Au- gust, tho English Unded, in great force, on the island, and a very hot battle was fought among the hills and woods. A whole regiment of fine young men from AlnryUnd wvre killed, some cannon were lost, and the Americans retreated to the northern part of the island. Hero the stormy weather kept the enemy from attacking the camp again. But, fearing an as- sault every moment, the Americans concluded to pass over to the island of New York, and join the rest of the army. This was done In the n{|iht of August 20. They kindled up circles of bright fires in their camp, to deceive the enemy, and started olf fn their lK>ats at eleven o*clock in tlie evening. The fleet of boats mnved oflT from the shore like an army of ghosts. Not a word was said — no drums t»eat — no bugles rang— uo colours waved in the breeze. A fair wind favoured the tnmps ; they crossed the water like birds. In the morning, at eight, when the ftig cleared up, whidi had covered them iu the passage, and the sun shone nut bright and warm upon the green shores, the wooded hill -tops of the islands, and the smoi>th surface of the bay, the American army had vanished. The camp was deserted, the fires had gime down, and no- thing was seen but a few distant iKiats which had come back for the cannon. Previous to the retreat of the Americans, aereral skirmishes were fought betweei' the two armies. Two fortii, one iHilouging to the Eunlish, aud the other to the Americai t, were within half gun-shot of each other, and were only separated by a small creek. It was at last agreed Wtween the British and American uthcers, that the sentinels should nut r.ie upon each otber as they went their rounds. So they became very civlL *' Give us a uuid of your totiacco, my good fiieitd," cried the English guard to the American seutiuel. '* Oh, certainly," said the latter. He drew his twisted roll from his pocket, and tu&i«ed it across the creek to the Euglishman, who gnawed off a quid, aad threw it back sigain. The British army now preued the Amerloans with great activity ; the latter were driven back from point to point. They left tlie city of New Vink at last, aud the British entered iu A few days after, a ter- rible fire raged in the place, and consumed more than a tliousand houses. Tlie British supposed the inha- bitants had set it on tire, aud were so angry as to throw some of them into tha flames. mSTaESSKS op the AMKMirAN AMIiT. Washington now retreated into tbe back country. The British sooured the Pnivlnae of New York with tlifir troops ^ud coverm] all the shores with their vessels. Several strong forts were takeuj together with their garrisons. Nothing could ba done to opir pose them. The Americans were now much dis« coun^d. General Washiagton, with his arrav, marched into New Jersey, and atte.nptod to harass tne British army there, under CoruwaUis, But they were too strongs and Washington was obliged to retreat night and day i over mountain and valley, he fled before them. Th« time the militia had enlistbu ii*r was short, and many of them went home. Whole companies deserted, and the army was so small in December, that Washington know every man by his name. They were so aeariy naked and ragged, too, and looked so miserable, that their owu countrymen would not join them. Large numbers wout over to the enemy; but AV'ashiiigtuu remained firm and undismayed. While uther minds were shaken with doubt and feur, he remained stead- fast and resolved, looking deeply iuto the future; and placing his trust in Heaven, he seemed to penetrate the clouds that shed their gloom upon the land, aud to see beyond them a brighter aud a happier day. lie always appeared before his soldiers with a smile, and fought or fasted with them, as necessity required. He inspired all around him with courage, and wrota many letters to congress, entreating uiem to make great exertions to send him assistance. Accordingly, t^" , endeavoured to rouse the country ^ by represeuUug to the jteople the necessity of an immoa'ste increase of the army. Thisappeal was not without its elToct. Philadelphia, iu a very short time, furnished Washington with a regiment of lAOO men, who were resolved to support him to the lasL They had been accustomed to the gay company and high living of the dty; but they shouldered the musket, sUpt with a mere blanket around them, on the froxen ground, or in sheds and barns | and suffered every thing with the poorest of the armr. The British now withdrew into winter-quarters. They occupied the villages for many miles, up and down, on the eastern side of the Delaware, with their army. Washington was below tliem, on the othw side. But they were tired of pursuing him ; and they believed that his army would soon dwindle away, and the whole country )>e conquered. They scarcely took, the trouble to set guards at uight; but Washington watched them like a lynx. On tho night of Decenv- ber Sdth, he crossed the DeUware, again, with a lai^ port of his army. Tha night was dark, stormy, and cold. The river was crowded with broken ice, rush- ing t<^ther, and sweeping H^wn upon its swift cur- rent, but, notwithstanding these diflicuUies aud dan* gers, the river wfs paued by the American troops, and they roarr\ed on to Trenton. They entered tliat place at eight in the morning. A large body of Hes- sians were stationed there. They were completely surprised; but they fought bravely for a short time* Five hundred cavalry made their escape ; but some flue cannon, and mora than a tliousand prisoners, were taken by the Americans, Comwallis, who lay a few miles on, thought so little of the American *' ragamuf-. fins," at this time, tliat he mistook the noise of the cannon at Trenton for thunder. The British army were amaxed at this unexpectad event. They moved and marched about, but to no purpose. Washington started off for tho mountains of New Jersey. The British were close upon his rear. They encamped so near him one evening, that they thought it impossible for him to escape. They put off attacking him, however, till the next morning. The Americans kindled up their fires, as usual, and marcluHl off at one oVlock, without noise. They reached Princeton at daybreak, and fell uuon the Bri- tish there so suddenly and so fiercely, that sixty of them were killed, and three hundred taken prisoners. Their communding oflicer had bad some fears of an attack, and had written to the commander of the Bri- tish army, a day or two before, for a reinforcement. " I)on*t be alarmed," was tbe answer ; *' with a cor- poral and six men you may scour the whole country ; don't Iw aUrmed." They found themselves mistaken, however, as we have seen. Washington now formed a camp at AlorrUtown. Militia came to him from all parts. The splriu of the people were raised. They had imagined that nothing oouid «xinquer the Germans, aud were afrai'i of them as of wild beasts. Indeed, these soldiers had acted like wild beasts. They had ravaged the country iiku so many highwaymen, plundering, burning, and mur- dering. But tho people found now that they were men, and that they could be killed and captured, as large and fierce aa they looked, with their immense swords like scythes, their tall caps, and shaggy whis- kers. The British themselves treated their prisooars with cruelty. Hundreds were confined in the New York prisons. They were >ifteii insulted as rebels. A party of them was once brought before General Howe to be tried. An English gentleman pleaded their youth fn their favonr. " It won't do," said tbe general; **hang up the rascals! hang them up!** They were only carted through the streets, however, seated on coffins ; halters were tied about their neckf, and the British soldiers booted at them. BBITiaU KHfLOY THE IMDKAMS. While these things were going on, late in the year 177ti, at New York, Sir Peter Parker scoured the coasts of Khode Island with a large souadron, and overran the whole province. Meanwhile, a man of the name of Stuart was sent by tho British among tha India the oti persuaj upon n Ugei, a lugj oountif mndtU frUht^ Itol Indiaif way afl vithtl the col throuj LittleJ rushiif was sf whooif The! iier, heads! hawkl cried r few ta their I manl bedii than India ofthd Flokcl and •■ now r more toma there dian bolle waai tree, been nnd thed Indl fired offii A Kon tied whei inha Briti deep THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. Indiana in the high wild lands baclc of Virginia, and th« othtr loutbsrn colonies. The CheroKeei were persuaded by him to make war ; and thev rushed in upon the settlements uf the whites, bumiDg the vil. leges, and scalping men, women, and children. But alarge American force soon marched into their own country. Their wigwams were burnt to the ground, and their com.fields trampled under foot. They were frightened at lant, and begged for peace. It once happened, during the expedition af^ainstthe Indians, that, the Americans having mtirclied a long way among the hillsy Major Flclteus was sent ahead with twenty-fire men, as a scooting party, tu examine the country. One morning, as he and his party waded through the tall grass on the Ifunk uf a stream called Little River, more than two hundred Indians came rushing out on a ridge of land just above them. Never was such a horrid noise heard as the Indian war- whonp. The woods sounded with it far and wide. The Indians were dressed in the most frightful man- ner, with their faces painted, long feathers on their heads, guns swinging in their left hands, and toma- hawks raised in tnelr right " Let us scalp them," cried the Indian leader to his men ; " they arc too few to shoot." But Blajor Pickens was prepared for their onset His men were sharpshooters, and each man had his rifle. He ordered them not to fire until be did, to take sure aim t and, having fired, to bury themselves In the grass, and load their rifles. The Indian chief soon came up within twenty.five yards of the little band, yelling and shaking his tomahawk. Pickens stretched out his rifle, took a deliberate aim, and shot bim dead. The twenty-flve brave riflemen now fired. The Indians fell on all sides. They yelled more than ever, with fury and terror, dropped their tomahawks, and fell back among the trees. Kven there the rifles were too sure for them. Not an In- dian could show himself over a log or a rock, but a bullet instantly whistled through him. One of them was seen running his gun through the roots of a fallen tree. A riflemau aimed at him as coolly as if he had been a wooden mark, lilt him precisely in the nose, and laid him flat on his back. Another Indian lifted the dead body, and was running off with it — for the Indians never leave the dead— when another rifleman fired, and killed bim. Dozens of them were picked off in this way, and the rest fled. A few such skirmishes as these made the Indians aeon tired of fighting the Americans, to which they liad been instigated by the Urilish. The next year, when an attempt was made to set them upon the white inhabitants along the frontiers, they replied to the British emissaries, that " the hatchet was buried so deep that they could not find It** ACTIONS IN 1777. In the spring of 1777* General Howe amused him- self by sending out detachments from his camp to ra- vage various parts of the country. On the *JGth of April, Governor Tryon embarked at New York with a detachment, sfiled through the Sound, and landed at Fairfield, Connecticut. They marched through the country In battle array, and reached Danbury in twenty hours. As they came, the few militia who were there fled at fuU speed. The British began to burn and demo- lish every thing except the houses of the loyalists. Eighteen houses were consumed, and 800 barrels of pork and beer, 2u00 barrels of flour, and I70O tents, were carried off or destroyed. But the militia now began to muster from the country round about At Ridgefield, General Arnold blocked up the road in front of tho British, who were now returning. He hod with him a^'out 500 men. These brave fellows, who had marclied fifteen or twenty miles In the rain, kept up a brisk fire upon theenemy^ as they came on, and stood their ground, till the British formed a lodg- ment upon a hill at their left hand. They were then obliged tu give way. The British rushed uu, and a whole ptatouu fired at General Arnold, who was not more than thirty yards distant. His horse was killed. A soldier advanced to run him through with bis bay- onet; Arnold shot him dead with his pistol, and escaped. The British lost more than two hundred men, but made good their retreat to the Sound. Con- gress presented General Arnold with a fine war-borse, richly dressed, fur his gallantry. By way uf retaliation, on the 24kU of Alav, Colonel IMeigs, un American, crossed the Sound with I70 men in whale-boats, and fell upon tho enemy at 8agg Har- bour, OD Long Islaftd. They burued twelve vessels, destroyed a large quantity uf forage, killed six men, and brought off ninety prisoners, without losing one of their own men. Tney returned to Guilford, hav- ing beeu the distance of ninety miles in twenty.five hours from the time of their departure. Congress ordered an elegant sword to be presented to Colonel AleWs. Washington, in the meantime, with an army of fifteen thottsand men, was so strongly entrenched among the hills, that Howe dared not attack him. The ■ummer was therefore spent in marching to and fro in New Jersey, without effecting much. But in July, the British mustered a force of sixteen thousand men ftft New York, which they soon after left, with a large fleet An attack was expected every where upon the coast ; but no one knew whither they were bound* Having been off at sea with high winds for a long time, they entered Chesapeake Bay at last, and landed At Turkey Point. 21A They left that place, September 3, and, marching towards l^iJadelplaia, came up with Washington** army nt a place cOled Chad's Ford, outhe river Brandy- wine. On the Ilth they had a warm Bkirmish, and the Americans were driven back. Congress removed to Yorktown, Virginia ; and Howe entered FhlladeU phia. in great triumph, September 26. The Americans ware defeated again at German- town on the 4th of October. The battle began early in the morning, when nothing could be seen farther than thirty yards. During the whole action, which lasted nearly three hours, the firing on both sides was directed by the flash of each other's guns. The smoke uf the cannon and muskpt^'v, mingled with the thick fog, rested over the eruiies In clouds. W ashiugton retired into winter quarters, at Valley Forge, sixtep;* miles from Philadelphia. His army might ha' e been tracked, by the blood of their feet, in marching, without shoes or stockings, over the harti frozen ground. Thousands of them had no blankets, and were obliged tu spend the night Hi try- ing to get warm, instead of sleeping. Tbey erected log-huts for lodgings. For a fortnight, they nearly starved. They were sometimes without bread and without meat A person passing by the huts of these poor fellows in the evening, might liave seen them, through the crevices, stretching their cold hands over the fire, and a soldier oocasiocally coming in or going out with nothing but a blanket on his shoulders. *' No pay, no clothes, no provisions, no rum," said they to each other. But they loved Washington and their country too well to desert them in these trying times. Having seeu Washington's army in their winter quarters at Valley Forge, we shall now follow the nor- ttiern army, under Gates, and the English under Bnr- goyne, through the campaign of 1777. The latter intended to break his way from Canada, up the river Sorel, through lakes Champlain and George, and the river Hudson, to New York. He had under his com- mand one of the finest armies ever seen. Ti\e Americans were driven before him, from Champlain almost to Albany. Burgoyne pressed after them, but his route lay through the woods, and the Americans cut large trees on both sidep of the road, Ro that they fell across it, and blocked it up entirely. The country was so covered with marshes, :^nd crossed by creeks, that the British were obliged to build no less than forty bridges ; one of them was a log bridge, extending two miles across u swamp. July ^, Bur- goyne reached Fort Edward, on the river Hudson. He had with his army a large number of Indian warriors, and they ravaged the country iu the most horrible manner. One of them murdered a beautiful American glxl, Miss M'Rea. She was the daughter of a loyalist, and was to be married to a young Eng- lish officer. The latter sent two Indians tu guide her across the wood from the fort to his own station. They quarrelled on the way, which should have spe- cial charge of her. They became very angry, and one of them, to terminate the dispute, sunk his tuma. hawk in her head, and ended her life. SURRENDEU OF GENERAL DURCOYNE, AND AID THO- CURED FROM FRANCE. The spirit of the whole country was greatly excited by these things, and an army of thirteen thousand men was collected under General Gates, to oppose Burgoyne. Meanwhile, a British force, under Gene- ral St Leger, had crossed Lake Ontario, from the St Lawrence, and laid siege to fort Schuyler, on the southern side. General Herkimer marched northward with eight hundred militia, to relieve It He fell into an ambuscade, however, iu tho woods, and was killed. In his last moments, though mortally wounded, he was seen sitting on a stump, still encouraging his men. They stood firm, and several of the British In- diaus fell at their first fire. The rest were so enraged that they turned upon the loyalists and the r.itish, and murdered several uf them. The battle was heard at the fort, and twu hundred and fifty of the Ameri- cans came out to reinforce the detachment. The Bri. tiah were wholly routed. The Indians fled, howling like wild beasts, and left their kettler, blankets, tuma< hawks, and deer-skins behind. About the middle of August, Burgoyne sent five hundred Hessians and one hundred Indians, under Colonel Baum, to take possession of a collection of American provisions, at Bennington, Vermout ; but General Stark was there, luckily, with eight hundred New Hampshireand Vermont militia. Colonel Baum, finding this force greater than his own, threw up tem- porary l)rea8tworks fur defence, aud sent to Burgoyne fur rem fur cements. Several skirmishes now followed, iu which the Americans had the advantage. Animated by success, they at length ventured tu make a gene- ral attack upon the breastworks of the enemy. They were without cannon, and destitute even of bayonets. The IlMslans, too, foughtvery bravely for two hours. But thiy were now opposed by still braver men. The Americans rushed into the very flash of their cannon and musketry. They could nut be resisted. Multi- tudes of the enemy fell before their keen and well- directed fire. Baum himself was killed, and most of his detachment either lost their lives or were taken prisoners. The Americans, not expecting another enemy, had dispersed themselves after the battle. Suddenly, a reinforcement uf several hundred British troops, under Colonel Breyman, arrived at Bennington. The Ame- ricans were uow near losing all they had gained. But it happened that a regiment, under Colonel Warner, reached the place soon after. Thes«, with theraUlt)% Immediately made an attack npon the enemy. I^ey fought till sunset, when the British retreated, an/, under cover of the night, the greater part effected their escape. In these two engagements, four hundred of th« enemy were killed and wounded, six hundred wei-e taken prisoners, and two hundred and fifty dragoon swords, eight loads of baggage, and twenty horses, fell into the hands of the Americans. By the middle of September, the American armt under Gates was within three miles of the great army of Burgoyne, on the Hudson. The latter was now severely pressed for provisions, and undertook to mareh on towards Albany. The Americans met him at Still- water, on the 19Ui ; a fierce battle was fought, and the British could advance no farther. They pitched their camp on the plains of Saratoga, three miles aboT« the village, within cannon-shotof the American lines. General Clinton was at this time attempting to for«« a passage up the Hudson, from New York, to reinfonw Burgoyne. Spies and scouts were constantly on the alert, and hot skirmishes uow took place every day be* tween the two armies at Saratoga. September 23, m cannonade was kept up, with a tremendous roar and blaze, for three hours. The field was strewn with the killed. An English captain, with forty-eight men, had the command of four fine cannon. He mught till thirty-six of his men were killed. His horses being shot down at last, the cannon were left to the Ameri- cans. Some of the American soldiers, during these Bkir« mishes, often placed themselves in the boughs of high, trees, the country being wild and woody, and played with their rillesupuu the rear and flank of the enemy. The British officers were picked oflf like birds. Bur- goyne himself once narrowly escaped. His aid-de- camp General Philips was delivering a message to him, when he received a rifle ball in his arm. His saddle was furnished with very rich lace, and the sharp- shooter had taken him for Burgoyne. October 7, the whole British line was driven back by a tremendous charge. The Germau lines stood firm to the last, and Colonel Brooks was ordered to attack them. .He galloped towards them at the head of his regiment, waving his sword ; and Colonel Arnold rushed on with him. Arnold was wounded, and carried off. Brooks kept on, and the Germans were driven back. Colonel Cilley, of New Hampshire, captured a cannon with his own hands, and was seext astride npon It, in the heat of the battle, shouting te his soldiers. In this battle, Burgoyne had a bullet pass through his hat, and another through the edge of his vest. On the 18th of October 1777, the whole British army under Burgoyne surrendered to General Oatee. There were nearly ten thousand men, including In- dians ; forty cannon, seven thousand muskets, and a vast quantity of tents and cartridges. The whole country was filled with rejoicing. The thanks of congress were voted to Gates and his anny. One of the main effects of the victory was, that the Frendl now concluded to fight with the Americans against England. TreMies between the two nations were signed, February C, 1778, and a fast-sailing schooner from France reached Casco Bay In Alaine, in about a month, with the news. It occasioned prodigious joy in congress, in the army at Valley Forge, and over the whole country. A French fleet arrived on the coast early in July. General Clinton knew they were coming, and therefore thought it necessary to remove to New York. He left Philadelphia on the 18th of June, and marched through New Jersey towards tho latter place. As soon as AV'ashlngton heard that Clinton had left Philadelphia, he broke up his quarters at VaUey Forge, and followed hard after him. A hot battle was fought on the 28th near Alonmouth court-house. It did nut cease till the evening. Washington slept up- on his cloak under a tree, expecting more fighting in tlie morning; but the British marched off in the night Sixty of their soldiers were found dead on the battle-field without wounds. J'atigue and the exces- sive heat had killed them. BRITISH MINISTRY CONDESCEMD TO TREAT. The intelligence of Burgoyne's surrender occasioned dismay among the British ministers. They now in- troduced a conciliatory bill into parliament, exactly like one which the celebrated Mr Burke had some time before failed in passing. It appointed commis- sioners to go to America, and offer to give up all power uf taxation over tho colonies, and every thing, indeed, but the authority of the king, provided they would return to their allegiance. These commissioners, however, although they did oil they could to produce an impression iu America, found every effort counter- acted by congress. They offered more than had been asked by the Americans at the beginning of the war ; but tho Americans had since then been much exas- perated by tho barbarities of the British army — had declared their independence — and, having good pros- pects of successfully resisting Britain, were not in- clined to go back in their career. The commissioners therefore returned without doing any good. No other great battles were fought during the campaign uf 1778* The armies only molested each. uther by sending out small dfctachnients. liittle also was done on either side during the year 1771^> The i !', mmm -HSHaS CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i Biitbh nuin army, under Uenflrftl Clinton, wm at N«v York ; and tba Amariran», undar WaihiDfton, «•!• among the llixhlandi, abiire that city, on '.h* rivar Uudton. In theiprinft, a Ilritiih force wai* ; tr to nraga tb« coast of Virgiiiin. Thay daitroyed erary thlof in thair way — villafrei, thlpplng, and itorta. Tba Virglniani Mnt to the Britiih faneral to aak. " what tort of war this was.*' U« rapliad, that » all fabtlt must b« so traatad." A month or two aftar- vardf, Oorernor Tryon was sant to eommit similar bavoc in Connecticut. Colonel Whiting had mustered Ibe militia at Fairfield. Tryon came to tliat place, and commanded him to surrender. He gare him an hour for consideration ; but, before that time had alapeed, his soldiers sat the town on 6re, and a great part of it was laid in ashes. At Ne\* Haven, all pos. •ibie damage was dime. The harbour was covered orer with feathers, poured out from the lieds of the people. Desks, trunks, closets, and chesu, were bro. ken open { the woman were rubbed of their buckles, rings, bonnets, and aprons. £aat Haren was after. wards burnt, and Norwalk shared a similar late. TaEACllERT or aCNERAL AHKOLII|^ , General Lincoln commanded in the soutntm pro- ▼incee during' 177t>, she British holding possession of Savannah. He besieged tliem there with the help of the French fleet, but was driven uft. Prevoit, the British general, himself, met with the same bad luck In besieging Charlestowu, South CArollna. The neo- ale resisted him nobly, with some assistance Mxwn Lincoln, and the siege was abandoned. But Prevost ravaged the country, buraiog and plundering without mercy. During the year 1 780, nothing of great consequence was done in the northern pnivinces. The two armies lay near each otlier, the British being iu New Vurk, and the Americans on the Hudson; but no battles were fought. The most important event of this year was the treason of Arnold, one of the American generals. He commanded a very strong fort at West Point, sixty miles from New York, on the Nortli River. He un- dertook to deliver It into the possession of the British. M»or Andre, a young British oiTicer, went on shore iu Am "'-I.". r.^_i ^ "r;;!ih :hir In the river, to ar- range the business •with ArnmJ- '^^'^ tTG cScers met privately at some distance from the fort. Arnold agreed, for a certain sum of money, and otl^tr con- a^erations, to surrender the fort, with the garrison, cannon, and ammunitiou, into the hands of tlie Bri- tish commander. In settling the details of this busi- nea^ Andre was detained till the next day ; and then the Wtmen refused to carry him back. He had to return by land, and to pau by the American camp, on his way to New York. He was furnished with a horse, and exchanged his uniform for a common coat. He thought himielf already out of danger, when, ae he trottt^ quietly on through the woods, he was stop- ped by three Americans, who were scouting between the outpoits of ihe two armies. ** Who (, ies there V* cried the 6rst, seizing his bridle. Andre wm frightened, and asked the scout where he belonged. **^Bek)w,** answered he, meaning New York. " So do I," said Andre, deceived ; *' l*m a Britiah officer, in great haste; don*t stop me.** " Are you, indeed ?" siid the •couts; "then we'll see about that!" They found Ikis spy-papers in his boots. He offered them nil gold watch, horse, and purse, if they would release him ; hut they told him they knew their busiiieits too well. He was carried to the camp, and, though a brave and accomplished young roan, yet he was condemned and hanged, according to the ueages of war, as a spy. £ren the Americans shed many tears fur this uufuir- tunate officer. CAKPAioK or \^Bl, ' Congress continued to make great efforts to supply the army, though the paper money they had issued was worth so little that a soldier would give forty of their dollars for a breakfast, an i a cotontrPs pay wuult* hard!) liud oats for bis horse. The m«. Jr—^'w i»f PS), ladelphia raised a large sum or oetier money, however, and sent it to tlie army. T le ladies of that city fur- '■<«hed a large quantity of cidthing. But tlie British, all uiu !^m9, were ove: running the two Carolinas. They hod ko\en C^;irlestuwn, on the llth of Alay 1780. after a Ur^ siege, and a brave defeuue by Ue- neral Lincoln. Generals Marion and Sumpter gave the British great trouble during this campaign. Small parties of the mountain militia Joined them, and they swept down upon the enemy, wherever they could find them In small parties. The farmers* wives furnished them pewter spcmrs and platters, to make into bullets; and they forueil iwords of scythes and the suwa of saw- mills. In October, sixteen hundred of thes« moun- taineers mustered tngethcr to attack a Itritish force under Major Ferguson, who had encamped not far from the mountains. For weeks they had no salt, bread, oi splHu; they slept upon boughs of trees, without blankeu, drank only from the running streams, and lived upon wild game, or ears of corn, and pump. kins, malted by their great log-ffres in the woods. With the year 17H1, on which we now enter, the war drew ripidly toward a close. It was carried un almost eniiruiy in the southern provinces. Ueneral Oreeiie was appointed to command the American forces in that quarter. At the time of his arrival, they were a mtrerable half-stan-ed militia, of three thousand men. They marked the froxen ground with 916 the blood of their bare feet, and lived half the time npon frogs, uken from the swamps, wild game, rice, and wretchedly lean cattle. But tliey were soon re- inforced t ard small parties, under Sumpter, Marion, Alorgin jjd others, often annoyed the forces of Com. Willis. Colonel Washington laid siege to a strong blockhouse near Camden, defended by a British co- lonel, and a hundred loyalists. He had no cannon, and few men; but he carved nut a few pine logs In the shape of cannon, mounted them on wheels, and sum- moned theloyalisutosurrender. They were frightened nt the appearance of his big cannon, and surrendered. N'lt a shot was fired upon either side. On the 17th of January, Colonel Morgan, with eight hundred militia^ was attacked ut a place called tho Cowpens, in Souch Carolina, by Tarleton, a fa- mous British officer, with eleven hundred men and two cannon. The enemv rushed on with a tremend- ous shout. The fnmt line of militia were driven back. Tarleton pursued them, at full gallop, with his troopers, and fell upon the second line ; they too were giving w»v. At this moment Colonel Washing- ton chained Tarleton with forty-five militiamen, mounted, and armed as troopers. The whole line now rallied under Colonel Howard, and advanced with fixed bayonets. The British fied. Their can- non were left behind; three hundred British soldiers were killed and wounded, and five hundred were taken prisoners ; eight hundred muskets, seventy ne- groes, and one hundred dragoon horses, also fell into the hands of the Americans. Oeneral Oreene was now driven back by GArtf wallis Into North Carolina. The latter pursued him tnroiigh the province, over mountains and swamns,' and ar- rived at the river Dan just as UreAne had crossed it. Cornwallis now found it necessary to turn about; and so he marched back, and Greene soon followed him with new forces. Sumpter joined him at Orangeburg, having re- ceived orders to Uo so during his nasty retreat before the enemy. It seems Greene could find no man iu his army who would carry the message to Sumpter. A country girl, named Kmily Oetger, at last ottered her services, and was sent. She was taken by the British, and confined for the purpose of being searched. She, however, ate up tht* letter which she carried, piece by piece. They released her, to go home, as they supposed, but she took a roundabout way, ruached Sumpter's camp safely, and delivered her message in her own words. COHCLUSIOK OV THE WAR. The Americans were defeated near Guilford court- house on the Iflth March, But Cornwallis retreated soon after. He had suffere't j^rent loss, and his army was small. A militia colonel cried out in this battle, aa the British were marching up, " they will sur- round ut." lie was frightened himself, and fright- ened his soldiers so much, that they gave way, while the enemy were one hundred and forty yards distant. Colonel Washington, at the head of histrooperN, nearly captured Cornwallis in this buttle. He was just rush- ing tijhiu thu British general, when his cap fell from his head. As he leaped to the ground fur It, the leading American officer Iwhind him was shot througli the body, and rendered unable to manage his horse. The animal 'Reeled round, and galloped off with hii rider ; and the trixj^ , supposing it was Washington's order, wheeled about also, and rode off at full npeecl. Fort Wa".- n, between (^amden and Chnrlestown, surrendered in April, with ll4men,to(ienerBl .'\larion. The fort was built on a mound of earth thirty feet high ; but .Marion, ulth his mountaineers, had raised a work which overlooked it in such a manner, that not a msn in the fort could show his head over the parapets, or scarcely point his musket through a hole in the walla, but the riflemen above would shoot him. (Jrcene wni again defeated at Cumden on the 2>^>tli of April, by utue hundred Knglith, under Lord Itawdon. But in a mouth or two the British lost six forts, mid that of Augusta was among them. Here there were three hundred men as a garrison, who almost burled themselves under ground, while the Americans were building up batterii'S within thirty yards, which swept the fort through and through. Greene and all his officers, and all his men, fonf;ht nobly the whole sea- son. *' I will rec4)verth(> province," »aid the general, *' or die in the attempt.*' It is remarkable, that al- though his force was much inferior to that of Corn- wallis, and though he wits frequently defeated, yet, by his admirable maniruvren, tna result of the cam- puign was entirely favourable to the Americans, and injurious to the British. <>rcene attacked the enemy at Kutaw Springs, llth of September, and completely defeated them, killing and capturing eleven hundred of tlu-ir bent soldiers. In pursuing tlie enemy, one Manning found himself surrounded by them. He seized upon a smaliUtriti filled with ladies, waving their handke; chiefs, as the gallant troops passed by. It was a magnificent spectaole. There was Washington, with all his ge- nerala ; the French Count Hochamlieau, with all his ; General Knox, with one hundred fine cannon ; and the whole army, pressing on with proud steps and a noble confidence. The music was beautiful ; every body thought they would conquer ; and, just at this time, news came that the French fleet had arrived in the Chesapeake. The city rang with the shouts of the immense multitude. By the 7th of October, Cornwallis was completely besieged ; and surrendered on the lOth. His army, of about seven thousand men, marched out, at two o'clock, and paared between the American line on one side, and the French on the other, stretched out for more than a mile. They were dressed in theirmoat splendid uniforms, with fine music, and colours flying. The English marched, carrying their colours bound up, with a slow and solemn step. The English general rode up to Washington, at the head of the line, and excused the absence of Cornwallis, who pretended to Iw sick. Washington pointed him politely to Gene- ral Lincoln, and the latter directed him to a large field, where the whole British army laid down their arms, and were led away prisoners. No man distin- guished himself more, miring this siege, than Lafa- yette, a noble young Frenchman. He had before fought bravely for the American uauie. After this capture, the English gave up all hopes of success. No fighting of any consequence 4ook place after this upon the land. The British troops were wholly withdrawn from the Ignited States of America In the following season. Britain had for some time been greatly embarrassed by the hopeless content she carried on In America. All the Kunipean powers that were jealous of her.« France, Spain, Holland — had taken advantage of her difficulties to commence war against her, and her ex- penditure of men and money wbs so great, while her success was so small, that the people began to bu very clamorous. The unfortunate king, his ministry and parliament, were at last obliged to give in. A treaty of peace, in which the independeiico of the United States of America was acknowledged, was settled by the British and American ambassadors at Paris, in November 17U2. The 3d of November 17B.'l was fixed up4in by congress fur the final disbanding of the Ame- rican army. On the day previous, \\'ashington issued his farewell orders, and bade iiti afl'ectiunute adieu to the soldiers who had fought uith him iu the great struggle, which was now over. Soon after taking leave of the army, General Wuh- ingtoii was called to the still more painful hour of se- paration from his ofiicers, greatly endeared to him by H hing series of common sutferin^s and dangers. The uiliceis, havmg previously asiembted in New York for the pur[>use. General Washington now joined them, and, calling for a glass of wine, thus addressed them : *' With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take my leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your lau ter days m.iy be as prosperous and happy as your for- mer ones havu been glorious and honourable. Hav. iiig thus affectionately addressed them, he took each by tlie hand, and bade him farewell. Followed by tlicui to the side of the Hudson, he entered a barge, and, while tears flowed down his cheeks, he turned towards the cuinpunious of his glory, and bade them a silent adieu. This great man had no ambitious views for himself. Afier heading the movement which iiad achieved the independence of his country, he re- tired contentedly to his country seat in Virginia, leaving the people to form themselves Into an iude* l>endeut republic. COMCMTSION. Thus ended the American wA of Independence; the imprudence of the Briiinh punished by tlie dia- merobermrnt of their empire and an addition of a hundred millions to their debt — the constancy and sufferings of the Americans rewarded by tlie trium- phant accomplishment of all their wishes. The ex- ample of America, it is well known, operated power- fully la bringing on the enduing revolution in France, by which the whole aspect of society in Kurope has been affected ; and the model which she continues to hold up, of a complete system of ultra-popular insti- tutions, exerciser at the present hour an Intlnenue of which It would be difficult to rate the amount, orcal- culitte the iaiue. ^i KnivrMKiiic: PublUhol b; W. and It. CiiAMaBNii, 10, Wsl«f- luu riiwei alui by Our mud .SMrTH, I'ltem^MUT How. Lud- llollt Mill \ (KMt unit I'llNNIMIIIAM, Dllblltl. Solll bV Juhu MacU»>l, (iiwf.Mtw, ami all otiiir l)ii»kaelk-n In Scotland, Eng- land, and IrelaniL— PubUhhed uncc a funnlnht. From the Steam- I'rcss uf W. and H. Chambers. - » ■^■|ilfc[ly .. ,<,j-.^.M . CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. •*''tn i CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OP THE "EDINBURGH JOURNAL** AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER/* No. 28, ___^_______„„____„__ ^*"" *H THE STEAM-ENGINE AND LOCOMOTIVE MACHINES. REPRESENTATION OF WATT'S STEAM-ENGINE. Tht itMin, which U undn the iilitooi U ■liowed to empe IdUi the ctiDdcnwr A by the cock B, which li oiwocd by tho rod C, whils at the sAino time the tteam U admit- ted by the cock D Into the upper pert uf the cylinder) when the iiliton hudcKvnd* ed, the cucke E and F act In « itmllAr nien* ner In letting out the itemm from above, and ■dmitilng it under the pliton. The jot li supplied by the water of thu cUtem G, which li pumped up nt 11 from a re* ■erroirt it Is drawn out, together wlUi the air that li extracted from it, by tho air- pump I, whMt Ihrom It Into thactiten K. frum whrnre the pump I. ralm It to the virtent M i and It euten the botler through a valve, whkh opent wheiMveriha float N de«v«ndi behiw Ite proiwr |>laeo. The pl|te« u and t* wrvv alM to aacertiUit the quantity of water ti\ Itte boiler. Tlit (tUton-iud li ooi\Rned tu a nwtlon nearly reftUlnea« by the ftam* Qt the fty | rondary machines, to which it communlcares power and action. A first moving power must in all cases j bo iUtlf endowed with that mechanical energy or : force which will give motion to some secondary ma* rhiiie, ^o as it may overcome the resistance occasioned | hy the operation which is to be performed by it. It must l)u distinctly observed, that the engine, or first mover, dues not actually produce the power with which it optrutes, but is adapted to collect and concentrate tiiu force which arises from some natural cause, so as t'l derive n: *l<>n frntn that ciuse ; and it must be pro- vitK'd with p:irts, to dimininh euch motion or force, nud transmit it, la a suiuhle manner and direction, to the purposes required of the secondary machine with which it is to be connected, and which it is des- | lined to move. A familinr example of a secondary machine, and its til lit mover, may be instanced in a common hand- pump, wlitch is erected over a well to raise water for i domestic purposes. The man who works the handle nf ttio pump by the force uf hin tirms, is the tint i mover, because, by hit muscular force, he communi- \ oates tlie poTi er aiid motion necessary to impel tho j pump, which is only the secondary maciiiue, though | it performs the required operation of raising the water, j Were ii steam-engine to be applied for this purpose, I it would be substituted for tho man'; and, instead of hU muscular strength, the steam of boiling wuter trould be applied in the stearn'Ongino in such a man- iu>r HH to produce motion in its parts, and those moving pitrtH would be adapted to communicate their motion t > the hnndle of the pump, to elevate and depress it itliernately, and raise the water. In the like manner, the stuam*ongIne may be ap- plied, an tho propelling power, to turn a grindstone, lurntiig.lathe, nialt.mlll, flour and meal-mill, cotton iind flax mills, or In fact any other piece of machi- nery which used to t>e driven by the power of water, wi'id, or animal force. *' The iteum.engiuo,** layi Mr Farey, " is an In- vputtiin highly creditable to human genius and fn- duitry; for it exhibits tho most valuable application of philosophical prluciplcs to the arts of lifo, and has produced greater and more general changes In the practice of michanics, than have ever been effected by any one invention recorded in history. The axe, the saw, and other simple tools used by carpenters and smiths, as well as the spade, the plough, and the application of horses and oxe.i to draw burdens, were invented in such early ages, that they were considered the production of the demi-guds ; but, for a long time after the simple implements nnd machines were invented, men were obliged to perform all labour by their own personal strength. The most degrading labour uf hewing wood and drawing water fell to the lot of slaves; whilst thrashing and grinding corn, as well as spinning and weaving, were the constant em- ployment of the female sex. The next advance to- wards our present state of improvement was the em. ploymeut of horses and oxen. According to Diodorus Siculus, Minerva was worshipped under the name of Boormla, for having first taught the yoking of oxen to a plough, and horses to the levers of mills for grind- ing corn." It will thus be seen that animal power was first employed in performing all kinds of work. The next inventions which were thought of wore the application of the natural elements to aid man in his labours. Water and wind were employed as the moving powers of milla, and other machines. In ad- dressing the female sex on this subject, Antipaterof Thessalonica thus speaks of tho power of water : — " Women, you have hitherto been employed to grind corn; for the futuro, let your arms rest. It is no longer for you th:it the birds announce by their songs the dawn of the niurning, Ceres has ordered the river nymphs to move tho heavy millstones, and to licrform your labour." But this important invention had one very great drawback, that of tho want uf waterfalls, except in remote, and often inconvenient situations; and the agency of wind as a first mover is still more uncertain and unequal In its efiects: so that some more efficient power was still wknting that might be more immediately within the command of man ; and it was not till the admirable Invention of the steam-engine in tho eighteenth century, that this very effective and convenient power was disonvored ; and such has been the progress in the improvement of this grand invention, that, in less than a century from its first discovery, it has reached a high degree of perfecti^i, and has been universally adopted in all the purposes of art and manufacture. ** In one place we find the miner employing U to drain water from the deepest chasmp rf the earth t whlUt, in another, It sets the wind's uncertainty at defiance, and conveys our packets across tho ocean with a precision that would formerly have Iwen deemed chimerical. Amongst the last uses to which the steam-engine has be^n applied, is to that of jirinting, and in this instauco its results are porhups mure remarkable and useful than any other of iti appDcatloni ; for, by thii means, printed sheets uf paper can Ihs nmltiplied to ut extent, and with such facility, thai no other uaaai hitherto fhought of could parform. If we look back for a cantury, and refltot oa ttt* extent of our meroantlla and mariUme tutaroourt* with other nations, we will at one* ba abia to Judflt of the Importanca of this noble Invtittlon, and tha extraordinarily npid pntgress of tti impruveiuant. The amaaing inurease of pntduotiva industry, th« widely-extended magnitude v " ..• commerce, and our pre-eminence as a nation, have all bean efflMled *-y the aid of this new power i and, but fbr this tmportavA discovery, there is every human probability that Bn. tain. Instead of increasing in wealth and prosparlty during the lost century, would have l>t«n siuklny ta i her Importance and welfare t twcausa tha mtnN of coal, iroU) copper, lead, aitd tin, which have In all 1 ages formed so t^tnisiderable a portion of Urtttsh wealthi I were, at the l>eginntng of last oantury, naarty ax* hausted and worked out to tht graateet dtpthi to which it was praottcabta to draw uff tha wattr by I aqueducts and the ilmpU maohlnary which was than I known and used t K»di without the aid of tha «taam> engine, it Is mora than pntbabla that f\iel, timbari i and all the useful matals, would have long itgo baoomo I so scarce in Britain, that they would hart bata in* adequate to the necessities uf so dania a populatloo. ' But the steam-engine has enabled us to panttratf Into I the rich and nearly inexhttuitlhla traaauras with which I our ikland abounds, and consequently secured to us for ages tu^t pre-emlneuee for which ve have long bo* u fumed. To llrltnns, therefore, this inesilmablo and native Invention must ever be regarded with just pride and veneration ) and wa feel confident that there aro few individuals In this graat countryi who will not enjoy deep satlsfkotUm by tracing iho history and pn^ireHx of the steam.englna. For more than fifty years after the Invention of tho fire-engine, as It was first called, its operation was al* most entirely applied ti» tho raising of water— such as draining of vxmii aitd inatallio mineH, and supplying towns with water t and* in several instances, tha wa* ter which it raised was applied to driving water* wheels, lu plui-e of natural waterfalls. It is within the last I'orty-fivo years that the steam-engine has baan brought to its preieitt high state of }>erlection, and, in place of animal force, and the natural powers of wat4r nnd wind, has n\>w been appUtil to every spaelae of machine which was driven by thatr agency. So high, Indeetl, Is the state of |Mrfeotlou arrivisd at, that self-acting nmchli)i>s have ttten litvented, which are driven by tho engine, without tha agency of hti- man labour at all. Kvery day brlnp forth soma new and remarkable Invention, and It Is tntptusibU to say to what length tho powar of steam may not be carried. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I I 1 It bu been »ucc«itfully employed in projH*IHnt[ veswls, and eT«n carriages ; and tlie latter bavH !>een mored attach a velocity ai to be nearly equal in speed C» tbe winds themieWes. An able author, iiidiicoiirninK on tbe modwrn iteam- engine, says it it " stupendous alike for iu force and Its flesibility ; for the prodigious power which It can e». ert; und tho eaie, jirutisio", n»d duTtiUty with which lu force can be varittd, diatriliutrd, and applied. Tbe Uunk uf ail elephant, that can picli up a pin, or reud an unk, if nothing to it. It ran engrave a Heal, and crush tnaMes of obdurate metal before it; draw out, withmit breaking, a thread at Ane as a goasamer, and pfopel a ship like a btihl)1e in the water. It can em< bnuder muslin, and forge anchors; cut cteel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against tbe tiiry of the wind« and waves. It would t>e difficult to estimate tho value of the henefitn which these inventions have conferred upon the country — there is no branch nf In- dustry tliat has not been indebted to them; and in all tbe most materia), they have not only widened most magniticently tbe Held of its exertions, but muK tiplied A hundred-fold tbe amount of its ),roductlnns. It i% our improved steam-engine that bus f^ght the battlea of Kurope, and exalted and sustauied, thrtnigh tbe late tremendous content, the political greatness of our nation, ft is the same great power whicii enablen us to pay the interest of our debt, and to maintain the ttniggle'fu whidh we are still engaged, with the skill and capital of countries less oppressed with taxation. Kut thete are poor and narrow views of its import- nnce; it hat increased indefinitely tbe mass of hu. man comforts and enjoyments, and rendered cheap and accessible all over the world the inaterlnla of wealth and proeperity; It hat armed tbe feeble hand rf man, in short, with a power to which no limits can be Designed ; completed the dominion of mind over tbe moat refractory qtialittee of matter, and laid a sure foundation for all those future miracles of mecbanlo power which are to aid and reward the lal>i ter generations, it chiefly is to the genius of one man (Mr Watt), that all this perfection is owing ; and cer- tainly no man erer before bestowed such a gift on his klad. The bboatng ia not only unirertal, biit un- boiuided ; and the f^ililed inventors nf tlie plough and the loom, who were deified by the gratitude of their rude cotemporaries, conferred less iniportant l>enefils on mankind tlmn the inventors of our present steam- engine.** One of tho moat remarkable properties of the •team- engine is the immense power which ran Im krrtught into action within so limited a space. Several of these are of one hundred and taenty horse potter^ which ia equal to the strength of upwards uf one th0utand men acting together. One of these engines i* capable of raising water from a depth of tteehe hnn- dred/tet, aud will draw within the space of twenty- four boun a much greater quantity of water than could be accomplished by nearly four thousand men during the same space of time, with all the power these are masters nf, and these working successively to relieve each other when tired ; and tbt'Ti all would be Imstle, confusion, and irregularity, while this gi- gaiitic machine conUnuet its unvarying and steady motion, exerting its mighty power within the least }M>siihle limita, and aided only by two men to supply It with fuel. In short, it dii«a what could not I>e per- formed by hnman agency by any other means, ns it would not be possible to get such numeroua bauds of luen to give their united furca at one time. It will Iw here necessary to inform those of our readers whi> are unacquainted with mechanical pi>wers, what is the strength at which man Is estimated. After much comparison, it has been fiHind that tbe power of an ordinary man ia equal to tbe raising of a weight oflArer ihouMtwl $tven hundrtd atui Jifty y y\\nd% v/vit- dupoit, or Mty cubic feet uf water, one foot high per minute ; which force he is capable of continuing fur the space of several hours in a day. The mechanical powers) especially that of a steam- engine, are now, however, always estimated by the horse power, which is thirty-Otree thousand pounds, or ^ve hundrtd onrffiren/^-WyA/ cubic feet of water raised one foot high per minute; so that a horse-power is equal to eight and an eighth part of a man ; conse- quently, one hundred and fourteen horse-puwer is equal to tlie force of ons tKoutand m^n. Hut it must be evident tliat no horse, however powerfi'I, can exert this maximum of his strength for any length uf time. The average strength of effec- tive hordes is reckoned at tvmtytteo the, and man himaclf reserved for those operations which mind alone can direct or perform,'* Before the use of the steam-engine, all mills and manufactories were driven either by wind or water, althmigh the former power was seldom used for manu- factories. The consequence waa, manufactoriea be- hoved to be placed in ciHiniry situations where there were natural falls of water. This proved in many instances very inconvenient, from the difhculty of not only finding hands to work thesa, hut aNo extremely expetisivo in erecting houses for their aoconmiodation ; hcitides, if these falls were remote from towns or sea- portfl, the transporting of the raw material and bring- ing liark the manuftctured goods, entailed u heavy expense, and thereby greatly circumscribed tbe pro- fits. Another evil was, that, as all waterfalls are naturally limited in their power, any Increase nf ma- cbinery, or augmentntiun of tbe establishment in timet of prosperity, became impracticable. Uut siuca tbe invention of tbe steam-engine, all the»e evils can be avoided ; and the consequence !s, that the great bulk of our manuf.tctories are carried on in populous towns, where fuel is ea^^ily come at, and where work-people can \m easily procured, and at easily lodged, and the great expense of carriage is rendered unnecessary. And then the steam-power hat this advantage, that it can he increased to any extent at pleasure, by ad- ditional engines, or replacing small ones by those of greater power. In mott country situations where the pniprietort have been successfui, or those situated not far frum markets, steam-engines have Uteu added w* "re additional power was required, and also for obviating defects that all waterfalls are tiiible to; such at giving additional power in dry «ea.ions, as alto in fWistt and Hoods, where the water cannot act, or only in a partial manner. Wo cannot better illustrate tbe wonderful effecta of tbe steam-engine ns a moving power, than when ap- plied toacotton-mill. A n Immense building it erected, and so adapted at to receive all the vpinning-frames which it is intended to contain without any Ims of space ; that is, the numlier uf horte-pt'Wf r of tbe en- gine to 1)6 applied is determined upon, and it it now distinctly known how many spindles, ur frames with a given number of spindles, can be driven by a burse- powpr. The immense quantity of light nnd easy work which can be produced in this way is really attonith- ing. For the take of simplicity ftf numl>eri, w: jhall suppose that a cotton. mill has been erected, tbe ma- chinery of whicli is to be propelled by asteam-engiueuf oneAMnrfr^r/horse power,which isequaltothecombined 9XT%r\fiK}inieiyhthundredaudrightymeni nnd this power gives rapid motion to Jiffy thousand spimttes, on wliich tlu' atiton tlireada are spnn, each sputdte producing a separate thread. Besides ^t^ engine drives a great quantity of preparing machinery, which, by a succes- sion of operations, fits the fibres of tbe cotton for being ultimately spun into threads by the spindlet. Thit ci^iiaittt in snaking and beating machines, for remov- ing tbe dust and dirt; it is then put through large carding machines, consisting uf a variety of cyliudert covered with leather, which is thickly studded with wire teeth ; thete being opposed to ei.cn other, lay all the fibre!! in a parallel direction, in bands of a certain breadth, called slivers, which are again twisted into tliick loute threada, railed rovet, and finally spun into threads on the spindles. Nuw, to attend un the ope- rations of a mill uf this extent, Meueii hundred andj(ftf persons are all that are necensarv, a great proportion of which are women and cbiUren, whose physical powers, taken in conjtinctum with that of Ae steam- engine, can pnMluce as much thread at two humdred thoxnand people could do without machinery ! that it, every individual employed performn the work of two hundred and ai.rty-tix individuals ! Kuch spindle in a mill will produce from tteo thousand one hundred to tw^ thousand Jlt^e hundred yards nf thread In a day nf twelve hours, upwards of a mile and a quarter in length ; to that a mill of the tixe we have just been describing, will pniduce the attonishiiig quantity of ^i:rty-two thousand five hundred milet of thread vvtry twelve boun ; which it more than tnfDdent Co reticn t«..e and a h"lf round the globe. Kqnnlly wonderful rotultt are elfected by (lax splnning-milla ; and, alao. In the production of spinniuf woollen yarni, from which tbu finest cloths, shawls, and itocklngt, aro r • nufactured. It would be impotslble to give any estimate { the number of steam-enginei which are employed in (irett Britain, with the extent of their hori-e-power, as there is hardly ix week pusses without otut or nuire new ones being erected for various useful purposes ; but we may mention, that, in London alone, there aro upwards uf /Ar0i*/iNn//rf(/,whme united power h!iB been entitnated, In round numhem, at upwards of^//y thousand men i or six thousand horse-power, in eon/intm/ operation. In Manchester, nearly the same quantity of horse- power Ik enii)loved in the dilfereiit manufactures. In Lei'ds, it has lieen estimated at about two thousand four hundred hone-power. In fJlafgow, there are about one hundred engines ; ' tides those in all the other great nmnuf.icturing dii^ ct^, which, if united, would he nearly equal to the entire physical strength of Britain. The revolutions which have been wruught in our mercantile enterprise, witliiu tbe liist forty-live years, by means of the Improved state of the steam. engine, exceed all calculation; it has relieved mankind of the more fatiguing and nninial part of labour ; and hat increased the animal power of tbe nation, without requiring a greater quantity of animal f(N>d, which mutt tnevitiibty have greatly rained the urice of tho necesHary aliment of man, in a country where hardly sufficient corn can l>e raised to supply'its populatlun; and, In short, it hat at efifectually changed Uie tystem of industry for the useful arts, by which society is up- held, as the invention 4if gunpowder, and the conse- quent use of fire-arms, did the mode of warfare three centuries ago. To the hteam-englne, and tho use nf coal at a fuel, may be attributed In a great degree the height tu which flrcat B*-itBin has arrived as a mercaiitile na- tion. Before the invent!(m of this moving power, we were undoubtedly pre-eminent among states fur our I physical energies and bold national enterprise, hut to ' trace theite is more the province of history than of ' science. IIlSTOntCAI. ACCOUNT OP THE HTBA>r-rKGIKC, ANI> ITS PROORKtSIVK IMPflOVEMRNT. Tho Steam-engine, as it now exists in its various improved forms, did not attain its preient excellence till after repeated efi^orts had been exhausted upon it by men of geuius ; and even yet it is doubtleu tutcep* tihio of improvementt which the imagination cannot adequately contemplate. Tbu fundamental piincipla of the steam-engine, namely, the power which steam has of pushing upwards any body it comet against when confined in a close vettel, mutt have been known in remote timet ; hut the practical utility of thit prin- ciple was unly gained nfter a meant had been invented of causing the said body to descend immediately to ita original position; and so, by alternate a.iccnding and descending, a uniform motion was gained. To show how this extraordinary principle of action In iteam was gradually developed, It now our purpote. At what precise period the expansive power of steam was first observed, is not known. The K^'p- tians, (Ireekt, and Romans, were well acquainted with the eolipfle, an Instrument used for the illus- tration of natural phenomuna. This wat pcrhapt one uf the earliest attempts at natural philosophy. The eeen rendered appUrable at a mechanical power. In the jear 1603, the Marquis of Worcester pub- lished K work, entitled " A Century of Names and Hcantlingtof Inveiitiont,'* whereinhedescribetaroode of ap^ying the presture of iteam to thf raiting of water to considerable heights. Thit he termed "a fire water.work ;" and he also describes another ma- chine, or engine, which hecallt " a water-command- ing engine,' for which he obtained a patent, thereby securing to himielf the profitt ariting from the in- veniiuu. In the tixty-eighth ScautUng he detcribet the fire water-work aa "an admirable and mott forcible way to drive up water by fire, not by drawing or tucking it upwards, for that must l>e, aa tlie philosopher calleth it, infra sphmram aetivHatity which it but at such a distance, iHit thit way hath no b«mndm if the Toitel )>e strong emwgh ; for 1 have taken a piece of a whole caiinun, whereuf tbe end was hurst, and filled it three- quarters full of water, stopping and screwing up the broken end, as also the touch-hole, and making a con- stant fire under it; within twenty-four hours it burst and made a great crack ; to that, having a way to make my vctteli so that they are strengthened by tbe force within them, and the one to fill aficr the other, I bare teen the water to run like a constant founuin-stream i forty feet high. One retiel of water nirified by firo THE STEAM-ENGINE AND LOCOMOTIVE MACHINES. rirlvtftli up forty uf citltl WAtur ; und » miin tbM Undi tha work ii tint to turn two (uicki, that, udb vmmI uf watHr li«lng coniutneil, Btiother l)Of{iiii to furL** and raflll witli uold wuter, litid no lucfeiiiiviily, the fir« l>«ing t«ndv(l nuil kept couMUiit, whkh t)i« MlUiima perioii limy likuwi»u »liuiidaiitly perl'orm in the in- terim btftwean the iieceiiity of turning tlie naid oocki." In llUi:i, ^ir Hmmuel Murland pro)HMed tnl^inuithe Fourteenth nf Franre a new romhod uf rnlalug water bv RttiAtn, which wn» cltuely allied to t)iB invenliim o^ the Maraiili of W^on suiter. In the Harleian Col- lection of iMnnuiuriptit in the British Museum, thii fact ii recnrdt'd ; and, in adverting to the power of ai«am, bin principles are explninud in the loltowlng termi j — '* Water tieing converted into vapour by the force nf tire, theif vapours Rliortly require a greater ■pace (ulhiiit two thousinii times) thun the water be- fore (M-^npied, and, ioonerthan be constantly contined, would iplit a piece of cannon. But being duly regi** latfld according to the rules of statics, and by science reduced to nifiiHura, weight, and balance, they then Itettr their load peaceably (liku good horses), and thus lier^ime of great use to mankind, partlcubirly for rail- ing water." Although Morland had evidently a pretty distinct idea of the expansive force of iteam, yet bis researches regarding that moving power led to few practical and useful reiiults. In the year 160A, Dr Papin conceived an idea of employing the expansion and contraction of stoani to form a partial vacuum under a piston for raising wa- ter, and making the prefsure uf the atmosphere on the upper side of the piston the moving power. It is, however, curious, that neither this gentleman nor Havcry, a rival in the same cause, were ever able to turn this excellent idea into any real uie; but there can be little doubt that the real discoverers of the at- inoftpheric engine took advantage of, and benefited by, the suggeition. Captain Thomas Savery, In July IGUU, obtained letters-patent for the direct application of the steam- engine to raining water. In the same year he exhi- bited to the jioyal Society a model of his engine, and the experiments mnde, gave uuivental satisfaction to that learned body, which are the tirnt on record ob- tained for this purpose. That gentleman, in IGOO, published a pamphlet, entitled ** The Miner*s Friend," which came to a aecond edition, with additions, in 1702. A peculiarity ofthisengine was, that It had two •team-vessels at tirst, which he afterwards simpliftvd by having only one. Where the water hod not to be raised above a height of forty feet, this engine seemed pretty eiFectlve ; but for greater depths, a more powerful engine was wanted. la the year 16iM), Dr Dennis Papin, professor of mathematics at 3Iarbourg, whose new iiica we before noticed. In 1CU5, performed many experimButs with the object uf raising water by the pgulated machine. It W.W about the year 1712 that it reached thlv state, and was empluyed in various places. At this time it was called tne atmo»phuric engine. The credit, therefore, which seems due to Now- cuinen is, ;br the adraissiun of steam below an air-tight plHtiHi attached to the iiupellud point of a lever pro- perly uounterpoised-— its quick cmidensation by a Jet of cold water, which Is eaiential to gain effect — and the mode uf cleariiiir the cylinder of air and water after the stroke— are all un addition to the principles and iiieclianism in use bef're that linie, and alt uf whlcli are entirely the improvfinents of Newcumeii and those who acted in concert with him. liittlu ai'ems to have been effected In improving the engine for some years aflei wards, till one Henry Beigltton, au engineer of Nowcostle-tipon-Tyne, In 1731, inserted a curlcms table of calculations of the Kowers of steam-engines, In the almanack conducted y him, entitled the *' Lady's Diary." To this In- ^iiious persun we are also indebted for Improvements III tho arrangement nf the parts of the atmospheric engine, as well us thti method of lixing, and the me- chanism for opening and shutting the valves. To him also we are indt-bted for a discovery of the fact of steam heating a large proportion of water In condensing. Leupold, a (lerman, in 1730, collected mechanical invuntious, and tirst suggested the rude Idea of a high- pressure engine with a piston. This engine waa also ciu-ious on aceuunt of its having u forcu passage.cock for the admliaiun and emission of steam. Theengines now in use were principally those made with the improvements of Beighton ; and for some years no material alteration was made on them ; they were generally adopted In the coal works and copper mines. In the year 173c, Jonathan Hulls, December 21, obtainml a patent fur the application of steam as a propelling power In navigation, which seems to have Iwen the Hrst idea of what may be titrictly termed a steamboat ; from the application of which mankind now reap so many advantages. He published a description of tnis boat, illustrated by a plate, in 17^7, under the following title 1 — "A Description and Draught of a new invented Machine for carrying Vessels or Ships out nf or into any Ilarbtiur, Port, or Hirer, against wind or tide, or In a calm.** This very rare pamphlet is to be found in the British Museum, as well as in the hands of several engineers ; and proves, beyond a doubt, that the application of steam to navigation was suggested many years before it was used. The pamph- let uf Mr Hulls is evidently the production of a strong and well-cultivated mind, and his views, like those of many other ingenious men, merited a better fate than they met with at the time. In the year 1730, Beniard Bolidor wrote an ex- cellent sketch of the history of the steam.engine ; and from hisinquiriesheinfers, that uf the three European nations most advanced in science, each gave birth to a man of science to participate in the glory of the im- portant discovery of the steam-engine (these he con- ceives to be Papin In Germany, Savery in Kngland, and Amontons in France) ; that each of these indi- viduals was at one and the same time engaged in in- vestigating the means of employing the action of^re for moving machines ; but he admits the first intel- ligible Buggention of the idea to have been by the Marquis of Worcester. This historical sketch is closed by Belidor, with the assertion that all the fire-engines which had been constructed out of Ureat Britain bad been executed by English artisans. We come now to the year 1741, when John Payne made the first direct experiment for determining the density of steam ; and from a series of experiments performed by him, he came to the conclusion, that one cubic inch of water will form four thousand Inches nf steam. Mr Payne afterwards made an ingenious but unsuccessful attempt to Intruduce a new mode of ge- nerating steam, which was done by a cast iron ves- sel of the figure of a frustrum of a oone, four feet dia- meter at bottom, to which was attached a semi-glubu- ktr end of copper, whose diameter was about five feet and a half, with a small vessel inserted inside, which he called a d'upeiu«r, with pipes round the side fixed to it, while the bottom rested on a central pin, on which it constantly revolved, su that it might spread the water It received frem above through an iron pipe. The end of this pipe passed up through the head, and was encliwed very tightly; at same time it was easily moved with a circular motion, so that the water might be showered round on the sides uf the red-hot cime In a very exact manner. This vmsul Iwing kept at a dark- red heat, expanded 6.5 cubic feet of water and steam in an hour. By experiments which he afterwards made at Wednesburg and New castle -un-Tyne, 112 lbs. (»f pif coal will, by this mode, expand twelve cu- bic feet of water Into steam. But all this tended to no useful purpose; end although similar experiments have been lately revived, yet tney have pnwed abor- tive; and we have described his experiments rather that they may )>e avoideil than followed. Up tt> this period, a person was required to be in constant attendance to open and shut the I'ocks of Sa- veryN engine; but the defect was at length remedied by a Frenchman of the name of Gensunne, who in- vented a self-acting apparatus, in the year 1744 ; and another method was afterwards communicated to the Royal Huciety by De Alouni, a Portuguese, whnsn deiiuriptiun was accompanied with a model. The pe- culiHrity uf his Invention was a float within the re- ceiver, composed of a light ball of rapper, which was fastened to the end of an arm made to rise and fall by tho rtoat, while the other end of the arm was fi>;. tened to an axis ; so that, whan the float moved up anr* down, the axis was turned round althur the out way or the other. In the vear 1761, Francis Blake read a paper be- fore the Royal Society, on the Itest proportion for the cylinders of steam. engines, which Is well worthy at- tention, not (mly from lis value as a theoretiual in- quiry respecting the proportions of engines, hut ulso on account of the result he obtained. He justly re. marks, that it is evident from meclianicitl priiicipleendent of friction, and notwithstanding this diminution of force by the remainder uf the steam within the cavity uf the cylinder, we can demonstrate the ratio of the velocities, and the times of descent of the pistons. In cylinders of equal altitudes, to be pre- cisely the some as If the resistance wore nothing; from whicli we can without difficulty arrive at some con- clusion in this matter by a little calculation. In the year 17^7, Keane Fitzgerald, taking into con- sideration the means of saving fuel in places where ll was expensive, thought of agitating the water tn tb* boiler by means of a stream of air, on the plan of Df Hales ; but he did not seem acquainted with the dlf« Terence of forming steam and accelerating evaporation. Dr Hales, however, having applied to him regarding the working of ventilators for mines by steam-engines, and a rotatory motion being indispensable, Fitzgerald invented one which rendered the steam-engine appli- cable to the purpose, which was by means of a Jfy. wht$L William Emerson, in I758| published a short and distinct account of the atmospheric engine, and the method of computing its power, as fur aa statical equi- librium between the power and the resistance is con- cerned. James Bradley next attempted to improve the con- struction of the boiler of the steam-engine, by forming it of wood and stone, and itiserting a cast iron fir»> place and chimney in the Internal part of the boiler^ so as it might be surrounded on uU sides by the water of the boiler. He imagined by this method the heal of the fuel would be rendered more effective. He ob* tained a patent for this invention in 17A9 ; but it was constructed on an erroneous doctrine, and never cam* into general use. To the celebrated Dr Joseph Black of KdinburgU we owe the first investigation of the comlduatlou of heat with bodies in the solid, liquid, and gaseous state | the heat so combining with them, he proved, was in- sensible to the thermumeter, and hence he gaveitth* name of latent heaty which he first taught publicly in 1702. He found that the quantity of heat required to convert bulling-hot water into steam exceeded five timet the quantity which mode water boil. He also showed that different bodies required different qnantities of heat to produce the same change of temperature, and denoted this property liy the phrase capacitjf/or Aeaf, for which the term specitic heat is now used. The next co.isiderable improver of the steam-engin* was John Smcaton, who, although not possessed of an inventive genius, had, nevertheleu, the faculty of selecting the test methods known m his time, aud» by making experiments on these, turning them to ad* vantage. In 1765, he constructed a portable atmo- spheric engine, for the purpose of trying different methods of actiMg. After this, he superin: ided the erection of seve.'al large atmospheric engines; and from his nice mechanical knowledge, and accuracy of experimenting, gradually brought them to such a state of perfection, that thv're has been nothing of the same .tind more elegantly conk^'-ucted even in modern times. The most important of S .leaton's inquiries are those which belong to the load u[ on the piston, whereby he discovered that engines were calculated to carry m load from one pound to more than ten to the square inch, and that those which were lightlv loaded were expected to go with greater vt locity. On these prin- ciples, it was supposed that an engine carrying five pounds to the inch must nocessa ily go at a rate double bi t»at of one carrying ten pour s to the inch, the area ut the cylinders being f qual, su that the power might tte e<|ual. He demonstrated, however, that in engines, as in other machines, the maximum of their power cannot be exceeded, even by the greatest efforts of human ingenuity. Although John Blackey attracted some notice ai the time he lived, yet his inventions suou turned out worthless, and merit no attention. We come now to speak of James Watt, a man who did more for improving the steam.engine, than ail who CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE. PEOPLE. 11'^ •Ithar prao«d«d or whil hsT* rnlloir»a him.. ThitffrvM fttniuiwuiburn in 173f**i md di«d In iht vaar IHIO. lU •ppMn to h«r« noinin*nr«tl hliniwliBiiii'al r«Mftn'hN on th« ittam*0nftin« in lh» yr IJW. ThMMCt>nii»t> •d in ■ i«>rt«s of «i|Mrim«nti itn lb« •Ifttllu lure* and bulk of itaam. lie nmtiituwt hi* expcrimenU with raniarkablo iiicowB, and tlisy tfrmiiiKtrd in the dit. eovery nf what hat h—n ainphatiraily call»d Watt'i Hteam.KriKint), th« Aii«it prrtitntevtn([impl«ted. Now, the question aroae, Did the force gained by the increased perfection of the vacutim snore than compensate for the watte of furl In produc< Ing the vacuum ? This was found not to >>• the caset and, C4)nsequently, the cylinder not being cooled to so low a temperature, the pisum worked in a very im< perfect vacuum, and with a diminished furce. The great problem then forced itself upttn the attention of Watt, to comitnse th* sttam tcithoui cooiinj/ Ihs ey/in- dfr. It was not long before the happy conception of tooi- ii^ in a itparatt vessel flashed upon his mind. This was the tirst step in that brilliant career of discovery which has immurtalised his name ; and he himself in- formi ut, that, at the moment the notion of ** separate condensation'* itruck him, all the other details of his improved engine followed rapidly, sothat in the nmrse of » day his invention waa complete, and he proceed* •d to submit it to experiment. It would l*e tedious, perhaps unneceuary, minutely to point out the sue. OMtive stages nf the discovery, and the Ingenuity and •kill with which he overcame and okviated every dif. ficulty which arose in his progress : we shall therefore give un account of his engine as it is represented in tlic frontiipiere ; for although improvemeiiis have twen Dado since his day, they arc trilling compared with the vast ttride to perfection which the »team>onglnu took under bit plastic hands. The boiler, which is the grand magaaine of steam for the use of the engine, is situated upon the ez- tremfl left in the woodcut on the first page. It is indiipensablv necessary for the working of the ma- ohine, that there should always be a surticient supply of staam, and that it shall always be of the proper qua. Utft that is, that it shall alwaya be of a proper pressure, or that it shall always poetess a ccruin degree of rlas- ticity. To accomplish these ends, various remarkalily ingenious contrivances have been retorted to. To at. oartain the level of the water in the lK)iler, two guage pipes (> and P were used In the earlier tteam.engines, and which are still in many cases continued. The fiipe O, it will be observed, hu its lower aperture a itlle alntvt the proper depth at which the water should be, and the other pipe P has it a littla low«r. Cocks are attached to their upper ends, which can be opened and shut at pleaaure. If the lower ends nf both the pipes lie immeraed in the water, the steam, which exercises a great degree of pressure upon the surface of the water within the boiler, forces it up through both O and F ; and if this l>e found to bo the case, which is easily done by opening the ttop.cocks, then there is too much water in the Imiler, and tome must either be let off, or the supply mutt be stopped fur a time. If, however, steam should issue from both the orifices instead of water, then there it too little water, and an additional aupply must be poured into the boiler. Lastly, if water flow from P, and iteam from O, then the water in the boiler is at ita proper level. This ingenious contrivance was the invention of 8avery. Uut there is another method which merits uar attention, both from its eHicacv and from ita uni. versality of use. A weight N, half immeraed in the water of the boiler, Is supported by a wire, which, paasing steam-tight through an orifice at the top, it attached to a flexible string or chain, and works upon a wheel fixed on the top of the tube, with which the refervoir M is connected. At the extremity of the chain, a cotinterpotae weight is teen tutpended in the air, and thit weight is just tuflicient to balance the floating weight in the boiler, when the weight is haff immersett in water. Ky this contrivance the lM)iler is made to feed itself with water. In the b4)ttom of the dtftern M there is a valve which opens upwards and eommunicatea with a feed-pipe, woich detrends into the iMiiler l>e)ow the Ifvel of the water in it. The stem of the valve is connected with a lever, instead of a whral, which turns upon a point. When the water il at ill proper level, the valve is closed. The nio. ment the water In the l>oUer decreases in quantity, the float'Weight sinks, and the descent of tho end of the lever to which it it atucbed, raises the other end with which tlie valve it connected, and this admiu the water down through the feed.pipe into the boiler. So nicely is thit part uf the machine adjusted, that in. •tead of a sudden ruth uf water, and then a tuddeo 230 cessation of itt flow, It is made to descend in a small continued stream, juit sufficient to supply the con- sumption arising from evaporation. 1 n connection with the trailer there is a valve, called a safety-valve, which tecures It from accidents that might mult from the steam l>ecoming too strong. This vntv<>, which works in a tulxi pasting Into the boiler, o|>ens upwards. It is loaded with a weight equal to the strength which the steam in intendeil to have above the atmospheric pressure t for, even in condensing engines, the steam has a pressure above that of the atmosphere. When the pretiure eiceedt what it wanted, tne valve Is forced upwards, and the elastic vapour rushes out, and thus the Imiler is pre- vented front bursting. There It another safety-valve, similar to the one we have descritied, but it opens ihtrnirarfis inttead of upwards i this Is to prevent in- jury to the iHiilcr when the steam within it is sud- deuly condensed, and thut forming n vacuum. Were not the air admitted by meant of a valve of thit kind, on the ficcation of a vacuum being formed, which fre* qutMitly happens, the tidfs of the boiler would l>e tTushed togrther by the atmospheric pressure. Con. nerted with the Uiiler there is anollter piece of apptira. tun, called the »fl/-actiny ihtmptr. By a C4)ntrivftnce kiniilar to that by whlih the Uiiler it supplied with water, this damper Is mode to rsgttlate the production of steam, by rising and falling In a flue connected with the fire.place. When the steam is low, the damper risM, and a full draught is obtained, which Increatet the intensity of tho fire. When the steam ii too strong, the dumper is made to f^ll, and the fire is thus checked. The steam is also regulated by an in. strument called a tUam-guage ; and, taking every thing into accuunt, there are so many contrivances fur the preveittion of accidents connected with the steam generahir, that It seems far more wonderful that they ever do hap|)«n, than that they do not happen. It will be observed, th&t, from the top of the boiler, a large pipe proceeds to the right, and pauei into the body of the machinery, over the top of the cylinder. The cylinder it represented by that upright vessel be- low the letter \. U is ctuted at the top, and the pis- ton-rod (to which tlie piston is atuched, and moves within the cylinder steam-tight), tteing very accurately turned, runs in a steam.tight collar, furnished with a iitiiHng box, and constantly kept air and steam tight by a constant supply nf tallow or wax. There is an outer cylinder called the jacket. The space between tho outer and inner cylinder is consuntJy filled with steam. The tupt^y of steam to press the piston up and down is regulated by means of valves, situated at the top and bottoui of the cylinder. Kngineers have exercised much ingenuity upon the method of work, ing the valves, and many elegant contrivances have lieen suggested, but those of Watt ttiU remain almost in universal use. In order to comprehend the action of the several systems of valves, the reader is to un. derstand, that, when the piston Is pressed up to the top of the cylinder, as it appears In the woodcut, the •team from below it is to be withdrawn, and iteam above it communicated. The cylinder it deprived of ita steam in the following manner : A (situated at the bottom of the cut) is the eondeniter which com* municates with the cylinder by meant of a pi|ie, which is provided with a valve 11, and a rod C I represents the air-pump, which draws off the water, air, or other fluids collected in the condenser. The rod of the air. pump piston, it will be perceived, it connocted with the working.beam, and is here wrought by the engine itself. When the cylinder, pUton, and the air-pump pjttou, have arrived at the top of their stroke, let the tower exhausting- valve U, and the upper tteam.valve I>, l>e opened, and the two other valvet K and ¥ closed ; then the iteam rutbes through the valve It into the condenser A, and a vacuum is produced be- low the pitton : at the some inttant, the steam, rush- ing through the steam-valve I> upon the top of the piston, supplies the place of air which was formerly employed in pressing the piston down to the bottom of the cylinder : on iu arrival there, let the valves formerly opened l>e closed, and the lower steam.valve K, and the upper exhauiting-valve !■', be opened ; then the steam which fills the cylinder above the pis- ton, now passes off through I' into the condensef^ leaving a vacuum as before: at the same time, steam from tne boiler is admitted through the lower steam- valve t" below the pisuin, to that tt presses the piston to the top of the cylinder, and thus the nice process of aarending and descending goes on. The opening and shutting of the valves was for- merly effected by means of the air-pump. Thua : the valves which are to open and shut together are con- nected, as will be observed from the woodcut, by meana of jointed rods. From tliete rods there shoots off a lever, which reaches to the rod of the air-pump, and these levers are moved by pins attached to the air-pump, in such a situation as to move the lever, and produce the desired effect exactly at the proper moment of time. Itut thit methfid of working the valves it now tui>erseded by another. The stems of the valves are perpendicular, and move in steam-tight siwkets in the top of the valve-boxea. The stem of the upper steam-valve I> is a tube, through which the steam of the upper exhausting-valve F passes, and in which it moves steam.tight, botli of these stems muv- ing Bteam-tightthrough the top of the valve-box. The other valves are similarly circumstanced. The mo> tion which works the valves in pairs is not communi- cated by the rod of tha air-pump, but ie received from the axil of the fiy-r/heel. This aais works un appa- ratua called an eeetntriCf the principle of which It I* imootilble to explain sufllGlentlyin this placet but we refer the reader to an able work on the subject, where it is lucidly shown, namely, Gardner on the Hteam- Kngine, p. 101. Into tlta omdenser A, which (s a close eylindrloal veasel inrrounded with cold water, there la Inserted a tube, the inner end of which is pierced with holes like the rote of a watering-pot t it is provided with a cock, which it tituate denset the tteam at the moment when it hat been ad- mitted by the opening of the valvet alwve described. The water thus admitted, and that which hat been formed by the condensation of the tteam, aa well as any vapour which may exint, are all withdrawn by the alr.pump. The latter is connected with the con- denser at the Iwttom by meana of a pipe aupplied wUb a valve which opent int4> the pump. The air-pump pitum, we have already obnerv«d, move* air-tight. It it provided with a valve at the top, which opena out- wardii or upwards. Now, tliu manner in which It works will l»e seen at a glance. Hupponlng the pitton nt thn bottom of the pump, as it rises, no air can pass down through it, for the valve opent only outwards, and consequently a vacuum it lilt iclow It. Hence, the water and vapour collected in tlie condenser push open the valve which connects the condenser and the air* pump at the bottom u( these two vetiels, and enter the air-pump. They cannot retnrn from the latter Into the condenser again, becaute tho valve opens only outwards. On the descent of the pump-pitton, the Huidt which occupy the lower part of the pump force open the piston-valve, and inukethulr eticape; neither can they return into the puimi, because the plston- vaivo op«ns outwanit also. The hot water which ia thtit tlrawn out It collected in the cittern K, from whence it is raised by the pump L, and, being con- ducted by n pipe to the cistern M, is made to supply the boiler in the manner already described. To prevent the water in the cittern, where theoon- denter and air-pump are placed, liecoming too httt^ and impairing the condensation, there is a pump H, called the cold-water pump, alto wrought br the en- gine. Thit raltei a continual supply of cold water, which flows ^rough a pipit in a cunttant ttream Into the cittern. There are tliut four pittona attached to the great Iteam, and worked by the piston of the steam cylinder. One of Watt's most beautiful contrivances connect- ed with the steam-engine, waa that of parallel motion. The apparatus Q ia represented on the arm of the beam, which worka the piaton and air-pump in the frontispiece. It ia Impossible to explain it mathema* tically iu this place. It consists of a system of rods, provided with joints, &c., which connect the rods of the pitton and air-pump. The lunir arm proceeding from the square frame is, at the one end, firmly at- tached u> a fixed tteam, and, at the other, Is connected « ith the square frame Q ; as the rods rise and fall, the joints move, and keep them in a nearly rectilinear motion. Another ttriking appendage to the ateam- englne, for the purpote of keeping it going al an equable rate. Is the regulator or ^oremor. Thii ap- paratus had been formerly in use for the purpose of rendering uniform the action of the atones in corn- mills, but Mr Watt was the first to make the beauti- ful application of it, which wo now see In the tteam- engine. In the woodcut, W represents the regulator. At the top of the perpendicular ihaft are two arms, with balls at the extremity. This thaft is turned by a belt which communicates with a wheel, turned round by the engine. From the top of the regulator there shiwts off a rod, terminating in a valve, called the throttle-valve, which regulates the supply of steam from the boiler — thua : If the engine be going very rapidly, the balls are rapidlv whirled round, and by their natural tendency* to fly from the centre, they spread outwardt, and. In so doing, they draw down- wards the rod with which they are connected, whiht thia alteration in the position of the rod closes tbf> valve, and preventathe admitsion of steam, thua check- ing the velocity of the machine. Aa the motion alackent, the balls fall, and tho valve is again opened. It would Iw difficult to point out in mechanics any ap. paratut more beautiful, or which answers the purpoec better, than this. The large metal wheel K is termed thefly-whuel, and the im all -teethed wheels S and T are called the aun and planet wheela. It is evident that the motion most generally useful is that of continutd role- tion. In the first Instance, Wattproposed effecting this by meant of a erattk, but he was anticipated byannther individual, who took out a patent before him, until the eipiry of which he was compelled to employ the aim and planet wheel, at repreiented in the cut. The wheel T it aflixed to the end of the rod attached to the working l>eam, and called a connector. The teeth of this wheel work in ttiose of another wheels, namely, (hat to which rotatiou it to be imparted. This it effected by the wheel T revolving round It, like a planet round the tun, accordingly ut the end of the beam rises and sinks. It goes up on one side of the sun-wheel, and descends on the other, thus impelling it round. This contrivance has certain advantagee, but it is inferior to the common crank, which is now uaed. The effect of t\\t> Jljf-u>heel H is to equaliie the • Coitiifuitl tint. Sn InfoimtUoii, utidc Jl t nitc mf , THE STKAM-KNGINE AND LOCOMOTIVK MACHINKS. il, ;' ( '• [»*, .Hi.V'*-f. I .«( 'Ml , '.^ ,«««. I <1 ' (■_-* -.^' fc-' ',!■ . n' .1 , . ,tt..y. ut t' ■■ ■ A, thtcnifiw. wlthbuIUr, Ac-. U, the toniler. whtch ftil- I'twi iiiitneilUtely In riHr uf till' uiitilnv, Il U an upnii li.(l>t vwlilulct contiUnknK n ■ti|i|ilv of riwl u)d witer, wiih iho oDfllnMr and hin TIU I.0COMUTIVI KNOINI AND ITI APPRNnAflEa. C. A train of owrtafH ••tachetl behind the Ivndart th»y ire ftnm twenty to twcnty-flvt In number on tho Munrhntfr iml Liver- |HMi| RallKny, vsrytng ae- cording tn ihr number of paueniteri tnd foodi to b» canveyed. , ""' r "rinliiiii fnotloii communicated l>y tlie action nf llio Iwam on the «un and pUiiet wheelti or rather the crunk, ai that U the contrivance now in general nae. Thatac. tionln juitHufllcienetoiuitainiri ihuf1y>wh«el an unio form velocit/, and the tendency of tliii wheel to re. tain the velocity which it receivcH, according to the Ihw of mechanics, renderi Its rotationsutliclently uni- form fur nil practlcnl purp0Ke«. It ii evident, how- ever, that withotit the regulator already described, it would he impoiilhle to preserve uniform motion hy means of the Ily>wheel. For regulating the t-irciilation of steam, Watt sug- gested a method, which is called the D valve, from the resemhlance which the horizontal section of the valve heam to the letter D. This method Ii very ge- nerally used, although it is frequently moditied ac cording to the size of the engine. Without entering into a minute description of this apparatus, it Is suf- ficient to observe that It consists of a leriei of valves and I'liigs, which, by their opening and shutting, in- troduce at the proper moment the steam above or be- low the piston. There have been innumerable Improvements on the ■team-engine since the time of Watt, almost all of which have his for their basis. In short, there are hardly two engines conitructed, even by the same In- dividual, but what are varied in some of their parts, ao aa to render them more elTective. Alany of these have turned out well, while others have failed to per- form the operations expected of them. In the steam-engiuei hitherto considered, the cre- ation of a vacuum by meant of condensation has been fmmd the prominent feature. There is a class of engines called high'presaure engines, where this does not take place. The condensing apparatus— namely, the cotd- vater cistern, condenser, air.pump, cold-water pump, 9cc — are dispensed with, and nothing is retained except the boiler, cylinder, piston, and valves ; con- sequently, such an engine Is small, light, and cheap, and thus well adapted for locomotive purposes. Non-co4lensing engines are generally termed high* pretnre enginta. These are moved by steam, gene- rated under a considerable degree, of pressure, and it is the excess of this pressure above that of atmosphe- ric pressure from which they derive their motion. From thirty to forty pounds on % circular inch is the excess above atmospheric pressure which is generally employed In Britain. The working parts of the hlgh-pi^Mure engine con- alst of a cylinder, having passs^et providod with cocks or valve* for steam to enter into it, etthrr at the top or at the bottom, and also the means of letting out the steam to the atmosphere, either at the top or at the bottom. The cylinder has an air-tight pis- ton, to be moved from one end to the other by the preuure of the steam, with a rod fixed to it, called the piiton-rod, which slides through an air-tight box at uie top of the cylinder, to give motion to a crank, or some other piece of machinery. Now, with steam in the boiler having a force of thirty pounds to the circular inch, if the piston Iw at the bottom of the cylinder, and th« pasiiBge from the boiler to the bottom and that to, the atmosphere at the top be both open, and the rest shut, the steam will exert a pressure of nearly thirty pounds on each inch of the area of the piston, and cause it to ascend. A little before it arrives at the top, the cocks must be shut; and the moment it has reached the top, the other two cocks are opened. The steam from the boiler will then press the piston downwards, and the steam which has before been allowed to enter will flow out into the open air. The passages are again closed a little before the completion of the stroke ; and in this manner the movement is continued. The close of the cocks before the termination of the stroke, prevents either concussion against the end of the cylinder, or strain on the crank shaft ; and the elasticity of the steam destroys the momentum of the uiston, and re- coils it back witliout loss of force. Non-coudensing or high-pressure engines are of two kinds, namely, first, those which act hy the generative force of steam, and, second, those whose motion depends ou the ge- nerative and expansive force of iteam. \ nAlLROADS AND LOCOMOTIVr KMHINEH. Of all tho varied uses to which stenni-powrr has been applied, that of locomotion Is nnquestlonahly the most Important t promoting the fj^ri'Mtest fai^Ility of In. tercourie between the most distant parts nf the roun- try, and, therefore, cannot full to conduce, In an eminent degree, to Its Improvement and prosperity ( binding, as It were, " Its dlfTerent parts more firmly together,'* Incrcniiiig Its strength, and adding con- siiitency and unity of action, and extending its bene- ficial influence to the great moral interests of the na- tion. The first species of locomotion to which steam- power was applied, was that of the moving of vessels on water. Setting aside the Invention of Jonathan Hulls, ill 173 atructed of the ordinary materials. This purpose is ef- fected either by means of rails of wood or Iron laid hoH- zontallyalongtheground. Tbeformermaterlal isnow^ however, almost totally laid aside, from its want of du- rability. These tracks are now laid in lengths of Iron from four to aixteen feet, united firmly together by joints at their extremities, and resting at every yard on a heavy block of stone firmly bedded into the ground. Each of these lengths is termed a rail ; and the rails upon the most improved ..construction are those mada of wrought iron, by the Bedllngton Iron Company, for which they took a patent some years a^o. The two tracks tonther form what is termed a single line of ntilway. But where there ia much traffic, aingto railways are attended with Inaurmuuntable obstacles | and in such caaes it becomes nei^siary to lay down another line parallel with the first, and at a diatahoa of three or four feet from It. Thia la called a dotible line of railway, the ohvloua object of which la, that carriages moving in diiferent directions may pass each other without coming in contact There are com- munications at intervals, by which any carriage over- taking another, and which ia moving at a greater velocity, may b« allowed to paas, by means of an ad- jacent line or track constructed for this purpose. Although railways appear exceedingly simple In principle, they are, nevertnelesa, extremely difficult In execution { and they are attended with much expense In their conatructlon, which cannot be effectually dona unless by those who have acquired a highly improved knowledge of the scienrf>8 and arta. It must strike t.'very one na being remarkable, that it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that this simple invention was thought of, and waa then adopted in a very rude manner among the coal- works in the vicinity of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. These first efforts were found of such utility, that, since then, they have been gradually Improved and adopted in numerous situations throughout Great Britain, which has tended in an eminent degree to increase the means of conveyance, and greatly added to the pOivers of traction. Upon an ordinary turnpike-road, the average weight which a horse can draw for any length of time la fifteen hundredweight; but on an improved railroad, an ordinary horse will drag with ease a load of ten tons, In addition to the weight of all the carriages which contnin that quantity of goods, being upwards of thirteen times the quantity a horse can draw on a common road, and, in conaequence, saving to the owner the keep of twelve horaes. This mighty change in thinga In a country where the population la so dense that wa cannot grow corn sufficient for our consumption, must be reganled as an incalculable blessing in a national point of view. On this head an able writer observes* " At a crisis like the present 111 m <^. 'P'l ^BSSS^ CHAMUKIWS INl'OllMATlON FOIl TUB I'l'.OPr.li:. « rttluridAiitatid tUrviiiK popuUil.tii. iliimultnliiituon uf Mil ttiaiiimBU I'lir «ii Htilmato |i< Htiliiiato Mfliiili ^ incrvMau of fond vtiuiviilvni tu th« iuii«uui|fliiiuuf lix. IMH iiitlliiiii ol'nwMitli*, wlili;li it viiual Ui ihtt Uiliftioii o(« t»rriMryiloiilil« in Piteiil fai Uiitt "f Iralftiiil, pu«- ■•wititf nil iu intiitrai resuun*** miJ IvrtilUv, wiilnMit th» dmwltu'tt of an uiimanHKimkltt )><>iiiiUtuiit, i« » prnjwi whivli livam nil iU tuittuw itul Itm huvriMU nl' m liAiiUl'ul ulindtvitluiili, k rliui of lutuMy, or briuicli uf irwltf, bill (rf' ih« wImIo iiMtiuii.'* Xl)« iiuiubtfr u(' liurM>t wtiployAit in Uw kiiindum U tfiiiiimUHl «t two miUioiti, Biid mcIi Itorm* t »iuiiriicii u iiiucli tiHN] M will tuiifiarliiitfbi iu«u. U, ih«r«- iDrv, A laving xf uiivpl#, it would rffitciuiill)' pnivida fur i\m wbuU paupvra In Brilaii). Mr liiirdiin tayi — " Now, tli« tnpprmion u/ Uia iiUK(*-^<>riici ii)tiiii'iiur prinripal lhor<(U|rhrar*ii, and nf the drnv-h(irM*i In tlin ffrcit rnnunsrcUl tuwni, may hm calnilatrd tn eroiumiiim a Havliif of r amniiitl of fiMtd, »upplf uf the taid futtr inlllioni, in not thv) )tnNiiii'it. tureaiid proporilmmte outlay, ttiitli JuHt thai juirtot the wtnnal prndnrA of tb« i-oiinlry, ful'lmrted from the whole, whrrli \% at preaent required for the merepur. ri nt trnn$f^rtatMn — i. e. tii feed the anlnialii tued drau)(ht — and la coniequently a dead Ima at un- pmdnctire rapltal. In addlilon t'l thceril ariiinftf^im iurh aronniniptiim «f nnpntdnetiv* food, U alio In H« mntHered the very vr««l hiaa nmae^uent upon the henrr capital lunk In lUrj/ pnrrhaie. Were tJifi rlewea, •• properly It onchi, at money vlthheld fWmi other purpoaei of trade, and which nilffht be more advanta|(eo(iiily liu veited, our rapdnMiifi and men of nrieni'e would not oppna* the ■iihttftutlon of inanimnte for animate power In the way iber have done. Neither, did the landed jntereat maturely wefgh the varied heneAti it will pro- duce In nKflenltnra, would they rieir It In the light of an inraslun upon their mpeftlre Interevts. They do not give a ojilrf without reorlring a ^uj every way •a Talti.iMe. The reduction of farm contumptlon — the biiji^bear of the project — willbemeMitidcomp«>n>ated by m »teady and pniportlonali* demand from other quarter*; whilatlnthe Tnlted Kint{dom. thi*R,I(N),(KH> mcree »( land now required tofreil the htirn's, i4>get!ier with the capitnl sunk in thetr purchaw, wlllj wbfu both nuplied to other and yeueral purpoM»s, amply compenHnte for the exchange. In order more readily to ihow one effoct, let the hone* !)• cwiildert-d only lOQO ; a imftller number may not make the argument lo difficult. I«nl:«i,rn ht'rfim<> enaia'A tn tliticoutury, ^oad wm pauwl lop(v\*ii| t)w umirvvM «doirtl4>n uf UuM v«tiu^M, Uti Uu kvrta dkuuitt itniuuuike /s eiliit'iilftl, aitd iudustriuuN, und liuppy, and piuapwrout. 'I'lic yuke rem.ivt'il whlili Itim blOurio bowud the neck ol (be Huest rai'e iu the worlii, Ireland will rlfte up, tlitiu^li laieiu lime, in the euvrgles of a reuaweil pc i. pie, lo add u vitnt lutid uf lliiaiiciitl support, iusiH:t(l of tbe he ivy liurden she has hitberto been, tu Knif- laud. And If the last of the I'niun to uttaln her me* ridian uf grentneiis und prosperity, sht> will llkewlke be the last tu hand down dm greatness ttud pruapsrity of the Hrltish empire to future times. Nor will >t-otlaiid find laaa advantage I'nmi a change which will enubitt her to uiuiniaiid a distant market lor her himie uminuuliiias, and which, at tUe lume time, will bring all her imports i-heapur tu her diHus. Tbe |i''oduce M her mine* will l>e«^»nM more valuable, and ,iroperty ac4uire a worth which hitherto it bjia iim attiiiiiHd-*ilte lucreuso uf finance leturus will ui oMtrse be pruportiuitair. In various departtnvuLs of the revenue, the saving of expeuditure by tite •ubstltulion of inanimate for animate power will aUo l»e iuiuieuse. In tbe post^ulbce alone, fur inotance, it will amount to upwards of half a million ; whilst, from ihe cheapness of fiNid wliich tbe Kubstitutiou will iiritturit, the navy and army es. ttinates will l*e ninet essentially reduued.*** U'e caunot belier elucidxui ihe beuelite to t»o de- rived from A general use of tm-omutive engines, how- ever, than by lite eviilence i>t' (^>lunel Torrens Iteiure u Committee of tbe lltmse of luminous. *' Have you cousidered the etfect which will be pnv dtitvd uptm llritish agriculture, by substituting, on commou nwds, steuiu-carrteges fur carriagea drawn by horsea ?— 1 have. IVhat do yiMi ixmceive that eifert would be?— 1 think it wuuld pruduce very beuatidai olTecte upon agriculture. htate your reasons for Iwlieviug that agriculture will tie beueiiled by sulmtitutiug inanimate lor auituaJ power, consuming the pruduie of the suil ? — I uouueive that agriculture is prurperouti in proportion aa tbe ({uantity of produce brought Ui market exceeds the ijuiuitity eipeuded in bringing it there. If Bteam.c«r- riagealie em ployed instead of carriagearirawu by horses, it will be because that mode of oonveyauce is found the cheapest. Cheapening the carriage of the produce of the soil must necessarily diminish tbe (piantity of product) expeitdail in bringing a given quantity to market, and will therefore increase the net surplus, whicl. net surplus constitutes tbe enumnigoment to agriculture. Vor example, if it requires tneexpendi- ' tiire uf two bMiuired •juartem ul uorn lo raise four hundred, and the expenditure uf one hundred more on carriage, to bring tbe tour hundred to market, then the net surplus will be one hundred. If, by the Buh> stitutiou of steam .carriages, you can bring the same (juantity to market, with an expenditure of fifty quar. tern, then your net nurplus is increased from one hundred 1 1 one hundred anil Miy quarters; and, nin- M^inently, either the farmer's protit or the landlord's rent increased In a correapiinding proportion. There are many tracts of land which cannot now be cultivxt* ed, because the ijuiDtity of produce expended in culti. vatinn and In carriuge eiceeds the quantity which that expenditure would bring to market. But If you diminish the qiiantiiy expended In bringing a given quantity lo market, tnen you may obtain a net surplus produce from such Inferior soils, and, oonsequently, albiw niltlvatlon to Ite extended over tracts which could not otherwise be tilled. On the same principle, lowering the expense of rarriage wmild enable you to apply additional quan- tities of labour and capital t.-). ill the soils already under rulttvatioD. But it isnot necessary tn go Into any illus. tratlve examples to explain this, it being a welbknown principle, that every Improvement which allows us to cultivate land of a quality which could not previously be cnltivatod, alw enableduc« mure cheaply to market, will tend to increase profits, to encuurxge industry, and to enlarge the demand for laWur; so that, by this gradual pruces!*, there will pruhably l»e no period during which any land can actually be thrown out of cultivation, the increasing population requiring all the food which horses wmild cease to consume. With respect to the demand for labour, that demand consists of tbe quantity uf food and raw materials which can t>e dieaply obtained ; and as, by the supposition, the displaciug of horsea will leave at liberty more food, and more material, the demand for labour will ultimately tie greatly increased, ins^ad of lieing diminished. It has been supposed, I kumv nut how accurately, that there are employed on the com- mon roads in Great Britain one million uf horses, and a horse, it Is calculated, consumes the food of eight men. If steam-carriage* could ultimately bebrotight • Qorilon 'in FlctiictiUry Locomution. til such perlVi'tion mh entirely to stl^ilNit imighl* horses on tbe toiiunoii roads, there would Im fiHul und demand for eight millions uf perst>ns. Hut when we take further into i-onsiderutlon, that lowering the ex- pense of carriage would tumble us toeitendruTtivatloii over solli whith caunot now he prolitably litleil, and would have the further elfut t of enabling us to apply, with a protit, additional poruotis of Inliour and capital to the KuiU already under tillage, I think it not unfair tu ronrluile, that were eleiiiuntary |Miwer on the com- mon roads uunplately totiipersetledraught horses, the pttpubitiou, wealth, awl power of flreal Britain, wottid at least bi< doubUd. There are aoile which are staled to be so poor, that oats alone ran b« raised ii|ion them t would not ihe subitliiutiou of slotiu for borse-ptiwer have the effect of thiuwiuguut uf enipbiyment the labour required for the euUivation of such lamti 'f — If there are soils of sudi a peiuliar qiialily that oats is the only mar. keuble product which they will yield, tbe pei sons em. ployed in cultivating those lamU noubl rertiiinly l>e thrown out of tbut particular iHTupation ; but tbe e\. tension of tillage over other lands not of this neculiar quality wuuld create a demanil fur labour which would much more than ahsurti tl-e pemoiu tlirowri out from the culture of oats upon that laud which wuuld f;r man or cuttle, for wliith the Increasing pu. pulnliiiu would create a demand. The general impresshm on the mindl of the com- mittee Is, that steam-carriages will, at least for the present, rather be substituted fur horses used in coiu veyjng traveller! than for the conveyance of bulky articles, l>o you think that the luhstilutloo of steitm In this manner will be Injurious to agriculture and tu the demand for labour, without any adequate compen- sating advantages ? — I,'pon the caseiuppused, namely, that steam-carriages ahiHild heemployedin con' eying fiasnengers only, and tbe whole change to ha effected n a sudden manner, I think that there wuuld in the first Instance be a diminished demand fur agricultural produce, but the following process would take place i As the demand for agricultural produce was diniiuish* I'd, the price of such produce wimid fall, foml would liecome cheaper, and the cheapening of food would benefit partly the lalmnring class and purtly the capi- talists, the one obtaining higher real wages, and tha other higher iirofits; this increase In real wiigea and In jiroHts would effe<:t agreatenc4)uragetnent ti>imuiu- facturing industry, and wuuld nee '.sarily lead to an Increase In the manufacturing population, and 14) tho amiHtut of capital empluyed iu manufactures. The consequence wuuld be, that after aome degree of pres- sure u|M)n agriculture, tbe increased number of hiimaa twinge would create the same demand for agricultural produce, which tha employment of horses ' rly created. 8a that, even upim the extreme uC improbable suppusitlon that steam.carrii 'd never lie empluyed incunveyln^'' agricultu 14} market at a cheaper rate, still the l>ei ..e country would l»e very great, inasmuch as wa should have H vastly Increased industrious population, and England would become much more extensively thim she is at present tiie great a'urkshop of the world. In point of fact, superseding horses by mechan^l^ power would have proi'taely the same effect in intuMuiug the population and wealth of England, ai wuuld be pro- duced were ue to increase the extent uf the country by adding thereto u new and fertile territory, equal in extent to all the Und which now breeds and feedi all the hnrsei emphtyed up(ui common roads. Suuh ndilitioii to the extent of fertile territory In Kiiglaud, suddenly effected, would in the first Instance lower the value of agricitlluriU uruduue, and be injuriuus to the prupriutuis of the old portion uf the terrlluryi hut no persun would therefore contend, that if wo could enlarge the island uf Ureal Britain, by luldi* tlonal tracts of fertile l«ud, the public intereats would be injured by auch enlargement i this would be luon- Blruusly abt'Urd. It is nut less absurd tu object to iho increase uf food available for human beings, by sub- stituting mechanical power for horses. In Hdiliiiou to the advantages yuit have already an* ttcipaled from tlie iutrialuction of steam-conveyance, would not tlm increased speed and cheapneaa %d inter- course occasion vast uuLHc bonefita, in which agricul- tural capitalists and labourers must greatly partake f — Certainly. As it is impossible to conceive that iteam shuuld be generally substituted for horses, and bouuufined only tu tha conveyanoe of travellers; and as it wtwld ne- cessarily be employed as vans and coaches are at pro- sent, fur the speedy conveyance uf light goiMts aa well as travellers (by the hypothesis, stoam-carriagea being cheaper than horso-draft, or It would m^beuiod), would not such cheafiening «>f the ot«a» tii tht* Utrwinn inHrkm, ftiid tend to liicra»M our InraiKii I'oiitntarci). Ho that liara ax^" thvra will l»« au iiic.ctiad dcinand dir iimiiufiu^turai and for a inAimfai'tiirintc |*n, nud hrra aiaiu will Im BiiuUtar banaticlal raattlun iiptii) tha lull. Ho thai tha mora wn i!«iiit«iu(dal« tha vjriiMii alTacta pruducad upim the Indiiitry of tha coun- try hy tt chanpai nimla of coiivayKBca, tha mora wa tiniftt lia fioitviiiwd that wvaltlt and population will ba iucri*aft«d, and that atfrlrulturr, luilwd of hainf 1"- jurfd, uiiitt necfiHiirily pwtaka In tha inerauad pro^ ii[tHiity (»f tho country. In addition (u what 1 hava uhoiuly it«t*d, tha lavluff of uspania and i>f tima lu i!.Miv*)ylnf( pttiiianf(«ri and k<>*h1i, and tha rapidity of I'Miiiiiiuhluail'Hi, will priHiucu *lTiii't«, thi* amount of which It would to alinott Impouihlr to calculati'." Hut It It iu>C In tha rtvlnK of hiir»«>pikwpr ahma wliii h raltroadH nuiit \m looked upon n» a blaminfc, Itir hy niamuii of them w<« acquire a K^aat alacrity ol' »imhiU[iluatiou, ThU advantage wui uot thought of until thaopanintfof the Uarliutfton and Htockton rail- way, In Saptemuer UUA, which nave a freih Impetui to the conitruotlon of oarrlagan adapted for mora Huaedy cuiivayancaon rallwayi, and no doubt led tu thegraat (-(>n to twenty outBidf paisvugers, with their luggage, UR well as many pnri'eU. Tne ipced at which tliey go in ten nillei an hour, which muit ho admitted aa ••xtrKordinary* when we couHlder that tuch an eiior> mont loail ii drawn by one homa i and au tmall an exertion appeari nec«Hary. that the hone goaK with UH much apiiarent eaie ai if he were dragging only an ordinary. 1 1 zed gig. Thaie coachen have no apnngi of any kind, and ynt their motion In lo gentle, that It ll hardly perceptible, and a puseniter may read a hook or newipaper with aa much eaie m If he were sitting In a rmmi. Now, it is well known that few pemmi. without practice, can read in an ordinary carriage or matUcoach. A railway hai rerenily heen construrted fiom Kdinbtirgh to Dalkeith and MukxelhurKh, with rnachea ilmilar tn those at Darlington, by which pai- sengeri are conveyed to these pliu'ei, which are ilx tnlles dldtant from Edinburgh, tor the very small fare of iiipencei nav, no more than ttapence Is required for a seat from Edinburgh to Dalhouile Mains, adis- tince of eight miles. So easily do these coaches go when once net In motion, that It in not easy to stop them, and it requlren a particular apparatus fur the purpose, whtch Is tormed a brake. The Kdiuburgh railway Is only a single one; and it sometimei happens that two coaches meet at places where tliero are uo passings, when neither of them can get uut of the way of tlie other. The coachman of that^rriage next the nearest passing lane, dis. mountn, unyokes his horse, and re. attaches it to the other side of the coach (an they are alike on both sides), and drags It back, allows the other roach to pass, and, repLicing his horte, again proreedn on his journey. It must he obvious of what immense advantage these rnnrevances are to the public of a crowded metropolis; affording them healthful exercise at the rheapeNt pos. sihle rate. From January 1, DCCT, to December .11 of the same year, so many an 1H9,2I>4 have been con< vayed in these coaches, and many thousands, who never were six miles from Kdinhurgh during their lives, have had tlieir ideas, tn a limited degree, en- largeil, and their health improved, hy these excurslonn. It has l>een found that the nnmlwr of passengerR has been rapidly Increasing ever since the opening of the railway, every month exhibiting increased numhers. It is anticipated that more than double will he con. reyed during the current year, np, even In the month •)f January, the number which has gnne by thin rail, way in something more than double the nnmber which wan C4)nveyed the same month of last'year. Siirh, then, are the advantages of an ordinary rail- way over ordinary roads, and such is the navmg of Itorsii-power, and, at the siime time, a very great in- crease of speed, ('arriages, like all other heavy bodies while In motion, begin to develope In a remarkable manner, demonstrating that grand principle In mechn- nicn, that a state of Inconuitlon In In reality an natural to bodies aa a slate of rest, and only re()ulre an im- petus ; which, when In action. Is maintained in them with an little exertion of force as *f they were in reality standing still. Hence It will be seeii how faltacion's that diH'trlne maintained by the ancients, that rest was more cnngenial to the natural state of bodies than motion. There can Ife little duuht, if all obstacles could be removed which impede the progress of ma- chines, that, if a carriage were once sat in motion, it would continue to roll on for ever, if adhesion and gravitation ctmid lie overcome.* ** It is well understood that when two smooth surfaces suhjei-tad to prcnaure urn in contitct, .t I'rrtiilii force l> raquisita to causa tbea to tlida npttn aaeh other i and this resistaiM-a to motion In surfaces is called mtih*»i»n. This properly was not unknown at Ihapariod alluded to I but no data axtstad by which Its eitant ciiiild ba •lelined i and. In tha abaeaoa of this, every failure of pur)MMe, which, In reality, arose from svar, like substanres under like circumstancas, it appears that the greater tim pressure umm the surfaces, the greater Is the force required to give thum opposite motion. Now, as the adhesion Is the ranlstance tu that oppiMlta motion or sliding force, it necessarily follows thai the two tiroperliea must be coequal ; and hence it liecomea evident, that the ad- hesive property bears sonii^ proportion tu the weight or pressure applied."* Wu now come to a dsscriptiun of railway improve- ments of a much higher kind than those cjirriagrs which are mtived hy horse- power, namely, those whicli are propelled by means of loctunotive steam-engines. In the year ltM)2, a patent was registered and taken out hy Messrs Trevlthlc and Vi\ Ian, for a hH-omotivc engine adapted to a railway. It was not, however, till in04, thatanengiue was perfected by them, so as tu act in this manner. It was first tried upon the Aler- thyr Tydvil railroad, and was capable uf drawing as many carriages as could convey ten tons of bar iron, at the rate of Ave miles au hour. But what perplexed mechanists was, that the want of adhesion of the car- riage-wheels to the rails was imagined to present an insuperable obstacle to the use of the engine in draw- ing heavy loads. This error led to the inveutiun of many Complex duvires, to obviate this imaginary in- convenience. '* Mr Rlenkinsop, of MMdleton colliery, Invented a rack reaching the whole distance of the rail, along which toothed wheels, worked by the engine, truvelled, and thnsproduced apt "HBlvemotion of the machine. Messrs M'. and E. (I , nanadopteda chain stretched along the centre ot ttie railway, which chain was grasped by n grooved wheel and roller at each ntroke of the engine, and necessarily forced It onwards. Mr Bninton invented twomoveanle iron legs, each Jointed, and terminating in a claw; these were placed behind the engine, and being acted upon hy the piston, Axed themselves alternately In the ground, and drove the engine forward at every stroke. Notwithstanding the ingenuity of these and several other expedients, each had some equivalent disadvantage, either uf in- creased friction, or diminution of power, that jire- vented Its general adoption. In the meantime, the superiority uf iteam-powcr was so obvious, that tixed engines were erected upon several railways, and the use of thestt has continued in a greater or less degree up to the present day. The means hy wlilch they effect the moving action, Is either by a rope attached tu the ascending train, and returned again to the bottom of the plane by each de- scending train, or by means of what is termed in mechanics an endless chain. At length, about the year IRIA, Mr DIarkett, of Wylam, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, effectually proved, by repeated experiments, that the adhesive power uf the wheels wm at all times nutliclcnt tn produce n progressive motion in an engine, with a train of londeH carriages, upon a railway either level or with a very slight Inclination upward. Some time previous to the above date, and about the same period as the introduction of Axed engines, an- other considerable improvement was effected in the manufacture of the rails. They had hitherto been con- structed of cast iron ; and the exceeding brittleness of that material rendered them liable to frequent damage, both from the weights placed upiui them, and the t.hiirp frosts of the winter seaKon. Tliiti hud re- peatedly occasioned the total stoppage of a whole line of road, and it wan desirable that such a loss of time and money should be remedied. Wrought irtm was known to poaaess au advantage over cast iron in this respect ; but it was conceived that the softness in its texture, which cfiostituted this advantage, would produce a commensurate, if not greater, evil in the rapid wear and occasional Iwndlnff of the rails. Ex- perience, however, proved not only that wronght iron was capable of asuAicient Armness — particularly when the rolling body was of the same material — to prevent an Injurious decay from friction ; but that it nlso pre- * See InftMmstlon. artlcli) ytfthania. • Sot «n intpre»Hna ]>arri>lilet, I'tititlwl the nnllwtiy Cnmpanlini, by ■ Tmirbti psfTr 1 1 : which cont.tim a minute iinit diinnct 3c. iMiuiit uf the Mauchnter and Livvrjiotl lailway, wvU wctttiy of Kriitrd II I'Mich f^reater reaisiatire to the oxydUIng nr rutting InAueure of the atmosphere than cast Iron. This let) to a verygeneril suhsiltntlnn of the former t ahhinigh at the present time the latter has many ad- voratM among wlantlAc men. This, then, was the slate of radwavs a docen yfintt ago I hut let it be remembered that all these were lio- laled and private undertakings, conAfied to the mining dislriels; and thai, therefore, very few persons had an opporlniiity of witnessing thrlr operations To the many, thin subject was as yet a dark shadow in the womb of futurity. Hut from out the midst of this darkness a new era was ushered to the womlering world. To the vriu- Ift'iA waa reserved the privileged dls- tinctlrm oi applying the principle of railways to the practical purposes of general enuveyanre ( and, on tho 'J7th of Xetitemlwr In that year, the Ant puhllo rail- way, sanctioned by an act of I'arllamenl, was opened between Htorkton and Darlington. This may he con- sidered as having been the Infant essay ssful; the seanid hill lielng eventually carried In the Commons, on the llth of April IB^O, by a majority of 47 out of \'l\i\ and in the I^irds, on the 1st of May, without n division. Tho projectfirs having gained this essential preli- minary step, lost no lime In commencing actual opera- tions. Directors were chosen at a general meeting of proprietors held on the 3Ulh May { and the draining of Chat Moaa, in June, formed a beginning tu this great undertaking. This was followed by tho Arst Hhaft of a tunnel, tu carry the ntilway under the streets uf Liverpool to the water.nide, hein^; opened in the foltowing .September, just twelve months after the completion of the Stockton and iJarlingtou rood. In January IU27i the excavations and uml)ankmonts along the wliole line were in progress ; and in the spring of that yenr, a loan of L.IfM),000 was obtained from the Exchequer Loan Commissioners, for carry- ing on the work with greater vigour. Early in the vear 11)211, the directorn obtained the sanction of Par- liament t scribed. Thixmgh the lower part of the boiler pass a setin of small copper tuliet, which at one eatremtty ctimmunlcate with the fire-box, and at the other with the chimney, foruing a passage through which the heated air escapes to the chimney. The chief part of the water in the casing being lower in its position than the water in the boiler, from iu ten- dency to ascend when heated, passes back into the builer; so that the water in both vessels is thus kept nearly ut the same temperature. The air pnising thivugh the burning fuel, and which fills the fire.b()x, is carried by the draft ihruugh the tubes placed in the lower part of the boiler { thus communicating heat to the water which is there cwtained. 't finally posses into the chimney, and rises by luv anu\ the pr(tmotive engines, and fixed engines. In discusting which of ttese should be odopttnl in the prfe remembered, that o ayitmn of the former kind mimt Iw at once completed, while the latter can always be proportioned to the quantity of trathc After thii question had t»een decided, it next be. came a matter of dtscuRsitm as to what kind of impul- sive power should l»e used on ihe two exrepted poinin nf the nrad. The incltited plane in the great tunnel commences at the ofietiing towards Manchester, mid descends under liiverpool in a straight line of VMVi yordiv ot the ratio of one in forty-eight. The whole descent, thcrrfure, Is V£^ fiM*t. The smaller tunnel ascends toward Liverpool in the same ratio. Here a fixed engine with on endlens chain is used; but it was evident that the same mode Could not he resorted to in the centre of thelinf without great disadvnntaK>*- The two inrliiifMl nlan^ At Hainhill are each a mile and a hall' in length, and the ratio of their inrlinatiini is one in linety.nix— ari'e that certainly requires ad- 324 ditiunal ^uwur. In rejecting a fixed onglne .%« this point, the question then to l>e decided was, whe- '.her the adhesion was sufficient to enable the locomr. tive engine to perform the task ; and if so, whether it should be accomplished by increasing the power or decieasiug the speed. This led to a series of experi- menu, the resul* ^* which was, that the difference be- twee:: the adhesion on the level and such an inclina- tion was too trifling to bring into calculation, provided the same sfeed were continued t but that to increase the power of the same engine for that purpose wou'd require .t to l/C worked to a great disadvan'.age on the level, ii was finally agreod that an .!xtra loconio- tive jngine should Ite kept on the spot, to be at- tached, whenever occasion required, to the ascending train."* In a great commercial country like Britain, \.'here every branch of natural and artificial produce is car- ried to its utmost limits through all parts of the coun- try, it must be obvious that an immense capital is annually sunk in the mere transport of marketable produce from one part of (he country to another, which bears heavily upon the seller, and may in fact be reckoned an outlay for which there is no return. This kind of expense is also daily felt by the con- sumer. Hence it must be obvious that any method which can be adopted to accelerate the transport if these, and materially lessen the expense of carriage, must be a great public benefit. Kxpeditious conveyance la no less material to man- kind, and may be considered as on equivalent to ca- pital ; so the* no expense is spared in the mercantile world to attain this object. Society are ready to r i^r- rhose incidoseb s;toed at almost any expense} am. we have lately seen, that, to gain a ipeed of nine milei an hour, for what was formerly eight, an expense oi a thirc 0.* the original outUy has been paid ; and thok for a mile more, or ten In ;he hour, even double tho cost has not been grudged. " To the merchant, time gained is equal to mone; : fur time occupied in travelling Is Juit so much pro^t- able employment lost. Time occupied in the tra. .•- port of goods is equivalent to so much interest of capital spent : for a thousand pounds invested In merchandise is unproductive so many days as the transport is tet^ious. That part of the capital of an iLdividuol which is employed in the carrying of his goods to and from market, is as much abstracted from his means of producing more of the article In which he exerts his ingenuity and labour, whether it be in agricull!ire or manufacture. Kasy communication lessens the time occupied in the transport, and a saving of time lessens the distance, or our not'on of distance. This effects a saving of money ; and a saving of money permits of a greater employment of capital. Whatever reduces the price rf transportation reduces the price of the ^mmodify transported. Whatever reduces the trr i^eller's t'«ne reduces his claim for compensation, anf*. (comp- (ition being ulways at work) I.e is cont.ent with a smaller profit upon his merchandise. If a scarcity of any article ot-cura at one point of the kingdom, the mono- polint there cannot continue his increased price for any duratiou of time. Commerce may, in this respect, bf resembled to water, for, if not obstructed, it will always circulate till it finds its level. An opening or channel being furul-hed, an equalistfd supply will make its way wherever required. 1'hus we see that the strength, wealth, and hap- piness of a nation, depend very much upon facility of communication. The ill-defeuded spot in tfaeempire is alive to the reality, that subsidies having bad roads or a tedious navigation to pass may arrive too late to present an etfectuai resistance to a plundering enemy. The hord-wurking emigrant of a remote settlement, distant from a market, feels the diificulty and loss he aiiituins ill hiiuging prt^Kiuce to the spot where mer- chants and dealers meet for the purposes of exchange. A spot unoummuiiicated with may be visited by the horiork of Inuiine, and no channel exist for convey- ing thitlier the food required. A grievous pestilence may sweep off an isolated people before the aid of the physician can arrive to arrest its pr ogress. ''-f Ttie practical good resulting from this increased speed of travelling, and the consequent saving of time and reduction of fares, will be seen from the ionstant increased number of passengers conveyed by the rail- way between *'tlnnchcster and Liverpool :— The number for the half-year ending on the 30th June 1(131 was .... lfU),7-i« And the half.year ending in Dec. same year 'JMi,3;!l Ileing an increase of . . . 07,A!)5 Which i« more than 3^1 per cent, increase of travelling fur the first six months uf the year, and upwards of VA'i per cent, increase on the travellers between Man- cheater and liiverpoolduringthocorrsspoudnig months ol the year previously to the finishing of the railway. Tue'origitial coit uf this railway was, lor Pariia- meiitury and legal expeutes, together w:th the survey of tliu C4tuMtry through which it passes, L.41i,'iU4 ; the purt'^ase uf land, li,U.'i,30A \ excavations and em- bankments along the line of road, I«.1UU,7'^M the formation, walling, and feni ingot' tlie rond, l4.47,'i-l>; and the r.iils, blticlii of stone, and sleepers, L.H)t,4:ii ; e |tal1w«y ('om|>«iiloiu t Gunlon oti Elemtolary Luconiutlou. the erection of buildings, including pn'.Ice stations, warehouses, ani oflices, L.66,«tf7 \ 1>uildfng bridges, Ii.l08,A«A; carrying the vay through Chat Moss, L.a7,7lO( the great tunnel, L.44,768; nnd the -imall coach tunni'l, £.2485 t engines, waggons, and carri- oges, L.63,G37 i making a total amount for this stu- pendoui undertaking of £.620,000, of which the late Duae of Sutherland was« subscriber to the amount of one hundred thousand potinds. We shall now proceed to give a short account of the constmoUon of this great work. The railway is formed with a double way of lines lying parallel to each other, and four feet eight inches apart. One of these ways is used for going and the otner for returning, to pre- vent any dangerous ojnsequences which might occur from the concussion of two rapidly-moving tK>diei<. ' The line has occasional shjingi, to allow a freo passage in case of any obstruction arising from the stoppage of a preceding train. Branch-rallways com- municate with some tii the Intermediate towns lying north and south of the road \ each of tliem having two oblique curvilinear openings inflecting respec- tively toward the two axtremes of the journey, to render the transition of the carrioges from or to the main line less sudden. Thf ...ui,kure is a raised edge.rail \i( rolled Iron, two I.iches broad, and one inch thick, in lengths of twenty- Ave feet each. Thesearefirmly fitted together, and placed upon cast iron chairs or pedestals, and the whole supported at intervals of three feet by stone blocks, twenty inches squartt and twelve inches deep. Into each of the blocks two holes are drilled, and filled up with oak plugs ; and to these the pedestals bearing the rail are spiked down. On theembau'tments, and other places where tlie foundation may be expected to subside, additional firmness is securcNl by the intro- duction of oak sleepers. The whole length of the 1. \d is thirty-two miles, and poiu are placed every '-, .arler of a mile to mark the distances. The company keep a police esUbllshment, who have station .houses at intervals of about a mile along the rood. These stations form also dcpiits fur passengers sad g(K>ds from or to any of tho intervening places. The duties assigned to these men are to guard the road — to prevent or give noUce of any obstruction— and to render assistance In the event of anv accident occurring ; and to do this effectually, they keep up a continusLl line of communication. They are guided by a code of regulations issued by the l>oard of ma- nagement. Their directions Xo the engineer sregiven by signal. M'hen a train approaches wittiin a certain distance '' i station, the policeman \ resents himself, and signifies aclearroad byassiimingan erect posture with Ka arm ouutretched ; should he take the positiutt of * stand at ease,* the engineer is aware that ^onie obstruction exists. When a passenger is waiting at the station, a red flag Is hoisted by day, and a swing- ing light exhibited at night. In travelling 'n the dark, the last carriage of every train carries ' astern* - -to use a nautical expression—a revolving lamp, one side of which is red and the other blue. As long as the train is in motion, the red light presents itsdlf to whatever follows, hut at the iasunt uf stopping, the blue light is turned outward; the engineer of the next train instantly sees this change, and Is enabled, by checking the velocity of his engine, to avoid a col- lision that would be tremendous. The Am of the engine Is sufticient to give warning to the ^licemon or to any object upon the road of the uppruM:b of u train. Each engine is immediately followed by a tender or light open vehicle containing a supply of fuel and water, with the engineer and his attendant ; and to tliia is attaclied a train of from five to twenty car- riages, according to the number uf passengers or guuds to be ciuiveyed. The passage-carriages are divided into three claaaes, and are made to resemble four coach bodies juined together upon one frame. Thjse of the first class contain seats for eighteen passengers, th ... abreaxt, each seat being separated by arms, and nunil>ered. Those of thu hec«md class curry twenty-fuur passen- gers, ft>ur abreast, and have the Heotsltkewiiie separated and iiurubeied. The third class are open carriages, containing si'atn fur twenty-four passengers. Kach train of carriages is attended by one or tiiore guards, who have seats oti the outside. To enable private carriages to travel ahiiig the roilwav, fiat frames are provided, upon which the carriage is raiM'd, and im wheels firmly secured upon the platfurm by moveablti grooves. The cattle-carriages are covered and fenced round with II liglit grating. Some of them, for tho convey- ance of pigs, are quite open ; and it is no small diltt- ctilty fur the poor irishman, who may be thus travel- ling, to keep his live stock from rebellion. The luggage-waggons fur the conveyance of gooJs are square open carts, each of which is furnished with a tarpauling to protect the boles of merchandise frum the weather. The waggiuis for conveying coals are likewise open carts, made c ' ler at the top than the bottom.'** * tlitllwiY ('oni|tani'>ii. KiMNHrnoM: |*iililiilir(l l)y W. ami It. t iiAUHKnii. If), Wattr- liH) Plai-ci uUii tjy'iiiH BDil Smith. I'nti-nimlur Hnw, l.im- (Inni aixi Y'iCNM mut ('i'"?«i»V, lUiil R. C'hsinbflri. \ lUCC tloi * tkii , nftt tun con Itou prii (M dill kill the lh« pri mild 1 Bid tuc be sn wl COI til 80 tU loi ■m CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOB, THE PEOPLE. " conducted by william and robert chambers, editors of the " edinburoh journal" and « hiutori'-al newspaper." No. ag. Pbiob l^d. THE DUTIES OF LIFE. The Mmponl dutiei enjoined on ratlond beings nuy be thni daued t — 1. Duties which one owes to him- self.— 3. Duties which arise from domestic relations. —3. Duties which arise in the commun i ties of which each one is peculiarly a member.^. Datles which arise from the political relations of society — S. Duller which arise between indirldnals who are of diflferent nations.— We propose, in the meantime, to treat of thoM duties which a rational being may be said to owe to himself. Liri AS A WHOLI. Life Is a snitcesslon of parts ; infkncy, youth, man- hood, maturity, decline, old age, and death. What mad becomes, depends In part on hit genealogy ; w his In- fancy is, so will be his youth | as his youth is, so will be his manhood ; as his manhood is, so will be his maturity ; as maturity is, so will be decline ; as de- cline is, so will be old age. If youth be passed in idle- ness, ignorance, folly, and crime, how can one hold his way in the world, side by side with the intelligent, the wo. thy, and the virtuous ? If manhood has been passed in low pursuits, in rooting in the heart evil propensities, In watting natural vigour, what awaits one in old age but poverty, pity, and contempt ? If infancy be devoted to the reasonable expansion of the physitsl and intellectual powers — if knowMgo of hu- man duty be acquired, and be rightly used, will not manhood be worthy, maturity respectable, decline honoured, and old age venerable i Life; then, mutt be taken as one event, made up of many succeuive ones. On these unquestionable truths we found all that if worthy of any notice in the following pages. ponposES or life. We believe that human life, rightly understood and rightly used. Is a beneficent gift ; and that it can be to understood and used. It is irreconcilable to reason the': man was sent into this vorld only to suffer and to mourn i it is from his own ignorance, folly, or error, that he doee sc. He is capable of informing himself; the means of doing this are within his power. If he were truly informed, he would not have to weep over hit follies and errors. It is not pretended that every one can escape at once from a benighted condition, and break into the region of reason and good sense. But it is most clear, from what Is well known to have happened in the world, that each generation may Im- prove upon its preceding one ; and that each Indivi- dual, In every successive period of time, may better know the true path, from perceiving how others have gone before him. There can be no miracle In this. It will, at best, be a slow progreti : and the wisdom arrived at in one age, must command the respect of succeeding ones, and receive from them the meliora- tion which they can contribute. We understand no- thing of what it called the perfectibility of human nature ; but we understand this, that if human na- ture can be made to know wherein its greatest good consliu, it may be presumed ihat this good will be sought and obtained. Man was created nn this principle, he acts on this principle, although he ,it seen so frequently to mike the most deplorahio and distressing mistakes. If it be not adihitted that msn- kind will always itrivs to olitain nhatsoercr teems to them good, and strive tu avoid whatsoever seems lo them evil, their moral teaching it in vain. It' this principle be admitted, the sole inquiry is, what Is good, and what is evil. IXFAKCV. Every human being comes into the world with phy- sical and iittellectuai qualities, propensitieit, and apti- tudes, which difltinguiali him as much from nil otlier beings, as he dilTers from them in figure niid ajipear. ance. As society is a consequence of tlie Creutur's will, as the proper diviiious uf labour are a necessary oonnequence of society, it ia not irrational to suppose tliat individuals pre born wit|) ndaptatlnn to Inliour In some departments, and not in otbiu's. In the early BtBges of life, tl)e.te qiiiilities are sometimes deve- lopftl, whether they happen tu be understood or not. But almost immediately after gaining some hold on life, all human beings become subject 'o the incidents which tend to tt.-engtheu original qualities, or to ob. tcure or atop thoir progress, and even to suppress them, and engraft on the original stock those which -re entirely different It would be unjust to make Infancy responsible for the evils and errors which arise in this manner | but ce ainly those who have the guidanca of infancy are responsible, and will be held to be so. Children have a right to complain, and so- ciety has a right to complain, if duties to children be neglected ; and, it la needless to remark, there is another, and inevitable aocountability of a far more sei.ous character. We shall have occasion to remark on the very sober duties of those, who, ac- rording to the order of natural and necessary law, are entrusted with forming and giving effect to natural qualities. This matter properly belongs to ai-other place. YOUTH. We come now to a period when acconntability be- gins, ' J all the relations which were placed in the di- visions of duties. If It Ije asked at what age this is to be fixed, we answer, that the good sense of judicial law recognises that a child may be a witness in so- lemn judicial proceedings when Inquiries addressed to him are so answered as to make it certain that he understands the nature and the obligation of an oath. This may be at the age of ten or twelve years. But the perception of right and wrong, and the sense of duty, begin at an earlier age. Their certainly are children of the age of eight years who have a very clear sense of moral propriety ; and very many who between that age and twelve can diacem and reason on right and wrong, and arrive at a very sound judg- ment. We shall presume that all into whose hands this sheet may fall, will be fully capable of compre- hending its purpose, and of judging of its fitness to be useful to them. We must assume, then, that we are speaking to those who are willing to be instructed in serious things, and that they will not reject instruc- tion from any source, however unpretending it may be, if it come to them In a manner which they can re- concile with their own reason, and with their own duty to themselves. Young persons think that they can see for themselves, and that they need not to be told what others have seen. But let us reduce this to common sense. Suppose a person to be under the ne- cessity of going from the place in which he has lived, and which is familiar to him, to a far distant place. I.et It be supposed that the road he must travel is cnwsed by many roads, and that he is frequently to find himself at points where several roads are seen, either one of which, so far as he can discern, may be the right one. Will it be of use to him to have been told, before he departs, which of these many roads to take ? Will it help him onward to his destination, when ho is bewildered and unable to decide for him- self, to find some one who can assure him of tlie right course? Life is a journey. Every step we take in it brings us to somen 'ignew, something unexpected, and perhaps entirely ditferent from that which was looked for. Thond who have gone througii it before us, have left us tlieir instructions in what manner it is to l)e undertaken and accomplished. They tell ns of their own trotiltles and difficulties | they warn us how to avoid the liite in our own journey. Which ia wiaeat, to listen to them, and weigli the worth of tlieir warning, or to push on heedlessly, and take the con- sequences ? HEALTH. We suppose that every child of the ages last spoken of, can tbrni some opinion of the value ot health. Most of them have sufi^ered, more ur less, by that time, ''^'ey are now old enough to consider the purpoaes for V ':h life has been given to them. Thoy then feel that the purpose ia to lie pluuseil, and gratified ; to want, and to have; and that restraint is disagreeable. IIui let tliem rememlier that life is a whole: tlist though all of them will not, yet some of them will, attain to iu longest duration, and that it is whidly un- certain to whom that lot will fall Long life may de- pend, and often does depend, on what children do, or omit, at an early age. Among the first gratifications which are looked for at this period, it the indulgence of the appetite for food. Here comes in a rigid law of the Creator. It cannot be broken without conaequent suffering, nor repeatedly broken without impairing, and perhaps destroying, the material frame which ha* been described as to fearfully and wonderfully made. To require of that Jelicate machinery, on which the action of life depends, that which it Is not qualified to do, and which it cannot do; to force it to do that which is offensive to it ; and to make this requisition habitually, is a sin against natural law. Its punish, menta are well known. The restless sleep, the heavy head, the many sensations of uneasiness, the positive pain, the disgusting remedies, are the pimidiments which fallow. They are not all. Nature loses its charms, companions their interest, duties became irk- some, the mind hates its labour, penalties are incur- 'ed, parents or teachers are regarded with displea- > jre. These are the fruits of momentary gratification of the appetites. On the other hand, there is a law of nature that food shall be grateful. It is required to supply the dally waste, to continue life. If there were not a craving want, we should take food as a mere ne- cessary duty. It Is kindly made to be a pleasure, and, like every other pleasure, it is to be used, and not abused. Thug, by ignorant or wilful pursuit of plea- sure, we violate a law which brings with iu juat pu- nishment not only the loss of the like pleasure for a time to come, but alto pain and suffering from indis- pensable remedies. When children are sick, they are subjects of tenderness and pity ; but in most Instaocea they rather deserve to be punished, for they have bro- ken a law wilfully, since they have disregarded their own experience. As to kinds of food, nature is not unreasonably nice abont this : that which it com. plains of is quantity. CLEAKLIHESS. This is not a mere matter of decency. It is one of the positive commands arising from the constituted order of things. Be it remembered, that every thing that lives, vegetable or animal, is wasting while life continues i and that all which is sent forth through the millions of openings by the skin, has run its round, and is lifeless ; and that more than half of all the food taken comes forth in this manner. If per- spiration, sensible and insensible, be permitted to rest on the skin, and stop the way of that which is cAa- ing, nature is olfended, and will show that ahe in so. Such neglect is one of the causes of disease. This fact was probably well known to eastern iiatioiH, since it was part of their religious duty to cleanse tlui akin. These nations were ignorant of the modern cunifurt of wearing a garment next the skin which can lie fre- quently changed. The absence of this comfort was one of thu causes of those dreadful diseases of which we read, and which are now unknown among Chris- tian luitions. There are classes of lahutirers und mechanics, whoae health would be preaerved, and their lives prolonged, if they knew how niocli tie. punded on periodical cleansing. It may be said ilmt there Is a connection between cleanlineaa and moral feeling. Perhaps it may be going too far to say, that those who habitually disregard cleanliness, and prefer to be dirty, have no moral perception ; but it may be truly said, that those who are mora"y sensitive ara the moro ao from respecting this virtue. Tliere is a close afiiuity between moral depravity and physical deitradatlnn. The vicious poor are alwayt shockingly filthy : the depraved rich are visited by worse pe- nalties ; they may have clean garments ; but what can wash away the impurities which vice has made part of themselves ? It ia not for one*s.self only that the virtue of clennlineas commends itself. Erery ono comet within the observation of others. However m m CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. II fead«d at th« like negleck in thote whom he obserres, Now, it .'i a^-ery one • duty m himsflf to recommend hfamstlf to othert, to far u ho innocently and remon- ably can, and Co obtain their respect. Clean and ooitly garmentt may fall rory thon of doing thli, if it he seen that chey are a coFering for the neglect of thii important law. If there l>e a lovely thject to the human eye, It in a clean, clear-faced, healthy, inno- cent, neatly clad, happy child. Ther» are few chil- dren who may not, if they will, be neatly dresied, for this does not depend on that of which the dress ii made. There are fewer who may not have h clean nkiii, and healthy look, if they are properly fed, and aleep in pure air. There are none who may not hare a clean skin, for we speak to those who are old enough to judge for themseWr.. And let it be added, for their inducement, that, I a obeying the command to he clean, they are performing a moral duty ; in neglecting it, they are inflicting an evil on themselves in two ways; first, in diminishing their own comfort; second, iu losing the esteem of others. Among the generally unknown causes of loss of health it the respiration of impure air. The congr«vation of nany persons iu one ap&rtmeiitf especially when arti- ficial light, iu great quantity, is permitted, is a oaase t>f more maladies than is oonunonly iupp4»sed. Three causes, in such case, combine to destroy the tituess of the air fur respiration— the animnl heat of the as- sembly, the lights, ftiid the breathing of the same air •f^aiu and again. There must be such aisemblies. The remedy is proper veuulatiun. The smoke of lamps has Irequently occasiored death. No lamp is properly trimmed if it emit any thing more ihau a pure bright flame. It is a common practice to keep sUep- ing apMtmenta shat up. If there be several persons in a smalt roooi which has been shut up fur several hours, it would be shucking to know how often they must brekthe again and again the same air, and huw unfit it is to be breathed after it has once visited the lungs. Add to this the impurity of the air, which is ountinually in contact with the furniture prepared and constantly used for sleeping, in an unaired apartment. It is not mere nicety, or taeudimLS delicacy, which re- quires that the pure air should be admitted wlieru the human lungs are in action, but it is a law as old us she creation of man, and cannAt he disregarded. A skilful observer miglit select among many, from the appearance of the countenance, those who have just left on apartment in which they hare been respiring for hours a spoiled atmosphere. No doubt that this caoae, long continued, so affects the whole mass of blood aa tu bring on many diseases. If pure air be peculiarly neoeaaary to any rJaos of persons. It is ao to children. We believe a more useful suggestion could not be made on the subject of- health to the whole com- mnnity, than to invite them to respect this law of na- ture, that there cannot be perfect health where the iiir is impure, and that this applies especially to apart- ments appropriated to sleep. Visiting friends are often put in'o sleeping apartments whidi have not lieen opened for days and weeks ; this is far enough from kind treatment, however innocently It be dune. TIMC. Every person connects himself in his usual thoughts of hifuself, with all the lapse of time in which hi* cait remember, and with all the lapse of time through which he expectr to lire. This he calls his life, lie dues not live in time that is past, nor In time tlmt is tt) oome. He actually lives imly in the present moment. Yet he feels that he lives in the past, and will live in the time to com^ tfccause the post, the present, and the future, are so connected, that he cAiwiot separate them. It is, then, a law prescribed to us, from which no one rt.ii free himself, that he shall suffer in thi< pMstng mtMnent for the wrongs dime in time gone by, and fur the evils of which he dreads the approach. As this is certainly so, how little does he regard the operation of inflexible law, who provides fur litmself a load of self-reproacli, for any g>'«tificMti(in which he can procure, by error or hy cri -ne ' Let us lay tmt of the caae luose errors and crimes which have been alluded to, and consider negligences and follies. Man was meant for action, and his ac- tions were intended to enable him to secure good Ui himself. 0(K)d to himself depends on the performance of his duties to himself. Duty to himself rtHjuires that 'le should improve his faculties, and should avail htm- aelf of all the opportunities given to him for that pur- pose. The hours, then, wliich are permitted to slide by without any improvement, are lost. In pu losing tlietn, he breaks the law of the Creator. Apply this to the vocations In which one is to cultivate his mind in any business, mechanical, scientiflc, or learned. When one sees himself surpassed by iKhers, and left far in the rear ; when he is called on to measure him- self against another ; and when he sees that compari . tons are made between him and others, greatly ui hij riisarivaiitage, he may feel, and most men do feet, that they are thus depreciated Iwrause the precious time which was allotted tu improvement has l>eeu passed in trifling amusemenu, or in idle pursuits. To some miniis thi* suffering from such causes is eitreroely aeute. They have no one to hUme but themselves. TIm bitter remembrance which they have of the post, aa ouinected with the present and the future, is the punishment fur breaking a positive law. They may «ousule themselves, p erhai^ with the firm resulutiuu. uncleanly one may be himself, he is not the less of- tliat they will repair the wrong done in the p»8t time ' ■■-••■ . - , .1 1. — 1-- -t. ^y diligence in tne time to oome; but they find that thne brings with It iu own demands. Thev are for- tunate, indeed, If they can do In one space tnat which belongs to it, and that also which belonged to another, and in another set-on of Hf& One cannot innocently say his time Is his own, am^ that he may dispose of it as he pleases. His time in his life. It Is given to him In trust. Like other trustees, he will be held to an account, in which there is no possibility of concealment, and where nnthina will depend on proof, tt may be supposed that it will be said to him, there was confided to your use a term of time ; you knew, or could know, the laws pro- scribed to you in performing your trust : are you oome from that trust to render an account of it, burdened with reproach fVom vour own conscience and with marks of gnllt, whicn you cannot hide f or, are you come, without any advancement In the knowledge of your duties, and with no other aooouut thau that your days rolled by in childish puriulu, or idle amuse- ment, fk) wiser when you were severed from the world than when you left tlie cradle of infancy ? or, are you aime with the exalted acquirements which you might have, and with that innooenoe and purity which you would htive, if you had read the laws of the created world, and thoso which have been revealed, aud placed before your eyes? Where have you read *n these laws, that no duties to yourself, and to your associates, nor to the Lawgivtr^ were enjoined npoii you ? Hare you not been told, by every breath you drew, by every movement of your frame, by every thought « vour immortal mind, by every just pleasure, that you have had, by every pang that you have suffered, and by all that you hare (>een made capable of perceiving and learning, that there were laws prescribed to you in yd lies in giving up what they will to do, and doing what is required of them, rather than to meet the certain consequences. ^'e think that the whole science of morals will Itc found in the principles contained iu the truth above stated. Self-love is just as strong throughout life as it is in childhood. It is that quality of our nature to which all cxcelleuce may be referred ; but It is also that to which all uuworthineas may tie referred. As the dretd of puuishment, or an unwillingness to displease those whose kindness a cliild desires, will restrain him, or put him into action, B4i, iu mtue advanced life, the dread of suffering a certain or prolmbte evil, and the oeruinty of losing the good will of others, will restrain, or impel to act. With those whose minds have Ijeen properly disciplined, and who have learned to comDrehund their relation to thtf ('reator, there is a far higher motive, which is founded in a submission to the Creator's laws. As one goes on iti life, he may or may not acqtiire more and more clear and just perceptions of what will be the greatest good to himself, and how he can obuin it It is a self- evident propositir^u, tltat if a person could certainly know wbitt It would be l>est for him to do, or not to do, in relHtitm to all things and persons, and under all circumstances, and if he should conform to this knowledge, he would liest obey the impulse of self- love, and must exactly ooufarir>. tu the laws prescribed for his good. It cannot t>e too often impressed upon the youthful mind, tliat i[ff it to be ttiken ana tehoUi : for if^ this ex- tended view be not taken. It must frequently happen that it will seem right iu certain circumstances; and when the view is limited to these circumstances, that certain Mt* may be donrt, or avuideit as tlie greaf good. Vet, if the consequences could be foreseen, cb y wmild disclose that this seeming gtMid would t'jr.i out to be a positive evil. It often seems good to t'e the meen in action, and demand repose. If it were painful to us to direct the action of the mind to useful labour, and if it were distressing or inconvenient to us to ex- ercise our muscles for purposes which we believe to be proper, then it might be that labour is a curse ; but many, nay all, who .equire of the mind to per- form its duties to any useful purpose, and especially thoae who have disciplined the mind to an accustomed aervioe, find that the absence of employment is an affliction. We cannot see how this snould be other, wise, if we rightly comprehend man's relation to the universe, of wnich he constitutes a necessary part. As to bodily action, it is seen that children in their sports ffo through a series of exertions, often exceed- ingly violent too, from mere pleasure. Men frequently exercise the body much more severely in matters of amusement than they have any occasion to do in ue* cessary labour. This action aeems to be a dictate of nature. In many cases of indisposition, bodily mo- tion is the prescribed remedy, and is commonly a suc- cusful one. There are sound reasons why this should be so. There is an universal action of the material system to which man belo^s, and a oontinual waste and demand for supply. Excepting only in the in- voluntary movements lu man's structure, which are not conHded to his care, he is required to aid nature iu her operations. If he would put blmaeif in the beat condition to receive, and derive pleasure from his daily food, he must keep himself in action. Those who have the least pleasure in using what was given to be used, as the means of pleasure to the senses, are those who keep tlie bodv inactive. This is true of those who labuur with the mind only ; more ttrikiagly true of those whom affluence excuses from labour uf body and mind. They seek happiness in indolence and in luxury. They find it not, because they violate a law uf nature. Ko product of the vineyard, the field, or the sea, how. ever aided by inventive art, will furnish a welcume repast to one who sits in listless idleness, on h downy cushion, from breakfast time till dinner. The day- labourer who sits down to his coarse meal has a plea- sure to which the luxurious idler is a stranger. The one receives a rational benefit from the kind and just bounty of nature ; the other seeks it where nature has decreed that it shall not be found. The labour of muscular action is not only in itself a pleasure, but it is the means prescribed to us for the acquirement of subsistence ; for the gradual improve- ment of society ; for applying natural and artiiicial products to our comforts, to our convenience, and to reasonable luxuries. Nor ouly lo : tliia is tbe ground- work of all the beautiful and imitative arts ; of the discovery and application of the chemical power of matter ; of the wonderful oontrivancea by which man securely moves on the face of the ocean ; by which he cultivates his acuualntance witli the stars, and raises his thoughu to the Author of all being. Let us not, then, regard labour as a curie, but a blessing, and rank it among the many causes for thankfulness. It is obvious that muiculur action would have been given to us in vain, if it were not directed by intelligence. There must, then, be labour of the mind. This Is no where said to be a curse. If there be any thing for which we should be specially thankful, certainly it Is that we are blessed wUh the power of mental exertion. This labour is in iuelf a source of happiness ; and in its fruits has made, out of savage men, a rational and improving social being. The most restleu and comfortless of all creatures is he who has no occupa- tion for hts mind. If one would invent the most miserable condition for a human being, other than mere physical suffifiring of the most excruciating kind that can be without extinguishing life, it would lie to deprive him of all employm»:*>t of body and of mind. Can there be a dotibt that in man's present condi- tion the ability to labour in his exalted privilege? And is he not accountable for this privilege ? Is not reasest ideas liud come to them when they were engaged in some simple occasional duty, such as the fotdlng of paper, or the cutting of tbe leaves of a book. The stir of body seems to produce a corresponding stir of mind. Tbe relief which we surest is, that seden- tary labourers should provide themselves with sub- jects for reflection, and exact of their minds to attend to these subjects. By sucli simple means, the memory may be strengthened, the stuck of knowledge may be greatly increased, and the mind surprisingly invigo- rated. Onf> aight begin this exercise by attempting to remerabei, with the utmost precision, every act done during the preceding day, and so go back from day to day. Better still would it be, U tlie purpose were to see wherein one had not done as well as he might, and as he may wish he had done. This ex- ercise may bo applied, also, to the contemplation of subjects suggested by reading ; and this contempla- tion will raise questions which will lead to the exa- mination of books. There may be hundreds of poets, philosophers, and moralists, at the work-benches in this country, who have no thought, of tliemselves, that they are such. It is In the power of any person who can read and uuderstand the English language, to strengthen his memory, give himself an interesting employment, and furnish himself with a rich fund of the truest philosophy, in this manner. He may com- mit to memory six lines, each successive day, of Pope's Essay on Man, and on each day repeat all he nad learned on preceding days. On the 210th day he would be able to repeat the whole euay. This might be done without losing one moment of time, and with- out making tbe slightest error in one*s work. When accomplished. It would be an intellectual treasure for which any man might be thankful, and of which he might be justly proud. The first elforts may be discouraging, but perseverance will insure success. Every one who is accustomed to thinking can attest that most new subjects are at first confused and un- defined ; but they gradually disclose themselves, and fall into shape and order, just as material substances, used on the work-bench and the anvil, take that form, smoothness, and polish, by successive operations, which the workman requires. This quality of onr n^aure has engaged the atten- tion of many philosophu niinils. It has been rn:;si. dered an ultm>iltt /art, as it Is called; that is, one of those qualit' )>irh, tike respiration, digestion, and manyothe nd t>> exist; and beyond which fact no invest!^ 'uri t of remark. It may be, that habit is to < the law . ' trtion. which appears to pervai hI ami ruillectiial being. Life is divided into purl-' . nnf are awake, and active; in the other, wrnp}' «leep, and quiet. Each successive day Is a sun <ecomes hungry rather according to the hour than the natural want. It may perhaps be an ultimate fact, behind which we cannot ko, that those acts are most easily and well done which are oftenest done. One who uses a fiail, an axe, a scythe, a sword, or a pen, can use either the better the oftener they are used, until he arrives at a point of excellence at which his power of improve- ment stops. This may perhaps be accounted for by supposing that the first effort which the mind makes to direct muscular action, Is the most ditlicult one. After repeated efforts, the mind seems to understand better and better how to direct, and the muscles how to obey, till at length a very slight effort of the mind Met mode of mUng men In their social relations, the 1 seems to be all that Is required, and even an effort 327 so inconsiderable and rapid as not to be the lubjeotof notice. On this truth Ae m a to depend the astonish- ing bcillty of action # which (among many other instances^ jugglers and musicians attain. This !• called habUt which word is derived from a Latin word which signifies custom or use. There are customs or habiu of the mind as well as of the muscles. Per- sons who accustom themselves to extemporaneona speaking, acquire a surprising ease and readiness in the complicated action of conceiving, uttering, aod expressing, by sounds, by looks, and gestures, what- soever they would impress upon an audience. The mind has its own habits also, in the quiet of contem- plation, and in exercising Its various powers. Ithaa Us own associations, too, with external objects, of which many curious Instances are stated In philoso- phical works. The moral deduction which we make from these general principles is this, that there is a continual craving to do some act, to obtain some object ; or a continually recurring necessity to do some act to pre- vent an evil, or tnoonvenlenoe. The frequency of this call upon us to do something, whether it be for eventual good or evil, leads to the practice, custom, or habit of doing ; and in some cases, the impulse to act becomes so powerful, that reason, self-respect, the laws of society, and even those of the Law-giver of the universe (if these are heeded), present no suffi- cient barrier to the Impulse. It Is to this aJl-important truth, in the nature <^ man, that we earneetly invite the attention of the young. The capacity to create habits is the consequence of the power given to us to promote our own welfare, individually, sodaily, and as accountable beings. This capacity was designed to fasten us down to that course of action which will accomplish these ends of our existence. Like every thing else with which we are entrusted, it may be righUy and profitably used, or may be misused, and perverted to our certain ruin. Habit is the kindest friend or the cruelest foe to bun an welfare. When it assumes the latter character, it approaches us in the most deceitful and seductive forms. It comes wearing attractive smiles — it delights—it fascinates — it substi- tutes its own irresistible will for our own — it trium- phantly points to the gulf to which It bears us. The fiy caught in the spider^sweb is a faint illustration of the power of habit. He knows, from the first moment, his destiny. The gambler. Uie drunkard, and the felon, when and how do they learn that they have been caught in the web of habit I INTEMPERANCE. This word has attained a meaning more limited than its proper one. It is applied commonly to per- sons who take habitually ardent spirits ; but it is equally applicable to all transgressions of the law of moderation. All acts which may be lawfully done for one's own good, when carried to excess, are acts of intemperance; and all such acts are sooner or later followed by some sort of suffering, according to their nature and degree. Excessive labour of body or mind are as much acts of intemperance as to make one*s-self dull and stupid by taking food, or irrational and giddy t.y taking spirits'. But there is a wide difference in the d^ree of Immorality in the kinds of excess. Au intemperance in study, which brings untimely deatli in some instances, is not condemned as an immoral transgression (though it certainly is such), for the motive which leads to this intemperance is an honour- able one. The loss of health and character, from abusing the privilege of taking nourishment, is uni- versally cnii'U" riril ause the motive, and the acts done in o* it :s impulse, are irrational and disgraceful. There ore i>ut kinds of Intemperance against which the voaug should be warned. The one is drinking, not ''>r iiourishmetit, but for pleasure; tlie other Is, usin^ tobacco. It has been already demonstrated that nature requires a certain quantity of prnper food tu maiitttiln « 'leiilthy and happy condition of \m\y and mind ; aN tlmt excess ol any kind will be fol- lowed by sull ug. This is just as certain as that a full vessel muai throw off just ,is much as is added to tt contents. It is very natural that young persons ^hould a^semble for the sake of society ; lieine assem- bled, they must have some employment for the mus- cles of the body, and the craving of the mind. We have shown that such prupeuslties spring from natural constitution, and that they must Iw satisfied. There iiuist b'- li community of purpose in the meeting, Th«t W found in any muscular action in which ail I > I, and which has some definite object, as Hi ,; iuies; or it may be found iu some intellec- .uployment which is common to all present. Un- i.sjipily, the most frequent bond in such meetings la to lirinky for in this all can join. Connected by this oommon attraction, the mind Is called into action ; but for what purposes ? Those who frequent places of public enteruinment can answer this qusation. Some who are sent to public seminaries can also answer It ; and some can answer it who know that they are main- tained there by pinching economy a( home. Some other* ix>uld answer it, who never had a serious thought why such places were established, nor for what uses they were intended. We refer again to the demonstration heretofore made, that the law of nature, which cannot be broken with impunity, Inexorably admits so much, and no more. Let us, then, look In upon a gay company of young pertoni, around a UUe^ and hiOf concealed by #' ,:,} ' '}■ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ;i.! M tobacco Binokt. What lort of «Ir are Ui«y brwUilng P vrhu tort of nibtUncM art Ihoy cuUng Into thair phyitcal lyaism, alrvady bundhf with ucou t what •oit of thouf hta hara thtv in thair iniudt f and what aort of wor« art flowing Yroin thair lipa f Wo eould, but will not, aniwar thaaa quatUont for tham. Let ui pau by this ravel, and go to the next morning. Wo mlffht than propound eome other quetiiont. Are not th«r headt henvy, hot, and throbbing P Are not their eyei thick and burning? Are not their tongues white and parched P Do not the nervei tremble P Ii not the mind muddy and confuied ? In whiit condition are they to perform duties to themselvea, to chose they Mr\*«. to instructon , to affectionate parenu P /i no/ thit liear'btmgkt pkaauM9 How long can nature bear to be pkn*^ in ihii manner P This matter dues not •tnpheiv. The same scene is repeated again and again. Soon habii ««er(« it* aviffui dominiom ; and tbpii the scene mutt be repeated. The crsTing cannot be re- silted. From locual drinking, the step ii an ensy one to Aolitary drinking. Thtn U no rgsHtig-piact for hotiti ntrp thing in thii i^tttm qf Uing miut hup on, or ejuL It is believed that the sort of criminal excesses to which we allude ara not from tlie promptings of na- ture. We rantnre to assert that tuev are entirely artidotal in the beginning. It seems irrational that any one should like to uke mure of any thing than nature requires ; and more so that one should natu- rally desire to Uke burning liquids to the degree of intoxication, or perhaps lu take them at all. It is be- lieved there is no such natural propensity ; but that kucb liquids, when first taken, afford less pleasure than pure i^Uer. The taste for these articlcm i« creMed by association, by imitation, by fellowship ; and, above all, becante there is a kino of trnditton that it is manljt to driuk. Songs in praise of the juice of the grape, and oi meaner liquors, have some effect in the delusion of drinking. There is a fascination in combioed poetry and mdody. Such oombinatt'jus are well known to have the most powerful influence in national associations. They innpire a feeling whii'h L»ears men on to victory or death. The songs of llacchus do the same. They conquer the strength nf those who sing, and of those who listen ui them, and sometimes Uy their admirers, not in the bed of honour, but of contempt. If one could get the ear of such a misguided youth, he would not do much by reasoning with him. He niif;ht do something by getting him to reason for himielf. It would lie necessary to Itring to his view some facts from which he could reaion. lie must be made to know what a wonderful contrivance the dl- geative power it, and by whom It was contrived. That itA nurpose is to uke the inanimaU subsUnces, which nature provides for it, and cnnverr them Into living, ftcnittire being, and, poesibly, Into thinking power, nnd immorul spiriu He must be reminded how efisily every human contrivance may be deranged, and the more so, and irreparably, in proportion to the minuteness and delicacy of construction. But as one might fail to make a thoughtless lK>y romprehend the nature of the principle of llfu which resides in his own bosom, because be cannot see It, some illustration muit be made. I7nhappily there is none which can be effective to this end. The nearest that occurs Is thin. Let us suppose, then, one knows the use and the value of the human eye in its physical, intellec- tual, and moral relations t that he knows he must take rare of it, and frequently bathe it in cold water, as well to cleanse it as to refresh and brace it, so that it mav still be an eye to him, when decline and old age ^hall come. I«et us further sui)|N>se, that, instead of so uiing and so preserving this delicate organ, he should, when he first rises in the morning, let fall into it a drop of burning spirit, and it eleven o'clock anott ^r, and so on, at the proper hours, until he sleeps again t Hnw long would the power of vision remain to him, and how soon will this organ of de- light Income a source of insufferable pain ? It must Ife much the same with the digestive organs as to the abuse uf them. If one could, in some such way, bring home to the perception of an erriug youth the grievous wrong which he Is inflicting on himself, he mi^ht be prepared to reason on his own case, and might be asked some Buch questions as these : Is It uf any consetjuence to jou to be free from suffering and sorrow ? As vou mutt Ineviubly keep oumpany with yourself as lunt; as you live, is It of consequence to yiiu ^1 make of yourself a pleasant and agreeable companion, and not one who will l>« cimliniially complaining and up- braiding ? Is health of any vulue to you r Can you use your limbs, and the faculties of your mind, as you would like to do, without it f Can vou have healtli if your habit is tti tlirowinui that delicate part of your system whereon the action of life depends, lubiuncts which exciu it to an unnatural exertion, or deprive it of all puwer of exertion ? Doet not everv part of your ftystem sympathise with the injustice wtiich you do to your digestive organs ? Will nnt vour brain, anC '-"liicifuently your mind, suffer by thfs violence? Do you expert b> atuin middle age, and old itge ? Will not the fe^i you are now Mwjrig ce a parent, are you willing that your children should be told with whom, and in what manner, you "enjoy yourself?" Would YOU tell them how you spent your youthful days and nighu, anVl reoommand to them to take your- self as an example ? TKUTII AMD rALSCHOOD. These two subjecu relate to two parties: 1. That one who speaks truth or falsehood ; 3. That one to whom it is spoken. We propose to consider this mat- ter only In relation to the first party, and u to him in two views. 1. M'hether there be any, and what law, which requires that the tnith should be spoken ; and, 2. What good or evil one mav do to himielf by lying. 1. One reason why truth snould be spoken Is, that the knowledce which any one person can have from the use of his own senses, in ni«ny things which It most materially concerns htm to know, Is very limited. He must therefore often depend for hfs knowledge on what nibers sav to him ; and when the thing spo- ken of Is exclusively known to the party speaking, the other mutt rely entirely on iFhat he says. If, there- fore. It be conudered how great a part of the most se- rious cjncernn in life prm^ml on declarations made by one person toanother, we may readily conr«ive, that, if thcKo could not l»e relied on, the affairs nf mankind would be rreatly embarrassed, and confidence In each other would be destroyed. As this matter of speaking the truth Is one which concerns all persons, so all per- sons agree In holding liars in contempt. Even the very loweit iwrsons consider themselves to Ite disgraced when charged with the guilt of lying. They can en. dure charges which would stibject them to public pu- nishment, with more composure than they can endure this. A I'e is always understood to bo restirted to, to senire some advantage or prevent some evil to the person who resorts to It ; or to occasion some disad- vantage or injury to the person to whom, or of whom, the lie is told ; sometimes both these purposes concur. The abject In view is always an immoral one, and the means used are always regarded as disgraceful. It Is at once obvious that wllnil falsehood is forbidden by natural law, which is intended to regulate our social relations, and Is expressly forbidden by divine law, which condemns all acU of fraud and deceit, and com- mands us to do to others at wo would have them to do to us. 3. It I' .* rare occurrence that any one who descends to falsehood succeeds In the object which he may have lu view. He is comm«nlydetected, and. If not, is sus- pected, which may operate quite as much to his dis- advantage. If he should escape detection and suspi- cion, he lUes in con^unt fear of Iwth. He has a very troublesome secret to keep. If he should be able to do this, still he cannot hide It from himself that he is a liar ; and such a person, by natural justice, is com- pelled to pass that sentence upon himself, uhlvli he knows that others would pass upon him if they were as well informed as he it. A liar is therefore obliged to feel like a guilty person, and an habitual liar very soon comes to look like one. If there be no hlKher motive tlian one's own Interestand welfare in speaking the truth and avoiding falsehmKl, this is a very stifil. cientone. If a man Is known tol>e a person unwor- thy of confidence when he speaks, he has not the benefit of being credited even when he speaks the tiuth ; he voluntarily deprives hintself of the tidvan. tages of social life; nis assertmns secure to him no credit; his promises are ctmtenined ; he makes him- self to Ite alone in the vt>ry boxom of society, for every one shuns him. In the adininiAtralion of jus- tice in courts, a person in not regaritt-i] as a witness, whose common repuutinn lit that In not Itelleved when he speaks. The oi action tohun Is not that he might not tell the truth tn ilte maturwiiu-liison trial, but that such a pera<)n ou^lit nut to h>- received as a witness, because he cannot he cretlited in any thing that he savs. When - •ch a person has Iteen calletl and exa- mineo as a witnens, it is usual to examine other wit- nesses to prove his characUr ; and if it be proved that he is unworthy of credit, what he has sworn to is dis- regarded, though heniay bavedeclaretl thetruth. This is the common faU of all such unfortunate persons in ieiy, as well as in courts. Independently of the crimlnalilv, lying is very poor policy. If the object bo to obtain a supposed giHid, it rarely is ohtJiineii by such means; and II it l>e, the price so paid must always lie greater than the good Is worth. If the object oe to conceal a wrong dune, it is rarely successful ; and if not, it leaves the offender without excuse for his error, and adds un>>ther wrung. If the ol'Ject be to charge an Innocent person with a wrongful act, or to deprive one of his giMMl nitme, or of some lawful poi- sesvion, or sutiject him to some evil which he ought not to endure, the offeiu'e Is of that cast which the law of the land holds to Iw NM/tc^rff, and it deals with such offence accordingly. In short, it is very difficult to viols te any law of untural justice or diriuu prohibltlun j without encountering an adequate punishment ; and It may be assumed that tha punlahment which followa lying la at certain and Jtut at In any inttance of crimi- nality. If every tenant of every prlton, and if every pertoD who it In the custody of a goading oonsdenoe, wera atked thitquettlon, what wu your firtt ttepfrom iwMctnet andpuritjf $ he would probably aiuwer, ttli- inff a lit t SIHCHITT AND IVinrCEmiTT. These are other names for truth and falsehood. They are not commonly applied to the most serloua Odjcems of human life, but to what are called tha *< imperfect obllgatlont.** Such obligations, It Is well Itnown, are not enforced by the law of the land, but are binding as duties arising as well from natural law (reasonably expounded) as from divine law. Since- rity It a duty to one*s-self, because it Is demanded by self-retpect. At everyone has an Individual separate phyiical being, to every one has a separate eircle within which ne exists, and into which no one hat a right to intrude. Hit thoughtt, motivet, opinions, and policy, are hit own. What he will or will not do (so that no wrong be dune to others, and no act of duty be withheld irom them) It for him to decide upon. Within thli circle he makes up his judgments on all persons and things. In his outward deport- ment he must frequently act In a manner not consis- tent with these Judgroentt. At an example i one haa made up, from repeated observations of a certain in- dividual, a very clear but very unfavonrable judg- ment of his qualulw; ' but there It no ocra ion to dis- close what the judgment i*. The obierver It obliged, or findt it convenient, to meet thlt Individual, and to deal with him, and perhaps to Interchange oourtetlet with him. It It undoubtedly proper to manifest the respect, In such case, which the decencies of life re- quire, and to show the oimmon proofs of good will. There Is no Insincerity In this. Though no one can possibly avoid formin;; judgments of others, nor avoid liking or disliking them, even including very near friendt and relatives, yet there may be a potltlve viola- tion of duty In publishing these judgments, or In dis- closing these feeling*. The divine law, " judge not that ye be not judged,** does not, it It believed, inter- dict these judgmenu, because they cannot but be made ; bnt it forbids the wanton, unnecessary, and In- jurious publication or manifetution of them. Thosa whoarekeenobserveraoftheir fellow-men, see In their facet, in their manners, in their modesof rpesking, in their tones of voice, In the sentiments which they ex- press, &c, causes for respect, esteem, confidence, and approbation; or they may see causes for disrespect, suspicion, strong disapprobation, and disgust. But all these thingt belong to the individual circle. It is not insincere to keep them there. On the contrary, society would be intolerable if they were not kept theret it is very hasardous to the observer to let them out un- necessarily. He may be mistaken both at to the fa- vourable and unfavourable judgments which he forms. Further observation, new circumsunces, ui.expected changes, may essentially correct his judgment ; snd, therefore, a prudent man will keep them to hlinnelf : they Jre his own peculiar property, and were obtain- ed for his own use. It sometimes happens that one must associate with, or have something to do with, per- sons who are exceedingly repulsive and disagreeable to him, though that person may not be so to all, if to any others ; and no moral effort will be effectual to re- move these impressions. The dutiful course seems to l)e, not to disclose these Impressions even to the party who causes thrm, if It can be avoided. One may to quite as disngreeable and repulsive himself toother per- sons, though he may have no suspicion that he is »o. He would not like to be told of this, nor would he t>e able, probably, to change the relation for the better, it' he were* The world geU over these difliculties by etUbllsh- ing a kind of common currency imder the name of politenets. Those who undersund It are never decciv- ed as to Its value. They know the coin In all its de- nominations, and how much of It h to be parted with on all occasions. They know the precise point, In hu- man intercourse, where its value ceases, and where recourse must be had to other means. The rules of civility settle many points in these dilHculUee. Civility ii, however, dlitlnguishable from politeness. The latter is a coin of the world ; the former is the manifestation of Christian feeling. They are often confounded, as their practical effect it much the tame. They are in- sincere wlio lavish the currency of politeness, and who lead others to believe that far better opinions are eu- tertained of them than really are. They are contemp- tibly insincere, who for their own selfish purpoM*s, or from the weakness uf desiring to render themselvea agrcfiihlc, Htoopto commend directly, or by insinuation, qualuies in others, which they alTtict ht see, but which tliey well know do not exist in them. This Is called /dZ/rry, which word is derived from a Latin word which signiiies wind, breath, puff. This it a kind uf alU meut, which perverUdtelMove findt to be exceedingly pleuant. Although it It in truth precisely what iu orit(i iidlcati's, there is hardly a man, woman, or cbihi ^ ho is not disputed to partake of it, if It bo art* full) (lisguiseil. Itut, on the other hand, all seukibla perKonfl, uf whatever age or sex, who see what it it, Bn coming and agreeable manner. If every person understood the true foundation of society, the common orl^n of all Its members, their natural and necessary sympathies, their community of interests, their necessary action upon and with each other, it might be supposed that all who are reasonable would be civil. They would be so, liecause they would promote their own good, because they would be doing what it is proper to do, to promote the good of others ; and because tney would know, that in so doing they would conform to the design of their creation. We do not include under the term civUUy the great duties of justice; acts of munificence, important personal services. These arise out of some special relation which an in- dividual bears to one or more other individuals. It seems to be limited to the manner in which the com- mon or accidental intercourse of the members of so- ciety in general should be carried on. This matter may be better understood by some examples. Thus, if one comes Into Uie presence of anotlier as a beggar, servant, labourer, mechanic, trader, merchant, far- mer, lawyer, physician, clergyman, or public officer ; or if it be a female, ur child of either sex, there may be very various modes of receiving these different per. sous; yet, certainly, by every one of the laws which we are endeavouring to illustrate, these several per- hons are entitled to civility. £ven the beggar, per- haps one should rather say the beggar in particular, if not deformed by voluntary transgression, thould be leceivel with civility — that is, gentleness, kind- ness, decoi-um, are to be observed relatively to each one. Wh/ ? because no roan can afford to be deemed insensible ti the calls of reasonable humanity ; nor u stranger U> the decencies of life ; nor ignorant of what is due 1 'om him, nor to him, in any of his pro- per relations. Politenes* may be quite another thing, in Rome of the supposed cases. Oue interchanges finliteness with those who happen to know what po- itenesi ia — civility with every body. A king would be polite to the ladies of his court, to his prime mi. nister, to the members of his council, to foreign mi. iiistem, &C., and civil to his coachman, and to the humlilest of his subjects. We may find many illustrations, and fill ever so many pages with them. Let us take one which will coiiC49rn the greatest number. In this country a stage-coach and a steam>boat bring many persous into a small space, who may be utterly if^norant of each other's existence until they meet. They have a common object, that Is, to lie transported in the same vehicle from the point of departure to that of destl. nation. Circumstances compel them to be very close to each other, and each one has the power of being very disagreeable to each one of the others, ia a va. riety of welUknown modes. Let us suppose that each one consults merely his own interest, i[ic]uding In that his own self-respect, the reasonuble good-will which each man desires from all others, and the ever-present principle of doing as he would be done by. He shows that lie is sensihle of the presence of his fellow-meu ; that he thinks them of sufficient cohHei^uence to wish to have their good opinion | that, he is attentive to their comfort or convenience ; that he is disposed to learn something frpm them, or communicate some, thing; or to join with them in disposing of the time in which one has nothing to do, Init to be carried. Take the other side of the picture — be puts himself in the best place, takes out his cigar, lights it from a pocket apparatus, and goes to sinuking; he sees no one, speaks to no one, and endeavours to hear no one; if spoken to, he answers in a coarse monosyU lable, and in a tone which preveiUs all further attempt at intercourse with him. If he make his presence known to all, beyond his sullen sitting there, it Is by some selfish exclamation, or contemptuous ejaculatiun, on what is passing within his notice. Which of thene two persons UcivHi which of tlit- m is making the mOit of human life ? which of them ift attracting good will P which of them ntight to like liiniielf the best r* which of them will have the nioiit to lo.ik back nnon with pleasure ? which of them h a ratiousl, seusibte, wer.diapoeed human being i and which of them U a selfish brute ? There ia one other oonalderation which operatM on all men who have had much ezparlonoe in the world* Men and things change, and take new and unezpecttd relations. Persona who have been long and even In- timately eonnocted, suddenly or gradually sever t per- sons who have known little of each other, and that little unlntereatlog or unfavourable, are brought In contact by some unexpected turn of affairs. Some. times one needs favours, or at least good-will, from those he never thought to be of the least importance to Mm. In such and in a multitude of other clrcum- stances, one may find the advantages of having been acquainted with the virtue of civility, which Implies that one hat given no unnecessary offence. There are other cases in which one is called on by duty to do things disagreeable to himself, and ezceedinffly so to others. But there is no good sense in performing such duty morosely, and with luhumanity. As the laws now are, one may be authorised and required to put another to death. It would not be expected that such a duty should be performed poiUely ; but there is the strongest reason why it should be done civiUy, AXOEB. This word Is 'derived from a Latin word, which means to choke, or strangle. In several other Ian- guages Its root is found, and in all it has the sigulfi- cation of strangling, choking, constraining, or nar. rowing. In common understanding of its meaning, which is the true one, It is a violent passion of the mind, arising from some real or supposed injury ; and its natural tendency is to do two things : first, to take satisfaction for the injury; second, to make the offen- der suffer. This paulon does not appear to be wrung in Itself. Like many other excitements which are common to our nature. It was given to us for useful riurposes, and is only wrong when its dominion h njurlously submitted to, and unjustifiably obeyed. There is a principle of general operation among all animated beings, which reconciles the existence of anger with the wisdom and benevolence of the Deity. All animals are entrusted by nature with the preser- vatiun of their own rights, and the promotion of their own welfare. But alTanimals are liable to have tlinii* rights infringed, and their welfare disturbed by others. If there were no sensibility to wrongs, the cunning and the strong would make all others obedient to their will. Anger is justifiable in self.defence, and In ex- acting justice, and in making an offender suffer, with- in the limits of reason. It is only in the misdirection and Irrational use of anger that men make this prin- ciple of their nature a cause of affliction to themselves. Certainly the indulgence of an irritable angry tem- perament is oue of the sorest troubles experieuced in human life. Anger has its seat In the mind. It is a passion which literally means an excitement of the human sys- tem, by the action of some external cause perceived by the mind. It Is that passion which has the most im- mediate and the closest connection with tlie material system. Every one who has experienced a violent fit of anger knows that the natural action of the heart is quickened, and that his blood courses through his veins with a feverish rapidity ; he feels that his face reddens with this action of his blood, that his eyes are full and distended, that he has a sense of choking in the throat : these emotions will gradually subside as the fit goes 'jff, and the blood will resume its accus- tomed flow. So far this may be only a temporary physical evil. This, however, Is not all the evil. Such an excitement can never occur without affect, ing other parts of the system. The interior or. gans of the system, which minister to the diges. live process, partake In the evil effects of this vio- lent action of the blood. These also are choked and constrained in their natural and necessary ac. tion. Physicians and naturalists tell us that the frequent action of anger generates stones *'i the gall bladder, makes the aver schtrrous (L come hard), and, deranging the indispensable flow of the bile, brings ou jaundice and other diseases. (Such afflictions arise from various other causes also.) It is well known that there are Instances of sudden death from violent anger. This is accounted for by tho sudden rushing of the blood through delicate vessels wliiih are not strung enough to hold it. They give way. ihe human machine is ruined, and death follows.' 1 1, is raid the theories as to long life are contradictory. By some it Is referred to temper- ance. But 8o< ue persons have lived long who were not remarkable for this virtue. It is rational to suppose that a naturally good constitution will endure long, if the rules of temperance are respected, and if the system is never subjected to violent pasBiuns. It is pnilfable that those peraons live longest who are not only temperate in quantity and quality, but who are also good-natured and cheerful. Supposing the foregoing suggestious, as to the na- ture of anger, to be well founded, they are to be ap- plied by persons who are entrusted with their own riffhtn and welfare, and whobe great purpose Is to ohtaiti the greatest goiid from life at a tehole. It ia admitted that all persons may, and perhaps nnist l>e, sometimes angry, until all persons attain to a much higher state of moral perfection than has hitherto li«t>ii kiiowu. Hut it seems to be of great Importitncu to one*s.self to lenrn in what way be can govern the propensity to unger. so as tu make it what it was meruit to be ; that ia, meana to hia aafety and welfare, and not, u too often it is, a caua« of auffirtiig and humi- liation. The eausaa of anger ve luppoaMl to be these i — First, by the law of natort and of aodety every on* haa rights in what he legarda m his own property \ second, one has a right to hold unlmjpairad whatao- ever he can Joatly aequira in x«putation and charac- ter; third, hahaaarighttoharahiafeellngireapected by others, if he do no wrtnig to their fiMllnga ; fourth, he hu a right to have the like rights reapacud in those with whom he is neoesaarily ccunected by fam II v and socUl tius ; fifth, he hu a right to be treated with justice, and, according to eatabUshed laws, by those who are entruatad witn powers aiitth, he has a right to have those who are botmd with him. In a common subjection to luoh laws, treated with Juatioe. When- ever any one la ofl^ded by the violation of any of these rights, he may be jnatiftably uigry. But in what manner and to what end he shall express hia anger, so as to do himself the greatest justifiaole good, is the thing to be known. £very oue who has had a violent fit of anger upon him, knows that it was to himself (independently of the cause and object of his anger) a palnnil and even a very distressing sensation. No one ever looked baek upon such a state of things, as to himself, with Mtisfaction, but generally with regret, and some- times with remorse. He feels humbled and grieved In his own estimation of himself. He may too well remember that he used expressions and did acts which he is grieved to have resting In the memory of others, or in his own. It Is probable, also, that no one ever saw another in a violent passion, without feeling that this angry person was degrading himself, and acting more like a brute than a rational being. Whatever be the cause of such anger In another, cool spectators always regard the angry person as under a temporary loss of reason, and iu dauger of doing some serious mischief, and are prompted to restrain him. Every one feels, in such a case, that the least that can happen tu one so acted upon, and so acting, Is, that he is preparing for himself hours of self-reproach and of bitterni^s. If no one likes to remember that he was viol'^ntly angry himself, and If he Is offended V.K mviug others so, it must be admitted that violent anger is contrary to natural law, as it most certainly is to divine law. It Is an abuse of the trust confided to us to promote our own welfare. As to the cause and object of anger, there are certain cases in which sudden and violent anger is justifiable. The law of society permits the expression of it by violence, even to the destruction of human life. Thus he, who in violation of all law, human and divine, is attempting to take the life of a fellow-bein^, may be justifiably slain by him who is in such peril. The same law juRtifies the like act in attempts to com- mit some grievous crime in relation to persons or pro- perty. This justification occurs only when the offence is in the course of being perpetrated. In most otHes in life, where anger is felt, the causes are of far in- ferior grade to those which the law of the land notices. It is to those of common occurrence to which our at- tention is now directed. The cause of anger is some real or supposed wrong done, which prompts us to obtain reparation, and to punish the offender. It Is consistent with reason for any oue, who is under the influence of anger, to be prepared to ask and answer the question, whether the wrong is real or only supposed, and whether be is himself free from the first imputaUon of having oc- casioned, by his own error, that which he regards aa a wrong. If the offence is real, other questions arise of this nature : What real good shall I secure to my- self by attempting to get a reparation? and iu what respect shall I advance my own welfare by attempting to punish the offender ? May I not, iu either of these attempts, involve myself, by words or acts, in some wrong, and give my adversary the advantage of find- ing me an offender, in trying to vindicate myself ? if I could succeed iu my attempt, what will it come to ? Shall I uot make the wrung done to me more notori- ous, and subject mvself to the pitv and compassion of others? Is it nut better to be silent and quiet, and leave Uie offender tu time and his own conscience, than to engage myself in a controversy which is sure to be vexatious, and iu which I shall run the risk of doing wrong, and in which I shall not be likely to get auy good ? If I succeed in humbling my adversarv, I s'biUl surely make him my enemy for ever; for, in the nature of man, he is slow to forgive the wounds inflicted on his own self-love. When this matter Is over, and time has dissipated the mists which now prevent a clear view of it, and when other feelinga and sentiments have arisen, shall I like myself the better for having been silent and quiet, than if I shall have attempted to command justice, and tu inflict punishment ? It Is probable that young and ardent minds, and those who are looking back by the light of experience, will answer such questions very dif- ferently. But the esperienced can tell the young, with sorrowful truth, that among the mont patnl'ul sufferings of life are to he numbered those whicli have arisen from sudden impulses of anger, expressed in words or acts. The experienced can also tell, with like truth, that, in the common occurrences of lite, uiigry words and acts hare seldom, if ever, accom- plished the purpose for which they were intended ; iliey have neither obtained just'ce, nor pnnishetl the ofiender; but, on the contrary, they have often cou- % fir 91 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. vtrMd tW InjuiW pwty lato mi ai to iir klaMlA and Uvolvvd bha hi Mmw rMriniraliont, kMptaff np an irrecoDoIlahU avenion, and evan eumity, thmugk Ufo. Wa hmw% m far. ■ofpaiid tlwra to be a rial aad Jui. tUUbla cavM a/ angar. Bat «ha oaaa It rery much itroofar ayalMt tha ladalfanea of angry fcalingt whao Ike obum it anijr lnaflDarr> It (■ la many oaaat Imafliiarv, aifadaUy amrng young panoat. Thar toka ap wddaa taapia H lo M coocaraing tha lup- poaaa aoadiicl aad wordi of thair Mnditos and ao- quaiataaoiOi whaa na Midi ooadnct or wordi haro ocourrad) oTt If any did, aaaa with inlaniion to wound or offond. If tharo ha aaa caw in which una laala hioMolf poottHarty hiuablod, it ia whan ho hai mani- fatlad angar towavda ooa who haa ooaamlttad no of. ftuca, w who ii aniiroly unoanocioaa of baring dona lo. ll sanetioua bappvia that an offaodod Mraon oan rattnUn himaalf fram azpraatlona and w«rd8 whon ha hu baan iariooaly odiindod. But ha oheriaheo a ma- lioiaua MMt of IbaUag agniaat the oAiador, brouda ovar tha wrong dona, ana pannita hii imagination to inflame the aenae of wrongi until he makas himielf too unhappy, under thia oneltament, not to expreaa it in aooM aaada which will ooeaaloo pain or aAictioo t« tha offndai^ If thara ba any ooa who haa fallen into auch n ooaditian, ha aaay ba aikad, whether he knowa of any thing in the naCore of lagrat or r^ morM for bii own folUea and aina, which ii ao exceed- ingly burthanaona aa to tarry about with him the feoHng ef aTaraion, ill^wiU, and aulioa, towardii one who haa offended? What, then, ii to bo done? nagry worda and acta ai* forUddeo by the law of na- tnrt, by aatf-raapaet, aud by conrenienoe; tha ma- mory of an unavaagad wrong ta intolerable. la thero no maedy ? Wa think thou ia one in every par. ion*8 power. If dia ladiridnal with whom one h at varianoe ean, by e^ni oxpoetulation or by mutual friende, be brought to a Juat aarveption of the oaae, that la the laa aady. If that &ila, there is another; it ia of high authority i if thine aye offend theof pluck it ouc BkM auch a paraon frocn the meeaorv ; nrver permit him to oome into your thoughti. iViU you paae your life in humiliating bondage to nich an oiw ? wa aay, Uei racA at on* oui ofyonr numorp. Vou dn him no wrong by that. You du yourself a juit and great good t you cut a moral cancer out of your heart. Among tha aonrcee of afliction In human life, Is the unouled-for interferonee of third persona in the angry ooUiaiona ef othera. It may sometimes be an unnvoidable 4nty to take a part in an angry qunrrel. When thi« dnty la to be pertarmed, it cmcems every one who le mindful of the trust confided to him of taking care of hlmaelf, not to engage i n the rontroveny in auch a aaanner aa to become a principal party in it. As a geuaral rale. It istheeafeconrse to let angry persons settle their own concerns as they can. t^r- tainly, no one who claims to be regarded as having a tliacnet sense of his own weKare, plnogea himself Into a quarreL Yet this is a very oomroon thing. It it often teen in schools. Parties and divisions grow up, extend, and boeome more and more hitter, from the most trilling eaasea, and are often carried out into manhoiMl, and show their evil consequeitoee through llfr. Thia It ao, beeauw Irapreaaions made iu that Keason are very vivid and durable. It Is a dnty ftometimn to take a part In controvertiea. It must be remembered, when one engages in ineh quarrel, that one is dealing with peraons who are under a sort of derangement, and who are most vxceeiliiif^ly sensi- tive, and perhapa mutually vindictive. Thoee who inierpoee are bound, by the law of self-regard, to in. torfen* with oahnneaa and sound discretion, and to to conduct themaelvee, in word and deed, as to do no evil to themaelvee while they att«npt to do all the good poaaihle to the angry partiea. CIn the whole, misma- naged anger '? a proln'c source of tnlTering. Vet when c*>ruiy looked badi npou, in a great majority of casea, the cause waa son. 9 insignificant trifle, mag. nified into serious iRiportatii.e by angry words and pitiful acta. Much is the proprnftiiy of persons to htiHy thenMelves in tbc quarrels of others, that there is little reason to hope that a preventacive can be enccnsfiitlr offered to any but to those wlu» have studied out and who reverence the will of the I>pity, as disclofied in the nature of things, and in his own positive law. SELF-EZIPECT. Every one haa some sort a4 opinion, more or less diatinci, of ail perkuns with whom he is acquainted. Thia opinion may embrace intellect, diipoRition, vir- tues, viceii, peratmal apptMumuce, depurtmeut, voudi. tiun iu liic. tia also erery one hua some opinion of himself on the same, and on many other lulijeota beat known to himself. When one eiaminea hi* own opi. nion of himaalf, ho «' .^ to do it as though he were another person. Uot-aes taeeyea of other*. Ueturua aaide, a* it were, by th« way, to *ee himsalf paas by. Tha judgment which one forms uf himself ii ofton much more unaouad than that w hich he forms of other*. The e>e cannot aee itaalf ; ao neither can any one see Ltnuelt He muat uae a mirror. There are many uf theaew Hlawry, books, duly example, his owu expe. rianue. every paraon hecomeaincontactwith, aremir- rora. If he soea hinuelf in these, and thereby corrects hia own errors and fulliea, and gives hinuelf reasonable and just credit for hia attainmonu, he may oome at length to be entitled toentertain a respect fur himself. There ia a certain b«at thing to be done, and a certain bast manner of doing it, la all powtbla vircumatancat in which one roay find himaalf. Nothing la entitled to Ih) con*idereeat man. ner, no one, perhapa, ever pernctly attains ; but It can- not Im doubted that there ia seme auch sundard. Ha who comes the nearest to it ia he who la beat entitled toentertain a respect fur hlmselC PMDE. There la a kind of pride which la often mistaken for t*if-r«tpeei. We hear of honourable and of laudable prida. We toke pride to be that self-esteem in whlrh a man hoMa himself. It may be founded in his eiti- nwtion of the qualitiaaof his mind, in his Attainments, in hia poaaeulona, In his itreugtli, ht* beauty, his pa- rentage, and descent. It may also be fouiideil in a consoiousneaa of virtue, and of having faithfully done one*a dutyln all the relations of life. It seems to arise necessarily fVom comparing one*s-self with other per- sons. If this be the right meaning of pride, it >* very clear that It Is nut always a sentiment which entitles one to reapeot hinuelf. A man would lie thought to be very unwiiu Mho should openly declare that he valued himself, io comparison with other men, on ac- count of hia wealth, his beauty, or his family con. nexion ; equally unwise, if ho should declare bis o\n- nlon of himself to be, that he was superior to other men in the gift of naturaJ intellect, la the cultivation uf It, or In the Dractlce of the various vlrturs. The common sense of mankind, founded in natural reason, does not approve of that self-gratulation which resta on the accident of birth, of inheritance, nor even on the acquisition of fortune hy one*8 own Industry t nor does it approve of that feeling, when founded on qua- titles which belong to the mind, nor even in the prac- tice of the virtue*, unless when manifested In a certain manner. There must be, in the very nature of things, some persons in every oommunity, large or nmall, who are superior to others in these iiources of self.efiteem. In every city, town, and village. In thl* nation, there are some persons who are Iu possession of some of these causes of self-esteem in some comparative degree, and other persons who have the fewest or the leant of them. Those who so use their advantages a* to enti- tle themselves to the esteem of other*, and who are acknowledged to be respectable for that use, may well be entitled to respect themselves from tnch causes. Those who use them in sucli a manner as toannounve the feeling of superiority over other*, and habitually to offend the watcnful feeling of self-love, are properly called the proud. It is twupved that the*e views con- form to natural law, and to the necessary constitution uf htuuan society. VAKITY. A ittll greater mistake is made in substituting va- ulty fur self-respecL The word vanity is made outuf two Latin word* which signify ejrcet'diuff fmpUn^-st. It u commuuly understood to mean a *trong desire to be noticed, considered, and esteemed by otliera, but on acoount of things rarely worthy of a rational miud. Vain persons covet proiw. They thrust themiulves, and all on which Uiey value themselves, upon the notice of others. They delight in recounting their achievementa, and sometime make the sad blunder of •peakiuff to thoae who know tliuy are mistaken. They touch adroitly (»n lliuir uwn excellences, and provoke others to descant uptm Uieni. They have such delightful visions of Rslf-cumplacency, tlmt it seems cruel to disturb them, i^iich peracms are very ready to become tools in the hand* >iu« to the mind* of the vain, that tliey vlolato the stri>ugeat precept laid down in the code uf natural law for the government of perwioa individually and socially. That precept comroanc'a them so to amduct thetnaelvea in all things, as to entitle themselves to self-respect, and, consequently, to the respect of uthera. If the vain could conceive how small a portion they make t>f created being, how Insignificant a part they make of civilised societ; . how many there are in that society, whoae pretonsions, If amerted, would be transcen. dantly luperlor to their own, they might, perhaps, dismiss their liiiie vanities, and devote themselves to gratifications m. trthy of their intonded nature. ORAllTUDB AKll IMOKATITtTDE. If a deaiituto young person should attract tlie nn- tioa of a waalthy man, aud shouid ba by him lupporU ed, adttoated, and eetabUakad In the world, ao aa to be aUa to live, to baoeaaa independent and reapaeu- hle, every oua wnnld say that thb ia a eaae for tha feeling and tha axpreaslon of farront gratitude. Lat us suppose that tlw patron of this young man fta* qnently reminds him of hli former condition, and by what mean* he finds himaalf where he is. Sup- poee the patron exaeta a frequent acknowledgment of nia bounty, and takes to hineelf unqualified praiaa , for hli goodaeaa. Ijet ua auppoae that the obliged party finda hia eondltlon very irksome, and ahnoat wl*hea that ho had naver been tha subject of such burthensomo favour, and la at length provoked to say ao ; /f Ae unfrmttifiU i It wauld aaam, then, that gratitude had two sides to It, at well aa two parties. He who has conferred a lavonr haa not done all which it ooacerua him to do; and ba who raceiret a favour roay have a diffionit taak to perform. A bar. gain la an exehange of one thing for another, and the parties are even. The oonfarring of favoura, whether theaa bo aaked for or not, aearoa to stond on very different grounds. Many elementa make up that compound from whioh gratitude la aald to arisa. The paruea may understand tha nature of tha favour very differently at the time when It ia conferred, and more differently aftarwarda. He who confers haa a reten- tive memory ; he who reeeivea, a fading one i time engraves the favour deeper and deeper Iu the former, and wears it nut more and more in the lattor. In tha former It often preaervea the freahntaa of a new oc. corrence t in the lattor the aanaa uf favour often goea, and the weight of obligation alone remains. It may he that tha oomplalnu made agalnat ungrateful per- aons aro nut alwaya well founded, and that the ex- peetotlona of thoae who oonfer favoura are aa litUa to. Some poet haa written. He that '■ ungratoful ha* an nnhr Ciult, All othw diiMS may ^tM tot virtuH In him. The meaning of thia oouplet mutt be, that the mem. Iters of society ara under no obligations to confer favours, and that, If they do confer them, the party obliged Is a monster If he do not — ushatf We know not what ia intended, nor ibat there is anv rule hy which graUtude is to be manifested. We think that every member of society Is to do what of good be can, and tu whomsoever stands in need of It. He is not to Stop to measure and calculate how he Is to be paid for it. He may not be paid bv the party benetited directly, but by tome other, and In some other and unexpected way. Whosoever cxmfers favours opens an account with the changea and chances and acoi. denu uf life. His credit side will look well In the close. If he oinfer a favour, he docs It because be thinks he can, and ought to do it. He has the pl«a~ $UT4 of doing it. If he wishes to avoid the affliction of ingratitude, he has only to avoid letting the party obliged know, unnecessarily, whence tna benefit comes. When a favour is done, the party conferring it ukes on himself the duty of respecting that feeling of the human heart which is fi)nnded in reasonable self-love, and which Is entitled to respect — that is, not to ask one who hat had the mig/ortune to be bound in cAoiiM, to clatik them for the gratification qf Aim lehoput them on. There are cases of extreme ingra- titude. They may have been occasioned by the irri- tating or Indiscreet conduct of the party who was entitled to a dilTerent return. They are not of com- mon occurrence. When they do occur, uncaused, the disappointed party may hope to find a better sub- ject Iu hi* next essay. This is a two-fuld crime: I. It is a breach of na- tural law, of divinis law, and of the Implietl law of so- ciety, in relation to tiie party spoken oft 2. It Is a breach of the same law, in relatiou to the part) speak- ing. It haa been commonly treated of iu the iirst re- lation. It ia now to i>e noticed in the second; and if it be shown why it is a breach in this, the other will take care of itself. We beg leave to ask a slanderer a few questions : I>o you desire to l*e esteemed in so- ciety for your iutelHKfnce, your sense of justice, your knowledge of the decencies of life, and for the ohsarv- auce of tliem ? If you happen to be ill-tempered, iwtulant, and disagre.)able to your family connexions and associates t if you make hasty and troublesome judgmenU which you have to rescind or reform ( if you happen to I>e ridiculous in your deportment, and remarkable fur silly vanities; are you witling to have these things set forth in any, ujd every company, by any one who knows of them ? Suppose tlieie to be only some alight foundation for sonte one or more of these tliiuga, which. If you cotiM have an opportunity to explain, would be entirely cleared up, are you iviUing to have that slight foundation made the basis (»f a structure of reproach, whtkih, if true and real, ought to expel you from decent society ? Suppoao thera to be no foundation at all for any auch accuaa- tiun uf yourself, aud yet somehow, aud unaccountably, it is afloat and circulating, should vnu not think great injustice Ut be dmie to vuu ? This is just what you do to otherf. You take away their good name, if they deserve to have one ; ymi magnify tlteir tlltla faults and errors, and make them ridiculuus or ffdlous t you try them on indictments for seriitu* offences, on which they have no opportunity to defend themaairaa, and of which tliey are Ignorant. Where did you get your information? What credit ware they entitled to from whom you had it ? Did you undartUnd them at they meant to be underitood ? Whora and han J A THE DUTIES OF LIFE. J you ffVt entidMl ad th«m huir did yonr Infonnant* learn what tHey communicated ? Were they thoughtleei or malietoni tlanderen like Xourself 7 How much have you added to their ilan- ern bv way of recommending and making vourtelf agreeable ? Hare you broken any law by toll con- duct ? We take the liberty to answer for yon. Yoti have broken every law which an honQit and honourable man. and a rauonal Individual, ihoujd re- npect. 1. Vou nave made every person whom you have xpoken to, fear yon and ihun you. You have ahown that you know not what the value of a good name ti, and have (brMted your own, If you ever had any. Vou have shown that you are a stranger to aelf-retpect ; that you have probably every one of the faultfl, fnlUes, and errors, which you impute to oUiers ; and desire to bring them down to your own level. Thus ymi have broken that law which commands vou to do no evil to yourself. 2. Von have violated that principle of natural law which commands you to do no injustice to your fellow-men. Vou know not what opinions you may entertain of the party you have nlandered, if circumiUnces (as thev may) should bring Tou into connection with him. You may And him to be, on a better knowledge of him, an amiable and worthy person. Vou may find all that you have said, and helped to circulate, utterly groundless. If he be one whom you occaslonaUy meet, and even ask to partake of your hoepitaiity, how can you meet him, and manifest towards him every sentiment of respect and esteem, when yon have so spoken of him ? One of two things must be true t either yon act a lie, when you meet him in such a manner ; or vou gpoke a He, when you reproaented him as you did to others. 3. You have broken the law of Ood. To this law, per- haps, you are a stranger, and know not what wrong you have done. If so, the kindest thing that any one can do you is, to uf^ you to flud out what it is, and to learn there the sentence of the slanderer. It may be asked, whether one is to be entirely silent at all times, and on all occasions, as to the character and conduct of others? Certainly not. There are many occasions for speaking of ottiers, and for speak- ing the truth of them, whatever that may be. All the memlwrs of any community are interested in knowing the tnie character of each other. The knowledge that this character may be known, Is one of the most salutary correctives of erroneous conduct, and one of the strongest Inducements to pursue that which is commendable. It Is probablythe case, that the mem- bers of every community are pretty well understood by all who hare an interest in knowing them. We know not of any law which holds it to he Immoral to speak the truth (\f any one^ from good motivesy and for jitatifiabie end$. It is all-important that this principle should prevail In our country, where so much depends im publio opinion. Surely one's arms are not to be folded, and his lips closed, when he sees one bent on mischief, public or private. It may be one of the highest moral duties to declare what men are, and what they are aiming at. In many supposable cases. There can be no surer guide than the motive and the end. Inquiries are sometimes mad^ in mattt-rs of greater or less interest, concerning others, contiden- ually, and where the inquirer needs to be truly in- formed. The party Inquired of has a right to be silent, if he thinks he has good reason to be so; but if he answer, he is bound to state the truth. If he choose to speak, and wilfullv conceid the truth, so that the inquirer is tlecelred, ne subjects himself to the impu- tation of an intentional deceiver. There may be also, and there frequently are, con- fidential discussions of character, espt-ciaily concsruing public men, and where perhaps there is no particular end In view. This does not seem to be wrung; such Intercourse is not founded In malicious nor unworthy motives. It Is even sometimes Instructive and philo- sophical. This, perhaps, is the extreme limit. In all other imaginable cases, it is probably most consistent with one's own self.respect, and ail truly respectable mntives, to let other persons alime, and leave tu them the care of tlielr own characters. raorANiTv. Kxcepting the high crimes, which are punishable by the public laws, there is no one so shocking as profanity, nor any one which tliere is so little inituce- meiit to commit. Profane swearing is of two kinds : 1. That in which the Peity is called on to do the plea- sure of a sinning mortal ; 2. That in wtiich the Deity is called on to witness the truth at such a being*s thoughtless or wicked declarations. This commtm fractice can bo accounted for chiefly on two grounds t . Pitiable ignorance ; 3. Abiiminable wickedness. On the rtmt grmmd, surely the profane swearer must be ignorant of the import of the terms which he uses. If he did understand his own words, he would t>e •tmck with horror. Surely, If there be any escn^te for the profane from that cnndeninalion which they imprecate on others, it must be, that mercy will lie extended to them in C4>mpBssion for their ignoriince. On tlie other hand, If they are not ignorant, but do knowingly and wilfully so misuse the gift of an im- mortal mind, and that unquestionable proof of divine power HMd gonitneii, the abiiity to speak, they cannot be Bubjecu of moral instruction. Thev should l>e left, like the consumers of alcohol and tooacco, to shock and to warn others. Bwearing, whldi formerly pervaded erery rank of ■oeiety, Is now to be chiefly found In a very low and untnscructed elats i It is. In fact, a vulgar and pro- SSI scribed mode of speech. Nererthalsas, tt Is still used ooculonally by persons of no humble nmk, espeelally by the young, taottgh diiefly for the purpose or giving an empnasls to speeoh, or perhaps simply to glva tokan of a redundancy of spirits and a high state of oxoita- ment To thoae who are guilty of It far these restsons. It is only neoasaarv to point ou^ that no w^l-informed person can be at the bwst lots, with the genuine words of the English language, to express ak legitunate ideai and fesllngs, and that to use either profane or slang words, is, at the very least, the Indication of a low taste and an inferior understanding- A direct, pure, manly um of our natira language, is an ohject which all may cultivate In a greater or less degree i and we have invarlab y observed, through life, that the most virtuous persons are the most exempt from thu use of mean and ridiculous phraseology, and monkey trfoks of all kinds. Does not one who Is habltnally profane, neceasart. ly entertain a low opinion of himself? Would any respectable merchant, or mechanic, or farmer, receive into his service a youth whom he knew to be a pro- fane swearer P Could any one who is known to be such, find admission Into any school, academy, semi- nary, or college ? Would any respectable pt.rt:nt admit such an one to be a companion of his children, or a visitant in his family ? Would not erery reason. Ing person say, that a youth who Is so ignorant as not to know that swearing is a rlolation of natural and dlrine law, roust be Ignorant enough not to know that there are many tmier laws for the proper government of society, and consequently that he is an unsafe person to be trusted f If the profanity be the consequence of rolnntary wlckedneu, then surely all reflecting persons would say, that he who Is wicked in this respect, Is indeed wicked; but then he ^111 be wicked in others also. For, as there is one chain which nins through all the virtues, and binds them In a sympathetic union, so also is therea chain which unites alt the vloes. He who swears may be justly suspected of drinking ; he who swears and drinks, may be justly suspe<^ed of gaming ; be who swears, and drinks, and games, must keep very bad company hy day and by night. He who keeps such company from such motives, must squander his own property, or steal that of somebody else to expend. He who robs another will commit forgery, and he who Is so desperate as to commit these two latter crimes, will not hesitate long to put a human being out of the way of his pressing wants, If he is tempted to do it. It IS probable that habltnal Ivlng and swearing are the first steps in that mournful series of crimes, and the first beginnings In the course of deplorable wretchedness, which deform and disgrace human society. Will any one maintain that these are neces- sary evils, and that God has so made man that they canr.ot be prevented ? Surelv these are evils wholly of human origin ; and where they begin, there lies the power to extirpate them. EMVY. It Is to be kept In view that the main object Is to show that this Is a good sort of existence, If man knew how to use it, and that he is the author of his own afflictions. This is remarkably illustrated in the matter of envy. It Is probable that a large propor- tion of mankind, in all classes, suffer from the dominion of this passion. It can be shown that it is peculiarly the passion which man has made for himself out fu emulation, which latter Is the Creator's work. Inthls instance, man has been exceedingly Ingenlmis and suiv cessful in making himself miserable. He has done worse : he has provided for himself, in creating envy, a fountain which sends forth not one water, but many, and each one foul and poisonous. He who has sub. mitted himself to envy has bonnd himself to think, to feel, and to act, as envy prompu. It wmild l>e most shocking to know what agency this monster has had in human affairs. If any one should read history, and watch thcmovementsof his fellow-men, merely to learn the operation of this principle of action, he would see, probatdy, the most operative cause of the misery which men Inmct upon themselt'es and on each other. If one has not time to read history, and watch his fellow- men, he may j>erhaps leani much tif what he would find in tlieie authorities, by reading hii own heart* Ths word envy comes from two Latin words, in and ri(Ho, and lignifles looking apain$t. It arises from perceiving in other persons, quiilitiee which one's own self-love leads him to wish to have — us lieauty, strength, grace, learning, eloquence, power, &c. It extends to riches, toofiioe, todlstinction, to the respect and esteem in which one is held hy his fellow-men, and even to birth and ancestry. It makes one torry ibhi he has not these good things, and makes him anr/ry that othei-e have them. One easily persuades himself that great Injustice is doue to him, in that he has them not. The next step Is to hate him who h«ji them. Then comes the desire to deprive the suppiMed fw i be cami from nothing, and wUI go book to nothing." It may he easily Inlerrod that uao who hoa surrondoroil hint- self to tho dominion of onvy, ool ooiy deprives him* self of tho pruttublo usoof what ho has or aslght hav«s but makes himtolf wrotohod In oomoasplaltng what ho must know ho oonnot have t ho » ao wrought up* on, ihalwnatsoovor ■oodsaforlino ho May have in hta heart, aro sure to start Into luxurtanl growth. Can aav rational being doubt ihM thla oon of suf. foring and crime aro oiiuro^y of »an*t »ohiMP f Can it bo doubted that ho oon proront thom f Thoao aro violations of natural law and dlvino law « and no law comes fVom this souroo whtoh oannol bo uodorttood and obeyed. Lol ua lako on owanipU» and took out M.W »aic::vmablonoas and lounorallty of onvy i and 10 do this effectu.*!!/, -r* must toko a abonff ooaOf and In soma dogrooahuolM ono. Lot uo auopoao Ihai In n seminary of femaloa thovo to ono who la vory hoauiU ful ; her parenta aro vory rich, and am ugkly ro- specuble ; nud thai this vounir lady li diattnguUhod by her geuius. and hor dUlgonoo and good oonduol, and is obvlousiv In tho loootpl of tho p i ooo pl or^a uu. atinlified appronatlon. ] there no one Iwlow to pull thoM down f Thoy art soon down, and by like moanat nnd thus tho domo- I'tlon would descend, until tho Mtsinary bocamo too low a place fur even envy to find something to live on. Is not this a fair example of what wa continually see in all grades and classes of social lift * and is not this passion of envy, earthboritt mlsohlavous, and odious ? What is the rvmedy P Common nenio and plain reason pttlnt out the romody. Oonorally spoak* ing, every member in swloty li juit at much in hla own place as he is In his own skin. No ono can bo la ai^'ther^s placw. Kvery n a prop«'r place, enjoin duties iu that place, nud ensure happiness fri^m tho performance of thuie dutiee. When that day oomee, envy will die. rMl'LATIOM. This has Iteeu sonwtiine* ciaaeed with onvy, but they have uothliig iu ctanmon. Ono would fm\ llko a culprit in being known to Iw envKms, but would rightly take praise to himself in being emuUms. This motive to actiou was given to man for the l«.Nt pii'«si. bio purposes; and uiwn the application ot It, with justifiable views, and lo iHunmoiidable ends, the ad* vancemenl uf human welfare mainly depends. Wo understand it ti* m««n, the djsireto ohuin eacellenco in Iwidable purMitts. An envious man may Iw sup. posed to say, ** Vour emineaoo distromes met I can- not Itear to see voii sitting up thert t >md though I have not tlie xhailow of hopo that I oan aaeond to y«mr place If you were out of It, nortrtholem I must pull you down if 1 can, and then wo ahall stand on tho same level." ^*>. .:**«u1oub man may be supposiHl to say, " I at'.mlt that y. • aro whoro ytm should bo. Vou have -aised yourself by flttr oimI just m««iiB. 1 have no d'slre to disturb yuu« ntw ttt tmjMHle your further pr<' (rees. You have dotie mono Injustice i on the oiintra \\ yt>u havo rondered me the Imvivrtat*! sorvico of 1 Kowiog mo how ont mav hommrably riso* CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i;i JM 4 I ^ I ihaU IbUow yoor munpl*, and endnvour to plus ■lyMlf bv your tid*. If I can ff«t ihsre, w« ihall km ft Mr, Mod-tamparvd rirftlry, and w« majr uii. ■ale and qmek«n aaeh olhar*i afforu. If you are •bla to kflM alvaya In adranoo of ma, von will aako nM dilifMii, and anabla ma to axoal othar>, ir I cannot aQaal yoo." Thara ioami lo b« nothing inmoral In thia. In thli rlaw, amnlation (■ proiantad In its trua and amIaMa okaraatar. Lika arary thing •)m antruatad to maa*a qn^ It may ba, and onan li, •arrartad. It fraquantly axdtaa vary unworthy faal- uga. Henea It hu baan eonfoundaa with anry. It la upon tha principle of amnlation that diligence In aehonli li eommonlT founded t and it U In lofaooU that the perrertlon alluded to li frequently noticed. When •ereral obildraa are required to get and recite the •ama leeeon, there muit be a beet and wont among them. That they are such, reipectlvely, may depend on natural taint, and upon laduitry, or on both. It daurrea great eonaideratlon, whatner rewardi and ponlahmenta are generally underttood In their true ^Uloaophy. Thara rauit Hanulatlim in tchooli i be- > flauie there lik ard ought to be, that itlmulant arery where in all tne Tooatiana of llfik If men had not the adTAntage of eonparing thamielree with each other, -aad the proaiptlngi to exertion which ariie from that eompariaon, thIa UAi would ba very still and itupld. But what use Is to be made of this principle In schools t it a question of exceeding Interest. We express no opinion on this point, beeaue* we might not express ■ a sound one, and might thereby do some injury, and ▼err poesih'y no good In any ease. Add to this, that tuch an Inquiry £ms not come within our general ob- ject. PBACI or MIWD. It Is beltered that most persons pasa a large portion of their llTes In a itau of Inquietude and uneasiness. Persona who hare no bodily disease are anxious and disturbed. They have some urgent want which can- not be gratlAad, or which cannot be so, without In. curring soaaa eiil, which would be worse than the unsatisfied want. Ther hare the dread of some probable or posalble evil to come, and which Is the more terrible oecause of the uncertainty of the manner and of the time In which It may come. Others are uneasy from remembering the past, in which some be- nefit was not secured, some blunder mxde, some wrong done to themselres, some rain gratification not ol^ ttined. There are many persons who are habitually discontented. They find erery thing goes wronr. The weather Is bad t their food Is not as thev would have it ; no one doea any thing in the right time, or right manner ; or that Is done which should not he, or that is omitted which should be done. Such persons are always groaning, sighing, or grumbling. They dls- like every body, and every body dislikes them ; and particularly, their abundant advic* is dialiked, and their manner of giving it. There are other persons who are of unquiet mind fur more serious causes. They have recollections which dlstreu or torment thera. They are trantgressors ; perhaps criminally ao. They have been able to conceal tnis, but they live in trie fear of disclosure ; at any rate, the fact oannot be hidden from themselves. Thaae are frightful Instances of the agency of this eempaniiHi which every man has in his own boeom. Thera are hours In every one's life, when he must ' compare the condition In which be is with that In which he thinks he might have been. To some per- sons, these are hours of dread and terror. It is be* liered that this cause of suffering is purely of human origin, and that prevention munt be found where the error began. It Is the Uw ut the Deity that there ahall be such suflTering when the guilty mortal makes it necessary to apply that Uw. There are great dlf. ferenoes In the temperament and natural dispositions of persons. It Is Incredible that the worst-tempered person would not maka a better whole of life, by sup. pressing their natural propensitlea, and acquiring a control over thamselreiv and teaching themselves w look out for what may be pleaunt and agreeable (passing by that which seems ill to them), Instead of doing exactly the reverse. There are cases in life In which It it said there must be anxiety and li.quletude, from the very condition in which men are placed. Persi>ns who sustain puUic offices, persons wbu are placed in important trusts, persons whose vocations are perilous, thute who are pricked by the thorn of politieal ambition. It is pro- bable that such persons do experience many painful and distressing emotlonii, and that thnv R«)m«tim«ii pay dearly for theirdistincUun ; tint it is tiemonttrable that even such persons might have tranquillity, if they had a right frame of mind. There are persons who substitute an aching solicitude fur the reaionable dis- cretion and care, which iv all that is required in the performance of duty. There are others who greatly overvalue the distinctions to which they attain or as* pire; and very few of them reflect, that, when they do succeed, they must take success, especially in po* pularffovenimeitts, with the accompnnimentti of having their worthy acts misuiiderst(H>d tuiil reproached, and their mistaken ones magnified and diatorted, to suit (he occasions of adversaries. Th» remedy for this sort of suffering Is within every One*s puwvr. Those who are pour, and In humble life. If not In extreme poverty, may |H>ssess peace of Bind ; and it is of easier acquliition by these than by t who are Involved in the dutloi of office, and the respoBslbtllty of trust, and the embarrassment of wealth. Certainly, without this treasure, no earthly grandaur, no promise of posthumous glory, Is wortn having or aeealng for. If the laws of nature, and the teaching of revelation were properly known, re- spected, and obeyed, the common causes of Inquie- tude would hardly be known. For example, what Is mora common than complaints of the weather f It Is too hot or oold, wet or dry. It Is not nature that mistakes about the wtather, hot ourselves. The movements of the winds and the waters, and the tempamroent of both, proceed on some great and unlvmal lawa, far beyond human perception. That which is exacted of us to believe is, that It Is so, and to adapt ourselves to It, by our experience and In- genuity. What tort of effect would It produce in the earth. If such Uilngs were regulated by human per- ception of what is best ? When one hA occasion to fiut to use a board or stick of timber, which hu been n contact with the ground fur a certain length of time, he disturbs and puts to flight families, commu- nities, and whole nations of living beings. Man may be much in the same relation as to general laws (not meant for him to comprehend), In whldi these insects are on the removal of their covering. As to all causes of inquietude arising from the ope- ration of nature's laws, In which human agency has no concern, they must be right, although tney occa- sion inconvenience to individuals. As to the acts and omissions of others which affect us, some questions are to be asked and answered before one can rightly judge of these ; via., what Is the real cause of our complaint ? Did not the first fault arise from some act or omission of our own ? Dowe Judge reasonably of the supposed wrong ? Do we make charitable al- lowance tor the miswpr^enslwi which may affect the fiarty complained of? When the Inquietude arises rom our own wayward and peevish disposition, from our own misconduct, negligence, or breach of laws, which we could know If we would, the remedy lies in becoming wiier and better, and more reasonable in learning how we may make of life that which it was intended to be, when we use It as we should. Letany reasonable being look back on his own life, and calmly consider the causes of his own contentions, Ill-will, and sufferings, in body and mind ; how many of these can he fairly lay to the blame of the Creator's laws, of nature's laws, or those of society, whether po- sitlve or Implied ? If to these he can charge but very few, who but himself is there to take the re- sidue ? We have been trying to show what peace of mind Is not. We have to show what It Is, or rather In what it is founded. It comes from sober conviction that the Creator has made his own laws for his own universe} that he requires conformity to these laws ; that he per- miu and enjoins the use of what Is good and right ; that he punishes all that is wrong and disobedient. He has trusted every mortal with his own welfare, but has associated him with others who lire in the same trust, each one for his own, but yet for mutual welfare. All are to contribute their common effuru to the common good. Those who have the means are to aid others in arquinng a knowledge of the lawa which are common to alL If these laws were under* stood and applied, how abundantly would p^aus of mind Increase in the world ! The ichoulboy wo ild get bis lessons and obey his preceptor t the Ul>ouring classes would labour diligently, live temperately, and find a greater pleasure in their frugal food than the luxurious in their festivals t for the former live as nature orders, the latter as fashion dictates. The opulent and luxurious would learn that the nccidenti of their fortune do not exempt them from th*) laws of nature ; that. If they have affluence beyond their rea- sonable and commendable wants, they are blesied with the means of purchasing a pradous name : they would learn that do wealth will exempt any man from earn- ing an appetito for his pleasures by physical motion ; that, if ne is tired of being rich ana happy, />€ tnuMt vHtrk to accomplish some reasonable purpose. His distinction is, that he maychfwse the means in which he will expend to bt btujff while others can only work in some p<-escribed mode to live. The roUkdle classes, and all who are not dependently poor, have a." many and as valuable sounds of e.ijoy- ment as those ii;:r3 whom they think to br twtter off than themselves. They can love and lie loved t they can be respected and esteemed ; they can have the comtrioiiKness of behaving well, where their lot has been cant ; they have a far keener zext for natiiral and reasonable pleaiure than those who misuse the boun- ties of accidental condition ; they can have pence of mind when it is denied to those whom they deem moru fortunate. If these n^itural laws, which seem to be so plain and obvious, were understood and respected, the labourers in mindj in all tlielr varierf employments, would do diligently, and In the l>est manner in their riower, that which they have undertaken. Men of pub- Ic truit would do honestly, and with a single vlewtc their trust, that which they liave undertaken. Suppose it were all so, and yet troubles and disappointments come. This may lie, and yet thern would be peace of mind. If every one were assured that no act, no omiii»inn of his own, makes him suffer, that he hna act- ed faithfully and honestly, and to the liest of his ability in the circumstances in which he was placed, he would be entitled to have, and by the law of Immutable jus* tice, he wotild have, peace o/mmd. RAPFimtSS. There Is no word In our language more commonly used, nor any one less defined or lees understood. Il Is somstimes taken to mean pleasurable sensatlona derived through the senses { sometimes It means a peculiar sute itt mind. It may be said that a pirata who has been brought to tha nwat perfect penitence, and who Is sensible that ha has forf«tad his life to the demands of justice, and that he is about to ba trans. ferred from theperplexltlee and stifferings of thlssuto of being to endless felidty, la happ^ that he Is going to be hanfi0d* Perhaps It is easier to tell what happU neas Is not, than what It Is. The most perfect heaUh Is not happiness, unices one has something to do. Health and rioAes do not make one happy. These accidents of being, rather exdto cravings fur enjoy- ment. They are means, not ends. A rich man can ride but one horse, or sit but In one coach, or eat but one dinner, or wear but one suit of garments, or live but in one house, at a time. Persons In moderato cir- cumstances can do tha same. Health, riches, power, and disiituHon, do not make happiness. Distinction is troublesome i It has more pains than pleaaures « It is jealous, envious, and dis- trustful. Power does not make one happy; it de- mands the most busv watchfulness to keep it. If lost, lu absence Is often followed by painful suffering, and the poaaeuion of It Is always accompanied with tha fear of losing it. Klchea are sometimes regarded as means of enabling one to live In elegant luxury, and even In voluptuous enjoyment. This is no way to ba happy t the appetities soon become satiated t the stomach wears out t the senses are palled i diseases comet the body nuiy be racked on a velvet couch as well as on a straw bed. Is there, then, any such thing as happiness P Thsre must be such a thing, or the laws of nature, which provide tor physical, in- tellectual, and moral being, are false and deceitful, and the gtftof revelation Is a fable. If there be such a thing as haplness, it will be found In tlut knowledge of and obedience to the laws of nature which make health. It will he found In obeying the propensity to action, to some continuous, useful end ; that is. In pur- suing reasonably some one of the many vocaiiuna in nociety which tond to secure one*s own self-respect and peace of mind, and which tond also to the com- mon good. But there may be disappointments, ill luck, and causes of mortification and sorrow. These, we apprehend, do not lerlously dh 'trb any well-regu- lated mind, when there is a consdouaness that no rea- sonable foresight or prudence would have discerned and preveniMl the cauae. Finally, one may feel as- sured, that if he so live as to be healthy, so use his time as to be reasonably busy, to s« of W, and It. Chambers. '■v/'^' '/ii'l/. i/tiU,4V:i •'.•.!(:.,?;/ ' K'' CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE CONDUCTKO BV WILLIAM AND ROBERT OHAMRCSS, EDITORS OF TU£ '• SUINBUROH JOURNAL" AND ■ '■ - " HISTORICAL NEV'SPAPKR." .- .. No.no ' ' ' PnioK \\i. >Ai«ai^aipMM^fiaai— B^a CHINA AND THE TEA TRADE. VIEW OF CANTOr*. Iter K<)W, l. tojlr ■ben. unuouAriiicAL position — boundaries axd DIVISION'!). Cll IN A— called by the iiiliubitHiits Tclion^.Kntie, or the Middle Kiiigdum, from nn ideii that it in tlie centre or heart of the universe, around which iiU the other nations of the world lie scattered like niituir proi-inres — is an Immense country uf Asia, extending 18" from Dorth to toiilh, and ul>out the name from east to west, and lyinjf het'veen lUt" and 47° of nurlh latitude. It it conterminoua with Asintic Rnnsla nn the north, vveat; hounded on the smith and eiist hy the Pacifio Ocean (ihut part of it being commonly called the Chi< nete 8ea) ; on the west by huge mountains and sterile deserti, separating it from the great body of Asia; and on the north by the regions of Tartary, from which It Is separated by the stiipendous erection known by the name of the Chinese Wnll, which extends 1500 miles in length. The Tartani call China Catay and Nicancaroii; the Japanese, Thau; and the natives of Siam and Cochin-Chlna, Cin (pronounced Chin or Tsln). From the latter C4>nntrieH lyin^r nenrrst (nnu< ticdlly)to the Hindcratan dnminionx, it iKc>injectiirod, with much probability, that the laitt-n^med appullatinn first gave rise to the lluropvan name of China. Some theorists, however, set down its dttriviition from the patronymio of the tirst impeiial family Tsin, or Tai> uia. (t ii divided into fifteen provinces. Pe-tchelee, Shansee^ and Shensee, are situated inwards Asiatic Itutsiaon tlie north and iiorth>west ; Setchuen and Vunan on the wnt; Quan^ee and Qua n ton on the •nuth ; FVKien, Tchekian, Kiannan, and Shantung, on the east] and Ilonan, Houiiuang, Koetchou, and Kiangsee, in the central region. Of ihebe provinces, a survey was made by some Jesuit niiHsionartes, em. ployed by the Chinese government, nearly a century ago, the eiecntion of which occnpivd about ton years. A roannscrtpt map, by a Chinpne, constructed accord- ing to this survey, i» now preserved among the ar. chivw of the Royal Library of Britain. Pe-tcliel«e is aow the priooipal provinoe iu the empire, from in capital rdtiu being the residence of the emperor and seat of government. Its name Kit^iiifies the northern court, in mntradibtinctionto Nankin, or the southern court, where the emperor formerly resided. The whole area of China is estimated at one million and a half of square miles, or upwards of eiijht hundred and forty.tbree millions uf acres, of which bix hundred and forty million* are reckoned arable. INTEHKAL APPEARANCE AND CLIMATE. From its immense extent, it may easily he Imagined that China presents almost every viiiiety of scenery. " In the long line of internal navigation,*' says Al r Bar- row, "between the capital (Pekin) and Canton, of 1200 miles, with but one short interruption, the traveller will observe every variety of surface, but disposed in a very remtrkable manner in great maNses. For many days he will see nothing lint one nnifurm extended plain, without the smallest variety ; again, for as many days he will l>e hemmed in betwet-n precipitous moun- tains of the same naked character, and as unvaried in their appearance as the plains ; and, laitly, ten or twelve days' sail among lakes, swamps, and moresses, will complete the catalogue of monotonous uniformity. There is a constant succession of large villages, towns, and cities, with high walls, lofty gates, and mure lofty pagodas; large navigable rivers, nmimunicating by artificial canals, both crowded with b»rges for pas. sengers and harks for burden, as di(Terent from each other, in every river and every raual, us they are all dilTerent from any thing of the kind in the rest of the world.*' One general featurn, however, itervadesthe empire — the utter nakedneM of the couutry, at re- spects trees and hedges. The climate of China embraces H^nost every degree of the thermometer. In Canton, it ranges from 80" to tMt" during the summer, but the winter months are so cool that many of the inhabitants use fires. There can Ik no more certain criterion of the climate of any country than its vegetable productions, and we may iherffure mention here generally, that within the bounds of China are all the varieties of trrf, shrub, flower, and herb, to he found growing in every other country of the world. The temperature, how- ever, may he generally described as rather warm than cold ; but it is much affected by the direction of the wlndfi, which may be literally said to " box the com- pass," with uniform regularity, during the various seasons of the year. They blow from the north and north-east in October, November, December, Janu- ary, February, and Match, during which months tha weather is rather cold ; in April and Alay, from east andsouth-cast, when it is milder, but still cool; in Jnu« and July, from the south and south-west, when It it hot; and in August and September, from the west. when the temperature is oppressively sultry and hot. Speaking summarily, the coldest months are Novem- ber, December, and January; the warmest, July, August, and September. Canton, although situated in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, is so much cooler during the winter months, that fires are gene- rallyused; nay, ice has frequently been found at Can- ton of the thickness of a dollar, but snow is never at rarely seen. The air is generally dry during the north, moist during the south, and clear during the west winds. The north winds are the most violent, and thesonth the most feeble. In the months of July, Angiut, and September, the hurricanes, called by the inhabitants Tay-fun^ usually occur, which, although extremely violent, and coming in sudden gusts, sel- dom occasion much disaster, owing to the inhabi- tants being prepared for tiiem. The climate of China is on the whole highly nalubrlnus; and many of the complaints common to the whole of Gurope ar« there unknown. The Chinese profess to be free from stone, gout, and gravel rom^'Uiots; and they area* all events seldom afi^ected with cutaneous diseavet, Mnch doubtless in owing to their uncommonly tem- perate mode of living, of which we will have occasion to say more hereafter, flpidemic fevers, however, are very frequent and fatal, arising from the crowded state uf the towns and nnmerous svampc. The smalL CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PKOPLK i pox, too, WM fomivrly vary dwtruoliv*, fmm th« ch»- FMUrUtlo prvjudio* of iba ChliiM* airatnil all ri>n>iftii lonovftUont, howtrvr b«iit6ct«l in lh« node nf tri*Mi- mvnt. Thair phyaiuUni prataadW In diiUniriilih /iirly diffartnt kinda of •mKll-pux | and whan • r»*-^ur. abU aorl appMrad. ihay tndaarnurad to propagala it, not by inoculation in the iiinal moda of Incltlon, but by inMnlD|i( into tha niMtril m litlla ootton wmtl dippad in tha mrtu, or pultinK on llie chttbea of the infeci«d t Of lata yaart, howavpr, the ICuropean moda of raocU nation bat generally been adt^pled, and at tha prvRanl moment baa parbapi entirely lupanaded the ancient practice. 8«»r« eyva, and erttn total bUndneei, i* very common, and is undoubtedly to lia ait-rilied to their luw cruwdad and arooky babtlationi, conjoined with ibeir practioa of batbiuy their fiioe In warm wal«r avan in tha hoitett of the itunmer monthi. Several parta of i'hina have iutfered mucli from eartbiiiiakei i but there ii iii> appearanva oS volcanic aniptMini throughout tha country, thouvh various lubsMncas of that description bt« found in soma of tw islands along the western and aoutharn ooasta. UUTORV. From the (TrMsly fabubmi and eiafrfC*r*ted nature of tba Chineaa records, an air of doubt has been thrown over all their aarlv annals. Pretandin|f, as they do, to trace the foundation of tbelr emulra not outy as far barJi as the time of tha dfhi^ l»( which, it Is wall worthy of remark, their traditiuns bear at- testatum), but even to a perltMl long anter«dent to it, it ran scarcely be wondered at t^at a dinpoiiition should prevail to reject tba wbute as purely ht-iltiou*. Tliera may be a« much error in tito grrnt liiRbelief, however, as in bw re^dy acceptani>e. The early an- nals of every nation are mingled up with much that is absurd, and obscured bv the suggestions of igno- rance and superstition. Nor are those Chinese hia- torians, who trace tha origin of thair kingdom bach through ninety millions ol years before the Christian era, a whit more deserving of ridicule than the Ro- mans themselves, who, with all their enlightenment, believed that the gods nf cbeir barbarous mythology tiiok an immediate and active share In sublunary mat- ters. The only lubatantiul ground for wonder, in rtyard to China, Is, that many mrn writer*, some even nf our own oiuntry, ih-'uld have given In their adhesion to the fabulous records of the native histo- rians, and pretended tohavee»ublished Wyoiid doubt that tiie Chineiifl empire was ftiundiNt more than 30U0 yean liefore the Chriittian era ! The following may be given as an abstract of the result of th«Ir veracious tbeoHea i— They suppose that Muses, by Mount Ara< rat, does not mean to particularise any individual numntain, but merelv the Arst land wotch showed itself upon the subsiding o.shee of their hiatury : That, becitmingntfeiiiled with the impiety of his rebel i>d'ipriiig, be neparittfd hinisvlf from tliem shortly befure their pretumptuous erection of the Tower of Ual>el ; and steering his course rasiward, after 300 years' peregrination, settled himself in one of the northern provinces of China ('ilU years be- fore Christ). Here, having settled his udony, and established the religion, laws, aiid guvrrnment, which he had received from his antetliluvlsn ances- tors, be died in the 115th year of his rvign, and 96tHh of his lile (llHIU years before Chnst). lie was succeeded by 8hin.nong or /ing-nung, who reigned 140 years, and at hu death (lii.M> years before Christ) left the crown to Wbang.teeor Iloaiig.tet', the inventor of Chinese arithmetic and other arta, who reigned 100 yeari ; and at his death left tlie crown to hbau-hau (I7A9 yean before Christ). But it were a mere wiule of room to oomplete the enumeration of this genealugical succestion of princes. Suffice it to say. that these theonticiil his* torians trace it, with paiiifut arcumcv, down t» the reign of Van {\4M years Irefote Clirist), in the 07th year of whose monan-hy hnp|>ened the remark- able solstice mentioned in the b(M>k of Josliua, and which is actually notianl in the old Cbiiirsa aunaU, although without the apei-itication of any yeiir. l-'rum this time downward, the national records have un- doubtedly some appearance of veracity, l>eing priuci- fillv contained in the.yAoo-A'ifV (or history) written y ^^nfuoius, who lived about 400 yean before the birth of Christ Mr Barrow, to whose researches the present age is chielly IndebtMl fur the information most deserving of belief respecting this singuUr na- tion, suggests a much mure moderate and rHtlonal lUtement, of which the following is the substance t — He observes, that although the Chinese may be ad- luitted to have t>eeu ami-ng the tint nations of ilie world, after tha flood, yet they do not appear to have made such pnigreas iu arts and learning as the Chal- deans or Assyrians ; that ia, o.ily from the time of Con- fucius that they leem to have advanced in clvilitatlon; that previous to his time, the country wm divided into a number of petty kingdoms, under separate eUefs, with a reciul of wboae reciprocal wars and ■truggles for superiority the Chinese annals are cbieHy AUed; that their historliral records are sufficiently abundant and complete during the last 9000 yean, and the traiisartioni of mrh reign fully detailed with- out iiilomiptiou, down t<» the preavat tioe t Md that, during this time, the empire of China has l>een less dlsturited by foreign wars or Intestine onmmotlons, than any other portion of the world of which we ^"•N>ss any acvounu. Kven from this view of the subject, very great dednotinns must be made. We are, however, com- pelled t4> walk according to our lights, and to offer the foUowing summary of the Chinese dynasties from the perieopte elccun) the able tiliao. Quang-Yu emperor. Hi> wiis the founder nf the dy- naaiy Ming, or Hong, which reigned till 1370. His immediate aucressora resembled him, yet the country sutTercd considerably by the devastations of the Tar- un. INider YIn-tsong (1013), the Chinese were forced to pay tribute to the Tartar Leao-tsang. Whey-taong overthrew the empire of lieao-tsang (1101) I but the TaiUn poasasted themselves of the whole of the unrth of China (Pd-chrliJ, 1 I3A. Kao- tsong n. waa their tributary, and reigned over the aoutnern provinces only. Cud* r the emperor Nlng- tsong, the Chinese formed an alliance with Oenghis- Khaii, and the Niii-cheng submitted to this great conqueror ( 1 1 R 1 ). But the .Mongols themselves turned their arms against I'hina, and Kublai-Khin subjected them, after the death of the Inat emperor, Tl-ping (I3G0). Under the Tang dynasty, arts and sciences nourished In China; several 4if tlie emperors them- selves were learned men. Thti Chinese authun call the Mongulisn dvnanty of emperors Yuen (from 1370 till i:tt of the emperors of thtH line were able princes. Itut after the iteittb of Tiniur- Khun, or IVing-Tnang (Tumerlaiie), 1307( and still more after that of Yeson-Timtir-Kban. or Tli« •<>" Rimrdar fixed his residence in the ancient Mongolian capital Rnrakoruni, and was the fipunder of the empire of the K«lkaK, or northern Vuen. Tltia state did not re- main hing nailed; but, after the death of Tokoz- Timur (UliO), each horde, under its own khan, be- cnme Independent; in conaeqtienre of which, they were, with few exceptions, omsuntly kept In subjec- tion to China after this period. Chu, afterwards called Tai-laoi> IV., a private Individual, but worthy of the throne, delivered his country from the foreign voke, and founded the dynasty of Ming (130fl till rn44), which gave the empire sixteen si>verelgns, most of whom were men of merit. On tha fruntiere of the empire, the remains of the Niudabea Tartars, now iftlled Sinntchoos, still existed. The emperor 8hin. uong II. gave them lands in the provinco of Ijeao- tong ; and when an attempt was irade, toon after, to expel them, they resisted succeflafully, under their prince TaUtsn, and obtained poesesslonof Leao-tong; uMin which their chief assumed the title of emperor. lie continued the war during the reigns of tha Chi- nese emperora Huan-tsong and Hi-tsong, until his death. His son Ta-tsoiig succeeded him, and Hoal- tsong, n good but weak prince, was the successor of Hi'tsong on the throne of China. On the death of Ta-tsong, the Tartars did not appoint any one to suc- ceed him, and discontinued tlie war. lint in China, Ll-tching excited an insurrection, during which Hong.Puttn put an end to his life (Iti44). hi.tcbing's opponents called inthe Manicbooato their asaiataiice. I They got poiaenlon of Pekio, and of tb« whole em- pire, over which they still reign. lender Hhnm-chly a child of six years old, the corqueat of r'hina wao completed (lM(I-47)t end the prvaeni dynasty of 'J'sitig was Anally established. He was sntHweded, ia IfUi'J, by his son Kang.bl, who snltdned the khan of tlie Mongols, took Formosa, and made several other adilitlont to his empire. During the raign of tbii prince, the Christian religion was tolerated, but hla son Yong.ching prohibited it in 1734. The son Of the latter, Kien.Itung, continued the partecutlon against the Christians (174(1-73). He conauered Casbgar, Yarkand, the greatest part nf Songarla, the north-eastern part of Thibet ana Laasa, the empiiee of Miao-tse and Hiao.KIn.tahnen, and extended his territories to llindosun and Uucharia. He peopled the Calmuck coiuttrv, which the expulsion of thu Hongnrians bad renclpred almiMt a desert, with tliu fugitive Torgots and Hongarians from Kussla. In 17(IU, ho was toully defeated by the Burmese of Ava ; nevertheless, the Chinese took poaaeaslon of a town in Ava In 1770, and returned to their country with the loaa of half their army. They were more succcaaful against the Miao-tse (mountaineers). Towards Uie end of bis reign, his minister, favourite, and aon-in. law, Ho.Tchingtou, abused his Influence over hhn. Klen-Lung was succeeded, in 1700, by bis Ifith son, Kla-Klng. His reign was frequently disturbed by internal commotions. The Catholics, whom he fa- voured, have lost most of their privileges by their in- considerate /.eal ; and at Pekin, the preaching of the Christian religion has been strictly prohibited. Kla. King was succeeded, In 1030, by his second ton, Tara-Kwang, whotf the Russians call Daoguan. Such is a brief summary of the historical annals nf this singular people. Throughout their chnmiolea occur many periods which are completely blank, and these chasms have been Blled up, at usuu, with gnisa fablea, which throw an air of doubt over the whole; but it Is worthy of remark, tliai many of the leading facts recorded in their more veriteble historiat, have been contirmed by contemporary travellen and hiato> rians of other nations. On the wbide, however. It appean, that, Instead of having existed as a great and united nation from » period nf IIOOO years before ('hrist, aa the natlvea pre- tend, China waa not formed into one state until be- tween 200 and 300 yean before Christ. Since the establlahmeut of the Mogul dynasty, the empire haa not been again divided, but has experienced two great revolutions, at the accession of the Chinese dynasty of Ming, and the re-aci«8sion of the Mantchoo Tar- tar dynasty (Tslng) in 1G44 ; and haa icaroely in any reign l>een free from revolu, wart, and domestic te- ditiont. Instead, therefore, of having a right to be regarded as u privileged country, governed from time Immemonal bythe«ame constitution, exempt from foreign conquest and intestine cummotioni, the only peculiarity it possesses, distinct from the other em- pires which have been swept from the earth, It^that, owing perhaps to Its peninsular situation, at the ex- tremity of the habitable world, and its conteqiient exemptions from the destructive sweep of those con- quering nations who supplanted those whom they overthrew, it has pretarved lU usages and mannera in a great measure unaltered, amid the many Internal revolutions it has undergone. Still, the fact of this, the greatest mass of population which was ever united under one government, being kept together in one bond of union for a period of time far exceeding that at which the earliest Kuropean nation may be said to commence, presents a moral phenomenon of the greatest interest, and seems altogether inexplicable y any of the usual principles which are supposed to bind society together. That it haa neither been owing to the nature of the government, nor the virtue of the princes, nor the morality and peaceable dliiposi- tion of the people, ia ceruin ; and we can only con. jecture that the system of strict exclmiion from all communication with foreign nations, and the national habit of uppealing to ancient usage as the universal rule of conduct in all matters of life, have served to preserve their primitive habits and ideas in a great measure unchanged, and left unstimulated those ener- gies invariably called into action by the free inter- course of mankind. OOVERMHENT. The government of China is not to much what i* ufltially undentood by an "abiolute monarchy,** at • specimen of what we learn from history to have bean the social arrangement of a patriarchal family. The emperor, like the '* head of a house** in those timet, U perfectly unlimited in his power over all under him. He can dispose of the lives of his subjects at pleasure ; can make or abrogate whatever laws ha chtHMes ; all offices and emoluments emanate from bim alone; iu short, he is equally the source of all power, honour, and mercy In the state. He can even appoint hit own successor to the throne, either from bis own family, or whatever class of his tubjecte he pleases. One of the leading princlplea In the Chine«e oonstitutiuu it to place as great a distance at poisible between thlt universal autocrat and his subjects, and to hold him up at a demigod, a sort of dragoman betwixt heoven and mortals, alternately communicating the decreet of one and the petitions of the other, lie is altogether exalted above the common gross sphere of humanity. He IS styled the '* Holy Sou of Heaven, loleguardlftu of the earth, and father and mother of his people.** la fMt, he ti Miwtd to be of betTtoly orlgiD j ud CHINA AND THE TEA TRADE. luch what i« archy," u » to have bMii amily. The thoM timet, under him. at plewure ; chooMt; all alone; lu rer» honour, lint hit own own family, One of nstituUuu ie tMtween thla to hold him wilt heaven decreet of It altogether r humanity, ole guardlftu hii people.** origin} and thii luperitttifMiH mttlon tppvnred ■titttclvnily obvJoui hy the obttHclM nppiMed t» the micceulon nf the pre. tent Maiitrhoodjrnuty, nn accoiintof their family not being able to trace Iti deiuenl through more than eight generation!. The new monarch, aware of the danger nf thli ttlgma to the itablHty of hii thmne, cauMd hit genealogy to be drawn mit and piibllihed, wherein it waa given out that thedatighter of heaven, de«cendlng on the bnrdert of the lake Himlknuri, at the fmit of the ^Vhlte Mountain, and vating tume red fruit, conceived and bore a Ron, partaking of her na- ture, and endowed with wisdom, itrength, and beauty | that the people of that nation chose him for their so- vereign, and that from him was descended thn pre- sent Kon of Heaven, who filled the throne of f'hina. This fliplanation at onre satliiHpd all the scruples of his oelfitlnt subjects, OlferinKR are made to hit per. mn and throne, and he Is worililpped by prostration, not merely In his pretence, but in places where he Is aupjwted to be present— b» our sailors lift their hati on coming upon the tiuarter-deck of a man-of.war. When ImtA Amherst, In his ill-starred mttsion to Pekin In IBlfl, atopped at one of the staget towards that capital, a repast waa found prepared by orders of the emperor, and he and his suite were ordered to prostrate themselves nine times before the table, at If the descendant of the red fruit of lake Pnulkouri had beeTi personally present. It is, of courte, only In keeping h such superstitious notions, that the em- peror sh<' I tfe reckoned not only the torereign of iJhlna, but nf all the world l>efidpf, the other royal perttmages being merely his vasiali. ** Heaven has not two sons, earth has not two kings, a family has not two masters, sovereign power has not two direc- tors; only one Ood and one emperor." 8uch were the preoeptfi of the learned Confucius 000 years before 4'hrlit, and such is the doctrine of the Chinese at this hour. * This Irresponsible autocrat heart two distinct oha- rtotersi Ant, that of High Priest; and, secondly, that of the Hovereign of the Kmpire, or " Father and Mo- ther of the People." In thn first character, he it sole mediator with heaven for t)ie sins of the nation ; the tole otficiator at all solemn rites and sacrifices for pro- pltiatlngthefavourofOod. Hehasthusexcluslvecnedit •f all the blessings the people enjoy — such aa plenti- ful crops, favourable weather, &c ) and although uo- C4uiuns of public calamity, storms, Inundationt, and such matters, are also laid to his charge, yet such It the infatuation of the people, that they forgive his faults in consideratlonof the proof tlmsaffordnl of the attention nf heaven to his conduct ! Hot care Is al- ways taken to present his character In the most amia- ble light possible to bis subjects, who only hear of him at practising all the I'tnpian virtues nf his station — remitting taxes and pnnisbroentt, protecting virtue, punishing oppression, relieving the poor. 80 much for the head of the executive. What may be called the administrative government, consists of the empe- ror'ii council and the great public tribunals. The council It composed of the ministers of state, taken from the first order of mandarins, and presidents of the supreme tribunals, but is never assembled except upon iKCMsions of extreme public importance ; every thing Iwing In general directed by an inner council, where the emperor sitt In presence. There are six superior tribunals at Pekln. The first, named LU-poo, watchei over the training of mandarins, or persons to fiU offi- cial situations, as well as over th'-ir cimduot after be- ing appointed to office ; reports tueir proceedingt and character to the emperor, and, In short, has them en- tirely under their surveillance. The second tribunal, called Ifo.poo, may be designated the court of finance, where all the revenues of the empire, the royal trea- sures and domains, and every branch of public expen- diture, in managed. The third tribunal, Lee-poo, or the court of ceremonies, superintends the observance of ancient customs and religious ceremonies ; examines the public schtKils, and reports the progress of the sciences; receives foreign embassies (a great tax on their time) ; and regulates all matters of etiquette about the cuuru The fourth tribunal, Ping-poo, is something akin to our war-office, in having the ma- nagement of all the military concerns of the empire. Fifth, Hong-poo Is the police department, directing every thing relating to tlie detection anti punishment of crimes. The sixth tribunal, Kong-poo, is the tri- bunal of public works, hnving charge nf the palaces, public buildings, canals, mines, mnnu facto ries, &c. All these tribunals have under them n great number of subordinate tribunals scattered throughori the em- pi re, subservient to their VHrlous objects of iii^titutiun. Kach of the six supreme tribunals has two presidents, one of whom must be a Tartar by birth, and the oUier a Chinese. They have, also, twenty.funr aBseitort, who are half Chinese half Tartars. There is, also, another tribunal, the nature of which suthclently demonstrates of iUelf the grand principle upon which the Chinese government Is based— namely, of making every thing depend upon the emperor. This is a board of eensortf who send an inspector to watch over the pretwe«n them. The necettlty, therefore, of re- lying upon the fidelity of so many thousand agents for his Information and the execution of hit will. It In every department of his government taken advantage of; and the whole may Ite generally described aa a uniform system of corruption, plunder, and nppretsloni from the prince to the beggar. At toon as the centora (or spies) visit the provinces, they are Instantly waited upon by the mandarins, who attempt to purchase their favour with rich presents, the value of which haa of course been raited by the mmt grinding exactions from the poor inhabltantt. Every mandarin en- trutted with any temporary lucrative commission from the court, makta all he can of It by the most un. scrupulous meant, and, by bribing the higher ufficeri about the court, la allowed to sit down In quiet with hli lU.got gains. As all complaints must pass through the hands of these officers, of course no reinonitrance ever reaches the throne agninsl such oppressions. It is true, ftvquent examples happen of a guilty mandarin who is sometimes imprisoned, and his riches confis- cated to the state ; but It Is well known that theM) ex- amples of punishment do not originate in motives of justice. ** The emperor," says M. de Uuignes, one of the most Intelllgeut of our modern travellers, " makes use of his grandeet, aa nf a sponge, to suck up the riches of hu subjects. When the sponge is full, he squeeiee It, and sends It elsewhere to be filled anew." One mandarin, complained of by Lord Macartney, was dismissed by the emperor to the government of Quang-ton and Quang-see, with the following obser- vation I — ** I place you In a cl^y where there are many Kunipean curiosities, but from which nothing is ever sent to me." The hint was not lost. Upon entering on hit government, the inhabltanta found it impottible to obtain an audience of hiro for lesa than a pretent of 1A,000 or 20,000 piattret (L.4A00]. " I have lived a long time in China," observes M. de Ouignet; " I have traversed that vast empire In all itt extent. I have every where seen the strong oppress the weak, and every man who potsested any portion of wealth, employ it to harass, to burden, and to crush the people." In fact, the jealousy and ausplcion which prevail between all the members of the government, from the emperor to the lowest of the magistrates, sufficientiv evince how little they trust between themselves to their fine moral maxima, by the influence of which they pretend the throne It upheld, and the hHppiness of the people se- cured. The great basis of the Chinese government li the strict inoulcatiun of the sacred nature of filial obe- dience into the hearta of the young. The parent is understood to potsett unlimited power over hit off- spring at long at they llve--« maxim which hat been for agea interwoven with their earliest feelings and ideas. The child stands in the tame relation to the father as the father dues to the sovereign. No wicked- ness or unnatural treatment bv the father can relieve n son from his subjection. Tne merit of every good action i>erformed bv the son Is ascribed to the father, but the son bean his own disgrace. In like manner, at already mentioned, the sovereign receives all the merit oi the country*s prosperity, but Incurs no dis- grace for iti misfortunes. To be oonilttent, in thus placing the young and vigorous at the mercy of the old and feeble, the emperor sets an example by pro- strating himself, at the commencement of every year, before the empress dowager, before receiving the pro- strationi of his ofiicert and attendants. This tame principle pervadet all the branches of authority; the governor of a proviui'e or city being held as the father of all under his jurisdiction. The effect of this Sute- morality is, while It must certainly be viewed as the cause of the long stability of the government, to dete- riorate the priiicipiee anil feelings of the people, and destroy nil genuine sentiment amongst them. From the beggar upwards to the hivereign, each individual is the slave of him immediately above himself; and, what is worse, all are aware of the hypocrisy of each other, and there are no other Imnds to hold society to- gether, save the chains of tyranny. The lawa of this singular nation may be described as those of the bamboo, the cord, and the scimitar. "This great nation," says Mr Barrow, ** may be aptly enough compared to a great school, of which the magl.Ntr.ites are the masters, and the people the tcho- luTH, The btitubiH) is the ferula, and care is taken that the child shall not be spoiled for sparing the rod; the bamboo, however, is not used merely as an instrument for flogging the people. In the fundamental laws of the empire, it forms the scale by which all punish- ments are supposed to be proportioned to the crimes committed, and which are carefully dealt out by weight and measure. Punishment, u an example to deter others from the (umimisslon of orimae, would seeiDy Indeed, to be leta the object of Chlnoae Hglalatlon, than that of aatlsfving the vhilmt of rigid Juatlcet to wipe off a certain degree of crime bv tl» Infllotlon of a pro- portionate degree of suffering.*' The lawi are embraoed In a oodecalled the Leo-le«i which haa generally undergone some modlficailona under each new dynasty, but hat continued funda- mentally the same from time Immemorial. It is one of the duties of the mandarins to Insimct the people la the provisbms of these laws, and they are likewise promulgated In all the schools and public seminaries. The code of the present family, called the Ta.uing leu-lee, oonsliU of six great heads, to correspond to the fiinctlons of the six supreme trlbonalt, and em- braces an epitome of the whole system of government. Our readers would not, we Iwlleve, thank ua for an exposlilon of this institute of Aalatlo Jurispmdeneai but the fifth division, relative to crimei and punish- ments, contains matter sufficiently curious and Inte- resting, Treason— which, l>esides the crime of re* ' bellion, comprehends nine other species of offence, amongtt which are parricide, implelv, and desertion to a foreign power — Is invariably punished with death, In the former case with the most lingering tortures. But It is not merely upon the criminal himself that the penalty for treason falls. All the male relation! of such persons are Indiscriminately beheaded, the females sold into slavery, and all their connexlona relentlessly put to dmth. And It Is well did the ven- geance of the law always terminate here | but It too frequently happens that whole villages, nay, some- times entire districu, are IndlscHmlnately slangbtered for the crime of one Individual 1 To intrude into the line of the imperial retinue while the emperor is tra- velling, subjects the offender to death. One of the moat extraordinary decrees is, that if the emperor's physician it discovered compounding any medicine In a manner not sanctioned by established usage, he la punished with 100 blows. Ifany dirt It found amongst hit majesty's food, the cook receives eighty blows t and if he mixes any unusual ingredient or sauce which his majesty's palaW does not agree with, he recelvea 100 blows, and It compelled to swallow the article himself I All cases of deliberate murder are punlsb. able by- death t and death, with the most lingering tortures, is denounced against parricides. The pe- nalty of death is also awarded against a slave who shall strike bis master ; a sou who shnll strike hit father or mother; a grandion who shall strike hit grandfather or grandmother; a wife who shall strike her husband's father, mother, grandfather, or grand- mother. But if a father kill a son, grandson, or slave, even designedly, the punishment is no more than sixty blows of the bamboo, and a year's Imprisonment. Even this lenient punishment is generally remitted for a fine, an the law presumes the cause of the act to be the disobedience of the child, which Is held aa % crime of the deepest dye, as affecting the principle of the whole system of government. The jealousy of the Chinese law on this important point It ftirther illustrated by the following decree—" that a child or grandchild, who Is guilty of addresilni^ abusive lan- guage to Ms or her father or mother, puternal grand- father or grandmother, a foi/e who Is guilty of the same to her husband's father or mother, paternal grandfather or grandmother, shall In every case euffer death by being ttrangleil .'" There are five degrees of punishment for offend- ers ; — The first It infiicted by the lesser bamboo,* and J| Is said merely to be In the way of reproof and admo- " nliion. The correction extends from four to twenty blows. The second decree extends from twenty to fortv of the larger bamboo. The third is temporary banishment to the distance of 150 miles, extending from one to three years. The fourth degree is per- petual banishment, with one hundred blows of the bamboo. The fifth and ultimate punishment Is death, either by strangulation or decollation. There are alto various kinds of torture to extort confession and evidence. The punishment by the bamboo, however, Is, In the case of offences committed by the oflicert of government, commuted to fine or degradation, and, under peculiar circumsUnces, the benefit of commu- tation by fine is extended also to private individuals. In fact, there is a regular scale of charges for those not legally excluded from the degradation of flogging, of which all who are rich enough may avail them- selves. The motive of this regulation is evidently to fill the coffers of the royal treasury. REVENUES. No correct estimate, for want of the necessary data, hat ever been ascertained of the actual amount of the revenues of this immense empire, and the most dif- ferent statements have been put forth on the subject by various writers and travellers. The Chinese them- selves, of course, attempt to impress foreigners with a maswd. CHAMBKUSS INFORMATION I'Oil THE Pi'.OI'LK. ! I Mi|Mrnr'a privu* uiiiiuri. M r UwM» M I> M I " ikal lihy ralllluua, in •» Monomli'l gannrntM Ilk* tlila, wh«r« lh« o^Mrt Aliil Di«Kiilr«lM tf mi ihftnmfully ^d that ihay «uuUl uut Iivm wjihuut rutilititu tlir |>«ii. )ily Ihi luiiililatoil •■ an aiii|iU ravaiiiia fur all Uw baCMUIiaa uf iha itata." l^xita lata wrilari hava ra- diiuad lh« aatiuiata «• l"W aa l««Ua luilllulia t btil tuuh a uaicuUtiiMi i* aviilaully al>»*r4l. Parliaiia Iha iiaarati W ika truth l» tUal oi laa iiit«Ui|r«ul U. da (liiigiiaa, whu aca'aifaiiiad ika UuU'li aiiiliajuy In I7IM. Ila draw up a mlnuta tumuiary ufaach liiuUidual laa, and branch vt aapmditura, and ihair amuuiil, and iha ra- auli waa aa (oUuwi i— Haranuaa . • USI.MA.AM Hipandilura • • ■ a-i,!U-i,!l«l I 8urplui ui»,:t3:i,aa3 llw aurplusi »t%»T tha tm^Miriir uhtt whiit h« imm«* tf iat«l]r ri^uinM, IwJnit df (M»il«(l in iha yaUhc tifMury. ll' ihii I'MkiiUtion Im U)»rrvi^tt il !• ■viUvni tlmt tmtr. inuus Huma iiiuai tbtii ftuni«itiit«i \m ■roumul'ttiHi. Mr U»rrAw, il il tru«, Mya, " ihat i)ih inimviiw irMuiirvi m)«1 iu hnr« W«n ■iiimmr«4 l>y l))<* raltriiiiin dynaMy, •aIiI only in th« iuiaKiimilou of ilia (!biiit>iMi." Uui )m mmim iu hftva Ttiriiuuvii whai h* liiiitMlf lUtiM In aitoihar plac«, wbara, ppt-MkinK ut iIih v«ri(iiu oimuii ■dopfd bi prwarra lb« riu|H*rur*i ptipuUrtly, k« talU M ihftk Iha MtvarviKh lonirtimaa ramiu • wbola yaar'i tajir* 111 hit )mmi|i|»— « priK'^adiit); whicb uiuld iiiii nuiJy b« put ill prautivA witb tii amply axcbiMiiiar. Tbe amp^rur h»» itlwt privMa dumaiu*, Iba ravaniia of which wa« eilinwtad by Al. da Uuiguat ftl upwarda uf fuur millimia. Tha rnranua ii raiard from a Und.tax, ammintinK lo nIhiiii a laiiih of ila produoa, (iiiabalf of whidt ia paitl in money, aiid the tabar bali* in kind. Thara la b«aida« (hia ■ Ux on it»liy ctwlk* and mauufaciuraa i and a capiuiion-Ui u(Min luarchaiiik, artiuiia, ACf whu arc bald Joweit in ib« kCAla oJ liwiaiy. It ia a aurioua fact, that iha rn^ilationa fiir ooilaotinK tha duiiaa (HI tnanufacltira*, and prevautiuK amufrKl'a|r> raaambU aiaclly iba liriiiab i^aiau) t>l parmita, ax- cia^iiAciara, )iu«ncaa,&c Inaddiiiuntutltrwrarenuaa, ia iha Urg* amouul raiaad by (ha duliaa on ror«if(n ahipplnff Mid marchandiM, uf wbluh »a will hava luriker to apeak wbau w« ounui to treat of tha trada nf thina. ■OVAL rAHILT — COrmT>I»tM AND CKRKMOXIAI.S. Ai may b« iroaciucaJi tha aropanir ia domiciliated in aatyla adaptad to hli immanaa wealth, high rank, and uratcnaioaa to unlimited away. IIi» train of OHirJara, ollican uf lUta, and other atlandanta, whan h" MDpeara in public, which ii exce«tllnKly aaldom, ig incoucv'vably nnmrrona; and htiuff all apparelled in formoua MIki and aatina of tha brighteat dy«a, gar- nianed wiu. gold and ailrar, their appaaranco ia in- •xpraaaibly b. agntfioant. Hut it ia tnily while going through thia p tblic axbihttiun that all thia ahow of wealth and mBf(ni5conoa haa any reality. When re. leaaed from duty, the/ retire to their mean and aolitary cvltain the»nt*kiru uf tii«i ~-'-.b, where they devour their rice out of wooden bitwla with their chop-aticka, and then lie down on their mata on the uncovered floor, t4> alumlwr away the huura tilt their Mrvirn are vain required ; for to enter into oonreraation with aU follow.alavea, would, u bring ao atrange a depar- ture from the nati'inal taciturnity, aubjecl the partiea to the auapicion of cotiBpiracy. The emperur hai three cUaaea of wivea. The Rrat Conaiau of one who hat the rank uf erupreaa ; tlie ae- eond, of two ((ueena and their attendunti ; and the third, of aix queena and their altendanta. The am- peror*a wivea and women are douined to reside for erer within the walla of the paUi-e, and are, after hia death, impriuuied fur lUe iu a priaua called the "pa- laoaof diaatity.*' The prtnoca of the blood who are deacendad In a direct line from the reitcnint; family, have their uanie and date uf their birili regiklerad in a yellow book, and have the privilaffe of wearing » yellow girdle ; but tboae who we only i>f cullateral deacent, hava their namea enrolled in a red book, and wear a red girdle. Ho iitimit-at ii the apirit nf the giivarnment, however, to a multitudiuuua nobility, that even the ttrincea of the Idoud beyond the third generation, un- laia they have talenia and learning to recommend them to aome honourable employment to which rank la attached, gradually mertre Into the common maan. The princea have the privilege of being tried only by their peem, and niHy proriire exemptinn from any nirporal puniihinent by a tine. The peraona nf tho*e who wear the yellow girdle are held mi aacred, that anyone in»ultiiifr Dttm incuri death. Thoaewho hold no office, only rei-eive a iitlary equal to the pay of a tnmmtm aoldiar in the Tarur banda, and rereive loo taela (about M guinrat sterling) at their mar. riaga. The emperor and hia ohiblren wear robea of aatin of a bright yellow oobiur, while all the other hrancheeof Um royal familv, like the mandaiina, wear robee of a violet colour. I'he emperor, hia aona, and tfaoee of the tint rank, are alao diatingiiiahed bv 6- guree of dragona with live clawa embnndered on their aeetmenta t prinrea of the second rank have dragona vith fovr daw* : tbnae of the third rank, aa we7l aa ^e mandarins, have^ Inatead of dragnna, eerpeota with Ibor elawe. The button of cereeMny on the head- dnaa of the emperor oonatsu of three dragona of «M, placed one alM>ve the other, endrcled and atud- Old with pearla. Hia upper robe bat four drcUi em- 230 broldered with dragoaa. Ilia nai-klace, which in bla caae alone la compoaed <»f pearU, oonaisis of I Ti pearla, and other urnauieuts itf ruhi«s, aapphirvt, and anil»er, llii n\r4\* il iif a bright yellow, wiih fimr cirvlas iif ifitid, ktnddad with ruhias, aappbirea, and pearli. The oldest «iu of ibe eni|>eror, called lloang-tav*tae, has a ainillar button with his father, mily witb few«r pearls. Hit ne* klare is 'tf uiral, and he baa a bright ysllow ginlU like his father, but adurued. The Imui. iiela uf the aovrrelgii and heir-apparent hava alao a tigiire ul' the idol /'a. The other aonii of the einpeiur are adorned in much the aame faahiuu aa the eidait, but with fewer urnamenu. All thve dtsllnutiuna uf dreaa in the royal household—aa indeed the apparel uf every vhua Iu the kingdom— are expreaaJy regulated by law. The public exhibltiona of tha royal peraon amid all the pomp and oircuaituuiw uf hia himaehuld, are li- mited t4ioaruin Hxed feativalt, auch as ihennnivarsary nf hia birth, bvff inning uf tha year, Ace. TinMeun the fiirrnar oucailun are the hhuI splendid, all the yrlnci- nal ortlcera (tf the guvariinient, triliutary uhJafs, and Tartar print-ea, being in attandance. As tbaivreiiMt- tiiea obMrved on aucb occasluns — like every thing else in China — never vary, the following descriptimi itt one In l7U*tt given bv l^ird Macartney, niav be taken aa an equally faithful accuunt uf the exhlbiiiima at the prefHDi day i — ** The 17th September being the empe- ror's birth -day, we set out fur the court at three o'clock in the morning. We reposed nnrsflvaa about two houra in a saltHju, at the entrance of the palaiw Inclo- sure, where Irull, tea, warm milk, and other refresh. mciiti, ware bruiighito ua. At last nntioa waa given itiat tiie fastival wan about to begin, and we imme. iliately descended Into the garden, where we found all tha great men and maudarins in their rultea of atate, drttwn up Itefitre the imperial pavilion. Tlie fm|>eror did not shuw bimself, but remained concealed behind a screen, from whence, I prekiiuia, he could see and enjdv the ceremtiniea witbuut iui-onvrnlenre or inter- ruption. All ayes were turned to the place where hia m^eaty waa Imagined to be enthnnied, and aeemed to expreaa an impatienre to livgiri the devutiuua of tha day. hbiw aolemn music, muffled druraa. and deep- tuned bells, were heard in the distance^ Una audden tlio auuuds ceased, and all waa still. Agnln they W'lre renewed, anJ then intermitted, with short pauaeai during which, arverai peraona passed backwards and foi'warda in the prmc^nium, or foreground uf the lent, aa if engafvd in prepnring uHne grand coup Ut tfuatr0. At length the great bnnd, vocal and inatrumental, itnick up with all their powers of barraany ; Hitd in- stiiiitly tha whfde court falldat upon theJr faces before this invisitite Nebuchadnezsar. The niuaic mi^ht Iw lumsidered as a sort of birth-day ode, urstate-antbeni. the tmrtben of which waa, * Bow down yonrboMdi, all ye dwellers on (he earth t Uow dowu your heads be< fore the great Kien-long t the great Klan-long !' And then all the dwellers upon China-earth tliere present, except ourselvee, Uiwed down their heads, aiid pru- itratod tbemselvea upon the ground, at every renewal of the chorua. ludeed. In no religion, either ancient ■ir mud(>rn, haa the Divinity evei been addressed, 1 be- lieve, with otrunger exterior marks of worship and adoritiun thnn were thia morning paid to the phan- tom of his Chinefie majesty. Such is the mode of cele- brating the rmperur's anniversary festival, according to the cotirt ritual. We saw nothing of him the whole day, nor did any of hia minialeri, 1 presume, approarh him, for they all aeemed to retire at the aaroe moment we did." AU who are admitted to the honour of an audience of hia "caleatial majesty," are compelled to pert'urm lite ceremuny uf prostration, or iuw/ou, which consists iu uroatrating tliemselvea nine timea uu the ground, and beating it aa often with their fureheiula. This humiliating ceremony ia exacted from foreign em. bMSsiea as wall as natives, aa typical uf the emperur'a doniiniuo over all the earth, and has been hitherto <-4Miiplied with by all the Kurupe iected from the three humblest classes, the husband* men, the artixana, and the mercbanta. Thoaa who have acquired wraith, by whatever means, genaraUjr enter into aome of these ecrupatJona to render theHt mure eligible for the otfice, Iu order, that, by attaining it, they may t*nj it. Mutwiihi>tanding this surveillance, however, and although their aalary la barely aufbcieut for aim- pie maintenance, it la regarded as a phenomenon by tiie i'hinese tu aea a mandarin leave <^ce without amassing great riches. Their ineana uf aooumpliahing this we have already explaiued under the head uf (iu- vernment. Notwitbslanding their infamuua exactioua, the people observa towards tbem ihegreateat reveieuce. They are aaluted with the title of " Ureal Lord," and every one licrda the knee while addressing them. The two chief claaaea of inaudarina are divided into nine diderent urdera, who ate all minutely distinguished by particular uarta of tlielr dreaa. The moat marlnd, and third diss, the numlwr of literati allowed to qua- lify themselvt's annually in each, by taking out a di. filurjia, curreaponding to the degree of Hachclur of Arte n llritain. There are, then, in China npwardaof 24,700 iudivldnala annually added to the qualified literati; and it is, therefore, conji^lured that there are never leaa than 406,000 of thia Uidy. These are all exempt from taxes of ever^ dea^rlptlon ; and aa soon as tliey have taken out their degrees, their namea are enrolled In the liata of the /,ii-|ioo, who choose from amongst them the higher orders of mandarins. It la, however, in productive labour that perhapa two-thirds of the Chiueae are employed ; the remaiii ing third, amounting;, after deducting the dvil and military uffloers, students, literati, &c., to about Ian milliims, being engaged in trading and manufaciuraa. It is the great Maxim of the Chinese government, thai agrlctilture is the true source of national prosperity and woalth ) nod they have In every i^ honoured and CHINA AND THE TEA TRADE. , part of th* ek« thai ib« tht highir Jura the tde- finten, thera rriiraant), « ijalrttudws, jdltiun I Slid lirtt, teu'iid, nwed U> ^tta- ttK DUt » di- licli>ri>( Aru iipwardt 'if lb* ({UiliArd ' that Ultra Thnaara .m; and «a Ihair namaa who cbooM muidikrlna. Jut pcrhaya the rt m ala k* d'il aii4 to ab(iut Ian inufaciuraa. amsDi, that ^ praaparily pr«HMiMl ih« i-iiltlv»Uin nt the tnl). Th(> elMi, In- dtwl, miiy Im nunildarMl munh th« hnpplfii «iitl mtMl IndniwmUiii iif ib« natiim | for Mlih'MiKh Ihpy pay tu iIm ■moiiiii i»/ ■ tanth iinimftlly Ui tita ampanir, ihtjr hava fMiihrr pri«athtM>4 nor |HMtr in «ii|»iMiri — iinlna iha fMMir iif ihalr own farnlllaa, whnin all rli|aHv« ara InmuhI til firiivlila fur. Tha mnnarvh ia iha niilvanal |Toprlal«>r i^ tlia toil, and tha nth* aiurtril rrum It <■ itia whttla rani ptld l>y thr farniar. Hiil thutiKh ha It ihtii lit a niantiar a tanaiit at will, ha la navar dia* Kirtiod In hia iHMMmlnn m Ihiik an ha WMitlniira tn pny Ilia Und-Ui, and hsi tht fwiwAr of IrtthiK out unjr pwtf or tha whola, if h« plvaara, ut anothar. A* thara ar« no piiMlu tiinda In whidi tovaalnapllal, nnd cimi. Morelal flpoeiilailoiis ara rvokoiiaddairradinir, all flluaM ftrt Mff*'' t'^ l*y oot lhp(rra[iltal inland. It laforihla rtaanti that avvti thi« nrincfa and nohilltr via with aarh uthttf III mnntfiiani'InK aKriniltiirr. Vfl, mrtwlth- ■tandinf all thJH wnriMira^iirniMil, the atnotinl of land cuttiralad li trlfllnK In comparlaon to iha i*xtiinl n( tha ampira. My a raport mada to Klan-lonfr in I74A, it appfarad thai thara ware only a>>ont fi (MN).lN>0 of ftoraa undar nililvatlon, out of tha fUO,INN>, laud Co bfl OBpaMe of ttll^Ka. Vrom tha want of r>i- tarpriaa, but atill more from tha want of akill and antiahla implnmnnti, Inimanaa traota nf Inndi ara a)- Itiwad to 11a wuta t and it la titimated th«t ■ fourth of tha whola eountry conatati nf lakaa and iwamfia, moat of which are rapahia of Mnf( drained. It will •aailjr ba aaan how lnadrf|itate tha produra of iha aoll is lolnaiini«n*|pilnr iupplvof riHKl tn thalnhal)ltanui, In HHiaoiia nf acarclty, nrt'aalonad hy lonff dnni)(hta, whirh f rri|uaDtly occur 1 and when it ia ciuiaidttreU tliittth«re is no foreign anpply of ffrain tomaJiDUpfordfflU'ienuiaa, littla wonder nerd l>« eipraiaed at the tarrttio faniinan whk'h often afflict tlie nation. To provide Htfainat theae acHrcitleti a year'a produca of the Und ia WH-aya kept BiortNl up In uuiillc ffanariea i hut thli priivialon ii navar found aulncient to prevent the frequent reuur* ranoo uf iba moat dreadful atvaei of atarvatlon. Wa ara lomawhat putiled what to My re^Hrdiiitf tha amount of tha popuhuiuu of China ( for alihuuffu all tocounti agrea ifiat It it lomethliiff auormoua, there ia a dilferenca of inilUoni between the at«le> loauta proe«edint( from what tnity be termed the mutt autheatio lourrei known. Tha mandarinii attend- ant on liord Maoartnevi in tha year 17U3, fgtLve out the population at 333 inilliona t and by a ceniua taken l.i 1813, by order of the C'hinaae frovernment, tbia enormuui maaa ii iwullad up to 'M7,U'i\,tWJ, which givea about 2iiQ to the ktjuare mila. Thii usiJ- rulatiou haa been implicitly credited and cuiument- ed oil hy rariiMii wTJt«rat ftud a late contributor to one of tha aculeit of our ppriodlcala,* gravely pbilo* Mipliiaea upon it iu anticipntiun of the benetiii ex- pected to accrue to Urllaln from tlie opening uf the trade between it and China. But Mr Uarrow, cer- tainly the mott intelligent and truktwurthy writer ou thia aubject, nmaidera thia ealimate ai not only Im- probable, hut irnpuaaible. And certainly, when we compare the oatenaiblfl maani uf lubtiiitence with the number of moulhg here thrown open to mallow it, the alleged impoaaibility would luem aiiflicieutly ma- nifeat. The nioat veraciuua and probable culculatiun, iu Mr Itarrow't opinion, i« that taken from ioma fttaUalical accouuta uf China, diawn up by order of Kia-king, about the veari lUlO-IJ, trautlated by the I'alabrated Chineae acnular, Or Morriaon of Culcuttai who arAXimpauied Lord Amherit'i miaaiun In tlie year 181(1. 1 7. According to tlua cenaui, the total population, including all ranka and ctmditlona, great and amall, •muunu to Iwtween U&,Ol)0,OOU and liU,0UO,OOU nauth* (by which deaignatiou the ceniui U ulwayi taken) t and thit eatimaia ac(|uirei Uia greater pro- bability, from iti tallying pretty exactly with a ceu- Hua taken by Kien-lung in 1743, Uy the Utttr, thf number paying taxua waa atated at 2U4 miUioni, which, reckoning live pomuna to each family, would maka In ail about 142^ millioni. Tha mora moderato calculation relied on by Mr Barrow ii even greater than the following eatimate, given in a Britiah parliamentary pnper, one-half of that of JBngfand, com. pared with the rtlativa extant of territory of each country. Tha oauae of tha apparently exoeuiva population of Cltina ariaas from tha provinoes being very unequally A -L . . ■ ji" the country ilely, have ac- T exaggerated ouncluaions. Thara an, in faet, but four provinces, out of the flf. tflM tnlQ which tha empire is divided, that are daaaaly luhabltad; these embrace but little mora than one. viuos aruas irora ina provinoes oeing very ui papplad, and the ovar-urowded portion ol' the to wbleh Curalgnars generally, if not solely, i mu, aad tbenoe draw their exaggerated cum * Waatminator Review, Fvbrusry IKM. 237 loiinh of the entire area, yvt contain above iwu< thirds ol ihe poputatlon. raomjiTiiiMs — AoaK'iri.Ti;iK— tk* caof. The auple proluciiona of China ara rice, Iva, silk, roium, sugar, salt, porcelain, tin, leiid, ntuok, rhu- barb, quickailvar, saltpatra, wines, fruiu, and varioua maiiur»ttturaa HIca is tha great atApla article of rmwl t and ao much la liB IniporlNnce regarded, that a high feailval la hold at the couirnoncanienl of each senltuna. The emperor performs in peraon, and preparea himaolf for the aulemu iH-at, rimi/tf, pi>a«, ud brans. Oats, which spring up ajinntaiieoualy, an I . iiid up aa a uaelras weed. Tlie iniptenii>tits ul husbandry are extrrmely simple. The plough ia bald by orm hand, and i-onatats but of a single piece of crooked titnlter, the lower extremity of which ia armed wltli a hook, ind ttie atipciior guided by the hand t while ft perpendlcubr piece nf wood riars from tlie middle of Ihe Warn, across the top of whirh another piece ts placed lemtthwaya, one end of which In (ixvd to the handle, while the other is roiinected with the trnce*. Thia implement di)#s not turn up the earth to llie depth of nir)re than alx Inches, ao tliat new t-arlh ia never reached | and being thusexhanated, the ground reuuirea often to he left fallow for want of manure. The Chinese rxccd in gardening more than in agri- culture, and e^p('cially In the art of laying out garden grounds ( and this may !•« conaidered the only one of the flne arts in which thny dlapUy geiiiua or taaie. Their atyle indeed atrongly ruacniblea that of Krig- land. The moat maynincent and extenalve of tlie empernr*s gardpua are those of Yuen>min.yuen, at !*«• kin, and of tiehnl in Tartary; the latter of which is described in glowing terms by Iiord Macartney, who sayi It reminded him of tha plrasure-grounda at liowtber Hall in Weatuioreland. They are, however, on somewhit larger a scale, being ten Kngliah miles in diameter, or U0,(MN) acres, containing within the precincts thirty aeparate hahltationa for the emperor, each retiemhling a village of conaiderable aize. The Tcha, Tha, or Tea.tree, grows equally in tha mnuutalnniia and It^vel districta, but prefers a light and rocky a«>il. It is sown by putting seven or eight seeds into a bole, two or three of which only aprlng up, and these are afterwards tranaplanted into rows. Ihey begin to yield leaves three years after being planted, nut require to be renewed every five or ilx years, as the leaves then begin to grow hard and harsh, 'rhe appearance of the tea-ahrut) reaembles that of the broad-leafed myrtle, with a flower like that of the wild white rose. There are dilTerent modes of cultivating the tea-crop in different provinces; but there are in fact only two diathirt species of it, the green and the black. All the rest are mere combinations nf theao two in different propnrtiartlcular farm, but owe their character tu tha skill and good faith with which the tea merchantnr the llon^ tnerohant'a agent have executed their commlaalona In aelecting only su. pcrior piircela of leaves In the uiarkrtM of U'oo-y.shan. ] arise fiom tha effecta of carefully roasting the leaves in Iron vases placad over a flra, and by rubbing them against tha sides of the vessel ; in this prmresa, with the green leu much skill Is requisite, and there ia a class of paraons hired by soma uf tha tea merchants to superintend their ruapecttva mauu- factoriea. The bohea tea la composed partly of tha biwer gradtis of the Vu-y-shan tea, which has baan left unsold after the departure of the laar nhiuB of tha season, and partly of the tea grown in the district o( Canton calleil Wu-ping. The tea-cheats undergo severe acrutiny In CantODi previously ti> being purchaaed ; and if, whan finally examined at the period uf their shipment, thay are found superior to tha quality which has lieen attached to them, their price is raised ; If inferior, tbay are re- jected, or their price h>wer«d. The scientific nu>da of proving' tha finer teas Is tu put a small quantity Into a cup; pour ou it pure spring water at full boiling heatt place the saucer above the cup, filling it alsu with boiling water tu increase the heat i after a suf. ficlent time has elapsed for the leaves to unfold them, selves, tu examine the appearance, flavour, but par- ticularly the colour o( the infusion. The latter quality is of course only known tu tha initiated. Tea is the universal beverage of China. It Is drunk at all meals, and ii almost the only liquor used at feasts, and while visiting each other. But it is a general rule amongst them never to drink tea Immediataly after a long fast, being apt to affect the nerves, and create giddineas. The tea.shrub is cultivated only In Chiua and Japan, and is supposed to be indiganoui to one ur both of these countries. All attempts tu in- troduce it into Europe have hitherto faikid. The quantity of tea annually plucked in China, it is Impossible tu calculate, unless we alau knew the quantity consumed by the natives. About 54,000,000 uf lbs. are annually exported from Canton to all parts of the globe ; and it is a rcmarkalile fact, that of this quantity Great Britain aitd Ireland alone cimsiime nearly 32,000,000 lbs_being about 10,000,000 lbs mora than all the nations of the civilised world put together I HAVUFAlTllRES. From the inveterate adherence of the Chinese to all ancient customs and practices of every description, they have been left completely behind by almost every civilised nation in all useful iiM^chanical arts, even thoae which originated with them^elvea. Every thing seems tn have stood still in China t>ut Time. Nothing can be mow illustrative of this fact than in the case of the silk-manufacture, of which they were un- doubtedly the inventors, and the knowledge of n hich, as their annals boast, they possessed 3000 years before Christ. The native reeler and weaver still continue to labour on hy the same tardy process, and with the very same materials, as were used by their ancestors ; while in Kngland, where the manufucture was totally unknown until tlie fourteenth century of the Christian era, Sir Thomas Lombe, so far back as I7IU, erected at Derby a machine, driven by a water-wheel, by every revolution of which wheel T mix and aoften their tints, and copy every defect as well B!i excellence in the object of their imitation. They hare not the t-lightest idea of perspective, consider- ing the diminished and faded appearance of distant objecta as the C4>niiequence of a defect of vision j and they therefore ioatst upon placing erery object in the forrgmund. When one of their ministers of state beheld a portrait of his Britannic majerty, he remarked that it was a pity it should have been spoiled by the dirt on the face — meartng the shading of the nose. M'hen they draw a picture of the eaiperor, they consider it would l>e almost impious to represent him ( f the ordinary human prop«>rtionB, and ther«Aire make him twice as large as any nf his attendants — the hf^ad pnrtictiUrly. But this self-conceited people consider theraseWes in this, as in eve*'y other art, pre-eminent over all other nations, and reject with disdain the remonstrances of European artists. In sculpture, as in painting, the Chineee have no Ainception of order, attitude, or pn portion ; and there can he nothing more monstrously ^tU^^^Uc ioan ;he figures which adorn their temple >, bridges, and tombs. i It is affirmed, indeed, by rece^.t travellers, that there ' is not a statue or ooluuiu in tiie whole empire worth notice. The Chinese music remaini in that state of primi- tive simplicity in which it b«, been observed to exist in all barbarous nations. Dr Burney says, that *' all the melodies of this nation have a strong analogy tti the old Scottiih tunes ;" that ** both reseuiMv the songs of ancient Greece ;'* and that " the music nf all three ought to be considered as natural mu- sic'* Their gamut, like that of the Greeks, consists of tire natural tones, and two semi-tunea ; hut they use neither lines nor spaces in noting down their music, which ttiey do in a column confusedly, without any attempt at marking time, key, or expreaston. They always endeavour u> play in unison, having no idea 01 counterpoint or paru in music. Their musioU in- struments are extremely nid**, consisting chielly of drums, b**llB, trinngle*, &.c. ; and the only kinds re- sembling those of Europe are a species nf lyreis or harps, with sirin^s of silk, and a small organ, or rather I'an's pipe, njsduof unequal reeds, stuck intoahollow cup of wood, and blown by a pipe fur llie mouth, which conveys the wind Ui all the rtntda, l)r Burnry tried in vain, however, to adapt a scale to this instrument. The great delight of Chinese taste. In short, is in the commingled sounds of all lorf 'f insirumeuiaatouce. An anecdote is trtld of a Chiufse uf rank, who, being • u Loudon, was carried by a friend ui one of the thea- tres. When thb orchestra at limt contmenced, he ap- peared inexpreKiihly pleased, but listened with theut- miMt i ndiir«reoce to the beautiful overture that followed, asking impittiently if the tnusiclans were not going in play again the tine air they did at first P His friend was puttied t^i Imagine what the air couM be ; until, upon the performers priH-««iliog to re-tune their va- rious iDslruroents after the first set was over, tha Cbl- aeso exclaimed, In rapture at the medley of sounds, *' There It h — that's It now !" The alTeuted gravity and Butocial life of the Chinese, indeed, are uutavuur- 335 able to the cultivation of music. They like to see dancing, but not to practise It — like the Turks, con- sidering It a species 4if labour, not of pleasure. It is told of a Turkish ambasaador thai when he saw, at a ball given by some nobleman In London, all the no- bility and gentry uf both sexes capering about on the floor, he expressed unfeigned wonder at their giving themselves so much trouble, and observed contemp- tuously, " We make our slaves do alt these things fur us r* And thus it is with the Chinese. In almost all the mechaniv?! aru, howerer, the Chinese are wonderfully expert, and in some hare attained a degree of perfection unrivalled by any other nation. No people have carried the art of dye- infT, or of extracting dyeing materials from animal, mineral, and regeuble substances, so far as the Chi- nese have done, a*d this without any scientific che- mical knowledge. They show partlcuUr dexterity In fashioning ivory fans, baskets, nests of eight or nine moveable halls one within another ; " yet It does not appear," says Mr Barrow, "that they practise any other means than that of working in water with small saws. As little can Europeans pretend to rival their large horn lanterns of several feet in diameter, per- fectly transparent In every part, without an opaque spot, and without a seam ; yet a small portable siove or furnace, an iron Imiler, and a pair of common pincers, are all the t«>ols required fur the manufacture of those extraordinary machines. Their expertness in cutting tortoise-shell, mother-of-poarl, and all kinds of atones and gema, is extraordinary, and in all tha metals they work with extreme neatness. Respecting the state of science in China, Mr Bar- row says, '* Nothing has yet appeared in Kurop^, from an authentic source, to warrant any other conclusion than that uf the utter ignorance of the Chinese in tSe pure, speculative, and abiitract science of mathema- tics. Their knowledge of arithmetic and geometry is bounded by mere practical rules. Their numerical notation is marked down by symbols of the language, as that of the Greeks and Romans was by letters of the alphabet. The common operations of arithmetic are gunerallr performed by a few balls strung on wires (called the iu>am-pan), somewhat resemoling the Roman abacus, and sometimes by tbe julnu of the fiDgers. The moy of sixteen, who had been apprentice for one year t4*H wuU-employed Kdin- burgh surgeun, would be able to afford." LAKOUAOE AND MTEHATI.'RC. The language of the Chinese is another branch of their hiHtory, revpeottng which the rest of the world has been impressed with the most preposterous and exaggerated Ideas. It has been represented as con- sisting of millions of characters— as being perfectly unattainable by fonilgners, and so forth ; and thus has this tnilv barbarous nation acquired a reputa- tion fur philological science as spurious as that which they hire enjoyed for other branches of antique eru- dition. " It is true," as Mr Barrow says, ** that their language, more than any thing else, stamps them as an original people. It has no resemblance whatever to any other language, living or dead, an- cient or modern. It has neither borrowed nor lent any thing to any other nation or people, excepting to those who are unquestionably of Chinese origin. The written character Is just now as distinct from any alphabetical arrangement as it was some thousands of^ years ago ; and the spoken language has not pro- ceeded a single step beyond the original meagre and inflexible raonusyllahle. All this certainly goes to prove the Chinese to be a prim'itlve people, and snfar the circT'.mstance is a moral cu riosity ; but at the same time it shows their inveterate and immoveable ob« Btinsoy In adhering to a system of characters so utterly unreducible to any kind of intel!'gible vocabulary. The foundation nf the language 's purely hieroglyphic and symlwlical, Including all the remarkable udjects of nature, such as the s^n, moon, earth, fire, water, wood, stone, a horse, a cow, a dragon, &c i the uten- sils most commonly In use — a knife, a spoon, a box, &c. ; the primary relations of life — a father, mother, brother, son, &c, ; some of the most obvious qualitlea of bodies, as straightness, crookedness, &r. &c To give a detail of the history of the Chinese language, through its various modificatlona and arrangements, would occupy the space of volumes, and to no purpose beyond the amusement it might afford to those anti- quarians who delight in th*! Titvfiitlgation nf matters as frivolous as they are obsolete. C^uffice it to say, that the Chinese Knguage, which has hitherto proved such a mystery to all the rest of tbe world, has at length been fathomed and rendered clear by the in- dustry of British genius. In faa, the difficulties at- tending the acquisition of it have proved almost alto- gether visionary. The Industry of Vr Marshnlman and Dr Morristm has supplied us with grammars and dictionariee of this singular language, and placed within our reach all the supposed treasures It con- tained. " Europeans," says Mr Barrow, *< have been deceived as to the vast number of characters In this language, which was supposed to create its diffi- culty. In the great Difltinnary of Kaung-bee there are not more than 40,000 i-harai;trrs, of nblrh about 30,000 only are in use. The Iiexicon nf Hcapula con. tains alwut 44,000 words, Ainsworth's Ihrtionary 4&,000, and Jobnaon's about the same number. The whole works of Cmifucius conuin only alH>ut 3000 different characters. The Ltu.Ut may hare, on the whole, about 100,000 characters, but not more than IWIO different ones throughout *he whole work. Where, then, can there possibly oe any difficulty ?'* The same writer also adduces numerous instances of Europrans acquiring the Chinese language in a com- paratively short time. »imi all that ^as yet been seen, the trmible nf learning the ClhiusRe languaga will tw very inade- quately compensated by the literary '* treasures" of which Mr Harrow speaks. There are no doubt a profiminn of poems (so called), noveln, historiee, and dramas, Jkc. ; but of what character are they P Prom the translations i*liich we hava yet Iwen favoured with, the poems, li^e some of Ofsian's sublime paa- aagea, consist of unintelligible imagery t their aorels of silly and pointless stfiriea; their histories, as we hare already seen, uf fables ; and their dramas, ai- CHINA AND THE TEA TRADE. e troublfl of vtrf inii4«« TMiurM** l»f no dmibt k UtnriN, ftod heyp From Mfi favourM ■tibUnw pu- Ui«4r «uv«li oriM, H wo ' di-uuu, al> tfaongh fur the moat part true to nature, yet exhibiting nature in her most revolting forms. M. de Uuignei, Mr Barrow, and other vlitton of Pukin, aHure ui that th4/ theatrical exhibition! are beyond erery Uiing ■trainable and dligniting. It has been with all writers a theme of wondrous Animadversion, how a government so despotic as that of China should make the cultivation of letters a sub. ject of such special anxiety. Even the intelligent Mi Barrow makes a marvel of this fact, notwithstanding that his owu writings (had we no other authority) fur- iiish a sufficient explanation of the seeming anomaly. It is true, there is a school to be found in every vH- h^e of China, and that the instruction of the pupils forms one of the most anxious concerns of the gorern- mentt but what Is the nature or purpose 6f their education? To instruct them in ail tbe erroneous doctrines of their parents—to confine their knowledge to the native productions of Chinese writers — to make. In short, Chinese politicians of them. Tbe boasted system of education in China is not for the purpose of enlightening the people, but of keeping them in dark- nes!<. They are allowed to know nothing of other natioiiH, and cannot therefore comprehend their own d^raded and enslaved condition. KELIOIOM. There can scarcely be said to be any religion in China at least as a system of divine worship or a re- gulation for the conduct of the people. Tliere is no sabbatical institution, nor congregational worship t no extemiU forms of devotion, petition, or thanksgiving. The emperor takes the sole charge of the spiritual concerns of the people, and Is the only individual in the nation who directly addresses the Supreme Being, Cirforming at fixed periods certain ceremonies and ob- tions. The equinoxes are the Umfs when t)ie grand sacrifices in the temple dedicated to Heaven are offered up, when every kind of buslnessis su7*^ended in the capi. tat The national, or rather Qovemment-religion, may be described as a sort of Deism. The Tien, or Ureat Spirit, is invested with the attributes of omnipotence, omniicience, and ubiquity. The names by which this sovereign power is known, are IVhanp-tietit the ilius. trious heaven ; Chang-te«y the supreme ruler ; Tien- tte, heaven and earth ; CAtf-cAuny, the first and the last ; Ken-puerij root and branch ; and other descrip. tive denominations. In addition to this supreme power, however, the Chinese, like all barbarous nations, in- vest all the elements with innumerable ipirits and genii, fanciful images of which they worship l)o.h in their own homes and in temples dedicated to the pur- pose. These temples are under the care of the Bonzes, who live unmarried, and auociate in convents like Romish monks. The idoUworship exhibited iu these temples is characterised by every mark of the most debasing and besotted superstition. When a votary has applied to his idol for some time in vain to obtain a certain boon, he abandons the ungene- rous spirit in indignation ; sometimes demolishing his image, and kicking it through the streets, with every mark of contumely I In every possible cir- cumitance of life, the Chinese Implore tbe pro- tection and aid of some idol. Should a country- man be about to raise a building, or attempt any other work in which he might lie in danger of re- ceiving injury, he places a small stone upright, sur- munds it with a few candles, burns two or three gilded papers, and then proceeds to work with per- fect confidence. They alra cousult oracles previous to undertaking a Journey, commencing a law-suit, &C. ; and thus the Uonies, who are the interpreters of the responses, are kept in constant employment. So strong, indeed, is the resemblance of the interior of a temple of Fo, the dreis of the priests, and the ceremonies of devotion, to those of the church of Home, that one of the misalanaries says, " it seems as if the devil had run a race with the Jesuits to China, and baring got the start of them, had con- trived thesethlngsfbr their mortiHcation." The foreign religious wliich subsist in China are the Jewi, Mahome- dans, and Chriitians, and theae seem to be tolerated merely on account of the public uiefulneu and learning of the missionaries of these sects. The Christians, fur tlie same reason, are the must generally respected, but have been treated, from time to ^ime, with the most arbitrary capriciousness, being persecuted by one emperor and encouraged by another. In the year 17-17) hve missionaries were beheaded In Fo-kien, and two Jesuits strangled iu the same year in Kiang- iian, all of which was done *' according to law," which says, that the chief uf any sect wno seduces the people from their duties under religious pretences, shall be strangled. REVIEW or MANMERB, CHAUhCTER, AND CONDITIOW. From all we have said. It will be evident that civi- lisation has as yet advanced little beyond the infancy uf what may be called agricultural society in China. It may be readily admitted that they were amongst the first of existing nations who arrived at a certain degree of excellence ; but it Is not less evident that theyha%e long remained stationary, and have even In some points retrograded. " They can only be said," observes Mr Bsrmw, *< to be great in triflee, whilst they are really trifling in every thing that is great." Tbe following assertion of Sir William Jones may almost b« literally adopted i— " Their letters, if we may so call tbem,' are merely the symbols of ideas ; thair philosophy ii iu so nida a state as hardly to de- serve the appellation ; they have no ancient monu- ments from which their origin may be traced, even by plausible conjecture ; their sciences are wholly exotic ; and their mechanical arts have nothing in them cha- racteristic of a particular family — nothing which any set of men In a country so highly favoured might not have discovered and improved. In their moral qualities, the Chinese are a strange compound of vanity and meanness, affected gravity and real frivolity — an utter want of all manly judg. ment and sense, combined with the most iosidioui art and cunning, the usual accompaniments of vulgar ignorance. The Tartar race are distinguished by a blunt and unstudied frankness of manner and open- ness of disposition ; but the true Chinese betray the most debasing servility of tone and manner — plausi- ble, sly, and artfuL They have not the slightest re- gard to truth, and will assert and deny any thing with the most unblushing effrontery, l>eing also en- tirely destitute of shame. The pain inflicted by the bamboo is the only consideration they attach to fiublic and disgraceiul corporeal punishment. They lave neither sense of honour nor self-respect. " A Chinese prince, or powerful mandarin," says a recent traveller, " will commit extortion or oppres- sion whenever he can do it with impunitv, and re- gards it as a matter of right atUched to his station. A Chinese trader will cheat and defraud whenever it is in his power, and even piques himself upon his sicill in overreaching, as a proof of his talent. A Chinese peasant wiU pilfer and steal what- ever is within his reach, whenever he can hope to encape detection ; and the whole natit n may be af- firmed to have almost nothing in view but their own self-interest and security. Their general character, in short, In point of morals, compared with the mi- nute enforcement of duty by the penal laws, affords an irresistible proof of the utter incompetency of le- gislation, without the aid of religious principle, to reach beyond the mere external conduct uf individuals, or to produce any thing like real social virtue among human beings." In their feelings, the Chinese are cruel, sensual, and vindictive. Air Barrow, M. de Guignes, and other travellers, all agree in their re- presentations of the inhuman conduct of those in authority. One of the arbitrary laws i>f China is the compeliing of the natives to pull the imperial barges alongst the canals ; and Mr Barrow had several op- portunities of witnessing tbe merciless exercise of this authority on the part of tbe military. The impre- aed labourers took, of course, every opportunity ol de- serting ; and whenever there was a deficiency of hands, tbe despotic officials set off to the nearest ham- let, roused the natives out of bed with the whip, made them jump into the water to assist the towing operations, lashing them with long cart-whips all the while with the most ruthless barbarity. Air Barrow also relates another specimen uf Chinese iiiilifference to human life which he witnessed in parsing down the great canal betwixt Canton and Pekin. Several persons who had crowded to the brink of the canal, had posted themselves upon the high pn>jecting stern uf an old vessel, which broke down with their weight, and precipitated the whole group into the water. Al- though numbers of boats were plying about at the very spot, not one was observed to go to the assis- tance of the drowning wretches, whose shrieks aud cries were totally dieregarded. Nothing is so significant of the moral condition of a people as their treatment of the female sex, and no where are the women so inhumanely used as in China. They are not pernutted to stir out uf doom, excepting the wives of the lower orders, who are to be seen toil, ing at all kinds of laborious tahks, while their indolent husbands are sitting quietly smoking their pipes. In the country they are even to be seen drawing the plough and harrow, while their lazy helpmate drives them on. Amongst the other moral iniquities of the Chinese, is the crime of infanticide ; and fr un tbe contempt iu which females are generally held, parents expose their female children without the slightest remorse. It is a part of the duty of the IVkin police to go their rounds with carts, at an early hour of the morning, to pick up the bodies of the infants that liavo been thrown out into tbe streets in the course uf the night, and to carry them, without inquiry, to a common pit without t\fe city walls, where they are thrown in promiscuously. It has been calculated that there are between 20,000 and 30,000 female infants yearly sacrificed in China ! What a horrible picture uf national depravity dues not this one fact present I In comparison with the lower orders of the Chinese, the slaves in our West India colonies live like princes. They have scarcely an article of furniture, besides two or three jars, a few basins of coarse eartlienware, a targe iron pot, a frying-pan, and a portable stove. They use neither tables nor chairs, but at meals all the family sit upon their heels round a large pot, with a bowl in each of their hands. After talting the rice from tbe pot with a spoon, they then take their chop- sticks, which consist of two small pieces of wood, or generally of porcupines* quills, and are held between the two first fingers of the right hand. With this strange utensil tney throw their food into their mouths with remnrkabte expedition. Boiled rtoe is their staple food, with the addition of millet or barley; hut they likewise eat all sorts of animal and vegetable putrftcent substances. The dead hogt thrown over- board the ships in the river at Canton are greedily picked up by the natives ; and in the public market, dogs, cats, and rats, are extiibited for sale. It is itrangfl, that, amongst this sober people — for sobriety is tlieonly offset they present to their innoroerable ImmoraUtlM — there is almost no use made of milk. INTERCOURSE WXTB FOREION KATIOVB—BSXTISB TEA-TRADE. The systematic discouragement which the Chinese government displays towards all intercourse with foreign nations, explains tlie trifling amount of com- merce carried on in a country adapted better than any other in the world for its prosecution, whether we consider iU geographical situation, lU produc- tions, or the genius of the people. The innumerable rivers and canals with which the country is Inter- sected, present facilities for internal communication possessed by no other country ; yet there is no regu- lar system of trade amongst them t it conslstt almost solely of barter, there being no circulating medium, excepting u small copper coin, the value of which Is al- moHt too minute for calculation. It is reckoned that on the grand Pekin canal there areupwards of 10.000 boats and l/urges ot various descriptions continually employed in the interchange of national produce. Of the commercial capabilities of China, indeed, we need only look to the immense number and crowded state of their cities. These are divided by the Chinese into three classes, according to the number of leagues which they occupy ; and of the first class alone — or imperial cities, as they term them — tbe natives enu- merate upwards of 4000. There Is much exaggera- tion here no doubt, but even estimating the number of social communities at a third or even a fourth of what is set down by the Chinese, what an enormous source of consumption for all the necessaries of life is here shown ! What an unbounded mart for all kinds of British manufactures would be thrown open by the removal of the governmcMit restrictions upon com- merce ! That the people of China are anxious for this free intercourse with other nations, has been abunrl.xntly shown ; and in fact t'.eir greedy and pe- culat)ry disposition sufliclently guarantees the readi- ness with which they would engage in foreign traffic. But the ,all'powerful constraints of tbe government hang like a millstone round their necks. Whatever be the ignorance of the lower classes, there is no want of enlightenment in the executive, which is conscious th^t a free trade would inevitably lead to the break- ing up of the whole despotic system of ruling. Thei r jealousy, indeed, is not so much to be wondered hi. considering the precedent before tbem in the rise of the British power in the neighbouring kingdom of India — the only wonder is, that amidaU the turmoils of war which have disturbed the world during so many ages, this country, so fertile in every thing whid:i can make a country desirable, should have re- mained totally unmolested. That it is not from in- ternal strength, is well known. At this moment they can hardly be said to possess either army or navy ; and an army of 20,000 disciplined British soldiers would effect the conquest of China in a few weeks or months. Their sole protection has been their dis- tance from the movii.g events of Europe. It is well known that the foreign trade of China Is confined exclusively to one port — that of Canton. The overland trade with Hussia and India has now almost entirely ceased. So great is their jealousy of the Russians, indeed, that the latter are the only people interdicted from even visiting Canton. To enter upon a hi»tory of the origin and prof^resn of British intercouriie with China, would be lo inter- fere with a subject already in progress, and whicti will probably furm anuther topic for our Imfok- HATiON — India and the East India Company. We need, therefore, merely observe in this place, that hitherto that Company has enjoyed exclusively the right to trade between China and Britain. Tfiis monopoly they have possessed since the yeai- IGOO, when they obtained their fir^t charter; and al- though the continuance of it has proved a popular sub- ject of animadver«ion for a lung series uf years, itseem^ questionable whetlier, without Ruch un osnociation, we wuuld ever have obtained Intercourse with that re- mote region. Their wealth and enterpri&c, through a long-continued series of difliculiies and losses, were alone the means uf establishitig this brunch uf British commerce; nevertheless, having outliv; ' the period of their utility, and their right to enjoy a monopoly any longer, tliey have very properly been denuded uf their advantages over private traders. Tea dues not appear to have been known in Britain previous to 1650, and it is evident, from the folluwing note iu Mr Pepy's Diary, that many years elapsed previously to its coming into general usei— "September 2o, lifiSl. I sent for a cup of tea (a China drink), of which I had never drunk before." And in IG64, there is mention made of the East India Com- pany commissioning their foreign agent to purchare 3 lbs. a oz. of tea as a present to his majesty 1 From this t^me forward, however, the increase In the con- sumption of tea increased with a rapidity scarcely less wonderful than the progress of the British cotton ma- nufacture. Such was the demand for it, that smug- f:IIng increased to an amazing extent. So much so adeed, that iu 1784, Mr Pitt carried his measure for reducing the duty frun- IIU to 134 P*' '^^^ t ^'^^ ^^ a)nKequenoe was, that the legal imports of tea were almost immediately doubled. In 179ft| huwtver ttua CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLR I m' !i W t I y \ duty wu rmiwd to *J.^ per rent, t Bnil afMr suocwiive uignwnutioni, in 171>7» IWH), IB03, and 1806, ik wm raiMd to 96 per cmnu ad vatorem, Al thia U coatinued till the rur 1819, wh^o it wu raiwd to 100 per cent, upon all teaa thai bring sbove 2*. per lb. at the Com- pany'i tales, at which rata they have ever iliice oou. tinued. Thii tyitem, ai erery one knows, it toon to be bnAen up by the act of Parliament, which throws open the trade between China and Briuln after the aSd AprU 1834. Canton, at which the whole of the forel^ commerce is carried on by the Chinese, and, consequently, at which all the exports of tea tnke place, is situated an the eastern bank of the river Pekianf, a beautiful placid itreara, at wide as the Thames at liondon. This great outlet of Chinese trade Is atmut 400 miles In Mngth, and Canton stands at the distance of ItO milei from iu mouth. Canton consisu of two descriptions of towns — that which is inclosed by walls, and tne su- burbs ; both together, they are said tc contain from ■6T«n to eight hundred thousand inhabitants. The circuit of the walls, nhich are of a moderate height, and furnished wiili a few cannon, Is estimated by stime at five, and by others at nine, miles. Only about a third part, howevtr, of the space inclosed is covered with buildings ; the rout Is occupied with pleasure- grounds and fish-pf the fore, mast to the centre of the micenmast, for the length, and dote abaft the mainmant, on the outside, for the breadth ; then multiplyinf; the length by the breadth, they divide the product by ten, and hold the quotient to be the proper result. Although destitute of a na- tive currency, with the exception of the small cop))er ooin liefore mentioned (called ar about TOM dollan nn a ship of 44N> tnve stated, ^ave hitherto paid much higher for their tea than what the article can be bntight for in America, Hamburgh, and otlier placet abroad, where the same kind of monopoly hat not existed. From theie complicated causet of the en- hfinrement of the price of tea. It appears that the consumption of that article has }>een declining in this Mjnntry from the beginning of the present centurv. In 1801,- with a population of I0.042,fl4e, the amount of tea consumed was 20,2S7i7A3 Iht. or 1 lb. 13 o«. to each individual. In 1811, witli a population of 12.(>m».}tf(l, tl>e amount of tea nseil was U0,70-i,000 tbn. In UUI, with A iinpuUtion of 14,301,fi.'ll, the amount of tea uxed was *^2.»!)2,0l.'t. And in IKtl, with a po. pulatinn of lfi,M7i31>8, the Rmount of tea used was 20,(M3/J*23, or one pound nine ountws to each Indivi- dual. The Kast India Company and its advorateN have long endeavoured to persuade the people of this country thut no British free trader could possibly ne- gociute the purchase of a good cargo of tea at Canton — that their good credit, their extensive syiiem of dealing, their knowledge of Chinese customs, &&, give them a preference with the Hong merchants over all other competitor*. M'e take the lllierty of saying that this in a pure fallacy. Witness the dealings of the Atnericann, the Dutch, the French, the Purtuguene, and ntherx, with the Hong merchants. "The Ame- rican intercoune with (Uiina," says M'CnIloch, "com- menced Khurtly after the ^^rminatlnn of the revotu* tionary war, and hat since gone on rapidly increasing, s<) as to constitute one of the most valuable branches of the trade of the Cnited States.'* Mr M*Culloch givesa table showing the extent of the exports from l/antnn to America from 1804 to 1820-7) by which, in the last- mentioned year, it is seen that the Americaiis had twenty-six ships in the tea-trade, and that the total value of expiru from China was 4,3(KI,7BA dollars. '* The principal articles," continues this mokt accurate authority, "carried by the Americans to Ch. ,, are bullion, furs, Turkey opium (an article legally pnt- hibited), Kn^Iinh woollens and cottons, and guiseng. The c«)mm(>dities exported by the Americans from China are tea, nankeens, raw and wrought silk, su- gar, cassia, and camphor, with min-T artirlea." The Americans are exreedingly enterprising iu this, aa in every other trade in whidi they engage, The teas chieflv imported by the Americans are touohoug, guit- powder, hyson, young hystm, and hyson tkin t it therefore appears they principallv ute green, or a more delicate tea *han the British, i'he prioe of tea per pound in t>ie I'nited butes is in general about a half what it is in England. The Dutch are lest euterprii- ing than the Americant, yet tkey seem to take the lead among the amtiiientai nations at Canton. The Dutch tea-trade, like that of America, It free, and the effet'tt of this free-trade .ire obeervable iu the foU lowing table of the compftratlve prioM of tea at lion- don and Hamburg 1— SpMtelof Te. I'liy'ifcUini; IHIO, tK-Tll', Hinitmrjih, twrlb. m mat p. fXtfUnt ovri (liOM-uf llainburnh. r.xtat at H.intiurKh prtrw irvtT Ilii»nrih. rfhnptny. .. d. 4. d. >. 4. < d. Bohw 1 li\ n\ 10 r'uii|(ou i 4 1 'ik I u C-amiHii 3 1 2 1 7 Kuuchonf •i Wi 1 1 1 Hi F.k.a ■i Ul 4 li Si Tvukmy a »| 1 'i 1 3 Hy»>illlkil< 3 4 111 1 4 lljtoa 4 1] 1 :i II 1 » fiiinpuwdar 6 li] 3 »4 3 1 Mr M*Cnlloch, fnsm whnee excellent werk we ^uote the fnregning talili% presents the loltowing fomble vIewoflbeinjHritHis elTects which have twen Mistained through the ctclusive privileges of the Kut India Company :• — '* Bohea is t lie cheapest of all sortt of tea brought from China, auH ii, oontcquently, moct generally consumed by the lo vest clatiea. From \1WS to IBM, iu price, at the Company*! talea, amounted to alNMit Is. Od. per ih. In 1813, It wai raited from Is. 7d. to!lt. 3d., and continued at about that rate till lll*iA.3e, when it wat reduced to 2s., and has lince fluctuated between Is. Od. and It. 7d. This fall hat had the elTsnt of increasing the omsuroption of be farther reduced from U. (id. or Is. 7d. U) 84d. or Od. ; for auoh is the difference be- tween the price charged for it by the Company and iu price at Hamburgh, New York, &c. I Were it reduced to this extent, it may lie fairly presumed that the C4msuniption of bohea would amount to 7,000,000 or 8,000,000 lbs. The vast in':reate that has taken place in the consumption of cofl^ee sinoe 1807, shows the prodigious influence of luw prices in extending the demand for luch arilelei. f'offee, however, is trouble- simie to make, and is neither to suiuble for, nor to well liked by, tlie pcmrer classes as tea. Its increased C(msumptinn is in fact quite as much owing to the system followed in the tea>trade, at to the reduction of the iuty afl>cting ithelf. " Congou is the next cheapest tea disposed of by the Company. It was sold by them at *Jb. 1 Id. per lb, in 181N16, and they have since permitted it to fall to alNUit 3s. 4d — aii inconsiderable dei-jine, compared with that which baa taken place during the tame periiMl in the pric« ai |>epper, and other eastern arti- cles imported by free-trailert. Congou is used by the middle classes, and furniK altout two-tliirds of all the tea umsumed in the empire. Notwithstanding the reduction uf its prici*, it is .ttill told, like Irabea, al an advance of about MK» per cent, over its price in Ham- burifb. The rate of advance on the liner speciet of tea is nnt so great, to that the wer^litof the monopolv fallt principally nn the lower and middle classes. It should, however, Iw obnerved, that the exorbitant price of tea in this country hat driven all but the vary wealthiest class to the secondary qua'itieat and it it to this that it it owing, that, notwithstanding Kng- laud it the richest country in the world, and the taste lor tea is mure generally dilfuaed amonf^st ui than amongst any other people, we eoniunie very little of the superior qualities ! Indeed, some of the (\V':-<\ are nut to be met with in our marketn ; and while atiout a doxen kinds of tea are regtLJarty quoted in Ham- burgh, Amsterdam, and New York Price Currents, there are never more than t>even, and tometimea only six, tpeciei to be met with here. Imperial^ — a very flne green tea, regularly impe in at great demand here as in the Cnited States '{" By the operation of the act of Parliament pasaed in lSi3, alwlitihing the monopoly of tbe Kast India Com- pany, the British tea-trade will tte placed on a ftNiiIng resembling that on which it stands Jn America and other countries; it l>eing decrcatl to (>e -'expedient that all his Majesty's suhjecu shall t»e at iiberiy to repair to the ports of (Miina; and to trade in tea and all the other producu uf the same empire,'* unJer ceruin re- strictions. In future, therefore, vessels nwy be freighted from any port in the Cnited Kingdom to trade with China, and hence the dealers in bea v. ill be supplied by importers on a fair principle uf com- petition, and without having the article heightened In priire by the interference of the lf«)ndon traders. At, or shortly after, the opening of this great trade, mis- arrangements may occur to the detriment of the pub- lie; but it It dear that a free-trade In tea will ulti- mately be conducted on the molt advantnge«ms terms firr tbi* people, not only at regards the reduction of prices, lint the introduction Into use, as in America, of a HU}>erlor quality of teat. The new law provideti that, in lieu of the duties recently pay itbte on tea, tberr shall Im collected and paid, fioni and after the '."^d day of April 1834, the several duties following ; that Is to say — For every lb. of bohea. Is. ftd. i fur every lli. of congou, twankay, hyson rkin, orange }wkoe, 2s. 3d. t for every lb. of tmidumg, flowering pekoe, hy- son, young liyMHi, gunpowder, imperial, aud all other teat not enuineratud, 3s. As thia scale ot duUeamutt prove a toiirce of endless disputation at the various plains of import, from the diflicuUy of ascertaining one quality ul' tea from auotlier bv tatting or by ex- amination, there cjin be little doubt but a fixed duly will be imputed instead. a MTulloeti'i Cnminernal DulKHiKry, a work Mietatniaa tbt ■tnsl Mnril**. simI. ■»« bt>4»e«r, lh« iBMt iwcuf sic 4<-Utli <« ttiw Mb- )vct iif till' trs (TUtlt- 1 «nil fthkh «• TtHiiiiuiiriiil tu (l>e |n.'Tum1 of «il who arc inlrrt-ktH in Vw IrafTIc witli ( hlna. ■ dimbi HOMt PuMk*h4<l M. rHAMuRait, W, Wttiri luu riau-t sl*«> l>> Una suit Nmiim, riu-nuifU'r llu», Lon- il'in; «u>l Viiinii atnl CrMNiNoii am, MiiHlir>. .Sold by Joha Msclro4, OlfWfvw, mn4 uW MtM-i HAikkt^lU-r*. fiuw tlM husui Tress of >v . aitii It. Cfumbcn. .a 1 V V fill I till llWl^ till ;.UJ«W «-J.»— — t—M CHAMBERS'S [ rnnMtniM tbt UmIi (HI llut MlU- U (I'D |f at- traction. That of gravitation, which causes the weight of bodies, and which Is exerted at apparent and fre- quently immense distances, and between masses of matter of the most stupendous magnitude. Of this species of attraction we have already given an account in the numt>er of this work which was devoted tn At. tronomy. The attractions dependent upon magnetiim and electricity also operate at sensible distances, and so far coincide with gravity. There is also oapillary attraction, which, however, we need not advert to. But, besides these, there it a species of attraction which is enerted between parudet o( matter, and which takes place In general at insensible distances. That all bodies are composed of minute atoms, the ag- gregate of which constitutes rouses of matter, is a fact too obvious to stand in need of lUuitration. These particles adhera to each other with varimis degrees of fori-e, and can be separated by methods which it is the province of the chemist In a more particular manner to investigate. The species of attraction by which particles are made to unite, is of two kinds. When it is exerted between particles of a similar nature, It is called the attraction of aggregation or cohesion; and when it is exerted between pai tides of a dissimilar nature, it is called chemical attraction or affinity, or the attraction of composition. The distinction between thtna two kinds of attraction may be thus shown t — If a solution of common potashes be mixed with oil, a union immediately takes place between the particles of the two bodies, the result of which is a new mib- •tanue posaestlitf properties entirely different from either of the constituents in a separate state. This change is effected by means of ohemioal attraction, which takes pUuie only iMtween particles of matter of a different nature. The new body which hu been funned is tba useful article soap; and if the watery vaptiur b« driven away from it by tba application of heat, it atsuqiM a solid conilstenuy, at in the form in which it is commonly used for domestic purposes. Now, it it familiar to every on* that the jiartlclei of the soap adhere to each other with a certain degree of tenacity, and the application of I'uruti is necesiiary be- fore one part of the wedge can be separated from an- other. Thit rMulu from tha attraction of cohesion. The restoration of cohesion to a lH>dy after it has been deprived o( it, Is exhibited in a great variety of initances. For example, If a large quantity of sugar which has been dissolved in water be allowed to stand and cool, the attnuitlon of cohesion will take effect between the particles, and the sugar will again re- sume the solid form. Here, however, a remarkable cir- cumstance has occurred. Whatever the state of the sugar may have been oiiginally, it invariably, In re- suming its solidity, assumes a particular form, one of great regularity and beauty. It was formerly opaque, it is now transparent; originally a shapeless mass, It is now a prlsnrof six sides, surpassing in lustre and symmetry the products of the lapidary*t wheel. This solid tpontaneuui production Is called a crystal ; and the proceu by which it is produced it entitled CrjfitalliftUM Bodies, whether lolid, fluid, or vaporous, are sutccptlbleof assuming the crystalline form, and the substances which do so are numberless. The shapes which the crystals take, and the facility with which they assume tliem, are various. Instances of crystallisation, such as sea-salt, £pBom salts, salt- petre, are familiar to every one. Water, it it well known, when cooled to a certain degree, aisumes the form of ice, which is crystalline. There are two modes of producing artificial crystals. First, by dissolving the subsunce of which we wish them to Iw formed in water, and allowing the have already shown, that the attraction which has received this name is that which unites theatonrt of two or mora distinct substances, to as to form one perfect homogeneous otmipound. This process Is, in chemical language, termed Combinatiorh It Is quite distinct from aggregation, which is the union of par- tides of a timilar kind, forming a mast which has the general properties of the partides of which it is com- posed, whatever may be its structure and form. It is also to be distinguished from jVijr/ure, In which the particles, although they may he intimately blended, are not, at it were, amalgamated with each other to at to Lose their own individual natures, and bec4une endowed with entirely new properties. The differ- ence between the two will be clearly seen from the following example i — If Into a crystal bottle we pour a quantity of oil and a quantity of wster, and shake them well together, the two substances can never Ite made to unite permanently together. Although they appear to be so for a short while after the experiment Is made, yet, If the restvl be allowed to stand fbr a sufficient length of time, the particles of water, beinf heavier than throws of oil, will descend to the bottom, whiUt those of the oil will settle upon the top. Here, then, it Is evident that there has been no ahemiea2 attraction everted between the particlea of the two liodies, because no chemi il change has taken plaoe. In a word, there hat been a mechanical mixture with- out any chemical combination. But if with the watei in this experiment we mix a qtuntity of potash, so as to form a pretty strong sol^^on, the results wUl be very different. The partides of the two bodies will intimately combine with each other, and a oompound will be formed, havingproperties entirely different from either the nil or the potash. The lubttance obtained in this experiment, as we have already noticed, is soap. The general name for the substance formed bj chemical oombinatlont suoh as these, it a Compound ; the substances of which It it composed are called its component or conttituent parte or principles. The separation of these is termed Decompontion ; and when decomposition is performed for the purpote of ascertaining the composition of a body, it hi named Chemical Analysis. The reunion of the constituent parts is denominated Chemical S]/rUh€ti$* Int^rant particles of a body differ from the ccmstituent particles thus t— The latter are the moa minute paru into which a compound body can be i,esolved by decompo- sition, and are hence of a different nature, both with regard to each other and the tubstance Itsdf which their mutual union gives rite to. The integrant par- tides are the most minute parts Into which any body can be resolved without decomposition. THE X.AW8 OF CHEMICAL COHBINATIOK AMD DXCOM POSIT lOV. There are various Jaws connected with, and phwo- mena attendant upon, chemical attraction. Bestdeu those already mentioned, which are, that it takes place only between bodies of a different nature, |hat the qualities which characterise bodies when separate are changed or annihilated by their combination, and that It takes place only between the atoms or most minute particles of bodies, there are the following : — Chemical attraction can take place between two, ^iree, or even a greater number of bodies. A chsnge of temperature always takes plaoe at the moment of com- blnation. The fortm of chemical affinity between the constituenu of a body is estimated by that which is requisite for their separation. But the mont impor- tant and perhaps most familiar law is, that the de- gree of attraction varies very considerably in dlffefsiit bodies. That bodies have a stronger tendency to unite more closely with some substances than with others— thai, to employ the language of mental phi- losophy, the partides of matter exercise various de- grees of likings and dislikings, is a fact upon which the whole science of chemistry depends. It is evident that, from the strength of affinity varying in differ- ent bodies, all chemical compositiuni and decomposi- tions are efft»cted. The preference of uniting with another substance which any given body Is found to exercise, it metaphorically termed elective attraction, or affinity. It it of two kinds, each of which derives its appellation from the number and the i>ower« of the prinoiplet which may be brought into contact with each other. When a simple tubstance is presented to a compound one, and unites with one of the consti- tuents of tbo latter, so at to teparate it from that with which it it combioed, and by thit means producing a decomposition, it is said to be effected by timple elec- tive mttractioH. Home substances, however, will not be thus easily ducumposed ; and it it found necesiary to intn>dnce two or more princlpK't, In order to effect the end In view. When two principles, therefore, are presented to a omipound biKiy, and when the principlei unite each with one of those of the com. pound subttancet, two new subataoces arc formed i and all instances of decomposition in this manner art- said to Iw effected by do*Me elective altruoHon, It Is to be observed, that all dianges effKted In this man- I CHAMHERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Ml ntr ara permaoent, and that the new comfMiund thui formad caniuil ba dtoompoMd, uniil a aubiunc* hav. Inf a mura powarfal auraotlon Air one of iheir o«n«li. iiitnti than they hkve for aaeh olhar, U hniught iittu oontaot with them. To the prinoa of phlloeopben, Sir laaae Nawton, wa an indebted for the first attempt at a rational eipUna. tion of ohemiokl oombination. He wat uf oiiinion that tha minute atomi of certain biKliee attrai't each other with an unknown but enormout force, which b«(rineui exert tttelf only when the particlei are at verv small dliUnoes from each other, and that, accordingly, this A>rc« exeru itself, and the hodiet unite when they are bnmffht within the requliite distance. These views slowly mwla their way into the science \ but towards tha middle nf the eiKhtaanth century, they seem to hare baoa alrooat uniTcrsally adopted. Tha term cha- mical affinity was subetitutad for that of attraction, and the strength of thii aAtuity existing In bodies came to be maasun^ according to tha order in which they were decomposed. It is unnecessary to mention the various ublei of affinity which were pT.blished pra- ▼iously to that of Ilanrman, who in 177A g*va to the world a copious ulile nt alfinitien, and apMart to have fixed the opiniims of chennsu in general to his own views of the subject. According to this philosopher, the aAnltT »f each of the bodlm, say a, 6, c, (f, for #, diffen In intensity in such a manner, that the degree nf affinity in each' may ba expressed by numbers. He supposed affinity to ba elective, in oouseiiueuoe of which, if a hare a greater affinity for * than 6. if a be presented to the compound 6 #, a drcompositlon will ensue, b will be set at liberty, and the compound a * will be formed. These riews of Bergman ware admitted until the htginulng of this oenturv, when Berthotlet vubliihed Ms Chemical Hutica. lie beliertd atumii.- Attraction to be ilBilar to that which exiiU amongvt th« planeu ary bodlaei but he supposed that the strength of affi- nity depeadad a good daal upon the state of the parti- eUs, aa wall as upon other eiroumsuncca. The force e agi- Uted for some lime In the open air, the surface becomes covered with a Mack, iuBipid, inioltible pow- dtr. Xhi« arises from tne metal having onmlilued s Volume, tn vhemiMry. to s lens tmployed to dsaet* any quan- mr In bulk rtf • Mtataac*. It to utuslljr spplleri t<> the (uet. Thua, nnt vulunM ill hydfiifKi gw u, My, s aubk lift, yaid, |Hirt1on, so that any two of •ucfa substanoaa can only form one compound. ■aVlTALKMT RATIOS. Tba result of these Investigations has been the for- mation of scale* exhibiting the equivalent T-Htios of chemical biKlies, aud which areexpresHed by numbers. It is evident that some txKly must tte fixed upon and expressed by unity. Hydrogen gas, being the light- ett known body in nature, and combining in the SMiAUett proportion hy waighl with the other simple substances, has been taken as a standard of compari- son for the combining pn>portions, or equivalent Hunt' bers of all other bodies ; aud which. In all likelifaiMNl, are timple multiples of iu number. Oxygen bus slso, hy some chemistii, tiecn uken as the standard of com- parison, and represented by ten. Water Is a compound of eight pans by weight of oxygen, with one p«rt by weight ut hydrogen; which two gaseous bodies we khail afterwards deacrilie. Whenever hydrogen snd oxy- gen gaiies are burnt In any proportion whatsoever, they invariably form wster; aud they cannot be made to combine directly in any other proportion. From this, Dalton concluded that vater i» a compound of one atom of hydrugnn and one atom of oxygen. But the weight of the Utter gas being eight times that of the raer, then it followed that the atom of oxygen was just eight times heavier than the atom of hydro- gen. Ilenue, if the latter bo represent«d by one, then will the furuter be represeuted by eight, according to those who lake hydrogen as the standard. Those who take oxygen as the ititndard, and represent it by 11), make the equivalent for hydrogen l.*J5; the result Is of course the same fur the proportion ul' 1.2A to 10, being exactly the same as that oi 1 ut H. These obaervaiioiti relative to water lead us to speak of the doctrine of v.>titrae«, su generally embraced by cheinUu upon the Continent. The union of ga*es is always effected In simple proportions i>f their volumw ; and a vulnuie of e netwssary to detrrihe a voltaic pile, or rsther battery, as by that appuratus the p(>e liwll. A voltatv or gnlvknlc bfttwry it a wooaen Uougni dividtd into a number of compartments, in which are placed, at intervMU, platee of copper and aina soldered together, 'I'lie trough Is filled with fluid containing an aciil, and frmn each end a wira proceeds, the extremities of wbkli are brought into contact with the lubtisuue which is to ba experimented upon. One of these wires ixin- ducts the negative and the other the positive elecirl* city; and hence the extreaiitiea derive their respective names of negative and positive poles, round which, the ooflstitneuu of the suh»tance, undergoing decirni- position, arrange themselves, the electronegative bo. dies at the positive, aud the etcctro-positive at the negative poles. fables have been formed repreientiiig the order in which snbsuuces are deaimpo>ed; but this order is not invariable, fur the electrical state of bodies, which is influenced hy the temperature, eoimiderHhly affects their decomposition. Fnim the small number uf ele. mentary mbstauces, which, as already mentioneit, amount to litty-tuur, is all tha beautiful variety of ter- restrial matter componeu t HEAT ox CALORIC In our investigations of the phenomena of the ma- terial universe, we perceive two kinds nt niotioii, which result from the two prli.clples Altraclion and HepuIsioH. Of the former we hsve nlready spoken, and it only remains to Miy a few words upon the Ut- ter. HcpuUIon, like aitraction, tuke| pUce U>lh at sensible and at inseiiiirble diiitHUCek. The former Is exemulified hy tho Hying off of the same light bo- dies which have been first attracted, after they have been sometime in contact with a pfeceof excited resin or glass, aud als«i by the recession from each other of the two similar ends of two niagnetiied >iei*dJes. Ke- pulsiun at insensible distances, which is chiefly excited by heat, or, as it is called iu chemical Uu^tuiige, ca- loric, ii exhibited In a great variety of )iheiioiiietiu ounuectwd with the principle. Whether heat he a material substance pervading matter, or econieti steanu If heat again lie abatracted fnmi the steam, it assumes llie fluid state, and, if farther ciHiled, It takes the solid loriu of ice. Thus there is kept up amongst matDrial substances a continual struttgle be- tweru the attraction of sggregHtion snd the rfiiulslve power of heat, which, combined with the various ef- fects produced by heat upon different subtuncee, gives iiBO to thelwaiitifiil variety of solids, fluids, aud airs, exhibited iu external nature. EXPANSIVE POWEK OF HEAT. Heat exists every where, and can be obtained from every thing. All bodies, whether solid, fluid, or aitn. form, can be rnkde to evolve heat when subjet^tad to certain proceakes ; so that there is not in luture such a thing as absolute cold. Kven iett c^i-'xius a quan- tity of heal { for by chemical means it cai be made colder than we find it in its naiurul kUte; u*.d uhemiain are from time to time ditcjveilng processes by whlcl a greater degree of cold can be obtained than any pre- viously known. Heat being thua an agent iiiiiversally present in ntatter, it Itecoines a queaiioi) id some mo- meiit, what are the effects which it produces in matter? The first and most reioitrkahle of itii pnipertiuM in that of diiatiug or expanding bodies. This fnct must he so familiar to every one as scarci-ly to require llloitratinn. It luust have been frequently obiierved, that ihe inni rim or hoop of a coach or cart wheel is healed tu a ouitslderabfe degree bcfure it is put upou the wheel. The reason of this Is obvious: wheu hut, the ciicU is a good deal larger than when cold, and thus slips easily upon the wheal; aa it anils, the circle decreaHes, and thus firmly binds the woodwork ttigether. In the «x< pansiuu uf fluids, we have a funiiliar example in the measurer of heat itself, the thirmometer. The mercury In the glass tube rises and falls, that In, ex- pands or contracts according to the quantity of heat which is iropartiNl tu It. The expansion of a&rifoim substances is illustrat«d by a bladder being partly Ailed with cold air, and held before the fire. The air wiU swell out, or expand with the heat, and lieoome in some instannea so tense as tu hurst the bladder. The general law, therefore. Is, thitt the expansion and cuutraotiou of matter are, with a few exceptions, dependent upon the Increase and diminuthm of heat. The quantity or condition of beat that is dtHCoverahie by the simple measurer of heat attove alluded to, or by the organs of eensation, Is called 7*y whici thmi Kiiy fn- iiiitiverullf tit tuine ow- pertiUH i* tluit ; imul he to illluBtriitinij. thut ihe iniii bvatiHl lu H lliti wlieel. _ ihe I'iidB iit ultlilrfitukily ureMNr*, aod 111 tbtt «:&• •xsniplfl ill uttr. The that U, »- ntUy uf hem i>r atiriloim btinK pM-tly The ulr and two tine the bUdd«r. 10 eiiraniiun eioepiioiii, lion or best. di»oover«bl« ■Uiided to, r^mptraturt, of tempt r»- iM been cum- an concealed from view, whilit only h Thw of tho middle linki Hre esBOMd to obiervatiDii. Although the univ«r»l re> •tilt of en increaM of temperature ii an tncreaie ipf bulk tu (be body tbim tiuhjeotedto beat, yet all b.Kliea are uuC alike ezpauded by the application of the siiuie v^uaotlty of beat. The lame incrnue of temperature aiuea a liquid to expand raore than a aolid, and an ajfrlfurm body more than eiiber. It of course followi aa a general law, that diiTurent hodiei nt equal tem- perature* do not contain the name qnantitiesufoalorlo. Tbii qnality of matter is called the capnuity of boditt for hf .t, and the quaittity of beat which ii neoeatary Uf .aine any parliculHi- huJy to a certain temperature, la called it* »p€C^c c-alorif. I.ATEMT HEAT. When a bi>dy ohanKei from the solid to the fluid atate, there ii a quantity of heat abaorhed, which bat no effect in raising the tempcrnture. Thti has been called iai*nt lieat, a discorery eifetTted by Dr DUok, and whiuh we shall shortly explain. Fur a demonstration of this doctrine, we may have recourse to wat^r. If ii-e at a temperature » ured, and be- come absorbed during the fusion. ISe same phe- nomenon takes place when a liquid is converted into Tftpimr ( and tlie inference drawn from it i^ , that when a body passes from one state Into another, a quantity of heat or caloric is lost, becomes latent, or)>assesiutr Black was of opinion that tblslatent heat hecan-e chemically combined with the solid, and was the cu'iko of fluidity. Dr Irvine, bis pupil, took a different v. ew of thesulN Ject. He Buppiised that the nhsorpti'tu uf beat into the latent st-ite is not the cause of liquilactlim and va- porisation, but the effect. The absorption be attributed to what is called change of capacity for heat, or that quality of matter which causes one kind to be mure or less heated than anotiier, by the addition of the same quantity of heat. He concluded, atka general law, that the rapacity of all solids for heat is increased by fu- sion, and that of all fluids by evapurisation. 1 1 is im-' possible tu enter further into this interesting subject in this place; but, before quitting it, we may meution an exception to the law of exptinstun by heat in the case of water. It is well known that water freezes at 32% but it does not increase in density below 394". It is then at its maximum, and above or below that point Its density diuiinishes. Hence ice is specitically lifjhter. The earth alumina, which will be afterwards described, also possesses the remarkable property of being con. uacted by heat EQUAL DIFFUSITE POWER or HEAT. We shall now shortly advert to some other phenti- mcna connected with cahpric. It has an invariable tendency tu establish or maintain an equilibrium ; tbat is, to Uiffuse itself equally over the material vorld. Thus, a bar of hot inm, when brought into contact with the i:otder atmosphere, gives forth its heat, until it becomes of the same temp«>ratur6 as the surrounding air. The facility with which bodies ab. sorb or pan with their caloric, depends upon the na- ture of the lM}dy ; and the property is called the capa- bility of bi>dies to conduct heat. Thus, if a piece of wood and a piece of iron be put into the Are, the irtm aoon becomes tiM» hut to be touched, whilst the wood may be laid hold uf with impunity by one extremity whilst the other is burning. The metal is a good conductor, therefore, and the wood a bad one. Solids are better conductors than fluids ; and, generally speaking, the greater ibe specific gravity uf the bo thrHw off t^} the surrounding atmtwphere heat in the furm uf radii or rays. Simie (todies have greater p- stauce, if two vessflH, butii of tin -plattf, but oue (if them having itw outside coated with lump-liJHck, lie fliled with boiling wntvr, and two tburniuint^Cfr' in. troduced, it will he found tbat the water in tie black- ened ve>hi'l ukiIn a great dral mure rapidly tlmn tliuitaiii hut fur a length of time. UuihI conductors are had rudiii- tor^, anil present had receiving nurfaces. Uudies have also t>ie power of reflecting beat, in the same way as we see them reflect light. Metals are tUe best refl^tors of culurir. and the worst miliatitra; and it Is geueritlly the case, that the rcflncting pimer of b dispel vegetable C4)luurs is manifest in bleaching, where a dingy web liecomes pure and wliite by exp«)aTire to the sun's rays. It!( energy is still more decisively seen in the influence which it exerts in proiuuting chemical combination and dec4impusition, and the latter effect has been made usH of as a measure of its power. Light enters into a kind ol transitory uniuu with certain substances, ren- dering them visible in the dark. Bodies which possets this property are called pbusphoresoent; such are the shells of flsb, the bones of land animals, marble, lime- stone, and the like. The glow-worm is a remarkable Instance of phosphorescence In living animals. COMBUSTION. Cumhustinn may be called the disengagement of heat and light, whilnt certain substances are entering into chemical combination. It Is entirely distinct from iffnition, which results simply from an elevation of temperature, without being accompanied by any change in the chemical conHtitution of the body thus rendered incandesc^nL It is unneL'e^sary to enter upon the various tbuories wltich have from time to time been brought forward tu account for this every- day phenomenon. It Is now gi>nerally admitted, that whenever the chemical forces which determine either compoxitlon or decomposition are energetically exer- ciNed, the phenomena of combustion or incandei«ceni« with a change of properties, are displayed. A ques- tion naturally arises, whence come the heat and light evolved during the process? To this interrogatory no satisfactory response has ever yet l»een given. Thev are sometimes referred to the condensation which usually tftkes place during chemical combinatum t but there are instances where light and heat are produt^ed duriug theexpansion of Imdies, as in the case of the explosion of gunpirwder. The fact Is, th.-it tlie whole is still a mystery; but no doubt, we think, can exist, that the generatiun of these impimderable substances, if substances they be, Is Intimately connected with the 'liHengHgement of the electric fluid. We must wait in patience for a solution of the problem, until the genius of man has discovered more delicate iithtru- inents of philosophical investigation than any with which we are as yet acquainted. AIR AND WATER. We prefer commencing our description of Indlvi. dual substances with the two above named, nr)t only because they are familiarly known to u^, but because they are composed of the three gaseous or abViform h'tdies which bold the moht conspicu lun )ilace iu the material world. The air or itmusphere is an invisi- ble fluid (Mu-ircling the glube all round, and which ri«ei( abovu it tu the height of at'Out fifty mllen. Its various uses in the economy of nature are so striking, and so conspicuous at every step of scientific Investi- gation, tbat in ancient times it was bhiked upon as one of the primary elements of matter. Ity the prac- tical philosophers of modern days, however, It has been discovered that It is a compuuud cimipnsed of two gases or airs, namely, oxygen, which KignlHes a generator of acidity or smirness, and azote, which literally implies no lile, because it destroys animal life. Water was also looked nptni by the ancients as a simple substance, Imt modern investigation has proved it also to be a compound. Its uouKtituenta aie oxygen and hydrogen, wbich latter word signittes to cruttie 01- furm water. Atmospherical air consists of oxygen une-flfth, and aiote fuur-flfths (estimated by volume under the same pressure), with a small prupurtion of what Is called carlaniio acid gas, and jklso watery vapour. Water consists of one volume of oxygen and two of hydrogen, and can easily be made uy au electric spark beiug passed through a jar containing these two gases, mixed in tha above pro* portions. We shall spnk more In detail when wa oora* to describe the elemental substances ladiriduaUy. ACIDS. Acids are a most Important class of chamlcal com* pounds, and hava the following oharaoteilstlc pro- perties :— .The greater number of them have a sutur Uste, and must of them are very corrosive. They change vegetable blues to red, are soluble in water, and unite with the alkalis, earths, and metallic oxides, forming what are called salts ; an order of bodies ot the highest importance in the arts, roanufacturea, &o. Sume acids are destitute of a sour taste, but their affinity for the three classes of bodies above- named is always characteristic. Acids ar« all com. pound bodies, and some of them have more than on* basis or radical. There are a number of acidifying princlules, but oxygen (which shall be immediately described) Is the most extensive one. The acid Is dis- tinguished by the name of its base, and its degree ot oxydailon; that Is, the quantity of oxygen it contains by the termination of that name in otu or io, or th* preflx hypo (under). The highest degree of oxygena- tiou is marked by the termination ic, us nitric acid, ntid the salt which is formed from it is made to ter- niMiHte in ate; the next by tbat of otu, as nitrous acid, and the salt which is formed from it is made to terminate lit ite ; and the lowest by hypo^ as tha A^ponitrous acid. Sometimes oxygen combines in a greater quantity with the acidiflable radicals, iu which case the product Is said to be superoxygenated. All acids are nut susceptible of these various degrees of oxygenation, some being limited to only one. There are a considerable number of acids, and the number is continually increasing by the discovery of new ones t but of the most Important there are few, and thesa we shall notice as we come to treat of their buses. SALTS. Thill term has t>een usuallv employed to denote a compound in definite proportions uf acid matter with an itlkali, earth, or metallic oxide. When the pro* purtiuns of the cunstituents are so adjusted that the resulting substance does nut affect the colour of infu- sion of litmus or red cabbage, it is then called a neu- tral salt, because the peculiar powers of both bodies are suspended and concealed ; they are rendered neutral or inactive. When bodies citmbine in such a way as to satisfy their mntu:il aflinities, they are said to taturate each other. When the predominance uf Hcid is evinced by the red of these infusions, tite salt is said to be acidulous, and the preflx uuper, or £f, is used to indicate this excess uf acid. If, on the coa- trary, the acid matter appears to be in defuct, or short of the quantity necessary for neutralising the alka- linity of the base, the salt is then said to be with ex- cess of base, and the prefix sub is attached to its name. These compounds are denominated salts, be. cause they generally have a saltish taste. HETALS, OXIUES, EARTHS, AND ALKALIS. We arrange these classes uf substances together, he- caube, although they are to a certain extent distinct, yet they have all a very remarkable relatlonablp, as we shall shortly see. Muny of the metals, such as Iron, lead, &c., are fti- miliitrly known to every one, but there are a great rnriiiy others wbich are very rarely to be met with. Tlie folluwing are some of the characters whiuh dis- tiu^nilh metals from other bodies i Thev are hard, hviivy, and opaque ; Insoluble in water ; they possess a peculiar lustre; admit of being so highly polished as to reflect light ; are capable of being melted by heat, and of recovering their solidity by cooling ; most of them may be extended by hammering, and someuf tbtioi int(» the thinnest Alms. They are of various co- lours, and require different degrees uf heat ti> fuse or melt them. They occur in the earth iu what are called veins, and are seldom found iu the pure metallic state, but generally in combination with some other sub- stance. In which state they are called orgs. The me- tals, which are all simple bodies, will be individually desuritted afterwards. When metals are subjected to heat until they be- come melted, they combine with the oxygen uf the at- mosphere, and form what ure called oxides. Oxides are destitute of tbohe properties which distinguish the metal from which they are formed. Instead of being bright, sliiniog, elastic, and ductile substances, they are generally a dry, earthy-looking powder. Other Kubstances besides metals, however, are capable of be- ing converted into '::^ides; and It must be kept dis- tinctly In view, that in every case there Is not so much oxygen imparted as will produce arii/i/fcafJorK Ojiygeu frequently combines in various proportions with a substance rendering it au oxide, but without advani}- ing it to the state of an acid. In order to distinguish each compound thus formed, tbelangiiage of chemistry is very systematic. The first is called a pro/oxide; the second, a deutnxiAo; and the third, a peroxide. The terra Earths was formerly, and is still, but in a modified sense, applied to several substances which ctmiposeall the various rocks, st4mes, gems, mountains, and soils covering the surface of the globe. They arr tasteless, Inodorous, dry, uninflammable, sparingly soluble, difficultly fusible, and of moderate speciflc ara. vity. Their number Is ten, and their names are, silex, alumina, magnesia, lime, barytes, strontites, circon, f[luclue, yttria, and thorina. The four flrst have long peen known to mankind ; the remainder have been discovered iu our own times. These bodlm will be ^r" CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Ill nwra pvllciiUrly di«riti«l when w« cnnit to UMt of Itwir BMUtllio buMfc Alkali' mty b* ditnad— ihoM bodln which combiB* with uidi mm to impolr or neutrallM their Mtiviiy, wnl produw wh»t wn willed mIu. Th«T ere diiiinguiihed bjr propertlee the re- rerw of ecid% *od the two eleuet ere Kenerally looked upon ee Mila(onUt luhetancee. Betidee the power of neuueliniog eoUe, there ere.fi«r elktlie, iiemely, pot- uh, lode, uiiDoui^ anl liihle, which pnnwM the fol- lowing prapertiee in > htfh degree : They change regeuble blue to green, red to purple, end yellow u> e reddiik brown j they here en ecrld end urinoui Male ; they eio powerful oorroeiree of enimal Diatur, with which they combine eu ea to produce neutrality ; they alio unite with oili and fata, forming the well-kuuwn •ubiuuee aoap s they combine with water and alkuhul in any propurtlou. Four of the earthi, namely, lime, bvyta, itroutla, and magneeia, pouwi alkaline pro. pertiee to a contlderable extent, and are hence called alkaline eartht. Thete bndiee differ from the pure •Ikalii, inaamuch w they become ineoluhle iu water when neutralieed by oartNinic acid. Moreover, alka- Ui poieeie the power of ohanging vegetable colour* ^fUr being eaturated with carbouio aciil, and by thli criterion they are dletiuguiehed from the alkaline earths. Twenty-Ave yean ago, few iubitance« *eemed more likely to reuin a permanent place in chemical arrauge- menti than the wild and relractory earthi which cum- poM the cruit of the globe i and alto the alkalii lu widely diffused in nature, and so uieful iu the aru tod manulscture*. It was king observed that the pro- pertlee of earthi very nearly reifmblo those of the oompounds of o>y)ien and mauls called meutllic oxides ' but it remained lor the brilliant genius uf t reduce to a Ii- (juld or solid form. It forms, as we have already ob- served, one of the oonstituenu of the atmoephere, is colourlesa, desliiute of uste and smell, and piiaseeted of ail the properties of atmuspherical uir. lu apecifii: gravity ia l.llll, that of common air lieing reckoned unity.} Combustible bodies burn in it with more brii- llaucy, aud more light and heat is evolved, than when Combustion takee place in the atmoapbere. Animals breathe il without inconvenience lor a much lunger time than they can do the lauie bulk of common air; and it is indispensable to auimsl. perhaps vrgeuble, life. Oxygen has tlie power oi combining with everv other simple iiody ; the multifarious cumpuundi which It thus forme, such aa oxides, acids, and bases, or a a«e ChaiabctS's ioenial, N& aa. • Aruds Chsmlstf J, In IM IiK)cto|i«dls Brilsnnlcs, levsntli reuloD. oac of Ihs bM ueatlKS aunt, sud irrliun \ij Ihs sMs slMdiM i>f Theauou. : Sperits iravUf Is ssplalaMi In s sou st ibr saJ of U» riisM. alkalis, we have allvady adi-erted to. In the act of rettilratioii, oxygen, in the nice eoonomy of the human body, is made to unite with it, and becomes a portion of the human frame t perhaps it is nearly allied to the principle of animal life. Vegetablee also inhale and exhale it at certain seasons, so as admir- ably to supply what is absorbed by animals. It is the Intensely rapid chemical union of oxygen with the combustible body, which givee rise to the light and heat in our common fine, candles, Ac. It may be readily procured from a variety of subsunces, at, for iiisunoe, from saltpetre or the black oxide of man- ganese. These may be introduced into a gun-barrel, with the touch-hole plugged np. From the orifice of the barrel let a tulie Iw conducted into an inverted glats Jar, filled with water. When the other extre- mity of the apparatus is subjected u> heat, the oxygen gas is expelled from the manganese, and, entering the glatt jar, displaoee the water, and fills the veisel. This is a cheap and easy method o' oi'Uiuing this remarkable a£rlfurm body. CHLOIIIME. This It a gateoiis body of a yellowish-green oolotir, a strong tnffiKating smell, and of a pretty itnmg astringent taste. Hrckoning air at unity, its specific gravity is l.ft. If breathed undiluted, it deetriiyt animal life i however. It not only supports combus- tion, but potieeiee the remarkable quality of letting lire to- many of the meuls, even lit the common tern, perature of the air, when Ifeaten out intb thin leaves, and introduced lnt4i it. The oomblnatiu.is of metals with chlorine are called Chlortdtl. Chlorine possessea the property of destroying all vegeuble colours, and of rendering vegetable bodiee ex|)Osed to iu action white. This property baa oeoasianed the introduc- tion of chlorine into' bleaching i for if unbleached linens be exposed to iu action, the matter which gives them their grey cobmr is destroyed, and the lubsUnce assumes its natural whiteneaa. Ctilorliie, however, must be used cautiously, for if applied in its pure and not suificiently diluted state, it deiitroys the fibre of the doth. Chlorine combines with oxygen In four different proportions t two nf them conuin so much oxygen as to form acids i thete are, chlorie acid and perchloric acid ; hut as the other two do not manifest any acid properties, they are to be uoniidereil as oxides, end are called protoxide nf chlorine and per- oxide of chliiriiie. ilesidei uniting with oxyKeii, chlorine ciiinbines with hydrogen, aud forms the well- known aciil culled MurifUio Acid. — If chlorine and hydrogen be mixed together in e«)ual voliimea, and exposed to common daylight in a glass fiask, they will in a little time combine, and even explode in combining, if exposed to Bun.light or the light of a candle i two vnlumea uf muriatic gas reeult. Iu sprcilio gravity is 1.2844; in Iu pure SUM this gas is transparent, colourless, and elastic t under very stnmg preesure it condenses into a liquid. Waur absorbs this gas with avidity. One cubic inch at tiU* absorbs 417,8'i'- cubic inches of the gas 1 heat is produced, and, when cold, the bulk of the water is incnased to 1.5433 cubic inches. This is liquid muriatic aeid. With thete proportions of constituents, iu specific gravity is 1. 111611; one hun- dred grains of it consist of 4U.3U of real acid, and A9.6I of water. It is a cohnirlees liquid, and, when eipoted to the air, it tmokrs, Hkcause the gas exhaled condenses the moisture of the atmosphere. It ex- tinguishes iNith flame and life, and is not inflammable. It is iif a pungent, suffocating, and somewhat aromatic smell. It posrerfuUy reddens vegeuble bluet. The belt method of obtaining it it by pouring lulphuric acid upon an equal weight of tea-ialt, and collecting the gas which is given off over mercury. An immense number of salu are formed from tiie combination of muriatic acid with oxides ; such aa common sea-ealt, which is a muriau of soda. These are very exun- lively used, both in the aru and medicine. Chlorine oombiuea with aaote, and forms what is called CMoriile nf yUrogtn—Thu it an oily liquid, and the most poweri'ully eiploeive compound known. In this respect it is one of the moet dangerous tubstanoes of nature; it consiiu of four volumee of chlorine combined with one of aiote. Chlorine oombiiuu with carbon, but the cumpounda are unimportant. ■ aOMIIIE. The terra bromine is from a Greek word, tignlfy- ing *' a stning disagreeable odour." This sulitunce waa discovered oaly so Utely aa the year 1830 ; it re. sembles chlorine in meny of its habitude*. It it of a tirawnith.red ooiuur, very diiagreeable imell, ibarp stnmg taete, powerfully corrueive of organic Inidies, and, when uken inumally, a violent poisI. Tkit inbelanee wea first dl eco ve r ed in 1811 by a taiipam aianuraeliifar of Pari!. Il It darlrabla fhm ■ea plante, and In tome of lu prnpertlet much r^ ■euihlee chlorine, wh.1uh It alto a marine production. If common lea.weed he powdered dry, and treated with lulphuric add whilst tubjeeted to heat, a Hdei- coloiired vapour Is expelled, whloh, if colleeied In a vessel, condenses Into scaly dark-grey ervsula, tome* what nf a meulllo lustre. These are iodine, so called from the violet colour nf ite vapoor i Iodine being a Greek word, and signifying "violet coloured." lit ■pecifio gravity it ,1.0844. Iu smell is diiaKreeahle, ita taate acrid and hot, and it possesses poisonous pro. pertiee. It is a ptiwerful stimulant, and has nf lata been much employed as a medicine. It destroys vege. Ubie coloura, but not so completely tt chlorine. It melts when healed to 3944*, "d volatilises at A!ii{'. It forms a beautiful blue colour when mingled with waur holding starch in tolutiosi ; it Is iuelf slightly soluble in waur, but more to In alcohol and ether. Iodine combinet with oxygen in three proportions, forming iodic acid, iodus acid, and oxide of iodine, with chlorine, forming chloriodio acid, with hroniieein two proportions, formiuft bromides, and also with axou and hydrogen. But a particular account of these tub-- iiMicet dues not require to be given in tliis place. FLUOaiNE. The existence nf this tubsUnoe, strange to sty, ii conjectural i yet its separate identity is supported by the strongest analogies. It exists, or ratner is tup. posed to exist, In minr or Derbyshire spar, and ia thus provisionally called fluorine. If some of this miueral in powder be distilled with strong siiljAurlc acid, from a leaden retort (a vessel somewhat of the shape of common Rupert dmps^ into a leaden receiver kept cold with ice, an intensely active fluid is pro- duced. *' It has,** says Davy, *' the appearance of lulphuric acid, but it Is muc£ more volstile. When applied to the skin, it iniuntly dliorganlset It, and protlucet very painful woiindt. When It il dropped into water, a hlising noise It produced, with much best, and an acid fluid is formed.** This aubstanoa has been called h^drtijluoru aeidy because it is conjec- tured to have fluorine as a base, combined with hydrtv gen, to form an acid upon the principle which we have formerly described. Other views have been adopted with respect to this stihhUnoe, but the above it the one now genertlly admitted. Such are the pro^terties of the supporurs of com- htiatlon. Theiratomicwcjghu, according to Dr Thom- son, are as follow : — Oxyeen, I ; fluorine, 2.25; chl{>- rine, 4.S ; bromine, 10; Tpdine, lft.7A. There exist, therefore, as we have seen, orj/ptn, oA/orine, bnmin*, iodine^ atiAjliMrint adds, and the same number of aeu of btuet. l^t us now direct our attention to the aim. pit aeidifiabU bam, which are the following eighteen lubttaucee : — nrnaooi!)!. Hydrogen gas ii a permanently elaatic fluid, Irane- parent aud culourleai, and, when pnrt, destituu of taste or smell. It can scarcely be said to exist in an isuisted sute, but it forms one of the coiistituenU of water, from which it can be disengaged by varioua simple processes. It is the lightest body with which we are acquainted, and is employed in combination with other gases to iullate balloons. A bladder filled with this gas will aicend in the atmusphere, in the same manner as a piece of cork or wood plunged hj force to the bottom of a veesel of water. Hydrogen will not aiipport combustion, but la itself remarkably combustible. When one volume of oxygen is mixed with two of hydrogen, it burns with a loud explosion, liy an electric spark, or the contact of a red-hot wire. The product of this experiment is water. It it taid that a few cautious draughtt of ihii gas may be taken, but it cannt)t be iuipired for any length ui time with- out occasioning death. Frogs live in it for a long time, so that these animals niiiat uke a tenacious hold of animal life. By far the moit iinpurtant compound of hydrogen with any other siihstaace is that with oxygen, forming the indispensable fluid which covert nearly Iwo-thirds of our globe, waur. This suhttanet In icientilic language ahould be entitled an oxide of hydrogen. It unius with the other supporwrt of combustion; but the compounds, except muriatic acid, already mentioned, are not of any great importance AZOTE Oa XITROUEM. This gaa it pennanently elattic, transparent, colour- less, and inodoruui. It it a very little llghur than oxygen. When breathed, it dettroyi animal life; and a burning body, if Immeraed in a jar conuining It, it iniuntly extinguiihed. It is nut cumbustibhi ; it en. Urs eaunsively into combination ; it is an abundant element in animal maiur ; and its eiliunce in such large quantity Is a chief distinction between the con- stitution of animal and vegeuble life. Iu exiitenca in tlie atmosphere we have already adverted to. Whe- ther it is chen.ically united with oxygen in that com. pound, or only mixed with it, it unetublithed. Thu it hat the property of combining with all the tupport. ers of combustion, there can be little doubt ; but the luliject has not yet beeu thoruughly Investigated. With oxygen it unites in no fewer than five proportions ; by far the most iuiporuni chemical compound is Nitric Acid, or Aqtu^fottti This virulent subsunoe is a compound of oqe volume asotic, and two and a balf volumee of oxygen gat. Common nitric acid is of an orange oolonr, on account of iu containing a littla muriatic add, at alto a little tulphuric add and waur. Light hat likewlia an effect upon it. The ipedfie gravity of the itrangiit rrogorahlt nllrlo add Ii 1nd «x|iliitian, rtd.hiit wire. ^r. U it wid msy b« taken, of time wiUi- it for * long tanaclout hold tnt compound il tku with whioh coT«r» rhii nuhiUuic* d an ozidfl of tnpporien of muriatic acid, importuio*! i«r«nt, colour- I lighur than lin'.al li(»! and inulning it, it uitibla; iian- ■ an abundant ■tenet in tucb WMU the oon- lu eiittanca rtad to. Wha- ^^. In that com- bUihed. That the tupport- oubt ; l>ut tha tigaiad. With topottiont I by Tund It ilant tubitauoa two and a half lo acid It i>f an Ining * UttI* Id and water. Tha tpMslllt lo add U I.U, •aid then it oontaint une-irveiith of iti waight of water i that of oommtra* it about l.i'ii, and ciinuint two. Sfkhi nf iu weight iif water. Nitric acid hat very lamarkabla elTectt upon water with regard to the production of heat. If diluted with half itt weight of water, baat la evoWad i but If th« water be in' tha lUta of ttiow, intenta cold ia the reiult. Heuue, thia com. found ia employed to produce great di>gr«4>a of cold, f nilrloacld very ooncantrated be thrown upnn phua. Jborua, charcoal, or oil of turpentine, It inllamea tiiem. t ia very eatanalvaly uaed iu tha arta, and forma a ntimaroua and importaul clatt of aalia, having tha ganarlc name of tfitnUt, tuoh at nitrate of tilver, ultrat* of poiaah, Ao. Soma nf thaaa wa ahall notice aftarwardt. Nitrmu add la a compound of the aama kind, but with a latter Quantity of oxygen. Amnngtt tha other corapoundt of aaota' and oxygen, that au. titled the prolojcidt i\f atott, or, at it wan lurmerly called, nitrtiu* oxidej la the moat remarkaltlt). Davy diteovered ihitt wa may breathe it for a abort while without any effect being produced, except au exhila- ration of the mind limilar m ih!.t which uket place during the earlier ttagea of intuxiuation. Combuati- blea hum in it more brilliantly than in auomiin air. It la probable that tlilt gaa may yet b« found available lu medicine. There la alto a dtutoxidt of tMoU and a AyponiiroHi ad^, hut thete do not require minute dauil. Atnte oomblnea likewite with chlurina and hrimilne; but the next mott Important compound ia that which It forma with hydrogen, and which la fa- miliarly knowti til ut by the name of Ammonia, or //arfiAorn.— It la obtained In the ttata of gaa, by nieana of the aalt called >a( aniaoniac, which it a compound of muriatic Hcid and ammuuia. Thii aubatanca ia to be introduced into a retort, along with 3ulcklim«, and then aubjected to heat. Ammonia it riven off in the form of gaa, and ia to be collected in glaaa jara atiinding over mercury. Ammoniacal gaa ia oolourleaa, haa a atnmg pungent amell, an acrid caua- tic tanta, and caimot be drawn into the lung*. Ita apecliic gravity la U.ftS027. Water abaorbi 780 timet iu vulums of thil gaa, and in thia ttata it ia employed fur chemical purpotet. When the gat It mixed with chlorine, a auddeu combuatlon and detonation taket place. The chioriue unllca with tha hvdrogan nf the ammonia, and forma muriatic acid, wnilat the axute it diaengagcd in the lUla of gat. The muriatic acid formed, conibiuet with a portion of ammonia, and forma aal ammoniac Ammonia it an alkali, and pot- aataot the propeitiea diatinguithlug thia cla^a of aub- ttanoet in a very decided manner. It of courae nentraliaei aclda, aud the aalta which it forma an- uuuierout, aud of cunalderable Importance. CAHBON oa ciiaacoAi.. Charcoal la the aubatance which remaini when wood or any vrgotable aubatance ia expoaed to red heat in oloaa vetaela. The piopertiea of thit tubaunce are rarloua and remarkable, and il afforda a moat atrik- Ing proof of the extraordinary diffcrencea of appear- ance which the aame body may aaaume, aud tUao of the Intrlntilc worthteaaneaa of aome of those objecta tiuon which we aet ao high a value. We arc all aware or the eliorroouH price which ia paid for a giMKi dia- mond, aud yet chemical Investigiitiou haa proved it to be, beyond all queation, only a bit of cttrlruu ! The diamond burnt iu oxygen with a brilliant llmoe, aud, like charcoal, forma carbonic acid ; like charcoal, it alao forma ateel, in combination with iron. The dif- ference between the two boditt aeema to he chiefly in their atate of aggregation, the diamond lieirig harder, and cryatalliaed. Charcoal la dettltute of taste aud tmell. When new made, dry, and warm, it abaorba gaaea In very laige quantitlfa. It ia probably on ao- emint of thia property that it acta ao powerfully aa an antiaeptiis aud removea the tainted odour given out bv biMiIca during the procraa of putrifactiuu. No e^ect it produred upon carb,m by the mi»at intenae ordinary heata, except that it la rendered harder, denaer, and more aonoroua. Carbon combinea with all the aupportera of combuatlon, and alao with hy- drogen aud aiota. When it It burned in oxygen, Intenae light and heat are produced, and a compound ia formed, entitled rar6ofii0^oJdG«.^Thit gaa poatettet very remark, able propertirt; iu tpecllio gravity ia 1.6277. It ia oolourleaa, bat an acrid taata, and, when applied to the Duae, excitea » pungent tanaation. No combuatible will burn it; and iu elfevt upon animal life, when inhaled into the tunga, ia evinord by the fate of peraona who incautiuualy cxpoaa themtelvet to the vapoura of char- ooal burning iu ill. ventilated apartnienu, or who Ven- tura into large veaaala in which fenaentation had l>e«n enoducted, aa iu broweriea, diatilieriea, &e. Ariimala giva out thia gaa during expiration ; and it ia alao ge- nerated by the nanbuatiou of wood and cmI i io that it ia not turpriaing that a portion of it ahould alwaya axltt In tha atmuaphere. Thia gat combinea with batt a, and forma a genua of talu called Varbonattt, Llka all weak acidt, it unltet in varlout pnipiirtiimt with mott of the liaaea. With one half the quantity by volume of oxygen gaa, carlwrn forma what la tailed oarienio oMiite. Thit gaa. If inapirad, acu aa a polaon. Tboaa who brentba it becoma Immediately de- prlvad of tenae und volition. Carbonic oxide cannot Da eondanaad by prettura into a fluid. It potaeaaea no acid propartiea, aud It not abaorbabia by water. It I4uitaa with chiorina, but tka conpoundt art «n- Impwunt. There ia another camkinatloa of cubon trlth uxygan, calltd 24S Oitatia Acid — Thia aubatance It derivable from dl- geating lugar along with nitric acid. The add It da- poaited in tmall cryatala, which have an Intauaely add taare, and, when uken Internally even in amall quan- titlet, deatroyt life. It comblnet with baaea, and forma a genua of aalu called oxalatu. Carbou and chlorine are capable of uniting in three dilTervnt prt>. fiirtiona, with ltrr>mine in one or two, aud with Iodine 11 two. But we muat paia from thete compouudt to thota of far greawr moment, which II forma with by- drogen. There are many coroblnatluni of carbon with hy- drogen, and much umwrtalnty prevalla, both with regard to iheir number and nature t ihey are all dealg- naled by the name hydrocarbona, or mora properly hydrocarbureu. Marth gat, Are damp, or oarburettad hvdrogen, la that which bubblet from the bmtoni »t atagnaut poola, and iaauea from the flaaurea of coal minea. It la tranaparent, colourleaa, elartlo like com. mon air, and haa a dlaagreeable tmell, if not well purifled, when It It nearly Inodoroua. If It be mixed with twice ita volume of oxygen gat, and a lighted taper applied, or an electric apark patted thnin^h, an explnalim tskea place with a loud report, and carbonic acid and water are the reaulta. Carliiurett»l hydrogen oonaiaU of one volume of carbon vapour and two vo- lumea of hydrogen gaa. lu apecifio gravity ia 0.A5AA, It it fatal to animal life if breathed. Olellaiit gaa or bicarburetted hydrogen It aimllar to the former, but oontaina double' tha quantity of carbon vapour. It burnt with great aplendour, pcodudng a deuH whit* flame. COAl. QAt. Carburetted and bicarburetted hydrogen hear very dllferent relationa to the wellbeing of man : the for- mer, when a apoutaneout production of nature In mInea, la one of the moat terrific inatrumanu of da- ■truolion, and a great obatacle I4> human Induatry ; for, by mixing witli a certain quantity of C4imm(ni air. It acqulrea the property of exploding wlien accidenuUy kindled, and thouaauda of human livea have fallen aacriticea to ita violence, until the apleudid invention of the aafeiy-lamp divealed it of iu terrora. Uicar- buretted hydrogen la the chief, although not the moat abundant ingredient iu coo/ j^ar, now to generally uaed fur illumination ; the other ingredienta are carburetted hydrogen, hydrogen, uiid carbonic oxide. Coal gat la made by introducing a quantity of bituminout coal Into a large iron cylmder called a retort, cloaa at one end, and furuiahed with a mouth-piece at tha other, for cToaing or opening it i there it alao a tuba for carry. ng off tha gaa and other producU aa they form. A quick atrong heat ia applied round the cylinder, and a vaat quantity of gaa, composed of the four ingredient! juat mentltuied, la thua extricated, with tar and an ammoniacal liquor, both of which arc condenaed by paaaiiig thnuigh ptpea inimeraed in cold wpter. There ia a great difference in the relative proporthmt of the gaaca in the mixture, aa alao in tlie quantity nf tar, according to the quality of the coal, aud tlie mode of applying the heat. The more tar the gaa bolda dii- tolved, the more denae will h« the flame when the gaa it made to burn, and the more dlaagreeable will be tha amell when Ilia not burning. A alow heat givea much tar and little gat, and that little of a poor quality i a quick beat givea much gat, of good qtiallty, and lett tar. Owing to theae nnd other cauaea, the illuminat- ing power of coal gaa variea much. Before it ia let through the conducting tuboa for public cuntumptlon, it ia well agiuted in contact with a mixture of lime and water, or pataed through ttrau of looaely atrewed hydrate of lime; it ia thua deprived of much of lu amell, and alao of aome of iu illuminating power. On au average, a chaldron of good Newcaalle ooal, weigh- ing a cwl., will afford 12,000 cubic feel of gaa, pro- vided that the retoru are new. After lioing uaed a few montha, the product will not exceed 11,000 feet, or even lO.IKHI. On the whole year, the average may be about 1 1,000. The quality of this gat it such, that half a cubic fool per hour la equivalent, in burn- ing, to the light of a mould candle t>f alx to the pound, during the aame apace of time; hence, ime pound weight of ooal will afford light eiiual toanch a caudle for lour hours and a half. An illuminaliug gaa nf thit kind la aoroetiruea presented ready formed by nature. A village of Fredenia, In the western part of the state of New Vork, is lighted with this gat aa it naturally iunea fntm a rock ; the flame is large, but not quite so brilliant aa that of coal gas.* Oil yas being of a similar nature, it need not be particularly deacrlbed. There are 4,ther leat important compoundi of carbon and hydrogen, and the whole correspond with the law of multiple combination already detcribed. Xaphiha and tiaphthaiiM are hydrocarbureta ; the former it a tranaparent volatile fluid, the other it a tranaparent volatile aolid, which atsnmet the form of crystalline plaut : both are obtained from coal Ur by distillation. Cyanogen — This substance ia a gasaout compound of axote and carbim. It burnt with a purple flame, but It destroys life on being breathed. Cyanogen unites with a variety of bodiet, and forms many Im- porunt uompouuds. ■OBOK. Tha borax of oomneraa it a compound of boracio add and the alkali called soda. Bortdo add It a omipimnd of oxygen and borou, in the proportion. It Is supposed, of one at4Mn of the tatter to two of the former. Pura horuu ia an opaque browuith olive powder, infutlbia, and not vulailla at arv utnpaniui* to which II haa aa yai Iweu luhjaoltd. It nallhardit. tolvat In nor acU upon water. At about WO', It lakat ftra, and «miblnea with oxvgen, formiun Aaraoia .(vU. — Thia auVsUuo* avlneaa tha utual nnipertiet of an acid, but it It nut a nowarfttl una. Whan ills detached flnim borax, by vitriol batug pounid upon that nxnpound, Il aihiblu ittalf lu toalv crvaialt, Il dlaa4jvai lu taoilSad tplrlu, aud, If tha ttilutliui be tat on fir*, Il burnt with a graan flam*. Buctui iuall, whan htatad, malu liiui a perhotly clear glaia, which It the batit of tome artlHi-ial (tma of coaaidaiakia btanty. Borax cunimunlcatea lu own l\itlbla uatura to uthtr hodlaa, and banc* il uaed at a flux. Flux It a ganaral term mad* uaa of tu danut* any lubtlaBM or mlxtur* empluyad lo aaaiat th* nitlou of mlnaralt. Th*r* ar* a oonildarabi* nunili*r of tuoh bodla* | lh» alkallt ar* thoaa moal (•nerally luad. Boracio add la the only known compmtnd or boron wtUt o«yg«n. There haa ha«n no OHnpooud yal dltooTarad of boron wi^h either hromin* or iodine,' but it combine* with chlorine, forming a gatamia acid, to whioh lb* nam* of (orocAfurlo aria hat b*«n gtvau | and alto with luo. rine, fonuiug Unaliorie AM, which txlatt In th* gataoua ttata. Il It colourltia, hat an eiwadingly acid latta, aud a tm*U aimllar lu mnriatlo add. It owruini no watar, but poateuet a pow*rf\il alHully fur that fluid, and it on that aownint totn*tlm*a ua»d aa a teal of the preaeniw ofmolatura In gatea. In >|i*«iA« gravity it 1i.;Wi2i and it teemi to uuitltl of on* atont uf fluoriu* and two of boron. Th* combinations uf homu with hydiw. gen, aioi*, aud oarb« wllhotil being rut*d i after ignition, the tpaclAc gravity of tllicuo it about l.tM?. it ditiolvet In a mixlur* nf llunrlo aud altrlo ac>
  • ect>niei hUhlv electric. It baa a apeclHc gravity nf il.ia'bl. When heatwl to 170', it ia volatilised, aud th* reault -'a a llit* powder calletl Houtra «/ safpAur. It nielia at 21)1*, hut at 3411* it becomet thick, and IViun 402' to itt boiling point, alamt 71^1*, it gMi thinner. When auddenly called, il remaiiia toft. In which aute il la iiaetl for takliig impreaiiona. It is extenalrely uae'ilri«l.-~Thh add ti mad* In great quiiiiitlet for tha ui* uf hita o bwa, and olkar uauufucturert, by burning sulphur ia l*ad*n cham. bert. At the tain* time, a qiiantily af nitri* acid from the decompoiitlun of saltpMia ti admitwd Into the chamber. The >ul|>hur it cnnv«n*d into tul- pbiiroua acid. FIv* atoms of thia add anil* with one atom of nitric acid, and two aloma of waltr, and (bmi a wbli* tulid atli, whi<'.b fallt la tk* bouam of lii* chanibtr into a quauiity uf watar plaaod M rataiv* it. Aa aooii aa It conuM lu contact with tha iraMr, aiiroaf efferveaceno* take* place i th* iiitrio add II d*«im- posed, and couveru th* tulphumui luto tulpkutk add, whil* at lb* laui* ttm* a ^uautlly of dauloild* CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. . i \ nf iitnte li fllienfftnd. Thit fM, coming fn o«intart wuh th« nxvren of th« nir, )• c«n«rl«l Into nitric Mid, which Ciimbiiw with %n »fldltii>nal doM of lul. phiinmt Mcid, «nd in decompoMd ailwrurf. Thus th« prowM pws CUM I'lngUKitlphurotiiicId ind oiygcn |ru eiliil in the Indrn chunhcr." biilphurlc acid thutobulnad li •colourlw* liquid, po«iMiing«om« »!•- oldity i and when ■* miicli concentrated aa potsible, lu ipecinn gravity ii l.flCl?* A itnrnger add, however, can he uhtalned hy another prooevn, In which lUte It i» entirrly drutitnte of water. Htilphurtc acid U one (if the moat piiwerfully ctirroilre iHHiiei known to nt. The fnlloiring are roine of iti principal propertiea. U'hen mixed with water, to which it haa a very powfrfiil altracllun, a drrreaae nf Toiiime occtira, and m conilderaltle degree of heat li fpenerated. (t freeiet when mitiiclently ciMiled, and the cryatala are aoine- timei lar^re, diatlnrt, and hard. WIten eapn»ed to the air, thli acid diachargee wbltlah-frrey vaponrt, which are aiilphnrio acid In a dry ttate. Add of apeeific gravity l.nOA, contalni about one.tenth of water, and li ho volatile that It butis at 120*. The conatitntlnn of aulphuric acid It, lulphnr two paru, and oxygen three part*. It formi a very numeroua and im^tortant clau of lalta called SulphtUet. The other compnnnda of iiilphur and oxygen it is untie- reiiary to notii«. Sulphur unites with chlorine in twn p'roportlnni. It al«» combinei with bromine, iodine, and ftuorine, but ita next raoit important ounhlnatlons are thnne with hydrogen. Sul})hur§tt0d Hitdntg^n. — Thli la a colourleia gaa, having ft ttrong fcetid amell, aomething like rotten egga, and a awectlnh taate. It la a non .supporter of nimbuition, and, when breathed, deatroyi animal life. lu apecilic gravity la l.lflOA. It la oombuatlble, and burni with a bluiih.red flame. Water ahaorba 3.66 timea jta bulk of thla ^%m i and if it be pasted through water liiigedwith a vegetable blue, it will chanirethe uilonr to red. A few dropa nf nitrir arid let fMll Into m veMfl tllltHt with Rulphureited hydrogen, «et» fire to it. Thia gat hlackena ttlver, and darkena the wood. work of ruum'a painted with white lead, from human exhalattimt containing a portion of It. Ita atomic oonatiiuenu are saiu t4> l>e one atom nf aulphiir and one atom ftf hydrttgen. Ilonble the qnnntity of aul> phur to th^ tame proportion of hydrngen forma what i« called the AUii/pAunr/ nf hifdrhpfn. No romp>iund (if tiilphur and azote ia known, but with rnrhnn there it more than one. With boron and tilicnn, tulphur funnt talphureta. BEI.XW1ITM. Thit it a aabttance nearly allied to tulphur in its nature, although It In aooie retpecta paruket alto of the character of a metal It melu at about 212% and on cooling t»ecomea tolid, in which ttate it haa a metal* lie Juaire, and a deep brown colour. It ia toft and easily reduced to powder, which it of a drap red. Ita tperltic gnvity it 4.3. It it a bad conductor of beat, a non-conditrtor nf electricity, and it also iiun.electric. Like tulphur, it luhlimea into H^iwert i tuih are ita leading ciiaracteriatict. It oombinet with oxygen in three proportlont, forming oxidt cf seUnium, n gweout Itody, ttlenoua acid, which hat au acid and arrima> niont taate, and, lattly, telenic acid, which reteniblet aulphuric acid In ita uintiatence, and in many of itt prrrpertiet. It it to be remarked, that the compoundt uf aelenium and oxygen bear a ttrong analc^ to tome nf thote of oxygen with tulphur. Selenium combinei alao with tulphur, chlorine and carbon. TELI.VRICM. Thit tubatance tt a metal, having a tilver>whlte ctdofir, and oontiderable brilliancy. It hat a lamin- ated texture, it brittle, may eatily be reduced topuw. der, and hat a apedfic gravity of G.l'i'JU. It futea at a temperature rather highrr than that which i« ne> cMtary tii melt lead. It combinei with oxygen, and forma o^de of tellurium. Thia rorapnund pittaettet at rnne acid and alkaline pntpertiet. M'heri ti>ilurium it heated before tlie blowpipe, it burnt witli a blue flame, emitting a while tmuke, which it the oxide. Tellurium burnt tpnntannMiily in chlorine gat, and forma a chloride ^ Ullurium, It aliwi unitet with iodine, hydr<^n, and carlmn. The other cunibina- tiont of thit metal are itlU unknown. rnoiPiiOBiJB. Thia well-known aobttanre it commonly prepared from the earth of bonet, which ronaiitt chiefly of the photphate i»f lime. Thit lalt it dcr.>mp<>tfd'by tul. phnric arid, and after gning through a diffinittproreta, the pltnaphorut it dtatilled into a receiver in the thape uf melted dropa. It it an ember-colnured and aemi< traniparent tolid. Ita apeeific gravity ia 1.740. It ia ut very n>mbnatihle, that it taket fire in tlie air, emit- ting a white smoke having the tmell of garlic, and appears luminout in the dark. At the temperature of 148*, it burnt with a large reaplendant flame, giving out a white tmnke, wbinh It PhotpKorie Acid. — Thia tubatanre can l»e obtained by other procetiea, In which cate it exhibita itaetf at a trauaparent aolid body like glait, having an add taate. It hai nn amell, but an exceedingly tnur taite ; it it not curroaive. Ita atomic cfmatituenta are aiip- uoaed to \m one atom of ubonphomt and two and a half auimt of oxvgen. With oiygeri, pho^pbonit ftirmt a weaker acid, called pyrophoaphiMe acid^ and alao photphoroui aeid, both feeble adda. ThiRnion. 'Uii Phtisphurrlttd Hj/droff*n,~-TM* gat it cidoitrleat, haa a smell like garlic, and a very bitter latte i Ita apedtic gravity ia 1.7700* It burnn tpiititaneoutly. When mixed with oxygen, rar^oclion oantei thtmto explode, aa eondtnsation prudiicet explntion in other gHhet— 4 very remarkable property of thit tubatance. This gaa may Iw dvtoiiated, also, with protoxide and deutnxide of aMUe. When mixed with chlorine gat, it t'urna with a greenlah-yellow flame. It ia composed n( equal volumea of hvdrngen gaa and phoNpboroul vapour. There aie other cumpuuiida formed of tbete two titbttaucea t and phuaphurus otnibinet alto with chlorine, bromine, and iodine, in twuproportiona each. It likewise unitea with fluorine, carbon, aulpbur, and teieuiuni. AB8£lflC. The Whit» Artenie of commerce it a cnrohlnatlon of ar»enlo and oxygen. When mixed with black flu.r (which it cream of tartar expoaed to a red lieat in a covered crucible, till it ceaset to ttnoke), and auh- jected to heat, It it reduced to the nietallit: atnte. It haa a ttluiih-white ceciAc grnvity it 6.072. When moderatelv heated, it evaporatet, combining with oxygen, and forming thearaenic of cnmineroe, to well known for itt deatructiveneat to Htiiinal lile. With oxygen, artenlc forma two Hclda, the artenous and arunie. Ar)§noui acid it a whiie, brittle, ct>m- pact lubttance, having a weak, acrid taate. wliich at latt leavet an impreaaion of tH'eetnvaa. It la one of the moat virulent puinunt known. Artgnic acid it quite timilar in itt riuittitntion to phoaphoric add. Arsenic comblnet with chlorine, I rnniin<', iutilne, tin. orine, hydrogen, tulphur, ph<.aphuiua, and avlenmin. AN Tl MONT. Thlaiaametal, which, when pure, poaaeaiea a tllver- white colour. It it well knowu, being much used at a medicine, Ita texture it flhrona, and it l)i eaaily re- duced to powder by being poitniied In a nuirtur. Its a)>ecific gravity it 6.430(i. It meltt when betted tu redne^t, and at a higher heat it eva)Kiratea. It ut* aikalijiablt bases, which, at far aa at piesent knowu, are tbirty>ojie in niimlier. These l)r Thornton divides into fivn I'lunl- liett namelv, alkaline, earthy, dijficultly futibie and eaaily fusible bates, and the nuhle metals. AI.KALINC BASES. This family nonxiats of teven metallic bodies. Their oxidet constitute the most p'>werfnl alkal'<, and the latter readily contblo* wltli eddi| forming taltt. The rhloriiies, bromldet, and lodldea of these bodies, are also talta. M'u thall thnrtly notice them in detail* Potaitium tt the bate of that welKknown and wry uteful article pntniib. The propertiet of potaiilum were first determiuwl by Htr H. Davy, to whom we are Indebted for the discovery of the compoaitlon uf the alkaline hodlcfi. It it a white metal, like tllver. At .SJ* it is hard and brittle, at 60' la toft and mal- leable, at 1324* n>f*lti> ftnd nearly at red beat evBp4^ rates. Ita apeeific gravity at 60* la 0.6607, water being 1.000. Whi'n exptiaed to the air. It rapldljr abaorbs oxvgen, and forma potash. This boor (n commerce )a alwayt combined with water, which cannot be expelled' by heat When thrown on the turface of water, which it swims upon, it decomposes that fluid with such rapidity that the metal taket fire, and hurna with a red flame. Pntaislum combiiut with twn proportions nf oxygen ; It alto unitet with chlorine, bromine, iodine, hydrogen, tulphur, and several other bodlet. Sodium la a metal an similar in most reipccti to the foreKoing, as to stand in no nt-ed of paitlculur deacrip' tion. It lathe baae of the alkali called toda, which it formed when the metal la brought into cunuct with water, or when It la heated in oxygen. It decompotet wftier, and in Ita reluiinnt to other bodlea beara a ttrong resemblance to potataium. Lithium Thit metal is the bate of the alkali called litbia, which itof a white tN>Iour, and has a taste fiUiy aa raustio aa that of potash itself. It is of course an oxide of lithium. Lithium likewise uuitea with chlo- rine, but itt other combiiiationt are unknown. Annum — Thit metal It the batlt of barytea, an alka- line earth. It is of a white tilvery appearance, ab. torbing oxygen rapidly by expoaure tu llie air, tbut forming barytet; and it nlao rapidly decompoaea water. Barium citmblnea alai> with tulphur and photphoriii, and formi talta with chlorine, iiromine, and iodine. ■SVroN/t)im.-.This metal ia the bHse nf atrontia, an earth vary timilar to the foregoing. StrouUnm and barium resemble each other very much in moat of their properties, and their combjuatinna u ith oxygen h*i\e alto a very strong resemblanre. Strontium alto unitet with chlorine, phosphoma, and aulpbur. Calcium — This metal la the bane of the well- known and indispensable rommtxlity lime. £jm«has been known from the remotest ages, and appears al- ways in I'ombinnlinn with an acid, most commonly with the carbonic, rnnstitutlng /imri/orie, marble, cat. careouM spar, chalk, and frequently, with anlphurlc acid, cimstituting gypsum^ eelenite, and sulphate ^f lime. It combines also with various other adds, tlalcium Is white, like silver, solid, and much heavier tlian water. When heated in the open air, it burnik briltifititly, ond quicklime it produced. Calcium unites with oxygen tu two propnrtiunt. forming lime and pernxiile of calcium. Pure lime is tasteless, and iitsotuble In water. It, however, readily absorbs wa. ter ]Hiiir«d upon it, and swells, produfing at the same tinu< a great next- The fact ia, that the water becomes solidified, and of course gives out a great quantity of heat, which accouut.t for the rise cf the temperature. This process la called slacking lime. Iiime combines with chliiriiie, and forms chloride of limey a substanrie ulttained. It ia a compound of oxygen and alumi- num, conaitting of eight parte of the former ti> one hundred uf the latter. Thia metal, when burnished, attumet tlie metallic luttre and aplendour uf tin. It ia not easily fused, but at a red heat it bums with great splendour, and is converted into alumina. This tubttaiice, so useful In the manufacture of evnryspeclea of pottery, is the unly conipntial D«tUutf>t ilict ity ftuily )'« «nd alunii- rntrr ui une 1 burntfchedf r of tin. It burn I with ntnfe. Thii jTory ipeCM of oxygcD niivferkfeblt rdinit ro th« I It; heDC«t nutneter, or ^Ii degree* of 1 A gu«f(« ii IcoutrMtiun. ^borut, luU ld« fit glud- \t\\t bfrylor Glucitium )■ fe dferk*gr«y ]umdeFt wlilch, wheu btirnliihMl, ■fqulrifi the metallio liiatre. Ic U very ditllcull of funiun. When heated in ftlr or oiygen, it burnt brillianllyi and a^uruc the oilde gluolna— the only eoniKiund whiv'j it fitrma ■. e reduced to the metallic ttate by heat alone, but they readily dltsolve in acids, and from tKU tolutlon they cannot l>e prucipUatcd In tne metallic state by the introduction of iinu. /rmk. — Thit welUknown tubttanca it one of the •even metalt with which the ancieiut were acquainted ; these were gold, silver, copper, Iron, tin, lead, and mercury. Iriin it a metal of great utility, and It it furtuitHtely found abundantly. Almott every mineral cnntnins It. The ore from which the iron of Great llritalii U obtained, it a carbonate uf iron* Iron, Hfter pasting through a flery ordeal, hat a greylth titlnur, a metallic lustre, and, when bumished, a good deal c^ brilliancy. Itt hardnest exceeds that of miMt metnlt, and, when in the state of tteel, it m^y Iw retulered harder than mott budlet. Itt tpeclfic gra- vity it T.iiili after hammering. It it attracted by the magnet und may Itself be converted into a permanent magnet. It in malleable at every temperature, very ductile, and very combuttible, for we see a thin wire burn in the llame of a common candle. It burns brilliantly in oxygen, with which It combinet in two proportions, forming oxidet. It combines alto with chlorine, bromine, iodine, boron, sulphur, telenium, phot>phoms, arsenic, chromium, and antimony t hut the mott important of its combinations with simple aubstances.are those with charcoal, which form the im- portant compounds caat-iron and Mlrel. Iron forms with the acidt a numerous and valuable clait of talti. JifanganeMC. — When thli substance it pure, which it rarely the cate^ It is rather whiter than rjitt-iron, of a granular texture, and may be reduced to powder by pounding. lu specilic gravity is n.OI3. It is not attracted by the magnet. It gradually ab^u^bs oxygen from the atnuwpliere, and decompiles water, a pro- perty which it loses when alloyed %ith Inm. It It much In use. Glast.makert ute it, for two purposes; firit, for commu'iicating a purple or violet colour, or fur destroying all colour, and rendering the glass colour- lett. Manganese hat a itrong attinity for oxygen, with which it combines in four proportions, forming oxides. It unitea alto with chlorine, fluorine, carbon, and tulphur. NiekiL — Thit metal, when pure, hat a white colour, like tllver ; It rather lofter than iron ; is malleable both hot and cold ; Is attracted by the magnet ; and, like iron, can lie converted into one. Its tpeuilic gravity it 8.3R0 after fusion. The prenarationt uf thit metal contain poitonuus qualities. Nickel cum< bine* rea(!ily with oxygen, funning two oxidet. It alto unites with chlorine, carbon, tulphur, photphorut, and arteuic. Cobalt. — Thit metal hat a grey colour with a shade of red, and is not brilliant. Itt texture It granular; it Is rather toft and bi Ittle ; lU tf eolfio gravity Is 6.7. U it nted for giving a blue colour to glass and porce- lain ( the tint is beautiful i and benoe th« metal bean 347 a high price. It unltat with oxygen, and forms two oxidet ( thete are the preparations of cobalt used in the aria. It alto onmbinea w'*h chlorine, tulphur, ialenium, and photphorut. ■ASILT rUBlBLS BASBi. Of the eight metalt composing thit family, all are malleable except blimuth, which it not very brittle. They melt at a comparatively low heat. A rod of alnc throwt down thete metalt from their add tolu- tiont Id the metallio ttate. Zino Thit metal is of a bluiih-whlte colour, and it oompfwed of plates ndbering together. It is rather soft, aad, after fusion, Its specific gravity It ti.filM. It becomes malleable at 313*, and roelu at 08<>*, or before it it quite red. When heated red-hot with ao- oeta of air, it takes Are, burnt with an exceedingly beautiful greenlih or blulth-whlta flame, and it at the tame time converted Into the only oxide of alnc with which we are acquainted. It is of a tnow-wblte colour, Is tattelett, and Insoluble in water. MMlh an alloy of copper, tine formt that weti turnishen. Its npeciAc gravity after funion, which takes place ui 606", ft 1 1.351. Lead is very mal- leable t it it also ductile, but its wire possetsei little tenacity. By exposure to a very strong heat, it it vo- latilised, and at the lieut of burning hydrogen, urged by oxygen. It burnt with a blulth flame. VVhile ex- posed to the atmoiiphere during fusion, It Imbibes oxygen, and Is jcunverted Into an oxide. There are three oxidet of lend — the protoxide, which Is known in commerce and the arts at a yellow paint, uu'ler the name nwMrirol, or, if it be semi-vitriAed, litharyt; the deutoxide Is alto a paint of a brilliant red colour, inclining to orange ; it obtains the name of mtntum, or red tead t and the peroxide, which it of a deep puce brown colour. When triturated with sulphur, tpon- taneuut combuttion taket ptaoe. lmraon state in which It occurs in nature, It mineralised by Kulphur. The common name for sulphuret of lead It galena. It It abundant In all quarters of the globe. Tin This metal reaemblet lead in many of Itt pro- pertiet. It possesiet a fine white colour, with a slight shade uf blue, and liat a good deal of brilliancy. Its specific gravity after fusion Is 7>385. It it very mal- leable. Tin leaf or tinfml, as it it called, is about the one-thousandth part of an inch thick, and It might be made much thinner, if requisite. It tt ductile, but of inferior tenacity. It is very flexible, and producet a remarkable crt^kling noise when bended. It melts at 443% but a very violent heat is required before it will evaporate. It toon tarnishes with the air, and, when intensely hented, oxygen btiing supplied, it burnt with great brilliancy. Tin combinet with oxygen in two propor Jons, forming the protoxide, which is ttacky and the peroxide, which is yetlow. It also unites with chlorine, bromine, iodine, tulphur, telenium, phos- phorut, and fluorine. It alloyi with various metals. The coat of tjnning which It given to the inside of copper vessels, is a mixture of lead and tin ; fur al- though lead be a poisonous metal, the presence of tin rendert it innoxltms. Pewter It composed of lead and tin ; the latter rendering the former lafe, at in the pre- ceding Instance. English tin It the best of all, and it It affirmed that It wu exported from thit island 3300 years ago. Copper. — This metal, In point of general utility, rankfc next to Iron. It possesses a rose-red colour, and a great degree of brilliancy. Its tpeclfic gravity, af- ter being rolled out into plates, is 8.953. It has great malleability, and very considerable ductility. A bar of cast copper, one quarter of an inch thick, re- quires 1193 lbs. to break it, whilst hammered copper requires nearly 1000 lbs. more to break it. It melts at 3548* ; and if the heat be increased, It evaporatei In fumes, which are vitible, When nibbed, it emits a tmell. When heated in a hydrogen flame urged by oxvgeo, it burnt brilliantly, emitting a daxaliug green llgnt i a piece of copper in a coal fire tinget the blaxe green. When exposed to air, it nistt into ven/j^rti, but slowlv, without moisture. With oxygen It eom- blnea In three proportlunt, forming three oxidet, two of which occur native; the other is not a permanent compound. Coppw conbinaa alto with chloriae) looine, ■\ilphur, phosphorus, arteniu, and tin. Itt alloya with the latter meul areverv important. From eight to twelve parte of tin, iMimblned with one hiin* dred partt of C4>pper, compose bronmet and the melMt of cannon*. Three parts of copper and one of tt« compote belt.metat. The alloy used fur the mirrora of telescopes wat employed by the ancient* for the composition of their mirrort. It conslstt of about two paru of copper united to one part of tin. Bitmuth — Thit metal hnt a reddish-white colour, and it composed of broad platea adhering to each other. It is one of the mirst fus'.tde uf the metalt, and communicates Itt fusibility to other metals. Itt specific gravity it 0.033. Although nut very brittle, it it not malleable, nor can It be drawn into wire. A mixture of tin, lead, and bismuth, is so fusible, that It melu when thrown into boiling water. A toy of tfatt kind it well known i It Is a spinin, which, when im- mersed in a very hot liquid, Immediately melts. Bis- muth combines with oxygen, chlorine, bromine. Iodine, sulphur, and selenium. What is called Newton't fusi- bte metal, it a cimipound of eight partt by weight of bitmuth, Ave of lead, and three of tin. It meltt at 313*. Afercurff or Quiakeilver. — This metal hat a tilver- white colour, possesses great brilliancy, and remains fluid M the common temperature of the atmosphere. lU specific gravity, at 60*, is 13.MIUC t at 38*66, wheu it assumes ttie solid form, it Is 14.46A. When solid, it may be beaten out with a hammer, or cut wittt a knife. U'hen heated to 656*, it boils t and when heated In the apen air, or when agitated for u long time in the open air, It oxydises. The oxides and chlorides uf mercury afford an admirable proof of the truth of the atomic theory. It combines, also, with bro- mine, iodine, sulphur, selenium, and phosphorus. The compounds which mercury forms with the other me- tal^ are usually termed amalgams. This metal occurs in bouth America and In Spain, in great abundance. But the mine of Idrio, in Carnlola, an Austrian pro- vince, it perhaps the greatest in the world, and hat been wrought for more than three centuries. Silver. — This metal ji of a fine white colour, with a slight shade of vellow. When pollslied. it dltplayt a great deal of brilliancy and lieauty. It it verv mal- leable, and may be beaten out into leaves to thin at one 10(>,000th of an Inch. It it tofter than copper, and harder thau gold; but its tenacity It inferior to the former metaJ, When melted and wwled slowly, itt «pecific gravity it 10.3046 ; when hammered and rolled. It It a little higher. Its melting point It 1830*; and if it be kept melted for a lung time, it al)Borb8 oxygen, and forma a brown oxide ; but it possesses the very singu- lar property of partinf? with the oxygen on solidifying. Gay Ltitsac, a great French cheniist, says that the presence of a little copper deprives it of this property. Silver combinet with oxygen in three proportiou^, forming three oxidev. It also iinitet with chlorine, bromine, iodine, tulphur, telenium, phosphorus, and artenic There are numeroui alloys of silver, but tew of much ooniequence. One pound of standard silver Is coined Into sixty-six thilllngt ; the mint price of tilver, therefore, it 6s. 6d. per ounce at present. Sil- ver is found in all parts of the world, sometimes al- loyed with a variety of other metalt and tubstancet, and iometimet iu the native ttate. NOBLE METALS. Thit family comprehendt six metalt, which all re- quire a violent heat to fuse them. The name noble metals hot been given to the family, because it con- taint gold and platinum, the most esteemed of all the metalt; and because the other four metals belonging to it are usually associated with native platinum. They are insoluble in nitric acid, and their oxides are reducible to the metallic state by the application of heat alone. Oold. — This it the most valuable of all the metalii. U alway t occurt in the metallic ttate, although isldom pure. It hat a beautiful yellow colour, and contider- able lustre, which it retains, not being liable to tarnltfa by exposure to the air. It it rather softer than silver, and after fusion, it hat a specific gravity of 10.2. ft is the most malleable of metals, and may be beaten out into leaves no thicker than one 282,000th uf an inch, and the gold leaf with which tilver wire is ct*- vered It only 1- 12th of that thlckncts. Itt tenacity it contiderable, but inferior to that of tilver. It meltt at 2500°. It it inioluble lo lulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acid ; but It readily distolvet in aqua regia, which Is a compound of the two latter. It it dirticult to oxydise gold, and still more to burn it; but both can be accomplished. Oxygen combinet with gold iu two proportions, forming two oxides. Oold also unites with chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, photphorut, and arBe*>ic. There are a number of alloyt of gold ; the ttandard gold coin of the realm is an alloy of twelve partt of gold to one of copper or silver, or tometlmes both. Gold occurs in almost all partt of the world ; but Africa and America supply the chief European consumption. Platinum. — This metal Is white, like silver; its speciAc gravity It 21.47, so that it it heavier thau gold. lis hardness is intermediate between copper and Iron. It Is verv ductile and malleable, though much lest to than gold. Itt tenacity is considerable. It will not melt in the heat of our mott powerful furnaces, but it may be fused by the oxyhydrogeu blowpipe. Itt property of retisttng high tempera, turen without fuiion, it a most important one, and on this account it hat been employed in the formation CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THK PEOPLE. m !■ i\\ \ . n I I. f Af vfttMla which it U necMurv tu MihjMt lo an Mtra* •rainnrv dagr** of Ummu LU« irnlrui. Th«r* ara nutiMroui alloyi of pl»- ttniim, but th«r »r* not nf much impnrtitno*. Th«r« 11 « form of this mou) whiuh po m —itt WKtrwirdtuftry prtipurtiMt it U o*Uetl tpongy pluHnHWk. It is pr*- parwd by diwalrinir pUtlniim lu n miKiiir« of nitrio and muriatic acidii br brat; miiriata of aunumfa fi ftddadt wbau a Drat-ipiuta falU, whU'h iniiiii (m lUtarvtl and driad. If a amall (juanilljr »f thii iMiwder be baat«4 by a candle, it will hwitma inoandatoaiitf aa If It took firo. It ia, whan o«4tl, lit fur hm. il' a Jh of hydrnf^n, tmm a tutw of a vary iilaiidar bora, bt dl> raciad »n it fmm a UtUa ilittattva, tb« niftat iminadi- •teiy b«minaa rad.hot, and ti tata Hra to tha hydninan. Tbiii may l>o repa«i<*tii power t th« itnallar tha quantity, the •iMtuar lit t>ftwHr ii bMt. Pniiadium^ Hhodium, IruUum> and fhn ium..— Thaaa four matala occur in thu platinum of otintmen-a. They ara procurable in vary iimall quantltiea t they bava not baaa applinl to any u%n of ntomentt thay potKMi fi» very ramarkabl? i)Mulii)ei, and therefore d)i not retfuira tn be mtnutfly ilrnnriltrd. They all unite with oxyfan and chlorint*, and tomaof tliemwlth the oth>4r Rupportert Much ia a brief iikrt<'b of ib>> fifty.four nimple kub- •laiioea, whota nuinarourt c^inibtnationt gWe rlai* tn the InftDlte variety of objcuta which are fuund ready formal in tha laboratory nt nature^ or have bean dia- coverad la that of the phil(»f>pher. •KWERALOaiEKVATlON!! ON ACIDi, lARKS, \ lALT*. Of iheae various r>nupu tha early puit of thit artlolef and, ai we have gone along, we have endeavoured tn point out ^l.e moiit important, and to deaoril>a them m far aa ^ur ilmiti woald permit. Wa have attempted ht )tii'« a riaw itf thaoonatittiliohuf (ha variouaclaauaofl'jdita entitled aciJ«, otka/u, oriWM, and m/M. Wo have abown the aAnlty which aciila manifest for nieullic oxidea, including alkalis and earths, and tlu* result* ini{ compound formod, which ia ua)ied a salt The oxvfrau aoids ara by far the qum^ numehius und beat known. Tbay ara of two kinds : th(MH) whii-li are united ut a aiogla base or a sinifle supporter, as unU pliurie acid and oarb«ini<: ai-id (tli«y amount at present t" thirty-six in numt>er) ; and those in whii:'i tiia oxv- gen is united at mioa with two and sonietimaa with three baaaa (they amount at preaent to above sixty in number). Thus, actHeacidi* aeompo«iud of Arjrpen, carbon^ and h^tntfftn^ while urit* acid is a ciiai|Mmnd • f ajry^#fS carbon^ hjfdroffeitt Aud oauI*. The second set of acida are very numemus, and they either exist ready formed In tba vegatable or animal kingdom, or they are formed from vegatable or animal btidiea by chemical proceasaa* A numlwr of the most common acids belnogiug t** the first division, we have already deacribedt and soma uf thiwe which )>eIont( to vege- tablea, wa shAll allude to shortly. To those who are detiroua of obtaining complete iuf.trmation upon the subject, we reatmmand l>r Thomson's Syitfm nf In- organic Chemistry. The talis whitli are farmed by these various acids are s«i immenifly numeripus as eiitiiely to preclude the possibility uf giving even the shortest description uf litem here. IWstdea the salts firmed by the acids of the Ave suppnrtfrs, there ara thiNte formed by cyanogen ai'id, sulphur acid, &.c. I^ec us now advert ti» a most iuipurunt branch uf cba- uiistry, Daroely, that of OKOAKISZD ATRtlCTt'ltlCS. The substances coDstitnting the subjnstn, Ac; and in the Utter, albumen, muscle, iHtne, Ai*. I'egttahUt. — Notwithsunding tha infinite diversity nf form which vegetable substances assume, it has been proved that they are all composed of the same ultimate elements, and these are erature, tindergo decom- position, and new Hci.,s are formed. Their names re* miiln the same, with tlie word pyroaa a prciix. Thus we have pj/rocitrio acidy Ac. There are otier acids generated by sioiiUr meaua, but they havt* simple names without any prefix. V»g§tabU Alkaiia It haa been ft«''ertainetl that alkalis, as well as acids, exist ready Un med in pUnu as one of their nmstltuent parts. TfaoMi which evince alkaline properties of a weak character are entitled alkaloids. The alkalis are quinina and cincAenia, which r^Memble each other, have a bitter taste, and neutralise acids. Aforphia, which fs obtained from opium, is a white cryjttalline powder; i/rytrAfiia, one of the moat p. lent poison ; di^filalia^ which Is proctired from the leaves of foxglove; hjfotcf/ama, atropiay rrfu/rta, rmff- fjno, Ac., which are derived from henbane, deadly nightshade, iVc. Of the other proximatt^ vet(etable principles, the first dei>«rving of nutite is tliu wiHHiy fibre which conititutes the solid bases of all vegetable ntructnrt*. It is called /iyntn, from UynutHj wimhI ; and cuiuists itf A2 carbim, and iS of oxv^en Htid liydrof(en, in the ratio which forms water. U'ith lignin are as- sociated various other bodies, such as iriin«, which a^« various and abundant. In the different species of the pine-tree we discover that pecnllHr litiuid resin ciilte^l turpentine. From resins are obtHlmtl what aru called essential oil* i because, after the rrf>in httx been heattxl in a distilling apparatun, an odoriferous oil dis- tils liver, at'd leaves the resin hard, dark, and > iour- lesn. The rxxencf' of the substance is sup|><<>- lavc pasied away in the aeriform state, heni;< me. From Its speencrete volatile oil, although it |)»)»>e5!tes qualities distinct from thotte of all other boiijfs. Hum, tor in. stance gum arable, possesses the following properties : They ar^—tran^pareney, tastelesotie^s, perft^^t solo. biltty in water, viHcidity of the solution, capability of cementing fra^iinentN, and of affording a varnish, and total insolubility in spirit of wine. There is » rlahit of bodies called yum resins, whose properties are intermediate between those of gum and resin ; and somewhat allied to resins, although essentially dif- ferent in most of Itspiopertles, is the substance called ranutchouCt or Indian rnhber. It is the exuded juice of a |>eculiar tree, and is C4Hnpnsed nf carbon and hy- drogen. From wbeaten fiour a substanoeisubuined, called gluten^ from its glutinous nature. There are two pHnciplea in this substance— the one is called f/liadin, and the other jrimrmtin. There la a sub. stance called vegelable albumen, distinct from animal albtimen. It constitute':, art-ording to some theniistx, no leas than one quarter nf the whole weight of sweet almonds, and aeema to he the basis of all emulsive grains In place of starch. Starch is a fine white se- diment, precipitated from the white and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly the tuberose roots, and the seeds of the gramineous plants. One of the roost re- markable properties of starch, or, as it is called, /ecula. is that of being convertible into sugar by the action of diluted sulphuric acid. Starch is not only afforded fnHD various grains, but from potatoes; and, as ex- tracted from this vegetable, it is much in demand us an article of food, ^^rroir root^ which is obtained from the roots of a West India plant, is the same kind of subatanca Suyar. — Every une, we suppose, shmild know %vh»t sugar is ; being in particular a sweetener of the kindly beverages tea and coffee. It is derived from many souri^e-t— -from the sugar cane, maple tree, beet riKit, and grapes. Nothing is easier than Its formation fmm grapes. (Irape juice Is to be SMtmated with chalk, clarified with white of eggs, or blood, and evaporated ; after a few days it assumes the form of a crystalline mass. Proffl i>ak bark, or uui galls, a peculiar sub- stance is obtained, called tannin; so named from be- ing the material employed In fanning leather. It Is Inudiirous, colourless, and possesses a rough astrin- gent bitter taste. THE AViMAL COMPOUNDS. The materials of which animals are composed, are nearly similar to those which wa have described as belonging to plants. Thedifference in In the relative quantity, and in the mode of nunhinallun. The com- bustible subatancas phosphorus and lime, exist in the bones of animals iii considerable quantities. Thay havcftlio been detaoiad in some plants, aa (n the onion, but in verv minute proportions. Tba chief ituhsianeea, then, which enter largely into the compftsltlon of animal matter, are nxyiren, hytlrfigen, aante, carbon, phiMphorus, and lime. We also find some other hinds of matter, as certain adds and metula, but In quantity so small, as not to affect the truth of tha above state- ment, that the foregoing six Ingredients constitute tlie great hulk of the itnimal fabric Itone consists of phosphate and carbonate of lime, and two other ingredients, oartilaye and gelatine. The latter is the coagulating, or rather elastic, prin. cipte ill all animal jellies. Vt'hen Imues are burned in a uliMM vessel, they fwiin ivorp black. J-'ibrin is ob* tuined from the vessels; when recently obtained, it is elastic; but when perfectly dry, it is ihrmewhat horny and transparenL There is an important sutHtance, called osmamome, which communicjttas to soups and broths their peculiar taste and smell, and the greater the quaittity present, tlie belter is the soup, 'rne trtt* donsj liffamenlSf and membranes^ are nearly allied to gelatin in their nature. .fMumen is a substance very abundant in animal matter. It oixurs nearly pure in the white uf eggs. Of this substance in the 04>aguUted state, along with gelatin, are Aoms, nailst and Aoqff composed. The hraint the thinking orgait of man, consists o: water 00, white fat 4.03, red (at 0.7, usmaxome 1.12, albumen 1, phospbonis 1.6, sniphurand various salts 5.16, parts in the hundred, if/ooci, whun leli to rest a few hours after lieing drawn, separates into two parts: one quite liquid, of a greenish whev-like ap- pearance, iind henre utilrd serum ; the other is an elastic firuk jelly, of u crimson-red colour, and is called the crassmmentum. If evaporated to dryness, a very d.»ik-red substance remains, which is the colourinp mutter of the bliMxl. In aulmal structures there are nunu-rons t.«is and oils of ii peculiar character, and also some acids, Ac. ; which, however, we have not space to describe. rCKHENTATlOK. The spontaneous decomposition wliirh animal and vegetable matter undergoes when placed under proper circiiniktiuices, is called furnieotatiuu. Tlie most re- niarkablt) result of this process is either aliobul, acetic acid, or a putrid swell. Tha prinluction of these dtf- ferent results gives origin tu three distinct stages uf the proceni, eitch characterised by different pueno. uieiiii. If giape-juice be exposed to a moderate tem- perature, it soon begins to effervesce, and loses its irausparency ; a viscitl scitm rises to the surface ; tha taste changus from nweet toviiicout ; and under proper inHiiitgeuient, the liquor is concocted into wine. Solu- tions of sugar and all sweet liquids are capable of under. going sijiular chiitiges, and of being converted into a kind of wines. The process by which these changea are eiFected, is, on account of the naturu of the product, c:illed tlie rJnou« fi'TmenttUioa^ and the result of it is the fiirmation of alcohol^ or spirit of wine. This is the principle uhich voi\(iin ardency upon brandy, nbisky, gin, ruin, &.iu Ity the action of acids upon alcohol, a peculiar cIhsb of volatile liquids, called rthers, are formed. When equal parts of sulphuric acid and nirohol are distilled, alight, odorous, colour, less, bi^;lily volatile fluid, of a penetrating taste and smell, comes over. Tnis is called sulphuric ether (ov distinction, because there are various ut. ^r elhrrs. It' the liquor which has undergone the t'i/toii< fer- mentation be exposed to the temperature of about TU', it, fiom being transparent, again appeurs Bome>vhat muddy; the taste changes tu sour, fur tiiu alcohol ia now changed into vinegar; and from arWum, the Latin for vinegar, this stage is called the acetous fer- mentation. Vinegar, when long kept, loses ita aci- dity till its transparency; it exhales a putrid smell, and h IN now undergone Its last stage, or the putrifae- tivf fermentation. These pnH«sKes, as well as the other parts of prac- tical chemistry, we shall not descrilw In detail at pre- sent, as it is our intention to devote a number of the Infonnatiun to the Kubject of ('hemJcal Science ap- plied lo the Arts and Alanufactures. Nolt.—lttifrtitc ffraiflti/ U the reUtlve rniftty or wright of any body ni luUktJitu;!-, itMiiiuisd witti that or ionw other body whiMi ha* b«en ftxcd u|Hin at k itaitiLtid. i)y uiiiviTul i.-(iii»«iit, iiun dUtilttHl wuier hu lM--rn vuuniftl si the lUiidsnt i aiul It forixi. muely hsiuHin t. 4t a culrti- fool of pure wjWf weigh* «x»i-tly luuo ounce* av.iirilupoii. Watei U imlicatwi by unily-iniw, I. When, tliervfoie. it i» exiin-KUKl ihst siiy tMNly haa a t)H-«.'ilU- gravUv uf d, then, hulk for bulk, il U Juit t»iw the weif(hl of water. If there \k oiori- fiinoei than iinc, uiiil there Iw a doi or polut bctweuu thi^i— thus, /A— tht' unit ii ht-n- iliviilvd uito ten )wiU, and (he body la twlt» sod five-tenth ttrnpt, or two and s half (iine«. heavier than water. If two (igurea cKtrur— thus, lii.40— the untt u lup utjsed to be divided into an hundred iMns, and the boily u ten and rorty-numi™dth part tiine» heavier tnsn water. If theie aie three Htiure*. the unit ■* >up|K)aed to be divided into a ihuuund iwrts ; iffbur, Into ten tharu, and mj un i the number and value uf the ttgunt alwavi iiuluatliw the exart >|iecltii.- Hrsvity of the body mtordlut; to (he above |)ttiiciple. Cnmincm aii l» wjinrtlrats UV^n s« a tt.iiidBid with which to cotniwire (tavi, aa hi the ta- •tsaces mentioned In the test. It U a ■imiilei and more lntel!i- Kihle wsy of comparins the relative weighli or dcnilliea of serial iulMtsni-w. Uut aU the solid* sod Huld* are eiUiiisted wlUi regard tu water, CDtNroauHi PublUhed by W. and K. Chahhshs, ID, WaWr- Ua> Place-, sUo by Ork and Smith, Patemuaur Mow, Lon- dim: And Vouno and Cdhkinohah. Dublin. Sold bv John M«clwd. (iUtfow, and all utbei BoukseUer*. From Uie Steam Fish of W. and K. ChanitMrs. ilenf onder- erted intn ^ ne chftU($M le product, riHuU of it U .„. Thii ii ,(i(Mi lirandy, KK'\Ati upon .lidn, called .f hiilphuric iritui, colour- 1^ tiiftte Ki)d lirir ^-rArt" i'ov flhrn. ,'iuttttt fer- ,,f dtiuut 7ft*. urn sometvhat tliH alcuhol ii aec/um, ibv acetouM fer- li)iei iu act< niirid irniHlI, tbe ;ju(r»/all»«l)t. |)Un , and It ftwtu- tbanuilylux) mi, I. WhMi. gT«»llVOf 1». f »*»• nil U MnnrtlniM „, w In Um to- md mora lnlc4li- dtntltin of aerial iiatfd with retard ■ M. rt. Wairr. cr Hi'w, him- Sold bT J(4in CHAMBERS'S / 1 »>'» INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTKD BY WILLIAM AM) ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBUROH JOURNAL" AND •< HISTORICAL NEWHPAPKR." MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. TiiK moit importarit art punuvd by human beingi ii that cif nianiiriuturintct produoingi or preparing otiminodltiei fur their tuhaiitenM or bodily oomfart and cimverileiice. Htrlctly ipeaking, the term MaNtr- FACTuacsapplieionly to thoaeartiolai which bare bean cuuverteJ Inim raw amteriala Into all loru of uieful aud urnamental artloltif promoting the coinfurtt and luKurien of ioolety { but by n widrr iignlftratlnn, wh«ii creating of the prlriclplei whirh guide the productloni preparation, and lala of comnuidillef, the term Ma- nufacturea luay tw applied tn all artloUi whata<>«ver| •iiilable to buaian wanti, aud upon which a fpwatar nr leiiter degree of ikill and labour hat been beitowed in making them ready fur um. Thua, agricultural produce, from not Iwing prepared or faihioned like commoditiei which have pawed through the fingers of the artllioer, hai not uaually been claued under the gtMieruI head of national manufacture! t Inasmuch, however, aa corn and other agricultural produce neither ipring tnioeziitence nor are made fit for mar- ket mi cvrtaia pruoeaus by Land and by machinery have lioeu performed by the produoert, t4 it obvioui that, in the above wide definition of the terra, agri- cultural produce may correctly be stated ai roanufkc- turt'i. By adopting this simple and comprehensive idea of what conitltutes manufactures, the political economist has his way wonderfully cleared in his en- deavours t(j seek out and make manifest the princU plee which ought on all occaeions to govern the coownarcial policy of a country. Including the pro< duoerx tf raw ur partly prepared commodities, the manufacturing cUas is not nuly the most numerous, but the most useful in communities. Still, by thstr •ffurts alone, society would be but to a small extent benefited. Their uses would Iw confined to only the scene of their labours, were their operations not encou- raged by the large and respectable body of individuals who practise the business of merchanu and dealers, and whose functions consist in purchasing the ctmi- moditieii from the manufacturers after they are pre* parttd, and transferring tbem to countries or louali- Uea where they are reqtiired for use by the consumers. Uy the Interference of merchants in this traffic, they lend immense assistance to the manufacturers, whom they relieve of their commodities without any trouble, and by that means allow them to devote the whole of their time to their peculiar pursuits ; wherefore, by this division of labour, they indirectly increase the quantity, and facilitate the processes of manu lectures. Unless, therefore, for tbe operations of the mercan- tile classes, the manufacturing energies of a nation would soon decline, aud the inhabitants degenerate into a very rude condition. The operations of the mercantile classes of men with the manufscturing Hud ooniuming classes, are indicated by the term Com- MEitcE, which applies equally to traffic carried on at home or with foretgu countrien. Commerce is of tcrtH antii)tiity, and, both in the earliest times and iu our own day, has been one of the principal engines of civili^atian. Among the in- dustrious nations which "M a remote p«riod of history wpn planted on the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, H ^ot'■Hme a means of spreading knowledge in the in- ;«>rior of Asia, and many pnrtB of Africa and Europe. ( nfortunatdly, the iitt«Uigeiit-« whldiwas so dissemi- iinied was afterwards oblitft.atd by the overruling l>«fwern of barltarous and wailike nations; hut the ef- tu'Hcy of commerce in modern times is likely tn be pi rmaneut wherever its iuHuence is extended, seeing limt thu greatest manufacturing and mercantile peo- ple are at thu same time the most powerful and most capalple of otTerlng protection to those who sustain a ciimmercitil intercourse with them. It is exceedingly pleasing thus to refltit on what commerce is capable of elfei-tirig. Independent of tbe actual comfort which it produces, wherever it is fairly introduced. By itn iippeals to the selfishness, tbe vanity, and other pas- sions, good and bad, of mankind. It appears to be the best of all fortrunuera to the inroads of the school- master and the missionary. Its influence in this re- spect has boan remarkably exemplified in the bound- less regions of Hlndostan, whtoh, by the efforu of a company of merchants, have baen laid open to the settlament of cultivated men from Europe, wbo^ though by slow dagrves, will ultimately spraad the blessings of education, and the decencies of social life, among many millions of human beings. In the re- mote Islands In tbe Pacific Ocean, the influence of commerce hu been recently of marked utility. The Introduction of articles of a fanciful nature, bolh for the oniamanting and cuTaring of the person, has in- duced a desire of following European manners and customs ; and as these commodities cannot be procured but by the exchange of native commodities, a spirit of industry has consequently been produced, which can- not fail to be of both moral and physical advantagv to the natives. It Is always thus with the intercourse which commerce necessarily Involves. New tastes are created, and, to be gratified, industry must be exerted. But to witi^ess the extraordinary Influence of commerce in producing civilised and refined habits, we need not look beyond our own country. Commerce, In this its chosen seat, hu caused roads every where to be out, cacilu Ui be opened, railway! to be formed, expedi- tious modes of travelling by sea and land to be effected ; all of which great accessaries to our comfort have tended in the most wonderful manner to Introduce not only useful commodities and pereunal luxuries, but highly cultivated sentiments, literature, and the arte, into districts which at no distant period lay in a cnmpitratively primitive condition. The intercourse •rhicb ommeroe in this manner requires, is the grand lerer which. It Is apparent, must in the first place be employed to lift the load of Ignorance from off the na- tives of A frica ( and when this lever is properly insinu- ated, the way will soon bo prepared for the introduction of those measures of melioration which phUantbropista 10 anxiously design. Ul'ALlTIESOr a CXtHMeaCIAL 1 LOP I.e. The asublishment of systems of manufactures and commerce in particular countriaa, seems to be depen- dent on certain moral qualities, as well as on vari- ous geographical properties. A C4>untry possesslag materials fur manufacture aud commerce, may neither be a manufacturing nor a commercial country, perhaps t»ecausfl the climate is fine, and wants S4> easily sh|/- plicd, that few tliiuk of eierting themselves. The abundance which nature provides, furnishes an excuse for sloth, which it would be needless to stop here to condemn ; but no such apology can be allowed in cases where nature is less bountiful, and where poverty aud misery predominate from the conjunct influence of pride, bigotry, and indolence. It would appear that, without a due tihare uf common sense, no |'t->>p]e can be successful either as mauufacturers or mer- chanu, certainly not as the latter. This priiu'lple Is very observable iu tbe present condition of commerce in the different quarters of the world. In proportion as iteadiness of vxertion is practised by individuals, and , what is mure, iff I at liberty to act, 84> is commerce successful, aud national prosperity established. It has unfortunately hrppened that singularly few na- tions have possessed .his species of industry, and this independence. Kurope generally has long taken a lead in universal traffic ; but among about thirty priocipal nations into which Kurope is divided, ouly two have hitherto demonstrated a welKrpgutated aptitude In commercial operations. These nations are tlif I>utch and the Knglish, both of whom have set an r-iample to the rest, aud shown how the people of countries of very limited dinensions — spots hardly recognisable on the map of the W4irld — may, by their industry, their economy, their probity, and thelrenjoymentof free in- stitutions, attain a pitch of opulence and comfort which nations of ten tiini*s their siae, and fully as fertile in re* sources, have, by their mismanagement or their laxl- ness, failed to accomplish. As will hereafter be seen, the commerce of the Dutch, from nvtional inisfortuDes end other circumstances, has declined In favotir of that of Or««t Britain, which, both as regards the opera- tions of the manufacturer and the merchant, has, fur a considerable period, stood at the head of all nations In the two hemispheres. The British are hence a remarkable people. They seem to be endowed, above all other tribes of men, with a spirit of Industry and commercial enterprise — a spirit which renders them ac- tually unhappy, unless when busily engaged in soma pursuit calculated to enrich them, or at least to pro- duce for tHoir families the means of a respectable lah- slstenoe. The Amerioani, who are but a hraaoh of the same British stock, are equally. If not more, re- markable for this fervent spirit of Industry, and, though only set up as a separate nation within a period of fifty years, have already distanced many of those dig- nified European principalities and powers which first discovered and colonised their country. Tb* ^^rench, the Oermans, the Spaniards, the Portuguese, the Ita- lians, aud others, though each possessing a larger ur smaller extent of manufactures and commerce, are obviously deficient, In a national sense, of the eager spirit of industry which is so characteristic of the people of Great Britain. Taken In the grose, thej are too apt to addict themselves to amusement in pre- ference to business. They delight in holidays, and will at any time leave their work to mingle In a dance or some kind of buffoonery, In which an Englisbmaa would be ashamed to appear. 8cari:elyone of the con- tinental nations, moreover, has yet settled down under a well-conducted government appointed by the people. There indeed seems to be little which is settled amongst them. Some of the principal are yet at that stage of social life which was common in England about the reign of Henry VII. ; others are not farther advanced than a period considerably earlier ; and all have yet a great deal to suffer aud to learn before they attain that state of quietude and seeurlty tn Ufa and property, that condition of domestic comfort snd na- tional prosperity, which Great Britain, with all its faults, BO amply enjoys. EXQULATlHa PBINCIPLEB OF COHHKBCV. The nature of the principles which should reflate the manufacturing and commercial Industry of a na- tion, has been discussed by many writers at great length, and with much warmth, though in few Instances either soundly or with that clearness which can ren- der them i ntelligible to the people. The sttbjeot, how- ever simple, has been so effectually and strangely mystified, that many yet labour under an idea that it would require to lie studied as a seience before it ooulA be thoroughly uuderstoud. There could hardly, how- ever, be a greater mistake ; for the principles which regulate manufat tures and commerce are so intelli- gible, that a child mi^ht cuini eliend ii\tv. The beneficent t r«ator has Ifcatuwed npim ea< 'i particular count.'y certain peculiar properties and commodities, #hich the others want, but which, by a mutual process of exchanging, or commercial inter- course, may be made comuum to all. Some countries are totally destitute, by nature, oi articles of luxuri- ous consumption, as wines, teas, and spices ; but by poNsetsiug coal and iron ore, they are enabled u* ma- nufacture cutlery, which they can give in exchange fur the wines, teas, and spices of the countries possess- ing these commodities, and which have no coal nor Iron ore of their own. It is obvious that this scheme of mutual interchange among nations, of tbe commo- dities which they respectively produce, is agreeable to every rational principle, and must have been designed by a wise Providence for the universal benefit of his creatures. In order that manufactures may be pro- duced, and commerce brought in to disseminate them both at home and abroad where they are wanted, no species of legislative enactment is requisite either to encourage or direct. The law which governs prudue- tion and consumption is a taw of nature-.4t is tbe overniling principle of K{/'-'■ t""*nflipl« of M>ir.lnt«rMt, If ■llowrd frtv wiDp*". It iinlfnnnly nnd RiiAcUntly rnnipvUni to ni|r)ilaw >N)lh tlia prfNiucllim and cmiiumpiiiin of ctiTnm»idillM m « dr^rM mort nlm »nd MtlirBfUiry ihnn pduM W kltftined hy ih« lH«tl )«t aloti*. ni'TlKH AKO RRnTRKTinNH. Evident m thtM prInHplM mini t« to all who h«v« any knnwltd|{« nf luicUl lif«, lht>y liara «Uh«r fnim lf(n»riinrfl, nr tomn othur caiiB^, hp«ii f(«n«rally IiNt altflit of ny irov«rnm«nu in all nk«» i>f tha world, and plani hare br«n cniitrlvrti to rptftilatPthat whii-h, If left alone, viiiild hare much better r<«giilBted it. ■elf. To anch an eitent hare refpiUlInf and rattric lira law* been carrlad Iti Mima luntntriea, that they htre nearly annihilated iKith manufaeturn and Ifffl- tlmate oumroerre, and redured matiet of the peoptu to ilie condition of paupert, beildn encnuraftlnx the pemlcittii and demnralUlnfrpurtnita of thaimiiftfrler. The raalriotiani and ri»iriilailmii which icovernnienta uBually Inpoa* up<»n oommaroe, do not parhapa ori(({- nata ao miirh In the plea that mannfacturari and merchants lUnd In the condliloa nf rhildren, and re- •piira to be taken cara of Imt they ihoiild hurt them. iielvea, w from the unfortunata exiffenclaa under which the gnvarnmenii happen to be placed. They hara all 1mi or more ei)|ra|^ tn wan which have been (N)ndiicted at an enormitiia expenfte to their rM|tMliv« re the more able to terure the !it- taehment of men of counequence to atniat in allsyin)^ the ireneral rlamiMin for a redrpm of grievancet. Thia la a rery mnnti Tiew of the matter, but it In cn'Migh to thow the dreadful eaiireiiiiet into which iiaiionii fall, by their an^«ging in wart or other expen. kive foliiro. In whatertt manner, however, national exlf(encieii originate, the plan punned for relief C(m< niitt chiefly in the imiMwitioii of dutiet tm certain com. moditlea much in demand, and at varimii lUgei of their manufacture, tranimittion, and tale. The meclta< n.im which producei them it taxed ; the food which the manufacturert eat, the clothe* they wear, and thn hnutea they live In, are used ; the t(iMHli aie taxed if ibey be tent out of the muntry. and they are taxed if bmu|{bt into lit they are uken t4i market by used horiea fed on taxed com ; thry are oold in taxed nhopt by taxed thopmen t atid when trsn^terred at laat to the oontumer, the bit of paper certifyinff their payment ia alto an object of taxation. It it eaty to perceive that thii illiiniuble procett of taxation «)n commuditiea mnit tend not only to ralte the vitlue, but decreaie the amuuDl, nf niaiiufuctured produce, to the manifett injury of the manufacturer, the ntercfaantj and the oonaumer. rarr riAnr. Were dutiet imptMed only for the honeitiv cnn> fetaed purpose of fnrniahioK rh'e neceiiary meanit of support to government, it would lie of little nimpa* railve connequence ; they are fully at frtt|ucutly ex< acted for the ipeciinit purpo-'e of preventing foreign mannficturen Injuring thoae of the country to which the government which imp«iaet them belongt. Miirae nationi are more enllghtene«l than other* on thit point ; yet each aeparale country hat atill a terror of Iwing overreached by othera. They all itrive to l>e Mliert without Wing bnyeri. They are nil nnxioui to u>nd their goodt to their uejghbourh, but will take nnihing but money In return. In other word*, each nation Kivee a facility fi exportation, but lava heavy dntiea on the imp^irtatlon of cummuditien. We ihall ende%> vuur lo explain how thin illil>eraltty originate*. The advocate* far rettrictron* on the Importation of foreign good*, into Britain for Initance, give two reaaont for the neoeaaity of the impiMiiion. The Hnt reaaiin la, tliai the importation would injure the native manu* tacturer ; and the tecond ia, thai unle*a the export. itig country taken our good* free of duty, we ahoiild not take theira fr*>e of duty— .or, that there mnal either be reciprocity of trade, or no trade at alL With re. gard to the Hrat, we shall uke the very obviuiia caae of Hnitaia and (Ireat Britain. Fruaaia, we khall lay, could furniali thia ctiuntry with Ciirn at half the price it can be manufactured fur here— acircumitancearit> ing from tuperlorlty of toil, cheapueta of labour, Ac. Neverthelett, (Ueat Hriuln will nut buy PniMtan com fur fe*r of hurting the Kngliah and Scotch corn manufacturert. Theae perwrnt have In all dlrectiuni cultivated laudt, giKid and bad, at a dear rate, and tNerelore cannot tell their rummodity to cheap at lo njmpete with the foreigner. If you admit foreign cum, iay they, we aie ruined, aud the twuntry ia 2^ ruined alao. Bui the oiniiitry would nut be ruined. If lb* flbeap Prutaiancorn were admitted free of duty, all the had land*, which ahnuld never have t>een culti. vated, would go out of cultivation, aud be devoted hi that pur|Mi*e n>r which nature Intended them. At for thoae who farmed or wrought U)miu theae landa, they would uke up aome other trade aa a matter ofoonrfe. Ily thii meana, a ciudt. Tke merchant who originally imported It In the ahape of bullion from tvnith America, either paid Un it in BrItith oommodl* Ilea, or, what ii more probuble, aani a draught on I/ondon to the exporter, and he aent it back to Kng* laud to p.; .or goitda which he had previoualy pur- chxktMl. In abort, In whatever manner we examine the matter, it alwaya turna out that the mnney which paya the foreigner for hia corn wat originally got In ex. change for giMidat and, tJierefure, it cornea to the tame thing whekber the Fniaalant take giNNli In barter, or take gold for which g(hKla have alrtsaily been bartered. The manufacturert uf giKida are equally well employed In either caae \ although there can be no doubt, that, if Fniaala would buy our giMtdi freely, anotlier would be added to the hat of our cuatoroert. If thia de< tiuition of the value of free buying lie not aulbcietitly explicit. It may Iw made aiilj nuire ao by an exani{ile nearer home. The pubMihert of this aheet tend their good* to the Hliettaud ialandt, and at Intervala receive auma amounting to twenty pound* aterliag, in paynieut. The ataplu cnramudity uf theae remote itiatiili ia liah ; but it would never enter the mind ol our Ngent there lo oblige ua to tuke that commodity in return fur our gooda— for the ohvloua reaton, that money it a more convenient form In which to etfect a trantler. Betide*, the twenty pounds which we from time to time receive are only the repreaentativeiot Hull. The twenty pound* were previuualy gut by the indua. trioua hhetlundera for their bah : v^htrt they got the money it of no cunaequence to the argument : it might Im got from the Fortuguuae fur Hah to eat during l,*-nt, or from merchants f.ir Hah to tend to the West India slave* ; it ia all the same, for It it clear the money muat have lieengut somewhere and fur something, other wine it could not have been given. The iSbetlandera tliua luso nothing by our not taking their native prtHlnce, and no more would the British nation loae by paying foreigner* In money on timllar uimmerclal principles. It ia M ridiciiloui Sov nation* to refuse buyltig at the chea|H)st market, as it would be for the butcher not to buy Intm the wlne.merchant, liecuuae he did not buy hia' meat from him. In the large congregatiun of^ tradenmen in a city, each buys where he chooses, and at the cheapest a'n>l beet shop. When we wish to purchase a hat, we reek out the beat hatter, and huy from him, even aUhoiigh he doe* nut deal with us "on principle* of reciprocity.** The money we give him we got from some one else for our commodities, and that ia Butfi'-ient. Thui it la with the inhabitants of large comniunities, and in a wider aphere it ought always to be thus with nations, which are but com. mnnitiea on a mora extended scale.* An aMe writer ou this topiu has well remarked t " At the same country ia rendered tlie richer by the trade of one province with another ; as its labour be* cornea thus luHnilely more divided and more produc* live than tl could otherwlae have lieen ; aud as the muttial supply to each other of all the acciimmofla. lions which one province has, and another wants, multlpliea the acoommodationa of the whole, and the country liecomei thus in a wonderful degree more opulent aud happy ; the same lieautiful train of con. aequenoe* is observable in the world at largi^-titat great empire, of which the different klngdums aud tribe* of men may Iw regcirded a* the provinces. In this magnificent empire, too, one province It favour. able to the production of (me specie* of aocommoda. lion, and another province to another i by tbfir mutual intercourse they are enabled to sort anrl (\-\. tritiute their labour at mu*i peculiarly ■ litif tiii« * Sec «uT irtk-le " Pulittcal Keonumy, of tiiH vftluf ol Irvc tiailt. ' fi» ruiUitfi lU \ustiunB Canlu* of each partit-ular apot. The Ubfnir nf the umaii race thui tieeomeamurh more pnidueilve, etid every apeelet of a«oumm4>dai.lier of labourera, wboee elforta might have been eapeuded lu prtMlucIng a very Inaignlllranl uuamiiy ol hotne.inade luxurlea, may ihua, \\\ (Went Hritain, prudiue a quantity of ar- ticlea for exportation, accimimoflate«l to the want* ol other placea, and peculiarly tulied to the genlua o( Britain to furulsh, whirh will purrbaae lor her an accumuUtlon of the luaurtea of every quarier of tba glolie. There i* not a greater proportion of her po. rinlatlou employed In adminiatering to her luxuries, n conaequeuoe of her oommeroe i there la probably a gmid deal Irssi but their lalmur 1* InHuliely mure productive I the portion of rommodltlea whllh the Kopla of (ireal BrlUln arquiia by naana of theaame iMMir, is vaatly greater."* There can be no doubt thai the full developenient of the universal principle of free trade, which we have now explained, would have a tendency to granulate all the iiHtiona of the earth down to a uniform level ; but ll remain* to lie proved that the Creator of the world hat inteiuled that one or mure nati>iiia ahuuld for ever by force or fraud maintaiu a anperiorityover the real. Nature baa no prefereucea. There ciinnol be a code of commercial pHnciplea for one country, and another code for another country, any more than there can be two dilfereul code* of murals, or two kinds of truth. The intereau uf the human i aoe ar« the same In all regions, whatever be the arrangcmeiila or exlgende* of government*. It la not, therefore, by force that any nation caii remain permanently pro. sperou*. Annlea may be raised and Heels manned lu maintain national monopolies i but Inaamuch at it la an eternal law uf Fruvidenre that the hand uf the diligent can alone make rich, ao the only true way of gaining aa well a* retaining a true national aupre. macy, is by the general and Individual exercise ol su- perior skill, Industry, and just dealing. liarAT aaiTAiir. Knyland at an early period liegan to manifest a flt- nea* for manufacture* and connuerce t but the Iii- dufltrluuB habits of the people were, lor centuries after tlie Norninii conqueit, depreaaml by all kinds uf re. strictions, corporate and baronial privilrgea, and engrossing monopolies. Kven in the reign of llenry Vf]., In which the middle claaaes may be amid to have ariaen, and aaaumetl a respvctidile statlun in the mm- muiiily, cominet'ce wua restrained by regulations, which, however well meattt, were destructive to na- tional Industry. The relgii* of llenry VIII. and Kliaal>eih were still mora diatlnguished for the en. oouragemeni of injurious mnuopolies iu trade t aud till this period, the ctiuntry produced no manufacture uf any deacriptiuu wbUh wa* nut aurpaaaed in qiulity by the same commudileu inipuUe towiiril* Improved modes of commuuiiaiion, wbith very koon intersected the cimntry iu all direction* with canals and turnpike roads, and otherwise pnKluced immense iinprovementa, both In the inierinr and in the vArloni seaport*. The succesalul inatiiuiiou uf variuua rail- roads, in latter times, aud lite intruduciioii ol i etudes uf all kinds lor conveyance, ou improved principtes, may be said to have, along with wliut waa previously accumpllsbed, given quite a new char ni-ter and appear. anliar« til ii)tbttaini« ' reKuIaiioiie, ructive lu nu- ' ry Vin. and i (lit the «n- lu trade t find • manufucturv ^fi«d inqnuliiy ' of the contio amri 1. thut nierciiil prit- ., K law WM iti, l«ti«rt.}ta> •etliriK, end ;i given by mii DUtrary to the .tfcHTi." Thii L-ted, imniedU iHiidk and lb« HS It wm mlao . _ irri«d *'n inertly ttatn lairly deniuii- Ti'ial (Htint 4if ut' the wven. !d yeart ago. Ily checked hy ; although it iu the interim int uf the Bri- B protectorate mitch of the Kevnliitlim of [{htii, and (fiv- aelerated the tlitt we havi? iy recent date, imercin! greet- ry, the nation r tturki UMful ubrated. TIU i\ luivigation, itnali humtHT .jp. The cni- na), 111 convey ipuUe towuittA iith vnry miou .11 with canali Imed immento II) the various venou)^ rail- .ion ol tftiiclek ved priiiciiJiei, wRk previoufcly er anil uppear< iKdoin. More (treet Britain been done fur u[iin, an intel- I'gtnt Krenth writer, In apeaklnir of the uneaainplvd mtmniercUl power nl'tbti HritUh empire, haa fallen Into «ii error with rrgnnt to the eaiiMi of ihli greatneii. While very properly aiiltiglving the Kngliih for their Induiiry, their economy, uitd their general proLiity, M ftouruei of national wealth, he atatea that the great puhllc work* of Britain hav« arlaen, in a great mea- aure, from the foiierlng care uf the goverriment, ** whieh,'* he aave, " kiu alltwed oommercg ■ free tNttine, and hat thought that it kerv»d it infliciently In svciiring to it proin'titoi without, liliitrty within, and Jnatlee every where." ThU ii dttcidedly a fellecv, though one which a foreiKni-r might very eiriiiably oitmrall. The llritiiih people have owed ebnoat no- thing to the itale, IwiUlee mere legialutive prniec- lloi of life and properly. They have, In reality, heronie a great peopte hi ■pito of ihu varloui idml- iilatrathini wltlcn hhw ttutn'igrd their affaira. The fundamentiil charter of commerce waa wrung from Jamea 1. only hy the gre^ieat exertlona on the part of the PerllMniffiil, and hy the proipect of ■uhatdiei Wing grjoii'd to him. Hltice that ihtIihI, the monopuly of t\\» Kelt India trade haa hwii nntfornity iiipportuJ hy government at tlu* t'ipett««t uf the puhlli^ interei>t»t and It run never he lorgottMii that the InipoaUI.'U of n*«tri<-tiinii and taxfx oii the North Anierk-nn tride loal to thla country, hy violence, hy tur the TnoRt Titluahle of Its exterior provincee. It would \ne tire- aime to rerapltulate the extent of rpcent nnd exiiit- lug reitrlctiona on the llritislt Impurt, ovptirl, and home trade t and It would alio he needlem lo nipntifui the number of caaea In which great Internal Improve- meiite, projected by thit people, hnvi> been prevented from t>«lng executed, hy the witbholdiug of the crivfd from tUoiu elementary princlplei of aocii-ty already notitwd, and fnim the extraordinary divlxioM of labour and employ- ment of machinery, which have created eapliu) ready to be applied to any naetiil line of induatry. A ain. giibitly ttriklng Inatiuictt of itm advunce of Britiah maniirurturea from the ein|iIoynieiit of machinery, ia found in the caae of the cotuoi manufHCture. The entire value of thli manufacture, ir X'Wt did not amount to L.20U,UO0. It now (11)34) may he ei- titnaied at Hhout L.40,00(),0()0, employing tt50,000 WfAvei-K, HpihiuTi, lileHchcrn, &,c.f and 111,000 en- gineeri, ni.ii'Mi«, amitha, joiriem, macUlne-makeri ; whose joint u ngHt amounta to !i.d,XM),0 annually. The Ciipitel invente*! in this manufiicture ii caU-utaiM at upwiirdn of r.7i>tOUO,0tH). Britiah mimufuctured ootttui gooila are expiirti-d to all par:a uf the world^ and in the l^Iitit Indiea, from whence a portion of the riiw Ciittun ii pntcured, undersell the native manu- faciure. Much are the reaulu of the cnmbJUHtiim of capital, the divlalon of labour, and the wonderful ptiwera of machinery. The grH>dB which are produced ant eifual to the work of eighty millloni of men. The manufacture of aiik gnoda has ala,A70 francs In IB2}|. to (M:i, 7.21) francs In Itl'tO. The consumption of French ailka in this country is correspondingly de- creasing. The annual vulue of the British silk manu- facture is eatiniated at I,.8,(MK),(K>0; 700,000 workmen nra en>ployed, and lir^W^OOt) persons directly or indi- rectly ::oni'erned in the trade. The woollen manu- facture in another of the great staples of industry t its annual produce is eatimuted at L.23,*.t00,000, and gives eiupltiyment to above half a million of men, women, and children. To supply this rainufucture, abore 22,000,000 ll>s. of wool are annually imporie«i from Germany, independfut of what is pruduceil at home. The linon manufacture, whicli comes next in point of national inipurtnnce, employs 300,(H>0 pt-r- auiifl, and the gross produce annually is valued at Ii. 1 1,000,000. The manufacture of leather, Includ ing the making of saddlery, ghives, l/bots, shoes, and cither artiolea, Is alsit vtiry extensive* It is cominitfd that it employs 2M,0OU persons, which, we think, (i must l»e below the nuirk, and that the annual pro- duce amounts to L.1.\000,OIH). No country produces such tixi-filent and cheap hardware as Britain : here the diviaiun of labour has been carrieil tu an exiiuisite piicli of pHrfection. The anniml value uf the giNida iii.tuMf.ictured from iruU| steel, copper, brass, tin, pfwter, &c., may be estimated at about L. 111.000,0(10, Hiid tt enumtterof perMina employed at .')70,IK)0. The rhiiht-uware, china, and porcelain mantifacture, ha4 te'ii greatly improved, and now excels that of any otlttT rtiuntry. Its annual produce is entimated at Ji.3,d0O,0OO, and that of the glass manufacture at i^2,&00,tHX>. The rent fictions aud duties on the gluhH inunufacture obtii^e nearly all classes to use the noaraeitt kinds, and us small a quantity of the article an poHiHitilt). A Cfmnideratile manufacture is carried on III jewtillery, gold and silver plated articles, and t4>'iii and silver l.-uu. 'I'he annual produce of this Dh'gant branch of manufHctiiru now lar exceed* ihtti •2ol of France, ard waa estimated nl L. J,MN),000 in 1111 1, •Inoe which perital the lousumption of the vartoui article* roust have greativ Incraaaefl. The annual [iroduca of the following mauuf act urai^— paper, paste- HHirda, haiigingai Uatk and printing appitraluai Mne art* and engravings t palnu, colour* i household fur. ulture I eoaohea, waggon*, and carriage" — la eatlmatMl at li.0,(M)O,(K)0. The miscellaneous maiinfacturea of Bi itain are almost endle** I a* salt, aliim,S4mp, lobaci^o, bt*er, porter, aiorit*, giinpowiter, raudles, c, toys, cork*, ihipa, houses, br'ck*, tiles, Ac. The annual pUNlure of the miicelUnaoua tnanut'acture* is estimated at I..»l,'i00,O00. Heckonlug all branches uf thoae manuiactvre* in Ureat llriulu, in which raw luaieriala are convarted into all sort* of useful and ornaniuatal articlea, the antount of the annual pru- ducH Is eatlmated at li.l4U,0A0,(KK>. Irnmenae as the ammint of the foregoing manufao. tiire* aptttfars tolie, thavalueuf t! •tcommoditie* raised hy crop|iliigthe ground, and |^'en*r«.Mv Included In the term farm and dairy produce, a much greater. Ii I* computetl that the enormous su u of L. I,IK)I,000,000 is invested In the business of farming in (ireat Bri. tain, and that the total annual prmture amount* t«> ]i.240,(liNI,(HN>. The quantity of grain raised amounts ti» about rri,O,0 of quarters, and the average quan. tity of corn impr- mou* capital, I* reduced to a comparatively Inciuisider- able amount from the incessant paralysing action uf the national taxation. The sum of forty-4>ne million* is levied annually uponnonsuniption — upt>n the neces- *arie* of life, food, coals, malt, sugtir, tea, dress, house- hold articles, raw produce, aud the materials uf ma- nufactures. The exaction of this prodigious sum, and the restrictions It naturally creates, deprives British manufacturing and commercial Industry of innumera- ble advantages, and prevent* the enjoyment of the fuU bene5u of our extraordinary mechanical inventions. " Those (say* the accurate Pablo Tebrer, In his ex- cellent work on the Hesources of the British Empire) who cannot resolve the perplexing problem, that, in (ireat Britain, with an immense increase of maritime power, with equally increasing improvements in agri> culture, with unbounded commerce and industry, and with immense wealth, individual happiness does n<^poHed by the American tariff. The chief imports from tiouth Ame- licu are eotton, hides, skins, tallow, cochineal, dye- wood, sugar, indigo, cocoa, gums, &c. ; and the ex- ptirts from England are the same as above mentioned. The same expuru are likewise sent to the West In- dies; an-e, kaltpetre, Indigo, opuim, driiir*, Mum*, quick*ilver, preciou* stone*, pearls, Ke. Tu the c<»- biny uf New hoiith Wales, the common English luaoufaoturea aiid colonial good* are eaported, and Kxcbttiiged for tr»ln-otl, seal. skins, wool, ac. Internally, Great Brluin mules In the following uoiumuduii'n. Knghtiid rrceives tnirii 8cotl»nd, corn, cattle, woollen, linen, and cotton g00,OtM). The tonnage tif vea»>els uu the Clyde I* nearly as great as that uf all Irt'lnnd, the tonnage of which, In IM'JO, onlyamounted tu 07)370 tons — nut oiiO'third of the total tonnage of 8cotl.iiid t the tonnage of Aberdeen Is as great as that uf Dultliu and Belfast, the twu principal Irish porta put togethrr. The foreign possessions, settlements, and colonies of (iietit Britain, of whioS It possessed twenty-six prior to the French revulutlun, and has gaineil seven- teen more hy amque^t, are Heligoland, Gibraltar, nnd Malta, with Gozo, and the Ionian Islea, in Eu- rope ) its pnshessions in India, under the administra- tion of the l^ast India (Jompany, and Ceylon, in Asia { the Isle lie France, or Mauritius, with the Hechellea and Amirante Isles, the Cape of Good Hope, Hierra Inline, Cupe ('oast, and Annaboa, the islands of Ascension and ^^t Helena, in Africa; Canada, New Brunswii'k, Nova tScotla, Cape Breton, St John's, Prince Kdwnrd's Uland, Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and the Bay of Honduras, in North America $ Berbice, Esseqoibo, and Demerara, In bouth America ; Jamaica, Buibadoen, Antigua, 8t Vincent, St Chrta< tupher, Nevis, Montserrat, the Virgin Isliinds, Gre- nada, Tolmgo, Dominica, Trinidad, and the Baha- mas. In the WeNC Indies; also the Bermudas; in Australia, Ninv South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and the colony of New Zealand, aud Melville's Island. The most important «">inmerclal cities of England, beaidea Loudon, are Lit'*rp4M>l, Bristol, and Hull; the moat imp >rtant manuiVcturing town* are .^lan- chester, Birmingham, Leeds, riubk'Ogham, Halifax, ltochd:ile, &.c. fnScotlantl, the principal commercial pttice* are Glasgow, Greenock, Lotth, Dundee, and Aberdeen. The foreign trade of Glasgow and Gree- nock extends to the West Indies, the United tjtates, the British American colonies, Brazil, and the whole continent, of Europe* The foreign trade of Leltb, Dundee, and Alierd^en, extends to the West Indies, America, the Med'uirranean, and the Baltic. The greatest commercial cities of Ireland are Dublin, Cork, Wexford, Waterfurd, and Belfa<22^Mnu to tt-*oooAO »n *t fs-^^i?5|!||as|5"g-a M to r« C © — CO — -; — CO rt O — « eo" « tT ci s co" ^--cooen'«r&i>Q — «naoe»mr«e ^iiiB|i|iisgiiiii |||2| n eo to n i n i •— n oo © Mr*— to « M — « — W M i/)tsr<*to-«nt«— — ^oit-ato — n^ S © r" as — "if sf ssr®'=f ^ *■ •j'o'm" Sll^g •O 03 lO C ^ et to to rC r^*r ^ C CO — C«tO A -eeo — s — © -* IM s"^ er kO »( ■Its ^"^ S »?^eTo«w3 ^h«-! C» (c n CI — llll . !^^l . ?! 23 H 11? n . MANUFACTimES AND COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. FRANCE. Thli Urgfl and Hne cotiiiiry, which ranks after Great Drit?iin in political powpr. and from whence many of tlie retineinenti of loclal life have heen imported into thii country, hat ue^er been cuniipicuoiii ai aoianu. factiirii)f( or roniraurcial nation. It wants the Iron ore and U)al which England to ahrmdantly putsenics; and the induitry of the people hat taken a direction towardi the producing of articles uf a ligiit fabric, mure for ornament than UHe. Though posaeaiing an ezteniiveteacoait, Franco has very few good harbnurs; and this hat powtTfully ten.icd to restrict its i-nm. mercial gieitnesi. Alnreorer, the attention of it* rarluus governments hno for a very long period been directed more to military (M)nqne«t than the arts uf peace t conseqtiently, internal imprnvetnents have not adranced, the dfvieloo of labour nss not )et been ex< ercised on a great (csir, machinery ha* hardly been brought into URi'. nud spnrecapitnlliasnot been created to foster skill and labour, lleniden these muses for the backwardness of manul'iH tores and commerce in France, the existing government, from a mistaken, though common policy, and following the footsteps of Napoletm, has placed the most vexatious restrictions on the foreign and home trade. " Notwitbstandlng the vast Importance to a rni'! iry like France of sup- filies of inm and hardware at a c^eap rate, that which I produced by foreiffners is e> cioded, though it might be obtained for half the pricu of thai which Is manu- factured at home. A limilar line of policy has beet. fiillowcd as to cnttonyarn, earthenware, &v. Anil In order tofone tnenianufacture of sugar from the beet- root, oppressive duties have been laid, not only on foreign sugar, but eren on that imported from the French colonies. The operation of thin syhttMn on the commerce and industry of the cormtry bits |i?rii nioit mischievous. By forcing France to iiilnu iit borne articlcM for tbe prnduttiun of which bhe has no natuial or acquired capabilities, the exportation, and conne- quentty the growth, of tho!0 of individuals, or u tenth part of the population, are employed in ttiis great trade, and that the vHlue of the prodnitt i>f the wine is about Ii.40,(NiO,fMlll Hut tha liitth In this vatu. able commoditv Is exi«edin^ly luitupmcd by restric- tions ; and both this and the nilk trade havo decUaod in 1 »te yf»iirs. The commerce of France may thua be summed up, The exports are wine, brandy, oil, corn, meal, tlqueuri, snutf, Hilks, woollens, fiincjrgood.ioiall kinds, watches JH)rcelain, crystals, carpels, brimze, linen, lace, ctm- iric, tapestry, hemp^ flax, fruits, capers, salt, jewel. lery, paper, &.c. ; and France reieives the raw produce of all anintrJBS, but very few manufactured giinds. |n the year 1824, tbe value uf alt the ezportn nl France umounttd to 440,Mt!.(H)O francs, ot whi< b 103,050,000 were in natural products, and '277,4m),llOO In manufactured goods. In thebame year, goods ImporttH) into France to tin' ii'iioitof 'if lB9,Ljfi,'NH) francs in {i'M\j Fienrh veiieU, to lh( aiiiiiiirtt nf 108,ni)7,Om» IVancs in IIHII foietgn ri-Jiels, Bin) tu llti^ amountol l.iO.iUD.OiKi by hmd t the whole imuortatiiui amounled to4r)4,I>(!),01H) rnuuti. The principal ports are Bordeaux, Marfleilles, Nantes, Havre de Grace, ^t tiain, I/Orient, and Dunkirk. The commerce ul larseillei ts mostly with tlie Levant and the \Vei>l ndics; that uf Bordeaux with Asia, the U'etit In- uier, and the north of Kurope. Calais aud Dunkirk carry on a very Iticratlva contrahimd trade witi 'iug- land. Havre de (irare In the seaport uf Faris, whitjb has a very extensive Indirect trade and dealings in bills of exchange with foreign Ctiuntiies, Amiens ex. ports great quantities uf velvet; Alibeville, KIbeuf, LiouvJer, and Sedan, trade mainly in cloths ; Cainbray, Valenciennes, and Alen^on, in cHmbrlcs and line laces. (Vtte, the port trf Montpellier, has an exten- sive trade in Spanish and cidonlal goods. The com- meri-e of Bayonne is chietly with Spuin. Silks form a principal article of the commerce of Ijyons, which Is aitutttiMi in the centre of the roads leading to Switzer. land, Spain, Italy, and (icrmany, and has annually four fuirs. For Strasburg, iin exVcllent turpentine is ■n itnportaut article of trade. Lisle has a direct in. tercoiirse not only with all the c(iinnit>>ciHl states oflvu- rope, but aim) with the Frenuh and. Spniiiih colonies, and ui(h the licvaut. The other ((inuni-rcial towns of importance are Jtheiins, Troves, (irenoble, Nisnies, Angouleme, Oognac, Nitntes, Kouen, Kuchelle, and Caen, (irenuble supplies France, Italy, Spain, and even Great Britain, with line ghtves. Ueaucaire has an important fair. The French colonies are Martin. Ique, (iuHdaloupe, St liuclu, itiul Afariegalante, in the Went Indies; Cayenne, In Soutli AmericJt; Pondi- cherry, Chnndernagure, and stune other posseHHitiiiii in the Hast Indies; with Rcverul factories oh tl.ewettt- «rn coast uf Africa, and on Ihith sides of Cape Verrior ftkill in navigation, fJiey at this time ciigrun^pd nearly the whole of tbe 2i:i trade of carrying goods. But th«y toon after this pa- riod Wgan to dticllna ai a commercial people. Thoir republican froedom merged in corruption and abuse ; tbe most burdensome Uxes, or excise duties, were impowd ( and their power, which was hence paralysed at its very root, was gradually lubTerted abruad by the enterprise and perbeverance of the British. Holland at length sunk into tlie character of a second or third, rate cummercial nation { though the trade which it still possesses is very considerable. Its chief exports are butter, cheese, linen, cloth, drugs, and paints, fish, wheat, linseed, cluver'Seed, geneva (gin^, dye- stuffs, paper, &c. The principal commercial cities in Holland aie Amsterdam, Hotterdam, and Gro- niiigen. Before the decline of Dutch commerce, Amsterdam was one of tbe greatest commercial cities uf the world, the mart of goods from the East and the West, and from the principal states of Europe. To the exchan^ and banking business, uf which the t liMiinel was Amsteidutn, thr Dutch were also, In part. Indebted for their great prosperity. With Hamburg, Amsterdam is yet the centre uf the exchange business between the north and the south oi Europe, altbongli from the time that tbe credit of the bunk of Amster- dam dtniiniflhed, this branch of buttiness has declined, a great portion of it being transferred to Hamburg aud liundon. The imports are grain, wood, coal, tal- low, wax, rags, Ac, For the coluuial trade of Hol- land, tbe pussession of Batavla, Amboyna, Banda, Teruate, aud Macassar, in the East Indies, is of im- portance, as are also tiie commercial settlements on the Corumandet ami Slalalisr coaxts, and tliose at Bantam, Padang, .lupun, &c. In Africa, Hulland has Slime forts in Guinea; in America it possesses Su- rinam, and tbe West India islands uf Cura^-uo, St Kustatia, and St Martin. ho commerce of Belgium, which lies adjacent to, >u /as recently politically joined with Hulland, has I.-; ' r been of anygreat importaace. Belgium bus few maitufuctiires, the principal being lace and carpets ; it h:iS no citlonieH, and little foreign trade; what is worse, it has no vii^'uruus indnsiry, and no capital. Its chief towns are BrusselN, Antwerp, Ostend, and (ilient. C.irn, tapestry, lace, line linen, and llax, are its uriucipal articles uf export. OEHMANT. On account of its navigutiJe rivers, the commerce uf this countrjr in amsiderahle. The chief articles uf expmt are linen, linen yarn, raw wool, raffe, quick. silver, corn, limber, flax, lu-nip, wax, lard, fait, wine, and metals. Itn Inipnrts are wot>llen8, cottons, and silks, hardware, walches, tanned leather, leather goods, tea, c^icoa, dyewoods, hides, colonial and Eitst India goods. Tbe principal ports of Germany are Ham- burgh, Diilwck, Bremen, Trieste, and I>antzic. In the interbjr its chief commercial cities are Vienna, Magdeburg, I^eipsic, Frankfort on the AIniue, Frank- fort on the i Ider, Augslmrg, Berlin, Brealau, Cobigne, Nnrpinberg, Brunswick, Slentz, Bot/en, and Prague. Hatuhnrg, in particular, is the channel through which flows, for the most part, the extensive trade between Great Britain and the German States. By means of the rivers running into the Elbe, the navi- gHtion til whidi bus now become free, the numerous and valuahleproductimisof Cpperand Lower Saxony, of Auhtrla, and Bohemia, go to Hamburg. By the Unvtfl, the SpiTP, and tbe Oder, hn commercial ope- rations are extended to Brandenburg, Silesia, Moravia, and Poland. The husiness of Hamburg consists, in part, uf the Ciinsifnunents of foreign merchants, Hiid. to a great extent, of the purchase and sale uf domestic and foreign grnKls. Its tnoney transactions are very considerable. Bremen has important articles of export in tbe products uf Westphalia and i^ower Saxony, which it sends to England, Spain, and Portii- gij ; and with America it has more intercourse than any other seaport of Germany. The trade in linens whlchforelgncoonti'it scarry on with tiermany, pauses wholly through the hands ot the Hamburg and Bremen merchants, to whom all foreign orders are directed. Theimporiathmoftohaccotrom America in to Germany is almost wholly through Bremen, l.eipiiic, theixntre of Euntpeau trade with tlie interior of <}ermany, and the place of deposit for foreign and Saxon goods, has, besides other mercantile privileges, three fairs (Easter, Michaelmas, and the New i ear), to which mer. chants resort fnmi ail parts uf t;iiro|w, and from A&ia, and euh uf which Juach three week) : there is, besides, ut this place, a considerable market for SaxoM v. 'ot. The chief articles uf trallii: are Bo. hemian, Silesian, and Saxon linen ; le.ithnr, hides, wax, and wool, from i'uland ; wtMillen gmids and pig. ments, from Prussia; silks, velvets, aud corals from Italy; leather, various manufactnrus, and dyestuffs, from Austria and Htingary ; laces, hilk ^tHtds of all kinds, ribbons, porcelain, watches, hronzt* and other manufactures, including fancy articles, from France ; leather, hemp, and tlax, from Kussia; cohmial commmlities and manufactures, from Engluml and Hulland; and literary productitins trum all Europe. There is also in l^eipsic an iniportnnt lH>r!ie-market. Augsburg, by meauH of its agents and hankers, is the medium of mercantile communication between Ger. many aud the soutli of Europe. The exchange nusi- ness of Vienna is commonly transacted by d raits on Augsburg. It also derives consMlerable'advouiage fnuu the lorw.irdi:tg of gomis to and Ironi Italy. Frankfort on iIim Maine, a plitce of great commercial activity, especially at the tiuii; uf its two great fairs, in the ipringf and autumn, haa, betides, averyimpor. tant bubineat, owing to the opulence of iti old and new banking-hotuea. AUITRIA ii entirely separated from Germany by its lyttem ci imposts and Its commercial regulatloni. Its trade is mostly carried on by land, or on the riven. Vienna, tbe storehouse of the Inland trade of all Austria, haa a very extensive commerce with England, the Ne- therlands, and France, and important dealings with Italv, Hungary, Poland, and Turkey. By the waf of Vienna, Germany receives great quantities of ra# cotton from Turkey. The commerce of Trieste, 1ft the Idttorale, consists chiefly In the exportatloa of Gernisn productions and of colonial goods, which go from thence to the Levant, and the coasts of the Black 8ea. Trieste may he regarded u the depdt of the productions of the Levant. It is also actively en- gaged in the importation of British wares, and of tbe produce uf the fisheries of Newfuundland. Except this city, the commerce of Austria is confined tu Ve* nice and Fitime. The moat considerable places of inland trade in the monarchy, besides Vienna, are iiemberg, Prague, Brunn, Brody, Botzen, Pest, and Cronstadt. The allowed imports consist mainly of raw produce, cotton and wool, silk, rice, oil, spices, colonial articles, leather, cattle, &.c The articles of export are woollen cloths, linens, cordage, mineral productions, grain, and glass. Great profit is derived from the transportation of gt>ud->, especially of those of the Levant. In Bohemia, far the greater portion uf the trade is in the hands of the Jews, who are nu- merous in the country. The trade is chiefly in ex* jiorts ; linens, wo4)llenR, silki, dyewuod, leatiiur, and glass. The glass is superior in polish and cheapnesa to that of other countries, and the exportation of it is very considerable. It is thought that the goods ex. ported to Spain, Russia, the Levant, and America, amount to iI,5U0,0l>0 guilders annually. The conn- tries with which Bohemia has the most commercial interouurtollen and cotton gotKls, fine works uf art, including articlea made of amber. The chief port is Dantzic, which is situated on the Vistula, and, after Petersburgh, is the most important centre uf commerce In the nurtbern part of Europe. This city is the great warehousing dejidt for receiving corn from tbe iuterior, and exporting it CO other European countries. Of the different com- mercial places, Frankfurt on the O'ier has three con- siderable fairs. Alagdeburg bends corn, linen, cotton goods, cloths, leather, salt, and cupper, to Hamburg, and to the fairs of l^eipsic and Brunswick. It has, l>esides, a transit trade in cohmial goods, wine, grain, dec. Timber Is exported from Klbingen, Stettin, Kd- nigsberg. Anclam, and Berlin ; staves and ashes from Dantzic, Memel, and Stettin; hemp, Hax and linseed, tallow, wax, and hogs* bristles, from Memel and Kunigsl>erg. Tilsit carrien on a )}risk trade in corn, linseed, hemp, ami flax. The ex.urts of Brunsberg are woollen yarn, corn, ami iiax. Colberg exports corn, and the other produce uf Pulaud. The trade uf StralMiud, likewise, consists chietly in the expor- tation of corn. 0( all the articles of Prussian com- merce, the Silesiau linen holds the tirst rank, and foi the manufacturing of it, the Silesiau towns llirsch* berg, Landslmt, Schmiedeherj;, Frieriland, Wulden- burg, Soliweidnitz, and the Prussian section of L'pper Lusatid, are celebrated. This Jinen is particularly in demand among the Hamburg, Engli^h, Dutch, Italian, and Souili American merchnnts. The imports which have the readiest sale in Prussia are cotfinial goc>ds, dyewoiid, halt, Buenos Ayres hides, indigo, groceries, wine, siiK, cotton gouda, hardware, \{i. (lAKOVKR is not distinguished tor its mercantile activity. The exports coni-ist of horses, liortied c.kttlc, lead, wax, linen, leatlier, salt, uat<«, barley, Limber, boards, and tbe ferruginous cupper of the Hartz mountains. The linens are ordinary ; the taldectotliH and Osnabruck damask u:e inferior in t|uahty to those of Prussia and Friesland. The surplii>: of the domestic causumptluu is exported to South America through the medium of the Hanscatic cities. The principal imports are Eng- lish maniilactures, especially woollen cloths and cali- coes, colonial goods, Prutfian and Friesland hiien, fine French cloths, silks, jewellery, and French wines, with all kinds of small articles of luxury, which the Hallux erian merclmnt brings with hiiu from the fairs of Brunswick. Leipsic, and Frankfurt on the Maine. The cinef commercial towns are KmdeD, Hanover, aud ,M linden. DENMARK ANt> IIOI.flTEIN. Although the Danish merchants have fornipd vnn^ umt'utiin with ail the ctmimercial states of Europe, and act att important part iu the cummerce both of the w / CHAMIIKIISS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLK '*t t$ ill -'^J-'imerndipaii and the ItHttic, thuir own country f>'>! of PeterAhurgh, Uif^a, 8u>ckholni, and Ale- me], Dftimark i'nrrr«s the wtHtltun (tnodti of Iceland and the Fnnw Ulandxt salt fnim ^et.oil, l gether with the ctuumon articles of toitsump- lion ; receiving, in return, freiih, dry, and salt lisb, train-utl, tallow, eider down, wsesReA Tranqiteliar ; oi. the coast of tininea, Christiaulior^' and other small places. It has also small fact«>rie« on the Ntudtar Islands. In Europe it possesses IceUrid. The chief commercial companies io Denmark are, the Asiatic or East India Comp^iny, the Iceland Company, the Afaritinie Insurance Company, the Africao, nr Danish Weaf India, uud the (ieuer.tl ('Mmnten-tal ^•ocietv. ITALT. Although Italy poK-(e>!iea the mo<4trn, olive- oil, wine, brandy, silk, cotton, wool, hetrp, tlax. vel- vet, datnask, barilla (loda), sulphur, stiuiach, gall- nnt^, madder, velntii or vtdunia, and other dyesturiTt; sftina leave", liquorice jin're and root, juniper berries, ai>d other drugs; anchovies, almondy, tfgii, nuts, nlue*, currant*, rat>ina. aiid other fruim ; rjgs, chip and straw hat», the skins of iheep and kid^, and mar. I'je. The principal comniercial cities are Florence, (ifu.ta, Iri>g)iorn, N»ipte«, Venice, and Ancona. I/cglic.n in the main ch.'tnnel of the trade of Italy with thu litfv.uit and iJie Itarbnry Siati >, ami the renttal point of the «>mmerce of KngUnd iit the Me- diterranean. A great part uf iu tradf in in the hands of the Jeirs. Silks, tatTeta, satimt. broradcs, light woiillen goods, velveu, &c, are the main articles of »X('Ofi fioin I'hireiice. These p'M ■linm/h leghorn. Mod !>etl readily in tiie I.evunt. .Mili:i md Turin carry II n a very exten.^ivc trade in thi'ir ^ilk, wliich in Cflehrated throughout IJurope I »r as admirable fineness and lightness. Anoma has intercourse with the lirsl commercial cities of Kuropr. its buhinoKS IS chretly agency and ftmimiti^ton Imsiiie^^, Some tiik is exported from Nice. The exports of Lucca are olive-oil, silk, damahkx, fiuii. \r. Much olive- oil is exported from Uallipili. The trade of (ienna continues c-iusiderabje. It^ export* are velvet, da- mask (which, next n the Venetian, m the most esteemed in Kurojat quaniitie^. f *rni the most considerable c-ui*utntfuts of the t'oretgn trade of Venice. Tlie ex- p*iru of Naples uieolive«netit of which, however, is almost destroyed by ihu we tkiiess of the government), turn. sist of silk, grain, barilla, sulphur, ulive-ttil, wlnt<, cantharides, suni»ch, .nanits, coral, rags, almonds, tigs, raisiiui, nuts, authovres, aml>er, goat, buck, and shet-p skins, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, Ac, and pine applea of remaritalde size and ex(|iiisite tla- vrnir. The chief port ii .Mtftsina; next to this (xjmes I'alermo. The ei ports of Sardinii are. chieflv, grain of un- common excelienre, tunny-iii>b, hides, barilla, and •ait. tagliari is the most considerable commercial i orsir« exports silk, otivv •tud rt>d Corals. The silk gi Lyons. Ki d the corals ;ire * they are manufactured and Afiica, to tie sold to the M> i>il, and bltrk, white, k mostly u> (ietH>a anti .1 at .Marseilles, w)ii>rn olikhed, to Iff sent to and Negrtw€, 'i' O rsxan ports arc, .\j»tcio, [l,i^ttu, and i'orto Vrc- ctia. 31alta, which Is, like Uibraltar, a depot for llrliish and colonial gtHidi that are tti be disposed of in the Alediterranean, ex[Hirts cotton, oranges, and other fruits. The Ionian Islands (Cephalunia, !!ante, Corftt, Santa Maura, &.c.) export wine, brandy, olive-nil, raisins, currants, citrons, melons, pomegranates, ho. ney, cotton, and v^alt. The raisins and currants are superior to those of the Morea in quality. The wine is Muscadel. The cimimerce of the island of Cyprus is inconsi- derable. It exports cotton, wot)l, silk, wine, suit, turpentine, Turkish leather, Ac. Its largest com- morcial cities are Larnioa and Rhodes. The exports of the island of Candin, which, by its situation, is designed for the mart of the Enrnpenn, Asiatic, and African trade, consist of oil, soap, wax, wine, linseed, rasiins, almonds, laudanum, ^c. RlTfl^lA. This largA empire has greatly Increased its com. merce Id modern times, but its nterchants engaged in foreign traffic are mostly foreigners, who are placed under various restrictbms injurious to trade. The main element of the Russian comtvu-roe ties ii) the iminensitv of the raw produce of lu*' country, an tal- low, hides, aiul Aax ; and unless these commmliiie^ found a vent in foreign countries, among which (ireat Britain takes most, the greatness of 'tusiia, which is founded on no proper principle, would speedily crtiin- hie in pieces. The principal commercial city of Russia is Petershurgh, at the confluence of the Neva with the (Inlf of Finland : Riga is secoud in import- ance, and commands the Baltic trade. The chief exports from these and other ports are tallow, hemp, flax, iron, copper, grain, dealc, ship mast^, potashes, bristles, linseed, hempseed, oils, furs, leather, hides, and skins of various kinds ; canvass, cordage, wax, isinglass, tar, and other raw and partially manufuc tured articles. The principal imports tire cloths. cotton g(MHJs, silks, salt, wines, and all foreign artlch'H 'iflnsury. l)y the Bbtck Sea, and the Sea of A/oph, Russia carries on a tolerable trade with variou> Turkish ports. It likewise carries ou trade to some ejitent with Persia, and otlisr i^unntries in the East by means of land carriage- SWI m:N AMI NOilWAV. The articles exported from the twenty-eight Sweii. ish ports are iron, steel, copper, pitch, tar, lir, alum, and fish. The chief commercial cities are Stockholm, (iottunhurg, and Gelle. Cartscrona carries on consi- derable trade in iron, timber, pitch, tar, tallow, pot. anh, linseed, Ac, which articles are sent mainly to the French, SpHiiisb. and Italian ports, lornmunly in excbangi* lorsaU 1 he exports of (iotienbitrg aie tish, iron, steel, aurt hoards. The institiitions of Sweden for the promotion uf commeice are, the llaiik, the Kust Indut <'unipany, the West India f'inpany, the Levant C'ommercial t.'ompany, the A xH-iaiion of In. dustry, A^c. From Norway are imported iish, oak and lir timtH'i-. deal t>oards, masts, alnm, vitriol, fish, and seal-oil, pitch, hides, woollen stockings, iron, copper, and tar. Tlie chief commercial cities are Christiania, llergen, Droutheini. ClirisiJausaud, Drammer, and StJtvanger. -I I 1 'IKHI.AND. * Switzerland has a consideralde foreign trade. Its exports consist ctitelly of tine linen, i>ilkii, velvets, unitationii of Kasi India goods, and shawls, line cali- coes, chtcks, watches, ribbons, wine, cheese, h> ney, &C. The most importaut articles t»f imponatiou are colonial and Kast India goods, from lltdland ; salt, grain, wool, and cloths, from Lermany; raw cotton, silk, \c. from Italy; manufactures of various kinds, from Knglai'd { wine and lirandy Innn France. 1'he principal commercial cities of Swii7,eiland are Itasle, Uerne, Zurich, (ieneva, and NeulcbateL Hl'AIK. For three centuries, with the decrease of the indus- try of Spam, us trade has lieen on the de->tine. 'i'his country might have mtnnipotjsed the coiunierce of the world, if it bad uiiderstotal anil imp*'-ved iis situa- lion. Tl>e natural wealth of the tmu is, neverthe- less, still the prop of its trade. The most important prxduriioiiB are w(>4d. filk, salt, iron, topper, coal, ((uicksilver, liarilla, rice, salipetn-, sugar, almonds, olives, oranges, lemons, li>ts, wines, brsndy, and fruit. In Segovia and l^eon, abottt l,IHH),(HM) arulws of line wind are annually collected, uf which about four-fifths are dispttsed of tti the French, Dutch, and Knglisk. TheexctdlentSpaninb wines, brandy, Iruil, barilla, \<:. are ur'ilUable articles for the country. From the port of Barcelona, etcrllent silks, coarse cli>ths, and cotton giK>ds, with wine, brandy, almonds, nuts, and other productions, are ei|Htrted ; in return for which, the same port receives the silks of Lyuns, the hiAiery of Nismes, various kinds of stutls and canton goods, <)U,iHH) dollars. Tlie exports of Vutancia coniist prlnclpalJy of silk, barilli (soda), coarse wind, dried Iruiis, wine, and braiuly. The latter Is exported cbielly t>y the Dutch, and cur- ried tu Normandy and Bratagne. The Knglisb carry Ut Spain chiefly wuuUen cliKb , tlie French, linen, WfNdlen cluth, cutlery, groceries, ^c. From the port of Alicant, the Spaniards export cbinnv dried frutts silk, wiM>l, harilla, wine, ( astile so.ip, olives, salfmn. a kind of riK-bineal called ^rrl/i'i, and salt , of ivlin h last, the liiiglisb and S.viilrs aniiiuilly tak« upwards uf iiieNs is transacted without the Turks liuviiig the slightest part in it. ASIA. Tlie commerce of Asia is mostly inland, carried on chiedy in Western and Middle Asia, by meun.s of those caravans (called by a poet fbe JfrrlM of the tit- fert), in which sometimes more than /HI.OOO mercbants and ira\elters are collected, while the numbtr of camels is far grcttt*T. The central point of this trade by caravans is Mecca, which, during the presence of the caravans, oTcrs to the eye of the travellt-r a rn. Bassora is, by its situation, the mart of the active E.ist Ltdian, Persian, and Arabic trade, carried on in the Persian (iulf. Its trade with the East indies i^t very I'onstdet-able, it being the channel through which the Oil. •man empire is supplied with the groceries tif the Las', and with the manufactures of the British p<'S. sessions in the East Indies. The principal port of the Levant Is Smvrna, a very important depot of the merchandise of the Eatit and West, 'i'he art i*l;,iis' luur, and ntiilfs made of ilie same material ; for the An^tora goats' hair is manufartiiie'l iulu caiulct. in the i^tvaiit itself, and iu Europe, «spe. /: IMANTJFACTURES AND COMMERCE OF THE ^VORi.D. IT a luort) riierchuii- rodiictiun* of I'ameli liver, nnt ■rut. i-y of tne ,>.»f (} ettfit, uiiil ti>i IS for u til tliat ire. Hy >tii'ii Pumi* >M<(liii-tiitnb iiiithirig to ,e qimiitity tit ti)t»(ii>f coitiitriiM. ,Clivf K;»Bt OK in tlitf itra i* vt* ry whtth llie rii'N of thv ritiih p"«- K, a very I^IIKt HIkI Lnt Hierof. roHii' Ituir, ^tt-t-Ptniiuk, Aii^crtt |4UHHtill««i tl)« hhiruo ciully in Ktiglaod, France, and Ilullaiid,tnmeof whose cainfrt munufactories keep agenU in Angora, throfigh whom they make their pnrchaKet. Damaiieut ia the centra of trade in Syria, and doei a gd denl of hiici. neu through the caravani, which go from the north uf Alia to Mecca, and from Bagdad to Cairo. Aleppo hai much commercial intercourse with Oonntantina* jile, ItaiKora, Bagdad, OamaacuB, and Scanderoon, or Alexandria, to which places caravans go ev^ery year tlirough Aleppo. Its exports am its own KJik and cot- ton g(M)dii, tiiH shawls and muslins of the Ka^t Indies, the gall-nuts of Curdistau, copper, and drugs. EAST ixniFS. For the long period of 4000 years, the products of India, so important in cominoroe, have remained the same ; (ov all the commodities and treasures of India mention<>4 tiy rhe ancients are to this day those for which the nations of the other quarters of the world resort thither, viz. rice, indigo, cochineal, and other dyestufTs, opium, ctittoii, silk, drugs, cinnamon, Cfissia, C4Koa-nuts, &c. The East India trade is mostly in the hands of the English, under the manngemrnt of the East India Company. Next to the En^rlish, the United States are most extensively engaged in the East India trade. Denmark carries tm but an incoii. fiiderable trade with the Kast Indies, and that once cfirried on hy Sweden is now almost annihilated, al- though, prior to the late great changes in the govern, ment of that country, the Swedish East India Com- pany WHS, of all the commercial societies of Europe, the liext regulated, and the most succeKsful in its ope* rations, next to the Englinh. The trade of Portugal with the British possessions in the East Indies is of importance; that of Spain, nn the other hund, incon- sideratile. Calcutta is the must important commercial CUV of the East Indies. — For complete information on tlie trHd(> of the Eabt Indies, we retei* to our article on that country. The trade which China carries on with Europe, British India, the United States of Amerir-a, (orhiii- Chin:i, uud Siam, with Japan, and the other Aniittic islanil.s. is very considerahte. The British imports intoCltina have hithert'iheen partly shli>ped by the East India Cimipnny, partly by private merchantH. Fr.im 17**! to X'JiH, the Company sent thitlier to the amount of U.:i47l,r)21 in goods, and L,.t,61Ut.'2fU intMiUion: from 1702 to lliOf), E. K»,.Vt2,;i:»t worth of goods, and i,.\:,4Vti,UHl in bullion. The exports which thef'om- pany made to England anmunted, from 1703 to IftlO, including duties, freights, ^c. to E.'ll,'20!l,422, and they were sold ior L.57,)liXI 274, lea\ing the C Next to the Knglinli, the people of the United .Suites have the most tr.ide with i'liina. It^ anu)unt has in- rreased 387 per cent, in 25 years. The exports of tea by the East ludi.i Conipinv, in this time, have also greativ increased. — For information on the hubjeiH of tlie tea i-tde and Chinese comtnerce, we refer to our article on China. From Siam and Ttniqnin are exported tin, ivory, diamonds, and other preciou^t htmies, gold dust, cop- per, salt, betel, pepper, wax. Mlk, timber, and Itckereit wares, nnd the commerce of these two eonntries is mostly in the hands of the Chinese and Portuguese. The import trade of China is cimducted to a great ex- tent by smuggling, on account of the icbtriciiouh oJ the government. >in('e the expulsion of the Portuguese from Japan, the eoinmurce of this countrv has been almost wholly ilomestir. The only foreigners with whom the Ja- pHuese stiU have any trade, are the Chinese and the Dtitcb, and these .ire limited to the single port of Nan- Sasaki. The ('hinese sup))|y the Japaiie^e with rice, I'lmrn'm p'»rrelain. sugar, ginseng, ivory, ^ilks, uan- kf'i'ii, le^d, till plates, alum, \r. ; and, in return, re- ceive I'opper, caniplior, lackered wares, pearls, corals, and u ntetal.ic ciwipositiou culled vuiras, cmisisting of I ii^per and a stnul) quantity of gold. The l>ntrh ob- tain chiefly copper, camphor, Inciter, nnd lackered x^ares. The Ji:pnnese sabres and daggi'rs are very exceitent, and are perhaps surpashuil^ only by the sa- hres of liamascuF. ATRUA. The want of navigable rivers, and the immeasur- itble deserts by which the fruitful regions of Afric;^ are separated, lorm an insurmountable obstacle to that (Xieiision of Commerce which the great fertility of thtt* >|iiarter of the glolie would promise. In addition to the intvrciurseof the interior, the conmierce of Africa li.t^ iis sources in Egypt, the Barlmry ."^tnte^t, on the »»(!«i co-.st tif (iiiinea, in the neightHuirhoiMl of the rivern (tuuihfM, Niger, and Senegal, at the Cape of camels. The three principal coun- t M> f.oin whlih they prctceed are Morocco, Fex, and l.^)p[. Tliecliief articles of [be inlar.d trade of Alii* a are nalt, gold, and slaves. The ^reatett carat .4us go Irom the western coast and fiom the infer. or by way «i TimbuctiH), the great mart of the inland tr:i tbe eailvrn cua'«i. Tiicie i> a considerable trade Iwtween the British settlements in the East Indies and Alowmblque, and the English obtain elephants' and hippopotamus' teeth, tortoise- shell, drugs, cowries, gold, &c. The commercial Interoourie of the Barbary States with Europeans is very incimslderahle and vacillating, and the little business whioh Is transacted is mainly in the hands of the French, British, and Americans. The exports consist of olive-oil, wax, wool, wheat, gums, almonds, dates, aromatic seeds, ivory, leather, hides, and ostrich -feathers. Even the coral fisheries on the coasts (fnmi Cape Rosa to Cape Ronax) Rre in the hands of the French and Italians ; and the annual produce of about A0,000 lbs. of coral is worth more ttian 420,000 dollars. But a far more important com- merce is pursued hy the Rarhary States with Arabia, Egy^it, and the interior of Africa. Tunis is the most important commercial state in Barhary. Tripoli has little trade, and Its exports ccmsist miMtly of saffron, ashes, senna leaves, and madder. The trade with the Capeuf Good Hope Is extremely advantageous to Great Britain. In 1821), the impor- tation of English goods exceeded L.:i30,000, while the exports of the colony (mostly Cape wine) did imt amount to E.60,UIN) 10 UO.OIH) boxes of oranges. The oranges of the island of Pico are re- I marknUle for their superior qnality. This inland also ! produces a Ite.iutiful kind of woihI, wlilch is almost I equal tt> mahogany. The staple productions of the I Canaries are archil in its raw stHte, roNewood, I f»randv, and Canary wine. Tlie la.'t goes cliielly to i tlie \\ est Indiei and England : in the latter country jt is alwavK sold for .Madeira wine. The Cape Verd Islaiuls export archil In a raw >(ate, nnd co.inte cotttin cloth lor the uf^e of the Afri- (' oi". 'J'he el iliu farmer in prexne'Cc to the arts of the tradesman. For this reason they form a nation which buys largely of British and to. reign manufactured goods, which they are well able to pay for hy the great abundance of their native pro- duce. Strangely enough, altlumgh it is clearly de- monstrable that this is the best course for the North Americans to pursue, their legislature has followed the blundering policy of European states. In impos- ing restrictions and duties on imports, with the view of forcing the people to leave the agricultural pur- suits which they have naturally discovered to be most advantageous, in order that they may sink their capital in unprofitable processes nf manufacture. The consequence of this folly has been most disastrous, not only to American foreign onnmerce, but to those for whose advantage the scheme was contrived. " In- stead of the goods manufactured in the States (says Mr Al'CuItoch)* being as cheap as similar ones ma- nufactured in Europe, they are admitted to he, at an average, from 30 to 100 per cent, dearer ! The ex. tent of the pecuniary sacrifice that is thus Imposed on the Union has been variously estimated by American writers ; but we have been assured by those who have the best means of knowing, that it may be moderately estimated at from 50,000,000 to 60,000,000 dollars, or from about L.11,000,000 to L.I3,000,000 ! And this immense burden — a burden nearly three times as great as the whole public expenditure of the republic— is incurred for no purpose of public utility, and is productive of nothing but mischief. The whole effect of the scheme is to divert a certain amount of the national capital from the production of cotton, wheat, rice, tobacco, &c (the equivalents sent to foreigners in payment of manufactured goods), to the direct production of these goods themselves I And as the latter species of industry is nowise suitable for America, a tax of L.13,000,000 a-year is imposed on the Union, that the manufacturers may be enabled to continue a losing business. " We entertain too favourable an opinion of the Americans (continues this studious and intelligent writer) to suppose that such a system can be perma- nent. It has been established in opposition to the wishes of all but a majority of Congress ; is exceed- ingly unpopular in the Southern States, and generally throughcmt the Union ; and has been repeatedly con- demned by committees of the legislature. In an able report by a committee of the house of representatives, dated 8th of February 1830,' it is said, ' We had be- fore us the prospect of a long and general peace, and our policy should have been regulated accordingly. Our revenue laws should have been restored grudn- ally, but decisively, to their condition previously to the war. Our policy unfortunately took another di- rection. The tariff of 1816 laid the foundation of all our subsequent errors; and we have now been en gaged for ^fteen years in an unprofitable experiment to effect what embargo, non-importation, non-inter- course, and war, failed to accomplish. We have at- tempted, by the mere force of congressional decrees, to resist the natural and salutary tendency of our in- dustry to commercial and ngricnitural pursuits. \V» have been steadily bacrificing the commerce, naviga- tion, and cipital, of New England, merely to bring forward new competitors in manufacturing, to em- barrass our old and ^kilful artizans, and to niiu them- selves. We liave, from sessicu; to session, kept trade in sucli agitation and uncertainty, that the value of property could never lie ascertained till tha adjourn- ment of Congress ; and this we have called encourag- ing and protecting our Industry ! We have wasted millions of our ancient profits of ciimmcree in a vision- ary experiment to Increase our national wealth. In a leglalative attempt to make ourselves more completely independent of foreign nations, we have effeotuallv un- dermined the foundation of that naval power whica can alone protei't our countrv from foreign aggression,'" With ihefe observatitms (Ui the present cimditlon of the United States, as regards the principles which re- gulate their manufacturing and commercial economy, we proceed to notice the htate of trade generally. The exports of domestic productti for 1828. according to the cnstom-house estimates, were 00,fiC9,CC9 dolbirs. (The dollar is worth a'inut 4s. fid. sterling.) Thoxe of cottnn, the great stajjlc of the country, were 22,187, 22'J dollars, nnd, accordingly, nearly lialf <.f the entire unnniiit. The next greatest export is that of tobacco, u'hicti amounted to r>.2fJ9,0f;0 dolors. Of rice, the export amounted to2.(l20,(i!t(MnllBrs. The valutr of tbeoe three articles, lieing nver 30,000.«0!) dollars, thus constituted three-;'ifibs of toe whole. In tile annual returns ni:«de d; Congress, the exports of domestic pn>ducts ai-e divid 1 into thohe o( the sea, i\ie forest, agricufnr,^ , M\t\ mt'iuffictures. The three species of agricultural articles nbove mentlonnd are mostly the productions of the Southern States, including Virginia -id Kentucky. The other ex- ports, cotri'ng nuiier t!io fame head, are "ii' .Iv fur- nisbeil by the i\Ii(idle and U'estern States . namely, fieef, lallnw, hides and cattle, bntier, cheese, pork, baron and bo^s, horses, mules, sheep, flour, bis. cults, corn-meal, rye-meal, oats, poiaN'es and ap- ple.-*, Itax-Keeii, and hop«. Of theHi* urticlex, the priiici|iFil aie riour and biscuit, the vabn at which was 4 U')4,iy. dollars, being the tbir.J article in value nuioiig the exportH. I'he fifth anich f >t value is that of swine and their products — vm., bston, pork, and lard, the value of which was \ Mt\ti'Mi dollars, m^k. . • tdiTiii/v-iAl Iikilonio; I -»iiii.!i- S-w I***, ^m / I fi'f CIIASIDKnSS INFORMATION FOR THE PF.OPLF,. ing rtUout onB thirty-ihird piirt in value i>l" Hirf wii.do flxport. The artiolM «r corn-meal and lyu-ineHl amountml to }U11,SU4 dtillam, conitituting m liule mora than ono-Kixtieth part of the whole exporu. Cattle and their urodiirts, iucliiding hotter and cheese, exc«odetl the lait amount^ beiutr li!Hi,:il(t dollars. This specirs ol* export is of far lest coui. fwrative iiupttrtance in the trade than formerly, beiiiK imited t4) iu present amount, not hy the capacity for prt)dut:tion, hot by the extent of demand iu the foreiirn markets; for an iiierease of the foreign de- mand would very stxin double and treble the 4uantity. Some of tlte articles oompreheuded in the above list, though agrirnltural products, yet involve some pro- cew of muiiufacture ; such, i.o- example, as butter, cheeoe, baron, flour, bi&uuit, meal, and part of the tobatixk A great many, however, t>f iho exiiortu coming under the head of muntifacturet., iiicludti tn them the value of materials rupplieil by agriculturt*, such as the cotton fabrics, those of leatlier, md spirits distilled f'*om ^riiln ; so that, on the whole, the strictly agricultural products of the country constitute a larger proportion of the whole exports tliau the ta- bles represent; and yet the proportion i:eprt>iieuu>d hy the uhlns is very large, being 36,5OO,0lKl tint of the &U,(KI0,tKIO ; and if we add the value of the nmierialH supplied by Hgriculture for the manufactured exports, we ithall lUve at least six.sevenths of the whole do. niMtic exporutioa consisting of the raw products ul agriculture. The prtHlucts of the whale, cod, mackerel, and herring ftHheries, exptirted mostly from the Nor- thern Stutes, amount to l,ti!)3,9B0 doUnrti, Wing nearly a thirtieth part of the whole douieitic exporu Nearly one-half of this value consists of codtinh, and more than one-third of the pniducts of tlie whule- tisheriei. The value of shins, furs, ginseng, lumber, staves. Iwrk, tar, pitch, nwln, and turpentine, and pt>t and fwarl ashe^, partly ir«Mn i\w Northern and nsrtly from the Southern States, which were formerly of iniuh gre to Europe and (.'anton ; the ginneng to t Nuton, but in less quantity than formerly, Wing, in WWII, but <>l,lf»4 dollars ; and the p''tH),<)00 dollars, being atwut tiiirteen per cent, of the whole d.mtestic exports ot the country. The value of raw materials imimrted, and itien wrought up in m.inufaciured articles, and exported, and inciudcd in the list of domentic nianu- faciuns, may b« ehiiiuaied at alnnit '20U,4)UU ur U;M),tMHi doilais ; leaviii}; the iiui exports of manufactures from the riiw products supplied by the ifiuntry about ,'>,7.'»Q,U00 dollars. As cotutn fabrica form a large item iu klus listitf expt>rti'd manufactures, and tho.^f Idi'rics are moAtly tit the cotrser kind, the raw nm- tcriiit will constitute a very i^onniderable part id' their value, and the proportional value of the direct wages i>t liiaimfacturiug labour incorporated in theke ex- ports will W prfipiirlionally leas. Taking the whole tilt tif tloini-ntiL- manulattureil articlei together, and making allowames for tho cost of the raw materials, in their rudest state, after they are taken from the ground or from animal.", and assume the character of nierchandiae, hy de«lucting their value Irom the gnws amount of thtt of the exfHirted nianulai ture», the remainder, wlui-U i* tliu renuU of the uianufac. tuiing labour, interefti of Ciipit;tl, luid profits iucnr- porateil intti thetw niateria'i, to bring them into tlie aute in which thry are exported, may be estimated at about 4,(KM).mt() dollars. We will now glance hastily at the description!! of ■rtiilaaon which tlie aru of the I uiie^l ^ut«s are eniplujad for the supply of fonign markets; and the mtist tonsidurthle of tliein ta cottmi twitt, tliread and fitbrica, the vxiMiru«d value of which, for the year lUiU, wan I (MMJ.IHM dollars and a fraction over, Uinir one-riftieth part of the whole domestic exports, the principal markats of whtcU are South Amerna, tMvx* iui, and the Mediierraueau. The value of leather, and iu various manufactures, ex|Hfru-d, is a little oter OOiMNM dollars, making t>ne per cent, of the cntirv exporu of the destriptnm of which we are speakinu. The value ol hau eip«irtvd during the same year was aUmt 3Xt,3UU dollars—a very large aanmnt, const- dvring the siiof I peruid since this article has been sent Ut toreipt uiarketi. l*oap and candler huve l»ii^ been supplied lor the fur,1M)0 dpresMHi and types, musical in. Btrumenta, iHtoka, maps, paper and statiimery, and trunks. It is apparent, from the above enumerat i and estimate*, that tlie manufactured articlea, of which the export is mostcunsiderahte and the most flourish. Ing, ire those of which the raw materials couaist mostly uf cotbm, wood, and leather. The foreign articles imported and again exported from the country, during the same year, aronunted to 21,Al)i^,Ol7 didlars. This transit trade thus api>ears to form a very important part of the Ametitan com. merce. Dut one.third of thii whole amotint einisists of an article which affords very little freight, namely, specie, the export of which during the name year u'ai« about 7,<'>0t>,(HX) dollars. Another large item in value uf this transit trade, consists of i-ottmi fabrics, the ex- ports of which were J,()lK\(N)0 dollars. The foreign silks exported amounted to about a quarter as much. The value of wines exported was about yiJ3,3(>t) did. lara t that of teas abnut twice as much ; that of cotfee and rncoa, l,5(K>,(HH) dollars; and of sugar nearly 1,00(1,(>(H) (inllars. These are the most important arti. den of foreign cf port. The other exports ol foreign articles, previim»ly imported, amounted, during the same year, to about lt,(gM),UOO dtdlars in the whole hut it 18 not nei^ssary to enumernto Uiem. The imporu fir the same period, acr.ordintr to the custo;n-honse etttimates, amounted to HU,<'ititf,tl24 dol. Urs, aiul exceetled the estimated value itt the exports hyitbout l(I,2A0,(N)l) dollars. In regard to the various kinds i)f g, the imports were forty-two ninety.&ixlhs of Uie whule im{K)rtatinn. From the oflirl.il report of the treasury department, it appears thst the imports into the I'nited .States, during the vear ending September :I0, lR;!t), amounted to 7-t|4!t2t dollars In foreign vessels ; that the exports, during the same year, amounted to7*.:t<')H,ti71 dollars, of which •Vi,7(Nt,U)^ dollars were of domestic produce, and Hi,(kMl,47fl dollars of foreign priKluiK); thatofdo. mestio articles, 4'>.f>'l!' dollars 'n foreign vesH'N; and of the foreign articles, l.*i,l 14,8117 dollars wert< exported in American vessels, and l,MA,ii'.M dnllaro iu forei|rn vevi^ls ; that K7'-,lM(i tons ot Ame ricau >bippiiig entered, and tK4,7-***> cleared from, the porta of tbt I'liitiHl Stttes; and th.it i:Mt,743 tons of ft>reigu shipping entered, and lSS,tHM> cleared, during the same periixi. It appeaia fn»m otfinal htalements thnt since IffJJt the trade of the Statra has undergone an increase. For the year ending September MO, IfCi'J, the total ea|Mirta ainouiited to ft7,17(i!t/ifUi dollars. In the vuluatiou of exiM>rts, the produ<-e of the ttea and land aumunted t4> 4N,4Wi,IH.*i dollain. while the total of inanufactured oomtn>dities was only fi.()44.0l4. The omimerce of Mexii^i is at present cheeked by natural Hud poliiicnl caiiBe«. The want of river iwn. municatiim is a grrat impediment to its internal com. menv. Komdn lead from the fiUitttiujr to theseaportH, liul they are very iniperrecl, and Waits of burden, thi'relore, are preferred toearriages. which would not W Ht'le t>» make their wa\ . The princlnal objects of ex|Kn t are gold and silver, either in bullion, coined, firworkeil up in various ways; coidiineal, sugar, flour, indigo, salt meat, dried vegetable!, tanned hides, aar- saparilla, vaniUa, jalap, aoap, (ampeaihy wood, and pimento of Tabasco. Among tJie articles imported are woidlen eloths, silks ol livons, linen tinmi tlerniany. while and printed inlicoes from France, HiiKlaod, and the I'nited Statea, paper, china, Npirita, cacao, (luick- silver, iron, fctiM*!, wine, wax, jewellery, wBtchw« and clocka, and all kind* of oruameuts. iu IH-itt, \m^ lesi^eli etaeied the pMiift of th<' republic. Tbu cUiet port uf Mexico is Vera trui- Bnti *! Ncva Scotia, tape Breton. Prince hit- ward's Island, Newloundland, and lludstm's Hay. The manufactures of there oiuntrles are of that na- ture which might W supposed tii nubsiit in a newly settled toiuitry. The ir IuuthsI coiiMSti in the export of raw or i.mliatly )ofp;ire«l commodities, in exchange lor mviiilMi turett got»its, both for use and ornament. Thui. tbev export tiuiWr, nil, hah, leal-ikins, Kram, hi: t and It*' the Uiui»ii colonial regolatuii", thnvfn. joy the benelit of ini|iortlng g<*Mli in riturn ftinn iHi- t'nited Kingdom duty Ireik Their emu it luluuttett into Itntinh ports on paying a small duty; and also their w(Ntd, which, though Inferior to Baltic tImWr, ii admitted In preference, with a view to Wneliclng the colonies and our own commerce. Halifax and Fictou, in Nova Scotia; St John's, in Newfoundland; Montreal and Quebec, in the ('aiindas ; are the chief ports for export nnd import. The fisheries of Nova Hcotia and Newfonridland are ext«eitingly valuable, and are much encroiiched upon by the citixens of the United Htates. In Ut:*!), theite colonies Imported gootls from the United Kingdom to the vahie of L.2,11H,40U, and exported thence to thevalue of L.l, 141,^88. Tbees- timated value of the productions raised annually, in- cluding the dshertes, was Ij.l7,b*20,U2]K A consider, able trade is carried uu with the West Indies, as well as with the mother uiuntry ; some business is also done with tlui i'nited States. The wealth and popu- lation id' these colonies are increasing with the must gratifying rapidity, M)1TTII AMERICA. This extensive and naturally tine country, both as respects its climate and its mineral riches and products of the ground, wiui originally peopled by Hpaniardi, I'ortuKuese, and other ignorant and bigoted natiuni; and although in modern times its inhabitants, from nearly the one end of the Continent to the other, have HSMimed a species of political independence, they are still, generally speaking, the same slothful, impure, and ignorant race of Winifs they tormnrly were. The various nations into whicn they have Wen divided by political events, are little else than c^mfederacles of robbers, witli all the various classes of turbulent and troublesome individuals who have joined them from other countries. Brazil, Colombia, Buenos Ayres, Chili, Peru, Uuutimala, are the names of the princi- pal states ; and having fully described their churarter in our article on 8outh Ainericn, we do not require to extend our notices of their trade and character liere. It may suflice t4> state, that the chief exports are gold and silver — the produce of the mines, cu* chiueal, indigo, cacuu, ox hums, hides, and tallow ; iilio horse hides, wax, ci>ttun, wool, ilax, hemp, to- Itacco, sugar, C4>ffee, ginger, pimento, Peruvian bark, and most kinds of medicinal stulfs and balsams, ria. ho^nny and other line woods. The imports include every deicription of manufactured goods from Europe, and corn from North America. The people cau make almost nothing themiwlvea, and this quarter of the globe bus long formed a good market ft>r all kinds uf British goods, altliuugh these have f;-equently been exported nt a loss. The chief commercial cities of ^K)Uth America are Rio Janeiro, Buenoa Ayres, Lima, Carthagena, Caracca.'*, Potosi, and Bahia. The FInglish, Dutch, and French posieisions in South America, are Demerara, Berbice, lusaequibo, Surinam, and Cayenne. From Cayenne are exported, cloves, Cayenne pepper, aniuitta, sugar, cotton, coffee, and cacao; from Berbice, rum, sugar, cotton, cacaot &.C.; from Demerara, Sinrinam, and Ktisequibo, sugar, rum, cotton, colfee, and molasses. From Ilouduraa, mahogany and logwood are exported to (ireat Bri- tain; this trade at present engages 2U,t^HH) tons of shipping. WE3T INItlES. The chief itlands which coustitUiO the West Indies are Cn^a, Sc Domingo or lla\ti, Jamaica, Barba- does, Doirinira, St Christopher or St Kilt's, t^ura- ^'Bo, and (iuadaluupe. They have all very nearly the same pniductious, viz. sugar, colfee, wax, ginger, aud other spices, ma>tich, aloes, vanilla, quasMu, manioc, maize, cacao, tobacco, indigo, cotton, molasses, maho- gany, hmg peppers, liguum-vilir, Campeachy wood, yellow wihmI, guuis, tortoise-shell, rum, pimento, &c. Before St Domingo or Hayti became an independent guvurnnieut of blacks, it was the depot of the goods brought from Huvanuah, Vera I rua, liuaiimala. Car. tliagena, and Veue^uvla; but since that event, Ja. inaica hai« been the inagazine i>f all goods from the (}ult ol .Mexico. Trinulad is the great seat of the contraliand trade with < umaua, Barcelona, Marga. rit.'i, and Uuiaua. The imports are manuructurua uf all kinds, wine, flour, and formerly slaves who are still snmggtud into mauy of the Islandi. These fumi one grcM source of the tommerce of the world ; and we must refer ihe reader, for more particular infur- mntlun, to our article ou the West ludies^ aud to the Tables in thii sh««U AUHTRALIA. This fifth great division of ibe ghibe, comprehend- ing New South Wales, Van Diemen'a Land, and adjBient i.slauti», and behuifjlng to (ireat BriUin, in rapidly advancing in the arts oi civilised life, and an- nualiv increasing in its amount of impiirts and exports, as will as in domestic trade and pnMliution. In Uaa, tbefstitaateil value of land was I,.l,riOO,IH)0 i l, for which there is now a large demand in this country. The native nianut,« lure* are wind, ptttteries, brew- eries, dislillertea, \t ., and these have atuiiifd a cou.- p«»rnlive degir^ j-romierlty. 1.1 It l'U.ri %\k> by ONH .lO.l '^airM, t'»li-n»«»i*i IkmI, i.ii»»i'>«. ttiKi all "tl't-r ll'M'k«i' n.' ' r CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE "EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." N... 33. PaiOB lid. ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM. Klkcthicitv, irdtiL thu Greek word electron, amber, ii th« iiarne given to mi importknl bruich of Natural Phildsnphy, which treatf of tha pheaotnena and effectn pitidiicetl hy the friction or rubbinfi; of amber and other bddicA which possoss analognui properties. Thit> ncience, which embraces in many iiibjccts of Inquiry, nrrt mily remarkable In tbemulvev, but highly im- portant from their relatloni with every department of nature, li wholly of modern creation. Although the andenta (as, for initanoe, ThatM of Miletus, who fmmded a celebrated school of philosophy, called the Ionic) were acquainted with the mysterious power of attracting and then repelling light bodies which amber poeMKsed after being rubl>ed, and thn benumbing ahocks which are experienced on touching the torpedo, or electrical eel, yet the scattered facts were never generalised into a scientiGc theory. Indeed, the phi- losopher above named ascribed these results U) the pretence uf a soul or essence, which, rou ou thiK interesting subject, but the real R<'ieuco> of Aeo- tricity took its rise in a latter age. About the middle of the eighteenth c«ntury, several very remarkable facts were aicortiined, particularly that of Benjamin Franklin, which identitied lightning with electricity ; but the extensive relations which cinmect it with t<> many other departrnt-iaii of physical science were not disoaveced until the pre%unt century, nor was their importance until then appreciated. In this short era a new science has arisen, founded on that nioii!i of the philosophy of nature. VJi.ECTito.MAtiMKTiiiM is a Kill more recently ditcovertil province of science, and which identities as one, two {towers which were pre- vioii»ly regarded as distinct. As the best method of conveying a clear and at the sametimephilosophical view of this iiaL>rr>,iitin(ritcience, we shall in the first placo, independently o( all theory, state the most general and remarknble facts connected with it. After these have l>een enumerated, the reader will then he preparer! for a review of the theories wliich have been advanced for the purpone of explaining phe- nomena, and for cinnecting the viiNous facts in ttie mind. The guiieral facts relpting, to thin subject we think may be clasNed under two lieads — 1, The K.rci- $aHon of Electricity; and, 'i. the Dhtrihntion of Elec- tricity. Connei'ieil with each of tlieui heads are va- riiHis phenomena which we shall notice as they oicur. during the gradual developement ol tlin stibje<-t. EXtlTATIOy OF CI.ECTIUflTV, AM* nEBUl.TINi. rilKN.JULNA. If a pietTe ot nealing-was, amber, the glass of a watch, or any other smooth piece of glass, bo nibbed ii|MM a piece of dry flannel or woollen tluth, nr even tk« iiki»^e of a cloth coat, it will be found to have ac- i|oired a new and very singular physical property. This property is exhibited by huldintr the body which has been subjected to friction, over small and t«(^t snbstancM, ^nch as shreds of paper, gold leaf, featWr* simw, cork, Ac. Tbetewill he (ir^^t iiistanily o/r*^i/ / 10 it, some gf them adhering to its surfacv, othern faU- ing back to the place whence they were withdrawn, whilst others are thrown ofl* from the body as if they were repelled from it. The property which has ihu* been confen-ed upon the body by undergoing the pro- cess of rubliing, as above described, Is called electri- city i the body which has acquired the property is called &n electric i and the attraction whirh is exhibited is called electric attraction. In this state it is said to be excited, and tho body by which it is excited li deno> miriHted the rubber. Those substances which are not excited by nimilar treatment, are termed non-electrics. In order to render the above phenomena ^terfectly clear, and also to illnatrate certain remarkable facts, we stiall employ the following ligure : — 1) i.s supposed to be a small piece of cork ur the pith of wood, which is suspended from a stand A C D, by a ilry silk thread A 11. Having rubbed an electric, for instance a dry rod of glasrt, and presented it to D, the ball will be inatantaneouHly at- tracted to the glass, and will adhere to it. After they remain in contact for a few seC'inds, if the glaiis be withdrawn without being tmiched by the flnger.% and again presented to the ball, the latter will be repelled instead of beingat- tracted, as In the tirM instaiu'C. By being touched with the finger, the bull can he deprived of itx electricity ; and if, after this has been done, we present a piece of BealiuiT-wa^ in place of the glasB formerly em- ployed, the very same phenomena will take place. On the lirst application, the ball will he attracted ; and, on the second, repeUeJ. It is clear, then, in the 6riit place, that both these electrics have tlie power of at- tracting another body before they have communicated tt it any of their own electricity: and, sectmdly, that they repol the body after they have communicated to It a portion of their own electricity. But ft very remarkable circumstance takes place, if we, after having conveyed electricity to the ball B, bv means of excited i^lass, which was for a moment or two in contact with it, should present to it, after the former was withdrawn, excited sealing-wax : the ball, instead of being repelled, as it would have been wiMT the glass again applied, is attracted by the wax. If I'le ex|)eriment be reversed, and the excited wax tiritt presented to the hall, and then the excite4l gla«s, the intler will be found to ntpel the ball. '• Hei'ce it fiiilowd," saya Sir David Brewster,* " that excited ^h<,n repels a ball electritied by excited glans. Kx- cited WHX repels a ball electrified by excited wax. Kxcite.i tl^^f^^ aitracl,^ a ball electrified by excited wax. Excited wax attra-cts a bull electrilied by excited glass, i't-oni which we conclude, that there are two oppo- site eletrtncities ; namely, that prmluced by excited glauR, to \vbii'h the name of t'i/r^uujt or ;)(».'(i/iri> elec- irit iiy ha!) been given; and that produced by excited wax, tr^ 4t' electricity-" In th^^w rx|MrinH«M, electrlcitv has been produced by ^Vk.-z'y'M . i}ut t^»r« are other nwdiods of obtaining it. wtv- ^s h*»w*«»r, will be afterwards explained. * AriK-^ R)MCr»o(Ly in the tCticyfUifMetlia llntuinira, (lie >iHMt c^'iiiiirphc^Mv^ ■'itilutophical, coiupletc, &nil laoillUiblc trauue \i\>o\\ Uiu uUk^'wMiiifi H'i«iivi' winch w« have ever -^ct luci witlj. With regard to attraction and repulsion, a few iactii remain to be ttated. Some labstancei remain longer In contact with the electric than others, and two bo- dies which hare both been in contact with the lame electric, mutually repel each other. If electrics of considerable size are employed, the phenomena of course are best observed ; and if the experiment be per- formed iu a darkened diamber, flashes of bluish light will be seen to extend over the surface of the electric submitted to friction, and which we shall suppose is a cylinder of lealiog-wax, siJphur, or glass. Sparks, aocompanied also with a sharp snapping sound, will be seen to dart round it in various direaions. If a round body, as a metallic ball, be presented to it, and raored from one end to the other, a succession of sparks will be obtained as the ball passes along the surface ; and if the knuckle be presented instead of the metallic ball, each spark will be accompanied by a pricking sensation. If the cylinder be brought near to the fact-, an unpleasant sensation of tickling is felt in the skin, as if it were covered with a cobweb. If a metallic globe be suspended in the air by silk threads, and in that situation nibbed by an electric, it will also be- come electrical, and exhibit the same properties as an electric. It is essential to the success of this ezperi- ment, that it be insulated; that is, cut off from all c.ommunication with any substance, except the air and the electric which sustains it. The instruments em- ployed in experiments similar to those above described, are termed Electroscope). Besides that one of which a representation has been given, there are various others, all of which are formed upon the same prin- ciplea. It is now proper to mention the principal electrical substances in nature. They are, amber, gum-lac, re- sin, sulphur, glass, talc, the precious stones, silk, the fur of most quadrupeds, and almost all vegetable substances (excepting charcoal) which have been tho- roughly deprived of moisture, as, for instance, baked wood, and very dry paper. niSTRIBDTION AND TRAKSFEHKKCC. M'e have noticed that when the excited electric was brought near the pith ball B, the latter was first at- tracted and then repelled. If we now remove the electric, and present to the ball which has thus touched it, a secimd ball, which has had no previous commu* nication with an electric, we 6nd th^t these two balls attract one another, and come into contact The (tame actions are repeated between this second ball, and a third which may be preeented to it ; and so on in succession, but with a continued diminution of in- tensity. This diminution plainly indicates a dimi- nished power, in consequence, as it would seem, of its l>eing distributed amongst a number of bodies. It is clear, therefore, that the unknown power which we have called electricity, can, like heat, be transferred or communicated from one body to another, and that its intensity, tike that of heat, is weakened by being diffused amongst a tiumlier of bodies. An electrified ball can l)e deprived of its electricity by \mi\\^ touched with a rmi of . tal of any kind ; but if we touch it with glass .^r » »v, it will not be earned olT. Hence, metals ».v ■^td i'> be conductors^ and »th*«h and wax }wn-i ■*'■■■' lort, of electricity. Bodies greatly vary in eheii jwwer of conduction, and many oi them owe it to the water which they contai- The conducting power nf any substance depends no the state of the atmofiphere at the time with regard to humidity, and on the iutenttity of the electricity employed. The fol- lowing tables of conductors and non-conductors are by Sir David Brewster, and have been adiected by him from various authors with great care. The bodiea are placed in the order of their conducting or non-con- ducting power; *' but i; is probable," says Sir David, " that this order would be greatly chaiigeil, ii U'>') bodies were all lubmitted to a new and uniform eiu^ roination." rr*- BHHHHH! CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPI.F. ^i All niPiala silver Bnuw Zlno Till Plfttina Palladium ) Iron heftted j- I run cold (^harockal welt burned Plumbigo OonocntratM arids Powdered charciwU I>i luted adds Saline Milutlont Aletallic oren Animal fluida hot wat&i Sea WHCar iipring water lAst (/ t'Qndui-tvrt. Kivvr water. Ice above 13* Fahr. jt- 14 Snow 4. Living vegetablea Living animaU Flame , . > - Smoke Steam Soluble Malta Rarefied air Vapour of alonhol Vapour of ethfr Mniit earthi Anthracite All the HubiitaiiciMi and mineral* in the third clau of Hally'i lilt, ai given in Sect. 11.* Powderwl glaii Kioneri of lulphur Iteniui renderetl lluid by heat GlaM heated to redneu Lisl 0/ XoTt'Conductort, Shell.Jar Leather Ampler Air and all dry gaMW Re»iitti Baked wmkI Sulphur Pry vegetable builiei Was Porcelain Jit' ' l>ry marble, and OIam Sili'cemis and argilla Vitrilicatiuni Mica 1 Diamond | Trauftparent gemn \ And all themlneralnln I Claaitl.ofHaUy'sIUtJ Haw iilk JileacheO ii:!i Dved lilk \1'«H>1 Hair Feathers I>ry pafter Parchmeni; ceouR Ktonea in Clau i I. of llaiiy's ii»l J Camphor ('auiiti'hfinc Lvcopodium Dry chalk I(ime Phosphonii 1. 1> WIo-v W Fahr. Ait)ie!i of untmal hodiet Ashea of ve^vta'^le htKllei Oi)^, the heavieat being the \>v§t ctuiducwrs Dry metallic oxides. The two qualities of a capability of excitation, and a p>twer <'f coiuiiK-tingclectrldty, appear tnl>f iiicuni- pattbtewith each other, forti e ^^ne nlnavH diminl»hes Ti! proportion hh the other increat-eti. /letire, it fol- lows, as an invariable law, that eUctrics are nori.ron- duciort, and, on the other hand, that cundmtors Hri< ncHtlectricM. The most perfect nun-coruiuclovi tf electricity are aliti called iutulaiort, trom their power rif iiisulatini; an electrified body, or preventiiiif anv nf its electricity frixn e^capitig along iin support. 'tU*^ insulating p<»wer of atnioipheric air depends upon two rircuiDstancefl, iudeiisity and ttRdrynetin. Airuf the ordinary density of the stmospliere, if perfectly dry, is a remarkably giMwl iiiRulator. and tio change of tem- perature appears to affert its insulHtinK power ; hut rarefaction diniiniithes its power of ctinhniiif; elec tricity, and, when greatly raretied, it may be classed ainuTigut conductors. The ctiiidiictiiig p«in^ a very ^'o4id lonductor of electricity. Changes of temt^itratnre and also of form alTect the coiidnctirif; powers ■>( most bo. •lies. Thus, though water, in its ordinary liquid state, \n an excellent condm-tor, yet, when it apitears in the solid form of ice, its conducting power is much im- paiml, and at a very low temperature it ivasesetitirvly. tilaM, when i-«)Id, ib anon-oiidnctor, hut when heated to rednesb, it conducts toleraldy wr)l- Hence, atthuu){h >onw tiodies are said to be perfect non-(-onducv>rs, yet this is not sinctly true. In Dr Faraday's interesting researches un this subject, he gives the lolhmingaiim* niary ol conuitioas of condiuti«>n in bi»diea, »hicb, although they apply chiefly to voltaic electricity, ure yet inie within certain limiu of ordinary electricity : — 1. All iMMties conduct electricity in thesitme manner from metals to lac and K^e^t but in diiferent degrees, 2. Couduv«ing power is in some bodies puwertnlly iuvreased by heat, and in others diuiini«bed, yet with* out our perceiving any accouipanyiiig essential eiec> trical ditTerence, either in the bodien or in the changes uocasioued by the electricity coi)duc(ee known to l>e ■ ompotiodi. It ts 10 Coulomb that we owe the useful discovery, Uuit shtU-Lui is the moat perfect of all insulators ; and hSDCe iu value in cIvctricaliitquiHe^. Ilelotind that th« electricity of a pith ball five or nx hues in diame- ■ of ttijrae, wervn •«nlTrrfrr the TeadrrUiHsu^'kiiiiTli, wtwie • .<•*.' rntiicratt vc si rnuiiit^sl«il. It «ouiJ Uc uniMJuA^lv to ^\\» uirin in 1:4) place. ter, could be completely tuiulated hy a cylinder of sealing'Wax or gum-lac alMiut half a line in diameter, and ahout twenty inches long ; that a Hue silk thread, penetrated and covered with melted wax so as Co form a cylinder ona>funrth of a line in diameter, had the same Insulatiitg power when it was five or six inches long; and that an equal degree of insulation could not be obtained by a fine thread of glass, of live or six inches in length, or by a hair or a libre of silk, unless the electricity Inoulated was very weak, or the air extremely dry. Coulomb found that the insulat- ing p«>wer of a tibre of gum*lac was ten times greater than that of n silk fibre of the rume diameter and length t and ha esublished the fiitlowing fienerallaw, that the densities of electricity innubtted by dilferent lengths of tine cylindrical fibres, such as those of gum- lac, hair, silk, Ac, vary as the square rout of the lengthft of the tllire. There are viiriinis other circnmiitances upon which the conducting power of bodies depends. That nf silk, for instance, is affected bv tbe colour of the thread, or rather hy the nature of the dye-stutf by which it has iK'en tiufted. When of a brilliant white, or a black, its conducting power is the greatest; and a high golden yellow nr a nut-brown renders it the best insulator. Mr i'oulomb, who has inrestigateil tlie subject with great ability, assigns three CHUoes as chiefly operating in depriving n taxiy in a state of iin- pertect insulat.on ndies of a pointed Hgnre, especiHlly if the point projects to a distance from the surface, electricity escapes most re:tdilv. On the other luind, tbe^e bo- dies receive electricity more readily than those of any other form. M'ith regard to the distance to which electricity can Iw conveyed, an experiment of a very interesting na- ture was made by Mr F. Uonalds.' Hu erected at Hammersmith an electrical telegraph, on which tbe inflections of the wire composed one contiininns length of more than hijht mi!e$. " When a Canton's pith ba'l electrometer was runnected with each extremity of this wire, and it was charged by a I» t I.KLTUU IT V. ^\V Imve already noticed tbe oriitin ol' the nnines HtreoHM nr po$itivr, and rainuns t>x urrativty electri. city, and also described the pbein>meJia connected with each. Aithoufib, taken separatelv, tbe one acts in a manner precisely similnr to tbe otfier, yet in all their relations to each other they dispt.ty a marked contrariety. Indeed, tliey may be viewed as a^ents having opposite qualities, wbicFi iromptetely neutralise one another by combination, just like an aoid and an alkali. It is remarkahle that tbe excitation of one species of eliH-tricity is always accompanied by the presence of the other, and both are produced to un t'qoal extent. Thn*. when a piece ol f^lass is rubbed by silk, just as much resinous eie« tr*iity is produced in tbe silk a^ theie )« vitreous elei'tricity produced in the k'***-* ; R'td whatever electrified btNiies are repelled by thu one, aie attracted by the otiier. Ol course, i(ie»e iwii surfaces, having acquired opposite eltctri- cltie*, invariably attract each other. A n bite and >i hlatk rihhon rubbed ngninst each other f>etween the fitpger and thumh, exhihtt electricbt plienomenu in a very marked luaniier. The black is rehiiion*'ly iioil the white vitreously electrified ; of cour»e they at- tract each other; and if separated, ttie oix- uttiacts the light tKtdies which tbe itthrr repels. When two pieces of tbe mnor rihbon of the fame lenctb are ruhlieti, the one twiiiK drawn leninbwHys and nt riffhl angles over a psrt ot li.e otlier. the eoome resinnusly elec- trical. White silk acquires vitreous electricitv with black silk, metals, and black cloth ; and resinous witii p-iper, the human hand, hair, and weasel's skin. Itluck silk becomes vitreously electrical with sealing- wax, hut resiuously with hares*, weasels', and ferrets' skins; with brass, silver, iron, the human hand, and white silk. Woollen cloth is strongly vitreous with tine uud biimuth ; moderately ^o with silver, copper, lead, and speculnr iron. It is resimnis with platina, {;old, tin, antimony, ^'rey copper, sulphuret of copper, lisiiiphiirei of copper, sniphnrcts of silver, nntimony, and iron. Dry air impelled on glass becomes resiu- ously electriciil, and leaves the tflass in the opposite state. Silk stuffs ajritated in the atmosphere with a rapid motion, always take the resinous electricity, while tbe air I-ecomes vitre-tusly electrified. Numerous experiments have been made with the view of ascertaining the iMuiditlons that determine the species of electricity exerti*d in the rehpeciivn bodies of which tbe surfaces are made to rub »guin&t each other, hut they have led to no saiiBf.ictory con- clusions. The mechanical configuration of the surf.oe appears to have a greater innuence in tbe result thiiii the ptK-uliar nature of tbe substance Itself. It apla;e of fclass with a polishetf surface be rubbed against one which is roughened, the former always ncquites the vitreous and the latter tbe resinous eiectriciiv. Va- liiiiiti M-hhtances, if rubbed when poliAheil, exhibit a different kind of electricity than tb.a with which they are excite*!, if" nililwd when mniihened or scraUihed. No purely scientific explanation has evt-r yet been gi%eii of tliese remarkable phenomena. INULXTION. If a body is charfted with electricity, and insulatiHi so perfectly as to prevent the escape of the electricity which it contains, it nevertheless tends to produce an electric-al state 01 tbe opposite kiiul in all the Sodies around it. 'I'l.us the vitreous induces ilie resinous, and tbe resinous tbe vitreouH. elei^tricity in a bialy ibat is hituaied in the vicinity of eillier of them, and this to a degree proportioned to the kinalliiess < f the distance which separates tbe ttodiei. The electricity is in this case said to be induced, and the phenome- non is called elrctrivni ituiuctiou. The operation irf this law is a key t^i tlie principal phenomena of elec- tricity. In illustration uf it, we shall quote an able writer upon tlie subject. *' If an elecirilied l^ody. .'har|{ed with either species of electricity, be presented to an unelectrified or neutral body, its tendency, in consequence of the law of induction, is to disturl) tbe electrical condition of the different parts of the neu- tral tiody. Tbe electrified body inducer a sute of electricity contrary to its own in that part of the neu- tral bouy which is nearest to it; and, consequeiitlv, a fi.ite of electricJty similar to its own in the remote part. Hence, the neutrality of the second latdy is destroyed by the action ol tlie fir^t; and the adjacent parts id tbe two bodies, having now opposite eltictn- ciiies, will attract each oilier. It thus upptsirs tht>t tbe attraction which is ohs«rvt>d to take plate hetweeti electrified bodies, and those that are unehfirified, is merely a cimseqiience uf the altered state of thine bodies, resulting directly from the law ol induction ; and that it in by 110 in«'ans itself an orif(inal law or primary fiut in tbe science. " The etTeci (tl induction will be in proportion to tbe iMtility with which changes in tbe distribution of idecti icity among the different pans of a boUy can l>e idlVcted, a tacilitv wliich coiiesiionds o itii the c<'n. doctinK power of tbe ImhIv. Hence, the attrtu^tiou exerted tiy an electrified biMiy ii)M)|i unoiher b>Hl\ pre. vioiivty neutral, uilj !»« much more eufigetiC if the bttter \tv a ctuiductor than if it be an electric, in ivhiti> ttu-Mi cbiui^es can t^ike pUce only to a veiv %n\ik>\ exteni. Ttiis in confirmed by the foilouiuK extK'ri- meut :_Sus|>end hy fine silk ihrcHds •>! e<(Uil ler.il , tu u sinult btilU uf equal dimens.uiie, both made uf gaiu« i:lectricity and galvanism. Ui-f hut one Imvin^ im Hurlaca rnvuretl with K(>l>' A cylinder of lealinK-wax. It will at otii« he Rrun that the hall, with a metallic ooverinff, whii;ti raudtly admiti of the transfer of electricity froni oiio aide to the other, will Ih) much more readily and pt»wurfully attracted than the other Imll, which allitwR of no nioiluii in ita electricity. Th« hitter ball will, by nlow def(reuA however, aiauine electriciJ iitatei of the lame kind aa the f(llt hall, and wilt ht fnlly at- tracted. Aithiq chauKe ii very ilotvly effected, no it in more perrauiieut uOien once produced ; and thu plniii hall adheren for ft conniderable time to the elec- tric which has attracted it. The gilt ball, on the contrary, in looner repelled, by iti readily reoeiviiix the charge uf electricity imparted to it by the electric. A degree of permanent electricity, however, in aUn Induced on tliii ball, iu coniequenca of its gruduul penetration into the Bubstaace of the gum-luc." TnEORIEC or KLF.CTIIICITV. KliH-trical. phenumona are generally accounted for by buppoAing that there is su extremely Buhtile and highly eluatii; iluid which pervades all material sub. itunces, hut is itself devoid uf any sentihlo gravity. it ii luppobud tomiivewith various degreeaof fiictltty through theuorea ur actual luhstauce of vuriouc kintth oi matter. Hence, in proportion aa they admit of thu Iluid passing through diem with ease or dilikulty, bodies have bucu dividetl into conductors and nou< conductors. According to the doctrine of there being but one species of fluid, it is anppoaed that the elec- trioal equilibrium wliich constitutes the natural state of matter is disturbed hy friction, and that one of the two hodien brought near to>each other, attracts to it- •fif a surcharge of the fluid, and is over-iaturatetl, whilst tlie other is left iu a deticient state, and is uudfr-saiurated. For this view of the subject we are indebteit to the immortal Franklin; and hence the terms of poiittve or plus, and negative nr minus, have ariiittu. Hut as some of the appearances caiinot easily If reconciled to the hypothesis of a mere excess or deiiciency of one fluid, there is another theory whiih supposes the fluid to he Acompoundy susceptible <)fdo- i-oniposition by friction and other means; and hence the origin of the terms vitreous and resinous electri. cities. Without entering into the aulMleties of the .)iic«ii'in, which of the two theories is the more cor. reel one, we shall attend to the facts of the case. The factH, both as presented to us by nature, and developed by experiments, are those oi excitation, attruction, nnd re;)ul8iou; »iid ilihtribuiion, induction, and trunit- ferenoe. , SioitaHon.—.'ihe iwo electricities are nuppospd to Mist in biHliis naturally in a state of union, which, from various causes, such as friction, can Ite destroyed ; the vilreijus electricity is impelled iu one direction, ^vhilst the resinous is transferred to the opposite side ; and the peculiar energies or powers, formerly latent, now display themselves. When nccumulated in any fiart of A body, each fluid acts in propoi :itin to its re- utive iiuanllty; that is, to the quantity which is in rxcesd Hbrtve that which is still retained in a state ol netitrality by its union with electricity of an opposite kind, lience, when two btidies are rubbed together, saygl.-iss and a metallic rinmlgam, only the electricity at the lurfrtcei subjected to friction is dectimposed, the reMinout adhering to the amutgam, wliilsttbe vitreous attaches itself to the gU^». All the real of the elec- tricity renmining on each surface uudec.imposed, is in ;» mate of perfect (|uiescence or inertness. DistribtUionand Trat^ference — The particles of the Muio kind ut eucn ol tlie>enigtiiy fhi&tu- bodies mutu- ally re[>el each other »ith a lorce which incieaaes as tlie distance im te^a. Indeed, it has het'ii proved that tiie intensity of this forct*, like that of gruvitaliin, is inversely as the square of the distance. Like gravi- tation, alao, it aciH at all distances, and it ii not iin> itedtHl by any intervening budy, provided it he not n an active electrical state. We will recur to this Hubject Hguiii. Uut whilst the pH,.icles of each fluid repel those of the sanie kind, they exert, an we have sei-u, a high attractive power over those uf an oppo> site kind. The intensity of ihia attraction, uls4i, like th:tt of gravitation, increases with a diminution of distance. It it evident, therefore, that from the piiwerful attractlhn which they have for each other, they would always flow towards eddi other and coa- Jiiii'e, were it not that the non-conducting properties c4 electrics offer an impedinu>nt to their motion. U'hun these obatacles itre removed, they immediately ruHh into union, and give rise to the remarkable phe- nomena alieady notiivd. .IttractioH and HtpnUiu.t — The ritptilaivo power evinced by b(K)ies charged with the same etactricityy iiNS been already mentiooed. To explain thu circum- Mauui more minutely, let oh ituppoae a body charged wiih electricity to be nuapended in the air, or other. wine hurronnded by a non-conducting medium, whiuh allows 't to move freely. As long as this body re- mHiiiN alone, the outward pressure which the electric fluid exerts against the insulating medium that c^ou lines it, will, hy the laws of hydrostatics, be equal o\\ all aides; and thu body, thus balanced by equal and ■ )f)piMitu preasures, will have no lendanoy to move. J tut if iinother body, limit nrly circumstanced, bi brtu4{ht near lo it, tlie repulsive action Instween tli- '2oU similar electricitiei couuiued in these hodiw, will dl- \ minish the outward pressure uf each fluid against the sides of the bodies, which are adjacentl;iu liunl, its being tbe il'u- pleat and mot^t convenient; and it i.e of <: u-ryiiii; on electrical Inveatfga- lions, and produi ing powtrful electrical results, the ;tid of mechaniam h;in bee^i fouml e^itential, and tliese instruments have been called electrical uiHchines. There are various kinds of them, but all constructed upon the Fame principle?'. Below is a repre.ientation of that which is mo^t ci'mmonly used, io our descrip- tion of which, the esaentiul parts constituting such in- itruments will appenv A n, iig. 1, iN a hollow cylinder of polished glaaa, • 'f ich revolves upon a lioiizontal axis, nnd is from i^ht to s)xti*tTi inches diameter, and from one to two eriment, (hey should be made about th«t tic* of a quill, and sliould have their edgva well nutudvHl And siutMitbrd off. Th« f treasure tif the cunhloii against th« cylinder Is nwtt- ated hy an adjusting scrvw, ndnptwt to the wooden base at K, on whiuh the glass pillar that stipports tb« oonduutur Is flxed. Knun the upper •im of tha cushion ther* prtHioada a flap of thin oiled silk D, which la sew««l on tha cushion almul a quartar t>f an inch from Its upper tdg«» li aatands ovar tlie 'ipper surnica of tha glasa vyltndar to wtUtin an inch of a rtiw of metallic |HtiuU, prtKaaiting, Ilka tha taath of a rake, frtim a horisontal rtHl, which Is flxed to iha ad' Jacaitt side of the opuoaita rimductor. The motion o( tbe vvlindar, which is given by a ilngla handle, or by a multiplying whavK nutst always he given in tha di'* rection or tha silk flap. That' part of tha ctiahion which i^unes in ouiiact with tltp glaas cylinder should be coated with an amalgam ttf tin, ainc, and mercurv, applied by mpaiia of hi>gii' laul. Tha amalgmm should he placed uniformly over the cushion, until level with the line furmail by tha iMtm which Joins the atlk flap to tha faca of tha cushion. No amalgam should Ihi placed ovar this Una, nor on \\\*> silk flap \ and it is evMt raoutstta to wlpa tha silk flap clean whjnavar tha continued motion tif tha machlna shall hava sidlad It, by depositing dust or amalgam on its surfaca. Tha l>a«t amalgam Is that formed hv malting tomlher ona ounce of tin and two onmvs li^ tine, whlcb are to It* mlxad, whila fluid, with six ouncas of maretiry, and agltatefl till »tld tn an iron or thick wooden biut. After Iwtiig radticad to powdar, K suMclant Quantity of hogs* lard is mtxad with it* so as to form it into ii pasta. This maci*,na ams In tha following maoitei t — >Vhau tha cylinder h drivan round hy lha handla, tha friiv> tion of the euihion u|Hut it pnHliii'as n transfer of lha electric flubl inun lha latter lo tha former t that is the cushion biH^tinaa nvgativvlv, and tha glass posi- tively, elactritlad. Hy tha ravolution itf iho cylindri, the fluid adhering to tha glass Is carried round, and its escape is at flrat pravvntaH hy lh« silk flap which ctwars tha cylinder, until it arrU*as naar to tha nta- tallio points, which.ahsurh mostof ihaalectrivily, and Oimvay it to ih« p\iiua timductor. This being \Mki» tively elei'triiiiHl, tlia I'tutductor connected with tUa cushion being deprivisl of thi.t elcctricttv, Is ntyatively dai'trilied; ao that light ImiIIs suNpanilatl by thread^ at F, hv^ing oputwitajy alectrilletl, will attract aacU other, .*Viier tna action has gxota on for soma tinta. the cushion and its inrndnctor hacome axhftutted uf their electricity ; so that a new supply must lia brought fro.n tbe earth, the graal rasarvoir of tha flttid. 'Thia is easily done, hy astaldlshlng a otmtmuulcatloii bis tween tlie cushion and tha gnuind hy means uf a nu. i^iHic chain or wirt^. In this manner, a eoniiiaiit vtrt>.tii« of positive electricity 'lows to tha prima Ctmductiur, Negative electricity isobuiitad hy insulating the cou- ductor to which the cuahbat is attached, and amntH.-c- ing the prima conductor with tha grottnd, so as to curry off tha fluid otdlactad front lha cylinder. If tha ptHsou who works ihv ma«4nue W supported uptot a stmd having glaks lags, and connected with the itiu doctor by nu>aua id' a metallic r«Nl, or if ha lunch tt with bis hand, be is fottnd to Ih* In the same stala of electricity ; and another |H*i^on siandiug uptui ttia ground can draw sparks fr^mt hiiu by pivscnting bis kuuckle» lo his body. i:KrKCTs or si kvtricai. attmacyion and HKri'i.SM.v. Hy uaing tha abvuical machine iu the alHive mutt. ner, we are eii.-ilded to loiiwt a l^>n^i^lclJ^h!e quantity of electricity, and thus perform experiuivuts uuin liii ample koitla. A pith halK or a fragment of gold leaf, is vary atrouKW and Immetlirtlely attractati by the altn - trjiiwt conductor t and, the iiia'iaut after it' has coma into contact with it, it ia rcivellrtl t but it ia now at. traded by tha oihar InHlit^ in lis neighltourhiMxl, lo which It cimuuunicates iia own electricity, and iheiv is aijain in a state to ba influeniV\l bv the I'ouductor, and to be again attracletl ; and this aliernntion of el- fai'ts will ciMUinua as long as tho conductiU' remains chargait. This alternation \%S attritciions and rapiiU sions KCCoin|tanying lha iranaferring electricity by moveable iHuiductors, is alMtUluatraiiHl hy the motions of a ball suapandetl ov a silk thread, and plaivd t»a* twaau two Itetis, of wlilch lha ttne ts elm^tritiail, and thu other communlcata^ with the ground. Tha alter- nate motion of thelmll In^twaan tbe two b<>lls will keep up a t*tmtinunl ringing. This amusing axttarlment has liaan appliatl to give notii-e of cbniigas taking pl.v« in the ahn-trical stuta of tha aimoipberr. The mutual r»'puNitm of biMHe* Ihal ara similarly alectrifled gives rise t\t nmny inlcra^lingaxparimentD. A small flgure in tha «ha)Ht of a human head, ittverad with hair, when plaixnl u)mn the condncMr, and rice trilWd, will exhibit the apivaaraut'a of terror frtmt tha briatting up and divergenv> of iho hair. The intensity of the alaclricity which bev'oral iuvatite.'. hy various dialinguifhad tiutividusls. <\ur limits, bow- fver, wilt not admit ol mtr |[lviitg a miuuta «c«ouutof Wt CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPI.E. If! I'li ii ' t ', t tbcm. Tlw7 all dep«ad ufMo th» repulilva property of eleolrMMl bodlei, aod th« dUunm to which tht on* it repvlM W the other, li Indieeled by an lodes of one kind or enother. DIlTftlBDTlOir or ELBCTIICITT* We hare already observed, that, upon the extent of the turfaoe of a tKtily, Its capacity for rttceiviuK elec tridty principally depend*. Klectrlcity JR therefore ■uppoeed nut to iprMd throughout the whole maia of ■ body, St leuf etiuelly, but to remain principally, if not altogether, at the surface. For the purpoKu of measuring the proportional (|uantities of electricity with which different part* of the tame or of different U>diee are oharrnd, Coulonib invented an instniment, which he railed the TonioH'yiianct, It is » gtus jar nioeed at both ends. From the top descends a single libre of the web of the silk worm, which suspends by the middle a needle made of gum>lau, or other similar substauoe. This is provided atone end with a pith ball, and at the other with a coutiter balance of var. niehed paper. On ond side of the jar there is inserted atmallt>ar, haring at each extremity a meuUic sphere, the one on the outside, end the other within. The upper end of the silk tibre is aHixiKl to a kind of button having a smell iiidci, and made to turn easily round upon a circtUar plate, divided Into degrees. Now the iiietliod of uperation is plain ; when the metallic and pith balls are both similarly electrified, the distance to which the latter is repelled Is shown by the index, and thus the power of the electricity employed Is in> dicated. It is incompatible with our limlu to enter minutely intu the details connected with the experi. ineuts pcrt'ormod by means of this extremely delicate instrument. They all go to prove the superficial dis- trihutiou of electricity, and, of course, the Influence of nhape in lessening or augmenting its intensity. Uy an expansion uf surface, the intensity of electricity isles- M-ued, although the actual quantity present In the body remains the same: and if the conducting sub- stance be drawn to a point, nearly tlie whole of the electricity is concentrated there, so that iu power is etceedingly great. This is found to take piaca in all poinu that project beyund the general surface. TiANflrriiENrK or rLEcrmiciTT. Several remarkable pheuomena occur when electri. city li drawn off by means of a conductor from those tiodtee in which the electrical equilibrium has been destroyed. A sharp snapping sound is beard, accom- panied by a vivid spark, whilst intense heat is evolved in the path which the electric fluid takes. A perfect otmductor, offering no impediment to its course, it h unattended with light during its passage through such A body, light onlyappenring when there are obstacles in iti^ path, such as imperfect conductors. Of the velocity with which it is transmitted, we have already spoken. It Is so great, that in experiments performed with a chain of iv>nsiderable length, each link be- came instantaneously luminous. There are various methods of showing ttie intt nnity and coUmr of elec- trical light. Conductors having a rounded form give the longest and most vivid sparks, which are some- times seen to take a cigee.~\V*hence tomes the light ; is it the electric fluid which thus renders itself visible ? This was really suppofte e'lided, that the electric s)iark i» a_fiamt,%\\A cousinu, liite other flainea, of iDCandes*^^ ruole<:ule» in a state of minute subdivision. U'e have already o)«srrved, that varitnis sounds ac. eompany the various mode* o( tian-^frrence uf tbr electric fluid; a peculiar udonr iu%% alii> sonirtimrs r>een felt near a niacliiue which Iihs been sharply wrought; but w bene** itk uritfin, i» iiitknuu-n. All sliarp pointed bodies, we have uiil, cimceiitrute (he electric fluid at their ufM-x, frum h hence it tua a -JtM) p4iwerful dlspmitiou to escape; and every discharge is accompanied by currents of air. Upon this prin- ciple, many ingenious experiments are founded. An apparatui, ctmnisting of wires terminating in pnint>, and having halls annexed to them to repreient the planets, may be omsinicted so as to revolve whmi electrlHed, and thus to imitate the platietnry motions. We cannot enter further Into this subject, but mity state In general terms, that the appearances of the electric spark depend upon the nature of the surfare from whence It Issues, and towards which It is directed. When it escapes ftvm a pointed body, the luinitiinis appearance Is that of diverging streams, resemMd)): the filaments of a brush, and forming what is trrrned a pfueil o/ light ; but when the fluid goes to a point, the light concentrates at the point itself, and assumes the appearance of a star. or iHDi'CTinM Awn Acx'iiMri.ATioKor fi-Ectricity. The principle of Induction we havt* already ex|)lninnd. All the phenomena connected with itmayl>e scconuted for by either of the laws already laid down. Iu ti'tdi- tion to the facts which we bavti enumerated as rrnult. Ing from the genernl operation of this law, little run be added, although it number of partirnUrc&ies might be adduced. Tho most convenient mnde of obtaining an accu. mulatlon of electricity arising from Induction, is by the employment of coated glass ; that is, of a plate of glass uu each side of which is pasted a sheet or ciwit- ing uf tin-foil. Care must be taken to leavt^ a sufli. dent margin of gluiin uncovered with the metal, for preventing the trntirtfer of f-tectrirlty from one coating to the other, round the edge of tliu glaKS ; and all sharp angles or ragged edf^slu the ctintings should he avoided, as they have a great tendency to diaaipate the diarge. The form of coated glass best adapted to experi- ments is that of ucylindnc jar; this in uMted, within and without, nearly to the top. The covttr conitists of baked wood, and is inserted with feiiiiig*wax, to exclude niotKturo and dust. A metallic rod, riniiig two or three inches above the jar, and terininatiug at the top in a brass knob, is mude u> descind through the coviT till it loiicheit the interior coating. The name of the Itfyiitn phial, or jur, is applied to this instru- ment. It is used in thv following manner :-~.The outer coating Wing nmde to communicate with the grinind, by holding it in the hand, tho knob of the jar is presented to the prime conductor when the ma- chine is in nmtiun ; a sncc^uion of sparks will puss between them, while, at the same time, nearly an equiil qu^ulity of electricity will lie passing out frum the exterior coating, through the body uf the person wh ground. The jar, un being re- moved, is hhIiI t4i Ih* churgeii ; and if iiC4)mrHitntcation is made between the two coatings, by a metallic wire extending from the external one to the knob, the elec- tric fluid which was accumulated in the potiitivc coat- ing rushes, with a sudden and violent impetus, along the »inductor, and passes into the negative coating; thus at once restoring an almost complete equilibrium. This sudden transfer of a large quantivv of acL*uniu- lated electricity is a real explosion ; and it g'wpn rise to a vivid flash of light, cnrrespoudii!i. ing a direct cummuuicatloii between the i'lnor kihI outer coating of a j.ir or battery, himI restoring il>f elei:Lrical equilibrium uithout the operator rei'eivin^; the ctutrge of the jar, is nxbitiited. K represents the iuKuUtirig handle, kiid A the rinii uf brans rebelling from the hall to the t-xtenial coBtini(. When opeiietl to a projier degree, one of the balls ii made to tou<:h the exterior conting, utid the other ball ia then quiikly brtiuuht into coutait with the knob of the jai, anil thiiH a discharge if elfected. Ityunitintr together a Aulhcient number of jars, we are able to arcumuhiie an enormous quontity of elec- tricity. For this purfiose, all the interior coniingN of the jars must be niaile to commiiniciite by metallic riHls, and a nimilur union ituiKt be cstablislied among the exterior coatings. When thus arranged, the whole stries niHv be charged, an if they formed bill one jar; and tlie uhule ol the accuinuUied eldttii :(^ n>iiy be An arrnngement of tl>i* ile-cnfitlon is re^reseptril aliove. iu wbich twelve jars are niiite nocting conductors as that the substance "hall form n necessary part of the lircuit of the eirctricil^, as it is termed. With this view, we must ))lace it brtween two gorid conductors, i>no of which is in r immunica* tion with the outer coating; and the circuit may then be cum[j|eted by connecting the other conductor with the inner coating, by means of a discharging rod, to onebranchuf which, If necessary, a flexible chain may bu added. MOTtON or ACCl'MCI.ATKD ELECT RIC'ITT. In formitig .irrangementa for dirrcting the passage of Ncciiniulated elttctricitv, it should t»e borne in tnind tbttt the «lei:tric fluid will, on those occasions, alwavs pass through the l)est cimductors, although they may t>e more circuitotis, in prelerencu to tbo!>B which are more direct, Imt have inferior c^mdticting power ; and it must also be recoltectetl, that, when different paths are open for its transmission along C4iniiuctors of equal po^ver, the electricity will always ttike that which is the shorteht. Thus, if a person holding a wire lie- tween bin hands dtv-harges a jar by means of it, the whole of the tini'l will piihs through the wire, without affecting hitn : I'Ui if a piece of dry wood Im> substi- tuted for the wire, he will feel a shuck ; for, the woimI being a worse conductor than his own body, the charge will pass through the latter, as being easier, although the h>tiger circuit. During Its transit through the human ttudy, in like manner, the shock is felt tinly in tlie p)trt!4 bituated in the direct line of ce cmilined to a small piirt of a iiinb, or he mnde to traverse the whole length uf the body inun liead u» fiH>t. Uy aiTurale experiment*, it appears that the forre of the electric shock is weHkened, or its elfects are dimini'ilied, by employing a conductor of gruat lengtli fur making the (Itnchai^r. A retnidntion in the pitss- :tge ot electricity also tukei plaeti If ttie conductor is not of a sulHcient cize; atui when this is the case, ta well M in those instances where the conductor \r> not a giNid one, the discharge will nut Iw offet^tetl ho in- nt'tntaneino'ly or so compltitely. It hua uIao a ten- dency to diverge from itni ilircrt line of its uiurse, heiiitf drswn biwards conducting )>oilies which mav attruct it. The nioiinn of electricity through perfect ctiniiuctors h attended with lui perceptible alteration in the mechattical properties of ilie conducting bodies, provided they be of sutHcient site for the charge of the electric fluid transmitted. On tbecontrury, very considerable effect* are prodnred when a powprliit charge in sent through a wire wlficli is too Bmail to itlhiW the V, bole quantity to puss with perfect freedom, or through an in))>erfeut coudtu^tor, thoii>.'h of large •izA, as is proveit when ii tree is struck by lightning. ciiANtiCs pBoiii:t Ki) nv n.rtTimrrv ON isom.ASu n(init:s. Theeffectsofelectricity passing through var ions sub- stani es are hutli of a mechiinical and chemical luUure. The furmer resemble those which would be prod need by aiiiHterial agent driven witji great velocity through the hu)i.stiince III the \nc I'rie-itly dihcovered that ii expanded bodies. This ih I'Tovid by passing a stream ol the fluid thimtgh a ca|iilliiry or thurtnouieter tube tilled with mercury ; tlie latter will he ro nmrb ekpHuded as to bre^k the glass loshiver*. The tm- lieiK y to expaud will of ii>iirv' be greater as tJnM.l cuiuenieut to bpeak of it :is tt liuid. Its action upon bodies wliii:li either ob. Nil net il5 motion, or afford it arcniy pn-iajje. renders itn anah'j;y with u iiuiJ very htrikmg. tolui I ii.:ob ELECTRIC ITY AND GAEVANLSM. ■ rr capable of litfiiiff dlfTiiteil liitu metidlic vnpinir, liy p:i)itint( elflctriuity UirouK)> them, ki ti hKowii tty the foUowiiifc experiment :— Take t)irM itripH of window f[Uu, twuh abtMit three iitchei long uul uiiewlile, and laving pUced two narrttw atripi ut gold leaf or leaf braialietwtfufi ilirm, no thnt tho euda of the f^old leaf pnijeut a little Iteyoiid the k'*"* tranamlt the vharge of a lartce Leyden jar through the gold leaf. The gold leaf will be found to be melted by the Rhovk, and driven into the aurface of the glaaa. The outer plates of glaia are generally hniken in tbla experiment^ and the middle one, whiuti frequently remaini entire, haa an indelible meta'lia itain upon each of lu lurfacea. Thta Btuin ia ' ^vitHiily the inetnlllo vapour of the gold driven int«. the purea of theglaaa. Tlie nietatlic culuura thua ohuined have been em- ployed for iinpreiairig ornamanul ftgurea upon paper (ir iillk. In order tt> do thia, tratv the outline of the tiguren on thltJt drawing pHper, and having cut it out ai in alinctl plalei, place it on the ailk or paper in- tended U) be urnameated. When a gold leaf ii laid upiui it, and a card above the gold leaf, the whole la plai>«d in a preaa or beneath a weight, and an electrl. tial charge aent through ii, ; the metallic lUin ia limited to tlie portion of the drawing paper that ii cut awav, Hiid, conaequently, any outline figure may be readily iiiioretiad upon the ground employed to receive it> (.'hgmical C7uinj/#f.— The effect! of electricity aa a i^hemicKl agent are atrlkingly diaptayed In Ita power i}( evolving heat, and, conneqiiently, of InHaming and filling iHidie*, and its power of promoting chemical compiibition and decompiiaition. Combustible uodlei, Nuch aa a common candle, <:aii )w lighted In varioua wiivH, by passing the electric fluid through them. The heat evolved by electricity, like most other of ita I'fTecta, is In proportion to ilie resistances opposed to itH passage. Nor Is its heating v wer in the smallest defree diminished by its heing conducted through anynnmlterof freetlng mixtures which are rapidly absorbing heat from surrounding bodies. Sparks uken from a piece of Ice are aa capable of inflaming bodies aa those from a piece of red. hot i''on. Amongst the more striking chemical etTects of electricity, are the dec4>m posit) on of water, the oxidation of metals, and the resuiratiun of the oxides to their metallic state. But the agency of electricity in producing chemical compoaition and decnrnposiimn, one of the moat in- teresting parts of chemical and eliictrical science, will be fully treated of under (Jalvanisu. Many rxperimenta have l>een made for the purpose of uoertaining the changes effected lu phoMphoretcent hodifi by electricity, and the results are not without importance. It has been discovered, for Instance, that substances not naturally phosphorescent^ such as sta- tuary marble in ita natural or calcined atate, were not only rendered phosphorescent by heat after being strongly electrified, but acquired this property with a beauty, a variety, and an intensity of colour, superior to those which occur iu spechneui that possess natural phosphoresce net). Jt has also very recently been dis- covered, that electricity exercises a curious Influence upon odoriferous bodies. When a current of the fluid is made to traverse camphor, the odour gradually dis- appears. After being wlthdrawu from electrical iu- lluenee, it remains odourless for some time, and then slowly resumes Its former properties. trrECTS or electricity i'pom animals. The influence of electricity upon the human frame, i«hftber it is administered iu small quaatitles so as to fvi lie* and iiiirprtse us. or in the more powerful and itwrulformofa stroke of lightning, must be well known Ui every one. When the human frame forms part of the electric circuit, or when the charge of a licyden litiinl is made to enter the body at one hand, and pans O'lt o[ it at the other, a violent coocuasion or shuck is felt along the line o( ita passage acrms the breast and through the anus. This shock, and the motion uhirh uccnnipanies it, no doubt result from iho biKly Iwing cmnpoHed of various substances of different degrees of i-ondiictitiir power, thua presenting various uUKtacles v> ihe free pntnage of the llufrt. If the charge ii in. crcHKed, the patient falln down paralysed, Kutfering a ccmporiiry cessHtion of vital action ; and if it tie in- < T.-tthed to ii still greater extent, it produces inatanta- net)UH di-nth. This is frequently exemplified in the ra-e.^ of individuals who are kilted by the lightning Mruke. It is upon the nervous system that electricitv produces the most powerful intlnence.- A stnuig charge pH>sed through the head, gives the sensation of a vio. lent but universal blow, and is, followed by a transient loKH of memory and indistinctncM of vinion. If a ( iwiige be piissed through the itpine, the piiirrowB, are instantly killed by a Hliock from thiriv I iiches of square glass. I f a shcnk t>e sent througli the while body of an eel, it is irrecoverably deprived of lite ; Init it' only tltrough tt purt of thH body, the de- BiniLtitMi oi irritnbiiity is coniiued to that particular pirt, whilst the rvM retains the powers of motion. Ditfereiit persons nrv affected In very different (Iegre4>s by tlectricity, according to their ^niiar c^institutional ^u^c«ptibility. The poworfiil influence of electricity on the human frame led the nuirc sober part of the nu'dic.-il profensiou to view it as n valuMhIe auxiliary in the healing art, wliile thoao who were more sanguine le^'ardetl it as an universal medicine, which miuht be resorted to in 201 every form of disease. Charlauns of every degree found the electrical machine a lucrative article of trade; and there were not wanting wall-meaning en- thusiasts who contributed to prolong the reigit of m«. dical electricity. But thouvb eleclrloily has not yet taken up a position in the liealing art, there v*n be no doubt that in various disorders its application haa been fouud advantageous, and that patients have, In a particular claitofdiseasaa,eipeiienced Instantaneous relief. We think some Ingenlons individual should make a catalogue of the diseases in which electricity gives relief, and, generalising the facts, give us a new aolence with the title of KUctra.Medicms, Why not, since we have electro- magnetism and electni-chemiMtry, from the identity of electricity with the former fluid, and its relations to the latter science. Althouf(h many ingenious electrical experiments have been made upiut veyttuhiet^ some of v, hiufa teem to indicate thattlie fluid exercises considerable lofln- enue over vegetable life, yet the subject is siill involved in loo great obscuritv to admit of our treating the sub- ject as a branch of electricity. Plants, of course, are destroyed, like animals, when a powerful charge Is sent through themt but feeblo electricity exerts no Influ- ence on either animal or vegetable liie, as far as can be iwrceived, whilst, when transmitted in powerful sltucks, tt deatruys them like lightning. CIlANflES IK THE ELECTBICAL STATE OF DODIEJ, REsuLTiira rnoH changes or TEsircHATUttE AND FURH, rROH CUNTAlT, COMI'RE.^iinM, &.C. There are certain mineral bodies, which, from being in a neutral state at ordinary temperatures, acquire electricity simply by being heated or cooled. This pniperty is possessed only by regularly crystallised minerals; and of tluC4>HHeH that me car- ried on in the living system, iioth of aninmls and ve- getables. For ait account of the electricity evolved during the Dttitact of metidii, as well as the other rela- tioiiN of the electric fluid with chem-cal scieme, ^ee tJALVANI.su. liJK KLECTBICITY OF THE ATMOHPIIERL. We have now arrived at that purt of our suhjuct which is perhaps the mt.>st generally iiituresting of nil. Kvery rur lias heard, and every bosom acknow- ledijed by itK terror or itH awe, the gr.indeur of the rolling thunder, as it pealed in the dunky sky, like the trump of diH>m, ^' cotiviilning earth and heavLMi. ' The rejiembhiiice between the electric spark, ami more especially ttie exploaive discharge of t!ie Leyden jur, and atmospheric lightning and thunder, btriick the mind of I)r Franklin with m) much force, thai he was determined, if possible, to verify their idei.tii} by experiment. Having constructed a kite, hy stretching n l.irge silk handkerchief over two stickn in the form of a cross, on the Hp}>eariince of an ap])ronrhing (.toriii he went into a ftehi in the vicinity ot Philadelphia, uiul raised it, taking care to insuhae it by a stlkeii ctird itttathtd to a key, with whicli i)ie lieinpen string ter- nun.iietl. iNo so.»',f » had a Oeose cloud, apparently cliurged with lig!uning, passed over the spot on which he ntotid, tliau bin attentiiui was arrented by thelirist- ling up of Mine loose tibreson tiio hempen string : he imniediately presented hm knuckle to the key, and received an electric &park. Overcome with the eiiui- lions wiiich his dittctjvery evinced, he licaved a deep bI^'Ii, ii.-> it hefeUcousciousof having achieved iuiicur- tal fame. The rain now fell In torrents, and, wetting the string, rendered it ciinducting in its whole length j so that electric sparks were now C4)llected from it in great abundance. The dlhcovery of Franklin aoon en- gaged the attention of all the philoaophera i>f Kurope, and the truth of the theoi^, that lightning and elec- tricity are the same fluid, was put beyond ail question. The atmoRpbere Is very generally lu an alcclrioal state. This is asi»rtaine'd by employing a metallic rod, insulated at iu lower end, elevaud ai some height above the ground, and communicating with an elecuosoope. in order to collect the electricity of the higher regions of the air, a kite may be raised. In the string of which a slender meulUu wire should be in- terwoven. Theatmoaphereis almost invariably found to Iw positively electrified ; and its electricity is stronger in the winter than in the summer, and during the dav than In the night. From tlie time of sunriae, it In- creaaes for two or three hours, and then decreases to- wards the middle of the day, being generally the weakest between noon and four o'chkck. As the sun declines, its intensity Is again augmented, till about the time ol' sunset, alter which it diminishes, and oon- tinuea feublu during the night. lu cloudy weuiher, the elecuical state of the atmo- sphere Is much more unceruin ; and when there are several strata of clouds, moving in different direc- tlcns, it Is subject to great and rapid variations, changing backwards and forwards in the cottrne of n very few minutes. On the first appearance of fug, rain, snow, hall, or sleet, the electricity of the air is generally negative, and often highly so t but it after, wards undergoes frequent transitions to opposite stales. On the approach of a thunder-storm, these aliernu- tions of the electric condition of the air succeed one another with remarkable rapidity. Strong sparks are lent out iit great abundauce from the umducior; and it bec lis to project a few feet above the highest part of the Ituilding they tire intended u> secure ; they should be continued without interruption till they descend into the ground below the foundation of the house. Cop. per is preferable to iron as the material fur their cuu- strucUon, being less liable to destruction hy rust, or by fusion, and possessing also a greater conducting ptmer. The size of the rods should be from h.tlf au inch tu an inch in diameter, and the point should Iw gilt, or made of platiiia, that it may be mure effec- tually preserved from c^in-ohion. jiii important couditloniu tlie protectfng conductor is, that no interruption should exist in its continuity from top to bottom ; and advantage will result from connecting together by strips of metal all the leaden water-pipes, or other considerablu masses of metal iu or about the building, ao as to form one continu- ous system of conductors, for carrying the electricity by different channels to the ground. The lower end of tht cunduciors should be carried down into the earth, till it reaches either water, or at least a moist stratum. For the protection of ships, chains, made of a series of iron rods linked together, are must convenient, on aicount of their flexibility. They should extend from the highest p'dnt ot the mast some way into the sea, and the lower part should be removed to some distance from the side of the ship, by a wooden spar or uutri^rger. THUNDER AND LIGIITNINQ. M'c have already mentioned, in general terms, that thetiu terrible viHitaiions are to be cl.issed with elec- trical phenomena. The lightning is to be identilied with tlu! electric spark, and tho thunder with the sound which we have seen accoinpunies it, but aug- meuted by being prolonged by the fUi-cessive echoee of the clouds, which, it has been proved, are capable of rellbcttng sound. Sir John Hcrbchell has Utely thrown considerable light upon the rolling nound of thunder; and his observatioii> bceni in M>riie loeabure to supernede the theory above Mated. " To uuder- Btniid this cause," says Jie, "we must premise, that, ciBteris yarif'us^ the estimuled intercity of a sound will be proportional lo the quantity of it (if we may BO exprena ourAclvcH) which reaches the ear in agiven time. 'I'Wif liliiwi*, equally hnul, at jjretisely the same distance from theear,wilUouiul aa one of double the intensity ; a hundred struck in un instant of time will siutnd as one blow a hundred times mure intense than it they followed in such slow succession thttthe ear could appreciate them singly." Now, let us Mip. pose two fliittlies of lightning of equal intensity and lengtii, both to begin at, say one mile's distance from the auditor, but 'jue ot them to run out in a direct lino from him, nnd the other tu describe one of ti circle of which he in the centre. Tiie aouuds .irlsing from each of the two streams of electricity may be re. garded as originating at one and the dame instant, since the sjiecl of lightning is incomparably greater than tliat of sound. Now, it is perfectly clear that the Boi.ud will reach the ear under very different cir- cuuifttuocos in the two cases. That of the clrculur flatih will arrive all at once, and affect *he ear as a single exploaion, whiUt the other will reach the t^ar iu succeiki re peals, each arriving after the other ai* '\' '/ CIIAMHKRSS INFORMATION I'OR THK PW^PLK. t! ! i U' . tiitt uiMthvu tictwvfii thr auttittir aiut thi* Ij^lititiii^- vtiii is IticrwuMl. Suulil««K<>ii«ral vi«wo| btr Jnhn'* thtforvt and it i« H:RrMly |HWktble lu Uuubi lu ourrevt> iiMi for « niiHitpnt. Diatmnet n/ I'humUr Th« clliUnr« i>f ihe p«)int in lite fttinmphvrfl whara tba il)(hli)iii(r i* ^pitarntad, may b« rtailily c»mpiit«d tiy multiplying MM)*' hy tha iiiinibar of trcondi which aliif«r tMrlweaii tha rtjuh aii«l tha Arat ntroka of thunder. Tha |)n»dm-l will giva In fvat tha diRUiu'O rftjuired. Tha ordinary riam of ihundar and li)rhtniiif( iKCur whan tha «l(K:tricity pawai hatwaau two rlotida oppi>- tltalyelarCritinlfOr imaof whlrh hM an lnr»riorclmr)(« iiftba tame kind of Huld. Whrn, howavar, the arcii' mutated aleetricity of tha eiuuda daseandi tuttie earth, it than astumea iti moat uppaUinjc form, and Kiti-eaiU daatrurtlnn around ita )>itUt, like tha aword of inn df- RtruyiiifC tingal. Tha itrungait fabrics reami by hit- mati hands, and tha most firmly nMitad oaks, cannot wlihKiand Its dasolatinn fury. Downilcomea, sattla^ tha forest in Aanins, shiverinff walls of Itithylnnian tbicknaM and adamantine itreiiKthf and lavinK man, )ii9 works, and whattrvar obiiruets lis pstli, In nni* t-ommim ruin. Tha thundarbtdt, which the turnir of cha TulKar mind, as well In ancient w in miMlern times, has a^Kravaied inti> a really sn hath it, is to be identitted with the pusHaf^e of the f lectric lluid frtim the clouds tn the earth. Soinotiinrs, bowavur, the earth, as it were, ret tli,iu>!i, andtholhiid shoots upwards to the clouds t thin is called tbeatt-fnt/. ing thuniUrttolt, n( which there ar« some stnkinfi cases Mu record. It has been seen ti> rise in the form uf a flam* six feet )iit(h, and folbiwad l>y a loud noj%e. Thar* are various intarestin); electrical uhennmena, but they belong mure immediately to the subject of Me. teurolo^. A few of ibam, however, may l»e ntuiced, and of ttiBse the transport of ponderable subntances by lifthcnin^r is none of the least renmrknbje. To V\\- ^inieri, whose name has already been mentioned, we are indebted for our knowled|r*of tliis interesting sub. jecL The general tacts at which he arrived, aret — ** That ligtitning contains, like the cttmmon elet'tric opark, matter In a stata of eitreme divisioTi, aii>l in a Ktate of ignition and combuition. In the matter de. posited by lifjhtning on houses and on trees whicit have been struck l>y It, he has foutid iron, suiphur, and carbon. Ijightning divide^ and subdivultvi itsrlf indefinitely into sparks, which end in being not much larger than thoae of ordinary machines ; ind aacli of thtwa sptu-ks oonuins ponderable subiitNncei in lite utata of extreme divi»iun already nieniinned. Ttie lightning deposits the Bub*tani-as with which it is ciiarfTad while It passes through them, and while it l>ri>aks hard iHHliea ; and it deposits tbein on the sur- face by which it enters the ImmIv, as well as on that by which ittscapes, and also on the surfaces of traciure." The connection l>etween the formation oi hail, and a highly electrical state uf thn Mtnioituhen>, is certain : hut how tlie production of h.iil under s\n\\ circum- stances ia to be accounte«l tor, wv cannot tvll. To electricity is, al%is to W attritiuied the pheiioinona of waieispiHita, tliret or suramer lii;hining, the aurnm barealis, tirebulls, columns of liiibt, and other Inmi. nous appearances of the atman the elei'tricity di»cbarging it. self int4> or from fMtinled tnidies, ai;d is intimately con- nected with a peculiar electrical state ol tha air. rntTHictTV or iivisd animai^. Dnriuft the c'lemiral prntTsses and rbanffe* «vb{ch hn inoeasanily taking plai'a In living iMidies, electri. city is developed in greater or less iiuantities. Thi' friction whuti tskes place between ttie doiliinff and the skin 4)f the Intman InnIv, alsn tends to generate this power. Tardan relates, that sparks were emitted from the hair of a Carmelite monk whenever it wa» stroked backward* ; other cases are also on'record, nt the fluid luvitiif Ih!>«^i developed by tha biHly beni,; rubbed. But independent of these electrical pbenM. mena, we find in certain ftshrsa regular system ofelec tncal nrgat», by which they either defend themselves from the Attacks of their enemies, or seise tha prey nature has provided for their use. Amongst the mi»t remarkable of these is the Jiaia Torpt'dot which is en- pable of giving a grvat many nhtH-k* to a nunitwr ol Midlriduals connected together, in the same manner as in the experiment witii the I«eydeu jar. Another is the electrical eel, which, when provoked. diiich;ir.i4'ii iu electricity, and the shm-k is experienced if the iiaiid be dipped in the Wtttcr conuining the tiih. OALVANISM. This s<*>nce has been named after thn celebrated Oalvaiii, an Italian phlluaopber, on ac-ouni nf ihr following circumstance :— A recently kille«l fro^^ hav- ing t>een accidentally touched in the limb with the blade of a knife which was held by a perstm who was expeiimeuting with an electrical machine, was imme. diately thn>wn into violent convulsions, fialvanl ws^ n'lt present when this <»cnirred, tnit being informed of the circumstanra, hi* lost no time in repeating the experiment, and extending bis nbservations upon the phenomenon. He fmind that otiier mttals besides that oomposing a knife an^weieil the purpose, and verv juHttv inferred thar they owed this proiierty of *>xcit. lUg luusculAr contraction* to thttr Iwlng i;'kx1 cou. dtictors of electricity. Huch was the origin of that science which has openrd up to uianklnd a rich and boundless field of luTestigatlon. (lalvani proceuiled with his experiments upon ani- mals by means of matalllc siibitances, and arrived at tha conclusion, that the dilTerant parts of an animal are in oppmlte states of electricity, and that the effect of the metiil it merely to restiire the etiuilibrluni. ilnt this theory was proved to be erroneous by V'idta, a celebrated philnsopber uf I'nvla, who, almtit the year IMOI, discovered the GaUmnic or Voliiiio pttf. lie was led to It by meditating on tha devehtpenuMit of electricity at the Hurfac^e ol contairt of two dilFerent metals. He tried the elTei'L of bis compound pbaen of metal upon animals, and was led to infer thiit the electricity is darivait, not from the living system, but fioin the action excited ttetween the metal and the hitmid animal fibre, that the animal mutter acts merely as a medium conducting this electricity, and ilmt the effects produced are to be nscrilied to tlie stimiilmi ut the electric fluid pssslng along the nerves and tibien, as in a shock from a lH*ydeu jar. N'olta further discovered, thwt the metallic pintes which he used, such us silver and iliic, are excited, the former negatively, and the latter pitsitively ; and also that the galvanic energy could be greiuly aug- mented by employing several paira of plates, c>iii. nectlng them in such a manner that the electricity excited by eucli pair should Iw dilfused through the whole, and this i-unititutud the voltuic pile. It con- (tilted of any number of puirs of sine and copper or sine and silver plates, each pair being sepuratvil from the iidjoiniiig luies by pieces of cloth, nearly o( the same nixeui the plates, and midstened in a SHtnrated Ktdntitm of siUt. The relative ptisition of the metaU in each pair was the same in the whole series, so that if the co|tper was placed behiw the sine In the firnt combiimtioo, the same rtert; tne former cimi- prehending tlie metals, phimbagn and charcoal, the mineral acids, and saline solutions; the latter hu eluding water, alcohol and ether, sulphur, oils, resins, metallic oxides, and compounds of chlorine. The least complicated galvanic arrangement Is termet) o limpif galvanic circlf. It consists of three cotiduutors ; of whit h line at le:ist must be »olid, the second fluid, tha third may Iw either stdid or lluid. In the fidlow. ing t.-tliles, some differeut simple ciicles are arranged in the order of their powem, the most energetic weti- pying the highest place : — TaMe of elrctricJ arnmgements, which, hy comblna- lion, form voliaic batieriei, composed of two perfect conductius, and one imperfect conductor. Zinc Iniu Tin I.edd Copper Silver Uold IMatina Charcosl Huch of these is tlio posiiire )Hiie to all the substauces be- low it, and iie> g:itivewii]i re- spect to those ni'ovu it in the column. Stdutiuu of nitric acid . - inur'alic acid .. sulphuric aciil . sal auiuiuiitac nitre other neutral lulls. Tablp (if electrical arrangements, cnnslsling nf one perfect ciinductor und two imperfec* ctmduciors. Solution of siilphu* ret ui {K)tash — ■..■■. poLltth soda ('opper .*'ilver Lead Tin /inc (Ither metals Charcoal Nitric acid Sulphuric acid .Muriatic acid Any solutions containing aril.* 9 In explanation of these tables, it may be observed, that in all those ca«es where the tinift meiislruH alToid oxygen, tbme meuU which have the strongest tittrac- tioii for oxygen are those which form the iiositive pole. Itnt when the Huid menstrua afford sulphur to the metals, the metal, which, under the existing circuni- stanc4-s, has the strongest attracLJou for sulphur, de- terminea the positive ptde. Thus, in a series of copper and iron platen, introduced into a porcelain trough, the cells of which are filled with water or witii actd solutions, the iron is pitsitive, and the copper negHtivi* ; hut when the. cells are filled with a solution of siil- pburet of potash, the copper ia positive, and the inoi negative. When i>ne metal only Is concerned, the surfnce opposite thn .nid is negative, and that iu con- tact with the solution, ur the alkali and sulphur, or of iu alkali, is iMuiiive. tSlmple galvanic circlet are poisessed of but feeble powers; yet these are often sufficiently obvious, »^ in the instance uliove altmled t>i, of a slip of xlnc laiil upon the tongue, utitl n piece of silver under it. In this cjine, we have iiti example of the urrangement ot two |>erfect (VtmliK'.ors (the metals) with one imper- fect "lie (the tongue, or nttber the lluids which it con- tains). A piece of /.iiic iuimersfd in water which is freelvexposeil to the atmosphere, oxidisea very slowly ; but when placed in ihe Ramesituittiun, in contact with u piece of silver, its oxiilntion is much inoie rapid. Hv Immersing iron and silver (also in omtaci with each other) in dilute muriatic add, the action of the avid upon the iron Is consuterably Increased ; and hydrogen gas is evolved from the water, not only where it la In contact with the iron, hut where it touches the silver. These facts explain why, in the shaatbintr of ships, il Is nuiensary to me bolts 4if tlie same metal ■ bich forms the plates ; lor if two dillerent metaU l»e employed, they tHiih oxiilate very speedily. In constxiiieiu'eof tbeir forming, with tha water of the ocean, a simple galvanic circle, (■'ompound galvanic circles, or galvanic batteries, are formed by multiplying those arrangements which compme liniple circles. Thus, If plates of xiiic and of silver, and pieces of wotber. The gslvHiuc trough thut constructed. '■il by keejiiiiif ' i; tl.ern t**- inore liijiiid. The voltaic battery ban lieen itP|' the plates detached,' Instend of *■>■ ^'ether. Tbey are connected at the \., r edge by n metallic are, and are intrmliiced into » uou^li divided into cells by partitions of glass (or sometimes inbit troiifrhs wholly made of esrtlienware), in such u iiiiin. ner that one plate is on one side of the pnriitioii, iIih other on the other. This arrangement bus the att iu home c»»tt'> the acid acts ou the gluied surface of the poroelait. . and the trouKb" b^ak. ]>r U'olUnton has heightened tlio imfirovement, by placing in escii reli one pUtr of liie one metal, as the xinc. anil t^^o of tlie other, the c >|^,er, so that e-wn turjce uf the zinc may be opiJOM'd to a inrfncc of K^KCTIBCiTT.AND GALVyVNISM. V f-^ ■*■- kiil-iiiM iflifstf.inn ^ tliitc o-ich SIirlHC« of i:«tr iu-« couutctcd by ii . . uilir arci, holD «t ihfi inn wi-t hnuoni i •nd Iwtwr-r iliem, MupporUMl br pi«OM of wood, U the plaM of tine, dihtiiitt ATI oifrhth or « rmirth nf mi iiii-h frnni thec()|>p«rf>n t)U)ied liy arn» of lend or 4iUi«r mnul, CMiiiiot liiiff «Kch iwiiir/il xlirc plnti* h itii the copfrcr of thH uljoliiin^ cell. TtiU AnHiiifortmnt ii vary powerful in prududng light and lirn^taviii^. OALVAKIC DKKI AOIIAT' " An ii)f!«niiiiiH miHlifM-atliiri of tin < .('paratiiii hai Iwreri cmitiivHii by Itr llaru, u( Phlltuti iphU. h roii. MiiU of concanirli; <-oiU of deKi>i)d, ^t t>l0Uurf, iiiitaittaiii'iiualy tnui the fxcitiiij( lliii'l ctMiiaioed in ffluix JMri or wiHNlun trmttt (if nine incbe* by ila, nnd oni' >•( iupper fottrte**Ti liv Mix, mure of the copper l>ein^ ri>i|iiirfd, nii thJR mi-liil ii> inkde lo i-iiinin«uc« wlthlti the ziiir, and comph-tely til Hiirrniind it wilhoul, 'i'hu ihfetn are no e^iilcd M -df- — - to leave t)i>t\rH*ii them iiituriilcvB of a iinnrier nf an Inrh. In the or}. ^(nal apparatufl, they were arranf(ed in two row4, 40 colli in each i II t thtir iinmtT'-l'iii In the approprliite lltiid, tlii>iron)edlalei>vii|iitinn nf heat and li^lit «ai fiiund to be innHt tti* toii>te, and fur ex't'edioff that of voliuir piles or troiivliii of an fijual ntiniher of nerle« hiiI extent of iurfuce; and nu a .'ouiit ■•! itn hiipfrior ip'>\fer > I l.'a»^lll^ llitt ixiIk b iMhii^ of mettillic wire-i liiid letveii, the iiiH-ruineiii Wii» named by its infeniiir tin- yalvanxc tlr/tui;rat,>r. 'J'he nize of the plnten comixmin^ tJie ({Hiviinit' i>eri(>ii has been varied frum one or two inrheH st^nnre. to that of a great uumhLT of IVct. The battery nt Air Children consisted of twenty pairs of f-i'jiper ntnl zinr plnle*, eiich plitte heiiifi^ six feet long by tn'o IV-i-t eight iiii'hes broad. Kat'h puir was conttrcti''] \<\ leaden straps at the top, and bud a sepurnte uimhU-m cell. TlicHe cells wereCHpnhle of (ontainlng !M^ g;il- h)iiB (tf li<]nid. The pUies were luspemli'd from a vruoden licain, by means 1/ which they could at onrt- be lowered into the ceMii, and again raia«d at ple.i«iire. * llitTereiit liquids are emoloyed to till the cavititM ot the trnn^'b ; and it Is eshvntial to employ tlx'iie whicJi exert a chemical action upon one of the metals. (In* ffflcct with pure water tieing very inconsideralde. In general, the galvanic effect is proportional to thf rapidity with which the more oxldable metal if acted upon by the inteivening lluid. Thus^ where ilio li< • ,uut employed is pure water, the electric excitement ■• "ery feeble, for the action on the metals ic feeble ; tiie xiu€ is, even in thin arrangement. ob^Tved I.- •-■ uaidiked more rapidly tlmn it would tw, were it nui . contact with the copper, A raline solution, an cf muriate rff sodtt, or nniriate of nmmonia, in fouml tu cause a inure rapid oxidation of ttii< /iiu: ; and, ac- cordingly, the electric |H>-wer in great*/ : ami, lastly, an acid fluid, which oiygetrnteHund tti'^toives the me- tals innch more rapidly, produces the b'lrhest activity ol which the battery is capable. The ' >d grnerally iihed is nitric acid, diluted with twent thirty times iti weight of water. U' ih regard tii the electrit-»l effects pi "vd hy the gnlvicTiir batter^, it is unnecensarv to spi'. hs tliey are, iif t-ourie. nimilar to those already deftci -^i an le- iiultlin- tr.iii an excited electric We shall -» pro- tved V me moat important p^rt of the subje* t, that wliich ieiiite;i to the chemical ihanget effected bygat- vuiiihui, and which haj been catl«d F.i.>:crnociiEMisTiiv. Some of the chemical cbangen effccie*' by electricity were noticeO under that head, but tho'>- -esulting from tltf operaiion of galvanism, whose pi.~ • *- is infinitely greater than that of ordiuMi'v electricity, are of i^ral- fuUbly more importance. Us application iudefNl, to diemicat analysis, ban led to n serien ot «roverie!t which constitute a now era in the hi»torv -iiemin- try, acd rank amongst the moxt brillitint rct><'ded in the annals of phy!>ic:U science. In order to itcijuire rlear ideas of chemistry as retating to g)tlv>initini, we will ttttce them from their origin, and ait^'ud to n iiat tttkes place in the simplest gnlvaiiii* cirdf. com|HP!>ed o\ two dissimilar metals, and an interposed tluid, ir a plalu of zinc, and another of copper, be im- nieiKed in verv \" ulphnric acid, without t-mch- ing or comnaT .vi .■ ;.'li each orher, the zinc will Ve ttctftl upon !ij t it .'-i-i ; part of the wiiter will l^e diMxunposed, i's orygH'^ 'omhining with liie zinc, and t'irniing oxide .. /inr, ind its hydroijeti will be diit- engaged in the " .'•» >♦ /ai from the surface of the /tiic pUte. The v->p[K;r- it. not acted u(hui. If theme. cum be brought iot" c.>itUct, the oxidation goes on with greater rapidity am) energy, although without Urn evolution of the name quantity of hydrogen gas from the oxidating sarfiice. Hut. from tlve whole lluid, hydrittteu is disengaged in t|Mi)nlity exactly cirres- poiitf a to that ol the oxygen derived from the water, ■ Bhtuh CyvlDDSdii. atticlt) OalijuiKiu. «nd the ifr<'it.i ition of ii rint>n in a cop,.»us stream of bubblM from the surface nf the ropper pUte^ which rtmalni uoaotvd itp^ni ai before. If, hownver, an ncid, such as i- nitric add, capa- ble of acilng np- acid, similar phe. noniena will take place, with this additional clrcunn- Htauce, that the action of iha acid upon the copper m ill ceane llie insuut the galvutlo circuit Is completed t and instead of nitrous gas being Uvrmad on tne aiir- f.tce of the oupper, which happens befor^ibe circuit is formed, unly nubblteof piirtnydrogen will make their ap}H>arance; and the copper is protected from all fur. tber action, the ilno Iteing, as In the former case, oxi- dated and dissolved with additional energy. It is on this princitile that Sir H. Davy has effected the pro- tection of the copper sheathing of ships from the corro- sion 01 sea.water, by placing in conuit with >t pieces of sine, or iron, on which sea-water rxeru a greater I'liemical action than on copper. Among the simpteit vlFects of galvanism upon fluid. nrnductori, is the reso. lutioit of water into Its two gaseoni elemenli, oxygen and hydrogen. If the water employed he not per. fectly pure, other • ibstances besides the two conipu< nents of water make their appearame Ht the two wires employed lit the experiment. The nppareut forma- tiini of these substances gruntly puxxled tha early ex. perimentalists, but Sir H. Davy proved, in a must masterly manner, that, when the water it perfectly free from any foreign Ingredient, only the two simple gase« nf which it Is i:oinpiwe kuline, or nietallli-, were at the lame moment trHUs> lerred along with the hydrogen to the negative wire. I'henomeua of a still more extraordinary nature presented tluimielves to 8ir Humphry Davy in the I'urther proseculbm of these Inquiries, It was dis- covered that the elements of compound bodies were actually conveyed by the influence of tln^ electric current through solutions of ^til'.i..«nc«s, -<:. wldch, under other circuuistancet, ti><4 y w .old have exerted an Immediate and powerful Jiemical action, without Huy such elTect being prodii> rd. Acids, for example, may tte trnnsmitietl lr>Hii >.i:e cup, connected with the negative polo, to auotti«i on the opposite or pohitive side, through a portion oi lluid in an intermediate cup, tinged with any nl the vegetabIe>coloured in. fuNious, which are instantly reddened hy the presence of an acid, without occasioning tin; KlighteHt chajigf of colour, 'l. « same happens aUo with alhalin. li three cups )<;■ arranged, and cirnuecteo^itive side of the battery, being filled with blue infusion of cabbage or t/t' litmus, and the cup next to the negative ttiile containing a ko- lutiiMi of Hulphate of soda, im the series being placed in the voltaic circuit, a red tinge will siatn be yvr- ceived in the water uf the positive cup, which will lii'cume Htrongly acid. It is evident that the sulphuric ncid no tntuAlerred niiint have passed through the lluid in the middle vt-nsel, but withoutatfectingtliflCt)lonred solution in its pannage. Uy reversing the connections t^itb the poles ot the battery, a similar transfer uf the nkali will tH3 made: It will be collected in the tinged water of the negative cup, which it will render green ; hut the intermediate portion d' fluid will not, either in thin ur in tlie former cast'. I'tbibit any trace i>f the suI'Miiiice which is carried tin Hit^h it by the influence of • .'Uicity. ('ohesion, how' er, where powerful, an 01 t have been expected, uterccptn the trans. uiisBi..., 'li the substance. Sulpi< iric acid cannot he trannmiti^ through a sidutiunoi'l-.trvien or atrontitea, nor thefte earths through sulphun> cid ; for when tlie atteuipt w tu maHe, they felt do 1 as insoluble pref lpitat«^ >olids *re also deconip. .^*Tred to the op'^ositc wiren, by mcinn ot the galvanu '^wcrgy. 80 powerful Is this mvsterioun agent, ttiat the WiHiutest purtiuiu of a substance, acied upon by either of the wires, is udlected around it. The render has now obta'n»'d a general view of the principles and discoveries d. toped in Sir II. Davy's great Hakerlait I«ectnre on i ■ ('hemical Agencies of .'-Iti'tricity, which was crowi.<»d by the National In- M "> of Kraiu'e with the Napolooii prite, to iho gl< r f the c^uintry of the chemist, no l^*** thar: to hiM < 11. The grand law ■■( electnv-cheruiotsi decoi' pofii. • n may he agHui stated in full, Metals, intlan ma.blr fiodies, alk.4^i-., earths, ami 4>xide8, are detei mined to the negative surface or ptde ; and oxygen, chlorine, imliue, and acidt (may we ndd biomine and tluorine ?) to the positive pole. Tlie dewimpoBiiion into their constituent elements of the alkalis and earths, which crowned the brilliHUt career of the great pliilohopher ab've named, is, in p.ritit of theory, (Uily a pMrticnlar inntance of the general fact above stated. \'.«rioun utlier applicationtt buve been niiide of the voltaic hatiery to the purpoN*-- 4if chemical dccooipo- fiti >r). Sulphuric acid h rvhtitn, alcohol, and ether, when licttrd on by a (Miwerlul battery, depunit charcoal, and give off hydiogeu or carburcited hydrogen. Hut it irt uniuwttiiuiry to enuumraK- all the instances of du- cotnpoxition elfei'ted Ity thin the moxt powerful initru- nieui iii analysis in ilie hands uf luau. We have now arrived at ■ general law, namely, il'Ht when compounds are placed in the galvanic cir- cuit, they are decomposed, and thetr aleroonts col- lect, some around the ii*^%%\f0t some around the positive pole of the battel y. How this arises, what IS the cause of this remarkable effect, it fs difficult to nay. Various theories have been brought forward to explain these singular resnils. tllEMlCAI. TlirOHTOr OAtTANISH. '' « general fact which forms the basis of this thv y Is, that chemical action occurring t>elw«en « fluid and a solid hodv Is always acoompanwd hy the disturbance nf electric equilibrium, and thus a quan- tity of electricity passes from a latent into an active state. For Instance, during the oxidation of metallio iMtdies by means of an acid, a large quantity of elec- tricity is dft^ehiped. or. In other wortls, the metal be^ citineii negatively electrified, whilst theliquid becomes positively electrified to the same extent. Now, this can Ihj accounted for in a certain degree, by supposing the existence of either one or two Huids. According 10 the lirst theory, we have only to suppiiiw thai the fluid is abstracted from the metal and transferred ^| the line ; or, according to the second hypothesis, that the tWM electricities are nepArated by chemical action, and the determlnatiiui of tlie resinous or ne- gative electricity in the direction of the xluc, and of the vitreous or positive 6uid In the direction of the oxidating liquid. Why the electrical equilibrium nhonld l»e disturbed during (,-hemical composition, and what is the obstacle which prevents its rusturatlon, is yet a mystery to us, hut the fart in beyond all doubt. It may be asked, Is chemical action tlie catue or tlie fffict of electricity being transferred from a latent to an active state ? That chemical attraction itself is a niodittcation of electricity, and that the same power wIm. h communicates attractive and repulsive pro- iMMties to manses of matter may, when acting upMti the ultimate particles of ditfurent bodies, induce them either to separate or unite, as their natural electrical sutes are tlie same or different, in extremely probable. Sir II. Davy, who advanced tti>' alHive theory, con- ceived that all bodies posoefs natural electrical euergies, which are Inherent in them, whether they are la a state of combination or not. Oxygeu, chlorine, iodine, atid acid», according to the theory, art* na. turally negative , while inflammables, at hydrogen, sulphur, icCf and metuln, are naturally positive. Uenoe, when the combinations of these subntances are subverted hy the galvanic influence, the substances are evolved in the electric state natural lo them ; and, as it is a law of electricity that bodies in opposite states attract each other, the oxygen, being negative, is immed.ittely attracted by the positive wire, while the ititlammahle or metallic base, being naturally po- sitive, is attracted by the negative wire. In thin way, the tiuiform appearances of these liodies at their par. ticiilar poles are accounted for. Thus, If hydrogen is naturally positive, and oxygen naturally negative, ac- cording to the laws of electricity, they must Httract each other ( and if these opposite states are nuffi- ciuntly elevated to give them an attractive force, su- perior to the power of aggregation, they may beexpected to combine t and, in like manner, otlier bodies, whose particles are in difTereiit states, may from this cause be united together. If a liody, also, whose electrical energy exceeds that of one of the subsunces combined, be brijught to act upon these, it ma\ expel that ingre- dient, and take its plac«; ami thib n.ay be the cause of what is called decomposition from elective afhnity. The effect of heat, likewise. In promoting combina- tion or decomposition, may often depend on its exciting electrical energy; and the elevation of temperature and production of light, no frequently attending che- mical action, may depend on the cliangen attending the electrical states, nince such changes aro acconi. panied with the evululion of heat and light, 'i'lie agency of the galvanic apparatus, then, in producing' decomposition, it is conceived on this hyputhesis, is. that the tno wires placed in contact with the cm. pound are, in states uf electricity, more intensely ele- \ ,ited than the natural states of the two ingredientn; hence the attraction nf these two higlUy electrified points overcomes that subsisting between these ingre- dients: they are separated, and Immediately druv^n tu the respective poles — the ponitive constituent to the negative wire, and tim ingi't'tliert, which is naturally neg.tttve, to th- positive wiie. A number of facts might he brought forward in support of these views. The transfer of material pcniderable substances, such as those which constitute water to the respective poles of the battery, has been thus explained by Dr Koget, in a paper which was read to the I'hilosophical Society of Manctiester, in ill07 : — *' We may conceive the agency of electricity to extend throughout the whole of the fltiid line connecting the two wires. The IiMlrogen existing in every particle of water in this line will, if it pos«i'>" ■ jmciiive electrical polarity, ac- c*»rding to t!ie hyp-i; >, of Air Duvy, be repelled by tiie poMtuf and uttr. ' tjy the negative wire. We may c in^ider tb« nn. jMrticlen of hydrogen alu Htructediy from those ui gen. While the former are moving- together, ti) ine agency of electricity, in A direction towards the negative wire, all tlwse par- tide:* whidi have not yet iched that wire will merely have to pam over ii 'efcRion from one pnr- tifle of oxygen to tin* ntxt. -u those of the other row. They will ii unite itnelf with, U will BMlte it» apMaranot in the form of f aa. In lik-e maaaer, the nr*t particle of hydrogen in the Mriea, by iu ftbandoninft the first paitiole of oxygen, which 6udi no ntlier particle of hydrogen to replace it, CAUiet the oxygen to appear at thn point in the form of gmi. we have tliua the ttro gaiei formed at eadi end, not from the name individual particle of water, trnt from the two which happen to bo at that moment in contact with the wire*. The production of the two gaeea will take place at the same initant in botK ptavee, each particle having only to move one step, that it, from one particle to the adjoining one, inetMid jf having to traverse the whde extent of the line, and no current will be perceptible in the fluid. If this theory be correct, the operation of gravity in fevouring the descending enrrent of the heavier ele- ment, namely, oz^en, might be rendered sensible; and that this'is actually the ease, appears by an obser- vation of JUr Sylvester, that when the wire giving cut oxygen is placed at a nnch lower level than that which gives out hydrogen, the effect Is sensibly greater than when the poaitlons are reveraed." Similar nplanations of the mode of transfer hn^e been given by Dr Henry, and by Orotthns ; and from the following passage ctrical b.ittery very weakly charged. Twenty pair of pluies are generally sufficient to give a shock which is sometimes felt in the arms. With a hundred pair. It exunds to tha shoulders. A continued flow of the current through *.h(j body is accompanied by a •ontiuued aching pain. The Impression mede upon some of the nerves of the face when they form part of the circuit, is accompnnled by the senialiou of a vivid flash of light. When a piece uf xinc and a piece of copper are placed, the one above and the other brlow tiie tongue, which must Ite In a moist state, a peculiar taste in experienced. This ii supposed to arise from the saliva of the mouth having l>een decimiposed Ity the galvanic action, and not merely the effect of a direct impression of the electric current on the nervei of tlie tongue. When the current of voltaic electricity is made to pau along a nerve distributed to any of the muKcles of voluntary motion, they are thrown in*o violent convulsive cnntractioni. The susceptibility of some animals is very great, and numerous curious expcrimenu may he performed with them. If an earthworm be placed upon a crown piece which lies upon a plate itf ainc of larger alze, it will suffer no Id> ooiivcnience as long as It remains iu contact with the 201 silver only i but the moment it has stretched out its head, and tnuohad th« alno, so as to oompleto the gal- vanic circle, it suddenly raeolU, as if it had felt a severe shock. If the battery w powerful, email animals mav be easily killed. Striking affeou are produoMl bvgaf. vanism, in the mnsdes of an animal, after deatn, ai long at they retain their contractility. The oonvuU slons are so general as often to Impress the tpecutor with a belief that the animal has been restored to the power of sensation, and that it Is suffering the most cruel torture. The eyes open and shut in their sockets spontaneously, as if re-endued with vision t the nos- trils vibrate, as in the act of smelling; and the mort- menti of mastication are imitated by the jaws. But the experimenu which are calculated to product the greatest terror and astonishment, are thoea made upon the bodies of recently executed criminals. The following is an account of one performed by Dr Uro, upon the body of a murderer named Clydesdale, and it is perhapa the most striking on record i— OALVANIPATIOM OF A DEAD BODY. In the first experiment, rions breathing Initantly commenced. The chent heaved and felli the belly protruded and oollapsnd with the relaxing and retir- ing diaphragm ; and this continued as long as the gal- vanic dischargers were given. In the third experiment, one rod was connected with the eyebrow, and the other with the heel. Kvery muscle of the counte- nanue was thrown Into convulaiva emotion, and every terrible passion became then fearfully embodied. In rage, horror, despair, anguish, and ghastly smiles, the expression of the murderrr*s face far surpassed the most fearful representations of h Fuseli or a Kaan. One gentleman who was present at thii awful exhi- bition fainted, and others were iximpellud to leave the room through terror or fainlneis. In the fourth and last experiment, one of the arms was electr fled, and the Angers wereset nimbly into motion like those of a violin player. The fist being closed, and the rod ap- plied to the tip of the forstiuger, itinstantlyextended, and from the convulsive agitation of the arm, the cri- minal seemed to point to the spectators, some of whom thoughtthat he had come to life. It remaini to Im suted that the positive pole or wire connected with the sine end of the battery was that which was applied to the nerve; and the negative, or that connecteid with the copper end, was that which was applied tothemusc^M. The battery consisted of tf70 pairs of four-inch plutee. Dr Ure, who deserves the higheit praise for the ad- mirable manner in which he conducted the above ex. perlments, was of opinion, that, had the respiratory organs been aoted upon before the body had lost a large quantity of blood from incisions having bean made in it in varimis plaoea, there is a probability that the raalo&ctor would have been brought to life. But thin event, he justly remarks, was icaroely d«(rable in the case of a murderer, however impottant in a philosophical point of view. The effects of galvanism upon tlio functions of se- cretion are the most remarkable as well as tlie most inexplicable. That it acts rspeoiaUy, and in a peuu- liar manner, upon the gastric juice, u lluid essentially subservient to the priHiess of digestion, there oaji be no duuhu Perbspt the various functional paru of the body form a sort of galvanic battery, by which a regular circulation uf this subtile and mysterious fluid is kept up. ELECTRO.MAGNETISM, OH MAONETO- ELECTHICITY. The strong resemblances between the phenomena exiiibileil l>y magnetism and electricity, were long ago poinlvd out by philosophers. The analogy was strongly corroborated by the fact often obberved, that magnetism was communicated to bodies by a stroke of llghtalng, and that the oumpaas needles of ships have .rtt their virtue, and had their polarity changed by a similar cause. Dr Franklin, In enumerating the poinU of analogy between lightning and electri- city, remarki, that they both have the power, not merely of reversing the poles of niagmttx, but of com* pletely destroying their raaKnetism. Other analogies were discovered ; but it was nut until 1(1111, when l'r(»- fessor Oersted of Copenhagen, led by theoretical views, eotablished a moat mtereatlng relation lietween these two powers, and Uid the foundation of the new icience, called Kiectro-.Magrii^tiam. The facu which this phi. loaopher diacovured niny he thus exprt'ased i — When a wire conducting electricity is placed pa- rallel ui a ujagnetic needle properly auspended, the needle will deviate from )ta original or natural direc- tion. This deviation follows a regular law. I. If the needle is above the conducting wire, snd the positive electricity goes from right to left, the north end of the needle will be moved from the ob- server. *i. If the needle is Mov the wire, and the positive elactricity passes as bsforr, the north and uf the needle will be moved towardt the obscrrer. S. If the needle is in the same faorixontal plane with the wire, and li between the observer and the wire, the north end of It will be 0l*vat«d. 4, If the needle is similarly placed on the oppoaiie •tdt, the fier* atklns of London. To ctniclude : With regard to the abstract nature of this singular agent whose properties we have de. stiril>ed, tlie first question that presents itnelf is, whether it be a material substance or not. Although many of the pbenoineua aeem at first sight toindioate that such is thu case, yet, niter due consideration, they will be found resolvable intit the sudden scUon of a repnlaive power exerted amongst the particle* of matter situated in a ountinuoua line. The mate- ality of electricity, indeed, still rests upon a similnr lunnJalion with that of haat and light, which, as .se ulisert ^ .1 in the number of this work devoted to Chr- uiiatry, is still a disputed point. We have already spoken at suflicleiit length upon the subject of there balng (»ne or two fluids. We may remark, that as all tittt facta can Ire explained by either of the twohy- pothvsvH, and as we are still in Ignorainw whether or not it Uv a Jlnut at all, apeoulatiun upon it, however amusing, in utterly useless. KniNhtfRBHt ruMlthcdliy W. and H. rHAMSsa*, 19, WatsrJcNi l'lan>i aiao by Oaa aaa NMtrii, HatrnuMttr Haw, l,tinilon i and VuiiNuaiiil t'l'MNiNoiiaM, nubliii. hold by Juhn Umo. Irxl, Ulvguw, anit all other Htxikiellrn. Krwa tba Sttam Ftaaa of W. aoU U. Chaotberi. loriionMl ptsn* ^rT«r and th« ted. on the 4^po«[t« tMitd, In UiMfl ry near the wire. nted eoncludf i «cirlc»l «arrei i whioh «oodttei\ f in thia expcrl- lenjcth, CO allow , It it called the ' diiooTered two nted had made the conjnnetive It magnetic pni' iteel needle, not 1^ U In the eleo> aatio power thus ayi proportional tted throurh it. liitinot guVanio Kher, they eahi. ms. Two wires , connecting the being placed pa- u to move freely* lier, according as Bctrioity 6owtng nt. iie moit plausible ises from the at- ^electricity, oon- let. This it oun- magnetic needle conducting elec- ng along the wire und the magnet. ided our know. ; and, by some r proved the ten- ibly has M mure the left. nts which have IS clearly proved nticsUy the same. ) be tbui consti. 1, round the axis intly circulating, electric currenu repel all others direction. The Tnat in the same ur instance, if te pointing Co the bnaguetic needle, d it from west to ih the earth and un), or, on the ring downwards, I the upper lide side from east to I law. To com- nsins only to ex- the magnet, by e position, nearly conjectured that thiu whirh cir- nstantly flowing vlsjtricity in a uken circuit froDi i from it, by the e negative pole. nferred to be the to artiAc*al m%g. tions and reput- gingthecur"ent« m, that the latter rove the truth uf xperimeuts hare nisincompatiblf Co the best worlc ins of London. abstract nature ies we have de- «eenu it«elf ii, noC Although . sight to indicMte M consideration, le sudden uccion fst the particle* ne. The mat*>- ti upon a similir ht, which, as «fe devoted to Che- lae have already subject of ther« remark, that as r uf the twohy. ance whether or pon it, however rnian, 19, Witarl'ii' ter How, Lotutrin i iiuld by Jului Mfto- CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF THE " EDINBURGH JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." N o. 34 Phiok l\d. THE EAST INDIES. OEOORArnillAL BOVMDAKIES. IsDIA, or Ulndnstnn, or ill. Ehni ludiab, aiitiicallri, u) duiinguUh it from iho Weit Indi. I.landii, ia n l.rf|« cnuiilry in A.ia, fiirming, a* may Iw iran liy iha 9cljniiii:iK map, an extanilTS trlangular->hBp.d terri- tory, poiniiijg with lu narrow penin>nlar extremity loutliward to tlie Indi.in Ocean. India ii nearly comprehended iietween tlie latitud.. of 0* and 35° nnrtii ; iti extreme length from north to Miuth if aljont 1900 mile., and from east to weat ahout 1600 ; it, lu- perBcial area meanuret 1,280,000 mile>. The northern lioundary of thia exteniive region in formed hy a range of mountain, running from east to weit, whioh are higher than any oiher on the aurface of the gloiie, tome of them reaching 1S,000 feet above the l.vei of the tea: they are called the Himalaya Mountain., from an Indian word, " heem," .ignifylng .now- some of their paalta being jwrpetualiy clothed wiji ice and anowa. From the extremitiea of thia moun- tain-chain flow two large rivera, which form on either side the boundary of India t that on the eaat ia called the Bralimaputra, and that on the weat, the Indua — a rirer from whoae name the whole country haa de- rived it. preMnt dealgnation. Each of thaae atreamf with their tributariea watera an imminae tract of for- tile country, and affordt nxcellent maana of iutrrnal trade to the people aituatad on ila kanlia. From the moutha of theM rlrer. the coaat atratchea both waya to the aouthward, the eastern and weatern al'le in- clining to the aama point, ao ai tn meet at Cape Comn- rin. Beyond thia, the adjoining laland of Ceylon ealenda a little farther outward, and reaches to within aliout alx degreea of the equator. This large country preaenu a great variety of aur. fiicp, being diversifieid in aome placea with wide aandy deaerui in other, with fine undulating biU coun- triea, well watered and fertile i athird portion consiata ot flat high-lying regions, called taltle<1anda, which, tnim their height above the tea, are cool and tempe- rate ; and a fourth divi.ion conaiita of immenae fer- tile illaina, watered by the large rivera of the country, and their numeroua tributariea. A conaiderable por- tion of the low-lying country is of a marshy shrubby (liBiacler, c;ill«d jungle, and untitled fur cullivaliun. Each of tliese dlviitions uf India presents an aspect peculiar to itsblf, and all of tliem are distinguished by natural productions, both plants and aiiimald. Ite- sidea the Indus on the west, and the Brahmaputra on the east, there are other large and importi nt rivers ileioending from theoulakirtt of the Himalaya Moun- tains, or from ranges of hilla called Ghauts, and de- scending to the sea both on the east and west coasts. The principal of these streams is the Uanxea, which, with i'-a tributaria., drains a large portion of the north-east division of the country, aud entera the aea it! the province of Bengal, along with the conjoined watera of the Brahmaputra. The valleyi.f the (Ganges, and the valliea of ita tributariea, form the fnircM and richeat portion of India. Thia diatrict, in its lar^iest rxtetit, may be deacrilted aa a aemicirvle with ita l>aae extended along the line of the Himalaya .^lountHlna. uiid ita curve running along from • ^oodlana on the Indus, to Delhi, Qnalior, Punnah, Sumbhulpoor, and llalasiire, where it niaeta the aea and the moutha of the (lunges, thence along the const to (Jhittaitniig, and itortit by Silhet and Rungpure, to include the country of the Brahmaputra. The first alght of India to European voyajjera has little whic't can pleaae o.- intereat. The coasts are remarkalily flat, and frequently dangarona to approach tliroutth the raging surf ( the ahore Is only discerni- ble by the tall cocoa trees which surround the villages or temple.. This extreme flatness of the shuies of India is one of the peculiar dlstinguiithing traiu of the country, and is exceedingly disadvantageous in a maritime commercial point of view. The southern district of this magnlflc4;nt valley is called Bengal, nnd extends along the aea from Ckitta- ^ong to Balasoia, about four hundred mile., and M/ P OF TPt; VAST INDIK". reaches almut the same didtance nortitward. TIiu sen- coast is not the most fertile or useful part of this ter- ritory t great pnrtof it towards the centre being com- posed of marshy ground, or of mud islandr, among which the branches of the river are spread like net- work. These iilands are covered with a rank vege- tation of reeds, which are sometimes twenty or thirty feet high; ur with trees and underwooil r*o tull nnd dense, that it is Impossible to penetrate them. They afford shelter to tigers ^nd other wild animals, but the air of the whole of them is pernicious to health. About \M miles upwards, the Roil becomes higher and less marshy, so as to afford gimd ground for cultivation ; and the country is here fertile and thickly peopled. It is in this diitrict, immediately above the mouths (if Che Ganges, that Calcutta, the capital of British Iniila, is situated. The inundations of the Ganges cover and fertilise immense tracts of the level country near the river, while others more remote procure the same advantages from an artlAcial irrigation. Luxu- riant fields, divided by groves of Call trees, wlthvill.iges under their shelter, and swarming with a populstiim bovnnd any thing that Europe can show, form thege* neral features of the vast alluvial plain of Bengal. DIVISIONS OF THC COUKTRT. The modern territorial and political subdivisions jf India may thus be specified :—Fir&t, NoaTiisaif HiNDOSTAN, an extensive and rugged territory, com- prehending — 1. The country !>etween the 4. Kemaoon Sutuleje and Jumna 5. Painkhandl . 2. Gurwal or Serinagur U. Bhutaut 3. Source! ol the Ganges ?• Domlninns of Nepaul StHMnd, IIiM)OBTA>r Propeb, whioh is the moat c«loDn to tk« praviitM of Aurnnnbad In chia divltion. The t>eoc«n ci>mpre. LumIh Ui« faUowing prorincM, a portion of wUcb onoe formed the Muhnitu empire : — I. Oundwana 6. Deeper ». Oriua 7- NyikruKad JL Tba Northern Ciroare 8. Aiinin(^b«d 4. Candeiih 0. Bejapuor 6. Bei-ar Fiiurtli, India South or the Krishna. — ThU divisitin fiHtnt the extreme mnitherly portion uf thti ludiau peniutMla, uud compreheuds the folIuwitiK provincea i^ 1. Canara 6. Myeore 2. Malabar 7. Coimbatoor 3. Cochin & Salem, and the Barra. 4. Travanoora mahal fl. Balaghant, ceded dti- 0. The Camatlo, in which tricta it aituated IMadraa Deatdeit the foregotiig divlaiona and province*, the \htge territoriea uf Ara eud the Burni«r« empire, lying east from the Brahmaputra, are now attached to India) lieaidea other coutermiuouaregiima indiffer- ent quarters. HMTORT. What fvaa the original political onnditlon of the vaat territory now compoaing the Britikh Indian empire, it would be needleai to detail minutely. Like idher portioua of Akia, it waa early inhabited bv a pHmitlre )>eopl«, more or leaa barlwroua, profeaaiug differecs pagan religioaa, and apealtiug many more different languttgca. The piiacipal reli«^nn, however, waa Hindoolam, which we aball afterwards allude to i and it has been aaid by some hiatoriana that the early lilndooraoe of inhabitants manifeated nuiny aymptmns of ctviliaatioo, and even a knowledge oS some of the Kciennea. However tbla may have been, the inbabU tauu gaueraUy were in aome measure an industrious but aimple race, and Httla inclined to war. Reason- ing from what has occurred '.n their history, as well as from the information communicated regarding th'/m, they seem, from the varHeat times, to have had little or no ears with regard to who rtUed over them, proridad they were insured in the posaeaaloa t' itraiigers, who seised upon their territories, and made them the objects of tsxatiuii. Anion^ other warlike princee who thus made inroads on the country, Alexander the Greet, in the course of liis ambitinua i»ireer, marched with an army to India, the northern part of which he conquered. Of this remote period of Indian history, little ia correctly known i all that may bv aHid of it ia, that iiuth the Ureeka and Rumaini were supplied with aome of their articlea of luxury from Hindoatan, and thai for many ceiituriea thin eaatcrn clime waa sup- posed, by tbeitUiuatructrd iiibnitituntaof diilant parti of Asia and Kurope, Ut be t)i« ritlext and mutt itump- tuoiis country on the globe. Tha tales related of Indian grandeur appear to have in time excited the avarice and ambition uf Mahonimiidan or Saracen L-hiefs. The first of this barbiirouv though intrepid race, who made a successful inn>ad \}\mn India, waa Malimuud, hulian of (ihicni, or AfgliHnittan, a king- dmn on the north.weat oi India. Mahmuud com- menced bia suocasaful expvditiuna into India about the yenr 1()00, and he ountiuued them till I0S4, mak. ing the deatruction of pagan idolatry more the oUjt^ct of hia vitiu than the acquisition of wealth or poaer. In thia period uf tweutv>lour yenra he had aubdued a con- siderable number u^ the native princes, and, ntttwith- ktanding liia profeskiunH, exacted immense tributes in guld and every kiiid of valuable commodity. A suc- cessor uf .Mahmotid, named BlHhommed, after carry- ing on war with the Indian princes fur some time, at length, ab gal, and part of the Deocau, were added u* hia already extensive empire. BE0INH1KU rr EUSOPEAK INTERCOURSK. M'hile tilt; emf^erurn of Indin were thus establishing their ptiwer, mutiitarioua fchemea were formed In KurofMB for getting poaiieHBfnn of aome of the wealth. If not some portions of the terriuiry, of Hindo«tan. The uimmodiiles of Indian manularture or produce were hitherto imported into the Kuropeau atatvi only by meanr of tedioua overland journey*, or partly by the Ked Sea, and were endangered in th»;ir pa»aa(;e by the attacks of ferucmua ^rtar and Turkinh tribea. The discovery of a new and safe road to India thua became a matter of very great consequence. A route by aea round the Cape of Uood Hope was at last found by the Portuguese, who, under the command uf Vaaco de tiama, Iu 1499, landed in HIndostan, on the coast i>f AI alabar, where they at once eatabliahed themselves. I'ho whf>te cumraerce uf the East Indies waa now in the Imnda of the rortnguaea fur nearly a century — and this waa the K<>'deu age of Portugal. LialKHi beoame the great dt'|M)t of Indian Kpicea and other oomnwtditiea, greatly to the euvy uf the Dutch and other natioua. Portugal waa united to iSpain iu 1680 — the Spaniarda uppreaaad Holland, and caused it to revolt—lthis revolt waa followed hy the captuie of tite Ihitch ships trading to Lisbon— ^lid this capture com- plied the Dutch to engage in a direct trade to India. The English soon followed their example. The poll, tical and spiritual tyranny of the Portuguese iu India, as well as the abuses which tltey permitted ia com- merce, gradually subverted their power, mid divested them of respect. The Dutclt and English, therefore, found every thing in that state of dlviiiun which Is fa- vourable to the establishment of a third party. The Dutch cMtatiliahed an Kast India Company in 1603, aT>d a primperoua trade was the.-eafter carried on. The Dutch adopted quite a different line of policy from that of the Portuguese In their transactions with India. They cared nothing about die religion of the Hindooat and set up no inquiaitton to foroa Christianity on thoaa they dealt aith t all they wanted was commercial In- tercourse, and their ezoaUant managament soon se- cured them In a targa share of thaIiulunt.^ffio. They posaeased thamselves of Batavla, ia the island of Java ; in 1(141, thev aooulrad Malacca, the capital of the Pivtuguese bast Indies; they hubaequently acquired the Cape of Guo.t Hope for a settlement; and these colonies were a great a>aiatance ti» the iaterconrae be- tween Europe and Inditi. The Dutch aub»equently acquired a number of olhrr posaeislons in the Kaht; hut most of these oame alterwards Into the posseaaluu uf the BrLtisli. HI8E or TUB EAST INHIA TOHPANY. We now enter upon the history ni the riae and pro- rreaa of the British uower In India. The Kii{rlish became animated with a desire to open a commercial intercourse with India as early as the reign of Edward VI. (165^); hut their expeditions failed in reaching the desired country, from their want uf geographical knowledge : and it »as not till the shutting of liiabon against the Dutch, that ihvy were so fur excited as to persevere in their maritime attt^mpta till they were successful. They at length learned which waa the true course to steer for India; whereupon, in IfiOO, a company of merchants was formed in lA>ndon tu pro- secute the traltic with the East; being empowered to do so by a cliarter from Queen Elisabeth, which was to last fifteen years. The first expedition of these adventurers cost Ij.fl9,09l, and consisted uf five ships, the largest of wiiich was 600, and the smallest ISO tuns burden. The articles which they '.ook were prin- cipally bullion. Iron, tin, bniad-clotiis, cutlery, and glass.' Thir expedition proved remarkably iuccessfiil, niid led Immediately to a repetition of annual voyagea of the same nature. This early trade whs neverthe- less considerably hampered by the PortiiK»ese; and it was found necessary to try to secure the favour of the Mogul emperor. In 1(>U7, therefore. Captain William Hawkins was sent out by the Company, to fudeavonr if possible lo open a commercial interc4>urae with the doniioioni of the Mogul. Hawkins, afier ■urmmiuting great dirtlculties placed In his way by the Portuguese, reacheii tite court of the Mogul em- peror Jehangire, sou of tiie famous Akbar, already mentioned. This visit was unfortunately of uo avail, Ciom the pernicious interference of tlie Portuguese Jesuits ; and tinother English mission, on a gnwter SMile, and from the king, was sent forth In 1(116. This embassy, which was conducted hy r^ir Thomas Kwe, pioved more aiiocaaafui in aecuring the favour of the Miwul, I'ut did nut lead t4i ajiy important retulu. I'liu allHirs uf the ('ompaiiy, nevertheless, continued ^rnsiwruui, nnd tacturies vtere in many plai'es planted on ine utasu uf India. These feotories were wore- h'tuses for tlie receptlfm of native produce, and the storing of imported gof the superior skill of the British in medicine. In 1716, an embassy being lent on a oommerdal com- mission to Delhi, it happened that a medical gentle- man named Hamilton, who accompanied the factorv, had Ui> good fortune to nire the emperor Feroksare of a severe Illness, which could not be overcome hv the Igiwrant native physicians. In gratitude for thie Important service, though It Is likely some verv valu- able presents from the Cumpaity had an equally libe- ralising effect, the emperor granted liberty to the Company to purchttse In Ik'igal tMrty.seven town, ships in addition to that of Calcutta; he also conferred uptm them some Imporunt commercial privileges, which soou rendered Calcutta a flourishing settlement. The charter of the East India Cuinpany was frotn time to time renewed during the eighteenth century, though, but not without great difficulty, against a powerful oppoaitlon. But loans to government carried them always through these embarrassments. In 17^-1. they advanced L.1,U00,000 at three per cent,, in otu- stderatinn of en extension uf their privileges till 1700. Hitherto we hav« srea this contpxiiy of English mt«r- chants acting only for the avoivt*d oltject ot commer- cial intercourse with India; we now open ancwpatre in their history, and abow the origin uf their politicl power. THE COHPAKT's ASSI/MPTION OF POLITICAL POWEH. The East India Company assumed tha quallAoa- ttous of a military and political power in the yaar 1748. But their advances uiwards territorial domi- nion were retarded by a rival, which gave them no small trouble. T.ils competitor was France, which had in the meantime hastened to share In the omi. mfr«e and spoils of India. In 1746, a French hat< talion had destroyed the army of the naMi of the Carnatic, and sotHi after the French olflcers surceeded in disciplining Indian troops according to tlie Euro, pean method. The inferiority of the native Indiait troops opposed to European soldiers, and the facility of instruotlntf Indian suldlers, known by the name o| Sepojftt in the European tactics, waa thus proved Ambition and avarice, political and meruantile cun- ning, could now act on a larger scale ; and the iudo- pendence of the Indian princes was gone whenever this trading Company, which was already encroach- ing upon all the righta, both of the rulers and thu pmiple of these countries, should establish a perma- nent military force. Thus far the military org«uliia- tionnf the Company bad been mer«lvuu tlie defensive t it now Iwcame able to act nffenslvelv | and the entire difference of the European and Indian notions uf liw i-uuld never fail to furnish opportunities tu put this new means of power Into antiun. The righu of suq. resslon, amt all tlie rigliis of prim-es, subject*, and families, wire so much dlspulrd on the dllhirtut |*riii. I'iplee of tne Indian, Mahommedan, and HnukK litwa, that tha Cuni|>any, which uftau interfered as ^r lr«M) of b«lii^ mhuiii, Mid loMnmirUMn r* >i«rauiUl« I dtot4*d oha- I ftppMr thftc re mMiurw to f Mttl«inmtt. »r«t(n«rt, and r(tf«whoihflr, thefrt»iidthtp md In the wid it WM not for \y tuuiiliou »f rapruMrtydi u HI ywldt un putltloU kWRV mlw. Th«y wert, InAd*- nd Periiftment, Mt India Cum- 00,000 lurltnfc I carry on King mtion'i hetween eiaary to anile 3, when an ai^t S the oonjotnetl ted Company of ft*. Stock wai oliAreheMere t«> ut the directers •mtnUln India *riod, caused liy medicine. 1 n Mamerdal com- medteal Mntle- aied the factor*, Uror Feroktere le overcome dy raittiide for thte kwne verv vahi* filially llbe- libvriy to the Kaven town- al«i oonferred vial privilege", liof Mttlrmpiii. pany wei from mth century, ilty, agalnkiH pmment earrterl lenta. In l?^^* cent., In c>>iu ilegvx tin 17m). Eiigllih mt*r. ect of oommf r- pen a new page ' their pollllc-l ICAL rOWKR. the qnallfloa- er In the year riturial domt- tave Utvm uo ranee, which e in the c«)m- Frenck bet- Altoh ul the iMri lurceeilt-d to tlie Kuro- uatlvtt ItuUan nd the feci^t) by the name nl thus provud lercantlie i'uii< and the ludu- whenever tady encroach- uteri and thu •Uah a )>erma- Itary tirgaui^a- tlied«rHnnivet and the entire ootlonvulUw [ea to pui (hit I right* of Hiio- IUt>JlH:|o, MOll difl^rcut )inu* and Hruihh interfervtt ae THE EA8T INDIES. ty-M nrburater, eaativ tneeeeded In extending their legal jtiriadlctlon. Ir called to account In England Corany «>f lu ondcftaklngi, It waa aaiiy to uphtdd theoorreet- ueu of lu conduct, politically, on the ground of lelf- defence, which, at the dlitanoe of uveral thoutand inllee, onuld not be called In qaentlon 1 and, In legal roatten, by uktng advanUge of the Impenetrable la. byrlrth of the law. Edmund Burke, who exi>erlenoed, Iti the case of Warren Haitlngi, the head of the Com- pany*! affair* in the cant, thi* ImpregnabllttT of the aiMMiatlon, acouied them Juitly *' of having told every monarch, prince, and state In India, broken every contract, and mined every state who had trusted them.** In 1740, the rotiberles of the Company began with the protection of the pretender of TanJonL a fine province of the Gamiitic. Under pretence of Uleglti- inacy, the nabob of this district wes driven out for the purpose of obtaining some cessions of territory, Nud then restored on making further concessions. The rapid progress of the Company fn the art o'i ez- iftndlng their poeseulons. appears rrom their trestles with the Surrajah-Dowlah, the nabob of Bengal, whom they contrived to depose In 1757, when large and rich prorlncej were the reward of thslr fritbless tmltcy. The French, who In a similar manner hitd acquired considerable territorial possessions In the (hematic, now came Into coUlsiou with the British merchants, and a hot war was carried on in India be- tween th^Bse contending Europeans. The indecency tpf this conflict as to which party shonld be the great- eiit robbwi seems to have shamed both France and England, and commissioners were mutually sent to India to reconcile the differences which eilsted, as well MS to check the acquisition of territory either by the Kn^lsh or French companies. As a mstter of course, this affectation of Inatlce ended in nothing. After the commissioners had agreed that each should restore lu ncqulred territories, and afker a "solemn" treaty to titrft effect had been arranged, hostilities commenced Ns before. It would be nndleu to recount the parti- oiiiars of this struggle for power t It will sofllce to ktote, that the French ultimately were deprived by Uie British of their possessloKS. OVEBTHBOW OF THE MOOITL EHPIBE. By the defwit of the French forces in 1701* the Bri- tish were left at liberty to pursue thvir suhemee on India, being In no small degree favoured bv the un- happy political condition of the Mogul empire. This large empire came under the rule of Auningaebe, a iiescendant of Akl»ar, la 1656, and his reign lasted till his death In I707. Under this celebrated Mahom- medan emperor, the empire of the Moguls came to the height of IU glory, and ntiained its largest extent. After Aurungesbe had added to it the kingdoms of the Deocan, it included neatly the whole peninsula of Hln- diMUn, with the neighbouring r^tons of Cabul and Assam. The revenues extorted from this populous nud. wealthv territory amounted to L.33,000,000 ster- ling. During the reign of Auningaebe, it was at. tucked by the Persians under the bold prince Nadir, and alsc oya growing nation, called ftlahrattas, whose kingd'im comprehended Urge portions of the provinces ■if Miilwa, Candeish, Auruiigabnd, nnd Bfjspore, in iho X>eccan. By Nadir, and his successor Ahmed Abdalla, the Mogul em|iire, after the death of Aurung- ccbe, was almost entirely subverted to the chMacter i>f a tributary to the Persians. Under these circum- iMUces there wes scarcely a native power that did not aousider itself entitled to trample on the feeble autho- rity of the throne of the Mogul; and l>etveen the Af- ghans, whose kingdom lay to the north-west, and the Mahrattai, the empire was distracted, and madn the nbject of greedy oniteit. The Afghans were at length victorious over their enemy; and In 1753 they placed a desoentlaiit of the old dynasty on the throne, and In the possession of the empty but still venerated title of Oreat Mogul, to be the UmiI or captive of the first dar- ing power which should seise the capital. HTDEB ALI AND TIPPOO. Frum this period the dignity of the empire was at an end, and a favourable opportunity was uffored to tite various dependent princes to throw off their alle- giance, as well its to enterprising chtefb to take ad- vantage of the unsettled stato of things, and esta- blish nniv kingdoms for themselves. In this state of general revolution, a bold Mahommedan adventurer aroee from an obscure rank, named Hyder All, who, by summoning round him bold and predatory bands, and waging war with considerable address, established Itis power as a sitvereign in the Mysore — a tarritory forming one of the most remarkable of those elevated uble-Iands that diversify the southern provinces. Uyder was succeeded in 1783 by his son Tippoo, a person equally bold, though less prudent and for- tunate. Against b, with- out any tarritory, carried on predatory warfArtt against all whom they could rob with impunity. The war wlUi the Plndareee was one of great difficulty, and It cost the British a number of years before they finally quelled them. The Plndaree war terminated in I817i and It waa followed by • contest betwixt the British and the Blrman empire, which was successfully closed In 18S6, and by which the Company gained a consider- able territory along the Bay of Bengal, east of Brah- maputra river. By the forgoing, and other less conspicuous contesu with native princes, among which may be reckoned the war against the Nepsul, In 1814, a-ad also by means of purchases, n^^tclatlons, and voluntary or involuntary renditions of territory, in. eluding the capture or cession by treaty of the French and Dutch settlemenu, the Urltikh power was at length established as supreme over nearly the whole of India. EXTENT AND POrULATION OF INDIA. The fallowing has been given by the best authori- ties as an esUmata of the extent and population of the torriwriee now Included in British India t— Squsn Miln. Populstion. Presidency of Bengal, . 330,313 Districts, the piipulatlon of which is doubtfulj Madras, .... Bombay, .... Distrlcu, the p«ipn1ation of which is doubtful, . 85,700 141,933} &0,438{ . A,6A0 09,710,071 I3,fi08,535 6,3til,646 513,9233 89,470,153 The poptilatlon of the above doubtful dlstricU Is probably not large, so tliat the whole will not much exceed ninety mtlUons. The territory of the allied or protected, that Is, the subject states, is estimatad at 014,610 square miles t their population, however. Is not supposed uearly equal to that of the territories under the immediate government of the Company. Mr Hamilton, In the second edition of his East india Qaietteer, estimates it as follows i — The Niaam, . . . 10,000,000 The Nagp^Kir Rajah, . 3,000,000 The King of Oude, . 3,000,000 The Gulckwar. 3,000,000 The Satara lUjah, 1,500,000 The Mysore Rajah, . 3,000,000 Travancore and Cuohln, . 1,000,000 Kotab, Boondee, and Bopaul, 1^500,000 Rajpoot and other petty states, 16,000,000 40,000,000 The same author makes the following conjouture as to the states tliHt still remHln Independent t— . Sinriia, 4,000,000 Lahore, Rajah Uungeet Singh, . . a,(>(>0,000 Sind, 1,04)0,000 Nepsul, 2,(K)0,000 Caphmere and other districta belonging to the King of Cabul, .... 1,000,000 11,000,000 This would give for the whole of Indra a population of upwards of 140 millions; bi>t in the foregoing estimata, notice Is not taken of the portion of India lieyond ihe Ganges, including part of the Burmese territorv, having, accordtngtu Mr Hamilton, an extent of 77,0(M> Kquare miles, and a population of 301,000. OOVERNHEMT OF INDIA. Hitherto the Company have governed their Indian territories by means of the presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and llombay, each nf these places being the hend-quartars of a local military and civil govern, ment. In future there will be another presidency, tliat of Agra, n place of note in the Interior. The whole are under the lupreme control of a governor- general appointed by the Britlxh court ; these gover- nors-general seldom retain their situations above a few years, there having been no fewer than nine from the year I7O8 till the appotntmrnt of Lord Bentlnok in 1838. Mr Pitt, in 1784, passed an act establishing a Board of Control, C4>mtMif>ed of six privy councillors, to superintand the territorial con- cerns of the Company, which check Is still continued, and reappointed under the act of 1833. To retain pttssessioa of so large a Mrrltory as India, the Com- pany require to keep up a numerous and well-appointed armed force, which Is composwl chiefly of natives or sepoys, with British ot/lcers, and partly of troops raised in Ureat Britain. The Company further cm- ploy a number of king*a rrgiments, who have double pay allowed them. Mr Hamilton gives the following statement of the amount of the forces employed t— Artillery, Native cavalry, . ■ infauiiy. Engineers, . King's trotips. Total, , , ia7fw 30,094 234.413 4,^7* 21,u:u 3i«,7'J7 t>f these the Irregiilars of all descriptions amounted ft 83,937 f 1* This fonnldable army of native and Enropes ' -idlers Is distributed throughout Hlndos- tan, at appointed ttutinns, forming a chain of military poMti, and keeping up a continual communication with the Miata of the various presidencies. The relations which subsist betwixt the Company and the tributary and dependent states may thus be de- scribed 1— The Company undertake the deCuice of the dependent prince's territories against all enemies, do. mestio or foreign. He Is bound, on the other hand, to enter into no alliances with other sovereigns or states without the Company's consent; and he pays them u certain annual subsidy out of his revenues for their pro tection, while he generally keeps up an army at the same time for the maintenance of Intarnal tranquillity. In some cases, Instead of paving a stibsldy, the prince cedes a portion of bis tarritomt, of which uie Company draw the entire taxes. The Company keep a resident at the prince's coart, who Is entitled to demand an audience at any time ; and by this agent, the Com- pany do In fact Intarfere pretty regularly In the In- tamal concerns of the stat^ partlcdlarly In settling the succession to the throne. The princM are in reality mere viceroys, or rather tax-collectors for the Company ; and when In any state grou mismaoege* ment or breach of engagement repeatedly occurs, these pageanu are dethroned and pensioned off, and the Company take the government of the country Into their own hands. The Company's protection is oftan found to sheKer Internal misgovernment; fur the prince being secured by the British army against the resentment of his own subjects. Is tempted to In- dulge the more freely In extortion and oppression. REVENUE 8T8TEH OF INDIA. To sustain not only the above military force, but the civil management of India, a revenue of L.33,000,000 requires to be levied. About twi».thlrda of this large sum Is derived frum a tax on land j and as the mode of collecting, Imposing, and administering it, enters deeply Into the system of Indian policy, and has a powerful Influence on the social condition of 'the peo- ple, we shall here attempt Its explanation. Under the old Alogui empire, the sovereign was considered the universal proprietor of the soil 1 but the ryots, or cultivatcrs, or actual owners, were held to have a perpetual right of occupancy, so long as they paid the fixed annual tribute or rent demanded by the sovereign. The rent was fixed at a third, and sometimes at a half, of the value of the produce, and the functionaries appointed to ascertain the amount leviable and to collect it, were called zemindars. In 1703, Lord Cornwallls, governor- general, with a view to establish a better system for ul parties, changed the lemlndars fnim the character of hereditary tax- collectors, to that of proprietors of the soil, though stlU accountable to government for the rent. This created a vast deal of misery at the time; thousandii of poor ryots were ejected from their ancient posses- sions; but ultimately the country at large was bene- fited. It was arranged that the sum payable b^ the ryot for several years, should be fixed as the per- manent rent; one-tenth of this was allowed as the zemindar's share, and the other nine-tenths the pro- portion payable to the government or Company. The rent paid to the Company being fixed, great quantities of land which had been *' concealed," thai.is, left out of the rough and partial returns formerly made, and which hud lain in a wild state, or in pasture, weri* now put under crop. The practice is, tn allow tlie ryot to occupy waste lands rent-free, for three yearn, and to charge only a moderate rent for a few years more. In this way a considerable extennton of cul- tivation hua takt;n pl.ice ; and some of tht zemindars acquired wealth. From theii Improvident habits, however, such wealth seldom lasts moie than one ge- neration ; and no progreHS has becb made towards tho Institution of a rural aristocracy. The Company have begun very recently to retrace their stepn. When semindaries fall into their hands, as they are always doing from time to time, by the inability of the holders to fulfil their engagements, the Company replace the ryots as nearly as they are able In their original situation, allowing them to hold their lands under payment of a rent which remains fixed, either permanently, or for a period uf years. The Company in this case come In the room of the zemindar, and collect the renti in detail from the ryots by their agents. This system of "zemindary settlement" prevails generally in Bengal, Bahar, Orissa, and Uetiares. It has also been tried on a small scale In the Madras presidency, but with very bad success ; Imt in a mo- dified form it has hmg existed in some parts (>f Southern India, where hereditary chiefs, called poly- gars, occupy a similar situation to that of the temln- dars in Bengal. There are other two modes nf collecting the rent nr land-tax (lor It may receive either name) ; the Hyot- war^ and the AfouMowar, The ryotwar was first extensively Introduced by the late excellent Sir Thomas Munro, when governor of Madras, In 1802. In this system, the government collects the rent (!irectly from the ryuu, without the Intervention of zemindars. An actual survey was made with great labour and expense, of the landit ot' the villsges in which It was attempted to fix the ex- lerfl and value not merely of every nct'upancy, but of every field. TUc rvuurils ihuwc' thu whole sum CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE -IP - i I 1,1 ■ 1 which lh« TlUagt had pftid In formtr yemnt ftHil from tht*, with the (pinions iif praotiitd u»e«Mn, ohtokcd uid guld*d hy the advlca of tha TJU«g« potail tod oumiim (the htwdtmmn and aocountuit), an eitlmat* wai formad of the grots produoa, fiirtyeen hut seldom altered i and though the villages themselves have been sometimes injured, and even desolated, bv war, famine, or disease, the same name, the tame limits, and even the same families, have ctmtinueil lor ages. The inhabitants give themielves no troulile aL>i>tit the breaking up and division of kingdtims; while the village remains entire, they csre nut to what power it is transferred, or to what sovereign it devolves; iu internal economy remains unchanged ; the putail is still the head luhahiiaot, and slllt act^ as ihu petty jud|fe and magistrate, and collector, or renter, uf the village.** It will he anderstood that uu'Ier the lemindary set- tlement, the government traiiucts with uneiudividuHl lor an eztensTva district, probably as Xux^t as a county ; under the mmixawar or village settlement, it truns- «ets vith the cliief person of the village for the wli<*le oommuttity; and, under the r yotwar settle rnri it, it transacts w.th each indlviduiil c^ltiva^l^. It may )w prouer to add, that in IndiH n r)ot seldom hnldi more land than he and his family are able to culti- vate, and (hat there are lew farm servants in our sen»a of the word. Of the three modes of settlement, it may be stated that the xemindary plan has yielded the largest re- venue ; the method of '* villige «ettlentent" does not cause much more trouble to the ^ovemment, and is ))etter liked by the cultivators; the ryotwar Is the must exfiensive and troublesome, and has been the least productive of revenue; but it would be the m*^%x eiiuitahle awd most advantageous tu the people, if the eniltt of justtce were not deteated by the frauds uf the native utriiers entin«red with W drtalls^ and whpse cutiuption is almott uiiivet«>)l. 2m The revenue derivable from land by these various processes of exaction, amounts, as hat been taid, to two. thirds of the whole revenue of the Company, or the sum of L. 14,000,000. Tha next greatest head uf re. venue Is the receipt from native princes, or fkwm ceded and conqi*ered countries, and which averaget Iu amount fram L.7.00U.OOO to Ii.8,000,000. The Company have hitherto ^ned a million star. ling per annum by the monopoly of opium. They have oflTered a price annu&lly, which bat been fixed at the lowest raU that will remunerate the producer; and ryott, whote lauds have been sulMd to the culti- vation, entered Into eogagementt to deliver certain quantities. Aiwut two-thirds ot the opium Is sold In China, into which empire It is regularly smuggled; and one-third it sent to the eastern isles, Java, Sn. matra, dec Salt has also been an article of valuable taxation. It hat been manufactured on the coast of the Day of Beugal exclusively fur the Cimipauy. Be- fore it reaches the consumer, its price Is enhant:ed five, eight, or ten fold. The Company have realised a gross revenue of two millions per auuum from this monopoly. The customs drawn by the Company consist partly of taxes collected at the seaports on foreign goods brought in, and partly of Uaniii duties levied on goods passing through the country. There are provincial duties paid in passing from one presidency to another ; t«>wn duties ou certain articles at the gates of towns ; and market duties levied at the market stations where fairs are held. To collect these Uxes, and guard against contraband trade, there are customhouses, called Chokie§i at every cunsidersble village. In the single district of JUsdura, with a miUiou of souls, iu Madras presidencv, there are te Kvar'eitiiiiated in ttt« receipt from land revenuei at llombay 247,l>00 Total revenue. L.23,UM,410 DEBT ANIl ASSETS OV THE COMPAMY. The (•xpenditure of thh Cur pan/, on itn military, political, and civil establisbti. 4:itB, aas ever, on an average, been greater than the revenue. It appear*, by the ofticial accomit made ity the audiior-gentrai of the East India Cumpany (.Melville), ** that the gntss territorlnl revenue, during the fourteen years endinif in lUiU, amounted to L.3S4,804,085 ; but the grots charges during the same period amounted to l4..'i<)4,IHH,BA0, exoiintiog a deficit of L.1D3B4 774. Tht) circumstance of the expeniliture being generally greater than the revenue, has produced the natural result of a considerable dubL However, this debt ot thet'uinpanyli Nmsll in proportion to their resource^^ the value of their p>*ssessiuus, and the large Hubsidies ret'vived from tlie tributary princes. What is termed the territorial debt exceeds L.U1I,000,U0U, the tluat. ing debt I«.7,000,000 ; ttfuh Uigether, in 182fl, (o L-47iMHJ.6Ali ; the commercial debt w«s eiueedtngly noiali, only amounting t<» L. 107,443; the grand total of the debu l>eii)g L.47,(>73,OOl. To meet this amount of debt, the Cnniiiany at the same time possessed nt^pts to tlte anioiiiit of L.2A,06&,1I1 ; thus leavin? L.'Jl,710,B''U as the total amount of debt unprovided lor. (Hinsidering the euurmtms outlay in the progress of cimqueiiug such a vut territory as India, and oon- lidering the manner in whivh the alfairs of the Com- pany have been conducted, and other circumstances, it '?ilt appear lemarkahlr that the deficiency uf funds is so exceedingly small. ALT OF rARI.IAMKNT OF 11)33. As ni?y |je generally known, an act of Paillament ivas passed in the year Ull3, permitting the Ireo trad- ing uf Britikh subjects with India, reserving the cum. merce of Cbiita tu the Company ; the territori»l und commercial brNnclies were separated, as well as all account.! connected with them { and the king was em- powered to create a bishop of India, and three arch- deacons, to be paid by the Company. This act, wh'uh wat in force till the SSd day of April 1834, did not afford perfect freedom of trade to India, yet It led lo- wardt that desirable result, and greatly Inereassd tha commerce with the Kast. tiy the ret 9. 4. tiul. IV. eap. 86 , passed in August IKt3, entitled ** An act fui effecting an arrangement with the Kast India Com- pany, and fur the Mtter government i»f his majesty*! Indian territories, till the SOth day of April ISM,** the Company were deprived of the exoluslva tight of trading with China, and ordained tu close the whole of their commercial builnest, and make tale of their merchandlM^ itores, and efi^tt, to far at r^parded commercial attets. It was further ordained, that tha whole debts of the Cnmpauy should be chargeable upon the revenues of their Indian tairitories, but leaving a yearly dividend of ten par cent, to be retaitiad by the Company. This dividend to be redeemable by lSir« liament. The Company to pay into the Bank of Kug* land two millions annually, till the sum uf twelve millions is accumulated as a security fund to the gu- vernmenl. The other principal provisions were— Aboardof cimnuiskioners, to Ite appointed by the king, to superintend affairs of India; liangal presidency to be divided into two presidencies — Kurt \viUlam (Cal- cutta) and Agra; the whole government, civil and military, of India, to be vested iu a guvernor.^eiteral and ctmncillors. The Ulst clause Is Im these terms t — *'And l>e it enacted, that it shall I ' lawful for any uainral born subjects of his maJMty to proceed by sea to any pork or place having a customhouBe establishment within the said territories, and to reside thereat, or to pri»- i-eed to, and reside in, or pass through, any part uf such of the said territories its were under tha govern- ment of the said Company on the 1st day of «hinuary 18U<», and in any part of the ctiuutrics ueri»ed for that purpose, at such port or place as aforesaid." Clause 80 permits his majesty's natural born subjecta to purchase lands in India : B7 enacts that no maivo of India, or natural bom subject of his majesty, shall, by reasim only of his religion, place of birth, descent, colour, be disabled from holding any place, olKce, or eoiuloyment under the Company i 113 enacts that 5t Helena be placed under his majeaty's government. By this act, it will be perceived that several very important provisttms are made for (he benefit bfth of Hiudostsu and Great Britain. India Is henci-rurtli open to the settlement uf British emigrants ; iraMe may be carried on freely with either India or China ; and Indo-Uritons, Hindoos, or other natives, are now placed on a level as to political, military, or civil dis- tinctions, with Kngliihmeii. The multifarious ad- vantages which must arise out uf these and other pro- visions of the statute, need not be commented on. The HCt seems onlyaprelifninary to the final and complete cis^ion of India tu tht British government. HINDOOB. The bulk uf the population of India it composed uf IlindiHw, the priiiii tve Inhabitnitts of the loitutry, a<, ui a time when most of their Asiatic neighlM)nrs wero yet only in the first stages of civilisation. This le- mirkable people have preserved their natiunbl chu- racter for thuusands of yearn, even under the donil- riiou uf foreigners, and have retained to the present day their language, their written characters, their local government, religion, manners, custuins, and habits uf life. The II indros are in general uf a brown- inb. yellow complexiuu, but the higher and richer classes are almost as white as Knropeaus. They are somewhat above the middle height, well proportioned, and very dexihle and dexterous. Temperauie, fru- gality, hoBpitiility, and obliging msnnars, are the fu- vuurahle traits in their character; but they are now reproached with indolence and avarice. V\ ith proper discipline, they form excellent soldiers and fuithlul servants uf the Company. They possess great natu. ral talents, but are at present deprived of op^Htrtnoi- ties liH- their developement. They practise agricutton*, breeding uf cattle, fishing, hunting, and mining, and are largely engaged in manufactures, commerce, and navigation. They manufacture cloths of great va- riety and value, particularly cutum and silk, among which are the finest muslins and shawN, mats, cor- dovan leather, &c. and are litintitahle in dveliig. In the arts of nmsic and singing they are backward, but in dancing, statuary, and arcliitecture, theyaieiuuie advanced. They are acquainted with arithmetic, as- tronomy, and chrunulugy, and are fund uf poetry. The most extraordinary peculiarity in the Hindoos is their divisions intti eostos, or perfectiy distinct or- ders of society, which have existed from the remotest times. There arc four castes, and it Is sirictiy en- Joinrnl liy the Hindoo religion that nu transition fVtHn one toHuo'Jiar shnll take placet no connection iNiiwerii ihfm I'j marriage or any other wav is allowed, and THE EAST INDIES. na Id^UIiIuaI of ont cImi can hHumv the habit* ur •UM* In Uk« oooupAtloni of another. The dlitlnc- tloD H onmeleie in every eenie, herfditary and per. •onal) all ine prlTllefei or diMbllltiM are inherited; KO one ti permuted to beeome what be it destined to be by hti natural kblUtlee, ^* - ia obliged to Lecrnne only ^hat hli birth permtv or to remain what It Qondemni him to be. The ellghteit tranfgreiiion of theae lawi ti pnnlihed with lota of catte, and lome- tlmeei In particular oateat with death. Kven the diAirenoe uf feed li ;^reciMdy marked out The three hllther oailea are prohibited entirely the uaeof fieih ; the fourth ia allowed all kindi ezuept beef t all others are mitoaata, and may («t what they please. Thun, the li>wer the rank uf tntf Hindoo, tne leu he U re- tlritiled In hit meat and drink t but, on the other ^and, the bui-densuroe rettrietiont tnoreaw with the tuferiority uf rank. The lint, or most nobje oaate of the Iliudooa, are denominated Urahminii they are prieitii, whulart, leauhern, lawyira, and state umoera, tind are required to be virtuuuti learned, peaceable, just, and self-de- Hvitig. The seoimd order is the Kyetra, who are kings and warrton. i and they are requirtd to haT^ thtnt (^Tfloryi to die rather than retreat, and to be lienerourlo eapUves. They preserve the ancient name of n^aputa, by way of distinction, in their old lieredilarydoniinlona. The third order, which is called Hhyey% or Valsa, are husbandmen and meruhuuis. The fiiurth caste Is that of the Huudras, who are la- bourerei and they are eujitlned to serve with patieuca end fidelity. A lower caste, if it can be called such, are the ParJaa* ' those unhappy beings who hsve h-jt their ttatlon In the noble ordere, and who are ibi'^d t*t do whaterer no one else cau do without pollution. They are not only reckoned unclean thetnselres, but they rendar unclean every thing they touch. They are deprived uf all civil privileges, and stigmatised by iMrticuiar lawi, r^ulating their intMle of life, their noupjs, and their furniture; they are not allowed t4> enter the temples of the other orders, but must wor- ship by themtelrea. Their house* are miseratilu hovels, distant (t\tm oitlea and villages. The Uralimin*, who are not legitimately entitled to poaaeu property, and who must live upon the K>)Uttiy of oukers fur their support, cherish iu the peo- ple tite mtMt debasing superstition*, and exact from them the nuMt profound veneration. Instead uf being holy, harmie*** ftod undofiled, they are vicious, ty- rannical, avarlctoua, and to the last degree impure. This mlammi* aritiocracy is the curse of India, and prebsnti a barrier to the atleuipu which have been made to mr!ioraie the conditiun of the inferior orders. \V9 Itelieve the Kyetra and Bhysya castes are nearly extinct, and that the Hindoo natiuu is now composed principally of Brahmins and 8oodra«, with their sub- divialou*. These lulHiivisious are Inuumerablei — livery trade, every peculiiir department of nervice, has itn i>lass uherefiire the retinue of servants to )>e kept Is very large; lor the man n'hu carries iu your water CMtunift wait at tul>le, nor the man who cooks a dinner serve it up, nor the servant who waits at table sweep the riKun, aud the same kind of claAsiH cation goes on through alt the pursuit* uf life. Iu a number uf (ustance*, llrahmini have become soldiers in the aerviovuf the Kaat India Compuny, but without en- gaging In menial employmento; and they still cUim preeedencv even uf king*, in point of etiquette. This riptomua classilicatlon uf the Hindoos undoubtedly presents an obstacle to the advancement of Christi- autty, which, though hardly thought of by tho Bri- tish at home, Is neat Ut InsumiountHhle, and will reurd prohetyteiim for an indefinite periiK). The llindoit who Itecomes a Christian loses his caitte by partaking of the Lord s nupper, and it therttfore re- quires an extraordinary strength of niiiiii to make a prufussiou uf faith in the (jospel; for tty losing hix tMste in this or any other way, no une will «peak to htm, ur t4>uch him, or have any intercourse with him —liis own wife and family will disown him — he be- oiunea a Parln, a dog. From recent investlgalioni, It appear* that the fote* pitng rigunma classihcatlon of the HindtNM U much Wns hu ulHlavle to Improvement In manners than was formerly supptwed. It wuald seem that the classili- i'atlou is move theoretic than practlrfit. Tiie altered a-.ate of society has obliged member* of the Hristocratic tiastes to engage in divers employments or trudes not permitted by titeir religion; but to acconiplish ihls uhjitct, varliMis subterfuges and self-dvceftions are practised. Besides, tiiere have arisen a prodif^iouK variety uf sulidivlsions bv the intermixture uf ca^tfs ; and tIte emphtyments allowed to these mixed or im* pure casicn mny be said to be every ileccripLiiin of Handicraft and occupation for which the WHuts of hu- man atH!ld by the l>est authority, that men of all castes may bu seen working together in one handicraft em- ptxynieut. A kind of purity of caste is perhaps, never tlkvlesi, kept up by the member* of different t'akte* not eating with each other, or not eating for- bidden things. It is related that purity of caste is luitalned by meant of clubs or lodge* scattered thruugh- out llindoitan, and e.*lNting in considerable force in every large town; yet it seem* that exfrimmuniua- tion from these fraternities, is, upon the whuli*, un< nttle to prevent the breaking down uf aociont habits, or to kulidun the dinpiHiition to imitate the Unglish In «h« arts uf civilised life. The Hindoo race* aru, ln> deed, described as now exceedingly anxluui fur im. provementi and It Is rational to expect, that, through the means of schools fur education, and a C4molliatory behaviour on the part uf their Uritlih neighbours, they will attain no small degree of cultivation. On this subject, Bishop Uelwr — %u authority on whom every deprudence may be placed — makes the follow- ing statements in his work on India:— *' To say that the Hindoos ur Alussulmans are de< ficient in any essential feature uf a civilised people, 1* an assertion which 1 can scarcely inppoee to be made by any who have lived with them ; their manner* are at least a* pleasing and courleoui a* thoee in the cor- responding stations uf life among ourselves; their houses are larger, and, according to their want* and dimato, to the full a* convenient as uurs ; their ar- chitecture is at least as elegant) nor is It true that In the mechanic art they are Inferior to the general run uf European nution». Where they fall short of us (which IS chiefly in agricultural lm).)emenu,^nd the mechanics of (»imnion life), they are not, si» fur a* I have understood of italv and the south of France, sitrpassed In any degree by the people of those coun- tries. Their goldsmiths aud weavers produce as b«autiful fabtics as our own; and It is so far from true that they are uhstluately uedded to their old patterns, thai they shuw an anxiety to Imitate our mudels, and trunumy, &c., as well a* for the art* of painting aud sculpture. In nil thestt ptilnts they have had greut dilhcultie* to struggle with, both frum tlio want uf miKielx, instruments, and elementary instruc tion; the imlispoaittun, or rather the horror, enter- tained, till lately, by many among their Kurupean masters, for giving them iuHtruciiou of any kind ; and now from the real dilticulty which exists of t^all^l:lt• lug works of Bcience intu lunguugei which liave no Corresponding terms." UKLIGIOX OF THE HIKnOO*. The religions belief of the Hindoos is called Brnh- rniniam, and is founded lui amnnt extensive colleciion of sacred records, of which the Brahmins are altuwed tu l>e the sole expiMinderN. '' Tbene sacred writings (nays Mr 8tutliam, iu his * Indian Uecollections*) are of two kinds— ihe Wdas 'lud Hliasters. The former nuiy b«i teniibd their 8ciiptures, the latter expositions t)f them. BtraxM Muni (rhut is, BeaKS the Inspired), a propliet who lived In tlie reign of Judlstheer, on the bankH uf the Jumna, iiear the present city uf Delhi, collected all the detached pieces which form tlie Vedas, from all parts of India, and gave them their presmt fo'ut and ui-mngemeiit. They are divided into ftittr l)0(»ks, all written in the Sanncrll. The Hrst biHik is called Hug Veda, which nigiiities the Science of Divination, concerning which it principally treats. Tlie second Is distinguished by the title of Sheham, which signifies Piety or Devotion, and this btMik treats of religious and moral duties. The third is the J udger Veda, which, asthe word implies, includes the whole scleuce of Ueligiou* Kites aud Ceremonies. The fourth Is denominated Obater Bah ; iu tho San- scrit, obater siguiHes the being or essence, and bah^ giHkl ; this, literally Interpreted, is the knowledge of the Good Being, and accordingly this biHtk compre- hends the whule soience of theology aud metaphysical philosophy. The Vedas, a* also the Shaiters or commentaries, pretend tu great antiquity; so much so, that niaiiy fiunqieans have been strangely stagt^ered In their be- lief uf the Mosaic chronohigy, by reading them. But It only requires i^llttle oonelderatlon and reae-trcti to . discuviir a vein uf hnpoattlun running thrt tgh tlie | whole of their details. They reckon the duration nf the world by four ages, or jogues , extending Altogether to about eignt millions of years ; but the fmlaoy of this reckoning haa been fully exposed by Mtronomtoal ob- servation. The idea which their Shaster* give of God is, that there Is one supreme Being, whom they style Bhoga- bon or Ksher, sometimes Khodah i proceeding from him, are three power* or deities, via. Brnhraha, the Creator of ail ; Vishnu, the Preserver uf all ; and tieeb or Hheva, the Destroyer of all. Now, whilst the latter Is worshipped by ill, the former has scarcely any at- tention paid to his temples; and even Vistinu, the Preserver, ha* few volarlea compTed with the de- stroyer 8eeb. Subordinate to these are 330,000,0(H» infttrlur gnd* And goddesses, each representing some peculiar virtue or vice. The Hindoos suppose that each of the three presiding powers uftentlmes seeks to encroach upon the prerogative of his compeer, and thus are often quarrelling and seeking to subvert each uther's arrangements.'* One of their most superstitious practices consists in their wurshipplug or deifviof the waters of the Ganges. This large and beautiful river extends from west to east across an extensive district in lilndostan Proper, and with its trlbuurles may be reached by • very large proportion of Inhabitants In the most populous and productive part of India. The sacred ceremony uf adoring the Ganges consUts in the population crowding morning and evening to bathe lu it, and quatuities of the water are currlwl to all parts of India, and are sworn by in courts of justice. "Ac AlUhabaii (ctmiiuues the abuve enteruining writer), where the streams uf the Ganges and Jumna unite, the country for many milaa round is considered sacred ground ; and so great is the number of pilgrims wI rise no more, amidst the ap- plauses uf the Sjiectatnrs, whilst the Brahmins enjoy the scene, aud extol the fortitude of the last viuiim to her who is about to follow." The cow is an animal held sacred among the Hin- doos, and cow. dung is used iu the temples aud other places as a species of holv ointment. The lotus, h plant with tall luxuriant )paves, is likewise held iu (ieep veiieraiiim. Some uf the temples or pagiidaa of the Hind us are of high antiquity and gigantic C4Hi- cepiion, majesilu appearance uud tUHteful architectuie. The entrance is alwayK made in a huge pyramid, iu a number of htt>ries, which gradually grow narrower as they npprn.ich the tup. Inside may be seen the cow lying down, a serpent, or some uther object of adoration. Here sacrifices take place. One of the most extensive pagodas uf India is that of Juggernaut, whose towers are seen at twenty miles* dltitauce. Here, as at uther places, there ate processions of idol cur:*, large heavy ornamented Htrnctiire!!, which are draggifd along by the multitude amid the shouts of assemhlml thouaandH. As the wheels pass swiftly un, self-devuted victimh rush forward, throw tbemselvtfs before them, and are crushed todeoth, exulting in the hope of thus securing a passage to the celestial abodes. The prac- tice of widows sacrificing tiiemselves on the funeral pile uf their husbands, is another horrid rite; but it has been nupjiressed in recent times by the Britiau guvernment Besides Bruhminlsm, there are a var-ety of religious beliefs iind »ects in luaia, but all less or more toiindtxt jn the must gross superstitions. Kach pos»«ases its own temples, images, and orders of prleathoitd. The BiHHlhists, previous to their violent expulsion by the Hiuduos, were second In point of numbers, but their religion Is now little practiiied in India, and Is confuted chiefly to Thibet, Birmah, Siam, and Ceylou. INDIAN I.AN(iUAnE9. There are. It is believed, fuur original languages in India, and of these there are some hundreds of dialects, differing less or more frum each other and from the originals, and maintaining also a partial dis* tinctlun from the introduction of Arabic, Pertiic, mid other foreign wurds. While, however, each tribe has Its own peculiar dialect, all uke one language, the Sanscrit, in their sacred writings. The Sanscrit is a deud language, though protcibly once spoken ; it is wonderfully perfect iu its ct>nstructioo, and extremely copliius. Its alphabet is culled Devanagari^ divine alphabet, because it ih sdld lolmvo hud lis origin from the gods, whoso language it i& : it consists ol t'tfty letters, and hiis three geiulers. The next language in eniiination is the Pracrit, which comprehends the variiius dialects used iu common writing and socinl intercourse. The dialects of the Pracrit are spoken in Ben^itl, and inciude that which Is called IIiiidoA- taiiee, the principal spoken tmiguo in India. If> «AllU.MMi:nANS AND OTUEH ILAMStKS. According tu .Mr llamiltun, *' the mudern iklutaum- CHAMBEKS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOFLK. ill N! i<.^»m m*y «llk mlHf b* wllaMM*4 at ■i H iMrw t ili •■t Ih* Ui««l MpnlMtw I im* aolr. .hMMOlM lU wk. vmlvn oTtWr pol''*^ yrateaiMnM kvkOluriMUn poww, iMr m%i« la> aa4 alllmtuh iba Mahoai. nwHlaa aubwtuaallf lind for aaatunaa inMnalnd villi Hlwloaa, no n4loal okaaga ma pniduaal !■ iha niaanan or laaau of tka lauari on ika aoolnrr, for alaoat a aanniry |wal, tka Makauaadaat karo annaad maak 4alaraaaa ta tka pi^udioaa of ihoir Hiatoi ntifkboata, and a Mraaa iHwUaotkiii lowarda >asy ■■( ikalr caraaioolaa." Tka warlika portion of tka .Makoamadau karlaff raaantljr kaaa dWudgad kjr tka Briiltk rnm tka UahraiU aoiina, wkero tkay kad found akaltar, and tkojr kara kaan okllgad to laak am- raaat la iufariur aiatluaa. Tka Maknamad— a af Iia ara man Intalllgmt, and paaaatafiaalar itfanftk andeaaraMtkaalkaUlBdaati bttttkajranalaomura pnod, Jaalaiia , raaaagafttl, aad lapaalau, and tkair AdaHir la Buok Ian raliod «■ k* Ika Briiiak r'ram. nwat. la aema diatrleia Ika Uakiimmadao papula- lion if naarljr aa aiunanaa aa tkat of ike Hiadiwa, aud kolk laaa la lira la a Mala of mutual ami>)r> Batldaa tka Hlndaoa and Makonmadana, tkara an vorlnui n a l ia r ad trlkaa In India of a nrj dMhrant clianMiar ftaaa alikar, and oAao InkaMiinf ainna. taiaimi tia a w af oountrr, and oalM Oamnrt, Mun> Kula, Tartan, fko. Anonf tka dlRannl naat la foaad ikai of Ika Faraan or Paralana, tka anaiani w a t a lilppaw of tn, iont ataua driran from ikair na- tion Donntrjr by tka paraawitlnn awwd of tka Araba, Many of ikli paopla ara opulant, and tkay taka tka load la tka eaainiaralal IrakaaMiona of Bombay, Hum, ■ad odiar nortk.»ai l a m para. Thair dual la f niat, orderly, and raapamabla. Not*llb>laading irkat baabaaa ralatad nf tb^ttrlot' nan of tka Hladooa lanidlaf ntndn of lirinf, tkay Uabla to Ml la iruk Knropoan ui ■^n^ ' ( eutta, and oikar larga toinu, many of tka araaltky nadm Imluia tka Britiik in tkair dran, knunkold fumllura, aquipagaa, and nyla of llrlag, and akow a •troof dnira to m<« In tkair Mctal Wrnaa, !•■ vklek, hairarar, tkay mraly And aaem. Tka Bnalltk taka no palna t« aaaclUan tha friandaklp of tka natlra tribaa, kuvarar wall baband and IntMllgant tka* may Im. " Of ibli Caollak, aurly, national prida (uya Biihop Habar), I ti but too man; Inttanoai daily, and I am nmitnoad it don ua muak karm in tkia eoaniry. Wa ara not guilty of inJoMica, nr wIlAil oppraaalua, bat wo abut out tka naum firom our wolaty, and a bully- ing, iniolant atanaar la aoattnually aunmad in apaak- ing ta tkem." Tka axclnalTenna of ifcit apaaaa iif luwiaur la parkapo tuXiy mora ramarkabia witk ra. •prat to tkat dan of ptnoos who iiara drswn thair origin bona tha IntaftuurM batwixt tha Bngllah and iiajraa. Tkan Indo-Britbk, u tkay ara calM, form a pan of tha popniatioo of Caloutta, and ara a rary tniaraallng and innraulng paopla. "Uany of tham (•ari Stalkaa) ara rary opulaat, aad othara can ria with Iha amn cukiraiad of thair Europaaa naigkboun in literary attalnmanta i notwithnanding thia, thrre it a marfcad coatampt ahown tham by Kumpaani ga- narally. If a Bnnpn n lady ihoaU wod with an liido- Briton, tha daan of all tha hiahar drcln would ha doaad agalnat kar, howarar riuh tha man of har ihoin might ha." Tbla lUU of tkioga will kappily Iw modifiad by the prorlaiona of tha aot of Parliamaiit already narrated. BUBAL CHaBACTBBItTICa AMD raoDucTa. In the hrga and fartih territory of Bengal, aa well aa in all otkar parte of India where tha ciililratlon of the nil la purmed, the arta of the huibandman are, aa may be aapa et ed, ■till on the rudnt plan ; and in erery qnaiter there exiiu great rnoro for improTo- mect, whieh nothing euuld » well farilitata aa tha latllainant of intelligent Biinpean bmiliaa. In the inaadatad diatriata of Baagel, rioe la the main cnip whiah la laiaed, at lent during tha wet aeaaon i it growa la lie graataat height while the laiida ara urar. dawad| aad la frequently reaped by men in oanoea, tlie eer anly being cat off, and the atalk left. When the peeaanta ga to aiarkat during the height of the flood, they take tkair fainllin wiik them, Imt the houM •huold be waakad off during tkair alwnn with the boata. Blea la tha aammer crop, requlriog much liret and nofalarat but during the oniI dry tenon, from Noramber to April, they tow and reap another bar. veat, oonaiating of wheat, barley, or direrent kiudi of puin 1 tbli la called the dry mp, been un it it reared wlihout flooding the laada t the rioe b^lng ninildered aa the wH cn/t, {at a contrary reann. Than are, tberetna, two •eed-tlaan aad Iwoharrnta in thIa rich country. Bealdn then ragnlar crape, a»ay email griint an wwa, which ara Umitad to no particular naaim of tha year, and which reward the liiduatry of the Indian culllrator with a rich rageiaihm at all tioiaa. ■HDioa Beiidn the differant kinda of grain, tha fanaera of Dungal rain a numhor of otkar arodncta, of great ra- iue. or thaae, one of the principal la iiidig»i thia it a imall plant, akrubhr in iia growik, but in iia learn and flowera rery much Ilka tke couip'un lam of thia ruuutry ; it ia aowti during the mini, and raUedlH lewt or drillj. 'i'be lr*v^ oiiU are unfitl, on wUicIt •rm aaoouBt It k cut roaaaMUy, without being allowed lo flower, which would maka It drilwaad Ian Juley. The bam on atnpod aad kaalan la a rat amoag waur i after wkiek, Ika liquid la atralaed tkrough clothe and •M to eraporata in ahoUow trooghi phuad In the ahado. Thia ii aooa affnted In that warn dry diowtai and the indigo ia then found deaoallad In a cnut al the ballon. The anicen raquitai much praporation and eapeani aad it hn oafy, aucceeded well iiun the oountrr haa enjoyed peeoe, and than hu bnn a pro- ipecl of emphiyiug large oapllala with laairitr. It now produoae, howarer, a largo return to the oultirann i aad gim a aew aoaive of wealth to tha oouutry. It la cuTtlralad along tha whole aium of ike Oaagn up to Delhi, aad la an auanal la tka kwer, but • triea- nlat In taa upper proTiacaa. It iunaeda hen an orar- fluwed giouuda, and in dry natona leapt Mfkll. Tha number of Ikctorinef iodlgo in the Bengal pmldency la ntlonied at 800 or dOa A few of then bekmg tu naiim i but thoy on chiefly In the honda of BnglTah- men, who take leeen of un or twenty thounnd acm af Uiid In the naaw of native nrraute (not beiag al- lowed to hold It In their own) fromaumindar, fur the purpoea. They enaourage the ryou (native oultiva- tora) to rain iwupa of tha plant, by making advanen to them ia money. They purakan the produM u a price agreed on, and erect worka for extracting the dye tram the plant ) the whole of the operatlont being genarally conducted by native labourer!, under native iuperintendania. It U oInarvMl that the nubliah- nwat of auch fodorin raina the value of land, extendi cultivation, and apraadi a certain degree of imprave- menl in the viilegea. The importatian of Bengal in- digo lata Briiaia begna ?hout forty yeara aga^ and hn ainea increaaed to aa aaiaaing extent. Mr Craw. fuid caleulatn that about 0,000,000 Iba. ara annually axpuned (Tom Calcutte, of which 7,000,000 Iba. coma to Britain, and Iha mtgon to Amarin, Krancck Oer- maay, Sweden, Ac. About Ii.l,g8l>,0UO, he ihinka, ara expended for rant and labour in ita pr'id notion, aad it re«ll>n In Europe a lum of L.S,)ilM,000. In tke eountrin named, Bengal indigo iiaUaatiyobtala. Ing a prefannce over every other. aiLX. Silk ii railed in great quantitin in Bengal and Oriwa, beiwna the iatitudn of fi' and M', and It hu hithert4i linn very nearly a monopoly in the hands of the Company. It ti chiefly produced by the native Indian worm, which afforda fimr crop*, arcd with the be>t European varictlca, ii " fuul, unwea, and wants siapie i" but its cheaiiucsa haa brought it into extensive couaumpliim. Tiie Company have eleven factoriaa, or " lilalures,** which form the ouu- trn of " circies,'* within which the cultivation of silk is carrird on, eaob having a certain number of sub. ordinate slaUuni. Tlie siik, in l)i« raw stale, is pur- chased from the ryula at the t'actoriM or suhfaclorin, wound off the ciciMms, end prepared fur transinissiun lu Europe. Abitut 1,600,000 lbs. arrauoualiy brought t4> England, of which a very small quantity (one per cent.^ is equal ti> the finnt ittk ; ilie mass of It is de- cidedly inferior. There is iirong ground to conclude thm, under the near act, the pniductluu of silk in India will be greatly increaaed, aud its price in Great Britain lowered. COTTQH. Ciitlon has long Iweu cultivated liy the nativn in all the thm presidenciea. It is universally of the kind celled ** short staple," and Ireing coarse in quality, and badly cleaned, it felc'in only twu-tltirda of the price of American short staple in the Itritish market. The liffst qtulity oomn from Bombay (the Ouaarat) ; the next from Madras ; and the worst from Bengal. The cultivation being entirely in tlie hands of the na. tivsa, is rudely conducted ; and, in particular, pains are not taken tj> renew the plant anisuntly from the seed, u the Americana do with the most advauiage. ous results. Experimenu have bnn made under the sauctiun of the Company, and by private individuals. Id iutniduce and cultivate Aner species than thim In use, but they have generally been failurn. There is no doubt, however, that by the introduction of Euro- pean capital and skill, the quality of Indian cotton may be much improvod, and what is raised, sent to the maritet in a much cleaner and better cuidition. The eri/orta of cott^ui from India to all cnuntrln amounled in III37 to On.lNIO.OOOIbs., of which only a third part came tu Umt Briuiu. anoAB. Tke cultiratlon of the sugar-cane is pursued with grsat succen in Bengal and ether parts uf India, but chiefly by the nativn for domntic use. The prucew of bruising the cann is un a rude plan, and the su- gar which la produced ia from this or aoino other caun very laisriar la the sugar of tka Wast fndiee. In no artiele of produce is tbera greeiev room for impreve. laanl tkon la tkia. The cultivation of tka cane r*. quim great aara aud skill, and the mechaniam for axiractlag aad anparing the augarwn only ba orMMd at a groal outlay of npitaL It la antlaipaiad that when Kiiropeaas ara permitted to bold laada freely, and to embark capital on augac plantatloiia, augar of f;ood quality may be manufactured much ohnper than a the Wni ladiea, when tka prin of labour la muck TMB BAIianO AMP OTMIB moBUOTe. Tlie Imiiiii.M,, a Mp««iies ol cauv or reed, is muah cul- tlvaiod In Bengal. It growa lo Iha amaaliw height of forty fact i and Ikaugk It orrlvn al aarfoellaa In ••so years, it kn all the (maan of tha Bardaat llni- ber. It has Jolata Ilka a road, or like groai, and is, like them, quite hallow | yal ll Ii w auwig Ikol tka Carters uf tlia country un ll for auapaadlng Iha Imrtnt iirdea belwnn the shoulden of two man wklla tkey ara aarryiag ll fren plan to place. ll la usad fnr beams and uprights In building hoiiani and kalng pnnected from damp by a kind of lutural rarnlak, It will Inl in auch altuatlona for a kuadrod yeara. It •em alaa for making kridgn, for Ika mula of 00011 Iwata, and for Innumerable other purposn i jfM uf this unful material, one acra of land will yield ten ttnm n much as the same space will produw of otht r wiNid. There la none of the pruductiiina of lodin which puts BO maay conveniencn, in rogord to fur- niture, houses, buau, &C., within re ac h ol the poorer ciassea, u tha bamboo. It would require a large span to manlloa aroa the namn of the planu useful to mau, whiok flourlik in tka luxuriant soil of Bengal, Cotton, toboeeo, the a|inm P'>ppy, rape (which is cultivated for the nke dt its oil), cucumbers, vegetable marrow (u one of the gnurd trilie is called), and innumerable other phints, always alTord a plentiful harvwt. Of ftvlt-treea, there are tha mango, whiah is something like inir peach, the date-tree, the vauia, tlie guava, tha pome, grenaie, and othon which it would ba idle lo enu- merate. Another production, which ia peciiiiar to warm cll- maie>, and which grows in high Mrfcction along the sca-uiasts is the cocoa-palm. Tale liaa would of it- self be almost suflkiant for the aubalataiuv of maukin,! in tlia eountrin when ll gruwa, so various and use- ful are Ita producta i indeed, there ara aoma popultms islands— the Maldivn and Laccadiroe— on the cuaxt of India, whan little elw la cultlvalod. Thia exceed- ingly valuable product 'joing already de-orilied at length In our Juamal, ll requlm no fkrihar notice In this place. HOD! nr i.iviKo. Animal food being rrjected by manyclasanof Hln* dooa, the breeding of ciitle is therefore not a aouriio of much proAt to the former, neither ara sheep reared ia any numbare, their flrsh not being in requeat, while the wool is coam and low-priced. To tbone of the nativn who nt animal food, the Ash of tiieir ninnerens riven afford a plentiful meutee, many of the kinds being of exnllenl quality, and in such abundaata thai the ponml of the paopla can have ihem in as large quantitin n ther wish. This natural abnadann of food makn anlialslence uhmp, but dun not much eleven the situation of the cimimon people, becaun their aragn are fowered in (he same proportion. The usual hire of a plough with Ita yoke of oxen is not more than foiirpeuca per dsy, and a farm labourer may be had tti work regu. larly fur Ave skiUings a-montn. The facility of And- ing natural stibatitum for things which in other eountrin require skill and labour, aivva many of the convenieociea of life an appearann of i udeneu and im- perfection wklohtousapiwarealtogeihemvage. Mucu of the food of the people, for instance, lequim no cook- ing; plantains, cocoa-nuts, dales, pumpkins, Ac. being morepslatable raw than dressed. Ilousn are made uf bamboo or cajann stakes, without splitting, planing, or dreuing of any kind i they ara then woven together with small twigs equally unprepared i the whole ia plas- ured over wiw mud from the neamt day-hole* and then thatched with cocoa-nut Inm fmh from tha tree. Oars fur their boau ara only bamboos, with a round board tied to the end ; themastaaretwoorthmof the same liambooslwhed together with strings. Drinking cups are made of a large nuuhell, witk one end nibbed off un a stone ; a most palatable and a holeeome drink ia found in tha juice uf the oicoa-nut palm, wbich is n>- ceived into an earthen jar as it drape from tho point of a bruken liranch ; and its only preparation is straii'- ing through a kind of natural sieve, which ie found at the roots of every leaf on the tree. The common peo- ple wear little nr no clothing i and when it comn to rain, their only iimbrdia ia farmed of a number uf |>aim.tm laavn nwed together by t' ' edgn into a shape renmbling a cradhi cut a^ma, which covers tbeir head and back. This rude fnhlan of trying tu And every thing ready made to thdr banda having onw got admission among their Ideaa, infeota their whole proceedlnga t every lkin|^, both In farming and manufacture. Is done oa tke pniicipie of exerting as liule skill and labour u mav be, and letting nature do the rnt; they only Hraten the ground insioad of ploughing it ; they never apply any manure ; thair corn is thrashed by setting builucks to tread upon it i the smiih.*s anvil is the nnrnt sume, his lieUows a ruugh goat-skin ; a shuensaker tans the raw hide one day, aud makn sliues of it the li»xt, sitting the whole time at the door of his cusloiuer t the weaver's appa- retua neede liut tke shadow of a tm for shelter — and it ca.i be removed at an hour*a noticu to an v other tree which is mo a convenient. Even their distiUwy needs ualy aa earthea kettle^ soaw cold water, and a fow bamboo reeds for a worm i and erith than tkey pn»- dun liqiinra n lanxintlng and pamicioua u any inanufaoiured by the sdaoce of Europe. This abniica of ah 111 In all tka praceasn of industry, nuden the labour of the srarklag aK.t of vary slight valua I henca, ha aavcr ranivn more than what Is hanly nreesaary for subsistence i and the whole mass of lUa ^ipie are consequently at the luwe.t cub lu n^g-tid 4 THE EAST INDIES. MriCptlwin liwroorar hi dmmntle umamioilMloiu or manul uqiilmaniu. Thair MbbnMd oountrrnwn, tUmoiohuD Rur, who diad bMl; In Ikli eoanirir, MInad llut manr at Ihtm did not know whMhor ut BriUih or thu Mahnmm*. dm b* now muun of Indli. A« >o ihoir houMx, howmr, though they an onljr mlMrmU* buta, we rouat raeollaet that the jiaapla In warm cUnutaa ara r*rj Unla wIlKIn doora. In cold oountriaa, a man'i houia la arary thinr to him t ha ileaiia, aata, worka, and apanda many of hU happiaii houra then with bla famOy i In India thia la all ravanad i tha climaM la ban io warm and ataady, that no ona ramaina uadar a roof axeapl by naaaaalty, In tlna of nigbt or In tlma of rain. Hanea, asoapl to paopla of rank, or In aaay olronmuaaaaa, tha appaarnua and aooomnodationa of tha IntaHor of tha boiiaa ara a matiar nf laeondary •onilderatlon I and would aoaroaly b« oarad for, wara l( not fur iha woman and ohlldran. In tha aooonnta of all Irarallara In India, it it men. tionad that thara ia no poaalbUlty of travailing In al. moat aaypartof tha caonuylnaafaty without a guard and ratlnua of aarvantc. Tha roadi, If thay can ba oallad tuch, ara hardly^dltcamihla traoka, quila un. Httad for whaal-aanlagaa, and trarallan muu ihara- fora rida on horMback, or on tha baokt of alapbanti, iir ba earriad In palanauln*— a tpadaa of llttar nip. uortad on man'a ahooldara. Thara balog alw uo Inna iu India, aach tnTallar la obllgad to earry tenu and provlalooa for daily uaa. Throogbout the whole ro> giant of Upper and Southern India, and In tome paru nf Central India, rubbery and thaft prarall to a great extent, and armed aitendanu ara naoettary fur pru. tactiim. Uanry praraila In Bengal and tome other paru of India, but neither to a great eueni nor on a aavera J>rincipla. Tha alaree ani moatly uied in dowettio abonr, aad ara gaaataUy traatad with kiudnatt, both by Hindooa and Mahommadaoa. Although tha BrI. tith gonmmant doaa not eountenanee tlavery, It woald be found almaat Impoaatbla to aKllrMte it, either by law or admonltlan, for It otiglnataa In the tale of iihUdran by paranle during bmlnae, oi under olraum- ■laneee of paeoUar calamity. Suak It aomatlmea tha ■llatiaaa of tha paranu that thay will diapoaa of their oilipring tot the mereei irUa, not from waul of alTao- tiea, but nmel Hkely with a view to tha taTing of thair Uree. BelllM ehildran IntotlaTary, tharefura, prennia InCtatlelda, or, what la aa bad, death by •tar?alion i and ao long aa no fund aaittt to nllara tha famithinf aatiTea during tinee of exigency, It (iiM not teem poulUa to prarent the dif poial of chil. riren by their paienta) ctpeeitUy lince the lawt of tha llindooe permit the praatica. we may, however, iia. lurally expect that, with tha advance «f oiviii»tiun and habitt of provMenoe, tUvery will heia, at alie- wheia, ceaM. At praMnt, tlavei in India are fr*. qiiautly liberated by their ownera from motivea of piety. AKIMAU. India pottaaitt a Tariety of anhnalt, both In the hrnte and bird creation, finind in no othur rvt^lon. Amnng the brute trlhea the moit ctinflpicumit it the elephant, which affordt amuteraent In the hiintln^f, and which It of great service, when tamed, iit currying pertont on it* h&ck. In an ornamvnul and rammiidiout teat fitted-up for the purpou. The tiger !• found in the low inartfiy reKiunt nr jiinglea, and in hIio made the object of hunting; but thii ferocinui animal it now becoming of rare appearance, except in the remote parti of ihi country. India abounila in nionkiet, and hai tome peculiar raoee of diiga. Whan Kiigliih-bred dogi are talien in the country, they Kpeedlly degenerate. In the fnraatt, deer of ditfereut kindt, and a race of anielupea, prevail. There are iilao variooa deacriptiont uf uxen, among which it the white or lacred bull and cow. There ere many tplen. did apeclment of birdt, at ahinlng creepura, the rini;- iiMked paroquet, lorlet, cnckatnnl, perron, and other bighly-culoured hathered animalt. There are llke- wlie vultnret, buttarda, peacockt, and nearlj' all the frame birdt and piniltry uf Uritain. India und Itt ialandt poneai many dangenmt reptilet, at cnicudilri, iixurdt, and poitonout terpenttnr tnaket, all of ahicli are more or leti found a>>out rivera and marahet, ani' render bathing in the watera by no meant tafe- India h»t alto many remarkable Intect tribet, one of whicli, the kennet, produoet a Ana tcarlet dye. Kith, nt an immense uuuiber of varietlet, abound hi all the ttrearoa and waters, and are frequently of 'exceeding brilli- ancy In colour. CLIMATI. The climate of Itidla, tiiungh in tnme high districts auiubriout and pleatant, in, on the whole, ill suited to the conttltutioni of Enrupeaut. There are thmi sea. sons — the rainy, cold, and hot i the rainy in general extends from June till October | the cold from Novem- ber till February i th#hot from March till May. Dur- ing the ralut the climate is unhealthy. The tenpera> ture of tlie atmosphere ranges during tha hot mouths from 73* u> IDA'. A>. (Calcutta, tha temperature variet tbroughutit the year fWim 09° to 80*, but ia more com- monly utKHit 03*. At Uombay, the temperature la generally somewhat higher ( and at Mi«<' 'at it it higher iiill, the Carnatic being a dry and hu ogion. Tliit general holneitof India, and the Insalnlirlout charau- ter of thu talny taaton, produoet not only discomfort, hut rendera Bumpannt liable t.i fevers, dueatetof the liver, tinii other oumplaintt not oommoik in thie eonn- trv. To accuminodaie Invalids, the East ludia Cum- 271 panv have tiled up tanltory tuilant at carulu part* of tba eonntry on tha higher groundt, whera tha air it cool and ag r »a«b l a i but theta placaa cannot alway> ba depended on by the enfeebled fundlonariee of the Comnany, and vltlti to Knglaiid ara often nacettary for tM praearraiion nf life. In cnnteqnanca of the heat of tha ollmala, Europeane amply provide them- telvea with light cotton gamienlt, which ara unlver- aally worn aa undreat. EAIT mDIA MONET. Tba droulatlng medium uf ludia oousttu of gold aud tllvar coiua, paper money, and cowrlea. The moat common tilver currency it the new coinage of Calcutta. Poldara, or mooey-changare, are a common data In av^ry town, and til ganarally in the oaen air wlih imft of cowrlea placed before them. Cowriee ara email thallt, which, not being depreciable by Imi- tation, form a good medium for buying and telling among tha lower clattit. Thair value vnries in dif- faraul phicea. Tha fulkiwlng It their value In Cal- eultai— 4 onwriati gnnda; SOgundat 1 poni 32 ponal current rupee, or two thillingt iterliog (SMO cowries) t incurreni rupeei I pound iterilng. The sicca rupee is 16 per cent lest In value than the current rupee, which It pn Imaginary coin. Tha Bombay rupee is valud at St. 3d. t a pagoda It 8i. CALCUTTA. Calcutta, the British cepital nf India, It tttuatad about 100 mllaa from tha tea, on tba aait hank of tha Hniwhlay, a branch of tha Oanget, in latitude ar S3' N., longttude 88* SC E. The length of the town It about tb mllea along tha bank nf tha rivtr. When teen from tha toulh, on which tide it It built round two tidea of a great open plain, with the Oanget on tha wett. It pratenu the view of a very nohleclty, with tall and tiataly houiae ornamented with Grecian plUan and tpaelout varandaa. Thaetplanadabelwaan the town and Fort William laavee a grand opening, along tha border of which It placed the new and tpleu- did govamment honte, erected by the Marqult Wei- May. Fort Wlllbun, which waa commenced by Lord CUve, It the largaat and itnmgeai fortreit In India, but It conildered too extentive to he eeilly defended i ita gsrrlton utually coniltla of two European regi- menti, with anUleqr, betidee a supply of native troopt. Tha public bnlldinga of Calcutta, betldet the govern- ment honte, are a town hall, a court of Jnaiice, two churchat of the atlabllihed religion, and one for the Scotch Prethyterian worthip, which la a very hand> aome edIAoe. There are also several chapelt for other rellglout bodies, mosquet, and pagodat — the latter generally decayed and rulnoua, the religion of the people being chiefly contpicuout in their worthip of the Ganges. Behind the elegant front llnet of houtet It ranged the native town, deep, hlnck, and dingy, with various crooked ttreets, huts of earth b-^ked in the tan, or of twlstrd hamboot, interaperited here and there with ruinous Itrick baaaart, pools of dirty wnter, ooooa.treea, and Utile ^ardent, with tome hne lerge dirty houses, the residences nf weiilttiy natives. *' Kill up this outline,** says Bishop Helier, In hit valu- able Oorreapondeiioe, *' with u crowd of people in the ttreet, twyond any thing to be teen even in Lon- don, some dressed in tawdry silkt and brocadet. mora in nlilta cotton ifarmentn, and mott of all black and naked, except a scanty covering round the waist, batidea Hgurea of religiout mendicantt with no clothing but their long hair and beards in elf locks, their facet painted white or yellow, their beadt in one gbattly lean hand, and the other ttretclicd out like a bird*t claw u» receive dunationa ; marriage procea- slont, with the l»ride in a covered chair, and the bridegroom on horeeback, to swathed round with garlandi at hardly to be seen i tradesmen sitting on the groi^id in the midst of their dilferent Qimmodities, and old men, lookert on, perched nuked as monkeyt on the Hat niofs of the houses ; carta drawn by oxen, and driven l.y wild-looking men with thick ttickt, to unmercifully used at to undeceive perfectly all our no- tion of Brahmiiiioil liuinanity t attendants with ailver macet, presting through the eniwd before the carriage of some gnat man or other i uo women seen except of the loweal class, and even theee with heavy silver omamentt on their diitky armi and anclei i while C4>ache«, covered up clote with red cloth, are teen con- veying the inmates of the neighbouring seraglios to take what ia called * the air;* a conatant creaking of carl wheels, which are never greased in India, a constant clamour of voices, and an almost unistant thumping and jingling of drums, cytnhalt, dtc, in honour of tlieir deities t and add to all thit a villan- otit amell of garlic, rancid cucna-nnt oil, snur butter, and stagnant ditchet, and you will understand the t^iiiuds, ti)tl>ts, find smelts of what is called the ■ Black Town* of Cultniita. Tha tingularity of thit apectaole It liett and least offensively ei^uytd on a noble quay which LunLUattiogt built along thathore of tho river, where the vettelt of all formt and tiaes, Arab, Indian, Malay, American, English, the crowds of Brahmins and other Hindoos washing aud saying their prayers ; the lifthied tapers, which, towards aun- aet, tliey throw In, and the broad bright ttream which tweept them by, guiiileas of their impiety and uiicon- tctout of their horoaite, alTord a scene such oa no European nod few Asiatic cities can at all parallel in Iiitureat and singularity.** In ivceiit timet, V4)ntiderable Improvementa have been made i n and aifout Calcutta, jungles being cleared away, ttreeta drained, and tthgnant water removed. Though the tltnatloa of Calcutu baa not bean we.l choten, It It asMrflanlly adapted for rodinerca. At high water tha rlrtr la hare a full mile ni braadili. Tha advanitgat potaaeetd for inland navlicition arx eoatldarablat fortign Impiirtt may be tranaportetl with great facility, on tha Ganges ami lit trlhutarira, to tha nonh-wettam quartert of llindoitan, whllo the valuable prodncllona of the Interior are recalved by Ik* aain* channala. There It al all timet a vai.t quanlitv of merahandlM depoalted at Calcutta, aud tha trade carried on It now very exteniiv*. Bethlea a ■ronmraeal bank, there ara three private banks, whhia drottlat* to a consldarabla amount. There are '"S!^ dally, twloe.n.woek, and weakly nawtpniera publliS«l. Tha rallgioat, and charlubla, and aduea. tional Inatitnliuna, ara numarout and of gnu Mrrice. SodMy In Cahuiu la gay and ipbndld, and tha Bri- tiah inbabitaatt among ihcir own data an detcribed aa hiwpittble, thongh lealoua of etiquette, and uf an ovarbeailng dltpodllon. Than ara no hotdt, or inna, or lodging, bontai of any deacriptlon— « want which appean perfectly amaiing— and all ttrangers, mala or female, mutt 1^ provided with Introductloiii to thu houtet of raaidanla. The expentet of llvlni; are very contiderabl* i and at thara ara now no mure opponuoltlet of ecqulriag wealth by tha tpoliatinn of nailT* principalities, fortnnet ara much tddomrr '••"••* {''•n formerly. Thtra being alao now fewer daatha, thera an tiwar ehancaa of promotion. Accord- ing to Mr Hamilton, « Wllhoal being ttUched to tome dapartnMni of aervlca, or trained ap to some mechanrcal inda^ than la little hope of proaparity to a Toang man mimting oai ehaiioa from Eurap*. Here all Iha inferior altuationa of clariu, orenaart, ftc. are neceatarily oeenplad by tha nalivet, and it la by these gndallona in Enrapa that yonng men rlia toopnience In tha eommerdal world." Tb* poauUtlon of Cal- cutu It eonpot«l of aboal I4,ae0 Chriallant, 48,0V» Mahonmadant, and 110,000 Hindooa i but tbitit the amount only within th* dty proper. If th* enriruus or tnborhe b* included, Ih* papulation wlU amount to parhap* 800,000 1 and ao dantely peopled ia the tur- rnndtng dhtriot, that within the drcuit of twenty milrt thera it a population of neatly two and a haff milliona. aponr, a Daniih lattlement, about twalv* mile« aoova Odontta, it tba haad-ouarten of tha miuinn- ariea tent from Enrofe, and hen a nrinting.pnat has bean eataUlihed, from which bibia* In a great variety of lasgnaget have baen iitued. Thamitaionariea also h*n OMidnct a college for th* edneatlon of native Chriallant, Hindoo), or Mahommedant. Tha anler- priee and judielont •lertioiit of the mistlonary body al thia place cannot be lufflciantly commended. HADHAI. Madrai, the teat of government nf Southern India, it litiiated In toe Carnatic, on the ahora uf the Bay 4'f Bengal, In lat 13* 8 N., long. OU' 21' £. Thelhoie it here h»w and daugerout to approach by vesaola. On the beach ilauds Fort St George, a place of coii- tiderabla ttrength, and which may be easily defended by a tmall garrison. A nobi* range of public edifices, induding a cnttom-houte and court-house, also Minrn what la called the north beach. Madraa dlffart in ap- liearanca from Calcutta. It bat properly no European town, the aattlera nilding in their hnuaea In the midst of gardena, and trantacting butinets In the dittrict appropriated to the r'etidanaa of th* nativea. The principal churah in Madraa, Ml George't, it a beauti . ful ediflce. Then an many axe*II*nl charitiee here ; and the tehool for mala and female erphant, into which the philanthropic Dr Bell introduced the Lancastrian sytlem of education, le enperior to any thing of the kind in Calcutta. The tociety of Madraa It more limited than that of Calcutta, hut the ttyle of living it timilar. The roada in the vicinity are excellent, and aiford noti agreeable drives to the Eurnpeeii reeideiila. Aoeording to Haber, " the native Chria- llant are numermu and increating, but are, unror. innately, a good deal divided about cattei.** Tho Arineniant an hen numerous, and tome of thani wealthy. A Scotch Prethyterian church it nii.v erected. The population of Madraa and itt iuburl» liaa been ttated at upwardt of 40U,000. notMAY. Bomhat', the teat uf government for th* western (larts of India, it a tmaU rocky iiiand, lying on the west coast of Hindottau, iu lat. IB* SO' N., long. 72' 57' £. Bombay waa originally tome hilly rocky isiei>, liut theta, by the influence of the high tidet, have been joined to each other i and now the island it composed prindpally of two unequal rangea of whinaton* rocks, extending from five to eight milw in length, and »t the dittance of about thra* mllea from each other. All lb* ground that can be cultivated it now laid out in agricultura, aud the ramainder la either barren or covered with the residences of Europeans and native?. These rasidences ara on wet, low, and unhealthy grounds, even below high-water mark ; and from this and other circumsiancea, Bombay Is detcribed at being the mott intalubriout of tha pretidenclet. The fort of Bombay la aituated at the auuth-eaateru extremity of the lalaud, on a narrow neck of land. The chief ad. vantage uf Bombay Is lie deep tide water, which per- miti the moat extentiv* ayttem of maritime trade ; excellent diM-ka an erected for th* accommodation of the ahippif'g. Bombay It the teat of vary extensive tfUe with the Persian Gulf on the iinrtli, aa wril a« wnh tho south of ludia. Cotton ia tiic priucipnl / CHAMBSBS'S INFORMATION FOR TIIK PEOPLK. i ii • i 1 iirttvitt nt' eipnrt. • Thr pupulatlon U nnitA ai iil'imt Mlt>,000| cwmiHiwd nf ChrUilaiii, Jewi, M«hoinui». ■Inn*, lllndoot, uiil Parinf. dp: Ml I, xnof ttip ott)Mtiil nt tha Mitsui einptrv, nnd itill tha rttMatica nf ihn trlhtiinrv iiitil ntitllloun iovnrrl^n nf InriU, l> ifttikteH in 3U* 4 1' N. In tha pruvlnva tit which Uglvat lu iiama, and nl the dliitiinca of WJU tnltmi fnim Calcutta. Thii uiica mtiKnllicaiti city it Mid K» hava. In furmer llmitHt oovarad a ipaca of twenty iqnare milaa i In tha preienl day an itiitnenta number of ItK HiiclaniRtraait, hmtlaa, tamplaii, and othare(l 'h* inudarn town^ removed nt lome dii- lanoa from tha old, occuplaa a ipara of Hevfn niilvN in i-iroumfrrem^ Itia aeatcd on a rocky rtinga of hilln, and ia anrronndad hv walli, recantly improved and ■iranf thaned hy the llritlth. Tha city containi many Urgm and good hoitneii, inottly huilt of brick. There are a great ninii)i«r of noMqiiea, with hiah ntinareta and Klldad diimat, and ahove all ara teen the palaca of tha emperon, ATarvhigh and axtf>nil/a ciniter ofOothlo towara and baitUoienlaiaaiithf Jumna Mimjead, the largaatand handtomaat fkaa nf Alahommedun wur- khlp in nindnttau. Ttw rlilef material of Uine pub- Kohuildingi Is red granite, of an agreeable colour^ inlaid In aofne of the ornamenul paru with white marble One of the Drincipal characteriitici of Delhi t« thut deicribed by Hishup Hebari— '* We pu«ed in •tiir way to tha Agru gate, along a very broud !>ut ir- regular atreet, with a channel of wntar, cased with Rtoue, conducted along Its middle. This Is part of tha oelahrated aqneduct roustructed, in the first In- Ktanoe, by Alt Merdan Khan, a Persian nottleman in tha service of tha Emperor 8hahjehan, then long ne- glected during tha troubles of India^ and the decay of the Slogul power, and within these few years i-epafred by the English government. It Is oondnctafl from the Jumna, immediately on leaving its mountains, and while iu stream is yet pure and wholes ouit, for a distance of ahout 120 miltts, and Is a nubia work, giving fertility to a very larga eateni of onwHry near its hanks, and absolutely tha sole source of rafMMkm 10 the gardens of Delhi, besides furnishing iU Inka- I'iunts with almost the only drinkable water within their reach, Whpn tt waa first re-npencd by Sir ('barlea Metcalfe in 1820, the whole»popuUtlon nf tha rity went out in jubilee to meet its stream, throwing dower*, ghee, &c Into the water, and calling down hU manner of blessings on tha British government, who hare Indeed gim^ far, by this measure, to redeem themselves from tha wtdghl of, I fear, a good deal of impolicy.** The Ilritish Resident at Delhi exarcisas a most ex- tensive authority, from his having theexelusive charge of the emparnr and his family, his taking cognisance of all political event* in the north-west of India, and his superintendence of manyea-kiuga and dilefs. The office is therefore always'fiUed by one f tlie abtat and mmt experienced of the public function- aries of the Company. The population of Delhi is uow computed not tu exceed 2(H),OtfO. AOftA, the capital of Uie province of the sima name, is com* niadiitusly aituated on tha south-west side of the rivi>r Jumna, in lat. 27' H' N. Tha greater part of this ■mce fliMirishing city Is now In ruins. In the habit- able part, the houses are several stories in height, and the streeu remarkably nurow. There is a large and ancient furt, surrounded with high walls and towers nf red atooa, which command some noble views of the city and its environs. The t^rincipal sights, according to Ueber, are the Motee Musjeed, a beautiful miMique of white marble, carved with «x(|utsita simplicity and elegance; and tha palace built by Akbar, In a great degree of the same material, and amtaining some nwle rooms, now sadly disfigured and destroyed by neglect. Agra has been In aome muasure renovated by ihe British ; and whan made the seat of a praai- dancy, will moat likely b« still further impruved. BEHAKES is an ancient and highly veiu-rated city in tlindostnn, situated in lat. 2A* ^n' N., on an elevated fiece of ground tm the hanks of the Ganges, about half-way tietwixl Agra and Calcutta. The streets of this holy city are extremely narn»w, and the houses, which rise to the height of six stories, are in some cmes united by gulleries. The numlter of stone and iirick houses from on« to six storien high exceeds 12,000, and the mud housM to about 16,000, besides garden homes. The number of inhabitants Is estimated at upwards of fWH),(NNI, exclusive of a large body of tempnmry re< sidants who come hither on religiouii purposes from all parts M India. Benarea may be called the IJniver- sity town of the Hindttoa, as their Uws and religion are here taught by Brahmins and learned men In various mtMblishroenta for the purpose. POItTUOVEaE BCTTLCMKNTfl. The pfSflfixsionsof the Portugueiu* in India are now confined to (roa, and a small territory rou;td it ; Dv. maun, a seaport In the provlnca of Ouzcrat; Diu, a ,m) tha city may l>e traversed from (uie extremity to the other without meeting a human being, or any other tigns of former population, than pavements overgrown with grass, gardens and oourt-vhrds rhuked with under. w(H*d, rtiid princely dwallinga and vencrtbltf abbies mouldering rapidlylodecay."* There are still several churches iu preservation, also tha building once occu- pl«d by tho Inuuisition, which hns been shut up for many years. Panjtm, or New Ooa, Is sltusted five miles nearer the entranoa to the harbour of Ooa, and is now tha seat of the PortugneMt sulhorttle*, and of the business carried on. The territory in the neigh- lanirbood of Ooa, forty miles In length, by twenty In breadth, forma the pmsetisiim of the Portuguese, and it was estimated, in IINMI, that within this tract there were two hundred churches and chapels, and ahove two thouiaud priests. EAST IMDIA TRADE. Before tha trade to India was opened to private merchants in IHl.'l, it was asserted that the extreme poverty of the natives, and the Immutnbiliiy of their habits, rendered It chimerical to expect a more ex- tended consumption of British goods In Illndostun. But this prediction has tweu triumphaiUly disproved by the event. The declared value of the vxpurta to India has Increased f.ve-fuld since that time; and when the fall of price la taken into account, It may be safely alfirmed that the increaae In quantity Is at least tight- /oUf The change has operated to the advautsge uf butli eounlries. It has reduced the price of Indian goods In Britain, and of Briiish goods in India ; and in tha latter, at a oouaequence, articles uf English ma- nufactura are noW spreading %» every villugr. Cul- cutu, which formerly sent L.3,000,000 worth of piece goods to London every year, now receives the same amniuit from ft. Though the progress of our manu- iHCtnres has superseded several Indian attiulcs in the Enifijnh market, and thus destroyed certain brant hes «)f trade, the Imports have acarcely diminished ; and when the internal cunnnarce of India, which has hlthertn been almost entirely in the hands of the Com- pany, Is rendereil as free as the extertihl, there is a moral certainty that the imports will experience a great Increase. The following table, showing tlieex- p4iris in the first year of free trade, and in ltl'2ll (ex- clusive nf the trade to China), well illustrates tl effisuts of the change t— Exptirts to Indiu. Wmdlen cloths, . . Spelter, . . Jewellery, . . .Machinery, Iron, cast and wrou<{ht IlardtvRre, <'otton twist and ya.n, Muslins, plain, Do. printed, C'tlicnaa, plain, Do. printed and dyed, British cotlon mtioutac- tures— aggregate value L.I()!J,400 L.1,021,000 It will be seen that the export of white calicoes has iticreaied lu fourteen years from S2,000 yards to 2-2,000,000 1 The following table shows that the increase of the exports Is entirely due to the activity ul the piivatc traders : — Exports to India. Ulll. in21 1820. B> the Company, LM'2(i,iHHi I,.IIH7.4,000 Iron, wrought and unwruught 144,0. The leading articles of Importatifm from India (ex- cluilvtt of China) in 18;i2, were the following : — Import! Trom India. Value at <'om|>Hny'i Qusntity. *«li- i a.'l,IK)0 l2A,(K)a ;i2,ooo Indffn KKxTiilk Ibl. B,2I 1,000 L.1, 242,000 . do. 1,«42,000 i,imi,ooo C*lM«a 227,000 136,000 riiuiliiit Jo. 7i»,ooo 40,U00 Rica, iiiil In liiiik . cnrtf. 171,000 128,000 I'.litwr II... 4,830,000 70,000 TurtiilM ahdl . dii. 38,000 77,000 Each of the other articlei Is under L.4A,000. Altout one.sixth of the gniHls brought from India have Iwen till now linporlad by tha Company, and five.slxihs by private traders. India now lies open to the enterprise of British ca- pilalists, merchants, and manufacturers; and, Judg. ing from tha foregoing statenienu, there can Im llttio donbt but this great atid magnificent region, with Its hundred milllousof Inhabitants, will henceforward, by Judicious management, alFord a bouiidlfss scope for profitable adventure. The great ad vantiiges tube de- rived from tbo opening up of India to European traf- fie and i-ivlllsed usages, will doubtlens prove as bene- ficial to the natlvis as to the British. Already the country feels Ittelf bettered in every re»pect by lu subjugation. In the words of Pebrer, l.i his valuable work on the Kesourcei of the British Empire — " Lock- Ing at its grand resulu as afTectlng the happiness of the human race, It must be confessed that never has a conquest turned out mote advantageous and benefi- cial. All the Immense Indian terrunrtes have been concentrated In a powerful confederation ; a large ri- ver, immenid deserts, and lofty mountains, constitute the strongest barriurs t«galnbt foreign invasion by land t while an extensive seacoast, and the mighty maritime power of Britain, defend It by sea. A great power, a central government, wisely nnd humanely presided over, and commanding all thin confederation— all this immanie amalgamation of states, has put an end to all the conflicting elements, and to all the civil wars waged by numberless and cruel tyrants, perpetually contend- ing for empire i rapacity, tyranny, plunder, massacre, and savage crnelty, have entirely ceased.** Now that Europeans may purchase and hold lands. It may bo anticipated that British capital and skill win speedily be directed to the cultivation of sugar, ctilTee, tobacco, and particularly nntim, all which pro- duvis, from the extraordinary cheapness of labour, may be increased to an incalculable extent, and with the miwt enlivening prospect nf profit. Hitherto th« system of jurisprudence established by the Company h.is been a vain mixture uf lllndiw, Alahommedan, and English law, and by no means been calculated to preserve public tranquillity. Shoitid the government proceed to modify and extend the system of adminls- taring the laws, at the same time relaxing the burden .if taxation on lund, and endeavouring to conciliate the natives by promoting thosa worthy of trust, much good ndght be anticipated. By thene and other mea- Nures, suited to the genius of the people, a solid basis would be atforded for tha investment of capital, and India would gradually Improve both In its moral and physical condition. With the advancement of com- mercial Intercourite, we might further expect thu breaking down of a nuralwr of prejudices among the natives, and at length their reception of the prir.clples of our beneficent faith. M'h^t a field is here offered for the speculations of the Christian and philauthnu pist ! WORDS FHEanKNTLY USED IN RErERENCK TO INDIA, NOT EXITAINED IN 'illB FOREOOINO SHEET. Adawlet, a court uf justice BegOf a land measurt, amounting in Bengal to altout tb« third of an acre. — UungaioWt a dwelling formed of wo(mI, bamboo, mats, and other light materials.~-CAoi(:rj/(y(ir, a watchman.-— Choultry, a place fur the accommodation of travellers. — Circar, p large division of cou ntr y._Coo/ifi, la- bourers, 01 porters. — Cmi, a measure of distance nut Jess than a mile, nor more than two miles.^Cror(r, t^eu millions. — Cutwatf a chief police ofilcii,— .Docidfi, robl)er.4. — Dfir<];i,aheadc>ffirer of finance Deivanny, the privilege of exacting taxtvt in perpetuity. — Durbar, a court of ai'.dlence — Gtntoo, a Portuguese term, slg. nifying a Gentile. — Ghaut, a chain of hills, or pass among mount.iius — lli%k\m, a governor.— /fowf/o^, the seat elevated on tba back of an elephant ATi/Ai. dar, the commandtr of a Uiru—Lack, mie biindred thousand.— /.ojcar, a native sailor. — Luvtie, a plun- derer.— ^/lunwi, a throne.— A(i/'o/>, or ^'awaub, a viceroy gi>vernor under the Mogul empir«,_A^iaam, un arranger. — Xuliah^ a small Htre»m.—Padd]f, rice iu the husk.— /'(ipof/u, a word of Eumpeans for a Hindito temple. — PerwanOf a licence. — Pergunnaht n certain number of villages, or tract of Cfnintry.— Feshtta, a leader.— /'unc/i/, a learned Brahmin.—. Puffpici, searchers for thieves — HajOf a king ur prince. — Hujpooti, literally, the olTHpring of kings, now meaning persons of distinction.— JTouftaA, a district of twenty-two circars — Subahdar, the governor or vice- roy ol u stHih^h.-^Thuys, robliers of Upper Indiv.— Tiffin, n lunch, or mid.day me«l— rnAer/, an agent or ambifsador.* • Kor theniiMtaccunUesndcoinpIetesccnunt of India, ws bte to n-ri-r t)ur reailar* t» the Fjui India (iscpttfcr. by Hamilton, 3 vola. ttvo. Mui'h Ukfful infumistinn. for thou Intending to pro- i^red tn India, will u- found tn the volumri of the Rdlnbursh Ca- blnvt I.lbrary. nn Rrooh India. UUhnp Ilvta-i'i Narntrve, In 3 voIm. Kvo. i* ttK> well kniiwn for Ua intcTeslinK detaili of laalaa I'H'alKiei nnil inannrri to rrcjiiirc any rcconimrndatlon hen-. I>ubli>hi'tt by W. and R. (MAMRsaB, 1 . ; alui by Oaa and Kuitii, Paumoiter Row, LonUnn , Waterloo l',:i)i.'00U 1 of IndU. we bM ', by llwnlUun, it Intending tu pro- he Rdlnhunh C»- ri'l Narrative, In detail* of Indljm idailiii) herr. I I I ■US, 1ft, Wklnlun T Row, iionilon lid by JehD Ma» CHAMBERS'S Miniri If^ INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. as. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAHBXR8, EDITORS OF <' CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND • HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Pbioi Hi. THE ART OF PRINTING. REPRESENTATION OF THE STEAM-PRESS WHICH PRINTS "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL," " INFORMATION FOB TBI FBOPLB.";. AND "HISTORICAL NBWSPAPIB," AT EOINBUROH. A. The prtntlnf crllnda, whkh Ukm Om Ita imtimtloa Itaa thetypM. B. The cylinder which prlaU tiw laeood ridf. C uid D. Two diiin«« over end under which the iheet peMee la Iti prognet bom one cylladw lo the other. E. TUMcoodtamortitpee, after hmrloi been eiK< Inked, end About to peie under the Ncond eyttnder to receive the Impreeeloo. (The Ant hrm enaet be eaeo, babf under the boml / between the eylladerk) r. The hik^ductor end trongh. A elmUar complete Inking tp. fUMui b u the other kat. a. ThohedlngoivlbiMlngioUer. H. Two dblribathig raUen, br qrMdtaf Ikt Ink over I. Thelaklng-Uble. ■L Three Inklnf-iollen. 1* The hc«p of pep«T. from which M. The fecdlnf-boT inkei the ■hceli to ley them on tapee ready to be puihcd Into the raechlna. N. A >hc«t of paper on the locond cylinder, after having been pilnted on the flnt ildc. O. Another thcet of paper, printed on both ildcc, Juit ddlmed upon the flv'boezd/, fltom which a boy takct and plaeae the iheet upon a table. P. Tha beep of printed paper. 4, Tka laaiMag dmh It Tkt bait Ann tiiaeivtnawklehglfHBMIoau Ike nucblne. ST. Two large wbeeh wbkh tuia lb« eyllidi V. The wheel which givea motion to tha drama. aab. Tha upee which conduct the i b c H i tknnigh the ma* china, c. Stntchtag pulUce for rrtatatatg the taper at the proper degree of tendon. (The correqiooding act at tiw other end cannot Im? lean.) d c. Pullicfl which guide the tapea la tha marglna of the paper. ghihm. Light ecrpernllete, round which the tapea p«a after they quit hold of the paper. OBIOIN AXD HISTOftV Or PaiMTIKO. VKSttva li the art of prodndng Impmilona frnin charaiMn or figura, moraabia and immoTeable, on papar, or any othar inbalanoa. Thara ara aararal diatinct braaohaa of this Important art — aa tha print- InK of books with moraabia typea or itaraotypa plataa, tha printing aC coppar plataa and wood angraTlngt, and tha taking Impratiloni from atone, i»Ued litho- graphy. Oor praaent object, bowerer, is only to dasoriba tha art of printing books or sheets with more- able types, generally <»lled hller-pttu pWnriny, and which may undoubtedly be esteemed the greatest of all human Inrentlons. Tha art of printing Is of eomparatirely modem origin : '^r hundred years hare not yetelnpaed since the first Inxik wu iuued from the preui yet we hsTO proofs that the principles upon which it was ultimately deralopad, existed amongst the ancient Chaldean na- tions. Entin and undecayed bricks of the famed city and tower of Babylon hatre been found tumped with rarlouBsymbolicsl figures and hieroglyphic characters. These exceedingly interesting elforu of art In early times might at first readily be supposed as intended merely as deooratiTe and ornamental, were it not that other reli^ues exist to suggest the probability of their being drtigned for a more useful purpose — historical, or utiienvise. Some of the latter are solid clay figures, generally of a cylindrical form, whose shape and size forbid the idea of their baring been employed in archileeture, either for use or ornament, and which are inscribed, or rather stamped, with written cha- racters, no less minute than regular. One of these precious remnants of antiquity, supposed to be up- wards of 4000 years old, is prcserred in the library of Trinity Cnllege, Cambridge. It may be deicri>>ed at being about teren inches high, and three in diame- ter at each end, Increasing gradually In circumfereuce in the middle, so as to resemble a wine cask. The characters impressed upon it run between regular linea from end to end of the figure— the space betwixt the lines increasing In the centre, and, on the whole, bear- ing the doaest resemblance to the stares of a modani cask or bdml. There are eridcnt marka of this figure baring been cast in a mould, particularly a small blank space, abont a quarter of an Inch wide, which intercepts the foresaid rertical linee In the middle, or centre of the figure, and runs round its whole cir- cumference, and where perhaps the printing mould had not Joined. This rare piece of ancient learning and art, with other similar rellques, was presented to the College by the recently deceased Oeneral Si- John Malcolm, and is, of course, most carefully preserred. It must here be noticed, that the meaning of the cha- racters impressed on these figures has nerer yet been discorered, and it Is more than probable nerer will. It has lung been a subject of disputation among phi- lologists, whether th'eae unknown characters were hieroglyphic or alphabetical, but the general, and as we should think the most probable opinion, is, that they are of the former description. These exceedingly rude attempts at printing, as well as those of a much later date, It is well ascertained, were all executed by single blocks, which stamped oflf a whole subject or piece at once, and which were termed iypijixi. It is clear, therefore, thnt engraring in wimhI preceded, or rather was the direct original of the art of typography t and eren to this day do the Chinese print their books in this manner, their end- less vocabiilnry (amounting, as it conjectured, to about eitfUly thousand characters), as well as the peculiar structure of llicir language, renilering it utterly im- practtcaUle either to print their books with nioreable types, or eren to cast the latter separately. Their method of printing it as follows :— The work Intended for the press is transeribad carefully npoi ehaels of thin transparent paper ; each of tbeae shaeti ia glued, with tha face downwards, upon a tkln tablat of hard wood; and the engrarer then, with proper Instru- ments, cuts away tha wood in all those parts on which nothing Is traced i thus leering the transcribed cha- racters in rtluf, and ready for printing. In Ihla way, aa many tablets are neceasary aa there are written pagee. No press Is used ; but when the Ink is laid on, and the paper carefully placed above it, a brush is passed orer with the proper quantity of pressure. Ou Hald, In his " Description de I'Empire de la China," published in 1736, says, that one man can thus, with- out fatigue, print ten thousand sheets per day i but such a statement Is altogether prepoaterous. The Chinese chronicles state that the abore mode of print- ing was discorered in China about AO years befon tbo Christian era, and the art of paper-making about 146 yaara afterwards ; pterious to which period, all their writings were transcribed or printed in rolumea of silk cut Into leares of proper dimensions. It is a curious enough circumstance, that, amdngit the first attempts at printing by means of wood-en- graring which can be traced to hare been made In Europe, was the making of playing-cards tor the amusement of Cbaries VI. of France. This was to- wards the latter end of the fourteenth century. There- after came prints from wood-blocks of human figures, single or in groups ; the earliest fxitting specimen of which is in the possession of Earl SjMncer, and dated 1423. It it by an unknown artist. These prints w^lt at first without any text, or lettcr.prets, at it is modernly termed ; but uftor the gr>iundxvork nt tho art had been completed, its rise towards perfection »».i'w,q»^ nu»« f'3 i ! ■ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. HiSfiili^iatfl «M almou unp>rall«M In nfUHj. lu prurtuon —■uiil klalWrM nil^Mlt VilkaWil or *«|Uii*- tltnniliJalBMl. Th«|>««M«Mpl»<)*• ■'*' »I>PmII* •">• ■■>- olhtr I wMeb, b«• «kuk «h« appwnnn of t book prlnud in lb* modern fa- DUCOTIKY ar auTTmauo. ' Tin nnt iMp In Iha iclann of lypocraphy wu Ihal of formlag arary laltar or eharaolar thrniighoui a work aaparaMlyi » ai to ba capakia of ra-irranKamanl, and formlnf all tha luccaHlon of panel In a work, thereby anUlu lltt laMraiioabla labour of cultinv now bliwki ■>f typae for erary pan. And bare, we cannot help itmiiklag. Il b aurim ikat an Idaa Haminfly m natural and elmpla ehould not bare occurred to tha Homani, whowaraunquaitlanably thamnit ingenloue and lolentIRo nation In ancient llmei. What randeri tbii tha mora eurprleinK, U tha fact, which we learn from Virfll, Ikat brandi, with the lettare of the nwner'* aama, warain uta In hie llmalor the purmaenf mark- ing cattle. The credit ol , Outten. berg bad tha bardlliood to attempt nn nliiion nf the Bilde, which ha euceeedad in prmting rumpiete, be- tween tha yeara 14S0 and 14SJ. Thii oeiebretad Bible, which wai tha firtt important ipecimen uf the an of printing, and which. Judging from what it bus M to, we tbonld crrtainly ntecm ai the mn«t extra- afdlnary and praluxvnrthy of human productioni, wu aaaauted with cut-metal typei, on itx hundred and thiny.wvan ieavea ; and, from a copy etiii in existence in the Koyal Library of Uerlin, some uf them appear to have been printed on vellum. The work was printed la the liatin language. The execution of this — the first printed Bible — which baa Jueliy ounferred .undying honours on the il- lustrious Uutteubarflr, was, moHt unfortunately, the iuunedUte cause of nil ruin. The expenses incideut to Ciirrying on a fatiguing and eiuborate prncess of vnrkmaiitnip, fnr a period of Ave years, being much mure uonsiderable than what were originally contem- plated by t'uat, be instituted a suit a^'ainst poor Gut- lenlM'rg, wbo, in consequence uf the decision against bini, WHS oliliged tn pay interest, and also a part of tile cKpltftl thHt bad Wn advanced. This suit wu fiill-twi'ci liy a dissolution ot psrtnernliip ; and the whole ie name itf a mHgicTan, or one ill cuinpact nitli tl(t« and uiideKthis character, with the appellatioi Fauftua, he liu fnr agu enjuyed an evil notori- B«tsid«s the aiwve-mcutioned Uiiile, somentliei spe- dmeusof the work uf Guttenberg havetieen discovered to lie ill existence. One in partici.Ur, which is wonhy of nutice, was found some yean aifu aniung a bundle of old papers ill the archives of Mayence. It is an almuiutck for the year 14A7, which herved ua wrapfir Syoai-aha one 111 1471, tlie other in 1473. In 1400, the art reach> ad C4Wttaniinoplr i and hare II may lie remarked, in passing, that nutliingran he mure eharacteristloof tha sloihfiiinees and iiarbarous ignorance for which tha Turkish nation enjoys so unenviable a pra-emlnancai or raihar, what may parhapa be aUagad u the eauM of siirb nalliiiiNt ilexi'sdrttiun, is, that tlie art of printing has hitliertnlieeii mnstseduliiuiiiy dUciMirnged. It waa intruduced into Kussia tlMiul the year I.Vil). IKTRODtlCTIOM IXTO KMOLAIID. Conuenilng the period and mode of iiitrii'luctlon of the art of printing Into England, little Is known, but It Is certain that it look place net lung after its Inven- tion at Aleuts. By many II le lialieved and altlnned to have lieeii B4ime time in the decade nf I4M), during the reign uf the unfortunate Henry VI. Another ac- count — and that which had passed currant with our historians and the world al large until tha Restoration —assigned the credit of Intruduciuf II to a Mr Wil- liam Caxtnn, a mercer and dilwn of Ijondon, who^ during bis travels aliroad, and his residence for many years In Hnllaiiil, Flanders, and Germany, had thn. roughly infiirmad hiinseif of the ptoaau, and uaon hia return, wu induced, by the aucouragement of many nan of wealth and rank, to set up a press in Weal- minster Abbey, about the year 1471. tluch wu Ika tradition of our writers, till a little book, which had scaiaaly barn before observed until the before-man- linaad parlod (the Kestoration), was taken notice of by Ike curious, with the date uf its impression al Oxford, aano IMII. This biHik, copies of whiak are yet ex- lani, ia a small miarui of forty.ona laaraa, entitled " Expoelalo kancti JemnimI in Syatkolum Apestolo- mra ad Papam Laaiaaliaaa." At iha laaiatlna (1064), a sratk wu publiabaii br a Mr Alkiat of Lou. don, anlMad "Ortaiaal and Onwih of Printing In Kagbtud i" la which aa aacouat le ai ran of an aiiolent ckninlala, laid to hara baan ieand us tha anhblahop'a palace at Laatbaih, coBlaialng tka panleulan aliend- liig Iha Irat intioduatkia af tka art. By Iba latter, it would apaaar that il leak alaaa aadar tha autpkea of Thoaiu Boarehiara, Arahbiihop of Caatarbury, dur- ing tha ralffn of Haary VI. viio laal R. Toamaar, muUr of Iba robae, and WilUam Castan, ataiahaai, lo UaarlaB^ who paiaoadad an aadar tratkataa, naiaad r,cnallli, to cimia lo EngUad aad aal up a prau at C ifo d. Il further mantiont, that thii traueaction cost King Henry 1500 marks. But this liagla preu wu soon found InsufflcienI for England ; upon which the king set up auutker at St Alban's, and a third at Westminster ; the latter lieing placed under the chargo of William Cation, in the year 1471. It uould lie useless fur us iiere to enter into tba nieriu of the question concerning the autheulicity uf the ahnve-mentiuned cliruuicle, which at one timo divided the literary world even to a violent degree. We will unly observe, that the reault of the dispiiu- lion uppaart to ba this ^— Tba existence of the book before named esublishes beyond a doubt that bouka were printed at Oxford ky Corsellit, wvaral years be- fore Coxtun set his press to work at Westminster, and therefore that that ally liu tha honour of having been the first seal of tba art in England t but Caitim was the first who iuuuduced the printing with moulded metal lypf't tlie works by hia predecessor having bean executed merely with wooden uues. It la by our early writers not having attended luiiiciently to this line of demarcation between the two stages of the art, that the misunderstanding bu, as far u we can Judgo after much careful iuvestigation, solely arisen, it ia proper here to add, u a circuiustauce corroborative of the authenticity uf the chronicle above uientiotied, that in the second part of Shakspeara'a Henry VI., there occurs a pusaga from which It might be in- terred that printing had even then been fnr eome tima practised. This is wbero Jack Cade rails at Lurd Treasurer Say fur cnrriiptiug the niiiruls of the com. inunity, by setting up a printing press, and encunrag- iiig the art. After tiie art of printing had been thus introduced into Oxford and tVettmiiiater, it spread to St Aibau't, Camlirldge, Tavisuick, Worcester, Canterbury, liis. wich, ice, in olnioit all canes liy tiio encourageunnt of the churchiiieii of these places, and geoeioily witli tile view of printing works nf piety. About the year 160(1, or prubablv somewhat earlier, Pynson waa, liy patent of Henry Vil., iiivesud with the ofllceniking'a printer, wliich may be regarded u tlie first instniico uf an appointment of this nature. At the cloao ul tho fifteenth .ind the cominenceineiit uf the sixteenlli oiii- tiny, liiindon pnaaeised a iiiiiiiber of printers, but iiiiiio whose name has lieen so celebrated iisthatof Wyiiken de Wordo, a f:»reigiier, and who had been instimied under Caxlon. lie improved the art oonsiUeiiiliiy, mid wu the firat printer in i:.nglulid wiio ilitroitlaed the Roman ielter— nil previuna priniin).', and niiichuf a later date, lieiiig in tlie liluik or German letter. rinsT I'lUNTrn TrsTAiuiNTS and niBLKs. Althuiigh at fiiat ciiiinieiiiinciMl by the clergy, the an of printing w(ia soon bK.ked upon witll extterna jealousy by the cliurch, wliirli at ieiiKth diacovurod that tins invention was but ton oeruinl) ciiicululeil to revolutiuiiiae the whole faliric of uiuiety. Tlie e.irlietl olfurts of the an, as we imm seen, were irecteil tn the inultipliCMllmi of tlie Bible; but fur a pv riw' . ■ ty or seventy year., fruni tlie date of tiie lu' em-jfi, all ]%n MM Ui* B«or n whiah h«4«li« ftHi LyoBi— ah« X>, lh« mrt raach* lip ratnarked, In raouHitloiif iha ■ (or whlvb Ui« dM ihcouiMaf 9 art of priming oiirnKtd. llw«s • IMiO. LAND. Iiitro'juctlon ol !• Ii known, but fiifter iu Invart- td and urt1rin«d of litiO, diirinf I. Anolharkc* urrvnt wiih tiur ib« RetturAtlon li to a Mr WiU ' liondon, who, idvnce for mtoy maofi had iho« H, wid uwn hi* (ernvnt of many pr«ii In WmU . Hiich waa the Hwk, which had the befor0*iii«n* tken notioa of by iiilon at Oxford, hlah art yet cx- toftVM, an titled boliun Apoitolo- lh« taoM tlm» r Atkiaaoriiuu. h of Prlntlnff In '•oofAnauciant tha u«hblahnp*a rtloulara attaud- By Um lattar, It r tha auaphMa of •BMrbury, dar. It R. TfMnurur, KMn, ■MTtfaftntl rorkaiD, namad •t up « praaa at tUa trauaactlan ihia ilnf la preia nd 1 upon whlcU I, uid a third at under the charge 3 aotar Into the I authenticity of ch at one ^ma violent degree, of the diiputa- ace of tUa book oubt that hooka wvaral yean be* Weilmittalar, onoiir of havia^ nd ; but CHXtou ng with moulded »ur having beaa It III by our fliclently to thia .taf(M of tha art, u we can judge ly ariteii. it la corroborativo of ive uientiouady ■o'e Heiiry VI., it nil({ht ue in- en fur aume time e rails at Lord rail of the com- and encourag- thui intrndticed ul to8t Albau'a, auurbury, Ipi- ttnoourHgeuit'nt Kcneruily with About the yenr Pynaim whm, by office (tl'kiiiK*a 10 Ant inntniico the cloHt) el' tbo e Bixteeiitli rciu intiim, buiiMue thMtnf M'yiiken Xiwn iniitrin;itfd n onii«iileiiilily( wlio introiiut-'t'd k', and nnichnf nnan lelttM*. en niDLCs. • rler^y, the ith pxtrciiia ii^^tli difCtivvred iy calculuted tO y- Tliti f -trliuat » irt-i'tt'il tiitlia 'ritir.iirf THE ART OF PRINTING "-if* •//«-» lll«oopl««of thaRoriplurM whioh wen printed w«ra in lh« Latin nr imna othiir ulutlo Unfiia^, nnt nnd«r- Maod by ih« pwpU. But now % n«« vra wnumtniMA, GwMln prinltn h«|pin to liM* ih* BIhIa In Ih* Enn- llnh tnnf(ti«, IraniUtad from tha original, and thia (ava ■IrHtT (ilfanca ta tha ohurebi or Jlomlih hiaranhy. in IHO, Rlokard (trafton, a gantlaman of llharal •duaatlon, and who adoMad Iha prnlWialon of prim. Inf, iMiiad an adit, in or iha Naw Taatamant In the Bnirllah lanKnwa, whlali draw down tba wrath i>f the ihaii Blabap of Loiidim. A praolamalion urm (tmad by thIa pralaia prohlMilag Ita una. ■• UndantandhiK (laya thIa daounMnt) thai many ohildran of Inlqiilila, maln- aaraara of Liilhar'a laat, Mjrndad Ihroujh ailraama wtakadnaaa, «aadryli«bet, erery flgure, point, or mark, muit have iti own punch and matrix. In casting typea, the founder standi at a table, and baa beside him a small furnace and pot with heated metal, which be llfU with a small ladle. Type metal Is a compound of lead and regiilus of anti. mony, the latter giving hardness to the oompnsitiim. The proper proportions of these metals is regulated by the site of the type, a (greater qaantltv of antl- mony being employed for small than large fatten. When the type Is cast from the moiild. It ii in a rough state, and as soon as a heap has accumulated on the caster's table, they are removed by a boy, who breaks off the superfluous tag of metal hanging at the end of each type. From the breakIng.otf.Boy the types are remored to another place, where a bov Is constantly engaged In rubbing or smoothing their edges upon a stone. Being now tolerably well cleaned, they are next removed to a table, and set up In long lines upon a frame, where they are pollsLed and made ready for use. Whatever be the siie of the typee, they are all made of a uniform height, and must be perfectly square In their angles, otherwise it would be quite impossible to lock them together. A tingle Ir. regular tvpe would moet likely derange a whole page. The heignt of a type It, or ought to oe, exactly one Inch t but fonnden, much to their discredit, do not act with uniformity in this particular, the letten of some foupden being higher than those of others. But all the types of one clau of any founder are always uni- form in size and height; and to preserve their 'nXvidu- alily, all the letters, points, Ac belonging tt/ ana class, are distinguished by one or more notches or nicks on the body of the type, which notches range evunly when the types are set. These nicks, as we shall immedi- ately see, are also exceedingly useAil in guiding the compositor. Types are likewise all equdly grooved In the bottom to moke them stand steadily. The varieties of siie of types In the present day amount to forty or fifty, enlarging by a progretiire scale from tha minutest used in printing pocket Bibles, to Iba laigaet which is saan In iiosting.tiflls on the streets. Printers have a distinct name for each size of letter, and use about twelve sizes In different descriptions of book.work ; the smallest is called Diamond^ and then follow, in gradation upwards, Pearly Ruby, Xonpa^ rgity MinioHf Brtvier (the type with which this hheet Is printed), Bourgtmtf Long Primer, Small Pica, Pica, and Engluh. The larger sizes generally take their names tnu^— Tieo-Iintf Pica, Two-line Englieh, Four, Si*, Eight, or 7Vn-fin« Pica, &c Other nations have adopted different designations for their letten, princi- pally from the names of their Inrenton ; for Instance, the French entitle Small Pica, Philotophie, from the fint maker of the letter. All kinds of types are sold by weight by the founden, the price var)*ing in amount according to the size of the letter. The smallest size. Diamond, costs about 12s. per pound ; Brevier, about 3s. 6d. ; EngKeh, about 2s. j and so in proportion for all intermediate slaee. Expensive as types thus are, their prieea will not appear too high considering the Immense outlay In cttttuig the punches and the ge- neral mannfactun. In tha Siamonii size, 3800 go to a single pound weight of the letter i, and of tba thin- mm space about tOOO, A onmplste anHnrtment nf types U callfd a Fminl, which may tie rrguialad to any fxtent. Every Ivpa- AiMnder las a soale ihowiug thp proportional quantity 01 each latter required for a fininli but ll has to ba remarked, that ttvery language poaoasies iln ava i«w wwav were printed In England with the typea u/ any other foundry, which itlll ooatlnuea in exbienoe in Juondoo. The ingenuity and auooeu of Caalon meet with a parallel In the case of the late Mr Alexander WUion, tyMafounder Iu Ulasguw. Thlt person, by a ttroog effort of peraeverance under dlffloultiea, began to out punohea for typea at hit native town, St Andrew% about the year 1740, and there opened a letter-foundrv ^4he first attablltbed In 8cotland>-4n comoany wlta an equally enterpritlng Individual named Bain. In 1744, Mestra Wiliun and Bain removed with their foundry to the neighbourhood of Olaagow, In wtUch city it still coatlnuea to flourish. JUr Wilson's style of lettor was exceedingly elegant and neat, and theae qualities led them to oe employed in the printing of some beautify editions of the Classics, oy Heaagi Robert and Andrew Foulls^ the University printers. A branch of dils Glasgow lettor-fuuudry la now tu tablithed In Bdinburgh, under the firm of Wilsons and tiinolair. Bealdea this, the only other letten* foundry in Kdinburgh Is that of Messrs Miller and Company, type-founders to his Majesty for Scotland* The types manufautured by this house are unrivalled for neatiieis, lieauty. and regularity, in which respects they compete with those of Wilton. They are largely employed In the printing of Bibles, newspapers, and other works In which a small type is required ; and it is with lettor from thia extensive foundiv that CuAHnERS*8 JouKMAL and the present publication are executed. The large letters, used in poatlog and hand hilla^ are manufactured chieily at Sheffield. In this d». scription of types very great Improvementa have also been made la recent times; and the varieties are b^ coming yearly more numerous and peculiar in ch^ ractcr. The iutter used in printing in North Amerloft is made principally at New York; and the style of both typography and pretswork in that eountry ia rapidly improving, and now almost competing with the producu of the English press. COMPOBINO. All the types In use In the printing-office are sorted In cases, or shallow boxes, with divisions. There are two kinds uf cases — the upper and lower case; the latter lying nearest the compLiltor upon the frame for their support. In the upper case are placed all the capitals, small capitals, accented letters, figures, and cnaracters used aa references to notes. In the lower case lie all the small letten, points, and soacea to place betwixt the words. In the ]ower,;io alphabe- tical arrangement is preserved! Mch letter haa a larger or smaller box allotted to It, according as it ia more or less frequently required t and all those lettera most In request are placed at :he nearest convenient distance to the compositor. By this ingenious and Irregular division of the lower case, much time Is saved to the compositor, who requires no label to direct him to the spot where lies the particular letter he wants. To a stranger in a prlntlng-offlc^ nothing appears so remarkable as the rapidity with which :he compositor does his work ; but habit very soon leads the hand rapidly and mechanically to t ^e letter required. When Italic letters have to be introduced, ther are taken from a separate pair of cases of the same foont. The process of composing and forming typea Into pages may now be adverted to. Placing the copy or manuscript before liim on the upper case, and stand- ing in front of the lower case, the compositor holds bt his left hand what Is termed a compoaing-stlck. Some- times this instrument Is of wood, with aceriiJn space cut in it of a particular width of a line or column; but more cummoiily it is made of iron or brass, wIUi a moveable side, which, by meant of a screw, may be regulated to any width oi line. Ia either cue, tha //' CHAMBERS'S INFORMAFION FOR THE PEOPLE. [I [1 f n ooapoalat-Hlck !• out* tfUalj uuf siul how*. Oiw br oatk th* omMMltor UA* ud put* ih* ItiMn tt aah WRi4 m4 MaWM*. •»* ■MfOp'iM poiatt,' lata Us Miak, uroilig wca «llb llw ikaab of hli M kind, aad tMteg thMi tM* by iM* ftom Uft to ' ' ' KtktTiiM. Wh«B k* rbMt • IMMT in tfw ilfht aloiistkt •Mk, h««Hi fay It with tk* hat I •Ak, h« AiHBMrMiilntoloakwhMhw ktltplM. u* in iti rnf podlion. Hit ok jMt it ■wiwnpifahtd hj looklai u whM It olM tbo ■W', wU«k iMtt b* pfaco4 oMwti* In kit OMtpoting. TUt It an* of tkoaa haanliful oonttiTaacai for Mtrlaa lakoiir wkkh aaparianca bat intmiuetd into aianr art, aa4 wkfab ir« ta ralnabla for 4iaiinlthin( tba ant af yralmlioii tha nwra alaborala Innn-. liont of maaUatry. W ucn ba arrirat at tba and of bit Una, Iha eaanailtar hat a tatk to parfarm In wbieb i ika «arkBian It grtallT asblUlad. Tha Int ItMir and tha laat tratt ha at tba astiami' titaof thallnat thafa mut ba no qiaeta laft In tama iattaaaat, and no tiowdioff In othata, at wa taa in tba btti inannaarlpb Jiadi aaatal typa It of a oonttant Itlitnatt, at for aa nprdt that partioolar iattar ; tkaoch ap tha It W ttt at* aat of tba taaa thieknaia. Tba flJMlMiiHt, ibtwfara, la aamaltta tba Uaawlth nwatd, ^BtaajrratawilhatyUalilak nnatbamada V* Tarylai ^ tbleknaia of tha iptcat batwaan aacb vatd. A|«adeaaipoaltorltdiitlB(ntthadb]rnniror. ^tf of t|MiBci ba will not allow tha wocdt to bo nn ehaa taftdiar In toata lattanoat, and with a larga cu batwaan tkaa In otktra. Hit duty it to avwUia tha lytint at mneh at ha poatibly can t and thit It In l u att u tati lai j ttanblno ni t, In eteipotlaf poalry, or tiaOar laattar, wbarttbaia Italwayt a blank tpaea at aM of tha andt tf tha Una, t p a rin a It rary aatUy "' ibyUil^nf AablankwIthlainrtpfMt, Bat wCalhar pntaor poatrr, tba nuttar or aaah Baa anal ba aqoaUr a^jntlad and /wMri, to M to atnaoaod In Mint af eonpactnata with tha pia. TWatytatBaat. ThaprocaiaorooaiBoaincltiiraatly fodlllntad by tha aonpaallor ntlaa a thin ilip of braia, caUad a taMay-raA, wbleh ba pTieaa in tba oampaa. lac-aihk whan ba baglna, and wblob, on n lino belna eataplalad, ha pnllt ant and plaota opon tbo iirant of tha Una to eomplatad. In order that the tnat ha tact may nat nana in oontaat with tba typaa behind tham, W naaatUy glida Into Ihair plant to tha bottom of tha contpoolng itiok. Whan tha workman bat tat np at many linta aahit ' wiU eanTnniandT boM, h« ilftt lliam with a ' I hdga on ono or _ j^ an donactad ^tAapt bath tMai, laratad aaaOqr, by paapingtban wM tha lagatttf aaeh hand, and Una takinf tkam np at If thay wan a taHd piaea of matal. Tha foai> lltywith whkh tama aoapoaiton can lift what It eallad a A«m(M of ateraabia typo without donnalu a tlnfla Iattar, la nrynaaarkaUa. Thia tort of tkilTcan only baaMainadbypiMtiaai aadonoof tbotarerait mor. lUoatknn wbleb tha priatar'a Bppranlica hat to andnre, it ta toO for an boar In picking np aboni a tbouiand Itttaft, and than ita tba fobric dattroyed br bit own nntklWhlnttti laarinf kiu to atonm arar hit haap of brokaatyM laehaicaUy aallad fite. Latlar bjr latttr, and word by woid, it tbo oompoi. inff^dak Uiad i and by tba tama prograaioa the nl. lay la anad bytbaeonianuornenttirattiakt. Whan tha eompoaitor bat tat up at many linn at til a page, ha binda ibn lightly round with ooid, and raaMxea imet, at in tha oata of nawapner and tiadlar work, the Han^fmU of tvpo are itnunimaiad till thay All the galley, and are then ra. aorad in kog cahmnt. Altar the matter it tbui to forprapniad, it it the duty of the oompotitor to take an lapiaalwi ai/inlpn^ from the typae, and then conaet the orrort bo may bare made. Proolii an uaually taken by meant of an oM large preai kept for tke purpoae. In the oBee of Mtatn Chambart, in which the prttent ibeet it oompoaed, Ibii lumberiug niece of furniture it not rt^uireil, tU proofi of galleyi and payta baing taken by a tmall Iron roller, which mnt oi> raited ledget upon a neat matal table, on w*iiah tba typea are plaoed, and giving a luAoient impreteion to the oompotitor without auy troubla. Altar the galley matter it corrected, and rO'Oarreeied by the compotiior, it it dirided into ptgee of tha lita •anted t and haed-lioaa, or figurei indicating the num- ber af the page, being added, the pagei are arranged npoo a large orm table, and than lacurely dxad up In an iron frame or chiu, ky meant of tlipt of wood and wedg^ or ^ uotnt. Tblt pmoatt, which it called imporing, being com- pleted, and the face of the typet being leveJIed by a pfainer and nwllat, the /orm, ai it if called, it proved and prepared fur prett. Proof-iheeu being taken, they are iubjected to the icmtiny both of a reader employed in thit peculiar fuDuiion in the office, and of the auUior. Xbeta having made their marlii pointing ovt wordt and latiart to be altered or cor. reeiad, the coapoiilor once more goei over the form, curtaeting tha erron by lifting out the iettert wiili a bodlLin, and, whan roTlied, the elieei li pronoun. ced ready /or working. It may be expUined thai the impoting table at which all theie correclioni are atade, it oompoted of unooth ttoue or marble, on the top, from the circamittnoe of materialt of that nt. ture not being liable to nut from the water which It often thrown upon the typee while preparing tiiecn for the preit, or in laying them out lot liiiirihuliun after working off. It need icarcely he told that the tite of booki greatly Tiiita t bnl Iha liiei are all reducible to a iiandard dettrmtned by the number of Itarae into which a theet of oaper it folded. Tha moat eoamon liae it oeteeei each ihaal of which oaatalnt eight leavat, or tiztaea pagaat tha neat It daedretee, oonuinlng twelra learae, or twenly.four pegaa In tba theet i and tha neat tcltittmm, or elgbtaene, oontalning tbirty.ila pa«a in a thaat. There are many other litie, luoh aa the krgar fuarto (which it tba liaa of the preient iheal), thetBalIar(wm<|r.>b«rf,&& The knowledge of plao- inc peget of typet in a form ae aa to produce, when IiiTnted, a regular lariee upon pepar, it ono of tha iranebaa of the art to ba aciulrad by the young cob. voeitor. pnooaxtuvx mraoTxitiiiTi i> tTTLi. From what haa bean detailed. It will readily ba tup. potad that the tlyle of preparing pagat of lypta for the prett bat been greatly improTed tinea tba inrantlon of printing. When wa auaiina old printed booki, Iha dUfereace of ityla of axeoution It vary ttriklng. The early Brlalart war* Itaquanlly govaraad bT the with to itaka thair printed pagae bear a rtamblanca to the old manuieriat booki formarlr in uaai and upon tha whole, moek late tatU waa daplayad, In ra. ipect of neetnai and aaaaraey, than atipithaTa bean expected from the lalalllgant olatt of man who Rtat cultivated the " dirina art." Tba following parti- cular!, lalativa to the early produedoni of the prait, will thaw how the ttyle of book-printlng wat gradually iaprovad :— " With reipect to their forme, they ware generally either laiga or tmall folioa, or at laati ^nar. toee I tba letter tiaat were not in uta. Tha laavaa ware withoiu running title, ditactiaB.word, number of pegee,ordlvIilouIntOBaragtapba. Tha cha r a ct e r itwlfwat a mda oU OolUo mixed with Saeralary, de'«igned on purpoia to imilata the handwriting of thoia timet i Iha wotda are printed lo ebita to one another, that it wat dilBcult and tadiout to be read, even by thoto who were uttd to maauaoripta, and to thit method ; and often lead tba Inauanuva reader into mlitaket. Their orthography waa variout, and ofken arbitrary, dliregardlug laatbod. Tbey had very fra^nant abbraviatioat, which in time grew to nuae. rout and diScult lo ba nndarttood, that thai* wat a uaoetiity oi writing a book to leach tha aanaar of reading them. Their pariodi ware dittlnguithad by no other pointa than the double or tingle o n e t ha t It, the colon and full point | but thay a little after In. Iroduoed an oblifua itroka, thnt /, which antwared tha purpoia of our comma. They uied no capital lettart to begin a eentanea^ or for proper namat of maa or placte. Thay left blanki for the plaaea of lltlai, initial latlara, and other omamenie, in order to bava tham tupplied by the lUuminalon, whota ingtnlout an, though in rogue before, and at that time, did not long lurviva the maatariy improveaientt uada by the prinian in thit branch of their art. Thota ornament* were exquititely flne> and curioutly variegated with tba matt beautuul oohMin, and even with gold and liirer i the margint, likewiie, were frequently charged with variety of Aguree of taint*, birdt, beatta, mou. tiart, Aowan, &u, which had tometimet relation to the content* of the pega, though often none at all. Tbata embelliibmenu were very cotllv i but for tboee that could n9t alTord a great price, tnare were more inferior ornament*, which could be dona at a much eatiar rate. The name of the printer, plaee of bit reiidence, Ac Ae. were either wholly negleoted, or put at the end of the book, not without tome ploui ejaculation or dnxolugy. The date wat likewiie omitted, or involved in tome orampt circumttantial periud, or elie printed either at full length, or by nu. merical latten, and wmetlmee partly one and partly the other— thu>, uue tbouiand CCCC and Ixxiiii, dib i but all of them at tha end of the booit. There wat no variety of characten, no intar m ix ye of Koman and Italio i tbey are of later invention t Mt their pege* wen continued in a Oolhic letter oif the tama liaa thruugbout. Tbey printed but fow copiae at once, for 200 or 300 were then etteemed a large imprtitloo | though, upon the eti< Duragement reoeived from the laamed, they increueil their number* in proportion." About I4SS-70, alphabetical tablee of the ArM word* of each chavter were introduced, a* a guide to the binder. Catco.wordi (uow generally aboliihed) were fint uied at Venice, by Vindeiine do Spire. Early printed book* had no ilgnatura*. Signature* are thote letter* of tha alphabet which are put at the bottom of the ri zht band pegee of ibeeu to dlatinguiib their order. When the aipbabet it finitbed, a lacond begin* A a, or 3 A, initaad of a tingle A i and when that li terminated, A a a, or 3 A, Iwgin the third, and •o on. In order to indicate mora correctly the order of each theet, printer! add figure* to the initial letter on the third, fifth, and uventb pagee i the number! of theie figure!, whidi do not pa** the middle of the iheet, poiot out the lito of the edition. Thus, A 3 on the third page, A 3 on tiie Afth, and A 4 on the tereoth, ihuw u work to be in Svo ; in the ISmo lixe, A B on the iiintli page, and A S on the eleventh page, Ac. ; but it ii uow cuitomary to give tignaturaa only on the firit and iliiid pige* of Bru, and on the Ant, third, and fifth pagei of 12aio. In lonie modern French worki, figutai are tubiti- tuted for letter*, and the other leave* are marked by aiteriilii. The invention of lignaturei it aioribed by AI. Maroliei to John of Cologne, who printed at Venice in 1474 ; tlie Abbd Hive attributee it to John Ktielhuf, a priutt-r at Colugne, and contemporary with the former, from whom we bava a work dated in 1473. It It, howarer, of Utila eaaeeqaanea who wat iba ori. glaalor, for, on tha whale> tlgaattim are rather a dnaey azpadlaal. aanly to direct the binder in fold, lag the ihaet, and are gtaarally auh too eonipieuona upon tha p agafc Ona af tha ehiaf lap r evaaana la Iha atylaof typo> graphy hat been the dltabial of abbraviatfamt and .ponnacted la w are hoa tba fonata. F iii a ti l y, i vlalleae war* vary aaaaMB i tha woid Iktp waa Indi. ealad by tha latlar p and a naall * aboea It; the eoa. Junellon aad waa Indlealad by f, which It a coairaetloa of«(. Thara wew aumy ef thie t a ae l a of abbravialiona in prlnUng both Iha Kiigllih and Latia languagee, and Ihaaa araia not aura uataemly Ihaa iha eonneeied letiara ; tnah, tat inetaan^ aa tha Jiuetloa of the leltare e and < by a ourra Mtaka lireaa tha top of ona to tha other. la raaani tlaai, all ikaia oannactad latlara have beta dtenaad, wUk Iha axeapltoa of Jl and J^ baoauaa Iha bead of Iha caaaioa / would preu Halaat tha I, and ba brake. Aaoihar varr great im- araveaaat haa baan aSiioied la tha dia a i t ial of Iha loBg «, la caaaa of two of ihit laMar ooatiag togathar. raoccaa or piniTuia. Tha dntiae of tha eaapaallor do not Inrolva tha ptoaaa of priatfaig. Whaa Iha fonaa are duly pra> pand In Iha eaapealng.roaBi, thay ara oarriad into tha pna raea, aad oaaw ealltaly aadar the ebatga af tha aianaan. The ea rlia t t printing.pree*ee arara llagly nit, and aeaa lo hare a acraw praaa, with a eoBtrivanoa for nii the Idtm uadar tha paiat af ptattnn. ThIa bava baao not laly a laboriou aad alow operation, bnl aiw anaadiagly dafattlTak from tha dUBculty of lagulallag tha la p rewli a , aad tha aadaagaring of tha foea af tha lynaa. The dafoeu la Ihaia orl^Bal niaiiM ware at langth tainadlad by aa lageahraa batch Bwakanie, WDlea Jauaa Blaaw, wko canlM on tha bntlnaa af a aathaaathwl iae tmm a n t maker at Aaaiardam. Ha aontrivad a praaa, la which tha carriage holdlac the fora waa wannd below tha point of preemrak which are* given bjr aoring a handla at. laihad ta a aarawhaag ig In a baaa having a aprlng, whieb aprlag anad tt teraw to fly back aa anon aa tke iap r aa l ea waa glren. Tkia apeola of preee, which area almoal anilraly foraad of wood, eontinned In geaeial ua In nrary oannlry In Buropak till iha baglaning of tha praaant century. With oenain lavar pewara attached to tha lenw aad handle^ it I* bare With thi* r ep r aa n la l lon of tha oM eommon praai, the proocN of printing may be daicribad. The form being laid on tha lala of the prate, i* Axed atthetidea to M to raitder it immoreabla ft«m ila poeilion. There an two man employed ; one pott Ink on the form either by mean* of *tuffed belli or by a oompoaition roller — tha other worki the preee. The latter lifte a bfonk eheet from a able at hii tide, and pUoM it on what ii called the ifmfH, wblob I* oompoeed of parah* mant and Uankat ttuff, Atad In a f^ama like a drum (and bana It* name), and which, by mean* of bingee oonnacting it with the enl*^ loldi down like a lid over the form. A* the iheel, howerer, would fail off in the act of baing brought down, a ikelnton-iike elender frame, called m/rUket, la hinged to the upper extre. mity of the tympan, ova which it i* brought, to hold on the paper. Thue, tha friiket being lint folded down over the tympan, and the tympan next folded down over the form, tha impraieioa i* ready to be taken. Thi* 1* done by the left hand of the pre**man winding the oarriage below the plaUm or pmaing •urfoca, and the impiaeaioa i* perforaed by the right band pulling tba handle attadied to tha icnw mechan. iim. Tha carriage ie then wound bach, the printed ibeet lifted off and another put on tha tympan, tha form again inked, and to on fuccaaaively. In the above engraving the preu appeare with the friiket and tympaa aloplng upward!, ready to reealva the •hat, the friiket being luttained from falling back, wardi by a ilip of wood depending from the ceiling. One of the greatal nloeila connated with thii an, it tba printing of the that on tha aecend aide in inch a manner that each pege, nay, each line, ihali fall exactly on the corraepondiog page and Hut on the lido Ant printed. To produM thi* dnirabia elTect, two iron pointa are Axed in the middle of the nida of the frame of the tympan, which awhe iwo unall hola in the ihat during the Aret preaura. Wiien tha ibeet ii laid on to rewive an impraaion from the acond funn, thae heia ara placed on the lame pointi, ■o ai to oauM the two impreuioni to curreiffond. Till! It termed producing leaUtert and unleii ffotid leglitei- i* effected, tha printing haa a very indlAer. ho WH the or). • arc ruber • Mndw In Mi. too coiupiouoot MttjUattjfOm imuliont and mwlr, abbrk I Iktf w— IndU mU| ifceeoa- iliaooBtnwtiaa ifabbnrUlioM langutget, and tb* wnM€lad lOBCtiaa of ibe I lb* lop o( on* kow ooniMeMd •MoplioD ot Jt n/woaU pm* r vary gnu im- dhaOwalonba ■ting toftlbar. not innlra tb« a an duly pra- If* earriaa into •dar tba eharg* ■«■*" ooa far nuniag m. ThU miut •low oparation, tha diaoultjp of aadaagariu of n thaaa orl|piial ■aw, wbo oanUd ■a, ia wbkb iba Ibalowtbapalat ing a bandM al> bariBf a apriiiK, r back at wion aa paeiat of prau, wood, eoauonad Buropa, till tba ^itb ontalo larer itUI oo H iHioH praM, Tba fbrm OudatlbattdM poailloo. There nk OD tba form y a oorapoaition The latter lift* a and place* It on ipoead of parch- 10 like a drum •ani of bingee Uke a lid orer rould fall off in Ukeilender ibe upper extre- brooght, to bold ling Hnt folded in next folded i U ready to ba of the preuman lien or ureuing ' by the right lerew mecban- tbe prinud be tnnpan, tba ' 'ely. In the rith the friaket to receive the felling back- the celling. witb this an, ' tide in inch Une, ihell faU id Jine on the leelrable effect, e of the nidee of two tmall holea «. When the ■eion from the be lame poiiiti, to currefl|>ond. >ild utlleai ^(Hid > very iiidiUer- THE ART OF PRINTING. r eat appMimne Kapert workmen perform tbeea opantloniwitb eorprUing rapMlty, tboogbwitb eon. •Mimbia labour. Tba two BMn amployM at a pram taha the ptocem of palling and iakiag fiw allamaia owatlllei. After Iba iormi era wronght off, they are waabed in a ealotion of poueb to lamove Iba remain! o( Ibe ink, which U of a thick oUaginoui diaraoMr, and than carried beak to tha coaqpoelng-room to be diewibuled. Tbia laat operation ia very ipeedily par. formed by tha ccmpoeltore. To lult paper for priating, it ie naoMmn to wet It ■ome hour* prefloua ta lu aaing need. This U dona by dipping eltemata quiree in water, and aftarwaidi ureiatiig Ibe mate with a heavy weight, till the whole It indhflf dry tuta or of a dwnp eoneittency. -' IXK AMD IXXIXO IU>LI.C>I> Mndi of the beauty of good printing dependi on the quality of the Ink, which it requlrm rnj contl. deraiile ikiU to manuhctura. Among tha old race of jbrinten, little attention wu paid to thh department T)f theartt and It li only within the lait thirty or forty yean that the eftma of printlug-ink manuOc. tnrera have been directed to tha prodncUon of a ma. lerial pouMtlng the qnalitlee of depth and durability iif colour. It Te now mannlkciured In Ixindon and Ulrmlngham In a very tuperlor manner, and fhim thence It lupplled to printere all over the United Kingdom. Uood prlntlng-Ink It made of genuine lin. •eed oil, boiled to the ountlitency of a tyrup, and then w«U mixed and ginnnd with lamp.black. To be ex- cellent. It matt be ttllf without ttrong adbetlon, and keep toft and mellow, but dry quickly a« toon at It It iin the paper ) above all, it muu keep the colour, and not turn yellow after being printed with tome time. It It made of different quaAllee, fma It. 6d. to ftt. and npwardt per pound weight. dh'e of the greaien of recant improvemanta in the art of printing It In the mode of Inking the form*. Prom the dayt of Oiittenberg, thit had been done hv itnlTed cnthlont, or ballt covered with tkint, by which no regularity cnoM be preterved, and notpeed acquir. ed. Earl Stanhope, when be Invented hit Improve- meut on the preM, attempted the pbm of inking by meent of rollert, but he could not dltcoveranyipcclet •if tkin luitable for thepurpoee t all that Ihli nobleman M anxloutly deiired, waa at length achieved bv the mere chance obtervation of a praoeta in the Stafford, ihire potterlet, where rolUre fonned ofa compotlHon weiwuied. A Mr Ponter,employ«databoaktailer't prmtlng^officeat WeybHdge, wat tba Brttwho applied it 10 letter.preit printing, by ipreading it. In a melted man ; the mMhaniim altogether being tuch aa to per> mil much more rapid and eOolent working. diicovered, and it would be dilAoiilt to rival it in tha propertlet of limpllcity and rapidity of execution. Nererthelett, tuch It the number and variety of lm> Koved preitet lu the preient day, that It would net - eaiy to dedda upon which hat the belt dalmt to tha notlee »r printeri. Among thc^ which bava SJned a large ihare of approbation, mav be mentioned e CofHtiUes pmt, which It of American Invention. ThIt new pren waa bronght to thit country in 1818, by Mr Otorge Clymer of Philadelphia, and made tha object of a patent. The preeting power In thIt la« •tance It procnred by a long bar or handht aellii( ' The Slanhopi prut, which it hare repretenled, eon. •Ittt of a mattiva frame of iron, oatt in one piece. Thli la the body of the ptete. In the upper part of which a nut la Bzad for the reception of ibe greet torew, end Itt point operatet upon the upper end of a tlider fltted Into a daratail groove formed between the two verti- cal hart of the f^ama. Tba tlider haa the plaltan firmly attached la tha lownr and of it i and, bring aaeuralely fitted between the tide gnldet, the platlen mntt rite and fall parallel to ilaeu when the terew li turned. The weight of the platten and tlider It eonnterbalanoed by a heavy weight behind the prew, itttpended by a lever which acta upoVfha'M'der in lift It up, and keep it alwaye bearing agalntt the point or tha terew. Thai* are two projecting piecet catt with the main frames to eoppon the oarriage when the pull it made ; to theee, railt an lecawad, and placed exactly horixon. tal for tba carriage to mn upon, when It It carried un- der tha prate to receive the impreitlon, or drawn out to remove the printed theet. The carriage It moved by a nunoe or handle, with leather girtht, very timi- lar te the wooden preet. Upan tha axle of thIt han- dle a wheel ia fixed, round which leather belle are patted, one asleading to tha back of the carriage to dnw It In, and two otliere which pem round the wheel Inanoapotlledlnclioatodnwlteut. By tbit meant, when the handle it turned ana way. It drawi out the curiagai and by lavariing tha menon. It it carried In. — r .■ . . , - - • _i . Then it likewlie a check alnp which llmlu the mo. •lat*, noon coane cauyatt ; the '■"*»•>" "J"™ tkm of tha wheel, and, oontaauenlly, the action of tha ing manhinii. toon caught the Idea, aad, JV nnsing „„„i,— x^, principal improvement of Earl Slan. '■.^.':5S."°^r.!?i"iSS't hopaVpnmconrij^inthemode of giving motion to upon a combination of exceedingly pon above the platten, and by many workman thlt pnM ' It greatly preferred to any other. < The varloui Improved preetat which we have no- ticed an, in matt catae, made of at laatt thne tlwe. namely, ifeaqk nual, and lapcr-rogai—lhat it, „j an reipectlvaly able lu print theeU of theee tlxeti and they accordingly vary In prica from about UM to Ii.RO each. They an neerly all manulactured by the patenteet In London. In the pment day, the old wooden preu of Blaaw it entirely diicardedjCrom une in printing, and It It only to ba teen in aakbtcnn comer of the printing-office, reduced to th|pumble character of a proof.prcea. "^ The only Intlanc* worth mentioning-. In which en Improved pretawaa made of quite aneweonttmctlon,^ wat In the cate of the Ingenloua invention of ft! r Johfi' Ruthnn of Edinburgh. Thlt mechanician contrived a pmt in which the typet ttand upon a fixed frame or uUe, while the preaing pan or platten It bnnight over the form by being hurled forward on wbeeli. On being brought over the form, a depending hook or notch at ewi end of the platlen it caught and palled down by the combined action of leven beneath , the table, and operated npoa by the left hand of tba ' pnttman. Thlt wax an exceedingly meritoriout In- vention, and many preitct on thie plan wen manu- factured and eold, but experience bat evinced that the contrivance It only valuable when applied te tmall fireitat, not larger than foolicap tiae, and ehielly uie- ul for executing Jobe. Mr Katnven maket hit preuet at tmall at quarto tlxei and at they tund on a uliie, and can be eatlly wronght by any gentleman, ni> ' better pntt could be reoommended to the notice cl° the amateur printer. The following cut prcMiiiii m correct npreienutlon of Mr Ruthven'a preu, wliiih it will be perceived it of an exceedingly aunptct and portable form. the oompoiltlon aa a coat npon duced the perfect inking rollen. The oompeellloa la formed of treacle and glue, which, being heated and melted together, and poured Into long Iron mouldt, pro- dun a M(t and pliable tiibttanee, nearly reiembllng Koft India rubber, admirably adapted for dittributing the Ink over the lurfece of the typet. ThelnUng-roller ■o eompoied of a wooden centn covered with compo. lilion, it connected at each end with a handle, after the plan of a commoa garden.roller. The Ink to be iiaed ii placed upon a metal table of an appropriate tinintnictlon, and a portion being lifted by the roller, I fully diaiributed over lit turface, by rolling back itit- -, . . ward and forward on the tmooth part of the table. The roller It then rolled onn or twice over the face of the typee, which it found a much better procett than daubing them with the old-fathioned ballt. iMraovcn raiSTiKo-rRCatES. It It exceedingly remarkable, that, notwithitanding the ImporUnce of the art nf printing, the itrurtun of the preiiea In uiiivenal use remained the lame, with- out any improvement, till akniit ibe beginning of the present century. Before the introduction of presies upon ail improved conttrnction, the whole of the work of the printer wat execi'ted by the wooden prm, of which we have given a representation above. But Ihii preti WM lialile to many objectioni. The lur- faie aimmunicating the imprenion, or ptallen, wat generally only the lize of half a theet, and «> after one portion of a form wat prenied, the carriage bad to lie ttill farther wound in, and tlie remaining por- tion pretwd. Itie coniequence was, that, besidei loiing time, the impreuioni upon a tingle sheet were not alvvaya unll'mn, one van being perhapt harder preiaed than tii oiber. The dumtinku of the me- chaniam, the leri;^h of time occupied In working, and ti.e labour to the preaaman, afforded luillclent reaiont I'lir the attempt to improve the itructun and general character of the prcM ; nevenheleia, at we have laid, it wai long before aiiggestioni of thit kind were car- ried into elTect. Tlie individual to whom the great iKinniir it due of improving the printing-preat, wat the late Charlen Karl of Stmhope, a nohleman who devoted much nf hia time to mecuanical icience, and Willi died Krettly regntted In the year ISIO. Lord StHiiliupiiV improvementt did notgotheleqgtL of alleriiif; tlie general form or conatruclion of the rireaa. He left tha same plan to be pursued of wlnd- iig the carriage liclow tlio platten by a liandle and niiince, and of puili-ig the impreaiion by the epplica- loii of the right hand tu the teat of power. What lie accompllaned waa the conatructing of the preu with Iron inatead of wood, and that of a lite lufficlent til iwlut the whole turface of a aheet, und of applying aiii'h a combined action of ievera to ike screw as to tiioka thp pull a great deal less laliurioui tv the preii- 877 hope's pi the main-acnw of It, whidi it not done simply by a lenr attached to the icnw, but by a tecond lever. The main tcraw has a shon lever fixed on the u^per end of It, and this communicates by an iron bar or link to another lever of rather thoner radius, which it fixed upon the upper end of a lecond spindle, and to tbit the handle or lever by which the preu It worked It fixed. Now, when the workman puUa thlt handle, be tumt round the tpindle, and, by the connection of the rod, the main icnw turnt with it, and cauies the platten to detcend with it and produce the preunn. liut it It not simply thit alone, for the power of the handle ia Irantmitlad to the tcnw In a ntio propor- tioned to the effect nqulred at the dllferent parta of the poll t thus, at first, when the pressman takes the handle, it liet in a direction parallel to the frame, or acrou the preu; and the abort lever (being nearly perpendicular iherato) it alto nearly at right auglet to the connecting lod; but the lever of the tcnw makea a coliaiderable angle with the rod, which there- fon acts upon a thorter radlut to turn the screw ; be- cause the real power exerted by any action upon a lever is not to be coniidered at acting with the full jongth of the lever between Itt oentrei, but with the distance in a perpendicular, dnwn from the line In wliich the action la applied to thj cenin of the lever. The okvlout excelieuce of the Stanhopian improve, ment in gainiug power for the handle, led a number of printers tu apply this species of lever power to the acraw of the common preai, but we believe, not with marked success. Tlie improvements of l.ord Stan- hope weiv. speedily fallowed by the attempu of other individuals in Great Britain and America, to remedy the ancient defects in printing mechanism. So nu- merous, indeed, have these attempts been since the beginning of the preeent century, that it Is ouite out of nnr power to mention them in detail. Witn, we b*. lieve, one or twoexoeptiont, all the modern Improvert of the priuting-prew baveeonftned their efforts chleily totheproceuofcommuuicating preuun to the platten, so as to modify labour, and procun greater rapidity of working. In these cases the screw has been gene- rally dismissed, and power procured sometimes by the action nf two or more inclined pfauiet working against each other, iu other inatancee byfiilorilmsand levers, and in othera by the siralgbtaning of a joint. The latter ia an exceedingly simple and beautiful form of power, and may easily be oompraheiided when we say, tliat it resembles the liecding and straightening of the knee-joint of the leg i when the knee of the upright bar of tba press Is bent, the platten is drawn up I and when the knee is forced by a lever into a perpendli -tar poaition, the plattan sinks, and the presiura la commiinicsted. This may be coniidered the meet efllelent mode of compreiaiiig the plotten yet THE cnani.. It Is worth while to nmark, tlial till the preteni day the phrateology ured in relation to the mechani- cal deullt of the printer, pottetses certain traces nf the early connection of the art with men of learning. A number of the technical terms, as may be teen from the deicriptions we have given, an a corroptlon of Latin words. We may instance lympan, from tympanum, a drum, and Mttt, which Is used as a mark in correct- ing proof-aheeti, and which Is from the Latin word tn stand. The name 6ricr, applied to a certain alia of type, originated in that letter being Ural used in printing the Breviaries of the Romitb church. An calling their office a Chapel, and under this title the compositors, p^-wmen, and all others engaged in the office, have been In the habit of meeting together, and forming a tpeciei of lodge. In order to settle affair connected with the internal arrangements of the of- fice, or any disputes which may occur among mem- bert. The general improvement in every thiiii; con- nected with printing etubllsbmenu, and the advance of manneri, have greatly modifled the spirit which uted to pravatl in thete confederaclei ; nevertheleu, the appellation of the ehapel remains, and ia of tra. ditionary Inleralt. It hat been luppoaed by many wriwrs that the title of Chepel originated in Caxtoc't exercising the profession of a printer in one of the chapels In Weatmlnater Abbey ; and It is exceedingly rirobable that It has an origin of tliit nature, for print- ng waa at firit carried ou in many places iu fug. land in connection witb religious houses. Hence, In M'Creery's poem, entitled "The Preti, * thu^liJ^K hat thk following lines i— , j , „,^„ " Our nn wa« hnii'd (Vom kltudnmi (kr a1ini«Lt .. .^- , AmtchorUh'dtn lhoh«llow* rate of ipeed leldom gmter then thetof tlirowingoff 280 impraulone, or 128 com- plete iheete, ip en hour. It moit iippeer obvloui that Uiie wes a itaie of tliingi quite iucampatlble with the advancement of knowledge, and the ueceulty for pro. dueing a large quantity of impreiuioni in a ihorttpaoe of lime, particiilarly ae regarded newipapen. It he. canie apparent that an entire revolution ihould be efleoied in the structure of the preu ; that the Sat printing (urfaca thnuld be diuarded, and cylinders brought into um. We have now to deacribe how thlt great new invenlian, applied to prlnting.iaiGhlnet, cane to be adopted. In I7IW, Mr Nicholaon, the editor of the Fhlloeo- phical Journal, procured a patent for certain improve, menu in printing, which patent embodiea almost every piinciple since so soocesafullr applied to printlng-ma. chines i and allhouch he did not carry his views Into praeticilairect, little has been left for subsequent en- gineers H do, but to apply, In the most judieiODS ■anner, the principles he laid down in his patent. He may therefore be justly considered at the origi- nator of the great modem improremenu in printing machinery ; for with hhn originated the ideas of taking the impressions from typee by means of ejrlindera, and o( inking the form with rollers instead of balls, which oonslituie the two essential parts of all effective modern printlng-machinee. Whether Mr Nicholson's ideas were known to Mr Kikslg, a German, is now uncertain ; but to him It duatba distiuguishad merit of carrying steam-print. iac first into eOaot. Mr Kiinig, oouceivlag it pouible to apply steankpower to produce acoelerated speed with the common press, after various unavailing efforu 10 obtain assistance from the printers ou the Conti- nent, came to England. Arriving in London about 1804, be submitted his schema to several printers there with no batter sncoess, until introduced to Mr Bentlev senior, who, attracted by Mr Klinig's plans, enienxi into arrangements with him. After perse, veriug for scsne time in various a^npU to accelerate the iiieed of the common press, and at the same time render the attendance of the man who inks the types unnecessary, his exertions resulted, to use bis own words, " in discovering that they were only employ- ing a hone to do what had been before done bv a nan." Ha In coBMquence gave up all idea of his prejfctad Improvements of the common press, and turned his attention to Ctlindrical Pximtino. After continued experiments for some years, a amnll machine wea made, in wtiieh the two leeding features of NJrholson's InTentloB wera eaabncad (the cylinders and the inklng-rollen), which he (xhlbltad to Mr Waller, proprietor al the Times newspeper ; and, on ahoving what further improvemenu were contem- plated, an agreement was entered into for the erection of two mawinea for printing that joumaL Accord, inglv, on tlM 2Sth November 1814, the poblic were apprised that the number of the Timee of that date was the fiiet ever printed by machinery, sieam pro. pelted. At this period bat Jew |ierti)ns knew nf any attempts going on fior the attainmeit of this object; whilst, amotig thoMeonnected with printing, it had often been talud e^ bat treated aa chimerical. After th* utility of cylindrical printing bad been thus proved, it was thought highly desirable that the principle should be applied to printing line l>onk-work, where accurate rt^ister is indispensable. This wss, to a certain extent, attalued, by using two large cylin- ders, the sheet of paper being conveved from the bot- tom of the fint cyliuder (where it bed received the first impreesion) by means of upas, leading in a die. gonal direction to the lop nf the second cylinder, round which the sheet was carried till the second side vitu printed. The first machine of this description was •reeled at Mr Bensley's uihce, where it continued at work for some years, till more modem machines su- perseded it. So sanguine were the pelentees (Mr KSnIg, Mr Bensiey, and Mr R. Taylor) that no further improve- ment could be effected, that, in March I8I7, they is. suod a prospectus, offering three kinds of machines •t high pricee, and requiring a considerable annual Bresalui " braced. uumi but we believe these offers were nut cm- In the course of IB18, Mr Napier, and Meesrs Ap- plegath and Cowper, took out patents for improve- ments in cyiindriusl printing machinery. Mr Napier's Invention consisted prlncl|»lly in using grippers in. atead of tapee, as in Kiioig's, for seising hold of and leading the sheet of paper round the cyllndere— a con- trivance which Muwers the purpose admirably. The Ovlinders, which are of a small clrcumCsrence, are placed so, that, though revolving securely on their •klea, and giving a suffldent strmgth of impression, they rise and fall alternately — rising to avoid touching the typee at the part wbare there is no paper to Ihi (tetied, and fallug to give the impression when the •kest Is ready for ncelving it. These cylinders are ylaeed close together, and the machine occupies not more than half of the space of an ordinary iMMik.print. ing machine. This preu of Mr Napier may l>« kept in motion by nmnual lalwiir, but steam-power is pre- ferable. Ingenitnjkly as this machine has been con. itructedi the ttriuciplos upon which it works have 370 mada it give way in general astimatlon to those of Applegatn and Cowpar. These mechanicians' patent, which expired In 1033, referred prineiM)ly to the ap- fillcation of two dmmt placed betwixt uie cyUndera, to ntnre accuracy in the register, over and under which die sheet was conveyed in Its progress IVom one cylin- der to the other, instead of being carried, at in Klinig's maohlna, in a straight line from the one cylinder to the other 1 and the mode of distributing the Ink upon tables instead of rollers-awo prindplee which have secured to machines of this coastmetHm a decided pre- ference for Sna work. Machlnee of this construction have been made by Asplegath and Cowper for the principal printing estuUshinentt in London, Paris, Edinburgh, and many other dtiee 1 and It Is nearly upon the model of thair mechinea that other maniu facturera now oonstruol their steam-piessae for the execution of hook.work. In Ireland, the first eteam printing-machine waa. erected by Sir Ounn, for Mr P. D. Hardy, printer, Dublin, in Julv 1833 j and since then, the Dublin Evening Mail baa been printed by a double machine of Mr Chum's conetructioa, which throwa off that journal at tha rata of about SSOO an hour. In America, and on tha Coulinent, machlnee want Introduoad shortly after thahr invention In England, and are now generally used, hut prindpally for news, papers. Mr KUnig astabllshid a manufheiory for finnting-machinis at Frankfort.oa.the.Maiae, which s still carried on, wa helleva, successfully. PrintingiOnachlnae are now made of various kinds, adapted to the peculiar dascriptione at work for which they are requiied. Theee deeoriptioos of work may be classed under two distinct heads, lumely, the print, ing of newspapers, one side al a time, and the print- ing of a better kind of sheets, or boak.work, both sidee at a time. There can be nothing more easy than to make a machine capable of first printing one side of a sheet of paper, and afterwards the seeond, by tha removal of one form and the Introduction ol another ; but this prooesa will not produce ngUttrt the seeond side may or may not be on the back of the first, and the work Is therefore of a vary Interior appearance, though suitable enough for newspapere, in the work- ing of which dispatch is alone requited. This kind of press is therefore the best adapted to gain that ead 1 for the first side of the paper may be printed delibe- rately, and the second side be saade up to the last mo- ment of time, end then thrown off. To prnduoe a machine to print both sides al a time, and with perfcel register, no small dwree of mathematioal accuracy, ai^ no email ihare of ingenuity in the mechanician, are required. The great and important object to be attained in this kind of machine, is to cause the sheet, after it has recdved its first Impreesion, to travel along the sides of the cylinders and drums at such a rate as to meet the typee of the second side at the exact point which will cause the seeond side to fall with perfect accuracy upon the back of the first. To accomplish this exceedingly desirable end, the cylinders and drums mutt revo>r: •> precisdy the same speed as the carriage underneath; and, therefore, any inaccuracy In the turning of the axlee, the outliag of the teeth of the wheale, or any other deficiency, however dight, will produce bad registered ebeeu, and create an enormnus degree of vexation to the printer. With these expla. natory remarks, wa pass on to a notice of four differ, eiit machlnee, cakulaled to produce register and non. register sheets, under various modlfieuiau and rales of speed. 1. A machine with one cylinder, called a single machine, generally used for printing newspapers ; it throwa on from 900 to 1900 an hour on one nitie, re. quiring two boys, one to lay on the paper, and another to teoMve it when printed. I. A machine with two cylinders, called a double machine, but only printing from one form of typee at the rate of from 1000 to 1100 an hour, requiring two buys to lay on the sheets, and two to take them off, exclusively used for newspapers. It consists of two small cylinders about ten inches in diameter, placed about five inches apart, and suspended from a beam at each end. A c«mn or eccentric causes the lieams to ribrate, and with them the cylinders to rise and fall about one-half of an inch. The cvllnden turn In oppoeite directions, and as the macnine only prints one form at a time, thai cylinder only which is tnrn. ing In the same direction as the typn, Is permitted to reel upon the form, and take the impression, so that a whaet Is printed by each cylinder allemately vrwy time the type-carriage goes liaokwards or forwards. Two iHiys feed the psper into the machine, at two drums placed about tnree feet above the carriage, and the sheete are led down to the cylinders by upes, which eleo convey it, after being printed, to the end of the maehine, where twti boys rereive the sheets and lay them straight in a heap, ready to lie agdn put through the maehine when the second form is placed on the type-earriage to print the other side. There is a distinct and complete apparatus for inking the typee at each end, similar In principle to that which wUl he found deecribed in the account of the Imok. machine. In 1899, j machine of this description, made by Applegath and Cowper, waa introduced Into Hcotlaud by Messrs Oray, theenteiprislng proprietiirs and piibliahers of the North Dritieh Advertiser. S. A machine, similar to that used by the Times, with four printing cylinilers, requiring the attendance of eight iKiys, and throwing oif iilimit 4W)0 sheets an hour. To attempt to describe tUt auahiac wllbeol diagrams, Isdilficulti hula general idea may he eo>l> veyed of its prindple, by lu bdng eonsldered as two double madilnes plaoad in contact. There an fimr printing cyllndeie, about nine Inches in diameter each, placed dose together in pairs, hut with a space of about seven inches between the centre ones, in whlili space there are two inking-rollers. Each pair of oy> linders are secured to the ends of two strong heama, by neena of adjustable connecting rods 1 to these beams a slight vibrating motion is given, by meansof cambe, so aa to cause the alternate cylinders to rise and iUl about one^ourth of an Inch. The iype.car> riage and Inklng.tablae have a redprocating motion, and the mevemenia are so adjusted that those two al< lernate cyllndeie shall he depressed and piaes upon the types, whose motion coinddee with the carriage, and, of course, the other two alternate cylinders are by the same meant raised suiBdently to permit the tvpee to pass free under them, till the carriwe channe the direction of lu motion, when the posiuon of the cylinders is reverted, and the pair which formerly took the Impiession from the typee are In their turn raised. Thus, every time tha form of types moves backwards or forwards, two shteU of paper are printed. The paper is fed Into the machine over four drums, E laced lu pairs over each other, at a considerable dght above the machine, by four boys. The sheata are led down from the drams to tbdr respective cy* linders by means of broad tapes, and by other tapes they are conducted out to the ends of the maehine, where they are recdved by four other boys, whea printed, ready 10 be again passed through the machine to receive the impression on the seound side. This ingenious machine has only two Inking ap- paratuses, one situated at each and. There are three pairs of inking-rollert, one pair at each end, doee to the tsro outer cyllndeie, the remdning pair being placed between the two centre cylinders. The inking. ubles are about three feet wide, and the motion of the oarriage is suffldenlly long to bring each table not only under iu lespeotire pdr of inking.roUer*, but also' to enable each table alternatdy to ink tha centre pair. Thus, the form is first inked by one of the outer pairs of rollers 1 the first cyliuder is raised 1 iu pauiug under the second, an impreesion is given, and, of course, tha Ink It taken fnim the form, but It immediatdy beoomae Inked anew by the centre pdr of rollers 1 the tliird cylinder is rdsed 1 the form passee lu the fourth cylinder, where another impiesdon it taken 1 and the rootian of tha form being continued • Utile farther. It geu agdn inked from the outer pdr of rollers at the opposite end of the machine from whence it started. In lu return, the two cyllndere which had just taken the impreesion are rdsed t the other two now print in ibeir turn, the inking process going OB as before | and two sheeu are again thrown off. The fourth kind of maehine is called a book or per. feeling machine, printing both ddes of the sheet in register before it leavee ue machine. The machine from which the engraving al the head of this article is taken. Is one of this 4eKriptioii, and hears a resem. blanoelolhatofApplagatbaudCowper. Itwssplanned and oootrivrd bv Mr Kobert Ounn of Edinburgh, and made by the well-known engineers, Claud Oirdwood and Company of Ohugow. It has now printed our Jouraal and other publloationi fur soma months, in a style which is hardly equalled, and certainly is not surpassed. We shall now proceed to descriiia it as intelligibly as the nature of the subject will permit, so as to convey to our readers a general idea of ihe firlnclples upon which it Is coastruclad. The machine i about fifteen feet long by five broad, and conilsu of a very strong CBSt.rron framework, secured to. Sthcr by two cuds and three other cross pieces. To Is frame all the parts of the maehine are fixed. Pa. rallel with the ddes of the machine, and about two feet apart, are placed two rails the whole length of the frame, and upon these rails the type-carrlagee move backwards and forwards, small pullies being inter, posed between the rails and the type-carriages to di. minlsh friction. There are two type-carriiget connected together, at such a dlitance apart that each form of types mav be ajted upon by Its respective cylinder so as to prooni-e the Impression. The carriages are made perfectly level, and upon them the forms are placed, and se. cured by weoges. The outer extremity of each type-carriage forms an iron table, upon which the ink is iaid, and spread or distributed, and thence cdled the Inking-taMea. They are about half an inch lower than the surihce of the types, so as to prevent their soiling the tapes when pauing under the cylinders. To the type-carrlagea and inklng-tables thus conpocted together, a recipro- cating motion is given, by meai,? of a short vertical spindle placed In the centre of the .-"•chine with a pinion at lU upper end, which works into the teeth of a double rack, and above the pinion are a small slnd and friction pulley. The rack Is secured to the nniter side of the carriages by slides, which permit It to move fkeely only from side to side, lielng guided in its lateral movement by a set of levers which form a parallel motion. The object nf this lateral motion of the rack Is to allow It to move from the one side round to the other side nf the pinion, and thus convert its con- tinuous rotatory motion Into a recipnicating one in the type-carriages. The stud and pulley on the top of the upright spindle uro for the purpose of lending the rack round the pinion at the turns. The upright « ^. dMrnajbaooii- nuldsnd u two Thar* u« ibai ndlamMerwch, ■rlth a tpaea or » onMf In whleh iaeh pair of ej- •troag baania, rodi) to thaaa ran, bymeaniof ylinderi to rita The iypa-car> rocating motloii, lat >kou two •!• anit prata upon th theoarriaga, M oylindan an f to parmit th* nrriuachangaa ! potiuon of the which fonnwly re ill thair torn of typea moTaa laper are printed, ver four drumi) t a coniideraU* iiyt. The thaeta ir retpective oy« 1 by other tapaa uf the Diuhine, ther tioyt, when tugb the manhino ud side. ' two iolttng ap- TheraarathrM •ch end, oloaa to ining pair being tn. The ioiting. id the motion of bring each table of inking-rollara, utely tu ink the t iuked by one of lyliuder ii railed s preuion ia given> im the form, but by the centre pair 1; the form paaiee her impreaaion ia being continued a am the outer pair he machine from ibe two cylindara n are raited i tha the Inking proceaa are again thrown lad a book nr per> of the tkeet in «. The machine ad of thit article nd hear* a reiem* . Itwaa planned Kiiinburgh, and Claud Oirdwood now printed our months, in i certainly it not to deicriU it aa tject will permit, neral idea of the ad. The machine oad, and ooniiits ork, secured to- cross pieces. To oa are flzed. Pa- s, and about two hole length of the le-oarrlagee move Hies being Inter- le-carriages to dl- ected together, at 1 of types may he : so as tu produce made perfectly placed, and sc- oarriage forms an Id, and iprrad or ling-taMes. They he surftice of the the tapes when le type-carriages [ether, a recipro- ' a short vertical r^»chlne with a Into the teeth of are a smalt stud ired to the under permit It to more ilded In its lateral form a parallel lotion of the rack side round to tha convert its cuo- pnioating one in lulley on the top irpuse of lending The upright THE ART OF PRINTING. qtlndle ii driven by a pair of banlled' wUetiit from the nalafthaft. Tlie two prtnUntf oylinden v nearly nine leet in olroumJerenoe eacfi, and are placed about two feet apart. They are aoourately turned^ to tbat the eur. facet of the tvpe-carrlagee and the oylioders may be Mrfeotly parallel. The azie of aaoh cylinder vorki m braei bearlnge In the upright frmmeworkt where, by meani of eorevii the degree of prweure with which the cylindari are allowed to reit upon the typee, may be r^ilated to any degree of nicety. Over about twu feet of the droumlereQCeof each cylinder which forms the printing lurface, two folds of oloth, callud hlanketi, are itretohed by mean* of rollers placed inside the cylinder. The lower blanket is seldom changed, but the upper one on the seoond cylinder (which stands in the stead of what af« called sllp-sbaeu in hand. preu printing) must be shifted aa soon ae the Ink which it has auorbed from the printing on the Arst tide uf the sheet begins to set olT, or soil the paper wlien receiving the seoond improsston* This shifting is speedily elTttcted, by uaroUing a sufficient quantity of Uk% cloth oS one roller, and winding it up on the other, to present a dean portion to tha printing lur- face. There are twu narrow slits in each cvUnder parallel with iu axis, through which the blankets pau from the rollers lotida, to the periphery uf the cylinder. The cylinders have a continuous rotatory motion towards each other, given hy two large toothed wheeli, whiUt the typiKCarritgee move backwards and for- wards under them. The movements are so contrived that the type-carrisget shall hare gone and returned to the same point during the period that the cvlinderi have made one entire revolution ; consequently, each successive impression Is taken from the types by the same part of each cylinder, nnd thus, in order tu bring the impression level, the same Csollity for patching or overlaying is afforded as at the hand-press. The two drums placed between the cylinders are for the purpose of causing the sheet of paper to pus smoothly and accurately from one printing cylinder to the other, and do not turn the sheet, aa represented bv all the accounts of the machine which we have seen. The two drumn, and the cylinder A, are connected to* g>ther by toothed wheels, so as to cause the circum- rences of the cylinders and drums to move together wtUi one uniform velocity, and thereby prevent any sliding or shlfilngof the two systems of tapes over each other during their motion round the flinders and drums t as, upon this, much of the perfection of the regtHter depends. The drum D has a very Important function as- signed to tc. namely, making register. From various causes, such as the heat or moisture of the room, the stiite of the paper, or any inaccuracy In ad^'uiiting the forms, the register may become slightly irregu- lar ; and to obviate th{% the second drum is suspended by a screw at each end, so as to permit it to move up or down to the extent of about an inch. Upon B little consideration. It will he uhvluus, that, if you increase or diminish the distance between the pontts where the two Impressions are given, you accelerate or retard the sheet, while in Its progress tu receive the second impression, to the same extent; and as the raising or lowering of the drum has this effect, register is secured by turning its screws, and thus alteriug its position, as circumstances require. The lateral regis- ter can only be adjusted by placing the forms accu- rately on the type-carriages ; but as it Is not afTected by the same causes aa the register in the other direo* tlon, It very seldom requires ulteration. There are two complete inking apparatuses, one at each end uf thcraachine; both ure precisely similar, one being required to Ink each form. We shall de- scribe the unu al the left end of the machine, which inks the second form : — About eight Indies above the form is the ink-trough F, forming the Inittom and back of a square box u;- receptacle lor the ink i the front edge of the bottom being ground to tit very accurately to the surfaoe uf an Iron roller, called the ductor, which forms the front of the tnnigh, in which it slowly revolves inwards In fixed bearings Ht the cndi. The trough is adjustitble by means of iliree screws placed behind, which press the scraper so el<).se to the ductor as to permit a stratum or liim of ink, of the requisite thickness, to reifnaln upon iu This film of ink is so tliin, that from one to two inches in breadth, and of the length of the form, Is requisite to ink the types for a single impression. The ink la taken from the ductor by a small uumpusition roller O, cullwt the feediug-roller; this roller Is placed be- tween the extremities of two levers or arms, fixed pa- rallel uptui a horiauntal rod across the machine, lly means uf a crank uiotioii from tlie cylinder shaft :uid iidJiiBtahle connecting reds, a vibrating motion is given to the levers, so as tu cuuso the feeding* roller to press for a short time against the ductor at one extrnniity of its movement, atud to rest upon the inking-table at the uther end of lu vibration i In other words, this ruUor, by the motion of the press, is caused to rise at the proper time, and take down ink tu the table, suA in its descent meets the table exactly as it approach's. This niuy hu reckoned the most beautiful and interest- ing part uf the pi-ouess of machine-printing. From tlie way in which the I'eeding.roUer lays the Iim;, it is Rpieud over the whole surface of the table by passing twice under the dtscrtbuting-rotters before tlie tiiljieadv:ui<.ea to (lie inkhig.ruUcrti, ulUch causes 27U a.deKree of perHsction In the distributing of the Ink hitherto unattainod. To the ductor, a rotatory motion, whleh can be va- ried at pleasure, is given by means of a gut band which passes over two cones of pnlllts, one on the uylindor axle, and the other on the and of the duetor. By this arrangement, the quantity of ink which the foeding-roller receives can he varied at pleasure, by menly shifting the position of the band npon the oonee* Under the doctor are two distributing rollers, as they are technically called, pUwed diagonally across the machine in oppotiu dir«pHtm», and resting in open bearings, which allow the rollers to rest with their weight upon the Inking table as It passes under them. The result of this disposition of the rollers Is a com- pound motion predsely similar Co that of two cork- screws, but in opposite dlreotlons ( the adhesion of the elastic surfacoa of the rollers upon the table caus- ing them to revolve upon their centres, whilst their diagonal position gives them a motion Inthedirectlon of their length. The ink is thereby spread equalty over the surface of the table, ready to be taken by the Inking. rollers. Close to the cylinders at K are three rollers, called inking-rollers, because thev Ink the types. They revolve In open bearings, and He paral- lel to the cyUndor. Having described the Inking apparatos In detail, we shall now explain lis combined action. The Ink. log prooess, then, oonstrts of five parts : — ^There is the body of ink In the trourii, tram which the ductor takes a film of the requisite thicknest. — From the ductor the ink is taken by the feeding-rdler, and bv It laid upon the table— Over the surface of the table the Ink is equally distributed by the compound motions of the distributing rollers. — When so spread, the reciprocat- ing motion of the carriages bringpi the table under the inking-rollers, which thus receive the colour t and as the types also pass. In going and returning, under the inking. rollers, they became Inked. As the cylinders move in opposite directions. It must be obvious that that cylinder nlone can print whose motion Is coincident with the type-carriage at the time ; and this occurs alternately, when the forms, after beinff Inked, are pauing inwards under their re. spective cylinders — the first form being printed when the type, carriages are moving from right to left of the engraving, and the second form when they are return. Ingfrom left to right. As the forms, afterthe Impres- sions are taken, nave to return under the cylinders to be inked anew, a portion of each cylinder is turned down to a smaller radiufi so aa to allow the tynee to peas dear. The apparatus for putting the paper Into the ma- chine Is placed at one end, in front of the boy H. It consists of a series of broad tapes placed close to- gether, passed over two small rollers about five feet apart. The ends of the tapes are secured to a wooden bar placed across, with Its ends fastened to two end. less leather belts. On an axis are fixed two lai^ puUies, over which, and a roller (not shown in tlie drawrng, but situated under the laylng-on hunrd) the two belts pass, end are secured. On the >^nA of the axis with the unllies Is a segment of a wheel with ten teeth, with a lever projecting from it. Another seg- ment, with a projecting stud, is attached to tho side of the large wheel, which In Its revolution muses the stud first to act upon the lever, so as to throw the teeth of the two segments into gear, and by thnt means the series of endless tapes are made to move forwards about twelve inches, at first with a gradually accele- rating motion, and soon at a uniform velocity, so that tlie sheet of paper, which lies npon the series of end- less tapes, may not be displaced by a sudden jerk, and that It may be thrust Into the machine with the tame velocity as the cylinders. To prevrnt the paper from slipping when going In, there are two projecting studs fixed to the tapes be- hind the sheet ; up to these studs, and to a side gnage, the boy places the paper. Theinstant thetwo s^ments become disengsged, the one with which the tapes are connected Is drawn back by a gut band and halanie- weight tu iu original poiitioii, ready for the next sheet. We now come to treat of the tapes, which steadllv lead the sheets of paper in their macy course through the machine. They are about half an inch broad, made of strong materials, and are formed into two series uf endless bands, arranged at certain dletances apart, so as to fall Into the Interstices and margins of the forms, and are guided or retained In their proper positions by the moveable grooved guiding pullles e, d, and hy the stretching puUies e, which are for the pur- pose of retaining the tapes at the proper degree of tension, being moveable, so as to correspond with the position of the other puUies. All the t:ipes meet to- gether on the top of the receiving drum Q, at tlu point where the sheet is received Into the machine; prttceed in contact round the under part of the first cylinder, over the first drum, under the second, over and round the second cylinder to the point at which the printed sheet Is thrown out, where they divei^; the uiie series a a then returns under the rotters ff and A, over the stretching puUies o and the roller t, to the guiding pullles (/, whence wo traced ttiem. The others, alter qtiitting the point where tho two serle!* sepa- rated, pass upwards between the cylinders, over tho guiding ]nillies e, down under the rottprs k and ri, over tlie stretching putlles (not • eun, being c-nueiiled by the boy M), and up to the receiving drum Q^ where the two series of tspes again meett The operation of printing Is thus performed : — A boy M stands upon an devated stool near the end of the machine, with a mass of damped paper lying on a board at his right hand. Hl takes a sheet off the heap, and lays It upon the broad tapes, placing it aocurately to the gueges i at the proper Instant the sheet is pushed or drawn forward to where the two seriee of margin tepee meet, and being seized be- tween them, u led round part of the receiving drum to the point where It and the cylinder nearly touch ; It there leaves the drum, and embraces the first cy« Under upon the printing blanket — the motion con- tinuing, brings It to the lowest point of the cylinder at A, where It comes la contact with the first form of types moving in the same direction, and the im- f»reesion Is gradually taken line hy line. As the sheet B printing, it moves upwards till it meets the first drum, which it passes over ; then under the second drum ( leaves that and comes upon the printing sur* face of the secund cylinder. In an inverted position, that is, with the uuprinted side of the sheet ouMr- most, ready for the impression of the second formy which It receive* at the lowest point of the'eylinder, where it meets the seeond form of types, and is per- fected. The sheet Is by this time at the point where the two series of tapes diverge, and Is there thrown out upon the fiy.board placed between the cylinderi, whence the sheet* are taken by a boy, and laid in n heap upon a table before htm. The machine Is put in motion by a belt from n steam-engine passing round a pulley on a horivontal shaft, which, bymeansof toothed wheels, gives motion to all the cylinders, drums, and type-carriages; the small rollers are turned by the tapes. The machine may be stopped at any instant by turning the handle of a lever, which shifts the belt from the fast to a loose pulley, without stopplag the engine. To produce an impression with a nat surface from a large form, requires a force of about from forty to fifty tons ! and even with a cylinder, where a Hue only Is Impressed at a time, the pressure ia little short of s ton. But, In the machine, to prevent any undue pres- sure of the cylinders npon the forms, there are W4)odea bearers, of the Kame height as tbetroes, screwed upon the sides of the carriages nnder the ends of the cy- linders; thus effectually shielding the types from the enormous and injurious pressure which a cylinder might, through accident or otherwise, he caused to exert. 8Qch is a description of the machine which Is con- stantly employed in printing " Chaiibxhs's Ediw- BUBOH JOURKAL," '* HISTORICAL NKWaPAPKR,'* and the present work, ** Inforhatioh for the PzoPLE, and which It executes, as we have said, in a style not surpassed by any other species of press. In point of breadth of cylinder and type-carriage, thli machine was originally intended to print a double sheet of tliese publications, or two separate sheets, and It still could do so if necessary. Hitherto it hu printed only single sheets, but with so much greater rapidity than wns previously calculated upon, and done its work so extremely well, that there has been found no occasion to make It produce two sheets at a time. The rate of speed at which it was calculated to print, was 7^0 sheets in the hour— the usual rate at which Cowper's best book.machlnes work i but it haa been found tha* it will send forth with ease 800 an hour, or. If necessary, UOO an hour, or fifteen sheets in the minute, perfect and complete. From the time It was put up and fairly set to work, it has produced, in general, 8000 sheets per day, never "tiring" in its arduous labour, and ikever stopping unless during tha night and on Sundays, or when It happens to out- strip our compositors In the execution of thnir depart- ment of the work. Prodigious as the quantity of printing Is which this excellent machine executes, and great as Is its rate of speed, not less astonishing it the smallness of the power employed lii keeping It going, and the lightness of the duty of those who attend on Its operatIonceed- ing by a hole cut in the wall from a small steam- engine, Btauding in a sIde-r(K)ai. This engine is of no more than two-horse power, and is kept in motion by a boiler In a place adjacent. To regulate the en- gine, a man isimployed, and tlic same person supplies the furnace with coah Of this necessary article, about half a ton, or three shillings worth, Is conttumed daily x It will l>e recollected that coal Is a cheap commodity in Mid-Lotliian. The piinting-machlne is under the superintendence of a steady person, well acquainted with thu arc of printing : it is his duty to place and displocp the forms, to watch the impressions to seo that the printing does not go out of register, to .supply fresh bundles of papery and take away the lots which have been primed ; to regulate the darkness of the Inking, to mend the tapes when any of them are accidentally broken, and, in short, to take complete cognisance of the whole pro- cess. The only other indtvlduals engaged about the machine are the two boys, whose figures appear in the cut — the one doing nothing hat laying on blank sheets, and the other as eontinuously taking them out when printed. These, therefore, form the complement of individuals employed In connexion with the process of .'nm-printing; but In the anine apartment in which our machine works, other two men are engaged— one whose dutv consists In damping and preparing the pa« per, carrying forms, &c. ; and aoutner, who Is con* ..,, u i m CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ilanily tiigMgiid in couiiung utt Iha prinuid ilMMai and yuuiiiK llMiu Id quinw, prtpiralarjr to tkair Mac yMkad up, sod nut of to th* bwJ m l tor i in Ik* t*. rioui pwru of tka eouaux. Th* nanini ud «Mot of Uw Mwm-pran MtabUali. mmt whtok ptiow aor ikMli in Bdiabiugfc, m* bow daurilMdi udltBwjrtoinMlloiMd. IkMiOBsiiml. Ur, but mora amulr* taU. It th* w tt bl l th ron t oT ovr •MDU in lisadoB, M wUeh ih* wUltoM of our vorktunpriaMdfereiimlaiiaalmltaflul. ItwIU imiUj bo lupsoMd thM tbo o i po m o at onotiac iko oiuhiDoiT, whiah n karo aodood, U bjr no Bout inoaiuldortbia, oran olthough ptinlinf ■•uohlaoo boTO r«U«i In prioo tiao* Iko oafiiT of iko pMoML Tbo maokino at wklok wo bsT* ginii on oomTiag, ooit upward! of USOOi but Iko onetion M tko M«aB> obrIiio, tbo outlay for blaakol itoV for Iko oyllndon, and oihor iiiiiMiOflM. aMutod to al loaol USM ad- diiioaaL Tkoooilof Cowpor'iprinliaaBaoUaarfln LondouitoouldoraUyUckari lUt, boworor, Mne eouidor to bo partiy ooM j o nw i t o d by tko w oiod in g MMraoyaadalaiganeaortlwworkaauUp. Jodfing horn tka ostiaonllaary porfoctbo to wblok ■toaai-ptiaiiac bao boon broagkt wiibia a nry fow yuan, it aUfkt raMoaakly anoar tkat no fonbor in- praromonu oould bo ofMod on tUt dopartnont of tho priniinc art. But tkoro 1) so dltcoTond limit to hiimaa inganuliy. Kroryy^ la producing tomacu. lioui i{ nnt valoablo addition to printing naskinory, «nd at protonl no ono oaa forOMO tbo tormlnatlon to ibii u woU at any otkar doM of Impronoionti. Bo- 4idao thoH rarloui doterlptioa* of muhln oo aboro alludod to, ao bdng prlndpaUr In uao, tbaro are oihart caleulattd to wotaio work of a BMra pooaliar natnrt. Perbapo tbo moot woodorful of tkoao lapnioaa piooot of roockanlun it a maeblno wblob kai boon mado to priut IwooobHirtbyoalyoaalmpnailan. Tkoman. nor in wUebtbbapparaailydlfionltdutyloaorlbrmod i> liDgularly intoroollng. Tbo printing eyUndor, in- >t«ad of fonirlug on lu axia la a flxod tockot, ai in the other maoUnoi, ii ouda to roU backward* and I'orwardi, and tka tabic for tbo lypca i« tlatiooary. The cylinder in ratiriag boa giTlag tbo Imprcaoion it ralkiwod by ibroc lalung.rollon, which, baTing ra. nired their Ink from tko diatributlng.plalo, wply a fredi charge to tbo onrfoc* of tko typcc 80 far for ona iwlour. Whon two colouri, wo ahall •uppow blue and red, arc roonirod to bo printed, aportlon of the form to be bloc It placed on tho ubia, and th* inher portion to bo red it placad on a tabic di. rcetly undamoatb. Tbla under form It Ijiked by the adraaciag aad retiring of rollora In the tamo man- ner ai ie the caio wltk tkat abon 1 being inked, the table boarca upward*, and the form or tyvee are puik. ed into IntcrKicce left open for them In the upper form. Tku* botk aorfoaee are brought aeon a lord, and remain io till tka cylinder effeou tko impieieion, • vhon tka lower inttaatly aiak*. Tka thael, when printed, !* carried away by andleu tape*, or doth, and depoeiwd on a table placed for tho pnrpoeo. Theform* uied in thi* procee* are umally Mock* or plat**, di*. ■ectad aeeoiding to bacy, and the upper table not be. Ing Mdld, but coapoaed of JoUlod braceeeuMsoptibloof aliaraiion, to porinlt the inlrodnction of the under form, the printing of two eoioun at once I* a* aimpU a* It i* iagonloua. On the •ome priodplo, three or more coloure may be a**d, only by haring additional lien of iaUng roUenL dlatribating •urfocn, and platee. We boUcTO Sir WiViam Congrero wa* th* original laTontor of the maAina which kaa thu* been *| If to tko purpoto of printing in rariou* ooloun. Hither' to, the work which ha* Men executed by it ha* con. ■i>tad chiefly of the etamp-duty mark* for the Kxciw, and r»r bank-notae, foacy labab for druggiat*, and other almilar job*. The unly other peealiar machln* which wa mar here Bolioe, i* one inrentod by Mr Cowper, intended to print from coorlx •terentypo plate*. Tbo plaice, in- atead of being Axed flat upon bkicke, a* wiU (hortly bo dctcrlbed, are faauned upon the cylinder*, *o a* to (ire them a boot form, and the printing la effected with the face of the plate or type lurface downward* 1 wherefore Ihe paper i* placM undermott iutead of nppemHMt, a* In all of lyp^t "xd the luventiuu is gene- raUy attributed 10 a Mr William Oed, of ldinkttf|^, aboat Ihe year I7SS. When the art waaprapartTnae knava, h wh katlad vhk ewda—lliii by tka pttat. iagaadpaUldiiatwvridt bnlMeipMieaeadeTdoMd ite power*, tiwaitonad la be etiMy appUaaUa only leapanfoiihrkladofworfc. rr~—^ j Whm a page le laMndtd to be e te r ee typ ed, tk* •amaprocMeof palliBguplhetype*l*geae Ihniigh that we hare ainady ■ M H on*d| laMaad, hawarar, of kdag carried la Ike ptee*. Iha page I* phMared arer with liquid atuceo to Ike ikltka*** of ahoM half an lack, *olhalalefaleakel*fona*d oatkemrflMe of Ihe lyMC. A* *oen te tka emoM kaidaa*, wklok It dee* almo*t l m m * dl »t*ly, ihaeake I* ••pantad ftom the typ**, aad, an Mag tamed np, ikow* a eeaplet* hollow or mouldJike '" area, and baked la a eartala degree aee*. Hke a piece ef Battery, IlbaoMlaidiBBeaMia iron pan, karlag a lid cf Ik* lana metal, wt«h hah* at Ike coruei*. Al the bottom of Ihe pau than U a moraable plate, called Ike flaadng.^W| aad apon Iki* plat*, wkldi ka* a *moolh aecnrat* iuifkce, the mould 1* pheed with Im face downward*. The IM bdng now placed and bald tIgfaUy on by a acrew. Ihe pan, by the atdttano* of a oran* and other mechan- ism, is immer**d in a pot of molten lead, and being aUowad to BU by meaaa cf tka hole*. It la at leagth taken out and put add* to coaL On oaealag the pan, a curious appearance 1* piaaealed. The lead ha* run into th* mould dde of Ike aaka, andforawd a thin plat* all orar, exhiUtiag the aerfact appearaace ef Ike face* of th* typ** on which the etueco wa* phwiered. Thus is procured a plaM^ or flsUdou* page of typee, not thicker than the dxth of an inch. Whenlheplale oome* out of th* pan, it i* in a MMaewhal rude elate, and has to be carefully pruned at the edge*, It* Utile specks picked clean, and. If nec**tiary, one or mora bad letMi* cut out, and replaced by •old*ring ia Ike h*ad* of moroabi* typ**. Th* plat* I* also plaaad upon the back Sy m*an* of aa tngenloo* rotatory cut- ting maekin* upon which It 1* Axed. Th* st*reolype plat**, ao prepared, ere next taken to the printlug-ofllce, and made ready fiir pre**. This is doB* by placing them upon iron or wooden block*, so that both plate and blook make uii the exact height of a page of real trpea. They are fixed to the blooka by the dd of amall m*lal catchae at the ddea, head, and foot, which calchaa are bald fa*t by (Up* of fumitur* properly wedged. Nolwltkalaading the groat care taken In making the pUlea lord and of a uniform Iblckneaa, It 1* *eldem they are perfoct « and to make th*m u aeeurate aa poadUe for a fdr Im- pr***ion, *cmp*of lhlBp**l*board or paper ore placad betwixt Ihem aad the blocka at Ihe thlBaeat part*. Whea the tmp r eidoa I* cemnleled, the plate* are nn- flxed. packed np, and laid add* for Aitare uae. Mow for the spedflc utiUly of atereolyplng. In aU oaa* of comnoa book-work it 1* beet to print boa typ** to Ik* aawuBt of Iha cap!** rtquired, and iheBdlatribuUthetrp**! bat la iBoal ca*** of book* publldwd In part*, •beat*, or nnmben, Meiaotyping beooBM* abdilntdy n*c**nry. It I* (aay to peredre the leaeon for thi*. Wh*n book* are pabliahed iu number*. It ofton happen* thai many BMir* oople* cr* *old of OB* Bumber thaa of aaother 1 and nnle** the type* be kept up to eomplet* leu in the hand* of the pubUdur, or to print cople* oceordlngto th* lnei*a**d dtaund, a atriou* km 1* *aitdn*d. Th* manufactur* of •t*r«oiyp* plate* 1*, th*refi)re, iimply a meana of keeping up fledtiou* typea to ao*w*r Aiture demand*, at an «xp*B** gr*ady Inftrior to that of k**plng th* actaal pagea standing, or of pnttiiig the type* up A* this pubUcatlon, a* wdl a* the Joubhai., I* regnUriy stereotyped, there ha*, perbapa, hardly brar occurred mieh a ramarkabi* Initanc* of th* rain* of thi* rut Imprornnent In th* typographic art. The rery manner in which the work li elfocted ftir- nldM* matter for surprise. The typu bdng put up on the premi*** of th* publi*b*r*, ar* unt olf in page* to a stoieotyp* foundry, whore two sets of plate* are moulded, and the peg** ar* th*n rtturned. One set of pletee is kept for ui* in Edinburgh, and th* other sent In ■ box by th* royd mdl or *t**m.re*Ml to Lon- don, where it it immadiatdy subjected to a ataun- preet, and, in a fow hour*, mad* to prodnc* twrnty thousand or mora printed theat*. By this wonderful process, the expense of eetting up the type* in London Is aroided, and the publithert thereby permitted to extend the oircnUtlon of thdr worki on the most II- benil prlnolplet, and in a rery quick manner, al) over the empire, Iwih to the benellt of the hnoksellers and the public At the outset of th* JoiiaNAi., sierantyp- ing most nnfcirtunately wu not reeorted to ; In conse- quence of this oversight, some of the numWrs were put up In types four and Ave timet, to print olf addi- tional supplies i and it hu only been itnce the whole were regularly stereotyped, as well ns printed with machinery, that the work hu produced any pniHt commensurate with the exertions heetuwed upon it, or been conducted with utlsfaction tu the patties concerned. EDtHBUROR t l*ubluhed by W. snit n. rHAHHRMi*, 19. WntrrltM I'laeei slMi by osh sAd Smith, FstrnwMlcr How, Lundoii 1 ■ml ViMrNitsnd I'ltNNlNUKAM. DutiUi). Sold by Juhli Mtu* leod, (ilssfuvr, snd all other BtiokKllcn. rran the siMm-Pnas of W. iul R. Chsmbm 1, of Mini hofk, yoM* «> b)r by • Nrmr, Iha id olhar maehaa- > had, aad balat a. It it at UmgOi On oaanla* tha •d. Tbalaadkaa udJaniadatiiin appaafaaca af tha oowaa plaatand. •what nda itala, ba ad|«i, ila Utila •rjr, oaa or mora yioldariagia tha Ila It alto plaaad ilow ntalory eat> d| an naat lakan lyforpratt. TUi Drwaodtn Uodu, iithaauatbaigiil uad to Uia biockt ttlhatidaa, band, Alt by lUpa of wilbilaadlng tha ilai Wal and of a f aia Mribot < aad ibia lor a fair Im- r papar aia ptaoad la thlaaaat part*. tha plataa ara OB- fctora on. Mow I III* boat lo print rfat laqulrad. aad aatcaaai of book* ban, itaraotyping aaiy to paroiiTa an pablMhad lu 'Boncoplai an t and nnl«M tha tha handt of tha lolbalnenaHd Tha manufaotun limply a maani of r Aitun damaada, lat of kaaplng tha lag tha lypaa up tha JouniCiki., U rhapt, hardly bvar loa of tha Talna typographic art. rk ll anctiid ftir* It baing put up ■ant oir In pagaa Mti o( plaua are iturnad. Ona Mt hi aad tha other rcMal to lndun rabf parmitled hi I on tha moet II- manner, all orer la ImokMllert and aKAi., •teretityp- rted til ; In cnnw* he numlirra were to print otf addi* in ilnca tlie whole •• printed with iduoad any pniHt wetowad upon ii, to the partiee MHRHH, IH, WdtrrllMI lUI llilw. Ldlltinni .Sola by Juhu Mav* ;i j/H >: i * r n tj a M Tt IT R fl» ft • ' n 5 >' ''^ 1 1' > INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND BOBKRT CHAUBERS, EDITORS OF " CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND « HI8TOBI0AL NEWSPAPER." Mo.ag. PtlJOStHd.* NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Natubal PHiLOSorBT ll a' term of wide Import and eomprehenil re meaning. It li not confined to ona icienca alone, but Includea many; all, Indaad, which laaoh the nature and propartlet of actually uittlng •ubetanoea, their motion!, thair connaotlone with each other, and tkair inliuenea on ona another. It It lometlmee alio called Phytkt, ttvm a Greek word which tlgnllei futuTt. But diat word baa .low a mon circumicribad meaning, being, in common dlMsouna, confined to that branch of natural philoeophy connectad with bodUy health. All Ihoia eubjects of human loreitlgatlon which an dignified with the appallation of •cianoes, may be dirided into tkraa grand claiiea. The fint, which ralata tn numi«r and quantity, and teach the proper. tiea of numban and figures, an called Afathemalici i the Mcoad, which relate to matltr, aad treat of tha propartlet of tha rarioui bo> plied to fluids, light and invlsible, like atmuspherlo air. It constitutes the science of Pneumatics, from the Greek word signifying braath or air. Pneumatics niatea to the equilibrium or movementa of alirial Auids under all circumstances of pressure, density, and elas. tidty. With tha preuun of air upon all bodies on the earth's surface, the ancients were entirely unac. qnalnted. To Galileo and his pupil Torrioelli wears Indebted for thia Important discovery. Intimately connected with the last tclanca is that branch uf na. tural philosophy called Aeoiutics, which tnau of tha nature of sound, and tlie laws of its production and propagation. The science of sound was cultivated from the earliest ages ; but although both Pythagoras and Aristotle wan acquainted with the manner of its transmission through the air, and also Investigated the nature of harmony, until Bacon and Galileo, Mertenne and Wallis, Newton, Lagrange, and Eulcr, showed its nature and laws, and submitted it to ma- thematical scrutiny. It can scarcely be said to have risen to the elevated station of a separate science. We keep out of view its application in the delightful art of music Its progress has been constant and ac- celerated, and Is now considered an important branch of experimental and mathematical science. One of the most extensive and interesting branches of natural philosophy is the science of Optics, from the Greek word to see. It treats of the properties uf light and of vision, as performed by the human eye. Closely connected with light is heat, the laws of which, together with the subjects of electricity Hnd mngnet Ism, fall within the Jurisdictiun of natural philo. sophy. Such la a brief outline of tha extensive range of sciences comprehended under the generic term of Na- tural Philosophy. Some of them, such as astronomy and mechanics, we have already treated of; and it is not our purpose to recapitulate here what was stated in the numbera of this work devoted to ilieso branches of the subject. But, connected in a partienlarmanner with these, there are certain topics, such as the pro- perties of bodies, and the laws of matter and motion, which it was not found convenient to discuss to the full extent which their importance entitles them to in the articles above named. To these points, therefore, wo propose- to direct our attention at [iresent. Tbu other sciences, such as acoustics, pncaumtics, hydro- statics, hydraulics, optics, &c. will be fully treated of in some future numbera uf thia work. The pre- sent article is therefore to be considered principally as an introduction to the study of natural philosophy. PnOPEItTIES OP SIATTER. Matter, or that of which all bodies arc composed, whose existence is made known to us by meant; of the senses, or by the test of philoiiophicHl experi- ment, is possessed of various properties, somfe of which are termed essential, because we cannot con- ceive of matter existing ' ithout them. There are others whicu do not apper r to be essential to matter — that is, we could conceive of the existence of matter which was destitute of them, but which, nevertheless, are never found wanting in matter — they are called general or contingent properties ; and there is a third class of properties which can, by certain methods, be conferred upon matter. These various properties we shall describe according to their relative importance. IMl'EKETKABll.ITV. By impenetrability, is meant the property which all bodies possess of occupying a certain portion of space, by virtue of which they exclude other bodies from existing in the same placa at the same instant. There is clearly a differonce here between the mean, ing of the word as it Is employed scientifcally, and as it is used in common language. In the usual sense we call any hard body, such as a atone, impenetrable, because it firmly resists our efforts to pierce it. But as it is understood philosophically (although we can condeotf, pierce, and rtmnie the greater number of b * CHAMBERS'S IMPORMATION FOR THE PEOPLR !| i tbam), all bodiet ar* altks Ir'peneuablt. IwcauH tbay mi^aP^ pMMM th« prni a chemical romblnatton haring taken place ; tte patticles of the tubatanoee, by the raTitorioae atfuncy of oheiiiical attraction, havo been drawn eloaor tu^ gfih r t thus the whole fluid oecu|riea leu ipaca than It ilid furmerly. In the tamo way, a sponge, by being cmpreated, has iu partidea brought nearer to each other, and of oonrta it haa leaa balk than It had be- lara it was squeeied. Indeed, the hand and the sponge together occupy the same ipooa aa the latter did singly. A nail, driren into a piece of wood or other sofi ma- terial, under certain circumatanoea does not enUrge the reneral slM of the bodv i bat in penetrating It, It diBplarea lie partldos, and oocapiea the spaeo which they occupied, and accordingly they are rendered more dense, or beoome more solidified than they were be- fore, Just in the tame way at the particles of the iponge when compressed. In the one case, the particles are oondenned from without, and the other from within. BttU thete particles ttill occupy a certain quantity of apace which cannot be occupied by other particles at toe same time, for in every case in which tne attempt is mude, alihongh t^ it apparently teemi to be eifpcted, it will be found that the one has been removed to make way for the other. KXTZwsioir on magmitude. AW bodies which are obeerrable by the senses are found to ooeupy a certain portion of «paG»— that is, they posteas eaiension or magnitude { and those which are tu small as b> elude inrestigation in this manner, are considered by the understanding to pouess it. Indeed, the impenetrnbUity of matter presiippotet itn •xteiiiion or magnitude. It is impossitilft t ody are spoken ulf the exter- nal limits of its magnitude are unplied. Unes are the limits which cepnrate the tevertil surface* of the aame body. They am itlto called edges. That, the Kne which teparaten the top from one of the sides of a biiz ii denomiuaied an edge. The quantity of a aurface is called iu area^ and the quantity ut a line ii termed its Unjfth. Thus, we say the area of a fitxir is to many yards, and the length of a rope is so many yards. Volume, area, and length, however, are tome. times expretaed by the word magnitude. The dimen- aioiis of nugnitude or extenaiun are usually entitled length, breadth, and depth ; and they vary of course very considerably In different l>odies, according tu their shape. Height and depth are the same dinien- aimi, considered In diiNrent poinu of view. When a body is BMoaared downwarda, it is said to be to many feet, &.C. deep ; when measured upwards, it is laid tu be so many feet, &c. high. Breadth and width ex- press the same dimension. riOlTBB* ' '" *' ' When we say that every body possetses figure, we »)e«n that the extension of every body is bounded. The figure or the shape of a body Is indicated by the itmiu of extension. If we place our hand upon a solid I'ody, we Income sensible uf its impenetrability and • xtention, fur it fesitu the entrance of the hand within Its dimensions ; and that this obstruction commences in certain places, and has certain limita, which limits determine iu figure. Figure and volume are entirely independent of each otlier, and sboulJ be carefully d ill) ngui sited. Bodies which have the lame figure may poi>sess very differen'. volumei. For instance, an orange and the globe have the same figure, but not r.he same volume ; and l>odiea may have the same volume, but possess different figures. Thus, two masses of matter may have the aame volume, although the one be round and the other tijuare. The figure uf a body is iu shape or form, the volume of a body is iu siie or dimensions. In general, nature aasigns re- gular forms b> her productions. Besides titose which belong to living bi>dics, minerals also pusiess them, as we i>ee in the great variety uf crystals. Many uf these are alike remarkable for tlie symmetry of their furm and the transparency of their colour. But further, with regard to figure in general : When 'he subject is attentively considered, some difficulties arise niib regard tu figure being essential to matter; and two questions mignt be asked, which at first sight appear rHther embarrsssing to answer. I. Can we not aupfMwe a roasa of matter to increase in cztention till it t«cHnrt infiniuly large ; and if so, how can we as- algu any btmnds to it; fur by these, figure it deter- mined ? and, 2. lias a fluid, such as watt* r, any figure ? fn nfference to the first question, we reply, that, al- UM«i({h we can euncmw uf a mass of matter larger tkaii any aasignahle quantity or being indefinitely locyc^ jtt oiiff minda cannot rest for a moment in con. ■21.2 templation of such a mass of matter, without at the same iMtant oonaeivlng of lie eBtremitios, an4 thos aModailng it wlik Aoienalaato ilmensioi*. TW h«- naa Inulleet is not eapablo of grasping al tnfinllyi for tho very maana which wo mploy to oaablo ua to vpeculato or reooon opnn tho rabject, lead na to con- ceive of flnlto ilao. Heaoe, all bodlea whkih we either perceive or conceive, do in reality possess the property of figure. With regard to the second queatioBt «o reply, that the terms j^tv and rtffularjiurt are not to be confounded with each other t for although it would be abeard to say that fluids have nay constant or regular figure, it would bo ooually erroneous to deny, that, at any givoa iaataat of tinse, tkey have a deialto and aetual Agaro. Tho obheaioa, however, which eslsli amongst the partidea of llulda Is so much inferior to that of solids, that the flgnre of tboao bodloa is liable to be dlstorbod bv tho slightest cause. But whenever one figure is deMroyod, another must bo assumed, however difftront it may bo from the for* mer t for without we admit this fact, we must admit the annihilation of matter, which is an absurdity, and not at all Indicated by any thing which we observe In the world anrand ni. 7*he three properties above deeeribed, vli. Impeno- trahlllly, extension, and figore, are the most important of those which belong to matUr. The)' may oe con- sidered as the principal tests of materiality; and where they can neither be detected by the senses, nor made deinonstrable by reason, there can be no matter. DIVIfllBILITT oa SEFAmABltlTT. The susceptibility of mauer to bo separated Into parts, is a fact rendered familiar to ns by every day*s ubservation. The melting of sugar In a ua-cup, of salt in our soup, and a thousand other examples, nave tnkr>n place before our eyes a thousand times. To the practical subdivision of matter there seems to be no assignable limit ; and many uf the instances of it which may be found in philosophical investigations, almost pxc4^d credibility. The useful arts, tlso, furnish many striking examples ; but It is in the organised world that the most astonishing proofs of tho extreme dlvi- tibility of matter are to be found. The blojd which flows In the veins of animals It not as it seems, an uniformly red liquid. It consisU of small red globules, floating In atraosparent fluid called senim. Tn different spedes there globules differ both in figure and In magnitude. In man, and all animals which suckle their young, they are perfectly round or rpherical. In birds and fishes they are of an oblong spheroidal form. Tn the human species, the diame- ter of the globules Is about the 4000th of an Inch. Hence It follows, that, in a drop of blood which would remain suspended from the point of a fine needle, there roust be about a million of globules. i^raall as these globules are, the animal kingdom preaenU beings whose whole b»<)it'N are still more mi- nute. Animalcules have been dinruvert^d, whose mag- nitude is such, that a million of them dees not exceed the bulk of a grain of sand ; and yet, each of these creatures is composed of members as curiou'ly orga- nised as those of the largest species ; they have life and sponUneous motion, and are endued with sense and instinct. In the liquids in which they live, they are observed to move with astonishing speed and ac- tivity ; nor are their motious blind and fortuitous, but evidently governed by choice, and directed tu an end. They use food and drink, from which they de- rive nutrition, and are therefore furnished with a di- gesti«*e apparatus. Tlicv have great muscular power, and are furnished wiih limbs and muscles of strength and flexibility. They are susceptible of the same ap- petites, and ubnoxious to the same passiuns; the gra- tification of which is attended wltn the same resiilu aa in our own species. Spallanxani observes, that certain animalcules devour others sororaciotmly, that they fatten and beoome indolent and sluggish by over, feeding. After a meal of this kind, if they be confined in distilled water, so as tn tie deprived of all food, their condition becomes reduced; tney regain their spirit and activity, and amuse themselves in the pursuit of the mure minute animals which are supplied to tbem ; they swallow these with Jut depriving tnem of life, for, by the aid of the niicrotcupe, the one hat hi en observed moving within the body of the other. TheMi tingular appearancei are not matters of Idle and curious obser- vation. They lead us to inquire what parU are neces- sary to produce such results. Must we not conclude that tbeee creatures «iave heart, srteries, veins, muscles, si. news, tendons, nerves, circulating fluids, and all the concomitant appar atus of a living organised body ; and, if so, how inconceivably minute must these paru l>e ! If a globule of their blood bears the same proportion to tlieir whole bulk, as aglubule of our blood beara to our magnitude, what powers of calculation can give an adequate notion of its minuteness ! — Lardtitr. The transparent wings uf certain insecu are so at- tenuated in their structure, that fiO,OOOof them pUced over each other would not form a pile a quarter of an inch in height. In the manufacture of embroidery, It is necossary to obtain very fine gilt sliver threads ; to accomplish this, a cylindrical bar of silver, weighing three hun- dred ounces, is covered with about two fmnces of gulU 1 this gilt bar is then wire-drawn, until it is reduced tu a thread so fine, that 3400 feet of It w«igb less tlian an ounce. The wire is then flattened by passiiii' it between rollers under a severe pressure— Jt prooe»« which increases Its length, so that about 4000 CeetahaU weigh one ouuoo. Uotioi^ eat loot will weigh muoib Tho proMrtiBn oT tk» > oriflnrf b«v waa thai flr I te N tho totoo fropcrtiM ItM^ ta boon wln-drawn, It Mlowo oT gold moT bo «vldod fatto I. Saeh of tlmo porta wlU peo- I OKd auaUtioo whleh aro mmA tha 4000th .part af aa ouAOfc Kid to tho Oliver io tho 01 ' ' H, or I ID 1801 tinea « served after the bar kaa that tho ^waatltT of floM wUok oosf ■ ono'foot of th* fino wflro la the IBOtB port of tho dOOOth of an ounoo i that Is, the 7a0,000th part of an ounce. The qaantity of gold which oovara an laA of Ikia win will bo mvoIto ilsoo loM Ihoa thai whloh oovms ono foot Hence, thia quantltT will bo tho 8,e40,000tk part of an eunoe. If tala inon be again divided into 100 equal parts, every part will be dlstlnctlT vlstblo without the aid of mioroacopes. Tho gidd which co- von tUa anaU baieWMa portloM ie tho 1104,000,000th part of an oiiMab Bat wa way p r oeeei o*on hirthor i This portion of tho wlro may bo vlowod by a micro- scope which magnlAoo 000 Ubmh to that tha MOtk part of it win thus becooM visible. In this nunner, thereforo^ aa oanea ti' 439,000,000,000 parts, sew all tho ebaractors aad ^uaUtloo i in the largoat measat of tho motaL It rotaiaa lia aa- lldity, texture, and colour t It realsta tho tameafonta, and entort Into eonblnatlon with tho tamo subatancoa. If tho gilt wire bo dipped In nitric oeld, tho ailvor within iIm coating will ba dissolved, biM tha hoUov tube of gold which surrounded It will itlU oubero aad remain suspended. Dr WoUastoB snceeodod In obtaining platinum wire, the diamotor of which did not exoeed tho 9000th part «^ aa Inch. A quantity of thia wira, o^al ia bulk to a common die used In nmm of cbanosL would extend from Paris to Rome. Newton detormlnod tha thick- ness of transDarant snbatancos by obMrring what co- lours they reflected. A soap buoble, which li a this •ihell of waur, and the matter of aaap, roAoets diffaraat colours from different parti of ita eoHhoik lasmodl* Btely before the bubble bursts, a black spot may bo observed near the top. At this part, the thlcknou haa been proved not to exceed the 9,000,000th of an inch. Amoogetotber instaneee of thedlviaiblHtvof aaattOTy we may notice tha following :_Tho partielee of light afford an admirable proof of tha finoneas and tenuity to which matter can be reduced. They descend from a distance which in some cases can acarcaly be calcu- lated, with extraordinary velocity { and whilst they strike upon the most delicate part <^ tho huauin body, the <^ the blow Is imperoeptibla. Uow incou- ceivauiy minute, therefore, must the atoms of light be ! The effluvia given forth by a single grain of musk has been known to perfiime a large apartmeat for twenty years, and yet at the oxplry of that perloA there was no sensible dlmlnutloa of tho odoriforoua matter. In the process of abrasion wo have a striking illustration of the divisibility of matter. The par- ticles of sand In the Arabian desert have, by their attrition, polished the hard rocks over which they have been drifted by the winda, during a long sucoeo> sion of ages. Tha toe of the bronse suiuo in tha church of St Peter's at Rome, has been actually worn away by the kisses of ardent pilgrims t Yet how inflnitdy small must have been the quantity which attached Itself to tho lip of tho devotao at each aala- MtiOD 1 Such are some of tho remarkable phenomena con- nected with the divisibility of matter; and we ara naturally led to inquire. Is matter iofinitelr divisible, '>r are there certain constituent atoms which aro In- capable of farther division ? The latter supposition is ilie one most generally admitted, yet there is no de- nying that it teems scarcely a Intimate Inferouco. For however small a particle may be, we can easily conceive of one still smaller — for instance, by simply supposing that same particle halved. To the under- sUndlng, without reference to direct observation. It seems as absurd to assign limits to the divisibility of matter, as boundaries to space, which Is considered Infinite. Nevertheless, philosophers aro of opinion, that, by a due oonsldemtioa of phenomena, the exist- ence of constituent material atoms la not only ren- dered probable, but almost morally certain, although we are unable by direct observation to prove the fact. The most remarkable of these phenomena is the for- mation of rrytuls, of which an account Is given In tha number of this work upon Chemistry. The deitila of the process of crystallisation give indications that the ultimate atoms of wbicli Uie crysullised fult. suncet arecomposed, have a determinate figure. And it appears reasontbleto presume that all bodies are composed of atoms; that the different qualitiea with which we find different substances endued, are a re- sult of the figure and magnitude of these atoms ; that the latter are iudesuuctible and immuUble by auy natural process, and that although so minute as to elude the most refined analysis which human Inge, unity has contrived to bring them under observM tliin, yet at possessing magnitudes which they do uu| exceed. POBOaiTT. That tho minute indeatructiblo atoms of bodies aro not in a state of actual contact, but are separated al some distance from each other, although that Is Im- perceptible, is an nnquestiunable fact, notwithsund- ing that it appeara at first sight unwarranted. U the article Chemistry, we have shown that the attraa. tiun subsisting amongst tho partidea of bodies is over. come by the repulsive agency of heatt that the lattet exitu even In the ooldast bodlec; and that, wherever it is pr4>sent, it tends to keep tho partidea asuiidoiu Uence it fuUows, that tho voluBO of • hody i rMlbdrf at* •wn, II Miovi I ont (mm •! tk* ih of an ouBM t »n iMk af «U M wklthMTM* th«a,M0,000lk iln dlirld«i Into llitlotllT «iilU* g^M which co- ■ tt4,U0O.I>0Olk nt hy • ailwo> (hat dwMMHh in IkU manntr, • MtUti lata I aarta wM fm- klah an kmmt It lauiu In •«. ha uma afanu, aina anbauaaaa. Mid, tka tllTar bm tka koUaw •ilU eakara tmi r platinum Kirai ■kaSOMikpart ifual la bulk to •, wouU aatand ilnad tka thick. tnrlnc what ca> nhlck li a thia laAaati dtAuaat rfcoat lauaadU ck mi Hiay b* lia thick MH baa MHh of an Inch. IklUlvofawtiar, •rtialaa of U||ki laaa and tanuitj ay daicand from analj ba calou. ind whlUt thay ba human body, Uow inQou> atoms of Ugk% ilngla grain of larga apartmaal fj of that ftrMk tka odorifaniua ikaraattrlklng tiar. Tha Bar. have, by tnalr rfr which thay g a long tuooaa. ■ BUiuo ill tha in actually worn ml t Y«t how quantity which t aaoh uIq. ihanomana con. Br ; and wa aro nilalv dlrlilbla, a wktch aia In. ttar lupptiaitloa thara li no da. mata infcrftuca. w« can eailly noe, by limply To tha undar. obMrvaliun, 11 a diriilbiilty of ih ii conildtrcd ara of opinion, nana, tka axiii. a not only ran. rtain, although prove tha fact, ncna Is the for. It li given in tha The y af Intaratltial taaaaa, whiah ipacaa ara althar an abaatala void, or «i<4braaM aahaMaca dlCtnM fawa tkabady in aaialnalad fm, ■ Ik* taaUnr af kaaiag ibaaa la d'^.ao mln atai poroally. Tka oroialnt of tka eoiialt«BaB> aryataUiaa aaadlaa or plaiai In badiaa alaD pwdaaaa paaaally. In aama •aaaa ibaaa aia vWbta l* Iha awai ia otkaia thay ara hroafht arUkla Ik* aahaia af dkaarratian by maaaa of •k* »al » iiaiF»> nad la all ihay aan ka proved la aziai In aoata way or aaolhar. Owlag to ikis drcuaiacanca, aaiaa kidlw, aaak aa walar, heoaaM mora bulky wken rendaiad iolld, tkan what they ware whan la tha HqaMMMt. Thaprapartian of tha quaallly of malter «o iha eahi a m, la calM tha ikiuUr, which li always la aa inearaa ratio of tka porostiy. Tka Initaneaa of paroally aia awaraaa la aeair iipMla i iat of tka awlarial world, but Ikoaa wklcb ara aiaaiolad with anlaud aad eagalakla badlaa ara tka aoal laaaariiabla. Boaa Is a uaaua of ealla and aailllluBa, aad, wkaa nao thraagkamlcraacopa, may aa said to lasmbla a haaayeoasb. Wood appaara aa M Itwaraakaadlaaf hoUow lubaa, like apaa pip^
    ody has the same motion as the coach ; and when the feet arrive at the ground, the motion in the lower part is arrested, whilst it continues in the upper part ; and thus he finds himself thrown from the perpendicular into the horixontal position. Dr Amott mentions the follow. ing ingenious method which a traveller adopted to escape from a beast of prey i — *^ An African traveller saw himself followed by a tiger, from which he could not escape by running t but perceiving that the ani- mal was watching an opportunity to seixe him liy the usual spring or leap, he artfully led it to where the plain terminated in a precipice covered by brushwood, and he had just time to transfer his hat and cloak to a bush, and to ryreat a few paces, when the tiger sprung upon the rash, and, by the motal inertia of its body, was carried over the precipice and destroyed." Innumerable instances might bo adduced illustrative of this law of nature. The following is a familiar one I — Upon the tip of tha finger let a card be ba- lanced, and a piece of money— say a shilling--laid upon it. l,et the card than tie smartly atmcK, and it will fly from beneath tha eoin, leaving it aupported upon the digit. This arises from tha ruania of the metal being greater than the frlcHon of the oard which passes from beneath It. Coursing, or a hare-hunt, affords a striking lUus. Iration of inertia. In that arual sport, the hare seems to posseet an Instinotiva coaacioiuneet of tha existence of lUi law of Batter. Whan punuad by tha gray- hound, it doaa not run in a ttralghi Una to tha oovac, bui in a alg-aag una, Ilka tha path of the ligktalaig, Tha hare dtmibt, that la, inddenly changes Ike dhraa. lion of lu course, aad tuma back al an oblique augia with tha dlraclioa in which aha had bean ruonlag. Tha giayhooad, which Is a far heavier body, unabb to rasisi tha tandancy of iu maaa to persevere in tha rapid motion which it kaa aoquliad, Is Impelled a eoa- sidarabla diatanaa forward bafota it can check iu spaed and return to tha pursuit. But, in tha meantime, the hare haa baen enabled to rhoot far ahead in the other direction ; and althongh a Uare Is much less fleet than a greyhound, by this moat scientific manauvring it often eseapea iu pursuer. Thoee who have witnessed tha perhaps still mora cruel practice of home-racing, amy have obaervad that tM horses shout far past the wlnniug-poel before their speed can ha arrested. This It also owing to tka inertia of their bodies. „„ HATiTBAi. raaifAimicT aw hotiom. -'^ Although it laerot to ba an Idea impressed upon our minds by every day's observation, that a body at rest would never move of Itself, yet, that once set In mo- tion. It has an equal tendency for ever to move In the direction In which the impulse Is given. Is by no meana so apparent. The fact Is, that motion is looked upon rather as unnatural to matter i and so late as the time af the celebrated Kepler, phil ophera did not hesitate to aflirm. as a maxim, " that matter Is mora inclined to rest than to motion." Hence, let us not be sur. prised that in the present day many receive with can. tion, and believe with diffidence, that the one quality is as natural to matter u the other, iteason, obser. vation, and experience, prove to us that the same causes which destroy motion iu one direction, are ca- pable of producing as much motion iu the opposite direction. Thus, if a wheel, spinning on Its axis with a certain velocity, be stopped by a hand seizing one of the spokes, the effort which accomplishes this Is ex- actly the same as, had the wheel been previously at reel, would have put it in motion, iu the opposite di. rection, .vith the same velocity. If a carriage drawn by horses be in motion, the same exertion of power In the horses is necessary to stop it as would be necessary to back it if it were at real. Admit this as a general principle, and it becomes evident that a body which can destroy or diminish iU own motion, must also be capable of putting itself Into motion from a state of rest, or of Increasing any motion which it has received. But this latter Is coutrary to experience, and we must be compelled to admit that a body cannot diminish or destroy any motion which it has received. *' Let as," says Pr Lardner, " Inquire why we are more disposed to admit the inaliillty to produce rather than destroy motiou in itself. We see those motions which taka place arouud us on the surface of the earth subject to gradu:il decay ; and if not reuewed from time to tine, they at length cease. A stone rolled along the ground, a wheel revolving on its axis, the heaving of the deep after a storm, and all other motions produced on bodice by external causes, decay when the exciting cause ia suspended ; and if that cause do not renew its action, they ultimately cease. But is there no exciting cause, on the other hand, which thus gradually deprives those bodies of their motion ? aud if that cause were removed, ur Its in. tensity diminished, would not the motion continue or bo more slowly retarded ? When a stone is rolled along the ground, the inequalities of iu shape, as well as those of the ground, are impedimenu which retard and soon destroy iU motion. Render the stone round, and the ground level, and the motiou will be con- siderably prolonged. But still small asperities will remain on the stone and on the surface over which It rolls. Substitute for it a ball of highly-polished steel, moving on a highly-polished sUel plane truly level, and the motiou will cuotiuue without sensible diminution for a lung period ; but even here, and in every instance of motion produced by art, minute asperities must exist on the surfaces which move in contact with each other, which must resist, gradually diminish, and ultimately destroy, the motiou. Independently of tlie obstruclious to the continue, tion of motion arising from friction, there is another impediment to which all motions on the surface of the earth are liable— the resistance of the air. How much this may affect the continuation of motion, appears by many familiar effects. On a calm day, carry an open umbrella wiUi its concave side presented iu the di- rection you are moving, and a powerful resistance will be opposed to your progress, which will increase with every increase of the speed with which you move." Nature, In the organisation of animalf, has made numerous provisions to facilitate their muvemenu in the elements where they reside. Thus, fishes aru sharp before and behind, and this shape enables them to dart more rapidly through the water. Birds have somewhat of a similar form, and thus their progress through the resisting air is iaciliuted. Kvery motion on the surface of the earth is retarded by the reaisc ance of air and friction. But in the celestial spaces, we see motion freed from any such obstacles, and there it would appear to be eternal. The countless urh.« with which the heavens are spangled, roll on with unerring regularity, and with a velocity which ap. parently has never diminished atnea these luminarie.a ware projected from the Creator's hand into their afk. pointed orbita. This alono, had wa no other proef, it nlBolanl to oorraot tha atiDt or pndudiot^ thai •:' CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I '■>. i # rj i lU muioa li tlwkTi twi4ln( to tmu Tb*i« li oelhliit with which w« u« ■cantinltd In « itM* or abfolatt nn. Th« laoon whMU nrand ih« tutb, th« wnh round th* lun, and the lun llMlf moTM nmnd la ■xi>, M wall u ronnd lh« anin of (ravlty of iha Khur •ytMm. Thor* li doiibilcH, abo, in tho fml unl. I I li tiiraad, and with all hit bright lumlnariaiL hit danllag rMlnno of planau and ooniMa, ho It almott Impor. coptlhljr Mndlnf. It It taty to ponalTa why wo an not itntlhlo of tha notion of tha aarth i It arldanlly ariiaa from ararjr thlni; Diorini at tho tama rata a« ittair. Tha common motion, whicn balonffi to all bodlaa, hat no affect upon any new motion which may be glran them. A nan, for Initance, who throwt up a ball with tha Intantinn of catchiof It aa It dateendt, can do to at eatlly on honebark at ttandlnr ttlll upon the itroiind, on the deck of a thip at In the arena of a theatre. The ball erldently aeoulraa the tana forward motion at ike penun who throwt It up i and, tharaforr, there It no moru art naeniary to catch It when both are rapidly noTlnff. than the utual adrottneta which it pracllted when the performer It itandiiti^ itiU. Hence, leaping through a hoop upon hortehack it by no meant to mi. raculout a performance at it it generally tuppoted to lie. Tha equettrlan doei not leap forward, for thii would project him orer the hone*! eart ; but merely jumpt upwardt, and alloirt bit motal Inertia to carry him through. ACTION AMD KACTIOX. We now torn our attention to the effecta of inertia or inactivity, at illuitrated by caaea in which two bodiei at leait are neceitary. If in a itralght line we place thive bodlei of equal weighti — tay A, It, and V — lix inchet apart from each other, and muring A towardt B, which it in tha middle, to at to ttrike it, both mattet 'rill more towardt C after the impact. But the ipeed of A will only he half of that which it poateited before it touched B ; and A, haring thnt loat half of itt Telocity, hat (Inn to B, which wat be- fore quietcent, Jutt exactly thnt amount of motion. If R contiated of two maatet, each of which wat equal to A, in thit cue the Telocity of the triple matt after impact would be one.third of the velocity from A to B. Thus, after coliiiion, A loiet two-thirdt of lu Telocity, and B, which couilatiof two maiioa, each being equal to the former, each of tbeie two raoeiret onC'tbird of A'a motion ; to that tha w'..ole motion rvcelTed by B it two.thirdi of the motion of A before impact, for by it exactly at much motion ii received by B at it loet by A. A tlmilar reault to thit will lie obtained whaterer ?r(ip:irtinn may tubiitt between the maiiei A and B. n general, therefore, when a ma»t A in motion ira. pinget upon a roast B at rett, to find the motion of the united mut after impact, " diTlde the whole mo- tion of A into at many equal parte aa there arc lual component mattet in A and U together, and ti I'li B will receive by the impact at many partt of thit mo- tion at it hat equal component maatet." But let ua tuppoee the matt H to lie moving inttead of quietcent, and auppote it moTet at well at A to* wanlt C, but with leta Telocity, to that A thall OTer. take it and Impinge upon it t after the Impact, the two mattet will more towardt C with a common Telocity, tlie amount of which it half tha mm of their Telo- cltiet before Impact. Thut, if A have the Telocity 7, and B S, the Telocity of the united matt it 6, being the half of 13, the turn of 7 and ft. When A and B are not equal, the motion of the united matt may be thut atoertained : — Suppoae A it divided into lU com. ponent partt, and B into B, each of which partt are equal in the matt, let then the Telocity nf A be 30, to that the motion a( eacii of the partt being 20, the motion of the whole will be 10 multiplied by 20, or !200. In the tame manner, let tha velocity of B be 16, the motion of each partlieing 16, the whole notion of the eight partt will he 128. Then the turn of the whole motiont towardt C will be 320 ; and tince none of thit can be lott by the impact, nor any motion added to it, thit mutt alto be the whole motion of the united maatae after Impact. Being equally dittributad anongat the tbirty.alx component pitrta of which the united mataet ooutitt, each part will have a thirty- tlxih of the whole motion. Hence, 320 being diTlded by 36, we obtain the quotient 9.4, which is the velo. city with which the whole movet. 8uch it the method of aieertaining the common Telocity of two mattet which impinge upon each other whiltt moring in the tame direction. It it not tpeed or Telocity alone which determinefl the quantity nf motion, but the mataet moved mutt alto tie estimated. In the foregoing cate we have supposed the b^diea moring In the tame direction : let us now consider them aa moving in opposite directions. Huppose A and B two equal bodies which move from two points, «ay two feet apart, and meet at t', equidiiunt from each of theee two pofnta, or exactly midway between them. In thit cate, the equal motiont In oppoaite directlont will dettroy each other, end both mattet will be reducnd to a tute of rett. The matt A Iotas all Itt motion in the direction A C, which it supposed W b« transferred to H at the moment of impact. But B, having praTloualy had an equal qnantity of motion in the dlreaion B C, will now have two equal motiont imp r t n t d upon ll, in dirtetiont Immediately oppoaite, ■aa thaae tnotioiu Daatraliting each other,' the maai taaoiMi f nicMaat Tbua, at in tha farmer inatancaa, thi aolioa wUtli iiloMbyonebadyiaJuii trantferred •o Mother, aonalitniilT with ike priadpl* of " aetien and raaadon." We thall further lUnatrat* Ikia pari of the tnbjact by ■ qnotalloB tnm Dr Lardner i — •■ The aaaiee A and B balDg tliU rappoted eqtul, let them move lawaida G with different Tekieltlea. Let A nara iriih tha Telocity 10, and B with Ik* Takielty 9. Of lb* 10 paru of motion with which Ala aDdaed, 6 being IrantMrrad to B, will daetroy the equal ealo- oltT 6, which B haa in tha direction B U. The bodiM will then moTe together in the direction B, the four mnainlng parte ofA't motion baingequallTdittributed between them. Each body, therefore, will hare two parte of A't original motion, and 2 therefore will be their oommon Telocity afur impael. In thit cate, A loeet 8 of the 10 paru of lu motion In tha direction A C. On the other hand, B loeee the entire of iu parte of motion In the direction B C, and recelree 3 parte In tha direction A C This It equlTalent to recelTlng 8 parte of A't motion in tha direction A C. Thua, aceoiding to the law of ■ action and reactior,' B reoelvet exactly what A loses. Finally, suppose that Ixith the mat t et and velociliee of A and B are unequal. Let the mast of A be 0, and itt velocity U ; and let the man of B be 8, and Itt Telocity S ; the quantity of motion of A will be 72, and that of B, In the uppotile direction, will be 30. Of the 73 partt of motion which A hit in the direction A 0, 30 being trantferred to B, will dettroy all itt 30 partt of mo- tion In the direction B C, and the two mattet will more in the direction C B, with the remaining 43 partt of motion, which will be equally dUtributed among their 14 comp Ing, kolh raeeTTe a carlaia tnoek. If both be runalag at the tame rau in opMelle direetiona, the ahock la doubled. In tome luch caiee aa wkaa awifl tkatera hare mat, the tbook hat proTed btaL The neetlBg or lltU of boxen not unfrequwuly die. ioeate or break boaat. A man's tkuU la (kaaturad iMn certainly by iU be. Ing daahed agaiui a tree or beam while be la oo • galloping horte, than by the bkiw of a ainiUar beam shot at him with the Taludly of a kotaa. When two tkipe la oppoeita ceorteemeet at eeai al- though each may be tailing al a madenla nie, iha deetructioa le ofun aa complete la both ae if wiJi a double Telocity they had ttruck agalatt a rock. Hauy melancholy inttancea of thia kina an on noord* In the darknelt of night, a largo thip baa mat one tmallar and weaker, and, in the lapta ot a few teaoodt, baTa followed tha thock of tha enoounter, tho teream of the turprlted Tictimt, and tho horrible tilence, when Iha waret had again doted orer them and ihoir vaetel for OTor. In NoTember I83S, on the coait of Scotland, tha Comet tteam-boal waa thus deetroyed, and oar- ried to the bottom with her about teTcnly pattengart, into whose esra tho drowning water rutbed, before the sounds of arretted mntic Mad Joy had died away. — ^nae<#. COMPOSITION AND ■EtOLUTION Of rOICS. ' Force may be defined to bo that which producae motion or pressure. If two equal foreee act upon the same point of a body, in exactly opposite directions, tbe iKidy acted upon will remain at reat. Such forces are the tiinplett examiilet of equilibrium, and tlie truth of thit principle it telf.evldent. If, howerer, one of tho forcei bo greater than the other, the body acted upon will more In the direction given to it by the tuperlnr force. Thut, then, we may Infer, that when a body It driven In Immediately oppotite directlont by two unequal forcet, ll It affected in exactly the tama manner at if It were driven by a tingle force, equal to the [iiltcrence between the two foreee, and acting in tbe direction of the greater force. Tills tingle force, whose action it equlTalent to tho comtiined action of two or raon forcet, la called their rtfuUantt and the procett by which a tingle force equivalent In itt effect to two or mora other foroct i< found, It called the eomporition t^f foreo. On tho other hand, two or mora forcet may bo found whoto combined effectt are equivalent to that of a givea force; the proceat by wiiich thete ara determined la called the rttohitUm o/ forctt and the two or mora forces which are equivalanl to the alnglo force, ara called itt componenti. We hare only contidered the tlmplo inttance in which the direction! of the forcet ara la the tama ttraij[ht line ; but let ut now examine tho more com* plex cafe, in which two forcet act on the tame point in ililferent direction!. Thit we thall iUattrato by the following figura. rif. I. Let b be the original place of a thip, « Is the east wind, and t the touth wind. By the operation of thete two at'rlform forces, the TOtiel will at erery Inttant be moved a little touth and a little eatt, and will, la reality, go in a touth-oatt direo* tion ; that it, in the diagonal or middle line t a, which thowt the true course of any body let in motion ia the above manner. Tbe figura it called the paralUlo. gram offorceo^ and It an important help to the under- ttandiug of many facta in natural philoeophy. The mioutc examination of tbe tubject bekingt to techni- cal inathematict, but the general tmthi are perfectly intelligible to the mathematict of common teuae. When two forcea act upon a body, like the wind and tide in the latl example, the reeult it the tnme, whe- ther they act together or one after the other. Fur inttance, if the wind drive a Teuel one mile toiilh, aa from 6 tot, fig. 1, and, immediately afterwardt, the tide drire it one mile eatt, at from > to a, the vetael will be in the tame place at latt, via., at a, at if the had been driren at once toutli-eatt in the line b a, by the timuluneout action of the two. Therefore, by drawing the linet b i and i e, to rapreient the force and direction of tbe two cautet of motion, and by then adding one of them, or an equinlent, to the end of the other, at i a to i e, or e a to i «, the tquare or parallelogram it thatched, of which the middle line, third. u« MOll, but in trt'J <»» riftriout foroM •praHOlad l>7 , would form ■ rmlMofnuB htTtng Muctiy wy biMdtl< i llui !• M ujr, lh« diHonil »oiiM Imoobm nut to nothlof ; IhM proTlof IhM oppotlaf fctaM amtrallM or d«Mn>T •uh othar. Wlm foicM d. mm nwrly nnlld to (Mb othar, lh« nmAml i» luDftr than aithar of tha caaitltaanU i whao, how. arar, tha; eniai obUanalr, iha muUamI ti Ma than allhar of thaat. But lo aU caaaa whara tha two Itorcaa ara a iween tham. A baat im|i«Uad b^ aara goat itralght, althaugb ihu dination in whlcl tha oara act la con> ■tantly changing t baoauia tha changing obllauily of Iha fiirca la ua uina on both ildaa. Similar oMarn- liun will apply to almoal arary body Impallad by In- alrumania prnjtctlng from Ita aldaa, and acting againat a fluid. Tha molloni of llihaa, tha act of iwlmming, tha flight of lilrdi, ara all Inaianoaa of tha lama kind. AnTulancaof tha coupoaitlon of motion iialTordad when a itona ia lat Ul from tha maat of a ihip in hill ■ail. A a tha rataal ia aaillng forward whan taa itona ia lat fall, it might ba axpaoud that daring iu daacant It wovid raach tha daok behind tha maat.' But It ia found to fail at tha foot of tha maat Juit aa It would bara dona bad tha ihip baan at rait To aoconnt for thii, lat 6 I, flg. I, b« Iha poaltion of tha mail of tha ahip whau the itona It dropped. Tha maat ia moving forward! with tha rtaael in tha dlraetioii 1 *, to that In the time which the body would take lo fall to tha daok, tha top of the matt would moTo from b to e. But the itona haring Ike iama motion aa tha mut, it Is affected by two motlona, that of the Teiaal exprcaied by b t, and Ita daaoending motion aa expreued by t $, Hence, by the compoaition of motion, it will ba lonnd at theoppoaita angle n of ihe'parallalogram at tha end of tha nil. Diiring ihe fnll, ItoweTer, the mut haa adrancad with the vmiei to e a, ao that the body (klla exactly at the foot of the maat. " Au Inilanca of the compoiitton of motion," aaya l)r Ijardner, " which It worlhjr of ioine altenlion, aa ii nffordi a prnof of the diurnal motion of the earth, ii derired frnm obierving the deiceot of a body from a very high tower. To render the explanation of Ihit more almple, we ahali luppoie the tower to be on rv^. % the equator of the earth. Let nf E P Q. flg. 3, be a leclion of the earth through the equator, and let P T ba the tower. Let ni anppoae that Ihe earth movea on iti axii in \ the dlrectiim £ P Q. The foot P I of the tower will, therefore, In one ' day, move over the circle K P Q, while the top T morei orer the greater circle T T' R. Hence it !• OTident that the top of the tower moTM with greater ipticd than the foot, and thara'are in the tame time morei through a greater ipace. Now, Kuppoao a body placed at the top : it participate! in the motion which the lop of the tower haa in common with tha earth. If it be diiengaged. It alio recelres the deicending motion T P. Let iii tuppoie that the liudy will take Ave aeconda to fall from T lo P, and thai in the lame lime the top T ii moved by tlie rou- lion of the earth from T to T', tha foot being mored from P to P'. The falling body Ii therefore endowed with two motion!, one expreaied by T T', and the olhei by T P. The combined effect of these will be fonnd In the uiuai way by the parallelogram. Take T p equal 10 T T', the body will more from T to p in the time of the fall, and will meet the ground at p. But iince T T' ii greater than P P', It follows that the point p mull be at a diilance from P' eqnal to the exoeii of T T' abora P P'. Henoe tha body will not fall exactly at the foot of the tower, but at a ceruin diilance frOm it, in the direction of tha earth'! mo- tion ; that li, aaitward. Thii in found, by experi- ment, to be actually the cate ; and the diilance from tha fiiot of the tower at which the body ii obierred to fall, agreee with that which ii oompntad from the motion of the earth, tn aa great a degree of exactneii ai could ba expected from the nature of the experi- ment. The propertiea of eompoundad motlona canie some of the equeitrian feats exhibited at public sp«:tacles to be performed by a kind of exertion very different frcm that the ipectatora generally attribute to the performer. For example, the horaeman itanding on tha saddle, leaps over a garter extended orer tha hone at right anglea to his motion ; the ho. aa paating under the garter, the rider llghta upon the saddle at iho oppody forward. |n Ihe case, however, of the horieman, he merely makei that exertion which ii neceuary to rite directly np- ftunli to a luflicient height to clear the garter. The motion which he haa in common with tha hone, com- pounded with the elevation acquired by Ilia mutcular power, accompliihe! the leap." If a billiard ball itrike the cnihion of the table obliquely, it will be reflected from it la a certain di- rpction, forming au angle with the direction in which the latter waa itruck. It is technically termed the angle of incidence ; the other la called the angle of relTectlon. U Iwdiea wera perfectly elastio, these angle* would alvsyi ba equal to each other (as in be cau where light ii reflected from a noliiliad sor- 388 face) I hut thia not being the caaa, tht ngla of inel- dene* ia laaa than tht angle of rafleotlc i and with the same obliquity of iaddence tha mm imperftet the elasliaily la, tha iasa will be Iht angle oi •eOaolloa. Motion la aamatlaaaealladaiao/iil* or t«*''*'% ■■u' 0^*' attraot' ns wbiou ara only raeident la anbatanesa af portleuhu spaclaa. If tha earth wera a laife magaat, thoea paenllar sub* ataoeoa ealy whiah ara aAoted by the loadalona wooM have weight, or would fall ta the sarboe when nnanp> ported. All ether bodiee would reet indlfferantly In any poaition ia whleh they might happen to be p l aee i, and would move upwards Jual aa readily aa down* warda. But every material iuhttanca la tuscaptibia of tha attraction of gravity i and what is mora, it Is susceptible of thia in the exact proportion of Iu masa. Thus, If tha mau of tha earth wera doubled, it would nart a doable attraetlon on all bodiee plaeed near It t and, oonsaqaeatlv, tha welghu of all bodisa would in that caaa be donbied. If Iu masa wera ulpiad, tha welghu of all bodiee woald be 'ripled, and so on. In general, tharetare, Iha attraetlon of tha earth for a body In iu vlcinitr, ia proportional to Iu mass. M^e have stated that gravity is an attraction com* mon to all moMrial anhatanras t if so, then it may ba asked. Why do not the varioos bodiee plaead near the earth's snrlace attraet tha earth lowarda them f If a body be disengaged at any height frcoa the surface. It will be drawn by the attraction of the earth, and will, consequently, descend in a straight line perpendicular to the surface. But alnca the body attracu tha earth, why doee not tha surfaea oMtiuf towards the body, being drawn by the attraction of the body on tha eerth i In which case, the surikce of the sarth and the body would meet at some place inlermedlau between their first positions t We answer, that in fact this very effect takaa place. Tha surface of the earth den approach the daacanding body ; and that descending iMdy not only attracu the mass of the earth lowarda it, but attracu it with exactly as much force aa that by which the earth attracu tha daacanding body. Why, then, it will be aaked. Is not the rapid approach of the earth to meet Ihe descending body perceptible ? To explain this, we must go Into some iarther dalaila raialive to the Compoaition of Force, and repeat the doctrine of Action and Reaction. If two bodies, A and B, ba i . jving with tha aama velocity, the forcea with which they move will ba equal, provided their massee or qnantitlea of matur be equal, but not otherwise. If the mass of A be greater than the mass of B, iu forca will be greaur in the same proportion, 'f his will be very evident if we coniidcr the forces with which they would strike any obilacle opposed to them. If B be a muiket-bali, and A be a cannon-ball of one hundred tlmee the weight, both being projected with the same speed, A will strike any obstacle with one hundred times the force with which B would strike it. In general, then, when the velocities with which bodlea ara moved ara the same, their foroea ara proportional lo their masses or quan- titiea of matur. Now, let us suppose that the masses of tha iiodiea A and B are equal, but that they move with unequal velocities ; that is, that they move through ditferent spaces in the same time. 1^1 the space described iu one lecond by Ihe body A be a, and let the ipace de- loribed in the lanie time by the body B be 6, the^e ipacei are called the veiouitiei of the bodiei. The equal bodies thua moving with different velocities, will move with diflferaut forces. It ia evident that the body which has the greater velocity will have the greater force, and that also in the same proportion us iu voloulty is greaUr. If two equal buileu be lucces- sively projected from the same gun, but with different chargea of powder, that which is projected .y the stronger charge will strike the mark with a propor- tionally gteaur foroe. But in this case, the only dif- ferance in the motions of the bullets, ia, that oue haa a graater velocity than the other. Hence we perceive, that, " when equal masses ara in motion, their forcea an proportional to their velocities." We have thua aaparately considered the cases in which unequal massea are moved with equal veloci- ties, and in which equal masses are moved with unequal velocities i and we have seen that the forcea are. In the one case, proportional to the massei, and in the other, to the velodtiee. Now, if unequal masies be moved with unequal valocltiea, it Is natural to expect that we should, in comparing the forces, take Into ac- count both the velocities and the masses. It appean that the moving force of a body may be increased or diminished, by increasing or diminishing either iu mass or iu velocity, or both. In fact. If the number rapresentiog the masa ba multiplied by the number repreaenting the velocity, tha product thus obtained will represent the moving force. Thus, if the masses of two bodies, A and B, be in the ratio of the numbers 8 and 6, and the velocities of these bodies be in the ratio of the numbers 7 and 3, their moving forces are as the product ofUaud7io the product of 6 and 3 ; that is, as 6G to 15. It appean, iherafore, that iu this insunoe the force of A bean a much higher ratio to the I'lirce oL U than either the mus of A bean to the mail nf li, or the velocity of A to the velocity of B ; the reason of which is, that the mass and velocity conipins iu imparting lo A a superior moving force. In generai, then, we conclude that the moving forces of budlesi an proportional to the produr a of their masies aud their velocities. Since, then, the moving I'oroe of a body degiends conjointly on iu mass and iu velocity, it neceaiMrily follows that, if, while we increase iu velocity in any proportion, we dimiuiih iu man in the same prop'tr- tion, ita moving force will lie ''^e same; fur it will lose as much force by the dimii< < luu of ita man aa It gaist by tha Increase of iU velocity. In like manner, CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. U, wb«n w» !■«««■«» iu ■nw, w iltaUMk <■ I W u rn* CISi (H M nuch -Ul to lmi\t «^ < l « i l » li fc i< Ik* wrtk WHt k«N ■ Talaatiy H MMiy tiiao Im ihaa lka< af lii* <>Uisa to4y, u Um nau sT ito ■U badUM «kkh aMi to wtoi ku d M ttoM vimua. mnrT- ■HHttolB&aMriaHiiar(kaalha«ai«k,iiM •aaaa ttraafli wUoh tkaiaiwa, Ikiaugk a tpaoi laia Ikaa tbis ikat tto aank atouU aura, uadar Ika «ir. laiiaiaaanaa wklck wa kava tappaiad. ii It Ikanfm <|aiia nrHani, ikai, wiik 1 iipatt la ttltkag bodlaa, tto aank it to to aantUand at raM. Wa ton aiatad that h a J iat aitnat auk oibar io piap anl oa la itoir qiuuililiaa af nmior. Uaooa, iha aanb attnett diAiaal kodiaa with diAraal iurota. A plana of Itad ooatalaa a niiMiralily g r aa l tr ^aan- tily of aiatlar in tto taaM bulk than a piaoa of ourk, wmi aoaardiagly w» Had that ito aanb allnctt it with a prapaniasally fraalar facaa 1 ia altor worda, il baa Pier vaighL It ia for Ibia raatao that waifiu ia y aataroad aa tto aiaaiara or aapoaant of tto ^■aaliiy of aiatlar in aay mha i aao a , wbaiarar, ia I or ^ualiclaa af that fub- But il ia aa« mlm>» tba MMHa af badiai wUeb da- Thair diatauat Iilafcndibatito fma of tliiaiiiiuii dt n taii i aa tto dlManaa it ia> I in a ttill uraatar profortion. Tbaa, lot , a body plaead upon tto aaritoa of ito aanb^ at tba dittancc of 4000 from iu oantra, it attractad by a oaniin foiaa towardt Itot oantra. At doubla tiiat dlManoa, or at 40UU atora tba •arfiH.'a, i< would uuly to atiraolad with tto fourth pan of that foroa^ and it would in fact Ioh ibroa-Courito of iu woigkL Tto aanb baina globular, or aaarly to, it foUowi taal tto Una in whiob itt attraciioa acuconirarga to. wardi ila oanire, and tfaai at diffarant paru uf tto aanb tto liaat iu wbiab falling bodiaidnoood ara not parmllal, but ara lucb aa. if ooiitinuad. would 'ulanect at tba oantra. In ooiittdario|f, howeror. tba action of ararity on bodiai, at plaeaa nut far diMant on iba iiir- naa of the aanb, wa may atnumo, without waiible armr, tbat tba diraeiiona In which it ana ara parallal, and that ibay ara all par|N)udioular ao the aania bori. ■ontal plana. A diataaaa iograatatonaaUlawilloaly pradnoa a dariatlon fmm paraUclitm amonntinf to lot* Iton ana minuio, or tto tixtiotb pan of a dagraat Although Ito iulanaity of larraatrial grarity in. anana aa tto dittaaoa dacraaaaa, and although tto motioD of a falling body aa it approaobat tto anrtb ii aeoalaratad, yat tto baigbt through which wa an *n- ablad to obaarra Ita deaoani, baan ao aoull a propor- tion to ito wbola diitanoa fraa tba eantn of tto aanb, that tba ahangn af ioiaiiiitr oaaaut to practically aati. aaalad. Tto ineraata can ba proaad to to ooa pan in 4000, a Tory iaaigni&eant quantity. In aaplaining tto lawa of nlliag bodiaa, tbarafora, wa aball aaaunw, that, in lb'-' Miiin daacant, tbay ara urgad by a force of Bailor, utanaity. Tto Ibroa of rraTity ia not axaetly tto aama at ovary pan of the aartb'a anrfaoo ; it it graataai at ito polat, and laatt at Iha aquatur. But tto eauaa of tbia will to axplaiaod whan wa oono to tpaak «( oontrifugal foraa, and tto motioB of paodulama. Uowarar, Ito atmetioa of tto aarth at aay gtvan plaoa aaa upon a body at all timat with ito aaaw dagraa of forca ; and •inoa it acta aaparaialy and aqaalljr on oaary particle of matter wittoatrafaranea to tto kind of body wbicb ■a thua (meratad upon, it btlnwt that, wbaiarar to tto •paeiaa of mattar of wbioh bodiae era oMipoaad, or Ito magnicuda of thair maitia, thay theold iH de«Dend Iu tba earth with iba tama Talooily. Yet common nb- aarration doaa aotTari^ tbia faat. For inataace, whan a bird u ahot in the air, tto bady 9I tto animal da- toanda rapidly downwarda, wkUat tto Caatbara ttot aaay bare faaen lam from it flicker ahant, and ara a long lima ia raaablag tha anrfaea af tto ground. What an termed lightaubatancat, •uehaalbialkdawa, ^par, Ac, fall ilowly and Inagulwly, whiUt daaaar aubuanoei, auob aa atanaa and aaalala, fall rapidly. And we ara n.« without inalaacat In which ttoaarth, inataad of attraoiiag, itami ta lapal bodiaa 1 thua, irapour, balbnua, Ao., actually aacand. Bnttbaaeara •aaily aapiaiaad when wa aoatidar that Ito earth It ' llattotoigbtafaboMtftymUaabraBM. U6 riaee la a raaeal of walar, to tha totlom of wh bat bean forcibly prateadi bacauaa bulk tat bull balloan and tto cork ara llgblar Iton Iha ela awaptora eaai p uta d e' a thin auriform lluld. Through thla alattla madka Ikbt badlea atcaud, Juit at a cork - ■ ■ - which II hulk tto llgblar Iton Iha element In whlcb ttoy mora. By anotbar appllcatiua of tha tama ptincipla, we paroalTo Ito naaon why a hall of aoltoa and anottor of lead, bolb of tba tame ihit, fcU la tba ground with dUTaraat dagraai of Teliieliy. It it aridaiu that the raalataaca of the air la la pro- portbw to tto roluaia of a body 1 hanea It obatrucu Ito tall of both tba abora-namad aubitanoea In a Ilka dagraa. But tto cotton balng attracted In a law da- graa than Ito lead In ptoporilon to iu bulk, yet bar- ing Iba aaaa miataaoa to oreroeme, ia mora ilaw la paoaltaliag tto alautpban, and duw not reach tha earth ao aoon aa tba lead. II can to thown hir direct axparioMut, ttot llgbl and baavy bodiw would fall Iu Ito ground at tha Hma rata, wara there no atmu- •ptora. If by meant of an air-pump we eilracl tto air from a tall (law veiaal, and kavlng, by meant uf a win pawing alr-llght through tha top or the veiaci, diteugagad a faaUiar anda ^aoa of metal at the tama Inaual, ttoy will to found to dwcand with the time •paed, and lUika the botbim at the tama moment. I'lider i'nrunoiict, the phenomena connected with avrifurm Buidi aiU he raaumed. aociuBATKO aioTtoii AVD AcoiLr.iaTBO roacK. Il Bintl bare been obearred by every oaa, Ibat the Telocity will, ^hiak a body morw ta incraaaad m it appruachea the ^ 'oiind. Owing to the Inertia of mat- tar, any force coatlnulng la aet an a mwa wbioh la free to iiboy It, prodnca la tto maw a quickening or aecela- nled aaatlon 1 bacauM tto force which Ml Ito body Into BMiHan In ito Artt inatnnt continuw to lapel It frna Ito prladpla of Inertia, whlltt acoeHlon of forca, which it cuntlnna to receive at aTory tuceaalve mo- ■Mnt, IncrnatM tto motion. Hence, a hlliag body uadar tto iaflaanw of attracilou it a It wara a rawr- TOir, reoalTing at arery luatani freib Telocity and moowntuu. A ball dropped finn tha hand can to oanght again in tto 8nt inaunti but after a little delay, It will to punned in rain. An arrow Impelled into the aby nav to percaived u Iu point " upon the curl hanga pauaing 1" at that inatani a bird of heaven might taiia the htrmlea meaaenger of death with In bill ) and aran for aama time after It haa begun to de- aoend, tto aya can imdily fallow It, but aa it nean Ito aartb, Iw Taiadty baaonat ao great that we fre- qaantly lata tight of it aliofiatbar. When tto light- alag atraka datacha a fngaeat of rock from the brow of ablU, ttopoiideroua maaa nwTn alowly at firat i but whan once fairly launched, it acqulrea freah Telocity and moeaantum at every luitant, aiid, boiuiding from atmp to ateep with Impctuoua apaed, drivea every obaucle belara it. Tto faila of NiaKan afTord an liluttntion of tba aama truth, upon natura'a moet munltoeot acala. At am " tto broad column whiob rolli on and tbowi, " Mora llUc th« founuln of an intent ica Tmn fhnii the womb of mmintalTia by tlio throts Ufa Deiv votld,"— (UVROM). benda hearlly aod tlowly over the precipice ; then he- cnmlng a thinner and thinner aheet u It deacendi, at Itn, eoTeloped In an atmnaphan of fuam and mitt, It Haihea into the phlegethon below, '• Rinllint the UghtnlnB-*! Raih in luin and in ipetd." Thua, then, it ia clear tbat a new impnla it given to a body aTory inatant of iU fall, by rbich mealia it aoquira additional velocity ; and ita final vrliicily ia ooupoaad of tto aggragatiun of all tha amall iuora- aanu of additional apaed which are ao communicated. Aa are ara at traaant to oootidar the force of attrac- tion luTariabla, it foliowa ttot the Telocity eummunl- oatad to tha body at each moment of time will be the aama, and, thenfora, ttot the whole quautity of ve- locity which obtaina at the end of any given time, i> proportional to the length of that time. Thua, if during ooa acoond of lima a oanain velocity to pro- duced in a bodv, whan it ka fallen two aeoonda it will liave aoquind twice that vahieity, and ao on. Such ia tto fundamaatal principle or charaoterittio of umifarmlf attekraltd mtHat. BaidM tba tiaa of the fall of a body, and tba velo- aily at each Inataat, tba epacH through which It moTM in given intervale of time, enuntad either fWmi tba oommancameot of tba fall, or from any aropoaeil apoeh of tba dwcant, an equally Important objeeu of inquiry. Tto apace la laaved through with varying la n d, bulM Ibavekxlty ineraaaM uniformly with the lima, the average apeed n obtained by aacertaining that which tto body had In the middle of the interval which elapeed between the beginning and the end of the fall ! and thoa tto ipace thrnugfa which the body haa acuially fallen It that through which it would move in the aame time with thia average velocity uniformly ooaUaaed. Ttofact it, thatiha vekieityof the iHxIy, after half tto wbala period nf the detoent, la half the Anal valoeity. Hence it foUowt, thw . iud pro. portion 10 iheea two quantlila, vli. the time and the Dual velocity, or auit to proportional Io (he prodaa of the two numton whieb axpraw tham. Dr Lar4- ner Ingenlouily illuatrata thh ioctrlaa aa foUaarti-. " Uul tinea ihe lima la alwaya proportional to tha Anal velocity, they may to aapraaed by aqnal num> hen, and tlie product of equal numtori It tba aquara of either of them. Hence, the pradnot of Iha num- ton axpnwinf the lime and Anal valoelly la eqnlva> lent to the aquara of the numtor exprawing Ihe lima, or to the iqiiara of the numtor expraailng the Anal Tehxity. Hence we Infer that tha tolght la alwaya prouoi-tlonal to the aquara of the lima 01 the foil, or to tne iquara of tha final Talocliv. The uw of a few malhamatlcal chatsMan will ren- der thete raulu mora dlatlnct, even M altidenu not cnnverunt with mathaaaUeal idence. Let H expraa the height from which Iha body falli, V the final ve- locity, and T the time of the fkll, and let tba aquara of any of tbeaa quantlila, or niker of their nume- rical expraaeiona, to algnlllad by placing Iha tgnra S over them — tbut, T< or V. The aign x heiwwn two nnmban tignlfia ttot they an to be multiplied Uh gether. TheM toing pramliad, the reiulti of ito rtaaaning In whlcb wa have bean Jual engaged, may to exprewed at followi 1— V iacreawt proportionally with T I K . . . VxT a 8 . . . . T* 3 .S . . . . V> 4 Tto thaorama island [4] follow from II I and (9]t for aiace by [ I ] X it prepartional to V, il miiy to put for V In [ajTand by thla autolltutiaa V X T lieuima T X T, or T*. In the tanw auianar, and for the aame reaaoa, V aaay to put for T, by which V X T beoomw V X V, or V< By thea fonnnlarlaa, if tto height through whieh a body faila freely in one laeoad to kaewn, ike height through which It will fall in any propoaad lima may to computed. For tinea tto height it praportional to tto aquara of tba lima, tto height through which it will fall in Imo taoondt will to /our lima that whlcb Il faila through in oaa aacond. In thrte aroonda It will fall through nine lima tbat apace 1 in /oar aeciMida, tixtttn lima ; In fivt aeconda, twtnty-five timet, and ao on. The following, thenfnre, it a ge. neral rule Io And tto height thrnngh which a body will fall In any given time 1 — Radiice the given time to aeoonda, taba tto aquara of the number of leiumila in it, and multiply tha height through which n body faila in ona aaaend by tbat nnmtor t tha nault w.'ll to the height aought. The following table exbibiu the heighu and cnrre- aponding lima M far H 10 teooudi s — Time I I I a I a I 4 I 6 | 6 | 7 I S | ( 10 Height I I I 4 I U I 18 I Ho I 30 I 4I« I 114 I 81 I lUU Kach unit In tto numtort of the Ant row expreate^ a laeond of time, and each unit in thoaa of the tecond row expreaaet the height tlirough which a body fnlla freely in a tecond. If a boily fall continually for aevaral auccMilve a*. condt, the apaca which It faila through In each auc> ceediug Hecoiid have a remarkable nlallon among each other, which may to eatily deduced from the preced- ing table. Taking the apace moved through in the firit aeoiind ttill a our unit, four timea that apace will to moved through in the Ant two aecinidt. Subtraut from thla I, the epace moved through In Ihe iirat le- coail, and the remainders ia Ihe apace through which tto body faila iu the ttcand tecond. In like manner, if 4, the height fallen through In the Artt two aeconda, to aubtractad ftomU, the height fallen through in tlio firat three lecuiidi, the remainder 5 will be the apace fallen through in the tliird tecond. To find the space fallen through iu the fourth aecond, subtract 9, the apace fallen through In the firat three seconds, from K'. the apace fallen through In Ihe first four seconds, and the rault ia 7, and ao on. It thua appeara, that. If tto apace fallen through In the firat aecond tie called 1, ibe spaces described in the aecond, third, fourth, fifth, Ac. aeconda, will be exprased by the mid nuni- Iiers rmpectivelv, A, A, 7, B, Ac. This places in h striking point of view the accelerated motion of a fall- ing body, the tpacea moved through In each succecd- lug second toing contluunlly Increued. If velocity to ntimated by the space thron|;h which the body would move uniformly In one sei'ond, then the final velocity of a hht U tlvtyi r the Ml, iir Mn will m- Kutlaou not LMRnpraM ' tht Iniil T«> !•« Ih* iquar* Uwtr nui«» I Ui( tgnra S < hclvMn two miiltlplM Ufc retultH of th* inKnK"^. >n»y ?j hi ll[l|.nd[3|l it niMT b* put r K T liiwaniw id (or th* tune Ihrsugh whiak ■n, tE« ba«(ht swd lima miiy propurtionMl to wugh which it n«i that which irM MOondi it rl in /ii«r twtnty-fivf rehire, in » (!•• which k Ixidy tba given time lb«r of sacimd* 1 which R biidv tha mult will |hti and corn- I 8 I fl I 10 || »4 I »i I lucT t row czpreue^ of tha aiioond biidy fulla _ auccantlva la- th In aacti luc* on among each -am the preced- Lhroii^h ill the that upaoa will idi. i PHlLOflOPirs'. , Ibroisgk »• ha«. !• of4ef, ikarefora, u> \m •oakM I* •baerra the phwaia a a far only four se. catida, we ibwiM aaxaiBil «■ Mghlefai least IIMI hM. But hrtlMr, the *«Im1it m the «i4 of the Rrii aaaond wowU bo at the talo *f 91 feet per aeoond i al tha and of the aeoond aeoond. It would bo 04 Caet per aaoood i and toward* tk* oad of Iho (all, it would be about lao foot por soaood. It la airldani thM thia great degree of rapidity would bo a aailoua Impedi- meut to accural* akaotralloik ovea though w* ibouM be able to coaaoiand the re^uialta heigkl." Ml ATTWOOD'i liaCIIIIII, Bui thla dlflaully waa obrlalod by Mr Allwood, a natural phlloaookar of th* laal canlury, who oon- atriicled ■ maahln* of a nry ilapl* nalur*, by which th* law tliooretlcaUy deduced waa eiporimonlally proirad. Into the groove of • wheel turning on Iu axle with Tory little frictloa, ho Intoned a lao liUeu cord, to the enda of which wore atlaahad two equal cylindrical welghta. Whan both ware placed at az- aeily the tame diaunce from tba ground, of iniursa they balanced each other and remained at raak Whan, however, ki one of the weighia a small addlitoaal weight waa added, tha aiiuilibriun waa daalroyodt the loaded waighl began to deaoand, whilst th* other force of gravitaiien i that Is, It Inoreaaea according Ui the same laws, though at a dialniahed rata. To reader this plain, aupposo thai Iho loaded welrh; deaconda from a ital* of real through one Inch in a aeoond. It will descend through four lachee In two aacunda, through nine In three, and ao on. Thus, Iu tweuly aecoiidi it would deacand through 400 inohaa, or 33 feet 4 inchea, a height which could eaaily bo oum- maudad. UTAEDID MOTIOV, with Mapaot lo a falllag body, wa have obaonrod that its velocity la increased in pru^irtion aa It oonll- iiuea to deaoand. But In regard to a body which is projected upwards, the nvane of this lakea place. Whatever la thrown perpendicularW into th* air, loses a part of Ita veloolly at every instant, on ac- ooiuit of the force of gravitv acting upon it aa a drag weight, so to speak, which lually eompela il to change ila course, and return to tk* eartk from wboneo It arme. Any body thua aant upwards, say a muskal. ball, wnnid have, but for the raelatano* of iho air, at eorraapoadlng polnia of the aaeeiit and deeeeat, an equal Toludiy 1 and, on reaohlng th* ground, it would luive acquired eaaclly the rckwily with which II departed. We hare seen that a body falla four tiraea aa far In two seconds aa Itdoea in one, although the velocity at the end of two aaoonds Is only doubled. In the same manner, a body shot upwards with double vehioity riaea four times as far aa if shot with a single velocity ; if shut with triple v*locily. It rieee nine timee aa far, and so on. An upward jet of water la aaiall halow when It is- sues from the orlHco of a pipe with a high degree of Telocity, but il beoomea mon bulky aa the fluid loaea its vekicity in aaoending, and at the lop it often apreads laterally like a palm tree, so that any light round ao- lld will continue supported and playing upon iuaum- mit. The same ciroumsunce takea place when air la foroibly blown through a hollow tube held perpendi- cularly. The rise of a pendulum from the bottom nf Ita arc, is an exact copy, nverMd, of Ita previoua de- aceni to that point. To thia subjoct we shall turn our attention after we have desoribed one of the moat Im- portant phenomena of natura, namely, CENTairCOAL rOBCI. Centrifugal force will he eaaily underalood, after the description which has been given of the inertia of natter. Uy this law, whan a body la nl in motion, ita tendency Is to continue for ever to move In the di- rection in which the impulse is given, unleaa It bo de- flected from It by an effloient force. A body moving in a circle, then, or curve, is con- strained to do what Is contrary to ila Inertia. A per- siiti on ftrst approaching the subject might suppose that a body, wliich for a time has Ldeu constrained lo move in a circle, should naturally do so when set at liberty. Dot on reflecting thai a drole la aa if made up of an inHiiite number of atralghl liiue, and that tlie liody moving in it haa ita motion bent at every step of the progresa, the reaaon la seen why constant fore* beciiraee neteasary to keep it there; a force just equal to the inertia with which the body tends, at every poiut of the circle, to pursue the straight line, called a tangent, of which that point ia the com- mencement. The force required to keep the body In the bent course ia called etiUripetal or oentre-ieeking force i while the Inertia of tk* body tending outwards, tliat Is, to move In a atralghl line, ia called the etnlH. /ugal or Cfiitre-RyiDg force. An apparatus, called a akirling table, haa been oonatrueted for th* purpose of exhibiting experimental lUnatratiima of the tawe of centrifugal force. By thU machine we ar* enabled to place any propoaed weighu at aay given dialancea from centres round which they aro whirled, *ither with the same angular velocity, or with Telooltlee having a certain proportion. Threada attached to the whirling weights ara carried to the oentrea round which they reapectively revolve, and there, paaalng orer piilllet, an connected with welghta which may be varied at pleaeure. When the whlrlinf weighu •■ of lk*lr liireo, they draw up th* wetekla allaa h ed r enda of Ik* ikreada, aad iCa aoioant *( igal force Is eatlaialad by Ik* welgkle whlek ly tram thair reapaatir* •eotoa* by k cwitrlfugal foreo, tkejr draw uj tu tkouuwr the aentrlAigal II Is capable of raialng, With thia inslmaiani, th* fallawtaf eaperllMBl* may bo exhiklled i— Brp. I. Eonal welghta whirled wllk tk* sam* T*. locltvaleqnaldlatanc** from th* cantre, ralee Ih* seme welgki, and thenfan kav* th* aam* e*nlrlltog*l focw. Btp. t. Equal welghta whirled with the laaM aa- gnlar valoelty, al dialancea from th* renin in Ih* proportion of one la two, will rah* welghta In Ik* sam* pniporllon i tharefore, the centrifugal fonea an In that proportion. F.Tp. S. Equal welghta whirled at aqaai dliUnee* ■allh angular relodtlee, which an aa one to two, will raise welgku as one lo four i that la, as the sqiiaraa nf ihe angular niocitlaa i tkenfon, Ike oeatrifngal forrea an In thai proportion. F,sp. 4. Equal weighu whirled al dlitancee which an as two to three, with angular velocities, which itf* as niie lo two, will rals* weighu which are aa two to twalv* I that is, aa the prodncu of Ihe disianeea two and three, and the sqnani one and four, of th* angu- lar velocltlaai hence, th* centrifugal fore** an In this proportion. The renlrlftigal fore* mnit alao Inenai* aa th* maaa of the body moved inoreaaea ; for, like attraction, each particle of the moving body is separately and equally afflseted by II i hence, a double maaa, moving at the sam* distance end with th* sam* reloeily, will have a double fnrre. The followlngexperlment verlflea this i — Exp. b. If welghta which an aa one to two bo whirled al eqnal dhtancca with the same valoclly, they will raise weight* which an aa one to Iwo.^ (£arly ■nd«r tk* cttn *f tk* lop. Il la reasarkakta, Ikat, enn la pkileeophieal Iraailsaa •! autkoriiy, th* ataadiMT of a lap ia atlli vaguely attrU buled la tmtti^vftl firm i and •*«* p»rannt keltava that a Uf spinaia^ In a waighiiiMcat* w*aU b* found I ana atkara llgkMt than wkaa al real ouily hold that tka eaalriAigal foree of iha whirliag. whioh, of oaurao, aett dtnally away foeaa tka axia, and qulM equally ia all diteallaaa, y*t baoosa**, wk*n tk* t*p inalln**, graalar upward* ikaa dMrnmrda, so aa W oounuraat ih* gravity of Ik* lop, Th* way in whioh aaalrifngal foraa kalp* lo maintain tk* spinning of a top, ia, that, wkan Ik* k*dy lacUiMa, ar beglna to fall ia ••* dinethm, Ik* aaotion la ikat difooibin con- tlauee unlil tke paint deacriUag iu eurn kaa (bread luelf iiader th* kedy i«ain. By rwHon *f aeaitifcnl fon do feau of karMnMaakip la a fona, tUrn, U ia aaaiar lo aaall ring, aa al our thaair**, than if tha animal wan running ea a atraiakl road. We ee* Ik* aaa and korse alwaye Inelining Inwarda, I* wonMrael •*nwiAigal foree i and if tha rider Uad lo fall iawarda, h* kaa a*f*iy to qniekoB thepacai if lo lUl outwaeda, k* ka* la alaalien il, and all ia right again. •>.. A ball of soft eby, wllk a ipladk flaw! ikroiijtk iu Mntr*, If aada to turn quickly, aooa piaiaa lo be a perfeei ball. It bulgee oul in Ike middl*, when th* caatrlf^al forca la great, aad beocmee ilalUned to- warda the enda, or when tke aplndle lieuea. Thla ckang* of favm la exaoily what kaa happened to Ike ball— aur eaitk. It kaa knlgad oul eeventeen mile* at tka equaler, in eeneeqoenoe of lu dally rota- lien, and ia Aallenad al tk* paiee in a oorreeponding degree. A maae of land ikat weigke one thousand pounda at our pole, weighe ah«iit Ave pounds lesi at the equator, by reaaon of the eentrihgal force. Thia ia tka nrnt icaarkakia aad Important manifaautlos of thla law, and tha manner of proving il wiil be af> Urwarda daaoribed. In tkq planeta Jupiter and Saturn, of which the ro> utiou ia muck quicker than nf our earth, Ike middl* or equator bulgee out Mill non, even ao aa to offend an eye wkioh expeeta a perfect sphere. If the roulioo of our earth wen seventeen tlm«* faster than it la, tha bodies or maiur at the equator would have eantrifugal force equal to their gravity, and a little mon velocity would cauae than to fly on altogether, or to riee and form a ring round the earik like that which lurrounda 8atnrn. 8aturn'a doubl* ring aeeaae to have bean formed in thla way, and i* now supported chiady by Ihe contrifUgal foree of Ik* pan*. Wan it to eruatbl* to pi*ce*, th* pj**** might still revoln aa ao many llltle saiellitee. The traesa- uUltea an only mon dlalattl masae* aoatalned In tka same manner. And our eartk, and the other primary planets, have ike same refotion to the aun that thea* satellitea have to Salnrn t all being suatalned by an admirable bahiuce between cenuifugal fore* and gn< vity. Amongat the nunenma subJeoM connected ivith in*> chaaical philoeophy, the tmm o/gmiln is one of tka most important. But an explanation of it having already been given in the number of thia work upon Mechanics, it ia unnecessary to repeat what waa then itatad. on in AXi*. The line round which a body having rotatory ao. thm ravolvaa. Is called an axis. In this case every point of the body must move in a circle \rhoM centra liri in the axis, and whoeo radius is the distance of the point from the axis. Whilst Ihe body revolves, the axia luelf la sometimes moveable, and not unfre- quently in a state of motion. We have an exampi* of thia upon a grand scale In the revolntlana of Ihe earth and pianola; one on a humbler scale in tha •pinning of a top. We ara, however, to investigate only those oaaea in whlek Ike axia ia Immoveable. In* stancee of this description an innumerable. Wheel- work of every kind, th* moving parts of watches and clocks, turning lathes, mill-work, doors and lids on hinges, ara all obvioua examplea. In aoma cases, aa in moat of the wheeli of watchea and clocks, Sic, th* body always tnma In the same direction. In others, such as In pendulnma of clocks, balance-wheels of ohronomeun, Ac, tha notion ia alurnateor recipro- cal, iu direction being at InUrvah ravened. When the aharoation I* constant and ragular, it is called emilaim or vitnUoit, aa in pendumns and balance- wheela. Bodiea moveabi* on an asl* «f rotation ara mk. milled to dlAsrent kindt of foreee. They an gene- rally distinguished by the duration of their aalfoa into inataauneoaa end contlnaad feroea. If the body which sustains an action of thq. former kind be quies- cent and free. It will mora in tke dliectiun in which the inpniae ia given vltk a luiform motion. If, how- enr, the forca latpratiad upon it be incapable of settlaa ttia aatien, then it recaiv** • shock, th* effect at if CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. wkWi U mUtt yiroiritii. A miiaiMl ton* fn. *Mn • (MiilaaMl iWm, If lk« h*tf b* tim ■■< U m lw u ly f ultMMit, Ikl* iihM la • Hailaii*! iMnan W iriiMhir. ir tk* kU]r Im m nmivIm^ ikM ik« ffUti htw MUM ^ It la ■ M il*, Ik* (Am It • MatiaMtf atatiaia ta Ik* ftmm or llati vkltk to*. lala It. A ttM ktdy wktak It aMTwkhapaa a tut ult, It fittfllklt tf aa tttllta , t i ttf l oaa of matloa If h ka takttlMtJ la ika aMita af litiaaltataai kftat, am m uHkm of Ika Mlawlaf •Attn WHt tata* I I. Tka aalt ttay r ttltt ifca hrttt, »a4 yrarta laayttl m . t. TkaaihaayaM^lfyikt tffm of ika ftntt taMalalaf a tonaiaoaalnf ftnat- tlon, aad tka kori^ f ttt W ag a aiaUMi of roiaUoa. & Tka (M«tt arylM Hay ka latk at waaM taut* ika hoiy la triaravad Ika aalt avta wtta ta aoi tmti, la wkiak taaa tka katjv *IU latalTaa aMtlan of rauiloa, km Ik* aalt will nikr ao poit u itl Bu . Wku ktt ktta lutl tkwrrtJ of iko tAtt of Initui. lamoat fctatt It Ukawlta afflltaklt lo ooaiiaatd oaai. I. Tkt akit Bay aallialT rtttti ika affaat of tuak farttt, la vkltk taaa li will talkr a pratiara vkltk DMr ka atllaialtJ kjr ika ralat hr Ika aoaptalilaa of forw t. It Bwy atodUy tka tikti of Ika appllnl foroM, la vkltk ttta It anul alto tottala a praiiura, aa4 tka baij aiatl racaln a BMMlaa of rotation wkltk It iiilijMi III ooniunt Tarlalloa, owlag to iho inott- unt Milon at tkt fwrcoi. S. Tkt forota aiay bt lach at would eataaiuBlaaia to Ika bodjr Ika tanw routory ■oiloa if tka aid wan aat tia4. la Ikit taaa Ika I b r ttt will pr.idnaa aa f rttaaia aa Ika aalt. A tiaipla and alfta lary aaaotliioa of tka BMckv aiaal arofanitt of a tnt aalt It a Balltr of ooatldrr. akia dMaally, aa4 aaaaot ka tMj aaiarad law kara. Tl>a ojaiylata italktatalltal dtraktpaowal of Ika Ihoory loaf puaaitd ika aatl aanla gtaaia l trt, aad ll wi* aalr at a toaparallTaljr raaaai parM Ikat ll wat fairly aav^Ka. A koty aaoraa raaad iM aait la Iwe wtyt i 1. BykarlagplToiaailwapalBltiWkiekrattlntotkaia. to thai, wkoii ika botj It ■and, ll aiatl larol** roand tha rifkl llaa, Joiaiaf ika pirolt ta aa aalt i t. A tkin cylladrical rod say patt Ikraufk Ika kody, oa wkiek ii may lara la ika taaaa laaanar at a wkaal upon iia ail*. Wkaa fona It applM to prydata muilim, iu powar it atUewMd, not ky ika foroo aloaa, but oy aniliiplyiair tka forea ky Ika dliuata of Iu diranloa from Ika aalt. Tka pradact It eallod Ika aiMwai of Iko Ibrea raaad Ika aalt. Tka ditiaaaa of iko dirac tint! of a feria hma tka aait la MnatlBca callad ika Urtrmgt of Ika forte. Tka aiaawataf a fnraa it, iktro. fbra, foaad ky mulllplylag Ika forea by lit Imraga, and Ika anargy of a giraa forea lo tora a body ronad ao aaia la proponloaal to Ika loraraft of tkai broa. Whan a bodr rtroiroa oa a dtad aaia. tka porta of (tt aaat are wairled in einlet roand ika lula, and bare, aeeordiagly, oanlrifiigal fonea proponlonal lo tktlrdlilaneat front Ika aait. If Ike eonnonanl porta of Ike matt were aoi uallad tegatk«rbyenliael?efaroaa of enargita graalar ikan tkaia eentrihigal foreat, Ihty would be laparated, and lly off from tka aait i kni tliair flohealoa preranu llila, aad aaaaea Ika effaelt of tka dlfferanl eeatrifugiil forett, wkiek afloat ibt dlf. ferant pant of the aiaaa, lo be trantmitted to aa lo modify eeck oibrr, and tnally to piodDca one or mora forcea meckanicaily equlTaleni lo Ike wbola, aad wkiok are eaerlad upon ihe axia, and raaiaied by it Dr Ltrdner ezplalna tkeae effeeu aa foUowi t — ll ia obvioua ihal any numlfer of equal partt of the matt, whick are uniformly arraand in a circle round the aait. hare equal oenlrifu|(al foroaa acting from the eenlreoflbe circle in ererydlreation. Thetaniuiumlly aeutrallaa eack other, and Ikerefora exert no force on Ike axia. The lane may be tald of all parte of Ike maaa which are regularly and equtUy diairibuled on ererr tide of Ike axia. Alao, if equal matiea be plaoed at equal dlataneaa on oppoiite aidaa of the axia, their eenirifugal fiircet will dettmy each other. Hence it tppean that Ihe praaiure which the axii of routlon anauioa from the centrlfumU force* of the rerolring maaa, ariiea from tha unequal diatriliutiin of the mailer around it. From thU reatoning it will be eatiiy percelred, that, in Ihe following examplet, the attt of rotation will auilaln no preeaure. A globe rerolring on any nf iudiametera, the deniity being the aame at equal dittaneee from the centre. A ipheroid ur a cylinder reTOlring on iti exit, the dentity being equal at equal diatancee from tha axia. A culfe rerolring on an exit which pataea through the centre of two oppoeile baaee, beiag of uniform deu. ally. A circular plate of uniform thlckneai and dentity rerolring on one of ita diametera aa au axia. In all ihete examplet, it will be obverred that the axia of rotation paaiea throudh the centre of gnivlty. The general theorem^ of which ikey are only particular inatancei, ia, ''if a body reroire on a principal axiR, paiaing through the centre of grnrity, the axit wiU anatain no preaaure from the oeBtrifugal force of the re- rolring maaa." Thia ia a property in which the prin- cipal axet Ihroogh the eentre of grarily are unique. There it no other axit on wkiek a body coitld reroire without pretiur*. Bat we cannot tnttr further iala thit interetling tubjacl. on TRK rEIIDt)I.IIK. If a liofly be plaoed upoa a horifonlal axia, wblck daaa not paaa through iu eentre of grarily, it will re. ■ain la paraaaattit eqniUbrinat enly wkea Ika cntra of grarily la Ititaadialelybakiw Ika ailt. Wkaa tkit point It reaiarad ta aay oikar tlivtiion, tka kody will attilltia or trnn Ittm tMa to tide, until Ike raelataaaa af Ik* air, tegat k er wlik frielinn, brlnga ll I* reel. Rnak a kody I* a pendulum. The iwiaging aMtioa wkiek It raatiraa le eallad e«a « lb«ea *r tUrmlUm. A eomBM* pendulum toatltu of a ball tuepaadad by a rad fhNB a daad poiat, and auda to lariafl haakwardt aad forwardt, or lo rlkraM uadar Ikit paiat. Ualilaa karlaf ofcaareed tka kaoglag ekandellart of loAy ealliagt to eoatlaua ribrailng loag aad wiik tin. fular uallbrmlty, a/W aay aaeMeaial eauta of dlt> lurbaaea, wat lad lo lareetlgala ike Uwt af Ike pkeaomeaaai aad out of wkal, in toata akapa or oiker, had bean before aien'a eyea, balutelattlr, from Ike kegtaalBg of Ika world, kit powerful ganlut ex. Iraetad Ik* aiatl iaporiaal raeulte. Indapandwutly of Ike llgkl whleh ike Ikaory of ik* pcadulum ktt Ikrawn on rarlout braathat of pkytlai, Ika lattru- menl Itaelf, wllk a few wke*le allaehed, In record iu ribratleu, kaa aow b ttome the perfeel lime-keeper, ragulailag naay af ik* affair* of mea. Th* p*ndU' lum It tulelly an object of malkemalioal iiudr i but wa tkall alMmpt lo glr* a g*a*r*l Idea of iu impor. laal eharaetcitiiee h nnafaa language. 1. Tka MaiM q^ Me eHralieiw of a pendulum are rery nearly eqnal, whether ll ha morlng muck or little I Ihal U to tay, wfcelkar Ike are detaribad br It be large or taiall. Tblt remarkable properly It wliai makee ll a tlmaJkaaper. Tke reaaon ihal a large rl. bratioB It performed In Ik* tarn* llai* at a tanlToiM | ia other wordt, Ikat tke paadulua alwart maree fatter in praponioQ aa iu JounMy la leogaNJa, ikat la pro- poraon at tke arc daterlbtd ia aaore exwaded, Ihe ate*p*r are lu bagtaning aad aading, and Ike more rapidly, iherafora, tka pcadulum falie down at Iral, aweepa along Ike ialermediaia tpace, and tlopt ai laet. It It erldeal, for Inaunce, ikal the portion of Ike arc moat diaunt from the oenire of grarily ia muck more ateep than that which it netreal It. A pendu- lum mafie to ribrale in the curre callad a cjrc/eld, which, la Ihe central part, rery nearly oolncideawlth a circular arc, bni lowarda tka extreBlllet rlaee a lit- tle more tueply, kaa lu beau perfectly l^ocArenoiu, or In equal limea, under all clrcumauncca. Tkle re- markable law wat one of the earlleti dltcorcriet ef Uallleu. A common rloek la merely a pendulum, with wheel- work ttuched lo it, 10 record the number of the rl- bralioni, and with a weight or ipring baring force enough lo oouniaracl Ihe retarding eiiMU of friction and the reilitauce of the air. The wheela ahow how many twingt or beau of the pendulum hare uken rilacr, becauae at erery beat a tooth of the laal wheel I allowed lo paaa. Noir, if ihtt wheel baa alxiy leeih, aa ia common, it will juat lum round once for alxty l)eau of the pendulum, or teoonda i and a hand Axed on lu axU projecting through the dlal-plaU. will be the tecond hand of the clock. The other wheela are ao connecud with thIa firti, and Ihe numbera of teelh on them ao proportioned, that one turut alxty limea alower than the flrtt, to flt lu axia lo carry a minuu hand, and another by morlng Iwelrc timce alower alill, ia fitted to carry an hour Band. 2. The /fnptk n/ a ptndutum Influeacet the lima of iu ribralion. Iiong pendulnmt ribmte more tlowly than abort onea, becauae, in correap faila four limea ai far, either directly or on anv unlt'urm atope, in two aeconda aa In one, a pen- dulum mnat be four limea at long, to beat once in two aeoonda, as to beat erery aecond. A pendulum of a liltie mure than thirty-nine inohee beau aeconda ; one of four timee that length la required lo beat double aecoudi, and one of one-fourth the length to heat half aeeondt. Aa the amalleat change in the length of a pendulum altera the raM of going of the clock, a pendulum whleh beau aeconda conatituua an eaiily found and correct tundard of meaiure. To counter- act the dilatation or contraction of penduluma from the chant(ing heat of the ■eaauna, varioua ingeuiuua contrivancee hare been employed. One of the l>eit of iheae ia a ffritiiron pendulum^ aa it ia called, from coniiating of rarioua roda of meul. It rendera the iliirerent Hilatabllity by heat of two metala compoaiiig It, the CBuie of unchanged length in the whole.— ^rno//. An idea of it may be thua formed. Huppoa* a rod three feet in len^'th : Ihe Artt and the laal foot to lie ateel, and the roiildie one lo lie braae i then let the rod be bent ao that the liraaa portion of it be placed on each ai:'.e of the ateel end*, one of which lo be ttuched to the point of auapeniion, and the other to the me- tallic bob or ball. Brata expauda with heal twice aa much aa atccl ; and thelnttrument icaocontrired that the dilferent dllatability of the two metala It made to compenaau each other, and thut keep the pendulum alwayt of Ihe tame length. Thar* la another, and a meet ingenioua one, the inrention of Mr George Graham, called the mercurial peada/um. In thit one tha metal mercury, which ia alwaya fluid at ordinary Umparaturea, ia uaed iniutd of a metallic hall. .Sup- poa* a long hallow tuba, which eonuina at the bottom an inch of mercury. Now, when the pendulum ia expoeed lo au increaaa of umperature, the tube it lengthened, and of courae the clock would more tlow ; but the quicluilrar hat alto b**n (xpandtd or railed In Ika taha, aad Ikut kaa ralaad Ik* ceair* of *acUI». litm I Ikeraby really ikanaaint tka aaadulnai, and Ikal to Ika aaaet atBaaalaf Ikaaapaaelea *f tk* taka, Ry Ikit lagaalou cantrlnMe ik* pandalaai It mad* la raaiala uackaagad, wkiek kaa k*aa pn>r*d ky tka Met of axparlaaak la lareetlgailng tka lawi wkiek fagvlal* the iIbmi of rikrailoa, two el*m*nu are In ke datarmlnad i flrtt, Ika aaaet tIm* af a tingle ribratloa i aad, iit f d, Ik* *Ba*i dittaata af tka eeatra of oadUailaa tnm Ika polal of tuapaatioB. Tka furaur li datermined by aacenalalag tka number of uacillationa whlok a pen- dulum makea lu aa kour, by meana of a good cbronn. mater. Tke aallra iIbm wkiek tke aandiilun being dirldad br Ik* numk*r of oecUlallaBi made dur. lag ikal Haw. tha exaat liai* of an* ocdUallou will be obtalaad. Tke diaiaaoe of ike eaali* of oedllalloa tnm Ika poiol of tutpantloa It a mailer af aaay ealcu- Ullon. The Hbm of Tibralloo of oaa paadulum of knawn leagth being ikni obtained, tha Mlowiag aro- blanu are eatlly toi> . 1 1 " Firtl, to flad tka leagtk of apandalum whlek ni' II ribraia la a giren lime i and, taoond, I lad Ike ' i> i of tibralloo of a paadulum of a glr, . .jngtk." t'ne former it Ihut oliuined. Tka lime of Tibralion of the linown pendulum la lo the lime uf ribralion of the required pendulum, at the aquare root of the length of the known pendulum it to ihe iquara root of the length of the required pendulum. Thit length it lh*r*foru atcerttlnahle by the urdlaary mice of arilhmellc The latuniroblem may be aolred ae folfowt I— Tke length of Ike Known pendulum ia lo Ik* Itngtk of Ihe propoted penduhim, ae tke tqnar* of Ik* tim* of rikrallon *f Ik* kaowa pendulum b to Ik* aquar* sf Ik* lime of tke pionotad pendulum. Tht laiwr it lk*r*for* found by arllkmaila. Aa tk* raM of a paadulum baa a known relation lo the Intenally of the earlh'a attraction, we are enabled by ihia inairumeni not only lo detect ceruin rarla- lioot in that attraction In rarlout paru nf the earth, but alto lo diaeorer the actual amount of the atlrac- lion at any giren place. To compare Ihe force of grarily In different parU of the earth, It la only neceaiary lu awing ih* tame pendulum in ike placae under coBiideratliin, and lo obeerre tke rapidity of lu ribrttloni. The propor- tion of Ihe force ef grarilr In Ihe aereral placee will be Ihal of the aquarea of ike reloeily of Ih* ribralion. Ubaarrationa la thit affact hare bean made at tareral placee, by Biol, Kalar, Habine, and olhera. The earth being a maaa of matur of a form nearly apherical, rerolring with conaldarable relnclty on an axia, lu component paru are affeeiad by a eenirifugal force t lu rirtue of which, tkay kara a taadmoy to fly off in a direction parpendlcnltr In tka aaia. Thia Mndency iucreaaea in the tame proportion at the dia- tanca of any part faom tha axit laeraaaei i and, conw- quenlly, ihoie paru of the earth wkick are nearer the equaur, are more itrongly alhcled by thit Influence than ihoae near the pole. It haa beaa already ex- plained Ihtt the figure of the earth it aflTecud ky thit cauia, and that it kaa acquired a ipharoidal form. The canlrlfugal force, acting In eppoaltlon to tha earth 't attraction, diminiahee lu effeou i and, conae- quenlly, where thit force it more eflicieni, a pendulum will ribrau more tlowly. By theea meant the rau of ribralion of a pandulum becomee an Indication of Ihe amoiul of Ihe centrifugal force. But thIa latter variea In proportion to the diitanoa of the place friim Ihe earth a axit ( aad ikua Ihe rau nf a pendulum indicalee the relation of the dittaucea of diifarent partt of Ihe aanh'i aurfaca from iu axia. Tlie fi|i;ure o. Ihe earth may be ihut aaceruined, and that which Ihaory atilgni to il, ll may be practically prored lo hare. ThIa, howcrer, la not the only method by which Ihe figure of Ihe earth may be deUrmiued. The me- ridiana being aecllona of the earth through ita axit, if their figure were exactly deurmined, that of the earth wo^ld lie known, MeaiuremenU of area uf meridiana on a large acale hare been executed, and are alill being made in varlcut paru of the earth, with a view to determine the curvature of a meridian at dilferent laiitudet. Thia method ia Independent of every hy- potheiia concerning the dennlty and inlernal atrncture of the earth, and ia considered by aome to be auacep- tible of moi* accuracy thnn that which dependt an tke oliterrationa of penduluma. With reapect to the other paru of Mechanical Pbl- lotophy, the moat imporUnt of them have been dii- cuiaed already in the number on Mechnnica. Upon th* lawt of mechanioa, the conatnirtlon of machiiterr, ao iraportaat for the comfort of manlcind, dependi. A machine ia an inatrumeul by which fore*, or motion may tie tranamitled and modllled aa to ItN quantity and direction. The moat simple machinea are tho mechanic powera ; and their rarioua comhinationa give ria* lo thoee beautiful and intricate ptecea of mr« chaniam which have giren man lo unlimited a aove- reigniyover uninformed matur. The other iciencea, beeidea Mechanica, which are included under Natural rhilcaophy, auch aa Hydro- ■Utlct, Optica, &e., both on account of their iniereei and importanea, will ba aflarwardi treaud of at large in Ihe pretent work. Eomat-Biia : l^blUhcd by W. and R. C'hahbbiui, IU, Wauiiiaa riacv I aUo by Uaa and Smith. I'lUrnuiter How, Luadoa i ane Vouxoand CtritNinaHAH, Dublin, soM by John te**- laod, Olaagow, aad all other Bookaallm. nam Ihe ttaan-Piaaa ef W, aad R. Ckamban. itinm, >mi «Tt4 kyth* HtlhttlaM ■iMtli Int, Ik* iwrnlwrf kr >blak ■ r«n- nad cbronn- Ittlum •>lnK> u iB«d« dor- iMloD will ti* or aMilUUom aTawr <*'*''' fMUulum of Mlowiiif pro- lb* Itngtb of m tlaw I *■>') I pmdulum of l>uln«d. Th* n li tn til* tlm* >• tht «|U*ra iluRi ii to •> m tb« unar* of lulumUlolb* nlnlam. Tht ntB nUUon la w* art tatbM MrUin nrla- • of lb* **nb, of lb* kltrae- dlf (ml p«w wln( lb* nma inlHin, and In Th* propor- i»l piMM will if lb* Tlbrallon. mad* al Mnral gihari. if a fona iwarljr * T*ladl]r on an by a Molriftiiial a iwdmoy lo d j lb* aali. TbU irtlon ai lb* dU- Ms; and, codm- [b ar* martr lb* ly ihli Influanw •n alraady «■ , affecud by ibli jpbaroidal fiim. [podtion to lb* Vu I and, oonH- r*ai, apanduluB 'in**Bt lb* rat* an ladlutlon of Bnt Ibli latter >' lb* plac* from of a pandulum diir*r*ntpatlt Til* »irui* o. and that whicb loally proTcd lu Hlhod by which llu*d. Tb*ni*- lougb lu azl*, If phat of th* *arlh (rca of msrldUni yi, and an 11111 tih, with a Ti*w bian at diffarent tnl of *ircry by- licnial •triictur* In* la b* luioep* llob ilependt an ifechanlcal PbU I baT* been dii- Lbanica. tTpiiu |n of machinery, lid, depend*. A |fnrc« or motion ■ to ita quaniiiy pehinee are tho comhinNtione -^ pierea of mf« (ilimiled a eoTe. bice, which are liuchM Ilydro- T)f their intereet aMd of al large kmM, lUi Wau-iioo |er How, LoQilunl old by Joliu >u>h btembaia. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PF.OPLE. No. 87. CONDUCTKD BV WILMAM AND ROBERT CHAMBKRS, KDIT0R8 Or "CHAMBRRR'S JOi'UN/ L' ' ND " HIHTORICAL NEWSPAriCR." Pbiob Hd. SOUTH AMERICA. To |lf* a brM, aad allb* §•«• lla* lueid, kUloryof Ihli lam*Bi* portion of ih* flab*, li a utk *ll*nd*d witb no taall dlileully. Tb* InnuoMrabl* and nn. prf tnu vetitlt to Portugal with the iiiuiiif^enco, and Kin^f Kmaniiel forthwith sent out thieu »()i«r ahipa under thti oalebrated Amcricu Ve»- puM^i (.vhose name w^i, with so much injukiica to the nieritmtf CiiIiimliiiR, ufterwardi l»e»towedoii thev ' ', uf the N«w World), uhn, after hli return, was again Milt buck ilk 1AU4, when th6lir3taM.^nieut waamada. TliiM wus nrit efTected without futaloppu.sition, us three of the crBvff who were nent ashore to converse with the nutivei who lined the l>each, were instantly mur- dfred, roasted, and eaten, before the eyes of their vtimradetu ThlK circumstance, together with the idea entertained that the i-'ouncry was only productive of vuud, parrots, aud munkeyi, deterred the Purtuffueke /rum iuakinf( any other serious attempt tu ettahlikh a eoliMiy until '54^. In thut year, an expedition was • lit out under Thomas de Souca, to whii-h soma Ji^'i'ilta were attached, who managed so well in con- dlUcing the natives, thut the latter f^.ivo them no far. (her disturbance; and the city of Ht Salvador (Bahia) was thou founded, which, up to 1771) continued to be the capital of llraiil. lu the meantime, the whole of the north>east coast liad been explored, aud numerous little settlements effected by various adventurers from Spain and Pttr- tuffal, which were then the only maritime nations that idiaiin^ished themselves in this way. The wealth of the country in gold and precious stcmes was S'>ou diS' covered ; aud as the revl value of ibem was unknown to the natives, their visitors or invadsri were enabled to h^d themselves with riches. Up to thr year IJ" , l)owpv»>r, the kuowled^e uf the Paci't, Ocean had ro- miuiied unknown to these adventurers, and, conse- ^utntly, all the rich countries which lie along its •bores. In that year, a Spaniard, nimed Vasco Nunez de Balboa, liavinpr attached tu him a troop of 160 of his cmintryinen, fuundtsl ii colony in the Isth- mus of Diirien, wherea i>im|>lt) ludlaui perceiviii|( the fondness uf the Spaniards lor K"l^i olFereil to show them a country whore that metal was u»ed for the meuuii^t vessels. He accordingly le^ them into the Interior, whence they got i\ sight of the Oreat P^cif.c OcKaii, and of the wealthy and populous city of Peru. Balboa did not venture to proceed, but returned to I>.irien, where he fuuml a new governor, Pedra- rius, htui got uppuintod in his place, who, innti- ICRtcd by Hvatice and jealousy, put him to death. Aithuui^h the exiitence of the rich countries tu the w«6t of the Andes hud thus become known, no one wuc daring eiiotigh to attempt a hostile expedition aguinst , with abotit eighty men auii four homes. Owing to Ignorance of navigation, they s'llTered severe lost in coasting ahitg, but Pizarro persevered ; and having snlHciently s;itiBtit'd himself reipecting the immense wealth of the cities aud soil, he returned to Sf ain for reinforcements. The presents he brought to the king at once procured him these, with a com- mtssjun as governor and captain-general of the new- found territories, and the right uf a;)propriuling to himself a lar^e share of the profits of the expedition. He accordingly lailed with three ships, carrying iHd ■uldiers, ihiity.N'Jvcn horses, several pieces of ord- nance, ammunition, stores, Ace. Un lauding, they found a rivil wur raging, of which Piiarro did not fail totuko advantage, tiud his conduct will render his name for ever a byword of treachery, rapacity, and cruelty. Having extorted immense sums, under proniiBe of ar- aistauce, from the reigning luca, AtuhuaJpa, a day was «p|Hiinted for delivering up the treasuio iu a large aquare surrounded by a tiigh wall, Into whicli Pizarro had introduced his artillery and soldiers. When the g'* td Inca had enteral, and the sijtiare \^At filled with liii fiillowers to the number, it is said, uf 7U00 or tiUOO, PiE'irro opened his hrtillery upon them, and slau rh- tered every man, with the exception of the Inca, who Waft reserved for further use. PizLirro olFeted tu re- lease him upon his p tying an enormous ransom, Iwing, U is sai I, no lets than a whole house filled with gold. Byipoitlng the temples, and other means, the ransimi was soon made np, and no sooner delivered, than the unfortunate captive was put to deutU—butng allowed to chooi>e straiigttlatlou, instetd of burning, as a re- ward for becoming a Christian f Tlie news of their success liriMight a great accession of strength from Kurope to tliein/aders; and Pixarro, in order to cuu- Bitlidate hist'Dipire, founded, In l^X*, the city of Lima, Intending it !ts the future capital of bis domiuicms. The joint chiets of theexpeoitioti, alarmed at his pro- Cft>dingi, attempted tu reaist, but he soon t>obdued them, md (M-dered Atmaitro, un oid mar in his 7dth year, who had been his comiianion in his tirtt ex. Mditiun, Ut be slraiigled. The su.i uf the victim, acvever, orgaJiisvu a cjnspirucy four veais altvrwaidF, broke into the palace at Lima, and succeeded in de- stroying the Humsier. It is needless to trace this part of our subject farther ia this place, aa it will afterwards fall to be treated of under the lie&d of Peru. The province uf Buenos Ayrei was tirst coasted along by Amarieu Vespucci iu the year lAOl, but ha I was driven off that latitude by tempestuous weather. '" I&IG, the entrance of the great river La Plata was firat discovered by Juan Diaz, do Soli!!, M-ho commu. uicatad his own name tu tlia stream. I'eurful of ven- turing too far up the river iu his little squadron of three ships, as the navigation seemed both dangerous and ditlicult, he sailed aloDg its uortlwrn shore in his long-boat, and seeing some savages on the beach, who by their gestures and signs seemed to invito bhn on shore, he imprudently landed with u few men, when the whole were instantly killed and devoured by the Indiana, before their companions' faces. A party of the Portuguese, settled in Uraail, afterwards attempted an overland march to the new territory, but thehe were also alt massacred on the banks of the Paraguay. At last Charles V. sent Sebastian Cabot, In 152U, to sail round the then recently discovered Straits uf .Magellan ; but that commander having anchored in the La Plata, then called Rio de Soils, he received such flattering accounts of tlie riches and beauty of the country, that he abaitdoned his origiual purpose, and proceeded up the river. In ascending, he aud his uHicera run into mistakes respecting the main stream, amidst the im- mense number of large tributaries that poured into it. J proceeding up the Paraguay, he whs attacked by the lives, who killed twentv-dve of his meu, and com- pelled iiim to return. Having, however, obtained bome gold and silver from the Indians in barter, he trans- oiitted it to the empei'cr, who highly approved of Cabot's conduct, and sent out unuthei- armament of nearly 3000 men under A'euduza. So tierce and ubttiinate, ho^v. ever, was the resistance of the natives, that this ex. pedition likewise failed to establish a peaceable or safe settlement. A continual struggle was in this way kept up, till, iu loUU, a number of Jesuits went uut to convert the savage Indians; and such was the ef- fect of their labours, proceeding fearKsAly tlir. ughuut every part of the interior, thut they succeeded in pav. iiig the way ti» an ultimate reconciliation, making thousandi of converts, formiiif them into industrious cotnmunitius culled retluctions, aud, in sober fact, actu- ally reducing them tu the condition t)f civili.ncd societies. These worthy men, however, f^'it little thanks for their labours from tliu Spanish bi-ttlcrs, \\ii> accused them tu the home governmeut of stirring uj* the no. tives to sedition ; but thu proofs of their beneficial labours were too strong to be confuted. The history ot I'hiii furnishes uue of those exoep- ti ins to the dogma which asdrgns to civilisation ahme, intelligence, patriotism, aud other virtues of a high umral standing. Looking to iheir civil, dimichtic, and political institutions. It is clear they possess a Uw iiigher degree of independence and energy of charac- ter than any of the other aboriginal natives of America. Tu keep even a partial po^Eession of Chili cost the Spaniards murebh>od and treasure than alt Uieir other settlements put together. One portion of the natives, indet:d-~the Araucanians^who refused to eucertain any terms wtiatever with the great conijuerors, have maintaiued their independence unimpaired fur upwards of three hundred years, and now live under a govern- ment of their own, which, singular to .say, is highly aris- tocratic, hut at the same lime atFording perfect necurity to the liberty of thu people. Pit . lous to the cou(|uest of Peru by the Spaniards, some or the northern parts of Chili were kubject to tlie liicas, whoofc^iurse sur- rendered to the coti<|iiurors their authority over these provinces. The Clulians at lir^t v.ure disposed toac knowledge the supiemacy of the Spjiiiiardfi, but the oppressive conduct of the latter soon rous*:d tiiem to resistance, and they ()iiii.:ltly expelled tho invaders. Pizarro tafterwardK sen tCiiiitral Valdiviaag ui .: titem, who succeeded inconciliating the northern poiiionnof the nation, aud he founded the city of >aniiago in lAil. He then proceetled agaiiiAt tlie Bou^heru pi>r- tion, where he louuded tlie city ul (.'onco|)ti 'ii, but was attacked by the Aruucaniaiis, who drove thern from their territories, 'i'lie cities of Villanc.i, \\ildivi:t, luiperial, and other towns founded inmi liuie to time by the . pauiaidi, were regularly ushuulind and takun by this brave people, who continued their resistance until their in\adeis were glad to sue for jteace. Tho Uutch lent over an armament with the prorr*s%ed ub> jeut of assisting to expel tlie Spaniards, but the Clii- liaua loon saw the seltishness uf their motives, and turned them adrilC The treaty uf pe.ice conchnted betwixt the Spani irdn and Clulians, la.sled till the )ear l(fri5, when hostilities again biukeo.anian!iagaiu took up arms upon uii attempt tteiiig ui.ide to couum-I them to liie iu towns and villages. At length pea'je was restored upon one i-ouditiuu— tint the ^Vr.aica- nians should hetu'eforth have a rcsiilc.it niluister at Saiitlago_a provision which suJhctenlly shows their , ower and iniporisnce. I>y this time the other parts of Chili had ncknotsJedged the snuremacy of the. ^pu- uiaril^, and all par's ol the nation appe.irs to h.tve remained uudihUiibed until the general i'e>oliitiuini'-y nioveuiunts in lolU— uf which n>oie hureaftur. At the time ti gre^it South Ameiiciiu conuuuntj nuithvr l:'iance uox i.. i|^i.oid h.ol begun to display a similar spirit of enterprise i and wheu Uie ^Irit of txilonlsloK at length nanifaaled it- self, their views weru directed rather to the northern portion uf the same continent. The onlj purpoae, la- deed, for which the English maritime adventurers of tba age uf EUcabeth visited the South Seas, was plun- der; and these— embracing the names of meu which have been recorded as tho brightest ornamantt of our naval annuls — were loaded with honuun and reward* just in proportion to the extent of their robbtriee. It is a curious fact, that, amongst the first adven- turers to the southern continent from Britain, waaaa expedition which proceeded from tho port of Leith. The place of settlement was the isthmus of Darien, and, had the enterprise not been nppuied and ruined by tha mean and selhsh policy uf a few narrow-minded mono- polists, it would have proved oueof tfaemoitusefVil and inn >rtantto(ireat Britain thateverwaaprojeotad. Of tlh I i!.e, progress, and catastrophe of thu waU-planaed but ill-fated undertaking, Sir John Dalrymple, in bis Memuiri of Great Britain, has given a most interest* ing» and indeed affecting, u'count. A Air Paterion. a Scou clergyman, was the projector t the celebrated Fletcher of Salton patronised his plan ; through hia iullueuce the Scots ministry adopted it, and in a short time nearly a million sterling was collected in £ng- land, Scotland, and Holland— of which U400,000 wu subscribed in Scotland alone, beingonC'haffqf the cask then in the countrjf» Two expeditions, amounting to- gether Ut 2501) men, sur-cessively sailed irom Leith for the projected settlement ; but *' the jealousy of trade,'* says Sir John, *' which Las done more mischief to England than all other causes put together, created an alarm iu England, nnd both houses concurred In an address to the king against the establishment, at deiriineiitttl to the interesuof the East India Com- pany." The consequence was, that tite English, Dutch, and Americans, werepiohibited by King Wil- liam III. from all correspondence with the colony; the second expedition sailed ; but when they arrived, they found that the whole of their predecessors were gone — either dead from starvation, as it afterwarde turned out, or having left the coluiiy in despair. Their succetsurs shared the Lame fate. Cut uff from all sup- plies, interdicted all communication with the West Indies or British America, and besieged by the Spa- niards both by sea and land, this ill-fated colony vat obliged tu capitulate to the enemy. Having now given a short sketch of the original history uf the principal South American colonies, ws shall next proceed tu detail britily the means by which the ilowufall of the Spanish power was effected In America; foritwuuld be us Impossible as unnecessary to attempt to trace the history of the various settle- ments fr&cd more inituence thau any. Every body, how- ever, {>o&sctstd Btpmo privileges but the poor Indians, who were in no respect better than beasts <>f burden ; fur, aUlumgh laws were made by the home government from time to tinie for their prtitectlon, tbay were never acted upon; and as the only object uf tlie govern- ment was to raise a large revenuu frum the culonisia (whom they taxed to the uttermost), no notice was ever taken nf this disrogard tif the laws. The Creole or Americau-I.'orn Spaniards were excluded from all public olt'ces, frouk the highest tu the lowest, all of which were lieatowed ou the natives uf Spain. These functiiniaries, wIiomu sole ohject was tu make money, acted the pai t of true despots towards the other classes ; plundeiing, taxing, and exacting, without the ntightest regard to merry or juHticc. .Men rose to nfllueuce in ultices withiint salaries, and the priests rivalled the la>iiien in the ait uf extracting utuney fiom the ua- tive.t. Iu a uord, the (.'reoh-s were little bttterto be euvi 'd than the niiserablu Indians. That this system hould h.ive continued for upwards of three hundred • Tl!"ir rtili>-r !»• t«lo!ii wcie Mcnii-o or New Mjialn, Viicstsn, •nd llu.itsiiul.1 (ixan now In ilai Mi-ihttsti cunlttliriie)), and (*u) n Hi tl.p '.Vnt liiitk*. \Nitli I.. car, bunttw, ko liavu uuthiu^ it( fre>ei:t lo do. I>riiai 'nd itifMMdh. tnorthtra urpoMi l«- enturan of , wu pluu- men which ■ntt of our nl rowiidi bbtriM. }r>t adren- i lain, wwui t u! Ulth. [)ariau, itnd, iiinedbjrtha luded mono- It uieftil *nd rojceud. Of ■TtU'pUnnM )mt\», In til loit inWrMt* Ur Pawrion, be ulebratM ; through hit lid in k ahoit i:ted ia £d(- j.400,000 WM ,al/ qfllu cotk imounling Jo- Iroin Laithlor iu»y of trado," e miicbiaf to other, created 8 concurred In nblinhment, a( at India Com- llvo Engliih, I by King Wa- ih the colony ; n they arrived, etieceiKon wer9 1 it al'wrwarde deipair. Their lU from all ""P- with the Weat ged by the 8p»- uted colony wM of tlie original Mu coloniefc we moans by which wai effected In le M unnece«»«ry e varloui aeitle- own to modern I Spaularda— th« tlie oppreued to n hiitury of th» iro the materiali [the intermediate lea elfecuJ by the 'iwever, be gi»en virions headi- itition by the dr- { broken out ii- ittlemenu, while uroviuutiy heen ;J perfectly tran- Lnlsh potMMlona liict governments, lid independent of Icc-royaltieit via. L (tlie latter being lent •tatei c' Co- T-Bl.bipa, Chili and Irwardt merged In tnmeutwiui vetted lliu wa» held to re- ^iiuvei utiached to ;ir supreme courti, ^ly the crown, eu- [aijodid themunl- tcrhapt tli3 clergy [Every bully, how- 1 the poor Indiana, beunis «'' burden ; liome government I, may were never Li of the govern. Ifrom the colouiMi 111, no notice waa Li-.. The Creole i cxcludeil from all [the iuwejt, all of I, ulSpaiu. Theie L, to niulto money, fitliu other cluMci; itlioutlbe>lighte«t t,Me I" nffluince in Lrietu rivalled the Liiev tVoin tlie ua- [e li'tile bitter to be Tliiit tliii »y«ie'n i,f three hundred Laii vunli.ttiuv, )« »"* SOUTH AMERICA. ycATt, can only be Recounted for bytliemesni ndoitted to keep the miuda of the nttivet ia darkuesi end IfDuranoe. AU booki of general knowledge or iiifor. matioD were prohibited from being imported ; »chooli of every kind discourngrd t while the prie«t5 filled the mindi of the natlvee with the moit childish nuperati. tloni and religioni terrors. Nay, few could obtain iMve to Tliit foreign coiintrlei. Such wae the skate of things in Spanish America, when Ferdinand " the beloved ** was dethroned and Imprisoned by Bonaparte, and orders nrrived in the coJionies to enenre iitbmiasion to the new dynasty of the conqueror's brother Joseph, who had succeeded to the crown. The functionaries and priests wouli* have been very willing to purchase a contlnunnre of their meaua of plunder on such terras, but the op- pressed classes thought this would be a suitable time tor procuring some remission of tlieir miseries. Juntas were formed in almost all the states during 1000, and in 1810 the 6rst insurrection broke out in Mexico. It would be impossible to give any consecutive outline of tha T!^riont military operations. Besides, we will have to advert to them afaortly in noticing the various states. Suffice it to aay, that after a bloody struggle, protracted tlU the year 1826, the Spanish monarchy lost every foot of ground In the western world, if we except the ielaada of Cuba and Porto-Rico^ which she still re- tains. Tha atrocitiet perpetrated by the Spanish rovallsts daring thene wars are perhaps without a parallel in the annals of the human race, and point out that peo- ple aa being infinitely inferior in all that characterises a Christian or civilised community among the nations of £urope. Men were mHSsacred in cold blood, fre- quently oy hundreds and thousands at a time; trench- ory, perfidy, and contempt for the most solemn oaths, wore universally practised. Neither European nor In- dian was spmrod in their thirst for blood and plunder; and it has been calculated that no less than a miilion ^fhmman btingt were destroyed by them in the course r^ ' izteen years 1 COLOMBIA. That divlslfm of South America known by the name of Colombia (after the celebrated discoverer), com- prised, under the Spanish domination (as it now again does), threedistinct States or governments, called by the aameeof the Vice-royalty of NewGrenadn,theCaptain- fenerahhlp of Caraecas, and the Presidency of Quit'^* t Is bounded on the east by the A tlantic Ocean ; on the north it extends over part of the Isthmunof Darlen, but It is aeprcely yet known how far ; on the west it is bounded by the PacIRe Ocean ; and on the south by the river Tnmbex. The whole extent of territory Is com- prised between lat. 12* 30' N. and 60'* S., and extends over a surface of 1,100,000 sauare miles. The western part contoins the loftiest ridges of the Andes, while the eastern stretches out into fmmense plains, inter- sected by gigantic rivers. In the vallies of the Andes, nisod 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, the popu. lation ia chiefly concentrated. The principal chnin of the Andes is that of Cnraccas, running along the north coast, with summits of from 12,000 to 14,000 Uset high. The principal rivers of Colombia are tho Magdalena, the Amacm (or Maranoi.), and the Orinoco. In Venexuela, the year is completely di- vided by the rainy and the dry seasons; the for- mer commencing in November and ending In April. Gold, platina, silver, cinnuhar, copper, mercury, Iron, and coal, areamonp the mineral riches of Colombia. The prin ipal artic)» of export are cocoa, Indigo, t8bacc(S cotice, hides, ana "attle. The imports com- fwehend manufactured ^^lods of nvery description. The contraband tradv Is crried on to a great extent by the Dutch and £nglirli, oxrlng to the facilities af- fnrded by the Orinoco and its tributaries. The ports of LaOuayra, Riodel Hachi, Santa Martha, Cartha- gena, Chagres, Porto Cahello, Pnnsma, nndOuyaquil, are those most frequented by fort^Igners. Besides these, the chief cUiou are Bogotn, Caraccas, Quito, Cumana, C-*ciita, Nfw Valenciu, St Thomas, Barce- lona, MaracJbo, and Merida. The pr j>nlation, accord- ing to the report of 1H37| amnunte'l to the enormous quantity of 2,8fi7)U, but the unset- tled state of the country allows but little to be efTerted in the way of education. Jury trial has been Intro- duced into Colombia, for offences against the press, and in commercial mntters, Colombia will ever retain a prominent place in his- tory, as having been the chief scene of the efforts of the immortal 8imon Dolivar, who may well be styh'd the Washington of his cotintry. He was horn of noble parents, In the city of Cnrarcas, In July 17B3. After receiving the elements of a lihernl ediirsiion at home, he was sent to Madrid to compli'te his Jtndles. lie then travelled through flermanynnd Frnnce, and re- •nrtiing to Madrid, married a rich and noble lady, with whom he embarked for Camccas, intending to fpend his future life in domestic pence and retirement 201 upon his large estate. His lady having soon died, he again railed for Kurope; and on his return through the United StateH, bernine imbued with the principles of lilwrty, and immediately embarked in the scheme* of the patriota at Venezusla. Previous to this, there had been two attempts at revolution in Colombia — once in 1707j and again in 1806; and although re- pressed, the doctrines of freedom had been dissemi- nated fur and wide. Upon the general movement in 1800, from the causes already explained, he was amongst Its chief promoters, and received a coloners commission from the Supreme Junta at Caraccas. From the period of the Venezuelan declaration of in- dependence in 1811, accordingly, he took the most prominent lead in all their military operations ; but we can only notice his future career in connection with the general current of events. A liberal con- stitution being established, affairs went on smoothly until the great earthquake in 1812 (to be noticed elsewhere), when a great change took place in public opinion, from the influence of the clergy on the su- perstitions of the people, who were made to believe that the dreadful casualty was in consequence of their adoption of the new order of things. Monteverde, a royalist general, taking advantage of the situation of affnirs, marched against Caracoaa, and toon effeeted its resubjugation, HoKvar himself escaping to Curacoa. In 1813, he returii<;d ; and being entrusted with an army by the confederation of Grenada, ha again ef- fected tne liberation of Venexuela. Finding the ne- cessity of entrusting their affairs to the guidance of some one energetic mind, the Venexuelans named him dictator ; and by his exertions, a union between the republics of Grenada and Veneinela was for the first time effected in 1819, Quito being at this time under the dominion of the Spaniards. This was the first confederation styled the Republic of C iombia. At the congress which ensued, a republican constitution was established, Bolivar being elected president, and Santander vice-president. The former immediately afterwards returned to the seat of war ; and after two years* campaign, the details of which It is impossible to give here, succeeded in completely overthrowing the Spanish power In Colombia. He then msuvhed to effect the liberation of Pern — for the proceedings of which campaign see that head. Colombia remained tranquil and prosperous from 1833 to 182G, under the presidency of Santander in Bolivar's absence, when its misfortunes again commenced, and to which there has been hitlierto no cessation. General Paez, who, next to Bolivar, had been the principal leader during the revolution, was a man of Indian extraction, and in his youth was a UanetOy or cowherd. Possessing a daring and energetic disposition, he managed, at uie period of the revolution, lo ra'^e a rugiment of Ua^ nerosy and performed such essential services to the patriots, that Bolivar soon gave him a high command. Paez, however, was a man of a bnital, dissolute, and reckless disposition, and during Bolivar's absence in Peru, committed some excesses, which induced the senate to summon him to appear before them. Upon this, Paex placed himself at the head of his troops, and became the nucleus of a strong party disaffected to the central government. Things were in this state when Bolivar returned, in 1827, from Peru. In order to accomplish a reunion, he requested a personal interview with Paez at an inn near Caraccas; and the particulars of this meeting, as described by an eye-witness. Captain Chamier, K.N., in his cxci>IIent novel, the ** Life of a Sailor," is worthy of a place here, as illustrating the character of one of the great- est men of modern times : — " Bolivar arrived in the vicinity of the inn at the appointed time, attended only by Colonel Wilson (son of Sir Robert Wilson) and one or two domestics. It was found, however, that Paex waa not true to his engagement It was an hour of intense anrl&ty to all but Bolivar, who alone could have been much injured by the perfidy of Paex, who had so often broken his faith, and had so frequently involved his country In civil discord. The Miierator, however, bore his usual equanimitv of countenance, and, mounting his mule, descended into tlu falley. On turning a sudden angle, his surprise was great Ht beholding a plain covered with tents, and liearing the appearance of a hostile forre encamped. As Bolivar neared his/Wend, he perceived the soldiers forming in two files, and flanking the road along which he was to pass; when his faithful aid-de-camp hinted that some perfidy might be intended; and as they advanced along the road, observed that the line of soldiers closed up In their rear. Bolivar, on being told this, had the presence of mind not even to torn round to watch the mantuuvro, but steadily pursued his course. Bolivar soon saw Paez standing with some of his general officers, and directing bin mule to the plitce, quietly dismounted, and folding the treach- erous thief in his arms, exclaimed aloud, ' By this behaviour, and this stitimission to the government, you have saved your country I* Thi» army immedi- ately Hhouted, *Viva Bolivar I* The mountains re- echoed the cheer; and Paez, overcome by his feelings, reolined on the breast of the president. It was im- mediately agreed that hoth should together make a kind of triumphal entry into Caraccas" — which took place accordingly. Paex's example, however, was the occasion of dlitor- ders breaking out In other parts of the republic, en- tirely disunited in purpose or object, when Botivar, nt n general rimvention, promulgated his Bolivian code of governmei.t, the principles of which were iu ac- cordance with that of Britain — for he waa confessedir an ti -republican in hin opinions — and whloh he hai persuaded the Peruvians to adopt. The result, after great opposition, ended in his being chosen perpetnal dictator, whirb ofTice he accepted, aUhough his cha. racter hat suffered considerably by the measure. So violent was the indignation of the republican party, that an attempt was made to assassinate him, whioh, however, failed. In 1828, war broke out between Co- lombia and Pern, In consequence of Bolivar's allegei attempt to get himself also elected president or dhe. tator of the latter state ; but peace was concluded In the following year. Before the end of 1829, luvw^ ever, every town, province, and village of VenezMi)%- had declared for a republican government, under Ui4 - auspices of Paez. Bolivar, in short, became as niiw thing in Colombia, and he foolishly kept up civil dis. cord by his presence, which was tlie occasion of repeated revolts and great bloodshed. Another commander and president waa ultimately appointed in his plare^ when, worn out by grief and agitation, this great man expired at the village of San Pedro, near Santa Mar- tha, on December 17, 1830. After the death of Bolivar, the three component states of Colombia — Venezuela, Grenada, and Quito — peaceably agreed again to become ir-i .pendent of each other, severally recurring to the old repnbllcan form of government. Paez was elected president of Venezueni, which office, according to the latest ac- counts, be continued to hold with considerable popu- larity. Santander was chosen president of New Gra- nada ; and General Flores of Quito (or, as sometlmea now called, Eiiuator or £qu:idor). Whether theso three states may ever again unite, remains to be seen- BUXNOS AYKES, OR THE UNITED PR0VIKCB8 OF LA PLATA. The united provinces of La Plata are bounded on the west by Chili and Peru ; on the east by Braxil and the Atlantic ; on the south by Chill ; and on tho north by Bolivia, pHTaguay, and Banda Oriental. The superficies of the united provinces comprised on area of 1,090,000 square miles, and was divided into fourteen provinces by the Spanish government In 177% at the time Buenos Ayres was erected into a vire- royalty. The population of the entire vlce-royalty, according to the report of special commiisione f ap- pointed fnr that purposein 1818, amounted to2,C;.),00<>. As the vice-royalty of Brienos A yres at the time of iia erection included the rich provinces of Upper Pern, the commerce of the I/a Plata rose into great im- portance, several Spanish ports being then aUo*?ed ta trade with them ; but it again sunk, never to revive^ during the war between Spain and England, in 1797> In 1806, Buenot Ayres was taken by a small English expedition, under Admiral Popham and General Be- resford ; but the inhabitants, recovering from their surprise, soon afterwards drove their assailants front the town. In the following year, General White- locke arrived with reinforcements; the troops wero quietly permitted to enter the town, when they wero repulsed with tremendous slaughter, and ultimately compelled to evacuate the I     it these provinces (then nine in numiier) nssumrd the name of the United PnovixcEs or La Plata. Tiie functions of the governnu'nt were discharged !iy a constituent congress, the -xccntire power bciuff en- trusted to the provincial gover.imeiit of Buenos Ayies. About this time the united provinces were inx-olved'^ ft long and devastating war with Brazil, concerning the possessiim of the intervening territory, Bauda Oriental (of which ree the -epnrutc hendj, which con- tinued until 18'in, when It was mutually n^'^reed to erect it into an independent state. In the same year the able president of the congress, Rivadavia. whoso talents Blon« had preserved the unity of the fedesation, resigned. This was the signal for general disorgani- sation, and each of the provincps again became Inde- pendent. Kach province now governs itself, havin|{ customhouses on their frontiers, with the unomaloua exception that Buenos Ayres is still entnisted with the diplomatic fnuctiuu o( arranging their relatlona with l'.>reign powers. The province of Buenos Ayres It«lf comprised In 1822 an area of not more tlmu IfilB square leagues; hut since then, an Imnienso addition has been mado out of tho adjacer'. Indiat. tn'-I^ories, partly by force, and partly by conciliation. Thi" recent ac- qiilstUon romprlF»'s by far the fluest land In the pn»- vince. The whole territory is nn almost unilVtrmly level plain of great fertilliy, watered by a few ri- vers of moderate size, the largest being almost niv- where above four feet deep. There are almost no natural trees la the province, but there are aumeroim CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ri plantations or ntker orchArds of peach (ree«, which the native! ctiUlvata for lire-wood— thn fruit being applied to feeding the twine ard poultry. Immenie toretita of thiulet iprlng up at certain seaioni of the year, often and twelve fret in height. Deer is plen. tiftil In the wilder partii, but little prised T^here there it to much fine heef. The climate \* extremely lalu- brioue. The city of Duenoi Ayre* ii situiited on the aouthern margin of the river Plata, where the latter ie formed by the confluence of the Parana, Uruguay, and Negro riven. It is thus, as it were, the key to all the Internal navigati:)n. The length of the Plata from it* formation to the ocean it upwards of seven hun- dred miles. The city occupies a Urge extent of f round, being about two miles long, and a mile and a alf broad, all the streets crossing at right angles. There area Jesuit university, au Episcopal cb« >.!, and altuut tifteen other churches. The prosperity of Buenos Ayres and the other provinces Ih greatly im- pptied by the rfefeotive navigation of the river Plata, which ii filled with ahoals and landbanks, and there- jtiru dangerous to large vessels, otherwiiie the city of Itiienos Ayres would become one of the largest em- poriume of commerce in the world. The rivers Pa> rana and Uruguay are each navigable ftir vessels of Irom two to three hundred tons, fifteen hundred miles into the interior; the fitrmer running through Para* guay into the centre of Bolivia. Speaking generally, the so-termed united provinces of La PlHta may lie reckoned, from their natural riches and advantages, as one of the most important divisions of South America. In 1830, even in their disunited condition, the exports amounted to nearly two millions. One of the distingulahing character- istics of La Plata, are the vast plains called pampas^ one portion of which extends from the banks of the Paraguay, westward to the frontiers of I/os C'harcas, and northward to the mountains of C'hiqui tot— an- other immense plain, three hundred miles in length from east to wMt, and fifu'en hundred from north to -louth, as far as the interior of Patagonia, nine hun- dred miles of which appertained to tlio vice*royalty. These plains present one uniform expanse of waving frasf, uninterrupted Ity eithtr wood or eminence, although in some places parched and barren, and per> ftrctly uninhabited, unless by innumerable herds of wild oxen, horses, ostriches, and other auimiils. Over theee pampas lies the only route by land from Buenoi Ayres to Chili, which journey was formerly perf«jrmed by large compauiee, as the plains were infested by hordes of roving Indians, who went there to hunt, catch wild horses, and plunder. From the absence of all permanent landmarks, the travellers over these Immense plains shaped their unirse hy the compass, and their caravans were in reality niovtalile hout>es, aulid and defensible. Of late years, regular pott- houses have been established along the whole lino of road betwixt Santiago (capital of Chili) and Buenos A yret^ a distance of nearly 1400 miles— and a regu- lar communication Is kept up ttetwixt the two pro- vinces by means of couriers, who perform their jouruies with uncunimon speed. TARAdUAY. The republic of Paraguay, foruierlyoneof the united provincesoftbe vice- royalty of Buenos Ayres, is situat- ed between the rivers Parana (on the east and south), and Paraguay (on the west). It is divided by a moun- tiunuus ridge from Biuzil on the north. It comprises tui area of about &U,s<|uare miles, with apopulatiuu oi about 250,000, seven-tenths of which are Creoles. At the revolution In 1810, the Buenos Ayreans sent a body of troops into Paraguay to subdue the Spanish authorities ; but the people rttse in arms, nnd after re- pelling them, quietly deposed the governor themselves, and proclaimed Paraguay a republic, under two con- suls, Francia and Vegrus. Soiiu after, the former caused himself to be elected dictator for three years, and at the end of that time procured his nomination for life. In 1837, be obtained an aiknonledgmeut of the in- dependenre of Paraguay from Don Pedro, th?n empe> ror of Braxil. This extraurdiniiry mun is a native of Paraguay, and studied for the church, in which pro- fession he actually took out his di[)lnma as doctor of thei'lugy in the university of Cordi>va del Tucu- man. He afterwards iliangtHl his views, and studied law, which he practlied for some years, distinguished liy bff extraordinary learning, ability, and integrity, tin the breaking out of tlie rflictliou, a tnnn ol hiit talents could not Im wanted; and l>eJng the only indi- vidual of learning and ability in the province, he may be said to have managed the nhciloanairs of tliat crisis himself. In fact, )«;:: practice was, whenever he was opposed by the rest of the junta, u» retire inti> tlie country, when they were glad to recall him upon hit own termti. The ascendancy he thusacjuired he has ■luce maintained in his dignity as perpetual dictator, and is certainly one of the mi> tide of their commerce. OANDA OVtEMTAL. This comparativelv small state, vhich occasioned such a long and bloody ctmtentitui lie\ween the united provinces and the Braxilian government, is situated between the river Uruguay and th) Atlantic from south U* north, and between the rivrrs Plata and Pa- rana from cast to west. From its position, between the Spanish and Portuguese settl'-ments, it sotui he- came an object of contentitnt ; but it would be a waste of time to follow the course of the struggle. SulHce It to say, that after seas of blood and mines of treasure had Wen expended, In a war of more than half a century's duration, during which the disputed terri- tory, by being the common battle-field, was devastated hy both, the ctuitending parties at last drew stakes, and It was erected into an independent state in Ifl'ilt. Its extent is calculated at about UO.OOO souls, aliiuist all of whom are white. The canital, Montevideo, containing 10 000 Inhabitants, holds a most important position, beln^ situated at the very mouth of the river La Plata, ou its uurtheru bank. cm 1.1. Chill is bounded on the north by La Plata, on the enst and south by Patagonia, from which it is separated by the Andeii, and on the west by the Pacific Ooeaii, along the sl.oresof which it stretches from 35" to 44° of south latitude. It is 1300 miles long, and fnim 30 to 120 broad. The ground slo(>es gradually up f om the ocean to the Andes, but is intersected by ihetr projecting branches, some of which run almost down to thesea- shore. Chili is at present one of the least valuable of all the Sou;h American possessions, the greater part of it being barren and uncultivated, owing to the want ot streams. The two most northern of the thirteen provinces into which it is divided arc almost deiertsf but those in the south are equal in beauty and ferti- lity to any other part of South America; and amid splen- did ivoodtands, the fiuebt crops of wheal, hurley, rye, and other specif f grain, are raised with scarcely any trouble to the c. lirator beyond scattering the seed. (Cotton, sugar.cn .e, vines, \c., nrealsuexteosivelycul* tivated. The country is perfectly free of all noxious reptile*, t^e climate salubrious, and the weather se- rene. The waut of navigable rivers is unfavourable M commerce ; and although there are many rich mines of gold, silver, and copper, in tlie northern provinces, the sterility of the c; hut this is supposed to Iw exaggerated. The population is estimated at upwards of l,ri00,0 »f/t if ! TT " r Ar»uc». B of ««ry It force Of la hu lei ly tpokaa 1,800,000. igo, or St Itantt, iind tl Be«-pi>rl, 9. Ueiidiia I, Quilotu, I of Inferior KH) dolUra, ), But this . The ex- mounted td ly UCU.OOO ' native mit- nthetborea . There »r« umber, one- >in upwitda illva race, of imaU, rocky, covered with her duster of iitb, end he-* id the Archi. led by savage south latitude wiufaar. Oua nilea long and I>a Foe, who ion Crusoe oa [, who, being id by his ship- ds by CapUln althoughbeau- la other, called liarda. contributed tu attaches to no a iuezbButtiUe ur of iU ancient U first invaders , land of "Di;s- the imagination ,n of the dajs of Tied from Peru. Dviuoes, aud re- lit of the South Bb, we brought of Piaarro. We sediDgaaualB,or andlhevatioua i» Perm'.ans to the ancient em- 600,000 square , to the one-half. lilowaadismem- le.ruyaiiy of New 5 Potosi, and se- were aunrxed to It la now called e latter dinjoiud cru, since formed itoJieia. We' lie weat, of Chill, on the south by ;e Cliiii, boiweaii impart is a mare 1 from 7 to 50 m ■treams, many of ! BO miles long, lied in the Icaflnsa irrigate the cuU ,U». This lieierl ,rkraviiies,wliere. If the alicieul Pe- ihe days of iho r higliiauda lying .p soil, and raise iiid vegetables in ■ituatinii) are al- _ror, lilie t^biii, I greatest advan- ilmndance of the ;iiia, tin, copiu-r, together wilh ,, iMial, sulphur, hus lieen entirely toriliiy of ik under a aeparate head. Besides liima and Ciisc' doubt- less belonged originally to the same nation. The Puelches are the people known to voyagers under the name of Paugonlans. Both are a wandering race, living by hunting, fishinff, and the other means of subsistence among savago nations. They soinetimea make incursions on the settlements of the colonists, tu whom they are formidable from their courage and numbers. The accounts of the early voyagers reipect- ing the huge stature of the Patagonians, are doubt- less absurd ; but it ia certain, that. In general, tliej are above the average size of the human species. " They are a lai^ 'lodled people,' says Falconer the Jesuit, who reaided forty years In South America ; " but I never heard of that gigantic race which others have mentioned, though I have aeen peraoniof all the Irilies of southern Indians," There is a remarkable circumstance connected with the cilmale of Patagonia, viz., that, even in its most •terile regions, all the most delicate of the tropical birds are to be found. Captain King observed parrots and humming-birds on the wing during a anow-ahower, and saw the latter twittering about, and sipping the sweeta of the fuschia and other flowers, while the ther- mometer was at the freezing point. This would an. pear incredible, but for some other observations of the same gentleman on the nature of the climate. While employed in his observatory during the night, the thermometer frequently fell to the freezing point, without his feeling any sensation of chillness. An* ottier pecuiiarily is the extraordinary warmth of the sea near the surface, compared with the state of the atmoaphere ; a difference of thirty degrees being fre- quently found, 'To the east of Patagouia, lie the two Falkland Islands, the possession 'f which at one time, althoiigli perfectly woithiess ana iiuhabitable, nearly occa- sioned a WD . between England and Spain, They are now heli< oy the former. Still farther south, are the South Shetland Isles, containing not a vestige of ve- get'.tlon, and covered with eiernal snows. To the north.east of these is a large island, Georgia, which may be termed the throne of the southern winter, pre- senting nothing but rocki of ice and muuutaius of snow, BRAZIL, Brazil is by far the largest and most important state in the new world. The climate is more generally sa- iubrious and agreeable than any other tropical coun- try, and every part of the soil is rich, fertile, and exuberant of vegetation. It is in a manner encircled by Uanda Oriental, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colom. bia, and Guiana ; bounded on the east aud north.east by the Atlantic, and possessing the immense range of coast from beyond the Kio Grande South (about half way between Kio Janeiroand La Plata) and the Ama- zon. The territory within these limiu has been esti- mated at 2,000,000 of square miles. Of the amount of population it is hardly posiible to speak, as no re. turns have been made from some of the provinces ; luit it is conjectured tliat it cannot bemuch under 5,000,000. The territory of Brazil, indeed, is nearly as large ;is Europe. Brazil was governed in much the tame way as the Spanish colonies, until the year 1808, when King Joam VI. fled from Portugal to escape the clutches of Bonaparle, who had taken a fancy to his domi- nions, lie was warmly received hy the Brazilians: nor waa their joy miaplaced, for he immediately set about freeing the territory from all the marka of co- lonial dependence. The preaa was made free, news- papers cstabiished, and the porta thrown open to tlie traders of every nation ; and every thing done to promote education and industry. In lUlS, al.-ir, Brazil waa created an independent state, aiilioiigli annexed to the crown of Portugal, In 11117, some democratic Insurrections broke out In Periiambuco ; and although suppressed, discontent still coutiuued, until ill lOJl it was announced lint the Potluguoso ** CHAMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPI.E. M'li i ! oonuUutiun wu Ui Iw cuiiforred lui IlfutL IWforo tliiHf liow«vor, Kiith' Juaiii liad siitled for Portugal, promiihiff %t bi« dvpartura iiivreaMil pay lo nil hii olUc«ni anil "uldiers. llu( wImii hu wai giUH', it nai found he haU carrivd olT ftvery furtUiiiK tlial wai iu tht treaiury, baviiiK aIso raiwU Imuaiu* funu by ■Main of trcntury bilU. Tli« public iiidigiialiun at thU discovery, t4>gelher with tlie luipiciurk that he iawnded again tu reduce Uraail tn tlm coudiuou of a vtce-royalty, occasioned a geiierni call Cor liit lou Dun Pedro, who huU been left as re,(«at, tu liuuiue the head of the eovernuient at au iudepeutleiit itate. Thit he readily complied with : iu Uii'2 he was pruclaimvd emperor ; aud la XQ'io^ bin title and tlie iiidependuiK'u uf Uraxil wre ackuowlcdged by hit father. Then luUowad the war with Dueuus Ayrea rcMpecting the Banda Orieutal> which, at its ivnniuution iu 182B, left Uw country de«Uiate uf all currency but paper. Thie excited much discontent. About the same time, the aUoiitlun uf the I'oriugneseconstitutiuu by Allguel excited tlie suspicions of the Urazilians that that •vent was only the prelude to a similar occurrence in BraxU ; nor did the language aud deportment of Pedro tend at till to allay their fears. In April IR30, the nation had become divided into constitutionalists {Brttlllans) and absolntiits (Portugnese) ; but an attempt harlng failed to induce the troops to decUre the emperor absolute, he to all appearance joined the coutitutionalistfl. His measures and conduct, how. •rer, continued to equivocal, that, in March 1R31, manifettations of popular excitement broke out The extreme rigour he exercised on this orcaslon, and his •ubeequenc vacillation, increased and incensed his ene- mies more and more; and In the April following, dis- turbances broke jnt in which many persons were klllei). Pedro immediately announced a change of ministry ; the public remonstrated ngainst this, but he remained resolute : an Insurrection, in which the troops Joined, wu the consetiuence ; and next morning Ppdro ab- dicated in favour of his infant son, Pedro 11., and embarked from Rio Janeiro, on board an Knglish •hip of war, earring vitli him an Immense treasure in diamonds and jcweb. Tlie inrnnt emperor was at fir^t mucii beloved by the BraKiliaux, hut continued civil dissensions seem to render it dunbtful'If bis reign will be a long one. Ills father's conduct hai gone far to ahake the public f^ith in the beneiit of a monarchIc.il government. The compir^tive importance of Brazil among the South American states, ns a commercinl nation, as well as the deteriorating Iiillnence which civil discord has had upon her commerce, may be pretty accurately S tested by the variations In her trade with fJreac rltaln. In Ift2!>, all Spanish America, Including Mexico, with its twenty millions of inhatiltants, took goods fmm this cinintry - Tored about 17^0^ having prrviuujily been supposed peculiar to the eastern cunntrief. Salt is extremely abtimlant in Brazil, aod i^ nn in- dispensable nsinisite not tJiily in the foi»d of niun, but of cattle, sheup, poultry, and other animals. Kven this article, howerer, has not e^cnped the rajtacious gripe of the crown, which farms it out. Kmm thiit cause, salt is so unccmnutnly dc:ir, that the fpiantitv necessary' to salt an ox freqru-ntly rr)«t!i more than tl-'e ox itself. The wbcde conniiprceof Poriii«flI, IiidenI, loses friOTi this cituce, and isdi-privrd of what ft would gain from abundance of salt fivh, meat, bncoii, btitter, and cheene, vvhicn would ut'ierwive form articles of trade. The chief citin In Bmzil are Rio Jnneiro (the ra. pltal), klt'iated on the bai;ki — n.>ig bppn distinguished by that criminal feature of the Portnguewcharatter, assassi- nation. An Htiglish geiitleinun, who resided therefor ■nme lime after the .-ibdicnion and dep'irture of Don Padro^ mautioned that it wu usual lo fiud 0ro or lU SIM tliiad bodies every morning in the itreett t a ciroum- sunee which seemed to excite neither horror nor sur- prise iinioug the citizens. Ujihia, or 8l Salvador, the ancient capital, Is situ- ated oil the east tide of the magnlAcent bay of All* Saints, which extends a whole degree from north to west, branching inUnd In every direction, and capable of holding all the shipping In the w >rld. It is lufiict a little archipelago, studded with IsleU. Thepnpula- tiou wilt formerly alraut 100,000, but has greatly de- creased since the transference of the court to Kio Janeiro. From Its centrical situation, the commerce is very extensive. Pernambuco is the next citv In size and importance, and Is increasing so r^pialy, that new houses are built wherever space can be found ; while the commerce Is incrcaiing In proportion. It is per- haps the handsomest city In Brazil, with broad paved streets, fine houses, an Kpli''»}pal palace, handsome churches, convents, hospitals, theatre, Ac. The popula- tion is about30,000. Betides these, are Villa Rica, Para, Kio Negro, and about two doatn others of lesser im- portauco. One peculiar trait of tlie Braxlllan character ft tha sentiment or equality which pervades all ranks — a fea- ture tif disposition hardly to he expected under such a government. The white servant converges with his matter on the most equal fooling; and instead of m-omptly obeying his orders, discusses their propriety. This sentiment of equality operates with peculiar aa- vantagu to the slaves. The latter ara well fed, well clad, and treated mildlv. Thav are allowed two davs in the week to thcmseWet besidet Sunday; and the general tendency of the laws it in favour of manu. mission. If the sum of L 5 is offered at the baptismal font, tlie matter It forced to manumit the child. Gt'lANA. Thie territory is divided into British, Dutch, and French Uuiaua. It it litoatad north of Brazil, ba- twaea Capa North and Kstequlbn, inclusive^ Having, in >ur lale luformatluu on tha Wast Indies, given a complete account uf BrltUh Guiana, the most import- ant uf the three settlements, we feel it uunacesaary to racaptiulate the detaiht here. The tettleniuut of Cayeana, or French Guiana, wat I first itMUked about 1U30, by a cohiuy from Caeu, iu Nttfrnandy, after which it ia ciUled. It did uut sue* caed. From tliat periifd down to tlt« peace of 10U, it paued aJternately into the hands of tha Dutch, Uritiah, Portuguese, and French, but was then fiuiJIy restoiad to France. There are two telUementt, one ou the mainland, another ou the island uf the same name, separated from the former by the river Cayenne. Tlie mainland is low and marshy, aud the Indians In tha surrounding territories are to troublesome, that the aeulers attend to little else than the rearing of cattle. It i^ on tlie island that all the articles uf uicr.. chaudise arc raited, consisting of culfee, sugar, cotton, cocoa, indigo, Cayenne pepper, &c. The Island is Ifl miUn htug aud 10 hruad. At tlie north point is tlw town uf Cuyenne, the cnpital uf the colony, wi:h a tine convenient harbour, and ctuitainingalwut 200 houses. The population uf the whole colony does not exceed 17tOOO, of whom only 1000 ure whiles ; aud altogether it is a settlement of very little importance. Dutch Guiana, until IflU, comprehended Surinam, Bcrbice, Demerara, aud Ksseqtubo i but the three laller being then transferred to Britain, the former is at present the only possession of the Dutch. It is about 210 miles Inig along t)ie coast, aud at much broad. Tha soil is low, rich, and fertile, aud pruduces suiiiiT, mm, cotton, and coITce, fur exjiurtatiou. In 1(111 1, the iuipurts of Surinam into the L'nited King- duui amuuuted unly to L.ttUO, nhile there were nu exports in return. In lUlA, the population was citl. culated at 49,(K»0, uf whom 2000 were whites, 3000 fiee coloured nersuns, ni,0('0 slaves, and 13,000 free iutliaus and Itlnroons. Paramaribo Is the capital. situaied u*k the river uf thai name, with a populuiion of uUUO. OEMERAI. niARACTKRMTIC? — POFULATION, CIIARAC- TlCIt, UKLUilON, Ct'STOXIS, &C. The question resprrting the origin of the native po. pnl.ition of both continents of America, seems to have been settled hy the discovery nf Bhering's Straits, and there is now scnrcrly a doubt entercain«l of their descent being Asiatic. \Yt» have seen that there are thniitghotit ni^ot pirts of the interior uf South America inntimerable hordes uf these Indians still living iu a savitge iiid primitive ttue. Jf the gene- mi features of these peftple It would he in rain to attempt an eiinmerntion here, being divided into thousands of smKU tribes, or nn/t'onf, as they call themselvep, all distingnislied hy their oan peculiar churactertstics. Many of them, such an the Chilians and Peruvians — and of the former, the Araucanlunt more especLilly— were rertainly marked, from the earliest period of their discovery by Kuropesni, hy many irf the finest and noblest traits of human nature while in an unenlightened ftat^—hosid table, faithful, tcciiil, peaceful, and afTrctioRate ; while those in other parts ol the Immense continent were cmispicuout, at many of them indeed still are, for all thr* cruel, de- ceitful, bhx»dy, and birbaroua fealuree displayed by the most savage nations. Whatever may be advanced agalnit, and however C'Midcmnatory orir own opinions may be of, the ritual of the Romifh church, the experience of history would seem to sliow that it is of all others the best fitted, perbapsj to captivate A peopla Inrolred ia tha errors, and addicted to tha auperttltiout observaucai, of heathenism, from tha ttrong power which It exardat» over tha imagination. We find, accordingly, It wa* through the Infiuenceof the Jesulu that a e>a> twecn tlie American Indiana and their conquarorta Thit union hua continued to grow vradually firmer from the sexual intercourse of thair detcendauta, and by whipnlation, who now cnustituta the great l-ody uf tha i:hristlanlsad inbabiuntt of South America. The cvtuts of the last half century, too, have contributed ntiwerfully tu annihilate that invidious distinction of tattea, which in other Euro- pean culiuiies has always been tha c*msunl source of mutual jealousy, envy, and >.eart*burnliig — display* ing themselves in discontent and liuutrecUnn on tha one hand, and opprattiou on tha other. Thit gra* dual exUnctiun of tha obiervanca of nut* baa natu* rally generated a mora benevolent tympathy toa^arda tha uufurtunata African negroei than It any whartt else exhibited t and, accordingly, it vaa una of tha first ohjecu of .ha patrhits who thraw off tha S^aatah yoke, to grant them their freedom. In tome provinoaa — at those, for example, of Colombia— im medial* emancipation was declared; In othtrt, mora gradually. In tome paru, as in the Urazila aud Gulaaa, ilavarf still axisti ; but tlie spirit uf all tha varloua govaru- ments it favourabW to manumission, and uaWaraal freedom taemt to ba a matter neither 'mprohabla nor dittanC Tha uniform ettabtithment m tha Roroaa Catholic religion tliruughout all tha ttatet, haa aU<» no doubt contributed much to produce a community of faaUng and lentiraeut amung all ottutaa of tha po- pulation, all being alike— negro at v «U at whit*— mambart of tha cliurch. The events of tha rarolultoa wara naturally accompanied with marki of unw^u* laritv towardt all tha original initituiioot tntroducad by tue Spaniards, religluut as well at civil ; but in the matter of religion, the odium taemt to bava fallaa not on the chutch, but on its profeuort. Thia waa more especially the cate in tha commercial cltiae^ where latitude of OL!..ion generally Artt manlfatta itself in all nations, iu almost all of which atcomplata an overturn and tpoliatlun tiMik place among tha rich and indolent establishments of monkt and friart, aa during the period of the leformalioa in Scotland. Generally speaking, the natives of South America aro a much more active and industrious race of mais than the Creoles uf other tropical countriea, Tha Spa* nikh custom of the si>.i/(i, or nuun-tleep, la unlvaraally prevalent ; but both Iwfure and after that period u repose, they are actively engaged either in transacting businesi, or In giving and receiving visits, attending public exhibiiiouft, promenading, making short joiir> niet of pleoture, A:c. At amongst the whites Iu tha West Indies, universal hitspitatily prevails, avery man*t house being a home to tha traveller; and thut is the more necessary from the scarcity and bad pro* vlsimit of the inns. Tlie manners of the Inn-koMera and their stn-ants resemble those iu the Uultal States, where both ait down at table, and coovaraa familiarly with their customers. Tha staple diab tliruughout South America, both at innt and in private houses, ia the oila^ consisting of boiled or ttewed baaf, covered with friolas ni;d oJier vegetablca. Iu iheta placet of refrealiment, too, travellers of all ranks and characters dine at the same board, and take their tiasta In the same room, upon mats spread down for tlia pur* poke. Travellers of respectability generallyendeavour^ however, to stup at the houses of proprietors ne.'^r i.ha way.side, who live in a style of wealthy eatu aud luxury. Captain llall gives the following description of the interior of a Chilian i.mintry house ;~.'* We dla* mounted at the door, and were shown into a bleak comfortless room, with a mud fionr, a rude unfintabad rouf, and lighted by a solitary black tallow candle, all of which madeut feel instinctively kureofacoid recep- tion. In this, however, we were much mistaken, for tba master of the house no s'mner saw who we were, thnu he begged us to walk into his sala or di-awing-rmun, a very dilTerent apartment from the first, for, aa wa entered, we could scarcely stand the glare of light ft oni a dozen wax candles. iMie fioor waa covoreil with a rich carpet, the roof and cornices were neatly finihbed, and tha M'atis ornamented with mirrors and picture^. At the upper end of the room stood a grand pi.-tno. forte, by Untadwood, atid, at tha tea.talkte, near It, the lady of the house and her daughters received ui moat kindly. We toon liecame acquainted ; and whila on€ of the young ladies went out to gather soma fiowen for us, another openrd the piano-forte, at our request, Did played very good-naturedly, while we ia| chatting with the old people, who entreated us to stay the nig\it." The ftpanish amusement nf buU-baltlng it purstied with great avidity by the Smith Americans, althmigh in a diflTerenl manner fnnn their anceitort of the Old World. Captain llall describettha hulLbaits at Val. paraiso as extremely childish exhibitions, wher* tha animals are merely teased by flags and blunt ipean until irritated : at liima, again, the antmali are put to death with every circiimstant'e of barhamut cruel- ly. But perhaps a more demoralising and |>crnlrioua amusement of the South Americans, even than ihfsa revolting exhi bill ohm, is the besetting vice nf gamh* ling, in which ail chtsses (n the townt Indulga to a foarful extent. In the streets, grmips of native* ara Co ba lean playing fur theii* last farthing, and ganu SOUTH AMERICA. una, of riarcitM )•> 1» »•• eonapro* ecttd *»•- nquarort- lly Armvr anu, ftnd iwo races [irowii or constitut* III unit of ifcvniury. her Kuro- 1 lourc* td Jon un th* ThU ir»- hy tovftrdt any wK«r« on* of «h* ih* S^Mileh te provlno«» .immtdiaU I grmduaUy- M%, tUvtry >Ut fOVtCU- d uBtT«r«a >rohkbU nor thtRomui oomaunitr Hof tb«po- tM rcTolulioa I of unpopu- II ii\lPoduc«d civi\; but ia U>bav«f^l*n I. Thit wi» lerciftt ciri«S ret mantfetU :h lit comptot* nung the rick ind friirt, •» Scotland oulh America I race of in«u -lea. The Spa- , ii iiniverwaly that period of lu trautacting ftiUi attending jnff »hort jour* whites in th« revaili, overy eller i and thi» ^ and bad pro- lia inn.keepert u the Uulud , and convert* iie III pie dlUt I and in privatj or itewed beef, lice. In thet« t all ranks and »ke their »ie»Ut wu for Uie pnr« allyendearuuri rieior* ue^r the iUthy eaw and iiilt deicription h7— "Wedlt. n into a bleak rude unftnUheA How candle, all lofacoidr^cep- ilitaken^forthe I we wert*, thna diawing-ro*«n, lnt» for, »i w» ireofliybtUom covered with a neat^vftnl^h«J» ri and picture*. la grand pi.iu"- i.talvUs near It, [tetK rrcelvrd u» )\ted ; aiitl white 10 galher iome ino-fortP» at our lly, while we tnl ited tiB toitay Ltlng is nnrsued Vlcani, althmigh Jiton of the Old Inll-haitt at Val- ■toni, where th« End bhint ipear* ■Bntmali are put \»rbarou« cruel- It and pernlriont Teven than thete V vtf© of gamb- |nt lndul|je to » As of native* ar« Ihing) *»^ B*"** bllng itway the whole lubitance and even clothes of themielvtii and families with the moit complete indtf. ference. The national game is one of oardi, called Afonti, The method of catching the wild cattle that rove lu Immenw herds over the pampa$. i» a prac- tice altogether peculiar to the South Americans, and for the following lively deiorlption of it we are again indebted to Captain Hall: — '*The Instrument uied Is called a laiso, from the Spanish hzOf sigulfvlng slip'knot or noose, and the operation uf usiitg U ii called lasiolng. It consists of a rope n>ade of strips of untanned hide, varying iu length from fifteen to twenty yards, and is about ns thick as the little Anger. It liAN a noose or running-knot at one end, the otlier extremity being fastened by an eye and button to a rlnt( lu a Htroiig hide-belt or surcingle, bound tightly roiiiii) tlie horse. The coil is grasped by the borse- ninti's left hand, while the noose, which is held in the rigltt, traiU along the ground, except when In use, aii(i then It is whirled round the head with considerable vi'Ioi'lty, during which, bv a peculiar turn of the wrUt, It Is made to assume a circular form ; so that, when delivered from the hand, the noose preserves Itself open till it falls over the object at which i: has been aimed. The unerring precision with which the lasso Is thrown ts perfectly aKlonishlng, and to one who sees It for the first time, h;is a very magical appearance. Even when standing still, it is by no means an ea«y thing to throw the Tasio ; but the difficulty is vastly increased when It comes to be used on horseback and at a gallop, and when, iu addition, the rider has to pass over uneven ground, and to leup hedges and ditches iu his course ; yet such Is iho dexterity of the guassofl, that they are not only sure of catching the animal they are in cliase uf, but can fix, or, ae they term It, place their lasio un any particular part they please.'* Captain. Hall gives a similar account of the captur- ing uf wild horses with the lasso ; but we are assured by n gentleman lately returned from South America, where ho was long resident, tliat a wild horse is rarely — almost never — taiceu with thpt instrument, hut with what is called, In the language of the Gauoho, '* las bultts,'* or balls— a must formidable weapon in the hands of him who knows how to U!e it. It con* aists of three thongs or cords of hide, Aach more than a yard long. Tba " boleodor," or he who is going to fling the balls, takes one ball In his hand, and swing- ing the others rabidly round his head, throws *'las huTas'* with all his might, and unerring certainty, round the hind legs of his victim, which iinmttdlately C4>me!i to the ground. The horse, before being mounted, is tied several times for hours to a stake, aud iiis spirit subdued by hunger, when he is mounted, and gal- loped, and gradtwlly broken iu. It is nonsense (says o\ir informant) to talk of immediately riding a wild horse. He Is not serviceable till he has been about a month in training. Spanish is of course the language spoken in all the independent states of Huuth America. At Pana- ma, however, Captain Hull wan surprised to hear the whole inliabltunts, white, brown, and hlack, talking good Kngliih. This arises from the constant com- mercial intercourse kept up with Jamaica across the istlunus. OENCnAL ASPECT — CLIMATE, &C Every thing in South America is upon a grand pcale. The mountains, the rivers, the forests, the plains.— every feature of nature, in bhort, Is charac- terihtid by magnificence and sutJimity, and calculated to excite alternately admiration aud terror. In one point are seon mountain-summits above the clouds, while with snows that never melt, while their bases rear tlio banana and pine-apple. Iu uther places are to be seen ever-living volcanos, throwing out flame.% smoke, ashes, and stones. Then again are vast aud dark forests, which never yet rung to the woodman*s axR, wliere vcgotation prevails in its most gigantic foi -mv '' In tlie interior of tlie new continent," says Jluntlxdtit, " we almuRt accustomed ourselves to regard men as not being essential to the order of nature. Tiio enrtli is loaded with plants, and nothing impedes tlieir (luvL'lopement. An imineiiBu layer of free mould manife^tx the uninterrupted action of or^^anlc powers. Tlie (Ttir».lllps and the boas are masters of the river ; the jaguar, the pcccuri, tlie dantCy and tlia monkeys, inivcrM! ilie forest witliout fear and without dungt'r; tlitre tliey dwelt as in an ancient inheritance, i'tiid a'-t>^'i't of :iitimated nature, In which man Is notlilng, hu:i R(>rni thing In it strange and sad. To this we re- coiicilitoiirKtlves wlthdilHcultyon the ocean, and amid tlie Hands of Africa; though iu tliero scenes, where nothing recalls to mind our fields, our woods, and our streumf, we are less astouLshed at the vigt Bolitudo tliniu^h which we pais. litre, iu a fertile country, ndnrniMl with eternal verdure, wu seek In vain the tracts of tlie power of man \ we leotn to lie transported into a world dilTerent from thai which gave us birth.'* Tbe Andes derive their name from the l^eruvian word antiy signit'yiiig copper, Tliov stretch, as we have Maid, throughout the entire '•ingth of South America and the Isthmus of Darieu, and are indeed Bn|ipiMud l)y some to belong to the same huge cliain wiiich runs tltruugh Nurtli America, even to the Polar Si'iu The southern Andes vary very much in breacUh. Ni-ar Potoci aud lake TitlcacA (iu Bolivia) the I liain is lUO miles bruad. The loftiest are near Quit >, iiiiilir tbe equator, and which, until the Ili- liial.iya, in lhit)et, u'us pronounced the highest by some late travellers, were always accounted tbe loftiest in the globe. The Sierra Nevada de Alerida has a height of U,000 feet; the tf ilia de Caraccas, 13,0DU; Chimborazo (in Quito) has generally been reckoned 24,000 feet In height; and tliere are several others of nearly 30,000. AV'hen Humboldt urossed over the Andes, he passed through a deep forest, which took him about twelve days to traveno, during all which time, not the ulightest trace of man was to be seen. The pail over the ridge was not more than from one to two feet broad, and resembled a hollow gallery open to the sky. The Quebradas are immense rents, di- viding the mass of the Andes, and breaklug the cou< tinulty of the chain which they traverse. Mountains of great size might he swallowed up in thote almoit fathomless ravines, at the bottom uf which only the terrided traveller can Judge uf the awful mngnillceuce of the mountains. A country embracing so many degrees of latitude and elevation, possesses uf course equally dlverhilied degrees of climate. " The three zones of temperature which originate in America," says Malta Urun, " and form the enormous differauce iif level between the various regions, cannot bv any means be compared with the zones which result from a difference of la- titude. The btjreeable, the salutary vicisbitudes of the seasons, are wanting in those regions that ate here distinguished by the denominations ot frigid^ temperate^ hot or torrid. In the frigid zone it is not the Intensity but the continuance of the cold — the absence of all vivid heat—the constant humidity of a foggy atmo- sphere — that arrest the growth of the great vegetable pn>duction8, and, in man, perpetuate those diseases that arise from checked perspiration. The hot zone of these places does not experience excessive heat ; but It is a continuance of the heat, together with exhala- tions from a marshy soil, and the miasmata of an im- mense mass of vegetable putrifactlon, added to the effects of an extreme humidity, that produces fevers of a more or less destructive nature, and spreads through the whole animal aud vegetable world tlie agitation of an exuberant but deranged vital princi- pTo. The temperate zone, by possessing only a mo- derate and constant warmth, like that of a hothouse, excludes from its limits both the animals and vegeta- bles that delight In the extremes of heat and cold, and produces its own peculiar plants, which can neither grow above Its limits, nor debcoud below them. Its temperature, which does not brace the constitution of its constant inhabitants, acts like spring on the dis- eases uf the hot regions, and like summer on those of the frozen regions. Accordingly, a mere journey from tile summit uf tlie Andes to tlie level of the sea, or vice versOf proves an Important medical agent, which is sufficient to produce the most astonishing changes iu the human body. But living constantly iu either one or tbe other of these zones, must enervate botli the mind and the body by Its monotonous tranquillity. The summer, the spring, and the winter, are here seated on three dlbtinot thrones, which they never quit, and are constantly surrounded by the attributes uf their power. Vegetation presents a greater number of grudationi, of which it becomes necessary to point out the principal. In the region of the palms, next the sea, the natives cultivate the banana, jatropha, maize, and cocoa. Europeans have introduced the sugar-cane and Indigo plant. After passing the level of 3100 feet, all these plants become rare, aud only prosper in particular si- tuations. It is thus that the sugar-cane grows even at the height uf 7600 feet. Cuffeo and cotton extend across both of these regions. Tlie cultlvatitni of wheat commences at 3000 feet ; but its growth ia not completely 'J0 and 5160 feet is also the one which principally abounds with the cocoa, or Krythotylnm Perrtvianttm^ a few leaves ot whicli, mixed with quicklime, in- -lort tlie Peruvian Indian in his longest journeys thn„ ugh the Cordillera. It is at the elevation of (iOO'O and 0000 feet that the I Chenopoilinm quinoa and the various grains of Kuropn are principally cultivated — a circumstance which is f;reatly favoured by the extensive plateaus that exist u the Cordillera of the Andes, the soil of which he- Iiig smooth, and renulrlng little labinir, reseinliles tbe bottom of ancient takes. At the height of 0(100 or 10,200 feet, frost and hail often destroy the crops nf wheat. Indian corn Is scarcely any longer cultivated above the elevation of 72U0 feet; 1000 feet highir and the potato is produced ; but it ceases at 12,000 feet. At about 10,200 feet barley no longer grows, and rye only Is sown, although even this grain suffers from a want of heat. Above 11,040 feet all culture and gar- dening cease ; and man dwells in the midst of nume- rous tiocks of lamas, sheep, and oxen, which, wander ing from each other, are sometimes lost iu tbe region of perpetual snow." Rivens. In no one respect is South Amorica more distin- guished tliau iu the number and magnitude of her rivers, some of which might with propriety be ilebcrlbi J M runninr/ ocetins. Of these tlie Atnazy means uf the Rio Negro. Humboldt, who has hince explored those rivers, has accurately laid down the previous courses and junction of the Rio Negro and the Orinoco. When imlted, they form what is called the Cassiquiare, down which llumbuldt and his companion Bunpland passed. There are several cataracts and rapids on the Orinoco, described by tlumboidt as splendid in the extreme. »IIKE3 AND MINERALS. Having under the various heads alluded to the mines and minerals peculiar tuench district, we reckon it unnecessary to do more here than to show at one view the quantity uf the precious metals which have heeti extracted from the iniuea of Spanish America and Brazil. The estimate is by Humboldt, from the registries of tite various mints, aud making uUow- autt' for the contraband traffic : — Pouiult Sltrliiiff, L.474,13S,f)C(J C1,U7A,0(I0 31,OS(<,000 £(io.,V):;.ci!4 o ai^,!M,7.W 7 VolUrs. 8,107,370,311 27^,100, IK '0 i;w,«)fl.{K'0 f!Di.3.-.n,;;:i5 1, 476.37^.17-4 4,1103,001,800 L.1.0W,tt.i),2t(;» 7 I..II)3,37.l,WiO Siumish Amcricd. Profitue of the Mexican niitief, to IKHO, Pruilucc of tlic minei nf New Ori-nml;i. tn Utt'-I. rnxlureor the mines uf I'tiili, to \»ti, rruitiiie >if t)i>.> Peruvian mines, to Itii'O. Piwltieo of thtf mines of Puiosi(l]ult\i.'i)tull»'Jt Total iiroiliiee, rcpistcreil and unreftisteieil, iif SpanUli Ainciien, Vortii'iHttt America. PnHltiL-LMjf the IliatUian mines fnim H?0 1" IWO. retfulcnhl Si uniegistmcd, Total prfwliiec of llio AmetiMn mines, to um iinti muO, - 5,7^3.P('1,£!I0 L.1,KW,I7«,280 7 8 So much has the mineral produce of the Alexlcnn mines (iiminished, cimseituent on the long-continued and destiucllve intestine warfare which so long altUcteil that unfortunate couutrv, that it dws not iiow exceed 10,000 OOll dollars, instead of li.27^000,(H)0, r.s in ItJUd. From 101 1 to 11120, the collective produce ivi.s only i(iH.2!l7,IOO dollars. Tbe ccdnage of tht» Mexican mint, for \&2^ and lll'if), amounted to 0,700, IWt, and that , 0,001,7-17 (li'lbrs. Total prmluce iu uls'lit.(-n yrfiiii, from IJdl to lOJJ!, 17!»,i)i)t(,!W0 dollars, or 10,000.000 anniuillv. Tlie Chilian mines, fl'hielt pioiluc d annually 'ijOCO^OO:} dollar", ref^istered and CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. m- m *[ ^ ^ If eoiitnilmnd prior to the revolution, and which even in U^\^ produced Rcoinnncof l,I(JI,*ilKI dollar* at the mint of St Jugn, fell in IB24 to in3,(K)0 dollam, or imlv oiw-Hixch of llie coinaK* »f IBI7. The minei iif New Grenada, which produced, at iin average, a,000,000 diiUan annually, fell to 1,270,000 doUart in l(fJ3: to that the whole mineral produce of the American minesi whether Hpanlnh or Portuguese, ii not now one*fourth of what it wai at the commence* ment of the preMnt centurv, end before the late re- vohitloni in Hpenlih Amerlee. M'e have neither ipice nor inclination for comment on the extraordinary raining projerta ttarted in Eng- land alwut the year 1025^. We may only state shortly, that, bv the year 1827t there were no lesi than Mren English companies employed in seeking for harrests of gold in different parts of AVrzicj, with neirlyU9,000,000 of British capitsllnveited in diflTerent ways. Respecting the insane proceedings of some of these companies, it Is simple charily to refrain from •Kpatlating; of the whole, only one or two are now in existence ; and of these we need only remark, that, when each dollar covts a doubloon, tbey can hai-dly he expected to l>e In a very thriving condition. Gold is conulned generally In a loose marl-like stra- tum of rounded quarttose pebbles, and adventitious matter called aueathao, which rests upon granite, and is covered by earthy matter of variable thickness. The gold is sometimes found covered by t)ie soil at the depth of twenty feet ; while at others, on many of the bills, where water can be procured for washing, particles of gold appear in the soil, at little greater depth than the roots of the grass. After the pnH;e8S of washing (see JMine$)t the particles of gold are brought to the nearest mint, where a fifth part is takeu for the crown ; tlie remainder Is afterwarda formed Into an Ingot, which Iwing sent to an assay- matter, he ascertains its weight and measure, and sumps it, when it is delivered to the owner for circulation. The operation of smelting does not occupy ten minutes ; and thote who deliver into the mint any quantity of gold duit, will have U returned ti> them for circulation In less than an hour. The peculiar stamp on the various ingots marks the difference of their value. Captain Hall gives the following account of the native mode of conducting tlteir mining operations : — ** There are two principal personi concerned in almost every mine, the proprietor and the habilitador. The first, who is also the actual miner, lives at his haci- enda nr farm, generally in the neighbourhood, and Httends to the details of working and smelting the ore. Tlie habilitador resides at some one of the three prin- cipal seaport towns, Coquimbo, Ouasco, or Copiapo ; he Is the mining capitaiiHt, and his character Is that of a diligent, saving man of business, very different in habits from the miner, who is generally au extra- vagant and improvident person. The word habili- tador maT be translated enabler, as it !s by means of his capit.1l that the miner Is enabled to proceed with his work. The proprietor of a mine usually farms his own ground on ihebanksof oneof the rare streams which traverse this desolate country. His hacienda, or farm, supplies vegetables, and sometimes stock, for the fulwistence of the miners. The smelting.house is also built un his hacienda, and tlie ore is brought to his door on mules. These farmers rarely under- take to work a mine with their own unassisted capi- tal : they are seldom, indeed, sulftciently wealthy; and when they are so, it is not found, in thelong.ru'n, •o advantageous a method as sharing the transaction with an habilitador, who takes charge nf the com. merdal part of the business. Sometimes, however, the owner makes the attempt to work his mine single- handed, In which he usually falli." M'e will likewise extract the following account of the proceu of washing by a mill : — *' The mill consists of an upright shaft, or ipindle, the lower end of which is fixed to a horizontal water-whrel, working in a sunk water-course, and giving a rotatory motion to the spindle, which passes tlirnugh the centre of a larce circular trough on the ground. In this trough a milt. iUiat is carried rouiid upon its edge, on a horicontal axU projecting from the spindle. Small pieces of the ore are thrown into the trough, kppt full of water by a constant small stream; and when the machine is put in motion, the stone goes rapidly round, crushing find grinding the ore under the water. As aonn na the whole is reduced, by this process of trituration, to 11 tine mud, quicksilver ia added, and au amalgam is vam formed, by its union with the detached particles i:' gold. This process is said to be quickeneil by tiie giution of the water, and the friction nf the mill- ' 'Uie. The water is aUowed to trickle off by a nick ■'A In the edge of the trough, and Is received in long - '<>den channela, covered with coarse cloths, the folds v. Irregular parts of whlcli catch any stnty portions u! gold, or of the amalgam, which the agitation of tin' water mav have thrown out of the trough. When nil tlie gold is titp|(i*ikrtJ to be combined with the quick. silver, the water ia drawn otf, and tlie amalgam being exposed to heat in vfitaels adapted to the purpose, tho quiiksilver isdiBtilledotr, and the gold remains behind In a pure state.** The prifcess of nrocuriiig diamonds may rather bo termed washing thi»u mining. Thev artt found in the bedaof riversamimg the mud, which 11 placed in a range nf troughs into whuh astream of water i« introduced. At equal disunces are placed rhain for theoveroeera, and, afleriheyaresetted, the negroes eater the troughs. 2'Jii each with a rake of peculiar cnnsimction. The water being let In, the rajFca/Ano or mud is spread abroad, and raked until the water runs quite clear. The stones are then carefully examined. When a negro finds one, he stands up and claps his hands, holding the diamond between his finger and thumb, where* upon au officer receives It from him, and deposits it in a howl, suspended from the centre of the structure, half*full of water, whence, at the close of the day, the diamonds are taken out and weighed, and their weight registered. When a iie^ru Is so fortunate as to find a diamond 17i carats weight, much ceremony takes place i he is crowned with a wreatli of llowers, and carried In prooettion (0 the administrator, who gives him his freedom by paying the price to his owner. The finders of Inferior stones are proportionally re- warded. These diamond-works are monopolised by the crown. Various precautions are used to prevent .he negroes from eml>eKliDg the diamonds. To prevent them from setting aalde some of them In the trough, and afterwards carrying them off, they are frequently changed into each other's troughs during the process of washing. If suspected of swallowing a diamond, they are put into a strong room, and powerful purga- tives administered. The temptation to smuggle dia- monds is much greater than that presented by gold, from the monopoly of tlie crown, and there are regu- lations of corresponding strictness and severity, ror the security of the revenue, the country has been subjected to a most oppressive system of police; and the offender found guilty of illicit trade is subjected to Imprisonment for life, nr transported to the African colonies. The whole sum produced to government by the diamond monopoly (exclusive of expenses) ave- rages about L.UH,iriO sterling. The diamonds are purchased by British and Dutch lapidaries, who cut and bring them Into a state proper for sale. The diamonds of Brazil are not of so fine a water as those of Golconda. Little black garnets are often found <-' the diamond district. Of late years the rage fur gold and diamonds has been greatly abating, and the natives, luckily for themselves, have been directinr^ more attention to agriculture. Indeed, it has all along teen remarked, that the agricultural part of the population have been better fed, better clad, and more cheerful and con- tented, than these hunters after mineral wealth. This cause, doubtless, has co-operated with the Interrup- tions arising from civil discord, in the great reduc- tion which, since the beginning of the present century, has taken place in the quantity of gold produced In Brazil, which docs not amount to one-twentieth vi what It formerly did. ANIMAL XrNGI.OU. The multitude and diversity of Its xoological riches ia nf a piece with the other magnificent cnaracterls- tics of South America. Except at noon, when all living creatures in the torrid aone seek shade and re- pose, and when a solemn silence is diffused over the scene, illumined by the daxzllng Iiearos of the sun, every hour of the day calls into action anotlier race of animals. The morning Is ushered in by the howl- ing of the monkeys, the high and deep notes uf the tree-frogs and toads, the monotonous chirp uf the grasshoppers and locusts. When the rising sun has dispelled the mi»ts which preceded it, all creatures rejoice in the return of day. The gayest butterfiles, rivalling in splendour the colours of the rainbow, especially numerous //ftpcricv, flutter from tiower tu tlower, or seek their food on the roads, or collected in separate companies, on the sunny sandbanks of the ci>t>l streams. Agile lizards, remarkable for their form, size, and brilliant colours, dark-coloured poiaon- (Uts r>r harmless serpents, which exceed in splendo:ir the enamel of the llowers, glide out frt)m between the leaves, the hollows of trees, and boles in the ground, and, creeping up the stems, bask in the sun, and lie in wait fur insects or birds. Squirrels, troops uf gre. garious monkeys, issue Inquisitively from the interior of the woods tu the plantations, and leap, whiiitling aud chattering, from tree to tree. Birds, of the most singular forms, and of the most superb plumage, flutter sinrtly, or in companies, through the fragrant bushes. The green, blue, or red parrots, assemble un the tops of tlie trees, or Hying towards the plan- tations and island, fill tlie air with their screams The toucan, sitting on tlie extreme branches, rattles with his large hollow bill, and in loud plaintive I'otea calls for rain. The busy orioles creep out of their long, pendent, bag-shaped nesu, to visit the orange trees, and tlieir sentinels announce with a loud screaming cry, the approach of man. Above all these strange voices, the metallic tones of the iiraponga sound from the highest trees, resembling tlie strokes of the ham- mer on the anvil, which, appearing nearer or more remote according to the position of the songster, fill the w.iudercr with astonishment. While thus every living creature, by its actions and voice, greets the Kplenduur of the day, the delicate humming-birds, rivalling in beauty and lustre, diamonds, emeralds, and snpphirea, liovcr round the brightest llowers. When the sun goes down, most of the animals retire to rest. Myriads of luminous lieetles now begin to My about like tpnri/u/ui, nnd the blood.sucking bats hover like phantoms in the profound darkness of the niKlit. These bats, or vampires as they are generally mlled, are enormous animals, measuring sometimes y.x IVet from tip to lip of each wing. The bmly in snmll, resembling vltv nearly the British but. They generally Ax upon horses, and keep the animal In a comfortable fleep by f:tnning htm with their winga during the time they suck his blond. It Is reckoned that the pain of the bite must be very trifling, as the victim sleeps on regardless of the puncture; Inthenmrn- Ing the animal is found streaming with blood, and weJi from Its lots. Human beings have repeatedly fallen victims to these revolting animals ; and Captain Cha* mier tells an anecdote of a lieautifnl young lady of Carthagena, who, having an Intrigue, left the case- ment of her apartment open for the admission of Ik.' lover during Uie night. Before dawn, her duenna, alarmed by some cause or other, entered the uwm ; the rays uf the moon fell on the bed, and tliere, fixed on the botom of the cold and inanimate form, was a large and savage vampire, the dusky dankness of Us wings, as they cooled the nir, cuntrastlntf strongly with the marble whiteness of the form below, while the blood, which the greedy mouth was unable lo oon* tain, ran In a rapid stream along the corpse. She was dead, the vampire-bite having opened an artery. Among the quadruped Iwasti of prey, the jaguar, or tiger, Is the most formidable, being of enormoua size. Thev generally frequent the impenetrable jun- gles that skirt the banks of the larger streams; and Humboldt, who explored the Orinoco and many uf its tributaries, had many narrow escapes from tliem. The natives, however, attack them fearlessly, receiv- ing them, when they spring, upon the point uf a pike 1 a manoeuvre In which they seldom fail. A small spe- cies of lion is also common; buttliejagtuir Is decidedly the king of the forest In South America. EARTIIUUAKES. These fearful vlsltaticnis are, beyond all example, frequent in South America ; and there Is not a town, city, or village, in the Immense continent, but has suf- fered more or less at various times. One of the most destructive In modern times was that which occurred at CaraccHS in 1812, when about 20,000 jHHiple in the city and surrounding district (l(i,000of whombelougeil to thecity alone) were destroyed. Theprincipal part of the people who were swallowed up by the rending of the earth, or buried beneath the ruins occasioned by the shock, were at prayers when the fearf:il de- struction occurred. Kvery church, protected either by St Francis or St Nicholas, fell to the ground 1 the belfry of the cathedral alone withstood theconcuuloii t but, as if sensible of the calamity, nnd alarmed at tlm work of desolation which threatened the general ex- tinction of the inhabitants, and aware that some re- cord should remain to inform the historian of the hour and minute wh?n the shock occurred, the clJN»i itcii : l>ulilli)iL-il liy W. Hii>) tl. rHAiiiiKRK, I!). WslcrIii nubllii. HiM ly John Mtth liMil, GlasROw, nntl all oUicr Himkwtlcrt. rrimi tlie Ntesml'rcii of W. and R. Chsmben. tt'^s^m itA:*^i'i^r,~ CHAMBERS'S mkl In • Ir wliiK* reckonra f . »■ tlx tliemorn* tnd w«Ji lly Mltii Uln Ch«> g iMly of tli« »«>• Ion of lie .' r duenu, lit rooms ter*, nxwl rm, WM » iiwi of It* f itroiiglir Fuw, witll* iiblti to eon- irpie. 81ia I an arltry. tU< Jaguar, r cnormoua ttrakle jun- rMinit »"'l nd many ot from tkanu i«ly, rewW- ntofaplkd A »mall ip^ rUdwIdedly >U cxamplv, I not a towDt ;, bnt haa inf- le of the ra»>l hlch occiirr«d people In the hom helnngtil principal P"" ly the rendln* Ilia occaalonea ;he fearful de- olected either ti ground I the he coniu»»ii>u ; alarmed at the he general f »• ! that tome ro- ian of the hour leclotk Mopped y instant when lid »tiU reroaina fearf\il memo. J of the fnture. lit chitW granta he mini ot the [t atrangera ara IICA. ohahleeitlinate ican commerce* ft fur a trading perfectly Inoal- .;lng, therefore, rloin pnivlncee, tport from each, [al report of the lerica and Oreat 1831, and from iraftio ot the for- a' ^ ^ e 5 Si o S » * n u II 1^ Lii.«««. in. W""''"' [mtit ll"«. ijmJuni . Chambon. INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM A^TD ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 38. PBIOBl^rf. DUTIES OF LIFE— SECOND SERIES. Qvn prevloiii Brticlo upon this subject embrftcad thtt DttUct which one owei to himielf at a rational Btiug. The preiunt Ib nut leii important iu iti cha< raoter, being intended to point out those noral dutiei which we are required to perform with reipect to our varlout public and domeittc relatieni.* We begia with our DUTIES AS SUBJECTS. IkVEHY oivIHsed nation is gsverned by some species of aulhorily, for the purpose of preserving order In so- ciety. 8ome goremments are good^ others are bad ; but It does not fall within our province to point out where the ruling authority is injurious, or where it ia most advantagsous to the people. According to a law nf universal application, every independent nation Is understood to have the undoubted right to model Us government according to its own fancy, genius, or aMeistitet, provided that, in the execution of its plans, it does not wantonly injure its neighbours. Direct- ing our attention to our o«i; country, with which we bare here atone to do, we find, as soon as reason 4awns upon us in youth, that we are members of a great and enlightenad community. M'^e find ourselves inltjfct to laws which were framed long before we Wftre horn, and that we muit act In a manner not to pleasu our own cajirlce, but according to the arrange- ments which have been institutud for the benefit of •odety at largo. But if we thus discover that we are trammelled by ccrtniii h^al restrictions, not very agree- able perhaps to the wilduexs of our untamed nature, we liktnviko >iud that wa possess a great many com- pousaiing privileges. While yet opening our eyes to the light, we enter Into the enjoyment of all the transccudsnt privileges of British BubjectH, and come within the powerful protection of the laws ai fully as the oldest and most honoured In the laud. It will l>« perceived that this is a boon of incalculable value. For us, armies have fought and bled ; for us, In past timed, hofts of martyrs and patriots have contended ; for U!t, the wisest statesmen and legislators have trans- acted uejfociitluus securing civil liberty ; fur us, the |>eo))It> who have gone before us have ^stablibhcd a variety of the mobt excelleut, tho most boneticont, in- sUtuiiouii. All these things we enjoy without having been put to tlie smallest trouble. All that we are citlt'd ou to give in return, as soon as emmcipatud front the ignorance of childhood, is obcditnct to th$ A cheerful ot edlence to the laws is, therefore, our rhtef jiubllo duty, rosstbly some of our lawti, from having been framed for a former htiite of society, or la order to meet pnrtioular exigencies, may nut now be very Judicious in their provijiun^i; yet that forms nu solid roasun why wt« should break through them. It is always safer to olioy n bad law than to oppose it by violence. Unhappily for some nations, they seem to h:i\ e 110 aicuvatc idea uf the value of obedience to the laws. When they tind themselves aggrieved by oppit'ssive stste measures, they arc e:iceedingly apt to brt>ak into tumults, and tnko up arms against the olHivi'S of their govurniiienl^. This is a very bhort- st(;ht«d policy, as ihu history of all iiutiuna proves; for the people are always suro to sutfer far more by thtM'tHMeive mrasines udnpted to restrain them than tliry would have done by submitting to the evil they ttfiginaWy compUiued oT. It id the boast and glory of IWitaiUi— and long may it be so — that its people know •TlK'Crtmcrorlli-lew.'unn cnUn- ibtlract from the Monl Clau- llth'k ui MrWtiriAtn Sulli\ftii,« work publiihol at Itoitim, in the rim.>l MniM. Tlir pn-icnt ia )»artlv luiniiui, and |>artly tclected Ttwm thf ..«ur pn).tuitloii. KRwIleni ai Mr SuUUaii'i bot)k li, tt 1» imtjoUtly Jcrtcii'nl in ilip inrulcaU»ii or unite of the iirinfipal ruhlu- ilinh'* of lli'f, »ntl is in maiiv jiiru adapird only for the wpni*Ai iif Ainerlran ifiJcM. The lieadi in the iiraieiit arUcle, l>«tW a« Mihiwu, uKltvUi", M JuTnrn, m Mailrri anil Servant!, Vomliirt al l^ll^hc Mrt'tlnni, Miking ft Will, Misfortuiieiaoil Kvili, Inittuttily of Hank, Ihiui ^ which tlie I'lntiilv uf one t'ountry owe to Oi.v«<< of another, llnly of Truitint; l<» (Hirielvei, itelii iqut Ob- Ufttttiiii^a, anH ConrKiliitn, art- the niin]i(>^iti<>n ofonA ofthv Kdl- liMn. at nU,» ■ numU-T of pnuaKvi in ntlu r plucn. It it humbly tlUk|i-1tilte« ever ultrn lo the tniblle i and th.it pnrenli and tearhen •Tyouih wtU tInd It traUsbU in ihelc purpoictof InteMecttul cutU- how to respect the laws, even while they consider them to be Injurious, and how to correct them by quiet and orderly procedure. In this lies the important secret of their national greatness, their wealUi, their public liberty. The advantages arising out of a scruptilous obedience to the laws, consist, In the first place, of social order and quietude, by which the rights of pro- perty are respected, commerce and trade permitted to flourish, and the sacred inviolability of the person preserved. The results of turbulence and civil com- motion are, poverty, ruin to property, iosecurity of the person, destruction of commerce and trade, and at length, military oppression and barbarism. Every intelligent man, therefore, in this country, yields not only a bare submluion, but a becoming respect to the laws, as well as to the various iastitutiuns established by their authority. Perfect obedience both to the letter and the spirit of the laws, does not, however, imply that we should not examine whether they are iu every respect an- swerable to the ]iresent condition of society, nor keep us from resorting to legal means to have them cor- rected, or altogetlier rescinded. The constitution points out how this is to be done. It is illegal to conspire secretly to overthrow tho law. All measures calculated to improve our social condition must be conducted openly and honourably. The means put into our hands by the constitution for improving the law are very powerful, if wielded with discretion. Tho people have the appointmeut of the men who consti- tute the most iufiuential branch of the legislature; if they do not appoint Individuals who will meet their views with regard to correcting or abolishing laws, they have themselves tJ blame: the conititutlon con- fers upon them a liberty of choice. It besides gives them the right to present petitions to the legislature, either individually or In bodieing the legal power uf the esUiblished courts of civil and cri- minal jurisprudence. A becoming obedience to the laws, and a generous respect for the supreme and inferior constitutetl au- thorities, produces the agreeable result uf good order and peace in society. Every one is not acquainted with tho different ramifications of the common and statute law; indeed it would be imponsiblo for us to acqtiire a C4irrect knowledge of these things unless wo devoted a lifetime to the study. This ditliuuUy in ac- quiring a knowledge of the laws, has sometimes given rise to a low sort of jeering at our excellent constitu- tion, and it hns been rejiresented as cruel to compel an obedience to laws which few can have an opportunity uf learning. But this is a fallacy into which we hopo our young readers will not fall. The administration of the common law, such as that which applies to in- heritance, debtor and creditor, and civil rights gene- rally, rests with a body of educated men, or lawyers, whose services may at all times be commanded. Be« sides, we may, if we please, purchase digests of theio laws for 001' private amusement and instruction. The CHAMBERS'S INFORMATIOI, FOR THE PEOPLE. K i f;,t' tn 111 I Other detcriptdin of law which ii roftda appliuble to th« pmerTAtion nf the peaca of lodetjt any on* can nndaritaiid, If he hav* tli* ability to know ri^ht from wronc, '\V6 lurflly nil know that It ii lllpgni and crl- nlnaF to Ktaal. to rob, to murder, to break into our ntighbour** houiett or to attack their peraoni by tIo. lance. It can require no reading of acta of Parliament to underitand thii. Common lenie here lervea ui In. •lead of lAgal knowledge.* Our duty in thli matter ia very easily defined. We mniit ever bear In mind that one of the principal actR of duty which the con- atitutiiin enforces, ii the abstaining from meddling violently with the persons and property nf our fellow, iut'jects. *c this well-regulated realm, the person of every man. womani and (liild, Is inviolable from pri- vat** attack. It Is a crime almoi.t puiiisliable with the htghcit penaltv of the law to strike any one^ either from an idea that they have injured ns, or through the iiiduence of passion and prejudice, if we consider that we have been Injured, we must apply to the law or the irtaglstcrial authorities for redress. We are only permitted to use physical force when In absolutfldanger of losing our Uvea or property hy violence, there be- ing then no time to apply to the law for protection. It wuuld be gratifying if these regulations were more generally attended to than they leem to be. There are many young men, who, from what they arc pleased to term a love uf fun, but which can be no other nenti< ment than a love of mischief, or gross ignorance, assail the persons of individuals of both sexes, to their great discomfort} and sometimes serious injury. Now, it is clearly illegal to do so, and is generally punished by the infliction of severe penalties by the civil mngls. trate, though seldom markedwith that ignominy which it deserves. Inasmuch as It Is held that Ignorance of the law doe* not excuse iu infraction, so is it reckoned an invalid apology for the commission of crime to say that you were undei the Influence of Intoxication at the time. Drunkenness Is very properly esteemed an nggravation, not a palliation, of the offence. CONDUCT AT PUBLIC MEETINGS. The right of meeting bigether publicly to discuss natters connected with our social condition, being so invaluable a prerogative, It is right'aud fitting that all young men entering into the busy scenes of life •hould make themselves well acquainted with the Tales which have been established by general consent for the proper conducting of such assemblages. According to usage, a public meeting is not oonsti- tnted until a person be appointed to preside, or to "take the chair." Without this ceremony, the meet- ing Is a tumultuary assembly, or a mob. The first movement is, therefore, the appointment of a chair- maib This functionary, on taking his seat, is for the time supreme in the meeting, ilis chief duty is the preser.-ation of order. He allows only one to speak at a time, giving the preference to him who has first nught his eye in the act of rising, and giving every apeaker a fair hearing. Another of his chief duties ia the prerenting of speakers from wandering from the subject under discuasion; and if they do, he must remind them to keep to the point. In the execution of these and other duties, he claims the support v( the meeting, and all are bound ^> yield to his reason- able dictates, and help to maintain hia authority. In proportion to the firmness, yet mildness of manner, of the chairman, so Is the meeting well or ill con- ducted. At some public meetings there is no set plan of operations, and a general discussion on the subjects which are brought forward takes place; but at all meetings for specific important objects, there is a pie- vious arrangement among a certain number of indi- viduals to bring forward particular points to Iw spoken upon. In this case speakers are prepared, and the biuiness assumes the furm of the proposal and carry- iig of a set of resolutions, or motions. The folluw. ing is the routine of procedure : The chairman having stated the object for which the meeting has t>een called, an individual steps forward and prop^in*'- \ re- ■olutiou for the adoption of th^ mt-eting. \' > iher he enforces the propriety of carrying such • resolu- tion by a speech on its merits, or simply propounds the matter, he must t>e tecoruUd by anotlier individual (with or without a speech), otherwise the meeting cannot entertain hi* resolution for a moment. 1 1 duly seconded, then the motion is fairly tabled. It is be- fore the meeting. After a resolution is proposed and seconded, it is the duty of the chairman to ask the meeting if it be carried or not ; if agreed to by a gnieral acclamation, or by an obvious majority, he pronounces the word " carried," which settles the point, and the bu»inesi pruceeds by the bringing for- ward >r the other resolutiuiis in the same manner. It is unusual for any member of a meeting to oppose the pHSsing of a resoluiion, unless he have a better to offer m iu stead. If he have, and if he wishes *' to take the sense of the meeting" on the subject, ho has a right to bo heard. Vet this can only be per- mitted, provided the meeting has been called in gene- ral terms. For instance, if the inhabitants of a town or diitrict generally Imi called, in order to contider of the propriety uf such and such measuroa, in that caso •very one is entitled to give his opinion, and touppoao the formal resolutions brought forward. But if the • At the uune time, wc wilUafly slkMV lh*t there is room for CI iinpro««n>*nt tn the dbismiMlioii of a knowlMlfe of the tt*- Ja«. puticulSJly that of « rreent d«U. It it Itkeiy tlist Muse pita wUl seoa kc canted iato c«enitt*m to rtnedy thts deAMt. meeting be described by advertisement to consist of those inhabitants or others only who agree In the propriety of such and such measures, then no one Is entitled to intrude himself on the delHwrations who professes opinions contrary to the spirit and end of the meeting. An Inattention to this exceedingly de- licate point often creates serious heartburnings and disturbances ; and, on that account, committees who call public meetings ought to b« very particular in the terms of their announcements. As much regularity is necessary in respect of oppo- sition to motions as in their proposal and carrying. The counter motion of an opponent is called an amendment, which, to be available, must also be se- conded. If not seconded, It drops, but the opposur ma) f\nce his protest on record t that Is to say. If the iliscusnlon he In a corporation or other meeting, where hooks of the minutes or traniactions are kept. On being seconded and discussed hy those who wish to speak upon the subject, the matter is brought to the voto by the chairman, but not until both the mover and amender have replied, if they please to do so. After they have spoken, not another word can be uttered, and the vote Is taken, a majority carrying. If the votes be equal in number, the castmg vote uf the chairman carries. There Is another way of sup- pressing a resolution, which is by ** moving the pre- vious question." This signifies, to return to the point at which the business nf the meeting stood previous to the tabling of the motion \ or means, in other words, to do nothing on the subject. Uut this must also be seconded, and put to the vote In opposition either to the motion or amendment, or to both. The routine is generally to place it In opposition to both; If carried, the matter is nettled ; if not carried, the order is next to place the motion and amendment against each other, and vote. Such is an outline of the mode of procedure at pub- lic meetings, and It Is particularly desirable that attention should be shown to the preservation of re- gularity. At all public meetings there is a strong tendency '* to go nut of order." By this expression It is meant that speakers are under a constant liability to wander from the point under discussion. They are apt to digress into other subjects, and confuse their auditors; and these getting impatient, are equally apt to intcrnipt them, so that a single irrelevant observa- tiou may lead to hours uf idle debate or colloquy, or " speaking to order," as It is termed, and thus the har- mony of the assembly be destroyed. Those who attend such meetings should therefore have a regard for the following regulations t— If they speak, they should keep clos^tly to the subject in hand. If they be liKteners, they should prewrve a strict silence. It is uncentlen.anly, not to say disorderly, to utter any sound or make any observation on what a speaker is saying. The speaker must on no account be inter- rupted, so long as ho keeps tn order; and if not in order, it is the chairman's duty to check him. It is likewise disorderly to speak more than once, except In replying before the vote is put, or except it be the rule of the assembly to permit It. Sometimes persons who have spoken rise again to speak as to " a matter of form." This is allowable, but in speaking as to form, the merits uf the case should not be introduced. On this, however, as on every other point, there is a perpetual tendency to go out uf order, and hence the absolute necessity fur appointing a chairman well ac- quainted with the forms of public deliberation, and who has the itrengtu of mind to insist on order being preserved. At nil our public assemblages, a certain degree uf courtesy li used both among speakers and listeners. On an individual rising to speak, he addresses himself politely to the chalnna.i, and the chairman in return puliieiy mentions the name uf the speaker ; by which means the audience is made acquainted with the gentle- man who is about tn address them. When the dis- cussions of the meeting are over, the chairman closes the business with a few observations, and then dis- solves tlie assembly by leaving the chair. — When any diKpute arises in the course uf the busintws of the meeting upon points of form, it is customary to appeal to the usages of the House of Commons for an ex- ample to be followed. DL'TIES AS ELECTOtS. There are duties of another nature which we may be called on to perform In our character of citiaeiis. We are invested with the high and solemn trust of electing our representatives in Parliament, as well as representatives in our municipal institution!. In the execution of our duty as electors, we are bound to di- vest ourselves of all factious or personal cunsidera- tions. We have certainty to consult our own giK>d in making a choice of a represenutive, but it Is only as flowing frum the gmid uf the whole community* We must hence act entirely without passion or pre- judice. I^t us examine the previous habits of life, public conduct, and avowed sentiments, of candidates, aud calmly consider whether they are such as we can approve uf, or as being consistent with the general welfare of the people. We should al»o recollect that we exercise the trust of electors for many who do not possess that privilege. A large pmpurtiun of the oommiitiity consists of women and children, persons in a humble condition, tha sick, and the helplesa. These luok to us for proleutiou from wmng, and it is our duty to afford it to tb«m. If we, therefore, art with lority and impriideuee in opp«>intii(g men, who, from their conduct and character, are unfitted to ei- erdse the Important function of publie representatlvas, we in more ways than one commit a crime ngaiast society, and are unworthy of poiiessing the vaiuaMa prer .._ Mvea with which the constitution has Invested OS. In our capacity as cttlxens, we are frequently called upon to elect representatives in different muniolpal bodies; such as civic managers of the city in which we reside, mananrs of local trusts — general, polltlea), and religious. There Is often much beat at such elec- tions i a petty fkctlous spirit frequently governs the choice which is made : sometimes the meanest passions of our nature are exhibited during the contest. The observations we have made on our duties as elector! generally apply hero with peculiar force. As those who present themselves as candidates live amongst us, we can never find any difficulty in estimating their character and qualifications. But we must take care not to be borne away by private feelings; wa must not give our vote simply because the candidal* is an acquaintance, A consideration for what i» b4it /or the public interest should in every case govern us ; and we should not be afraid to let these our sentiments he known, for they can give no honourable man offence. In all cases of elections of members of civic corpora- tions, and such like bodies, the chief merit In electors, after that of good and respectable character, li sound- ness of judgment, and after that, activity of habits. The power of fine speaking, or eloquence, Is not re* qtiired in such a functionary, and should be esteemed very lightly. That whirh is required is a power of thinking coolly, an integrity of purpose, and a wil- lingness and ability in taking a share ,.." ihe imrdea* some duties to be performed. Our qualifications ai electors, perhaps, render its liable to be ourselvee elected. In the event, therefore, of being called for- ward by our fellow-citixens to fill the honourable situ- ation of their representative, it is our duty to sacrlflca perhaps our own feelings and a portion of our tima in the public service, provided we conscientiously con- sider ourselves qualified for the task, and that our health and private circumstances permit It. The principal question we have to put to ourselves, whea we are so brought forward, is, *' Have wo sufficient time to spare to attend the various meetings — to sIC and deliberate in the numerous committees— to have our minds frequently occupied with public affairs?** If we deceive ourselves in answering this important question, we wrong society, and give ourselves causa for much after-dlsquletude. Is It, or not, tlie proper way for every one who Is worthy of this tnist, calmly, deliberately, and, to the best of his knowledge and be- lief, to do those acts which will best preserve for his own use the beautiful fabric of his political institu- tions ? If ha perceives and rejoices in the good which he and others derive from it, will he not bust per- form his duties to those who come after him, to usa it, and not abuse it, that they may have the like good ? Little Buggestiuns of selfishness, rivalry, and petty local interests, and, most of all, perverted and mis- chievous ambition, are the blocks over which citizens stumble and fall, in the otherwise luminous and dear path in which they aie permitted to move. DUTIES AS JrilORS. The laws under which we live give us the invala- able privilege of trial by jury ; In other words, we are tried fur the commission of utfences by a body of man chosen Indiscriminately, an nearly as umveulent, from the class of society in which we have moved. By such a considerate regulation there can be little risk of in- dividual oppressiim, provided those who compose ju- ries do their duty. It is therefore incumbent on citiiens who are liable to serve in juries, to make themselves acquainted with what is understood to be their duty when so called upon. It requires no ioarn- ing to fulfil the character of a juror. It requires na more than a coolness of thinking, and a mind above lieing carried away by prejudices or feelings. The juror is to remember that it is the jury which is the judge in the case, not the judges who sit on the bench. Keeping this in view, it is one of the chief qualities requisite in a jury to maintain Its proper dignity and honour inviolate, nevertheless with all courtesy, and to act with firmness in the execution of its important function. Besides deliberating dispassionately on the evidence presented, it is the duty of the juror to ba totally regardless of every consideration but that of strict jiiNtice. He is neither to regard the rank of life of the culprit, nor of the injured party. In a court of jurisprudence all men sink to an equality. It ie also the duty i>f the juror, after forming hisconscien- tions opinion, not to be t;oerccd, or flattered, or spoken into a differeat opinion. He is invested with a so- lemn trust, and that trust he must preserve with scru- pulous care, as consonant with the dearest interests of society. DUTIES AS MEIOHBOiriS. Besides the duties which we have to perform ae members of a great nation, wo have duties of a sU mllar nature u> perform as Inhabitants of a town, district, or neighbourhood, and in relation to which we Bometimee receive the appellation of citiiena. Every perwm belongs to a neighbourhood, which la tMith locttl and social. Kven tbo»e who have removed inui new countries, and who dwell in solitary alw do not lone the sentiment of neighbourhotid. The nottrest person tn them 1« a neighbour, though sepe* rmtwl by long dutanef. And when this scntimcn| ^ 5\ ■ the Inraln- ifords, wo »r» i body of mea venient, from ved. By "ud* tie risk of in- i» compinB Ju- ■nciitnb«nt on riei, »o in«ke leriioud to be ,ireB no i»mrn- [t reqiilret no a mind ftbore nlingt. The which it tht on the b«nch. ihief nualUiw }r dignity And cniirtny> »"* iti important onalely on Ol« le juror to be hut that of tha rank of In a court (uality. It it r hiiconicien- jred, or «|joken ted with a to- arvawiihacru- ut iularNli 0^ ty. DUTIES OP LIFE. to n .V perform u duti« of » tU nti of a town, ifttiun to which I of citiMoa. tood, which it i ttAV« remOTtA loUtary abodti, turhood. Tb« , thoof h Mp«- thii wntimeat oannot b« preiervad In faot, it mav b« in thoughtt and by that RMani It uiually U to. P«rkapt thr laat tm- pr«iiioiii that leave the heart of one who hai wandered into far diiiuiit reglunt, ".re thota made In hU early d«yi| In hii native hume. In general, ai every one llrei in a neighbourhood mora or 1«m dome, he can Eromote hit own happineMi and that of thou around Im, hy obaarvinfr a becoming mural conduct. He haa a right to enjoy life, and tu uie all thiuK" whicli he hai, to that end ; but he hai nut a right tu anv en- foynient whiuh necMiarlly dliturbr that of utneri. Peace, traiiquillit), Mud security within one'i own walli, li the main purpose of life. No one hai a right to interfere in theie thingi hut by order of the public law. A neighbour, therefore, who lo conducts him- ■elf, and thoae means of pleasure which he commands, M to vex, harass, and disturb those who are necessa' rUy within sight, hearing, &o., commits an offence against morality. It often happens to be the pleasure of one who dwells in a dense neighbourhood, to keep one or more animals, whose lialiltual noises disturb those who necessarily dwell within hearing, In the hours allotted to repose, uud frequently when persons are visited by sickness, and when any noise is distress- ing. Now, whatever the rigid law of the land may aay in such cases, the law of morality says that the iuffering party has an unquestionable right to remove hit tronltle, if the proprietor of the cause of such nui> sance will nut, on request, remove It himself. A more peaceable way would be, tu have it removed by order of the public magistrate. Many of such petty nui> •ances ought to be removable on summary verbal ap- plication, and not in the slow, written, and printed process, in which the muvementi of ordinary law are omnmnnly made. The moral duties of neighbourhood extend to all things which minister to the common comfort, couva- ntence, and security. Each one of a neighbourhood ia hound to make his own dwelllng.place as agreeable and pleasant to those around him as he reanonatily can. Each one is morally held to jphold and sustain a good name for his own little community. He is, therefore, to join, with a liberal and manly feeling, in all the improvements which tend to please and adorn. Such things, even if they occasion some expenditure, are sources of seif-satisfactiuu ; and one comes at last to take an honourable pridu in hearing his street, bis Tillage, his town, or city, commended oy observers. There Is another sort of neighbourhood which Is fonnded in social intercourse, and in the interchange of visiting and hospitality. As the world now is, this It commonly regulated by artiAcial and somewhat un- natural rules. It is often ostentatious, luxurious, and destitute of all feelings and thought in which well- trained moral minds can take pleasure. A profuse and voiuptuoui entertainment, comprising food little adap- ted to promote health and vigour, and in quantity Bofficient for ten times the number, that rather look at than consume it, is an unsatislying way of being happy In social intercourse. There are modes of main- tainingsuch Intercourse, which are innocent, pleasing, and dutiful. Mankind are fitted fur such. The inter- change of friendly visits, for conversation, muhic, and rational amusement, with such things as may be used without suffering or impairing health, is that kind of neighbourhood (in such relations) which is permitted and enjoined. Wo have, however, little reason to think that intimacies of this sort are likuly to meet with such consideratiuu as would induce the further vxtensiun of them. Every person, in general, Is a member of some kind of society or association. Some persons belong to many. These are intended for some useful purpose. Every one who Is such member hat some duties tu perform. Ue owes some proper part of his time, some proper contributions, to the common object, and has an in- terest in the prosperity of the design. All these in- atltutions do some good, and some of them eminent good, in helping on the great purpose of social life, which ii general improvement. Of this nature are public cbaritien, educati.inal institutions, libraries, Bgricutturnl societies, aud those fur suppressing In- temperance and immortility. No well-disposed citizen can conscientiously abstalu from giving his aid and ■upport to such objects. It is each one's duty to try to leave the world a little better than he found it. No one can say these are matters which do not ctmcern him. Soppone every one should say so, and had said to from tbe beginning, ^ouiety would still be made up of barbarians. Every giHid that is done in any com- munity affects directly or indirectly every member of it. The law of example, of imitation, of doing as others do, tias a most pervading aud aittonishing in- llueuL-e. Every cnmmuuity is like a full vessel of water; no one drop in It can be moved without af- fecting every other drop. DUTIEB IK OUH DOMESTIC RELATIONS. Marriiiye — This institution is agreeable to a law of nature, aud is an urdinance of the Creator. There are protligates who have doubted this; but they have exhibited no reason un their aide. It Is nhvimtR that man is not only a gregariuus, but a pairing animal. Marriage is consistent with tbe finest of his feelings — the muHt noble of liis faculties. It began when man began. It is ordered to perpetuate the succession of the human family. It is ordered for the whole dura- tion of adult age. It is man's peculiar privilege in this : it coiinecu him with generattoni which ate gone, with that which is passing away, and %vith those 2ua which art to coma. The memory and the ashes of tbe dead are praciout to him, and no other animal hat that sentiment. Ha alone contamplatei that his own memory wiU ba heid lu honour, and that the place of hit earthly quiet will be aaorod. He only it enabled to conceive that moral and phytical wrong will bear his own stamp in the character aud in the frame of those that follow himt he only knowi that a good name may be an honourabla inheritance. These are the sentiments which spring from tbe beneficent gift of marriage. However much one may misunderstand or abuse this gift, nature, ever faithful to her trust, forces these sentiments on the heart. Marriage Is recognised as a contract of a binding nature in all civilised uationr.. ISy some it is consi- dered, from its lolemnily, to be of a sacred character i by others it la deemed only a civil bond of connexion. All, however, agree in holding it to be an irrevocable contract. The laws of the land, those of nature, and the divine law, disclose the sentiments, the feelings, and the awful sense of duty with which this under- taking should be regardtd. Vet it is frequently en- tered into from motives highly reprehensible, and sometimes with shockuig thoughtlessness. It is from such causes that u «< see that this sacred union, which should be the true source of the highest human hap- pinett, becumet that Inexhaustible fountain from which both parties are daily and hourly compelled to driuk, and from thn same cup, the bitterest waters. In a great numlwr of Instances, marriage is con- tracted with exceedingly little regard to the qualities of the mind on either side, particularly on the side of the man. If one could penetrate the ear of enamoured youth, tome good might come from such suggestions as these :— Do you know what will come of that en- gagement which you are about to make ? Are you about to tie yourself by bands, absolutely Indissoluble while you live, to a mortal who hv ' «lings, wishes, wants, hopet, and fears, which r. jecome your*i, and a part of your very self; or which you must resist, coHtrot, or contend with ? Do you know that pain, suffering, and sorrow, originating in either, must be bornu by both ? Are you aware that whatsoever of error, folly, or crime, may be chargeable to either of you, or to any who may tpring from your contract, wilt be your common burthen and shame ; and that frum these you can relieve yourself nowhere but in the grave ? Or, do you know that this attractive being will be your kind friend ; your counsellor ; the weluime soother of your cares and anxieties ; the ge- nerous and tharltable judge of your infirmities; the Inspirer of honourable ambition ; your fellow-labourer in joint interests ; the urnumeiit of your life ; the gra- cious, considerate, faithful, gentle companion, who will make your own virtuous home the place to which you refer ell earthly happiness ? Who that is ** in love" has leisure or incliuatlou to think of such tri/UM as these ? There is no reason why the passion of love should lie wrapped up in mystery, nor any, why the mind should l>e stained in considering its nature. It would prevent much and complicated misery in the world, if all young persons understood it truly. There are in every human being seeds, each one of which may be made to germinate, and may be so cultivated as tu pro- duce tae most odious vices, or the most serene and heavenly virtues. There is in every human heart a fund of kindness, tenderness, and affection, which makes itself known to be there in due time. It de< mauds tu be applied. This is the trying and perilous moment in youthful life. There Is some one, some- where, who will take that fund, and give its full equi- valent. The external sensen and the heart are in search of ih4t one. Happy will it be for the searcher, if he will take reason as a monitor to keep the senses and heart in order. But reason is commonly regarded, not at a kind aud faithful friend whose duty it is to whisper, ** begin nothing of which you have not well considered the end," but as a withered scowling ma- tron, who, being utterly dead tu the impulse of youth, denies that there ought to be any. If ttitre has lieen no preparation for this eventful peri:>d ; if '.he mind has not been enriclied with the teachings of rational prudence ; if the eye has not been taught to distinguish iHftween tbe real and the fictitious ; If the ear has not learned to diiicriminate the meaning of sounds; if life as a whole, if the consequences of irrevocable deeds be not thought of, there is peril ; and the pure drop from the fountain may flow into any sea but that of happi- ness. In seeking for tliat being who Is to be a compa- nion during life, one grievous failing must l>e avoided. Voung men frequently amuse themselves by playing with the feelings of young women. They vinit them often, they walk with thtm, they pay them divers at- tentions, and, after giving them an idea that tiiey are attached to them, tliey either leave chem, or, what is worse, never ooiuo to an explanation of their senti- meuu. This is to act the character of a dangler^ a uliaracter truly infamous. Voung men cannot be too cautious in the attention! which they bestow on un- married females, wlio on their part should be equally guarded in not encouraging tlie addresses of any iudi. viduals whum they would not choose to marry. According to the present state of society, one of the influential counteracting elements to marriage is, or ought to be, a high degree of prudence. No one ought to marry who cannot foresee that he will be able tu support the additional expenses of a wife and family, and at the same time fulfil his other necessary obllgationi. By good management, these additional charnt are not great, but they amount to toawthliury and he it wort* than an infidel who doei not proriXi against them. Wo are of belief that every iadoa* trions, active, and tobor roan, will find no teriout obstacle iu this respect. It it from Idleness, love of company, and intemperance, not from simple expon- dlture on family necessaries and comforts, that ruin and poverty In the married lib are produced. Tha dread of encountering the expenses of a family, though acting as a salutary clieck on imprudent marriages, U frequently productive of many gross vices, tending to the Injury both of individuals and of society. CelU baoy, especially when circumstances would permit marriage, it not respectable ; It Is considered aktn to vagranojr. He who marries and settles down as • householder, meeU with tlie apprubation of the world* Why Is this ? it may bo asked. Because in marrying we give a guarantee tu society for our good behaviour. It is nut to be doubted thata ytung, welUeducated| industrious couple, who are sincerely and affection- ately attached, on u sober examination and conviction of each other's worth and suitability to each oiher^ may be happy with means far short of the fashion* able standard. Presuming that such a couple are wise enough to take life fur tbe real and substantial good that it can produce — and as a whole, it would do them great injustice to suppose that they could not find that good in a small, simple, cheerful, trauquU mansion — it would be doing the friends of such a couple the like injustice to suppose that they could not visit them, and be satisfied to see them happy through such means. We may add, that such a state of things conforms to the laws of nature. If such i couple desire a more enlarged state of things, they will earn it by frugality aud Industry. W hat one has earned Is sweet to him; and he who sees some- thing before him which he may strive for and attain to, is impelled by tbe same laws to honourable ezer» tion. In whatsoever circumstances, and with whatever motives marriages occur, the parties ar^ married; and the question which they have to propose and solv^ ill, iu what way they can secure to themselves tha greatest good during theii' union ? In general, the duties of married lifu are very well understood and observed in this country. We do not assume to teach on this subject. We venture no more than to men- tion some causes of unhappiuess, taking the risk whether they are worth notice or not. They will be arranged under such beads as may arise, without any solicitude as to particular order. Gentleness It is believed that the absence of this excellent virtue is a common cause of unhappiness in families. The memberii uf a family who think civility or politeness due tu every one out of it, sometlmee think neither of them necessary in their own inter- course with each other. It would he much better for them to reverse this opinion. If family connections are hound together by the strongest ties of common interest; if they are, at they may be, dear to each other ; if politeness and civility are good things for any body, they must be good things among ttidi persons. Gentleness is manifested in many ways — by making no unnecessary and troublesome noises ; by kind looks ; by being mindful of each other's accommode- tiou and convenience ; by avoiding the expression of hariih contradictory opinions; by forbearing to wound self-love even in trifles ; by avoiding loud and irri- tating tones of voice. The tongue is a great mischief- maker in families; and when it makes itself known by a harassing voice, it is a constant disturber ai. domestic peace. A strong-toned, harsh, disrespectful remark or reply, will produce its fellow from its auditor. Certainly there it ncthlng which sweetens domestic intercourse more than a kind, gentle, and affectionate tone of voice. Let any one test tlut worth of this virtue (for it deserves to be called suib), by examining who among his friends and acquaintance have It or have It not. Let him inquire Into the plea- sure or displeasure which he has frum their presence^ and satisfy himself how much depends on mere tone of voice. This is a sort of index which shows to an habitual observer In what manner a stranger, who it seen for the first time, has been educated. It fre- quently discloses to what purpose he has been edu- cated ; and is, like the eye, a window iu the heart. Triflet, — There are a great many trifles Inthislife, when considered as a whole. It is a common failing to magnify them into serious matters. It would be, perhaps, descending rather too much to particularise them. They may relate to dress, food, visitlngi>, in- signiticant purchases, management uf children, treat- mentof,andremarktupon, domestics; and a multitude of little matters on which difference of opinion arises. Now, it ia not of the least possible consequence, in the long-run, whether the matter l>e disposed of in one way or another, if no moral duty be broken. To- morrow, or soon, it will be to thought of. Vet e sudden observation, in an ungentle voice, will produce an irritating reply, and this a severe rejoinder. This ungentleness has a mournful effect on the cha- racter of oliildren when exhibited in parents. It de- prives brothers and si^ter8 uf a happiness which kind nature intended for them. It is wholly useless, and worse tnan useless, in asserting authority. It can only Iw classed among those tad mistakes which tend to make this a miserable world. How can any two ra- tional beings, who mutt live In familiar Intercourae while they do live, to misapprehend the purposes of CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. !|« hi 111** M h«(iItu«Hr to h>rmfnl »wh nthar on iimiffnlA Oftni IrlUM^ If Bti^ on* of iht hiMinnhold »hiitilil b« anhippUy b«iniyf>4 inm an unlxK-ominff fiprwilon, •lltUM bent ticcumM tliiM* who htAt it. HDIIAKD. It muit b« ■iiiimed thai the pkrtlei to a marriage Ml aeoi»rding to their own will and pleaaura In tiitar* lu \nU> (t ; and ihnt thny '"P**^! to promota their nwn wwfara by inch me iiurr*. Thev were, ur might hava batn iiirormed, of each nihrr'i iiiitahlllly. Rolh inev, or mf^ht have kwown, thnt new clrnimilanrat and unaxpeftetl eventi might chnnga ur deitroy uim- lltlae, and bring dormant or iienly acquired onei Into operation. Iloth agree, each with the other, t^i bear and forbear, and to make the br«l of thnmnttirr, how. arer it might prora to he. Kach one mtemnly pro- mliad that therontrartuhouldbekepl, if it rcMonably oottid be, Although the other might full to perform. Iieliii itippote, then, that there were do mittakei In the beginning m to the qtialiilei and conduct of the wifet and thnt nhe la, In all rnpecti, and nnder all clrcumstaiirei, rtirh an one a« hai been lirlore ing- getted. C;ifi it be reconciled to the Iaw which cnm- mandi one to ]imniitte hif own gooil, to perform the duties voliintaiily atmuned, to exerclne a power over thli dependent female, which not only ueurirei ht>r of the eKprcied l>eneliU of cflnnuhi:il life, but which make* her .1 dally and hourly autTerer ? Mow can any one who calU himaelf a man, and who clnimi to be conildered and treated m such by other men, h%hitu> ally prore hiiQirlf not to be a man, but a l>rute, to. vardi a defcnceleu, iinofTenditig woman? If one coald K»ok into ercry family, how mmv voluntary •oenet of misery would be dUcIoaed ? \Y9 aanume now that the woman Ii tn no fault, and that ihe atrlrea continually to accommodate herself to her con. dilion, and to liear ir lilence, and to do her bett to eu ynu not make to yourself the misery which you complain of, •a being incident to thiii state of being ? If you hare troubles and vindictive feelings towards niiy whi> hare wronged or oppressed ynu abroad, have youanyseniie of right and juitice, ur any conformity to the law vhich commands yuu to do as you would hi^ dene by, In making your Innocent wife ihe victim of ynur mo- roie and angry feelings ? Did yon not solemnly pn'. mise ber, that if she would derotd her liie to ynu, that you wouhl Aupport. cherish, and fnlthfully reward her alffctiou ? Do yon avail yourself of thn secrecy of domestic life, and of the certainty tliat prudence, and regard for ynu, and for ynur olTipring, will keep all causes of complaint n-ithin your own walN, to play the tyrant towards one whose tongue muitt be silent, nntil she charj^es yuu as a criminal in n court of Jui. tfce ? Has she done you anr wrong ? Has she up. hraided you that your social hours are spent away from her, and that vour earnings are not brought home to be used for i^e common comfort, but dissi* pated In follies ? When you havo come into her presence, from she knows :iot what company, with an unsteady step, a giddy and throh!iJng head, and a bewildered brain, has she not sought tnhlde your and her own shame ? Has she reproached you for these breaches of your solemn promJRes in any way but with tears — lean, not shed for herself, but for you and for your chtUren ? WIPK. It mutt depend in this caae, ai in that of a husband, whether a contract shall bo made. As it is the pro. per course ftir the other sex t is to effect cb^t ob. ject of which she must judge. 1 1 is easy thysically pure and strong. These ends will be obtained by a systematic regularity, mildly and kindly, but certainly, enforced. Jjove, respect, and obedience, are its consequencei. A child will fiuou learu what it can have and do, imd wh'it it can. not; and it will go4)n know that it c3ntu)t .lak again for what has been, (m due consideration, refused, 'i'he excellence of society has its root in ijifiincy, and that excelltnce Is conlWled to the care of mothers. The duties of pareutt do not cease till their cbiU dren are remove*! iVom under their char>;e on ntriving at man and wumanhiNid. They have a serious trust iti the education of their chiUlrt-ii. Ileaidcs setting them a good example, tliey nnist iustrnct tliein pri. vately to the best of their abilities, and likewise send tliem to proper schools. The scholastic educ^aion lliey give them ought to be suitable to their means, and their powers of introducing their childieti into the norld. For a prxir man to toil, and deprive hi<« family of comforts, in order to liighly educate one son, perhaps, is utter folly. Ills duty in clearly to give his sons such an eiiucation nshecan afford, and to the extent which will enable them to IHI respectably the station in life in which they are to more, it would be well if fathers of families would endeavour to give their sons a tasie fur readin;;. If they do so, and put ilieni ia a right bias, they mav depend on them aa«iu{rlng a great deal more useful knowMga aflar ihay leave tchmil than they .'outd pustibly bara laamad there. Nearly all the man who hare distfngulibad themselves In tha world are found to have acquired thair kuowIe^M through private desultory study after leaving their classes, and many, In their autobiographies, trac* thair good fortune lu the taste fur raading given them I)ISA?POIMT»l«ifTi AND BORnOWS OF PAllWTI. It is not to ba wondered at that parents, who have, as they think, done all that parents should do lu make their children worthy, are afflicted, when their labour and exertion do nut produce the intended effect Their reasonable hopes are disappointed, their liest feelings are tortured. An Idle, ungrateful, dissolute sun, is such a complicated cause of sufTeriug, as may, if any thing may, lead one to murmur at the order uf things. It may be aJm'tted thai such a parent la very likely to break out with compluinla against the wurld. Tbii sulferlng, however keen and biting it may be. It not a nutunil, but a moral ivil. There la a moral wrung Noniewbere. Is It li. the parent himself? Has he watched the beginning of error, and drawn hia child otr from the descending pUne ? Hut, perhaps, the downward course bus been long begun upon, aud that art and deceit have made si.cb progress that the child has been able to elude parental Inquiry, This can hardly happen with a watchful parent while his child is under his own roof. Perhaps the downward course has been begun upon when a child Is at a distant school, college, or in a place of business, preparing for manhoud. If a parent has placed u child where he cannot superintend bIm, or with thusc who do not undortuke to do this, or who will nut if they do, tha parent is nut excused because others are in fault. A child who ia sent away from home, is, as the world now Is, alwaya sent into some hasard. The hazard ia, when lc:iat, that the preceptor, guardiiin, and mas- ter, may be deceived. Thu seductions may be such as to plunge a boy into ruin, even before those who see him daily, and who mean to do their duty, have the !i i'>t i 'iination of it. There must be error, then, somewhere. IVobably it ib in society Itself. In all large cities, towns, ami even In villages, there are somo persons who live and tbrivo, in wholu or iu part, by aiding young persons to ruin themaclvei, and to make life itself a luirthen to parents. These per. sons are well skilled In thu arts of seduction. They cannot go and put their h;inda into a father's or a master's poikot, and take thence what they covet. Ilut they know luiw to put other hands there. They know what appetites to awaken, what desires to cre- ate, and how to cultiv.ite them, and make them deep- rooted and firm, to that no wind of conscience can blow them over. Thi'y know what thu fruits will ba to them. Those who have been by such means with* tlrawn from thu paths of innocence and virtue, and whu have succeeded in stilling the cries of consciuiLce, strive to add to tlieir degraded number. They placu temptations before the unsuspecting, and lead them on ; and thus one plausible young villain is enough tu seduce and to poison a whide generation. This mournful course of aeduction, profligacy, and crime, Is called by some persona the nature! evrla of society. Stich persons are pourly iuitrncted. They are as clearly mere moial evils as murder ia a Ci'me i hut they can only be eradicated by atrict niunicip..! regulationa, and by the moral surveillance of the well- informed. nUOTIIEBS AND SISTERS. These relatitnis nnke a very great mistake at to the real good of life, in not cultivating a cordial ami nlTectitniato friendship with each other. In early life they are apt to he in each other's way, and to iidve irreconcilable wants ; thus they very soon fall Into ulienations. '^^fV cannot, however, shako oif the laws uf nature. They must have an interest in each other whether they will or not, and it will ciiaenti:illy promote their mutual welfare to have a kind and gracious one. The common uiuaes of their dilTer. cnces are exn^edingly insignificant, and often are con* templible. They will see the day when they will so tliiiik of them. Tlie time prcMCS hard tipon them when they will need counsel, support, and tume ono to care for them in a mattuer which unite hut brothers and sisters can do. When all hns gone on well from tlie cradlu upwards, among bui-h relatives, they be. come to each other not only the most useful friends, but the most iigreeable compinions. They aru tlio natural cuulidantH when it would he folly to trust any one whu.^u sympathy and solicitude may change. I'rothers and sisters who are thus bound together uy alfection, sumetimes haxiird the connection by volun- teering friendly, lint very unwelcome, commentaries and advice. This Is a very deltcile niaiter. (Hving unasked advice on any occasion reipiires very great discretuin. If one sees that his brother is blunder. ing, there are many modes of so approachiiif< him, .18 tolead him to tiiid that ho needs advice, and ot' putting bim in search of it. If thero be a right understand- ing, he will go where hois sure of having the bust and the sinrercbt. To assume a dictatoi inl liiithority over a brother and Kintitr, is to inflict a wound on aelf-Iove which cannot be forgiven. Wo havo already noticed the value of civility and politeness between such near connections; ami wu add, that sincerity ami truth are nowhere more profitable aud necessary, "l-'amiliarity brcedi coulempl" is a true sajing, L.ad ofligacy, anil iri'l erill "f ,cie"il III iMtlylifa aiiJ til lj«rii kiiim fall into ihake oir llm iteri'St ill McU rill tisi'iiUiJIy a kiud and . lliuir ilifTer- oflen »re con- iliey will »n . upon llicm iiiil lume ono J bill lirollicri _, on wi'll ff"™ ivci, limy ^'- "^uefiil I'rienil", Tbey nro I'l" .y to trim any may chaiiK". „i luiJftlicr by lion liy volun. conuiifiilai'i'^* alter. very g^'»t r u liluuilcr- :llin!; liini. '» iliili.tl"'"'"* ' unilefU'nil- riii(5 the Ijoal 111 aiilliorily a urotind nn „ ....0 already men bclvTi-en tbal linniTity and u«ri''>arT> ■110 unying, ;"iJ ler avii uli: DUTIES OF LIFE. !• ftry ipi lo flntl an npplioatlon nflu truth not only In thi) IntarronrM nf hrotlitri ami liitiri, line In that amonff moru illitHtit reUtloni. >Va beg tu wnrn all olaiMt of rvlatloiii who rri*i|UFntly ni«et togother, agaliiit uilnK too much familiarity, Afairiit iiilnfr too Utile ccrvmony, aj^niriit taking llhtfrllsii with caili other. Let them preiierva towardi one another the inont reiipeotriil yet friendly terma, If they wliih to avoid falling Into difTeretioei. Let thrm rememlwr that the qunrrelii of relation! are almoil irrHfoncll- ahle, iiiid that, even when forgiven and (n u great roeiiiture forgotten, they leave very iliingreeablu foeU liigi among all parttei. nuTir.fi or MAnrrni avd hekvahtb. From the nirllc'it ngen down to the pteient time, there huve been liilTerent I'la^ne!! of loclely. Aielie< whurt) ex|ilfiiiiei), thin iiereinurlly iiriRei from thu very order of korletv. The wuIl-Mtalil'thed and very j*ni. per rlf(ht of Inherltnnce, ond the ability which sntne menibiTH of Kociet\ liiivu to lu-nuir^t "nd whliiholhfra havo not, the dlOerence of etlucatlon and other ob. vIoMK rniitci neiTMnrily produce theKo ilistlnctionii. ^Vho among the vrtrloun clamea in tliemmt contented And huppy, it fpiitu nuother matter. There must be lome t4> lerve, and kume to he lerveil. They nru mutually dupend(>nt. Wv hear gru-it complalntd, loinelinies from mumerHwith regard to their sprvautn, And sometimes from servant! with regard to their matters or eniptoycrn. ThU connt'ction Is rcjfnrdcd Bi one of the ntisurii<e nbnvo them. If they htdiavu with propriety, and do their duty, they should be spared whon sirk, advited and reliuved wbun in trouble, and be mmlo as romfortablu as clrcum. stances will permit. The commands given to tbciri should be plain, ctt>nr, uniform, and nut coutradlc. tory or capricious. Thi>y are not tu bu sneered at, or commanded with virulence and reproai.h, but mildly and rather by re^jtieitt. They are alno to be treated with uniform uivlllty ; but every approacli to famili. nriiy with them should he avoided, if respect on both Rides is to he preserved. It is always bent trs ntul mistresses. A strict attention to an employi'r's in- terest, rogularity of habits, and perfect integrity both in speech iind action, form the principal qualiticntions nf n servant. There is usu:illy much less actual dishonesty amonr; servants thou a reirardlessness of their masters' interests and time. This is more the case with domestic than other servants. This class of persons, who are chielly females, art- very apt to en- croach on the time of their emphiye'S for their own pleasure and convenience. If sent an errand, they ■will spend < great deal of moro time in executing It than is necessary. It is an idle love of gossiping wbicS generally produces this great failing among servants, and it it our duty hero to sdmonish them of its impropriety. Their time belongs to their master, :uid it is dishonest to use it for their own purposes, unless by permissinn. Speaking with regard to persons in service generally, wo aro sorry to notice that tbere is n tendency to reduce the terms of contract betwixt empbiyers anil employed t{> one of apurely mercenary nature — so much work for so much money. Thero appears to be a i,'rowing inclination to drop nil kindliness of intercourso betwixt tbo two cliivsp^. The consequence is, that many masters feel perfectly inditTerent with respect to giving empb)y- ment to those who have long served them. The in- jury in, however, mutual j for, when aervants know that they are only valued in proportion to the amount of their actual labour, and that they will be paid olf without regret, they care littlo fora master's inteiest. There can be no question as to who began this impro. per system. Itoiiginated iu servants and workmen omleavonring toeMtablish by violence and intimidation ft certain amount of wages for their labour, and wliich the state of society could not warrant. Weear.iestly trust that it is not yet too late to restore the ancient bond of sympathy betwixt every descrrijition of em- ployers and employed. Indwidual and social benefit would be the result. 301 DUTY or TKITITINO TO Ot/tlKI.TKI. There is a duty of an important natnra which wa have to perform towards aoclety t and that Is, wa mu!t trual to onritlvit. M'a hava each baen tnilowed with reainn to guide ut, and handi to workt why, than, unless proBtratad with bodily disaasa, or tome olhar inflrmity, should we think of leaning upon others for support or asBlslance ? It would not be desirable to tea men shut up their hearts itKainit eath other, and each stand in the panoply of his own resolnlioni, de> termineJ nifalnst every friendly appeal whatsoever. It Is possible, however, to be not altogether a churl, and yet to taka care lest we he tempted Into an •!• ertlon of l)enevolence dangerous to onrselvet, while it Is of little advantage to our friendi. Notwlthitanding the many ties which connect a man with toclety, he nevertheless bears largely imprinted on his forehead the original doont, thai lie must chiefly be dependent on his own labour for subsistence. It is found hy all men of experience, that, in so far as ono trusts to his own exertions solely, he will he apt to flouilsh j and in so far nt ho leans and depends upon others, he will be the reveme. But there are many who do not re. cognise this principle. They trust only partially to themselves, Hnd are always poking ahotit after large fiiviuiri from friends. \['i\ find them asking loans of money, asking others to he surety for them, asking ac qnalntuncfs to interfere to got places for them. If they ask for nothing else, they intrude upon their friends tu leek advice. Neither physically nor morally do they seem able to exert themselves for their own behoof. This is BO contemptible a mode of living, that it cannot bu too severely reprehended. Tho^e who depend on others can never succeed Iu life. In whatever man. ner they may be assisted, they ean never become front rank men in society. We nould earnestly impress upon tlie young the propriety of depending At little ai posKitile upon pro.spects of advantages from others, all of whom have enough to do with themselves. It is obviously tho duty of every one to think and act for himself, as soon as ho attaint manhood, and neither be biirdonsomo on relatives, nor troublesome to ac- quaintancos. The acceptuncoof n trifling favour from an acquaintance always lays us under an obligation, which is sometimes difficult to remove. If the nc. quaintanco ever need similar favours, xvo feel bound to grant them, and perhaps ho estimates tho original favour so highly, that ho thinks wo cannot do enough to servo him. In this way hundreds of men are ruined. Wo would say, accept no favours, unless upon a prlnci|tle nf common cn.irtesy. If you employ any one to execute a piece of work, take caro to pay lliem faithfully and promptly, and Ho under no obli- gation to them, otherwise you may lio called upon when you lenst expect It, to make payment an liun- dred fold, lie liberal, atf<(ble, and kind ; but, kiunv. ing that you cannot tlo moro injury to society than hy greatly injuring; yourself, excicise a just caution in giving way to the sollcitatiinis of your friends. Never he too ready to convince yourself tint it is right to involve ymirself largely. In order to help any person into a particular station In society; ratber'let him begin at the bottom, nnd he will be all the better fitted for hit place, when he reaches it, hy having fought his way up through the lower stages. MAKINO A WII.I,. JMiicli distress among families is often produced hy individuals who have property to betineath, not mak. ing a will or testament. Why such individuals do not make their wills, it is difllcult te explain. Terhapa it arises from carelessuest and a spirit of procraF.tination, or a want of resolution in men to make up their minds with respecif to how they wouM distribute their pro- perty ^t their deceise. Stmie may indeed be so fool- ish as inia(;ine that the making of their will would hasten the approach of death. From whatever cause it proceeds, it is a highly blameablo failing. It is the duty of every person jiosiiessing property, whether en- gaged in business or otherwise, to ntaku a will, and descrilie in some species of document how lie would wish his affairs to be arranged in the event of his dying. There certainly arc cjics iu which men of property would not wish their possessions to lie distri- iputed in any other way titan as the law would dictate : yet it is a mark of a well. regulated mind to leave a will descriptive itf thu means to he pursued in the ac- cession to, and management of, their property and ciincerns. To do so, nt least, would often save a great deal of trouble and some expense, and boa preventive of litigation among relations. Wo therefore must insist tliat the making of a will is n sacred duty which ought to ho performed, and perfurmed without procras- tination. In the midst of life wo are in death; no one knows but iu an hour hence ho may be nt>more. We beseech fathers of families, and others similarly placed —those even who may havo property but to the value of a few pounds — to lose no time in executing their will. Ily leaving so much as a letter subscribed by their name, to be opened after their decease, they may spare much vexation to those whom tht?y hold dear, they may queiu-li much petty jealousy, much unseemly dispntaiion. In a country such as Scotland, whero a wife dying without having had any live children, the one half of the moveable property of the husband goei legally to her relations, it is incumbent on wives so circumstaiueii, if they havo any love and esteem for their husbands, to make their wills : that is, put in writing a simple expression of ilieir desire that their husbands muy inherit thr projicrty which belongs to the wife In virtue of their marrligo. By an iualhsn* tlon to this easily performed dnty, thtra are many lU tlyatloni — many wldowere ruined. HIirOMTUNEI— CTILI. Evil li a part of iha lystem of ihlni^i In which w« live, and, at luob, must be patiently tuhmltted to. Man was intended to be an aotlv« creature. One of the grand almt of tha Creator, In hit fonuathm, avl. dently wat, thai he should never tettia dt)wn into a sluggish or itaguant state. It would have bi>«n easy for the dWIne power which breathed into him so wonderful a thing at life, to have turrounded him with nothing but blasiiagt, at they are called, so that he would have uothing to do hut enjoy himself. Uul this would nut have produced what the Almighty wished, a world in which a rullimal being wtis tu exercise his faculties, and ubo hit endowments, with a proper regard toacertainenJ — an account, nainvly, tu be rendered at the close, of whur, and how he had done. ^Ve are here placed between evils which we are tu avoid or luhdue, and good which we are to aim at and enjoy I and hence, iuftteaU of being a ^et of torpid machines, as we would have been Iu any thing like a world uf iierfuct happiness, wu nro in a perpe- tual state uf vl^Itunce and activity, making the fnllimt use of those mental and bodily propeiliet with which we have been gifted. If we narrowly inspect tho cvllt or mUfortunei with which we are visited, we will And them invari- ably to be, either of two kinds. Home are the simpla result of an occKslonal or habitual violation of tha laws of nature, or au occasional or habitual fuiluru Iu that vigilance and activity which we are hound to emphiy for the avoiding of such diitretses. Theia may bo called moral ovIJi. The second clati are tha result of circumstances uver which we had no control, and may therefore be culled n>itural evils. Such a division, however, is only necessary in thu present state of our attainmunts us a race ; for there can be no doubt that means weru intended to bo ''' .covered by tho ingenuity of man, for thu avoiduncu and neu* truliBation of all evils whatever; and, theruforo. Id the case of what we Ci.Il nutural evils, wu should only consider ourselves us thu victims uf Imperfect know- ledge, and bo tho moro induced to strain after thu improvement uf otirsuU es and of our fcllow-creutureSf so as to obviate thesu as well at the rest. Great care »buuld be taken, when an evil befalls us i to ascertain whetlicr it bo moral or natural— In other words, whether it be the C(nisei|Ucnceof our own errori or of tircumstai.ces at present boyond our control. Our self-love makes us cxt>-uinely apt tu attribute oU our niLsbaps to the latter cause; but if wu are wise, wo will not do so. We will rather search hack un- scrupulously Into our own nature, or our own history, for the causes of the evil ; and if wu find them tbere, resolve fur the future to he more circumspect or more active, BO as to make a recurrence of the mischief leae likely. The most of the accidents that occur, though theyuppear at first sight to be natural evils, would he ftntnd, on close inspection, to he moral. The moat of tho diseases that befall us could ho traced to a failure in ourduty to ourselves, and are therofora moral evils i the rest, such at cancers, wens, organic transforma- tions, &e. which appear natural and unavoidable, are, wu havo no doubt, moral evils also. U we knew IcUer, we might probably avoid them, as easily as wo cuii avoid colds. They may be culled natural in the n'.ean- time, but nut to unless wo strive tu di^cove^ their causes, so us in the long-run to ohviato them. Tbey are certainly destined to be uliviated at last, as many disorders, now understood, formerly were ; and wa must at present consider them luily in the light ui an inducement to the exertion of the spirit of inquiry. There are some evils which we incur through here- ditary channels, and are (jul^o beyond our own coin trol. We are charged, for instance, with the seeds of a harassing ailment, or uf an early death, by thu long forgone and perhaps long repented vicesoi'our parents* But all this may liu accountud for on thu same princi- ple. It hat been intended that our moral natures should be so much improved, that uveu thu pussilde distresses of a descendant may operate us a check to our wickedness ; and what is a contemporary instance of innocent consumption but a warning tu prevent ui from doing that which may bring future lives into the saraeha/.ard ? It Is hard, iu the meantime, for tho Hulferer; but what cuu we say ugalntt the course uf nature ? Perhaps tho spectacle (and few can he mora painful) of a youth dying in his very bloom, in con- sequeuco of natural debility derived frotn weakly parents, may bu thu means of preventing two persons from putting themselves into the situation for bring- ing on bimilar evils. A very hijtf>a« tlilriKi, Itliimitl, nr* lii«vlt ablai lhi>y ftprlnf^rrom ilia natiira nfman, anil rniin iha \%w* which oi>mp«l him to dwall in mk-UI connwtliMi. Thoaa whnaay ui ara •liallaw (hltikart. Tha wortil it naiiiralljr a haaiiilfii) Wf>rlil. Rut what Otiii ha« Mda a ParadlMforoiirdwrlllnK.pUi'a, mankind hava oAan randarad a riaitart hy thair t'rimai, Naturaand raTalatInn allka priK-lalm thai iha Craatdf Intandad wa ihmiM t»a happy t hut how hai hrtital if iioranra, rlla iniamparanra, tfrojii crirna, and avary Rprtlaii tif •Til daiirm, hliKhtpii ottr i-onirttrti mid ilaKradet) otir immnrtal WinK t It hai nrvar yat Iwan piDvad that thara muit iitcetinriiy ha piivcrty, which ia tha ■ourca of many avili. A Rtrikin)[ Initanra of tha ahaam-a of povarty in a Urga (laiii of t'>riaiy {■ fonnd In tha rana of tha Qnakart, or ronimunitv of Friandi. Willi MMWpactillarltlai In tprach and drau, not worth whUa •o haad, thii numaroni hudy of individual! act upon o Aipd iiiiirorm prinrinle of mpprpaBin^f tba pa*iiliini. Thry I'lirb tha aupetftai and tiradlonf( Impultri of human natura. In ihit may )>a tald In lia tha fuh- ■unca of aound morali, Tha Quakcri, tharefora, ha< bitually practiia what othar rlaMaif>aly thanrltaupon. Ot laaat arp naldom parfi.mlDg. Tha conta(|iianca of ihii Koardadnati In tlionght and action li, that al- tkoufh there ara many thuuianda of (JuBkan in (i raat Britain, and many thouRandi In tha rnitad Statai of America, naithar-^ tha one country nor the othar dii we era r rtiid a Uiiaatr \}^^\n^ in the itreett) or an iiltoxicateny one of thii ciaia of anh. jecti and citizent at the h<< r of a crimlnHt ootirt ! Tha Quakarv are, like othar pa(i;4a, anfa^ in the com* BWin a/Taira of the wtirld ; tL«>y are merrhanta, nia. ohantca, artifirert, marineni, at,-l otherwise ernployad in tha itrdinary hiihlnatN of lifa. They are luhjait to the Ktma temptiitiona and pervrnioni that we are; ]rat, hy tha eaarciaa of a ainKular daf(rea of prudanca, ihey aroid them. Here, than, ia a clear denionatra. tion, that aren without the aid of civil power, hot hy the mere force of moral influence, there ia a claaa of mtn, in tha miiUt of im-iaty, «ho do^cape diat^race* fbl poverty, and mho arc frea from vice and crime. MMth regard to death, which ii ao fienarally looked opnn «• an evil, and the lait and worat of all, it ia In reality no auch thing, unleia it occur prematurely, vhich it never would do if men wern pfrfect in tha iriMervatiun of tha laws of nature. Aa the runclaaion of an aKlatence whicli never could have Se«n given if others had not died, it muat l>e regarded aa only a ftart of our earthly deiiiny, and lubmittetl to accord, ngly. mODAMTT np MAKK AKD COIfDITIOH. When the young grow up, they And society to con- iiitnf claitaiuf rariuua degrees of rank and rondition \ ■ome with titles of distinction, others without any title whatever ; some rich, some poor, and many In a middle itate between great wealth and poverty. The youthful reasoner perhaps thinks that all this is wrong, and that hy uaturai right all men ought to he r^ii r level. It is proper that not only the young, but others who take up notions of this kind, should b« told why these differences originate, and why they •list. Mankind, we may suppose, were originally oquil in rank and condition ; and they might have ramained s[i, or nearly so, had they continued to re. main in primeval barbarity, and lived apart from each ether. But it waa not in loeir nature to remain in thfa ctmdition. According to naturalists, man is a fregarions animal ; that is, he dekirex to live in so- eiety. As soon as men )>egsn to consort together, they l>egan to separata into ranka and cinditiona. Ilu who was the bravef-t waa made king ; he who was the ■lost clever or the most prudent liecame the most wealthy; he who wan the mof>t idle Itecame the most poor. Krom thia kind of beginning all ranks and conditions sprung; and subke^uent events have mo> dified MKiety into what we now aee it. It may he •aid that this explanation would ilo very well it we now found that ihiiig that d^ref of wiHdom antj ••.Jf dr"i«l which would lead theni to despite titlea, or the dignities connected with tbem, irA^n appiied to themselvei. As far as we can disc-t%-er, the Quakers are tha only people who do not rogard these things. Thn citizens of the United tStatei of America affect to despite titles ; yet, ii ia curioua, they ^ive a title of distinction to their chief maigistrate, whiMii they St) la ** Hii ErceiUncy {*' they also write Mattrr, or its contraction Mr, Ifeture their names. In this we see a degree of the same vanity and weakuets which affects the aubjects of ancient monarchies. It would appear that there is a yearning after these foU lies among mankind, lie it so or not, it is anidiosyn. erasy which, from time immemorial, has het-n seised hold of by rulers fur the purpme of stimulating men lo deeds )>eneHcial to their country. The prosp.rt of boing entitled to write Sir before their namea, or of being called a /^rJ, induces numbers of individuals to do great and good actions, which they would iioi do for money. As these titlea generally descend to their cbildreo, they hare a double stimulant to action. Oc- 30*^ nius not being b«railil«ry, tbeie tulen may Mod du fitll Into the poi»«aaion of men of tto ability t nevrrtbelets, the atimulant to ai'quire titlea auch aa thuy have, oo' tirines to act iNtnertcully, aait la thotiifht, throu**'. the tmfliMi J and thay themselveafrel bouno » "• .atn a car- tain honourable character conalttant with their rank. Tha prlnclulas of human nature apply In a similar mnnner In solving tha myalery, why there are mafi anjoviiig riches which they uevar wrought for, and may be nndasarving of, Kl« hes ronalat of that part of the anrfai-e of the earth which ran be uard for human babitationa and their ap|>endAges ; of that piirt which e u*ed to produce vegetitlon ; of that part over which, and near which, tliere are flowing waters ra. pabta tif Imparting motion ; they conaiatof all personal eatate ; and of money, the agreed repreaent»tlve of all pro|Hrrtv, which la, at the same tln>e, property in it- selt. PoRsesklona of these various kinds are ac<|uired hy inheritance or by induatry. Itight by inheritance la not wrong. M'ould any rational mind maintain, that, when the fnlher of a Jamily, or any one who haa no family, baa ari)uired proprriy, and dies, that It abMll belong ol right tetany and to all who can gvl porseasion, by fraud, force, or whatsoever other nieana they may 'f Society could not l»e held together If aiirh were the rule of right. It is at once apparent, that if auch were the rule, there woulil be nothing to contend for ; be- cause all Inducement to aci)uire for the benefit of one's family and connexions would be Hnnlhiluted. Sm'iety would he forthwith reduced to barbnriam. The riftht to art|ulre, atid the right of itihuritance, are a laely or. dained to lie a neceisary consei|uance of siH'lety, and one of Its Btrongeat motives to act to uaefiil ends. If It be Irreronciliblu to Justice, to convenience, and to the cnmmon giwid, to take by fiand or violence that which the dead must have left behind them, much more so ia It, to take from the living, by like meana, that which they can honestly HCi|uire by the ezer. ciae of their own Induktry. If a member of a cnminn- niiy were always liable to be despoiled of the fruits of his labour, the great principle of the system of being to which man belongs, would have betMi niiapluced : there would have been no nufflrlent motive to action. If one would know what lociety would be, if auch were the law and the practi - as to property inherited or acquired, he muat visit co..., tries steeped In barbar. ism, and on which the light of C'hrlatiunity diH*s not shine. It Is contended hy aou.^ persons that there should be a periodical divinion of land and property, and that every meniWk of the comnumity shall have an ftjual hhare. How often should thin division be made ? .>hull it be made once ii.year, once in ten yaars, once in tifty years ? Why should It Im> made at one time rather than at another ? iSuppoae it c«iuld be made, and were made, it must be but u very short tiinrt before it ought to Iw made again, if the reason for making it be, that some have more and some less, and that some are ilch and some poor. One must Iw wilfully blind not t<> cee that either the whole action of aocieiy must stop, or that ineijuality of condition would arise in a aingle year, perhaps in a single month ; and even such inequality as would call for a new diviihin. In acuun. try where tlie spirit of enterprise and speculation has an uurektrained agency, the causes of regret are, that sad reverses occur, and that property changes bands too often, rather than that it is unreasoimbly held in the bands of a few uf their Miccessora. A small nnm- l>er of generatitms ia sure to bring equality, c^tnaider- Ing our i^iminunity as a continuing one. Thus, pro- perty comes and goes, in this country, as fast as any one can reasonably deaire u* have it. The changes which are seen, aa to the ownership of it, are regulated by authority lar wiaer than any of man's institution. ON roAHINO oriNIONfl. Opinion signllies Iwlief. There are gu< .', tnd bad opinions. It is our duty as mtional bcingR to -juitivate giMid or correct opinicmi upon every ..u^^irt, and to eachew tboae which are of a coiiti iry dwcripti.m. There is nothing more eaay than to form 'tiA»ty inac- curate opinions, but it is very diHiciilt tof„Meen, and are, erroneous. M e are apt to laugh at every body's opiniuu but our own. All this Wtrays a deficiency of solier reflection, an ignorance of the biktory and faculties uf mankind, and a want of knowledge of the norld. The people of every coun- try yn^m<::^z vj'tiiiuua favourable to their own fashions, customs, lawa, and religioti, and unfavourable to tho»e uf other nations. A love of one's own country is cer. tainly a commendubte feeling, but it ahould Iw a love arising from examiuatiem and conviction, not from prejudice. The Hindoo worships the river GangeH. HV, by our education, know that this is Donsense. The bigoted but i^oniclentious Turk will go to death up dlatrlct of a country, la brnkail upon \%il\\ iionteinpt In other dlatrlcts— so thai the whole world ia found to ha covered, as it ware, with a va- riety of opinions a.ul shades itf opinlona, like the dl. teraitted colours by which countries are depbiixl In u map. Opinion, we have said, Is also depeiolent on trmperamentof the biHly. Tbia la a melancholy trutb. A fat and choleric man doea not think In eiactly tho kanie way aa a lean man. A man who enjoya all tho comforts wliic*i e led Hway by such machinations; neither he dismayed by the numocr of win or profane jesters who may assail you. Do your duty manfully. In order that y(ni may attain a correct opiuion untho great debateuble suWjects that you will hear rung in your ears through life, begin a course of reading those go(»d and authoritative workk which intelligent frleuda will recommend to your notice. Take every oppor- tunity of cultivating your understanding, of enlarging your ideas, of banishing prejudices. Look always at the different sides of a question; for you must remem- ber that there are always many ways uf telling a story. Iu proportion as you advance in yuur piivale itttdieiy DTTTTES OF LIFE. liety, »nil "I'l" Liiii in ll'» f"'- If ouropiiiiuuK. Idillu lilu, liuve vu lierdlMlljr La iipiiiiuui iu IukIi'i iiiuiiillir) L world, or iu luldmy— wl'ilu Ifutirdianit, and [coiilid'i"» tliu leiilighuiiiyui"' lellduing. But Ibsldy lell >■"<» It giiiirdi»i»>>i|> fiuie a r«iioiiii- llld divine li>w>; IrMilf. A' »'''• fiu Imve everlT lidlf, tlmdiul- J iii*li« y"U «■»- lill yntMiy put lour Imiidii fur I iiiichliiutioni; Iwiu ur prufaae 1 duly inaufullT. k uuiuiuu uu tho El he»r rung in bf mud i UK tliuw telligrn' lri«ud> ka every opiwr- Eg, of enUrging l£uuk »lw«y« "t liu mutt rem«m- I uUiDgktto'r- lliiiviUitudiMi ■■4 ■ctmlra m linowl«(lf(tt nf tha pMitonii unA r>miliicl of mankind, ynii will morn utu^ tnarv \m attla to fiirm • oorrtol tiplitlnn. Th^ra It on* thinf which ynu will laarti wllh ■urpriia from thli hind i)f aiparlanra, •ad thai It, that mtnf, Ihoiiffh hnldinf dllfarani Oflnlnni, ara Hrlvtnfr towardi tha wma and In tha main. Thay hnra nnljr dllTarail up, which are Iha tnoAl difnt'ult of all to b« correctly formed. Po. lltical opihiona are applied to the theory and practice of natioHHl fTovernment. The policy of nntlonal giu TarumenI la not an eiact iclence to he learned, ai aome wcMild ImnKlna. It la more a faahiou than a adence, II Is tt thiiiff dependent on tlmo, place, and other clr. cumatancea. The form oftrovemment which aulta one ftge or country would not ault another age and coun- try. Some nallona are hent f^nvnrned )iy n deapotism, othera hy a mixture of monarchy nnd democracy, otheri hy a pure renuhtlcanlam ) Init, ai we nay, what li heat at one time la not heat at another. The geniua and necuaaltlea of every people are luhject to chnnge, and nonaet)nt>ntly their governmenti change with them. If wfl feel the force of theae facta, we will he cButii>ui bow we naanme an unalterable npinlon upon any mmte of adminlatering government. The young are parti- cularly llahle to take up nntiont on thia auhjeot which they aflerwnnia feel Inclined to fall from. We would ftdmoniah them to read and digeat the hiatnry of their country, and reflect well upon the genlua of the na. tion, twfnre they come to a df terminate opinion In no. lltlca. They will lonrn, as they advance to mnturity, that in nothing in there auch a maaa of duplicity and ftfl'i'ctatlon na iu political mattera. They are therefore Cfttlttd upon, hyduty, to examine ex tenaively, and prohe deeply, the grounda upou which they form their opi. Bion. They will lind It much the aafeat conriet aa Already eipreaaed, to think lightly In the matter till they have had aome experience of tne world, and been convinced hy the evidence of their aenaei. National •ligenciei lometlmes call upon us to engage more deeply in ptditica at one time than another. Diacre. tion muat here he our guide; yet there ia generally greater danger in our waatlng much precious lime on political diaquititinn, than In falling into an apathy upon puhlio atTaira. lie li a wiie man who knowa how BO to guide hia ateps aa In preaerve hJinaelf from falling Into either extreme. Kvery one who has been for a long aerica of years poIitlciiUy busy, will acknow. ledge, that though he thinka he was right in the main (iu which opinion he may be right or wrong), yet, that he has spent many buiy hmira, and anxious thoughts, on auhjecta, which, looked back upun, are leen to hare been profitless and Insignificant. DUTIEa WlUCll TIIK rK01>LK or OMK COUMrHVOWE TO TIIOSL or ANOTHER. It if seen that all the people uf the earth belong to lomo one of the many nations with which it is co- vered. It is alao seen that nations are generally sepa. rated from each other, not only hy language, manners, cuatoma, religion, imd forms of civil government, but also by geographical boundaries. The diviaion of mankind into nations ia natural, and posseasea ob- vious HdvMitsgea. There ia a limit beyond which the government of a nation cannot well he admi- nistered. Ity being conliued within certain limited huutida, the nruionul institutions may be improved, security and pniaperity promoted, and the interests of the people advanced. Wv frei|uently find that the people u( one natiuu live at enmity with those uf an. other nation. U'e And many at open war with their neighbours — that ia, they are resorting to brutal physical force to aettle a dispute. These are evils deeply to be deplored. Nations have mutual wants which a mutual Intercourse and trade will obviate. They have aimiUr iutereata at stake. Their inhabi- tanta all alike belong to the great human family, and should live at peace with each other. Uut ambition, and many evil passions— atrife, malice, and nucha- ritablenesi — are continually in aperatiou to retard their advancement towards a universal philanthropy. National war Is the heaviest cuiie which affects hu- manity. It leads to enormous debts and taxations, and in reality is the beginning of all kinds of dis- tresses among the paopla. Yet the people have been frequently very clamorous fur war. W« lay /iotw b4«n, for we hope that this sentiment will in future be •tberwise regulated. We ought to impress upon our minds a surpuslng horror of war. Let as think of Jt aa the scourge of tha humaa raoa, and aa ouaanora dasiructive, pbysloally and morally, than tha most vl. rulent epidemic. M'ere the inhabitants of countries 4aly iiDpmiad with these feellngs—dld thty reflect 303 upon the hleaslnga which am ihnwared upon nations during a lasting |»eare, they would henceforth resolve to oppose, hy avary constitutional means, the com- mencement of wars by their governments. Healdes the actual loss of lives and of property In a nation during war. It la Inealculable the Injury sustained by so- ciety by such an Intllothm. A war of a few yeara*dura. tbtii may retard Intellectunl Improvement for a century. We bold, therefore, that it Is the duty of every man to dlacountenance such aayatem of folly. He cannot baa lover of hIa country, he cannot be tne friend of moral cultivation, who would countenance such an Idiotic process of settling (luarrela between Intelligent nations. According to a rational viewof men** condiilun In se* parate nations, war can In no caie be reconcilable with ■mlalhapplneaa, unless on the obvloua prlm-lple of self- defence. Ho long as there remain such manes of Ig- nnrance i\\ the earth, so long, we are afraid, force must be emphiyed to preserve the little apola of civlll. mition from the llood of barbiiriim which mlgtu over. rnrt theii. May It be antk'l|iated, however, that this urgent 'lecrsaity will not exUt much longer! How glorious would fie the prospect If universal peace were permanently eatabliahed 1 We should lUid one nation hiNtrncting another In all the arts nnd sciences of which it was itaelf matter i we ahouhl And an ho- nourableapirltof emulation runnlngthrough the whole, and nil ahaplng thslr policy so as to promote the most bene(\cial intercourse In commerce, literature, and re- dnementa. In the present state of things, as far as it can be nccompliahed, akiiul and friendly International cimuuurilou la a high moral duty. It Is cur duty to liMik with an eye of charltv on national peculiarities. U'e have no right to tnault the feelinga uf the people of any nation, however stranr their language, their rmhiona, or the!'' ' " ' )peartoua. U'e have likewise no rig' .o lu ..u *vlth any apparently improper charactcriitics in their forms of govertunent. It IS (nir duty to consider them as entitled to live and act according to their own fancy, h> ' 'ependent re- sponsible beings. To write, prlu , u.td disseminate any scurrilous jests tetullng to lower them in general eatimatlou, Is not only Immoral, but Inconaiatent with the principles of honour, which do not permit any one to be Rtruck who cannot defend himself. When we therefore insult a foreign nation by our obloquy, we commit the mean and cowardly action uf Injuring a party which has no means uf redressing the grievance. nF.l'HEATIOHH AND AUUSKHENTfl. We have often had occasion tu show that this state of being la one of alternate action and repose. There must be serious actiun, and there must be amtisementi. It waa intended that mortals should be ple:iH-d and happy, if they deserve to be so. Thfise who maintain that life ia to be an uninterrupted scene of labour and gravity, are, we hope liutt believe, entirely mistaken. We discern nothing in the natural world, nor In man's peculiar constitution nor relations, which gives the least countenance to such uii opinion. Amusement, like every thing else iu which free agency is concerned, may be innocent ai.d grateful, or improper, perni- cious, .lid Intro )U(t('/i uf the worst of evils. Young persons must havu the former, or they will seek out the latter. It is the duty and the interest of parents to lead children to take pleasure in such things as can be approved of, and tu divert children from such as must be injurious to them, and afflictive to those who are deeply interested iu them. We apprehend that there may be persons, and classes nf persons, who will disagree with ua on this subject, as they may have done on some which have been already touched upon. We should deeply regret tu displease anyone; but on a matterfBU important as the making gmid citi- zens and ge of the second sort. The simple use of the eye, of the ear, and uf the imagination, may be of the tint sort. It is believed that all amusements must have some contemplated end or result, whether that be defined and certain, or contingent. We be- lieve so, because every thing iu this world seems to be moving on to some purpose. One who is acting with- out knowing for what, IS neither labouring, nor amus- ing himself, but is trying to get rid of himself, and of time. The moat captivating sports are those which are contingent ; that la, sports or occupations wherein the result may be highly favourable or otherwise. No one engages in them without expecting tu come out on the successful side. Hence, liunting, tishing, horae-racing, and gaming, are uf this order. The hope of success is a very high excitement, but the mortification and distress uf failure ever far exceed the pleasures of success. There is a tendency to dis- courage otit-of-door sports. Thia is certainly wrong. If not carried to exceits, they are among the most sa- lutary and pleasing amusements in 5ne weather. Kvery one admits that the mind and mural facul- ties are to be developed, and strengthened, and made to do the best, by exercise. This is equally true cf physical power. Every action which it can beproper to do at all, ought to be done in the best way, other- wise we do uot answer the end of our being. In tha vegetable and animal departments, all proper care and oultlvathm tend to use and beanly. s or man shmild nol Is iheru aoy rraiou why the physical powers ni man shmild nol have rare and cultlvatlnn to the same ends F Thoea who prefer a stooping, lounging, awkward, graceteM rtgiira and motion, may be on one side of the quaa- tlon I thosa who think that It was Intended that maa should hj an upilihl, easy, frank, rnmely, and mn- venlent being to himself, and pleasant to nil within whose observation ha may come, will be on t' other. Although the frame of man la ao made as to permit him to asaume an endleaa variety of poaillons, and to apply his strength In all of them, he does, or should, return always to an upright position. No eaaeatlai deviation from this position can possibly be a natural one, but for a temuorary purpoae. Thia la nroved by the framing of thehnman bones. Thia framing ahowa, that, when one walks. It was Intended that he ahmild be perpendicular ; If he walk In an Inclined position, ha haa not only lo move himself, but to resist tha power of gravitation at the same time. The musclee. In such case, have a strained and unnatural duty to perform. It seems to have been Intended, by the same sort of proof, that human beluga ahould walk with tha lower llmbri, that la, from the hips downward, and not with an unmeaning and ungraceful actiun uf the wbola person, as Is often seen to be dune. Dsndnit. Aa to the best modes of acquiring strength, ease, and grace, there may be very dtiferent opinions. There are many persons who think the discipline of dancing a proper mode, and others who think this highly Im- proper. We would nut run agalnat any opintoni whether they be well or 111 founded, Dut aa to danc- ing, just like every thing else, It may be misused and perverted, or be made to be an Innocent, healthy, and commeiulablo accomplishment. There Is no mode so much within the reach of the comnuinity, In general, as this. Properly taught, it brings out the power of the muscles, and gives them their natural action i all natural motion Is graceful. W.ty ahould not man con- form to this general law of nature P Dancing well Is ona modenf conformiufs'. Possibly It Isconsldered frivolous and corrupting. Nothing Is frivolous in this system of being, which is Innocent, pleasing, and adapted to pro* mote healthy action. Persona who are capable of lie- Ing corrupted hy danclnff, will certainly And some much more elTective mode to become so, If this ba denied to them. Dancing among the very young is usually conducted under the eye uf discreet seniors, and well-educated adults need no supervision iu danc- ing, but that of good sense and their own self-reapeot. Dut suppose dancing could iu any case be perverted| ao may every thing else lie. If we are not to do any thing till It is Impossible to err in doing it, wnat will there be fur any one to do ? Muile. It Is one of the most convincing proofs of the bene- volence of the Deity, that he has so formed the human ear, as to make it capable of finding a rational and elevated pleasure from the action of sound. There might have been organs of speech, and ears to hear, without imparting to the ear the power uf knowing and delighting in music. It muat have been Intended that thia gracious gift ahould be uied, aud (most pro- bably) as one mode of praise nnd thanksgiving as well as for innocent pleasure. Music is action ; it Is action to some end ; the end is Innocent and delightful. The enjoyment has the double advantage of being solitary and social. Music may be made to produce a sense of high moral feeling, and it may be made to produce a feeling uf very opposite character. The same rulea muat be applied to this subject as to all others, that every thing was created, and for some good and wise purpose ; and that every thing muat act, and will act, to aome uaefnl end, if human ignorance or error do not interfere. We therefore contend that the power to make music is to be cultivated, and its benefits to be thankfully enjoyed. It is consiatent that man, aa he is ao superior to all other animala, should be alike auperior in the making and enjoying of musical sounds. He umtnubtedly Is ao. His voice (it would be more proper to say woman's voice) includes all the sweet soundM which can be made hy all other animala. He has, by cultivating this power, by applying the atmosphere through the human lungs, and by delicacy of touch, and by bringing subhtauces in Contact with each other, and by heniling the wind through thiit wonderful "'ork of bis own hands, the organ, found the metus of rendering tribute to the Must High, and of softening and purifying hU own heart. No doubt music wits given to mortal" for their amusement, and that it ia their duty to take it in that light, and be thankful for it. Gamei. Games at cards are a very common amusement. They may be innocent, but there la nothing to re- commend them. They give .. - acttou to the body; they are a very humble oc -'i.;'L'.on for an intelligent mind. Whelfisr the chancbb in distributing fifty-two pieces of spotted pasteboard fifty auccessive times in three or four hours, shall poise^s aome of the engaged with fortunate pieces, and others with unfortunate ones, can hardly be said to be doing any thing to any useful end. When the spurt is over, the thing proved or arrived at is, that in this use of four hours of a short life, A amnted so much, and B so much. This, however, is not the end usually proposed in playinf cards. The cards are only tne machinery which, with more or less skill, subtoits, to the laws of chance, the result of emptying one man*s pocket aud filling CH^^MBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I-**) hM Another'!. A poHion for thii kind of gaming ex. tinguithef, or oonrertt intn * withering curne, every Alt "^ feeling of the hiimau lieart. Time, Itealth, pro- pert), thii uroper uie of the tongue, character, self. itiptct, and peace of mind, are the lacrificet made at the gaming-table. IJnniulced by the miierable vie. tlm, the shacklet n( habit are put on, which no earthly power can unrivet. When the gambler'i last nhilllng u gone, he itarts, aa frum a dream, into a full senne of the complicated misery and niin in which he has invMved himself. He must then devote himself to infamy, and submit himself to the puwer of a gravi. tatton, which will bring him inevitably to the bottom of ''(" '^ yss. The evils of gaming may be judged of by till) number of suicidnl deaths which it occabionr, •specially In the great cities of Europe. All gaming for property leadx, in proportion to its character, io such results. The means of geming, «nd especially with cards (as they are the vuiy and most common implements in t w), are regarded with -the abhorrence which is associated with them by all persons who feel an interest in the youn|r. The young and the middle-aged have no need of cards for Amusement. They may have many nmusijg oc"'*T>a. tioot which are innocent and improving. There nmy be persons in an advanced, time of life, who ure be. yorid the seduetioa of gumini^, to whom the interest '>f a t^am(i of t.trds may be an innocent and welcome lunuiement. Undoubt«dly, friends who aro met fur 'locial purposes, and who have nothing better to do with vlieir time, hands, and minds, may play cards in a mai ner to give no offence to themselves or others. Bat It is pleasing to know that the state of improve- ment it such, that in most social meetings there are higher .mtertainmeuts than that whica cards alTurd, and whiih are justly in highnr esteem. There anight be games, one would tl'ink, adapted to amusr childri.n, and to be at the san ' time inno> centard useful onpx. Wnatever tliey are, they must be coiisistert with the prindpte wh'ch i-equires a be< giuuii'g, an interesting succession o* circumstances, and a result worth attaining. Children must he busy. To ret^uire of them to be still, is to require what na- ture has fr>rbidden. To place a child on r ' urd bench, and tell him to »u stiii ;here two or th/ee hours with- out any employment for i.is bands o'^ r.iind, is as great a kiolation of uHlural law require of him to •tand on his head for the same length of time. Tl:ere is an ob.iuu» rrmit in the means of amusing ihiidren; ara we apprehend that it arises from disreK«-rdingthe principle* on which tlie constrrd)nar^- locli*, Ac. dec. lOvery humhu being knows some'.'^mg which he iP willing to tell, and which anyciher that he is in company with nislies tu Voow ; or which, i'' Lntiwn to Le busy ; nothing should escape his observation. His memory should be a griod one, and be should have a good-niiturtd wiJlingnt-ss to please, and to be pl'"«ied. It foU«>\Th that all matter of otTencv) In conveisakiou should be avuiil^d. The self-love ot others is to be respected. Therefore, no one is tole- r.ited who mnkts lum^t-lf the siibjet!! ;>f his own com- mendation, nor who disregards tlie feelings of tho^e who.n lie addrrnsi'S. Thrre is as much demand fur polite' jii And civil-'y In Gouversatloa at in any other 3Ui department of social intercouna. One who rudelv interrupts another, does much the same thing as though he should, when walking with another, impertinently thrust himseit heforit his companion, and stop his pro. gresa. Under favourable circumstances, and among persons who know how to frain a con vernation, there are few if any aniusL -ner'.t more grateful to the human mind. M'e need not say any thing of the amuse- ment derived from reading. It is very or'-perlv one of the utandard amusements of person, of all ages. The influence of the press on the character of a country is not to be measured or calculat- ed. It is strikingly true of this admirable inven- tion, as it is of so many other things in natural and mural agency, that, iveii used, it is an inesti.iiahle blessing; ill used, the corrupting demon of bocIdI life. Happily, attention to the proper wants of the young has required of the press its action for their benefit ; not as to books of study only, but sheets of amusement. nELIClOL'S 0DLICATION8. Religion signifies a system of faith and worship. Religion arises from man*s perception of his relatittn ti> the system of being uf which he is a necessary part. The presence and in/^uence of religiou is to be Jelt and manifested throughout the duration of human life, in all that is though. .;nd done, with a view to a happier and more perfect state f existence after death. Just conceptions of the character Siud attri- butes of the Deity, are of the utmost importance, especially to the young, whose minds require to bu led aright in :l11 thct pertains to the great tnit'--; uf religion. The rdigiot. professed fn this country is Chrijtianity— -the most cheering, the most nobie of all faiths. The books to which we point for iustruciion in the religion of Christ are those of the Old and Now Tn menu To them the instructors of tb.j young will direct the r^jigiuus studies of those under their charge, as may best seem fit. Besides inculcating religions obligations, these works furnish us with the most perfect hystem of moral duty ever promulgated. The sum of the carli-jst delivered moral law is compre- hended in il:2 Ten (.\immacdmeuiB, which ureas fol- low: — 1. Thoti shalthave no other gods before nie. — '2. Thou shalt r >t make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of a"y thing that is in he:iven ^uuve, or that is in the earth henet>th, or that is in the water under the earth : Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, not serve them : for I the Loud tliy Ou'd am a jealous (jihI, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the chUdr'^n unto the third and fourth ge. "Ution of them that nate me, »nd showing mercy unto thou- sands of them that love me, and keep my command- ments, — 3. lltousnalt not take thenamenf the Lonu *^v tlmi in vain : for the Loiin will not hold him guiltless that taket'i his name iii vain. — 4. Remember the Sabbaili-day, tokeep it ho!'/, i^ix dayii shalt thou labour, and do all thy work : But the seventh day is he Sabbc:h of the Lonu thy Uod ; in ft thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy rian-servant, nor thy maid-servant, northycattk', nor thy stranger that is within thy gates : For in six days the LoRumade heaven and earth, thesea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day : wherefore the I/ORU blessed the Sabbath-day, and hallowed it — [\\y th practice of Christians, the Sabbath has been tratii- ferred to the 6rst day of thu week.]— 5. Honour thy father and thy nnjther, that thy d:iys may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee (I. Thou shalt not kill ?. Thou fhalt not commit adultery tt. Thou shalt not steal. — !K Thou shalt nut bear falsa witnes.s against thy neighbour — 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighhuur'a house, thou shalt U'lt covtjt thy neighhuur'awife, nor his man. ser- vant, nur his ma'd-servaut, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor liny thing that is thy neighbour^. Such was the sum uf the moral law, until Christ added to it a number of the mc.st transcendantly ex- cellent admunitioni, and which are found scittterud thi !iout the hifttory of his nii listrationi in the foui goipels in tl.a New Testament. The chief moral which he* inculcated wan, " Whatsotfer ye would that men should do unto you, even so do rnto them , for this is the law and the prophets." Rut th'j whole of his sayings breathe a similar spirit of benevolence and gentleness. He preached, for the lirsk time that it had been done on earth, t-.e doctrine of *' peace and good- will towards men;" that is, universal love and peace among all mankind. *' Ve have heard," said he, " llutt tliou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself; but I nay unto you, Imvo thine euemies : bless them that curse you : do good unto them that hate you : pray for Jiem *^. hich hurt you and persecute you." Again, he said, *' Rlessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the king- dom of heaven : blesseil are thfy that mourn, fiir they shall bt^ comforted : Messed are the nieck, for they shall liilierit the earth - blessi'd are they whirh hun- ger and thirst after righteousness, for they ^llall be lilted : blessed are the meroiftil, for they shnll obtain mercy : blessed are thi> pure in heart, i.ir lliey shall see (i'od : blessed are the peacemakers, ft., they shuU be calltd the children of (ib.l : blessed are they which suffer {wnierutum fur righteousness' sake, for theirs is tlie kingdom of heaven : blessed are ye when men re- vile you, and persecute you, and nay all manner of evil ngainst you for my sake falfuly. ' In this manner he tHught the greut necessity for being humble aud I iwly ill Bpir.: as the basis of all viitud and social hap- piness. He likewibe inculcate-* at difTereut times, *he nece«stty of putting away ever/ thln^ like osten- tation in doing good actloDS. He tells us not to giro our alms before men, but to bestow them in secret { not to pray ostentatiously in public, but in a prirate place. No one, until he appeared, ever pointed out that there was no difference betwixt actual traasgrei- sion and the wish to transgress. He telis us that sini of the heart are equally punishable with the commission of au offence. He likewise taught that men " cannot serve two masters," that is, do evil actions, howerer apparently trivial, and at the same time be goml men. To break *' the least of the commandments'* is to be reckoned equivalent to breaking the whole ; and ft is further kaid, it is impossible that our oblations to Ood can be accepted of so long as we live at enmity with a brother, that is, having a quarrel with any one— ** Leave thino offering before the altar, and go thy way ; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then oome and offer thy gift. Agree with thine adversary quickly whilst you are in the way with him." Who among I's, may we ask, keeps this saying In remembrance ? Do all who attend the public worship of Uod, bold it iu mind ? Again, he says that we are eiiuatly to avoid hypo- crisy, or a pretence of self-righteuustiess and ability to show our neightwiirB their faults, liefore we have put a vay the same or other faults from ourselves. *' Hypo- crite, first cast out the beam out of thine own eye, and then thou shalt see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother's eye. Judge not, that ye he not judged." How valuable are these reproofs I Continuing to ad- monish us of the danger i''^ hypocrisy, he says that we shall know man by their fruits, tliat 's, we sbaU know them by their action;), not their words. "A good tree c;uinot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a cor- rupt tree bring forth gtKid fruit : therefore by their fruits ye shall know them. Nut every one that sayeth unto me, Lo.-d, I.A>rd, ihall enter into the kingdom of heaven, but he tl: >t dueth m;* father's will that is iu heaven." We are likewise told ti:n.t there must be no stop to the extent of our forgiving of injuries. Itcing asked if we should forgive an injury for seveu times, he said to those about him, '* X say not uuto thee* until seven times, but until seventy times seven;" by which we are to understand that th'ire is to be no limit to onr forgiveness. Three things, we are told by St Paul, are essential — Faith, Ho; ^ and Charity, hut that the greatest of these Is Charity, or a dicposi- tion to think well of our neighbours whatever may he their actions. It is ;iIko variously inculcated that charity is the first of the (Christian virtues. Perionf ■ fying it, it is said, *- Charity suffereth long and is kind ; charity envieth not : charity vaunteth nut itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil, rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiocth la the truth ; beareth all tilings, believelh all things, en* dureth all things." Such are some of the ir-valuable moral admonitions conveyed to us for our temporal guidance by the Chris- ttnn dispensation. It would be needless to quote far* tlier from a book which we earnestly hope is fn every one's poBsebsion. The summary we have presented will point out that the Old and Utw Testament form the basis upon which all our morality is founded, and are the only correct guides under the solemn obliga* tiuus of religion. CONCLUSION. M'e have now ,'^ivcn an elucidation of what we con- fcider io be tin; principal duties we arc called on to per- form diirinj; life, both .a ourselves and toothers. The Buiijt;ct is by no means exhausted, yet enough has bf^ii said to afford human beings a view o" what line they ought to follow in the pursuit of individual and social happiness. Tho object ub held in view has been accomplished. We have, to the bent of our ability, put young niid old, hlgli and low, rich and poor, in the wag of executing tlielr tt*mporal duties. W e hope we have shown that if man be not a happy, a grateful, a satis- fled being, he must accuse himself, and not complain .hat the system of being to which he belongs is wrong and malevolent. ^Ve have attempted to prove that num, indivifUially and socirlly, is capable of improve- ment; that he has removed himself from his original condition, and has advanced far in disclosing his own powers, and in applying them in the promotion of his own '.dppineKS. But it has to be added, that be has stilt .nuch farther ro go iu the same course, that the way is known to him, and that there are no 'V .tacla^ in it which he may i;ot remove. We d( .t nelieve in the pcrfectihil.ty of mankind. The crimes and follies, which affeit even thu most cultivated of our race, tell us too plainly that there is a natural hiaa towards evil, which it requires the utmost skill on the pa*'t of religion and reason to omnteract. The pas- si' 'IS ever seem to st:md as a barrier against h. man pp. fection, and i!; is only by their Aun reg\ilatlon that we can gain sti much as comparative worldly happi- nest. Vet it is incalculaiile to wliat extent the ex- altation of the mental faculties may be carried by systems of odiication, and to what extent the c:om- munity may be purified of its vices. Let us hope that nothing may occur to intcrnipt the physical, the in- te'Vctual, and mural improvement of society, which i- -.ow so happily In the way of ad i-aucement. Eui^itL-nuii! Piiblishpil by W. iaA II. CiiAHBitnfi, 19, U'ster. lijo IMiicc: alto by Omi and SniTn. I'lUemostM How, Lon- don : «nd n. YoiTNU, DuUiin. Sold by Ji>Jiik Mttiilood, UUs> guw. Aiiil all ulliei Uiiokiellcn. f lum the frtt'om-rnM of W, and It. Cbambtta ■mulls, ID. W»t«r- ■nmltt IliiWi l'«>ii- ,liu Mouliod, UU» CHAMBERS'S f » INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 30. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM ANE ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAI'ER." Pbiob Ijrf. HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. The term Hydnwiatiuii in compounded of two iiretk words which lignify the atoppinff or baUtncinff r/ voter, Mild hence dnignatM the icienoe which treats of (he |ireaftur« of water. The term Hydraulics i» aim formed froip two wordi of the same lan^age, wateL higilfy water and a piptj In refereuoe to the move* ment of water ia certain muiical inttrumenw used \ty th« Greeks, and accordingly denote:' that branch i>f icieooe which treuts of the motion ofwattr. Although wftttr hu given a name to thwe branchep of mechanical phihwophy, and although the pheno- mena which it exhibits, and the law* which it l« said to ohtty, itre those in general spoken of, yet these phenomena and laws are alike referable to all bodies which exist In a similar state — that it, in one of li- i)uidity. It Is difficult to define in a few word* what a liquid li, notwithstanding that the term when em- ploywl is perfectly understood even by a child, and a correct idea of the substance meant conveyed to the mind of every one. Thedintinction between a liquid and a fluid is, that the term liquid implies only one class nf fluids. There i* another class distiDguUhe4 by the name of atriform fluids, such as the atmo. sphere ; to these the name of liquid is never correctly ap/lied, but is only referable to bodies such as water. A liquid may be called a body in which the attrac- tinn of cohesion is so far overcame as to admit of its Yielding to the )>light«>st pressuxit, and the partlclrk composing its mass easily changing t .^ir relative po- sition with reference to each oilier, w hout separat- i< g from the mass^ or repulsing one another as thi^se .(f ae'rifonn substances do. This explanation does not apply to a mau of matter which is pulverised into fine grains, such as hand ;,fur in this case the cohesion between vach grain and the rrit, even those which lie cimtlguouB to it, in entirely destroyed, whilst amongst the particles compOHiiig tvety individual grain it ittiU «xisu in full force. But in a watery fluid, the cohe- ■lion of all the particles composing the mass Is over> come in exactly the same degree, to a greater extent than exists between %\\e atoms of earh grain of sAud, and to a less extent than is seen to exist between grain and grain of the same material. In (rther words, the mass of any liquid poKsesses a certain quantity of co- hesion which is distributed equally amongst all the particles composing the m^th. Hence, it may be niuumwl, that in such bodie* the particles are all placed at exactly equal diMiMioes I'rom one another. This, however, is the case with all at'riform bodies, nnd also with many solids, lint the former do nut MiiMfver the condition which it has tieeu obierved is ulidracteristicof a liquid, that the particles which oona. pose it should not rvpiilse oneanothc/; and the latter are deficient in another characteristic, namely, that tlio particles which compose a liquid should move t-asily amongst themselves. Between tlin solid and the afViform state there are H grwt numt>er of conditions in which a body may Mxist, oorrespondiug to the extent to which the attrac> tiiin of cohaaffln has been overcome, and repuUion «stabliabed amongst the particles. Honey and spirit of wiite or alci>hol, for lustaucv, exhibit very differ- ent degrees of liquidity. Hcientilii-ally speaking, how- ever, there is but ont> state — namely, tha*. in which a body is perfectly liquid, as water is t hence it has been tixed Mpon as a type of all other bodiee.of the same kUid, and hasgivin a name to thedivislons of science, Hydroslatios and Hydraulics. pbikcii'l:: of euuai. pmissuRi. In treatises which aie strictly mathematical, there H one pruperiy which is considered as the leading: charHCtcristicuf liquidity, indeed as forming ibe basis of alt reasoning upon the science. This reinarkable quality of duida is their power to transrolik preMure equally in every direction. Cach particle ttf ihe maH presses equally on all the particles that surround It, and is equally pressed upon by these. It equuily presses upon the solid bodies which it touches, and in return is pressed upon by them to a similar extent. This singular property may be illustrated in the fol- lowing manner:— Let A B C D, 6g. I, be a vessel rig. 1. having an aperture E, in which a tube or cylinder £ F is inserted, and another aperture a, in which the tube or cylinder a II is inserted, and let I and K be severally a piston which works in these cylinders. Let us now suppose this cylinder to be filled with wa- ter up to the miiuths £ a, and the level A B. The pistons are conceived to be pressed dovn to a level with the surfao- of the watei'. Now, if upon tha piston I we place a pound weight (for the present the piston K is supposed to lie immoveable), then to every part of the surface of the vessel, equal in magnitude to the base of the piston I, the same degree of pressure will be transmitted. Vhus, supposing the base of the piston to be a square Inch, and the rtumber of square inches in the vessp! t- he *20,00U, then there Is ur^ed upon the inner ' ^w of the vr>ssel a pressure tend- iLg to b irst it, oqual to 1U,999 (quarp inches. This is very easily proved in the following mai.ner: If the base of the piston K l>e equal to ten square inches, and if, after having loaded tht other piston, which is only one square i' '', with one pound, and placed npun the large rne any weight less than ten pounds, it wiU rise in 'he cylinder quite in accordance with tlie principle above explained. For, since the large piston is ten times the sixe of the s.nall one, it must necessarily take ten timee the weight with which the latter presses upon the water to hidanoe it and maln- *«ia an eqiiilihrtum. Accordingly, if ten pounds be placed upon it, it will be found to do so. It is to be ohsorved in this caye that the piston I does not resist the whole uf the ten pounds which are laid upon the piston K ; nine of them press upon the bottom qf the vesse.'. Mild the Tecouiiing one alone is resisted by I. It is eviu»ac, that, in ordinary cases, the friotion of both piBt4m8 will prevent the experiment from bei: ■' pcrfoimed with perfccf clcety and exactnefs. But this inconvenience has been obvia^ by employing a liq'iid lighter than water, such as oil, as an equivalent bir the piston and weighu Suppose that a pjund of nil were poured into the cylinder at F upon the top of the piston, and that the piston was provided ^Ith a valve at /, which, wheu opened, allowed tlie oil to reach the water, upun the surface of whitih it would float, being lighter than that fluid. The Dme may be done with reference to the other cylinder, which could also be provided with a valve atm; and if ten pounds were here poured in, the oil in the two cylinders would be found to nund at tha tune level { thub clearly prov- ing tha ti :iih of the theory. This very renurkable property of water and otiter such fluids hM been lenned the hyiirottatic parwioM, But in reality there ia nothing paradoxica! in It, any more than in many of Ihe effects produced by the mechanic powers. The above case is explained on t^e prirvciple of ictiixi of a lever. Ten p^uada on (he ehurter arni la bftlanced by one pound on tha longer arm. The liquid is the bar which transmiu the effect of the lesser weight to Ih^ greater, and the st.rfaces of the vessel p«rforip the olft«u yf ti>e fulcrum, by sus^niiig Imth thji 9V9t^ the wfifht. This prinelple Is eiriUngly lllnstnted In the tn- n it, will raise the strument which is called the hydroatalio btUows, It consists of two wooden Vis* ?• boards, connected together with leather, as in a pair of common bellows. There is of course no valve, but in place of it a long narrow tube A B is inserted into It, th'.ough which water is pourri, so as to fiU the " ' space between the boards. If these be a foot and a half long, and sixteen inches broad, and the up. per one be loaded withC^ three hupdred -weight, a quarter of a pound of water poured into the tube, and ^ rising to the height of three i weifrlit as high as the leather allo^e. If, instead nf using water, the pipe is blown into by the mouth, the same effect wiU be produced. The smaller that the bore of the pipe is, the easier wilt any weight be raised. This evidently resulu from the principle^ dready explained ; for if the section of the tube a( £ have the negpitude of one square iuuh, and the surface of the upper board G contain 10,000 sqi ii inches, the.- a column of water In the tube weighif*g one pound will sustain a weight upon the board of 10,000 pound*' But suppose the ma^itude of tht tube were only the hundredth part of a square inoh. BtiU, however, by being sufficiently lengthened ta contain a pound of water, then upon every hundredth part of a square inch there will lie the pressure of a pound ; on every inch 100 pounds : aiid on the 10^9^0 square inches, 1,000,000 of pouud^s, or ^ tuns, B cwt., and 64 lbs. Striking as this property of fluids is, it remained until recently only a barren fact in science. It has, however, been applied by Mr Bramab in the cou- structiou of t siugularly powerlul machin^, called the hydraulic or hydnutatio prtu. Compared with the bellows, there is merely substituted a forcing pump for the lof^y tube, and a barrel and piston f^r the leather and boards. It coniists of a »hort and very strong pump barrel A B (shown here in section), with a solid piston C of propnrdouite ^trdn^, which pis- ton Is pushed upwards against the thing to be com- pressed, G, by water driven into th^ barrel beneath it at F,from the small pamp £> The whole machine is bound together by a very strong roetallio framing, of which H I are two pillars. If the saiall purap have only one- thousandth of the area of the larye barrel, au4 if a naPi by means of ita lever-^andla D, press Its piston down with a force of Ave hui)dred pounds, the piston of the great barrel will r}se with a force of one thousand tiiuei Hve hundred pounds, or mora f CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Mi that, two hundred toiiti. Thn p«>wer of Mich a preM beoMmn, thereforv* prodifttotiii, and the advantHftM which It [HHiiietset ftver thoto worked hy a Mcrew are iib. V iovit. BetwMfi lolldi and AtiidB Uiere » comparHtivttly little friotnm; and, accHtrdingly, ia the hydn»tatiu preii none of the force which hai Umn f^nerated in hut bjr frictioHf except what ii necevRary to overcome the friction of the pistona in the cylinders. It ii much uied fur ooadenaing and pre«i>iuf( luhaunreR, parti- cularly by printer! and iMMikhindan, wlio employ it now in general instead of what is called the dry-pretif (which wai wrought hy a screw), for squeexing the printed iheeti of hooka in order to amooih the aur. face of the paper. Dr Lardner obaarrei, that the property of flnldfi, which we hnve been describing, mi^ht be easily ap> pllad to transmit force to any disunce, and under cir. ciimttaucet in which other mechanical rontrivanoea might be inapplicable. It would only he neceasary to hare a tube tilled with water, which stretched from the point where thc> force originated to that to which it was to be transmitted. A pressure excited on the liquid at one end of the tul>e would thus Ite communi- cated to any surface in ointiict with the water at the other end, and thli instantaneously, although the Mibe extended from Edinburgh to l/tmdon, and were curved and angular instead of straight. On account of this rapidity of transmitting impressions which water pna* sesses, its application in hjegraphic communicatious haa been suggested, and even practically illustrated, by an iofei-ioua individual in kngland, who laid se- veral miles of pipe for the purpose, and, we believe, lucceeded in verifying the truth of the hyp<»thesi*. Dr Amott has auggested the application of the same principle to aargical casea. He considers that a liquid might be oonre>-ed through a flexible lube, so shaped, thai, when Ailed by the liquid, the pro|Htr degree of preaaure will be exerMd on those parts of the body whiofa requir* it. It is occaaionally necesaary to pro- duce a cerlalD degree of pressure on some internal paru of the human frame which cannot well be reached except by a tabs or channel, through which a surgical inatmment could not be rery safely or easily oonveyed, but in which the effect might tw conveniently pn». duced by means of fluid pressure. An acirount of the instruments necessttry In these caaea will be found in Dr Amott's able work on Physics. The fluids of the animal frame exhibit many apt il> lusirationa of the principles of hydmau;icii, as the solids do those of mechanics. The heart being au instrument piwsessing great power of expansion and contraction, and the reservoir from which the bl»t>d is supplied to all othe** paru of the cystem, by Its expan- sion, excites a presaurr upon the sanguine fluid, and impels it into the arteriee ; from thence it ia urged for- ward into the , and ao ia made to aimplete the circulation, patujigthrotigh various pipes and oouduita, which are composed of a material so elastic as to con- tinue the preaaure commenced at the heart. PKESaUKE or FLUIDS IN VKOPUKTION TO THE DEPTH. In every flnld the partidee that are below sustain the pressure of tLose that are alMive them, which prea. sure is in proportion to the perpendicular d^nth, and la not influenced by the size or shapeof tbeco taining veaael. The firat part of this pmptwition has already been proved in the case of the h^rottatie btthw$ and pn**f but many remarkable illuslrationa of it may be adduced. One general truth we may mention, which the reader would d > well to keep in rec«illection ; it la, that the ^esaure 1 water at rnj depth, whether on the bottom or aidea of the veaael, or on any body im- roeraed in the fluid, ia nearly one pound on the aquare inch for every two feet of depth. It is at sea that the effects of fluid preaanre at gnat depths are moat strik- ingly exhibited. A strong tqttare glass bottle, empty •«'* 'irmly stopped, if sunk to the depth of about ten ...i.imia, will tw crushed together, ilie shape of the vea- ael being unfavourable to strength. But if a clumn uf water which fixes it for ever to the bt»iiom of the deep. As preaaure, then, Increasea In proportion to the depth, many valuable auj- 'sUons are affor Jed as to the constniction of sluices, dams, and bulwarks or walls fur keeping out tbeoraan, aa la ih^ caae in Hol- land in particular. It is evident thai, a^ preaaure Is in proportion to depth, in a veaael wtioae botbim and each of whose sides are severally two square feet, the water which it contains oresaes upon the centre of any of the aides with lialf tne force with which it presses upon the bottom. At the surface the preaaure ia In- considerable, end hence the wall or other erection mav be made ai oorraspooding itghtoeea t Init aa the depto iucreoaea, the preMure iocreaaea iu the aame ratio j and hence the building must liecomu gradunlly tlili'kPr and stronger, so that, when completed, it will rese;nbl* the perpendicular half ol a pyramid, whone base ia of groHt breaJth, but whose topis oomparntively a point. It matters not what the breadth of the water may be. A llo4>d-gate which shuts out only a small lake or sheet ol water, that is, provided the depth be the same, sus- tains as much pressure aa If the bnmd expanse of twenty Atlantics were resting against it. The second part of tliepropi.Miiinn at the beginning of this head was, that pressure is entirely iiniiiHuenced by the shape, siie, or poi' tfun of the containing veaael. /ig. 4. Here we have three vessels. A, U, and C, having alt different shapes, but provided with flat bottoms of ex- actly the aame dimemiiona. If water l>e poured into them to the height represented hy I, 2, and 3, although the quantity in each vesHel Iw very different, the prea- aure upon the lM>ttom of all «ill be the name. Thia truth ia proved experimentally by making the bottuma moveable, fixfng them in their aeveral poaltiona by springs or weights calculated to measure the degree of pressure which each sustains. Or, it may be proved by allowing all of them to C4)mmunii-ate with a vessel of water below them, and then observing th^l the fluid in all has still the same level. Kor, asacil .mnof the water resting on th* middle of each bottom just presses with iu whole weight, and, therefore, according to its altitude, thia column could not remain at rest if there were any greater or leaa pressure than iu own near it. Then, as the fluid Is actually at rest in ail the CHHea, and in all a central column la of the same height, the pressure must I* equal on all the Imtt'Mos. The scientiHc fact of water luting in no case able to rise beyiHid tbe height of its fountain head, whatever may be the volume of water in the fountain, suggesu a plan by which citiea mj^ht in aonie instances be saved from inundations by rivers. When the ionn- dation takes place, not from the surface of the river, but from the water pnijected through the common aewera running into it — aa, for inatanoe, in the case of Giaaguw — and rising through the gratings In the streets, wooden funnels might l*e insertetl iu a tight manner into the openings, whereby the water, instead of spreading along the streets, would rise in the fun- nels to the level of the surface of the river, and then st4tp. Of ci-urse there ia no necessity for the vessel so applied Iwing funnel-shaped; it ia sufttcient that iu base be auiuble to the oritice of the sewer. AUOUNv or PRcaauRC. In thft above cases, we have seen that the pressure on the Imttomof a vesbcl depends upim the magnitude of the hott4im and the depth of the liquid, and does nut in tbe slightest degree depend upon the shape of tbe aides, or upon the quantity of liquid in the vessel. It mav be generally inferred that the pressure upon a flat tiorisontal lHHt4>m is asreruined by multiplying the number of aquare inche* iu the bottom by the number of feet in the depth of thte fluid ; fhe product wtii express tht Tiumber of aolid feet of the liquid whoae weight ia equal to the preaaure on the bottom. In a veaael aimilar to that represented in tig. "i, the presaure on the bottom is less than the whole weight of the liquid. In one like that shown In flg. 3, it is greater than the weifcht of the Itqutd \ and in such a vessel aa ia repreaented by 6g. 1, It ia equal to the weight of the fluid. In these examples the surfaces are snuposed to t»e flat; but as surfaces are snhjrct to every variety of shape, it is net-essary to have rules which i.re appli- cable to all surfaoea containing liquids. The point firat to Ite aeoeruined is the medium preaaure, for the.-e ia in every case a certain mean, which is the result of the various pressurea. This is the centre of gravity, and to find it, the finding of the lou) prea- aure i** reduoed. When the mean ia found, and the magnitude of the surface In nmuct with the liqnU II aaoeruined, the whole amount of pressure is readily found. For instance, if the average pressute be IA lbs. upm the square inch, and the maghitude of the surface be 3lM) square intliea, then the whole amount of pressure will t>e :MNK> lbs. Tbe average pressure is produced at the average depth, which ia of course an average of the deptha of all the i-irface^. Iu Duntacl with the liquid, and where the aurfacea are irregular thia la very difficult to disoover. Indeed, to deter- mine the centre of gravity in such casea ia a mathe- matical problem i»f ctmaiderable difficulty, and can merely be alluded to in thia place. With retveut \» a sphere or a cube, however, it is oomparitively an easy matter. In a apiiere, the total pressure ia ascer- tained by multiplying the number of feet in half its diameter (for iu centre ia obvi-;mes tilled, and tbe fluid finds no menus of escape, then it ia possible that the rock or mountain may be rent asunder by the pressure of the small strip of * ater percolating through it." In large and exten- sive walls of masonry, which are intended to confine banks of sand or earth, we generally see openings left at the bitltom, for the purpose of allowing the water which collects during rain to paaa thronf(h them. Where provision for this haa not been made, the wall will be inevitably rent, and many extraordinary en- usin)phes have occurred in this way. The increase of presaure in proportion to the depth of the fluid, proves the necesxitv of making tbe sides of pipes or masonry, in which lluida are ti» be contained, stronger the deeper they go, and shows that it ia a auperflnoua expense to make them equally ttiick and strong from the top downwarda. The same remark applies to flood-gates, dama, and banks, as we have already ob- served. The lower hoops and other aecnritles of brewers* vaM, some of which omtain many tbui sa >d barrels of liquid, are made of far greater ttrengtb than those higher up. The increased presc r-^ ne% the bottom n( such vessels la seen In tlie f'^r wif b which the fluid rushes out when a plug -m'. V i it is removed. Kor some feet it flowa mi lo- >/ * horixontal line; a few yarda farther up, the current ia t>ent downwarda considerably, immediately ai'ter it isaiies from tbe vat, and thia curve oontlnuei to in- crease the higher up that we ascend. FLUID LEVEL. Beaidea the two properties of fluids explained in the foregoing obBerv.,Joiis, there la a third uf uo less im- portance than either of them, and which Indeed may be said to result from them ; that is, the tendency which fluids have to find and t«» mainuin their level. The level or equilibrium of fluids is a natural result of their gravtution, or of all the particles of tbe mass beii>(j attracted towards the C4;ntre uf the earth independenily of each other, and being perfectly move- able amongst themselves. Hence it follows, that, ml' «ny part of the water in a vessel is raised by agiuiiou higher than the rest, it is drawn downwarda agair by the force of attraction j for it haa an equal tendency towards the earth's centre with the other portions of the lluid surrounding it. And this force is never failing, but cmitiniiea to operitte, lessening the height to which it is elevaud at each luu-esaive ascent of the wave, until it ia brought finally bi it level with the rest of the liquid. Thua, then, a fluid left to itaelf will aettln at the aame level, no one part of iu aiirfaoe being more elevated than another. Ileuce, if water l>e poured into a veaael shaped like the letter U, althougo one limb be twice the diameter of the other, the liquid will attain the aamd level iu iHith. In further Illustration of thia, we may increase tbe number of vesuela to an iudeflnite extent, and vary their ahapea as fanuitically aa fancy can devise; yet if they all have a i-ummon conimuiiiCHt'jn with eaeb other, and if water be poured into one of them, it maltera not which, still each will appropriate to itself a quantity of the fluid pnipurtionate to lU contaluiog capacity ; and ahfu this is ounpletcd, the waUr win be found to sund at exactly tUe same level In all the * Usy not ths rtmsrkslilr )ironeny uf «a^er, sbove (iMorthnl, bt spplUd to rsplanstitiTt of «t least somt at tlu«s phcaiHnrns fthiih srv utuslly sst-iitKit In llir H^tmcy of a mitral tit \ Ths powvr of »stM to prodim convultium uf the nxtnX tmnendout itslur*. Is vvldcDt from the ftuu whtrh we have lUtcdi and ihsl ilw lK|uid tsou to sconthieuble depth In the uiterlurti/f>' . earth, «tf hs«t sbun.'!)! tvliU-iii'e. hupptis* that st c«ti \\\\ deptlu duwn- «ird> th«f« ar» eavlust (such as will bf sOerwanU itiowu to bs ihe Kiervoiri uf aitrinit*) which sie luppUctt wUh wau-r by mcaiii uf (luures communicating with tlm lurfsre nf thprirlh. Wheti three ravltiet are tlledi Iht mliimns nf writer will prcM upt>n tbdr ■urlkvM wUh sn exlraoollaary (teanw of fbrcei the water cuiii> iiuiiOvatM tliU pKwuif to Or- rnhirrsl*, inetsls, and other matter with whk'h It 1* fiilio>iii^l. 'I'hMv will yteld, mnd. aiilittinK Into HuurMi whkli. <>r \t*>vt*r, widen as they proceed itpwardi, iTi'Str IhoM* i))M>nini;K »nil rhsoiii lUHm the niitlMv of 'hr Kl(>bp. 'uch si fyii|iipiitlytMv>ir. itrd where iheaxenry of Ire ii m* irpareitL Iii- detil, on-MlonsHv fh«>rr ara sren in tnerr. biMlret of Maitr uf con- oi'lftsble tiM. ll I* 1') lie atwerret, howwer, that ninviilMiiii* ol the MTlh ate grtirrally Midden, at,d Itist thiMe which sn- hkulv (n ' ' -^ •• ' - - ■' - ■ ' — iJualt ht.i ait< tw fh;m llqtiul nresture w»i|iil f> twi rommmily lie crsduatt \», Istaty Iu luppow eiicttmitMiMn in wtiieh I hey wuaTd wAmu Im- m ■tsiitsr Fh.' hey w of ws er may slau, In •otorc^Mw. lit- thsniuw of Ihst FMI. which, I' < now gcnersUy admtleU, iiiLo Ihe b< ot'ii)'. tlie • -.ith. It m III- erewns* «•■ drx^nd iiilo the b< »)'ii)'. t*i« • -.ith. It may even iiimfrnM Buint' 4]>ecle< , me cunont Jiately ru'ter it HitiuuM 10 in- ^plained tn the I of 110 !«*• toi* ich indeed m»y [ the Mn(?ency iiu iheir leTel. imturtil rcMiU ariiclei "f '*>• re of the enrih perfectly mote- foUowi, Ihat, el t« railed by wn downwirdi hfti an equal „ith the other Aud thii force irntei leiienlnK each iuvc«uWe [ht finally to » It, then, a fluid el, iiu one uarl than another. m1 ihaped like c« the diameter letamri level iu re may iucreaie stent, and vary can deviM ; y«t tt'-jn with Mob ma of them, it kpriaie to itwlf iu oonUiuioK the water will level in all the , ftbOVC llfMTi^lwl. th(M phti)vin«n> GCtitnUfircf Tht J nvnt tr«n«n• nlAtndcplIwdtiwn «knU kliowu to tw (Ih w»uT by mc«H» the r«th. Wheii I) pr«M upt>n thdr , the •»«*' «^">- , aiid other mMl^r and, iplittlnK Intu n) upaftTdi. VTVCUT ihcilobe, tuclia* l,»' t"- , In •011IP CMMm. lit- rmllyarini'tiMl. ii«- -jlh. II mny «*'" n» wnit* ihtftn, «t"* veai*>1i>i Hi> thnt any hndy resting; upon the itirfacei of tnu water in the whole of^thvm would lie perfectly hori- contal. Alttioiigh, from the Uw of gruvittiiion, the ktir< lace of water In every vei>ael in a portion of a iphere, yet the iphere of the earth which it repreienti, aa far Ml it goei, ii BO exceedingly large, that any deviation from the horixontal cannot he diicernible in a >>pace BO inmll ai that to which luch experimeot* are con. tinnd ; and thim a hndy resting opon lurfacei co:i< fined within three feet or ko of each other, will sefm to pritss equally upon the whole surfMce ot eHi h, and appear to lie in a perfectly liiirixotit^t poiition, even ^^heit a ipirit'level, whicli we ithuli innnediately de- hcrihe, ii laid upon It. Any iimall pDrtioa of wiitor, therefore, for all cumnnou piirpoitei>, niay he lo iked upon as a perfect pUnu. So completely doea water ninniOH the level, and no gluHiiy ainooth doeH ite vur- fure beoome, that in surae infttnncei a poliihed mir- ror cauniit retifct the r^vii of light which fall upon it more exHctly in the order which they had on leav- ing the object than It iliMft. Perbapi one of the li>ve- I'fxt lighu in nature is to contemplate over the sides of a vesnfl the gorgeous array of clouds mingled iiigether in beautiful confusitoi arioitid the setting >^uu, as they B|ipuar mirrored in the bosom of the depp. It is in the magniHcent operations of nature that we meet with the grandest displays of ibis property of witter to And Its level. The ocean is t4> the etirtli what the h^^art Is to the human body : it Is the grea: renervolr wheuce is derived that fluid, which, circu- lating througn it aud over it, uonrlfines the vegeta- tiiiD upon its surface ; timti (.•erpetuating tho present state of things. All the river« and titreams which we see flowing into the miglity basin of th« deep, had their origin there. By the action of the suu*s rays upon it, water is converted into vapour, which, as- cending into the higher regions of the atmosphere, is formed into clouds. These, again, descend to the earth in the shape of rain, snow, hail, &o. ; and part of it falls upon lakes, rivers, and other sheets of water which communicHte with the sea, whilst a very great proportion descetids directly into the (»cean itself. But not a little of it sinks into tbu poriiUH earth, where it forms springs and 'ountaini, thu^e agtiin giving rise V* rivers. To the subject of springs we shall return immediately. uivEita. U is the ttjiideucy of wuter, t1>en, to find its level, which gives liiu tti tho^e far-streivhiug aud perpetu- ftily-niiiviug ))oilies of water cUled rivers. If in the iiit'urior of tbu land, water he cmfined on all sides, Hiid prtivenied from tbtwing to the sea, it forms a rheet of water called a Ivke. If any of the earth or rocks which surniund the fluid be removed, it immv- (hucely flows downward, aud a very slight declivity is iiet«!ttary to give the running motion of water. A descent of only three inches per mile In a straight and smooth channel, gives it a velocity of three miles per hour. The Himalaya monntsins, in Asia, the highest Iu tlie world, give rii^e to the great river Uauges, which has a cimrsp of lUOO miles, and yet at its commence. ment is only UfH) feet above the level of the sea; that Is, about the height of Arthur iJeat, near Kdinburgh, or twice the height of 8t Paul's Church, at I^ondon ; and to fall thei>e H(M feet iu its long course, the water requires more limit a month. Some ol the great rive i s of south America travel above a tbousarid miles, and yet iu all thnt extended course fail only four or live nundred feet. Kiversas they advance towards theocean (•-imetrmrs nuddeuly disap(.ear in the bowals of the earth, where tiieyrnn for a considerable way through h ililerrancan l>edB, and then re-appear, and flow in a thaunel upon the surface of tlie deep. Tliey lake the ;> usage underground because it is more precipitate ti 11 that wit ich the surface of the earth utforded; but * rnftimes this becmnes choked, unit tbey are again Oil), utied to seek a cbMnnr>l on the surface. The <¥• --y of the Oroiiiiko, at one p»i t of their course, ii - .< ibv^'iitelves beneath huge granitic blocks, forming I 'iit.i.' natural arches, under wbicii the torrent 5jou:i :th tremendous fury, tn t lid year 1752, the bed of the Kio del Norte, in New Mexico), tiecame suddenly dry to the extent of nixty leagues { the river had precipitated iuelf into a newly-formed chasm, and dinappeared for a considerable time, till at last its sub- terranean cmrse being stopped, the river returned to its former channel. About the beginning ol the last century, the rivti- Amazon exhibited a'similar pbe- iioinenon For the efl'ects pnidiced -y livers in cbang'ng tbe for^oiteu Tbls trem)*udi>us cataract falli lAO feet of perpendicular de»ornt, and the sonmt of It in audible at thirieeii mileo* distance. The stream has a hrradtb of 4(MI yards ItimiediHtety before the descent, and iu depth is also nm^ideiable. The fall of such an •fiormutis ('i)lumn of water may Iw conceived to proruice a dreadful concnssinn. 'Ihe celebrated ea- Uraot ol b«queudame, formed by the IlIu Bogota, iu W7 South America, was long C4)nsidered the grandest in the world, one traveller having estimated the height of iu fall at 1 600 feet t but H umlutldt, wbohas conveyed to us so much correct information with respect to the southern portion of the New World, says that its de- scent does not exceed 600 feet. The stream, before it approaches the precipice, has a breadth of 140 feet, which immediately oontracU, and at the edge uf the abyss is reduced to 35 feet. WAVES. The surface of the land displays every variety of hill and valley, here heaved up in immense moun- tain ridges, and tliere depressed into deep hollows, so that the mind, unenlightened by science, is almost justitied iu supposing that at one time it was a fluid mass, tossed like the sea into all fantastical forms by some primeval tempest, and that >*y the fiat of Al- mighty power it was consolidated in a moment, the tnlls and tiie vallies which it exhibited in the fluiil scate becoming permanently fixed. The reason why the earth does not assume the level surface which the sea exhibits, arises from the force of cohesion in solids resisting the power of gravity to separate their par- ticles. The sea, like the land, exhibits at times great inequalities, but they are iliictuating continually, and this alternate depression and elevation of a liquid gives rise to a curious optical deception. The waves appear to have a progressive motion, and move as it were along the surface of the ocean from one end of it to the other. By a monjent*s reflection, however, we will so4)n be convinced that this idea is erroneous. Any body floating u|iim the surface of the water is not Iiorne alojig by the wavn, as would certainly be the case did the waters c^ipjposing each wave move along with the undulaiion. For instance, the foam of the sea is an exceedingly light substance; and had the water, which composes a wave, a motion onwards equal to the speed of the undulation, the froth would undoubtedly be carried forward. But this is not the case. When water rises in the ftirn. of a billow, it is elevated upon its surface; and when the liquid is again depresMid, it sinks into the hollow along with it. But a progressive mittlon appears to take place in something, whether it be the liquid or not, for we liMve the evidence of sight in proof nf the fact. To what then dues the motion beloug ? To tbe/orm of the wave, and not to the liquid which composes it. Dr Lardner, in his work on Hydrostatics, gives the following explana- tion of this phenomenon :— . Kig. 5. ** [jet th'! undulating line in fig. fi be suppoKetl to represent the surface of the sea, aud let ABC be the crests of three successive waves, aud a be the iott-rme. diate vallies: Ket L M represent the bottom of the sea at A, the depth ol the water is represented by the line A K ; take any point near A, as m, and the depth here Is represented by m K', the summit of the wave being A i the depth at A is greater than the depth at m, the pressure of the column A K l>eing greater than that of m K, the point A has a tendency to fall, and the point m to rise, by reason of this excess of pressure; tberefore tn.wtU rise to the point A, while A sinks to the level m. X'hus tbepoi uts A and m have interchanged levels, the pointm being now raised to as great a height above the rmtt^mi L M, as the point A had before the cbanife, and the point A having fallen to the height which m bad. In like manner, It will be found that for every point in the first position of the wave, there is another point in the second position, with wliich it interchanges elevations. If these circumstances be closely considered, it will not be diflicult to perceive that in the interval which we have supposed, the va- rinuH poinU on the surface of the w«ter, such asm, which were l>efore on the sloping sides of the waves, have now become their summits A' B' C, &c Not that the points A' B' C, &o. have advanced to A B 0, &c., hot that they have fallen from their former elevations, while the latter have risen. It appears, therefore, that the undulations of the surface are produced by its different points ascending and descending alternately in a perpendicular direction, without any kind of pro- gressive motion. To make this still more clear, let us suppose that {terpendicutar Hues be drawn from every part of the surface A a, B ft, C c, Ac. to the corresponding poinu in the surface A'a', B'V, CV, &c.,andlettheri ^rval between the peri level, or a plane hnricnntal, or If two pointa are on the lame love! t that i>, equally diiinnk from the centra of the earih. The •impmt form of theae ia what l» called a ipirit- lerel, which i* repreiented by the fi>llawlni; fiiinre: — I'lf- ^ It coniiHU of a cylindrical c glaia tube a c, lilM with "halcohol or »pirii of wine, ex- 'cep : a amail bulible of air 6. The enda are ulmwly aeaJed, to prevent the Mcape nf the liquid. In whatever puaition the tulie may be ^aeed, the bubble of Ur will alwayi tend to the high- kit part of it i when placed in a perfectly liiiriiuutal ^KNitiun, the bubble will itand in the middle, the tube having a liight convexity upwards. When uied, U ii gener^y h^ed in a bra» cate, having an open- ing at the top, exactly in the centre of which the air Will appear when the caie Ilea In a perfectly hnrizun- tal poaitioD. If one of iu enda be lower than the Dther, it will not be ieen there, and the end mutt krcordlnglT he railed, the (pace neoeatary for hririg- ing the bubble to the middle being exactly that which the oae •ztnmity of the iniiruueni, or rather the •urfaca which tup'poru it, waou of being on a level with that which tupporu the other. There are oihei mora somplicaiad inatrumenta, but the above b luffl- oient to ahow the principlea of levelling. mnEiioN or soLiDt in liquids. When a aolid it immerted In a liiguld, it dliplacM exactly ita own bulk of the fluid ; and thia method of axcertaining the totid contenu of a body ia retorted to when the Agure of the body it to irngnlar aa to be incapable of geometrical meaiuremant. Let the reader tuppoee > giaaa vetael before him, aay a common tumbler, having divitiont marked upon in exterior tnrfaee, by ptraUal linea extending from lop to bot- tom being drawn either all round or to a certain ex- tant round it. Theae diriiiona indicate a certain qtiantity of water, f ay the twelfth part of a oubh: inch. If the mmbler then be half lilled with water, and the body which we with to know the toiid contenta of lumeraed, ihift will lie thown by tbe namber of llnei which it ratiee the water above the level which It had before the intmductloo of the aiilid tubttanoe. If it be railed tay eigbteqp divitiont, then tbe magninde ot the body it one and a half cubic inchet. It it evidently necetaary tocorrectneai that tbe aidet of the vetael thoiild be truly perpendlailar, and free fnmi ali Inequalitlei. The fact that a lolid, when pinnged into a liquid, ditplacet exactly itji own bulk of tbe liquid, Wat ditct>vered by Archimedea, one of the igreatett matbematlciani of ancient timea. Hlfni, king of Syracuie, hitLiaelf an eminent philotopher, had given a cerlaiu quantity of gold to an artiat fitr the piirpoee of making a crown; and tutpeeting, from the liithineit of the diadem, that tha fabricator had adiiliprated hit gold with silver, he required of hit friend Archimedea to tolve the dIHiculty. Whilii thit gre«t man waa Intent upon the queition, he one day nliierved, whilst he wat bathing, that on the im- nwraion of hit body the water ran over tbe tides of the twth, and Audlog by calculation that the quantity corresponded lo the bulk of hit tMwiy, the Idea ol speoihc gravity immediately llasht^ upon his mind, and he rushed out of the chamber, exctairoinff, aa he pasaed along, ** I have found it I 1 have found It t" Having teen the effec'tt which the innnersion nf a aolid in a liquid hat upon Iu volume, let ut now aa- oertain what efftet ia produced upon itt ap|>«renl weight. If Into eaoh of the toalat of a weli;h-liesm «« place a tumbler such aa that we have dH8crlt>ed, half Ailed with water, they will of course exactly equalise or balance each other. If in one of ttiem we suapend by a home hair a ciit)ic inch of gold, tha Metal being r«)in|ilet6ly immersed, but ui>t toucKing the bottom ol liiH vessel, the scale in Which that tum- bler is placed will outweigh tbe other. If, then, into the other tomliler water ue poured, so as to restiire the equiiibrtum of the acalet, the fluid will lie funnd lo rtae to exactly the same height aa it stands in tliat in which the gold it inimerted, as i^ill be leeu by the graduated tcales of the vestelt. For any other aiilt- tunce, no matter what its weight may lie, priivided ,iu magnitude he the same as that of the gold, tbe same quantity of water i« required to balance the scaler.. If the body lie lighter, but pressed down by a piece of thill rigid wire, the tame resulu will uke J lace; and if inily half of the body be immersed, iiBl half the quantity of water it required in the o^- boeite tcale ui rettore thi-m to a level with each other, file iacu may be tiimmed up in two pniuoaitiunt t — I. Tliatthaapparaiit weight of the liquid it incraatad, and the appsrsiit wei^jlit of the solid diminithed. by immeraion, '2. That the app«reul weight of the liquid la increased in a proportiim of itielt exactly oorre- ^adiug tu the magnitude of tha body intriduoed, wbUlt m apparent weiffbt of the body it dimlnlihcil JII8 to an ektent exactly equal tn the difference beiween itt tpeciac gravity an4\h'it of the liquid. rLViD aorroBT. W* han almost dally llluttnitlon >.' 'he fact that a body specifically llghter«haii water l,.?Ms .'/im It ; un- lets, indeed. It be alto lighter than alr^ ..hen It ritea above the surface of the earth altogether ; and from what we have taid alwve, the fact It likewlta clear, that althoudfh bodies which an) heavier than water sink down inrough that fluid, they are yet to a certain extent lifted up in It, by which we mean that they are rendered lighter there. Thus, a stone which It would be impostlble lo move out of the s.-ier, when Immened in it can tie bortie along with eate. Thit It expe- rienced in a nanfcniar manner by those who are en- abled to wnra under water by meant of the divlng- tiell, liinae who practise angling mutt otten have observed the difference of weight of a Hah whilit It waadragifeil along under the turfaceof the wAter, and after It had been raised above it. Indeed, the ease with which it it carried along in the liquid givet rite to a deception which an unpractited fither oiten suf- fert fnim. If rapidly pulled out of the water, tbe sud- den jerk which the line receives, when tbe Bih pastes from iu native element into the almotphere, often tnapt it through, and the prey it lott. In floodt which carry away bridget, and hear Im- mense blockt of ttone to a great ditunce, much wonder is excited at the force exerted by water on such occa- tiuni. Rut our turprine it materially lessened when we contlder that most stones In water do nut weigh much more than half what they do when out of it, and can thus be more easily carried forward. When a uilM body flout in a liquid. It fliiplacet at much of the liquid at It equivalent lo its own weight. If for intunce the body weigh one hnndredweirht, no matter whether it be a log of dente wood or a hol- low V. ' I adeof the llgbteat material, mich as cork, still j >rr 'TBdredweight of water would he dli- plaoed. eatily proved by trying the ex- periment o ■ ' tcale, in a vetael to graduated at the tide i.. jte how much the water which It containa it i i y the immenlon nf any liody In it. Althwigh evk. ; iaidy which it speciilcally heavier than watoT tinkt In it, yet the heaviest bodiet can be made tn float npOl, uiy liqnid, howvrer light. Thit It dune by "I /iiig it tuch a shape as will enable it to dliptaoe a quantilv of liquid which It as many times greater than itt abtolute bulk at lu weight It greater than that of an equal bulk of the liquid. Thut, a me- tallic or earthenware boa-l will float upon water if it be placed upon it with the convex end downwardi. There Are a great variety of thapes by meant of which a very heavy body piay be rendered buoyant, but they mutt all be formed upon thit principle, that wlien the veilei it Immened in water, there will be, below the levdl of the liquid, tome tpace in it occupied by air, or by tome tubiudce lighter than the liquid. Iron boatt are now uied for variout purpotee, particularly, we believe, in canal navigation ; and a tpeciet of tim. ber called Indian teidi, which in the fntm of a log liiikt ii water, it now uted in building vessels. When the human body it In ■ state of ordinary health, with the cheat full of air. It It lighter than water— a fact which, if It Wei^ mart generally known and credited, would lead to the saving of many Uvea. When the body it kt we have described, it floau with a bulk of abuilt half the head above wdur < and thut a pertoii who cannot swim may live and breathe. Until chilled or otherwiaa paralysed, by timply exerting voUtion auflicient to ke«p the face uppermost. There are variout kindt of apparatut for preventing drown- ing, called life-p f eac i lera. The moat common are those which coniitt of plecaa of cork or other very light ma- terial attached lo the uppar part of the body. Rut air- tight bag* are preferable, at they may be tald tcarcely to encumber the body wheD empty, and, aa danger tpproachaa, the/ can be inhated with ease by beini; blown Into. lilie-hoaU have large quantiiiea of co-« In their atructure, and alno air-tight vesiels made of thin nieuUlc platee ; tu that, even when filled vi 'h water, a considerable portion of the boat itlll loan above the general surface. The bodlet of tome ani- malt, aa aea-fbwl and miuiy other ipecles of birds, are conllderably lighter than water. The feathers with which they are coveivd add very much to their buoy- ancy. Quadrupedt ewim much easier than men, be- caute the natural motion of their lege in walking or running Is that which best fita them for twiniming. FIthes are enabled to change their ipeciflc gravity by meant of an alr.bkg with Irhlch they are piovided. When the air-liag It dlittnied, thVy rile to the tiir. facai and when it is contraaiM, they daeoand tu the bottom. tTsiiLiTT or rroATiiro loDin. '* A floating body," tayt Pr Amoit, '*to lie ttable in iu poaltioo, must either have iu ctntrt of gravity below the centrt qf buof/anep, tliai it, the ceutre oi gravity of the 'fluid which It ditplacet, in which cate it resembles a pendulum t or it luutt hava a very broad bearing on the' water, to that any iucUnatiuii may cause the centre of gravity to atcend, in which case it resembles a cradle or rooking-horae." That the centre of gravity of a floating body, iu order to secure tubillty, thould, to tpeak Tamlliariy, be aa far at poasibis below the surfsoe of the water, is obvimis. A body which it equally dente throughout ilt whole bulk, may be ao thaped at to float upon water in trtry put^ible pueitiou iu which it may be placed, without having any tendency to alter it of it. telf. Iu centre of gravity mutt therefore be that nart of it which Itequldjitant from every point of Iu tur- face, that it, the centre of itt own matt. If however, there be introduced Into It, and placed alittleonelthrt tide of thit centre, a heavy tnbiiance, inch aa t lead bullei, that half of the liody In which the weight it, will have a tendency to keep undernioit, and thit will increase the farther It It removed from the oeam towardt any of the tidcai for In doing thit, we are alwayt depreuing the centre of gravity. Hence any body, the pant of which havi, different weight, win only float tteadily when the heavier parn are Im. merted, for among ilioie or near tliem the centre of Kavity it alwaya to ho found. In the ttowiiig of a ip'i cargo, care it generally taken to put the heavi- est part of the merchandiie undennott, and it It uiual to have liravy hallait placed beneath all. It it on account of theae tircuniiuaiicea not lieing attended tu that vestelt are freqiientlv overiet In tquallt ol wind. The whole cate reducet Ittelf tu a ilmple one of me. chanici. Tbe ma>is of the iliip with itt tails are the long afp-. of the lever) the thip with iu cargo it the ihort arm of the lever j the wind It the I,, cu applied to lift these, the fulcnim being the centre of movanoy of the water. Now, it It evident that the fanlLSr tu' weight to lie raiaeil by the lever Is reouived from the fulcrum, the more diflioultly will the task be acoom. pliihed. If, fur instance, tliere be hfty tous equally distributed between the fulcrum and the extremity of the short arm of the lever, which ia tay twenty feet ill length, it would be far more eatily raited than If the fifty torn were all concentrated within ten feet of the loweal part of the vettel or the keel. When • thip It empty, the floaii higa in tlie water, thut raia. ing the centre of gravity i and if the weight of tbe masu and rigging he considerable, they alto aislst in elevating It, to that the equilibrium is rendered un- stable, lu reference to tlie lever, we tee the danger of having the masU to mated at unity; and when we tay that the tpeclfio gravity of a bre- b« autUy pn>- ), unifornt iii waur It eixi- lh» iptoiffo , mean to uy »olll hi^iw one of the nctileii. The ipeclAo graviildft of bftilleii lnii(ilut>1« 111 water, and henvler thlin It, luuh m tht! Oietnli., Ad., are raRlly aiicertatned. Thay are merely impended liy a thread ot hair, which han iivkrlf the ipeci6c gravity nt water, t> one scale of the hydroBtaiiu balance, hnd atlowed to deicend iintt) Mttipletely linmeraed In the water nf the ▼e«Bel helow. 9<^Udk lighter than water afe wel|^e£ In tt by ftking thi^m to a rigid wire attached tn the Imttom of the MJale, which keep! them betow ilie rirfkre of the wa- ter, the weight neceanat-y to do thin R'lowing how ntTich lighter they are than water. There in another method of axcertalnhig the ipeolfic gravity of soIMr lighter than water; It I* by loading lh«in with a kniiwn weight nf some Bubiunce heavier thsY) Water, which may cniiRe them to nink, and then itinkitig an allowance for the load*ii difference of weight in air and watef. A aolid eoluble In water, luch as It ftrystal of any salt, may be protected by being pre- viously covered by a thin coatinfr of merted wax, or tt may be weighed in some liquid which does not dls- s'tlve It, allowance being made for the difference be- t^veeii the weight of Buch a Hqnld and water. The fpecitic gravitieK of different fluids are ascer- tained by the same principle. If a snhstance be welAed in two fluids, the weight which It liMes in fwK ta at the spfciflc gravity of that ftuM. Thus, a cMihte Inch of lead lose* 253 graink when weighed In water, and only f09 g^raln* when weighed In rectified splrft t therefore, a cubic inch of rectified spirit weighs W9 grains, aft equal bulk of water weighing 2fi3 ; and so the Bpeclfio gravity of water Is about a fourth grenter than that of the spirit. The Instrument called a Ayrfromfltfr Is constructed UDcm this principle. Its name Is derived from two Oreek Wordn, signifying meaiure of water; but It is of course uked fur ascertaining tbe density of all kindn of liquids. There am various kinds of hydro- nietem. One of them conKiits of a glass or copper tmll with a Aem, on which is marked a Hcale of equal "pitrts or degrees. M'^hen immeried in any fiulH, the stem Binks so a certain depth, which is indicated by the graduated scale. The length to which it sinks in tlie ataudard of comparhion being known, we can tituseainy ascertain how much It Is Kpedtically heavier or lighter titan it. Much in^the same manner Is oon- xtruuted another hydrometer of great delicacy and exkctnets. It consists ol a ball of ^ivtz aooiit three fnohes diameter, with another jolnciitVMi.i^itii)u",:.er as if it were a solid. The specific grarit;- of aEr{form substances Is ascer- tained in much ''.ic same manner. A glass flaBk of known sixe, ^^d furnished with a stoprack, is first weighed w^e taken, when experiments are matle, that the density of the 1)ody has not by any means been ultereit. Heat is the great agent in the expaniiun of tHidies, which, by Increatiug their bulk, decreases their spe- cific gravity. The temperatuie should therefore be carefully diaerlmlnated, ehe the results will not be correct. A cubic foot of distilled water at 40* Fahren- heit, weighs 11)00 ounces avordupuis. It is then at its least dimensions ; for if it either sinks behiw or risKS above that tempemure, it expands in bulk. At W Fahrenheit, Its state is independent of time, place, or ether circumstances t It Is the same at all parts of tbe earth, and under vbatever circumstances It may tw submitted to experiment. It is not, however, always convenient to obtain water at this temperature whea experimeuts on specific gravity are made, so that It ii necessary to hire numerical tables expressing the change of weight which a given bulk of water sus- tains with every change of temperature; aud thua, when tbe specific gravity of any substance has been found, with reference to water, at any proposed tem- perature, ft may be reduced hy a simple process of arithmetic to that which would have resulted, had It been compared, hi the first instance, with water at The temperature corresponding to the state of greatest condensation. Besides the tempenctare, tbere are other causes of fallacy tn the reeuns obuined by meaus of the hydro- meter and hydrostatic balance. The Internal struc- ture of bodies Is frequently altered by their union with each other, so that (be measure of the oempound is sometimes less, sometimes greater, than twice tbe measure of the bodies not so combined. Thus, the specific gravity of the compmind formed. Is not a me- dium or average specific gravity nf the specific gravi- ties of the two bodies In a simple state. In a mats of gold, a piece of silver may be inserted to fill up a ca- vity, and this weighed In water could be easily detect- ed t but if the two metals were melted together, and chemically united, it Is quite possible that ^hey might form a compound having a specific gravity greater or less than the medium of the specific gravities of the gold and silver separate. This is the cane with re- gard to copper. A cubic Inch of gold mixed with a cubic inch of copper produces a maas of metal mea- suring less than two cubic inches. Thus, then, the component parts of these bodies have penetrated the dimension! of each other's mats, or the attractive affi- nities awakened by the prooess of melting have caused the particles to come cloNcr together and oc- cupy lest space. The same occurs with regard to fiaidf. A pint of pure water and a pint of sulphuric acid, when mixed together, measure less than a quart. Before, thsrefbre, placing implicit reliance upon tlie reenlts obtained by the Instruments above described, trialt thould be made with the simple substances aud their comptninds in koown proportions. Tiie etfects of the mixture being thus ascertained In these cases, the weight foec4imet an accurate test of the degree of adulteration ( because we know what allowance to make for the effectt of chemical combination. traitrot, tountains, &o. We bav« already obaerved that springs are to b« aocounked for en the prinelpie of water seeking lu le- vel. In fercelatlug tliniugh tbe earth, after having fallen in thntbepeofraiD, dew, &«., water tometfmeB meeu with itrata of «enh ur etoaie, whieb will not permit of Ut patting dowawands. Hs progreat there- fore it stofiped, and a reservoir of tfaeUquM ft formed, giving rite Co varlotit kinds ef tpriun, which will be belter underateod by a figure. Bntflntlet ust^etcribe -the typhoB, an initrument wbidi 'vcts a conipicuous part in the natural pheneaieaa of certain kinds of springs. A eypben le^inplv a tube bent in tbe nran- ner represented in fly. %, If it 'be Kig. a fiUed with waeer and inverted, to as til turn the tweorlfleet downwards, the UqaU 'wUJ a level 'w4th tlie orltioe. Ic is evident that, when t«e end «t the eypbon it i nwi ie d In water,-the IMetsore «f the atnioepbere upon the iinrfa(>e of the water impels the liifiiid thiwugh ihf> tube, i\n^\ u cmiM tMforaed.ir)*war the level M, tbe aypbou will aut, and drain off the water ; and if we suppose the muulh of tbe aypbou lo be lowar than tlie outletatJj,*ad^tudfaiuoff,aa mncli as the runnel* .U H U U eupply, it wiU allow none .to issue from the orifioe.at 1* at all. Tite oriisce at J:«, supposing there was xu* other out- let from tbe mountain, may be taken ae an iustani.« of those springs, most common, which flow t'onttnuallv- The reservoir from which these areisupplied is.gene- rally to be traced to some hill or range of -hills in t)a> uaightmurhood, which, from the quauilty of ruin, All. collected by them, keep tbe internal cavity «ontinitaily full or nearly se. springs oaimat rise higher than tl>v reservoir from which they areeupplied, and fountainB, which are toringt that bunt out at a level consider- ably lower ttiau the water in tbe reservoir, do uot rite so high, because when they issue from the oritiee, they liave the retistanoe of the air to overcome, which re- tarda their atoent. Tbe current also braitohes out laterally, aud thus the force which impels it upwards is partly expended in giving It an oldique^iireotiou. In tome parts, iuteimittiog springs have afforded an opportunity fur dealguing individuals imptii>iit^ upon the credulous. Taking advantage of the flowing ainl stopping of those water.mus, these oharl.itaus havH gained credit to themselves by predicting tlie periud when the events would happen, wbioli, from a few years* observation, would soon be learned. Iji euper- stitiuuB times tbe whi>le wan ascribed to witcbcrult; Mild even yet, in some places tbe ignorant still retain, with some slight muiUtiuatiuus, the auaieni belief of their fathers. CAPir.l.AttY ATTRACTION. If we take an open tube of a very imall bore, and fdaoe one of tbe ends upon tbe surface of a liquid, the atter will be iinind to Mcand somewhat higher fn the iniide than on the mititide of the tube. If a tmaller tube be taken, it will rise higher, the amount of ele- vation being always In aa inverse ratio of the diameter. Tubes so small In tbe bore are called capi/Zery, from a Lritin word which signifies bHir, hecauKe they are Mtiaill like huiri. If the fiianieter of the tulro U tbe ttfiiMli p'rrt of an inCli, ihe water will rise t'^ 'ie height fit (me -inch; if the ore Inir-dredib yv . il mm CHAMBERS i? INFOT^MATION FOR THE PEOPLE. invh, U will riw two fnuhflH t if tli« iwu-hundrvdtb pu^nf ati iach, ll will rind four iiichM, aud to on ; alwayi increasing In lieighc with tha ainallnefti of th« bore uf tbe tube. The fncu above lUWd arc well ascertained ; but upon wb>t principle tbtv are to tw expliiinedi it ii difficult to determine. By tome it hai been ainerted that the wHter in raited and iiip. * ported by the attraction o( tbe ring of glaii imuedi- ateiy above tbe water*! purfaoe ; but a« an objertIdD to that hypothetii il m.ny be urifed, that tbe ring iinmedi- Htelv t)«l(iw the lurface ought to draw it down aa much ait the ring immediately atwve it drawi il up. Thoee who have ufM tubea amall enough for the experiment may use insteiid of them iquare pUi«a of gtaia. If one of the ends of each of the platec be placed close to- >frtber upon tbe surface of water, and the other endo Iw made to approach each other gradually, but not to touch, the water will be teen to riee between the plat^a, forming iu«lf into a curve line. All fluids whit'h rise do not me to tfta lune height, and this is indejwndent of their speeifio gravity. If the plates or tutws b« made of grtaae or wax, the water will not rise in them ; if glase platea or tubes be oiled or waxed over, watery floidt do not rise at all In ibem i neither does mercury nor melted lead. In regard to an explanation of the phenomenon, mt- thing satisfactory has yet been advauoed. That wax and grease should destroy the power which plates fif glass and some other aubstances have of attraciinglHid raising water, seems very pxtraordiuary. Il itomi- monly said that the liquid will not stick to theae, and hence they will not rii>e. This teeni!^ to be a very clumsy explanation i and tbe cause appean to us to lie a little farther from the surface. Alay capillary attraction not be one of the various ways in which electricity developee iuflf ? That rtiemical attraction rmuiu from bodies being in oppokite states of electri. dty, has now been rendered highly probable; indeed, a awjurity of Kunipran philosophers nre of iliis opinion, and ir .^,zr.:^ .(»<*« puit^^r-"'*^ '^ brtug it forward aa «xpl'4nat4iry of these kinds of attraction. Hut it U im. possible to pursue the subject farther in this place. HYDRAULICS. The division of science which we hav^ endeavoured 1 1 prevent a view of iu the foregoing pages, is so closely I r rather so inseparably C4iniiect«(l with that upon irhich we are now about to enter, that part of wliat I'mperly belongs to Hydraulics it waa fnuud neoes- •ary, for the salte of cleameia, to give under lJydr(». (taiics ; whilst parts of the subject which ought, in a ■irict division of the science of watery fluids, to have appeared under H yd roatatica, will now be found under Hydraulica. But it should ever be kept in mind by the general reader, as well as by the stude*it, that these sciences ought always to l>e studied together, and with refereni-e tueacb other, else only a very super- ficial knowledge of either of them will l»e obtained. il\drautiai, then, being the ncience of fluids in mo> tion, has for iu object the investigation of tbe motions of such fluids aa water, the metaods by which these arecfl^ected, the laws which regulate their pmditction, and tbe results of their impact either with themselves or with aolida. Tbe paiticlea of liquids having little cohesion, a mass of fluid, such as water, cannot as- sume any particular form without some eileriial sup. p^irt, hut always ulies thil i>t the vessel which contines it. From this catiae arises thedifferenoe which eiikts t'tWMn their prt* osure aud motion, and that of solids. A solid " moveth all together if it move at all," and I'an only produce a pressure downwards, upwards, or laterally, according t4i the ilirect'on in which it may be impelled, and in only one of these directions at once. If it be at rest, iu pressure is downwards; luitafluid at rest presses in every direction it the same insuiit, and a pttrt uf a fluid masR may ^iso iw: .'-* "lotion, whilst uther parts of it are fwrf'^tly quiescent, ibit Niuititutes the principal diff^rencv lieiween the mo- tu. '• "f solids and fluids, iae subject seems t<» l>e naturally JW'dra iut«t thr*^ distinct heads: — I. The uat'tral moiii.';>» of Ili''!ils in ducts and channels, in- dependent of nii)>.W:4nic&) ointrivancea. 2. The arti. £cial motions of tSiids, as produced by pumps and other hydraulic machines. And, X The power generated by fluids flowing under either of these circunistaiuvs. The fiiliuwiug facu, already Slated under Hydro- Btatira, it will l»e necessary ui reCMll to reoollertioii : — That the particles of fluidt flow over or amongst ihamselvea with less friction and Impediment to mo. tion than when they have to para over solid suli- suuoea. That all uuiti*, when in a state of perfect rest, have level surfaces; that is, note level pUne, iMit a surface ev«iry point of which iseqiiidistnut from the cvntre of ihn eMrih, to which every particle tends by the power of gravitation. That fliiids have a na- tural tendency to assume this level ; a. id that Uie weight or pressure of fluids is simply aa their quan- tities or heights. Thus, if a pcrpendiinilar pipe, three inches in diameter and three feel in length, contains nine pimnds of water, it will exert % pressure of ume pounds upon any vitlve or stiipper of any description, which is three iucbes in diameter, aud placed in tbe iMiitun uf the pi|>e ; and that, if tbe pipe be made twice as high, twice tbu preasure will be exerted ; if three t*mt*« the lengtli, three times the pressure, and so on. This is a ciicuiustanoe of great consci(iieuce In tbe etuiktruction uf pumps and eugiuea for raising water. rLow or WATKK rftoM a tcibcl. When a vcksvl cuutaiuing water is pierced ai the tide or Dutioui, the waitr flova oui with ■ certain de> gree of velocity, in accordsm-e with tbe law by which it seeks its level. In flowing out, those parttclea which were in immediate conuct with tbe liolto will Im) Arst dischargwl, crentliig for an instant a vainium or void space above the bole ; but the particles of fluids moving easily amongst themselves, it is Immediately filled. The pressure is not that of a perpendicular colunu) of particles, for the fluid pressing In all dl. reciiniiR alike, there is from all parU of the vessel a general rush aa it were to tbe outlet, tbiia puttiii<[ the whole mass in motion. But tbe rapidity with which water thus set free flow», depeuds upon the depth. Thus, if a veitsel ten feet high be penetrated at the side on a level with the bottom, and the water suud at two feet and a half within, it will iksue out. wards with a certain degree of velocity. If the height of the water be quadrupled, that is, if tbe ves- sel t»e filled, the veliicity will tie doubled. In order to obtain a threefold velocity, a ninefold depth iit n«- cessary, for a fourfold velocity sixteen times the depth is required, and so on. In lact, in whatever propor- tion the velocity of efBnx is increased, the quantity of liquid discharged in a given time must be also increased; hence the pressure or the de^th must tm increased in proportion to the quautily discharged, u well aa in proptirtion to the Telocity. There is here a striking coincidence Itetween the descent uf water and the relation which exists between the height from which a body falls and tbe velocity ucquiretl at the end of the fall, an described in Natural Fbilosophy — See that article. The motion uf a solid down an inclined plane can Iw easily calculated, but that uf a fluid moving in the same manner— that {», in the ordinary bod of a river, from a higher to a lower lev«I— .is very difficult to as- certain. Indeed, the lesulu of theoretical computa- tion are to very uncertain, that little orno dependence can be placed upon them. It is easy to find out the amount of friction Itetween a solid aud the surface iip( II which it moves; not so that of a flold. M'hen n solid is set in motion, ail the paru move with the same de^rmi of velocity, but in a mass of moving water, such as a river, some parU of it move with greater velocity tbau others t some are almost station- ary, and occavioiially there is a current at the tides mi>vii)g ill a contrary direction altogether. In all rivers there is a main current in the centre, which flows with greater rapidity than the water at the siden; and this is also the case with water iu pipes. The fluid which is in ctintact with the pipe moves with more ret>istance thau that at the centre, liy which the calculdttKl diacharge of any given pipe of considerable leirgtb becotnet much If-ns than is due to its magni- tude ; hence the propriety of always making the conveying pipe of larger dimensions than would uther- wiie be necessary were there no obstruction from friction. Other circumstances also retard tbe motiducfld the most rapid discharge ; for, being ao eiruuin- fttanCtid, it discharged eighty.twu quarts of water in OU9 hundred seconds, whilst the hole without the pi^te diimhargi^ in the tame time only tlxty-twn quarts. He also found, that if the pipe, instead of being fltuh or level with the bottom of the reset roii, entered ioui it to some distanoe, it had the effect of making the flow of water even less than that which Isaued thnmgh the simple hole without any pipe. The tingtilar fact uf a pipe and bole of the aaroa dimenaiont dhiobargiogdif' lereut qiiauiitiet of water utider dlfferooi dreum- sunces, whilst tbe head or preMura remalnt tbe same, must »e IwU or trumpet-raoiitbed, orfnniiel'Shaprd, both itiiornally aud externally. Thus, by the simplrnt metns pi)Skili)«, tbe flow of water from a reservoir may lie increase*! or impeded in practice. Kunning fluids comrouniuHia a lateral motion to the bodies through which they flow. Thus, when a river runs through a sheei uf water iu a quiescent tuie, it loses a part of Its own motion, which is communicated to the waters of the lake, and tlie current is thus reurded in its progress. Nor is this motion imparted confined to a fluid oi the same kind as that fnmi which tbe impulse is received. A column o( water in iu descent ihrougb the aiuui- sphere in the form of a catarait, produces in soiiim Insuincea a current of air which can scarcely bn withstfHMl. This lateral coomiuuication of mutiun, combined with the irregular! ties in the thape of bedi and banka uf rivers, produces thote eddies and pt* tty whirlpools which are so frequautiv utiterved. It i*s also obvious that these Irregulariuet iu the iMittoms and sidee of rivers necessarily retard their currenix; and although water iu descending foUowa the siiuitf laws as solid bodies, aud hat Its motion accelerated ou account of this friction, ii it impossible to calculair with any degree of certainty the exact velocity of rivers. ri.UID KEBI8TANCE. With regard to tlte resisunce which a fluid offers to a tolid body which Is impelled through il, one pro. position will be obvious tu every one, that the resit. tance will be greater the denser the Ihiid, and the larger tbe surface Is which moves iu it. It is also very clear that tbe figure uf the body has a very material litflu. enctt uptui the amuunt uf resisunce offered tu It. Thus, H wedge impelled by the sharp end will umve far more easily through water thau If the bruad ex* tremity were pushed forward in tbe liquid, llussut instituted several experiments for the purpose uf de. termining tbe absolute resistance sustaiuetf by a sulid moving iu a fluid. He found, that if a flat biMrd were moved perpendicularly against a liquid, it would suffer a resistance equal to the weight of a culumn uf the fluid, the base uf which is equal tu the board, aud its height equal to the height from which a butiv should fall, iu order to acquire the velocity with whlib the board la moved against the liquid. Uf course it follows, that the resisunce of a fluid will depend upon its specific gravity. When a jet of liquid strikes a solid at rest, it is l^ound that the absolute rehisunce Is dilferent, but that itt variation depends upon thasame Imws. In this case, the foice suktained by the sidid is e'jual to the weight of a udiimn of the liquid whoae height is double the height frum which a body shuuld fail to acquire the velscity. Hence it follows, ihat a column of liquid striking aaolid with a certain dsytM of velocity, produces an effect amounting tu dunble that which would bm produced by moving the iuiid with Uie same velocity in a similar liquid ai rcil. That a body which moves through tbe water with a given speed, and meets a given resistance, ahould, when moved twice as fast, just meet with double tbe furuMr reaittauce, teamt at a firsi glance to im a vei y obvious couclusiun. Bui this is not the c^tse : the i (-• sistauce is f«mr timet greater with a double rale, 'i he fact is thus easily explained : A vessel moving at ibv rate of one mile per hour displai^ea a certain ^uaiUtiy of waier, aud with a certaiu velocity ; if il Buives twice aa fast, It of course displaces twice at many iiar- ticlea in the same time, aud requires to lie moved by twice the force on that account ; but it alto ditplacet every particle with a double velocity, aud requir»t another doubling of the power uu imt autxiunl; the ptiwur ttius iwioe doubled, becomes a power uf four. When the body Is moved with a speed uf three or four, a force of nine or aixteen is wanted, aud «u *>ih Thus, in the language of mathematics, the reaialaiue inureasea aa the t^uere of the speed. Thii important law iiiggctit many praelloal hintc of very oontlderahle importouce. Fur Inttaiieoi iu iteam navigation, if an engine of flfty nnrsa puw«r HYDROSTATICS AND HYDRAULICS. Uuwut of >!>•. tuiia lltMI«k woul«* iiaut »> d, »vtA IhhIv oliiili jtiri* it id upon rtkM » (Win* •.did rh«w khuutd ihat « dufrM duiil>l> h*Md>d Ilk ir »l>li ■huiild, ibl* \l» i» veiv •. Tl>* •I >!'• uutiiiy liiiMfl « vntiftl Kl thft rnu of nevtiii miln »n houTf it would ifiiiiira two of the »me pnw«r to drive her ten milte Kh hutir, nnd three inch to drive her twelve milM en huiir. Hence the enormoiii ezpenic of fuel etiendlnit the gAining of n high degree uf velocity ; end in tteem-veftitels which laii to diRtiint parta, it ii heller thai the »peed be medium than great; bw!au»e M In these the fuel neraiitMiry for the voyage i« a prin- iilnal cunRiderKtion, nothing would he laved hy the oelerliy with whlvh the vetnel gained herdeitinaiiont the immenne ipace neceiiary for the additional coal nMfulred would fur more than cottnterbalance any thing gained in time by increwied velocity. The law ebove explained holds equally In the caae fif a fluid moving egainit a solid. If e current he moving agahiRt a abiv at the rate of four mlle« an hour, the itrain upon her cable It not one Ikue In a lolid which li to move through water li therefore an ianportant oonslderatlou in the conitruc- tlon of ve^iaeln of all kinds. We see In nature many intUncen of a wine proviiiion of this kind In the shape of animals. Uirda, and especially those of rapid flight, have a neck and breast tapering from hefnrH, end Increasing hy slow degrees towards the thicker part of the bi^y, thus considerably diminishing the reidsunce of the air. Fishes have also been fashioned with a due regard to this principle. rUHPS AND HACIIINES FOft EAIBIMO WATIE. There are variuus kinds of machines for elevating water al>ove the level at which it stands in a reser. voir. ThoM flrsi used were wrought by mechanical furMf without reference to atmospheric preesure. The moat celebrated of these simple machines are the acrew of Archimedes and the Persian wheel. The former consikta of a lone hollow tube, twisted into a aplral form, with an axle at the upper end, to which la attached a handle fli>r the purpose of winding round the aorew. The machine Is laid in the water Intended to Im rabted, at an ai;gle of about forty-five degrees^ the lower end dipping Into it at every turn made by the handla, By this means a quantity of water passei into the hnllow tube, which, being forced upwards into • higher convolution of the pipe at every ravolu- t'oUf li at last ejected at the upper end, where it can he eaught in a veasel, or carried ofl^ by means of a apoub The Persian wheel auisists of a rim or circle of moitd of considerable diameter. It Is provided with a number of Iron bolu projecting outwards, firmly fixed, to which are attauched a number of buckeis. Wheu the wheel is driven round, these buckets dip into the water or mud which is Intended to be raised; and slnoe they turn In the bolla (at long as they are not In contact with any thing) so aa to keep the open end always upwarda, they are elevated with the wheel, until coming In oontaoc with a eiitem at tfar top, they are tilled up, and tl^tcharge their contenu into it. doing down empty :)n the other iide, they are again HI led and rained as before. The buektt.engine and ehmin-pump are but modificatlona of the above de- Kcrtbed machines, and are very useful In particular situations. The next clase of maehines are those in which the water Is raised hythe presaureof the atmoaphere, and tn which the name of jmmp Is applied. They act upon the principle of removing the preaaure of the atmo- aphere fhlm the surface of the water; when this !■ effected, water will rise Independently of any other artlHoial oonirivanoe, to the height of abooi thirty-two leet. The principle upon which this is effeotad will be frilly explained In our iheet upon the properdei of Air, or Pneuraetlca. In the aocompanying diagram are shown two forma of the common sucking-pump. Fig. 10 "I^K^ hlnic uioe, in ■« powvr It cuiutsla of a cylinder a, furnished with a pistim 6, made to Al air-tight. Wheu the pUton Is raised, a vacuum is formed In that portion of the cylinder through which il has moved upwards, and the pressure of the air upon the eurfhoe of the waur uii tlie mitalde of the tube forcM the fluid into it The valve tf, which opens upwards, ia lilted, and the water rushes In abttr^ It. When the up- WAtri stroke of the piilco is ooic^ileie, it ti again depresaed — ite water paaaee through theralved; and on the next stroke, It la discharged at the spout t. It Is evident, that, whentheplsKmisiunkdawn. ^^ wards, the water oanuot be loiutxi out of the barrel ftgalni because the valve at the bottom U pressed close diiwn, Knd prevenii lu etwpe. Tkm foive-punp la of mor* uslvertftl epplloailon 311 than the uttove. It ooniitts of a cylinder and piston, as In the former case, but the latter is cunatruoted without a valve. In the right-hand figure of the fol. lowing engraving, the piiiun sucks the water by Its upward motion i but, on deprpsiing it, the water passes by the side-pipe, rmd enters the air-vessel. The pipe placed In the centre lerves to discharge the rig. n. water, and the air byiuelastloityen- Ruresacontinuoua flow. In the lefu hand flgure, the piston is pierced for a valve, which would Iw too small to be indicated iu the engravIng,aBd when the water Is above the piston, it Is discharged by the air* vessel placed at the top, as in the former cue. In this ar- rangement of the pump, the water may be raised to any required height. Mr Perkins has made numerous Improvementa upon the fordng.pump. These may be enumerated under three heads. 1st, The enlargement of the bot- tom of the pump, or suction-pipe, which Is io con- trived as to allow all bodies heavier than water, as sand, stones, pieces of Iron, &c., to subside by their own gravity, so as to prevent the Inconvenience of the pumps choking, as froquently occurs on shipboard un. der circumstances of extreme danger. 2dly, The com. bination of the plunger and the pump-lwx, so as to produce a forcing stroke both by the ascent and descent oftheplunger. And,9diy, The separation of the valves from the stuffing of the pump-box, by which means a much larger water. way is etTected than iu any pump of simiirr size hitherto produced. rig. 18. The lefi-hand figure exhibits a section of a Axed pump for raising water from wells, or out of the hold of a ship, which Is also capable of being converted Into a forcing-pump, for extinguishing fire, &c. a is the chamber or working barrel of the pump, and b a plunger, amailer than the calibre of the barrel, work- lug up and down through a atuffing-box ; o is an air vessel, which may be attached to the noczle rf, when it Is required to be converted into a furclng.pump or fire engine, in which case the hose is to be connected to the end of the noixle ; g, the valve-b«>z, which Is nuwlc water-tight by fitting accurately iu the barrel t the bottom of the pump mav be enlarged, as shown in the right-hand figure at /, In order to prevent all heavy subitanoca aom coming up with the water, and getting Into the pump barreL The right-hand flgura represents a portable forcing- pump, to be employed either aa a garden engine or fire engine, In which a is the chamber, 6 the plunger, passing Uirough the stofflng-box, the interior parts of which are shown In the left-hand figure. In this por. table pump, however, It is to be particularly remarked that the planger b ii made hollow, for the purpose of I allowing the water to rise within it up inte an air ves- sel tf, at the top of the plunger; # are the handles : by which the plunger is to be raiied and depreesed by ' the men standing upon a platform. Woitden pumpi may aometlmea be employed with advantage, (bough they seldom IasI more tnan forty or fifty years. The figure al the top of the nex:t column represents one of the best forms of this pump. A represents the surface of the grouud, and B B the seouon of the brickwork forming the well. The water stands at the ordinary level c. D is the lever or handle tf (he pump, which has the rod F Jointed to it, aud descending to the pump ; the rod is made uf wood, in eereral lengths, which are united by Joints of Iron ; (he wooden rods being capped with Iron forks, which include the ends oi thna, and ara rlvetted fast ; tha endi of the forks are J(rfnted together to connect (he several lengths. E U (he worliu barrel or chamber of the pump in whioh tht bttckM « worka 1 thia part is formed of a tree liored through, and havinga projecting branch 0, nhich is bored obliquely to the bar- rig. I.i rel, and forms the forcing- pipe; in the bottom of the barrel the suction valve /Is situated, being at the top of thesuctionpartof the pump, which is lH>red with a smal- ler anger than the working chamber, which Is also lined with a brass tube where the bucket works. Tiie top ofa the barrel is covered by a| metal lid py which has a^ stufllng-box in the centre to receive the metal cylindrical part of the puinp.rod A; to the lower extremity of this the bucket d is fixed. The metal lid consists of a ring, which is screwed to the woo- den barrel by five screw- bolts passing through as many ears, projecting frtim the ci rcnmference of the ring; they have eyes below tohuok upon plus which are fixed in the wood, but pro. jeot safflciently for these bolts to held, and are form- ed into iorewi above, io ai (0 hold the ring flrmly down by meani of nuts screwed upon them. The moveable lid uf the pump, which has the stulliDg-box pformed in the centre of it. Is screwed tu the ring by five screws, and these can be taken out ti> remove the lid and draw up the bucket when it re- quires to be leathered. Ar is the forclng.pipe, formed of as many piei»s of wooden pipes aa are required to make up the length ; they ara united together by making the upper endii conical to enter a similar cavity made In the lower end of the next pipe; the lowest piece fiu upon the extremity of the projecting branch 0, ...id a valve is proposed to hs put in the pipe at this joint to prevent the ratum of the water and bear part of the weight of (he column from the lowest valve nt/; the upper length of the pipe has a spout i, at which the water is delivered. Al Is a second spout, fixed into the pipe lower than the former; It has a screw by which it can he united to a hole or leather pipe to convey the water to a dis- tance ; or by means of a jet, or branch. pipe, to throw it in the manner of a fire engine; in this case the up< per spout i must Ite stopped up, by a screw, plug, or cap; and there Is a copper air-tight vessel H, situated at the top of the wooden pipe, to equalise the pulsative motion of the water, as thrown by the pump. There Is a bracket fixed to the pipe k, and project, ing over the centre of the pump, wnere it has a hole to receive the pump.rod A, and guide it steadily In Its motioa up and down, that it may not wear thb ituffing.box away on one aide. As the woodeb tubes of which this forcing pump is composed may he made from waste or crooked timber, I( makes a great ditfer. encf between the low price of such, aud that of the straight trees necessary for oimmnn pumps. A wooden plug may be chained to the pump be- twixt the spouts or r'^zles M and i, so as to be read/ to stop that which is not wanted in use. Mr StephetiA, who was rewarded by the Society nf Arts for this arrangement of the pump, is of opinion that it la better to place the valve /beneath the level of the water In the well. There Is a valuable rotatory pump invented hy Air Eve, which nearly resembles one form of the steum- englne. The. two figures beneath will serve to show the general arrangements of its parts. Fig. 14. The left-hand figure represents an external view of the pump. Two cylinders turning on axles are placed in omtact, and made to revolve in opposite directions in an outer case a b c^ through the ends of which the axles protrude ; each cylinder has two wings, leaver, or pistons, c 0, shown In the next figure, and tw.i recesses ; and, In revolving, the wing or leaf of one cylinder falls regularly Into the recess of the other, where their peripheries touch, and ao on alternately. The equal motiona of these cylinders are regulated by a pair of wheela a 0, gearing into each other, placed CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ^'1 *niuld« ih« MM, and ftHLud to ih* projiotiaf axWt. The ipMd of iht whwili which driv* tht cyllndArs round )• increaa«d by « larfrtr toothad whasl ti, to b« workad by a oommnn haniUar Tfaa pump-caaa ii rotinectad Ly meani of flanehaa and acravi ttt a pip* /. teadlof down to the wall. The two oylinden above deicrihed are three inchea and a half in dlftoieter, by six ittchM lung, and the winp three quartan oi an inch. The qitantttv of water pumped up by two men (iluned at the baadJe of tlie multiplyiog wheel, would h« half a ton in three mlnulet. Iwutory moUoQ being given by meana of the wlneh g tn the large wheel, ihe teeth upon that wheel take into and actuate the pair of amall toothed- wheeli m 0, which work into each otbert and tb^ve, being aAxed to the axle* of the cylinder a, caiiM them to revolve with llieir periplieriei in oontact. The outer edgeaof the leav e! e tlide round agalntt the circular parte of the interior of the box b, and by creating a partial va- cuun, in the 6 rat inatance, in the riaing main /, cauaae the water to flow into the box Aa the cylinder* re> voItv, the leavea«, now lifdng the voluroea of water which encompaaa Ike outic halvba ef the peripheriea iif the oyllndera «, force it to the upper part of thu Imz, and theace threugh the diacharge.pipe g. Thb pump poaieatce mftoy advantagea over tlie ordinary redprocating pump. Tne operation or the doubit phinger.pwnp k entirely independeixlof pneOBatio oreaanre, and la well oaU ralated, Itotk tnm 111 limpUcity and effect, for raiaing large qnautlUea of water to traall heighca. It ie unde by fitting two upr^l tieama or plungera, of e^tial thicknesi throunoai, into cavitie* nearly of theaame ki.-ie, allowing tk«& onlv room te move without trio- lion, aud ODDDeoting the plungera by a horizimtal tK!«a movinf cm a pivot, aa ahown in Fi<.'l«. Tha •* liter, being admitted ruring theaacant of each |t|'jeutud viJve in the aide u( the cavity, awl 1(1 aacand by a wide pipe to the level of the beam. The plungera oufEbt not tn be in any degree tapered, on aroouut of the gr«itt force which would be uuuecec* aarily consumed in coutinu;«lly throwing out the water with ^nau vriodty m they deacetid, from the inter- atice formed by their rlevHtion. Ttiia pump may be worked by a labourer walking backwarda and for- warda, either on the beatn or ou a board auapended lifiow it. The com/Nmnrf p/u'j^r«r-puH;> waa formerly employed in aUnoet all targe w«t«r.wurktt; and one of tbe beat Duedraeuf ia dctiueaied bt'Dpath. Fig. Hi . !!i the tbitf'. iir axle*trM> of the rngioe, twenty-foar fret long, nn'l iwcniy-fonr iiiohn diameter, C (J W, an undi>rvhut wecer-wheel thirty feet dia- meter ; iu vniea eighteen iacliea bniad. Thewater- Muy eighteen inctm broad and twelve deep. The fall eeveo Cacu I) i^ FU, fmir moveable ringa orcol- 312 lare ploeed on tbe abaft, about throe feet in diamolar, and alx inohee broad. H 1 K L, four fnroea, rialng and falling alternately by meana of the ooliara having four ehaina faatenad to the oollwer of the moving water be applied to tbe float-boards of a wheel whicii revolves in a fixed Ituilding, or whether any extraneous force be applied to the axis of a wheel to cauae it to move in atiil wa- ter. In the firat case, the power of the water will be transferred to the axle of tbe wheel, and ia applicable to the driving or moving uf laactiinery ; while, in the second case, tbe ptfwer applied u» the axle will be re. ■isteii by the quiescent water, end will be converted into so much |M(wer for moving the building or boat in which the wheel is placed t and upon this principle depends the action of ihuae ateam-lhiMa which are im- pelled through tbe water by meana of water-wheela driven round by ttie p<»wer of steiim-eugiDea applied to their axles, instead of permitting the water to move tbe lluut-lnwrds, aud transfer ita posrer to the axis. Whenever the weight and motion of water can be made uieof, as well as its momentum, mnob greater etfiicts can he produced than the laat described ma- chtne is CdpaHle of, and with a much Ie** lavish ex- iwnditure of the fluid, for then its utmost power* of action are brought Into play at oneo 1 and accordingly s Uriusb Cyriitfdt^ aitkeU *' Puuitw, Wdtn." T thoao waMr.whaela that are diatiogulahed by the names of breaai- wheels and ovorahot-wbeels, will pri^ duce much greater power with a much leaa auppty of water than tbe uudsrabutf>«hesl already deacriben* The overshot water-wheel, whieb of all otheri give* the greateat power with the least expenM of wa|«r, require* a fall In the atream e^ual tu nttlier more than ita own diameter t ther««for« It la cuatumary to give this deauription uf wheal a greater length in pro. portion to its height timu ia given to any other, by which an equality of iHiwer ia obtained. In Ibo ooii- atructiuuof tlva ovvrabot-wheel, a hollow eylindsr or drum, that ia impervious tu water, ia fir prepared, and hung upon a proper central axis, /» number of narrow iroughi or cells, generally formed of tbjn plalea of metal, extending from one end of the drum to the iHber, are next fixed round the ouuide of the wheel, so as to give a tranaverae section through the middle of the wheel. Tbe water is uimilucted by a level trough nf the aame width aa the wheel or«r Its top, and ia diaubargeil into the biickeu or cella placed round the wheel to reuuivo tt. From the partjt^iilar form of these buckets, they retain the water thus thrown into tliem, uutii by their motion they^e«c«nd tov/ards the bottom, when their mouths being (iirrie4 duwnwaiiis, they diauliarge their contents into tlui tailf aueani, nbere the water runa to waste. Tbe InuikttU ou the oppusiu) side uf the wbasl descend with tlteir naoutbs downwards, and thus remain empty, until tliey arrive uiuler the end of the water-truugh to be retiilsd, where there ia a penstock or sluice for regU' lating the quantity of water ond preventing w$tw. Tbeoversbot-wheel aou by the gravity or weight of the water cuntaiued iu tltO buckeu for nearly one. third of ita cituumfereuce; aud friim the experimenta of Air SmeaiuQ, which were made with greet accu. racy, U appear! th»t the dimeuaiuus, quaniity uf wa- tar, and height of fall beiug the aaiue, tbeoverahot- wheel will prodncedouble the effect uf the undershot. The breast-wbeel ia by far tlm moat cuinmun, and may be considered aa a mean lietween the two varieties before mentJniied. In this, the water, instead of pa^a- iiig over the tup of the wheel, ur entirely beneath it, ia delivered aliout half-way up it, or rather below the level t^' the axis, aud the race or briukwurk upon which the water descends ia built in a ciroubir form, having the aame common centre with the wheel itself, ao as tti make it parallel to tbe exterior edges of the float- boarda or extreme circumference uf Uie wheel. It ia formed with Hoat-boarda iu tbe aame manner aa the undorahouwheel { but instead uf the water acting uptm ita biwer pert, it is iutruducsd upon it at tlw middle by tbe sluice or penstock, which, by rialug or falling, permits a greater or leaa quantity of water to «ut on the wheel { and as the float-boards are made Wi lit aa accurately as possible, without ctmtact. Into a cir- cular hollow of brickwork, no water can escape past the wheel without producing iu pn»purtioimto effect. Mr Hmeaton makes tut observation* on the nature id broaat-whrela In his valuable papers on the subject, except to atate that all wheela by which the water is prevented fnun deaceudiug, unleaa the wheal moves tiuirewith, are to be conaid« board jiud anuttier become buckeu fur the time beiug, aud retain tbe water ; and thus the breusi-wheel ia not only im- pelled by tbe weight of water, but by iu impetus ur mumtiuum blao, fur the water is ammuiii>. cated to any machinery. Tbe lower end, wh4cb ia oluiodi turuN iu a stK-ket, a little above which there pnaaes thrnugh ihe boUow upright tube another at right angles to it, having a comniuuicaiiuit with it, and opening into it in the iutide. Kacb extnrnaity of tbia horixiuital tube in perforated (ui opposite sides as near tbe end as poaaibte, so that water nibuing out of tbem lutrizi in tally, and spouting in opiHisite direc- tions, drivfs the machine round. The moiitm resulu principally Irum the centrifugal force, wtiioh is gene- rated iu the horisoutal pipe, and not, as is generally sMtofl, from the resiatanue of the air, fur tbe rnaehine will wove in a VMUUlu. Cbr fc.uiMsiTaaH: PulUUhcd by W. And It. CHAMaaas, le, Water. Itxi p|*cet sl«u iiy OSS and SniTa, Pstamusut Row, Uia- iloi) ; Aod a. Younw, DuliUn. Sold by John Hscletnl, Uls^ gow, and aU uthct HookMllers, rrsin ths huam.pcesa o( W. and R. t'tMnittvifc tinn. ofthi were ligioi were Alex the r deaci Bchoi eccle Bible ubtni at til ther ttiryJ acht t ¥ t .■ ?,-■',.«, 1 I T CHAMBERS'S . .,„. ,,, -% J- . INFORMATION FOE, THE PEOPLE CONDUGTfiD BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND No. 40 « HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." ' ^:«.Vt' . ^,lv# rt-V t'Mli'' Priob !;]{/. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATION. GENERAL HISTORY.* As tlie object of education li to mftke the rising g«. neratinn u well-informed, or ai capable of receiv. ing information, as that which has giren it birihj by which means the disadvantage arising from the per- patiml renewing of the human race may be obviated, ic is natural to suppose that, as soon as there was any knowludge In the world, and the state of things had become in other respects suitable, there would be I'ltabliahroents for the Instruction of youth. There was some knowledge in the world at a very early period — something even like literature from fifteen hundred to two thousand years before the birth of Christ. Knowledge, however, was In those days con- tiued to narrow classes i the blessed light had no eoouer sprung up, than It became a matter of mono- poly, and ail instrument of power. Schools were ac- cordingly established only for the sons of the great, and for priests. Moses wa« educated in a priestly school in Egypt, Cyrus at a seminary connected with the Persian court ; the Indian brahmins Imparted in- struction in secret schools ; In Palestine, those con- versant with the Scriptures taught In the schools of the prophets, at later periods in the synagogues and the schools of the rabbles. The advantages of these schools were attainable by few ; the means of learning were limited to conversation, reading, committing to memory, and hearing the explanation of sacred books. The very difficulty of putting knowledge into a writ- ten shape must have operated powerfully in those days against Its being communicated to youth. In Qreeoe there were schools almost from the dawn of letters, and in Rome from the year 300 before Christ. These, however, did little for any except the higher class of youths, and nothing whatever for oliildren who resided In the country. From the age of Cffisar, Rome had the higher class of teachen called grammarians, who taught Greek and Latin systematically, and from whose hands the youth of liest talent were transferred to the rhetoricians, who qualified them for speaking In public. Till the time of Vespasian, near tlie close of the first century, tho Roman schools were matters of private enterprise alone ; and it was only from Caesar that teachers ac- quired the rights of citizenship. Vespasian for the lirst time established public professorships for gram- maraud rhetoric, with fixed salaries atUched to them, for the education of young men for the public service t and about the year lAO, Antoninus Pius founded what were called Imperial schools iu the larger cities of the empire. Though there was no systentatic co- uperatlou among the various professors, the imperial school 'at Rome, after the organisation which it re- ceived, in 370, from Valentinian, approached near In character to the modern German universities. In the lower schools of the ancient Romaus, the rod was not spared ; and Ovid Is not the only one who complained of the severity of an Orbilius. Christianity by degrees gave a new turn to educa- tion. In the East, it came gradually into the hands oftbedergy, andundertheir superintendence. Schools were instituted in the cities and villages for teaching re- ligion to youth catechetical ly, and In soroecapitals there were others for the Instruction of clergymen : that of Alexandria was, from the second to the fourth century, the most prosperous of all the academies of the latter description. Rather apparently from the accident of schools having thus fallen at first under the ' re of ecclestaBtici, than any other cause, it has been impos- sible, ever since that early time, In any country, to obtain a secular education at a public itchool, without at the same time imbibing or at least submitting to the dogmas of a religious party. From the fifth cen- tury, the olei^y were chiefly taught at the episcopal achouls, where, besides theology, the seven liberal arts * The F'litors Hn, tlii>| limntarif education U the dilol' subjtot of th« prcaent ibcet — grammar, logic, rhetoric (these three formed what was called the Irivium), arithmetic, geometry, astro- nomy, and musio (these four were termed the quad-' rivtum) — were tanght from the Enoyclopadia of Mar- cianus Capella, • poor compendltim which appeared at Romi In 470, and continued for upwards of a thou- sand years to be the common text-book of the schools of Europe. Gradually, as the Roman empire declined, the Imperial schools sunk alsot and as Christianity rose on the ruins of the empire, so ware schools under the charge of the Christian clergy established in their place. At these institutions, boyi of all classes were instructed In reading and writing, which ware gene- rally followed by the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) i hence the appellation of Trivial Schools, which came to be applied to such seminaries. Throughout the middle ages, learning and religion are always found together : there is nowhere the one without the other. About the seventh century, a new class of schools rose into Importance, but still in con- nection with devotion. They were originally designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, which now be- gan to bo followed In many places, but gradually be- came seats of instruction for laymen also. From their always being connected with convents, they were called Conventual Schools. The Benedictine convents, which flourished in England, Ireland, France, and Germany, from tho sixth to the eleventh century, forming a bright though slender link between the cl. vilisation of ancient and modern time», were the chief seats of theae Beminaries. The discipline was severe and monkish ; but the instruction was generally bet- ter than in other institutions, partly on account of the many distinguished literary men who embraced the raonutlc life, and partly on account of the superior collections of books which they possessed. The con- ventual schools at Canterbury, Westminster, and York; at Armagh and Clogher; at Paris, Tours, llheims, and Clermont; at Salzburg, Ratlsbon, Hers- feld, Corvcy, &c were particularly famous. These are "the schools" so frequently alluded to In modem literature as the birthplace of the scholastic philoso- phy, which may be said to have consisted In an end- less wrangling misuse of the philosophy of Aristotle— the apparition of reasoning, without the body of rea- son. Charlemagne, who in 709 issued a decree for the improvement ^f the schools throughout his extensive dominions, was the first modern sovereign who thought of lending state influence to the noble cause of educa- tion. Tills illustrious man, after placing himself at a school which he established for the use of his court, undertook the superintendence of the seminaries throughout his empire, had reporusentto him, made examinations, and, by every means iu his power, en- deavoured to enlighten the nations under his sway. Alfred of England made similar exertions for the pro- motion of education ; but scarcely had these great men passed away, when the tide of barbarism, like the waters of the Red Sea after the passage of the Israelites, resumed its usual flow, and obliterated all their efiTorts. Learning was not as yet able to exist, except where it waa protected under the robe of re- ligion. The ninth century Is the 4ra of the Cathedral Schools. The clergy of the bishops' churches then adopted the canonioal life, and at the same time com- menced semiuaries for the education of the clerical order, of which the schools of St PauVs, Winchester, and others, may be considered as surviving specimens or relics. About the same period, Jewish and Ara- bian teachers were iatiHiducIng ancient literature into the south of Europe, as well as a knowledge of ma- thematics, of medicine, and of natural history. Schools for Instruction Iu law were now established on several parts of the ('outinent. That of Bologna was pm-lmps the most famous; and the privileges which it received in 1 168 from the Emperor Frederick I., became the foundation of the constitution of tho Universities, which originated In this and the aubw- quent centuries. From this time, on account of the inactivity and luxury of the clergy, the Cathedral and Conventual Schools began to decline; but still, wherever tlifre were places for Instruction, this class of men mdin- tained a controlling, and In too many instanceii a counteracting, power. The monks intruded even into the universities, where they laboured to augment the Importance of their various orders, and the power of the Pope. Iu the upper schools, they caused the scholars to waste most of their time In copying the manuals i in the lower, they would not permit the pupils to learn writing at all, being desirous to con- fine the art, which was highly lucrative, to themselves. The exercises were mere matters of parrot-song, with- out any care being taken that the pupils understood what they learned. For a long time, the privilege of establishing writing, schools for the childreu of citizens could not be obtained by magistrates except by special agreement with the clergy ; but at length, as the cities increased in independence, tho roagintrates took this as well as other branches of instruction under their own charge, though they could hardly obtain teachers who were not of the clerical order. It Is surprising how long mankind were In seeing the ne- cessity of a distinct profession of teaching. Luther, in the sixteenth century, complains of tho wretched characters of the teachers, which he usciilies to the circumstance of the more learned youths being at- tracted to the church. A set of upper pupils, called vttoantivi, or Idlent, went about seeking employment as schoolmasters, and were almost the only professors of that art who could be obtained 1 they seem to have been mere vagrants, equally ready to act as mum- mers and as teachers, and subsisting by liegglng and plunder when other means failed. Unique la Its kind, iu the history of the schools of this period, was the pious fraternity of the Jerony- mites. They consisted of clergymen and laymen, who lived together, occupied partly with mechanical arts, partly with the Instruction of girls and boys, to whom they taught reading, writing, and useful arts. For boys of talent aud diUgence, then- were Latin classes. On the model of these schools, others were established In the Netherlands, on the Rhine, and iu Northern Germany. These soon came Into commu- nication with the Greeks wh) had fled to Italy; aud thus the study of the classics became more cultivated. Through the efforts of such u en as Thomas 4 Kempis, Erasmus, and Alelanchthou, f liberal study of the re- mains of classic antiquity was lommenieil. Much was done, in and after the latter half of tlie fourteenth century, to promote this object \>y Italian courts and universities, through the instrumontulity of learned Greeks, and of the Platonic academ> .it Florence, and, towards the end of the tifteenth centu: y, through the learned Rhenish Society, established t y Conrad Celtes. It Is curious that It cost ud much pains tu get this study introduced, as now, after its miiin uti- lity is piist, it will probably require to sink it to iin proper place as only one of many branches ot know- ledge. The Reformation gave a considerable impulse to education In almost every country where It took ef- fect. Acting themselves iinder the intUience of the light of knowledge, tlie reformers regarded the im. parting of It to others w a sacred principle ; nor did they fail to see, that, for a religious party to have tiiH command of the schools where youth were tunght, was the most effectual way of keeping that party do- minant in tho land. In Germany, the property of the convents, and of the church in general, which had been confiscated by the governmeuts, was io must uues applied tit the use of schools, the number.^ of which wera now greatly Increased In this cnimtty, ud their character elerated. Seminaries of a superior CHAMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ciiMriictur, viiiitteil gyiiiiiMlis wiir« ■•( U|i b) muil of lh« city 4H)rp4iniUont, and evvn in iba vUUgei fnatruu- ton were Bp(Hiinl«d to Itach iha Catackiim. ^p of tlia Moraviann, then made it the lubjrcl »f treatiwi. Lhirin^f tha Mvanteanth eantury, iJw JaaultV whoott altraotad voiiitdurnble itnticf, on ai^eount of tha axoaliant a^lu- auioii whtuh tbay Imparted to tha yuulh of tha lu* peritir ordari, a* wall aa to bi)ya of talaat Mleaied from the humbler walka of Ufa, for tha ■ervloa of tha ordar. About tha cliMe ot that century, tha Ptetista in Ger- many, and tW Q«i«ciHa In Vraneai — rvllglmiii aaoti raiambUng tha Uatbodiata, who Moa aflaar tpruag up In EngUad — axareiaad a eonaidarabla iaduauaa of » baueAcial kind upon aducatJuu, though Latin and Greek itill continued to ba almmt tha tuily hranchaa tnught In any part of Knra^ Tha fdaa of an edu- cation ad»)iCtfd to tbn nasare and gaoeral daetinatkm of man, auggeated by Bfcoon and HonlnJgna, meiTad about thja uma a mure complata davalopamank from Locke: it waa not practically introduced, bowever, »iU nvarly a century later. The tvstam uf phf lanthro- piara, luggaated by Bawdov, which repudiated the md, danounaed tha want of proper axereite for the cbildrant and cried down tha tyairm of lending the memory without exercising the aciive facultlaa, ibeu caused the eatablithment, in Germany, of schtruli, in -whldi naturul history, technology, ciril arithmetic, Ac, were taught, in addliioa to langnagvt. The ch»e of die eighteenth oentnry ia alao dwer|iof tha syalem uf Pektaloaxi, a Swiks of aimpW mann«n and great enthuhiasm, who adoptnl the Idea of cumauni eating all insu-'action by immediate address to the spntationt urcuneeptioni, and effecting the fi)rmation uf the child by constantly calling uU his powers into exercise, in< awad uf making him a mare paasive raciptctit t select- ing the subJMta of study, morauver, ia such a way that each step should boat aid the fujrth#r prugraia of the pupiL Wa nuy ouly Airther obsarve, in tha prMeul department of our ihect, that education has DOW arrived at a point where the systems of com- nuatively uneiiltghtenad times are beginning to aink baibre a Tariaty of new, but in almost every iaatance more promising, schemes ; of which various scattared notices will be found in Uie chapters which follow. ENGLAND. Among tha things Incredible In Christandom>~to use the t'urctble expression of a German writer— is the imn'X that Kiigland poHtiesftes no general system uf ele- mentary edncaiiou. Fur the instruction of her cle^y and gentry, she has several great publie classiou achoou and two ualversttiea ; but she haa no uatioaal establishment, like that which exists in Fruakia aiid other countries, to meet the conreuieiure of the people at lai^, and enable every man in the kingdom lu give his children the means of reading. Custom or ls, recently brought into reputa by the exeriiuus uf tha iugeuioiia Wiiderspiu. There had previously existed many private schools, which, however, were nut adequate, either la number or in system, to supply elementary Inatmction to the ptjople t w^e the bmrding acaiMmles so prevalent thnmghout Kagland were accoasiblo only to tha middle ranks, and chivHy aimed at giving a classical education. In 1S18, there were in England 4107 endowed schools, 14,2U2 unendowed schools, and fil62 Sunday sobools, educatlag U44,M)0, or oae-sfxtaenth of the ilred orphans of the Kurupean nutdiery, refusing the n iiidsomo salary uf L.4U0 whioh was offawd with 10* idtuatlon. At the apening of the school; tha bow ware ia general stubborn, perverse, g'**" ^> trlJk, lylnf(, and alnuHt every vioiuni hnbit, Insomuch that a kingia teatiher could hardly exuecl to produee the hrast hnprassimi npon them. The difllciilty of the circuniitanaaa saggest ed to Dr WtJSi that It would he necessary either u> prepnre a number of ushers, or a nutiitter u( elder boys, to taka charge of little detaah- ineiiti uf the icholma. Finding must obstacles In the furmer mode, he dimlly adu^trd the latter : he sue- seeded beyoud his hopes, and s»r Ball Introduced Into his sehool waa that tst taat*hing the lattert, by making the pupils traca them In saiid, as he had seen children do in a Malalmr school. This mode itf in> structiun has various advantages, besides the saving uf expense. A diatirict notion uf the ditfarenl forma ot the letters Is immwliately obtained, and the difti- oiilty of distinguishing thoee letters which otosaly re- senhla each other (h and d, |» and q, for histance), by which chtldreu are su Umg parpleaad, is removed M unce. The scholar, at the same time,laarussomu«h of the art of writing as materially to facilitate his pro- p«ii% or a tmah ef tha whola peyaUtfbnr «»»ha« the Meanaof edieatfon arvnotacowslMft, TWo oat of tfta fourteen aiUaafrOf dba tutfta nadanal popurk. tion are calculated to ba In tha same wretched state. While niah !■ die geaaral eandldon of tha countrv In respect of popular education, there are several features In tha case which must cheer avaty heart, 1'be systo m of taaohing by real knowledge has a% laaat baan exampHflad ht varttma parti of the country, particularly in Or Mayo*s school at Chefim in Surrey, the establishments of the Messrs Jlill at Hnzelwuud, near Btrmlairiiam, and Bruce Castle, near Tutten- ham, which have now fully aoaulred, as ihey eml- nandy dosorvai tha eoo iJ a m ja at tha public In Mr Bruce's academy al Naiaeaatla»npon.Tyne, In addl- tion to tha uaoal braoflbea, thofbUiMrlng philoaopblaal mmrsas are taught i — Chemistry, eleatrlcity, magnet- ism, and pneumatics, as ooonectad with physicaTgao* graphy, meteorology, Ac. ; naturul history, with reference esptseially to tha mechanism and physiology of the human frama—maklng l^ay'a Natural Tha* ulogy the text-book — mental ^Uoaofmy. tha taldanoaa of Christianity, &o. Tkara ia a aeminaf y In Bath, under the direction of Mesin Clark, which baan a dose resemblanoe to that of Mr Bruce. It la if rae- able also to know that tha goremment haa at length tahaa ap tha eubjaet of aopnlar hsMniotkin, wltll lamn la 1 every appaanaaa af a da^ra ta extaad Ita I „ throughout the land. In tha ■eealosi of iro, a grant of Ii.SD,000 waa voted bv Farllamaot In aid <^ganara. edneatlon ; and ilreadv has an aonraat been randered of tha approprtadon of that flitm, an addfdonal grant mada to the aama amonot, aad a sebel eommltloa of the Uousa of Commons ohargad with aa Inquiry Inta the state of education among tha foarar nlaiiee ia Kngland and Wales. Tha object of tha grant of 1833 was the erection of schoolhousai, and the principle adoptad In apportion- ing It WW, diat no aid ihonM ba given tin ona-half of the estimated axyansa waa raload by prirato eonlrl. button. Upon thla excellent artaogaaMnt, 9B aahool* houses were built within eight mouths, at tha jolut cost of L.48,000, by which many populous districta will be for the first time furnished with the means of ineeniedon. A aroapect ia hrid out that, by tho farther grant of L.30,000, no fewer than IB? other sohoolhousee will ha addad to tha above number. If to these exertions were Kldad the eitahllihmant of a few schools for the InstmcUon of toauhers in tha im- proved plans of education — moral, intellectual, and phynlcaL— *.he adtuadonal phllandtropist might be content to wait with patience dll tha publio mind shall become a little more alive to the subject. iHrAav acHOOLj. It has long been admitted ae aa abstract propoel-^ tion, that in early childhood the mind Is more pliable, and habits are more easily formed, than at any other period ot life. " The little, or almost Insensibte, Im- preseiuna on our tender infhnolee,** says Locke, '* have vary important and lasting c onaaqneacee t and there it is, as in the fountains of some rivers, where a gentle application oT the hand turns the flexible watore Into channels that make them take quite contrary courses; and by this direction, given them at first in tne aonrce, they reoeive diflbraut teadondea, and arrive at last et very remoto and distant plaoee Tlie great mistake I have observed lu people*s breediag their children has been, that this nas not bmn taken care enough of in Its due season ; that the mind has not been made obedient to diacipiltte and pliant to reastm, when at first It was most tender, most eaey to b« bowed."* Miss ICdgeworth, w the sane effect, ob- serves, '* Praodcal education begins very early, eveii in the nursery. Without the mountebank pretence that miracles can be performed by the ttiming of a sUaw, without the ^cUtorlal anathematising tone which ealla down vengeance npon thoso who do not follow to an iota the iojunetioaa of a theorist, wo may simply observe, that parw^ta would save themselves a. great deal of trouble, and their children some pain, if they would pay attontlon to their early education. The tamper aeqnlrea habite much earlier than is usu- ally apprehended ; the first Impreetions which infisnta receive, and the first habita which they leam from their nurses, Influence the temper and disposition long after the slight causea which produced them are for- gotton.** Vet tkaae nndeniable principles have nut till the present generadoa begua to he syawroaticaUy rcdiioed to practice. It ia only within tha last few years that infant schouls have appeared amongst us, and even yet their uumber Is lamentably small. Mr Owen of New Lanark was the fint In Britain who established what deserves the name of en inlhnt aohoot. Ur Brougham and some of hia Irienda who had; visited New Lanark, established, in ItllD, an infant achool at Brewer's Oreen, near TothiUfialds, London, and transplanted thither the New Lanark nacher, Mr ^«s with iruih, thai "soaM noen^i eonslitutkAa of body snd mind are so vigaroui and wvU fVsmed by nuturc, ihU thtf ROTd not nwoli assUtaniw from oihafsi boi, by ih* •irsngtn of th«ir astural fmius, ttwy ■■•• tmm tUsbr oiacUss, wraMd to- wmrds what is ncrilent i and, by th« wivllem ot tbdr happy oon- MUtittoas, sraaUsta do wooden." Bat what ha adds Is out Ims iuseBotdaosswIth hct.thst "easmpleiofthU kind are but ftwT and that. *'eranthenMnw«m««t wlMi. nlaspaitieutof tsnars whst thty are. aood or evil, useful at not. by their sdueallon."-- TkougkU on Klhuation, 1 1. It muit b* kept in view that Luaka uiM lOa wotd arfKuHon In it* original and most corapimeiulve sctua-ttslBiagaf Moglag epk HISTORY AND NT STATE OF EDUCATION. Uuahsnkn. Tli* latter hmpftati liioidruuU/ to bimI nr 9- Wlldarapiii, than a vouii( man, and had tbt niarlt of Hwlng hit talaul bir tka builuaaa of odusa- tlou, and o( ranninmanding blm to tba pflirona. A iMW ubual wai aaUblUkad at SjiitalHaldi. at iho «■ piiuM a! JoMpIi WlUon, Ef^., of which if r M'iUar- ■)jln was appuUitad vaatar. In hia handi tha ■jritam was raiidarad what U now la, and what hai bran adiinied all orar tba oouutry. Mr WUdarapln'i ma- thod waa tha mara naultof practioa and obaarvatlon ; hut at tha taoM llfoa it la parfaotly leund la thaory, and admlrablf adiptad lo haman utura, as aluddalad hy phlloaophlgal wrllwt. Tha London Infant School Soclaty waa Inatltutad In 183d, and maar •imllar bodlaa now aalat lu rarluut parta of tha Uiutad Klafdom. Infant achooli ara muui mora uumamui In Enfland tliaii lu Mootlaud, and wa ara urry to aay that Edlu. burch poaaauas onljr on* ubool iwndustM aeoordlug tn tha mathod of Mr WUdanptn, aad aran (hat ona ia not fully apfradatad by tbaaa (or whoaa bauaflt It waa aauhllakaa. Obufow haa tanraL Education onoptahandt tbraa rraat bnuuhaa— ..phy- sical, mural, and Iniallaotnal. Bltharto tha two firit hara baan daulombiy aaglactad, and to tha laat alona alowai azdiialra attantlon haa b It la tha objact of phyileal adi nonaolldatli vranara ba callad on la lutiua Ufii ta parfomt. Moral adoca- alowai azcliiaTra attantbn haa baan paid la oar whaola. ucaWoB t uBuiiw, and stiaofib of tha body. It (or tha aMTtiau which it will davalopament, and thui to to pnunota tha on, and atiaofih of tha bod tlun hai for lu aim. tha euldratiaa and diraction ot tha toolal, moral, and raUfioiu faaliaga, and tha ra- praaalunafthalMifTaatactiTityof tkaulfiah propan- altlci. lota l lactua l aduaatlon exarclMt tha uadar- atandlnf, and iUmiahas tha mind with kitowladga. All thaia ara attandad to In ths Infant MhooU. TUi, ai wall ai atbar anallaadeaof tha lyitam, will b« ob. tIiiui from a itatamant of tha objaala of tha Iiondoo Infant School Saolaty. That loolaty haa haa* fonaed to promote tha aiita. bliihmant of aohaoli, or ralhar aiylumi, for tha chil- dren of the poor, bafora tlie age at which they ar« (•pahla of engaflog In any proniable employment, or at which they may ha raoaWed into the othar lehooU, tn which they ara nat aaually admitted ontll the age af tia t the proper oUaeM af the aooiaty'i care, thare- tart, ara ehUdran of both aaaai, from two to ilx yean of age. It la wall kaown that ohUdnn of this age ge- aaially pron, during the worU^ hours of the day, a iMary lacanbraaoa on paianta whe ara obliged to toil hard for a attbaiitaafa Ona of llia aodaty's cb. JeAa ia to Ughtaa tha pnaaaN.af this InconTenianca, and ta laara tha paraala— paitieuUrly the mother— ■wre tally at llbarty to pnisna soma gainful oocupa- tioB for the eomaaoa benatt of tha funily. 80 cou- rinoed af tkia ara tha poor thamselm in Euglaiid, that, ia nmaarous lasHaoaa, Dames' Schools, as they are callad, have been aataUishad, iawhloh tea, twenty, or Mrtf iafcata are plaaad uadar the cara of an oM woman, by wiwa^lwy are ahot up, parhapa. In a elosa wartmaU, In order ta be kept out of harm's way while the paraala ara a* work, tar this aceonmodation, paraau as in shart, at oaee of aotiTlty and'amasement, af inlaliaotBai iiap im a m aat, aad ef moral discipline. If tha period af mate inlhacy is less fitted, oempa- ntiealy spaaklag, for bMelleclQal pragress, nt ou- rioelty la e*aa than saAdently actire to enable the teacher to caaTay imieh aeeM knowledge te his pn- filt, liy me an s which are calculated to call forth, wUiaul $ f pni$lm f , thalr facultlee. By means of pic- turea, madida, and a mu aeum of miseellanaous objects, it has beaa Csand poetlMe, aran in tha caaa of very young children, to engage the attention, derdope the fhenWee, aad hapan ideas, witheat tha naoesaity ailhar af isssitlag ta atiy harsh exaadianta, or of «■ tkair salads. Thay ara hMa> But TtiaaUa, with a t mapai and moral cha- fe daabt caa ba eater. Impertag aay eOwkt «■ tkaIr aria aaaght by eear haiaM to read aad the iiet years af Ufo ara atfll masa atew ta the Ib i watl ii a af tha lei raota r af tha Iktara ataa. No «ahiad bath af tha rf tha saaaaa tl bHlty of right Imprtniona n ta the aaillaat t«a, aad ef tha uahaapy af tbata Tidoos or aaltah vrapaBaltiN, provaaaitiea, I, which ace aad af thota p twM i ar rialaa* tairaan, than tea eltiB t aa tiaii iad < and which, when suffered taaapaad, laadhiaAirJifatadsateitlomiiery, to pre- 4i|aB]r, ami ta erimt. Sit To counWnut inch pru|MniiUM, a»d hi prsvent tbe irrowkli ur luch teinpart, li tli« prim* object of thn plui t ftnd It U with a view to thli ulijuct tliAt ibe whole friunc aud ditolpline uf infant Kluxib oiiffht to ))t ruifulftted. liockii iuilite rery utroutfly, in hli work foriunrli' qiiotedp ou tbe parunount Tniportanc* uf tliii lort n! traiulftg. *' Heek out Mmeliody,*' he edvlieip *< thet mey know bow dlMreetly to frame tba maniiani of your iou ; plaoe him in handi wheru you mav aa much ai poulbl« lecuru bi« liiuucencui uberiih and Durte *ip tha foodf aud gently correct and waed out any bad IneUftatloui, and Mttle him in g(Md habits. Tbii li the main point ; aud ibia beiiiv provided fur, laarning may be had into the liargain. In like man- ner Lord Kunei obMrvei, "It appean unaixituntable that our teaohen have ganarallv directed their in- itructlons tn th« head, with very Uttle attention to tbe heart. Surtily, aa roan is lutepded to bu nwre an aotlro than a contemplative being, the edncntinff of a youmg man to babave properly in sodaty It at aliU f[raaler importance than the making bim even a So- (imon for knowledge." At tbe iniant schools it Is nut by preiiept merely that moral education is im- preisiKi ; the children are trained loaot in ncuirdance with Justice, and benevolence, aud truth ( and thus acquire the hahilt which It Ji desirable that tliey should possess in future life. At pratent we behold many of the streets and lanes of cities — particularly those of Loud un— crowded with squalid ohildreu, left to wallow In filth, to contraot disaaaa, aud to aeqnire habits uf Idleness, violenca, and vice. Almost th« first laugiia^e which many of them loarn to llap« is that of impurity and profnne- neas : almost the firnt acience in wbiuli muny of tliem are inatrtict^d ia thnt of depredation. Abroad, they are exposeil toevitry vicious svductiun ; at homo, they uuffer from tbe cupHce or violence of parents who are iucapabie of giving them luatructlou, whose po- vorty mniirs them discontented and Irritable, and who feel the very presence of tb«ir children to b« a draw- l>ack ou their efforts to earn a aubaiiteuee. From such a course of education, what can be expected but a proficiency in vicious propensities and criminal prnctloes — what, in short, but that niaoa of Juvenile deliuqueucy, which lu tbe present day we have been forced to witneai and to deplore P But if we contraai with this state of things the effect whidi may be anticipated from the geoeral enta- bllahmeut of infant schools, conducted on tbe prin- ciples now explained, what heart but must exult In the prospect ? Let all who regard such expectations as visionary, onW take tha pains of personally and minutely InRpecting tbe schools already formed in different paru of the kingdom (our Edinburgh readent will find one in the Vennel, Oraesmarket) t lot th«m view the children, clean, haaltliy, joyous, giving free Mopfl to their buoyant apLrtta ; their very pUys made subaarriant to tha oorreotiou of bad and ue growth of good dispoaitlons ; tbe bapitincia they mauifeatly enjoy j and tha habits of prompt and cheerful, of mu- tual kindness, of unceaaing activitv, of purity and daconun, whieh they aoquira. Ana let liiem watch the return of these children to their homes, and wit- nefli the pleasurable seniations with which they are received, so different from the scowling looks aud harsh tones with which their tM«ing importanities and interruptions, darinv the hours of labour, are apt to be mot. And let them, moreorer, contemplate the striking raaotion of the improved manners and habits of the infante on iha older branohea of the family. Let tk«m vlav and consider aU this, and they will no longar doabt the beneficial influence of tfaeoe inttltuUans." SCHOOLS OF IMDtrSTRT. The o1ijt>ct of schools of industry in to combine with the ordinary elements of school education, instruction In such manual labours as the poor are generally called upon to perform. There are not many such schoolii in Britnln,buttheir utility cannot fail tn render tliera much more numerous in the course of a few years. The establishment of Mr Montagn Burgoyne, at Put- ton, in Uedfordiblre, may be tiSien as an example. The children, besides being Instructed !n reading, writing, and arithmetic, are employed during half of the school-hours in works of useful labour and in- dustry. The bova mend their own clothes; they clean and mend their own shoes, and are taught to clean knives, to use the hammer, to dig and cultivate a garden, to hedge and ditch, and even to plough. The girls are aocustcHned to the most useful kinds of needlework, are required to mend their own clothes, and learu the business of a houu and dairy. This preparation tends to enable both the boys and girls, when they laave school at fourteen years of age, to earn an honest living. The boys will be active and useful Canning aarrants, or grooms, or coachmm, or valets, or gardeners, or apprentices to different trades ; and tlie girls will be derer housemafda, dairymaids, oroook- maids, and, when ther marry, will be abl« asdstants to their huibands, and aconainted with tbe best way of prvparing food aad dotntng for a yonog famfly. SCOTLAND. Previously to tb* Krfomation, Soodnid WM In ■mob the same cMmditioa as to education as Uke other diristlan countries of Eoropa, with perfanps soma • For futhtrdMaibwerehrtoUrWUilertplQ'aworkonlDfiuit Bducatiot). Thougb written to a plain ityle, U contains matter of dsep InponsoM to loeiBty Inferiority on account of Its r—ete situation and uftr. niw resources. Tbe grammar schools, bv which Latia is taught In tha prlnelpal towns, are In soveral ta. stances of caasl«rable antiquity t and, In 1490, aa act of tha laglalatura andaaround to enforce the ai- landanca of tha soas of landowners at tbaaa Institu- tions, with a Tlaw to tha battar administration of tha laws, whIeh waa then antrastad to that class of so. oiety, and for more than two centuries later, as a matter of haradltary right. Tkare warn also Iectur0~ wkool; in whloh children laamt to read the verna- cular langaaga. Tha Scottish raformers, following the azanpla of thalr Oanaaa pmdecaaaors, endea. vouTttd to obtain a part of ika eonflscalad funds of the ehuroh far tha suapart of sohooU, of whloh they wished to havo ona in avsry parish, under the imma- diata charge of tha clergy, In order that aach lucces- live ganaratlon might ba Ijupirad with an attachment to " tha traw rall^oun." Though Ihay did not sue* coed in obtaining any considerable part of tha churrii funds iur this or any othar nious purnosa, a con- siderable purtioa of tha pai^le of Scotland seam to have enjoyed tha blesilnga uf education, during the lattrr part f^ the aixtoenth and early part of tho aeventaenth oenturlea. In ISlti aud lft33, while tha church waa EpUoopal, afforu were made. In the Brat inatauee through the Privy Council, and In the aa- cond by an act of Eatataa, to astohUah a aohool in each pariah ; throughout the subaaquant atrtignlea of the Prcsbytariana for aaoendanoy, theaame object waa kept in view ( and the lattar form of church guvern* meat had hardly gklned ila final ascendancy at tha Itev-olutiun, when the loug.oon tern plated plan waa at length urcomplisWJ, und tbe education of die peopla fiut npou its present footing. Bv an art of the Kntates u IGMi, it was provided that tnere should be a jms- rochiai tohoot and tchoolmatUr in ev0ry pMrish qf ik» kint/dom, with a fixed salary, not under L-ft, Ila. Id., nor above L.ll, 2;*. 2d., payal'. by tlie herltora or proprietors of the parish, in proportion to the extant of their property, who should have tbe power of drawing one-half uf the outlay from their tenants. The duly of platitiiig the school was Imposed ou tha heritors ; and the appoiutment of the teacher, and suparvision of Uie whole school, were entruatad U* the preabytaries — district churah-onnrts, which in Scotland exercise nearly tha same acoleslaaticalpowara aa in other countries are oonalgned to biahopa. In consequence of this public endowmaat, which never, so far aa we have obaerved, was grudged by tbose from whose pockets it proceeded, aach parish ia the kingdom, except some of those in the large towns, was furuiahed with a school, in which reading, writ- ing, and arithmetic, and, in some inataacea, daaslcal literature, were to bv learned. The £ees were gena- rallT— for KngUsh, ls.Od., for arithmatic, 3s., fer Latin, 2s. 6d., per quarter ; the poor being admitted at about two-thirds uf these rates. Tha system thus avoided at once the diaudvantage of high ieea, and that of an indiacrlmlnate gratuitous admission, whlch^ unless where the support is derived from tbe national funds, is so apt to lessen tbe value of instniction la the eyes of the lower orders. One pr(»ninent da- rartmant of education in these semioaries waa religion. The prlaiar was prefixed to, and Inaeparable from, tha Oateohism ^proved of by the \l''a8tininstar Aasembly of Dinaas ; and the first lessons in readina ware from that ▼eneralad abridgement of CalvintstTc divinity. The Bible was the only other text-book of importance; and thus almost tbe only ideas obtained at school were those of religion. To these causes, so early put into force, the uncommon diffusion of pious feel- ing aud observance, and of a certain extent of ac- quirements in literature, which forms so striking a teuture in the national drcunutances, is generally ascribed. On account af the dedine in the vahie of money, it was felt, towards tlw end f>f the eighteenth century, that the fixed incomes of thi* parochial schoolmasters ought to ba advanced ; and, accordingly, in 180S, an act of the legislature provided that th« aalarieti should not thenceforward be under L.l<>, 13ii. 4d., nor above L.28, 4b. Gd., with a free house; the salaries more recently have been mpeotiwdy elarated to L.17r 2a. Sd. aikd L.34, 4a. 4d. These emidimkents, to which there are generally added ethers arising from the dnties of session* clerk, precentor, and manager of mHltla-ratums, arefound, in populous purialies, where a considerable amount of lees is received, to secure the services of man of respectable acquirements— many of them disappointed aepiranta for church pt-efermeut ; but in many remote and more thinly- peopled situa- tions, tbe rcnnuneratioB altoga^r fails to attract property qualified persons. An idea Tsrv generally prerails, and nownere more generally va&a in the ooantry itself, where its falsehood might be most readily detected, that Sootlaad ia remarkably forti- aata in respect of education. In reality, lu parochial s y s ta i n is so very defective, that, considering the dif- fteijty there is cilways frtlnii of l)i« tcachari. In \ffi4, the (Jfiieral AMembly of iba Church of Scotlaiid H|m»tntcd a coititnlttiw for the purpoie of increatlitg the mrant of nluratlnii throughout the kingdom, whernrer thoie meant might auprar to be deflcienL Thd rommlttee, alter an inquiry ornipy- log two yeai'f, roportpd thnt th« mrnni of euimoulary flducatlnn appeared to he within the reach of the entire population, rirepting In the Highlandi and IilandR, where, owing to the eiteni of the pnriihee anu other cnuaea, there were not Icta tiian ftO,000 perioni unable III r«ad, or to obtain Initrurtlon. The Amemblv, by meant of charitable collection!, waa able, befori f B.')3, tocitabllib elghty*ilx mhiwlt In theie difltrlcta; but it wat found, by an apparently more nfarching Inquiry in the latter y«ar, that there were B3,397 penoiui above lis yeart of age, out of a population of A04,UAA, who could not read either In (Jnetic or KngHib, and had no meant of tchool-iniitructiou within their reach. In ■tome dlitrlctt, the proportion of the ignorant to the inttructed in a full fourth ; In the Prr-«hyterT of Mull it la » third 1 in Uial, more than a half. I^e it alto remarked, a vast proportion of thute who ran read are unable to write or cypher; while the reading Itself goet little way beyond a mere power to ipell through a Bible t>r a Oatechlim, and ran only he compared to an InRinimcnt, which, though potaeMed, it not uted. OnlytM-l.lpupiU were attending the Aiiembly'ttchooli in 1113^, being lem than a thirteenth part of ihoae who require inttruction ; iio that, without aid from the national purif, there it little reaion to hope for the ■peedy unlrertAllty of education in thii part of the empire. The branchei taught at the Highland charity achooli are Unelic and Knglinh reading, wrttintr, arithmetic, geography, and Latin. It it curloui that the people in general prefer the Englith to the Gaelic, though there Ji great reatoa to fear that all Vhelr acqulre- roenti in that foreign tongue are only to much parrot learning. There are tame other uhooli, opvned upon prirate adventure, but of the mutt miierable kind, the teacher being generally :i hoy, an aged female, a re- tired toldier, an iiinkreper, or a flthermaD, and the emolumenu teldom aiceeding ten pounda ain tome catei, only three or four. Hut even the paro- chial tchooli In tbit department of the kingdom are in too many inttaucet upon a fi>oting inferior to thai of the Lowland temlnariee. The legal talariea are in many placet evaded by compact, and the ichoolhouiet and abodet for the teacheri not provided. In eleven parialiea in Argylethire, the itiMndt are divided into three, ao at not to amount, probably, to leu or eleven ptmndt each. The preient ttato of Scotland at to elemontary edu> cation may be thut briefly lummed i-— There are lOUO uarith leboolt, being a few more than the entire num- ber of uariihei. In the Highlandt, betidea 171 pa- rith scbooU, there are, or were at a recent period, 324, tapported by the Society for Promoting Chrit- tian Knowledge, and other charitable astociationa, and eighty-iix planted by the (ieneral Aatembly. Tbroughoul the vhule country', but etpecially In the more populout paru, and in largct townt, there it a great number of private schooli : In IBIB, the num- ber wa« 2222, inttructing 100,027 children, nearly double the amount of ihoie who were then reared in the eatabliibed parochial Bchoolt. In the year jutt mentioned, the county of Lanark, including tila^ow, contained lifty.ilx parochial tcboolt, attended by :i437 children, and 307 private schools, attended by 1B,270 children. Mid. Lothian, including Kdinburgh and other populoui towni, had twenty-Ave parish kchoolt, attended by 1704 children, and uinety.teveu unendowed ichoolt with 4312 children. In Renfrew- ahire the uumberi were twenty>oue pariah tchoola, with 1630 children, and 137 unendowed tchoola, with 6tXtO children. It it Indeed apparent to the moat lu- perficial inquirer that the parochial eatablithroent hu iiiUen completely behind the population, and only ticcomplishea in a imall degree the puipotet for which It Wat intended. The idea of the Kefurmert in the tixteenth century leems to have been that there should l>e a minitter, a catechiat, and a achuolmaxter, fur every 1000 of the population : were the tame prin- I iple now followed, there would be 2300 iuttead of lOOd endowed teachers. The tucceti or efficiency of thete meant of initmo- tion ia very variout. lu tlie 143 parishei of the Uigh- laoda, ua already itati*d, even after tlie etublishmeut of fl6 charitv KhooU, there are above B3,000 peraont who, from local circumitancet, luive no meant of In- struction within their reach. In the 132 parlthea of Aberdeen, Banff, and Elgin, the average attendance at school is one-eleventh of the whole population, whicii ia little abore one half of the Pruuian amount. The average in other districts rangea from tbia to one- tweutieth, which laat matt be considered at deplorably low. It hat been tuted that one parish, Fuataway, has one-fourth of the population at school ; two pa- rishea,ComrieandMidcNlder, one-tifth{ four paritbea, CoUntun, Ruthwell, Kirkwall, and Tongue, one-sixth ; •o that it appears aa if only a mere scauiling of the rieoitiah parishea are in a pro|>er cuuditiua us to edu- cation. The COiuitry parithet, frum tht-ir vxteut uud 31U other local itecullaritles, and the large townt, from the ahaolute want of cheap si*minarles, and the demorall. latloii thut Is so apt to boiat large masses of popula- tion, are alike 111 provided. In Edinburgh there are no parish schools i nor till lately were there semtiia- rlei of any kind acoesslble to the poor t hence, a very great nutnlwr of the children of the lower orders grotv up without education. lu (llasgow, 20,000 parsons aroin this condition, soomlnnut of moral degradation, turbulence, and crime. In PaisleV) where, thirty years ago, the artisans were an enlightened and vir. tuous body of men, there are now MOOO families into which education does not enter. The nropttrtion of the population which attendt «ehool luOlatgow is one fourteenth; In Dundee, one>ltrteenth; Perth, under I'Me-rtfteenth) Old Aberdeen, one-twenty.ftfth t Paii- l^y Abbey Pariah, oue-twentleth. Vet In one of these instances — Dundee^ — It cannot be said that the object is overlooked. In that thriving town, bealdes a gram- mar ichonl with two maatert, au Kngllth public ichool with two masters, and an academy with fnurmaitert, who tench mathematics, natural philosophy, chomis- try, moral philosophy, logic, drawing, and thenuMlern languages, there are no fewer than 77 privatu schools, several nf which are supported and partly taught hy the masters of factorlfs. As there It thus a school for every .')70 of the population — which cannot be consi- dered a mean allowance — it follows that much of the fault lies in the abort attendance of each individual. A child learns to read, and no more tt luppoacd to be required. He Is hurried off to the factories, with bis faculties still in a great measure dormant. But it it not alone among the working classes of large towns that au ability to read is supposed to be a sutficlent educatiort. The writer of the late statistical account of Dundee states, that hardly any individual above six yeart of age i« found unable to read, though a vast numlter of tbe working people have not learned to write. It mny he conceived, then, tince a sixth of every population it at the tchool. going age (between teven and fourteen), and since only a flfteanlh are at tchool in Dundee, that the perliMl of attendance is very far from perfect. Kvery thing, indeed, tendt to show that the sneer nf Di Johnton at to Scottish education It now rec lined — all get a mouthful, but none a bellyful. In Scot- land, thi) monitorial and intellectuRl tystema have aa yet been very partially adopted. One teacher in ge- neral superintends the tuition of a large number of boys, only a few of whom can at one time be getting any benefit from his exertions. The period of attend- ance it thort, and the imprastion of school-learning upon the miod very slight t even the Catechism is learnt only by rote, and, at a very fair computation, not under- atood, even glimmeringly, by one In a hundred pupils. The private teachers are, in a vast proportion of cases, women, or else males of very humble accompliih- menta ; a result of the extremely slender emoluments, which range from L.4 to L.2A, the latter sum being very rarely exceeded. Altogether, the system ia a starveling one — starveling in its provisions for both teacher and taught— and a disgrace rather than an hononr to the nation. IRELAND. In the dark agee, Ireland vat remarkable above the most of ether oounlriea for the number and excel- lence of lit schools, which were then retorted to by students from varioua partt of Europe. Under the domination of the English, however, this, aa well as every other natter connected with good government, hat been, till a very recent period, neglected. An act of Henry VIII., indeed, impoted on the vicar or rec- tor of every parith the duty and coat of keeping up a parochial tchool, in order to inatruct the natives in the Knglith tongue^ aa the exittence of the Irish wat contidered a main obstacle to the progrett of civilisa- tion, and to the establishment of English and Pro- testant supremacy. This, however, though confirmed by an act of William III., waa never more than a dead letter. The clergy regularly, among other oaths, twore at admission tliat they would tupport au Eng- lish parochial achool ; but nothing of the kind was ever done. At the tame time that the keeping of Protestant tchoola wat thus evaded or found imprac- ticable, the tame act of William III. forbade CathoUca to keep schools, under a penulty of twenty pounds and three montha* imprisonment. The Catholic Irish, how- ever, who are nationally characteriaed by an anxiety to give their children education, have all along con. trived to maintain a great number of the mean eatu- blithmentt called hedgt icfwolsj where a slender and imperfect degree of instruction wat conferred on a considerable portion of the riting generation. During the century between 1731 and IRSI, various attempts were made by private attociatlont, generally with the aid of government, to educate the people of Ireland. Almoat everr one of them, however, went to wreck upon the fatal principle that the rellgiout in- strtiction should be exoluiively Protestant. The cele- brated Charter School Society, commenced at the first of these dates, has contiriued up till a recent period to spend vatt sums iu the vaiu attempt to proselytise by meant of education. Their plan was Ui get hold of childrao— tbe term is quite appropriate — to catch themi if pouible, wild, or transfer them frum the Foundling Hospital, and to immure them iu schools where they also got food and clothing} to that they should never come ia contact with their parents or with tbe Catbu- Uc religion, tiU they should be tirmly ettabllthod in PKOPLE. lh» PrniMUnl hlth. Ai hardly anv Cthallc l>nlucation of tha Irith poor: it la utually called the Kildare Place Society, from the itreei in Dublin where Ita chief eatabliahment baa been built. Itt grand principle waa to aiford education to every detcriplloD of the lower cluai of the people, keeping clear of all Interfaranr with the particular teneia of any i and Ita tpaclffc o' jecu were — tu aid in tha faimding of new tchoola the improvement of old onae, provided the pi'lnc of the lociety were adopted ; to malr. > aln two n nchoolt for the exhibition of their plan, and the t.... ing of teacheri; and to publith moral, inttructivtf and entertaining booka, litKd to luperted* Iht objio tiouable workt then in ute. Tha klldara Plaoa Sa> clety began to operate in IHI7, and had proaparcd to much before I82A, that It than had 1400 Mhoob, at- landed by about lUU.OOU tcholart i in 1830, lOM tchoola (iwo-thirda of them in L'laler), and 133,673 MihoUrt. The tytiem of inttruction waa a oomblnation from thuae of Bell, Lancatter, and Paataluaal. £ach child attending the model tchoolt in Kildare Place paid on« penny per week. In the courte ol the aavau yeara ending 1814, the loeiaty had publiihad fifty.iwo imall traatiaea, of which tha total ittua had Imwu 8IM),70a volumet 1 the Iota upon the tale 1j.6J)0 per annum* Up to 1828, tha Kildare Place Society had received Ij. 170,608 from the public fundt, and there hat tinea been a grant of L.30,000, making tha whole Ij.300,(W8. During the tame raoeoi parlixl, Hmalhing haa been duue fur tbe iuatructioD of tha poor la Ireland by tht Bapliat Society, the Irith Soolely, and tha Sunday School Society. The laat baa baan particularly ef> Ijcient. From inquiriea made in 1828, it appeari thai thara ware in Ireland 11,823 elameutary tchoolt, of which no lett than eight>elaventht were pay-tchoola, con* ducted by privata entarpriie, and altogether iinom« nectad with either the clergy or charitable tocietiea* The number of tcholart in 18SM waa iMIO,MV, of whom 304,730 (Protetlanu 87,328, and CathoUca 307,403) paid for their education. Tha number of mattera and mittretiet in 1828 wat I2,«30, ol whom 3008 pro. fetted the eaublithad religion, 1068 tba PraabyMrian, and 8300 tha Catholic, whila of lavanty-faur Iha re> ligioua denomiuation wat not acoartaiuad. Upon tha whole, the proportion of lehooUatMiulara to the total popudatiou ahuwt rather bettar in Ireland thau in KngUud { a fact probably attributable (o tha higher tents of Iha value of education which ia allowMl t» prevail among the common people in Iha former country. Such wu tba itata of aducatian in InUud, whani in 1831, Iba government raaolvad to comaaBot a na- tional lyitem, avoiding varioua arrora which had opa- raladagaintt all former Mtampta. Faraaiving that tha uiefiUnaaa of the Kildare Flaca Sooiaty had baan muck impaired by ita introduction of tba BiUa without noteo) to which tbaie waa a conttantly iaoraaaiag oppoaition on the part of the Catholic olargy, Ibo liberal adminia* tratiou of £arl Grey delanninad that tba niigioU part of education thould he liapl tapaimte (ram tha li> terary, and be entirely under tha oootral of iha Tarlona deuominatiout of dargy. Among tba hooka to ha am. ployed iu the literary educattoUf tbay oontamplaia4 tuch exiractt from Scriptiue aa %U oreadt could iaiii»> HISTORY AND IMIKSICNT STATK OF EDUCATION. iirmi iMit th« irrvni huiliiMa of rvlirlmii l-iitructlon wai It* h« proftfft'ulMl nn nn« or two nty* of tht w««k Ml N|)iiri lor the piir|HM«. A comtnlialon waa tp- fitiiiit**! tiy tltfl I, kid liivutvimnl, c»M«iitlnf uf tha I'ni. uitanl mill (iHttiolio ftrchbtthopRnf niibllii, ■ Fr«i)py- inrUti cUrKymHU of hlffit rhKrftt-tf>r, nttd ii fittv nthrr iiitlivldunli, trhi) w«r» to lomi k Umrd of •upttrintenil- •nci*, and whoM VRrl'iusrr0irni aKi>*rHntpa for ilia IHwral liiientloiu of iha gnvvrnm«n(. Aa yet llin arlirmn him Ihmii proiertitiHl only hi anaxpflHtiifntt bui i| liat niit ttllh C(iniiidefat)le iiirrAU avfii In that llmlltfd i'huractur, and tliia In iha face of a rlgorouN oppotitlnii Irnm the churoh-uoanilaiioy party. From %i\v leport of March a. I(i:f4, It apueari that, from Ja- nuary HCI'^ I5IU applicationi hiid b«eri made fur aid tuwardn achooli, of which ^^)ii had hvvn attendud to. The arhooli now In opHrntlim afford the hmioflii uf ediiciitioii to about 140,er of memberi coropoting each committee varies according to the po- pulation and extent of the dittrict. The ez-olBcio members are the cur^, the Justice of peace, and the principel uf the college, if there be one in the canton; the other membera are chosen by the rector upon the iipprobatiou of the prefect. Elementary tuhools are of three degrees, according to the nature of the education given iuthem; and wtiile some are supported upon the voluntary principle, othem ure mainttiined by as- sociations, charitable and otherwise t hut whatever b€ the nature uf the school, it has hitherto been im- possible for any candidate tu obtain the mastership of It, without a patent, certifying hit qualiticatiuns, which ke can only obtain, after a severe examination, from K auperior functionary. Within the last three or lour years, normal schools have been established all OTer France, for the preparation of teachers according tu a regular system. In March ItiHi^ there were (J*J, which served fur 7^ out o( the ll(i departments, and the number of pupils waa 11)44. The whole annual expense of these iuatltutiona ia L.(IO,000, great part of whiolk ii defrayed by voluntary local aiiessment. The young men are accomplished Id, 1 , Moral and religious instruction; ?, Reading; 3, Arithmetic; 4, Linear drawing; 5, £lemeuts ofphysical science, with a ipecial view to the purposes of ordinary life; C, Music; 7, Gymnattict; U,(ieography and history; 9, Oardening; 10, the preparation uf the simpler legal forms and civil deeds. The systems of mutual instruction and of aimultaneout i'latructlon have been very extentlvely Introduced in France, and with the beit elTecia. In lUlfi,lher« were 33,348 elementary schools, educating 737|369 puplli 1 It^ 1810, the number of puplla had advanoea to 1,130,000, or one for every twenty-fire of the population. Iu 1B28, there were 1,500,000 io the 317 way of Mng Inatructed, Whig double the amount of 1B15, though ttill very far short uf the number which, according to the mnat approved ralculatluna, ought tu havit been at achiHil. The popnlntliui of Friiuce was, iu the latUr year, above :iO,000,000 t and hence there ought to h'lve been at least A,(N>0,000 at achnot. It it gralifylng, however, to know that (he number of the educated it increasing at a much more rapid rate than the population, and that the French government Is not only making liberal grants for tchoola, but It abuut to eatabllth a state system, which shall provide for the education of the whole community. When such a system shall have got into full operation, and the generation whl'ih hat A rat experienced its benefits have entered into life, a great change may be looked fur iu the natlunal mind of France. It has been ral- cnUtad that a third of the population of this fine country — the proportion being greater in the south than in the north — are unable to read or write i when all are able to do to, and have undergone the moral- ising Influence of literature, the French people cannot fail to exhibit an improved general aspect. SPAIN. There are few establlshmenta In Spain for the dif- fusion of the first rudiments of knowledge. The lower classes seldom learn to read uud write i thoae above them are seld(mi Instructed In any thing but these two accomplishmenta, and the elements of arith- metic. 8uch as are intended fur the learned profes- sions attend a Latin achool for three or four vears. Since the expulsion uf the JesuUa, these achoolt are not numerous. The Spaniards are among the moat Ignorant and bigoted nations In Europe. DENMARK AND THE NKTHEIILANDS. Denmark and Holland strive to keep pace with Germany. In the former country there have been normal schools fur the last forty years ; and the moni- torial system has been recently introduced, and has met with surprising success. Out of a single moni- torial school, founded in the early part of 1810, seven had sprung up before It closed; In 1820, the number had Increased to 11 ; in 1821, to 15; In 182*i, to :»5; in I82:t, to'.>44; In 1H24, to 005 t In 183A. to 114.1; in 18-20, to 1545; In 1837. In aOO» ; In 1838, 10 2902; and at the end of 1820, to 3O40 1 In Holland, one- fifth of the population Is stated to be at school, and the elementary seminaries are placed under a good organisation. In Belgium, ei)i< >tion Is too much In the handa of the priests to be i good condition. SWITZEUI-AND. In the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, elemen- tary education is In a flourishing state, the schools being attended by from one-sixth to one^tenth of the popiuatlon. In the Catholic cantona, chletly through unfavourable local clrcumstancbR, eilucation is not In so satisfactory a condition, and it chielly In the hands of the clergy. In aeveral of the cantons, the Lan- casterlan method hat been adopted, and tjunday schools are now becoming common. The new systems intro- duced by Peitaloxii and de Fellenberg, Iwth of whom were Swlaa, and commenced thei; operations in this country, are also producing some viiible benefit, es- pecially the latter, which is exemplified at Hufwyl to 6000 students, not to speak of an arulemy fur the in- struction of teachers, conducted at the same place. In Switzerland, education is partly supported and su- perintended by the various lot:al governments ; and in several cantons there are public institutions for the training of teachers. NORWAY. In Norwafy there are public schools for the lower orders, of which each parish necessarily has one, the teachers being appointed by the biahopi of their re- spective dioceses. Children are compelled by law to attend these seminaries, where they are initnicted in reading, combined with intellectual exerciser, religion and bible-hittory, tinging from the psalm-book, arith- metic and writing. The period of attendance la from seven years till the time of confirmation, which ge- nerally takes place at about sixteen or seventeen; and parents who withdraw their children during that period are liable to a fine. The teachers are partly supported by a fixed piece of land, and partly from a fund raised by local taxation. SWEDEN. In Sweden, the schools are much on the same foot- ing as they were In the seventeenth century among the Uermau Protestants. The clergy, in the posaea- slon of the church property of their Catholic predeces- sors, show little disposition to apply a part of it to the public instniction ; and the government ii too poor and too Jealous to admit many improvements uom foreign countries. ICELAND. This remote country is literally a chain of immense rocks, the summits of which are covered with snow. Situated In a climate where the ground Is froseu dur- ing the greater part of the year, and where the sun fur a long period hardly appears above the horizon, it affords to the inhabitants comparatively little occupa- tion out of doors, and they have betaken themselves for amusement to Intellectual purtuits. Dr Hender- son, who recently visited Iceland, gives the following statement : — " On inquiring Into the state of ment^ cultivation in Iceland, we are struck with the uni- versal diffusion of the general principles uf knowledge among its luhabitauts. Though there be only one school In It-eltitiJ, and that solitary nUiml U exchu nivttlv dffsiguod for the education of such as aroatter* wards t» fill ottiics In chinch or state, yrl It is ••tcvedlnglv rare to meet with a boy or girl who ha« attained the age of nine or ten vears, thai cani>u| renil and witte with aaic Domestiu education U nioit rigidly atteoiled tot mihI I scarcely ever reii'llecc eu- turiiig a hut where I did not find some Individual i»r another capable uf entering Into converiatliir) with ma on topics whirh would be reckoned altogether above the understtndings of penpta iu the tame rank uf lu* dety In other cuuntrlet of Europe." ^ ^^ POLAND. ■ ■ Poland, where formerly the nobility only were In* stnioted by the members of religious urdera, had, l»t> fore Its partltiim, some gymnatia, founded townrds the end of the eighteenth century, and tome common and country arhiKilt, but no well-arranved school tystem. In 1830, the number of pupllt In the ete< mentary achoolt was calculated at only 38,00*), In a populHtlnii of nearly four millions! After the cluso of the late Irturrectlon against the HuAslan power, the schools called gymnasia were re-organisitd ; but there no longer exists an university, or any ipther in* stituttun for the higher branches of learning. Twenty- two district schools have been instituted, and in the system of education appointed fur them great care has been taken at least to inculcate sentiments of loyalty tu the Imperial devastator of this fine country. RU8RIA. The government of the vul Russian empire has di- rected Its attention to a system of schools for a hun- dred years past, before which there were only conven- tual achuola for thu clergy, and aome Inatitutiunt for the aunt of the great, establiahed — almost by force — by Wladimir the Ureal. According to the decreet of the Emperor Alexander, schools for the circles, districts, and parishes, were to be instituted tl roughoul thu empire, Iu order to strike an effectual blow at thu deep ignoranie of the Russian people. The circle schools exist at present on the pattern of the Oerniiin gym- nasia, in moatof the capital cities of the governnientt ; the diatrlct schools are found In some towns of a mid- dling size ; the parish schools, however, in very few villages t and the greatest and best part of this ulan remains as yet tinexecuted* Somewhat earlier, tliere existed, in the German provinces of Ruaala, guonialMir, &h«y !ii« to be built and re< paired in uinformity m general awdela. Attached, uHiMe, before the icboolbeiiw, a graveited play>crrouud, and plar«) for ([\inDaitic ea^^roikea. The tkirH proviiinn «ompriaaa a complement uf books for the use of master and ceholar, ocrordtng to the degree «f the Mhmd i a oulli>ctiou of naps, ffeugraphuMil instrumentt, roudcls for drawisg and writing, tnusio^ diet instruBienti and oolleotiojii for Batural hiatury and wafthematiust the apparatus fur gy>unaatio eaercisM ; and, where iiiRtruLtiuu is given in tUe aru, the requisite tooU and macuitMs. Jo ngard Ui thu /»ur4h^ if Utere be no charity icboul afeuially provided, wary piUdu ?'>^ooi is tiouisd te afford le the poor inatructiun wooli) oi-aini(m branches of knowledge whiclt are indispmi- sahlo or nselul to the lower orders buth of town hihI country. The foirn or hurghtr schoois which the ,':iu has provided, carry on tlie child until he is capuhle of manifesting a desire for a classical education, or lor a ptrtii'nlar profeiaiou. Tlie g^-^lnasia, a stlP uigber cia&B of temjnarirt, continue tKis eaucatinr. until the youui is prepared either to ccromence his praetitat duties in cornmon IKe, or Ms higher and special scit-u- tific studies at the unireraity. Inererycotcplete elementary school In Prussia, tho branchrs taught are, religion ; the German ti;ngue, and h\ the Pulish prnvinces the verna''ular language ; th'! elnmants of (jpometry and general prineiplfs of dmn-i.ig; arithmetiu : the elemeiith of physio, 4if gc- nernl history, and uf tli^ historj' uf l*rusaia ; singing ; *ntiiijt; gymr '*•• exercises; iLe more simple nm- nun] labours; lonie instruction in the relativt: i-ountry uccujiatJoi.^. J:;vory pupil un leaving school rec4;iv{<« fioin his master and the committee uf oupur. intendnnee a certificate uf his capacity', and of his mo. ral and religious dispoaitions. Thin ia produci ■ un apprracliirig the rommuniun, and un entering into a^iprcnticeship nr serrloe. btminariea fur the instruction nf teachers, holli in the kuuwlpdge to f>e afterwards eommutHc>«tt*d liy them and in the pracUcal art of communicating it, lorm :\ very importsiit a{ipendage of the I'rniiitiMn system of eft>ssion in whiuh I cm cfire it Is quite as tm. portunt and inditpmsable as in any other. In order to fjiialify a man to hi- a praciisiny phjstclaD. lawyer, or divine, a lung p^ffifaiiuti irf prejtaratury discipline is vrry properly required. He imint study the theory of lus prideasion, and he must witness and t'uga^c in tlie experimental parts uf it, hefurt !ie is admittfi) to practise it publicly. Nay, more; there is scarcely u haii'iirrart the aspirant to m-hich it not hound to terve an apprenticfHhip of several y^-ars, in 0!d<-r to make him»t)lf acfiuaiiited with its myi»teries. The prernu. ttons we take tu have uur medicineH well compounded — ntr tKKfks well printed and well hutnd— nay, our very shoen wall made — we utterly neglect when the question is whether "ur children shall be well taught. vi rt-rtiHcate from a i)rofei«(ii»r uf some university, Hint tite ytmth who (K'srs it has attended a Greek or l^u> manity class, accompanied with a clergyman's nttes- t^ktion that he has been a regular hesrer lu hU churrh, and has led a quiet life in his puHsh, aredecinud ampin priHifs of his fitness in be a schuulmaster t and upon U'l lcaries, manufacturers, artists, &c. are instructed iu those branches of knowItK}gn which are rf must general utility — iu history, religion, mo. dnni languages, raathoma;icN, and the natural sciences. A final roorgiinisatlnn if the ISavarian system ofedu. cation took place In I^-"-. In thi;. kingdom there is n particular department '.n the ministry of the In. terior, to superintend tho subject of edm 4if>n, whose authority exf ii U to Uil the various schools aud insti- tutions. Austria possesses a national or state system of edu- cation, with the advantages of normal schuols, and other establisbnienta, for the inatruction of teacliers. The groundwork w:is here laid for elementary iuKtruc- tiuo amtuig the common poople at a much earlier day than in moat nf the European states. At the lieginning of the laet century, there were not more than three nut uf twenty chiluren v.bo enjoyed the advantage ot' public educiitiun ; wiu^r'Hs their numliers, at tlie pre- sent moment, are cqu;il ut two-thirds uf all the young |>rrsons who are su!UO supplementary schi^iU, which exist in tlie lltmgarian pruvincns, there are altogether 13,(MM) elementary and superior schools in the Auatriau empire ; tl-.e average result cf which :^, that there is one school to eve' y S/A families. In Auftrta Proper, and the dlstrifi of HaltKlmrg. there nre 244,:ift2 children uf a teac*iahte age. and 2;*1.749 of them nre u.ider tuiJun ; in the Tvrol. there nre W» 4(13 children taught, out nf llt5,2B0 ; in Moravia nn.I Silesia, aaO.ftCa out of S54(.74!»; in Dnlmatia, UGD out uf 2249; in 8*yria, Camiola, (.'nrinthin, and Illvrin, imlv !I6,IA0 out nf 33l.rtin; rnd in O ilticia, hut Al, 129 out of 444.044. The smaller stat"!! of Germany, as Nassau, J<{ppp- Dntn'old, Aiihalt-Uessni;, and the Saxon dukedtrms, have done inui'h for schools. A 11 have inRtitntiotis for teailu'r*. which is perhaps the roost cheering feature in the whole system. The great varifty of accum- plishmpnts which are inferred in thesnnerinr v:hnols of Ciermany, has of late years attracted much atlon- tinn in Britain, which Is nn u'ore tn he compared to that country in this valuable cUks of inptitutions, than Germnny is to l»e c(miihinM, and one that will pruhahty increa!tlte(iiit'tioits. Mr J. ('. Loii. don, wull known fur his ahle wofks ungurdeniug and other useful arts, vinited U'lrtemherg, Baden, and Havaria, a few years agu, niiH, in a pamphlet published at Paris, gave a highly agreeable account uf his ohh^r- ▼ations. *• After what 1 have seen in M'lrteiuberg,*' says he, "and whnt I huve observed with respect to its population, I am inclined to regard it as one of the suiiai uMnpleiely civilised couhtries in Kurope, and I am parauaded that the eud uf govtirnment is mora per- fectly assalned tlian ia Urmt Britain; because, with an aimuht equal «tegree of individual liberty, tlierc is an iiironipwabljr smalier amniut ot crime, misery, and povwrty, and much more sf politeness aud oor* a Msny sdtlUioNsI psrUrut»n of jrrsM tnuirMt. TMfwettait adu- vkltoii in l'ruM4«, wiu Uv fuui.d In ilr> Mirkti AusUa'a UMalatkni ortlw rtpoit iiudi- u|>nt) thii (Utiject by M.l ouikii. to MuiitsU«it, thr fnntu-fi Mlnuier nf Public liutrurtioti, latsty pntinitiMli siid IU th« Edinbuifih Hs«mw, No. IW. and ths forelai t^aBntrly llrvw*, Na. 14; tntm ekish uui u«u kouwUdgr « tku suhlwt diality." In Dararia the bauefic^al conaequencea ns suiting from the iisUbllahment of a tystnn of national education have been more signal than in any other £un)pean country. Half a century ago, the Bava- rUni> were the moat ignorant, debauched, and slovenly paupl:* lietween the Gulf of Oenoaand the Baltic. That they are at present patterns of morality, intelllgeiu-e, and clitanllness, it would be going too far to affirm ; hut perhatK no people has over made a more rapid advance- ment in the career of civilisation than they hrtve made during the last thirty yaari. One-eighth of the en- tl.« popula ..-n la at aohoel. ITALY. The northern provinces of thfs country, which are under the i-way of Austrb, partake of the improved system of elementary education now flouriahlug in the German states, and are therefore more fortunate in respect of early tuition than the southern atates. The schoolmasters have from 3&0 to 400 Aiutriun livica of fixed salary, t'^ the schools exhibit a well-- rgi*- nikud system c. progressive education. It waa found a few years ago that In tlie Venetian part of Lnmbardy, which c^mtaina a populatiun uf l,&!>4,0(H>, there weie 1402 elementary schools, attended by G2,000 pupils, besides S9 female schools, aitanded b- 2390 girls. in the continental territories of the king of Sar- dinia- popular educabiun is In a very pour condition; hu in tl-.e Island of Sardinia, which coutalns about hal '' a million nf Inhabitants, every village or com:nune has low, by a recent decree, a gratuitous school, fur readi.^'-, writing, arithmetic, religious instruction, aiiv^ the **ments of agriculture, while there Is a nor- mni school fur each uf the ten provinces into which the i»' ...0 is divided. A very few years dnce, the lean inguf reading and writing was forbidden to all whc .lid uot possess a capital uf l&OO liret since thoxo horiible time<, the numVr uf murders in the island has been reduced &um 150 annually to 90. Popular education In the Papal staf^ Is iu tlie Lauds of the clergy, aud hence, though it ia widely ditfused, it is cunducted on narrow principles. The same thing may ho said »i Naples, though it is admitted that a decided Improveniciit is there taking place. Some attempu have bi'en made to esuhllsh Laucasteriau pchools in Naples, and normal ichooli are already ia existence. In Sicily, a atill better prospeU n held uut. There are iu that island both primary und se- condary schools, which are encouraged by tlie govern- ment ; and the system of mututu initructiuu Laa actually taken root in the island. OREECB. -^ 8* .ice the remhitfon in thfi country, a very eager 6 isfrenf instruction has been manifested hy tho people, ^t wan stLted in lfl.1l, that there were about 400 ele- mentary schmils ill the Pelloponesns and Islands, at- tended hy nearly eight thousand si-hnlars, « ho were chiefly reared upon tlie plan of mutual Instmction. The means of instniction were, however, very generally inadeqnaf to the end. In many places, the scholars had tn meet In the open air, and In same schools of forty pupils there was not one entire book. An in- stitution called the Orphanotrophion has reoentlv lieen built at JCgiua, at the expense of government, for the education of the ohildren redeemed by the Freni'h government in Egypt, and orphans nf the country, tis well as tho offspring of Indigent parents. Here, in IKiO, about three hundred children were Instructed in the elementary brauclies of education, and afterwHrds taught the mecbani,-al aru under an- other mnC The ancient Greek language is a favourite branch uf eduoaiion in modern Greece, aud matfae- matica ore tauirfit lu aeveral places. Much haa been done for education in Greece by American mission- aries, and it is probable that tiie Kiag of Bavariu. fatlier of the young sovereign reoantly appeiute'' b* rule the country, will not long aliew it to want that liltwiiit: in its full extent, which he has so liberally ronlerrvd on his own Nulitects. The most promising leature, liuwever, in the prospects i»f ilreece, so far aa education is cunu(*rnephalonia, and the ma<(ter of each of theae inatttu- ttniis inspwM the viltagu snbmds every three months, tjlate*, iMindls, desks, nnd Iwnehes, with a few iKtuks, are supplied by the public, under certain conditions. EGYPT. The present pacha, Mohammed All, among other schemes for the Improvement of his coi'»try., nas es. tablished some elementary schools, one uf which, at Cairo, hasOOOpupilsuf Turkish and Arabian lineage, who are insttucted In tliclr ovu and the Italian lan- guages, drawing, atithmetic, and geometrv, military exercises, and tiie art of printing. At Dgiaad-Ahad, he has also established a miHury college for the cdu- ratlun of officers, and a medical school for the educa- tion of surgeons and physicians, fur his army. The branches taoght In tliese liistltutlona are almoat ex- nctK' tlie same as those which obtain in similar icboots lu Rritalu. The object of Mohammed, however, la stated to he less the enlightenmeut of the people at large, thau the Improreueut of his military rcauurceu. HISTORY AKl) PRKSEXT STATE OF EDUCATION. m : other UNITED STATES OP AMEUKA. No .untry In tha wurld hmN mad*! iucfa adrnncct In ttuivanal •dnOBtftm at th« United Hutos of A,m»- lica. TIi« tone impartad by the early rmlttnistfl of U»« New England itattfl, who w«r» liitellfgent, eilu. mied men, hue never been !oH; and the principle w^i'oh they eetahliibed, that the edncatian of the community shoohl h» eondncted at the common ex- pBiipe, has never been nbandrmad in the statai that thev planted, and liat been nuocediiTely adopted by thif itrittii lairiy Incorporated with tb* Union. There are three dewrfptiona of pnbllo eeminariee in ;he i^bitex : Th« Ant eonttnta of the frve lohoeli, at which thi! alimentary branolim are taught ; the second are the i.ciidinnlei, incorporited by law, forgiving inatruc tiiMi of a higher kind : and the third ai-e the cillagea —thn-edaaMa of iicho»la forminff altogether a routine very much lit- that of Scotland, and conducted on very much the aame plan of Instruction. with regard hi the ext -naive eitabliahmcQe of free anhnoN, one of tha chief advmntaget of the system ia, that tha whole population is made to tuke a direo peraonni interest in the bueinoNi of education, and to c:irry it on in the way best nnited to supply the ge- naral want*. The people In their town meeting* vote the aiisflismenta for the supi>ort of the schools, by their oommitteea jpend the money which is otillected finm this or other sourcet, and, by their children, goi the benefit of the outlay. The pn>ces9 is thuH •stcmially popular, and aa free of jobbing as possibly may lie. Another greatadvaiitagein, that the cvhools ara'siippnrted by a tax on property, although therv are exceptions to thia nit« in some of the states, in which a public 5\nd aNiista in hearing a proportion of the expense. Uut every where in New tCngland, ex- cept in Couneetiout, they ant supported by a ux on the property of al*. It is therelore an arnngement emiimiuly beneficial to the poorer classes of the com. munity. In moat towns, one-fifth of theinhi-bitants pny at least one-half of the tax, and instead of send, ing one-half of tiio acholars, do not wnd une.sixtb. Of course the schuol-tax is nibaiantiatly a btx on the wonlthy to edncnte the children of the poor. Thus, a mutual benefit flows to both ptNtr and rich. The poor are assured by law that thetr children shall be edticatMi}, and thus preserved from the greatest temp- tation ti) crime ; whilto the rich un* assureil th.tt thoy shall live i.i a oommnnity where tlio universal diffu- sion of education shall kttbp the foundations of society aafe. The schools nru in thfs light a great moral pi-licp, to preserve a decent, orderly, and respectiible populaticin ; to teach men, from their earliest child- hood, their duties awd their right-i; and by giving the whole mats of the community a senau of cliarnc- ter and a general intelligenoe, make them under, stand the value of justice, order, and moral worth. The mode in which this system of popniar educa- tion is carried Into effect is perfectly simple, and is one prinoipAl cai:se of its practical efiicienoy. Tlip fJevf England states are all divided into territorial eomnninitles called toant, which have corporate priviWges and duties, and whose affairs are ma- nageil hy a sort of committee annually chosen by the inhabitan's, called seiectmeru These towns are of iine<|ual sizet but In the agricultural portions of tJie country, which contain four-fifths of the people, tliey nre generally five or six miles square ; and upon thutn, in their corporate capacity, rests the duty of making pruvition for the support of free schools. In all but tha smallest towns, one school, at least, is kept through the whole year, in which whatever goes to constitute a common Englihh education in reading, writing, geography, history, Ac. are taught under the immediate superintendence of the selectm>in, or of it special wimmittee appointed for the purpose. This, however, would not be carrying education near enough to the dimr of the people, >u agiicultural districts, to ennl)le them fully to avail themselvaa of it, especially the ptMirer chisses and the younger children. To meet this UitHcnlty, all the towns are divided into districts, varying in number, in each town, from four to twelve, or even more, nooording to its necessities and couve. niencii*. Kach district has iu district schwd com- mittt'ft, find receives a part of the tax imposed for eduration ; sometimes in proportion to the population of tho district, but ot'tener to the uumlier of children to h¥ eiiuonted. The ct»mmitl«e of the dUtrict deter- mino where the school sluill be kept, select its teacher, chooKo the hiMiks that ^hall Iw used, or delegate that p(»WHr til the instruotor, and, in shorty are responsible in all particulars Ibr the faithful fulfilment of the trust oommitted to them ; the general system being, that a school is kept in each district during the lung winter montliH, when tha children of the farmers are uuoo- onpied, hy a malo teacher, capable of instructing in reailiiiip, vrriling, and arithmetic, English grammar, gSM'.^rHMhy, and history; white, in the same school- nun)-, doilt ;^ the summer months, schools are kept by wnmnn, to , this sute had a schoot-ilebt of upwards of D.23,0C MASSACHirSETTS — POPULATION 610,408. Schools and academies are wull Hupjiorted in this en> terpnnlng state. According to the repm-t of thosuhool committee of Boston, in 1H20, the number of public schools in thai city was 8U ; pupils 7430 ; expense of tuition, fuel, Sea, D.&2,500; the eiOimaCed rent of schoolhouses D.10,00v>; making the whole expense amount 'o D.G2,500. Private schools iu tliu city, 15n ; pupils, 40111. Besides the Harvard College at (^(imhridge, there arc 50 incorporated academies in the state. RHODK ISLAND — POPULATION 90,000. The attention to education in this small state is on the increase. Tha sum of D. 10,000 is now raised annually for the support of free schooU, each town rereiving a portion of the money according to popula- tion. CONNECTICUT — POVULaTION 207,(j73. This state possesses un important school-fund, which was derived from the sale of lauds, reserved by Con- necticut, in the state of Ohio, and which amuunto'l, in the year 1029, to D. 1,8U2,201. The income of this fund is appropriated to the support of primiiry schools. Iu one year, up to March 11J29, the &um of D.7-|lfil was divided among the different free schools through, out the state. The number of children Iwtween the af;e% of fjur and hixteeu, in 1828, was 84,890; and tha dividends aii^iunted tuciglity-live cents to each child. NEW YOHK. STATE — POPULATION 1,018,608. Ry the report jircseuted in January 1829 to the legislature of this populous and flourishing state, by au 4)lKcial entitled the 8uperintend;tnt of Common Si:hoots, it appears the school. fund then belonging to the state amounttid to l>.l,8(jl,08l, in stocks and other securities, and 809,178 acr&^ of laiul ; that the revenue actually received into tlie treasury on uccouut of this fund, iu 1839, was D.W '!:!(!; that tliej-e were in the several towns in the state J872 school districts, and of this numliRr 8292 hail complied with the cou. dition of the statute, hy having schools kept at leact three months by an inspecteil teacher, and by making returns to the wnnmissioners ; that there were in the dinti icts from whith reports had lieun received, 408,257 children over five and under sixteen years of age ; and that, in the common schools of the same districts, •180,041 scholars had been taught during the prflijed- ing year. "Our system of school instruction," cim. tinues the rep.297>048, which, added to the public money, makes an aggre- gate of D. ,878, paid for teachers' wages alone. TIiuB it wit. seen, that, whero the state or re. venue of the school-fund pays one dollar for teachers* wBge.i, the inhabitant of the town payr, by a tax on hilt town, and by voluntary coutritiut'lnn iu his dis- trict, mora than four dullara for tha same objetii. This • To oniDpri^hcnii (hs vnlue of ltie«« fnptiwes It miy !w ft* pliUui-d tlitit a ilollar l« worth ii. Od. Mrrlkni;; anri th« itollar beiriK llvlilrd tnio KNI pAti* or cciit% a cent it Utus wonU mUim niuro than a Uiulsh hoifpsnny latter snm of ftlucation in the colony wm fufficient at that time. The rapid Inoreaea of the population during the latt fetr yean, and the moral wanu of iti new inhabitaoti, have, howerar, forcibly called the at- tention of the coloniiu to the aubject. Under the proriiions of a proTindal act (0 Geo. IV.), upwarda of 1000 aohoola hare been MUbliahad lino* 183!) throughout the prorlnce ; and theu aohoola, aooord. ing to the moat recent accounta, are atten'^dd by 46,568 tcbulara of both aezea. Theae aohoola are placed under the management of truateea, who are fllucted annually by the inhabitanta of the toirnahip or pariah in which each In aituated. The aum of L.20 ia granted to the teaoher of each aohool, when it ia attended by at leaat twenty acholara. No particular courae of inatruotion ia fuUawed, but the Uriiiah or Lancaalerian ayatem baa been introduced into many •f the achoolf. Sareral ooUegea are eaubllahad in diiferenl parU of the prorinca in connection with the Roman Catholic church, aa well aa many prirate aeminariea in which the higher branciiea of education are taught to chil- dren of the richer Prolaatant inhabitanta. UPPER CANADA. Thia proTinct, which ia dirided into eleven diatricu, had, in 1831, a papulation of 211,aG7 aoula. For the purpoaea of education, each diatrict haa an annual grant from the Pro»incial Legiilature of L.OO appro- priated towarda defraying the ezpenaea of a daaaical achool, in addition to L,2iiO voted for the auppnrt of common echoola : thij money i» diatributed by truateea appointed under an act of the Irgisiature. lletidea theae common achoola for daily instruction, there are mimeroua Sunday achoola eatabliahed in every dia. trict of the province : and aa the beat effecU are aeen to raault from thair eaubliahmant, theae achoola are failion and hiatory, writ- ing, arithmetic, geography, and the French language." WtST INDIES. Education may be described aa in a low state in the Wett iudiet. The children of the planters are gene- rally sent home to Uritain to be educated ; and hence there are few whitea at school in any p -t of these colonies. It ia only within the few nati )UIU leatn to write. Though education be thus low in these imjHirlaM colonies, it Is consuntly rising, nnd will prcihahly. In a aliort space of time, be in a much more flourishing aute. The srhoola have us yet depended solely upon private enterprise and private beiiehcence, and the methods of inatniction are not g'H>d. Hut the ntten- tiou of Parliament has Ijeen directed to the siitiji'<-t, and it will prolMbly be deemed a Btcoaiaryprccauiioa, «0 in anticipation of the manumi^ios of tha alarea, thai all shoald be inatruotad. CONCLUDING BEMAllKS, The present sheet, for tha Hrat time it ia believed, gives an outline of tha atate of education over the whole oivlliaed world. The purpoae of bringing these facta into ona place, waa to ahow how partial and Im- perfect education hat aa yet been, aud la— how deplo- rably liuufficient both iu amount and in mtthad. W» ar« thua enabled to a«e at a glance, that, even in na- tlona of good character, the mau of tha common peo- ple are in one of two oondttlona, either in that of utter unacquaintance with letters, or at tha moat instructed in nothing beaidet letters — ao that, while tha up(ier daaaes enjoy a certain reputation for moral and intel- lectual reflnement, tha great bulk of the lower are confined to the devalopament of little mora than those paru of their nature which they poaaeaa In common with ordinary animala. If the writar haa aucoaeded in making out this case, he truata that the moat of his readers will be inspired with the wish which inspires himaelf, and which ia now gaining ground every where, that fair play ahonld at length be given, by meana of a moral, intellectual, and physical education, to the better qualltiea of the whole of the human race. In thapreaent sheet I'.ere ia little room to argue upon tha aubject; but we ahall employ the amall apaoe that remaina to ua, in atating what we conceive ought to be dona by all nationa in resi>ect of education. Education ought every where to be a matter of state- policy, iu order that proper methods aad qualified teachers ahould tie attainable. The elementary parte of it ought to be acceaaible to all orders of the people, without money and without price — payable, however, not out of the national exchequer, but by local aatail- menta. It should be the first duty of each government to form a proper code of instruction — ime calculated to develope and exercise the mural, intellectual, and phy- sical faculties — which should be rendered imperative in all the schools under iu protection. To render the aya- tem efficient, achoola ahould beeitabliahed iiieverycon- aiderable diatrict for the Instruction of masters In the branches of knowledge to he taught, and in the busi- ness of teaching ; and a diploma fntm such an institu- tion should bean indispensable passport to every school, public or private. Tha normal schools, as theae are called, should be supported in the first place by govern- ment, while such feet ought to be azaotad aa may fully or nearly cover the expenaa. Elemenury education, with moral tuition, ought to be entirely free, liecaiiae by no other method can the tehoit of the community be brought to achool, and be. cauae, without the whole community being educated, the great end of education, aa a ayatem of moral police, would be defeated. Aa curioaity reapecting the natural world la the first part of the mental conatitution which ia developed, and aa the aucceas of instruction must greatly depend on the advantage which is taken of the natural diiposi- tions and capacities of the pnpil, it would lie proper to commence education by introducing the ytmug to na- tural objects aud their various properties, which can be done by means of lively graphic represeutalions. This part of education must lie entrusted to what are called infant schooia, to which the young ahould be initiated at about three yeara of age. It ia alao poa. sible, in infant sihoola, to acquaint the children with t!ie elements of arithmetic, and various other braucliea of knowledge, by meaus of sensible objects. M*hile mere knowledge is given, it uiigbl lie made the means of conveying religious impressions also. From the rtbjecl* of nature, the reference to the Owi of nature is easy{ and by directing alteulion perpetually to not only the excellent nature of every thing, but the ad. mirable fitness of all things for each other, the ele- nienta 'it natural theology would be efl'actually im- preaae.1. The pupils mutt be kept in the oonsUot ' rrrrcisa of the virtues — benevolence in thought and ai-tion. Justice iu dealing, truih iu speech t and unceas- ing efforU must he made to rep^ei>^ the interior feelings and propensities.— aelfiahnesa, coarseness, cnielty, and improltity. Thus, the pupils, seeing virtue invariably roinmeiided iu practice. Slid vice as itivarialily con- demned, will acquire habits which can hardly fail to attend them, iu a greater or less degtea, through their aubsei[ueut years. At Ave or six, the infant school period ceases, and the pupils may lie properly Introduced to the elements of literature. Much of simple reading must depend on the memory. The forms of the letters, aud the appearaucet of these wheit combined lutu words, mutt ha Impretsed on that tana* befora any progreas be made. There it certainly no need, however, to load tha memory with any thing beyond the elements of readiiig : spelling can be learned through thx mere Impression which the words make upon the eye in thu course of reading, aud all exercises which consist in the learuing of piecea of prose or verte by heart, ar« only to mudt lost time, forming, even in their highest tuccaat, but an uialatt wonder tu imprett parenu and viaitora with the idea that tlie children are ren. darad eintr. At toon aa laadiug ia maatared, it ahould Im Immadlatdy amploywl In ita legitimate enda, the introductioo of tha pupilt to the aturea of uaeful and elegant litarature, in the acquialtion of hiatorical and geographical knowMga, and in tha study of the phy. aical aciancea. For reading, tha monitorial tyatem will alwaya be found tha must convenient and advantageous in large achoola. It ahould be conducted on what la called the inlalleclual plan, by which it is meant that the pupils must ba maaa to uudarttand every word that occurs. Pictures of objecia would also be of service, in the conveying, at least, of substantive ideas. With regard tu the teaching of writing, we have no improvemenu to suggest upon the methods usually adopted ; but it may be hinted that arithmetic ought to b« explained philosophically, at the same time that Ita nilet are made the subject of regular progressive exercise. All kinds of knowledge that do not chiefly consist in substantive ideas, should be left to the latter part of tha course. In their earlier years, children are capable of understanding very little beyond what can be seen and touched ; and it is therefore necessary to wait for the developement of the faculties before any attempt be made to convey ahslract ideas. Almost all the physical sciencea consist in sensible ideas, and hence, with proper exemplifications, the most of them can be taught to pupils under ten years of age. Chil- dren at tliat period of life can be* easily taught che- mistry, geology, mechanics, tlie elements of ireometry, natural liiatory, including animal and vegetable phy- aiology : and they oupfit to be taught thoae acieucea. Simple claaabooks should be prepared for the purpose, and, so far as possible, experimental apparatus should also be provided. Here, in our opinion, terminates the education which should ba at the public expense. In a more advanced order of schools, the teacher ought to proceed to abstract studies. Among these wo would be disposed toinclude grammar, which cannot bu fully comprehended by children uuder eleven or twelvo yeara of age. To this time of life ought also to be post- poned the study of foreign languages, living and dead, so far as these might be deam^ necessary for particu- lar pupils. The more necessary studies of this period are natural theology, the higher branches of mathe- matics, political eumoiny, the principles of tte con. stitutiou under which the pupils live,'and a few simple viewa of the nature of the human miud. Thewholo courae could easily be arranged in auch a manner aa to terminate Ht the age of fourteen, when the pupil would ba aeut out to the world, not confused with a few Latin and (Jreek words, aa the scholar of the present day generally is, but fully acquainted with the world iu which he is to live, and with his own constitution, meuul aud bodily; qualified to judga dearly between right and wrong ; capable of protect- ing his own health and interest, aud inspired with the best feelings towards his fellow-creatures; in short, a baing whose natural properties had all been trained and iinpre.ed tu the best ailvautage, i't ube. dience to what appears tu have been the will and de. sign of his Creator. The remaiuing years of youth, where ihe calls of a profession did not interfere, might be employed in an extended course of private reading, and iu atundaiice on such academic or other claatca as seemed likely to lie advantageous. Such ia a brief aud imperfect imtliue of h system of education, which appears to us to combiue the best ideas of the most euiightened inquirers into thif. subject. It may be long lieiore existing circumstances and prejudice's will allow such u plan tu be followed very generally ; but that It will be eventually followed every where ihrouKhutit what is called the civilised world ; aud that it will Iu time raise the moral and intellectual naturo of man far above what it has ever been supposed capable of, we have no doubt. If the induttnous classes in our own country had a trnu perception of their interests, they would take up the questl' 'i with far more fervour than they have ever dis; i>/ed ill either political or trades' unions, and their 'ji' «uuld lie of much service in promoting the cause. It is the master-key to all the diffloultiea and dia. tresses of their siiuali If their interests have been in any instance lacrlliced or neglected, if their blood has been shed in wars, anf their physical strength oiertashed la toils on behalf of their sii|ie. riors, it hat only been owing to their ignorance. If they desito that their rights should be ellideutly pro. tecled, they must cause themselves to be instructed, in order that tbev may liecome their own protectors. The improveuien'i of their cuiidiUon rests almost eu. lirely with themselves, and education is the means by whuh they may be enabled to work that improve, ment. Kniar'iaou i IMbU^i-J liy W. siiJ II. liiiiiusas. I'J. Wsl.rloo I'lui'i •!•« I.yosa snJ smith, l"«KmoM«r llu», LouJon and \oi'«iialia Cin^iaoinii, Dubllii. bolil liy Julra Mac- l«"l, lilsspiw, sinislloUur l».»<'l(M'll»rii. rnm tht steaiu Ft«M u( Vi, slid H. tluinlivis of a lyilein ;ombiue tlis •era iiitu thif. ircumilances Itti t'lilluired jUy followed the civiliitd mural and tt hu erer mill. H the hid M trno take u)) the havu ever mi, und their ig the caute. and dii- tereiti have ;ted, if their icir physical their 8tii>e- jorance. If tcitirttly I'ro- liiitruited, jiroleclors. L< almoat eu- the incaut hat improve- , I'j, \Sttvrluo lluw, Luutlon . by Julin M«v> CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND " HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." No. 41. PnioB IJrf. ■ PNEUMATICS, ACOUSTICS, AND AERONAUTICS. t JTlllVII PNEUMATICS. Pncuuatics is a tenn derived from a Greek word which iigni6ei breath or mir, and denotes the iclence which treat* of the mechanical properties of elaitio fluids, such as the vir or atmosphere which we breathe. Reasoning by analogy, we conclut*? that all material substances are capable of ezistlr^ In three different states, the solid, liquid, and aifriform ; each state de- pending upon the quantity of heat which the body contains at the time. Thus, the liquid water, when deprived of a certain portion of heat, becomes the solid body ice; and when, on the other hand, a certain pro> pot tlon of heat it Imparted to it. It becomes the aifriform body steam. Steam, however, though a highly elastic hoAy, and hence exactly similar In this respect to the aeriform fluids treated of under Pneumatics, differs from them In this, that it does not remain permanently clastic; that, in fact, at ordinary temperatures, It does not exhibit this form at all, but appears as the liquid water. The term vapour is usually applied to such bodies as are fluid at the ordinary temperature of the Htinoiipherejbutcan by natural or artificial heat be made to exist in the elastic form. To distinguish between fluids such as water and those similar to air, the for- mer are sometimes called inehitiCf and the latter «/as- tiCf fluids. But as water is compressible, and pos- f^esses the property of occupying the same space after the mechanical force by which it was condensed Is withdrawn as it did before it was applied, these terms of distinction are in strict philosophical language In- correct. Air, or gas, which is a German word for air, differs from other fluids such as water in tn-o cir- cumstances, great lightness, tenuity, or thinness, and extreme elaoticity. By extreme elasticity is meant that cjuality in virtue of which certain bodies are easily compressed into smaller bulk than they naturally pos- sess, and as easily resnme their former state when pres- sure is withdrawn from them. Indeed, so extremely compressible is commcm air in comparison with water, that did not the term inelastic, as applied to fluids such (IS water, convey an Idea that it was impossible to make tiicm OL'Cupy smaller space (they still of course retuin- ing their llqnitl state), the words elastic and inelastic would iiiluiirably diitinguish the two classes of fluids itiluded to; and with this explanation we may occa- fionnlly employ them. But there is another and a most Important cliarac- teristie diatlnguitihiiig fluids such as air from all otheis : it in, thnt the particles of whi. h they are com- piled mutually repul eiuh other. In wuter they are kept together by the attraction of cohesion ; in the state of air there exists no coltesivo attraction whatever, Hrid the a(mo. li.fht bodies In water, by which birds aiecn- u\>]vA to fly, and of which we breathe. Tor its com- p >hiiiou and chemical prnpeities, teeour number upon ( hi'tnintry. The air is stmietunes Huid to be iuvihlble, Init thin is not rorrect ; ii is an azure ctJoured fluid, u> i^ proved when wo turn our eyes to the firmament u'.i,.\e us The reit^'in why we c;innot perceive the .tiuoKpherlc tint wlieu we view only small quantities Dt'iiir, ih, that, frurn its e.ttreiiie raiity, it rellects co- !'ur very faiiitty ; ami lieiue n i;reHt mass of the sub. >t;iTice njujt be limhni ul lirfnre as ninny of the rays of It^ht which it reflccls C:tn be ctiitcetitrated upon the eye, so as to convey to it tho lensatiuit of colour. For instance, sea-water is green when we view an immense qutntity of it, such as the German Ocean ; but If we vltw il Id a wine-glass, it appears perfectly colour* less. On a dry clear day, the hills at only a few miles* distance appear of a bluish hue, not because they really areblue—fortheyareusuallycorered with green rege- tation*— but because they are seen through a blue me- dium ; that is, the atmosphere. Air possesses all those properties of matter which were described In Natural Philosophy; namely, impe- netrability, inertia, gravity or weight, && IUPEtii.VRABlLlTT OF AIR. The nature of this property was explained in Na- tural Philosophy; and that it is posiessed by atmosphe- ric air, Is proved by numerous experiments. It is shown by a very simple one, in which a common tum- bler is inverted over water. If this be done, the li- quid will be found to rise a little in the inside of the tumbler; but it will atop there, and cannot be made to rise to the top, though it were sunk to the bottom of the Atlantic. If Into a cylinder an air-tight piston be introduced, it can be pushed down to some extent, but no power or weight, however great, can compress it to the bottom. Before this could possibly take place, the cylinder would burst. These facts plainly prove that air is material, and that it possesses that property called impenetrability, by which itexdudes everyother body from the space which it occupies at any given time. It may be compressed to a great extent, but never Into a space so small as to be below calculation. Additional proofs of the existence of this property will appear as we proceed with our subject. INERTIA or AIR. It will be recollected that, by inertia, was meant that property of matter In virtue of which it requires a certain effort or force to produce motion if a body be at rest, and to destroy or modify that motion if It be not at rest It was also stated, that, when one solid body puts another In motion, the farmer loses as much as the latter receives. The most t'>:>i!li ir instance of the inertia of air is the wind, whi> ii i> just air in mo- tion. If a flat surface he prc^fiited to the wind, a power is exerted which 11 pt-pl it forward in the direction in which th mn of air U moving, the force being in propori i'.t» velocity of the latter. U*e see this illustrated In t ' < lae oi' ships, and also of balloons. However, whei^ thf> surfaces are con* nccted by arms with a maveable axh-, ut in i' - --nseof windmills, a rotatory motion Is produce I ..ttd that, loo, of a power sufTuient to drive machitiery of cnnsi- derable extent. But the power exerted hyair in in >. tion, notwiih^landing its extreme thinness, ic evinced by the dreadful effects produced by hurricanes. These terrible visitations sometimes luy whole inlands deso- late. M'hen the air ii in a state of rest, the same fact Is proved by moving forward in It a body presenting a broad surface. A degree of resistance is offered to Its motion through it, which resistance is proportionate to the vehioity with which the body moves. In walking at an ordinary pace on a calm day, ihi^ils nnt perceived ; but those travelling with steam-coaches between hi- verpool and Alanchester, where the speed is very grea% will readily distinguish it ; and shoMld the wind be blowing in a direction oppnslte to that in which the veliicle Is moving, the resistance will be eunsiderable. The obtervations which were made In the article Ily- diohtatics relative to the speed of stenm-hotts, are equ-illy Applicable to steam-carriages. Before adverting to the weight or gravity of air, it wilt he necefsaiy to treat of its elasticity. THE FIASTUITV OF A!H. By the term elasticity Is signilu'd that quality in vir- tue of uliK-h a body, when c.Miipre^sed into a smaller sp.ice lliiiu II naturally occupies, fills that space iigaiu whiMi the (lOwtT hy wliich it was compressed is wiih- drnwn. A smill hhtdiler of air may ho squeezed be- tween the hands so as to he c insiderahly reduced in isi/:>; iinil on fipening the hands again, and withdraw- ing the pressure, It will instantly rjsumo Its former bulk. If a metallic tube or barrel be fittcil with a moveable plug or piston, which Is made to work In it perfectly alr.tlght, the air which occupies the space between the top and the bottom of this barrel when the piston enters, can be compressed to a hundredth part, or even less, of its usnal bulk. If the force, how- ever, by which the piston Is pushed down, be with- drawn, the air, by Us elasticity, will force It up again with a power equal to that by which Its descent was resisted. A uniform law governs the increase of elastic force, arising from the diminished btilk of the air, which is, that the elastic force, or the pressure exerted by the air against the sides of the vessel which contains it. Is increased in precisely the same propor- tion as the space which It occupies Is diminished. Thus, then, the remarkable law is established, that the elastic force of air is proportional to Its donsity. This law, though generally true, is not found to be exact In extremo cases both of condensation and rari- faction. When a high degree of condensation Is re- quired, a greater degree of compressing force Is found to be necessary than that which would result from the above law. If an external pressure of I51bs. on each square inch be sufiicient to confine atmospheric air In its ordinary state, it would only require a pressure of I50tbs. on the square Inch to confine it when reduced to one-tenth of Its bulk by compression ; bu^ by this law it is found to reqtiire a somewhat greater force. In other words, when a great degree of condensation is effected, the elasticity of air increases In a some- what-higher ratio than the density. In like manner, we find that In high degrees of ra- rlfactton the law is also not precise, highly rarifled air having a less degree of elasticity than that which would be consistent with the law. This, indeed, Is a necfar- sary consequence of the former, or rather it may be considered as another way of expressing the same fact. T* »iuab also be observed, that the above law can .mly hold true In cases where the temperature remains the same; fur heat, whilst It decreases the density, iiiireases the elasticity of air. Thus, a flaccid or par- tially filled bladder, if held to the fire, will expand so as to become perfectly filled, and have a tendency to hurft. The elastic force of the ^lir is beButifulty illus- trated by what is called i':.c aii :auntain. f\^, \, There are two specii- of air-fountains. I'lie most simple arrm :>>ment consists in j employing tht- elastic force of the air com- ' pressed In a c! e vessel, and made to act on j the Fuiface ol tuh ' I'uld he increased in n vessel of water, and, on :i - penlng the communication, the water wit! hi ■ lise In a continuous stream, form- ing a be 1 ; tCcan. 'J'he elevation of the Ma- ter in this ■ '■(' i.H, it will be obvious, depenilent on the pressure of the atmosphere. Other Instanres of tho pressure of the atmosphere will occur as we pn.cted with our subject. WEIGHT OF THE Ain. That the air possesses weight, and presses upim every ohjcit upon the surfaro of the earth with a certain degree of force, is a fact familiar to every one; but that, by means of this weight, some of the c< nunon mechanical phenomena are to bo accounted fer, is only ol' recent discoiery. Amon^^t ancient philoso- phers, the hlea was entertained tliut nature tml an iibhorreiice of a vacuum; and that, when a vacuum was by any means formed, the atr rushed in by virtue of this said repugnance of inert matter to the exist- ence of a void spaco. The antipathy thus entertained hy nature served the purposes of philosophy for two thousand years, when some engineers at Florence, la I CHAISIBI'.RS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. sinking punipn, had rccaaioii to cou»U ui't one to niiso water from an unumtlly great 4tplh, Upon working it, they found th»t the wuter would rihe no higher *than abont ihirty.two feet above ihe well. Galileo, the tnoit celebrated philosopher of that day, was con- •ulted in thii ditKcnllv, and it ii tnid that hiaantirer wae, that *' nature's abhorrence of a raciium extended only to til* helKht of thirtyttrac- tlon he considered to have a determinate intensity t and when such a £oluron of water was raised as was «i)ual in weight to the whole amount of the atlrao- tion, then any farther elevation of the water by the piston became Jnpessible. It is affirmed by some writers that Galileo, at the time when he was interrogated upon the subject, was awnre of the true cause of the phenomenon, and only avoitlfd a direct answer because he had nut yet com- pletfd his investigations. This is generally supposed to ho an unlikely circumstance. That he did not ti»lvj the problem, isoertain; but that he had made ■orue advances toward* the solution of it, appears pro- bable, from the fact that Torrlcelli, his pupil, directed hit! Httention to the same subject, and came to the coikcltisifin, that whatever be the cause which lustains ft I'oliimn of water in a pump, the measure and the •nergy of that power is the weight of the column of water ; and that, if a liquid be heavier or lighter bulk for bulk than water, then the same force sustains a Ie^8er or greater column of such liquid. He proved the fart by experimenting upon mercury, which, as la well know n, remains fluid at ordinary temperatures, and is extremely heavy. A glass tube^ thirty iuches in itngth, closed at one end and open at the other, he filled with mercury ; and applying his linger to the Open end to prevent the escape <»f the mercury, he 'ttlunged It into a riftern filled with the same fluid. No air was thus allowed to enter the tube, the mer- cury contained in which was oluerved to subside from the top and stand at the height of about tw«aly.eight inches, as Torrioelll had auticipated. The absurd BOtloni therefore, if any such was ever seriously Malnuined, that nature abhorred a vacuum to the oxtent of about thirty- two feet, waa fairly exploded ( Stod Torricelli soon perceived the true cause of the Ehenomennn, namely, atmospheric pressure, which will e illuttrated in tlie description of the barometer. The "vacuum thus formed by Torricelll is called the Tor- vicellian vacuum. THE BAROHETCR. The terra barometer is derived from the Greek lan- guage {baroi, weight, and metron, measure), and sfg. aifiea a measurer of the weight of the atmosphere. The following ttgure represents one :— Let A U he a glass tube, upwards of thirty-two inches In length, closed at the extremity U, and open at the n^pu site end A. Alter the tnlie is rariTutly cleaned • n t .<* ihRid<>, let it he r:l)i<] with uie'ciiryor ijuirksilver, which ban been well cJei)ti»ed, and freed frtmi air by Itoiling. (* iJ is a cistern also tilled with nu-rciiry to the heif{ht C D. Let the llngiT he p'ured upon ilie open i-nd Aoftht'tuhi'. which twitig turned don n- ward*, is phin^ed into ihe cistern, and the fitiger reuii>v««l when the ortt'ue Is below the suifi*cu of tie liifuid in tho Isrife vesrrl. The nierturj in the tube will I •' I. Mind til fall to hliont the heitjht of twehty nine or tlmiy lnche«, where, aft4*r (t le^v vili'htions, it will remain. Ninv, the t|ueiiti«in nriftes, Why does tUt) Mitrt-ury in t e tui.e nut fall to ihn level •>■ thit n tt.e cixiem, iiis:e4d of star.rtinifi.t tl.o height K? The tube .. lieitittul.MedKt M, thespce It K miisl bedeallnte of air or any .aher ilui.l, und m henC'e a vai-rium. The column of nuMtury K V, ihervl.ire, preucs with nothing hut iU o*ii we.^lit tm the tuwl L 1' IJ „f the mercury in the i.ntern . fur, »ince all air is excluded Ir.im the in- side ..r iliniiilir, llH-iecun be no htnuisi>hcrir pre^sufi-. Acc.r.l.riK t.p ihd uKivernftl law uf h\dr..M.ili.-v thnt preMi-ue . •-annn.inpd in all direnions, hv tbn pre^- sure ..I thf . ..lu i; 1*, exerted at 1', it is trannmiited M the whole mriHR... <:|» U, w hieh i.. ordiuK' v h»ii , tendency toiu.^wiih an e>|uivulent fono. Mot ibin tendency ttt ri..fl is reii*t«d hy wHne other fnrc* which Is exactly ttifiiiil to the wriKl't of the column of nwr- eury. 1 hi. i» pUii.ly the Wfixht of ihu atnio-pSere whiih pte^^e« np..n tlie siirfjice of the quit k%li cr in Ibccuterii, nnd prevenU It from being eli v;'i. d. An lr.»trunmi,t ctifcuucted upon the above principles is ft baronietcr. If we >nppo»e the bftee of the oolumn P K to he equal t4t a squnre inch, it f.iU.)w» that the atmosphere piim'S on ivery square inch of ilte sutface of the Mercury iu tlft cistern with a force equal (o the weight 331 ! hary i t tquaiu iiii of a C'lutnn of mercury wU and wh(we height Is PE. It mi^tht upi>ear that in thli experiment the weight of the column of mercury P E, suspended in the tube, must be equal to the total presKiire on the stirface of the mercury in the cistern, and that, therefore (sup- posing, as Were, the base of the column In the tube to be equal to a square Inch), this pressure being dis. ^ributed over as many square inches as are In the iurfaoe of the mercury in the cistern, the proportion of pressure by which the ascent of each square inch muat be resisted, is as many times Isis than tlie weight of the column P K, as tb«smrfaoe of the mercurv in the cistern Is greater than the base uf the column. But this Is not the case ; for It Is, as we have remarked, the pecu« llarity of fluids not merely to transmit pressure equally in every direction, but to transmit whatever pressure is exerted on any ona part of iu surface undiminished, to every part equal In magnitude with the iirat. That it is the weight of the atmosphere which, pressing ^n the surface of the mercury in the cistern, sustains the column of mercury in the tube, will be made manifest by breaking the upper eiwl B of the tube, and admit- ting the air to press on the mercury E. The conse- quence will be, that the mercury In the tube will fall to the level P of the mercury In the cistern. There is another very aatisfactory proof that the weight of the atmosphere is tlie cauwi which sustains the mercury In the tube. If a tube of more than lb i rty-four feet long be immersed iu a cistern of water, and the air he withdrawn from it, hy means which shall be hereafter explained under the head Air-Pump, the water will rise according as the air is expelled, but the ascent of the water will be limited to about ihirty.two perpendicular feet; at the same time it will he found that the column uf mercury stupcnded in the barometric tube will be about tweuty-eight per- pendicular inches. If, then, the weight of the atmo- sphere be the cause which sustains both the water and the mercury, we may expect to find that a oolumn of water thirty-two fe^t high, and a column uf mercury twenty-eight inches high, ought to have the same weifiht when they have the>ame bai>e. To determine whether this be the c^ise, let equal measures of mer- cury and water be accurately weiKhe^i, and it will be found that the nierctiry is about thirteen and a half times heavier than the water. Ueuce we perceive that a odiimn of water, whose base ts a square inch, and whuse height is thirteen inches and a half, will have the same weight as a o>lumn of mercury whose bise is a square inch, aud whrne height is one inch. Hence it appears Utat columns uf water and mercury with equal bases, will have equal weights, if the odumu of wate. oe thirteen and a half times the hWght of the mercury. In the present initanc«>, the hel|(ht of the water is 33 feet, orSK4 iouhes, and that of the mercury is 20 inches. U 'Mi he divided hy 134, th» quotient will be nearly 'JH inches. We may in ge- neral estimate the prcsnuie nearly by allowing lib. for every two inches iu the cohimn ; and thu*, wlien tlie column is thirty Inches in length, the atmospheric presiure is 151t»s. on every square inch. In the construction uf barometers, there are a few circumstances which must be attended to, In order to render the instrument a perfect indicator of atmo- spheric pressure. It is evident that the upace E H, above the mercury In the tube, should boa perfect vacuum ; for if it he wcnpied hy any acVial fluid, the Utter will of course pies* upi»[i themercuiy, and thus the real weight of the utmonphero will nut l>u ajicer- tuii.ed. To prevent this, ttie inside of tho tube is mule perfectly clean and smooth, and tho mercury, before it is intnaluced into it, in boiled, for the pur. pitse of ex|»«liing the air which it generally cotmito^ in its ordinary ktate. Thu tube in also Irecd from lni4t perfect l-uomi-ter an atmosphere uf mercury (HKupies the uppc: i-ui of the tube. As the pressure uf tVp atmosphere Is Ruljei t to va- riations, the amount >>t presKiire at any gi\en tin >• is determined by n fD'ale nuiaed upon the baronieter; and this is one of the mixti interesting Uoes of the in- strument. Tiie weight of the superincitmhenl air in never lei»s than what sustains a ailuniii uf mercury at tlu In of liventyeigbt inches, and never uioie than wliat supports one at the height of tlmty-one inches. Indeist, the ran^e of the fluid niuy he srtid i<> be ctMtflned to three iuci es. It is evident, thHt, ah the prejsiir*! npon the surface P in the cisM-rn is Ihs- •I'led, the Fi erniry theie will liie, and iIm^ t'lp of tli cohinitifi of nieniiry thus alway* niovinij (•inmlianeiHinlv, and i-i oppoMte directions. Hence, if the scule bywliidt the disLaiiie betv^een tliHKe suiUcenis nieaaured hu iixed, l«o obfceivaunnH would be in te»idi y to ilerer- mine the hei^jiit of the Coliniiii. Thi^ n.itv he nv..(ded toarertiiiit extent by niiiklng the cisterii lar^e anil tt e hore of the tube imall, so thitt any char ge in the ultiiude uf ihe latter cm produce very liiile upon tin- level ol the mercury in tl.o former ; but, for M-ii-niiiic piirpoM'N, »tner;.l iiiiprovenienis have been made h;, whir', the inccmvetrrnre is obvimcd. Am oig*t ih. re. the folltuvirrff may be noticed i — The gla»s lube con- tainiog the mercury is eocloied iu nue co^ed of brans, which has an opening at E, lig. M, sultiuteutly large (o $\>QW |ht flH ftod fftll uf the mexvury in iha places where it is to bn uhmL Upon this tubo n »c;ite Is engraved for indicating the changes In the height of the o#litmn of nieroiiry, aud the whole is tixed iu ric.S. I tlie olntern A II, which 'Ima a biiitom U moTtaMe hy a icrew V, liy turnliiK which, Ibe ls««l of the mrrcury In the ulilKrii inty be railed or deiiressml. An Index of irnrjr !• attached to the lop of the cistern, fur. ni.hed with a line point I', for showliiK the lerel from which the division! nf the scale C F are meaiiired. When dhservailnniare to be nude, it l> Juit seceaiary to turn the •oreer V, uDtil the lurfaca uf the nterciir/ meeu the point P, and the divlslnni n|ion the tcale C F repreient the actual chanRe of height In the baromatrle oulumn. Thli la lb* uiual form of a baromelar mntinted and providad'wlth a aoale. Thia aaala r maybe furnlihad with a i>«r»i«r or aeniw, to gy or small wheel at f, and oounmrpoised bv the wriftbt at W, less in amount than the weight uf the iron b.,ll. When the surface F rises, ibe iron biill, l>i'liii( bimyaut, will ha rnisi'd with It, ajid tbf cuuul. rpoi-e W will foil j anil when the surlnce F full", the wri»bt of the lr."i ball , being greater than the weight uf ibe c.uintrr|>ills<', will cause it to descend with liii) ili'sccnding surface, and to draw tbu couiiterfMiso W up. It is cvidei f, that, Ibruugh whatever spine ibciiiui ball lliiis inuv.s in asceniliiig or ilesceintiiif^, an i'ii<,iil li'ii.,'tli of tl o string will pass over Ilie wIh'cI I'. Now, Ibis string- rests in a gnKire of the wlit.«l. in such n nLiiiiier that by ill Iricliou it causes the wbril l.i irvolvut anil, cnniri|uei.lly, the tcvuliiiion of this wlieil indicates the leiigtii uf striii.{ wlicli passis u\i'r lis gnaive, which length is equal to llii' illaiiKc n Ihe level of lbi> surface F. U\ittn the centre of this wbeot F, an liiilcx H is placed, wliich, like the haml of a watrb, plu\s upon a graduated circutar plate. Irt-t us suppuse thiic tlie circiiiiifcrciice uf the wbed 1* i^ iwu iiuIihs, thci one complete revolution of ibis wl eel »ill corre^poi d to a change of two imlie.. in ibe level F, and there- fore to a (biiiige of fuur iiiebes in Ibe barulnetrfo dlnmn. lint In one rrvuiittion of the wbetl 1*, t'r tliitt olvo ; uim), , I iiuiicuU-A lift nriH(Vt», |,.vi-l of ih.' r. itn iiiiU'i «uh, vlii)* 111 litis UlVM U lorre^poi d niiil then-. whwl »•, i' rt „t tlm i-iri-U' ; I l*f.poilttl to * j..luiiin. Now, BO thai llR civ. rno^ittil tool u tui:amferem:« III (Ue i.iliimi'- ( tt»' voKiuin, mUcHiuii tiy ;i tlitj circmn^"- I ihu Imrooii'* ul iheinmlKilt ttnioinrt •>''*-■ '■'■• lic t(i«i«.»t to over- I', turfkM F hfts a tendency to rise, It li compelled to nlie the hall — and there Ifl the ohvioui limit to the Indlcationi of the Instrument t namely, that a change to slight that the difference of preuure will not ex- ceed the force necessary to elevate the ball, will fail to be indicated." There are varloui other contrlTanoei for enlarging the fcale of the barometer, and insarlng the accuracy of the results which it Indlcatei. WEATHEK-OLASfl. From a long course of observation it hat been found that changes in the atmospheric pressure are con- nected witli changes of weather, and from this con- nection it ban been attempted to establish rules by which rain^, /tiir, or changeabU weather may be pre* dieted, according to the variutions in the altitude of the barometric column t hence the iniitrument has been designated a^ w«alher-gia$$. Perfect acvuraoy, however, cannot be looked for in these indicitiona. The rule which seems must generally to obtain is, that the mercury is low in high windii i but even this often falls. Little attention ii to be paid to the terms rain^ /•Jr, changeabU, &.C., usually engraved on the plates of these weatber-^laiises, for the chaugeR of weather are not so much indicated by the actual height of the mercury as by iu variations in height We give the following aa the moat correct series of observations which have lieeo made by means of this instrument :— 1. The barometer rising, may be considered as a general indication tliat the weather, comparatively with the state of it at the time of observation, is be- coming clearer. 3. The atmosphere apparently becoming clearer, and the barometer abovn rain, and rising, show a dis- position in the air for fair weather. 3. The Btmoi>ph«re clenring, and the barometer above changtable^ and riiinjr, indicate fair weather. 4. The acmtnphere clear, and the barometer near faift and rising, denote continueil fair weather. 5. Our prognostic of the weather is to be guided relatively, thus i — If, notwithstanding the sinking of the barometer, little or no rain 'follow, and it after- wards rise, we expect continued dry wenther. G. The weather for a short period — via. from morn- ing until evening — may commonly lie foretold with a considerable d(>gree of certainty. If the barometer has risen during the nlf^ht, and is still rising, the clouds high and apparently dixpersiiig, and the wind calm, e»p«H:ialIy if it l>e in or about the north or eMt points, a dry day may be confidently expected. 7. During the inorease of the moon, there seems to be a greater dinposition or effort in the air for fair or dry weather, th»n in the wane; but this dispoi^ition does not comm< nee till three or four d.iys after new moon, and ceaies atKiut four days after full moon. 8. The Imromfter should be olwerved occasionally ..thrice iu the dny, or oftener, when tlie weather is changeable— in order to uotine whether the mercury be stationary, r !>ing, nr ainliing ; for from thin cir- cumstance, together with tiie direction of the wind, and the apparent »tnte of the air at the time, iit infor- mation to bo collected, and acontiouanceof the same, or a sudden change of the weiuher, to be foreseen. Lastly, it is to be observed, that the higher the mercury stands in the scale iu each instance, and the more regularly progressive itn nuitiou is, thestnmger will be the indication. Likewise, the more the wind inclines towHrdK the north or e»st ptdnts, the greater will he the diMpoHitlon in the air for f.tir weather. It Is obvious that the iridicatioon of rainy weather are the reverie of tho!te which predict fair weather.* SirASUKKMKNT or IIE10HT8. The barometer has hfeu upplied to the measure- ment of heights, and this ii one of its most impor- tant uses. It ia oleAr, that, as we BHcend to great •]evati(His, thepieinureof the Htmonphere will l)e dimi- nished, there iteiog a much leKN portion of it above US I and hence the aJiiiiide of the barotuetrjc column will Ih* propiriioiiHiiy lf^^elled. At the level of the lea, the medium height of the cohmin of mercury is twenty eitfht liii'lien ; on the top of .Mount St Bernard it is oiily the half of that ; and in the balloon in which grtiii «hau th« uud vheu tb< • There IS rmr ciicinii^tinu-c whicli nunl iPiiit materially to lii- vilidUo tin- iiulicanoni of the wcather-^l.tM, namrly, the atlrac- tioii of ihr nxHin. Sinc» ihu ithmii hu an Infltif-nre upon wnicr, a deiiic nnil liiMvy bml) , to oa to i-au» gnnt cicvatloni In the tea nt iHu> |i4ri, a-iil il<-|iri-«»ioiia at nthert, it «tU readily be mnrrdeil that ko \}g\\i n twKty :u air will lie minKnlvTubly RlTlrlud by It In tho ■ame niuiiiu-r. Thii«, whur<< the lu-nal (iti-twM hy a culunm of air liit;hi.T and bi>avitr i)ia» it ii^ )tre«iim) with when iheiiiixm litnttractintj an- niher itart nl' ihc enrtht iiiirf.ir«. Ihoie IkIm are pcitnhily \>w- •luci'dt ;in(l tlu'v aiv nHli>|H'iit)vt)i (if ivmiwiaiur*. ThrtfTi-ct which \hty will Unw III n-iiilvrnittuntt-rtiOiitla' imJivAllnniiifilie wealhrr- irtsu l> iilivitiu-.. Ki)t, iit thti thiu' nf ihi« udilitional prewurc, thv ^rury wuiiM rl^p, thus ImltiMtin^ that ihcwi'alhi'i »aa clearing t ttin, in rt'iitliy. the vf ry rcviTic nf ihi< may lie Ihoc.-uu'. M:iy fti' niiriti'tKin »»f the m, n» fxciriipil over ihp atnuxphcrc, p* till' i-aimc uf th.it niyiti'ikiiua inlltieitcc winch our talclUti' an H •'M'rihc wi-rtihvr uwifl That, by drawiiiK up thr air in rq'>>i->tf MMVf, a> it wrrr, ni cvrtulii |tarli, it will iletlrny the ihcrv, iif ,u.(i»ity, and tluii cau"e the vajniun which cnlst c»uin"» nhaiM? of I'limtU to chan^p ihrlr rfUtive in»ui(in, »e«iTi» * to (lewrn-l uf tn rian aci-imllng to clrciimitam-M, Ml**'** * r. The moon will aliu tnflupnre the olouiU (hfm- ihcni u" Spy (^^ jjy atlrapthiK wnnc of Ihpni, and tlrawlnn ihciiW ''"■^ iMwition*, iiorhajiH in lomc tlfgwe attrnuntlnK woatnet »a mpld ami alinoit unaccnutitabli' chanKW of \» the »t ^^ ^^^y(,,jpn,^, -ri,, l„„m„„ Bii,utniMl Ii, that It Oic clou ^,,j |,y „jp nHMm over tlie ntmoBphere and many nf the minor chanij"! of weathur. I)e IjUc ascended, it fell as low as twelve Inches. This elevation was upwards of 20,000 feet. A con. slderable degree of difficulty, however, attends the determining of heights by means of the barometer. If the atmosphere remained always in the same state, and, like water and other such fluids, had at all heights the same density, the experiment could be easily performed, and the barometer would become an accurate measure of the dilference of level of two Btakiuus, or their perpendicular altitude above the level of the sea. But from the great compreRsibility or elasticity of air, each Inferior stratum has a higher degree of density tlian that which is aliove it. Neither does this density increase or change according to any tixed and known law ; for the temperature, which, as is well known, affects the density of bodies, is con- tinually varying. Generally, the temperature decreases as the height of the station Increases, but not accord, itig to any fixed ruloi Thus, then, the irregular va- riation in temperature produces an irregular variation in density, and therefore produces an irregular va- riation in the change of the barometric column. Not- withstanding these irregularities, rules have been determined, by which the difference of level of two phices may be' computed when the heights of the ba- rometer and thermometer at the two places are known. We have nlready observed, that the atmosphere presses upon bodies with a force equal to 15lbs. for every square inch of surface. All bodies which exist at the surface of the earth are continually exposed to this pressure, and at first view it might be supposed that this great weight would produce very deittructive effects. Thus, the body of a man, the surface of which amounts to 2000 square inches, sustains a pres- sure from the surrounding air (for like all fluids it transtnits pressure in every direction) to the enormous amount of 30,000lhB. Such a weight, one would sup- pose without due consideration, would be capatde of crushing him to atoms. But this we find is not the case, and men, as well as all other animals, move with perfect ea^e, and are for the most part scarcely conscioiiH of the existence of an atmosphere at all. This is very eitsily accounted for. The internal parts of their bodies are filled with fluids, both in the liquid and gaseous states, which offer a pressure from within, exactly equivalent to the external pressure of the air. This ii tnanit'ested by applying to the skin the mouth of H c1o!«e voitsel to which an exhausting syringe Is attached. By this iitstrument the air may be con. fined iu the vessel, and the atmosplierlc pressure consequently pitrtially removed from tlie skin. Im- mediately the force of the fluid from witliin will swell tlie skin, iind cause it to he sucked into the glass. Thin experiment may i»e performed by the motith oa the hand or arm. If the lips be applied to the tlesb, ntul the breiith drawn in so as to produce a piu-tial VUC0UU1 in the mouth, the skin will bedrawnor Hticked into the mouth. Ttiiit effect is produced iu the same manner hb in the former inatance. All cH!«esof tiiutcluHB of etfeuts which are C4)mmonly expressed by the word tiwiion, are accounted for In the sitnie nwinner. The tlies and other injects which walk upon ceilin^R and other surfHCes presented down- wardh, are enabled to flu so from the peculiar forma- tion of tlieir leet, by which they form a vacuum. These act as puckers excluding the air between them and the surface with which they are In contact, and t))H atmospheric pressure keeps the animal iu its pu. siiion. The effects nf atmospheric pressure are presented to us in H great vai iety of natural phenomena, as well as artificial contrivHUcea. In the act uf breathing, the pressure and elasticity uf the air are hoth engnged. The air enters the lungR on the same prinri|ile us it ruhhes into a vacuum. By the cliest being expanded. Hit empty space is formed into which the external air forces itM'If; by a muhcular action, the lungs again are conipre:«scd, t^o us to give the air a grctiter I'lusLt- city than the pressure of the external uimosphere. By the excetiH of this elaiiticity it is propelled, mid ekuapes by the mouth and nose. Tlie working of a pair of conitnon bellows is pre'.'isely Biinilur, The effect of atmospheric pressure i» ^t^ikitlgIykhown it. the empty, tng of a cask filled wttU a liquid. It is well known that liquors tire usually drawn off by a c-uk which enters the vessel nu.tr tli< button) of one of the ends, and it is custiMimry to tnike a vetit-htde on the top of the cask, oiherwiNe the iiild not llow out ho rapidly, and indeed woulil liually stop altogether ; for as the ca>-k euiplies, the atr which may lie coitlined in it becufues so rarified, that t)ie external preNsiire upon the orilice of the cock counterbHlunces both the pres- sure of the ccs. It is upon thi^ same principle that we see holes made in the top< of tetipDts, teiikettlcs, and such like utenHil.i. 'i'he gurg- ling noise which i^ produced in decnuting wine and iither liquors, nrines fntm the pressure of the atnm- spliere forcing air into the interior of ibe bottle as it is emptied. What is termed the pneumatic trough used ill the cbcmiciil lahoraliiry, imiMtiin has thus arrived at the bottom of the barrel, the piston, iiwill hel'irced back into its ftln^' tube A B, will expiiii < once ntoie. and alxo till the barrel S V. Upon a hocomi de- prc^sion of the pi-t.in, the air which fills the hnnel will hediMilmr^ed, ;iiid bituilar efl'ecta will fidlo^v its ascent, and mi lIii> procehs may he continued at ptfii- sure Liiirary ./ iJ^e/ui Knotoledge. Alter very dent tb:tt ii. la imp >»hible to form a pcr/tc/ vacuum Ny this nieaii>. Un- same .lir, however small the qoainity muy he, inns', nfCi'-ss iriiy remain in the receiver alter every d.■^.u'^^illM ui the piston. When the tl^i^tici y of the air iii ilie id ei verts lui longer sufticient t>». yet a bpuce, small indeed, but capable of coutainiiig air, inuM exint. The valves, also, have t ) open iiguinat atmospheric pressure, which tlie el istiu torn' III I Uc air in ilie icieivcr must soon fail tocouiiicr- balancc. We can, howevei-, attain a vacuum huil.iient fiir imTt'Iypriutical purposes. The air pump haNbeeu constructed in a great variety of ways ; that in com- mon tl^u has twii harreU and two pistons, the roila of whicli are fuinihhed with teeth, and awheel whiih works iu them. By a half turn uf this wheel oue of the pistons is raised to the top of Us banel, and tlia. ■'M CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. i Fig-t. Other Is d«pi iMted to the bottom of its bnrrel j tliiis a continual d JAcharge of air goe* on. There i« also Gom> xnonly a bfiroineter mad* to communicate with the re- ceiver, by n hich the degree of rarifaction obtained li euimated. EXPCR13JEMT8 WITH THE AIR-PUMP. *" The various properllet of air are capable of being Strikinglv illiiatrHted by meant of the air-pump. If an fgtTt having a Kmall hole pierced in it^ be placed beneatii a receiver, and the air withdrawn, the con- tents uf the egg will be leon to exude through the hole like gum frotii a tree. Thii arises from the air cou- tainnl in the egg becoming more elastic when the ex> tern.il pressure ia withdrawn (for it commuulcated with it by means of the perforation), and thus forces the matter out of the shell. Fruit, when dried and ihrivelled, rnntnins particles of air; and if placed be- neath an exhausted receiver, these expand in the same manner: and where there is no opening In the skin, they will burst it. A shrivelled apple placed in these cirrtiniNt'inces will appear to grow suddenly ripe, and a t)uiii:h of raisins will )>e converted into a bunch of rl|>-> t;r.ip('->. The experiment of the Magdeburgh he. nii-«i»tifrfs may be performed by means of aii uir- puin,'. T«iM hiiUow hemispheres, b d, con- (ttruciel of tirns', as represented in 6g. A, are ^'l I'.rnip"*, tliat, when placed month to moiitli, they shall be in air-tlcht con- tact. '1 bey are furnished with handlesi c d, one of which may be screwed off. In the neck to which this handle is screwed, is a tube furnished with a stop- CiKk. Tbe handle being screwed off, let the heniispheie be screwed on the pump plate, mid the other hemistthere being placed over it, let the stopcock be opened ao as t<> leave a free communication be- tween the interior of the sphere and the exliauHti[e multiplied by lo, we shall obtain 420, which is the amount of the force with which tbe hemispheres will be held together. If one of the handles be placed on a strong hook, and a weight of 400 pounds be sus- pended from the other, the weight will be supported by the pressure of the atmosphere. This is one uf theearlict^t experiments in which the effects of atmospheric pressure were exhibited. Otto Uueriike, the inventor of the air-pump, constructed, in ltia-1, a pair of such hemispheres one foot in dia. meter. Ttie section through the centre of these was about 1 13 square inches, which, multiplied by 15, gives a pressure amounting to nearly I7001bs. If the ex. haustion werecomplete, the hAmispherea would be held together by this forc^ , but, eveii though incomplete, they were still uWit to resist a prwHgious force tending to draw tlieni asunder. Another beautiful experiment, tending to illustrate the use of the air-pump and the phenomena of respi- ration, may now be noticed. The apparatus for the purpoH* is shown in fig. 7* It consists of a receiver placed on the pump plate, and enclosing a ^lo- hular-shaped glass vessel, witiilti which is contained a bladder. Now, iti the ordinary process of rehpira- t'on, A partial vacuum is formed in tbe chest by the elevation of the ribs, and the uir passing down by the or- dinary passage of tlie mouth, enters tbe lung*. In the little apparatus abtive referred to, a vacuum is form- ed by the air-ptimp, and thebf '-^^^iB imniidi.trfiy expands 5 on th. le-udmiision of the air, it returns to its original dimensions j so that a series of expansions and contractions may readily be pro- duced very anali'KOUB to the operations of nature. The fact tlmt in a vicuuni a piece of gold and any light STibhtance, such as a feather, will descend with t'l'ial dejjrees of rapidity, is proved by dropping these b'idies fiom the top of an exhausted receiver. That the prfftenc*? of air is necesMflry for the production of sound, is albo stiikingly illustrated by means of the bir.pump. If a bell be placed in a receiver in such a manner as to admit of l>etng rung easily frorn the out- side, uitboutndri^itting air inttuhe inside, whilst the re- ceiver is full of air the sound uf the bell u ill 1 edistioctly heird ; Init after the rm-eiver has been exhausted, and Bllhotiffli lie l)ell he struck with the same force, the sound will te inaudible, or nearly bd. If a small por- tion of air be ndniitted, it will he fauttly heard, and it will gradually increase, according to the quantity of air which is allowed toerttcrthe receiver. The farther examination of this subject belongs to Acous- tics, Th'ch see. 324 rig. 7. THE CONOENSER. The condenser is the opposite of the air-pump, and a necessary accompaniment to it. It consists ot a flat table a £, supporting a brass plate, and a glass receiver 0. The columns dty perpen- dicular to the table, serve, by the aid of a cross bar /, and rcrewB g A, to hold the receiver down to the plate, and pre- vent the escape of air. The upright syringe i. with its piston and handle Ar, is used to Inject air into the re- ceiver c. In this in. strument the valve opens invtardt. Each time the piston is depressed, as much air is forced In as Is equal to the internal dimensions of the tube. When it Is raised, the valve opening inwards admits air Into the piston, which being alternately raised and depressed, throws into the receiver an immense quantity of air. The wire and hook / serve to communicate with the interior during the performance of experiments. There i \ a guage at one side, to show the amount of condensation. MACIItNEa FOR RAISINO WATER. After what has beeu stated respecting atmospheric pressure, the principle upon which ell those machines called pumpt are wrought will be easily understood. In our number of this uork upon Hydrostatics, a variety of theNu engines were described, and it is un- necessary in this place to introduce accounts of any more of them. Water, wo have more than once ob- served, rises to the height of about thirty-four feet, and cannot by any means be raided higher with an ordinary pump. Ihe reason is, that a column of water of that height is exactly equal in weight to a column of air of the same diameter, but of the height of the atmosphere, aud hence they equalise or balance each other. The pump-box or piston, it is well known, works air-tight in the pump; and when it is raised, a vacuum is created below. The pressure uf the air upon the water without, forces the latter into the lo-.ver oritice of the pump, to fill the vuid space; and pressing upon a valve which opens upwards, and hence does not admit of its descent again, is thus raised to the height uf thirty-four feet, by the alter- nate ascent and descent of tbe piston. AIR.GL'N. The air-gun is an instrument for projecting balls and other miB^iles hy the elastic power of highly con- densed air. It will l>e easily understood from a short description. I)y means of a condenser, such as has beeu described, air is condensed in a strong receiver provided for the purpose, and furnished with a valve which opens inwards. This magazine of compressed air is attixed to the stock of the air-gun, in such a manner as to admit of a commtiuication between the barrel and the condensed air, by opening a valve, by mechanism provided for the purpose. A bullet being placed in the barrel, the valve Is opened, and the com. pressed air rushing out with great force, impels the missile forward with c sary before It is possible to oommunicate this sematlun. Fur instance, we cannot hear with the arm or the hand, but only with the ear, which is conttruotaU after a very peculiar manner. It was early observed, that when « sounding body was struck, a trembling or vibration, very often sensible to the touch, was ob« servable. But that this same vibration communlc.acd to the animal organ called the ear, whose Btruoture )» admirably adapted to be affected by the concussions or tremblingB of surrounding objects, and that upon this circumstance depended the sense of hearing, was reserved for modern discovery. That an agitation er concussion takes place in bodies which are struck or from which sound issues, U a familiar fact.' Kvery noise or sound Is accompanied by such an action. The report of a cannon, the fall of the cataract, the rush of the wind or a wave upon the sea-shore, the thuu- der peal, or the blow of a hammer upon an an\l), the rattling of carriages, and an infinite diversity of other sounds which arise in general from the percui* Bion of one body against another, all go to prove that a sensible and sometimes violent agitation tnk«« place in the bodies from which the sounds proceed. In musical Instruments, which are of a more delicate nature than any sounding body yet mentioned, the same fact is observable. If, for Inntanca, we touch a harp-string which has been struck, a sensible tremor is communicated to the finger.* The question arises, by what means is this agitation or vibration in the particles of bodies communicated from a great dlstanco to the ear, which Is the organ of hearing ? Simply through the medium of the atmosphere, which Is an immense at-rial ocean, In which all bodies at the sur- face of the earth are immersed. That this Is an un- doubted fact, isdenionstratedby theexperimenlalready alluded to, that a bell struck in the exhausted receiver of an alr.pump will communicate nosouud whatever, or at least one so faint as scarcely to be audible ; the report of a gun on a lofty mountain top, and the sound of human voices, are much less loud than they are at the foot of the elevation ; and in the condensed atmosphere of a diving-bell, a whisper is heard aloud. Let us now consider by what means the surround- ing atmosphere communicates sound. Let tis tiike for illustration a series of balls arranged In a line upon a table, or suspended together by threads. If at one end of the line we take a ball, and impel it with force against that which Is next to it, the effect Is observed at the oppoaite extremity of ihe line : of course, the degree of effect produced nmst depend upon the length of the line, the numtwr of balls, and the force employed to agitate them. In general, tbe ball which is at the extremity of the one receiving the impact, files off from the rest, and leaves them utmost stationary. Thus, the intermediate balls serve merely to transmit tbe impulse from the one end to the ither of the series. In the same manner it is, that the agi- tation or impulse from which sound arlseB is trans- mitted In the air. This fluid, like every other body, consists of an Infinite number of little particlct-, u single series of which may be represented to us by iho balls in the above example. These particles are not even in contact with each other; they are separated by minute intervals, but are yet connected togi^tbor by attractive and repulsive forces, which tend to retain them perpetually in equilibrio. In every case, therefore, there is In reality a chniu of such particles reaching from the sounding body to the ear. Tlie former, by itB agitation, strikes thht particle which is next to it; the internieiliatu oneB serve to convey the impression ; aud tbe last tuie Hying olT, strikes the sentient organ of hearing. Tbe pro- cess is exactly similar to that of impulse along u series of bulls; only that in tiie case of the air, the interme- diale particles, instead of reniHining at rest, move each of them backwards and forwards by a very minute interval — the first communic»ting its motion to the second, the second to the third, and soon to the last- each performing a sliglit oscillatory movement, which advances from the beginning to tlie end uf the series. We thus see that the propagation of sou.id in not iustnu- tancouB ; it requires lime to advame fioni the sound- ing body to tbe car, as i^ daily observed aud illuMrattd In the discbarge of fire-arms. If the distance be ui all considerable, a sensible interval is always observed to elapse between thetlahhand ihn report. ' The light flies almost instantaneoubly, but the report is retarded according to the distance — a fact observable in many other cases which leave no doubt thut sound ad. vances only at a certain rate, and invariably requires time for its propagation ; and the re:isou is, that each aerial particle in tbe chain of communication muitt have a certain time -minute, no dtmbt, but still del) nite — in which to perform its oscillation, and couuui^ nicate its motion to the rest; and thus the advamc > > ■ Thp reader hai prububly leen wlint l« callt'tl by nmU'iar tutiinjf or iiituh-fuik. a metallic liittrunicnt comiitliitt (>r pTongv, wlilN), wlii't) itruck, louiid u certain imtt', fn>m , tlie I'. I ^K^"' (lUchci tilt tui:r. If wluii Dio piii-li fuik U \il d tht I o'nt of tlic flntjcr li brought into wmt Ji-t with llm T^k , iIii(;iilHt Ni'Diiiticiti. lititilar t*' (ti.it uf a very altftlu i\w\ ttw ij L'oiiiiiiuiiltMtwl. We do nut nic.ni to Infi-r from IV»'lr;,' pilihrork \i an Insnitnate torp ilo, wlilili sives (i\"fr«-t» iliiik ivhini touched I but niny nut .-it li'ait )i.it('*l' filln wliiiti cleitriclty pnMluiTt siiio fruui tlic »l(jlt)*'^tJltify wtik-h it ihrowi the imnlcioi of die b*'dy t Tlijjf '"•tc *!. Bccount for the rweinblanw of Benwttniii to '**« ludi-d, aad the vunjcvtuie levuis by no nieaus PNEUMATICS. ACOUSTICS, AND AERONAUTICS. lh« •fiutlim and of the lound i> retarded, and only liTMp* wttU a ragtilatad progreiiion along the line. Il li nnt through one lerlei of partictei merely that the McUlatorv motion ii communicated. The sound- ing body having everv part of it In a state of agita- tion, generally aoti all round ; but even though only one particle were originally affected, to intimately are they all connected together, and united Into a system by their mtuual attractions aud repulsions, that this CftDDot advance tn any degree forwards without alTect- tng the partiolei on each side ; these atfec; what are before and around them ; and thus the impulse is communicated, and diffuses itself on all sides. These lateral li^presiloni would appear to be necessarily ■omewhat enfeebled t yet it Is one remarkable charac- terlitio of such oscillatory movements, that, like the vlbrailoni of a distended cord, or the oscillations of a pendulum in a cycloid, they are all performed in the same time, however minute, or however extended. The lateral impressions, therefore, though ever so feeble, are yet transmitted with the same rapidity as the direct t the eound may be weakened, and we often obeerve U so. A speaker, for example, is always best heard in front ; the report of a cannon is also loudest in that direction, but still the sound is heard at the very tame instant all round. It is owing to this dif- fusion of the agitation in all directions, the original impression being spread out, not merely in concentric uirules, like the little waves In a pool when a stone is thrown into it, but expanding continually, if we can conceive it, Into a wider and wider concentric sphere — Il Is owing to this that every sound decreases so ra. pidly as we recede from it, and at last dies away al- together In the distance of a mile; yet the gnns of Kuinburgh Castle have been heard at the distance of twenty milps. That this diffunion of the agitating impression is the true caune of the diminutioa of the sound, is proved in a remarkable manner by confining the air on all sides, as in a tube. Al. Blot, In his Tralte de IMiyiique, gives an account of some very interesting eaperlments made by himself in the train of cast-iron pipes used for the conducting of water into Paris, and which extended about 2860 feet, thus including In their interior a cylindrical column of air upwards of half a mile In length ; at which distance, a person standing at one end of the pipes, and speaking within, could be easily heard at the other. " The lowest voice," says he, "was heard at this distance, so as lu distinguish completely the words, and to ei- tabliiU a continued conversation. I wished to ascer* tain at how low a tone the voice ceased to become audible, and I could not reach it. Words spoken as low as w lieu one whispers in the ear of another, were heard and appreciated t so that, if we wished to speak •0 as not to be understood, there was only one way of doing it t aud that was, not to speak at all." It is on this uriucijile that depends the effect of those tubes which are now in such general use as modes of com- munication between distant apartments in houses and r)Ublic ollicvs. Hence, also, are performed many amus- ng tricks with statues or buats situated in different parti of a room, answering questions aud speaking to one another ; the figures being connected by tubes concealed nmler the walls or floor, or communicating with an apartment below, iu which a speaker is sta- tioned. In regard to the actual velocity with which the im- pulse of sound advances, it appears, from the most ac- curate experiments on the discharge of pieces of ord- nance, and marking the interval between the 6ash and the repttrt, at a distance carefully measured, that In ordinary circumstances this amounts to no less than 1 130 feet each s«cond, which is nearly equal to the ve- Itwity of a canmm-ball tlie moment it isiues from the piece. This Inst is very speedily retarded by the re- ststance of the air, but sound advances with undi. mlniihed vehicity. Hence It will travel a mile in a little more than four seconds and a half, or 12| miles per minute. On this depends an easy method of de- torminintf In many cases our distance from objects, and which may often prove useful, particularly in mi- litary apMr.itions. Wt have only to observe in seconds the inlt>i v.tl lietween the flash and report of the can- non or mo^kl't, and allow 4^ seconds to every mile, or 1130 to i!Vi*ry second. It Ih ri-nmrltable, also, that all kinds of sounds, stron|( or \vt>ttk, acme or grave, advance with the same vi-lwiiy ; and this arises from tlie circumstance al- ready ii.'ticed, that all the oscillatory movements in tht* air, KoA-ever minute, or however extended, are iterronned eHch in the very same interval of time, ritis (MWt was distinctly proved in the experiment nmdo by lliot in the cast-iron pipe already noticed, by plavntg different airi on the llutc at one of the ex- tivmltleK oi iliti tube. Now, it ia well known that a mustvitl air is ad spied to a certain measure or time, which regulates very nicely the intervals between the sucrtsnivo h.ttcB ; consequently, if any of these were pnipagiiU'-t more rapidiv or more slowly than others, by lh« titno thev reached the ear these would have been CDUfounilrd with wimt preceded or followed them ; and the air would have apneared quite altered, in place of which it WM1 uniformly regular, and In its natural time t whence It clearly followed that all sounds are frop,t^,tlod with equal velocity.* All sounds, however, although they travel with the same vetm^ity, do not travel to the same distance. Thus, in approaching an organ which Is playing, the • KnvyctopmUa Brlunain, voU 1., p. lU, WO first tones heard are the basi notes, which, as is well known, are the lowest In a harmonised piece of music. The grave or low notes, therefore, are heard to a greater distance than tho«e whicu are acute or high. The loudness of sound depends upon the violence with which the sonorous body is struck ; for we can {iroduce from the same body sounds having very dlf- erent degrees of loudness, by simply striking It gently or with force. Two bodies, composed of the same subsunce, and of a like figure, but differing as to the quantity of matter which they contain, if subjected to the same shook, give out sounds differing in their degree of loudness — that which has the greater mass sounding louder than the other. Again, bodies of like slxe and figure, but unlike in substance, generate sounds of different loudness when struck with the same degree of force. In this case, the loudness de- pends upon the quantity of elasticity possessed by the bodies. From tnese facts, it may ba inferred that loudness depends upon the quantity of motion or so- norous vibration in which it originates. Its aouteness or pitch depends upon the frequency with which the concussions or vibrations of the sonorous body suc- ceed each other. The frequency of vibrations in strings depends upon their bhortneBs, lightness, and teniion, and thus sounds are divided Into classes ; the slow vibrations being called tasSt iow, or grave notes, and the quick vibrations being termed skarp^ acuity or high notes. In a long or heavy string, there is a greater mass of matter to be moved, and hence there is a slower motion ; and in a string which is ^lack, the force of elasticity which pulls It from any devia- tion back to the straight line is so much the less, thus giving rise also to a low note. It is found that a string of half a given length, or of one.foiirth of a given weight, or of quadruple tension, vibrates twice as fast as on any one of these accounts. These facts are familiarly illustrated in the violin, in which instrument, whilst all the strings have the same length, they differ in thickness and quantity of mutter, the acute notes being generated by thin strings and the grave ones by thick strings. Their pitch can also be varied by means of the pins to which they are attached at one end, these Increasing or decreasing their tension according to circumstances. MUSIC. _ All continued uniform sounds result from a repeti- tion of simitar vibrations. Hence, iu the series from grave to acute, there Is, with respect to the number of beats in a gi.en time, a relation similar to that existing between the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. It is evident that between two sounds, one of which has twenty beats in a given time, and the other only hilf that number in the same period, there will be a coin. cidence at every alternate vibration of that which beats quickest ; and where the relations of the beats are as twenty to thirty, there is the same coincidence at every third vibration of the quicker, and so on. Sounds which have these simple relations to each other are remarkably agreeable to the ear, whilst those in whicli the coincident beats are either farther apart or less regular, are not so agreeable ; nay, sometimes where the irregularity is great, they are found to tie positively har&h to a muslciilear. There is a remark- able fact connected with this partof tlie subject, which Is, that the coincident or double pulses of any two concordant sounds generate a third sound, which is always heard with them, and is denominated their grave harmonic. Relative to this fact, Dr Arnott observes, " If a long musical string be made to sound, and the num- ber of its vibrations in a given time be ascertained, we find that ^alf of it, used as a whole, will vibrate twice as fast ; a fourth part, four times as fast; and so on, producing the sounds of tones most nearly related to each other. A tine illustration of tliis is afforded by the string of a violoncello, when made to vibrate by a bow moved very gently across it ; near the bridge, there is then heard not only the sound or note be- longing to the whole length of the string, but also more fully the subordinate notes belonging to its half, its tttird, itH fourtli, &c. beautifully mingling witti the tint sound, and forming with it a rich harmony. Often, in such a case, the subordinate sounds swell with such a force as to overpower fur a time the fundamental rote ; and then, if the string be carefully examined, it will be found to be vibrating, not as a whole, but in two, three, or four distinct fractions, with points of rest between them, on which points little pieces of paper thrown will remain, while similar pieces are shaken off from every other part. The same harmonic sounds uiuy be produced still more certainly, while drawing the bow across the string, by touching the string lightly with the linger at tlie points where we wish It to divide. The sounds thus belonging to a single cord or string, and produced by its spontaneous division into different numbers of equal parts, constitute, when heard together, or in succession, ttie simple music of nature herself. It is produced pleasingly, as just de- scribed, by tlie single string of a violoncello, but In tlie most perfect manner by the instrument culled the JColiun harp." It is well known that the strings of an .Eoliau harp are generally tuned in perfect unison witti each other to the Buiiie pitch, except one, which serves as a baas, being thicker than the others, and vibrating one-half as fust. Uy the varied undulations ol tlie tireeze, thene are all thrown into motion, and e:icli generates a sound, or rather a series of such sounds as have been men- tioned, cor^e^puudiug to the force of the current of air which sweeps ttie strings. Thus, nature lierself generates the siniptumiijor sciil J or chord, a scale which has arisen in all natlonn, however remotely situatei*, and into which tho mont untutored individual natu- rally falls in ascending from any given note, piovided he possesses a musical ear. The relation between the chords is such, that any notes in the principal beat thrice, whilst the corresponding notes in the low chord beat twice ; and the notes of the high chord beat thrire, whilst the corresponding notes of the prlnclpiil beat twice; and In the complete scale, the principal chord begins five notes above the lower, and five notes above the higher. The diatonic major scale has eight note% the first and the last of wliich are in unison, and called ociaveSf the upper note vibrating twice as fast at the lower one. However far the musical scale may be extended. It is only a repetition of the notes suc- ceeds '*^ that from which we began ; these, including that noito, ZT'^ <>ui>». in number, and are called, accord- ing to their relation to ;*"" initial or key-note, tecond, tMrdj/ourihf and so on. KEY-NOTES, &C. The human ear is capable of perceiving a note so low that it beats only thirty times in a minute, and the highest which it Is capable of appreciating has thirty thousand beats in the same space of time. The intervals between the notes In any musical octave are not all alike ; two of them are onlv half as large as the others ; and whatever note we begin from, these invariably He in the major scale between the third and fourth, and the seventh and eighth, and are called eemitonet. Did these semitones not exist in the oc- tave, there would be no uso for any signature (that is, a flat or sharp at the commencement of the stave) ; neither would there have been any necessity for fixing upon one note of the scale as a fundamental note, or what is vulgarly and most inappropriately called the natural note, that is C ; for on instrumental performer could have chosen any one as such. To the vocalist all are alike, for his ear leads him to strike the half notes naturally, and without effort; it Is only where additional semitones are Introduced that he is as It were compelled to deviate from the natural path fur a moment; but striking off upon a new bias, he changes the position of the semitones only with regard to the key-note from which he has departed ; in the key-note into which he has modulated, they still retain the same relative position, and they are immediately taken bv him with the most perfect ease. It will nut be difficult to show the propriety of what is called sharp- ening and flattening the scale, iu order to insure both melody and harmony in the execution of any piece of music. One note, (J, has been fixed upon as the fun- damental nof upon which all the other key-notes are formed, not because it possessed any inherent quality or virtue more than other notes, but because, since It was necessary to fix upon one note as a fundamental one, it was found to be the most convenient, suiting the compass of voices and instruments best, and being in the middle of the scale. It is usually termed the natural key-note, and there is a prejudice which pre- vails not only amongst the uninitiated in musical science, but >s even found to obtain countenance amongst those who should know better, that there is something mysterious connected with C ; that it is the note most natural to the human voice, and is hence the one upon which the untutored ear and the wild savage will pitch his strain of triumph or love. Nothing can be more absurd. No uote of the gamut is more natural than another. D, B, A, or any other note, might have been taken with equal propriety as far as that goes, but C was chosen for the reasons assigned. A tune In the major mode which has no signature, that is, without any sharp or flat attached to it, is upon the key of C. But it would be inconvenient to set every piece of music upon this key; hence, notes above or below it are fixed upon as key-notes, and they have all one or more sharps or flats placed between, or ut on, certain lines at the beginning of each stave. TJ.e reason of this will appear obvious by a short explanation. In the key of (J the semitones lie between the third and fourth, that Is, technically, K and F, and the seventh and eighth, that is, B and V. Now, suppose we wish to set the tune upon a higher key than C, say D, It is evident, that, since the semitone lies between £ and F in the fundamental key, if the key.nt)te be D, it will lie between the second and third instead of the third aud fourth ; and in order to place it there, F must be sharpened, that is, raised hiilf a tone. Accordingly, upon the F line, a sharp is placed iu all tunes in the key of D where sharps are employed, for the purpose could be effected by flats eqnitlly well. In the fun- damental key, the other semitone lies between B and C, the se' eutU and eighth ; but in the key of D, the in- tjrv 2* V-ctween B and C Is evidently not the seventh and eighth, but the sixth and '^tenth, :o that, in order to place it there, C must be sharpeneo, which will be found invariably the ca >e in pieces of r.iunic having D as their key-note. By .his means the semitones are placed in thilr proper lelailvu position lu the octave. Upon the same pnncip o nil thu otiier key-notes are formed. The purpose can be effected by means of flats, but this does not i iter in the slightest degree the rules laid down. In the 'niniir mode, the semitones lie between tliu second an.l !iird, and sixth and seventh, in ascending, and tite t'lt'iU und sixth in descending ; and the signatures in this, us in the major mode, aro so placed as that, in every key upon which a piece of music is set, they shuU retain the same relative posi* \ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE: PEOPLE. tloD. The fuiidHinetttHl ikuh in th« minor niod« in A. ll it imp(MBilila lit tliii |>ltiv to «nter rnrther upim lh« Bubjttct, but ihtt fttiove deiicriptltin will he KtifHcfsnC to couTfly an id«M of wliat in ttN.'liiileally callad tratiipiMi. tloD, and whicli it twi olien t>y empirloil pnifuaoNof th« loieuce euvvloptd in a cloud of myuttrj, MUSICAL INSTfiUUKNTt. With regard to miuical inttrumenta, and othar parti of our Btiliject, we shall avail ourtelrea of a pfwtion of the article Acouittict, in the Brltlth Cyelopadia, written, we betiefat hjr Profetsor Partingttm* Glait Tflifcela of different dimentloni are oajwble of baing arranged lo a« to form a rafular mualcal Male. *' The arrangement of the giaatet, at orlgiually tug. gaatad by Ilr Arnott, it ahowii in R^, B. The amall. opvQ circlee repretenk the mimtha of the gUaaet atand- ing in a mtliugany case, and (he relation of the aUasei bi the written mu> Flf. flb SUM aical uoiat it rbown by the common muaio Hnei and ^^ apaMi which cunnect them. The li*arner discover* immediately that una row of tba glutei produoea the notet written upon the linea, aad the other row the notet Iwtween the line*, and he la meutally master of the instrument by timple iBipection. Thit arrangement aJtu recdart the per- formance easy, for the notet most commonly aounded in aueceiilon are contlguout ; and the relations of the notet forming a aimpte air are to obvioue tu the eye, that the theory of musical combination and aooom- ptolment is learned at the same time. The set of gUtsetf here represented has two octavea, and the pUyer standi at the side of the case, with the notea Moendiug towards the right bsod, aa ia the piaao* forte* The Tibration of plat«i differs from tbote of roda in the same manner as the Tibrations of membranct differ from those of chords, the vibrations of which cause the plate to bend in different directions, being combined with each other, and tometlmbs ocvusiouing tlngultr uiodilicatiunt. Theiie vibrations may be traced through wonderful varieties by Professor (Jhladni't raethixi of strewing dry tand on the platea, which, when they are caused t4> vibrate by the operation of a bow, It collected Into tuch lines as iadlcate thoae )»art9 which remain either perfectly or very nearly at rait during the vibrations. Dr Ii»oke had employed a similar methiKl for thowing the nature of the vi- brations of a bell, and it has sometimes been usual in military mining to strew aand on a drum, and to judge, by the form in wliich it arranges itself, of the qnarier from which the tremors produced by couuter- mlniiig proceed. It utnitlly happens that the vibration of a cord de. rlates from the plane of its iirat direction, and becomes a roution or revolution which may Iw c^Hisidered as compoted of various vittrations in difftrent planes, aad which is often exceedingly cumplicdtcd. We may obeerve this by a microicupic inspecthm of any lumi. nout ^Hiint on the surface v( the chord { fur instance, the reflection of a candle in the coil of a fine wire wound round iL The velocity of the motion is such, that the puth of the luminous point is marked by a line of liglit, iu the same manner as when a burning coal is whirled round t and the figures thus described are not onlv different at different parts of the »ame chord, but they often pass thituigb an amusing variety of form* during the progress of the vibration ; thev alto vary considerably acciinling to the mode in w hiuL tliftt vibration is excited. A very useful instrument for ascer- taining the effects of length and pre** sore, with reference to a vibrating atring, is shown in fig. 10. The string ia firmly attached ot one eitremity Ut the projecting arm, and pans' iig over a bridge himewhat nearer lo the centre, i* strained by the weight and pulley at the opp.t'>tira. An ciHStic body may tie maile in aitMiine a vibritt()ry state in two wuvb ; either immediately t>y any momentHry im- pulse, which, alteritig the naturut p<>- slliiHts of ita particles, allowt tliem afierwjtnlt to return by a Micn's*ii of ikochronous ntcillutions loihnir foi mrr rtatei or, xecundarily, by meuns of an immediately se« it tu rfciprocate to the Utter, when certain Conditions, on which depr-nds it* susrepiibility of vi- brating iu such a manner, are fnlhllid. 'J'itis rei'i- procation Ui which, uJiere the eifet't in referred to. the term rehonanee is applied, is efftTteil bv nieaTis nf the undulations whirli are produced in the air, or in any fluid or solid medium, by the periodical puUe« of the original vibrating body \ these uMdulHtioni t»eiiig capable of putting in motion alt bodies whose pulse* 320 are coincident with their own, and cnnte4)uently witb thnaeoftbeprimUtveionndtnghody. OalileonlMerveri, that n heavy peiidulnm might be put in mntlini by the least breath of the mouth, provided the hliiNis be often repeated, and keep time exactly with tbi» vilMii- tlons of the prndtiliim ; and this remark nffnrds n correct explanation of the phenomenon* Home of the most ohrloits ca^es of resonanre are— the vibratlimt of a string when another tnned in uni. son with it it made to^vibratei the resminding of the drinking-ghiss to the Round of the voice, or of » mu^lcHl instrumentt therecipnKMted vibratitm* nf a sounding- board, communicating immediately with n vilirailng string nr tuning-fork, &o. In the laH-menilonHd in stano^ though the atring and the fork arvthe originiil vibrating bodies, the andrblesmmd is dependent on the resonance nf tht- sounding-board. If one of the branches of a vibrating tnnlng.fork be brought near the embouchure nf a flute* the lateral aperture* of which are slopped so a* to render it ca- pable of producing the same sound a* the fork, then the feeble and scarcely audible sound of the fork will be augmented by the rkb resonance of the column nf air within the flute. The sound will be found greatly to decrease by closing or opening another aperture i for the alteration of the length of the column of air in such case renders it no longer proper to reciprocate perfectly the sound of the fork. Tbi«ex|)eriment may )« easily tried on a concert flute, with a V tuning.fork. To eninre tucc^s, it Is n-^>ressary to remark, that when afluteiibk .. .ntowi.h the mouth, thennder lip partly covering thfj embunchure, renders the sound about a semitone fiatterth&n the sound when theemhouehure is entirely uncovered ; and at the latter must be In unison to that of the tuning.fork, It it necessary, In most case*, to finger the flute for fi when a C tuning.fork i* employed. A similar effect mar be produced byaubitltutlngfor the column of air in tne flute, the alterable volume of air contained within the cavitv of the mouth. Mr Wheatst4me found the founds of tnnlng-forks recipro- cated most intensely by pUcing the tongue. Sec. In the position for the nasal coutlnunns sound of ng{in song), and then altering the npetture of the lips until the loudest sound Is obtained. A column of air may alto reciprocate a sound orl. f[iually produced by a wind inatmment, as the fol- owing experiment wiU shov» Plaoe two concert flute* on a Ubie, parallel to and at a short distance from each other ; oa the one »-hich is nearer, sound sharp (all the lateral apertures being open), and draw out the tube nf the second flute, so that it shall be abiHit a semitone flatter, to make it equivalent lo tlie flattening of the tint flute by the partial closing of the embouchure by the lip; a miiterial diirerence wilt then be distinguished in the intensity of the tone, by alternately clitintr and opening the fint hole of the more disunt insuo.aeo, thereby rendering it incapable or capable of reciprocating the original Kound. That this effect is occasioned solely bv the transmlsalon of the sonorous undulations, and not liy any wind actually blown into the seoimd flute. Is evident from the difference being in iutenaity, and not iu pitch. Among the Javanese musical inKtmments brought to KiigUnd by the Ute Sir Sumford KalBes, there ia one called the * Gender,' in which the reionanres of unisiHiant column* cf air are empkn-ed to augment tlic sou'ids of vibrating metallic plates. Of these [ilHtes there are eleven; the sound* 04irreKpond with liie Tiote* of the diatoitic Rcale, deprived of its fourth and seventh, and extend tbrougli t«a oet^ves. The mode of vlbratimully by two ttringa, one passed through two Ifle* in the one nodal line, and the other tbrontrh Mmilar hole* in the other nodal line of each plate. Under each plate is placed an upright bambov con- ttining a cohimn of air, of the proper length to reci- H-ncatH ttie lo«ve I hiund of the ^late. ll' the aper. tore of t)ie bwrntHHi )k< covered with paHteboard, and it* corre*ponding plate be struck, a number of acut>» wmnds only (depending cks, which by thi* means cott I.'H)i, and strike without the sharp and dissonant tinkle i-oinmon to light bells. A verv prettv Inilrument, culled a ' Kelelnnphnne,* has been contrived by M r Wheat-' sttme, of which the accom* panying cut is arepreeen- tation. It cimilsta of- four vibrating rods, on which va- riously formed l>odl«* are planed, and verybeantlfnl and vivid figure* produced by , merely drawing either of the ( rtids out of the perpendicular, and then allowing them to vibrate freely. Quicksilvered glau bead* reflect the light of a lamp or the stin-beams better probably than mmt other objects ; but Mr Wheatatone showed the editor the letters on a common addre** card, and which, when aiuehed to a bent rod, prrwluced two most elegant compound figure*. The white line* In the figure beneath ahow the patht of a terle* of thete rods. Fig. 1& If a (-UO «l or wave be reflected Ironi u curved ttir- faee, the i ew direction which it will aisume may b« determine I either from the condition that the velocity with whi'.h the Impulse i* transmitted must remain unaltered,or from the law of reflection, which require* that the direction of the reflected pulne or wave be such a* to form an angle with the surface, equal to that which the Incident pulse before formed with it. Thus, if a sound or wave proceed from one focut of an ellipsis, and be reflected at iw circumference, it will be directed from every part of the circumference to- wards the other focut ; tince the distance wliicli every portion of the pulse has to pass over in the same time, in following this path, is the same, the lum of the line* drawn from the foci loany part of the curve being the fcme and it may also be demonstrated th:«tthese line* form Jilways equal angles with the curve on each side. The iruth'of this proposition may 1« easily shown by a simple experiment on a basin of water ; the cnrva* ture of a circle dilfert ito little from that of an ellipsli of small eccentricity, that if we let a drop fall Into the I.Bdln near its centre, the little wave which I* excited will be made to converge to a point at an equitl dl*- tance on the other side of the centre. The effect* of these reflection* are perfectly il]ustrat«d In the ac- companying diagram*. Fig. It. An unibr£!!t held In a proper potiition over the head may*erve to collect the force of n distant stoind by reflectitm, in the manner of a hearing. tmrriftut ; but itn Rub'Unre is too slight to reflect any sound very perfectly, unless the sound lull on it in a very olii qna direction. The whispering gallery of St Paul'h |tr i duces an effect nearly similar by a continueil rcirett tion of reflections. Mr Charles's paradoxical exMbi tion of the Invisible Oirl has also bexn s»nl todci'Ctid on the reflection of sound ; but the deception ii. irtilly performed by conveying the souiol tbrougit pi^Jt•^ in- geniouftly eonceaI»'d, and (rpening oppohiie to tin; ni.iuth of the iri'.npet from which it s ems to proct-ed. The speaking and hearing horns owe their opera- tion to tlie reflet:iion of sound. The nader lian Hln-udy * e-i how capable a continuous pi|(e it ol tiNii^Miiiiing the waves or pulfcc-s of the air. Tills in hImi, u> h ter- luincxtcut, uccuniplialied by utrunipet.montUrtl veisel, .-tnd a second apparatus may be employed tu col ect the pul^'jii uhich have thus been irausmi^ied. Vig. iX The alwve figure shows atone view the J jf both form* of the trumpet." iteffeett PNEUBIATICS, ACOUSTICS, AND AERONAUTICS. liver the lit ttMiind iriiiitptit ; 111(1 vyjy .IV ,.r. nt end, uml tlther open or iihut at tho other. The loitgth of the lOunding cohimn determine! the natuie uf ihavitini- tlonif lut AluDt( with the fundamtntHl tone, thert* ftra tnterinr and tulordinate vilirutiuua. Tbv whule oohimii dividtfi itialf into reguUr piprtioni h\\ih\ to the half, the third, and to on, of the lonKitudinal ex- tent, In tho mme manner as we ihowud waH ibu Kn>-e in fttrlitued Initruroenta. We may uhHurve iOD)uthii<(( ftlmilar to these vibration* In the contruction and vji- panslon uf a long and very elantic itriii([, to outi ex- tremity cf which a bali i* attHchud. A (uiral ipriuK alio •hoH'i, and perhap* more cJearlyt ttie repeaiwi atratching and recoil. If luddenly struck at one and, it will exhibit not only a vibradoa tbroughuut Hi whole extent, but likewiie pariiul one*, wbiuh wind vermiuiilarly along the chain of aUitlo rinK*' If the uir In struck with great force, the lubordlnttH vlbrutions sometime* predomliutu, and yield the clearfit and limdait tOACs. This may be ohiervttd In the dying sound* of a bell, which rite one or two octaven, and expire in the acut««t note. Upon th« degree of furoe with which the iimtrument ii tjhiwn, depends the performance of the bugle horn, whose compass is very small, conslfttlng only of tlie slnipteKt nota^. In other wind tuitruraent*, the nature of te> reral note* produced ^Ivpeoda upon the length and sixe of the tube, or the ponittons of the holas in its stdai. In the organ there is a pipe for «aoh note, und wind is admitted from the bellow* to the pipe* by the action of key* similar to tbose of a plano^forte. Tho organ may be played alio by a barrel made to turn ilowly under the keys, and to lift them in paisiiig, I j means of pins projecting at certain determiuaie iuter- val* from the surface of the barret. In wind iuatru- ments which are Curnishud with reedi, the tonu dependx on the stiflTnei*, weight, lengtJi, &c. of the vibrating plate or tongue of the revd, as well a* on the dimensions of the tube or spaoe with which It is connected. A very singular affect is produaed in the vibra- tions of a column of aJr, contained within a tube opeit at both ends, by mean* of hydrogen gas, used in the following manner. Professor LeaUe tlius describes the experiment: — "A pbia), having a long narrow Slasa pipe Atted to Its ufok, Mog par' y AUad with ilute sulphuric add, a few bits of lir » are dfopped into the liquid. As the decomposition of the water embodied with th«acid now proceeds, the hydrogen gas thus generated flow* ragular|y from theaparture, and is capable of catcbing tire, -and of burning for some conftider«hle time vith a small yet steady round flame. This very simple arrangement, fr^iuently styled the pbilosophio lamp, is in reality uf the same nature with tlie combination, on a large icale, of the gas lights. A glass tube being pused over the exit fiipe, the burning speck at its point instantly shoots Dto an ehmgated Bame, and creates a ctmtinued sharp and brilliHut musical Miuud. ThiselTect Is nut owing to any vibrations of the tube Ltself, for It Is nuwiae altered by tying a handkerchief lightly round tie glatm, or even by substituting a cylinder of paper. The tremor excited in the column of air is therefore the Biilc ciiiise of the incessant tone, which only varies tiy a clmiif^e in the place of the Itauie, or a partial obsU'iiciion applied at the end of the tube. Hut still it ii4 nut riisy ti> conceive how the mere burning of a jet of hydro^'eu gas within the cavity should produce auch i)iiwert'ul vibratioun. The exciting force must neceHMirily act by siarlM, and not uniformly. The length of the tlame might seem to prove that the hy- drogen gus is nut consumed or c, it Is weM known, are in the 'ijilii-tl to tliiit part of tlia Miificu of tliu body oppo- niu' til tliii part wliicb »u wisti to examine, and the fu- rwhts upon the other end. l)y this means the actioiitt ^(ijiig on in the che^t, an<* *b« nat>ire of the ■lin«i.tftes tbere, Can bu tietected hy the dltference of iliH H.'undi conveyed. Tlio resulti of the Ub-* of this iiistroiuent have in many instancfci been imporVant. nKi'LKCTinN or 80Ui»n, Wben a wave nf water strikes a wali, I; U :h^'«wn >>auk with a degree of force proportioned to .ts mxHR, and the velodty with which it oame Into et '- Union with the wall. H is In the same roann r tlint ibn pulitM or waves of sound are reflected )r thrown baek from flat aurfano", thnaproduolng whit is termed an echo. It is evident that the smof4h ir the fcurface whiuh reflect* the sound, the more '^erfe:t will be the echo. An irregular Kurfare, by throwin,if (Mck ihe wave of sound at irregular Intervals, will b<, oiinfoiind and diKtract It, that no distinct or audible euht> will be reieoted. On the contrary, a rvgalar wmoave Rurfane will roflectanund in such a manner ihatat a uerlain point tkeroriections from each part of the ninoave surface wUl- be concentrated into a fo- cus capable of priiducing a very powerful efl'ect. The ooiMwntraUon nf aonnd in this manner produoeimany remaikalle elTeota Imth In nature and art. Some of these havn been already noticed. The Tolucity with which an echo retuma to th« spot •wber* the sound origfaates, depends of conrso upon ihfldiKtanve of the reflecting surface; and since sound travels at tho rate of about 1 130 feet In a second, a rock iituated at half that distance will return an echo in exactly one second. The number of syllables which we pronounce in a seoond will in auob a case be re. panted distinoily, while the «id of a longer story would blend with the xomment«ment of the echo. Where there is an echoing ir.rfaae on the opposite side of a river, its breadth ceuld be determined by ascertaining the time >jiioh Iranspirea before an echo is returned. Or A (-nottobMrves, " There is a curious effect of echo which both Illustrates the nature of the phenomenon, and proves that a to»e or musical sound is merely a repetition of pulses following eaeh other verfrqtilckly. Iron railings are generally formed of'square bars, of wliich individual bars any side, therefore, is a plane surface, and may produce an echo. Now, a sound, snob as tho sharp blow of a hammer, occurring on one side, and near the end of such a railing, is echoed to a cor- respiNtding place on the other side by every bar in it ; and as the «che«s do not return all at once, but In re- gular succession, Recording to the increasing distance of the bars, the consequent regular sucoemlon of slight pulses, with uniform and small intervals, affects the ear, not as the echo of a single blow, but as a con- tinued musical tone, the pitch of which depends on the di^tance of the bars from each other," One of the most singular and distinctly marked Il- lustrations of the reflection of sound forming a natural echo, occurs on the banks of the Rhine nearly Lur- ley. By referring to the accompanying pictureiique illustration, the reader will readily understand how the reverberations of sound are produced. Fig. 16. P is considered as the phonic centre, the primary point of radiation for the sound, and the waves striking at the flrKt series of numerals are reflected to twenty, and BO on through the series of reflecting points. THE AM131AI. EAR. Beatitirnlty ns tho ear Is adapted to the purposes of life, its mcchaTiihm is cxceedinK'y nimple. There is tirht externally a wide-mouthed tul>e or ear-trum])ut, which collects the undulatious nf sound. It is ilitfer. ently formed in ditforent animals, but always admir- ably adapted to their circnmHtauces and liabif. It is moveable in many animals, so that tliey can turn it In the dircctlr raennecof Fails has Invented what he culU a atethfitcope or che»t inapectort which Is simply ft woodea cylinder. One end of this Instrument is 337 entrated at the licttom of tho eactuhe tails upon n tnenibr.ine, stretched there like the tup of an ordinary drum, over tho tytnpatmn) or driitn t<( the ear, and caii^eM it to vibrate. On the opposite side uf this niein- braiie, tl.ore is a HUiall cavity juitluwed out iu bone, which i.s ternu'd ttie barrel oC ilit* tNuipaiuiin. He- tween t)ii.-t parti»f the ear and the e.\ternal aimoHihero there is a p:iHsagu to tho back part i>f tlm oiotitli. by which the air enters, and thus equipoiitcH the pres- iur* of the atmos^ her« ou the other aide of the mem. brunc. DeatnchH enstien wben this tiilie is ohstrnoted. AcrohS the cavity there Is extended, though by no means in a straiglit line, a series of small bones, the oxurior one of which is attached to the membrane we have just mentioned, the most Internal of the set being firmly connected with another membrane, which, iu conjunction with it, sliuts up the entrance to a still more deepened cavity called the labyrinth of the ear. This complex inner apartment, over which the nerve of heat ing is spread as a lining, is full of water ; and, therefore, by the law of fluid pre**tire, when the force of the movii>g membrane of the drum, audog through the chain of bones, is made to compress tho water, the pressure Is instantly felt over the whole cavity, the same aa In a hydrustatlo press. The labyrinth con- sist* of the venilbule, a hollow spaoe, andthree semi- circular canals, imbedded in the hard bone, and a winding eavity called the cochlea, oonvtduted some- what lile a snail'* shell, in which fibres, stretched .'across like harp strings, constitute the lyra. All the p.'ssage8 are lined by a membrane, on which the sen- tient extremity of the auditory nerve is expanded in diffet vnl^ shapes ; from these It is collected into one trunk and goes on to join a particular part of the brain, ..^md thus complete the communication between the extaiBnl agent and the aenaorium. 8nch i* the mechanism of ti.c ""^^ I'or a more detailed account of it, aufeomical works must be consulted. AEAONAUTICS. Aeronautics Is the art of sailing In or narlgating Ihe air. In remote ages, the idea of rising In the at- uoiiphere by a machine was entertained, but never realised until modern times, whon gases lighte^ than air were discovered. Francis Jjana, a distinguished Jesuit, in the year 1C70, was the Hrst who attempted to construct scientific apparatus for navigating the aifrial ocean. The following out represents it. He tig. 17. proposed to raise hie rasael hy the aid of four balls ex. nausted of air. The inventor argtted that the dimi- ntbhed weight of the bails would buoy up not only themselves, but the ajfconaut and his voiael ; but it is evident that, before halls oapabl»af withstanding the external pressure of the air could bo coustructed, tlie materials employed being necessarily of a strong na» ture, tboy would turn out to be bulk for bulk hea- vier than the air. Thus the acheme was abortive. The discoTery of Inflammable air, .or iiydrogen gao, suggested to Dr Black, the distinguished chemist, the idea nf filling a bladder with it ; and leaving it to it- self, be correctly concluded that it muht ascend in the atmosphere. In 1782, Cavallo made some experiments, in which the fact was proved ; and In the same year, the two brothers Montgolfier constructed a machine, and ascended in it the year fidtowing. The attention of philosophers being now drawn to the subject, seve- ral experiments were made with success. It was also found, that, if a tire lie placed under the aperture uf a very thin bag, and thini rarity the air within, the bsg will ascend. Thus there were two species of balloons discovered. The process uf filling balloons on the small scale for this species Fig. 10. of atfrial navigation, will readily Ire understood by a reference to the accompanying sketch, in which a . simple condenser is employed. The i common mode is to generate hy- I drogeii gas in a btittle, by pouring dilute sulphuric acid on granulated zino { but the hot and moiht vapour from the acid speedily trimieiitii. Bewu furtunstely picked tip in au rxliuu»t(>inpoM><) iit ftrlpn of VHriCKatfil i k, the hartni'iiyof ^vhich lino m puntiiulitrly pleaftiiitc etrfctnn the vyc (tvHrttilt in iliniwn an viivalMpa. f network, ffbtch pHKhint; duwii ft>rv«i at a iu|>pi)rt to which the i*.ar ii aitiirlicd. It mint be confriied that aeronautic rxperimenti art not nf very vreat practical utility. However, »e- raral eminent phlhMopherabaveaHcended in halloonN, and ascertained various Interesting sclenCiflc facts. MM. Dloi and Gay Kussao some years since rose to a cniislderahle elevation, and havInK provided them- selves with a number of philmophTcal instruments, such as barometers, hyrometers, sleotromelerst &o., thi>y were enabled to determine several points of Im- portance. After they had rliien to the height of about OMM) English feet, they began their eiperlmenul operations. The magnetic needle was attracted, as usual, hv iron ; but they found It impossible at this time to detarmine with accuracy its rate of oscillation. A voltaic pile, cooslstlnf of twenty pain of plates, exhibited all iu ordinary effectt. By rejecting some more ballast, they had attalntd the altitude of 0940 feet, but afterwards settled to that of tlOOO feet. At this great elevation the aalsiab vhich they carried with them appeared to suffer from the rarity of the air. They let tiff a violet bee, which flew away very swiftly, making a hummiognolie. The thermometer had fallen to 50'4'' by FahrenheU \ vet they felt no cold, but were, on the contrary, scorched by the son's rays. Both of them had their pulses much accele- rated 1 but notwithstanding this, they experienced no sort of uneasiness, nor any difficulty In breathing. What perplexed them the most waa the difficulty of obperving the oscillations of a delicfttely suspended magnetic needle. But they loon remrked, on look- ing attentively down upon the surfao* «l the conglo- merated clouds, that the balloon slowly revolved, first in one direction, and then returned the contrary way. Between these opposite mitiona there Intervened short pauses of rest, which U waa necessary for them to scixe. M^'atchlng, therefore, the moments of quies- cence, t^y let the needle to vibrate, but were unable to Ci)unt mora than five, or very rarely ten oscilla- tions. A numlicr of trials, made between the alti- tudes of 0500 and 1.1,000 feet, gave 7" for the mean length of an oacillation, while at the surface of the earth it required 7 l>20th" to perform each ot-^illation. A difference ro very minute as (he hundred and for- tieth part could be imputed only to the imperfection tif the experiment ; and it was hence fuirly concluded that the htrce of magnetic attraction had in no degree diminished at the greatest elevation which they could reach. Thedirectiiin of this force, ton, seemed, from concurring circumsunce^, to have continued the same. At the height of 1 1,000 leet they liberated a green lin- net, which Hew away directly ; but feeling itielf aban- doned in the midst of an unknown ocean, it soon re- turned, like the dove to the ark, and settled on the stays iif the balloon. Then mustering fretth courage, it tocik a second flight, and dashed downwards to the earth, deaci iblng a tortuous yet almost perpendicular track. A pif^eou wltich they let off under similar circum stances btforded a more curious Kpectacte. Placed on the edge of the car. It rested a while, tlien launching into the abyss, jt fluttered irregularly, and teemed at first to try us wings on the thin elenient ; till, after a few strukes, it gained more confidence, and, whirling in Urgo circles or spirals, like the birds of prey, it precipitated itself towards the mass of ex- tended climds, where it disappeared. It was difficult, in those lofiy and rather humid regions, to make electrical observations. However, they let dann from the car an insulated metallic wire of about 2/U) ftct iu length, and ascertained that the upper end indicated resinous or negative electricity. Ttiis experiment wiia several times repeated; and it hecmed to corroborate fully the previous observations of S.iussurc unit Volta relati\ e to the increase of elec tricity met with in ascentltng the atmosphere. The dimiiiMtion of temperature in the higher regions was fimnd to be less than wliat is generallv I'Xpcrieuced at the SHme tiUiiude on numntains. The hvgriinieter, or rniher hygro&cope, of Saussure, ii(l\nnred ret^ulaily towards diyiiess, in prnporiion to the altitude which they attained. At the elevation of 13 000 feet It had changer! from 8(>.»' to30'. "But still," nays I'rofcisur Ijenlie, fioni utiiim the account of ibis asct'tit is principally taken, '* the roncluhion, that tl e air tif the higher btrata is drier than that uf the loner, we are inclined to consider as fallacious. In fact, the indications of the liygrnKCo^e depend on the relative attraction for humidity po»Aes>ed by the substance employed, and the medium in which it is immersed. But air has its diKpofitioii to retain mois- ture alwayn au((tiif>iite tremely small aa to be fairly neglected. The ascent! performed by MM. Blot and Oay.Lus- lac are memorable for being the first ever undertaken solely for objects of icience. It Is Imuosslble nut to admire the Intrepid coolness with whlcn they cunduct- ed those experiments, operating, while thev fliMted In the highest regtona of tne atmoaphcre, witn the name composure and precision aa if they had been quietly seated In their cabinet! at Paris. Their obaervatiobs on the force of terrestrial magnetism show moat satis- factorily It! deep source and wide eitenslon. The identity of the constitution of the atmosphere to a vast altitude was likeArlse ascertained. The facts noted by Gav-Lussac, relative to the state of the thermometer at different heights, appear generallv to confirm the law wblch theory assigns for the gradation of tempe- rature in the atmosphere ; btit many interesting points were left untouched by this philosopher. It 1s to be regretted that he had not carried with him the cyano- meter, which enabled Saussure to determine the co- lour of the sky on the summits of the Swiss mountains, and also that he was not provided with an hygrome- ter and a photometer of Leslie's constructhm. It would have been extremely interesting, at such a tre- mendous height, to have measured with accuracy the feeble light reflected from the axure canopv of heaven, and the intense force of the sun's direct rays, and hence to have determined what portion of them is ab- sorbed In their passage through the lower and denser atmosphere. Since that time, numerous ascent! have been per- formed In different countries, generally by adventu- rers guided by no philosophical views, nor leading to any valuable results. It would therefore be superflu- ous to reo>unt such repeated attempts. Balloons have at different times been thought cnpa. hie of useful application. It has been even proposed to employ their power uf ascension as a mechanicsl force. This might be rendered sufficient, it was be< lieved, to raise water from mines, or to transport obe- lisks, and place them on great elevations. We can easily Imagine situation! where a halhwn could be used with advantage; such as to raise, without any Bcnffolding, a cross or a vane to the top of a high vfilre. But the power would then be purchased at a very dis- proDortionate expense. It would reipiire \\ pound.! of iron, or 6 of zinc, with equal qiiantitiea of sulphuric acid, to yield hydrogen gas sufficient to raise up the weight of one pound. But to a skilful and judicious application of bal- hKins, we may yet look for a most esHcntial improve- ment of the infant »cience of meteorology. Coittmcd to the surface of this globe, we have no direct Intima- tion of what passes in the lofty regions uf the atmo- sphere. All the changes of weather, which nppenr si capricious and perplexing, proceed no doubt from the cnmbinatiou of a very few simple causes. Were the philiisnpher to penetrate beyond the seat of the cloud!*, examine the ciraimstances of their formutiim, and mark the prevailing currents, he would probnbly re- move in pirt the veil that conceals those mighty ope- rations. It wtiuld he quite practicable to rcjicli an elevation of seven miles, where the air wi uld Im fupr imc! more attenuated than ordinary. A silk l'ni, of forty feet diameter, if properly coni.trucled, might be sufficient for that enormoit! ascent, aitt e it» v;clght wuuld only bo eighty pounds, while Us buoyant force, though not more than a quarter filled uith hydrogen gi:s, ivmild amount to 5:t3^, leaving \h'^\ pounds for the flluht. The baihiou could be aalely iharged, indeed, t) llie th'rd part of its capR- city, onacconnt of thecontrnclion which the giis would a'teruards nuffer from the intenae cold uf the npjier regions; and th-'s gives it an additional btiO\ ancy of 177 H-Oth pounds. The royager would not, we pie- ^un.e, suffer any herions inconvenience frtmi brctliing ihc very thin air. The animal fiame iid ijts itstlf wiih wonderful facility t.» external clrcumatancei. ascertaining the condition nf tt<.e uir with respect to^ ^Peihapa tl e qiiiirkeu'd jitilse and short rcppirutior, J :. e — 1 .1 ... *■ — ; .. '*"rt||(,ii Bomc travellers have experienced on the 5um- ruits of lofty mountains, should be attributed chiefly 1 1 the suddenness uf their traubltlou, and the severity of the cold." Tbtt preceding illustration exhlbiu a very ptctu- re'qn* Tlev i f the ascent of that veteran, Mr Oreea, from th* Park, on the occanon of the coronfttloa of 938 d.yneas i* fitimlid oti n pr<)[.erly uf (vnporuiion. Tlieie are the prlnc'pHl t-xpcrimenis which the French Hcrr)iiiiui!'perr.irnie'l,ni.d their tiallaattieingexhiiusted, t le descf^tuted. M. (iiiwl.nasac afterwaids asceiulcd al;nii'. SiMrcely had the o'merver re-ti-hed ilie hcittht (if yfM)0 feet, when lie ohnerved apre.id hehnv him, over the whole extent ot the utmo^phere, a thin va- pour, which rendered the distant objects very Indis- tinct. Having gained an altitude of tK)50 feet, he set his needle to vibrate, and found U to perform twenty KoiNiii'ftOK t PublUhcU by W. and K. Chamukuh, IU. \V.t'.crloo I'lare) alto by Uhr and S.vtTii* P-ittrnoitcr How, Lundunt and (iCoaoK Vui nu, Dublin. S»iil by Julin Mae'eott, GUkS* guw, and sit otbcr U^fikMlleri, From the Ktrsm rroti uf W. snd R. Chambers. 1 .-T ?Tn:.t^ii of liol- CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 43. CONDUCTED BV WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND << HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Pbiok l^d. PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. All mankind will rrxlllyagm that the preMrvatlou of htalth li of the utmost Impurtanca to «very p«non t for without that Mvmlng there can b« no enjoyment In life. The freateil rlchei, the higheit rank, the noet hlghly.glfted genlM, oannot purchase an Im- munity from ilckneia. which, with all lu train of mlierlei, euleri allkp « palace gale and the cottage door. The nobleman lounging In hit drawing-room or park, the merchant buiy in the puriutt of hii dally occupationi, the peaaant labouring In the open Aeldt, are In thia reipect placed on the came level t but, un- happily, the majority of men are apt to be Inienilble of the good health which they enjoy, and, by trifling with their oonitltutloni, not unfrequently entail luf- ferlnga on themielrn and dlitreat upon their famlliei. Indiicretioni of thli kind never fail to be afterwards deeply regretted ; for the season of sickness in every household is one of great affliction. For this reason, every family should be In poasesalon of a Code or HiALTH, the precepts of which should never be fur- gotten. Thus might parents be belter enabled to se- cure the health of their children, and every Individual learn to manage his constitution In such a manner as CO enjoy permanent health. It Is with this view that we now proceed to lay before our readers a body of in- formation concerning the means of preserving health, which we trust will lie found acceptable la every do- iiiestio circle. AIR. A constant accession of fresh and pure air is essen- tial to the existence of human life, and upon this principle, that It is the means of purifying the blood, •nd rendering It fit to circulate through the body. Hence, if the supply of air be cut off — as in cases of hanging, drowning, smothering, &c — the blood stag- nates in the lungs, the heart does not receive a suffi- cient quantity of this fluid to stimulate it to action, and death ensues. In breathing, we perform two utionst first, the act of Inspiration, whereby the air enters the lungs ; second, the act of i^viration, by which the air is again expelled from them. This being premised, it is necessary to remark, that the ex- pired air dlJTers from the air inspired, inasmuch as, while in the lungs. In the act of purifying the blood, U loses a portion of lie itlmulating, and acquires noxious properties. Accordingly, crowded apartments —such as nurseries, hospitals, and tlie rooms of large manufactories — should bo well ventilated, otherwise the children or persons living in them will suffer ma- terially, from constantly breathing a vitiated atmo- sphere. To prevent this, ventilators, or small onov- Skhl* wheels, made of sheet-iron or brass, shov id be fixed in soma part of the windows, which will allow the heated air of the apartment to escape, and the external air to enter. In reepect to bedrooms which have more than one bed, the doors should be furnished with similar ventilators i and during the summer ■lonths thn windows should be kept partially open do- ling the night and day. Furthermore, as Dr Darwin observes, the fireplace should not be stopped op at any (Mton of the year by a chimney-board or bag of straw, m many rooms are made to shut up so close that this li the only aperture by which fresh air can be ad- ■iMed. To this should be added, that the bed-cur- tains should never be drawn close round the beds, which confine the air spoiled by frequent respiration, Mtd the perspirable matter, like a noxious atmosphere, over the sleeper. At the same time, none of the beds should be placed very near either to an open window or to an open chimney, as a current of aid (hould always be avoided. In many manufactories, where deleterious gases arise during certain chemical opotatioDB, it It of most vital importance that the rooms should be so well ventilated as to permit their free exit. In Hencke's Journal we read, that In aome of the hat manufactories In Petersburg, the workmen experienced fatal accidents and diseases from the Inhalation of nitrous acid fumee, occasioned by their dliiolving mercury in nitric acid during the process of their business. It Is much to be feared that, even in our British manufactories, sufileient attention is not paid to the ventilation of the work- rooms I and to this subject, therefore, we would ear- ofstly call the attention of the masters or directors. The airwe breathe may prove injurious to theoou- stitutiou In two ways i first, by Its being loaded with poisonous matters, such as marsh miasm { and, se- condly, by its surrounding us with a sudden viclul- tude of temperature. In many districts In Kngland, Germany, Italy, France, and North America, a marsh miasm arises from the soil, which gives rise to severe intermittent fever. During the time the wind blows from the Campagna di Roma over the city of Rome, the inhabitants of that city shut up their houses which are exposed to the current, and retire to an- other part of the city, in order to avoid Inhaling the miasm by which the disease is produced. The nature of this miasm, which is of to subtile a nature as to defy all analysis, has been a matter of much specula- tion. By some It is presumed to be a gas which arises from the earth; by others if is supposed to be a dis- eased secretion of plants, which become s^ diseased from the effects of the standing water by which they are surrounded :—. whichever theory he adopted — and neither admits at present of any satisfactory de- monstration—it is certain that when such marshy soils are drained, the air of the district becomes puri- fied, and intermittent fever disappears. This was the case In Edinburgh. Before the North Iwioh was drained for the purpose of laying out the present beautiful gardens in Prince's Street, intermittent fever was common In the town ; but since that improve- ment bos been made, the disease has almost entirely disappeared. For this reason, dwelling-houses in the neighbourhood of lakes, fens, and marshes, should be avoided ; indeed, the most healthy situation to build a house is on a rising ground, upon a chalky soil. In an open and dry country, neither exposed to the se- verest degree of cold In winter, nor the highest degree of heat In summer. Trees, also, with heavy and thick foliage, ought not immediately to surround the windows of a house, because they interrupt the free current of air, have a tendency to make the rooms damp, and during the evening or night exhale odours that are often extremely injurious to health. In large and populous cities the free ventilation and cleanliness of the public streets are imperatively re- quired; otherwise, the qiost frightful and fatal dis- easee will be generated. There it indeed every reason to believe that the great plague of London, In the year 1660, was occasioned by the negligence which pre- vailed in these respects. By referring to the writers of that period, we find that London was then an ex- tensive plain, from which eifluvia of every kind were generated ; dirt of all kinds was suffered to lie in the streets, the drains were choked up, and every descrip- ;.ion of excrementltiouB matter thrown into them ; the floors even of the middle ranks were covered with straw and hay, beneath which, though occasionally renewed, grease, fragments of meat, and every kind of filth, were permitted to remain unmolested; the houses, too, were high and Irregular, the streets nar- row, and every obstacle that could prevent a free cur- rent of air was offered. Breathing such a polluted atmosphere, it it assuredly not surprising that the in- habitants of a city so Infested should fall victims to the plague. At this very period, the city of Oxford, to which the court retired, having had Its streets cleaned, and Its drains and rivers cleared, was so healthy, that, says Dr Quincey, " the sickness (i. e. the plsgue), in 1665, never visited any person there, although the terms were there kept, and the court and both houses of Parliament did there reside." The public authorities of every town and village should bear these facts in recollection ; aud every householderi however bumble may be his dwelling-place, should remember that free ventilation and cleanliness are the best safeguards against such fearful vliltatluas. If any more recent fact were wanting in confirmation of this assurance, it would be found In the oircum> stance of the late epidemic cholera having been so manifestly checked in Edinburgh by the precautions adopted In that city, which consisted principally in clearing away every species of dirt out of the courts and alleys, and fumigating the houses of the poor. Enough, however, has been now said concerning the morbific impregnations of the atmosphere ; let us next attend to the transitions ofits temperature, which so frequently givo rise to severe and often fatal ma- ladies. The powers of endurance In the human body are sooonslderable, that, provided the change be made by degrees, man can live either beneath the burning rayi of a tropical sun, or in the icy regions which sur- round the north pole. The change, however, from the extreme of heat to the extreme of cold, must be gradual ; for it Is only by degrees that his system can accommodate itself to such opposite conditions. That which Is true in respect to his transferring himself thus from the coldest to the hottest region of the globe, Is also true In respect to his suddenly passing from on over-heated into an extremely cold apartment. In- deed, the air of crowded public meetings, and that which Is met with in ball-rooms and theatres. Is often of as high a temperature as in the equatorial regions ; and the transition into the cold midnight air does not offer a lets severe shook to the constitution than were the individual suddenly transported from the equator to the snowy shores of Baffin's Bay. By this Imprudent conduct, many a young person in the bloom and beauty of life has been hurried to the tomb. But In vain does the medical philosopher raise a warn- ing voice t society still demands the sacrifice ; and the most cautious are oontinoaily tempted to transgress. Under these circumstanoee, it remains for us to ex- plain the precautions which should be adopted to pre- vent the 111 effects of such exposures. The condition of the body, on going out into the open air, requirea attention ; it should be as warm as possible, short of perspiration. It Is a bad practice to linger about the halls and doors, under an idea that the body should be cool before venturing out. Many Uvea are annually lost by this ill-judged caution; for in this state the body is highly susceptible of the balelU influence of the night air. It is belter to go forth with some de- gree of perspiration, than wait until we are chilled. The greater degree of animal heat we are In on going out, the less injury ar« we likely to sustain. To pro- tect the system at much aa possible from the air, tha body, especially the throat and chest, should bo pro- tected by warm clotiilng ; such as are nude of woollen, cotton, &C. A large net or comforter should also be folded loosely round the face, which will receive n portion of heat from the breath at each expiration ; and this being communicated to the current of air entering the month at each inspiration, will im- part to It aome degree of warmth before It enters the delicaM structure of the lungs. Persona who hfva carriages in waiting should adopt the same precau- tions; for, before the ttept of the carriage can ba put up, and the door oloeed, a cold blast of air may enter, sufficient to produce that chill which is so care- fully to be guarded against. Those who return on foot should proceed along at s brisk pace, in order to keep up the animal heat of the body with which they set out. As the transition from the heated apart- ment into the cold night air must have In some de- gree checked the perspiration, It Is prudent, on arrival at home, to take a little of some stimulating liquid- wine and water, or spirits and water, whichever may be preferred ; and If there be any disposition to shiver- ing, or apprehension of cold having been taken, tha feet, on going to bed, should be immersed in hot wa. ter, with a view to restore the perspiration of the skin. By these means the evil effects which ore apt to arise from exposure to the night air, may perhaps be averted ; but let not the invalid, nor young persons aSected with delicate conatitutiau, rely an any such hope ; C9t la \m % CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. thfllr rniii'H it will in »lt |tniti«tiillty prora f&lUclniii; and they wilt ho Irft, wlifii t lit«, to ritMnt thkt Ihty ftll<>w«4 thwnMlvM w t<« tam|rtiHt, hjr tfit ■ttrno. lioni of n tmnahiiry Mvn» of plMnnr*, Into an lat«me(l to mtiall and haaten npnrtnipnti ; indeed, the mora children are alluired to pl.iy in the open air dariDK th« dav.tina^ yror t dad tba waatbar be nat In. clement, the l>etter. Partoni who llvft much in the uprn air, for the moit part enjoy vrry vigoruui oitn> •klintloni. The (lid Roman*, and manyotaar nallone of antiquity, ware aocuitomed to live continually In the opfn air; bnt It li In tklt country tha parnlcuiui onitiHn with many paraoni to live in apartment*, tba atmoaphare of wnleh la heMed abova tha natu- ral tamitaratura of our dlmata ; and whan, thara* fora, they vanture Into tha open alr^ they run tha mtMt intminrnt riik of ukiny cold, nestdaii this, thera are many Indies who hahttuati) thte remembered, that there can bn no tfriice, lieaiity, or dlf^nltynf tha human frame, unleti every Itmb and faatnra be lifbled np with the eipreMlon of couicl'itii buialth, which la a blaaalnir tha vlctima of auch arti- ficial habiu oannol enjoy t ih«r tauellad couch yieldi to tham a leas comfuruble rest than the humblant cottage chair rendcri the hardy peaaant, and their itudied rapaat it lau welcomed than the rudest fare of the oottaffc uUa. DIET. Initlnrt laadi tha Inferior anlroali to select tha food which ia ban adapted for their nnuriihmeni, but the majority of man are apt to trantirrece the dii'tntes of nature, and by coaverting their neoetiary nieali Into feaita of luxury, Impoae dutiea on the digeaiiva orgaua which they are not able to perform ; hence ariiaa a hoit of maladlet which the moat skilful^ physician ii often unable to coni|UPr. Let ererr perwm, there- fore, who is aosioui fur tha pmanratton of his health, attend atricUy to hia diet. The human body, and in. deed the body of »rmj animal, ii coniuutly under- going a oert'^n watte, and retiuirea a certain repair. The old ^ATtlclM eren «f the most solid tcxtureit — ■Qch a* t ie bones— 4ifter \ time become niielpfii, und kraejecfid from ike ayit»i->, and new prirticles are dapositeJ in their stead. Xhk.N» new particles are de- rived from the nutritious portioi. of the fd which is eaten ; and this reaovation is tuo irreat object of tligestion. It Is evident, therefore, tiia^ suih food libould be tiboaen at will wnpfiy the requisite nntri. tioo ; and this natnre has amply {rnn^idad. The kind of food which every animal ahould eat, is in a itreat measure indicated by tha structure of tha body. Thus, oamlTorous animals, or thoae destined like the lion to live on flesh, have a short and straight intestinal («nal, in order to allow a quick passage for the foml ; iMrMTorotia animals, or thoae destined to feed mi diffeeasit deaoriptlons of herbs, have ori the other hand this canal very long and cofn)dicated. Cor such ieud does not so readily part with Us nutrition, and re^uirn to be detained longer In tha digestive canal. In the horse, tiie large intestines are of etiormfms stu), and dilated into small saoK( in the ram, the intestinal tube, which is termed the aliaaentary canal, is twenty. aaven timns the lenvth of the tfody. The shape of the teeth and JawSf auo, bears obvious reference to the kind oi food which animals are destined to live on. The teeth of camivorona animals — such as the lion — are long, ^arp, and pointed, and tho^ of the lower shut within tiutse ef tlie auier jaw ; the teeth of her. bivorous animals are nut thus caloutated fur seicing and lacerating prey, but present bread and flat sur- faces ; and the jaws. Instead of being able only to muva apwards and downwards, command a motion from side to side, so that they are able to give the regetable frKHt en which they lire that more perfMt comminution which it requires. The atruMure of the human body shows that man hM been ordained to live both on ani. mal and vegetable diet. His teeth and jaws associate him with the monkey tribe, his stomach with the lion, his Intestines with toe ourang-outang. He Is truly, therrfore, an omnivorous animal, and may at^apt his diet to almost any peculiarity of habit, situation, or climate. The ancient Britons lived entirely on flesh and milk ; and vegetables, which now grow In our kitchen gardens, were not in England cultivated un- til the time of Catharine of Arrngon. The Romans, during the time of their campaigns, lived almost en- tlrely (m vegetables very simply dressed ; aud many Italians, even at the present day, support themselves almott entirely on bread, fmits, and the produce of the earth. In a savage state, some nations live al- most entirely on fniits and roots, others on raw ani- mal flesh of the coarsest description. Ihtgn arc eaten In the South Sea Islands, horses in Tartary, and many African tribes are said to feed on dead Huns and hippopotami. The Hindoo supports himself on rice Ktd maize ; the wandering Moor on gnm seneca ; the Oreenlander eats the llesn of the whale ; the Esqnl- tttanx that of the walraa; and the Kamscfaadalea feed on coarse fish oil, made into a paste with sawdust Whan pressed by hunger, men have been known to fvaUow larf* ^nantUut of earthy and eren devour with avidity tha flash of their fellow.creatures. TtiU dreadftil means of appeasing hunger i* said tn have been had racourae to on tha raft of the French frlgau Medusa, when wracked on the coast of Afrioa; and also on a rook in tha Medllerranean, where tha Nautilus frigate was lost. Man, however, is not the only omnlvnrona animal i the swlue, and many in- sects, as the ant, are also omnivorous. Among the inferior animals, eccentridties In the choice of food, and extravagances when urged by hunger, have been onmmlttad, as remarkable as those above narrated. Ill some tracts in the Kait, the horse i* fed on liili ; and Dr Tyson, in tha IMtilosuphlcal Ttausaotlons, states that ha knew a horae that would stand at a tavern dtmr and uat oysters, crunching the shells and swallowing them with their contents. On Iward of a ship, a lamb had been fed on flesh until It revised graas. In Ilka manner, tha hawk has Ifeen fed on liread t plgettni on meat ; and sheep, whan the earth has Iwen covered with snow, have eaten the wool olf each other's backs. While it has been clearly demonstrated ihat man Is naturally un omnivorous anlmntinu«« to be sufficiently stimulating. It appears by the bills of mortality in lioudon, tliat, beforo the vegetables now used at table were cultivated In ICugland, the scurvy raged to a prodigious exteuti aiul probably, for the same reason, on board a ship, whore, during a long voyage, men are confined to tlie name food, this dlseast> is apt to appear. A certain variety of food Is necessary, therefore, for the preservation of health. The errors, however, that are apt to be committed in respect to diet will be Iwtter understood by explaining the nature of the digestive process; and in so doing we shall explain the reason for laying down certuiu precautions which ought to be observed. The food, animal ur vegetable, Is in the 6rst place iutroduc#d into the mouth, where it undergoes what we may term the flrst stage of the digestive process. It Is there masticated and mixed with the saliva. This, which many persons consider an act ot little consequence, is in reality one of great importance. The saliva is a fluid similar in ita properties to tiie gastric juice of the stomacli ; and if the food he nut well brtdten down and softened with it, when trans- mitted itite. In consequence, however, of its not being properly mixed with the saliva, he sttffered consider- ably from IndigestI m. There is also a curious case recorded of a criminal, who, to anticipate the punish- ment of his crime, tut his throat with a raxor while in jirisutt. The pitrls retraoted so as to prevent tliem being reunited ; aud the criminal, who survived the at- tempt at suicide, was fed with little inconvenience, his frM>d being Introduced intothegutletbymeansof atube. In this case It was i>bflerved, that, immediately afier every meal, there was a profuse discharge of saliva from the mouth, amounting to from live to six or eight ounces, and tlie quantity was always increased when the food was hot. A very intimate relation, there- fore, exists between the stomach and the glands which secrete the saliva, auAioient t * show how essential is its agency in the digestive process. Henoe, minced meats, jellies, and substani-es that pass rapidly into the stomach, for want ol btiiiig properly saturated with the saliva, are diffit-ultto digest. The manner of eat- ing, therefore, should be delit>erate ; and young per- sons should t>e prevented from bolting their food, or swallowing it witliout suftcient mastication. There is another reason for eating slowly ; namely, that the action of the stomach is slaw, and persons eating hurriedly are not apt to regard the time when their appetite it appeased. Accordingly, the stomach Is in- advertently overloaded. The man trf business who swailowB his meals thui hastily, finds, on returning to his couuUi4{-hause, au oppression at the pit of the stomach ; a sure sign that he has eaten too much, or in an improper manner. The food having been properly masticated, is, by tlie action of the timgue, thrown into the gullet, in passing along into which a fleshy curtain, which hangs at the back uf the palate, is carried backwards and up- wards, so as to ciose the passage into the nostrils. The windpipe is immediately before the gullet, the entrance into which is protected by a very curious contrivance. It is covered with a little lid, which, as the food passes over it, is shut down bo completely as to prevent the entrance of any extraneous matter. Sometimes, how. ever, substances have found their way into this pas- sage ; but, in general, where this does happen, the matter is quickly ejected by a violent expiration. The alimentary mass having entered the gullet, now de- scends Into the stomach, not by ita own gravity, but by its lieing urged along by the contractifms aud mo- tions uf the gullet itself. That it does not descend by its own gravity, is evident, for we may swallow in any position. Tnmhlers or mountebanks, for the amuse- ment of ignorant people, often exhibit the feat of swallowing a glass of water or piece of bread while standing on their head. The anatomy of the gullet thowi very clearly the manner in which (h«ifl contrac- tions and motions take place. It Mnnetlmes happanf. In swallowing that a plei» of food or bone sUcks In Um wMffB ( tha hMt way lo aveimm* whkh, ia to smU low ImmedlatelT a larg« piece of bread, after whlA ft glass of water, In order that It may be propelled doWB Into the stomach. This falling, a probang—ibal la. a piaee of whaMxma with a knot of Indian rubber a| the end— may be fearlessly plunged down the throat, in order to displace It. The finul, we are to preanne, has now passed Inbi the stomach, which may be oc^- sldered as an expansion of tha gullet, or that part of the alimentary canal. It Is, In fact, a mambranoui pouch or bag, very similar in shape to a bagpipe, having two openings, the one by which the fcHicf en- ters, the other that by which It passes out. It la iul* the greater curvature of the bag tltat the gullet antan t it Is at Its lesser where It opens into that adjolalnf portion of the canal Into whioh the tialf-dlgested maee Is next propelled. When food has been introdveed, the two orlAeei close, and that which we may term the seooud staM in the process of diffestion commences. The maatd- ready saturated witli saliva, and so broken duwu as lO expose all its particles to the action of the gastric juio»| is now submitted to the action of that fluid, whieh, during digestion, is freely seoretad by the veseate ef the stomacli. This gaau'io juioa in iu healthy itM* is neither add nor alkaline, but very similar In ill properties to the saliva of the mouth. lu solreat power Is, however, prodigious. The food having thus entered the stomach, the M- cretion of this duid Itecomes more oopious, and MiU from tbe oircnmlereuoe to the oentro of the masa. TIm original food, by its action, i* converted Into a aoft, grey, pultaceous mass, called chyme, which, by th« mnncular contraction of the stomach, Is ur^ad on Into the adjoining part uf the alimentary canal, which is called the duodenum. This is generally completed iu tha space of two or three hours ( but the perkid will vary according to the nature and volume oi the fiHid taken, and the mastiCAtion and insallvatlon It hM undergone. It is desirable, during this stage of dlgM- timi, that a person ahonid remun at rest ; Indeoi, ttxertiuo i^ter uking a full meal may prove very inju- rious. An experiinent on Uils subject was made smw years ago by I'rufessor ilarwood worth relating. He cauhed a pointer, after a full meal, to be hunted, and anoUier dog of the same kin^, af^er a full meal, to lie down in his kennel ; both were killed after an equal lapse of time, when it was found that, in the quiescent dog, tbe digestion of the food was far ad- vanced, while In the hunted dog it had scaroely oon- nienoed. The alimentary mass having been reduced Into chyme, and propelled Into the duodenum (which Is eo called on aooount of this intestine measuring twelve Inches in length), there becomes Intimately miE«l and inc4)rporated with the bite aud pancreatic iuleee ; also with a fluid secreted by the mucous follicles of the intestine itself. The bite Is a greenish, bitter, and sosoewhat limpid fluid, secreted by the llrer, which occupies a considerable space on the right sldaojf thtilHMiy, immediately under the ribs. From tblsorMn the bite, after a portion of it has passed up into the adja- cent gall-bladder, descends, through a small duct about the sixe of a goose-qnill, into the duodenum. The chyme, wbeik mixed with these fl-iids, undergeee a change in its appearance t it assumaa a yellow co- lour and bitter taste, owing to the predominance of the bile in the mass; but ita character varies accord- ing to the nature of the f(»od that has Iteen taken. Fatty matters, tendons, cmrtllagas, white of eggs, Ac., are not so readily ctmverted into chyme aa ftbroua or fleshy, cheesy, and glutinous substances. HIr Astley CiHiper made various experimeuts on the di- gestibility of difl'ereut substances, by feeding do^ on different kinds of meat, and opening their bodlos at the end of a ceruin time, whereby he asoertalnod how far In each caae the digestive process had pr*- caedad. He found that pork waa the most rapidly digested ; then followed mutton, then veal, and jaatlv beef, which seemed to him the least digestible of all In some cases the pork and mutton had entirety dis- appeared, wliile the beef remained untouched. Bv' uiber experimeuu be found that cheese and fish ar** also very digestible substances. The potato appeared to lie less HO, and boiled veal two-thirds more dige^ tible than the same substance roasted. It is evident from these facts that much attention should be paid to the nature or digestibility of the food that is taka«> xud to this important subject we shall immediatel|r recur, lu the meaittime, we may observe, th\t tha chyme, having undergone the changes adverted to^ la urged by the peristaltic motion uf the intestines on- wards through the alimentary canal. This curionn morion of the intestines is caused by tbe contracftloB of the fibrous coat whioh enters into their stniotufu, and one uf the principal uses ascribed to the bile te that of stimulating them t^i this motion. If the peri- staltic motion he diminished, owing to a deficleucy of bile, then the progress nt digestion Is retarded, and the body heoMncs constipated, in snoh cases, cUomel, the blue pill, and other medicines, are admiaisMMd for the purpose of stimulating the liver to lecreta Iho biliary fluid, that it may quicken by iU stlmuUting properties the peristaltic action. But this Is not the only use of the bile : It also asaisU in separation dw nutritious from the non-nutritious portioD of die alimentury mass, for the chyme now appears M ha mizad with a fluid leaned eh$k, which ie ia ntUtf PRESERVATION OF HEAI.TH. the nulrUioui fluid •llmlnfttod from (h* fiKid. Thi ehyiM Ihui mlitd with cbyU arrlr«t Intti iha imAll tnlMllnMi and tbar* wa nulfoa m baauUfuI proTlalon of nalurv, for on tha walla nf tha tntaatlnaa will ba Ibund a urlai of aiquliltaly dallcata vaitala ramifyliiK Ib avery diractlon. Tliay may lia uimparad trt bii Id. Ttrtad Iraai tha branchoi uf wlilch ira ipraad ciiu on tlM coau of iba lutatilitaa, and nra foiiiid IhjuIIiiic to a pftraul trunk, wblcb aacandt in tha abdumai) nlong iha alda of tha liaukbona, aud upani Iut» tha right lida of tha baari. Ilari>, than, we may traca — and iha uouria Ii vary Blinpjtt— tha chyla from tha alineutary ■Mua luhi tha ulrcuUtloii. Tuua It takaa plaoai Tha Houtha itf tbaM vaaaali bavins tha mixed uhyroa and ebyta abora tham, abiorb or uka up tha cbyla, laav- lug tha rait uf tha maaa t(> ba vjtetad from tha bd that hai already rlrrulated throtigh tba body ritturni. Ilera tba unvte I* Intl- mktely mixad with the MinhI, which tlatd in now pro. yallad Into lh« liingi, where It iindert(oett from being •spoaad to tha action of tha air wabreatba, thachangea DMaaaary to render it again At far ciroulatton. Thus, Ihan, do «a trace the ohyle Into th« dronlation t but •fUr it hat entered tha liinga, It cannot ai a leparate fli^d be again detected. It li In this organ, therefore, IMt tbe proceia of digestion U completed ; tha blood hM now aciiuired thoitt nutrltient prnpertlfn from which It lecreteR the new partlrlei of matter adapted toaupply the waate of the different teiturei nf the body. That the chyle which Ii eliminated frum tbe ftmd we eat i!>'>ei In reality lupply tbe blood with tti nntrltloue properties, Is clearly proved; for In tboaa caaea where tha chyllferom Tetiels have been ob. •truoted by diieaie, persons liare emaciated and died. Il lometlmes happens hi children that those Ilttia bodies catted glands— situated in the mesentery, which it m membrane connectud with the bowels, In which wo hftTe stated that the ohyle arquires additional nu- tritive qualities — become diseased ; and In these caaes dlO little pitlant often wastes very rapidly away, and dJof. It may also be observed, that in old peoDle thaao glands become frequently, as was shown liy Cmlckshank, obliterated, whicn may In like manner explain the reason of tbelr becoming emaciated. In both cases, tbe cbyle, not having undergone the neces* mry change In these ulands, dtMs not supply tbe blood with tbe nutritious elements necessary for renovating the fvstam. Tbua, tbeu, from the preceding remarks, it will appear that the digestive process proceeds In the following manner :-~The first stuge Is the masti- cation of the food In tha mouth, and its proper sa- turation with saliva; the second la Its conversion Into chyme iu the stomach ; the third is the separntlon of tha chyme from the chyle in the Intestines ; and tbe fourth is the transmission of the chyle into the blood, and Its admixture with that fluid. AVIMAL rOOD. It baa bean already shown that mankind It deatinod to live on a mixed diet, that in, both oo animal and vogatable food ; the diffareut kinds of wbioh now claim attantion. Tbe animal OhhI commonly used iu this oountry eonaista of the flesh of quadrupedi, birds, Aahoa, and amphibious animals. Among tbe former ■My be included tbe flesh of oxen, sheep, pig, deer, hare, and rabbit t the history and nutritloua qualitlea of ooeh of whka kioda of food wo ahoU now proooed to •onoidar. rOOD DVKIT1CD riON QUADROPXDa. Beef and Vtat. — The f!esh of oxen Is extremely nu- tritloua, and easily digested by persons who are In good health ; It Is not, however, so easy of digestion ■• roatCon, although, when digested, it Is equally nu- tritive. Indeed, for Strang and hard. working men it affords a most serviceable diet, but persons who are very plethoric, or of fall bahit, should partake of it aparlngly. Although generally boiled, beef and also real art rendered more digestible and nutritive by being roasted, in which case tbe jelly between the in. tontloes of the meat escapes, whereas, when boiled, It remains there and becomes converted' into a iuh. ■tance by no easy means very digestible. The flebh of all young animals Is uf a aofter texture than that of old animals ; this arises from ibe quantity tff loose cellular texture and fatty matter, which in Iham is interposed between the fibres of the mus. elea; but as age advances, this Is absorbed ; and the fibres approochirig each other more closely, the flesh is rmderwi denser and more compact. For this reason Teal afl'ords more jelly than beef, and, consequently, makes an excellent broth for persona affected with ches- complaints, and who, in dmsequence of their cough, require soft and soothing liquids. The fluid, however, which remains after boiling beef, called boef-tea, is far more nutritive, and of great rervice In reatoring strength to thoHe who have been debili- tated by sickness. This state of young meat is It- mitod to a certain period of the growth of tbe animal ; It Is In veal whan the calf it under two months old \ for after that, tha muscular fibre becomes more dis- tlnguisbable, and the whole substance less tender. The stringy nature of young meat, and tbe quantity ofgabitinous matter interposed, renders h generally tfmEnilt of digestion ; hence veal, although tender and 331 rvternal to tha musclas i in young, U Is Interspersa bfltweeu i\ui fibres of tba mnsulea, whereby the mas nourisblng, is by no means easily digested. It re- quires, particularly iu delicate persons, tbe addition of some stimulant, aa tbe oondlmMita which enter Into tbe stuffing, or vmpitable aald, ae lenon Jnica or vinegar; iHHidea whloli, tba disposition of fai In tba bodlee of old and young animals renders the fleah of tba latter more Indlgeatibla ibaii that of the former. i>ld anlmsla tba fut la uollscted In mosses or layers eby the meat Is rendered througbnut fatty and rich \ and fat is known to be a subitanco scarcely soluble iu tlie human Btomscb. It Is not, therefore, ty Ita age. Under two years of age, mutton la certainly lesa (ligeatlble than whan older ( at tha age of five It ap- pears to attain Its greatest perfeolion. With respfcl to lamb. It may ba said that if tbe animal be allowed ti» live uptm Its mother's milk for six months, it will then afford n more nutritious and digestltile aliment than lamb of the same age iveaned at two months. Kor the reasons, however, above described, the flesh of the lamb is not so eligitile a substance of diet as the Uesh of tbe same animal at a more advanced age. It is also more digestible when roasted than when boiled, and its fat la said to be more Indigeaiible than the fat of any other kind of animal. Pork — Mir A. Cooper has shown, by the experiments above detailed, that pork is more easily and rapidly digested than muttim, beef, or veal. It does not fol- low, however, that Iwcauae a aubKtance la very digea- tlbte, therefore it will be very nutritious, for undoubt- edly pork affords less nutrition than beef or mutton. The llfsb of the young suckling pig is In general eateemed a great delicacy \ hut it is very rich, and not adapted for persons in a delicate state of health. A moderate quantity of bacon is very digestible, and is the principal article of diet among tbe labourers in Herefordshire, and some other counties In England, A very indigestible preparation, called brawn. Is made from this species of food ; it ooniista chiefly iu tim fatty layer being so closely compreaaed, that much uf the oily part eiuapes into the cellular texture, and unites with it so closely aa to form a half- transparent subsunce. This few atomacha can eaiily digest. For- merly the flesh of the wild boar was considered a very great luxury. The wild race of these animals Is, how. erer, entirely extinct, although tlie tame boar is still occasionally used, and bears salting well. Halted and smoked hams are common in oil families, being chiefly eaten aa an adjunct, or stimulant, with other milder kinds of food, as with poultry ; but the operation of salting and smoking certainly Impairs tha digestibility of the meat. It la true, aa we shall presently show, that a certain proportion of salt, with the food, ia ea- sential to heatiby digestion ; but. In tbe process of salting, a chemical combination between the animal fibre and tbe salt takes place, by which the texture of the fibre Is so changed as to be rentlered muth less nutritive and digestible. In the process of smoking, the heat of the chimney assists this combination ; and, by drying tbe fatty matter between the interstices of the muscles, the meat is rendered much less soluble in the stomach. Accordingly, this kind of food is only advantageously used to stimulate the palate, and is not to Imi relied upon as afl^rding nutrition to the body. i>etfr, — Food derived from animals of the deer kind haa been always in this country esteemed a luxury, probably on account of their being objects of the chase, and therefore well adapted to adorn the tables of tbe great. To this kind of food the term venison is ap- plied. There are three species of deer thua employed in this country, via. the stag, tbe fallow-deer, and tbe roebuck. The stag in Its wild state is now extinct in Kngland ; therefore, when this beautiful animal tit bunted. It fs turned otit of some gentleman's park, to be puraued and killed In the open C4)untry. The flei>h of the stag is of a firmer texture than that of the fallow-deer, which Is by far the most digestible and nutrititnis. Tbe fallow-deer, although allied, are a upecies distinct from the stag; they are smaller and lens robust, and their horns, instead oi being round, are flattened or palmated. They do not afford so goiHl a chase as the stHg, htit tbelr flesh is more deli- cate. Tile roebuck is tbe smallest of the deer kind known in our cllmitte, and their flesh is still more de- licate than that of the falbiw.deer; but owing to Its abounding with more fat, it is often on this account lesk digestible. Hare and Rabbit. — The hare and rabbit, though resetiibling each other, are difft-rent species of the same gfuuR uf animals, and both are yet subjects of tbe chase. The ancienta considered the flesh of the hare to be a luxury, aud Pliny in partlctilar dwells on tbe olrcumatance of Ita muscles being free froan any fat. Il may be here observed, that the Mesh ul anj. mala that have been hunted aiwaya posaeasea a |»ecu- liar tenderneast hanoe, the hare which haa been run down by a long chase prwuents us with mi^rit ileliiaic food than that which haa been suddenly killed. The muscular fibre of the hunt«a hare having bei'it long kept on tbe utmost streliib, undergoes, «lien ifatn ovcurs, a curraapondlng degree of relaaaliou, ho tliat tha rigiditv of Its texture la thus effectually over- come. A lingering death has tha same effect; and hence there was on old and verv cruel law, that no bull beef should b« exposed for s^, unless the animal bad bean previously Itolted. Il ia stated by l)r Paria that the action of vinegar, administered to an animal some hours before killing It, renders the fisah lesc tough I aud thernfore it la a common practice in the oountry toglveaspoimt'ulof this acid Ui poultry, when they are intended fur the immediate service uf the table. The flesh of the young hare or leveret Is mure digestible anu nutritious than tliat of the older hare. Venison, hare, and other kinds of game, are iu gene- ral kept a long time tiefore they are eattJU ; they are preserved until they have become what is called high — that Is, until the putriloctive process has commenced. Hingular as it may appear, the affetit of tbli proceaa la to overcome the rigidity of the animal fibre, aud thereby inoreaae the uuderness uf tbe meat. Kven beef and mutton, tmleas kept some days — the number of which must be determined by the season of the year— will not eat tender. The flesh of tbe rabbit li extremely white and very denae i and unless the anU mal be killed very young, iti flesh is by no means di- gestible. Minor Parts a/ Animah — It remains for ua to speok of tba different parts of the above animals which ore occasionally served at table ; as the br^ln, marrow^ liver, lungs, dtc. The brain of the calf and sheep la often served up in the form of sauoe or braln-cakae | but in consequence of the quantity of fatty matter ountained iu the substance of the brain, iheae are apt to disagree with lender stomachs. Tha brains of tha hare and rabbit are, however, very delicate eating. The marrow la a suit "uid vary soluble substance, and may, in very small quantities, be eaten with impunity. It ia, as we have elsewhere premised, the reservoir el nutrition for the bouea ; and little (tr none ia found In the boues of cattle that have been uverdriven, or suf- fered from privation of food. The tongues of different animals, pHrtlcularlyof the calf and sheep, when salted, form an excellent stimnlatiog adjunct to the milder kind of meats, as to poultry ; but the objection urged against salted hams here also applies ; and hence, al* though stimulating to the palate, it is not a food eaay of digestion. The roasted heart, portieularly of the calf, ia often brought to table ; but In consequence of the density of the fibrea of this organ, It Is very slowly digestible. The liver of birds, particularly of tbe gooie, was formerly esteemed a great luxury; and by con- fining these birds, and feeding them on a certain khid of food, particularly milk, this organ increased to a prodigious siie, which considerably enhanced its value* The livers of animals afford very little nutriment { and tbe same may be said of the lungs, kidneys, and pancreaa or aweet-hread, and spleen. Many persona are very fond of tripe, which is entirely composed of gelatin, and cerulnly not very digestible. It wu con- sidered so great a luxury by the Romans, that they often killed oxen for the sake of the tripe not caring for the flesh of the animal. The giazards 'uf birds are, it is to be observed, exceedingly dense, and very indi- gestible. The feet of many animals, as of the oalf, sheep, &C., afford vast quantities of jelly, in conse- quence of numeroiu ligamenta and tendona which enter Into the construction of this part of the body, FOWL. The birds which are used for purposec of diet may be divided into the domesticated, such aa the hen, duck, goose, and pigeon; and the wild, such as the partridge, pheasant, woodcock, suipe, and blackcock. It may be laid down as an estabitsbed principle, that white meats afford a less stimulating chyle than maati of a diirker colour. The flesh of veal is less atimnlat* ing to the system than that of venison ; that of chicken le»a stimulating than that of partridge or grouse. Al- though more easily digested, the tlekb of birds is not so nutritious as that of quadrupeds. It affords, there- fore, one excellent diet for persons who ore disposed to be plethoric, or hkely to be attacked by apoplexy. In consequence of iU digestibility, also, it is w^ adapted for weak and irritjU>le stomachs ; and hence Dr Johnson, in his admirable work on the " Morbid Sensibility of the Stomach," recommends chicken ae the least irritating and most easily digested aliment after farinaceous tiood ; such as sago, arrowroot, tapi- oca, &.C. The diiferent parts of birds vary in their dfg.eesuf digeatiblUty; thus, the wings of birds whose principal exercise is tiying, and the le^s of tboie that are accustomed principally to running, are, in conse- quence of tbe effect of the exercise In thickening aud increasing the bulk of the muscular fibre, reudered less digestible than other parts of the body. The woodcock^ is obliged to fly much about, while the part- ridge runs mure and flies lesa : hence, tbe wing of the woodcock is very tough, while that of the partridge is very tender; aud, on the contrary, tbe leg of the woodcock is very tender, while that of tbe paitridga is very hiuxh. Heuce tlie doggrel distich— " If ilie |iartridg« had liut the woodcock'i thigh, He'd be tha twit bii4 that e'er doth dy." CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. The effect of advancing age In dimJnithlng the di- gMdbillcy of the fleih of all liirdu, li notoriout. The oommon fowl is bett about ■ year old, after which time ita Aeth beeomei more anu more Indigettlble. Of the domeatic«ted birds, the fleth of the chicken it by far the mott digeitible; then foUowi that of the guiiieu-fowl, tnrkey, pigeon, pheasant, duck, and s^ne, which increaie in indlgeitibility according to che order in which they are here an-anged. Of wild birda, the wdpigeon, woiklcock, and inipe, afford an ailment which ii very delicate and rnity of digestion. Thu flesh of the blackcock ii said tu be mare easily dt|;ested than that of the parttidge, and the flesh of the partridge Is more digestible than that of the quail. Of the dais of birds which may be designated sea- birdi, it may be observed, that, in consequence of their livlnr' upon fish, their flesh is very tender and easy of digestion ; but it often pnisenses a rank Hshy taste, which to many stomachs proves insuperably of. fensivp. This is the case with the t >lan gOi.«, which, although e«t -emed by some persons as a luxury, ii by many rejected as being altogether unpalatable. ^gS*i which should properly be considered In this place, are, in point of nutriment and digestibility, to be classed next to milk ; but their qualities will greatly depend on tfae manner in which they have been cooked. ^Vnen raw, they are not so easily digested as when lightly boiled, so as to coagulate slightly their albumen, or the white fluid which envelopes the yolk; but if boiled too long (beyond three minutes), the whole be- comes couTerted into a hard raasii, which is very in* digestible. The qualities of the tgff, the taste and colour of the yolk, and even the nuurishnient it af. fords, depends on the food given to the hen. The best eggs are those from hens fed with wheat ; next to that, on rice, barley, and potatoes. How far tfae qualities of the e^s of different birds may differ from each other, does not appear to be well ascertained. I* I am certain," observes Dr Cullen, ** that, in many iustancei, the peculiar odour and taste of the flesh of the bird ii in no d^free communicated to their egga , for example, io certain sea-fowl, whose fleth is of the rankest odour and taste, their egga are as free from taste and smell ai the eggs of our domestic fowl. Kven in the latter we can observe some diffe'rence in the taste of the yolks, and in the density of the whites, which seems to depend on the food the bird lives on." riBH AND itifpiiiaiors amimai.s. Fish is more digestible, but lata nutritive, than beef and mutton. It is evident from the texture of its mus- cular fibre, that the fleah of most fish is verv tender, and therefore easily soluble In the stomach ; but it af- fords the body little itimulus, and even the pulsr is not strengthened after a repast on this kind of food. Hence, owing to its want of stimulating power, it requires thu assistance of some condiment — as salt, pepper, or some stimulating sauce. The whiting ia the most tender and de« In this (»)untry renders it rtill mora indigMtible. The Besb of tbe frog , which is esteemed a hiiury in Frantv, was analysed by tieoffroy. who states that its qualities are very similar to the flesh of the turtle, but some- what less gelatinous. THE COOKKRT OF AHIHAl, FOOD. The legitimate object of cookery Is not to pander to the taste of the gourmand, by presenting him with a variety of "dishes tortured from ibilr ualive ittte," but to render the food which nature um sup- plied digestible and nutritious* The fact has been ascertained, that meat, boiled, roasted, and even pu- trid, is more digestible than meat in a raw state; and hence, as Ford yce observes. In all countries, how- ever savage, where tire can be procured, the inhabi- tants use neat fur the preparation of their food. The changes which animal substances undergo during the process of cooking are either mechanical or chemical. Thus, by overcoming the rigidity of the muscular fibre, the meat is reduced to a certain texture, which renders It more easy of digestion ; this may be said tu be a mechanical change. Again, according to the experiments of Uatchett, by the process of boil^ug, animal substances are amverted into gelatin; and this may be said to be a chemical change, for, accord- ing to this view, free gelatin does nut exist in tbe bones, or in any other of the animal tiisues, but is produced by the process of boiling, during which the material particles arrange themselves in a new posi- tion, and thereby give rite to a new auhttance. When authors speak uf"^ the gelatin of meat that is uncooked, they merely mean that animal substance which is mott easily reducible into gelatin. I^et us now, then, attend to the different processes of cooking, and the effect which they severally have in rendering animal substances more digestible and nutritious. Roatting is of all others the best process of cooking, for by the application of dry heat in an open space, the fat between the interstices of the meat is dissolved and escapes, while the nutritious matter remains. Roasted beef, mutton, veal, poultry, &o., are far more digestible and nutritious than the same food boiled. At the same time that the fat escapes, and the watery part of the meat er.hales, the meat beoomea at first brown, then scorched, and requires to be frequently moistened with dripping or butter. The reason of this is, that the outer surface becomes at first con- densed, and it is necessary to keep it moistened, luorder that the heat may penetrate into the interior of the joint. When meat is exposed to a very intense fire, and this treatment neglected, the outer surface be- comes condensed and soorched, while the inuer parts still remain undone, or in a raw state. Boiling is a less preferable operation, because It de- prives the meat of those nutritious matters which are soluble in water. The solution of the gelatinous matter, and of a peculiar principle called otmanone, converts the liquid in which tbe meat is boiled into broth or soup, which contains the nutritious prin- ciples which the meat formerly posse;. -4>d. and which now is reduced to a mass of dry hardened fibrea. Tfae osmazone is a very peculiar animal principle, which gives soup its characteristic taste and odour. Its odour, indeed, Is very peculiar \ it is that remarkably fragra.it odour which ixwc. with tie steam from the kitclcr windows of cook ..bops and hrtela. Both In the process ol r'M**':^^ :^nd boiling, the leat ought never to be very intense, for it hasXeen clearly ascertained that, in order tu be well cooked, a!t k*nds of food should be cooked very slowly. Count Kumford made many very curious and interesting expeif'nents r.^ this subject. lie showed thftt a leg of mutton, boiled in water only just boiling, is more juicy, and much higher flavoured, than the same kind uf meat cooked in water kept constantly on the boil. The fragrant iteam which arises during the process of boiling or digesting meats, is in fact loaded with the nutritious part of uie fund, which is thus carried away and dis- sipated by the injudicioiu rapidity and intensity of the heat that is applied. It is idso tu be observed, thit if meat be overboiled, it is rendered very indi- gestible. In this case, if it contain albumen, th.^t substance Is converted, like the white of an egg, into a hard indigestible m^is, which may be observed, as is the case with overboiled beef, congealed between the interstices uf the muscular fibre. So also the gela- tinous matter with which young meat — such as veal — abounds, bectHnes converted, by being overboiled, into a substance by no means easy of dltfestiun. When only a little water is applied, and the heat continued at a gentle temperature for a long time, the process is called that of ttewingt which, lor the reason just assigned, hat the effect of rendering the meat very tender and sapid. liakitiff differs from roasting, Inasmuch at tbe meat, although exposed t^^a dry heat, is confined in an oven or limited space ; the consequence of which Is, that the exhalatiuns being confined, tbe meat never fails to acquire a very disngreeable smell and taste. It is true that the retention of the juices thus occasioned may render the meat more tender, but the muscular fibre, u it were, suddens In fat which does nut escape, and thereby such meat is rendered difllcult of diges- tion. liroiling is an operation which consists in subject- ing the meat to the application uf a naked fire, where- by, from the intensity of the heat, the surface of tbe meat becomes browned and hardened before the heat penetrates the entire mass, lleuoe it is a kind of cookery adapted only to meat cut into slices, and which may be eaten a little uudsrdoue. In this state the meat is particularly nutritive ; henoe this fi>rm of diet Is coutidered the most ellglbU for persons who are de- sirous of strengthening themselves, whether for the recovery of health, or In the art of training. Frjfinffin acullnary operation, In which slIceB of meat cut are placed in a pan or vessel Interposed between the meat and naked Are ; but as the surface of the meat in contact with the bottom of the vessel would become xuddenly heated, and thereby .corched. It Is always found necessary to interpose some fluid matter. Fat or butter is generally had recourse to for this purpose, and, being of an oily nature, such matters, when exposed to a strong heat, Konn become em pyreu* matic, and the meat so saturated is very liable to dis- agree with the stomach. To the cooking of fish considerable attention should be paid, as upon this their digestibility mainly depends. The process l>ett adapted to render them wholetomels that of boiling. Fried fish and stewed fish prove par- ticularly injurious to weak stomachs. The same ob- jections as those to salted meat apply to salted fish, which, however, may be eaten with a due admixture of potatoes and parsnips, but with no other vegetable. VEOETAnLES AND FRUITS. The vegetable diet, which to well diversifies tha nature of the food ou which we sulwist, is derived from the seeds, roots, stalks, leaves, blossoms, juices, and fruits of plants. Tbe seeds uf certain graties, as uf wheat, rye, barley, and oats, contain a quantity of starch or furina, which renders them particularly nn- tritious. Sago, which Is prepared from the pith of an East Indian palm-tree; arrow-rout, which is obtained from the rotit of an Indian plant called the Maranta arundinacea ; tapioca, which is prepared from the root of another plant caUed the Jatropha manihot f and the common potato, owe their nutritious quail* ties to the presence also of this farina : wherefore they are called farinaceous aliments. The first pro* cess for converting farinaceous seeds into food is that of grinding them into powder ; and the meal so pro- duced, when separated from the husk of the seed or bran by sifting, presents us with the powder denomi- nated flour, when this flour is mixed with water, it forma a paste or dough, which is by no means di- gestible. If, however, ft he allowed to remain for some time, Its component Ingredients react upon each other, and that spontaneous change which is called fermentation commences ; carbonic acid, acetic acid, and alcohol, are set free ; and If the mass be now baked, it becomes light and porous, and pleasant to the taste. The old paste Is called the leaven; and if mixed with the new-made paste, tbe fermentation commences more readily. Insteadofthii leaven, however, the ferment ■ which ctillects un the surface of fermenting beer, and which is called barm or yea$t, it used in this country. In consequence of the quantity of gluten in the seed of the wheat, the flour of tbe wheat makes by far tha finest and liett bread. There are three kinds of bread made from the wheat which are commonly used In thi^ country — white, wheaten, and household. In the first, all the brau is separated, and the bread it made of pure flour ; In the second, only a part of the bran Is separated — to that this wheaten bread is a mixture of flour and bran ; in the third, none of the bran is separuted-~so that house- huld bread consists of a mixture uf the coarse bran «ith the flour ; it is, in fact, composed of the whole mbstance of the grain. The distinctions here pointed out are of Importance, in as much as the tendency of starch upon the bowels is astringent; that of braa laxative, owing, says Dr Paris, tu its exerting a me- chanical aciioii on the intestines, and thus exciting them into action. Acoordingty, the tendency of tha bread made of the whitest flour is to produce costive- nets t therefore, persons of this habit of body should prefer the wheaten, or even household bread. It la said by some persons that bread made of different kinds of grain is mure wholesome than that made of only one surt ; and certainly this is the case with what is vommonly called brown bread, which is made of a mixture of wheat and rye flour : the former being uf a more starchy nature, is apt to produce cottiveuess, the latter laxativeness ; so that a due proportion of each furnishes a desirable compound. Among the class of farinaceous aliments, the potato is held deservedly in high estimation. The plant is a native of Peru, and was first extensively cultivated by the Irish, whose peasantry still subsist almost ex- clusively on this article of diet. Thn digestibility and nutrition which the pouto affords depend on tha kind that is used, and the method of cooking which is adopted. The waxv kind of potato, as it Is t'jrmed, ir very indigestible; the mealy kind, however, if pro- perly boiled, readily yields to the powers of the stomach, and affords a healthy nutriment. Count Kumfurd, in his aeal to promote the culinary art, in- sists at great length on the nacesilty of undersunding the proper method of boiling potatoes, and on this subject cites the directions which were given by the Board of Agriculture in their report, from which we make the fullowlog extract:— "The pnutoes should be as much as possible of the same slae, and the large and small ones boiled sepaialely. They mutt be washed clean, and, without pa '.ig or scraping, put in a pot with cold water, not sufficient to cover them, as they will produce themselves, before they boil, a oiniiderabte quantity of fluid. They do not admit of being put iutu a vessel of bulling water, like greens. If the potatoes are tolerably large, It will be neoes- sary, as suuu as they begin ta bull, to throw in some cold water, and ocoasionally to repeat It tlU the pota- toes are boUed (o the heart (which will take from half m Mil ;^ T<|o PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. «^*^"^ hioU trmed, if pro- * ihe Count Tt, In. ndiag Ihtt y the kh we ,bould sUrge It be put (heiDf "} » mitof reenk nvoe*- BDOM I potft* iluOf ftn hour to an hour and a qnarteff aooording to their lice), utharwiie tbev will craok and bunt to piecflt od the outilde, while the laiida will be nearly in aorude itate, and, coniequently, very uupalateable and un- wholesome. During the boiling, throwing in a little Slit occaiiunally Ii found a great improvement; and it ii certain tliat the ilower tliey are cooked, the better. When Uuiled, pour off the water, and evaporate the moiature by replacing the veuel in which tlie pota- toca were boiled once more near the fire, which will make them remarkably dry and mealy." Such are the directioni given by thii report for preparing thii very valuable article of diet, and attention to them, we have no doubt, will improve iti digeitibility, aiid the amount of nutrition it will yield. That the nu- trttinm quality of the potato it iucreaied by being properly cooked, there ii no doubt. Hogi fatten on dresiod potatoes more rapidly than when fed on po- tatoes ill thei r raw itate. The eiculent rooti of planti uied as articles of food coniiit of the carrot, which is very nutritive and slightly laxative t the turnip, which ought to be well boiled, and lep&rated from its watery parts by pressure; the parsnip, whiuh ii also very digestible and nutritions; and others that pouess peculiar stimulating qualities, ai the radish, onion, leek, shallot, &c, all which are useful in exciting the tone of the digestive organs, and correcting the ten- dency to flatulence. Tlie esculent herbi of which tiie stalki and leaves are eaten consist of what are termtd greens and salads, and include the cabbage tribe — asparagus, lettuce, water-creu, &c The cen- tral and upper leaves of the cabbage are the tenderett part of this plant, which, for the purpose of cooking, should be plucked when very young. Cabbages, by their colour, are distinguished into two kiitde afforded, ■limulates their senses to forgetfulness of the ordinary cares of lite, and surrounds them with so much social enjoyment, that, in the midst of thetr dreamy pleasure, theyoversiepHhe boundaries of prudence, and commit excesses which they themselves afterwards have cause to regret; for the higher and more felicitous the ex. citement, the deeper and mora painful is the depres- sion which succeeds. In the whole code of health there is no law more Imperious than that uniform temperance should be observed under all circumstances and in all conditions of life, and the transgressor of this law will himself be universally the sutferer. It is to be observed, that the transgression may be made by drinking, even in small quantities, fluids which are of a strong or pernicious quality, or by drinking, (n large quantities, fluids which, although much di- luted, are still of a stimulating descriptiim. Accor- dingly, we should attend in particular to the quality and the quantity of the fluids we drlnlt. Spiriu of e/erv description, taken in an undiluted state, are ex- ceedingly pernlGious ; and those who indulge In the vicious hahit of drinking brandv. whisky, hollandt, and rum, In this state. Invariably contract dlswes which are beyond the cure of the physician. The immediate action of such fluids on the coats of the stomach must evidently destroy their healthy condi- tion. The blood-vessels on the intamal coat of this organ thereby become so excited, aa to appear in- volved in one complete mass of inflanunatlon, while at the same time the nerves exparienee a shock from the over>excItement, which Is immediately transmitted to the rest of the system. The use of ardent spirits, under all circumstances, should be studiously restricted, and in no case should they be drunk in an undiluted state. With respect to the choice of spirits, it may be observed, that brandy acts more immediately as a tonic than whisky or hollands. It is less liable also to turn acid on the stomach, fur which reason, for lavallds or persons troubled with weak digestion, when diluted with water, it is pre- ferable to wine. When pure, whisky diluted with water ma^ be occasionally taken with Impunity ; but certainly tt does not agree with persons in the south of Kngland, so wtill aa with those in the north, or in Scotland. The reason seems to be, that the air in these northern parts Is drier than in the south; conse- quently the perspiration from the surfooe of the h tdf more readily escapes. In the south, however, the air is more loaded with moisture, and consequently leas favourable to the encape of the perspiration. For the same reason, in the llighlands of Scotland, and in ascending high mountains, being surrounded by a drier atmosphere, the traveller ti&es his whisky and water with more impunity than he would do under other circumstances. It is well known that hollands, whicli is a light spirit, acts as a diuretic, and in cer- tain cases is preferable either to brandy or whisky. The common gin which is sold in London and other towns of £ngland is often adulterated with the most pernicious ingredients. It is drunk in the shops — which are fitted up In London at bn enormous eipense to tempt the street passengers into them — in large quantities, and generally In a raw state, and deplor- able are the effects thus induced. The diseases of the body, the demoralisation of the mind, engendered by gin-drinking in the metropolis, are indeed almost in- credible ; and all estabUsnments in which this per- nicious practice is encouraged, may moat truly be described aa temples set apart for the performance of human sacrifice. The wines commonly used in this country are very numerous; some are called dry and ligh^ such as Hock, Mozelle, Burgundy, Claret; others dry and strong, such as Port, Sherry, Madeira ; some, again, sparkling or effervescing ; and others sweet, such as are home-made. It is a singular fact observed by dietetic writers, that the stomach is often outraged by a wine to which it is not accustomed ; and it is equally true, that a mixtui'e of different wines is a common source of indigestion. Of all the wines which are used, Claret is considered to be the most beneficial ; on account of the small quantity of spirit as well as extractive matter which it contains, it is more salu- brious than Port. Hock combines the effects of an acid with those of a spirit ; but on account of Its acid effects, we liave seen it disagree with invalids. Bur- gundy contains a large quantity of spirit, and is more heating than any other kind of wine. Although the wines of Burgundy were prescril>ed in the time of Louis XIV. in affections of the chest, no physician of the present day would advise them to lie used by any persons of an inflammatory habit. Port wine, it is well known, has a tonic and astringent effect ; a glass or tu-o daily to persons of weakly constitution may be taken with advantage. It is observable, howeveiv and the fact is curious, that men accustomed to take Port wine freely after dinner, are apt, if they have re- course to an occasional excess of Claret, to be affected by gout ; which arises from the transition from the Port to the Claret causing derangement of the di- gestive oi^ns. The malt liquors commonly drunk are ale, porter, and small beer, the qualities of which vary according io the mode in which they are manufactured. In ale there is certainly the narcotic principle of the hop ; therefore it dis|KMiPs to sleep, If the malt of which it is made !>e slenderly dried, it is of a pale colour ; if It be roasted or high-dried, then it is ore brown colour. Porter is made from hlgh.dried malt, and differs very considerably according to the projwrtion of the ingre- dients which enter into its C4>mposition. Malt liquors give a greater degree of fullness to the blood-vessels than any other species of drink ; and thus, by impos- ing on the heart a greater quantity of blood to propel through the l>ody, disturb the circulation, and often induce disease nf the heart, and apoplexy. While the abuse of spirits, wines, malt liquors, &o. gives rise to the most distressing maladies, their uti- lity, under proper management, is nevertheless vbry considerable ; under which circumstances they may unquestionably be considered as preservatives of health, it is evident, however, that water is the most natural, and, when pure, thsmnst healthy, beverage that man can drink ; but it is to he remembered that its qualities differ acc^ordlng to the Rouroe whence It is obtained. WIten coUeoud in fields, at a distance from any town, rain-water Is the purest natural water; but if collected In ft town, In consequence of having fallen through a smoky atmosphere, or dripped from the roofs of houses, it is apt to become conta* minated, and should In such cases never be used with- out being previously boiled and strained. It may be observed concerning the origin of rainlood, and increas- ing the power and healthiness of the muscles. In a series of exertions, the breathing becomes rapid, and the arterial isatlon takes place more quickly ; the mus- cles, moreover, by Jostling the neighbouring blood-ves- sels, which they do when in a state of exertion, stir and propel their contents. The effect upon the mus- cles takes place through increased vascularity and the accretion of new substance. The quantity and flow of blood through the part are increased by the exer- tion, a greater degree of animal haat isevtaved in the part, and a secretion of coagulable lymph takes plscVf which, becoming organised, produces new fibre. m <•; CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ExsrdM, howiT«r, produoM Uuk or no good| (fit W ttot promplea by » llbwal portion Toui energy ; and where a oontention for victory, or §or tome ttake luffldent to exdte the mind, it niper. added, the advantage must be itUl greater. It ia also of gr«at importance that we ihould have a curioilty after uhjecu : thnt, a taste for scenery, or for geologi- cal and botanical pursuit*, may enliven a wslk, and enable us to keep up a proportion between the muscu- lar and the nervous energy. One rule, however, must bo obwrved — that tht uiii and ths mtucU mml bt di. rtcted to th« joine end, and at tfu tawu timt. Dr Doiabe, from whoee admirable treatise these observa- tions are chiefly taken, does not deny that walking for health may be attended with the desired tfect t ftir the object may there be sutBcient to keep np the proper mental stimulus. Lxercise Is usually considered as of two kinds — ac- tive and pauivob The aoUve consists in walking, running, leaping, riding, fencing, rowing, skating, •wimromg, dancing, and various exercises, such as the poles, ropes, &c., prescribed in gymnastic institutions. The passive oonaisu in carriage-riding, sailing, fric- tkms, swinging, &c In walking, the weight of the body rests on one foot while the other is advanced ; it is then thrown upon the adranoed loot while the other is brought forward, and soon in su coe ssi o a. In this mode of . progression, the pace may, at the plea- eare of the indindual, be increased or diminished. Thoee who are aoctuiomed to sadentary habits ehcnld not on a sudden betake theokeelvas to ^luok and viotent eralking ; for thereby, in proportion ae the breathing becMses hurried, the sctioo <^ the heart is accelerated eometimes to a painful and injuriooa degree. " In my own person,** says Dr Johnson, ** I had some years ■go a very severe and alarming instance of the bad eflects of too great muscular action, occasioned by a habit of walking very tast. After a day and night of tiansual fatigue and rapid pedeetrian exertion, toge- ther with considerable mental anxiety, I was suddenly eeiied with an inMrmissioo of the pulse at irregular periods. During each intermission I felt the heart five a kind of struggle, as it were, and strike with great violence against the ribs, accompanied by a pe- •nliar and must distressing sensation in the cardiac region which I cannot desciibe." These symptoms became aggravated, and lasted for eight weeks, '*dur. ing which time,** be continues, " I used horse-exer- cise, and kept, when at home. In a horizontal position. At length the heart gradually lost its morbid irrita- biUty t and at the end of fourteen or Afleen weeks I oonld walk ae well as ever.*' The effect uf this kind of exercise^ via. walkiag, on the body, is very well describtd by Dr A. Combe, who, speaking generally, ■aye, ** WLUcing agrees well with every body ; but as it exer ciaes chiefly the Kiwer limbs and the muscles of the loins, and affords little scope for the display of the arms and muscles of the chest, it is insufficient of itself to constitute adequate exercise : and hence the advan- tage nt uimblning with it movements performed by the upper half of the Uidy, as in rowing a boat, fenc ing, shuttlecock, and m^uy other useful sports.** Tlie exertioa uf walking muy be carried to m great per- Csciion ; thus, Captain ilarclay walked ou one ooca- akm ISO miles without resiiitg, and on another 1000 miles in 1000 succe^iive hours : but such f«ats are al. ways performed at the risk of health and life, and ought Dot to be encouraxed. *' In sununer," says Dr Combe very truly, '' walking excunions to the High> lands of tlicotlaua are commuu among the youth of our cities; and when proportioiiad in extent to the con. •titution and previous uahiis of the iudiv idual, nothing can be more advajita^eeiure heavy pedfistnau excursions are undertaken. Hunnimg is an exercise which is intermediate be- tween walking and leaping ; it consists, in fact, of a ■ehei uf leaps perturmed in progression IriHn uue loot to another, and the degree of iu rapidity bears a cuu- •tant prupurttoa to the length t>f Uie individual and euooessive leaps. During Lhia exart-ise the ludividuai fa obliged t» take lung Iniipiratious, and make slow ex- pirations ; the air-ceiis uf the lungs are bet eby dis- tended, and the aciiou uf the hfart bwug at thf taijie time increased, aud the circulation through the lutigs much iccelerattd, a seusv of oppression is /elt on the 334 chest, which Is often exeaedlngly paloftil t then, when the violent action li dleooatlnned, the heart palpllatee with Intarmltting strokee In the eodeavour to recover ita natnral aqnUlbrlum of motion. Although thli and other gymnaetlo ezeretses, tuoh ai leasing, wrestling, throwing heavy weights, Ac, may, wnen iudtclonsiy had reeoarse to, In^gorate Ute body — a fact proved by the athletle ezeroitee which were prescribed to the Oreek and Roman youth»«yet. In consequence of the evils and accidents which may be an occasioned, young persona ought not to be permitted to engage in such ezereises, except under the care of some Judicious pro- feesor of gymnastics. Fencing h of all active exercises that whlrh Is the most preferable. Inasmuch as it throws open the chest, and at the same time calls into action the muscles both of the upper and lower extremities. Add to this that It Improve* very much the carriage of the body ; in consequence of which, its arqulitition, indrpendent of iu oooaslonal utility iu countries where the sword is the principal weapon of assault nnd defence, is justly esteemed an accomplishment which is a neces- sary branch of polite education. The salutary effects of the other exercises which are Uught In gymnastic institutions, such as exercise with the ropos, pnlve, pullies, &C. in increasing the strength of the biMly, will be seen by consulting Mr Roland's ext^Ueiit Treatise on Uymnastlcs, where will l>e found a table showing the amount of the increasing growth and strength of the body In a given time, during the employment of these exercises. Dancing is an exhilarating and healthful exercise, and seems to be alnn»st the only active exercise which the despotic laws of fashion permit young ladies to vn'}oj. The only evilt which are attendant o» this species of exercise arise from the indiscretion of the parties themselves, who are apt to overheat them- selves, and in this state expose themselves to a chill, ing blast of air; In gay assemblies, too, while the body ia thus overheated, ices and ic«d liquids are not nnfreijuently taken, from which we have uocasiouatly seen the most fatal effects ensue. Ri^ngy which we have classed among the aetive ex- ercises, may, if taken gently and with motleration, tte ranked among the passive exercises, aud Is extremely beneficial to many invalids. In many nervous affec- tions, hypochondriasis, melancholy, nervous palpita- tions of tae heart, and also in chi-onlo affections of the lungs, it has been justly extolled. In nervous af- Csctions it operates lieneicially by engaging the mind in the management uf the animal, or the vsrietv of surrounding scenery, at the Fame time that it calls into gentle action the muscles of the body. In offec- tions of the lungs, the suocussions of the Imdy during horse- exercise hare the effect of equalising the circu- lation, and dissipating the congestion, or undne ac- cumulation of hlood, which may occur In the mem- branes lining that organ. At the same time, the gentleness ol' the motion does not hurry the lireath- ing, which In such cases is to be carefully guarded against. The amount of exercise which should be taken roust vary according io the habiu, strength, and ge- neral health of the individual. It was an aphorism of Ikierhaave, that every person should take at least two htnirs' exerciM in the day, and this may he re- garded as a go«Kl general rule. Again, tho time of taking exercise has h«en a subject of some dispute. The truth is, that active exertion should not Ih> taken when the stomach ii full, as after a full mpal, nor when the stomach is empty, as after a long ahstiuence. Tlie medium sliould be observed ; and tor this p\ir- pose a walk or ride, Miiiie two or three hours alter breakfast, will be found most agreeable and salutary. CLOTHING. Mimtaigne has, in one of his amusing essays, very gravely argued, that man was nut destined to wear chHhes i but the parly history of all nations that ever at • taiued t<> any thing like civilisation, and more especially the structure of the body itself, prove the contrary posi- tion. It in true thatceruin tnt>«s of savages may have been found niiuiing imkpotu In the same exp4ised con. dition. On the cintrary, the rudest prniple in the darkeit ages had rvouttrsr to some spe4:iei o) chrthing ; they made themnelvrs garments of thu leaves of trees, or they covered their liodiei with the skins of animals. The necoMity, however, of adopting M«me form ttf drees will appear manifest, when we cunstdiT the ooimtruc- tioii ul the btidy. It is well known that an equal die- trihuiicn of blood through the system Iscawmtial lothe eijuyment of health. The heart, therelore, his l>een provided as a fountain for the circulatiuu uf this vital duid, which it propels through the lutcrual organs, and over the whole surface uf the btidy. It has been as- crrtaiiieil that the aui face ol the body extends to four. tMo aud a half or hitceit square teet, every part of which is crowded with blond -vestals, whii^ appear to ramify in all direuthms. Henre it is manilest, that if, uripreiected hy clotiiing, this highly vascular sur- face be exposed to sudden transitions (rum heat tooidd — such as must sitend the ordiuary vicisiitudes of weatber^the blood will be driven from the surfaee to the centre, aad therehy ifcoasiuit dUtressiiig aitd fattl maiadiea. The great object, then, of clothing, independent of iU contributing to uletiiilineu and •jumlurt, IS to preserve the body at the same tem- perature^ so that the oiccutaliua at the iarfitce may not be interrupted ; which physiological fact being reoolleeted, we shall more clearly understand the prin- ciples by which we should be guided in the manag«> meni of dress. The Arsl oonilderatlon obviously resMcts the quan* tity and quality of clothing that should be worn, which to a certain extent must he modiSed by the nature of the climate and the seasou uf the year. Fun, wool. lens, flannels, fto., are necessary as we proceed north* wards ; linen and cotton as we advance into the warmer •oathern regions. It Is necessary, however, to observe, that it is not so much the quantity as the quality of the clothing which contributes to onr warmth ; there, fore a superabundance in the quantity of spparel worn is lu no case necessary. The gre^t rule which should be observed is, to preserve as uniform a system of dress as possible throughout the year, aud thereby those sudden vicissitudes of temperature, the injurious ef- fects of which we have already explained, will not be experienced. If it be necessary to observe this rule throughout the year, it is still more necessary that it should be observed during a single day; for e very cautious how they lay aside any artida of apparel to which they have been accustomed. As the clothing which is worn ought not to be ex- cessive, Uxrither ought it to be deticient, in quantity— an ern>r which some parents commit, under the Idas, that, in habituating their children to little clothing, they are inuring them to a strong and hardy const!* tution. This is an error ; for, so far as clothing is ooncemed, it ought never to be so deticient as to ex- pose any part of the body to an abiding sense of cohL There is uo doubt that the effects of habit are consi- derable. The child of the cottager Is seen running abiHit in gtHid health, exposing its little body hau naked to the iudemencies of the weather ; but it should l>e recollected, thst, generally speaking, the constitu- tion of every child corresponds in a certain degree witli the constitutiiw of its parents; so that, In respect to its clothing, food, &c., it will require in a great mea- sure to be treated according to the habits which pre- vail in the sphere of life in which It is born. As the toautity of clothing ought not ou any account to be inconsiderately changed, neither ought Its quality; because, as we hsve already premised, the quality or kind of apparel worn has even a more Important In- fluence in maintaining the equal temperature of the body. Flannel, we all know, is warmer than linen; not because it Imparts of luelf any heat, but becauso it prevenu the escape of the heat of the body. It Is what is called a bud conductor at heat ; for this rea- son, that it is uf a loose texture, and the air between its inwrsllces tnCerrtipts the heat being transmitted through it. Furs, wuiUlen, dtc, for the same reason, afford giMKl winter clothing; and therefore we should Ue cautious how wu lay aside apparel of this descrip- tion for linen, which very readily permits tlie heat of the body to escape. Count Htunford, In one uf bis essays, sutes that ha is cuuvinoed of the utility of flaiiiiel thiru iu all seasons ; that he has worn them iuallclimaten, in the warmest apartments, and during the most iHtiguing exercise, without the leuil diffi« culty 1 that he was relieved by the use of tlannvl from a pain in his breast, which he had been frequently suhjei-ted to, and never since knew an hour's illuass;f and thai nothing exceeds the agreeable sensations ol this dress, whan we are once aucustomed to it. " I have been informed," observes Dr W'liiioh, " by tho manulacturers in the different foundries in Binning* ham, aa well as at tlie inmworks of Colebrouk Dale and Ketlt'v, that in the moat intense heat tht>y wear BO other tnau flannel shirts, without which it wovld be impnasiblo to prevent continual colds, and the most fatal diseases." He would earneitly recommend all persons, partlouUrly ihoae who are liable to auy affec- tions of the chest, to wear flauuel waistcouu or shirts neat the skin, in this country, both during winter and summw. Its effect, as a preservative of health, cannot be too highly appreciated. It la worthy of r^uark, that ammg all nalians« however rude, a distinotwo is made between the mala and the female form of dress, to individualise as much as possible the different character and habiu of tha two sexae. As civilisation has advanced, the desire of disphsyiiig the huntaii form to the t>est advantage hue suggastsd an Ininiia varialy of foabhMt Im eluthi«f> as a c •i-r UMt <^ PRESERVATION OF HEALTH 3*&H"> siany of which have been extremfllr sbiurdy uid e- nlnaatly o&louUted to injure health. The ideu of whBl oonititnte gnca and beauty fluctuate every lea- ■oa, and aro ouentimea ludlcronnljr coutradietory ; Indaed, the decreet of faihion resiwcting dreii ara to oaprlciout ai to let all reaioning at defiance ; therefore, without attempting to argue with the fickle goddeai benelf, wa ihall merely caution her votaries againit adopting inch habiti aa may be prejudtdal to their health. Whatever form of dreii mav be Mleoted, no part of the tiody should be subjected to restraint or compression. If the neck tie surrounded by a tight collar, handkerchief, or cravat, the veins which return the blood from the head will be compressed, and apoplexy may consequently be induced. No part of the dresSj therefore, either of male or female, should very tightly surround the neck ; a precaution which should be more especially attended to by those who appear predispoied to a determination of blood to the head. For this reason, when any person is ob- served to fall down as in a fit, the bystanders should Immediately loosen the cravat or handkerchief, or the strings of the bonnet, or whatever else may act as a ligature on the windpipe and neighbouring Teasels. The next principle to be observed is that of allowing the chest free motion. Every time we take an inspiration, the ribs are raised, and during every expiration they are depressed ; no impediment, therefore, ought to prevent this Important series of alter late actions. It was not long ago usual for ladies to wear stays as tightly laced as possible, and even now the anxiety to display a small waist tempts many a young woman to lace her stays to a degree equally unfavourable to health, and to the graceful- ness of her own appearance. A more injurioas cus- tom than this cannot be adopted. It is evident that the compression of the stays round the chest will pre- Tent the ribs being raised during inspiration, and thereby impede both the action of the lungs and heart. At the same time, being girded tightest round the centre of the waist, the staytt approaching towards the hip, will have the effect of pressing the liver out of its natural position, and prevent that action of the digestive organs which is necessary for the disposal of food. Besides these effects, which give rise to many distressing and lingering diseases, the organs thus compressed will be forced to exercise a pressure on the l»rger blood-vessels contained within the chest and abdomen, whereby the circulation of the blood may become seriously impeded. We have often seen ladies faint from this cause; and not long ago a cac. was recorded in the London jonrnals of a young wo- man who died suddenly after taking her dinner, and no other reason was assigned for her death, by the medical men who examined her body, than that of ex- cessive tight lacing, the consequences of which were, that the stomach, when distended by food, could not turn upon its own axis ; the surrounding vessels, by Its muscular efforts, were forcibly compressed, and the action of the heart fatally Interrupted. After a full meal, even men who wear their waistcoat or waistband of the trousers very tight, find a dithculty of breathing, owing to the circumstance of the dis- tended stomach being forced by the unyielding girdle to press up against the diaphragm, or muscle which divides the contents of the chest from that of the ab- domen. Another evil incident to the practice of wear- Ing tight-iaoed stays is that of curvature of the spine, which is thus occasioned : By the compression of the stays, the motion of th(> intermediate parts of the spine is greatly circumscribed, and the action of the muscles attached to the trunk impeded ; and the neces- sary circulation of the blood through their substance being interrupted, their power and sixe diminish, so that the vertebral column loses its natural supp>urt, and readily inclines to one side. It is perfectly evi- dent that nature has so constructed the human body Chat It Is able, if left to iu own powers, to support it- self; and aerardingly, the fir-fst women In the world, the Circassians, renowned in the anntils of beauty, never wear any stays. When Lndy Montague was travelling in the East, on the occasion of her undress. Ing for the hath, the Turkinh ladies who were pre* sent, on discovering she wore stays, could not restrain their curiosity and amasement. " What !** said one of them, *' do all the women in your country wall them- •elves in after this fashion ?** After all, it should be considered that the natural proportion^ of the human body can alone present us with a displayof real sym- metry ; for a preternaturally small waist ts as much out of natnre, and as far from Iwing really beautiful, as a compressed and crippled Chinese fmit ; the only dilTprenre, indeed, is in favour of the latter, for the ladies of China, in rnmpressing their IVet Into an imall a ettmpass h» possible, run no risk of injuring any nf the vt.tal organs. It', notwithstanding all the warnings and injunctions of medloal men, this part of the dress Iw still held to be indispensable, it ought to be made of as soft and pliable materials as possible ; the principle to be oltserved being that uf allowing every muscle of the human Imdy Ita full play, by which alone the muscular vigour of the system cau be main- tained. Bwides the evils which may arise from the effects of tight lacing, a considerable degree of mischief may he occasioned by the shoulder.ntraps nf the stays being unequal In length, and pressing more on one shoulder than on the other. 80, also, when the frocks of children are made too low, by slluplng off the shoulders they Induce a twitching, particularly of the right rhuuldcr, to recorer tha iUlIng itrap, which calls into action the muscles of the right side of the body more ftvqoently than those of the wft, whereby a curvatora of the spine to that side may bt occasioned. Narrow tlaeres iu gownsand coata, tight bracelets, or wristbands In shirts, should ha also avoided ; for, by oompfecsing the blood, vessels, such will occanon swelling of tha Telna at the back of the hand, rigiditj, and weakness of thaarms ; and it is not Improbable that to this came may ba attri- buted the thin and Ill-formed armi that may so often be obserred. To this evil women are more liable than men, because their arms are laas mnscular, and the veins therefore more readily compressed. Hence, the fashion of tying the sleeves of ladies* gowns close to the elbow, deserves censure ; because the circulation and free motion of the arm are thereby apt to he nb. stmcted. In like manner, tight and unyielding gar- ters may he productive of much mischief; for, on the same principle, by interrupting the circulation of the blood, they will occasion enlarged or varicose veins, swelling or dropsy of the legs and thiffhs, and even aneurism. " Many years ago," observes Dr Willich, " when. In compliance with early habits and preju. dices, I was accustomed to the uso of garters, I could not walk or ride half a dozen miles without fatigue, which inconvenience I found immediately removed on abandoning these improper ligaments." It would be much better for the stockings to be tied by a tape to the waistband, than to be retained In their place by tight garters ; but if this article of dress must still be retained, the most elastic, as those made nf caoutchouc, or Indinn rubber, should housed, which should he flat and hroad, and tied above rather than below the knee, becauFe there will be there less chnnce of compressing tho blood- vessels, which lie more superficially below than above the joint. There Is no part of the body the temperature of which should be more carefully preserved than that of the feet ; wherefore, persons ac- customed to worsted stockings should not inconside- rately exchange them fur silk, which, on the occasion of evening pnrties, is often thoughUessly done, and frives rise to all the evils incident to taking cold. In- deed, no article of dress should be either exchanged suddenly or laid aside for one of lighter texture; be- cause any part of the body accustomed to a certain protection of clothing becomes chilled if it be taken away. Tliis is particularly illustrated by the cravat worn by nen ; for while delicate young women with Im- punity expose their necks without any covering to the open air, the strongest man, by laying aside his neck* cloth and exposing his neck, will run the risk of catching a sore throat. It is related by Percy, that a regiment of Infantry, travelling in very stormy and hot weather, were for their greater ease permitted by the colonel to take off their cravats ; having done which, they entered a mountain-pass exposed b) the north.east wind. The next day ninety men were obliged to he sent to the hospital, the greater part of whom were affected with violent infiammation uf the throat ; and during the following days as many as three hundred of ^eir comrades became not less in- disposed. So, also, those who are accustomed to wear a bonnet or hat In the open air, ought never to go out with the head uncovered : in very hot weather, by so doing, they will expose themselves to a coup de toteit, or sun. stroke; in damp or chilly weather, to severe cold. In this, also, may he recognised the effeca of habit: thus, when the Asiatics expone themselves to the rays of the sun, they protect their head tiy wear- ing a turban ; hut the negroes iu the West Indicj, though exposed to the rays of a tropical sun, will uu no account wear a hat or any other covering on the head. < Imprpsfud with the conviction that where there Is the 8lif];htf St restraint there can be no ease nor freedom of motion, our ideas concerning graoe and beauty be- a>me naturally associated with that form or style uf dress which suggests the most perfect sense of ease and freedom. Hence, Ili>garth has shown that beauty consists of lines flowing in easy curves; wherefore, those parts of dress composed of such curves are al- ways the most agreeable. Hence, a sash descending from one shoulder to the opposite hip, or a Grecian veil thrown back, and winding ^carelessly down be- liind, suggeKting the feeling of perfect freedom, are always beautiful. But whatever may i>e the ntlen sugtiested In respect to dress for the preservation of health, or whatever may be the arrangement of iu style most consonant with tlie real principles of art, the imperious dominion Fashion will overrule; for it unfortunately happens in thin country that every per- son, no matter whether tt Iw becoming to them or not, indiscriminately adopts whatever style of dreiis may he introduced. " Not only," says Goldsmith, " ladies of every shape and complexiim,' liut nf every age too, are possessed of this unaccountable f accommodate themselves to this chan({e in the balance uf circulation. Soon after thin, however, reaction succeeds ; that is, the heart and arteries overcome tlie additional burthen imposed ou them, and propel tha blood again into the superlicial or capitlary l)loud-veti8el8, and this rush of bimtd to the surface given riM) to that (ft^i'lal glow which is experienced after bathing. When the body first plunges into the nea, tlte difference of tempera- ture excites a sudden impression on the nervous sys- tem, and the pressore of the surrounding fluid on the abdomen and chest excites a certain degrt^ uf breath- lessness, whicli sensations combined comtitutd what is called a thock. The ttute of the body at the time of bathing is a matter of conitiderable importance. The general rule is, nut to go Into the water when the body is overheated, nor yet when it is reduced below its natural temperature. Many persons, after taking a brisk walk down to the sea-side, lounge about until they feel cool, when they imagine that they may bathe with impunity. This is an error. Iu such a state the vital energies are eufeeliled aud depressed. :■ », ■■•i-: i CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Kud ttur tbt oald ImnMrtioB tha •jrium hu not nilH- eloit •Iniiiilh lafl to wutilith Um rwutlon •ban «i. plalnad. Ariar iuch Imprudancc, th« individual on Iwviog tha Hular t—U himulf ol>ill«l. In fact, tha blood doM not nturn with its woulvd itimului to tha turikca of the bodjr. In omHhiiiencA of the blood being driren, on im- nenion into cold water, from thetunMsa to the inter- nal oriia»>, it U iil>viiiu>, that, if an indiTidual inuaene himull in water u|i h> the ne«k, leaving the head alone ju)bath»(l, there will be danger of the blood lieing driven to ilie brain, in which oaaa throbbing of the tamplsK, disaiiieat, and symptoma of apopkiiy, not un. freqiifiitly etiiue. Dr Culleu, in bia lecturvi, u«ed tu xalatt* the t^aae of a lady, who alter bathing was al> waya alTeuted with viuleitt headavhoy drowiineai, and other ^y^lpto^ll apprtiaching tu apoplexy, although in other ranpectit the uia uf the cold bath waH of ma- terial Nfrvii-e tu her general health. On iiit|tiiry, he fbiind that she turefully alutained from watting her head. Next time »he tried the bath, the doctor ad- viaed her tu aubmerga Iter head ai well aa the reat of her body, which direction! were followed, and from that time ahe coiiciuued to baliie nut only with im- punity, but with advanuge. The use of the bathing- oap, ixtrnmonly used by iadiea to protect their hair from the effects of the aea-water, ia for the same rea- aon objecti'mable. Mauy perauua aocttatomed thiu to cover tlie btfiul during bathing, are liable afterwards to severe headaches. These are occasioned by the determination of blood to the head, and will in gene-' ral be completely averted by allowing the cold water to come in immediate contact with the head. In the rafiauns now assigned, the sooner any person in bath- ing plunges the head into the water, the better ; al- though, perhaps, the custom of plunging in head fore- most ia objectionable, because it may determine a Buddei. rush of blood to the brain. It is also to be obaervad, that it ia better to remain duriug a short time immersed iu the water, than to take repeated plunges ; in illustration of which fact, Dr Currie re- latea an interesting narrative of the effects of a sliip- vrack on some mariners who were cast away on a aand-bank that lies at the mouth of the river Slertey. Thiy remained twenty-three houra clinging to the wrack, in the month of December. The part of the wrack to which they adhered lying in a aloping direc- tion, those of -the crew who were placed on the higher part of it were generally out of the sea, but frequently overwhelmed by the si. ^, and eapoaad to a piercing wind, while the othen were almost constantly im- mersed in the water. In the former situation were pUoed the two masters, stout men in the prime of Uft, and accustomed to hardships. They both died during the night, while the remainder of the craw, among whom was a negro, were all preservsd except one, and ultimatelv recovered. It ia not necessary to remain longer in the water than two or three minutes, and during thia time the body should lie kept in con- stant ntotTan. For the delicate, bathing-drcsaes are certainly useful They protect the body to a certain extant from the danger of taking cold, but should be made of to open a texture aa to admit tl.e water in erary direction. Immediately after bathing, the mois- tora should ba wiped off the body ; but rubbing the inrfacs of the body perfectly dry ia less necessary than rasuming the clothes usually worn as speedily as pos- albla. The sooner in particular that the chest is co- Tared, the better. After bathing, it is desirable to take a moderate degree of exercise; but cjire should be taken not to prolong the walk or ride so as to produce latlgua or laasitude. If a sense of coldness or shiver- ioc occur, a slight stimulant should be taken— a little ^riu or wine and water — with the view of establish- ing reaction. If this fail, the individual should be E laced in a warm bed, and frictions, and bottles or ladders of hot water, applied to the surface of the body. Cold-bathing is by no means a safe practice in all i-aaat i indeed, no invalid should have recourse to it unless under professional advice. It has been shown that when the body is plunged into cold water, the blood leaves its surface, and rushes to the vessels of the internal organs. Accordingly, it is evident that If the lungs ba delicate, or if any structural disease ba luriting in that o:gan, it will not be able to sus- tain the accumulation of blood which may under such drcumstanoes be driven to it. S bemme in the slightest degree chilled. The effect of immanian in cold water Is, as we have explained to produce a reaction in the cirailatiou, by which the axmma fai ul t at the surface of tha body having be- coma oonslricted and partially emptied, are again dilated and Ailed by tha return of the blood from the heart and arteries. The effect of warm-bathing, however, aasumes a different oharacter ; for, in this case, by the application of tha external warmth, the extreme ressals are relaxed, and more readily admit the blood which the enfeebled action of the heart and arteries could scarcely propel into them. Thus, the whole outaneoiu system iMComes filled with blood, while the interior organs are relieved, and the heart tiuding less didioully in emptying its contents, be- comes, as it were, encouraged to assume a fuller and stronger series of contractions. Hence, in peraniis of a weakly habit of body, the effect of the tepid or warm bath is to Htrengtlien instead of to weaken the constitution — a fact attested by many high i.3edical authorities, and recently by Dr Andrew Combe, who states that, in his own instance in particular, he is conscious of having derived much advantage from its regular empluymeut, especially in the colder months of the year, during which he uniformly found him- self most effectually strengthened against the impres- sion of cold by repeating it at shorter intervals than usual. When the body is in a state of exhaustion from exoeshive ftitif^ue, there is nothing which (on the principle just explaf.ied, of its facilitating the cir- culation of the blood to the extremities) is so refresh- lug and invigorating as a warm bath ; and heuce Ho. mer describee Ulysses, among others, as refreshing himself with a witrm liath, on his return home after all his fatigues and dangers. The hot bath and the vapour bath are used rather as restorativee than as preservatlvee of health. Their effect is to soften the textures, increase the sensibi- lity uf the nervous system, promot,: absorption, restore the tone of tlie mucous membranes, and iu many chronic diseases, especially in rheumatism, gout, scro- fula, and cutaneous eruptions, they are found to be extremely beneficiaL SLEEP. M'hen the noise, bustle, and wonted occupations of the liny have terminated, the stimulus of light is withdrawn, and nature invites all animals to repose. To the weary it brings rest ; to the distressed tem- porary relief, and is the ** wide blessing" which mi- nisters to the comfort of all msnkind. After hav- ing been engaged in daily occupations fur ftiurteen or sixteen hours, s general feeling of fatigue and weakness is induced ; the motions of the body be- come ditlicult, the senses confused, the power of vo- lition or will suspended, and the rest of the meuul faculties becoming more and more cnifusetl, sink into a state of uncor~ 'ousness. The sense uf sight first ceases to act by the closing of the eyelids ; then the senses of taste and smell become dormant ; and then thute of hearing and touch. The muscles, also, dis- pose themselves with a certain reference to ease of position, those of the limbs having ceased to act be- fore those that support the head, and those that sup- port the head before thote of the trunk. In proportion as these phenomena proceed, the respiration becomes slower and more deep, the circulation diminishes, the blood proceeds in great quantity towards the head, anil all the fuiii:tions of the internal organs become retarded. In this state, shut nut, as it were, from the external world, the mind still reuins its wonted ac- tivity, deprived, however, of the farultiesuf judgment and recollection ; in consequence of which, it dues not perceive the monstrous incongruities of the imagery which sweeps before it, and takes no cognisance what- ever of the time which elapses; wherefore, a dream, the pageantry of which has lasted during the whole night, will often appear, on our being awakened, to have occurred within a lew minulesj and a complete dream, embracing a variety uf successive incideuu, which appear to be spread over a vast extent uf time, will often pass through the mind in a few seconds. it may tie laid down as an axiom, that, the more un- in.errupted sleep is, the more refreshing and salutary will be its effects s for, during this period, the body undoubtedly acquires uu accession of nervuus energy, which restlessness, however induced, must disturb ; and therefore the state of the body before going to sleep, the kind of bed, the manner of clothing, require especial attention. sAs the functions uf the body are performed more slowly during our sleeping than our waking hours, it is evident that a full meal or supper, taken Immediately before going to bed, will impose a load on the stomach which it will be unable to digest, and, from the very great sympathy existit.j between 'the stomach and brain, will occasion frightful dreams. When these occur in their most aggravaud form, the sleeper lies upon his back, and the heart pressing down while pulsating un the lungs, gives rue to a sense of intolerable oppreaaion on the chest, which seems to bear down upon the whole l)ody, ao that in this painful stale not a muscle will obey the impulse uf the will, and every effort to move appears to be altogether unavailing. This cunstiti^cs incuiiu or nifhlmttr> t and it may be observed, that, as acidity on the stomach or Indigestion gives rise to such dreams, so all dreams of this disturbed chsracter are iiidicS' tlons of ludlgestiuu | fur which reason the great phy- siologisl llaller cuntidered dreamiug to be a syraetom of disease. It is certain that the dreams of r althy persons are the lightest, and most evaneacant. The kind of bed on which we repose requires atten- tion. Stime are advocates for soft, others for hard I beds i hauca soma tMiMMm iliemtalvea ta iMtUr- beds, others to mattresses. Tha only difftrenca be- tween a soft and a hard bed Is this — thai the weight nf tha body In a soft bed presses on a larger surface than on a hard bed, and thereby a greater degree of comfort la enjoyed. Parents on this subleot err in fancying that a hard bed contributes to harden tha constitution of their children) for which reason they lay them down on mattresses, or beds with boarded bottoms. This is a popular prejudice. The beds for young children cannot ba too soft, provided tin* child does not sink Into the bed In such a manner as that the surrounding parts of the bed bend over and cover the body. The too great hardness nf beds, says Dr Darwin, frequently proves injurious to the ihupr nf infants, by occasioning them to rest on too few pni-ved Mid disposed to sleep. Accordingly, parsons wl,oc^.4ipl>in of sleep- lessness should luok to the cantity u' their bed- clothing; for the unueces''../ additlur of a single blanket may be the sole ci jse uf the ai.nuyanoe. It is also imprudent to lie rith the head entirely within the bed-clothes ; for, in C-ls case, tt^e same air which has been already brea'-hed, :^>ts'. be i^gaiu and agaiu inhaled. Fur the same reason, the curtains should not be drawn closely round the bed. Washing the face and hands, and brushing the teeth liefure going to lied, will be found lo contribute materially to comfort. Tha window-shutters ought never to be entirely closed, nor yet quite open, but so put together as to permit the full light of day to make only a sort of atoaHtiuy or dawny light, which will not irritate the sight. In summer the windows should be a little raited ; and indeed every bedroom should be kept well TcntiUtad. Whatever be the time chosen for sleep, It is evident that no per- son can with impunity convert day into night. £ight o'clock fur children, and ten for adults, may be racou> mended as good hours for retiring M reat. It it well known that children require more sleep than adults, tall people than shon ; and more sleep Is requisite in winter than in summer. The average duration of sleep which may be recommended for adulu Is eighi hours ; but much depends upou habit, aud many per- sons require only six. It is scarcely necessary to ob. serve, that, on rising in the morning, the stricteet at- tentioiv should be paid to waahlng tha body. The bedroom windows should then be Immediately thrown open; and the cluthes of the bed turned down, in or. der that the exhalatiuns of the bmly during sleep may lie dissipated. Instead of this, if the bed be made Immediately after wo have risen, these exhalations are again folded up with the clothes — a practice which is nut urasonanl either with cleanlineM or health. The bed-chithes, therefore, should be turned duwu, aud the windows allowed to remain open some time before the bed is made. We have now explained the principal rules which should be attended to fur the ptasarvalinn of health, and shall conclude by observing, that every individual has his health and happiness more immediately under bis own control than is generally supposed, and is In some measure responsible for it tu himself, society, and hit Creator.* • In wiltlni Iho piMeot numaei of th» IMiiulsr InRirnisllon, Un sultiur, aoiuna oUmii «ork» rtfcrml lo Wlj miouil, hai betn lnJcbUi.1 to ssveta e»™IUnt notlia. the nil.< oi »hloh are »uh- Jolne.!, thit ll»y insv l» conraltsd by Ihost who withes li»>- ■ue fsithet • luldrvl ol .uch v««l ImpmlMie; and ntnil aa Ihu of Iha me.111 of pt««-t.iin hs«ltl> l-Willlcll's l*«""-0°,"5J •nd nMlm™-J«me> Joluuloni BiltUll Hnrttne-Dt Pj'l« on Muotttoo-Wsnl no DUIotUeM of tlw SpUw. I hssl. *«■-""'■ frt oo ih. laspaisUoa of ''"'ds-Thackimh on UW-Ttajol on Die UliordeS oTPsopl. of FssWmi-alt Job" " "•••''^ i™* "• lle«lth-l)r Andrrw llombe'i Prtlwlplei uf I'liyiloloii^-Htiiiler. ■on on Wlnss-WalUl's Maaly Bxamlsas. EsiasiiaaHi PuWUIunI by W. and B. <:»» laaas. ID, WatMloo Plus I also by (laa and .shith. I'sUmoiwt How, Iwodon i and Oaoaus Yuohu, Dublin. Bold by John Maslwid, Ulat- low, and sU oUicr nooksullm. riaai Iks liteeBi.itsss o( W. and H. Cbainbvrs. T?f :: CHAMBERS'S - INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. No. 43. CONOUCTED BY WILLIAU AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND "HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." r , Prick l^d. OPTICS. TiiK term Optici ii derived from « Greek word which •igaifiea ueing^ and appHet to that ' ^tnch of natural philoflophy which treati of the phenoi;.9na of light and vision. Ai to the nature of that attent. ated lub- stance by whose instrumentality objects became vi- sible, philosophers differ in opinion ; there art two theories by which the phenomena of vision are ^e- «>unted fur. The first Is, that llglit is a material suv • stance, consisting of very minute particles, which art thrown off from luminous bodies in all directions and with immense velocity ; the second, which is deno. minated the uudulatory theory, is, that an exceed- ingly thin and elastic medium, called ether, fills all apace and penetrates all material bodies. The par- ticles of this ether are like air, of which we formerly treated, susceptible of being thrown into a »tate o^ vibration, so that waves are propagated in all dire'.- tions; and when these undulations reach the retina of the eye, they excite the sensation of light. By this hypothesis, therefore, Hglit is, like sound, rather a state of matter than matter itself. But independent of all speculations as to the abstract nature of light, it possesses certain general properties, which have been discovered by experiment and observation ; and to these it is our purpose to devote this paper. AUvisible bodies may bed! vided into twoclas8es,s^lf- lumlnuus and n on -hi nil nous. Under the first head are comprised all those bodies which possess In themselves the property of exciting the sensation of light or vi- sion, such as the heavenly luminaries terrestrial flames of all kinda, phosphorescent bodies, and those su'b- •tances which shine by being heated or by frictidn. Under the second class we recognise such bodies as have not the power of throwing off particles of light, or exciting undulations of themselves, but which pos- ■ess the property of reflecting the light which is cast upon them by selMuminous bodies. A non-luminous body may receive light from another non-luminous body, and throw it upon a third so as to illuminate it; but, in every cue, the light which renders objects vi- sible must proceed from some selMuminous body. When a candle is placed in a darkened room, it ren- ders objects visible by discharging particlen of light upon them, which they throw back or reflect in di- rections which we shall afterwards describe. Light proceeds from every viaible point of an Illu- minated body, and in all directions in which the point is visible. A piece of paper held before a candle, or in the sun, will be found Illuminated over the whole of its surface, no part buing left destitute of light. This will l>e found to be the case in whatever position «he paper is held, provided the rays of light are allowed to fall upon it. Alt bodies throw off light of the same colour as them- selves. Although the light of the son is white, It is not simple, butcompoundedut' seven different rays, as we shall see hereafter. This white substance falling upon objects of different colours, is decomposed by them— the green bodies r*tHect green light, the red ones red light, the yellow ones yellow light, and so on; thus giving rise to that beautiful variety of tints which the face of creation exhibits. In wliatever situation we place ourselves, if the liftht thrown brick by bodies is not obstructed, they are shown to be only of that colour which they reflect. Light consists of separate |)nrts or atoms, called rn^ji, which are independent of each other. These are projected from the luminous body in straight lines, which is proved when the sun darts his beams through a cloud of smokeorduftt, Ttieretbe progress of light In straight lines may be distlnL'tiy seen. It is alsnpi oved by the fact that we cannot penttive objects thnnigh a bent tube; and It may be inferred from the form of the shadows of bodies. If light bn admitted Into a dark room by a small hole in the shutter, it illumluutes » spo*. in th(' room exactly oppimite the shutter. If a smnllpor- ticn of the admitted light be itopped, or if the whole of i; except a very minute portion be arretted in Its straightforward course, that which is allowed to pass is not in the slightest degree affected by Its separa- tion from the main column of light, proving that the rays are independent of each other. The smallest portion which we either stop or allow to pass is called a ray pf light. Light travels with extraordinary velocity. Astro- nomers have proved, by observing the eclipses of Ju- piter's satellites when that planet is nearest and when It Is farthest from the earth, that light moves from ^he sun to the earth in seven aiul a half minutes. It proceeds through a space equal to the circumference ot our globe In the eighth part of a second — a flight vhich the swiftest winged bird could not perform in less than three weeks. Of the light which falls upon a body, part is thrown back or reflected, and part Is absorbed by the body or Is transmitted through it. Those bodies, such as glass and water, which allow light to pass through them, are called transparent or pellucid bodies, and some, times mediums. Boilies, such as a plate of stiver, brass, &c., which throw back the light in great quan- tities, are called reflectors. Light is reflected accord- ing to certain fixed laws, the consideration of which forms a branch of the subject called Catoptrics. Light is also transmitted according to certain immutable laws, and this part of optics is denominated Dioplrict. CATOPTHICS. The term Catoptrics is derived from two Greek words, one of which signifies from or against, and the other to s^f, and denotes that branch of thu science which treats of the reflccii4)n of light from plane or spherical surfaces, and the phenomena of the forma- tion of Images. A speculum or mirror is any Instrument of a regular form employed for the purpose of reflecting light, or forming images of objects. Allrrors usually consist of metal or glass, having a highly polished surface. Those which are constructed of glass are coated upon the back with quicksilver, for the purpose of reflecting more light ; were this not the case, so little light would be thrown back, on account of glass transmitting it to a considerable extent, that a very indltitlnct Image would be formed. The word speculum is generally confined to metallic mirrors, and they are either plane, concave, or convex. The plane ones arc perfectly flat like a lookinv.glass ; and a common watchglass con- veys a very good idea of the other two species of mir- rors. Coat the hollow surface with mercury, and place it before a candle, it forms a convex mirror; coat It upon the other clde and employ it as before, it be- comes a concave mirror. In the course of this paper, when mirrors are mentioned, those made of polished metal are meant. If a plane mirror A B be placed exactly in a horizontal position, and if a ray of light c darting downwards In nii exactly perpendicular direc lion, and strii^iiig it at f/, the ray will be thrown back in the exact patli which it traversed in Its descent, without any devintion. If, however, it descends in an oblique manner, as is shown at f, a point midway between the per- pendicular c and the hoi izontal A B, it will not re- turn, as in the former Instanre, to the place whence it came, but will be reflected from the mirror at an nngle exactly equal to chat at which it descended upon it. The ray e d is rilled the incident ray^ and the ray (lb Is termud the reflecled ray. The figure vdc is c I lied tlie angle of incidence, and d Oc the angle of re- Jlirtion ; luid they are both, as we have oliserved, ex- actly equal to each other. Thin being the ftict, we have atfoided us a method of univer.Mil iip)i)ioiitit>ri, by which, when once the aiiffte of Incidenre, or thiiC at which the ray falls upon a Ixniy, ie found, thnt of reflection h eahlly obtained. This holds true what- ever shape the mirror may be of, plane, concavei or FiR. I. Fig. 8. convex, and whatever number of rays may fall upon it. Parallel rays, when reflected from plane surfacei, retain their parallelism after reflection. When r/i- verging or converging rays fall upon a plane mirror, they retain their degree of divergency or convergonoy after they have been reflected. This fact is so obvi- ous, that any farther illustration of it by dlagruma la unnecessary. HEILECTION OF HAYS mOM CONCAVE AND CONVEX fttinnoRS. When parallel rays fall upon a convex mirror, they will be made to converge or meet at a certain point called a focus. Thus, in the annexed figure, theparallelraysyc/ fall- ing upon the concave mirror a b, are thrown ."''f, check from Its surface in angles of reflection equal to the angle of incidence, and meet at a common point m, which In the Fpreiient instance Is at exactly half the distance of the surface of the mir- ror from c, the centre of Its concavity. Thus, let o be the centre of concavity of the mirror a A, and leit the parallel rays fall upon It Rt the points dof. Drav the lines c i d, c m e, chf from the centre v to these puintf, these lines will be perpendicular to the face of the mirror, because they proceed like so many radii from Iti centre. Make the angle c(/ A equal to the angle f/^c, and draw the Wne dmh, which will be the direction of the ray g after it is reflected from the points of the mirror; so that the angle of incidence gdili equal to the angle of reflection hdi, the rays making equal angles with the perpendicular cid on its opposite sides. Draw also the perpendicular c hf to the point/, where the ray //touches the mirror; and having made the angle cfi equal to the angle c//, draw the line/m i, which will be the course of the ray// after it is reflected by the mirror. The ray cme passes through the centre of concavity of the mirror, and falls upon it at e, the perpendicular to it} and is therefore reflected back from it in the same line emc. All these reflected rays meet in the point m; and in that point the image of the body which emits the parallel rays gel will be formed, which point is distant from the mirror equal to half the radius fmc of its concavity. In all kinds of mirrors, of whatever substance they may be formed, the focal point is exactly equ.'il to one- half of the radius of the mirror's concavity. Tlie/icr/s OT fire-place, where the rays meet at a point, is so called on account of these collected rays poNsessing t)ie power of burning any combustible body placed there. This property, liowever, of inflaming a l)ody whiLh the rays of light possess, is to ! e attrilmtvd to the prH.ct to the reflection of diverging rnys, or those rnys which, proceeding from one point, such as c, iind (■triking the concave mir-tr at def &c. they will lie reflected toa point nearer that of the mirror's concavity th.in they were roncentratod to in tlie case of parallel rays. Thus, in the cane of the reflection of diverging rays, tlie focal distance e m of the mirror is gre:iter than Its distance from the piirallel ray^. On tlie other hand» converging r:iys falling o\\ a coiicava surfiice, converge more, that \f, they will meet at a point farther fconi the centre of the CHvity of the mirror, than ihiit to wiiich the parallel rays <; c / were converiji'd. Tims, let N and O be two converging rays wIulIi are Fove- rally projected upon a roucuve niirior at 1 and 'J, their angles t»f ini-idence are eviileutly larger than tii-ise of the parallel rays ; hence their angU'S cf rel!. riion will be greater. They therefore uecessurily converge after CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. their reflection, hikI meet at » ptHiit I*, wliiiU Is, m we have said, farther from the centre of concavity of th« mirror than in any of the former inilancea. If the reflecting mirror a A be fanned, and the •onrex ilde of it preMiited to ihe raya^re/, pheno- mena of a differeut kind will occur, but reiulting from or depending upon the aame laws. Initead of the rayi being reflected Intrardu, and meeting at a focal point before the mirror, tliey will diverge ai If they Gune from a point from behind the mirror, which is •ailed their virtual fooui, and which ii limilar to the distance rm in the former diagram. It is called a Tirtual focuii, not Iwcause the rayi meet there, but because the ravi which pass from the surface of the k^irror, if continued backwards, would all meet there, mud se«m to have diverged from that point. lu re* lerenoe to the redectiou of diverging rays from con- vex mirrors, the virtual focal distance behind the reflecting surface will be less than for oaiallel rays, and with respect to converging rays it will be greater. FOMMATION OF IMAGES BY MIKROmS. The Image of an object is a likeness of It, formed fanerally by mirrors and leniM upon various grounds, ftnd reflected accurately in nhaue and colour upon the •ye w>tich is fitted to perc«ivelt. Images can alno t>e nnned upon a piece of paper, by placing a small hole between the object and the paper, and excluding all extraneous light. This will be oest understood by the iollowing diagram :— Fig. X Let C D be a window-shntter having a small ftperture A, and E F a piece of paper placed in a dark raamber. Then, If an illuminated object, ROB, i» placed on the outside of the shutter, we shall observe •n inverted image of this object painted on the pnper St rg b. In order to understand how this tiikei place, let us suppose the object R (i B to have three distinct colours — red at R, yrfen at ti, and Uue at B ; then it la plain that the red light from U will pass in straight lines through the aperture A, and fall upon the paper £ F at r. In like manner, the preen from O, and the blue light from B, 'will severally fall upon the paper at and &, and an inverted image rg b of the object ROB will be painted upon It. Kvery coloured point in the object ROB having a coloured point correspond- ing to it, and opposite to it on the paper £!■, the Image bgr will be an accurate picture of the object ROB, provided the aperture A is very kmall. If it tie tncreafed in size, indistinctness in the image will en- lae ; for, with a large aperture, two adjacent points of the object will throw their light on the same poiAt of the paper, and thus create uonfusion in the picture. It is perfectly clesr, that if the paper E F be moved to a farther distance from the hole A, the sixe of the image will be increased ; and If it be brought nearer to it, it wilt t>e diminished. The law U, that when A ^ is equal to A U, the Image will be equal to the 6b- iect ; when the distance between the two is less, the Image will likewise be less ; and when it is greater, it will be greater. As the aperture A ii small, and ad- mits only a small numlier of rays, and as to enlarge it would render the imnge indistinct, only a faint pic- ture is formed. This is remedied, however, by means of mirrors and lenses. Fif. 4. Imapes formed by Plane Mir- ^ roTM — Let V Z be the surface of M a plane mirror, M N anv otijert ki' placed in front of It, and h the eye of an observer placed at • Ar. Of the rays which shoot in a recti- ^linear direction from the points M N of the object, and are reflect, ed from the mirror, those which enter the eve are few in numl>er, and roust i>e reflected from por. tions D F and O II of tlie mirror, •o situated with reference to the eye and the otiject that the angles of incidence of the rays which fall on these portions nnist lie equal to the angles of reflection of those whir]i enter the eve between i and k. For Initanre, the ray M D is reflected in tlie direction Ui, and the my .M F in the direction FA-. In the same manner, the rays N O and N H will be reflected re- reratly in the directions U % and II k. If tbu rays 1 1) and k F be rimtiriued buckwards, they will meet at a point .M, whence they will appear totiave come to the eye. For the rameVeaunn, the rays OJ and II Ar, if continued in the »ame manner, will leom to meet at the point n ai their focus, and mn will be tlie virtual Imago of the object M N. It Is called virtual, becuuse it is not formed by the actual unfon of rays in a focus, and cannot be received upon paper. The virtual Image m n is rnppu^ed to be as far behind the mirror as the t.bject .M N is licforc it; consequently, if we join m n, it wilt be of the same dimensions »s At N, and have ilie same position behind the mirror as the object bus before It. If we join the points !M m and N H, ttie llnrn .M r,i and N n will tie perpendicular to the n.irror V /, uiij c 'nucqiienily parallel. In every position of the eye, the ima^e is M>en in the same S{iot and uf the some sixe at equal dislaiicus from the eye. If the object AI N is an individual surveying himself in the mirror, lie will see his perfect image as if at m »; and thus we have an explanation of the p/lucl. pies and properties of the looking- glas», iifjltction (if Images by Conaave Jfirror*.— If we bend the plane mirror V Z in the last cut Into a flgure forming the segment of a circle, we will form a con- cave and a convex mirror. Pig, 5. A B N Let M N be an object placed at some distance fhim a concave mirror A B, whose centre is C, and whoae principal foons Is E. The rays from Bl fall diverging upon the mirror, and are reflected to a focus at m (a little without the principal focus), where they form an Image of the extremity AI. In the same way, a representation of the extremity N will be painted at n, so that a complete but inverted image of N M will thus be formed ; and it Is evident that it will be very bright, though small, because a great number of rays are concentrated, and concur in forming each point of the image. The sice of the image thus formed corresponds to the distance of the object from the mirror. If the latter be large, and the former very bright, a aeriee of beautiful eBperiments may Ite made by varyiog the dlstanoe of the object, and observing the variations in the sIeb and place of the image. As the ottject recedes from the mirror, the picture ap- proaches E, and gradually decreases in liie. It coin- cides with K when M and N are intinitely distant. l( we consider m n as a small object, a magnified re- presentation of it will be formed at Al N, which, when viewed liy a convex lens, such as will be afterwards described, constitutes a rejecting microicope. If we place a small concave mirror op behind it, so as to enlarge the image, and reflect them through an open- ing D in the large mirror A B, then this second image may be magnified still more by means of a lens, in which case it constitutes a Or^orlan reflecting tele- scope, BO called from the inventor James Oregory. If instead of a concave we employ a convex mirror 7>, and place it lietween E and nm, so as to reflect the rays which would otherwise have met at n tn, then an enlarged Image would in this case also be painted at D, where it can be magnified as in the farmer in. stance. This combination constitutes the Cassegrai- nian rejieeting telescope, so called from its inventor AI. Cassegrain. An image formed by a concave mirror fs always highly magiiilietl when the object is near the focus, but as it passes that point and approaches the mirror, the image gradually decrea(>es in sixe, and Iwromes equal to the object when the latter touches the mirror. Indeed, when the image la placed ttetween the prin- cipal focus and the mirror, the image Is a virtual one formed behind the mirror. In convex mirrors, on the other hand, the image is always a virtual one formed tiehind the mirror. To perceive the truth of this, we have only to suppose tlie large mirror A B turned round, and m n placed at the back of it, or faring the concavity as at present, in which situation it will form the virtual image of the otiject AI N at the virtual foci. In every position of the eye before the mirnir, the image will be seen in the same spot m n, and it is always erecty and less than the oliject. The siEeof the image is to the siae of the otiject as the distance of the image from the centre of the mir- ror is to the distance of the otiject. In approaching the mirror, the image and oliject approach to equality ; and when thf y touch it, they are both of the same iiKe. DIOPTRICS. Dioptrics is a term C4>mpounded of two Oreek words, one of which ni^'itifies through and the other to net', and denotes that branch of optics wliich treats of the transmission of the rays of light through transparent bodies, the plienomena attendant thereupon, and the laws by whiuh tbey are produced. There Is one general truth which the reader must bear In rec4tIlection : it is, that the rays of light, in passing from one medium into another, are bent from the rectilinear or straight-line course which they were pursuing before they left one kind of substance which admitted of their passagn throtigh it, such as the at- mosphere, into another kind of transmitting substance, stidi as water, which also admits of the passage of light through it. Let A B be a vessel half filled with water, and o a ray of light \^ lii> ti has tn pass through it. The direction of the ray is perfectly straight until it enters the uater at J, when, instead of proceeding ill a straight line to d, it is bent from itx course and comp«lled to suike the bottom of the roMel at c.A.If oil instead of water had been used, the ray would have been still more lient, and have reached the bottom U /. A great variety of substances piwsess this p4t\ver of bending the course of a ray of light, and 1| Is called refraction^ a term derivjd from a Latin word signify, ing breaking tack, tiecause, as In the atmve Instance, the ray of light c Is broken or refracted at }. Tha power by which bodies produre this efl^ert Is called their refractive power, and bodies ttiat prtHlure U In diflTerent degrees are said to possess dllferent refraolWa powers. Let the vessel A B be now emptied, «nd let % briglit object, such as a sixpence, be cemented to the Iwttnm of it at d. If the otisorver places himself a few feet from the vessel, he will find a position where he will see the sixpence throngh the hole. If water be now poured Into the vessel up to C D, the observer will no lunMT see the sixpence ; but if another sixpence tie placed at d, and moved towards e, it will liecome visible when it reaches i. Now, as the ray from the sixpence %\ e reaches the eye, it must come out of the water at a point j, in the surface, found by drawing a straight line jo through the eye and the hole{ and, cmue* quently, ej must be the direction of the ray. which makes the sixpence visible, liefore Its refraction at j. But if this ray move onward without being refreoted at j, its path would have been eg; whereas. In con- ■eauenoe of the refraction, its path ii>o. Ilenoe it follows, that when a ray of light passing thruugh any dense medium, such as water, &.C., In a directum ob- lique or slanting to Us surface, oiilta the medium et any point, and enters a rarer medium, such aa air. It Is refracted from the line perpendicular to the lurmce at the point where It quits it. The degree of bending or refraction of light In ire- versing a transparent surface Is ascertained by com- paring the obli(]u{ty of its approach to t)te surface wlilk the obliquity of its course after its departure. Tbo angle which It forms with the perpendicular line i k determines the amount of refraction. The angle ijn Is called the angle of incidence, and the angle kjf, which the ray c bent at j makes with the same per- pendicular, is called the angle of refraction, M'nett tlie ray comes out of the water, and is refracted in the manner desorilied, thefte terms are juit reversed. The line j m is called the sine of the angle of Incidence, and the otlier line c k \» called the sine uf the angle of re- fraction. In every case ttie«e tines have a oonitaut ratio to each other, and the numlwr which expresiea this ratio Is called the index of rtfraetiotu The line i m which measures the obliquity l>efure mfraotlunt li invariably longer than ek, measuring it after refrac- tion, by nearly one-third of tlie latter; and the refrac- tive power of water Is therefore signified tiy tlie Index 1^ nearly, or 1.330. In the same manner the greater refractive power of common gtasx has tlie index 1|, that of the diamond the index 2^, and so on. Aa we have observed, whatever relation holds between the obliquity of a ray and the refraction In any one case, the same holds for all cases, if, for Instance, where the obliquity, as measured by its sine, is 40, and the refraction is 20, then, in the same substance, an obli- quity of 10 will occasion a refraction of A, and au obli- quity of 4 will occasion a refraction of 2, and so on, the sines of Incidence and refraction having always a fixed and invarialile relation to each other. There Is one fact to tie observed, ttiat a ray desi^eudlng p«r|>en- dicularly Into any medium, or quitting it )>«rpendicii- larly, suffers no refraction t it is only wlieu itdesceuda or rises in an oblique dlrecilon that this takes place. With regard to the refractive power of transparent substances or media, the general rule, with certain limitations, Is, that It Is in proportion to the densttlee of the bodies. It increases, fur Instaui'e, from tho most perfect vacuum which can he formed, thruugh air, fresh water, salt water, glass, and so on. Hut those Butistances which contain the most Inflainmablo matter, have the greatest refractive power. It was from the great refractive powers of the diamond and water, that Newton, with admirable lagacity, preillvted that they contained inflammalde principles. This fact future discoveries in chemistry verified. Tallies of tlte refractive powers of substances most interesting In op- tics will be found In Brewster's Optics. Frtun these it would appear that substances which contain fluoric acid (See C'fiF.MiSTRv) have the least refractive power, as intlamnialile ones have tlie greatist. With irgard to the cause of refraction, no good explunatiou has iieeii given, but it may facilitate our conception of the pheno- mena, to consider it as depending upon the attractive f»ower which the medium or body possesses over tho ight which passes through it. aEl'RAL'TlON Of MtillT BY miSMN AND I.CNttrS, The following flgure represe'tts the shape of ilio various optical iuAtrumeuts, where the effect is pro- duced by refraction. They are most commonly made of glass, tiir David Brewster thus describes tlivra t— Fig. 7. A B_, C OSTOUl 1. An optical prism, shown at A, i* a solid having two plane surfaces A B, A S, which are culled its re- tracting surfaces. The face R S, equally inclined to A R and A S, in called the Imittf of thu prthiii. 2. A plane glass, shown at It, Is a pbue uf gUsa with two plane surfaces, ti 6, c rf, parallel to each olh»r« 'ft; OPTICS. 3. A itphcrtcal leim, Rhown it C, ii a aplierB, all the potnU ill iu iurfttc« being equally dliUut from the Miitr* O. 4. A dnnlile convex lenii, shown «t D, Is a Mild formed by two unnv^x iip)i(trical »urfKce«, having their centre! ou opponlte nideii of tlie leni. Whun the radii of it* two RurfaceB are eqnal, It ii Raid to be equally convex t ftiid when the radii are unequal, it U said to be an unequally convex leni. A. A planoM:onTex lent, shown at E, if a lent hav- ing one of ill lurfacet convex and the other plane. 6. A double concave lend, shown at V, Is a lolid bouiuled by two onnoave spherical surfaces, and may be equally or unequally concave. 7. A plano>ci)nc*tve lens, represented at O, Is a lens, ono of whose surfaces is concave and the other plane. 6. A meniscus, shown at H, Is a leni, one of whose mrfkcea is convex and the other concave, and in which the KurfNces meet If cnntlruied. Ai the convexity ex. eeeds th« tnncavlty, it may be regarded as a convex lens. (It is called a meniscus, because it resembles the crtsoent moon.) 0. A cotu'avo.coii vex lens, shown at I, is a lens, one of whose sitrfacps in concave and the other convex, and In which the two surfaces will not meet, though con- tinued. As the concavity exceeds the convexity, It may he regarded aa a concave lens. In all these lenses, a line M N passing throngh the Gtntres of their curved surfttces in called the axis. The figures represent only the sections of the lenses, as if they were cut by a pmni< pansing through their axis ; but the render will understand that the convex sur. Aioe of a lens is like the outside of a watchglass, and the concave surface like the inside. As the peculiar manner in which these variously ahaned crystals refract the rays of light must neces* ■arllv Iw represented when we show the manner in which, by virtue of their property, they form images of sIrcs dilTercut from the real object, only the gene- ral principle may be noticed. When a ray of light •trikea the prittm A It S on tlie surface A S, and per- pendicular to it, it does not pass through the glass in a dinH!t line, hut is bent from its course in the same mannet- as was the case in the pansage of light through water. The property of lenses having a convex sur- iXce, such as K, is to collect the rays of light Into a fbcus^thoie having a concave surface, to disperse the rays, For Itintance, a parallel ray of light entering the dotible o, the ray« are refracted towards the axis, and mpet at a focal point, which in a lenn of this form in sittiated ncnily at the centre of the iipher(>, of which the surface of the glass constitutes a portion. It is therefore at the dintance of the ra- dius of the sphere. In every case the focal distance depends not only upon the refractive power of the Rubitanre of which the lens is made, but upon the ■hape of the instrument. Parallel rays fulling upon a plane gliinn, such iis U, lying horizontally, are re- fracted towards the perpendicular, as we saw was the case with respect to water; and after passing through It, they retain their parallelism. The law of light's Itending according to the obliquity with which it tra- verses the RurfaceH of a transparent body, is beauti- fully itluntrntt'd by the elfect of what Is called a muliiplving ^Inss. This Instrument in a plano-convex lens, »t' which the rounded surface is ground into a series of nniiill planes ; and as each plane forms a dis- tinct iniege, as many images will be formed as there are planes in the glass. Thus, in the accompanying Flg.u. Ilgurt, o b represents the plane side of the glass, and < (' a ray of light passing to the eye at /, upon which a dl/tiiu't Image is formed. The rays r/ and e striking npon oltllqiie jurfaces of the glass will l>e so bent as to reach the eye as if they had come in the direction^/ and r/, and in these directions two other distinct imatfes wili bo seen. The refraction which light suf- fers In passing through a prism will be described when wo come to notice the decomi>osition of light. rORMATlON OK IMAUES BY LENSES. The prin''lple upon which images are formed by light pMKhing through sniull apertures, and by reflec- tion front mirrors, we have ulready explained. Imnges are formed by lenses in the same manner as they are fornu'd by mirrors. The image formed by a ctmvex K'n« \% invtMted In position. relatively to the object, as was the rate In fig. Q. Its magnitude, in like man- unr, Is to that of the object as its distance from the 939 lens is to the distance of the object from the lens. By this means Images of any size can be formrd ; small ones by removing the oliject from the lens, and large ones by bringing the object near the lens. These ef- fects can also l>e varied by employing lenses of differ* ent focal lengths or distances. In order to explain the power of lenses In magni- fying objects, and bringing them near us, let ns sup- pose ait object placed at one hundred feet distance from the eye of a spectator. I^et us place a convex glass of twenty-five feet focal distance half way be- tween the object and the eye ; then, as has been pre- viously observed, an inverted image of the obiect, and of the same size, will be formed tifty feet behind the lens. If this picture is looked at six or eight inches be- hind it, it will be very distinctly seen, and nearly as well aa if the ubiect itself had been brought to within six or eight inches of the eye of the spectator. What is meant by the terms focal distance and conjugate foci, will be best understood by a diagram and explaua- tion, fig. 9, which we quote from I)r Arnutti— Hays falling from a on a comparatively flat or weak lens at L, might meet only at (/, or even farther off; while, with a stronger or more convex lens, they might meet at or at £. A lens weaker still might only destroy the divergence of the rays, without being abletoglve them any convergence, or to l>end them enough to bring them to a point at all, and then they would proceed all parallel to each other, as seen at e and/; and if the lens were yet weaker, it might only destroy a part of the divergence, causing the rays from a to go to g and A, and after panning through. Instead of to, i and A*, in their original direction. In an analogous manner, light coming to the lens in the contrary direction from Lcd.^ &c, might, according to the strength of the lens, be all made to come to a focus at a or at /, or in some more dititant point; or the rays might become pa- rallel, as m and n, and there- fore never come to a focus, or they might remain divergent. It may be observed iu the an- nexed tigure, that the farther an object is from the lens, the lens divergent are the rays darting from it towards the lens, or rhe more nearly do they approach to being parallel. If the dietance of the radiant point be very great, they really are so nearly parallel that a very nice test is required to de- tect the non-accordance. Rays, for Instance, coming to the earth from the sun, do nut diverge the millionth of an inch iu a thousand miles. Hence, when we wieh to make experiments with parallel rays, we take those of the kuu. Any two points so situated on the opposite sides of a lens, as that when either becomes the radiant point of light, the other is the Aicus of nuch light, are called conjugate ^if An object and its image formed by a lens, must always be in conjugate foci ; and when the one is nearer the lens, the other will be in a certain proportion more tlistant. Vvhat is called the principal focus of a lent, and by the distance of which from the glass we compare or classify lenses amuiig themselves, is the point at which the sun's rays are made to meet ; and thus, by hold- ing the glass in the sun, and noting at what distance behind it the little luminous spot or image of the sun is formed, we can at once ascertain the focus of a glass, as at a for the rays e and /. It is remarkable that the bending power of the common glass should be such that the focus of a double lens of glass is just where the centre of the sphere would be, of which the surface of the lens is a portion. This gives us another fact with which to associate the recollection that the focus is near, as the convexity of the lens is greater; that is to say, as the surface is a portion of a smaller sphere. And such being the law, it miiy be proved, by calculation as well as by fact, that if a caudle be held from a lens at twice the principal focal distance — suppose at c for a lens with the fucus at a — the Imnge of tlie candle will be formed at /, just as far un thti other side. Thus, then, by trying with a tens until the image of a CHUille is formed at the same distance from it as the object is, we have a second mode of ascertaining the focal distance of a lens. Other kinds of glass, and other substances, refract with ditfereut powers; but the facts now stated should be retained iu the memory as staudurdh uf comparison. To revert to the case of the object placed at 100 feet distance, if, instead of a lens of *2') feet focal length, a lens of a shorter focus is made use ject as it is In most cases, the rule becomes this : — Divide the focal length of the lens by the distance at which the eye looks at the image ; or, as the eye will generally look at It at the distance of six inches, In order to see It most distinctly, di-'lde the focal length by six incheis or, what Is the same thing, double the focal length In feet, and the result will Iw the magnifying power." TELESCOPE, HICROSCOFE, &C. The word telescope Is a compound Ureek term, sig- nifying to tee faty and npon the above principle, the instrument in its simpler form is constructed. It con- sists of a lens whose focal length exceeds six incheiy ftlaced at one end of a tube which must always be six nches longer than the focal length of the lens. Thli is termed tlie object-glass ; and here the light reflected by the objects in front Is collected and formed Into images near the other end of the tube, where they are inspected by another lens called the eye-glass. This lens is fixed in a smaller tube which slides backwards and forwards so as to admit of the focal distance being adjusted to difi''crenteyen, &c. In tclesoopes with only twolenses,suchas those used for astronomical purposes, the image is inverted — a circumstance of nu import- ance in viewing the heavenly bodies. To produce an upright image, another lens is introduced, so as to in- vert it a second time. There are various kinds of te- lescopep named after the makers, or the purposes to wliich they are applied ; but as they are all constructed upon the above principles, it is unnecessary to describe them individually. Aficrnscopc is a term compounded of two Greek words, sigtiifying to see what is smait, and denotes that in- strument employed to examine minute object?. Those microscopes of greatest power, and termed compound, approach to the telescope in their form. The difller- eiice lies in this, that whilst in the telescope the ob- ject-glass forms the image of a distant object just at much smaller than itself as the dist&nce of the image from the glass is less, in the microscope, conversely, a small object placed near the focus of the object-glass produces a more distant image, as much larger thau itself as the image is more distant. Iti both cases an appropriate eyeglass is employed. The object-glati of a microscope is in general very small, that of a te- lescope large. An object-glass of a microscope having one-eighth of an inch of focal distance, and so placed as that the image of the object is formed nt six inches, the image will be of a diameter forty.oight times as great as the object ; and when viewed through an eye- glass of half an inch focus, it will appear magnified twelve times more, or will appear 30,UG0 times larger than the ol>ject. A single or one-lens microscope magnifies chiefly by allowing the eye to see the ob- ject nearer than it could do without the glass. A Camera Obscnra or Dark Chamber is formed by placing a convex lens, nuch as that represented in fig, 9, in an aperture made iu the window-shutter of a darkened room. A glass of proper size and focal dis- tance is chosen, and a screen or the wall of the cham- ber is properly prepared to receive the light, and by this means there Is painted on it an accurate picture of all the objects seen from the window, every thln^ bearing an exact resemblance to the reality. Nothing can surpass the beMutiiul elfects produced by this de- lightful instrument. The Camera Lncida is an instniment now fie(iuently used iu drawing landscapes, delineating objecis of na- tural hi^tory, and copying and reducing drawings. Tlie bcKt form of thu instrument consists uf a piece of thick parallel glass, at one end of which there is a metallic mirror having a highly polished face. The rays from the object are made first to pass through the glass, when they are reflected baik ujmu o.ie of its sides by the mirror, and from the glass they are again reflected to the eye. The Magic Lantern When a small object is placed close to a lens, and the image rellcctcd upon the w^ll of a dark chamber, :it sriy one hundred times farther from the lens than the object is, there will be a greatly magnified representation of tlie object. It will only be seen, however, under ordinary illuiuinatlon ; and it is therefore necessary to have a very ftrong light, concentrated by a suitablo mirror or gla»n, and di. reeled upon the oliji'Ct. When aniticial light is em- ployed, as of a lamp, the instrument then bcciimcs a m;igic liuiiern. It consists of an ar^iuul burner p)>iced in a dark lantern, ou one side of which is a concave mirror, the vertex being opposite tj the centre of the dame, whicli is placed in ita focus. Iu the oppoblto P CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. aide uf the Untern ii lixed a tube cunuiniiiK h heml- ■pherical Uluminating leiii, and alw another convex leni at the external orifice of the tube. Uetween theM two leniei there is a iHt in the tube, through which ■llden are introduced conMining plcturei, each painted and highly coloured with transparent varnishes. The light of the lamp, increased bv the reflecllun of the nurror falling upon the hemlipherical lens placed at the inner orifice of the lulw, is by this lens concen- trated upon the picture in the slider ; and this picture being in one of the conjugate foci of the lens at the^ outer orifice of the tube, an enUrgml image of It is painted on a white cloth or other screen insde to re. otlve it. The pbantaamaguria is juit a magic lantern la which the imagea are received on a transparent ■creen fixed In view of the spectator. The magic lantern mounted upon wheels is made to approach or recede from the screen at pleaiture ; and the conse- quence U, that the images upon the screen can be made to expand to a gigantic sixe, or contract Into an iDTlsible object, or a luminous point. With regard to the aberration of lenset and mir. rers, we can onlv refer the reader to larger works upon optics, such as that of 8ir David Brewkter in Lard- ner*s Cyclopedia. PHYSICAL OPTICS Light It not a simple but a compound lubttance, and the phenomena exhibited by its decomposition and reooniponitioii, as welt as its other physical properties, •re treated of under this head. The white light of the tun, and that of any other Inminous body, consists of seven different kinds uf light, viz. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. There are two processes by which thia compound substance may l*e decomposed, namely, by absorption and by refraction ; tlie last method was that employed by Newton, whodiicovered the cnmpo- iition of n-hite tight in the faiiowiug manner i — In the window. shutter E Fof a darkened room, make a small rig. lu. .^-' hole 11, through which admit a beam of the sun^s light S II, which, when nothing is interpofied, will proceetl in a straight line to P, and form a luminous white rpot. If wu now interpose a prism B A C, whose refrncting angle is B A C, so that the beam of light may fall on its tiurface C A, and emerge at the aama angle from its second nurface B A in the direc- tion g a violet. No lines are seen HcntRit the ■pec:riim tlius produced; and it is extremely ditficult for the niiarpest eye to point out the boundary of the different colours, ^tir Isaac Newton, however, by many trrnls, found the lengths of the colours to be ai folhnv, in the kind of glass of which his prihni was made. We h?tve added the results obtained by Fraun- liofer with Hint glass:— Newton. Fraunhofer. lied . . 4o m Orange . . 27 27 Ytl'nw . 40 27 (ir^en . . fJO 46 ISlue . . .00 4R Indigo . . 4B 47 Violet . , «0 1 109 Totiil length 3(i0 3«0 Thrs)' r .] nirh are not e'ttutn, the red is comparatively faint, biit ^iowR brigliter as it apjiroaches tlie oran^H. The li^Iit iniTPHKfi gradually to the middle of tlie yellow, u ht-n* it is brighlext; and from thin it gra- dually iierlirs to the upper or violet end K uf tlit? sppcii urn, » liiTt' It is extremely faint. Fiorii till' [ilu'tiomfnu tvliit-lt ue liave now desorilied, 8ir Isauc Ncwlun concluded that the beam uf white U9 light S is compounded of light of seven different ctt- hmrs, and that for each of these different ^inds of light, the glass of which his prism was mtda had dif- fitrent indices of refraction ; the iitdex of refraction fur the red light being the least, and that of the violet the greatest. If the prism be made of crown gloss, for example, the indices of refraction for the different coloured rays will be as follow : — Inilex nr Index of Itcft-acUon. lltriacUnn. Red 1.5208 Blue ].5:i(I0 Orange I.A2fiH Indigo 1.A417 Yellow l.fi20() Violet l.MUO Ureen 1.^30 If we now draw the prism B A C on a great scale, and determine the progrestof the refracted ray t, sup- posed to l»fl incident upon the same point of the first surface (J A, by using fur each ray the index of refrac- tion in the preceding table, we suhU find them to di. verge as In the preceding figure, and to form the dif- ferent colours in the order of those In the spectrum." By means of a second prism placed )>eliind a hole in the screen M N opposite the centre of each coloured space, ^ir Isaac Newton refracted the light a second time. In this case it wat not drawn out into an oblong image as before, and was nut refracted into any other colour than that which formerly belonged to each par- ticular ray. Hence this great philosopher concluded that the light of each particular colour possessed the same index of refraction ; and he termed such light homogenont or simple, white light being regarded as heterftfenous or mmpound. This diKtrine is called tlie different refrangibillty of the rayn uf light. The dilferent colours us they exist in the spectrum are called primary colours, any cumhinatious t>r mixtures of them being considered as secondary. By various experiments, eiir Isaac proved that all the colourii, when again combined, formed (»r recom- posed white light. Indeed, the doctrine may heiUus. trated hy mixing together In proper proportions seven colours as like those of the spectrum as can possibly lie gut. By their union, a greyish white Is formed, fur powders of the exact tint as those of the ipectrnm cannot be obtained. It may also be proved in this manner: — Let a circle of pauer be divided into sections of the same size, Hud coloured like the spaces in the spec- trum, and placed upon a huinuiing tup, which is made to revolve rapidly ; the effect of all the colourH when combined is to produce a greyish white. But tlie clearest proof is afforded by the following experiment: — Let a second pristn B A a, represented hy the dotted lines in tig. 10, be placed upon the first prism, in the manner shown in the rut, then the refraction suffered by the light in pas^ing tlirutigh ABC will be cinui- teracted by the second prism B A a, and a single iHiam of white light g V will be formed, and fall in a bright sput at P. The decomposition of light by absorption has been particularly investigated by the ucute genius of Sir b. Brewster. It is a fact well known, that if a beam of white light be transmitted through a coloured prism, the latter absorbs a purtion of the firmer. By lking at the spectrum KL, fig. 10, through thepriom 11 A C, a prism of blue glass being interpu>ed between the eye and the spectrum, bir David found that the blue glass bad absorbed the red light, which, when mixed with the yellow light, constituted oritiige; and liad absorbed also the blue light, which, when mixed with the yellow, constituted the part of the green space next to the yellow. Thus, by ubsurptioti, green light was decomposed into yellow and blue, and orange light into yellow and red. Sir David BrewHtor ana- lysed the spectrum with great care, and the tonclu. sions which he arrived at were, that the solar spec- trum consists of three spectra uf equal lengths, viz. a red spectrum, a yellow spectrum, and a blue spec* trum. The primary red specinun has its maximum of intensity about the middle of the red space in the solar spectrum, the primary yellow spectrum.has its maximum in the middle of the yellow s[iace, and the primary blue spectrum has iti maximum between the I liliie and the indigo space. The twu minima of each hearing always the same pruporti m to s, for iuittauce, produces a spectrum which extendi be- yond K and L, and longer than that produced hy the prism BCA, which Is supput>ed to be ol crown glass. Hence flint glass is said to have a greater dispersive power than crown glast. In order to render this property of traniparent bodtei as intelligible as possible, let iis suppose that ill the crown glass prism B A C, the index of refrac- tion for the extreme violet ray p K It I'MOU, and that for the extreme red ray g L I 5208; then the differ, enoe of these two Indices, or '02U6, would l>e a mes. sure of the dispersive power of crown glass. If it and ■11 other bodies had the same mean refraction ; butaa this is far from being the case, the dispersive power must be measured by the relation between -0206 and the mean refraction, or I*5a30, or to the excett of this above unity, via. 'Aaso, to which the mean re. fraction it always proportional. For the purpoie of making this clearer, let it be required to oi>mpare the dispersive powers of diamond and crown glass. The index of refraction of diamimd for the extreme violet ray is 2'407, and fur the extreme red, 2 411, and the difference of these is OUMI, nearly nine times greater than 0-20H, the same difference for crown glass ; but then the difference between the sines of incidence and refraction, or the excess of the index of refraction above unity, or 1 -431*, is also abuut three timet greater than the same difference in crown glass, vix. 0'd33; and, consequently, the dispersive power of diamond it very little greater than that of crown glass. The two dispersive powers are at fullow : — Crown glass .... ^ = 0-03SG Diamond R^ = *>'0a08 When spectra of different lengths are examined by two budie^ having very different dispersive powers, such as oil uf cassia and sulphuric acid, there is a re- markable difference between them. It it found that in the former the red, orange, and yellow spaces, are less than in the latter; whilst the blue, indigo, and violet spaces, are greater { the least refrangilde rayd being at it were contracted in the former and expanded in the latter, whilst the most refrangible rayt are expanded in the one and contracted iu the other. ACHROMATIC TEI.ESCOI'KS. By the application of the principles above exjilained, the refracting telescope has been greatly improved. It ii evident, by an examiimtiim of tig. 10, that refrac- tion cannot he effected without colour being produced —no two lenseiKif the same glass can be founii to form an im»t(e perfectly free Irum Colour. But hy the dif- ferent dispersive powers of dilferent bodies, such aa crown and (lint ghiss, lenses formed of two such sub- stances can be so adjusted as to produie an achro- niatic telescope, or one without colour. Let a convex \vn*j such as D, fig. 7, he formed ndary colour being observable, (^tlier s ihstancet have also been employed, and telencopes are now formed 80 as completely to answer all philusophical purposes. PIIVKICAI. PROPEUTIES OF THE HI'Kl Tltl^M. Healing Power It was discovered by Air William Ilerschel that tlie heating power of the i>pectrum gra- dually increased from the violet to the red extremity, and even beyond it. Hence he cuncluded that there are invisible rays in the light of the sun which had the power of prwiucing heat, and which hud a leu!, degree of refrangibility than red ligltt. Sir Henry Kuglefield confirmed his results, and obtained the fol- Jowtug measures :— . Tt'm)>cr»liire. Tcmnpraturc. Blue . .Vi' I Red . 7'-l' (ireen . OU I Bevond red 7!' Yellow . (12 I The plac« <>f maximum heat has recently been found to vary with the substance of which the prism is formed. Thus, in water, alcohol, and oil of turpeu- line, it it in the yellow ; in crown glass, in the middle 1 1 the red; and in flint glas^, beyond tho red. In i.ther substances it is intermediate between these two I'oiiits. Illnminaling Power. — M. Fraunhofer, a celebrated pliiloi'opher of Munich, discovered, by menus of a pho- t'liueter, nr measurer of the inleiiKity ol light, that the most luuilnuut rays of the speitruui aie not situated in the muliile, hut nearer the red than the violet end. ti the prn{rurtiy have iiKvays the same position iu the coloured spaces In wiiich they are found, tlu-ir pro- |)ortioii[il distaru-ei viiryinif t^itli the nature ol the prism hy nUicU they are produced. Their number, OPTICS. howBvsr, their order, aud their Intentityi reiokia tn- variftbJa, provided light of the >un or momi Se f m* ployed. One of the most Imporuint prectlca) rcr alts of the diioovery of Uieie Aied 1 nei, Ik, thnt the' en- able philonnphem to take the iiioit accurate m«diiureR of the refractive and diiperiive power* of btHlIea ; and by meHHiiriiig the dlntanceii of thu linen, their diiaiverer computed a tnhle of the iudicei of refraction ot diHfer- cnt lubHtancei. The ipeotnim exerdiea a chemical influence on cer- tain bodiM. The effect, for Initance, produced on mu- riate of tllver. varlei with the nature of the coloured space where it ii placed, and other lubntances are alroilarly affected. The lolnr rayi (lORHeni aUu a mag- netiilng power. If the violet rayt lie collected In tlie foouiof a convex leni, and this forus carried from tlie middle of one-half of a small needle to the extremities of that half without touchinK the other, It will BC(|uire perfect polarity. The indigo, blue, and green rays, produce this eifect, but the others do not. Kxponure to the stin'it ruys, under pevtiliar circumstances, can be ftlio made to produce similar results on certain bodies. INFLEXION on DIFRACTIOM OF MGIIT | COLOCRB OF THIN AND THICK PLATES, FIBRES, OROOVEJ) SUR> FACE!, &C. It li Iroposslble within our circuroiorlbed limits to •Dter Into a full description of these various optical phenomena ; and a few sentences explanatory of them la the simplest manner Is all that we can venture up- on. If an aperture l*40th of an Inch diameter be made in the window-shulter of a dark room, or if a convex lens of a short focus be put in this hole, a beam (»f di- vergent light will be obtained. Bodies of any kind, if placed in this light, and their shadows acv. irately ex- amined, will be found on each side of the shadow co have fringes of coloured light, the colours, reckoning from the iihadow, being as follow i — First fringe, vio- let, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red ; second fringe, blue, yellow, red; third fringe, pale blue, pale yellow, pale red. The shadow itself la divided by pMrallel fringes, which vary in number and breadth according to the distance from the body at which the shndow is examined. These phenomena depending upon light being in some way or other bent, this branch of optics 1 a called the inllexmn or difraction of light. When light is either reflected from transparent bo- dlea, or transmitted through p4»rtions of them which poiieif parallel surfaces, it is always white. If, how- ever, liudies of extreme thinness be employed, such as soap bubbles, beautiful t;t>lourK are exhibited. This must have bei'u observed by every one. In order to investigate a thin plate of air, Sir Isaac Newton took a double convex lens, to one of the sides of which he pressed the plane side of a plano-convex lens. When the rings are observed through the upper lens, so as to see those formed by the light reflected from the plate ol air between the lenses, seven rings will be seen, or rather seven ( ircolRr cpeutra or orders of colours. In the three tirs'-, the colours xce very distinct; but tit- wards the sc ventli they became gradually less and less, until they nearly diKappeared altogether. Upon ex. aminlnt; the light transmitted through the leuHes, that Is, by '.ookiiig through the doulile convex lens, another systr.m of circular coloured rings different from those secA by reflection were observed. Sir Iiaac ti'-At dincovered and examined the co- iours produced by gUin mirrors or thick transparent plates. Having admitted a sunbeam nue>third of an Inch in diameter through a hole In his wiudow-ahutter, he threw it in the direction of its axis on a glass mir- ror a quarter of an iucli thick, concave in front, and convex and quicksilvered behind, the radius of the COrvaturci of both Itti sides being equal to its distance behind the aperture. A sheet of paper having been placed on the window-shutter, with a hole In it to allow the ray to pass through, the hole was observed to be surrounded with several coloured rings. These rings had the same colours as those seen when light is transmitted through thin plates, as above noticed ; and their diameters were reciprocally as the square roots of tht> thickness of the mirror. Sir David Drew- ster has investigated this subject with his usual skill and Bucress, For an account of his discoveries we must retur the reader to his work on Optics, and his numerous papers iu the Edinburgh Journal of Science. If we look at the light of the sun or a candle through a plate of glass upon which we have breathed, or which is covered with very fine dust, it will be observed to be surrounded with a corona or ring of colours, resembling a halo, Alinute fibres, such as those of silk or wool, produce the same eifect, the rings in the first instance increasing with the size of the particles, and in the second with the diameter i>f the fibres which produce thern. Uy employing the seed of the lycopodium, or by placing a drop of blond diluted with water between two pieces of glass, the coloured ringi will bt> finely seen. Hound ihu luuii. nous b(»dy there is perceived a light area, terminating in a reddish dark margin ; this is succeeded by a ring of bluihh green, and then by a red ring, these two last colours succeeding each other several times, when the partii tes are of a uniform diameter. If surfaces of glass or metal be polished, and then crossed by small ptinillel grtHtves very near each other, an inte- resting clitns ot coliiurs will be exhiliited. Alother.of. pearl, it is well known, possesses thin Hint;ul«r pro- perty, ikiid to tiio same e;inst', vi/.. the presence u{ minute giouvcEi iu ita surface, it must be allribulcd, ail 8ir David llrawster sucoeeffed in transferring this quality of mother-of-pearl to other substances, by simply pressing Its surface to theirs, whilst they were softened enough to receive an Impression. l)y ex- amining these surfaces with a mioroscope, HIr David discovered, in almoNt every specimen, **a grrmved Kttucture, like the delicate tenure of the skin at the top of an Infant's finger, or like the section of the annual growths of wtHid, as seen upon a dressed plank of flr. These may sometimes he seen by the naked eye, but they are often so minute that three thousand of them are contained In an inch." The principle of thus producing colour by gnwred surfaces, and of the communIc»bilIty of the^-e colours by pressure to various substances, has been happily applied to the arts by John Uarttm, Kiiq. M'^tth the point of a diamond, extremely mintite grooves are cut m steel with the most perfect parallHllsni, and nothing can surpans the brilliant display of cobmrs which are thus produced. Air Barton conceived the Idea of forming buttrding to the nature and statu of the body, and according to the direction of the inci- dent pencil. This Is culled double refraction, and the bodies which produce it are called doubly refracting bodies or crystals. They are very numerous, and in- clude nil salts and crystallised minerals not having the primitive forms ot the cube, the regular uctohe- dron, and the rhumhoidal dodecahedron. The fol- lowing is principally an abridgement of an article upon this subject in the British Cyclupsedia:— Of all known bodies, the Iceland spar, or rhomboi- dal carbonate of lime, shows the fact with the greatest certainty ; and as It is a mineral easily procured, it has been generally uxed iu experiments upon this subject. its crystals are of arhomboidal form, having six acute solid angles, and two obtuse. These last, j-aud j-, fig. Flj. 11. Fig. 12. 1 in 11, are formed hv the junction of three equal plane angle, and eqnaliy inclined toeachothi>r. Tlie line i r joining theso two an'^h*:*, is therefore sliTiitarly sitiiati>d with res^'cct to the three planes forming eucli tniijlej and Is called the axis ot the crystal. A plane, perpen- dicular to the natural surface of the crvstal, and coin- ciding with this line. Is called its irincipal section, which term Is also applied to any plane parallel to It. I^et a small hole lie pierced through any opRque plate, be applied to the htwer surface of the crystal, and di- rected to a th*iet of white paper. Let xa, jcb, fig. iz, be the principal section of the crystal, and Zap ncil fHlling on Its surface. In this case it will be found that two Images are formed. One part of the light will proceed In the ordinary direction (let us suppose perpendicularly), and Is therefore called the ordinary ray, while the other portion of the light deviates con- sltlerably from this directicui, and Is called the extra- ordinary ray i i o will represent the ordinary, and i e the extraordinary ray. *"'*' '* Let the crysta. be cut by /two planes eg and r// In the accompanying dlugriim, pa- rallel tutbeaxis, and twouther planes, ed and/g^ perpend I- cular to the axis, to allow an object to Iw seen through it in the direction cd or eg; it will be found tbat the two Images will be farther sepa- rated, viewed in the direction cc/, which Is perpendi- cular to the axis, while in the direction of the axis there will be only e, butrequlroii that the force be applied in a particular direction re- latively to the modification It has received from tlio first crystal. The effect here produced huE been termed THE rOLAIlTSATIOH OF LIGHT. Pi)l:iri«atinn is also produced when light is reflected frnni the surlaccs nf bodies. iVIiilus, a celehrated l*'re:ich philosopher, made the curioua discovery, that II Mi ! CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR TIIF PEOPI.E. n beam of li^tu tollectfi) fnmi ^Iiim hi nil iiiiKle of M( , or from wnifr at nii angle nf tVJ' 4')', j}i>»ieiiii!(l the rery tame propertin ai one of tlie tayi fi>rmt>d I>y a rhumb uf ralciireoui ipar thrmigh w)iiclt he had been looking at theli^ht of ibe letting inn, as retlm;t«d from the windou-H of t)ie Luxembourg paUce in I'urii. Ity a lerit'i of I'xperimeiitR, the important fact wan rnta- bliibed, tlinl light ipllerted from all lUherlraiiitpBreiit or opHtpie biMtiKi, excepting metali, beiame polariwd, the pbitie of ))olBrUHttoii tieiiig coiiirideiit with, or |>aralltil ti). t)iu plane of ri-t1ection. Thii in mure or eii compttftf ly the )-»»» ai-nrrding to the alible formed with th« inrfuce. Thii ungle variei for dllTcrent iiib. itancei i and -Sir David llrewiter dlH'overed u law oanniH-'ting the angle with the index of refraction of the given Ixulyi viz. *' tbat the tangent uf the angle of p^lH^ift^ltion, nu'HAured from the p(>r|>endiciilar, is equal to thtt Index of refractitni," whun complete p »• lariiation, or iho greateit the body ii capable of, li prodtioed. To make the nature nf pdlariiation ai plain ai poi»Ible, and tu ihow the difference between common ftnd polarised light, let ui itippuie a ray of light fiilU upon an iiniilvered mirror plate, making an angle with it of 3r* '.^V, then the ray will be rell»>cted in a right tine, lo that the angle of redecliun will b« eaiial to the angle of ini-idenrf, according to the law laid down at tb* commencement of thii paper. ]f wenow receive tliii rrflMted ray on another limilar plane uf glasit, it will in general HtitTer a tiecond general reflec- tion. Hut thiH rHlection will entirely vanish, or, in. •tead of lielrig redei-ted, will be tranimilted through the mirror, if th** plane of incidence on the aecund mirror ii perpendicular to the plane of incidence on the first mirror — that ii, if it form an angle of 36' 26' with the ray reflected from the ttrit plane of glasi. Now, niminon or nutiiral light — that In, light which had not lieen inierfcriHl with or experimrnted upon at all— would hnve l>eeii r>i)URlly retlfcted in every pnei- tton. It ii to he obierv ed, that a total transmission or ultfcuraiifMi will not take place it the angle of re- flection of either mirror he grettlcr or leu than the angle of polarisation. It has tit^n ascertained that the direction uf polarity in the rfllected light ii to the plane of retWctiou similar to the polarity of the or- dinary ray in Iceland r|>:ir to its principal section, or an iduniity of the moditiration produced in the re> fleeted ray, and the modifieiition produced by the ac< tion of the crystal on the ray ordinarily reflected ; for If the ray reflected from water or glasi at the polar- ising tingle he r(*cetved on a crystal of Iceland spar, thepriniipHl ^e^tiun of which coincides with the piano of retlectitoi. the ray entering the crystal will proceed through it in the same direction that the ordinary ray emerging from another crystal would have proceeded. But if the priiu'ip;tl section of the crystal be placed perpendicul.ir to the plane of reflection, the ray will be reflected extraordinarily; but In both pokitioni there wilt he no bifurcation of the ray. If the prin- cipal lection of the cryital be any otherwise litnated at to the pUna uf relleclion, there will be two rays, but nf cijual intensity, when the angle contained be- tween these twii pUnes ik 4 J*. If, again, the ordi- nary ray emerging from a crystal be made to fall at the proper angle on the surface of water, or any other rellectiiigsurlaoecnpahleofpolarising light completely, it will be reflected when the principal section and plane of reflection coincide, hut entirely transmitted when the plunes are perpendicular to each other. Hut if the extraordinary r»y fall on the surface, the reflection will tnke pl^ce when the planes are at rif/ht angles, and A t'Jtal transmission will result wlien the plunei coincide. We are therefore jiistilied In assuming that the phy- sical chsnge the lii^ht has suIFerCit is the same in the two caiet; that whether an ordinary ray Iw examin- ed by subsequent reflection, or the reflected ray by a doubly reflecting cryst^tl, the inference is, that the po- larity of each is in the same direction : the one in the plane of the principal bectiun, aud the othev iu the plane of reflection. Light is not only reflected from the flrtt lurfaoe of transparent bodies, hut another portion it reilwted Fig. \y t'm. ut \1 / » y from the second surface. We will suppose these two surfaces parallel, and it will not be difficult t^) see that If the light be completely polarised by reflection from the ftrst surface n', flg. lf>, the portion reflected from the sec^md tnrface // will also be completely polarited, and in the same plane. Let e i ha the incident ray, and t r the reflected po. lar ray. i i the refr.'icied ray, partially reflected and re- fiBCted to r' aud i //, the remaining refracted light will he i»erpfiidicular to ir', the reflected ray, a con- dition pr.jihicin^ complete polarisation. Fnmi vnriouN experimenti it ha* been proved that the quantity of light reflected even from the two sur. faces of a transparent body is small in proportion U) the incident light, uud it ii now cuuvBuieattoiuQuire 343 into the condition of the refra>'t«d portion under i ir- cumstanuei in whlih polMrisation of the reflected light is priidnced. If the ray iff be examined by a rhiniu hoid, It will be found divided Into two rays, hntnotof equal intensity { for the ordiimry or extraordinary ray will he found the most inteii'e, »s the section of the cryital Is parallel or perpendicuhtr to the plane of refraction. This condition of light is culled partial ptdarisatiou, and is the same ;ii tlie "tate of reflected light when the incidence ii not such us to produce complete polarisation. M. Aragogives the following experimeutii let ua suppose a plate of glasi, «/, flg. lo, iu the diagram, placed perpendicularly on a sheet of flne white paper Ay, the eye will see at the same time the reflected ray and the refracted rnvt interpose an opaque plate per- forated with a iinall hole i, which would have been transmitted by the glass plate, the hole in the plate # ii Illumined by the reflected light alone; and if the principal leciion of the crys. tal CfdncirJii with the plane of reflection, we see two imageri of the pole, of which the ordinary Is tJie HKist brilliant. If the icreen be now so plac^ ai to inter- cept the reflected ray, there will be still two images, hilt row the extraordinary ray will be the must bril- liant. Now, if the icreen be entirely removinl, allowing bf>th reflected and refracted light to reach the crystal, the intensity of the two images ii fuund by actual ex- periment to be exactly equal. Itli hoooe tu be Inferred that the plane which ciuitaini the polei of light po- larisi I by transmission ii perpendicular to the plane whicl contains pules of light polailsed by reflection, and I'.iat the (|uaiitity uf polarised light contained in the ray trauimitted by a transparent plate is exactly equal to the quantity of pidarlied light ittntaiiied in the ray reflected from its surface, whatever the angle uf incl- deuce may he. M. Arngo observes, that a body wliich, at its angle of ctmiplete poluriiation, would reflect half the incident light from its lurfacti, would also completely puIiiriNe the transmitted ray, and thatwbtion of light, there is no polarisa- tion ; and which seeini proved experimentally, tis no trace nf partial polarisation is discoverable in the light reflected from the interiur uf a glati prism, when the reflection is total, As transparent substances reflect but a ntruill y tion of the incident rays, the (|uuntity of polarin. light in the transmiited ray ih small in proportion to the light which has not undergone that modiflcation. Sir I). Brewster coniitlers the transmitted ray as con- sisting of one portion cuinplftety polarised in a plane at right angles to the plane of incidence, and anoilmr portion of light " which has suffered a physic^d change more or less iipproacbing to C4jmplele poLirisatimi.** Light, having paused through a pile of plates, is at la»t polarised in a plane perpendicular tt> the plane of polarihatioii of the reflected light. This effect re- quires the agency of ttventy-four platei ut ait inci. deuce of (Jl ' ; ** consequently," says this learned phi. losopher, *' twelve plates will not piilariie the wlnde pencil at that angle. Let us now suppose that the quantity not polarised amounts tu twenty out of 1(H); then if these twenty were absolutely unpul»rised, and in the same state as direct light, they would re. quire to pus through twenty-four plates iu order to be completely polarised. Hut experimenti prove that they retpiire to pass through only twel\e other plates to he completely polarised ; it therefore f(diows that the tweitty rays have been half ptdarined by the first twelve plates, and the jKilarisatiun completed by the other twelve." This reasoning appears good ; but as Mains, Riot, and Arago, have adopted a somewhat ditTereut theory in their illnotration uf the subject, and as their view of the question admlta of a ready explanation, we shall adopt it. I et a 6cr/ Iw snpposed to represent the snrcessive plates through which the incident ray lIHN) is to pass, and at h given angle fifty nut of the KH) be < ompletely polarised hy reflection, and a similar quantity of rays by refraction ; the light emerging from the first la- mina will consist of tKM) in the state of direct light, and flfty of light polarised in a plane perpendicular to the plane uf incidence. We have already seen that light polariied in one plane will not l>e reflected in a plane perpendicular to iti plane of polarisation, and consequently the portion flfty of transmitted light will escape reflection from the lamina &, and therefore tlie light reflected from A, which we have luppoied one-twentieth of the incident light, must be taken from the !N)tf of direct light. In this manner we may suppose ttie quantiiy of direct light constautl\ dimi- nished, and the ptdariied light increased, byeai b suc- ceeding tranimisiiun. According to this view, ounplfte polarisation could never be produced, hut the quantity uf direct light, after a few transmisiiuns, would he absolutely imperceptible. It cannot be necessary to expUin the result of sub- mitting the ray emerging from a lucceision of plates to another pile of plates, to a doubly-refractive crys- tal, or to a reflection frtnn a polarlsurg surface. It ii in all respects similar iu its polarisntion relatively to the plane of incidence on the first surface, to the ex- traordinary ray transmitted by a crystal relatively to its principal section. We will, however, mention one consequence uf the foregoing laws ; that polarised light falling ou the flrit surface of a pile uf plates will bf f.'trtmlly reflected when the plane of incidence coin- cides with the plane of poUrliation ; and, a further portion being also reflected at each succesiive plate, aa eye placed at the back nf the plati'S will receive no sensible quantity of light. If, on the contrary, th« plane of puiiirlsHtion he perpeiidionlar to the plane of Inuidunce, the whole light will be transmitted. Fl therefore follows that an apparatus may be csJtioii oi the piles, )et perfectly opaque in an* oth«r. This effect is to be produced only by a greftt number of plates of glass, if the incidence he iieur the perpend cnltr, yet some lubitnnccs possess thll property of polarising transmitted light, whatever tb« incidence. A thin plate of tourmaline, cut parallal to the axis of the crystal, completely polarises the light at any incidence In a plane perpendicular to theaxiflf and a second plate will transmit or stop alt the rayi| ts the axil of the two plates are parallel ur perpendl* cular to each other. .'^ir 1>. Brewster found that a plate of agate, havlnr surfaces perpendicular to its lamina, about (uie-AU teen th of an inch in thickness, completely polarised the trnnsmitted light. Among the most interesting phenomena connected with this branch of optics, are the colours produced hy the action of crystallised hodiea on polarised light When thin plate* of glass, selenlte, mica, agate, quarts, crystal, tourmaline, and other substances, areexposM to a beam of polarlseil light, colours the most hril* liant that can be conceived are exhibited. An atten- tive examination of them has led to a theory both of polarisation and double refraction, Indeed one expla* natury of optical phenomena In general. Tie experi* mentsof l>r Voung, by which two lights were made to produce' darkness, and the law nf interference, hare been already mentioned. Ttils was an important fart, and all that seemed awanting was a hypothesis of some nitide in which light might be conceived to he propa* gated through an elastic medium, supposed to convey it in such a way as not to be contradictory to any of the facts, nor to the general laws of dynamics. Dr Voung also supplied this. He conccive«l the idefti that the mode of propagation of a luiinionH impulie through the ether to be Jitferent from that of a sono* rible in this place t4> enter into details respecting the beautiful tuit artifloial superstructure which the French philosopher has reared. His sppculationi are in support of the undulatory or Hnyfreiiian theory of light, one which certainly can be nmde to explain the phenomena to which the hypothesis of Newton cannot Kpply* ON THE EYE AND VISION. In applying opiics to the e«:planation of nattiral phenomena, the structure of the eye, aud the manner in which it perfortni vision, require particular n«>.!'wC This masterpiece of divine mechanism is uf a spheri- cal form, with a slight projection in front. The eye- ball consists of memhrnnous coats, which have received the names of the sclerotic coat, the churoid c(»at, the cornea, and the retina ; and these coats enrlone three humours — the aqueous humour, the vitreous humour, and the rrystolliue humour; the last of which has the form uf a lens. Fig. 17. The aiHive figure represents an eye, supposed to he cut through the middle, from above downwards. C is the outer or sclerotic coat, known popularly, where most exposed in front, as the white of the eye. It ii a strong and tough membrane, and to it are at- tached all the muscles which give mothm to iheoye. A is the clear and transparent coat called the cornea, joined to the edge of the round opening of the scle- rotic : it is more bulging than the sclerotic, to which it if firmly united, and acts as a powerful lens fitr re- fracting the pencils of entering light. At B, nnd similarly all round the edge of the cornea, i** attached the window-curtain or Iris, shown here cdjhnm)»«ri, the f()rmarc4mtBiiiiih( tin- im|ii(.'imii, •nd the Intter the cryitelllne «i)d vitremii hiimmiri, the luftitf which fllUacfiniiderabJe portion of the eye- bell. Ilehdid the pupil is the cryitelllne leiu D, a more vnliil Ruhiitiince than either the atpieoui or the TltremiR htimnitn. It I* luipended In a tranipfireiit bag nr rapiiile hy the ciliary proMi* E, which li at- tachrd to «vi>ry part of the margin or circumferencti of the t:apiiiile. Thii leiiR, ai will he ohiurved, ii mure convex btthlnd than before, and itincreaaoR in dormity f^om ita circiinirereiicfl to tti centra, poKti^iiRitii( like- wlie the doubly refracting Mtructure. Thu three linei forming here the boundary of the eye, stand for Iti three owta — the ttrong iGlerutli', and the doulde lin- ing of the choroid and retina. The choroid li a deli> cate membrane which linn the inner lurface of the aolerotio, and la ooven'd on Iti Inner lurface with a black pigment. Immmliatelv within the pigment, and cloie to It, llei the retina, wnlch in the Innermoii 04)at of all. It li a ddlicute reticulated membraue, formed by the expanalon of the optic nerve. It ii a n-elKaacertalned fact that imager) painted Upon the retina uf the eye are inverted thu same ait they are In a camera ot>iiciira. Wliy, thin being the cue, the objei-t should l>e teeu, not inverted, but erect, li a <|tieitIon Um abstruse to Iw here Investigited. Fhihmoptiers are al«o involved In much perplexity as to whicn portion of the eye the seat of vision belongs, and likewise how Impressions made by the rays of light are communicated to the brain. What Is called the law of visible direction, U supposed to explain the phenomenon of erect pohltlon, for an explanation of which nee Hrewster's Optics, p. 203. That ulthoiigli an imiige of any object looked at is formed upon each retina, and yet we should be sen- ■Ible of perceiving only one object, is thus explained : In both eyes there are corresponding points equidin. tant, and in similar dlrectlims from tne centres uf the retime, called the points of distinct vision. At these Ctntres ihe iniHginary lines, called the axes of the •yei, terminate. When tlie two eyes are directed to any object at a greater distance than four or six inches, their axes meet at it, and the centres of the two retime are opposite to it. All the other pointn nf the eyes have perfect mutual correspondence as re- gards that object, giving the sensation of single vision. If, however, the axes of the eye do not meet at the a^me point, the ottject will Iw seen double. This In- ability of one eye to follow the niotiuns nf the other it ulten the caoiie of squinting t hnt for the moat part the orbs of vihion aie so wonderfully associ:iied, that from earliest infaucy they constantly move in perfect harmony. The otiier |ihenomena and peculiarities of vUlon belonging lo individuals we must sum up In a few words. The panifHge of a ray of light through the pupil, and various other portions of the eye, until it reaches the retina, including its refraction, will be distinctly understood fiom the foregoing description, in connection with the optical lawn, as explained in an early part of this paper. Hhort-sightednciis and lohg.tiightedness arise from a change in the ntnte of the cryntfilline lens, by which its density and refrac- tive poner, as well aa its form, are altered. M'hcn by this change the rays are refracted too much, and come t'l touch tht> retina l>erore they are conveyed to a I'ocut — employ just a remedy of an opposite description. As thu iie:irer an ubjeci is brought to a lens, the farther the imuge ( rnied le- ceden from it, so long*sighted people remove the oltject to a distaiK-c. and thus bring Its iningn to a proper focus upon i!.e retina. Aa the effect uf :i concave lens ii to iticrt'iiNc the divergence of the rays, the elTect of a convex !ims is to Increase tlieir con\crgency, which Is whnt lotig-slghted people reiinire. Tlpe defect of the eye, thercrorc, is remedied byemplown^^ n glass of this ilH^i-ription. It inaiteii up for tlie ll»tnes% in the crystitlline, and enables the eye to converge tlu' pencils flowing fiuni nearuigects ioti)nt fuci uu the retina. UNt'SUAL nEFRACTIOV. The elevation of coasts, vhips, and monntainn, above their usual level, when seen in the distant hori- zon, has iteen long known, and dcsrrilied under the name of foaminy. 'J'he nume m'mujt has been ap> plied by the French to the same class of phenomena; and thu Hppell.aiou fula moryana hns been given by the Ituliana to the singular appearances of the same kind, which have been repeatedly seen in the Straitu of Messina. M'lu-n iliu r^Ing sun throws his raya at an Bn^le nf Ah un the sea of Heggio, and neither wind nor tiiiii ruffle the ^niotJth surface of the water in the bay. the spectator on nn eminence in the city, who places his Imck lo the sun nnd his face to the stM», oli- ierve-i, ns it were upon its surlaci*. nnmlurlesi series of pilii'ier!-, arrliea. and castles distinctly delineated ; regular culumiis, lofty toilers, iuucrb palaces, with a4.i Imlconiet and windows ; extended vallies of trees, de- lightful plains with herds and (locks ; armies of men on fwtl and harseback, and many other strange figures, in their nuiitral colonra and proper actions, passing one another in rapid ancoesslon. When vapours and dense exhalations, rising Co the height of about twenty feet, accompany the statt* of the atmosphere above de. BcrilHtd, then thi same otijects are avvn depicted as It were in the vapour, and suapended in the air, though with lessdlstlnctneKSthsuliefore. If the air be slightly hazy, and at the same time dewy, and fitted to form the rainbow, the above-mentioned objeuts appear only at the surface of the tea, but they are all brilliantly fringed with the priamatio odours. This description of the fata morgana, given by Antonio Mlnanl to re- cently as 17l>3, it no doubt overcharged, but there can be uu hesitation In believing that the objects and mnvementi which existed on the opposite coast were occasionally displayed in all the grandeur of at'rlal re- presentation. The phenomena of the mirage are most frequently seen in the case of ships wlien they are juat begtnning to appear above the vlallile horizon. The following is one of the moat Interesting cases nf thisdescriptlfm. In a voyage performed by Captain Hcoresbv in ltid2, he was able to recognise his father's ship, wfien Iwlow thu horlion, from the inverted Image of It which ap- peared in the air. ** It was," lars he, **io well de- fined, that I could distinguish bv a telescope every sail, the general rigof thesiiip, and its particular cha- racter} insomuch that I confidently pronounced It to be my father's ship the Fame, which it afterwards proved tu be t though, on comparing notes with my father, 1 found that our relative position at the time gave our distance from one another very nearly thirty miles, being about seventeen miles beyond the horlxon, and some leagues beyond the limit uf direct vision. I was so struck by the peculiarity of the circumstance, that I mentioned it to the officer of the watch, stating my full conviction that the Fame waathen cruiilng hi the neighbouring Inlet." One of the most curious phenomena of thit kind wnt seen by Dr Vlnce, on the Oth of August 1806, at 7 I'.M, To an observer at Ramsgate, the tops of the four turrets of Dover Castle are nstially seen over a hill Iretween Ramsgate and Dover. Dr Vince, how- ever, when at Hamagate, saw the whole of Dover Castle, iia if it li-id been brought over and placed on the Ran>*(cate r^ide of the hill. The Image of the castle was ■> atrnr g and well defined, that the hill it- self did not appenr through the Image. In the sandy plnina of Kgypt, the mirage is seen to great advantage. Tlieae plains are often interrupted by amull eminences, upon which the lohabltanti have built their villages In order to escape the Inundations of the Nile. In the morning and evening, objects are seen in their natural form and position ; hnt when the surface of the landy ground is heated by the su> , the land seems terminated at a particular distance by a general inundation i the villages which are beyona it appear like so many Islands In a great lake, and be- tween each village an inverted image of it la seen. That the phenomena of tlm mirage are produced by variations In thu refractive power of the atmosphere, can be proved by experiment. If the variation of the refraciivo power of tlie air takes place in a horizontal line perpendicular to the line of vision — that 'm^ from right to left — then wo have the lateral ntirage; that is, an Imagu uf a ship may be seen on the rl^ht or left hand of the real ship, or on both, if the variation of lefractlve power Is the same on each tide of the line of vishm. If there should happen at the same time both a vert^'al and a lateral variation of refractive power in the air, and if the variation should be such as to expand or elongate the object in both directions, then the object would bo magnified as if observed through a telescope, and might lie seen and recognised at a distance at which It would not otherwise have been visible. If the refractive power, on the contrary, varied so as to contract the object in both directions, tlie Image of it would be diniiniuhed as if seen through a concave lens. In order to represent artificially the effects of the mirage, Dr WoUastou views an object through a stratum of spirit of wine lying above water, nr a stnt- turn of water lying above one of syrup. These suli- stances, by their gradual incorporation, produce a re- fractive power diminUhIng from the spirit of wine to till' water, or from the syrup to the water ; so tliat, l> . li'oking through the mixed or intermediate stratum at a word or object held behind the biuile which con- tains the fluids, an Inverted image will be seen. The same effect, Dr Wollaston has shown, may be pro- duced by looking along the side of a red-hot poker at a word or oliject ten or twelve feet distant. At a dis- tance less than three-eighths of an inch from the line of the poker, an inverted image was seen, and within and without that an erect image. The method employed by Sir David Brewster to illustrate these phenomena consists in holding a heated iri'u aliove a mass of wait'i- hounded fiy parallel plates of glass ; aa the heat descends slowly throiiich thu llniil, wu have a regular variation of density, which gradually diminishes from the bttttom to the surface. If we n<)w withdraw the heated iron, and put n cold body in its place, or even allow tlie air to act alone, the Huperlicial »tratuin of water wilt give out its heat, so as tu produce a decrease of density from the surface tu a certuiu depth below it. Through tlie medium tliut eunstituted, the phenoiiiena of the mlnigo may be seen In the Aneat manner, THE RAINHOW. Every one knows that the rainbow Is that brilliant and many-colcmred arch which Is occasionally seen spanning the aky opposite to the sun. In Frarre and elsewhere, it is called the arc of the sky ( and whilst to poeti and other admirers of nature It Is an object almost worshipped fur Itt beauty, to the philosopher it It no less Intereating and attractive. Ralnbowa are only visible when rain in falling lietween the spec- tator and that part of the aky which is oppow Is therefore only an infinite number of prismatic spectra, arranged In the circumference of a circle ; and It would be eaiy, by a circular arrangement of prisms, or by covering up all the central part of a large lens, to produce a small arch of exactly the same colours. All that we require, therefoie, to form a rainbow, Is a great num- ber of transparent bodies capable of forming a great number of prismatic spectra from the light of the tun. Sir David firewater thus explains the cause of the arc of the iky: — At the rainbow ia never seen, unlets when rain it actually falling between the ipectatoc and the sky opposite to the sun, we are led to believe that the transparent bodies required are drops of rain which we know to be small snhpret. If we look Into a globe of glass or water held above the heud, and opposite to the aun, we ahall artuallv tee a prismatic spectrum reflected from the farther tide uf the globe. In thit spectrum, the violet rays will be innermost, and the tpectrum vertical. If we hold the globe ho- rizontal, on a level with the eye, %o as to see the eun's light reflected in a horizontal plane, we shall tee a horizontal ipeotrum with the violet rays innermost- lu like manner, If we hold a globe In a position In- termediate between these two, so at to vee the sun's light reflected In a plane inclined Ah" to the horizon, we shall perceive a spectrum inclined 45" to the horizon, with the violet Innermoat. Now, since in a shower of rain there are drops In all positions relative to th'^ eypt the eye will leceive spectra inclined at all anglet to the horizon, so that, when combined, they will form the large circular spectrum which constitute the rain- bow. To explain this more clearly, let A n, Hg. 18, be drops of rain exposed to the sun's ruytt, Incident upon Fig 18. T /////tew mm I'll'.'"'/'/ 'm them in the direction TA, T n, out of the whole beam of light which falls upon tlie drop; those rave which pats through or near the axis of the drop will be refracted toafocnt behind it; but those which fall in the upper side of the drop will be refracted, the red rays leai^t, and the vitilet most, and will fall upon till* back of the drop with such sufhcient obliquity, that many of them will be reflected, as shown in the figure. These rays will be again lelr.tited, and will nin't the eye at (), which wilt perceive a spectrum or prismatic Image of the Min, with the red space uppermost, and the violet undermost. If the sun, the eye, and the drops A 11, are all in the same vertical plane, the spectrum produced by A D will form the colourt at the very summit of the bow, as in the figure. Let us now suppose a drop to he near the horizon, so that the eye, the drop, and the sun, are in a plane inclined to thu hoiizon, u ray of the sun'i light will be reflected in the same manner ns at A B, with thit difference only, that the plane of retteciion will be inclined to the horizon, and will form part of the bow distant from the summit. Hence it is manifest that the drops of rain above the lino joining the eye, and the upper part of the rainbow, and in the plane passing through the eye and the sun, will form the upper part oi the bow ; and the dro;)s to the right and left hand of the ohaervpr, and without the line joining the ''ve and the lowest i art of the bow, will form the low -st part of the bow on each hand. Not i single drop therefore. CIIAMBERSS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. cenittl in Iti |ir.Mli.iitun t «» ihm, If n tliii«r«r w«rr t'> r*!! rrttn\mrly (runt m cluixl, lit* raiittinw would ■pjiHir hoiiitf ■ ilngl* drop of ralii liuU rvmlifil Ihr fritiiiid. ll' w# romtMit* titn lncIiit«tioii nf tli* rinl rny nml tha violri my tiilti* IncHpnl r«yt T A, T H, w» uliiill And ll to 1^ 4J* J' for iht rvd, niid 4(1 17' for lh«* vii)l«l, so tlmt th« brvAillIt of |li« nitii>tow will U lh« difTttrenMofihoM nnintwn, or I' lo 4A', or nvnrly tlirM tiniai «nd m hmW th« auii'* diameifr. Tlia««> rtinlu ctilncids to w'cnriiti'ly with obwrvBilnn, «i to l«iva no doulit thftt tha prhnary mlnliow it uroduci'd by two r*fr<4rt((mt iind ont intarmndlNtn rprtiti'tion of the r«ya that fall on the uy\*«r tidea of tlia dr(i|ii of rain. It it itbviiMit tliat tha red and vl ilvt rayt «llltutf«r n tacond rallfutliin (il tlia polnta whera lh«y are ra- prmanlad h quitUng the drop, but tliaaa ratlactad nyt will gii nplnt«>liiaaliy, ana cannot poiiailily reach the ay* at <). Hut thotiKh thlt It tha vana with ravi that antar tha upper lidaof tha drop, ai at A H, or tha tide fartheac from the ryft yet tho»e which antar it on the under tide, or Ihe tide nrarait the eye, may nfier two rellactiuni reach the i>ve, ai tliowit In the dmpt 1) (', where the rayi 'V 't enter the dropt be- low. Ttie rrd and violet raya will be refracted In dif. ferent dirrciloni* and, after l)einK twic* radacted, will lie Anally rafracud to tlie aye at l> ; tha vio- let forming the upper part, and the red tha under part iif the tpectnun. U wa now compute the in. clinitllon of theae r»\9 to the fncidani rayt T T, we ahali Iind them to iie AU' A8' for tha rwl ray, and M' 111' lor tha violet ray t the difference of which, or 3 lU', wtJi t»a the breadth of the buw, and the dl«< Unce between the bowt will be iV lA'. Hence It It clear that a tecondary buw will In* formed without the primary tmw, and with iti roloun reverted in cunte- qnence ut their living produced liy two reflectioni and two iffraciiuni. Tlie breadth of the tecondary bow la neatly twice nt great at thai of the primary one, and iti colour* muki Ik! much lainlrr, becvute it i*un- tiatM of light that hu tulTercd iwu redectiuiia iu place u( one. AUiiy peculiar kinds of ralnbowt have been ob. served, tuch aa lunar onet, In which, however, the cuJiHin are fiiint and barely perce)itible. Siipi*rnu< meiary ralnbowt are tumetimet teen. **On the 5tli of July lUJB/* aayt 8ir 1>. Itrawaier, *' I ubaerved three • upernumerary buwi uiihin the primary bow, each oiihi^ting of green and red archea, aiid In contact with ilie vitilet arch of the primary botv. On ihe outtiite of the outer or tecondary bow 1 taw dlttlnctly « red iirch, and beyond it a very faint green one, con- atttuting a tupernumerary bow, uialoguut to those within the primary rainbow." Ited raiulKiws, dUtorted rainbows, and inverted ralnbowt oo the graaa, have been oliterved. The Utter are formed by the dropt of rain sutpended on the a|jiiler«' wabt in tha hcldt. It it only neceiiary 10 niciiiou that tha Irit, ao frequently teen overarcli- iiig iliHcataract, it pro«]uced by the retraction of light in p.ii>-i'ig through the niitty vapour geueraled by tlic /all ut ilie column uf water. or IIALOS, PAMHELIA, &C The Min and moon frequently preient very remark- alile ti|>pearanoes according to the ttate uf the atmo. •plierr. When the latter it charged with dry esha* lationn the tun it occationally at red as blo< d. When vie^vcd thrtiugh watery vapours, he It "thorn of hit btjAui*/' but preserves a colourless ditc. When light fleecy ciondi pais over the tun and moon, they are o:te;hrr ifgiona, the two luminariet are frequently tur. rotitid'd with tlie mutt complicated phenomena, con- sl*tiiig of concentric circlet, circles paniing through their rises, segmentt of circles, and mock suns, formed at tlie /oiiitt where these circlet intertect each other. The lerm halo It indltcrlminately applied to tuch ap- pearautesat are teeu round either the tun or the miMin. They ure called parhelia (irom two Ureek wordi tig- n)f)i''n ** '>*'''' ^'" tun") when they are teen encom- pus»iii^' that luminary, and parakulena; when teen rotiui ihem^HMi. The Urge white hahi, called in Scot- Und a brough, generally appeart ruund the inuun in c^dd wt'Uher, when the tky ii of an uniform niikty tint; Mild the pritmalic haloi, generally called coruna*, which ;:re seen round the kun and mooii, are cum- moul} sfen in fine weather; when white, thin, fleecy cloud ^ ll.>at in the atmosphere. Owing to the daxrling efl'ect ( 1 the luu't rayt, tlie haloi which turround liit AWk inty be seen to mutt advantage when he is viaible in H pi>i uf water. One uf the mott curious and tiest descrilied combl> na*.it>nunt oi it as nearly at pjttiiil* in the UngUHge of the observer : — *'A iiula before eleven o'clock, the tun being to- wards the south, and the sky very clear, there ap. |]cure 1 ^^ven sunt together, in several circles, some white .\uA some coloured, and iheie with very long tails waving and pointing from the true tun, together with certain white arches cn^sfcing one another. 1st, The true tun, being about 25 ' high, was durnmnded altnoit K.itirely by a circle whose diameter was 45*, and ulich was coloured like the rainbow, witli pur- ple, red, and yellow, its under limb being scarcely 2) ftbove l-io -';jrii;n. 21, On iMch bide ul ili-: tun, to- o4i waids tba Mil and ws«t, there apprurud two mock Kunt, coloured, e»psctally towanlt the nun, with very long and tpUnclid tailtnf a whltlnh lolnnr lermlnaiing III H piiliit. :iil, A tiir greater ciiili', ahnott Ufi' in tliuinmer, enioiiipiimied the tun and (he other smitll circle, and extended ittalf diiwn to the horiann. It wan %»ry ttrougly coloured In Itt u|i|>er part, liitl wsk Momewhat duller and fainter on each aide. 4th, Ai the tops of theae two oircles were two inverted aruhek tvhoofl common centre lay In Ihe senith, and thui>e were very bright and lieantlfully coloured. The dia- meter of the lower arch was j>fl', and that uf tha up|>er one was 4ft'. Thus the nniall cirrle had the largeai arch inverted upon It. lu the middle uf the lower arch, where it coincided with the tmall circle, there appeared another muck tun, but iti light and colours were dull and falntUh. Ath, There appeared a circle murh bigger than Ihe former, of an uniform whitish colour, parallel to the horison, at thediaUnce of 2A , and VMi' in diameter, which arose as it were from tha collateral mock suns, and passed through three other parhelia of aa uniform whitish colour Ilka silver, one almost IM' from the true inn towards the eatt, anuther ti>wardt Ihe west, and a third in the north, diametricallv uppunila to the true sun, all of the aaaie coluur and brightness. There patted alio Ir.-o other white arches of Ihe greateat circle of the phere, through the eatlern and wraiern mock suns, tind aUi» through the p«}la of the ecliptic. They went down to the horiaon, croaaing the great white circle obliqnely, so as to make a white cross at each par- helion ; to th4l teven tuns appeared very plain at tha same ilm* t and if I oould have seen the phenomenon sooner fnmt an eminence, 1 do not quettUm but I should have found two more, one directly Iwlow the tun, and another at th* bottom uf the tmall inverted arch, which would hatj made nine In all ; for there remained in theae places such markt as made the sus> plci'J, ** 1 ubaerved," s:iys he, "a circle ahoul the sun HR itii centre; itsdiameter waa BtHMit40% and Its breadth the same at that of a common rsinlmw. It had alau the aatne colours, though very weak, and acarcety dit- cerullile, but in a contrary order : the red being next ihe sun, iind the blue being very dilute and whltiah. All the space within the circle was posaeiiaed byn va- pour duller than the rrst of the air ; of such a lexturu HH to olu-cure the rky with a tort of ciuitiniied cluud, but to thin that the col'iiir of the blue aky appeared thruugli ll. The wind blew gently from the north." Philu^Dphert have agreed to axcribe tlioie halot of 47^ and 04**, tuch at to frequently occur in cold weu- ther, and eiipeciiilty in northern regioiit, to the refrac- tion of light produced by tmall {'articles of ice Hu^itlng in theatinoaphere, Inlrec/aig, water nssuroet a great variety of forms; and hence crystals of every cunceiv. able thape are conliuually ll'iating in the air, and giv. ing rife to the numerous kinds of haloi. Ilalos may be artiticially produced by rrystallising varioua salts tipuii plates of glass. When the cryititU are granular and properly formed, they will produce the nneat elFects. *\. few tlrups of a saturated solullon of alum spread over a plate of glass so aa to cunsulidate quickly, will ciiver it ulth an imperfect crust, con- aisting uf lUt octohedral crystalii, scaicely viaible to the eye. If an oliaerver places the glass between him and the sun, ut a candle, the clear surface being next the eye, he wilt perceive three line halos at dilferent distances encircling the 9ouit« of light. Among the luininuiii> phenomena uf the flfno^phere, those of converging mid diverging luUr beams may be ineutioned. The phentniienun of diverging beams ia uf Irequent occurrence in summer, and when the sun la near the hori/oii. It ii cau:it ol frequent occurrence, and Is always ^een oppiisile to the sun, and generally ut the same time with the furmer phenumenun, as if another auu placed dia- metrically f)pposite to the real one were below the hu- riz'in, and titrew ulfhii divergent beams. roLOuas or aotms, It (a to N;r Uaac Newton that we are Indebted fur the (1r»t iclniitilic investigation of this Interasting sub- ject. Hir Davl.l Hrewater considers Hir laanc's theory of cohnira as applicable only In a small class of phe- nomena, while ll leaves iiuexpUlued the oilonrs of fluids and transparent sntida, and all the beautiful hues of the vegetable kingilum. He observes, "In niiniunnia ex|iarlments on the tuiluurs of leaves, and un the Jniiws expressed Imm them, 1 have never been able to see the ctunplenieiitary colour which disap- pears, and I have almost lnvarlal>ly found that the transmitted and thereHectad tint are the name. When- ever there whs an appearance of two tinU, I have found it to aiiae from their leaving two differently co- loured juices exiftting in different sides of the leaf. The Newtonian theory la, we doubt not, applicable to the colour of the wings of Insects, the feathers of birds, the scales uf flshes, the oxidated Alms ^n metal and gUsa, and certain opalescences. The oo- hnirs of vegetable life and those varluua kinds of so- lids, ariae, we are persuaded, from a specltlc attraction which the particles uf theae bodies exercise over the differently cohmred rays ol tight. It ia by tha light uf the still that Ihe coloured juices uf plants are el tboratedi that the cjilours of biHliea are changed, and that many chemical combinations and dfcitrnpositluiis are effected. It la nut ea«y to allow that such effecta can be produced by Ihe mere vibration of an eihere tl medium ; and we are forced, by tills cUia of faclh, to reason as If light was material. Wtien a puitiunuf light enters a bodf, and is never again seen, we are entiiled to lav that it is detained by inine power exerted over the ilglil by the particles of the body. That it la attracted by Ihe particleeclliu coluur, the particles uf the body have absorlied all the rays which C4instllute the coinplementarycoloiir, dHtiluingsometiuieaallthe raya uf a certain detiniie rel'iangibility, a portion of rays of other refrangibiliiies, and alluwing other rays to escape entirely from aliaorption ; all the rays thus stopped will form by their iinlun a particular cum- puund colour, which will lie exactly complementary to theuduurof the transmitted rays. In black bodies, such as coal, Alc all the rays which enter tlisse subatances are absorlied ; and hence we see the reason why such bodies are more easily heated and Inflamed by the ac- tion of Ihe lumlnou'* rays. The Influence exercised by heat and couliug upon the absurptive power of bodies, furnishes an additional suppume time, and the eye llieti witlulrawn and fixed upon the white paper, a circular spot of bluish green light of the same sixe hn Ihe wafer will be seen. If the experiment be made with waftrs of a different colour, other tints will be observable. The plien^uie- non is thus explained. M'hen the eye has lieen for Koine time tixud upon fine particular colour, the retina becomes us it were deadened t ilgn, planned with wlidom, directed by goodneii, and accumplialied by power, there alio muit of neceiiity have been a wiie, a good, and a powerful deiigner. Lat ui tuppoia ounalvea cast aihore upon soma liland prevlouity unknown to ui ; we Immediately proceed to examine the appearancei which present themielvei, In order to discover If any traces exist of human inhablianti. To ascertain that If such beings did there exist, It would not ba necessary that they •hould actually be seen by us. In our wanderings we might come upon a hut bearing all the marks of occu- pation ; wa might see the roots of the trees which had been failed to form it, and other tokeni of the recent presence of man upon the spot ; and did we desire to discover something of their character and habits before we presented ourselves to their notice, it is most proba- ble that sufficient data would be also alTorded on which to found an opinion. Were the habitations we disco* Tared merely wigwams, or suoh enclosures destitute of the cnnveniencea of civilised life, or were the fur- niture, tha weapons, or tha Instruments In and around them, luch as barbarous nations generally use, wa might reasonably argue that we had found tha dwell- ing of an untamed savage. But If, instead of this, wo 6ndtha surrounding land trenched, enclosed, and «ultiTatcdt thouM W0 find tho common artlc)6t of European husbandry and tha common utatuH* of an Europaan household, wa should naturally draw tha lnferanr« that wa had reached tha abode ol an emi- grant, who had thus reared around him the alt*lbutaa of clvilliad life. Much mora, a few additional obior* vatloni might reveal to ui and enable us to form con- jectures, bearing the aspect of probability, ooncarntng the people among whom wa had fallen. Now, It Is in this way alone that wa can argue respecting tha Au- thor of all things, and discover proofs and demonstra- tions of a first supreme cause. To prove that the formation of all thtngi was the result of design. It Is only neoaasary to show that they ara In general, or In so far as wa can discover, admit ably suited to the uses and purposes to which they are to be applied— that their arrangement li perfectly harmonious, and that it is Impossible that any chance could have thrown them together in a way so happy. To discover If this design can be evidenced or demonstrated. It is neces- sary to seek through the various works of creation with which we are surrounded t and the more mlouta we make our innpeciiun, the mora likely shall wa ba tu perceive the deduction. If thara be soma departmenu to which our senses have a readier access than to others, and which we can therefore more readily ex- amine, from these especially we ought to deduce our result. It may be that we shall find many things, which, from the deficiency of our observing faculties, we cannot understand, nor discover the uses nor con- sequent design which they display t but still. If, in the course of our Inspection, particularly of bodies which wa can observe minutely, wa find avary part admi- rably adapted fur a specific purpose, and teeming with the most convincing evidences of design, then we may with safety and true philosophy Infer that In those objects, which, from their nature and our imperfection, we cannot so completely investigate, a greater degree of light would tend to confirm the re- sult tu which our previous observations, among other things, had led us. DXSIOH IN THE PLAMCTART BYSTEH. Wa now proceed to contemplate the various king- doms of nature, beginning with the most sublime of all, tha Starry Heavens; In which, If wa do not find the very best field for the discovery of design, we shall at least perceive the footsteps of a Ood, a beneficent First Cause, an originator and maker of all, alike infinite In skill to plan and In power to create. To the uninstructed eye, the earth which we Inha- bit appears on a clear night to be surrounded by a numerous host of radiant points, which, rliing in the eait, move majestically through the iky until they reach the western horizon, when they set or disappear ; and so completely does this Idea commend iuelf to the mind of an observer, that it requires a considerable effort to conceive how it can be otherwise. But science has taught us that this is a mere illusion, and the dis- coveries of Copernicus and Sir Isaac Newton have esta- blished the truth suggested by Pythagoras upwards of 2000 years befoie the time of ei.her of them, that the apparent motion of the hearens Is the consequence of the real revolution of the earth every twenty- four hours upon its axis ; that, with relation to the earth, the sun Is stationary, while the earth every year completes a ;ourney round him { that tho planets are globes s'T^iilar to our own, revolving at once upon their or* n axis, and round the sun i that the moon is a satellite or attendant upon the earth, accompanying it in its course, and at the same time describing every month a circular orbit round it; and thut to several of the planets are attached similar moons or satellites, hearing to them a corresponding relation. By turning to our article Astronomy, in which the number of the planets, and their distances from the sun, wiih other particulars, are noted, it will be seen that the earth which we inhabit is but a very tmpM point, even in the solar system (as the concourse of planets round the sun has been called), and that it forms but a part of one magnificent and resplendent whole. But to aicertala the marlu of a designing mind In this mighty maia of brllllanl wonders, let hi turn our attention to some of ihoso partlonlari regarding them with which wa ara a^ qualntad ; and It must ba confrisad, that. If wa are to luppoie tham marr masses of matter unclothed with aught bearing analogy to our vegetable productions, and uninhabited by beings either sanilant or rational, it will ba difficult to sea why any of the arrange- ments connected with these bodies, so far at leut MS they themselves arc concerned, and apart from thalr attractive Influence upon our own world, should be either baneficlBl or the contrary. It Is udaly on the ctmjectur0 that there are organlRed beings on thalr surface to be warmed, and nourished, and upheld, that we can argue reg.irding such arrangements ; and making this conjecture, wa shall And that there aro some very remarkable apparent contrivances for mi- nistering to their comfort and happiness. It has bean supposed that a planet lo far distant ai Hariohel, or even Jupiter or Saturn, must suffer from an extreme defi* clency both of light and heat t and benoa It has been argued that they are necessarily unfit for the suite* nance either of animal or of vegetable life. But whan we consider that cvpn Herschel, the most distant from the sun, possesses 'i4(l times the light afforded by our full moon, it will nut ba difficult to beliava, that, with a somewhat more acute power of vision than we pot- seas, the Inhabitants of that planet. If formed like ourselves, may be quite able to engage in employ- ments which require considerable minuteness of per- ception. Besides, to compensate fur the daficlanoy of light derived directly from the sun to this planet in common with Jupiter and Saturn, thera Ii afTorded the lubildiary benefit of leveral mooni or satellites to reflect light upon the surface when the lun has with- drawn his beams; neither is It probable that tha In- habitants ihould miserably periih from cold ; for, putting out;of view the poiilbillty that they may be formed with conitltiitloni adapted to a mora frigid climate than that of any portion of our world, wo must remember that heat is not dc^ 'udent altogether upon the body from which it uriginites, but Is re- gulated in a very great measure by the urtnrA of tho body to which It Is transmitted. Keeping this in view, the planet t^lorcury may be as cool, and Uerschel u warm, as our own globe, although they be at luch different diitancei from tha great source of heat. This, however, can he the subject of conjecture alone ; and It is only valuable, as showing that we have no reaion to inspect the goodness of tht) Creator in hav- ing placed some of his worlds in situations which, at first light, might be supposed necessarily Incapable of afTording even the m.ist essential accommod'ktl j3i to organic eilstences. Of all the planets, Saturn presents ui with the moat singular example of design in reference to this subject. When viewed through a telescope, this beau- tiful orb is seen to be surrounded by a double circle 30,000 miles distant from any part of its surface. Thia apparatus consists of two concentric rings, separated from each other by a spaco nearly 3000 miles In breadth, and moving round the planet at the extra- ordinary rate of a tho \fland miles a minute. Now, there is one use of this appendage, whatever m»y be its other purposes, which is very apparent : it must c;)n- tribute much to enlighten and beautify the globe to whiohitiaattachad;andaverylittlerenectinnwilUhnw the effect It must have in this respect. M'hat a mag- nificent brilliant spei-taclL* must these rings present to the inhabitants i>f Saturn 1 During its niure than fourteen years of summer, the night must be enlivened by the bright reflection of this brilliant arcli extend- ing its luminous curve from the eastern to the western horizon ; while even durin{^ the day, the sun must be materially aided by it In shedding light upon tho world to which it belongs. *' There is no planet in tho solar system," says a late writer, ** whole firmament will present such a variety of splendid and magnificent ob* Jecti as that of Saturn. The varioui aspects of hti •even moons, one rbing abovo t)ie horlion wbllo an* CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. otaer Is letting; » third »ppn«chlng the meridUn; one entering Into sn eclip>e, and another emerging liwn it ; »■« w/ppMTlng m a creiceBt. and MMhW with m gibboui phii«i ■•<» K-nfriwe. the wh«l« rf f»k»m ilUuing togtthf r in one brigM uiemMjr t the maieitic moiions of llie ring*, ui one time illuminat- ing the tky with their iplendour, and eollpaliig the ftUr»; at another, catting a deep thade OTer certain mortioiis of the planet, and unvwling M view the won- Sirs •)[ the itarrv firmament, are scenes worthy uf the majaaly »f the Divine Beinff to unfold, and the ra- tional i-reatiire to contemplate." Of the other planeifl it is unneceMary Individually to speak ; our knowledge of them IB extremely limited, and we may simply re- mark, that, in mnit of them, the fame caunet exint whioh in our glohe pr< luce tht) various seasons. To Ibe causes of the aeasoni, further than that they are the reault uf the influence* uf the celestial hodie , we will nut here allude tn. To the arranffomeot of theae, •nd to the forethought and all-pervading knowledge and gmidnesR ol Him who designed them, are we, in a word, Indebted fur the opening beauties of spring— the full tclow of aummer, arrayed in flower* and chithed with verdure — the sober and sear leaves of autumn, wiih its aureate fields and happy harvests — and the oold but not desolate winter, which even in ita frigi. dlty serves n valuable purpose in the tcheme of the ■atural world. la these arranirements, we see proofs of the care, the power, and the l*ene6uence of that great Being who wan the caui^e of all things. To wlmi else, in- deed, shall we trace the primary fact, that, uf all the heavenlv bodies amnecied with uur system, the sun alone, situated as he is in the centre, ponseises undl- Tided liitht, while the planets which aurntund him are alk dark bodies receiving their light from him ? There h an reasim, in the nature of things, why a body placed in the centre uf a system should give fortl) light and heat, while thohe revolving round it should be destitute of them. And yet we Hud it to he so : and wo perceive the consequence of this arrangement to bo not only most benetioial, but alMolutely indispen. table to the existence of the orgaair i being* with which these orbs may be clutheil or pef-^led. But there is another view of the fystem of worlds to which our earth Iwlongs, that strongly corroborate* til* eaistence of a creating and presiding Being. We ■uian the provision which is made for iu perpekuily. Kotwithstanding the eaistence of so many oonflioting forces, any one of which, if the system were differently arranged to what we tind It to he, might in the courhe •f ages derange the relations which the different bodiee oompnaing It poaaesa towards eaoh other, and procipitate the whale into oonfiuion, only equalliid by tbat chaos from which, by might aod iwwer, it was called. It will hardly be neoeskary mmulaly to ex* ^aln the cause* by which the earth and the other planets are kept In acontin""* -'-'e of rotation round tho sun ; but as perspicuity is one of the chief objects at whidi we aim, a few word* on thi* subjeet will not bo out of place. Let it be understood, tlwn, tbat in #rery body of matter there exists a ceruin tendeney to runh tunaidsever}' other body, and that the larger, and denser, and nearer, any two bodies are, the greater la that tendency, and It will easily be cmnprehended tbat tbe sun, thu larg**t of all the b^idies in our *y*- tam, thould attract every other orb with a degrto of force regulated by the S)M, the density, and the dis- tance (if each ; su that, had all these bodies at first been })lac«d in a state of rest In the universe, they Would imr^ediatcly have liegiin to move towards the ■on, and thus, in the course uf time, would, one after the other, have reached and tweii amalgamated with bim in tbe form of one vast and irregular mass. But at the creation, this result wu prevented by commit. Bleating to the planets an impuUe at right angleii to the diftmt'ler of their orbit*, which, combining with the force of attraction — that {*, the power of the sun In drawing or attracting the plaiieu toward* bimtalf <_c«ufteit the pUnets to revolve round the sun. If aacli nf tbe plaueis, however, were to revolve rntind the tun. with no trtlier prevailing power to inter isre nith their motions except thefte two, via. iha attractiiin o( the aun, and the origiual impulse it oreMtiiHi, iliev %ould of course coutintto a* they f^e throughout all ages ; but this I* not the caae. Ir che Wiirdit <'f Mr >l hewell, "each of th«m is ^^kOd on by hII the rest. The earth is cetUMily changuig their distances and po- ■itionii witli respect to the earth. Tho earth, in return, is perpetually drawing these bodies. What In the C'lurse of time will be tbe result ? The cause acta per)HAually, knd it has the whole extent of time tD work in. Is it not, then, easily conceivable, thnt, to the lapse of agea, the dcrangemeota of the planets Buy arcumulute, their orbits may change their Torm. tfieir mutual diiitances may be much iucreatod or much diminished ? !■ it not possible that theseohange* may (n on without limit, and end in the complete subver- ■ion and ruin of the system ?" What might have been the t:a»e hud the balance of power*, *o to speak, in mir ■yiteni, been differeuUy diapoeed, it i* notf)a*y to *ay ; but tbat hII which is here suggested as possible, would actually take pUre, were a capricious or ignorant hand to Inteileie in the distribution nf these fun«8, may as- aaredly tw affirmed. We should soon have *' years afuntHfuiil leny:th and seasons uf capricious tempera* ture : planets and mouns of pirionlous *^ and a*- :f^e^, glaring and disappearing at aBowtala inH wi* t U9 tide* like deluge* *weeplng over whole continents ; and; perhaps, the colllilon of two planets, audUiooon* *e<|iieiit destruellon of all oi^anisation in tbe» both.** As tba aolar *y*tam oslst*, however, to nicely Is It adjueled, that the deep Inquiries of several of the phi- losophers of the last century, founded on tbe most oomplioaltd calcalations, have shown that its arrange- ment* ara stabU— that although there are and may be perturbation*, there are Invariably proportionate compensathms i ao that, whenerer a roaataum baa been reached In the derangements of the system, it must necessarily begin to revert to Its ancient order, and the restoration mttft in the end be as eomplete a* was the de>angement. It would require a hardihood greater than we can easily conceive to exist in the human mind, to view this subject, and to deny, after all, that a perfectly wise, beneficent, and powerful being, originally made and has since sustained and governed all things ; for bad the original impulse of which we have spoken been a little stronger or a little weaker^ bad the relative Inoliuation of the orbiu o£ the planet* to one another beer greater — had one or more of them moved in a direction opposite to the rest.— had any one of theae cause* operated, the whole solar system must sooner or later have been precipitated into chuotic ctuifusioii. Will any man, then, deny the proof here afforded of design and skill ? We cannot Iravb the haavenlr bodies withont ad- verting to the fixed stars ; aud if little be known respecting the planets, still leits has been ascertained regarding these more distant btKlies. But it is by no mCAns an unedifying employment to contemplate, through them, the Immensity of creation, and, thus elevawd, to draw the conclusion that the Being by whom they originated must indeed be iufinitrly glo- rious. Had there l>een no other design on Ills part than thus to strike the mind of man with a sense of Hismagni^cence and grandeur, no surer method could have been adopted to impart the lens4Ui. The mind is bewildered when it dwells upon the glories which astronomy devel{>pei{ aud it cannot Hi.d word* lofty enough to express its sense of the intelligence it dis> covers, or the proofs of the power and wisdom and goodnes* It peroeives. aELATIOKS BETWEEN MAX AKO EXTBRMJLL NATUKE Leaving the evidence* of design that are to t>e Vduced from the contemplation of the heavens, let us regard some of the relations that exist twtween man and axienial nature, and consider the wonderful adaptations to eacli otbor whioh they cahibic There can tie no blank in nature, and, consequetaly, no body is Isolated ; all mora or less inriueuce each other, and It is '•*( some of theu relative inlluence* that we are about to speak. Man Is attached by the taws of gr». ritalion to the earth whioh he inhatutx, and is sur- rounded by an atmospheric medium capable o' v.^er. cising certain influences upon him; these indueuoes are modified by the Almighty Power u> be subservient %o his wants, and deMiyned to ht adapted nut only to ' y necessities, hut to those of every living thing, w^' 'her plant or animal, that exi^ts. The air which surrounds us exercises, in conKc((uence of iui ejTtent, a pressure on the human body equal to altout 33,000 pounds. But why du we not sink and miserably pe- rish beneath this Immense weight? It ii by the le- action of the elastic tluidnoontalneri within our bodies that we are enabled tosupport soenotmiMis a presinre. Here wa find a routiuU nrlatiun between tia aud the air, which cannot be interrupted without mutiuit in. jury. Suppose this weight to l>e withdrawn Iroin our bodies, what would be the result? The expansibility of tbe fluids contained wit) in iia would huve no re- straint; thay would dilate, burst through the solids which oouuia them, and destroy tlie individual. Plaoe any animal beneath the raueivcr of ao air. pump, and withdraw tbe air, the result is very appa- rent. O'': -■•■' '.he causes of the iiiconvenieuces tlial are experienced when on the summit of a very high mouiitW' , ia, that the air it less dense, and di>es not uppoae so much pressure to the body \ and this, tun, m Uieeara, eyes, and mouth, that sometimes attack those su titu^ted. The effect of a cuppiiig-ulass, when applied to the skin, haa the same c^use. We feel mure or less the efffcu ul any sudden vbaoge of atmospkaric pressure, but still the density of the air is well adapted to the wants ot man; bad it been greater, uur energies would have been oppressed a* by an unnatural load ; and it leas, in- sufilcieiitly susuined a* by a defective support. The st'n^cs of hearing and smelling, too, which depend fur their perfection on a medium density nf the air, would have either been tnsiipportabJy intense ur deflective. Again, the atmospherfu pressure mate, lially affect* temperature. If a ccrtjiiu quajitity uf air ciutains a certain quantity of heat, it is clear that it mtut be equally ditfuied throughout it; and if the same air l>e contained In less Inilk, or if the pressure be greater, Uie heai Is increased In the same ratio. In the same manner, if the pressure l>e lessened, the iilr expands, aud with it the heat is diffused over a greater surface. By cumpressing air, we can pro. duce a mifltdent concentration of heat to produce 1/- nttiun. Tbia Influence uf the air upon the hotly is as universal as tbe former, aud tbe adaptation uf the oue to the other as constant. With the axoepuon of some countries near the equator, and there uuiy in the hot season and the middle uf tbe day, the teiu- perature of the atmosphere Is always below thst of MHil aod aabaatalwajrttaadelowarde aaequlUbrliun, It is obvious tbat a constant suhtraction of heat from thabodvBiustbetDintoa. Now, we erosoenKKai^ed as.toallewof ibiaunivaraslaabtraciioa; aad. indrrd w«a U luddaaly sK^ped, or even diminished, we should soon perish. Again, if the luhrractlun he. came increasad, or went on more rapidly than tho vital principle could replace it, our temperature would sink, our humour* and fluids freeze, and in this ease, too, we should soon perish. But there are iiiterme- dlata poinu between -these two extremes ; and as we before said, our organisation is such tbat it adapts it- self to the degree. All organic bodies are cap.-ilile of resisting to in extraordinary extent, and of modify- ing theactlon of, heat and cold ; Indeed, this principle of self.preeerraiion is in them so striking as to have been regarded from n very early period hi the moit essential atuihuteof life. The power possessed by the higher classes of animal*, of preserving a roi>re ur less uniform degree of heat, I* almost unlimited. In very cold climates, the thermometer not uofrequently ainks to 50* or ftB" below the freezing point, while in very hot ones it Is sometimes 120* ur 125^ above it, making a difference of 170° or ISO*; still, however, the temperature of the body remains nnuhauged. What unanswerable evidence of design is iliis, and bow limitless must be that Pu»er who could create •uch wonderful adaptatiuns t If the atmospheric pressure produces in some mea- ■ure the regulation of heat aud cold, in no lcs« degree dties it affect moisture and its concomitant* — cltMids, mist, rain, snow, and hail t and thns we are dependent for many of our comforts aud for most uf our iiecea- sitiea upon the due adjustment of Htmosphei ic influ- enoes. Winds, too, ariiie from any unwontetl atmo- spheric pressure disturbing the equilibrium of the atmosphere, and are the efforts of nauire u» restore tbe balance. All the changes uf weather, the most violent stui .is aud tempests, own the wme cause ; and why the whole machinery — if we may use tite i is not utterly destroyed, its DtUance lost — why " Hot. eoU, moUt. and dry, four chainfMoiu tienie ^triviuj fur uiakiiryi brio^ug to tautls Ttieir einbryon atouii," do not annihilate the world, and reduce it to iu pris- tine chaos, io, tbat it is a (iod wtio rule*, and who iu his mercy haa nu adapted cause and effect, that they shall regulate each usiier, uid Uiesid togosher lu har- monious ctiucurd. Connected with this suhjesu m evidanmng desi^, is tbe compotiiiou ot the air, wiuch is preciaeiy that lie«t adapted to sunnart respirauuu. it conmau, be- aidea small proporttuBtt ol aqueous vapour auu carbon, (if two riujiia, or geaes, eaiied ozyxen and Tutrogen. In a aepanue sute thwe f^eaee aru muuuuu to life. Levuisier proved by experiment .im£ psr»iu:, or oxy- gen gan, if respired tor u ^eruu. ume. mritie* the tilood too much, und increases oit uptdity ol tbe cir. (Ulation, theeHeecaiif which atvrviiMent lever, inflair- mation uf tbe lunyu ana deasu Nitrofen is equally destructive to lilei, m ues yseeasea the* prioflSfMle wi which ttie pnntiLatiuu ui tSM iriuiid dependa. 1: m their combiiiMtii>n tbat reiulers tliein salutary to the constituiioit, neither coimuming life by too much ati- ntulus and excitement, nor deadening its energie* by a languid tiirculation and depression of spiriu- Why should the air have been oompoaed exactly uf tweuty- one parti of oxygea and seventy. uine of nitrogen? Why Hei* all other pro^jortions excluded P U could not have been owing to « blind and fortuitous chance. The fact that we find two deadly Ingredients su united aa to become nnt only harmless, but salutary, must btrike every mind with an uiiiiiswerahla evidenaa of design. Atuiotpberic air is ausuluuly n«fiNS^ary both to animal and vegetable lite, and both classes of be- ings are fully adapted for its teception. The boldest Kpiuurean uonld scarcely imagine that so necessary a sukstance has by mere cbMice surrounded this globe lor tbe support uf ita iNkabiuiits, upon whom, with- out it, Uod would have l>es(*rwed his power aiid wis- dom and goodness in vain ; nay, even bad men, ac- cording to the ditcirine of Kpictiriin, nprung up like mushroiims from the earth without an atuumphere, they could not bave existed upon ii. Has not, then, tbe baud of a wise Creator been here viiiOly enipLjyed, ur why were we supplied with iuairuweuu that reu- der the air available to us ? — euattiing U4 to resist its dreadful pressure, and tn avail oumelves of its unut- terable advaiiiages. If we contemplate for a moment the evila whiuk would have followed had not divine iuteUiganoe pieaided at the eunstitutioii uf tmr Kh*he, and placed au almospbere airuund it, huw feartui aud dreary it would have been I The moon has nu abmo- sphere, and hence its climate must be very exiraurdl- uary t either ihe fiercest sunahine muHt reign, or thfe keeuest frosieeudure. It oure«fth had l»een similarly situated, no urgauic being would ha«e adorned its surface ; neiihet plant mir animal could have oxisted ; no refiectlun of light could have iiktii placu ; uo dawn or twilight would have prepared us tor morning ur for uight; a dome blacker than darkness would have sur- rounded tbe earth, and light only have iHwome mani- fest when the eye reeeived it directly from the suu. The blue sky which uow surrounda ua, aud wbit^h. is owing to tbe thin watery vapours floating In the at- mosphere, and reflecting peculiar rays of liKht, the bliM and the violet, wimld not have (teen there. And where can we tied such evidemies of design a* tbe blue culuuv whkh the sky ealiibiu? Ot all haa* we sould imagine, 1* there any to utrpas* that aiild and lofl eibtcaal Uuli banaouiaiag with all ataits^ NATCHAL TBS»L0(3Y. Uf, knd OD which the eye, fatigued with moro brilliant ^d duxling ohjecti, turita fur relief mid repote ? The uvbtliflver may say that tbli culuur wai the result uf chaucet but ftiippose any other, a hriuht yellow, a duzllng white, a glaring red, a fearful colour, how Uncomfurtabte and painful would it have been for the villon of man ! Again, an atmosphere it uaoeiiary to hearing; it enlarges the field of vision, and contri- butes aUo to the means of timuU i and not only do the beings on earth enjoy life through its means, but it contributes to the suHtenance of the llnnv tribes, en- abling tliem net only to exlnt, but to tent in the water, or aHceml und desi'end iu it in quest of food. There ure stilt other relitlons existing between man >nd external nntute, to nhli'h ue would shortly al- lude hs illustrative nf design ; and tbeyare sui'.lt, that without tbem certain important functions cuuM not be perfonned, and, (-onneqtiently, man cii'ild not exist. The«e relHtions, which muy be termed or^antr, are tlie more nnmerona and necunnary to life, us the organU iation of the indiridual is thu more developed or com- plete; and while they may he all included in tho two functions of luitrition and sensation, they are the ^ore multiplied as the operations of the former are nore complex, and the exterisiiui of the latter greater ; •nd hence they ure more nnmerous in man than in any other animal. Ait in the physical relations, to Knne of which wti have ulready alluded, so iu the f which we appear to be tut muuli iu need as of tlut principle of air which pu- rities our blood, and tits it for the perftirniance of its •everal nperationx. Ttie^e matters are inherent in all living bodies ; and If simple elementary bodies do #xist, these are they. itlanypbysiobiglntH tecognise the greatebt analogy between ibe nervous fluid and elec- tricity, and there in great reason fi>r believing that it asiiiKis considerably in the maintenance of the vital phenomeiui. We know, however, that all these itgentti exercise a great iulluenru nptni life, from the demand that livuig bodies muke upon them. Ub^erve how ulauts languish and become weak whun deprived of llglu, and how sidicitou'>ly they move in the direction tbut wilt tiie most expose tbuni to Ieh IrivitiorBthifl If) duence. Nor id it le>s uecestiai y to animiil exisianuH. Kggs caiiiuit be hatched when deprived of it ; lUtd Ibe transfuruial uuH to which many insects are extiOKed, go uu mme hlowly when in adurkened place* Uutlet us 8up):OKe that this element was only givon for the pnrpoite of enlightening the earth, wliHt a wonderful relation, tlit!u, does It bear to tl e eye which perceive!) it I No one uliucoubiders the eyeaiteniivey can resist theimpreksiou of the evidence otde»ign and skill which Iti construction exhibits. At the same time, it must be o))viiuii ibat this coiiBtruciiou ol the eye would not answer Iih purposes, unliiKs the couotituiion of light corre«|iiiiiiieil to it. Liglit is an e emeut of the must neculim kind autl propf rtieit, and such an element can hardly he nuiceived to have been placed In the unlversK Without Houie regard to its operathnis and luurliuMs. Ah the e)e U nuide for li^lit, so light nnist Irive j'tieu nunle, lit le.iiit among other enda, t that tliu vital energy tif plants is much diminiblietl, evenHuxpeuded, during ivinter, wliilewith the retnin ol ituuuiier they again ^hoot finth tlitir leaves HiMJ ll>i\vei!'; the same ulternatiim obtains aUti among b)lieinatiug animals. Heat is evidently the cauite of tliene cbanues ; t>o much so, imieed, that vege- taMes may bf forced to invert the order of the seaoons. TtiecJiruHtes in lact demonstrate the inilneiice of heat. JIow Htuiited it Ijoili animal ami vegetable lifu in polar regiooH, and how exoiterant do tlie kame IniilviduaU become under warmer »kie». Klectrlclty undoubt- edly exints In the a(m(i9pbere In all Its states ; hut we know very itnpei'ferily the laws of this agent, and are fttitJ mure ignorant ot rts atinniipheric ojieration. The preevnt st>ii enable us to perceive tho»e ad:i[ita' tionn uf its lawH to jth uses, which we cnn di^cover in tho^e cases wlieie the laws and the uses are both of iliein more ap|iarent. ** It is at any rate very pndia^ b)e," says W'howetl, ''that electrinty has its impor- tant purposes tn tlieecon'my of the HimoBphere. And tutn heiiig HO, WH may f>e<* a one in the ihuiolurstorm and llie htriike ol the ligbtniiig. 'l'he*e violent eventn are, witii regard to the electiicity ot tlie atinospliere, what wiiidn are with regard to heat atid moisture. They re^tort- the equilihnom wbeie it has been dis- tun-ed, and itarry tl>e tlnid from places where it is su< perlluouN, to others wtiere it is deficient. H'e are so Ciiniititnied, however, that ibei>« crimes lmprei>B every «oie Willi a feeling ol awe. The deep lowering of the glo>)Mi ol ilie ilitiuderi'loud, ttie ovt-i-wbehniog hur^t of the explusiun, the dasti from whieh the hteadtest eye ^hper. They con- vey, far utioe ihitn any nther Mppeanince does, the idu.iot a niipfiior and miglity Power, manifesiiug din- pleasure ami iliieaieoiiig puntkhnieiu. Vet we Hnd that (hi^ is niU liie lan,ver to the l)eing8 which inhabit it; and this alone will nhuw that the whole must have been the result of a superior and intelligent llelitg, whose poivers our sensen are inadequate to unireive or to un- derstand. Still it is not hurpriking that many should be led into the general opiniim, that the study of the mineral kingdom is a dry and uninteresting one. The mere Inspection of mineraN, and the btisineii of la- belling and assorting them nccordlng to certain arti- liclal sysielni, are no doubt very mecliunical employ, ineiits. lint yet there Is not a more philosophical study than that of i{Pob>gy, or one that ia calculated to impress the mind mr-e forcibly with the power, and majesty, and awful juNtice of a great ;tnd supcrlntend- iiig Being, In btudying geology, if we open our eye;* to plain t»('ts tli if are everyday before us, and look tlir<)ugb the i i 'judiced nu'dium of our senaen, avoiding the '- « ' mes of inveterate theorists, we cannot fall to per iiive that the world must at first have been called Into existence, biiiI fashioned into land and water, niount:iin and valh'y, by the di- rect tiat of an omnipotent C'reator; and that, from the very nature of tilings, and tlie phy!ii is an accun)nt:ition of vegetable mat- ter, subjected to long chemical actbni under consider- able prensiire, and excluded from the intluence ol the HtmoKphere. In many coal strata, the remains tif leave.t. and stems, and large trunks 4if vegetablei, are ever} Jay fouuil, evidently component [tarts of this mass ' and when a thin piece of plich coal in pared otf with a sharp knife, and examined with a microscope, the woody lil>ieand lexuire is distinctly vitible. Now, all c}ur coal-bed!) miiAt l>e the accumulated renmins of antediluvian vegetation, for they are iinifonnly found covered by un eartliy stratum, ttiat bears all the marks of having been accumulated and depoAited by water. 'J'hus we observu aheauiitul provisiou of nature, which has stored up the luxuriant vegetation of tropical cli- m tti*s, and of b)ng*rorgotten ages, aa it were in cellar*, to cheer the gloom and enliven the long wintry periudb ot these our nurtbeiu regions. U is also to tliese ctunmodatioii tu circumstances. Were all ammals formed alike, or did the ditferences which exi^t be- tween tbem bear no relation to their habits or des- tinies, it would be les'i easy to refute the doctrine which assigns all things to material canfie*i, and ex* I'lndea the designing liand of an iuielltgenc Creator. Although even then the argument would he totally nntenahle, still the demonstration which dii«proves it would have been le^s satinfactory and perfect, us tba surprising skill and beneficent care by which the Kiructure of every animal Is adapted to its Individual liabits and nece.Hsitieii, could not have been so well displayed. A Miigle tool iu the haiidsof the cirpenter h a proof of contrivance, but that proof is mucti mul- tiplied and rendered more forcible when we liod tho same instrument modified into a thouHand forms to suit the dltTereut operations of the workman. Few of the functions of animated beings better illustrate this than that of alimentation, which we shall now briefiy trace, though theliumble zoopbyten and worms up to birds and m:iuunirerons animals. Tliismayudd to the number of tlie in^tallce4 of obvious design we may adduce; but tbi:i and tlnmtiands more would merely give us a faint idea of the stupendous extent of the wi^dom and goodness of God which tiie ani- nml creation dlyphys. Nutrition Is common to all animals without exception ; and the numerous and varied motlificatioiiH of the means employed to etfect it, are obvious proofn of the design and intelligence ol' the Creator. There are some animaU so nearly allied to plants as tohefC'ircely distinguishable from them ; and in these, as In tiiem, nutritive matter is in like nwmner introduced by mere inil)lhitisophagus, or gnllet, leading from the mouth to the stimiacli, iu which the food in at last HshiinilHted, and rendered lit for nourishing the animal, itut Itia nit until we advaiioe some way in the great chain of animal life that these parts become sntf'iciently obvi- ous, or their oltices clearly defined. In qnite the low. est orders, the mouth and Ktomauh areonec^>ntinnoui tube, or all siumach, as it may be called, and no Aim- pltt iu cmittruction, that the animal may he turned inside out without detriment to it; that which waa external being now internal, and performing, appa- rently with equal facility, all the oHices of wliat waa previ-'usly the stomach. As we advance, however, we lind the nutritive organs ceasing to be a mere suck- ing apparatus, o. a receptacle for imbilied fiontH. la thoHe whelks which are furnished with proho>eides, we lind its cavity occupied by the aperture of the (eso- phagus, a tongue, and teeth ; while the snail iionseHsea a perfe<-tly formed month and lips. Among ilie worms, wiiute iU)mach8 are generally meinbiainiu^. hags, we rind exanudes of woiulerful contrivance and design. Thus, the powerful sttnnach uf one Hpecies containa three hard calcareous shells, by which the indivi* dual is enabled to bruise and masticate the hlielled Hnlmals on which it feeds. Ttie discoveries of JChren- berg respecting (lie animnlculte iuhabiilitg different vegetatile inliisiinoi, liave extended, in an extra- ontinurv degree, our knouledge of the stupendout power of (iod ; and the illimitable proofn of design displaved in beings to wliom, iu lelutivesixu, theinitv is an an elephant, allord aMonisbiug displaya of a mi* nntu and moiit tieneuveut attention to llie pieservation or tlie»e curious ci'e.ttiire:4, iu whose ortftnisuiiou and iustuicts new and admirable indications of creative wisdom are leve.iled. By tlie aiU ul tiie microMutjie, we are enaldeii to perceive the (>i-e "' i" a drop of wster, and w diiooTer fr«*h Bc«nes of won- der, and intrrMt, and evideni deiiK", amonK h(«U uf animated beinK»» intinlia in number at in minutenew. Tha»e diic«¥etie», of which an able anslvtii wai laicl> given tiy Dr Uairdner in the Kdiiiburgb New Philn- ■ophical Journal, have diulpaied the obKurily in which iheBiiimalt-uItt were plunged, ind displayed the wooden of iheir organihation. To render their di> geitive oriians more conRplrunn^, he tnpiilifd them with rolimred fmid, which cmnmuiiiralpi) iu tiiifte t<> the cavitiM through whirh it fastied. The momrnt h minute particle ol a higlily nttenuated nolutlnn of pure indigo wa« applied to the drop of water on th* ^-eld**/ the niicroDcope, in which were some of the mtiiHory animalt-tilMi, the moit beautiful phenoiurua preM>iiied therot«lv*4 Prevently their budiee, whicii had been hithertutjiiite tranpparent, became dotted withanum* ber of >p«>tK (if a dark blue colour, evidently produced by pnrtii-letiof indigo arnimnlaterl in these ^ituationi. In tome rpeciep, partittilarly thore which had a con- tracted pait, or neck, It^ueen the head and the bi.dy. thete )iaiiicleii were to Ite traced in a coiitii'uuus tir.e in their piogre» from the mouth to thew Internal ca- vitien. In iliis way, by the empbnnient ofcotuuriiig matters, Kbrenberg succeeded in akceiuiining the ex- iitence ol a NVKtem uf Titles, or canals hollowed out uf the subaunoe uf the body, and becoming distinct organs formed by mem- branes and coats proper to each ; and among these, the first example occurs in the sea anemone, in which we 6nd ^pace» intervening betwien the coats of the stomach and the skin of the anima! : hi re, however, the stomach h i-till n blind pouch, one aperture serv- ing alike lor receiving and ejecting the alimentary mattertt. In the echini «tive organs of insects we meet ith a understanding ? i>r lii>get, in hit> admirable bnofte. water Treatise, haa heautlfullv illustrated iheiubjrct, by very clear and cturect dranings by Mr Newport, of the three different states of the entire allnieutary canal of the privet hankniuth {SphitiJt liyvstri) t first, when a caterpillar i then a* a chrysalis; and, lastly, as the moih ; and of these, taking our text from Rnget. or rather from If erold, we shall endeavour to give some account. We have seen that In the raterpiUar the st4iniBch forms by far the moat ctinsiderable por- tion of the alimentary cana), bearing son>e resem- blance in its stnicture and capacity to the stoniarhs ,' certain worms. This Is foltowed by a large hut short and perfectly strhight intestine. In the chry- salis, these organs have utidergnne considerable nxKli- tii-Htlons; the whole c&nul, hut more especially the sionikch, being contracted liotb in length and width : the phnrtening of the intestine not leing proportionate to that of the whole body, obliges it to be folded tipou itself for a certain len^ith. In the moth, the couttac- tirn of the stomach has proceeded mtich fartlitr mid an add) loiia) cavity, wliiiti ioif>i)ie, sfeaking of the phenon>i-iia which we have detailed, *' the ada|>tatiuu of all these rhaiiges ol foim, the lots of old organs and the itrt|uikition of new ones, to the fui ctions and mode of hfe of tin* anima), we see evidently the all-powerful hand u) that Al- mighty Being who erected the universe, upholding by his providence, and the law that he has given ti> every rreature, the system that he at first brought .(■to existence." In insects, all parts concerned in dige%tion are in general smaller and less tomplirated intheiarnUo. r"i.s than in the beibtvorous tnb*a, apparently from O • H-Attert on n bich the loinier subsist beittg already aitimalieed, and re(|uirii g, therefore, lesa preparation before they are received inlo the bliMMl ; aitd it in no sight indication of disigt<, lo ibMive in them how a< niirably parts are adapted to the animal necessities. Thus, scorpions, spiders, n>iilepe< rs, and others wl.ith live for the most part on hatO animal substances, art' furnished with jaw^ of a fuin horny leitnre, in tiany CHses very lar^e, Hhen citeu ptt|.»|•^king ti»oth-like ed^eh . ai>d these, toi>, leed oii Hmnller iiiAetts than tliein selves. In another de&cription.ot which the bee, \tt' which the sides are common than in those below it; indeed, as Blumen- back has observed, the btisinessof nutrition in insects does not seem tu have fur its object the mere preser- vation of the individual, aK in must red-blooded ani- mals, but chiefly the consumption of oruanised matter, which will appear from considering the structure ol tl'.eir alineiiiary ranul. In most of those which are subject to a metamnrphosis, the stomach in the larva slate is of agieat sire in comparison with the short intestinal canal ; while tho^e, on the contrary, which take little or no nouii^hment in their perfect state, have this organ remarkably diminished, and, as it were, contracted. How beautifully does ibe great size and straight courseof the intestinal apparatus ot the animal, when in its caier pillar sta^e, coincide with its enoimous Tortcity rnd quick digestion ! It has been computed that cati vpiilurs sometimes devour and digest no Ie»s than three times their own weight of aliment in four- and-twenty hours- On tbe other hand, during the subsequent metamorphosis which the animal under- goes, no tuiMl is taken ; but nature, or rather the (io4l of nature, has wonderfully, and with beneficent de- sign, prouded against any necessity for this, by caus- ing insects to become very fat, an observed by .Malpighi, on the approach of these changes ; so that this fat, being abtorbed into the blood while these are goinif on, serves aU the purposes of a siijiply of almientiiry matters from without. The insects now under con- sideration exhibit at ditTtrent periods of their existenie the greatest ciiitrasts, not only in external form, but also in tiieir habits, instincts, and modet of subsistence. The larva, as we have seen, is remarkable for its vo- racity, requiring large supplies of Utud, and com inning enonnoui quantities of vegetHbte matter ; the perfect iniect or butterfly, having attained itn full dimensions, is sufficiently supporteil by small qtiantities nl a more nutritious fimd, consisting either of animal juices or of the fluids prepared by Il->wers, which are generally of a sarrhariiie quality, and contain nourishment in a highly concentrated form. It Is evident that the same apparatus which is .eces«ary for the ilige^tion of the bulky foird taken in during the former period, o-oult) not tie suited for the hs«iinilbtifUi of that whirh is re- ceived (luring the latter ; and that, in order to ucconi- modHtP ti to tbi< altered condition of its funition. rontiderHble chmt^ii numt )>«• made in Us structure. M'ho run believe that tbeie changes are m:ide w jtlioui wisdtHO, or persiiiide themseltes that all this is to b*- Iruught about by causes 'divested uf kut/wlidgu and trong and fleshy, and moveable er, finer thanahair,exceedingl) sharp, and generally barbed on un« side; while in the house-fly they are Hat, like the blade uf a knife. In the buitei flies, howe\er, w hit hare almost whully indef:eiident of solid nutritive matter, these organs present themselves in the greatest per- fection, and without any addition of teeth. 'J'he prs (uvier, '*lu thestriu'tureof their alimentary canal, ex- hibit as many variations as those of all the vertebral anintHls together : there are not only the difleicnces that strike tis in going Ironi family tolamily, and from specie* to species, hut one and the i>HUie individunl has often a canal quite ditrereut, according as we ex- amine it in its hirva o** imago slate ;t and all these variations have relation* very exnci, otien easily esti- mable, with the temporary or constant mode of life of the animals In which it is oh^er\able." That this ftateme )it is correct, we have seen j and no oite catt Ite blind enough to deny that it evinces an urigin of things quite incompatible with mere brute and unccitaiii chance. IlllSKiN IN Tin: tuRMATlOX Ot tlJllllH. Still aviceiiding in tlie scale ol creation. >mi> come to the Kiuteniplation of lihhe*. \\v ask, wiis it by mere chance tliHt the respiiattiry appiiratus of fishrs was so furnud that their hlood reeeive:i its vivifying pniiciptefrom the air which is held in solution by the WHter in which they nnive 'f And who cannot, in this one Instance, but dlH-ern thit hand of a ruling Providence, adapting the structure of animals to the hahita which are tu characterise them? Was it by chance that, In tha plaice, the sole, the tuibut, and other flat fishes, the eyes are placed both on one side of the body, in Isolated insunce of a want of uuifor- nilty In the two sides t No ; the design is obvious : for as these animals are destined to continue always with one side in the mud at the bottom of the water, ■n eye on this side would have been superfluous and Inconvenienl In them. The same design and evident adapiathin of structure to ciicumstaiues is apparent iu the Surinam sprat. This singular animal generally swims so near the surface, that Its eye IspaitK in and partly out of the water; and all its parts correspond with this strhnge peculiarity, the pupil being par- tially divided inlo an upper and a lower portion, and the tens consisting of two globes, an upper and a tower one aitached together. It appears that the su» pel lor part of the e)e ik, like that uf terrestrial ani- inals, adapted to relravr rays transmitted by air, and the inferior pari, like that of aquatic animals, those transniittrd by water, and that the refracting power of the several pait* of the eye is accordingly niuch less above tlian behtw. M ith legard to the luuction ol hearing, we find in fishes the Creator still proceed, ing ini one vast plan or unity of design ; with the ex- ceptitui of oie s|itcies, all the parts of the ear are buried within the ^kull, and rend no process to the surface; and this is piecisely what we should have hioked for in beings destined to hear through theme* . ditim of water, the vibrations of which, being so I much more powerful than those of air, would render ' the complicated apparaiu* requisite in terrestrial ani- nials, in them superfluous. In the class td fishes, we see the lowest condition ol the alimentary canal as it is found in vertebral animals. Kihbes, voracious to a proverb, subsist aln.ost entiiely on animal food. The mean teems chiefly with uniinal life. It is a dense, and rich, and n>oving, and tempestuous ele- nent, where vegetation is comparatively ^nn of all kinds of food. 'J'heir teeth, more iiihtiuncnts of prel^r^-ion than n>astication, are sharp, ricnr%ed. dl-I1^e, Mrrf )ointed coties, adapted to grasp and retain every living thing that nioves in the waters, and plnced in all parts of the mi iitli of these all.devouting aninatterB on which they for the must part feed, being almost alway* of the same nature as their own btwlies, and, therefore, rrouirtng rom(iaraiivejy little piepatation. ^ Kelinquishing our plan of illustrating design by an account of )he digestive npparaius, let us con»ider, in reptiles, the organs suhhervient to the luuction ol re- spiration, which, though somewhat similar to birds and mammiferouH animMls, dilfer from it in some re. markable particulars. The former are indeed fur- nished, like the two latter, w ith a kind ol lungs , but, unlike them, they are membruii'Mis and not tleshy ; that is to say, tbe cells which they contain are so nnich larger as to give them a membranous and not a rteiihy appearance ; nay, in many reptiles the lung* uuii.i»t of one membranous bag, very similar to the air-bhtdder of fiahes. These lungs or bags are situ- ated in the abdomen, and are loo^e and lloating among the entrails; and they receive their supply ol air, in general, not as in birds and inammiferous aninials, hi consequence of the formation of a vacuum around theiii, but by a process very similar to that of swal- lowing. Hence, reptiles, unlike the higher classes of animals, can still continue to breathe if their bodies are cut o| en, because they do not require a vacuum round (he lungs. 'J'he air thus received is sulmervi- ent to the purification of the hhanl in the usual man- ner ; but it is nut so immediately vitiated .^h air received into fleshy lungs, owing to the lurger si/.Pof the cells, which do not In. mediately allow the whole of it lo come into contact with their sides. This is one reason why reptiles can sustain an im|iedimeni to their respiralnin b>r a much hmgcr time than birda and mammals; but another and a much better reason Is to be found iu the distribution of their blood-ves- sels, those going to the lungs not forming a necessary part of the general circulating system, but constitut- ing, as it were, only an a|ipendHge to it, which may for a time cea>e to transmit blood without inconvenu eni*e. A fish was destined iiludx* to be in the water. * lt<^ft, ^ul. u.» 1 . Il4t M tia^o uf |ieif >| nil jj jfy jiji |jJ|IBJ|»lip|^J|iy Wl,l|y fjMPW^TT'^^^J'W'ff Mjfir V' \>7I HVt f^. tfyWyy '^'.'- ! .TW^gl NATURAL THEOLOGY. and « bird or quwlruped ftlwayt la thaiir t and bene* the itruotnre of their mplratory, m well u ciroulat- ting ivitein, Ii such m to IncepaoiUM them each for the ether element j, DIIIGV lir THE rORMATION OF BIftDI. We come now to birds ; and whether we ooniider their external form or anetomioal ■truoture, or in vhitever Kifht it It poeilble to view them, the lame floncluiion pretenti itielf to the mind. Inezhauitible contrivance, vut and oompreheniive intelHgencei are every where censplcuoni. Behold, In their pointed bill, Mnd gradually enlarging head and neck, a mean* of penetrating the yielding air ; then the prow.like braait, the fleaible raddrr tail, the equlpuiied wings, and feathers at once adapted for lightness, for strength, and ft r tenacity, and all bearing relations, not only to eau « Ather, but to the air in which the animal is to fly 1 he wise contrivance of these could not be the result of chance. The investing membranes of their tangft, prolunfjed frora various parts of their lurfaee in the form of tabes, and expanding into bags, en- veloping almost all the entrails, so as to keep them censtuntly surrounded with air, and similar prolonga- tions extending also into the cavity of their bones, serving to inflate these in the same manner — are not these peculiarities fur the obvious purpose of giving lightness to the animal, and thus enabling It to sup. port itself in the air ? — and does not this palpable Btthserriency of one part of the structure of birds to the rest, irresistibly inculcate tbe truth that one master.band has regulated the whole ? Can this cor- respondence be tbe work uf a blind chance ?— or does it Imply an unity uf denign, an extent of benevolence, and a vastneas of power, indicative of a ruling Pro- vidence ?— the great architect alike of the lUr of the firmament and of the mite which plays in the sun- beam — whose hand Ik traced ei{ually in the immensities •f magnitude and minuteness — the Almighty Father of the universe, and of every thing which astounds and delights us in its construction. In the beaks or hills of birds, various ai are their forms, we can trace an exact adaptation to the food of the ipeciei. lu those that tear their prey, as the eagle and hawk — or hrutse hard fruits, as the parrot— or penetrate the itark of treen, as the woodpecker-., the bills are of extraordinary hardness, und, in form, intimately cutniected with the habits of the animal. In those to whom a sense of feeling in thin part is ne- cessary to enuble them to find their fooH in mud or water, us the duck, it is very soft, generally flattened, and 80 conatructod that fluids may 61ter throti^h it, while the solid food is retained. A bill hooked at the •nd, with shnrp edges, characterioea birds of prey. Another species of strong sharp-edged hill, of an elon- fated shape, but withoi *. a hook, serves to cut nnd reak, but not to tear ; ai d this is the form of the Mil In birds which live upon animals whicli muke resist- ance In the water; some of these are straight, as in the heron— others curved, somedownwardit, some up- wards. Some nharp-ed^ed bills have their sides ap- proximating, like he bl:ide of a knife to its handle, and thus adapted v ' Sf ize smHll suhstancfs ; as thi* penguin. The small, conical, arched bill of poultry, serves only to rake up grain. The bills of the smaller birds present all the varieties of the conical form, from the broad-based c»ne of the hawlinch to the thread- like cinie of the humming-bird. 8uch o( tliem as have •trong short bills, live on grain ; thone with long thin ones, on Insects. Where tbe bill in short, fl»t, open- ing very anteriorly, as in msrtens and swallows, the aird seizes flies and bnttertlles in the air ; and if it be long and curved, poi^.-ieiifin^ some strength, we find it grubs up worms for its fo'>d. The sanie evi- dence ul deiign which we discover in the bills ol birdn adapting theni to pnwure the kind of food on which the indivldn»l In tonubiiNt, In appHrentatso in thecori- fonnation uf their digeiitivfl urguns. An the lood of blrdn varies Iroiii the sultfiitHinmal matter totheha^de^t grain, »» wt* uhiierve evprv Ki'^dHtlon in the Htrticture of their itomuchH, from the memhranouN sue uf the carnivunniH trilien to the true muscular Kizj^ard ot granivuruus liirds viiig according; as the food ctnt- aists til uniinitt or veffi-taiile materials, or presettts more or less reaist.ince from tlie coliesion of its texture. In nci branch of natural hill^)ry do we find more re- markable evidences ofdehign, liiau in the varieiies of kinds lit' covering of aniiiiai!* adH^tnl to their wantH and situHtiiHiH on the globe. Ttie covering of birdH, in partii'olai', "cannot (nnvs Paley) escape the moHt vulgar obnei vution. Its lightuebM, its smoothness, its warmth : — the ditipositiun o( tbe feathers all iticliui'd backwiii'it, tlie down about their stem, theoverU|>pin^ of their ti^is, their dilferent conli((ur:ition iu e:iutitul, and so approprinte to the life which the animal in to lead, as that. I think, we Hhould have had nouonieptionol any thing eiiimlly perft'tt, if we bxd never seen it, or can now unnxiiie any thing more ho. I,«t us buppn&e (whut in possible only in supposition) a person who hid never hi-cn a bird, to be presented with a plucked pheasant, aud bid to set his wits to work liuw to con- trive fur It a covering which shall unite the qualities of warmth, levity, aiul leiut resintance tu the air, and the liitose surfaces; that they are nut parted asunder without si>me degree of force: that nevertheless there is no Klutinons cohesion tietween tbem ; that, therefore, by some mechanical means or other, they catch or claRp amonfc themselves, thereby ifiving to the beard or vane its closeness and cumpncliie^s of texture. Nor is this all: when tw<» laminte which have been separated by accident or force arehron((ht tojrciher H(ft»fn, they im- mediately reclojip : the ronneciion, wli.itever it whs, is perfectly recovered, and tht' beard of the feather be- comes UK smoirth and fir:n as it" nothintr had hippened to it. Draw your finger down the feather, which is atfainst the xrain, and yon I'renk, prnbablv, the junc- tion uf some of tlie coriti.'uoMs threads; dpHW your linger up tbe feather. atn< yon restore all things to their former state. Thin ih no common contrivance : and now for the mer.hnnJKm by which it Is effecied. The threads or Umina' •"mve mentioned are inUrhced with one another, and the interlHciruf is performed by moans of a vast number k and Ifrappte toffeiher. A f'i<"id of mine connt'd fifty of these tilipes in onetw*^tieth of nn inch, These filireit are crooked, but curved after a d'tferent muniier ; for ttiose which prticeed .'roni the thread nn the side to. wards the estremity •>( ihi' f**Miher Hre longer, more flexible, and hert downwards; whereas those which prm-eed from the Kirte towards the beirtnritoir, nv (|nill end of the feather, are shorter, tirnnr, and turn np- 'Vflrds. The process, ihfii, which takes pluce. ih as follnws ;— •When tao la^-nMiae ate pressed tufifpther. so that these long fibres are forced far enoufth over the "hopt ones, /ftctriTooked iiaris fjijl intruhecavitv made bv the cri'nked parts of the others, just as the hitch that i» fastened to a door enters into the cavity of ibe citch fixed to the door-poiit. and there honkintr ii'elf, fattens the door; for it is properly in this manner that one thread of a feather \'* fastened to the ntlier. This Hdmlrahle structure of the feather, which it is essy to see with the mit-roscnpe, succeeds perfectly for the use to which nature has desi|;nt'd it; which use was, not only that the lamina> mi,tht he united, but that, when one thread or lamina has been separnted iVom another by some external violern>e, it might be reclasped with sntlicient facility and expedltiiui. In i\\if ostrich , this apparatus of crotchets and fibres, of hooks and teeth, is wiititinff ; and we ^ee the con- sequence of the want. The filaments bang looxe and separate from one another, foroiiiiiC only a kind of down ; which constitution uf the feuthers, tiowevur it ■nay fit them fur the flowing honours of a ladgment in the body, tbe application of it when obtained, form, col- lectively, an evidence of inumtion which It is not easy to withstand. Nothlntr similar to it Is found In un- feathered animals. What blind eonatua of natur* should produce it In birds ? should not produce it ia beasts ?" As we hare entered so fully Into this subject when treatingofother classes of beings, we shall not heiv revert to it, or bring forward illustrations of the truth of our proposition ; the facts already deuiled seem auflUcienttodisplay the wisdom which the great Creator has evinced in this department of the animal world- Nothing can be more worthy of remark than the ex* haustless contrivances by which every difiicnlty is ob- viated, and nature moulded to the will of its Almighty Author* How many obstacles were to be overcoms before a heavy body like that of an eagle or tbe mightf condor could be rendered buoyant in the air, and made to track its adventurous courseso high above the earth as to be almost lost to human gaze 1 How many conditions were necessary to give safety and enjoy- ment tu the smallest of the winged tribes, even after the first obstacles were overcome ! Vet bow wonder, fully simple and efflcacious the means by which the whole has been accomplished \ That man is indeed to be pitied who can turn even a transient glance oh such a subject, without being lostinastouiahmeutaud admiration. THE STRUCTUni OF MAM AHD OTHER AVIMALS. We now arrive at the conaideration of the mam- malia, or those animals which suckle their young ; and at the head of this great class we find man proudly pre-eminent. We have already seen, that, an the ma- terials on which the function of digestion is to be per- foroied are nuineriuis and diversified, so a differenoe exiots in tbe parts which areaubaervient to it. With- out altering the gener.*! plan of the function, or the essential parts of the organs concerned in it, nature makes such additional provisions, in the instincts by which the reception of food is guided, and in tbe or- uaiiK by which it is atsimilated, as Hre suited to the circMrostaiicesinwliich tbe animal is placed, to the food • in wtiich it is tu tinliaiat, and to the ulterior purposes which it is to terve in the world, tsucb evidences of dettiftn are very remarkable in the ma unialia; and in few organs are they more powerfully Instanced than in the teeih, hetween which, in form, structure, and p'toition, and the kind of food on which each animal of this claas is intended to subsint, the mosK intimate connections pre^ellt tbenifelves. i'lie.se relations.^ wliicli indeetl mny be also traced in tlie hhHpe of the j;iw, in (he mode of its artioitation with the head, in tlie |>ro|iMrt>oniil size and diiitribution of the nmacles which move ihe jaw, in the form of the head itself, in tlie lei>)(th of tbe neck and its position on thn trunk, and, iu lac:, in the whole confonnitioii of theskehsion — tiave been nut ctd from very eaily Ages, and fre- ijuentiy described. 'i'he porposes answernd by the teeth are principally those of seizing and detaining whatever is introduced into tht mouth, of culling it asunder and di^ iding it into smaller pieces, uf loohening its tibruua atructuro,. and uf brenkiug down and grinding its harder portions. Four principal forms have been giv>>n ;o teeth, which accurdingly may be distinguished >ut i tbec uiical, the slmrp-edged, the flat, and the tu 'ercubttea teeth; though we uecaBiunally htid a few intermediate modi- flcatiuns of thuse forms. Jt is i-ar.) to infer the parti* eular fiinctiuns of each clusfi of "-eLh, from the obvious mechanical actions to wl.ich, by their form, they are especially adnptod. The conical teeth, which are ge- nerally also sharp-pointed, are piincipally employed iu seizing, piercing, and holding objects ; such are the oifices they perform in the crocodile and similar rep- tiles, where nil tbe tee'.h ape of t!iis structure r and such alHO are their n«ea in most of the cetscea or > halo tribe, where similar furmsuiid arrangeuienti. of teeth prevail. Tbe anitnata suhitist on flsb, and ihei- .eeth iire therefore constructed vury much on the modrtl of those 'if fish ; while those cttacen, on the ciher tand, which are herbivorous, hk the niaiiatufl ouU d>i:;ong, have teeth very differently firmed. The sharp-edged teeth perform tho •'viUce of cutting ii CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. And divUWug the yielding (exturw preft«Mt«d to them: they uct indivldiiMlly m wedges or cliUeU ; but when co-operating with iiiniUr teeth in the opposite Jaw, th.'y have the povrer of cntUiig like aheari or »tn»8or». The flat teetb, of which the iiirfaces are generally rough, are uied, in conjunction with thoee meeting them in the opposite jaw, for grinding down the food by a laterHl motion, in a manner analogous to the opera> tion of millstones in a mill. The ttibercuUted teeth, of which the surfaces present a number of rounded eminences, corresponding lo depre&aious in the teeth opposed to ihem in the other jaw, act mere by their direct presMire in breaking down hard substances, And poifnding them, as they wnuld be in a mortar. n>e apparatus for giving motion to the jaws is like* wife varied according to the particnfar movementi re< quired to act upon ihu food in the different tribee. The artlcniatiou of the lower jaw to the skull is somewhat limllar to ii hinge; but considerable latitude is gi?en to its moiionti by tlie interposition oi a moveable car. tilage between the two surfuces of articnlatlun, a con- trivance admirably answering the intended purpose. Uenee, la addition to the principal movements of open- ing and ^hutting, which are made in a vertical direc tion, the lower jaw has also some degree of mobility in a horiz.Miul or lateral direction, and is likewise capable of betug moved backwards or forwards to a ceriuiu exU'Ut. In the conformation of ilie teeth and jiiwa, a rern^i kable ctHitraLt is presented between car- nivortius and herbivorous animals. In the (ormert o{ which the ti^ermay he tukeu as an example, the whole apparatiis for masticitutn is calculated for the destruo. tion ut Jifi% and for u-aring and dividing the fleshy libree, 'i'lio teeth are armed with pointed eminences, which CtUTei'pond in the opjutsite jaws so as exactly :o htck into one another, like wheelwork, when tlie mouth is clokeJ, i.nd the niuKcles which close it are ol enormous ^iKtl and strengih. In tlie herbivorous ani< mals, on the contrary, as in the antelope, thegreateat force is U'ltowed, not so much on the uiotiuna uf down- ing ai.d aiiuiting, as on ihi\«t, their olliiv twitig in fact very similar tn that perlnriiieo by tl)e»« implements of griufling. The fiodttitui, or gnawing quHdrii(iel)ed with t^vo front teetb, generally very boig, and Imvirig the exaet sJiHpe of a chisel; while the utolar or liHck teeili have surfaces irrt^ilarly marked with rdised zig-xtg lines, render- ing Uiem very perfect Instruments ol triiiirution. The l>earer and tut are examples atmmg onitkiviiious ro- dentia, and iho hare and lubbit among those that aie prmcipiilly hprlnvorons. The(^fM in tlie njturu of their ftH>d. Thus, thf teeth and jaws of the hyieiia are formed more especiaiiy fur bresking hones, while tinise ut tlie H*a*ottdr have rounded eminences, ubicU peculiarly tit them lor breaking hhelU. ** On C'lmpartnir the strnctnre of the di|festive or- gans of man," c 'iitinMes He Hoget," *• with thow oi Dthvr aniiiiaU tfelon^tug in the cla« of tasie in ibe human species appears to I* affected by a greater vhriety of n\>jrrti than in the rrther races ot animal*. All these aie concurring iridtt:titinns that nature, in thus rrndeiing man omnivorous, intended t.i qualify him for mainuitiing life wherever he could pniciire the matet nit >ii subsivtenre, whatever might be their nature, whether antma' or vegetable or a mixture ot b.ith. and in whatever s«iil or uhmate they may Iw pf<»doced ; and for endowing him witli the ptiwer of sprcailing h!s T:irr, and rstending his Ait. miui'm over every ar»y«»sit>le regi.m of the globe. Thus, thrti, from the coiiRideratiiiit ol the peculiar structure nf the (irg4ns of his fianie, miv he derived rttoh of li.eir Iwing lonstrncted wi:h reference tir laciilJes i>( ft hitfhpr and iinrre extetistvo range tbun those of any, etHi< the most favoured, species of the brute creation. '* There it onecirc-im%t«ni'fl connccutd with {\w func- tion tif digusiion, as displayed in certain of the mammttia, to whub, nt evliienuiitg great and won. (a tlerftil design and HiTdrnmndntlnn in Rtrticture tn cir. cumBtancej w« would purtJculHrly Bllade; it ii the facility and power ot tlie camel uf abitaining'Iong fri>m drinking — a power which he ii often necesiitated to bring into effect during the lung period of nine, ten, or even twelve daya. In Arabia, the camel is the chief lieait of burden; and travelling through a coun. try inch aa it, It is only at long intervals that water CJin be obtained; a anintry. as described by Buffon. without verdure, without water, posdessing a burn- ing Bun, an air always parched, sandy plaius, moun- tains still more scorched, which the eye runs over without perceiving a single animated being; a dead earth perpetually tiiased with the winds, and present- ing nothing but bones, scattered Uinta, rooka perpen- dicular or overli^rued; a detert totally void, where the traveller never breathes under a shade, wliere nolliing accompanies him, nothing recals the idea ol' animated nature; absolute solitude, more dreadful than that of the dee^st forests, more solitary and nuked, more lost In an unlimited void ; he every where beholds space siirroundiug him at > tomb. Tiie light of day, more dismal llutn the dark neia of night, serves only to give him a clearer view of hii own wretched, nets ami impotence, and to conceal from him the liarriers of the void, by extending around him tliat immense aliyss which separatee him from the hahi. table parts of the earth ; an abyss which in vain he sliould attempt to traverse, for hunger, thirst, and scorching heat, haunt every moment that remains to him between de.pair and death. Frightful as is thie picture, the desire of lucre, or tlie gratification of a curiosity, and a love of enterprise no lens Insaliable, often tempt men to traverse the lanriy deserta of Araliia. J-'or their own neoeasitiei they may provide, but no human means could atford the posaibillty »f conveying water sntfiofent to itatisfy the longing, of tlie licasts of biinicn wiiich accompany these eapedi- tions. It is by the hingtilar ttrnctnre of the camel'H RUtmarh that it is enaliied to pass several days with, out drinking, atid to take at a time a pnidtgious quan- tity of water, which remains in reservoirs pure and iioipiii, lieciust. liiese wells are so contrived tliat iieittiei tlie llnidsof the body nor of digestion can mix with it. \\"hat de^ign is here ! — and how redolent ot » isdoni, and iiow full of mercy ! Hut let un endea- vour to exjilaiti the nature of this structure whicli m evidently adapts the camel to be the inhabitant ■ if the sterile and arid regions of the east: — tlu. uiinatitig quidriipeds, or those which chew the cutt, liave two, three, or four stomachn, diKtiliguinlieil — when there are I>tor — by the names of paunt-h, btin- net, niany-piie", tiini caille. When the f.uid is swal- lowed lor the lirM time, it pashes direi'tly fr.— the gullet into tile paniu-h, where it undergites snnie neniitted to the honnet, to lie niixrd > ith the lluidsol theiavity. This p;-oce8> is jionigoti during the time tlie aiiinial in grax- iiig, when, Ir.iin the iii(-e>saiit (H'i'ti|iatiiiu of ni|>ping ■ ilF the gran,, for whu'h its teeth are so adniiralily suited, it has not leisure to rliew it sutheiently. ^\'hea afttTrtanis reposing il..eir, however, the hall' Ci.ewfd aliment is iM.iUiiht again, in succesrive little b'lils, from the bonnet into the mouth, where it is subjected to a perfect tiable ol diaw. ing up the tliird stouiacii, so as to rr^ceive alimentary iiiMtler* oirecliy Iroin the gullet, when the immediate Wants ol the aiiiijiai ate to lie supplied ; hut when the lliiid taken is iiieHiit to be used only iii its long jmtr. ■leys thruugli tlie dtrserts, tins muscle is relaxed, atid It IS tiiiiR received II to the two Hrst htomachs, and traiisuiitted imisards by tliese only at tlie necessary intervals, 'i'he Arabs who traveiae these extensive plaina, ttccoui|)aiiied ny these iisetut animals, are, it is Slid, sometimes obligiMl. whrn faint aad in danger of perishing from thlrai, lo kill one of their camels, for the sake of the water contained in these reservoirs, which is always (mind pure and wholesome. It is stated by those who have travelled in t^ypt, that ca- mels, when accnstftined to g>i journeys dui log which they are for a long time de^irived tif water, acquire the P' iter of dilating ttie cells, so as to make them contain a more than ordinary quantity, as a supply for their jiiuriipy. (UMPEM^ATION Of raBTI IN ANIMATED KATIIRE. Tlie evidences of ilc>igii in cieatimi are beautifully devebiped in what is called the cornpetiRatory struc- ture ol animals. Ity iIiIn is signilied the supplying the delects of one organ by the slructure ol another part ol organ. l*aley has summed up a few striking instances ol this naltire. *' The short iintwiiding neck of the elephant (shvr he) is eimipenssteil by the length and tiexibillty of his praii'jn.t. Me I'onid not h'tt'e reai-tied tlie ground without it i nr, II It be sup. p sed that he might have fed iimm the fruit, lea'.es, Oi- hranclies ol treei, how was hntodilnki' Kbould l| Ic mihiiil, )\\if |> I I'l |ileiilin|i|'s iinill sii tliiiii it Uiaf hi nuiwlittil, liiak tlia kei||li( uf « liikil lu liMvy could not have lieen supported at the end of « lona„ lever, lo a form, therefore, 1„ »™e respect. nJZ sary, but n some respects also Inadequate m ,h, ,!^ sions of the animal, a supplement Is added, wS """lI/ "^ '•«°*""'r '"wl" whioli he 1». If it he -uggested that this proboaeli mav kaveketn produced, in a long cioirse oi generations, by the oo^ slant endeivour ol the elephant to thrust out his now 1„ ., *a*"*""' ''>'t"'^"»'» ''/ •»'" I' it haa latelr l«u attempted tu Koouiit far the forms of a.imaVj II the meantim^ during ih. pr.H*.i, «„IU this pro. ongatKin of moat were completed t What wa. to lM«.-.of Ueiodividual whlfa. the .peJU U. pej! ■JL',"il'""^!T w P«""' '• •'■"P'y «» Hit oni th» watia, which this organ bear, to the peculiar Agur* of the animal lo which it Iwlong.. And herein an thing. correRpond. The necessity of the elephant'i probosol. Brl«o« from the shnrtneaa of hi. neck ; ths shortiieas nf ilie neck ia rendered necossary by tha weight of the head. Were we In enter into an exa- imnatlon of the strnctiira and anatomy of the pro. lio.cn liMtIf, we shmild see in It one nf the moat curious of all example, of animal meclianlRm. Th« 1 Ispnslti.m nf the ringlets and fibre., for the purpnw, lirst, of hrnning a long cartilaginous pipe; seioujly, ol contracting and lengthening th.ntplpe; ihlrdiv, if turning It in every direction at tlie will of the at.luiali with the .iiperwldition, at the end, of a lleshv pro. ducthm ol abmit the length and thickness of a linger Mid performing the office of a finger, .o xt to pick up a straw from the ground— these pnipertie. of the same organ taken together, exhibit a .pecimen not only of design (which I. attested by the advantage), but of cniisiimmate art, and, as I mav say, of elaborate pre- paratinn, in Rccomplisbing that design. The honk in the wing of a IhiI is strictly a meoha. uical, and also a cnmprmulmi], cotitrlvance. At the angle of its wing theilesa ol all animals. )et tills hook and oveila|ipiiig nf the bill riuild not h« spared, lor it forms the very inslrlnnenl by which the bird climbs; lo .ay nothing of the use whic'i it niakea of it in breaking niiU and Ihe hard .iilisiance. upon which it feed.. How, therelore, has nature provided hir tlie opening of this iki liided m.aith '' lly making tlie upper cliap innveable, a. well a. the lower. I n most liird. the upiwi chap ii coiineited, and makes but una piece, with llie skull ; but m the parrot, the upper chap is jiiiiieil to the bone id the bead bv a .liong membrane placed on each tide ol it, which lilts and d4^preMVR it at pleasure. The ipi a cuitpmmring noiiirivance. The spider lives iipini dies, Wllhmit wings to puisne them| a case, mie would have ihimghl, of greai dilheulty, yet provided lor, and provided hir by a resource which no slrata,(em, no elfort of the animal, rould have pro. duied, had not Imlh It. external and internal .trui'turt Iwen specillcally adafited to the o|«ralioii. lu many .pocies ol innvts iNe eve i» fixed, and, canteqneuily, wiihoni Ihe power .il tunung the |inpil t 1 the oliject. Thi. great delect i., however, |ierlectl¥ . omfirtualfii, and liy a awkauism which we should not suspect. The eve i» a mnltlfitying glass, with • lens liNiking in every dliectl.in, and catcloiig rverf olijert; bv wliicii mean., altlioogh the orii .n iSweyo he stationary, tlie held of vision is as al*i|il«' as ts,»i of other niiimalB, and iscntnmaiitled on eveM ..itfc Wlien this laltice.work was lirst observed, the m.M'cptn-ity and imnolrne^ of tbesiirl^o-e. .stnst ha^e u«ue.i i.ithv surprise ol Ilie discnvery. Ao*iiis teiis us that lour. teen hundred ol these ratinii.auiiu luive bevu couiuwl lu tha tam eyes uf a druue b —. NATURAL THEOLOGY. lu utLer caRCP thu compensation li ctf«cted by the niunb«r ami pmitiim of the tyvs Uiemnelvefl. The luidttr haa ttighteyet, mounted upon difftrretit psrtiot to* lMad ; two in front* two in tlm top uf the head, two oil each. iid«. Tbeia eye* are wiihoiu motiou, but, by ihair altualiun} Kuiiad to 04)rapzih*Dd every view whiuK the wants or B%A»ty of tha animal raudar Ik nrcatiiiiry fur it to take* The AUmoiri for tha Natural Uittory of Aniraalu, puhliahad by tlia French Avadamy in the year 1(107} furniah ua wJib aoma curioua pacticularn in tha aya of a chaiDelaou. Inataad of two Aviilida, ic ii coveted by an ayalid with a hule in it. Thia aingular atruo. tura appvara to be compensatory^ and tu auawar to iooM utber aiiiKitianiies iu tlia ahapa of tba animal. Tha ueuk of ibe chamt'leon ia inllixibJe. To make U|i fur tbia, the eye it xo prominent, aa that mora than half of tha ball atanda out of tha bead ; by means of which aKtraocdiiiary prujiodoni tba pupil of tha eya oan be oarrted by the muMilea in every dir«c- tian* and ia capable uf beinfp pointed towards every objecL But then, aounusiiHl an exptiiture of thaglohe ofthaeyu requires, for its lubricity und defence, aroore than ordinary proieotimi of eyelid, aa well aa % more than ordinary Biipply of moiauire; yot the motion of an eyelid, f^irmad accnrdinfc to the common conatrnc* tkm, would be imptdedf aa It should naem, by the oon- ▼•Alty of the or^an. The aperture In (he lid roeett thia ditHculty. It enablaa (ha animal to keep the prln- oipal pnrt of tha aurface of the nytt under cover, and to preaarva it in a due stataof humidity without ahnt- tlnif out the li^ht; or without performing every mo. m«ut H nirtitution, which, Ic ia prohnble, would be more laborious to thia animal than to nthers. Bui the worka of the Oeity Hre known by expedi- ents. Where we shinild look for abnoluta destitution, where we can reukon u^ nothing but wiiut^, some contrivance always comes in to nupplv the privation. A inaitf without wiuf^, feet, or tbreHO, climbs up the ■talks of plants, by the soln aid of a viscid humour diacharged from her bkin. She adiieres to the attms, leaves, and fruitit of plants, by means of a sticking, plaster. A mussei, which might seem, by its helpless- ness, to He at the mercy of every wave that went over it, has the sltiKutar power of Bplin^nK strong tendin- ous threads, by whieh she moors her hhell to rocks and timbers. A cockle^ on the contrary, by means of its stiff tongue, works for itaetf a shelter in tbe sand. The provibioiis of nuiure extend to cases the most des- perate. A lobiter has in ita constiiution a dllliculty ao great, thnt ono could hardly conjecture before- hand how nature would dlapose of it. Ir most ant. mala, the nkin grows with their growth. If, instead of a soft hkin, tliere be a ahel), i^tiUit admita of a gra- dual entarKVment, If the hhell, as iu the tortoUe, consists of Keveral piecaa, the aoct'a.tha roughneas of tha muacle smoothed and softened \ how over the whole ia drawn an integu- ment, the skin, which amverta tlie disgusting ma- t«riHl« of a diKa«cting.raum inb* an object of attraction to the sight, or one upon which it resta ot least with eaae and satisfaction. Tha more minutely that we inspect the wonka of nature, the greater eauae have we to wonder at the extraordinary perfection and beauty every where pre- valent. The mieroacope davehipes aplendours in the creatting gratification to some description of sentient creatures, perhaps so amall as to be imperceptible to our naked eye. Placing agreeableness of n^pect entirely nut of the question, thfre is another purpose answered liy the skin, .-xiiil that is concealment. Were it possible tu vii'w through this integument the mecbaHidni of our bodies, the sight would frighten a.-) much as it would disgust us. burnt we make a single movement or stir a step from the place we were in, if we saw our blond I'irculaiing, the tendons pulling, the lungs blowing, the humours filtrating, aud alt the incomprebensilile assembliige ol Abres, tubes, pnmpn, valves, currents, pivots which sustain au existence at ouce ao fraii, and HO pi-eNumptuous ? In clothing the human frame with a covering of skin, the Creator has not omitted to vary its character accoiding to local necet^sities. The skin iti n o.u beau .iC.l _., n... e 1 _ - ^1. . r __ ■ which are obrerveil to take pUce in other shells. Its tiful on the face, because the face is most t-.-cpoved to hurdneis resiKts exppiibion, and its ctniptexity ren- ders it incapable uf increasing \u size by addition of subhtnnct! to ita edge. Uow, then, was the gmwth ol the lolister to be provided for ? Waft rjom u> be made for it in the old sltt5ll, w was it to be succetsivaly tit- ted wiUi new onus ? If a change of shell beuanie ne. cesaary, how tvas the bltster to extricate himself from hia present couliuement 't how whh be to unuaae his buckler, or draw his legs out of hia b>Htth ? The pro. ceaa whiuh tishenueu have nbierved to take plane, la as follows : — At certain mhsuub, Oie shell of the lob. ator glows si>ft ; iha animal swells its body ; tbcaeams open, and the uluws burat at tba Joints. When the ehtdl has thus becttuie luos« upon tiie body, the animal makes a second elfort, aud by a UamnloKs spasmodic motion, casta it utf. In thia statu, tin* liberated but defenceless tish retires into holea in the rock. The released bmly uow suiidenly pushes ita growth. In about eight-an^l-forty boura, a fiesh cuuorethm uf hu- mour upon tiie surface, t. e. a naw alicU, ia formed, ad >d in every part ui the incraeaed dlniensiona of the animal. Thta wonderful uiutaliun ia rapntad every vear." In the changing of tho oolaur of the chameleon, w« ice one of tiie baautiful oompensatory pfoviaiona of nature. This titilu xnimal, whiult is cummim in the Kaat Indies and somo oiher Asiittiu countries, iivaa upim Hiea, beetles, or c^har insect*, which it oatchoa by climbing i.p shiults or ireaa, and darting out ita tongue; but itt> pac^ m slow, and hh insects have good eyes tt» pmoeive tha approachof an enemy, thay wouM !>• aur* im n>ake ttiMir eMMttie iu tlie present caee, un- leaa iba chumele««n aftpruacbed them in disgu((«. Thia, tb«r«liire, it tn«»r(aii|y does. As it pjiaaea among gveva leaves, »« >• <.i a green colour ; ami when It gIMee by any •>( a red or y«lb)W tinge, so does It rhahge ita hut: tw ivd or yellow. Ho ulovely does it asfturni) not only ilie shades and colfMirs, but even the shapes ol tlib leaves aiound, that a spectator might louk at tba tree for some minutea before diMwvering it. I]>l beings, and whicli would soon tie destroy ed~ir«<rattons of any one of them to h» suafnoded. ** It is imptwaiblb to contemplate so spwial aa adjoMment of o^fioaite ef- fects, without adfw rtiaif ibia VMUtilul lli^pv^9atiun ol rro\id«ace, ex!;MMHa|E uv»r ao vast a ^CMle uf being, and .'vmonstrwiTt^ tha MMty of pbiu on which the whrti system ot ot^aniaad areatlon hiisbeen devised." M^e nuid in a fnrrnei' |i»rt of this essay, liutt twop«ni- od, received into its vessels from the alimentary canal, is, during ita subsequent circulation, kept in % state uf requisite purity. This la in all cases effectcdbr bringing It, at intervals, into contiguity, either with atmospheric air alone, or with water containing thU air diflfuaed thnmgh it; when such ia the mutual ac- tion of the blood and the air upon each oihar, that tha former is purified, and passes ui general from a dljif 7 purple tu a bright scarlet colour, while the latter lada the same degree rendered impure, and after a tloto becomes inadequate to support either respiratioa or combustion. Now, whether the atfrating orgaoa be huiga or gills, it appaara to be tlie object of nature,, ia their construction, tu.expote a largeaucface to tlia con- tact of air. This object isaocaraplisluid by Uiairdivi- sion into numerous cells or leafJika pcucasaea, or bjr their exteushm on the walla of cavitiaa, or the surface of pectinated ridgea. The bliHid brought tu Uieae or- gans ia theredistributed by their terminating branohes. Although atill rataiuad in vessels, it can neverthelaaa be easily acted upon by the air on tlie exterior. friestJey found the colour of bhatd changed by tho air when enclosed in a moistened bladder, and the aame effect was observed by Hunter when it was covered with guldbeafeera' skin. Itiaauarcaly posaibletudeter- mine by direct observation what ia the exact nalurA of the changes that the blood undergoes In ita paiaoge Uirough the lungs ; the most obviuua ia ita change-of colour; and tiiechfmical differences between the dark purple blood in the veina before it has reached the lungs, and the bright veimilion colour it exhibite in the arteries after it baa circulated tlirongh the lungs, and been exposed to the influence of the air, may be collected from the changes n>ade iu the ai r itself. At- moi>pberiu air is known to consist of certain prinoiplea in dulinite proportions; when it has acted upon the biood, and is returned from the lungs, it is found that a certain proportion of oxygen wbicli tt contained has disappeared, and that the place of thia oxygenit almost whiflly supplied by anaddiiitm of carbonic add gaa atid watery vapour. For our knowledge of tiie fact of the disappearance of oxygen, we are indebted to Dr P^le^tley, the great founder of pneumatic che- mistry. It had indeed been long before suspected by A(ayow, that some portion uf the air inspired ia ad>- lorbed tiy the bt(M>d ; but the merit of the discovery that it ia the oxygenous part of the air that ia thus consumed, la unquestionably due to Dr Priestley. The exact ipiantity uf oxygen which is lust in natural re- spiration, varies in different animals, and even in dtf. ferent condttiuns of the same animal. Bird:*, for in- stance, coiisunie lai^er quantities of oxygen by their respiration, and hence require, for ttie maintenance of life, a purer air than other vertebrnted animals. Vatiquelin, however, fuund that many species of in- sects and worms possess the puwer uf abstracting oxygen from the atmosphere in a much greater degree than the larger animula; thus, snails are capable of living for a long time in the vitiated air in which a bird bad perished. Some insects which cunceal them- selves in holes, or burrow under ground, have been known to deprive the air of every appreciable portion of ita oxygen. It ii observed by Spallanzanl, that those animals wliose modes of life oblige them to re- main for u great length of time iu these confined situa- tlitus, possess this poMer in agreatardegreetban otheri which enjoy more liberty of moving in the open air : 10 udn< t-i essential agent in effecting thia chemical change . v>.- it is never found to take plaee Ht night, nor while the plant iakept in tbednrk. That the carbiHi ifsutiing from this decompositiut of oar- bonic Rcid is retained by the plant, haa be^'o most aa* tiafactorily proved by the t'xperiments 01 Sauvsure, who fonixt that thia procesa is attt-nded with a sensi- ble increase in (be quantity uf carbon which the plant had previously contitiued. " Thus, the great objeet til be answered by this vegvta'de al'ratiun," says Dr Kcget, s|ieaktng at considentlde k>ngth of this unde- niable evidence of design to which we have thnsahortly alludipd, '* ia exactly the converse of that whicli we see eflviiWHl bv the respiration of animals; iu the former, It is mtdtog carbon to ihe vegetable orgiinlsntion ; iu the taiter, it is that of riihchargiiig the superHuons quHUtity of CHibon from the animal system. On the wliole, therefore, the atmosphere is continually receiv- ing from the vegetable kingdom a large accession of oxygen, and is at the s;ime time freed from an equal puriiuu of carbonic add gaa, both of which effects tend ill CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. to Ita puriaoMtion, ftod to iM raouinluf MlApMd to th« rMplntliiii ofMilBiAla.** W« hftT* nut mush ipM* to dwoto to th« oonttm- plation of vafi»uliJ«»t but w« ut unwllllof to 1mv« th« auhjaot without ftlludiag to Mine oth«r •Ttd«ncM of dMina whivh wo Hud dtipUjrvd in them. Among thOM, nothing mora bMutiriillydomimHtratM that n«> tai«i or rothtr iho Almltthi^ Crmtiir uf ntturo, pro. Moii on ft unifurmliy of pUn and dotlgn, tbwi tho fact tbol planu u w«ll Ml onlrooli oro putimied nf Iho BOtni of rf>pn)diiclng and ooiulnulng ihelr ipccioa. Tho platil which ocouulot iho otntro iif tho flowor I* dottlnoU 1(1 p^•(llloe the loedt, whilo tho lumetii of tfio pUni CiMiulii tho duic nocewwry for fortllliinK tbomi and wlihixit which iho Modi wmild not produoo yoang plant*. Nature has Kuarded with nlcm crfm. The apparalKi tiy which ia many 6owprs it la defended fnim litjury. la rery en* rlouat nor are tho motina thai are pmrided hy which U oomoa in coinact with the atifrnia of the piitil le«a •MBonHlratire of % k^m^ * **'"** o*^^ ** honrliceni novidetive. la aoire ^lanta whore the orftana are In the aame fliiwer, the aumona are placed Hhtire the Mifma, u|Miii which the duHt* or p«ileii» falla hy ita Ovn gravity ; In othera, we rtnd the contrary ia the CMO, the pintl) heing the longvit i hut hcrr the n*iwer la gonorally drooping. To aaKi*! the emimiuii of the pol- toOf and it! vuiiuct with the stigma, in many planu the atameiia pt>Bae»a a very apparent raoring po«er. When ri^M). the t«ii aiameni o( the rutt are aeen alter- nately tn the RtiKma^ drptwtt their portion of pollen, and return to their former luwition. Tho aulks or tUanietitaof the pcHitory of the well are poaoo*PO(l of a rentarkelile elaiittcity, and ihim forcibly Matter the pollen. Thii la vary Apparent If touched by tho point of a needle; immediat«!y it acu with a jwk, which daohe* the polleu with B proaent very little ubstacle to the pustage of tho pollen, which ia secreted in much larger quantity than uiual. Various species ofiutects, and especially tho boot, are selected by nature for this purp^ne. In iho pink we obxerve numerous small Insecu creeping to and fro, and thus depositing the pollen on the stig- ma. In flowers where the stamens and pistils are on different plants, often at a considerable distance from each other, l>ees, and other flying inaecta, are pocu- 'larly accessory tn the great end of nature. Thene -•soct\, it it true, do not visit the flower for the pur- poae of scattering tho pollen ; thev only seek for the twoot juice which exudes from lu nectary. Their hairy tH>dy, which nature did not betiow without de- algit, in teen covered with pitllen, often in auch quan- tltfea an to impede the progress of the animal ( tliia, whonp^er they vitlt another flower, la rubhed against thti stigma ; and it Is a fact, no less wonderful than fialculated hi Hll us with admiration at the wiie pr(>. viiion of riauire, that many insects are peculiar to one flower, and that (Hhera, as the tiee, a ill only visit one species in each journey from Its hiv^. Tbe various methttdH which nitture employs to dis- porae the different varieties of seeds over the earth, are truly wonderful. Many planu, when the seed is fully ripOv discharge it from iu covering, with a jerk or eliiolic spring. The common oat is thrown out in thia way ; and the loud crackling of the pods of tho broom in a dry sunshinv dny, or, as Urummond has it, " luiisting veed-balifl crackling in the sun,'* is caused by thir ttursting and scattering abiut tbe con- tained seeds, and must have l>een frn|uently noticed. " Who h^t not listtnad," again atktSirJtmea Kd> wa^d Smith, " in a calm and sunny day, to ttie crack- ling (if the luree bushes, caused by the ezploiiun of their elastic little pods; or watched the down of in- numerable seeds floating on a summer breeze, ilil they aro overtaken by a shower, which, muUtening their wings, stops their farther flight, and at the tanie time aocomplikbes its flnat purpose, by immediately promot- ing the germination of each seed in the moist earth ! How little are children aware, when they blow away the seeds of the dandelion, or stick burs iu sport upon each other's clothes, that they are fultillint; one of the great ends of nature !" These downy appen- daires to nhich Sir J. K. Smith alludes, buoy up the ligtit«r seeds, as the thistles, and carry tiiem float- ing through the air to great distances i then there are tht' currents uf rivera which Itesr the seeds from one part uf the country to another; and even seas and oceans, wh(*se tides and turreuta float along the germs of vegeutiiiu u> the various regions of the gloiie. Birds, too, by feeding on particular seeds, carry tlieni to groat distances, where. Iieing often voided entire, ihoy vegetate. There Is evident design in this. Ii Id not have been by mere chance, ihat in flowers 'i^2 thoy 1 ouuld which stand eroct, the pistil Is ihnrtor than tho lU- mena, permitting tho pollen aa it falls to descend upon thoatlgmat and when tho flower Is drooping, tbMthe onntrary arrangemoitt li offectod. And surely noono will bo w> blind or bardv onongh to utert that tho mochanleal mcana, to which wo havo alluded, for tho dlaporslon of ioodi, with all tho boauty and aptitude of ita arrangcmont, was not tho rosult of dlvlno wis- dom — a wisdom which will bo atill moro apparent when we extend our viows from the power which called Into being such varioiii and boautoona exiat. oncoa, and gave the meant of distributing them over tho glotM, and consider tho laws that govern thatdli- trihuilon which wo to much admire. It is not here nut of place to remark, that thoro Is scarcely a vegetable production on which tome ipocloa of animal does not subslat; and, ffonerally apeaklng, wherever that peculiar prmluctlon is to be found, there aliio ia the animal t<> which It furnlshea wholesome fiKKl. With some striking examples of thia kind, the moat uneducated man is acquainted; he knowa that the partridge ia on the plain, the woodcock In the fo* rents, the grouse on tho moors, and the ptarmigan on tho loftiest peaks of tho mounuina. Ho knows, too, that oihrr species mlgrau from c^mntry to country, seeking their food In dlaunt regions, over trackless oceans, when It fails in thoir native haunta; and among the animal kingdom ai> univera:il ia this, aa to form an example of the wonderful adaptations which exist Ifotweon it and tho vegetable world. Vegeu* bles, like animals, are adapted to varieties of climate and temperature; and when we consider their distri. buti'in over the glot»e, we shall find that thoao which are most etsentlitl to the maintenance of man, bear a variety of climate better than miwt othera. This it the case with greens, carrota, potatoes, and many kinds of grain. Warm clinialea aro much moro fa- vourabia to vegetotton than cold. In Spltxbergen, the whole numlter of planta with conspicuout flowert, nativea of tho country, la found by botanists scarcely toeioeed thirty species ; while in tho warmer regions of the West Indies, in Madagntcar and tho coast of Coromandel. Willdennw enumerates from four to five thousand different species o( indigenous plants. Now, ohierve how admirably this dintrihution of planta C4>r- respnnds with the wants and necessities of man. The inhabitauta of warm climates generally prefer a vege- table diet ; and there we tind that kind uf food most abundant. It is impossible for a reflecting Individual to walk beside a field of growing barley, without being Im- pressed with the convictiim, that, in the economy uf this description of grain, the design of a Creator has been wonderfully manifested. An ear of barley differs from one of wheat or oati. felach of the grains is furnished with a long slender bristle or beard, which is prickly to tho touch, and seems to serve at a pro- tection to the ear. TheM bristles form a roof, if ae may so call it, to carry off the rain from the ear, and yet, by their elegant disposition, do not prevent the heat of the sun and the light from influencing the grain. And why should such be the case with barley, when the oars of wheat, oats, &c., do not possess any such protective process? Because barley Is a grain easily injured by wet, which, if not carried off, would cause the ear to sprout even while on the stalk, and, c«m»equently, be entirely useless to man. In speaking of the economy of vegetable life, It ihould not pass unnoticed that there is a remarkable instance of creative wisdom In the means which havo been arranged for the growth of nlants from pu- trescent matter. All kinds of vegetitlilf and animnl tubstances, when deprived of life, as nell an excre- mentitlout matter, have a tendency tn deiomposUion— ihat is, to renotre themselves into those elemenury gates of which they have been chiefly compt to be misunderatiNid, that the tuhiitance undergo. ing, or about to undergo, the putrifactive proceas, should l>e buried underground ; and so being there depoxited, it immediately proceeds to supply its no longer uneful ganea to the infunt plants and crops of tfrikin which flourish on the surlace. Thus do we see another striking evidence of the harmonious de- sign which every where prevails between the auimal and vegetable creation. Considering the alimentary reKimen uf the different nations of the earth, it will be clearly seen th»t a ve- getable diet Is preferred by the inhabitant* uf warm r tuntries : to them sobriety in an easy virtue and a happy consequeuce of the climate. Northern regions, on the contrary, aro voracious from instinct and ne- cf^sity. They swallow enormous quantities uf food, and piefer those substances whiih in digestion pro- ducc the most heat. Ohiiged to struggle inceiii>anily against the Action of cold, their life is but :t ontinual act uf refintanct* to external infliieuces. Let us not reproach them with voracity, and their avidity for ar- dent spirits and fermented liquor*. Thohe niition:^ which inhabit the cmitines of the habitable world, in which man is scarcely able to n-ithstnnd tlie severity uf the climute, the inhabitants of Kamuchatka, the Saraoiedes, &c live on tish, that, in the heaps in which they arc piled up, have already undergone a a>rtatn degree of putrifactive fermentation. In them there in a necessity for this Inward excitement, which in our climate wutild be inevitably ationdod with disease, and probablv death. Tho abuio of iptrltuoua llquort is fatal to the European transported to Iho burnlag cHmalo of the Woat Indies. Tho Ruislan drlnki spirltuoua liquors with a son of (mpunllf, and llvoeoa to an advanced age, amidst oxcoum under which w Inhabitant of the south of Eunipo would sink. Tho Influence of climate not only affocta alike tht regimen of man In health, but of man In iloknoMi and It haa boon justly observed of medicine, thai 1| ought to varr according to the placet In which ll !• practised. A few tubttanoet, for the most pari ob uined from the vogeuhio kingdom, lufflood to Hlp« pooratos In the treatment of diteases ; and physldani who practise In a climato tiich as Uroooo, may ImlMlf tho aimpHcity of tho father of medicine. OpiuRii bark, wine, iplrita, aromatloa, and the moat powerful cordiaN, aro, on tho other hand, the modlclnM tutted tn the inhablunts of tho north t and thus wo aro en« abled to use freely thtwe medicines which eliewher* would be attended with the utmost danger. Wo aio now prepared to undertund tho boaullfUl and wonderful harmony that oxisu t^twoen tho die* tribution of man and planu over the globo { and no one, we think, can deny their mood uf praise and a4> miration for the care and beneflcenoe thit unlvoruU adaptation thus exhibits. The frigid lono contains hut few ■pooiei of plantff and tho verdure of those countries which lie withlu tho polar circle Is confined chiefly to tho hills having a noutliern aspect, and the trees are of very diminutive growth. Besides miuses and lichena, there exiil ferns, creeping planta, and some shrulw yielding berries of an agreeable flavour. Tho arctic rogioiM of Europe are peculiarly favoured ; for in certain parte of Lapland there are fine furesis, aud even rye and leguminous plants are produced. In the high latitude* of the northern temperate sono are tbe pine and the fir, which show their adap. tation to a cold climato by retaining their verdure in the midst of tho rogiuni of winter. To iheio, aa ad- vancing southward, aucceed tbe oak, tho elm, the beech, tho lime, and other foreal*trees. Several fruit* trees, among which are the apple, the pear, the cherry, and the plum, grow better In tbe northern half of ibla xone; while to its more southern parts, otpeulally, be- long the more delicate fruits, such aa the olive, the lemon, the orange, and the fig, and, among Ireeii the cedar, the cypress, and the i»)rk. The apace comprised between the 30th and theSOtb parallels of latitude may t»e considered as the omntry of tbe vine and the mulberry. Wheat extends aa far north aa the 60th degree ; oata and barley a few de- grees farther. In the southern paru of this tone inaixo and rice are more commonly cultivated. The vegetation of the torrid lono ia oharactorlied by a wealth, a variety, and a magntficonoe, which are nowhere to be found in the regions of the ghtbo. Under tho beams of a tropical sun, the miut juloy fruits arrive at perfection ; and innumerable produc- tiont tupply the wants and adminlHter to the tuxurlee of man. There the grounds yield the ttigar-caue, the coffee-tree, the palm, the bread-tree, the pisang, the immense baobab, the date, the cocoa, the vanilla, the cinnamon, the nutmeg, the pepper, the camphur, aud numerous other fruits and aromatics. In Htiutb Arov* rica is the remarkable tree called theroiefree, whiuht when incisions are made in Its trunk, yieldi abun- dance of a glutinous and nourishing milk. The vegetable forms near the equator are In gene- ral more majestic and imposing, and the varnish of the leaves mure brilliant The largest trees are ndorned with flowers, larger, more beautiful, and more odoriferous, than those ol the herbaceous planle in our aonet and it is scarcely pt>s»ible for an Inhabi- tant of temperate regions to picture to himself the beauty and the graitdeur of the vast fore»is of equi- noctial America. Trees, which atuin a Htupendous height and size, are covered with a profusion ut climb- ing planu, which, creeping on tbe surface of the earth, reach the lops of the tiees, and pass from one another at the height of more than one hundred feel. But we must hasten to conclude our interesting sub- ject, which niiffhi, were we so inclined, extend our labours thron^li oeveral numbers of our Iniorinatloa lor the People. Illustrations of design utlglit be pro- duced from the workt of nature wiitioni end t every link in the chain of creation teema with proofs uf ii j in none cnn any one aHirni with truth that it la want- ing, (.'ur^ory as our reuiarks hue been, they Mill niuHt lead to the general conclustou that not only do- si^n, but unity of design and identity ot opeiatiou, pervade tbe works of nature, in aa t.ir as r«lat4i tu organised existei>ces ; and even among those uircuiu- Biaiices ol creation uh ch are not organic, tUeie e\eu do we tind the same unwearied labour, Itm sanm evi- dent design to render them lultservieut !■> itie wants and necesitiltes of those which are- To sevrrul ol these we have alluded, and it did not accoid wub our plan to allude to mure ; and we do think, thai titclt ll tlie innate fotie vi the evidence wu base aUdMi-ed, that no cttndid person can riso fnun the priutai uf these page*, wiihout urtbekitatingly according \iW as- sent tu our propoiitiion, tbiit '' vvitly it it> u Ood who made and rules the univune." KoiNMKtiiit I'ubti&heU by W. ana It. t'HSMsaHa, lU, Matttkm I'iitct; olw by Una anil .smitx, {'.Kcnioitt i iti'W. I.nuauii i ttid (ituHiiK Voi'Nu, Duliliii. S>»ia by Juliil MavlsuU, uia^ guw, and all oirirr U'rIU'rt. Fn>m tbt !it(«mFrvt( gf W »nd U. Chaii\b«ltt '^^^^w^\i\. iJiigj(«^i|!|ai|^jM>MUHiiMOJ«f w^ I — '-— '-'- - - ■ w-.^^>**. CHAMBERS'S 11 n\' : ;i'> ..».!.. ;-i daritandlng, aud lofty as are bis conceptions and (iMllngs, Ii still an animal. His reason may be a Hintillatlon of divine Intelligence, but it is associated with propensities or pasaions which are little, if at all, •nperlor to those which characterise tlie brute and other species of animals, and which, if not kept In due sulijectlon, weigh him down below the dignity of human nature. A thing so remarkable as the human understand- Ing, and the manner In which it operates, could nut fail, long ere now, to attract the attention aud em- ploy the searching Investigations of men endowed with •uperior degrees of intelligence. Nor can there be any doubt of the utility of making such Inquiries. If the faculties be liable to Improvement, as they cer> tainly are, it becomes a duty to make ourselves ac- quainted w ith their nature and properties, for purposes of cuUivHtion. The more that we can instnict our- selves In what composes the various animal, mora), and intellectual powers, the better BhoII we adapt our- selves to the circumstances in which we are placed, and the more happy shall we become. The detire to think, to reason on the understanding, la implanted in the soul of man ; and the rudi'st ns well an the most profound speculations are alike proofs that this desire cannot be extinguished, that this anzimiK feeling can. not be lulled into apathy. Unfortunately for the world, the desire to renpuii on the nature uf mind, and the feelings which influence itfl operations, bavein nu>8t Instances, both in ancient and modern limes, taker, a direction the oppo^ite of practical utility. Instead o{ endeavouring to convey au outline of the propeiiiitles and fnctiltlen, so that those which were discovered as having a tendency to evil mi^ht he denressed, and thuio whioh bad a tendency to good k. light W more fully developed by culture, tfauhets itnd writeix of piiilosophy liave proceeded in the must wild and pnifiilesn renearches intu the cau!ies of universal crea- tlun, the nature of the son), and its Hllinnre with spiritual csspnces. They have a-ked, What it time, •puce, cnuse, effect ? What is triilh, justice ? MMmi Is necesHJty ? How do we know any thing? ('an weknuw at, thing P Millions of thi>n{jhts and words, and thounaiUB uf volumes, have l>een spent in theo- rlstog npun l' ese abstract i|n(-stion«, and at the end of thoufiind.t i ^ years mankind are ubviuuKly not the wiser. Tliey i.t present know as little of ttic pieclne nature of the soul, i>f time, space, caune, I'lfui't, and eternity, as they did live hundred years hefuru the CbriBtiau era. It Is our object, in the artiele now before im, to give a succinct vunv uf what ii-m thn^ been dune in exposition of the human mind, and ni what Ktill leuiuiiiB to be ticcoatpiishid, in the way til Iniproieriivnt. thvf<«tjgatinns intu the nature uf mind and u'ti- mate rituxps nre UMiiilly iiirlniied nnder the term Afrliiiihi/iim — u (Jreek f(m>p'>und; ^i^tlifyi^^: oftcr, or ffyofui physic!!, the hiltei' heing ilie oltservMiio i oi' materinl nature. Such ah^tiact investi^'aiiouH jxm like, wise iudicattd by the term VhUoi'ipUy^ anciher (Jtrek ouropound, traced to Pythagorai, a Grecian, who refused the title tophotj wise, as loo assuming, and contented himself with the more modest appellation of phiio-Mophott which means, a friend or lover of wisdom. The title of PhitoMopher was hence applied to men eminent for wisdom, and hence also the term Philosophy. In later times, for the sake of distinc- tion, the kind of investigations we are speaking of have been frequently comprehended under the appel- lation Moral Philotophjfy while investigations Into physical and mathematicHl science were designated Xatural Philosophy. Moral philosophy or metaphy- sics, therefore, means the science of mind. Yet there Is something excessively vague In all that pertains tu the definitions respecting philosophy, at least there is a great poverty in the nomenclature. Metaphy- sics, for instance, has been said to signify the (tcience of the I'Uimate causes of all being; while the term Ethics has lieen applied to the science of the moral nature and destiny of man. In this sen^e, religion may be described as a system of ethics, though that ii by no means a correct phrase when applied to Christianity. Again, in modern tlme^, philosophy — that i^, moral philosophy — has been divided into theo- retical and practical. The theoretical philosophy was (unKtdered to have for its object the investigation of the highest truths respecting God, the world, nature, and mind; the practical, their application. Some call theoretical philosophy the explanatory or Illus- trative philosophy, as It has for its object that which exists without our aid, and Is the subject uf our know- ledge; while they term practical philosophy the im- perative or preceptive, as it gives precepts of human action. Further, the term ^^tthetics (signifying p^r- ception)hu been applied to that branch of phtlosuphy which treats uf the beautiful aud the various applica- tions of its principles. Finally, philosophy has In the above manner been divided, with reference to the three highest ideas of man — the ideas of the true, uf the good, aud of the beautiful — into the theoretical, practical, aud lestheticaL ANCIENT ni/LOSOPlIY. The history of philosophy Is oommnnly divided into the ancient, middle, and modern. The first period be- gins with thu (ircek, because, thr)ii':h the disposition to philosophise is confined to no particular nation, but is inherent in all, so that every tribe forms philoFophlcal notions as toon as Its religious conceptions pass over into reflection, and its feelings into doubt, yet phihi- sophy was first studied scientifically by the Greeks. This was }he earliest known demonstration of the free striving of reason for the knowledge of the ulti- mate causes uf nntural phenomeim, and carries within it the germs of uU the subsequent philosophies, Fr im the time of TIihIus, six hundred years before Christ, for a period of from four to five hundred yeartt, there (lonribhed a Siirles of philusopherfl, Pythagnras, So. crates, Pltito, Ari-«tutle, Zeno, Ei'icnrus, &c., allot whom prupunntled their uwn theu'ies, less or mure pe- culiar, regarding mind, and the denttny of man. P^nrh taught bis uwn ductrines to pupils, and their several systems hence received the Bp)ieltutiou uf tchuols. IMiiloiiophy orSocratra. Socrates (about 42'2 B.C.) may he considered as h.Hving been the most profound uf the Oreciiiri phllo. sopherK, and his doctrine.i as the must excellent. He nppo!(ed tlie nutiuns of n cU^s called Sophists, whose tlipories threatened to dettri-y niurti prinrijle. He gave pliilo'^uphy qtiUe a new diieciun. Iliiving been deeply irn|lre^^^'d hy the i:'Rcripfinri on the temple of Apullu, at I)el|>lii, " Knuw thyself/' he be^an toshtdy hi.> u«n nature, m reflect upim the I'hennmena of his own iTiiiid, and toniediiate on the destiny of mimkind. aiul ilt'U'rrniiu-iI to devitte Uh life tu insirueting Iiim fillu'.' •. tti/oiib ill their highebt guiKl. tt;, nmking iboni wise, hniiest, and pinuii. Ail tlie fJrt'riiin philojopbies sink inti) insignitit'anre nhpii (\im,iui*('d witli ilmt uf Sm-iatos, wli.tse m!ir:i! teachin;; I'h. 'cs him in a rank which f.ir trdnsrenda that of mere theorists on cause and effect. The at- tention of Socrates wai directed to practical philoso- phy, whioh had been previously neglected, and, ac- cording to Aristotle, he was the first to lay down ge- neral precepts of morality. In this view, it may well be laid that hebrmight pbilusopbydown from heaven to the abodes of men. All bis inquiries took a prac- tical turn, aud he valued speculation and theory only as connected with practice; fur the end of all know- ledge, he affirmed. Is virtue. He was fully convinced of the existence of an all-ruling, almighty, wise, good, omniscient, and Invisible being. The system of na- ture, and especially the admirable structure of the human frame, seemed to bim a positive proof of a Creator ; and as man is capable ot thought, the same power, he argued, must exist in a still higher degree in the author of reason. The existence of the Deity is as little to be doubted because ha Is neither visible nor tangible, as the existence of powers conoealed from the senses, but kn.'twn from their effecu. He esteemed it rath to specilate upon the substance of this lofty being, and deeued it sufficient to set In a clear light his spiritual nature. It is evident that be worshipped one Oud, as the Creator of the world and the Judge uf maukind, because Xenophon represeats him as speaking expressly, several times, of one God only, although in other places he speaks uf gods, which he seems to have regarded as subordinate to the Supreme Being. To the good pruvldence uf that Ood he traced all human hleasings, and maintained that the omniscient and omnipresent Pelty knows every thing, and uliserves all the secret thou^jbts and actions of men. For this reason, he esteemed It s sacred duty for men to worship him with all their powers, complying, indeed, with the forms of religious service prescribed hy the customs or laws of their country, but particularly striving to do his will in all things. Socrates entertained no less elevated ideas concerning the human soul. He cunsidered it certain that it is of divine origin, wholly distinct from every thing material, and connected with the Heity by rea- son and the power of thought. He did not deny th« difference between It and the divine nature, but main- tained that exercise and cultivation would improve the spiritual principle in man. To this cultivation he es- horted his hearers and friends with a gudlike zeal. He declared the improvement of the mind to Iio the highest good of which man is capable. As tho chief means, he recommended self.knuwledge, and he esteemed thuse as consummately fuulish who knew every thing hut themselves. Socrates distinguished, also, a senhible and a reasonable »oul. Of the immor- tality uf the 84>ul he was firmly convinced. This doc- trine beinTerred from itpu8iti')ri tbat the soul gives life tu the body ; frumtlic phenomena of dreaming ; fri-m :he opinion of former ages, and from the nature of tite Divine Being from whom tlie soul proceeds. Hence be vIo^ved de»th t'> the potiA as merely a transition to a better life, and fipfike uf his hupes with airecting certainty and adml- rablu clearnesi*. His puie 9onl was enraptured with the tliunght o( meeting the virtuous men uf earlier ages. He feared nut to litand before the hi>!y Jud^^e of the wurld ; and, in the regiuiix of the h!e-sed, he hoped to tiiid unmingled hapijine-Js, with the cunsfi- uu£ne«s of iKiving htboiired after truth and Mtrn.,'(;!ed for virtue. The im.iges and terms by which he de- scrilies the wretchedness of the viciuus iiro terrible. Suuls which have hecrtme diseased by wifkeiliiess, co- vered, as it were, with stsins and uh'ers, in eon^e- qiienceuf tlicir liceiitiuusness, utrcmiuacy, oruiihiwful desires, and stamped with the hHteftil impress uf per- jurvand Injiisiire, are [ibnii^-ed into Hbrnles of p;iin, tu lie reft)rm''d hy punishment, ur to serve ri.iiex'im pies to utliers. This account uf the effect uf vieo o\i the Huhstanre of ilie fon), thung!i alt plainly symholicHl, Fiirp;i8S(>d, in fe:irfiit distinctness, nit th it li id been (t:tid on the subject, Socrates fuuuded Ins morality on hii religion. G)d withes men to be virtnnis, and CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. tll«wfnr« they »br the ReniieA hedpolired to lie the hi({hp«t gtate (>l frefdmn : he snid thnt virtue only wan tnie wis. 4am. and that vice waa •laanlty. UaeshlhiiMl nnraffu- lar iiy«ti*m of iniTalu j tmt tliii« prim i|de may he cmiH- dered(iBly!nnatihefniim)(iiiiinoflil»vifwP"l mnrality i Di» whiit f he Deity commandii thee. The true interpre- ter vernment he regarded «B the haniii nf all other virtuea, which, hy ita aid, will unfold theniMlvei from the prumpttnga of the moral luiture, and the increasing knowledge of good. The l>eneHriHl tnfluenre of this virtue he deicrihei with a genuine Inxptration, and drawa a frightful pic- tore of excesi. Hti repnnentiition uf a Junt man, 6ne who faithfully performs all hisdutlea to Uod and man, b highly interesting. Injuntiue he held to be a great •ril. He declared that ju»tii'e was due even towards •nemien ; and that a man should never traniigresa the laws of hii country, however unjustly they might be adminiaiereii. Hia views of friendohip, society, con- jugal Htfetition, and the pleasures of life, were frxoel- leut. Ilemainuined in every thing the golden mean. All hii precepts wert' cqual'y Torauved (roin excessive rigour and pernicious Inxness t and whoever fotluwH them will he a gotid man. To his precepty was added hi« example, a« superior to all reproach, that Xeno- phon, his friend and dikciple, in his Meaiorabilia, tays none ever saw him perform a vicious or unworthy ac. tfon. There mn ho no fiuerttion thut SncruteiwsH the most fAultless nf all the great mt*n in tinciifnt times. The principal error into which he appears to have fal- len, arose from his enthusiasm in the pursuit of » pure philii!io{ihy ; be believed himself to Ite an itmhatiittdoi •mt hy (iod, and that divine revelations were made to him l>y a geniiin, which always invislhly atteuileil him. SiKratex, like many henefactors to nmiikinrl, was ill rewarded for his valuable admonitions. He waa faloely charged with denying the ancient divinities of the »tate, and of corrupting the youth, and, thnmgh the intluence of the populuce, wus condemned to die l>y drinking poison, a fnte to which he submitted with ex- traordinary magnanimity. Among his ninst distin- guished df>ciple« were Alcihiaden, Crito, Xenophuti, Antiaiheuea, Aristippus, i'hiediin, vf^tcbinrs, Oehe*, Euclid, attd Plato. The sBgacious and pliilanthropic pmpOAitions of Socrates were aftenvards reduced lu a lysteru by his pr.pil Plato, the founder of the academic school; and this philosophic sy«tpm was fully deve< loptd by AH»iotle, the founder of the peripatetic •cnool. Plato was distinguished for the warmth and rlvidni-sD of his conceptnms; Aristotle aimed at cotil and patient rellectton on the nature of things. Hy the tide of the pchools of Plato and Aristotle, the t^toic •cbool, founded by Zeno, and the £picurean, jilaced them&elves in opposition. Philo*oi>hy of 7eno. According to Z^no, philosophy it the way to wis. •om ; wisdom itself is the knowledge of human and JIvine things ; and virtue is the applicution uf wisdom to life. The chief ht*ad« of his doctrine— loi{ir, phy- sics, and moraln— were umnected into a systematic whole. In ■' >gic, wliiih lie detiui-d the science of difl> tinguiihing truth and fuUe^ood, he made experience the basis of ?tll knowledge ; ideas, or conceptions, which in all respects resemble thetr objects, he called tnie, and the power of judging according to principlei, the mark of a sound reason. In his phynics, he refer* to nature itnelf for the highest standard of human du> ties, and derives the moral precepts from the laws of the universe. He assumes two uncreated and eter- nal, but material principles uf all things— the passive matter, and the active intelligence, or Uod, which re- stdrk in matter, and animates it. The I^eity is the original intelligence, and of an ethereal fiery nsture : he made the world, as an organic whole, out uf matter and form, hy the separation of the elements ; and he ako rules the wnrld, hut is limited in his operaiiona by unchangeable fate or the necevsary laws uf nature. The univeri>e, according tu Zeno, !i penetrated by the divine intelli(;ence as hy a >o\il, and is therefore liT> ing and rational, but de«tin«>l to be destroyed by 6ro. He considers the heavenly bodies, and the powera nf nature, uf a tiivine character, and therefore admits the worship of several gods, and teaches that their onmectioit with men may he l>ene(icial to the latter. The human soul he comiiders at produced by the union agrreal>te. They call human actions honest, when they have a reasonable foundation in tlie nature of the ageitt 1 perfectly proper, and therefore obligatory, wlien gn, temperance, seclusion from political af- fairs, gentleness, forbi'avance towards the self-love of men, hrmnesa of soul, the enjoyment of decent plea< sures (so far as it does uot incapacitate ui for new pleasuies), and contempt of life. Freedom from pain he regarded as desirable, hut, at the same time, he hore with fortitude the most excruciating pains of lM>dy. Although he distinctly showed the meaning uf his doctrines hy his own exemplary life (which some, however, charged with pride and envy), yet tiiey have l>een uften misunderstood or misrepreaent«d. Ilia doctrine of the origin of the universe, borrowed from Uemocritus, is atornical and material. Proceed. ing upiM) the axiom, tlint mthing can be produced from nothing heasnuroeti > necessary, eternul, and iitfniite lirst causes — spat, .nd atoms, or indivisihlu bodies, arranged In cudleKs variety. These atoms, hy virttie of their natural gravity, moved in spare, and mingled with one another, lo make the union pos> sible, he supposed them to move, uot in straight, but in curved lines, lly these motions, they crossed and hit each other in all possible ways ; and from their numherless combinations and Intervulutlc is, aiuis had no other qualities than hgurr and gravity, they produced, when combined in bodies, the variuut qua- lities that aifect the sense", as colour, sound, smell, &.C lie further taught, that as all things arose from the union of atoms, so all things wilt tie again de. stroyed hy their tlir,soiution I that there are multitudes of worlds, formed by chance, which are continually riting and falling. The world, as it has had a begin- ning, must have au end ; and out of its ruins a new one will be formed. He found no difference between men and brutes, and ascrihed the origin of tlie loul to the same material process above described. The gods, he thought, liveo lo eternal tranquillity, unconcerned about the world. This doctrine, which was uot un- jiiiily charged with atheism and materialism, drew upon him much opposition and calumny. He lived to the Hge of 7'A dying 270 years before the Christian era. Tue philuMtphy uf bpicurus, with much to C(ni> damn u conjectural and ridiculous, has, it will be noiiced, several good points, and these certainly have huen misunderstood. It has Ijeen supposed that it was the principle of the Epicureans to indulge in sen. Bual gratifications, at whatever risk of after.pain ur misery; whereas it is clear that Epicurus never taught so short-sighted a doctrine. Plato and Aristotle. We learn from the philosophical writings of Plato, that he was inspired with the most lufty and glowing desire to show the connection of the human suul with nhat he terras tl^e original fountain of light and per- fection I we see the conceptions of a mind to which ; the greatest eartiily good appeared to be the union of kiniired hnuls in ibe luveand xealous search for truth — the PlatoD u love; of a mind which conceived the human toul tu cuatain, In its present lUce of lost peiw faction, all the germs of regenerati.in. Plato (trst intmduced the word uUa into phil>>Miphy, huthia doc- trine upon this subject had sumewhiu peculiar. He agreed with the i«»t of the ancient i» ine believed that there are eternal forms of all pooKiblo things which exist, withiiut matter ; and to these eternal and immaurial forms he gave the name uf ifUa§ ; main* taining that they are the only ohject of ti nu know. ledge. It is of no great moment to us whether hfl borrowed these luitions from pHrnieiiid<>s, or whether they were the isiue (if his own creative iniHginution. TIte later Platonists seem to have iinprovtid upim them, in conceiving tbohe ideas, or eternal forms nf things, tca, and other distinguished Kumans ; and among tliem they suffered stiil farther injury from the contests, or wars of opinion and wuriliy uf the sceptics and do^niHtists, (ireciau philunophy rallied, and t"uk new lornis at Alexandrif), in Egypt, where an attempt was tnade to reciuicile the Platonic philosophy with the Jewish Scriptures. After the promulgation of Christianity, a mixed system of ethics was similarly put together, entitled the Eclectic Phl- liMophy, which Was an attempt tuconiluue the iheorlei of the Orecians aud the Jews with the duutriuee of the Christians. THE SCIIOLA«ITIC Fltll.OSOFlIY. After this period, we hear no more uf philosophy till It was taken up by a class of men who arose tn the middle ages, and have since received trm appella- tion of Scholastics, or Schn«ilmen. The name Schulas- tic Philosophy is derived from the circumstance thatJt originated in the schools instituted hy Clwirlemagno for the education of the clergy. The philosophy therein taught consintrd In a collection of |oi;iriil rules and metaphysical notions, drawn from ilie l.ntin commsn* tatrrs on Aristotle. These, under the name uf Dia- lectics, composed the theitreticul pbihl^4lphy, which had the defence of the dogmas of the church for its primary i>hjert. It is almost needless to add, that tbo srhemc of nature In connection with the intelltctual faculties, and the deductions therefrom, as propmindf d or cumpimnded by the Scholusiica, has met with the same ublivion, so far as piacticnl utility i:* concerned, which attended the theories of the Giectan sages aud their Roman fuUowers. MODERN I-llIIOSOniY. The pbtlosnphy of tlie schmils sank in the fifteenth century, and then arose a third or modern period of philosophic iuvestigntlon. A free and more indepena dent miMJe uf Inquiring aud penetrating deeper and deeper into ultimata causes nuw commenc«id. The httraan mind was let loose upon itself. Some reastmed from the results uf experience; fume took the con- sciinisness of thought and existence as the fmindation of their philosophy; many douhtfd every thing; and some went the length of attempting to prove that both mind and matter were equally imaginary — that good aud evil were purely ideal. DnoartM. Among those who in this manner cjtme forward to establish new schools of pbiloM>phy, none became so conspicuous an Descdrtes, a Frenchman fborn 15U0, died lfl50), whodid much to give metaphy ^al inquiry a new dtrectiuii, and whofe theories tu e generally received the appellation of the i'artesi a system uf philosophy. Descartes founds his hell i of the cftis- tence of a thinking being on the c isciousness of thought : " I think, therefore I exli ' {coyito, ergo turn). He developed his syf«tem with much ingenuity, in oppiMition to the empiric philosophy of the English and die Aristotelian Scholastics, and adopted the ri- gorous, systematic, or mathematical method of reason- ing. From his system originated the notion amadti it in th« id«i of kn iibtohitely p«rfMt b«int(." >1« pUcrd hC th« IimhI of hia lyatvtn tb* idea of Hn atitoliititly purfaec b«irif(, which he eon- ■irfer* M mi Jtinata ldt«, iind deduoM from it ali fir. thar kn()wl«dK« of tnith. Tb« prliieipiil problsmi of nwMphyaiiu lie ounoalvcd to be •ubitMitiellty and OMumlity. Hacontribuivd greatly In the edrenoemeot of m ■them Kl Irk ftitd phytlct. He mwle uae of the dli. ooreriei and obaervationi of otbert, deAninir them m- c«r«te>y, end Milgnlng ihem the'? plioe In hIa tvetem. The higher depurtmeiite of f •meiry (to whtoh he luoceiafiilly applied enalyaii), .ti well ea opttit, diop. trlca, and mechtmlct, were ffrestly extended by him, their melhitd elmpllAedt end thereby the way preparad lor tb« freat diiuorariea made in the MiawMa by New* lOD and Leibnlta. Splnon. The propnaltloni of Deacartei met with sp|irnT%l In 'Ijfferent paria of Europe, and wrre at firat fuHowed by none more zenlouily than Banich Hplnnsai who wni born ill 1UA2 at Amiterdam, of a Jewlah Portngneae fionlly, and fsrly giive proofaofa reflecting mind and an independent spirit. UecomlngdliiRatlflffed with the inatrnctlima of hia Jtiwlah teuchera, Spinma atmght out nevr doctrlnen, and for this met with no small de* free of peneciition, lie nevertheleRR, In ftillowlnga uroblu profeiaitm, piirntied his philoAnphlcal lnreatlga< tiona, and putillshfd hia thenrlen cnncvrnlng the con- ueotlonofmlnd with matter. Thedoctrlnwof Splnuaa are loabatrn^eaa to be beyond our comprebenaion, and we must refer to hfa works for a perfect knowledge of hli lyitem. lie seems to hure felt, like erery other phi- loiopher, the lonKing to elevate himself to a point at which the atniggle between matter and mind, liberty and necessity, &c. ta done away, and all discord ceaaei. This led him to the Idea of an original iubstanoe em- bracing all ext&tence. Substance, of course, In this sense, means something Tery different from what weuMtally understand by the word. This original substance, In which all contradictions cease, and all siibjecta of finite consciouBnee him eapabie of a change of nature, or that there exists a nature different from bis own. Thought and extension, apirit and matter, the finite and inlinite, motion and repose, good and evil, cauaea and eftects, are attributes of this a<.le sub- stance, which prmluces nothing but modifications of Itself. All that exists is only a necessary succession of modes of being in a substance fur erer the same. Such is someihin^ like the idea which he endeavoured to Illustrate and establish, which It will be aUnn ed is by no means intt'lligible, or consistent with observa- tion and exiH*ri(Mioe. His extravagant theories, which have been calLd Spinotiam, are now considered to be synonymous with atheism. Spinnca also wrote a po- litical and theological tieatise, which does not come under our notice, and is only mentioned from Its con- taining the proposition, "that freedom of thought can exiht without endangering the public peace and rirtup, but -lat it muft necessarily stand or fall with ii." >ipinnza died in 1677, before which period phi- losophical iiKiutry had considerably advanced In this couutry, ENGLISH PIllLOSOFHr. Dicon. Bfodern philosophy in Knglaud is dated from Bacon, who nourished at the I'eginning of the seveuteenth centnrv, and was thus coeval with Deiic.irteN. In his J^'ovum Oryitnum, puliliohed in Iti'JO, he takes a path directly oppodite to that universally folluwed in his time; and iuKtend of appealing by dialectics to the notions of thtt undersUuding, he attempts to restore knowledge by the aid of ohnervatiuii through indue tiun. He was not the founder of a sect ; he did not deliver opinions; tie taught no modes of philosophis- ing; he did nut attempt to discover new principlex, but to render observation and experience the predo- minant cliaracter of philosophy. His servit^HConaist in his deilironing schula&tiu ttieorema, directing the attentiiin to iiaiure atid observation, and rejecting final Cttusea from phyoical inquiries. Uucon wart friendiv to the culture of tlie human faculties, and his untiouk fnanling civil Boiiety and govornroent were whHt wtMi'it now be tcTUied liberal Mia observations on the L(>v^ ipf memory and imaginaiiun are consi- dered to tie among the best of his writings on the na- ture of mind. Ilobbss. Thomas Hohbes, born In the latter part of the six- teentl) cftitury, tthd ttie friend ut liacon, was the next tn )iri>poiMid his theoiien respecting the nature of tlie huniHU uh iHVN dovu tliu pi ei'iHH laws ivhicti regulate minit lu » UHV lint 111 he dinttut*'d. He uas a dog. miitift, Hiitt ill** Iituiiiler t»t' the oenitniit school of phi- loMiptiv. Itni-oii was tlie tVifud, Hoby nir)tion ; IhuugliiH are rep-.eientalioiis of Uie qualities uf bodies 3jd without us t the oauee of sense Is thu pressure of the exlornal object on the orffan of sense t what we call i«ntibi0 ((ualities are nothing but mmtou in us; ima- gination is nothing but decaying aense, and under, aundiug ii Imagluatiim raised by words or other voluntary signs. Besides eense and thought, and train of thoughts, the mind has no other motion. Whatever we Imagine is infinit«; therefore there is no Idea of any thing Infialta. Reasoning Is nothing but reckoning 1 that Is, adding or subtracting. The passions are internal voluntary motiuns ; when appe- lites and aversions, hopes and fears, arise alternately about the same thing, the whole sum of these mutlons is deliberation ; and the lost appetite or aversion in deliberation is will, not the faculty, but the act of willing." This may be exceedingly excellent, but we are oompelled tn oonfesa that it is beyond our compre- hension. Ulr James Mackintosh, in his Invaluable Treatise on Unffllsh Philosophy (DisMrution Second, EnoyclopBdia Brit. vol. 1. new edit.) thus speaks of Hubiws's confusion of the principle oSihoui/ht and/e«J. ingt.^** The multlulloiiy of errors which have fluwed into moral science from this original uonfuslon. Is very great. They have spread over many schools of phi- IfMophy, and many of them are prevalent at this day. Henoe the laws of the understanding have been ap- plied to the affections; virtuous feelings have been con- sidered as just reasonings; evil passion! represented as nivtaken judgments ; and it has been laid down as a principle, that tho will always foiluws the last deol- siou of tho practical intellect. By this great error, Hobbes was led to represent all the variety of the deiiires of men, as being only so many instances of olijects deliberately and solely pursued; because they wero tlie means, and at the time perceived to be so, of directly or indirectly procuring organic grati- fication to the individusL Tho human passions are described as if they reasoned accurately, deliberated coiilly, and ooloulated exactly. It is assumed that, in performing these operations, there Is and can be no act of life in which a man does not bring distinctly be- fore his eyes the pleasure which is to accrue to him- self from the act. From this single and simple prin- ciple, all human conduct may, according to him, be explained, and even foretold. Alany besides him have really repreaenied ie//as the ultimate utiject ol every action ; but none ever so hardily thrust f he the immediate objects about whit^ti the mind is employed in thinking. Having (rented at length ol the origin, nature, anil qualities ot idens, he proceeds tucunsidi-r the iiisiruuiem hy which men communicate their ide is to each other; and his renmrks un this subject (Uook lii., of Language) form the mnp- tiou of the agreement or diiagreemenl of ideas t de- monstrative knowledge is the discovery of It by tha intermediation of other Ideas i and these two sorttl of knowledge yield oomplvte certainty. Hansltlw knowledge lewis tu the belief o( the exisUnoa tf other beings, and carries with It a reasonable oooAb dcnce. Judgment Is a supposition or opinion of iW agreement or disagreement uf ideaa, and supplies th« waut of knowledge. Its conclusions are only prob^ lile. By thus making experience, or the convlctioA of our senses, the basis of our knowledge, both of inln4 and matter, Locke has been called an empiric or qtiaok in the schools of philosophy; and bis system was keenly opposed by Leiimitx, Hume, and others. It would appear that Locke had it less in view to extend our knowledge of the nature of the mind than to make us stuisiblehuwliltlewepoBsibly can know. lie expresses his desire " to prevail with the busy mind uf niaii to be oauiloua In meddling with things exceeding Its comprehension; tu stop when It Is at the utmost ex- tent of its tether I and to sit down In quiet ignorano» of ihiwe things, which, upon examination, are found to be beyimd the reach of our capacities." He con* tinues in a strain which it would have been oreditabW to the common sense of philosophers had thoy duly ra* garded. " My right hand writes, whilst iny left hand is still. What causes rest In one and motion In the other ? Nothing but my will, ur thought of my mind ( my thought only chanK<>ig, my right liand rests, and the left hand moves. This ii matter qf fad, uhkheat^ not be denied. Explain this, and make it intelllgibls^ and then the next step will be to understand creation, In the meantime, It ia '\n overvaluing our- selves, to reduce all to the narrow measure of our ea* pocities; and to cmiclude all things impossible tu b% done, whose manner of doing exceeds our comprehen* "ion If you do not understand the operations of your own finite mind, that thinking thing withia you, do not deem it strange that you cannot oomprft» fiend thateternal infinite mind, who made and governs all things, and whom the heaven of heavens cannol contain." W ) aever may be said of the empiricism of Locke, it is a< knowledged by all that he was an aouC* thinker, and liiHlabuura, asdemunstruted in his Essay on the Hnmitn Understanding, which was nineteen years In preparing, wilt always be acknowledgad with gratitude in the history of philosophy; but aft the same time it must bo remembered, that, In aW tempting to analyse the human soul, as an anatomlik proceeds in investigating a iHKly piece by piece, and to derive all ideas from experience, he has unintan* tionally supported materialism. His declaration, that (iiKl, by hia omnipotence, can make matter cap^la af thinking, has been couaidered dangerous in a religioua point oi view. Shaftesbury. During the period in which X«ocke floarlshed, Eng- lish ethical philosophy was considerably advanced by Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of ShBf(eHt)uryy whose writings appeared between the years I7OU and 1713, when he died. In the last-mentioned year, his cullected works wei e published, under the title -)f Cha* ntcteristicn of Men, JMiinner?, Opinions, and Timet. The attention of Shaftesbury was directed principally tu the writings of antiquity, on which he b liltacivil, social, and theistic kindof philosuphy ; one of hix chief aims seems to have been to writ* elegantly and neatly, and he often indulges in a vein of humour alU)gether at variance with sound reasoning. Aouording to tho opinion of one who, it will be allowed, was well able to judge in matters of this nature — the latn Sir Jamea Alackintush — Shaftesbury's " Inquiry Concerning Virtue" is entitled to a place iu the first runk ot Kogw lisii tracts on moral phihisophy. *' Among the most important ofShafte9bury'B8ugge8tion«(9HV!> Sir J umee, in his already quoted disserUtion, Encyciopiedia Bri- tannica, vol. i., uuw edition, which we hertj take tha opportunity of recommending tu perusal), is, that guiidness consists in the prevalence uf li-ve tor the system of which we are a part, over the pattsions, pointing to our individual wellare ; a prupuisiuon v.'hich somewhat cuufuunds the motives of ri^^ht acts with their tendency, and seems tu lavouj- the melt- ing of all particular affections into general benevo- lence, because the tendency of these atfections ia to general guud. The next, and certainly the 7r>mt original, uh well as important, is, that there are cer- tain alTei lions ol the mind, which, being contemplated liy the mind ititelf through what he calls a rejiex aenat^ liocoine the uijects of love, or the contrary, accord- ing tu their nature. So approved and loved, they coubtitutu virtue ur meritf as distinguinl.ed from mera goodness, ot which there are traces in animals who do not appear to rejiect on the state of their own minds, and who seem tlierefure destitute uf what heelsewhera calls a mural sense. . . . It should never be forgotten that we owe to these hints the reception into eLbioal philo8(>phy of a moral sense, which, whatever may ba thought of its origin, or in whatever words it may ba (loscriUed, nmvt always retain its place iuhuih theory as a main principle uf our moral nature. His da** monstration of the utility of virtue to the individual tar surpLHses all attempts uf the same nature, being loiitided, nut un a calculation of outward advantagaa or inconveniences, alike uncertain, precarious, and degrading, hut on the uufihaken fuundatiun of tb<^ delight, which ia the very esaeuce ul social ulleaion and virtuous sentiment; on the dreudful agony in- tliuted by uU malevolent p.issiuns, upon every' soul that harbours the heilish inmates ; on the atl-iuiporW I ii CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. «nt tritth, that ti> love li lo be happy, and m liate U to \m mU«rabU-_that affwilon U lu ..wii reward, and III will it! own piiniihmrnt t or, ai It ban bren mnrv limply and fni*r« affpctlnttly, ai well m with more Mcred anthnrhy, tHiight, thiit to give U more (•h'licd than to rirelve, and (hat to love one another li the turn of all human rlrtiie. The relHtlon of retlginn to morality, ai fur ai It can be diai'overed by htimnn reaaon, wm never mor^ Jimtly or more heuiitirully itated. If he rrpreiented the mere hope of reward and drend of puiti«hnieiit n» letAih. and therafore In- ferior modvei to virtue and piety, he distinctly own* their efticiioy in recUimln^ from vire, In roiiking from lethartty, and In gnnrdinff a feelpli* penltenre ; In all which he rolneldft with llTiiiitrioiiiand leHloiia Chili, tian writerB.*' Yet, according to Hhaftenbury, "if by the hope of reward be underitord the love and d(>* •tie of vtrtu remy Taylor, when he layi, In hii Sermon on (irnwth in Oracp, "he that U erown In grace purauei virtue purely and simply for Un own interest. When per- inni r>me to that height uf grace, and love Oi>d for himtell', thnt Ir but heaven In another HenHe." Sbaftes- bury*s rharacteristlci wf re recc'vitt with enthiiaiattic fihvuur hy Ldhniti, tlie Oerman pb'losnpher. Bcikley. The tenanalism or maierialiim of Locke led Berk* ley (wlio flunriihed during Queen Anne'a reign, and «'»■ bithop of ('loyne in Ireland) to form » peculiar theory regarding ideas, llii Theory of Viiion, which ii reciioiied the moat valuable part ul hli Ubouri, wan the lint expokitiou of ttie oilference Iwtween the ori- ginal Hud acquired prrreptlona of the eyr. ami now furmr an etiteutml part of the science of optics. Iterk- Iry was an i>xi-t-t>dingly aniiMlil't nmn, and ple^taut writer; but bis idt>iu abotit ideas chu only now Im considfied un amusing absurdity. Iltt maintuins that the twliff ill the existence of an exierinr m ittiriul world is faixu and ini'i>ii»istetit with itseli t th->t ilui^e things wbiih lire Cdlied sensible materiM olj**! tt arc not vxtern:il, but exi»t in tlif niitul, and nre niotfly iniprrsnions miile »t\ our minds by tht; iuinu-diatt! act of God, arcoiding to certitin rules, tcrnu-tl laws of nature, from whicit bo never deviates ; and that tht* ■teady adherence of the Supreme Spirit to those rulfs is what constitutes the reality of things to his crea- tures. Jt is very didicult to understand what the philvjsopher means by this denUl nf the existence of matter i, he is more inielligible when he tells us, *' that the end to which (iod refjuirei the concurrence of human actions mn^t ht carried on hy the observation of certain determinate and universal rulea or moral precepts, which in their own nature have a nece»Nary tendency to promote the well-being of mankind, tak- ing in all nations and ag^s, from the beginning to the end of the world." Hume. The visionary Ideas of Berkley brought David Hume forward to combat the whole system of L>icke and his followers. Alwut the year 17*1H, he published his Treatise of Human Nature, which was an attack un all the principles of knowledge and belief. Dis- carding experience and observation as utterly futile, he proved w his own satisfaction, and perhaps that of many others, that nothing was known, and that no- thing could b« knorrn; demonstrating that we are doomed for ever to remain in total ignorance of our- •elves, of Odd, and of all nature. He laid down the propi.vition, that whatever has a Iwgiuning has a Oauhe, is not intuitively certain, but is derived only from custom and tteliel', and is rather an art of the sensitive than of the cogitative part of our nature. In this argtiment he proceeds on the ground that all certainty arises from a comparison of idetts, and the discovery of their unalterable relutions, which are resembtunce, proportions in quantity and number, degrees of ipiality and contratiety, and none of which In implie>l in the propn^iLion above stated. All the objects uf knowledge are impressions and ideas; the former are our more lively perceptions, wht-n we hear ttr see, love or hate, or desirt* or will ; the latter are the lets lively perceptions of which we are cont.cioui when we relleet on the farmer, and are copies of im- pressi'iii«. The existence of those perce|>ti-oiB as objects ot consciousnesR c.innot he denied ; but to ad. mit the extHtence of a pertriplent being, the I, is to attiinie that of mind, which is no more an object of knowleii^f than m.ttter. There can therefore he no objective knowledge; and we are reduced to corisci- ousnesN, the phenome.ia of which it takes cognisance, and their subjective relatione. lIum'f'K system of ■eeptici''m is not Bcepticihy, but cm^e'ioent to science and iinjuiry, holding the absolute fnlliaiouitness of the menial ft- culties, bringing the senses them^eU-pt into drHpiite. and thus sapi'ng the fi.tindations of all kn(>\\'leily,'«>, and rejecting the existence of (Jod, a providence, nnd a fucutt:> state. ** It is true (f^tys Sir .latnes Mackin. tosh, \i\ the wiuk to wliich we lotmerly referred) that •uch a syitctn of universal scepticism never can he mire than an intellectual amusement — an exerc-'e of pubtiety— of which the only use in to check dogma- tism, hut which jierhaps oftener provokes and pro. duc«3 that much more c4^'mmon evil. Ai those die- 3M tiites of eiperieiico which regulate conduct must be the objects of bellif, all objections which attack them In common with the principles of retmonlng must be utferly InelTectual. Whatever altackd every prlnrinle of belief can destroy none. As lung as the fottntla- tioni of knowledge are allowed to remain on iha same level (be It called certainty or uncertainty) with the maxims of life, the whole system of human convic- tion must utmtlnue undisturbed. When tli»« sceptic boasts nf having involved the results of experience and the elements of geometry In the same ruin with the doctrines of religion and the principles nf philo- sophy, he may be answered, that no dogmatist ever claimed more than the same degree of certainty for these various convictions and opinions; and that his sieptlcism, therefitre, leaves them in the relative con- dition in which It fimnd them. No man knew twtter, or owned more frankly, than Mr Hume, Ihtit to this answer there is no serious reply, rniverial scepti- cism Involves a contradiction in terms — U i» a Itiiff that thtre can be no belief. It li an attempt of the niind to act without Its structure, and by other laws than those to which Ita nature has subjected Its npe- ratlnns. To reason without asnentlng lo the prin- ciplea on which reasoning Is founded, la not unlike an efTort to feel without nerves, or to move without musclee. Xo man can be nihtred ta be an opponent in rfatoninff, whn Hoei not Met nut with aitmittiug ait the principlfty without the admittion of irhivh it in impot. little to rtaton. It is indeed a puerile, nay, In the eye of wisdom, a childish play, to attempt either to esta- blish or to confute principles by argument, which every step nf that argument must presuppose. The only difference between the two cases 1«, that he who tries to prove them can do so only hy first taking them for granted) and that he who attempts to Im. pugn them falls at the very lirst step Into a contradlc th>n from which he never can rise. It is Impossible to withhold a trilotie uf admiration to ttie genius and logical powers of Hume, as they are devetopnl in his celebrated Ks^iy on Ctitine and KlFect, and other P'lpers ; but his works in the main must bo considered Hs little else than i-legnnt iiuibliles, and, an such, may he safely left to the apprectution uf the reclute. llarik-y. At about the same time with Hume, a new p!>i. loMjpliic wii[;:r ^|lrnng up, under the name nf Hait- If)'. This itKliviUual utiempted to account fur all tlie phriiomena uf the mind, by the siiit^le principle of the BSMKsiiitiun of the ideas, and for this piinci- ple, by vibrations and vibratiuucles In the medullary subBtsnce of the briiiii. In connection with this plan uf materialism, he deleuUed the doctrine of necessity, iepre»eiiting (iod a* the only cause of all natural ef- fects and allhuman uctiuus. To this Hartleiao school belonged Prieatley, Daiwin, and Uurue Touke. THE SCOTCH rillLOSOPUKRB. Speculations upon the nature of mind are considered to have originated In Scotland with Dr Kiancis Ilut- cheion,ol the University of Olasgniv. Hutcheson, who was a man of cultivated undei standing, and delivered s>me valuable tectnrea, Is, however, less remeiuliir d than Dr Thomas Keid, of the same eminent seminary, who ill 17'^ published his Inquiry into the Human Mind, and In 17't'S his K!>suy on the Intellectual I'uwers. Philosophic imiuiry was subseiiuentty ad- vanced by Dr Thomas Brown, and, more lateU , hy Dugald idtewart, Iwth professors in the t;niver»ity of Kdihburgh. This class of in(|nirers has the merit of having 5ri.tstrong1yand largely inculcited theahsolute iipce^.-'ity of admitting certain priiicip1es. The representation of consciousness rts a special ficulty, when in tealiiy it is the generic condition of all mental activity, was a prei^naiit error lu lleid's phil(»uphy ; while his doctrine uf the iin- meillate or Intuitive knowledge of mind and niatter- whlch involved the overthrow of the Ideal system, and the loeptlolam (or rather nothingiim) deduced from It, wu an important step In the progress of philuao- phy. Mtewart, with some deviations, follow«d In the track of his maatert but Brown, while he adupud many of the principles of Keid, departed. In many poinu nf fundamental importance, from his phtloto. phy. He asiumes the eilstence of the primary Intul. tions of direct belief, which are not only necessary to reasoning, hut to thought itself i all our conceutluni imply the Idea nf form, which is derived from relatloQ in space (i^itfalstence). and uf power, which Is derived from relation In time (suooessive existence) ; cause !• only the Invariable antecedent, effect the Invariable consequent, power the Invariable antecedence, in any sequence of phenomena. All feelings and thonghte are the mind Itself existing Incertaln slatei; consclout- nc^t is nut a distinct faculty, hut a general term for all the state! of the mind. Mental (personal) identity is an intuitive law of thought, It being impossible to C(mcelve of successive states but aa modlllcatloni of the permanent being^the I. The different lUte* are divided by Brown into the external states (senia- tiims) produced by the presence of external ubjectai and the Internal states, arising In consequence of pre- ceding affetttions of the mind itself. The latter claii is divided into Intellectual states and emuthint, which are all referable to one geneilc susceptibility— sug- gestion (association of Ideas). The laws of siiggestloa are resemblance, coutraitt, and nearness In time or place, which are nil reducible to proximity. That ca- pacity uf suggestion which revives conceptions, Bruwu terms simple suggestluu, and that which gives rise to feelings of relation, relative suggestion. To the for- mer are reducible those mental sutes commonly cslled the faculties of conception, memory, imagination, and habit; to the latter, those of juilgu'ient, rej.siuiing, and a)>stractiun. Browirs phihisopliy is considered to In- volve many radical iiici8tencics, which cannot be piirtirul.il ised In so general a sketch. With the death of Ste»vart(llWll), the .Scotch schu>d of philosophy may he said to h.tve liecome extinct. It is worthy of ob-ervatlou that Scotland has Iteen nuich more Indetited to Dr Aides Ins well-known treatiite on the WeJih nf N'tiiuui, componed u work entitled the * Tlieory of Moral Seu- iLnents," than to those eminent individuiils whose at- tention \v:is almost escluaive!ydirecU>d louietnphysica. The Wealth of Nations U a work which abounds la valuable truths In relation to the welfare of mankind in communities, and ought to be carefully perused by all young men. rncKcii PHiLosopiiT. Mjtilcbrtnclie, M'e have already mentioned Descartes, whose iu- t[iitrtes Into the nature of nilud had such an effect up- on the philosophy of modern times. From him we past to Mallebranche, a priest and a philosopher, who published his fanuius Treatise on the Search after Truth, in the year I67;). This elegant writer held doctrines founded upon Cartesian principles, and Iji some particulars Platonic. His theory is prlucipally distinguished hy the maintenance of a mystericus union betwixt Uod and the s(ml of man, and the doo- ti iue tha*. the human mind immediately perceives fiud, and sees all things. JMalluhranchu was liighl- cue. rated fur hii elevated genius; and nothing c W more amiable and simple than his conversatio d uianners. As a philosopher, although he agreed u .^.u those who preceded him, in conceiving ideas to be the immediate objectiof perception, hedisiingiilslied, more ihan any previous metaphysician, the object from the ►eiisatiun which it create**, and iliereby led the way te a right understanding, both of our external eeuiei and mental powers. Dsylo. It is necessary that we should mention Bayle (n tl»e liisUiry of French philosoj lie tuid of him dious doubters who ever published his opinions on the nature of mind. Bayle whs Imrn In Ijanguedoc in 1(147, and died in 17(>(>. In lUOd, white a refugee In Holland, where he wiot kuoivti to Shaftesbury, he pub- liithcd his celebrated Hirtoiicilaiid Critical Dictionary, tvhich was forthwith attacked im account of the relU i^iouH opinions which it devehius tendency In unsettling the minds of superft- ciul inquirers. He moreover professed himself to he a follotver of no sect in uhiloaophy; hut in thus pre- serving an independence in reaAoning, it seemed oniy to he for the purpose of sneering at the opiuions uf all other men, and uf indulging his humour in setting the various classes of thinkers ut variance with cacli other. Ilayle is described by Voltaire an being "the first of lo- gicians and sceptics ;" but tliLt was huid liufore Hume nude his appearance In the philusophical world. ('oiidillw. Stephen Ihmnot de f'ondilluc (born in 171*'. died in I7'i") was the founder of the sensual school of i-'rench philosophy. He taught that the hahis, the {irinclpte of all that is developed in our mind, is sun- ^at'ou {ta fin'u/li ch phihisophy, although little els* than that he was one nf the most se can Inni.. ^ T MORAL PHII.OSOrHY. i : • pllulty of h\n thtfiiry AIT kko lied th« )(riiHt«it liit«reat. U* wha iu{i|iiirted Ity Didtfiot, d'Alumbvrt, and llirl- j rtlliii, «iid tb« inHuf h< .* nt hl> writlnip un tociaty ganerHlly wh miHt linking. Tlia n\m% difficult nl ftll lolnncei, whicli rrt|uirH iht deepvit itudy mid (lie mMt pfrsflvarliiK rnllevtiun, wm brutighc wUhiii tli« rtich uf the multltiido t ivary oiia uould Ulk ftbuut in«tA|)hyiilci. But it wsi ovvrltNtkad lliiil tkU iyit«m did iKit ttfiid niin » it«p nesrar lu th« kulutloii of ' '- hlghent and tntiBt Importnrit probleiiti, The %y- i wan carrimi further and riirtlivr, luitalwayt In accoid- aiue with the viewi of the authnr, hut hcrordiiitr to the dirifctlim k'vkh by him. Heniatliiit (the liiwvit (lf([rfi( 'r iitti*ll' < ujaI actiuii, and that in which we are mniL «riiig now uanahlered the etsential principle in all tfiti 'iperattuiii of the mind, the diitlnutitin between lensitiion and pert-eptlont which Locke bad made, being rejectwd, and mnti lielng regartled only aa an anirnat uf a lomawhat tiner urganliallun than the otheri, but moved only by tenHnal Impulwi (aa In the lyitem of Ilvlvetlui), iht- coil let} uenoa wai. that the material world was coiitl- dered ai tha only form of eilitence, mind ai only a connection ofatomi, .he haili uf ill actloni egottim, and the end of thrae actloni a reftned lensuality t thence the hetief in mural freedi>m, virtue, 0,h]| pro. Tidenre, and Immortality, waa bmked upon ai a fully unworthy f>f a reHerting mind, and a cmnplete mute- rlallim became pipilominant. Since the time of ('on> ditUc, new thutiriftti have arlien, among whm iipcei'iiui'y ami Intiutt' ideas of rviifion, by wny nf inatheniiUictl ilunionfttru. tio'i. The bttiii of hid theory In, lh.it thuiu are in philusopliy, 111 iiiiiinlhenmticH, iiece^nury truths, wliich cannot be learned from experience, but mint bo groundeil In the loiil Itielf, ai they rest un principleii, the proof of which i» independent ot the evidence ol the leniei. i^uch is thu Hubitructuri! of the ratloniiU Urn of LelbnllK, whose litigulur Hue of rennoning on the nature and operatluus uf the mind and kernel it may be curiotii to follow. The principal characlerli. tick of hia raliunulism are a peculiar theory uf know, ledgf , thedoctrineof monad ohfgy, and the tbeodlcei, or doctrine * -iptiinlim. With regard to knowledge, according ^hii lyatem— 1. The necentary triithii are Innate v the aoul, nut indeed actually forming i>bjectB of kiu)t> >«dge, but capable of being calle •' rj. cally, the simple truths contained in a lubjeci the fundanti^nial Iruih is attaiuiHl, Tlie i'.ni criterion — cle«> u«s» and di»tiiictiiettii — ,» nut lufhi *' Our coiiclu-^ >«," tays Leibnitz, " re»t on two gi . priiiciploH — tic .'iiiiciple •it'c4mtrdilicu»u(iu:cordinK i, uhicli we dteij una lal»« which involves tt coutradtc- tlun, and thai ti >• «li)iu is opposed to ulsehood), and the principle ol ui« siilticieut reaiuu v<*hicb teachei ibat no asaertiun m true, il no ttuflicieni reason can he ^Mven why it is tnie, rathut- than false), wlii^ h leadi 10 an abadhile ihiitl reaKon, independent ol acciilental circunitiancei. Hut the final reisun of the cert^jity of innate necessary truths li in God, as the sir C4) uf all neLt'ssary and eternal truth. 2. Moinui'iogy loiinM tlie central point of the system, and LemnitK Iwlieved that in this he Jiid discovered the luinl.t- mental basis of actual knowledge. All expeiieiK*- teaciies u5 that tliere are coitiponnd suhstancei ; ct.>l, and each of which differs in iti qualities from uU otlitMs, since there are no two things i-xactly alike, Lcil'iiitz calls tno'i. s ' vhich no aisunivs four sorts — pure monads {< bes'^ts, the souls of mtu, a.-i>^i gin of all knowledge, r.f Jtvi!. ence of things, the etenal, riv the MonaatnonaUum. /> .. ' .t.i with boiliis, or rather •. n: gutts of inonada, some havii . iigs), the souls of ', who, as the ori> and of the exist- al Monad, he calls inonuds are united beinus aie aggre- central and givfiii. ing tnoiied. The ditferent clasies uf monads conceive of tlie universe with ditferent degreeti of dislinctiiesa; GihI alone coiiceives il perfectly. There is no actual iiilluenceol tit^ thing on another, hut imly an iileal connection ; '-. the internal changes uf each nioimd aro 10 arruiigi-ii as to agree with the changes in the monads imtnediately connected with it. The raiixe of this agreement is the infinite wisdom nn(4 almighty power of the Deity. The divine undcrstandiog is Ibu prototype of all truth, bt!a\ttVi and absolute good, :t:i7 ■ and by It all the Interior changes In tliv muuad* ■vrrusu predetermined, that tht^rti i4 a perfect harmony ihelr luccwslun. This predetermination ur astui' i^hed harmony wai arranged by tha (Godhead wb«o the plan of the world was formed. 3. The theodicea li the delenca of the suureuae wisdDiii of tha Creator of the world, which had been impugned ihi account uf tha axiatenca of evil. Su«h a thatHilcaa Liol'ttiti^ ^t tempted, particularly on acc4iunc of tha contrary vi*^ ^s brought forward by Bayla. Arcordtng to tha I.aili.,it- xian system, aii inlinita number of worlds are posstbla in the divine understanding t but, uf all ptMsibla ones, (iod has chosen and fornied the best. Kvery thing which rvally la, i« best in ounnecH'/o, even if, by it- self, it Is imperfeci This syitam is iherefura denomi- nated optimism. Each heiiig li intended to attain the highest degree of happliieai uf which It Is capable, and is to ioiitributa, ai a part, to the perfactlun uf the whole. Wa have not room ut follow Laitinlta tlirough his intrlcata theories regarding the existence of moral evil, tha nperatioii uf fluita spirits. &.c. lie obtained many fcWloweri, soma of whi^ni, by roeani of logic, carried hii system to abiurdity. The Leibnitiian sch(H>l was followed by a period uf eolactiu pliiloaophy. In which the icapticism of Hume, tha examination uf tha understanding by Locke, tha piychobtglcal inves- tIgHtiona of Feder, (larve, and MundL-bsohii, together wi^1i tha seutimeiitality which reigned in poetry as well ai in raligiou, prepared the way for the lyilem of Immaituel Kuttt. Kant. This eminent (ierman (born 17'^4, died lUfl4), who tirst publiibad bis theories of the human understand- ing in 17A1, gave quite a new character to the philosn- phyof Ilia country. Ivaiit set rmk— that is. Mill) idejts as we do not derivu from cxpurieiice, but )iy which, on the contrary, we !»i'quire exjierience. Ill the tir>it r'lnk of t)ie-e are sput; and time. Kant hhoivs tliat all our perct-ptioon are ?(nhfiiiit»td to tliii:oii8ihility, ex>«u*^iice, necessity. Those categories g, as the forms ol space and lime were for r per* . lytions. We caiiijut figure to ouraelvei an thing vithuuttliQ '••Ution t' cause ^id elToct, of p n^tbU iity, quatitit\ , \i.; ^^ tli, with other words, is, we cannot perceive any ti> >'K f^xcept by thuho original, necessary, unchangeahlr foims of thought. Hence the demonstrative certainty of mathematics, the oh. jecit of which — spaca, time, quantit' . \v' tie in the iii'ceaiity of the furm« of thought, < •! not in the range of error to which experience ^ subject. To ^iroduce re<(ults, the categories are app ed to exterior objects— ot' *''ts of experience — in whu n application (liey are but -( t to error. The three original facul- ties, thi-(n:gti '.iie medium of which we acquire kuo» ledge, are str.^sf, nnderstaiuiing, reason. 8en»e, ,t pasnive and receptive faculty , has, as hai boen already fitated, fur its forms or cot.ditioni, space and time. Understanding is an active or spontaneous faculty, and c'Oisiftts in the power of forming coiuvptioiih, iH'cording to the categorlei already given, » liich cate- gories are applied tu uhjects of experience through the medium of the two forms of perception, » pace and time. Reason Is tho third ur highest degree of nien- t il spontaneity, and coniiits la the power of forming ideas. — Besideit what are consldertti lo be the merits of Kant in re/ard to intellectual pluinsophy, much Is owing to him f«i- his virtue and iiillcxible morality, which he anxi-nisly endeavoured to place un their true elevated liasis, after they had been referred ex- i-hisively to interest hy Helvetins and others. His pliiliisophy has been taught la all the Germaa uni- versities, excepting some Catholic iiiHal. Tha iketcli, such ai it li, axhiblu a Umeuuble pletura of mitdiKxted ability — uf valuable time sp«nt inasaarub as vain as tliat after tha " philuinpher's »tuna/' From the dav* of Zeno aud Lpicuiui to iliosa ol Immanual Kant, the world has baiui tha thsatia of successive lyttemi uf meu^Kjalus each uf which, ai we hara seen, has met ih folh>wers uf greater or le» dlstliio- tion, in »clHK)lt, «(id colleges, wiiliuut having, either Individually ur collectively, been of any saiisiljla be- neAt tu the masi of tha community. Logic, the da- sign of whii h il lu teach the right uia of our reaion, or intellectual and moral faculiiei, and tlia i '"rnve- ntcnt uf them in ourselves and others, baa hezii ac- tively employed in th« endeavour to anhveti the moat •ibvioiia truths. Zoao demonstrated the imponsibilitj of motion 1 Spinoza, that there waa no Gud ; llobbaa, that there was nu difference bi^( teen right and wrong; Hume, that belief wai Imaginary ; Uescartai, Midb- braacha, and Locke, that mind woi matter, or, la other wordi, that when waluia our conacluuineisufealitauca, we no longer preiarva our identity. Well may tha ua. uught reader inquire. What does all this mean ? W« may answer him in tha words uf Held — " Puor un- taught mortals believe undoubtedly that there la a sun, moon, and iiari ; an earth which we Inhabit; country, friends, and relations, which weenioy ; laud, houses, and moveables, which we pofiesi. But phllu- sopheri, pitying the credulity of the vulgar, reioUe to have no faith but what Is founded on reaiun. Thaf apply to philosophy to furnish ibem with reason for the belief of those things which all mankind have be- lieved, without being able to ^Ivu any reason for it. And surely one wuuld expect that, ia matteri uf luoh importance, tlie proof would not Ifedithcnlt ( but it It the most duhcnlt thing in the world; fur the>6 thraa great me;i— Ueicartes, MHlJebraoi he, and l.oiika— with the hest good will, have np>i been able, from all the treasures ol philosophy, to draw oncarf^umviit that I-- tit to convince tt man that can r«:tav exiitenca ''any one thing without hini. Admired philosophy ! —driiiklitfr of light !— parent of wisdom and know- h-ilge !— If thou art she, surely tl>ou hast not y*H arisen upon tliu human loii i, n^r Mi-<>Acd un with ui.tre of thy rav^ than aro snlti- luni to :ihcd a ^darkneii viMhlu' iipun thu human faculties, aud to disturb that ^op't^e aiiil bcrcnity which biipptor mortals enjoy, who never apiMoacliod thiao altir, iiur felt tliiiie influ- eiK'e ! Iiiii if Indeed thou hast not power to dispal those doutls and phantoms which thou hast dibcovered or created, withdraw this pernii ious and malignant r,iy — I despise pbll.Mfiphy, and renounce its guidance; lot my soul dwell with common sense." Tiieia are no doubt levera expressions of reproof from ana of the most eminent inquirers into the nature of mind in modern timet, but they are obviously no leii la- vere than just. Professor Ditgald Stewart haa ad- mitted with the Ahh^de Uuuald that "diveriity uf ductrine has increaied from age tuage, with the num- bers of mailers, and with the progress of knowledge; and Kurope, which at present possesses lihrariei tilled with phihtsupbicul worki, and which reckons up al- molt as many philosophers as writers, poor in the midst of HO much riches, and uncertain, with the aid of all its guides, which road it ihould follow— li^uropa, the centre and focus uf all the lighu of the world, haa yet its Piui.OiiOi'HV only in expectatiun." While protoMuri of moral philosophy have thut loft the people ia ignorance of the nature of mind, or presented thorn with disqulsitioai too abitruie for their comprebeniion, other authors, not connected with the schools, have cume forward with the enllght' ened and philanthropic view of explaining the opera- tion of the intelleclual faculties, of cultivating the moral feelings, and subduing the animal prupensitiai. Among the various wriien who have thus endea- voured to benefit society, we may refer to Dr John Abercrombie, of Edinburgh, whose recent work, though scarcely systematic, abounds invaluable mat- ter. We shall now notice the extraordinary exertioui which for tho last few years have been made by the phrenologisls, whoso system of mind, laying thequei- tion of its physiological origin and alleged fuundatiou eaiirrly aside, has perhaps better claims to notice than or.-iy who aro repelled l)y the startling {question ai to tlirtr origin, may be aware ot. Their system, at the h('./. ■- A of appearing tautological^ we shall term the PIIHENOLOOICAL rHlLOSOPIlY. This new science of mind was first developed by Dr Gall, a German physician, who about the year 171)1 attracted considerable attention to his anatomi- cal and physiological Inquiries respecting the brain and nerves. Oall had remarked at school, that loma hoys, who excelled him in aplte of his efforts In com- mitting words to memory, were distinguished by pro- minent eyea. Thence he ii- red that the talent or tho organ uf verbal memory : ' reside in this part of i:te head. He afterwards bei.. onvliiced that thli aud other talents actually dep< a the formation of cftrtain parts of the head. He t'cted skulls, care* fully comparing the prominences lommon to all, and tliobe which distinguish them from ' • Thisneiv Nvstem was called Phrenology, from two Gie«k wordi bignifviu^ the icieuce uf mind Aluri^wlth \i.f friend 4! " 4^ ^M'' ** w^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 I^|2j8 |2.5 |50 "^ S^H ^ Uii 12.2 1.8 1.4 ^ '/] ■y v: 7 /A Hiotographic Sciences (Corporation m V ^ <^ o\ 77 WEST MAIN STREET ftissTr:^, fg.v. i45«o (7U) £72-4503 ^4^ ^^- /..i''-'- ■'- ■ , ■ i > ■" - .'f^'.': V?- '-'.,r- "^ -i-, ' ..'',"i ■"■■^^>- ..■-"■'-,■;;■ ■-■;- « >"■ -f "'. "'!-'^:'^. !^ CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOTl THE PEOPLE. Drflpurthelm, Gall lubsfquently delivered lectiirw In Oerraanr and France, whibiilnfr his di»cov«riei and Tlawt. before hiidealh, In 1828, phrenolifry had ob. taiaed many convert* on the Cinithient, in Oreat Brt- tain, and North America. The science, however, hai not been mot -^ indebted to these philosopher* for the advanceii which it has made, than to M r Oenrge Combe, of Edinburgh, who embraced its doctrines about the year 1817. ^^^ has ever since exerted himself to ex- tend the knowledge of them to others. Sir Combe not only equals bis preceptors in reach and profundity of thought, exai'tness of observation, and thecleantess and method with which he explains his views, but in these quRluies has very few equals among the think, inr men of the age. In a work which he published In 1^8, under the title of *' An Eiisay on the Constitn. tionof Man, connidered in relation of external objects," he gave a view of the phrenological scheme of mind apart from the qneFtton of Its iirgnnologlcnl truth, and pointed out how it might be applied practically to the iinvrttremant of the condition of the human race. This treatise has presented the science in a new bs> pect, and mie under which it seems likely to make a far more rapid advance than formerly. Do'vn ti* this period the great stumbling-block of phrenology evidentl> was tti snppttsed pretensions to what appeared a kind of divinaiion : it bore the appsarnnce of one of those soienre* which men have long considered false, from their not Iwing founded in nature. As if disposed to compensate the credulity which their ancestors dis. Elayed re^pectinir alchemy and astrohtgy, the public ave been perhaps tw e'sgvr to condemn a science which, ihmgh at Ant sight one of the same order, never yet has made anv pretensions that were not bated on olrservation of farts jiatent to the senses. So much we can nay in a spirit nf fairness, without hav- ing mtrselves so much acquaintance with the orgnno- laical part of the science as to say whether it is to be believed or not. Since the publication of Mr Combe** Ettsar, which has been understood and prac- tically applied by multllndes without regard to paril. cu)ar'k>caHtie8 in the brain, the cane has evidently been miich altered. Phrenology may now be taken intoC'tn- sideratlon, not as a means of vaticinating upon the cbaracters nf men by an inspection of their heads, but as a scheme of the mental constitution;'in short, a system of metaphysics, and, consequently, of morals. Considered in this light, it appears to ns to have, in the first place, the importsnt quality of intelligibi- lity, which no other system attoffetbt'r has. It seems for the first time tomake plain the perplexinfr mixture of tendencies, fcelings, and powers, which has here- tofore rendered man such a riddle to himself. This it does by rigidly tracing the powers of mind to their primitive functimia, and reducing them to a kind of democratic level, allowing eae'i an agency indepen. dent of the rest, b'lt which may he exerted in com- pany with others, and dividing the whole into thrta great el astiet — propensities, nioralsentiinent*, and !n> telfectaal faculties. While MrComlwhas treated these with a regard to the general improvement of the race, they have more rccetitly been described by «' James Stmpann, in his eloquent and convincing 'vnrk on c4acRtinn, to which that author thinks them emi- nently K^plienble, as analysing the being to be edu- cated. As they are detailed in the latter work with tile authorV charaeteristic liveliness and point, ftnd with the sdvantage of some uddt tonal nhaervatioos mttde slnre the appearance nf Air ('ombe*3 treatise, we shall prefer taking oe vague, misdirvcted, and Ineffirient, as ft has hitherto been. If, at l« evident, we ran make no practical use of a 5 real part of the catalogue of facilities which we sta- led at college, may we not meet upon some admitted ccmmon ground ? May we not adopt those Impulses or powers of mind whiih dirertly constitute the vie^v of man taken by necessity, nithnngb very uns)tiema- tiesliy, in the cimmon affairs of life ; but by philoso- phers reje»!ted, and ilierefore never reduced to any tbiiig like system, and, above all, never resorted to in etliicatif tbut nature, to which the »iirnc Ticuliies iu curiclves et;hn with such delighted sympathy. Asauredly these will not be f-Miud in the dialogues uf the metaphysicians. I should W sale in O'uditiuning, that I shall not need to claim fur human nature anyone Impulse not eeuig- fiised and deult with — praciii-ally though not system*. ticulh— .hy hhak»pe4re and baitu These are capable, we tiiii.k, uf a m.ich more satisfacbfry analysis than mirikt be supposed ; an analysis which 1 only require to i« granted to me, even fu^- argument's sake, tuub- tHin a basil fi.r education which would advance it* efficiency to a ilegree almost beyond our calculation. 1 feel so oi>nfident that all my postulates as to human power?, impulnt's, instincu, or faculties— for we need net dispute «buut uamei — will be GeucwWd to aie, from the impossibility, as I hnmhly view it, of '-"fus. ing the conoesaion, that I am content to peril the whole argument upim the admission by every educated per. son-~Fir«t, that the impulses now to be enumerated form constituent parts of man ; and, secondly, that, as is true of the physical stmetnre and organic func- tions, each it related to seme object or nbjocts in na- ture, moral or physical, external to itself, but directly pointing to it, upon which it Is exercised. I wish it, however, to be distinctly understood that I do not found upon physiological evidence of the truth of the analysis of facultle* which I am humbly to offer, be. cause that evidence is not generally admitted ; I do not require to trace each faculty to a disputed cere- bral origin t the faculties shall be merely metaphysi- cally submitted teriatim to the reader** judgment, and his own experience appealed to ; and any one whlcli he does not recognise in man, I am quite contented thnt he shall reject. If, too, he ioes not think the re- lative object correctly added to each faculty as we ad- vance, that, too, he is at perfect liberty to dlKalluw. i$t, I do n^*! fear denial, when I claim for man an APPETITE roK rooo, an instinct which directs him, even when new-born, to remove the pain of hunger, the only pain then removeable bv an act of his own. Forming a variety or mode of the instinct of food, which last includes hnngcr and thirst, is the desire of the srimulus of alcohoTin wine or some other shape. The abuses of these appetite* are gluttony and drun- kenness. That this instinct is primitive, is demon* strated by its often existing in a state of disease; the i'lsatlahle craving of hunger, even when the stomach is full, isacMmmotkiunaiiasymptom; whilethe temp- laiiuita of wine and ardent spirtu often become alu»- getber tteyimd tlie control ot the will. The rrliuive objects of that instinct are edible animal and vegetable ntaiier j while the juice of the grape, and otiier ex- tracu capeble of being I'er lentedand distilled, gratify the taste for alcohol alluded to. 3d, Kir the preservation of his species, man is en- dowed with AM iNSTTMCT ov BEX. As the abune of this impulse leadt to much evil and sulFering, indivi. dual and Micial, it requires much more edueatiunal watching and regulation than it ever receives. The consequences to bipdy and mind of this neglect are often hi»rrit)t«. lu deiangement is known iu lunatic asy- lums, and detailed In works on insanity. Its object, relattrely, is the other sex. Sd, Man hat an iMPirLSE tc CHCltiSH Ris OFF- SPftiNO. There are cases in whii'h this propensity has been morbidiv excitett. Its relative object is the helplesaneaa and iniiocetioe of childhood ; the feeling and the object were intendnd for each other. 4th, AmOPBKSlTYOF ATTACHMENT to his feSloW- men, in the aUianoes of society and friendship, is a part of roan's oonstiiution. This feeling is so rtrung tliat solitude ha* often produced mental alienation, as has the unmitigated silence of some penitentiaries. Alan's fellows exist in manifest relation to this toclal tendency. bthf No Impulse requires more the restraining hand of education than the propensity to contend and FioHT. We are made OMMt aware of it* being part of man, by seeing it in the various forms uf it* abuse, coBtentiousnesa, contradiction, violence, assault, and war. But aa nu instinct or faculty was given (or the purpeees of abuse, we shall find the use of thia pro- pensity in sall-defienee, courage, enterprise, and ge- neral activisy. This impulse ha* a marked relation to external objecis ; it was given to man that he may repel the dungera which often assail hin from other animals, and the passiona of his fellow-men. 6/A, It Is not enough that man shall contend and Hght; it is often imperative upon him to destroy. Be- sides killing for fend, he must, in self-delence, kill dangerous animals, and mort dangerous men, that assail him: and V> tit him for this, he has an in- stinct TO DBITKOY. The foeliugt which prompt this extresBO, with regard to his own species at leant, aie resentmen ^ anger, and rage { these are ofeen abuses, and certainly so is a uruel delight in giving pain, and even depriving of life. In disease, it is tlie mostdan- genius form uf madnees t It produce* murder without nmtive, appetite for bliKtd, ungovernable violence, and indiscriminate destruction uf every thing within its reach. Much short of liiBease, it is a truuttlesome propeusity I cruelty to animals, and the tendency to defaoa and desti y, are iu mnntfettations { while tlie irascible tempers which disquiet the domestic circle are its most ordinary form ot abuse. It requires for it* regulatipn. If not iu repreesion, the firmest and the gentlest educAtioiml management. The in.puUe i* widely spread in the animal creation ; it is the in- stinct of prey; and teetii, tusks, lieuks, and daws, are its instruments. It pr.unpt* man, tmt, to arm Him- self with dtitruciive weapons, from the rude olub to the battery of cannon, liastly, it uon^tilutes the im- pulse to punish, t4> inflict pain, torture, and death. Tth, In nothing will Uie obaervant Instructor uf youth perceive more diversity among indlviduHls than in the t haracterislii* nf reserve or openness. Some individuab are to cluse, that nothing can be extracted from them ; others apparently ctmreal nothing. The truth 's, that all conceal much more than they de* cUre, and an impulse to conceal is a constituent part nf man, for the wise end uf preventing th.-tt r^mstant axpusure of thtmgbt and purpose, winch would nut unly render s(K-ieiy intolerable, but would remove a material guarU agantht the evils whii:h, by their soltisb patsiuasf man are iuolined to iudici upon each other. The right use of the impulse to cropensity ought toba an important object of atte in education. 1>/A, Independently of hi m, man has an im- pulse to consteuct, to chHii^e the furmb .id com- biuHtiuns of matter into instruments and accommo- dations. Frankliu called him a ' tool-making animal.* The faculty is often possessed in uncommon power by cretins and other idiots without an atom of intellect to guide it. Keason and imagination greatly aid th« f'actilty in man, as is evident when we compare tha wigwam with the palace. Individuals differ greatly in this primitive pioe, claim for lie man we are amipounding, a sentiment of self-love, in which ;s included as well self- elevation as sell-pra*> fereuce. la due and lienehcial endowment, it is a !•> gitimate attention to uur own well-being; it is self- respectt independence, and cunfidence in our own powers and capacities. In a^Mise, it is pnde, self-suf- ticiency, disdain, insolence, love of power, tyranny, and general seitishness. It it a great exciting causa ul tha activity of the impulse to resentment %nd rage, and then it take* the deeper colour of raveirge; and, when eombiued 'vith the impulse to a)ipropriate, it renders tliat propensity yet more steady, graKpingp and exclusive. It is ttie speuitil faculty of tjiiHrrels and duels, a'>d form* the ingredient uf turbulence and tyranny, whu i is a nuisauce in public, and a curAuin [jrivate, liie. No faculty of man 1* more apt to run intu abuse, and half the moral evil* uf man's lot spring Iruni that aliusa. The guide uf youth caiinut there- fura too eaily tiegiii to wittcli and repress its unamia- blemanifebiations, and regulate it« legitimate exercise. Under the present system uf education, this impurtant part uf mail is left to iu uwn guidance. Need it ba added, that it is often mauil'ested in a form uf insunity not tu l*e misuken t morbid self exaltation acroums Ixr the straw crowns and wond judge each other. \2th, That a sentisicntof fear Is a part of roan, no one will deny, and least of all the teacher of the old 8i'hot>l, who»e ever- brandished rod and cane make m pers.'tinl appeal to the feeling. The sentiment is glvi»n as a self-protector from dangers, physical and mora), tvUii whidi we are surrounded. Its abuse is cowardice, terror, and panic Punishment, for ex- ample's sake, implies our belief of Its power as amoti> e. Its exteriiiil objects are danger and evil In general. When diseased, it occasions the groundless fears and horrors of hypochondria, and is essentially that insane m»«*nTichnl} which furnishes the impulse to suicide, by III trt rugs far more Intense tban man is ever visited witii H\ what is erroneounly distinguished as reality. Tlu: lart and two preceding sentiments of self-love, and dehire of estimation, evidently regard self, and, therefore, although very important constituent facul- ties in man, and intended, in their proper use, for the wisest endii, have nothing in them amiable or exalted. They are as self-seeking as any of the nine animal propensities, and therefore may conveniently be classed with the»e, under the general denomination of the ih- rEnion feelixgs. The whole twelve Instincts make up and constitute the Scriptural entity of the *law In the members warring against the law in the mind.* VMh, That there is a law in the mind, Is beauti- fully Implied in the very distinction of Hcrtpture al- luded to; and it Is the object of education, while it repieeses and regulates the law in the members, to strengthen and confirm the law in the nJnd. The first eli«ment of the law in the mind Is benetolcnce —the benign parent of a catalogue of graces, in kind- ness, desire of the good of others, generosity, com- passion, mercy, and aU the sympnthies of brotherly lore. It is the charity whiuh 'sutfereth long and is kind,* which ' is gentle and easy to be entreated,* and which, in its expansiveneKS and sincerity, Ms without partiality and without hypocrisy/ it is im- possible to conceive a desoriptlon of benevolence more Just, as well as beautiful, than the HoripturaL fewn. tient beinprs, generally, are the related objects of this exulted hentiment, and their happiness is Its scope and dell^^ht. It Is an error to suppose its function confined to compassion and rettet to distress and misery. It goes mnch beyond thic i It is a well- spring of good-will to men, and reaps positive delight from the increase and extension of human happinenn. Its nianifffttatioMS appear to the settish to be mere tentlmeutal enthusiiiBm, or weak sacrifice of sub. ■taur« and ease ; yet their most exclusive joys are va- pid, in conipariMMi with the delights of benevolence. Truly, thn tipid of benevolence is lioundless, foriceni- bmces all that can aid or advance human haiipiuesN, phyKicnl and moral. It desires to see man free, en. fighifned, morally and religiously elevated, and plaoeil In phymciil comfort and Butety. It desieiids al«o to kiiidii'eHa to the lower animals. Even this high senti. mcnt is capable of abuse. Tliis appears in fai liity, in- discriiikinate alms giving, and prufusiun. In iti&eahe, it is beyond tiie pefore he is just, according to an every- day expremiiou. It h a nnstitke to rectiguike a deleu- tiveOiMiHiicntliiusnetsIu that palpable dlsUonrsty only whi'h calls fitr the interlereuce ut the law. It is a wide-tprendiiif; evil in sncii'ty, ""ar ^ho^t^l^ that drgrw of iiH miinit'eHtaiiou. It shows it^eU iu a way itiid msuner agaitist which the law Ciiimut make [ ruvi.tinn, in the great variety of moden in uhuih men, for ntU'tsh «udi, are uii/uir t>i eith other, by taking ad^ anl.igi'it which they would not give; ctiuceaiingihe truth »hit h ought to iieUild. or misleuding wiih regard to it ; dis- allowing otherk' cUiuis, uut capaMe of ^a^y proof; •hrouilliig otherk* merit; nil>>ttting ur dintuiting others' argument ; resenting fair 04Hnpeiiiiuu ; envy, lii^^sir si ; ro tnlfe^ting a sellish jealousy ; indulging In eviLspHaking and lidiuule; and, in a thons uii Wiiyn, 'diiiiig to otbers tliHt whicli we would nut liiiui'), in the midBt of the various •hades ufdisouloratiuu in his fellows, with which he Is surrounded. The disease of the feeling, for even con- scientiousness may be over-exoited, is observed In the melancholy self:hose whom it has deprived of utterance when su' denly brought into the presence of majesty. R'it the-e is a higher related object of tbt feeling than eari.ily kings. The King of kings is Its great end and object i it fs then veneration, and constitntes the chief ingredient in the adoratkm of religious wor- ship, A lar^e natural endowment of the sentiment often carries mere ecternal sanctity to eacoess, and, n.istaking it for religion, claims, and often receives, consideration ;md homage tor it, to tba inconveBieut. crowding of the calendar. The three feelings of bentvolefwty jtuHctt and v#im- ration, predominating over thi infeilor and selfish propensities, present us at once with an intelligible system of ethics. This Is that supremacy of the mo- ral sentiments which is partially atedsted by ethical writers, from liutler lo Chalmers; the latter in his Bridgewater Treatise constitutes eunsclence the sole ruler ; but benevolence is net less offended by vice and crime than justice ; while veneration is sht-^ked with the daring disobedience to Ood's will which these aberrations involve. The three tentimeiits of justice, benevolence, and veneration, are powerfully combined in that preceptive keystone of Ohristlanity, * to do justly, to love mercy, and walk humbly with yc . God.' The humility so beautifully glanced at is that repression of self-exaltation (the tenth impulse I have treated of) which the instructor should never lose sight of 4 remembering that * pride was not made fur mant* self-love was intended for him, but not its abuse, * which bringeth a sn ve.' The energy of these three feelings, acting as they always do in combina- tion, constitutes the moral iinpiMsibility of cnmmitting crime; for a man iu whom they are supreme is re- strained from criminal acts more effectually than if fetters of triple brass were on his hands. If there ho means — and it will appear In the sequel that there are hpButifully simple and effectual means— of Increasing the power of these invaluable sentiments, by the exer- cise of practical moral training, does it ul vitaiiycon* cern society to apply them ? I shall offer a few words more on the supremacy of the higher feellngi, after treating of the In'vd to an attempt to ex- tract a T:Hil by Ktriking it on the head; every stroke uuly dritcs it faster The judicious teacher will takf care never to httng the matter to that ittsue, but will address liimself to tither faculties, especially jnsiice, licneviiIenLe, and rellection; keeping in mind the (able, that the storm could not induce the travelter to part with his cloak, which he only held the faster, but the sun w;is n^ore ttuct'essful. l(tf/j, Al'in loves the ^\ouderful. That the senti- ment uf wosKKU is innate, will scarcely be doubted by any one whoohM-rves its power as a motive, and the fortunes tbat are made by Rpi>eats to It. Well does the charlatau know the effeit produced by his cry of * wonder !* It Is evidently bentowed as a source of ilelight in conteniptatlrihr the wonders of c/e.itit>n, and as au Impulstfto inquiry. With venera- tttin and hope, it coii>titutes the religious combina- tioit of f<:h care of this feeling, and in various ingenious ways calls it into exercise, with different success, -according to the degree of natnml . idowment ; for in nothing do individuals differ m^re from each other. With the explanation now given, shall call this faculty iMAOiKATidH. * 20/A, The i.ote of the lvdichoub requires a jnd'-^'ous educational management. Man Is the only laughmg animal, the only one gifted with a spesiflo enjoyment from the cf the moral sentiments alone. Sentiments are but feelings, and feelings, however vlrtuoux, are blind, and depend upon iott'Iiect lor their proper di. reciioii. Fur example, benevolence prompts ns to Kuotour poverty ; but that feeling m;ilodied and fit tor l,t)h>iir, :ind tl at therefore the beiievo'em-e is wasted, and wor>e. u[>oii (he encouragement of au iin^vorthy ohji-i-t. i^Inn is endowed with intellei-tuat faeuUieN. aT>d these may ha divided iito the knowing and mrircriNH. It Is undeiiiahlethitt, IntelltCtually, vuKw ip nuA w^rrflecU It Is a common observation tiint kiui»led,.e is not wis- dom, till it is compared and rpnttDued on by lefiectlon. It is its cimiblnutioii with reflectiMn whicli constitutes that knowledge wliieh is power. Tlieweakfst reflect- ing powers olieu coexist iti the sniiie individual, with a store of kiiuwleilge which excites our \w>iider. The KNOWiNd rowrits cognisn two el.-tB>es of tib. jects; namely, ej'hlriwes and events in other wnrds, ibln^'S that arc, and thin^is that hnpprn. L«'t any une reflei t for a moinuut, and he will find th.it whiit* ever he knows, must he either an exlstfnce or an evunc. The paper on which 1 write Is an existe. -e — a thrng n\\ I |: CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE thkt Ui \t I drop it on tb« carpal, it ii «n evant, « thing thM tuu happtnttt, a ohuige hu taken place . •oldlcrtara caiitencMi thdr battle li an event; the add and the alkali are exiitencei^ their elTerrei- otno* on mixture It an erent. Natural hiitory oon- otrnt ex'itencet, civil hlitorjr records eventi. From obeorrinc that tha power of percaiving and ramam- harlng thaia two olauei of objecta, ratpactl/alV| ti^ riaa In a raarkad degree In different IndiTiduals, we may oonelder than ai diitincl facultiaa, which will requli* tn oduoatlon a leparate range of itudy and axarvlM, the ona Improving the faculty for axlataneee, (ha other tba fheulty for avanta. 1 uaim, than, for man^ SIM, A rOWSK TO COOnU AXD KIMEMBSIt BZ- ItTBWClt. tUt A POWKE TO COOHISK AMD BEMBUBim CTKWTl. There ara other knowing facultlaa, of marked dli- tinctlon in the different degreei of manifeitation by different individuala, which aid In the a«|uiaUion of knowledge ; such at a perceptive power for each oua. llty U matter, ae iu form, alia, colour, graviutlon, aoond, fta ; and oo theea tha talenta of drawing, Bdntlng, iculptnra, mechanica, and muilc, depend, ni ihMa manifaetatloni muit be lo obvloue to the enlightanad and Judlcloui aducatloniit, that X ehall not occupy time and ipaoa with a detail of them. Tba KSFLECTiwo powsni luffer a twofold dtviilon, like the knowing, and wa And indlvlduali manifeit* lag thaea powara differently, according to that dlvt- doD. Tha raflaeting make uie of tha matariali itored ky tka knowing facultlaa, for tba purpoaa of perform- ing tha i^aratlon of SEAaoviiro— that onnalau In com. peTlagtwoaxiitanoaaortwoeventa, and concluding that aomauing dba asiiti, azitted. or will or may exiit, or ihal MNDMhing alaa happana, happened, or will or may kappan, In eonieqnance ( in which range ara compra- kaadad all tha teitths of tha phyaical and moral world. %4tkf Tha proceia of reasoning, of conoluiion drawing, la eomatimaa performed Oy a lirapla act (»f eonparipon, or paroaptlon of analogy i a va«t majority of mankind raaion la tUa way t audi a truth followa from tha raaamManca of two truthi which thoy have comparad. The whole of tha brilliant field of what n raaaonlng la called itfiuiraMonli nothing mora than Aia prooaaa of comparison { and aa many writora iind apaahara manlfaat almoat an aKdoaive prafarance for analogical and illnatratlva raaaonlng, I feel that I am warranlad In diitlnguiahing in man the raflaeting fa- culty of coMPABiiOir. SMA, Soma raaaonara, but comparatively few, are mora aevere, and ara contented with no oondualona which do not stand in the relation of n«cfMary Mn«e- pune* to thdr premlaaa. This is truth, they reasua bacauie it Is dedudble necessarily from the conddar- ation of thete other known tnitha brought togeUier. These are the logidans who distrust analogy and comparison. The faculty they use la the highest in. (ellectual power, the percipient of the relation of cauBe and effect, which I beg to be indulged in deslgnatlnj^ by the name of THi racuLTT or hicessast conse- quence. tt la a metaphysical error to dlatlngutah Memory aa • primitive faculty, seeing that the otgnislngand rea- soning powers must neceaaarlly be the rememlierlng powcra ; remembrance being nothing else but the continued impreialon of c^nition and reasoning, varyfng according to the energy of thoae powers. If memory were a diatlnctire power, it would, in each individual, be dike atrotig, and regard a// lub- fecta of recollection alike. But m thia ia not con- sistent with fact, as one Individuai remembers exiat. encet, and another forgeti exlatences and rememben events, while a third recalls with eaie a train of rea- soning, another mualcal airs, and another the facea ol i»erauna he baa aeen, or the acenea he haa aiirveyed, 2ach perhaps weakly remembering anmething t-lie of the maitera now enumerated, we are forred tu the con- olualon that there ia n.i general facuity called memory, Sut that each faculty haa iu own power of recalling ita Impreaaions. The initructor of youth should pon. der ihia truth well, and he will aave himaelf and his pupil much time and labour In the indefinite and desul- tory exercise of a supposed getieral faculty of memory, when in truth he will actually Improve the memory of each faculty In the proper direct cultivation of the faculty itrelf. The FMder Is, It Is trusted, now in a condition to nee ttie propriety of disalluwiotf Percepdon aa a pn- uiiiive faculty. Both the knowing antj reflective p«r. cipient powers have now been explained and dintin- guiihed : the faculty of exifttencea perceives exi^tencea ; that of evenu, rventa; that of compaHaon, resifm- blancea ; that of neceaaary coiiiequvnce, cause and effect ; m that a general faculty of perception Is ne- cessarily a nonentity. Last uf all, I claim for man, whose compoiltlon we hare now fiuiahedf the nian-diatinguiihing faculty of LANMUAUE, wheri-hy he converts his thoughts into the conventional signs called wurda, and, in oral and written diicourse, excitea the facuttlea uf his fellow- men in the boundless extent of social Interrourae. Language Is a mighty iuatrunient, but great evil ful. Iowa the error of miauking it fur more. The whol" faculiiea which have been deacrlhed are now br«ugbt under the reader'a eye ia a table fur the Mnrenleuce of reference ; — 300 INFBEIOE rEBLlNOS. Animal Propeniitiaa. Propendty of Fooa, Propensity to Ctmceau .. .. Sex. .. .. Require, „ .. Offqmng, .. .. Convtntct, j4ttachmeut Sentiment of Sr{r-Xoer. .. to Fiffht, .. ., DnirtofEtH- Mofjoa. .. .• Dt$troff. « Ftar, HIQBEE rXILINOS. Moral StntinMnts. Seatinwnt ol BennoUnet, Sentiment k upon the moral aentimenta with more respect than the animal propenbltiea , while tlie profound powers uf reflection and reasoning are more elevated than the acutesi facultiea of obacrvation. When anperiority Involves control. It la cahed aupremacy; thia control ia exerciied by the moral facu.tiea, guided by the in- tellrct, and ctuistltutes what we call ethica. I wa^ Eledged tn return to thia important aunject when 1 aeen detailed, aa primitive in man, and com- paring these with external nature and nature^s laws, he at once aaw and made plain to his countrymen and the worlds the perfect correspondence and harroon y wliich waa the eterud deaign of an omnipotent Cre- ator. The same gifted writer has shown, that while each natura. law acts separately, there is a beautiful com- bination in their action, having for ita object the cuU tivAtion of the moral and inielhetual powers of man, and the eatab!isliment of their supremacy over the nnl - mal propensitit a ; in other words, that thk world IS ACTTALLV ABRANtlEn ON THK rRINClPLE OF FA- VOURINU virtue AMD I't^NISIIINU VICE, AND THAT IT IS, THOnoUOHOUT ITS CONSTITUTION, FRAME l> IN ADH:RaDLE ADAPTATION TO THE FACULTIES OF HAN AS A MURAL, INTELLIGENT. AMD RELIUlOUa ttEINO." Ei)i<«iirnoH t Publtthed tiy W. and R. riiAHnsns, 10, Walprloc riAiwt kliu by OKA and Hmitii, Pdlt>rno«tcr Row, London) and GloRua Yuiinu. Dublin. Sold by John Macieod, 01ae> |0W, and all other B and curing ofbaooni the practice of keeping hent, ducki, tnrkeyi, and gaete; the eultlration of gardanti and other timl- lar objecta— all of which, when rightljr foUowed, tend to make the cottager more wealthy and more comfort- able in hli circnmilancei. With our limited wope In a lingle iheet, we cannot pretand to UlnUrata the whole of thii important labjact, but we beliere that the following brief view of Cottage Economy and the hinu we are able to glTO, will be found uiefiil in di- recting indnttrioui bootewlTei and their huibandt in the belt model of managing their ettabliibmenU. Before laying one word in detail, we eoniider it (biolnuly neceuary to itata that the meet eiwntlal re<|nliilea connected with tlie economy of a oottaga, are orderlineii and cleanlloeit. To the dligrace and lerioui Ion of many individuals In the country, theie matMrs meet with by far too little attention. It may frequently be noticed in travelling through the coun- try, that the inhabitanu of cottagn Mem to live at if they deipiied habita of orderlineia and neatneii, and eoniider that ilovenlineM and dirt are productive of comfort. Wu take this opportunity of recommending • very different practice. If any thing Ii expected to be made by cottage economy, thlnga muat be kept not only in proper repair by active exertion at ipare hourt, but rigorouily clean In their condition. The ntmoet re)(ard to thii ii certainly indlipeniable in the keeping of cowt and pigi. Both theie animali lore to be kept dry and clean. The cow requirei to be rubbed dowa or curried like a hone, for its ikin contracti vermin, which, with the looee hain, which ihould alio be re- moved, give it great uneaiinesR. In tiie lame man- ner, the hog, u it afterwards fully mentioned, muit be keptolean, dry and warm, otherwiie it will not thrive or be of any great value. Nothing ipeaki lo empha- tically of the proaperity and good management of a farmer or cottager, ai a ity full of tieek, thriving, contanted pigi, who leem to erjoy exiitence, and whose good care and quiet demeanour ipeak eulogiei of their keeper. We need not lay how clean and tidy all thingi ought to be In the interior of the cottage ; but we may point out how commendable ii the practice of clearing away all foul puddles and other impuritiei from before or near the dwelling, of trimming the paths which lead up to the doorwayl, and of whitewashing the walls, and decorating them with flowering ihrubs. A cer- tain degree of attention to all this demonstrate! a well-regulate > mind on the part of the cottager and hii family, and even while " little is coming In," ren- der hii bumble rbode a kind of rural paradise, and the delight and admiration of every passer-by. lu order the better to accomplish this desirable result, cottagers should act upon some well-organised plan of procedure. They should make arrangements to devote certain days and snatches of time to the culti- vation of their gardens, the mending of -their fences, and the preservation of neatness about their premises. They should likewise make a point of setting their youngsters early to work in giving them assistance ; for this will confirm them in habits of industry, and will greatly benefit their bodily health and moral fiMlings. Not a few onttagen encourage, or at least allow, the keeping of useless dogs about their house- holds, greatly to the annoyance of the neighbourhood and passing traveller. We consider that the many Gurs which are thus kept are a serious nuisance, and greatly encumber the cottage economy, unless when kept as watch or sheep dogs. The cottager should not by any means throw away his valuable time — for time Is to him ai good as money — in cultivating breeds of dogs or game cocks, which can only lead to loaa In the end, but act, *• w« ny, on ■ eyitematic plan of practical utility, ietting a good •sample to the rising generation around him, and beetowing all that part of hli time not direeted to actual labour and harmleii recreation on the itering of hia mind with general knowMg* lultable to hia capacity or taste. THi cow. No lubjeet li of greawr Importance to the cottager than a perfect knowledge of the management of cowi, and an acquaintance with thoie breed! which In the end turn out molt profitable. It hai long been ascer- tained beyond a doubt, that certain breedi of cattle are more lusceptibia of increasing in bulk than others. The same quantity at fbod may be given to those which have a tandency to be lean, and to thoae which take on fat and muule easily, and, consequently, the food given to the former is lost to the feeder. The whole Of the cow kind — of which there are about nine different species— are ranked among thoae quadmpeda which nwuraliita term ruminating ani- maU, in coniequenco of their chewing the cud-~an operation which they alwaya perform to grind their food mora thoroughly, for the purpose of fitting it for being converted Into chyle, for the nouriihmenf and lupport of their bodies. As animali of this kind are entirely confined to grain and herbage for food, it is necessary that they should receive a large quantity into the stomach, at well aa to retain it a considerable time before It Is reduced Into proper chyle ; for this purpose their intestines are remariiably long and ca- pacious, and formed Into a variety of foldings. They are provided with no leia than foar ttomashi. The food, alter beUg mutlcated or ground, is conveyed into the first stomach, where It remalna for some time ; after which it ii farced up again into the month, and undergoes a second chewing ; it li then sent di- rectly into the second stomach, and gradually puses into the third and fourth ; from whence it Is trans, mittad through the convolutions of the intestines. By t^*s conformation, ruminating animals are enabled to devour large quantities of vegetable food, to retain it long In their bowels, and consequently extract from it a quantity of nutritious matter, sulHclent for their growth and support Being destitute of the upper fore-teeth, the cow prefers the high and rich gras. in pastures, to the short and more delicate herbage generally selected by the horse. Fur this reason, In our British pastures where the grass is rather high and flourishing than succulent and nutritious, the cow thrives admirably ; and there is no part of Europe In which thin animal grazes longer, yields more milk, or faiteni looner. The age of the cow ii known by its horns ; at the age of three years, the animal scales off a very slight external shell or coating from them, and at four years a ring is formed at their roots. Every succeeding year, another ring is added. Thu», by allowing three years before their appearance, and then reckoning the num. Iier of rings, the creature's age may be exactly known. The quantity of milk given by cows is very vari. ous; some will yield about six quarts in one day, while others give from ten to fifteen, and sometimes even twenty. The richness of the pasture contributes not a little te ita increase. There have been instances of cows giving upwards of thirty quartt of milk in one day. In such caiei therb ii a necessity fur milking them thrice. From the milk of some cows, fourteeu pounds of butter are made in a week. It it well known that the cow will yield her milk freely, and will continue to give It as long without the aid of a calf aa If it were permitted to suck her constantly. This is not the case with the ass, which will soon grow dry if her foal be not permitted to suck part of her milk every day. Cows go vflth young about nine monthi, and seldom produce more than one at a time. For a week or so previous to calving, they ought to be kept in an outhouse, which may be the means of preventing many accidents that occur dur- ing this critical period to both cow and calf. But if tho cow should happen lo hay* been left out In a cold night when in this state, and catch cold, which not unfraquenlly happens — and which may be aacertainad by a trembling in the Jointa and her refusing food — the sooner the It driven Inte a warm situation the better. She ihonld be provided with warm draughta of ale and beer, and good hay given her ; but upon no account to drink till the hat recovered, which will generally be effected In a few days by careful treat- ment : but when this process is ineffectual, balls of aromatic cordial subitancei ihould be given. Until modem times, the cowt of Britain were lank and thin in compariton to thoie of Holland or the Low Countriet, and a great improvement has been wrought in our breed by the Introduction of the Hol- stein or Dutch breed. This breed continued for 1 number of yeara the prevailing stock in all the ooun- tiea on the eaatam coast of Britain. In good pastures cattle of this kind grew to a large lize, and the cows yielded a greater abundance of milk than thoie of almoet any other kind. The first general principle laid down and adhered to In the improvement of tho several breeds of cattle, and which has been so sno« cessfully brought into practice, was the most ob- vious — that it, the beauty of form ; a principle which has been In common applied to every species of do- mestic cattle, and, with great seeming propriety, was supposed to form the basis of every kind of Improve- ment, under an idea that beauty of form and utility were inseparable. But at present a distinction la made, by men who have long been conversant in prac- tice, between a useful lort and that which it merely handiome. Utility of form is therefore the next ge- neral principle, and may be considered as arising from a larger proportion of lOoee parte which are the moat useful t thus, for instance, all those partt which are deemed offal, or which bear an Inferior price, should be small In proportion to the better parU. A third principle of improvement laid down fay breeders oon- siiu in the fineness or the muscular fibre, or what is termed flesh. But the great object which occupies the attention of breeders at present, is the fattening quality, or a natural propensity in cattle to arrive at a state of fatness at an early age, and in a short space of time ; and it appears from observation, that beauty and utility of form, the quality of the flesh and its propensity te fatness, are principles consistent with each other, and are frequently found united in the same individual, and hereditary in particular lines or fami- lies of cattle. In regard te the means of improve- ment, it has long been an established maxim, that to improve the bieed It Is necessary to cross It with others of an alien ^tork, under an opinion that con- tinuing to breed from the same line weakens the stock and produces degeneracy. Mr Alton, in a paper on the Dairy Cattle of Ayr- shire, in the Journal of Agriculture fur March lf)34, has made the following useful observations on the system pursued in regard to cows in that county t " It is certainly best to breed from bulls of good shape, and of a size suited to the cows to which they are put, otherwise their offspring will have large coarse bones, and never will be strong and spirited. In proportion tu their size. They will be in fact ill shaped, dull, unhealthy mongrels. The most skiirul breeders of dairy.stock in Ayrshire prefer bulls that have least of a masculine shape, and which lrw»rd, aiiri a«[tlier ftethv. low Imnj, nor lonw, with larg* and pn>mineiu milk-vitindj twiti ihort, j>oIn»'"K*>«l"»"*»t and »t a ntnniileol'le dinunn from ench ochart the akin thin nnd Iimim i hairtaft and wnoHyi riiv ImmI, hnrni. nnd (mrtii nf IpMt valua Rmall, and the general ifpirf* ntmpmcx and well proportioned. It in not tti be nndiTiitiHMl that every dairy.cow, or that any one of fhem. haH alt theoe flrie ihipei. But then are fflTen inerelv as the perfection of the breed, or the ibapat moit deiired and nought after." PKODUCE or THE DAIKT. Where people are of the humbler waHti of Ufa, ftnd kerp K Mtiifle cow, the mnn ohviouR pnrpn*eof iu milk I* t)» nw it In the Ant place ai food. Where there are yHinir rhildraiif it It of onuoh utility, and fnnijiiket tlie fMmily with a very nourtiking artide of dial. Whcrtf hut one aiw ii kept, and the family oouMnia of from two to three children, henidei kiipplyinfc them auffinrntly with iikim-mtik, aerrtain portion nf butler aiav he iriHdai and the butler-mitk will afford an l^rrrthln and wholeMima variety aa a liiiuid t« broad or oatrnwl porridge, and alto at a drink. Wbare there ii> too much •kim^milk to be coniumed by the family, the rest may he employed in making bread, as • snbiititnta for water. It greatly Improves the bread, and keeps it longer moist than wbea baked with wa- Mr. In very hot weather, however, bread made with Btilk is more liable to heatme sour. Another uie to which it may he applied with great beneAt it in feed. Ing pigp, more especially some time before they are UUed, as it not only asaiMe ia rmdering their Aveh whiter, but also hsa a tondeney to firm iu Milk is a df-licate article, and rt-quirea, as wall at the cows which yield it, very great nicety of manage* nent. A great mistake is ofWn commitii'd In keeping B oowhfluse cloee and foul in ite atmoephera. What. «ver be the extent of the oowhnueai, It ought to be at least ten or twelve feet high in the sida.walls, with pro- per apertures, and have no lofts al»ove, so that the ouws may nave that which is abiolutttly necessary for their i«mitb, a plentiftil nupply of pure air. Cowi ihoul'.i he kept dry, hiit not warm t they oncht to be wH) rubbed down daily t the dung tbtuild also be removed carefully, and tha urine rarried off in a paved ohaniial to the dunghrap, or into the cottage garden— not per- mitted to exhale, and therefore lost for pur|>ose» of •grieulture. The bent way to tie up a cnwis to attach it by a moveable etiain to an upright iron rod ; but it must poksess as much liberty as will allow it to lidk heelf. Alter the milk ia procured from the oow and pmperly sieved — but not strained till nearly cool if in warm weather — it should be placed in vessels in a cool ilUhlionM, where there is a f ree atminphere, and pro. parly eecludcd from flies and other insecM by means oi gause on the windows. The milk-pans or veaeels ■houtd l>e large and broad, and it la said that, if made of R metal railed xinc, the cream will be more effec- ttially thrown up. The addition of a little hot water will also tend to produce cream in greater abundance. Immense oaremutt betaken to clean the milk, veesels. If they be in the least degree soured, the nweet milk li undone. The milk shuuld never be itifTered to sour ia tweet-milk pan», hut i^kimmfMi and rarried off with- it twenty.fonr hours if in summer. The tame or still gvMter care should be taken in cleanting the ehurn from all milky particles after being used. U ia inat. tantiun to these pointa that cautee nine.tenths uf all the bad butter aud cbeete iu this country. All milk- VWsels should he well rinsed with hut water, and ex. poeed to the open air to dry. In feeding eows which are kept within doors, the fallowing haa been the most effectual way for inducing a large supply uf milk t— They are fed with a bushel of grains, mixed with about an ounce of salt, at three o'clock in the morning; they are afterwsrds milked ahent six o'clock, and a quantity of turnipH given to them, nnd shortly afterwarda a proportion of meadow hfy, equal to a tenth part of a truss. The wiws are then turned out into the open air iu a yard or some inch omvenieut place, where they remain till abtitit twelve at noon, and iupplied with the same quantity uf grass as in the morning, and again milkei:* about hall'paot one o'clock, after which tliey are again sup. plied with the same quantity uf turnipi as before, aud in an hour tliereafter with bay, eqiikl in quantity to the former meal. This It the system pumued in feed- ing from t*eptember till Alay, while turnips are in season. In tlie summer moiitlis tbey are fed upon cahbagcfi, rares, gr»ins, and setjond-cut meadow ttsy ; and vytiere it luiu the cuwleeder, the - are turned out to grunR, and kept bi'tb day and nighi in the field. The daily nventge of milk given hy a Ijonduu cuw is es. timsted at nine quart*, or the great quantity of 33Hft quart* annually i which is, however, n«-vcr sold iu its pure sute, but generally plentifully mixed with wa> ter. In Kiiinhurgh, milch cows are generslly of the Nor- thnmherland, Aymhire, and Hoxbtirgh hret^dn. 'i'hese are seldom keiit by the feeders fur more than a single year, by which time they contrive to fatten them tor •ale. In I^ndon, on the contrary, tltey are retained from five tr> seven yean. The feeders in Scotland Hud that the quickest and moiteHTectiial method of putting them in selling condition is to leed them on hrewera* WMh, and the residue of the grains, cnllfd drnff, wlkich banthequality not only of fattening qnicfcly, btit also produoiny a greater supply of milk. To these are mUm hMj, iMlUiigi, and hrao ; aad in the ipriug Mid 303 gtWiari and whan the aowfeedara ratlda at a oanvenlant dls- tanoa from grau parks, ihey are sent to them, wliere they oontinua night and day during the summer moaihs. Whafty nowcwar, amn are kapt oonsuntly in the bousa, iha ft adars, Id fftvtng tbam mss, uke care always to place straw or hay twneatb ft, and this is constantly aacan by tha oow aftar it haa finlRhed tha grass. In Edinburgh, cows are usually milked twice a-day, namely, at half-past five in the morning and three ia tha afliernoon, althoiif h it la somedmrn na- cflssary to do It threa times. The produce may be averaged at twenty-four English pints daily, each cow. This quantity is obtained from cows of the best breeds, hut thf>sa of a smaller kind give much less, varying from cwatre to alglvteen English pints a-day. Theoe latter otmsuma as miieh meat as cows of the largest kind 1 henoa it is obvwns that there is much more profit in keeping thoee uf a superior breed, luit only from giving a larger quantity of milk, but they bcnides feed faster, and consequently turu out to greater ac- count In tha and. It must ba obvions to thoaa eottara and farm-sar- vants who possess a single oow, that the mora impriwad the breed, the better. It may be difficult at first to raise a sum sufficient to purchase a large cow ; but it will be much their interest to sccme distance from a small town, she was obliged tochurn the milk, and carry tha butter to market. She sold as much of the but- ter.milk as the could, and with the rei>t she fed pigs; she aliin made cheese from the skim. milk. Her great- est difficulty was In obtaining bedding for her cow and pigs during tha firu year. This she overcame, by cutting rushes from the side of a stream, and tha grass which grew in a fir plantation at a little diitanoe from her retidence. She made a determined resolu. tion to lay asida every fhrthing of the oiw's prodme, for the purpose of obtaining a superior animal when bar first oua eaassd to give milk. The first winter's meat was also facaw up«m her. This she took oara to provide for In tiie following summer, bba had carefully accumulated all the manure of her cow-house and piggvry; this she would not dispose of, but agreed with a neighbouring farmer for the use of as much ground as would supply her oow with winter turnips and poutiies, aud manured and planted it. This not only served her own purpose, but also benefited the farmer; aa it is well known that the liest crops of wheat or t>au are olitained after a green crop, and the grouud is also cleaned in consequouce of the mode of culture necessary for green crops. This so com- pletely answered her expectations, that she had ample provisions for her cow, had as many potatoes as kerved ber family, and with the small ones fed her cow and pigs. Hy determined eumiomy, she soon was at>le to pur- chase an adcitional oow, and continued during a long life Ut pursue the same course, greatly to tha bauafit uf her family. If actrttagerhas forty rods of land, it should be dug or trenched in the spring, always keeping the top earth at tha top. In April or May, it should be laid nut in high aud sharp ridges, about two feet apart. When the weeds appear, and have got about three Inches high, if the weather is dry, the ridges ithiMild be turned inte only a quarter uf an iuch below the surface. Rake it kuuMiib, but do not tiead the ground at this early season. Treading may be pro. per in light soils in summer, hut iu spring and autumn it ia hurtful. AVheu thvy have acquired six leaven, they «hot only to keep the weedi duivn, but aUo to enciurage the gruu'tli of the plants; and they uill thereby be- come straight and strong. The remaining thirty-six rods shmild be mantired and turned over e.%rly in Noremtirr ; and than transphint the plants on the ridges, at fifteen inebaa apartr taking aara la taplaaa any uf th« ^itauu which fall Xhasa plauu should ba protected against the rigour of a hard wfater hy means of straw, ferns, litter, ar rvshas. These nmst be kid between the rows and the plants, taking care not to cover the leaves ; and plants that die from the effaoU of fnrtt muat be replaced from the bed. A great enemy to uabbHtfes is the slug, anu tha ut. most pains ought to be taken to destroy thasa wher. erar way appaar. Many plans have been snggesied for destroying these animals, but none is so effectual as to search for and destroy them. The evening ia the time they generally crawl abroad, or after a shower, at any time of day. During winter, many of the out. side leaves will turn b. uk and decay ; but wbeaavar they begin to show a disaositfon to do so, they should liacutoff and given to the cow, otherwise they will go to waste. It has been computed, and indeed ax* perience has proved It, that tha above number of oabbagas ^mld keep a oow for ahont two hundred days, suppoainff she is allowed eight pounds of them each day. This, it must be oltserved. Is sufficient Aw a large cow ; and a small one may be kept perfectly oa from seventy to seventy.fiva pounds a-day. Care mtfst be taken to nse those wnlch have not grown solid, in the first place, as they are most liable to da. cay. Iu the mouth of March, mora early York cab* hages should be sown, and also iu ApriL The ground which has been cleared of plants must now l>e dug and thoroughly manured; and oonttnne to do so aa Che cabbages are ctit and well cohered in. These spota should baphmtad with strong p.- nts,wbieb will bring a suociission of cabbagm fit fur use at different times. In selecting the cabbage-plants for transplanting at this late season, strong ones only should be ured. This need not be continued after tba middle of August, aa what has already been recommended will give food till November, bv which time from three to four thou- sand turnips will have arrived at maturity. It hi supposed tnat these turnips are full-sized, that Is, averaging abont from four pounds and three.quartera to live poands each « oensequently, at fifteen pouada a-day, this will serve a cow for six months, indepen- dently of the cabbage. During summer, the bast kind of food for cows Is of course grass pasture, but this may be greatly assisted by the tndtuuy of the cottager. SCAKINO CUKBBE. Im situations where awael milk cannot be ooara- nieatly disposed of, the making of cheese is a must important method of converting the milk to the best advantage. The coagulation of milk is prodnc«l hy several snhstanoes ; but that in most general use is the preparatiim of tha stomach of a suiting calf, properly cleaned and soahad in a ^Ine oi salt and water. Tha following is tha method of preparing this by Mr Maiw Hball, a celebrated agricultuHit : — ** Take a calf's bsg, maw, or ston.acb, and having taken out the curd contained therein, wash it clean and salt It thoroughly, inside and out, leaving a whiw coat of salt overeverr part of it. Put it into an earthen Jar or other Tnssel, and 1st it stand three or four days, in which time It will have formed the salt and iu own natural juica into a pickla. Take it ont of the Jar, and bung it up for two or threa days, to let tha pickle drain from It t resalt it, place it again in a jar, cover It tight dowa wiih a paper pierced with a Urge pin, aiMl in ihia state let it remain till it he wanted i<>r use. In thia state it ought to he kept twelve months : It may, how- ever, in case of necessity, be used in a fisw days after it has received the second malting; but it will not ba S4> strong as if kept a lunger time. To prepare tha rennet for uae, take a handful uf the leaves of sweet briar, the same quantity nf the leaves ordogroso,and tha like quantity of bramble leares; boll them in a gallon of water, with three or fiiar handfuls of salt, about a quarter of an hour ; strain off the liquor, and having let it stand until perfectiv cool, put it into an eartheu vessel, and add to it the maw prepared aa above. To this is added a sound good lemon, stuck round with about a quarter of an ounce nf cloves, which gives the rennet an agreeable tlavour. The hmger the bag remains In the liquor, the stronger of course will be ttie renncL The t|uantity, tiierefore, requiiiite to turn a given quantity of milk, can unly he ascertained hy daily use and ohservHtion.*' In (ilouces- te-iihire,athirdofapint is used to coagulate fifty gulloni of milk t but as a general average, it is perhaps safer to take somethiuglus than half an l^ugliith pint; much, however, depends upon the strength of the rmnet. To make milk coagulate properly, it should be heated to from eightv-five to ninety degrees ; and after the rennet is applied, It ought to ftand two honrs, dnr* ing which time it should be covered, so as to allow about five degrees of its coagulate, and the curd lie broken, aud the whey quickly and Htrnngly pressed uut, theclieesa will be very poor, as miu^b of the rich pare of tha milk is prenwd ont. The whey ought therefore to lie cautiously removed, aud a gentle ;>re«sun) used ; then tiie cheese will he giMid. The quality of cheese in extremely variable, and the goodiie»s uf ita quality deiwids greatly on the manner iu which it hits been made ; such an, whether It has been made uf milk of one meni, of twomeals, orsklmmed milk. The method of raiUtlng aise aAem It, as waU as the eaaaon of th« year ; tha pray ftratUa of the rtoneti the maaatr In nm f COTTAGE ECONOMY. to whiah It hw* t>Mn coafulatad, the |tftth«rlng of Uia •nrd, th« Mliing, and ita mftSAgmntnt i» tho proM. Wo ibftU ondaorour (o givo loiiio htnM on th«M ptr- tieulan. jrUMfi7.*-Tho oowi shouM bt nllkod (■ tummtr at four o*oloek In Uio mornlnK snd fbur In tbo oftor. noon. Enrjr drop of tho mtw ihould be uktn awfty, M Uit ImI drawn ti by far tb« riehttl i- ;'« alloirad to run about, M thli iDfttoriaHjr afcoit tho milk. In Gkm> GMtenhiro, all tbo beat eboMOi ar« inado from one noil of milk. Ttmmtnttwt ^ OU CurdL^It U liud tkak milk which DM bi>«n of o da— d oa poor oUy mIIo BoqnArM to Im ooftgulttted at a blahar lomperature thau that which it the prodnoa of liok paaaureai aifioiy daftaaai being whar i$ considered the beat for the laiaar kind of loiUt (or thoie of the former tAia beak may he ninetyp of the vat, and the whole are placed in the i oheese-presa anU allowed to remain two hours. The aheese, after being taken out and a dry cloth aubstl' tuted,ia turned upiide down In the rat, ana again put in the prasa, where it ia aUawed to remain lur eight bours, when it is again taken our, rubbed with valt, a clean cloth again applied, and then put into the press a third time, and allowed t<» remain fur twelve or fourteen hours. Whan it is taken out, if any of the curd has forced Its way beyond the shape of the vat, it is pared off. The cheeae is then placed upon a ahelf» and regularly turned every day till siLffldeaily dry. ^Xr^uirrtny.'— In tha process of forming very large chee&eii, it beci>mes neues«ary to have perforationn in the hides ei* tlie vat, for the reception of Iron skewers, which muHt Iw thrust throush them iu all directiims to fHcilitata the escape of the whey. This must be xapeatedly dune during tha first day's pressing be- cause it is quite neoeasary that every drop of the whey fthould ba expelled, otherwise tiie cheese will not keep. Cfueae-Pitu.-^Tntn an now many very weH-Gon- trived cheese- presses. Perhaps one of the most con- Tenieut and cheHpest Is that manufactured at the Shotis imnwoiki, Scotland. It costs only three pounds five sbiliings. In this machine the pressure U produced by the combination of a rack-wheel and pinJoiiH, with a levnr and weighL By this the pressure can he regulated to the greatest nicety. Is has also great powers, and is capable of communiaating prea- aure of from a ton and a half to two tons and a naif, which is sufficient for much larger chaeaaa than are mode in Britain. Cioucetter Chw». — In dils county tha beal eheesea areulw.tysmadeof a single meal of milk. These go by the name of one-meal cheeses. Cheesee are made 'if two sixes, the double and the single; the one thin and the other thick ; the former having eight to the Itundredweif^ht, and the thick four, olngle cheenea are made from April till November, but the thick are made only iu May, June, and the early part of July- Good uheese can, however, be made all winter, al- thiMi^h not equal in quality to that made during the ■umnier months. Tha iuferlor qualities of cheese made in thin coiiiityareproduced with half new milk and half skim-niilk. Gloucester cheeae is coloured with apa- ninh arnutto. The red pu';» which covers the seedkof that plant is suspended in vessels of hot water, and is allowed to subside at the bottom of the vessel, and afterwards dried and formed into cakes ur balls. To every hundredweight uf cheese an ounce of this sub. Stance tt used. A piece of this arnotto la rubbed 3(13 upon a tmoech atonak and It b mixad with tha milk baftnw tha rannat ia applied. CAeMlfV CArrsa..— The c h s e aaa nf this oounty are fenaralty made of a vary large %km, watghing fnim sixty to osia hundred pouads. They are usually made from the mUk of two meals ( and ia the wiuter, soma. simaaHveor six meals are employed la m-king etird. Tba ereaai Is withdrawn from the evening's milk, aad again added In tba laornlagt otftMra do not add she oraam at all. There are various epiiiioaa respecting iha propriety at ihia proceeding, wbioh arasull uada- clded. When two maale of milk ara made use of, a part of the eraamad milk of tha forater meal, to the proaartlon of a half, a third, or only some four or aix galltmo, are kept, and msde scalding hot ov«r a fire. Half of this is then poured into the cbeesO'tub aiauiig tha oeld milk, and the remainder into the vessel iu which the cream ot this milk had beea placed. All these are thrapra into the cheene-ttkb together, and to them is added tha fresh milk which has just come from ttie cow. They term this pruoese melting tiui uream, and is considered tha best method of uniting different meala of milk. Tha raanet is now added. Arnocao le also used in Cheshire as •oeluuring mat- ter ; this is added by tying up a suflciani quantity ia a linen rag, and plaeiag it in half a pint of urarm wa- ter, in which it iaallowt^d fen remain during the night. Tb ) water, after the rag has beeit well squeezed into it, is now added to the milk in tha cbeese-tub. The same method uf breaking tha curd Is pursued aa we have above notii:ed. They make a practice uf shifting the cheese very often when in the press ; frequently not allowing it to remain mora than half an hour ata time for the first half day; after which It is taken out ff lU cloth, and placed in a tub uf hat whey or we- ar, and permitted to remain from an hour and a half to two hours ; this ia to' give tenacity to the sliin, and to prevent bllster.ng; it is then dried, and, being co- vered with a dry cloth, Is again placed in the vat, and put into the press. It is sometimes pricked all uvert4> allow the escape i.f air, which might bliBter it. Fur two days therejiter, it Is removed twice a^day, and rolled in a dry cloth ; after which it Is taken out and placed on the drying shelf. In the operation of the two last turnings, finer cloths are employed, to prevent any coarse merits fnim the threads being seen on the surface. Sume are so particular aa to place the cheese for some hours in the vat without a cloth, so as to ef- face all the thread-marks. In Cheshire they have two methods oi salting cheese, very different from that pur- sued in Oloucesiarahire : the first of which is to place tha oheeaa In the vat, in a cloth which has l>een immarsed in brine, and then allow it to remain for se- veral days, turning it at least once a-day ; another method is to cover the upper surface uf the cheene with salt every time it is turned, fur three days ; during which titua the cloth munt lie twice clmnged. Both of these processes are completed by afterwards placing tha obaesa upon a salting bench, and then rub- bing the wbob axternal surface with salt for eight or teu days successively. It is then washed with warm whey or water, and placed on the drying shelf, where it remains fur three weeks in summer, and a month or five weeks in winter. Three pounds uf salt are re. quired fur a cheese uf sixty pounds. The next opera- tion is to smear the whole surface of the cheese with butter; they are placed on shelves, and firmly rubbed, and again smeared daily for fifteen days. However long the farmer keeps his cheese, the turning daily is constantly kept up, and rubbing employed thrice a- week in summer, and twice la winter. Stitton Cheeaf. — The evening*s meal of milk la al- lowed to stand ( it is eraamad next morning, and added to the morning's meal along with the rennet. When it has C4tagulated, the curd is not broken in the ordi- nary way, but Is taken out whole, and placed in a sieve to drain gradually. During this process, a gen- tle pressure is applied ; and when it is divested uf all the whey, it ia placed In the vat, and kept on a dry buard. fiitiltun cheeses generally weigh from six tu twidve pounds ; they require two yeara to ripan suf. tioieutly fur sala^ and ara never considered to be so tilt thay are blue inside. To hasten ripeness, some far* men add wine to the curd. These uheeaes are some- times made ia a net, which gives them the form of » melon, and these ara raveraed daily in the process of drying. They are the must valuable of all the British cheeses. LincotnsMrt CAasw. — An axoeUent cnam cheese is made in this county, by rataining the ereaaa of a for- mer meal of milk, and adding to that whieh is im- mediately from tha oow. This cheese Is only preased two or three times, and, whan only a iisw days old, is sold tu ba eaten with salads, suUi aa lattuoea and ra- dishes. Bwnhp Che$»0. — Thla chaaie tauk f ta name from the parish of Dunlop) In Ayrahira, Bcothmd, wheraitwas originally manufactured ; bat clrneee equal in quality, and made en the same prineiples, ia produced in va- ritiUH parts uf Hootland. It is said that cheese from uuNkininied milk was not made in Scotland till after tite revolution. Tradition says that it was first made by a woman named Bariiara Uilmour, who, having tied Scotland frtmi religious persecution, and taken rafiige in Ireland, returned from thence to her native purish Dunlop, in Ayrshire, and introduced the mak- ing of this cheese. Huw she acquired a knowledge ut this in Ireland at so early a period, we cannot C(»n- jecture, as at the present day it is a notorious lact that good cheese is seldom produced in that country, which la ramarkal'la in an eminent degrae Iwr the ritf^ itass of iu pasture, aad, couaequanJy, tha aupariar quality of its butler. In this distrhit of Ayrshire tha eowa an of tha a^| Improved bread, tha average living weight varylaf from thirty ut forty stone. They asa kept consltfKlj iu the ficMs from May till Ocbiber, whieh may haav a teadaut'y to give a riubnese t« their milk, as ttsaw eajoy the b«ai health and vigtub, and cut into very small portions by means of a four-bladed kuife; indeed, some individuals use une with six bladea. A sutUcient proportion of salt is theu added, and well ntixed with the hands. As this In generally done by gueu, thera must of C4)urse be considerable variety In the saltneaf of the cheese ; which perhaps is as well, as there ia much variety of taste in this respect. After these operations, it is put into the vac or cheese-mould, which is called a ofaeesit, chessel, ur chesser, in Scot^ land. The curd i not put in In lumps, but rubbed as small as possible between the hands. It is then put into a prass, t nd afterwards frequently removed,, and the cloth cbi nged, and raplaoed by a dry oaa^ This process is UP jHlly continued for from twotothraa days, aud the c'.ecae Is then uken out and placed an ashelf, turned Aiid rubttedcarafully withacoamedutk daily. Dunlop cheeae hae always been made wiiiuiut anycolouring, but of late years the practice of colour* ing has been Introduced by many of our Scottish far- mers ; but tha true lover of Daiilop cheene prefers them In their unsophisticated and unadorned state; for however colour may please the eye, it adds nothing to the pleasure uf the palate. Ihinlop cheeses ara made of various siaes, from twenty to sixty pounde ( and it has been calcuUted that a doxen cows will pra. duce upwards of a toti and a half in a season. Tba cheese-press which has be«n lung used in Ayrshire it of a simple CMnstrnction. It coiihUttsnf a large cubical stone, from half a ton to a ton in weight, placed In a framework of wood, and raised and depressed by means of a Mrew; and cottagers content themaelvea with a larga flat stone, which Is lifted off and on tba vat with the hands. Hr Robison, secretary of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, has discovered a mode of speedily rendering any cheese bhie, which is by perforating it with an instrument, and introducing a little uf the blue of an- other cheese into it, which haa the effect of inoctilat> ing even the newest cheese. lytitthire Green CAaase'..— Tkia is a fanciful kind of cheeee, which is produoad by stewing in a given quantity of milk, au« part of marigald leavce, with two parM of sage leaves, allowing them to remain one night; to this are added a tew parsley leave*. Thia dccuotiun ia then ouagulated, and aftei wards mixed with a cartaiu quaatity of curd made in the usual manner. The eheeee is then formed in thj or- dinary way. We have seen a cheeae of this kind In France, which was aaid to have been made In ttwitaerioiMl, which had, beaides the above ingredi- ents, the fiavour of wild thyme and roeeaiory. But wa uonivaa it needs an acquired tasta to relish tiiese. E»€-mUk ChtMt. — This cheeae is made by a mix- ture uf ewe- milk and cow-mHk, in the proportion uf •wo parts of the former to one of the latter. The prooees of coagulation and formation of the cheeae is in the ordinary manner. It is generally Hiade Salter than oow-milk cheese, and has a strong and pongeiit taste. An imitation of Parmaaan or Italian clieesti bus been made from ewe-aulk, in tha same manner as the true ohaeae of that name la made. MAJUMO aVD CUBIHO BUTTEH. Cfmrmng. — There ara various methods practif«d in thia operatiuB. Home persona put the new milk directly into tha churn, and permit it to stand until the cream is thrown up on Its surtace, aad ihen churn tha whole together ; others put the milk into large ilat diebas, and permit it to stand from seven to eight hours (seaoe permit it to stand twelve huurs), till the cream has risen, and then skim it off, aud churn it alone, which is reckoned the heat mode of conducting the process. In creaming, the cream should if piHMible be iiflad off the dish all iu one unbn>ken mass. This may be aecumplished by loosing it ail round with the craaming-spoon, and drawing it to one side ')f the dish, wiien it may be easily lilted. Cream may be kept from three tu seven days before being churned, dependitig U(ion the ntaie of tlie weather. It requires more labour and time to make butter frtmi the milk andcieam churned tugethet.f but it has been fonud !4 ^!i CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Ibtt ft grMMr quantUjr of butter ii pro.-3«l from tktt praotlot. Urwt ■I'^inM* 1» the mution of ths fttkk, or dri ring of th« haadia In htrrol. churns, li r«. qtttrvd. Want of ■ttantioa in tbU rMpcot hu bean known entlraly to ipoil the buitor. lu ■ummor, biiu Ur ibftuld b* ehumed Mtly in tha miirninf. If tha eonroon upright ohum !• u»ad, ft •hmtld ba plftoe- in • tub of oold water, which ought to aziaud for a foot up Ita tidaa, and be kept in tbli lituation during the whola operation of churning. By uting thia preoau- tloD, tha butter will ba Armerf and will mora easily Kparata from the milk. In winter, on the contrary, heat it nectftiary for the aocompUthment of chuniing more eMily: the kitchen firatide ii a rery proper place for thepjrpoae; while care mutt be taken to prevent tha one side of the churn from getting heated, ai thii. would haTa a tendency to render the butter randd and ill tasted. When ihe butter has fully come, it it uken out of the churn with the skimrolng-dUh, and put into a wooden or crockery rassel ; if the for. mar, it should ba previously wall rubbed with salt, to prevent It slicking to tha sides. The milk is now csnfiilly pressed out of the buttart to effect which, It rtqulrea considerable pressure i for if any of the milE remains, the butter will soon spoil. Some are In the habit of washing the buttar with oold water, but this ti an unnecessary practice. Making up.-^The butter Is now made up Into rolls or small prints cut from flat moulds of wood, on which are relieved figures of lome kind. If the butter Is soft, it may be placed in wooden or other vessels, and there allowed tu iwiro in cold water, but It is consi- dered bad to allow the butter itself to come in contact with water. Curing or Salting Butter.— Wooden vessels are tha basr for preserving butter when salted. These should ba internally rubbed firmly with sail, and the cavity round the margin of the bottom should be 611ed up with melted butter which has been salted. The best preparation for preserving buttar Is one part of sugar, one part of nitre, and two parts of salt. These are all finely pounded together, and to every pound of butter an ounce of this composition Is used, and com- ^tely mixed with the butter u soon as it is made ; it Is then placed in the kit or firkin, and closely pressed down, and rendered quite even on the sur- Mce, and carefully overud with a doth which has bean smeared with melted butter, to prevent tha air from affecting It. Some use parchment for this pur- poeo. This operation should be repeated till the vessel is completely filled, when it must be covered, with a double piece of cloth, over which has been poured melted butter, and all tha cavities completely filled up with the name, and kome salt sprinkled over ttie surface. The firkin should then have a wooden lid or •ovBtiugf which must fit it as tightly as possible, so as totally to esclude the air, for It is this element which destroys the butter by coming ia contact with iU Every time, therefore, uat butter is takeu out of the firkin. It should be closely covered up. The more effectually to guard against rancidity when curing salt buttar, a strong brine of salt Is poured over its sur- face. Winter-made butter Is always very pale ; to give It a richer appearanc^ a dye is frequently added. The bast and safest are the leaves of marigold and carrot juice, which are placed In a cloth, and squeeied amongst tha cream when put into the churn. RKAKlira CATTLI. Although this department of our subject mora pro. perly belongs to farming and grazing than to Cottage Economy, we shall give a few of the Leading poiuu to be attended to, Caiwt should be allowed to suck their dams for some time, at least two or three weeks ; but in lieu of this, milk may be given to them to drink from a palL After the first fortnight, half or even the whole may be skimmed milk, and in many psru eveu this Is mixed with water { and no other food is given them till they are «l>le to graze. In Cheshire they are snckled for three weeks, and afterwards fed on whey, buttermilk, or Bkimmad milk, mixed with four, pea or bean meal, or oatmeal. Sometimes they get a mix- ture of all these, and at other times separately ; but this depends upon the fancy of the feeder. Many per- sons think calves should never be allowed to suck their dam at all, but at once be taught to drink from a pail, by wbicii means they are not liable tu fall off or snfft>r by weaning. The quantity allowed tuacaif is about two giilluns of milk daily at first i this, how- evpr, niurt lie increased as they adVance in age, and farinace«>MS substances, at atHive recomment'.ed, added to it. The tiest winter feeding lor calves ii hay, and clover hay is decidedly the fittest for the purpose. It ban \*vtt\ found sometimes that feeding very young calves on old milk has the effect of scouring them fur some time, but it will soon go off. The following is the Duke of Nurthumtwr land's method of feeding calvM t — Take one gallon of skimmed milk, and to about half a pint of it add halt an ounce of treacle, and mix them thoroughly; then tike one ounce of linsevd oilcake, finely pounded, and sprinkle it into the milk, utiile it is mirred «11 the time with a spoon. When properly incorporated, mix the whule togethf r, ftnd platre it on the fire till it is aiiout the warmth of new miik. Tliis must then be given to the calf. The quantity of powdered oUuaka may be increased as oc- casion requires, Spring has long bean found to ba tha bast time for raarliig culvas, but this will depend much upon the 301 time the animals are calved. It has ''fii noticed tliHi thosit which liave been weaned lata In the lutuntn or in the winter seldom thrive wall. When ft calf Ik weaned from the teat in aprlng, it should be turned out during the day Into an inolosure where it will be fraa from harm, and where It can have tolanshly good grau to nibble at. If there are man than one calf, it Is lound they sooner become reconciled to their privation In being separated from their dams. For this purpose, also, they ought to ba at soma distance from where the dams are fad, so that they may not hear each other's lowing t and there ought to be naitbar ponds nor ditchaa where tha young animals may In- jure themselves. They should be provided with milk porridge at their feeding hours, and for the first six months they should ba removed under cover during Na night, aitar whioh they may be left out night and .ay. Their pasture should l>e frequently changed, and finally removed into a yard at Mio^lmas. After this they may be fad in the same mannkr as cows and other cattle. By the following summer they will, having bean properly fed, have acquired strength and substance, and, by way of economy, may be fad on the coarser pastures which may be in possession or within reach of the owner. It has been found of great benefit to feed young cattle on turnips for throe months during winter, for tha fint two ur three yaart. DISEASES or cows. There are many diseases to which homed cattle an liable, and some of these are of a dangerous kind. These are Field Fnwr.— Tha cure for this is bleeding, and in their drink half an ounce of ultra Is given twice a-day. In warm weather they need nut be housed. /r(/lamflia/ory Ftvtr is often induced by over-drlvlng and other causes i it prevails must in young animals. Bleeding and purgatives, with fever. powder as » drink, are the cures. It has been found that fuur drachms of muriatic acid, with a decoction of three pints of oak bark, have proved salutary fts a drink la this complaint. Epidemic InJlu4nMa. — This Is ft disorder to which cattle are very liable, and has lung been known as a scourge of these animals. It is caused by very stormy weather, and frequent changes of temperature. This disease at first commences by Itching of the ears, shak- ing uf the head, aud difficulty in swallowing, stagger- ing in their walk, great weaLness, and a constant de- sire to lie down ; with a discharge from the eyes and nostrils, a strong aud frequent cough, and an almost t'oustaut discharge of thin green faces. Bleeding for the first two days is recommended ; clean litter given frequently, aud the animal kept in a situation where there is a free circulation of air ; and fumigating the place often ; green taiughs burnt with pitch liave t>eeu efficacious. The body should ba washed with aroma- tic herbs in water, or, what Is stilt better, vinegar. Saline purgatives in the early stages have frequently bean found beneficial ; these may consist of from ten to twenty ounces of Epsom salts. When, however, tha disease assumes au alarming appearance, a farrier must be applied to, u it is unsafe fur unikilful persons to attempt a cure. Injtammalion of the lungs aud of the stomach, frenxy fever, and the hove or blotsn (an inflammation of the paunch, ending in ruptures), are also common ; but to discriminate these, requires much judgment, and it Is safer to apply to thosf skilled in the diseases and cure of cattle. Indeed, to gi^e a satisfactory ac- count of these, and to mark sucn treatment as Is re- quisite in all tha maladies of cattlf, would require a pretty lar^st volume. The principal disease of calves Is a kind of convul- sions, occasioned either by worms or cold. The best specific for worms are doses of turpentine of half an ounce at tjght, aud the same quantity next morning. Sometimes a simple dose of aloes will dislodge the worms. When the convulsions proceed from cuTd, the calf should be rolled in a warm blanket, and a doxe of a drachm of laudanum in ale given. When they are attacked with diarrbwa, the following preecriptiun may be administered in the shape uf a drink, which may consist of beer, or brewer's wash, aud draff :— . Glauber salts, dissolved, two ounces ; custor oil, four ounces ; powdered rhubarb, half a draiJim ; powdered opium, four grains; gruel, one pint. U they will take the above witSoutany other liquid, so much the better. BEEEOIMa AND FSEDINO FIOS, Animals of the hog kind possess a middle nature between those that live upon grass and such as are car- nivorous, and unite in themselves most of those dis- tinctiuns which are peculiar to each class. Like the one, they will teed on animal substances, and do nut ruminate ; like the other, they are cloven-hoofed, live chiefly on vegetables, and seldom seek after animat food, except when urged by necessity. The most nu- merous breed uf hogs in Ureat Bnuin is that generally known by the name ol the Berkshire pigs, now spread through almust every part uf KngUnd aud many parts uf Scotland, They are in general of a reddish* brown colour, spotted with black ; hitve large hang, log earn, nearly covering their eyes : are short-lagged, snialUtioned, aud easily ntade fut. bome of these have been fed to an almust incredible sixe. In umutry situations, where woods are extemlve, and tlie grass of them of no value tu the farmer, the feeding and breading of pigs will be fitund very pro- fiuble to tha coitftger; fur where they have a wide range, they will require but little fuod, iftva what they find for themselves In graslng upon the coarse grau, aud in digging tu tha ground for worms and roots of various kinds, for which their long and curiously formed snout peculiarly fits them ; and It Is only in tha fattening that any particular attention requires to ba devoted to the mtHla of feeding them. If there happana to ba ft mill nsftr at hand, the dust, sbelllniis, aad bran, will ba procured easily and cheaply. We oftn- not give ft batter Instance of the profit of a good bread of pigs than una which ocourrad nrar Droghedft In Iralftnd, In 1813, It was of a sow which was fed for nine months. The following was iU produce i— July 1813, it produced a litter of eleven, seven of which ware sold at SOs. each, L.10 10 July 18U, ft litter of eleven ( ulna lold et 40a. . . . 18 Mftreh, three of first litter sold In mftr- ketftt 31 April, sow sold fftt ftt . . ilO ft 6 L.79 1ft 6 And ft breeding iow wee kept, valued at L.aO. Thedomestio pig generally brings forth twice ft>yaftr, and produces from ten to twenty at a Utter ; she goee with young four months, and farrows early In the fifth. At tnat time she must be carefully watched, to prevent her from devouring her young ; still greater attention isnecessaryt4> keep off the male, as he would devour the whole litter. The flesh of the hog is a wholesome foi»d for those who take much exercise, but not for such as lead a sedentary life. It is uf great Importance to this country as a mercantile nation i fur it takes on salt better than any other kind of fiesh, and consequently is capable of being preserved longer ; it Is therefore In great use in ships, and makes a prin- cipal part of tha provisions of tha British navy. By a mixture of the Chinese black swine with othera of the larger British breed, a kind has been pro- duced which possesses roauy qualities superior to either of the original stocks. They are very prolific, are s:>oner made fat than the larger kinds, uptm less provisions, and are cut up, when killed, Into more useful and convenient portions. Arthur Mowbray, Esq. of Sherburn, in the county of Durham, had a p^ of this breed which littered within ten months three times, producing in all fifty pigs ; the last litter con- sisted of nineteen. The ('hinese or black breed If now very common In Britain. They are smaller, have shorter legs, and their flesh is whiter and swretar than the common kind. A kind similar tu this were those found In New Ouines, which proved so season- able a relief to our circumnavigators when thai coun- try was first visited by them. An unceasing attention to improvement has pn)duced or new-mi>delled the Chinese breed In this country, to wnat is deemed to be nearer perfection. The delicacy of appearance, the thin transparent ears, small head, short legs, and even the colour of the hair, are all considered as re- auislte qualities, which ought to be attended to In Ills kind. They are seldum (ed for the same pur- poses as the larger breeds of swine, being considered too small to be dried Into bacon, but they are pre- ferred as the best and mostdellcftte for pork and roast- ing pigs. Although swine are found to succeed In all conn- tries, and their constitutions have been accommodated to every climate, yet they are found to degenerato end not thrive well either In the extremes oflieat or sold. In ft nfttive state we find them, when Inhabiting coun- tries towards cither extreme, seeking situations most adapted to their constitution. Swine, in a dumestU catad state, require to be kept very dry and warm, otherwise they will never thrive. It will be noticed that in cold weather they Invariably bury themselves among the straw and litter with which they are sup- plied as bedding, thus puiiiiing out their natural de- sire for heat. The pigg**ry should therefore be in some well'Sheltered spot, and if possible with a south or west exposure. If kept in small sties, there shnuld be a small aperture at each end uf them, so as to per- mit the free ptutsage uf air through them for vt>ntili- tion. These may be kept open constantly during the summer months, but only al!owed to be op^ ■ for air once every second day in winter, and that in the fore- noon, while they must be carefully shut up in the evening. Pigs will be found to grow notwithstand- ing the neglect of all these precautions, but we know from experience that Uiey will grow much faster and will be mure healthy with them. We cannot too strongly impress the necessity of cleanliness in the management and rearing uf pigv. There is not ft more mistaken Idea than that a pig li naturally ft filthy animul. If they are dirty in tneir habits, it Is from the education which they receive from those who are careless In keeping their piggeries clean. The floor of the sty in which they sleep ought to be some inches above the level of the small enclosure In front, fur feedinjT and exercise ; and as much room as pos- sible should be af*^orded for the latter purpose. When pigs are nut kept very clean, they are liable to a dis- ease in the skin, something like Itch or mange. Thit can only be averted by wnat we have above recom- mended. Cottagers should purchase their young pigs either In April ur the month uf January ; and if four mnnthi old at any of these periods when bought, he will be a year old by the time that pigs are generally killed — namely, commencing at ChrTstmas. No pig should be kilted sooner; and even if eighteen months utd^ so ' COTTAGE ECONOMY. mush tb« b«lt«r, aa the fleih ii mnr* wiltd it thkl age. During th« lummar, tha pig miv be fed on all kindi of rtf'iM from a garden t and If allowed to go at liberty, he will And plenty of food for hlroielf, eltner In woodt^ road-ildet, or lane*. If cottagers brtw their own beir, the gralni which are the refuMof It wlU graatly auist in rearing them. When lh« eeaion approaohee for feeding, which ought to b« about the beglanlngof November, lomethlng more nouriihlng muit be giTcn. But care muit be taken not to commence with feed- ing too rapldlv, otherwiieiurfeltmavbtproduoed. The belt materials for feeding are barley and peai m«al| and if milk, either iklmmed or churned, can be given at tame time, it will grcftily facilitate the feeding, and Improve the quality of the flaih. Many pertoM feed their pigi nn potatoei, but In that case the ileih li never w lulld and kuikI^ and the fat Ii looee and flabby. Soft meat may do very well ai a meal for plgi when they are growing, but upon no account ihould It be given when they are to be fed for killing. Thuu who feed pigi fur their own uw generally give them a feed or two of corn daily for fourteeu dayi before they are killed, and give them nothing elu butchuriied or skiiumdd milk to drink i and for a day before kill- ing, the pit( ihould nut get any food. Where peopla*a ;:irciiiiiHtaiicei will not permit any of the mode* of feeding fur killing which we have above pointed out, a good luhititute will be fotind in boiled potatoei, mixed with a handful or twu of oatmemL Indeed we have neen good pork In Ireland which had been fed entirely on potatoei ; and although it waa nut very fat, the texture of the fleth was Ane, solid, and well tasted, and mure palatable to a stomach unaccustomed to strong food than that which Is fatter. Fattening /or Bacon. — The p'n selected for this pu^po^e should never be less than from eighteen months to twu years of age. Although bacon may be cured from animals which are not more than a year old, yet it wants that solidity which gives a sest to this excellent food ( and, besides, it does not keep lo long wh«n young. Three to four months' feeding is necessary. Where persons are near a distillery or brewery, the refuse grains and wash will be found an excellent thing to begin with, and the process is finished with hard food, as we have abuve pointed out. For even one of the largest sixed pigH, Mr Hen. derson, a late writer on this subject, thinks, that. In the process of feeding, not more than six Winchester bushels of oats made into meal should be uuniumed. It ought tu be shelled before grinding, but not silted. Fattening Sucking Pigi The sow ought to be well fedi and kept in a warm coafurtable situation. When pigs which nave been weaned are fattened for killing, t^y ■hotild be constantly fed on skimmed or butter milx, mixed with peas, barley, or oat meal. Pigs at six months old are fit for killing as pork, and may be eaten either fresh or pickled. It cannot, however, be long kept at so early an age. In all cases there are general rules which ought to be strictly attended to. These are, to keep the feeding.troughs at all times clean and sweet, and the food should Iw given in small quantities, and frequently. It should be occaaioiially changed, as they feed bet- ter on variety ; and salt should at all times be added to their food. Swedish turnips and carrots are excel- lent food for pigs, both of which are eaten by them with great avidity. Some persons are In the habit of boiling these roots before giving them to pigs. Curing Pork and Bacon, — A brine is made of salt and water, so strong that an c^g will swim In it. It Is then boiled and puured upon the pork when cold. The meat ithuuld be entirely cjvered with this brine, otherwise it will require tu be turned every day. In curing bacon, when the animal has been properly cut up into its various diviilous. It is placed in a tub and strewed with pounded saltpetre, and afterwardn plentifully covered with salt. It should He in that state fur about a week, when those parts which were undermost should be brought to the top, aud thusu that have been above put beneath, at the same time giving them another plentiful supply of lait. They are permitted to lie for three weel^s longer, and then taken out aud hung up to dry. The side of a kit- chen chimney, where it is not too hot, will be found the bt St place fur thin purpose ; ur It' bacon in cured tu a great extent, a smuking.houBe nuist be constructed for tliis purpuie. Should it not be convenient tu hang them up at the time above pointed out, tbey may ho turned over and kept iu the tub for a couple of mouths longer, without suffering any injury. Breeding 6'win«.— The boar sliould never be less than twelve months, and the sow ten months old. For a cottager's purpuie, the amaller or Berkdhiiv breed will lie iounu the beat. The sow ought to have an utnple abdomen, but nut a tendency to much fat. At the kame time, a sow ought to be in good condi- tion when (the is breeding, otherwiiie little good can be expected of her progeny. Many ptrions labour under the mistaken notion that swine »hlle breeding should be kept lean, but nuthing can be more erro- neoiiH; fur, afcer farrowing, great part of those Juices whicti would be converted into milk, were she in good condition, will naturally go towards nourlhli g her system. The time of gestatiun being four niontha, care Hhuuld be tukeu that her time of farrowing ihall be in September and March. The first of the litter will be two mouths old before very cold weather sets In, and the second will have the advuutsge of all the summer months, and will make much greater progress ia ihelr growtn than during Che winter mouths. 36ft Pigs brought forth In winter seldom do miloh good, unlets kept In houses where there la a constant fire. Before farrowing, the sow should be prorlded with ^•rj short straw or hay, as the piga are apt to con- ceal themselves beneath the Utter, and not beingaeen bv the aow, are frequently amothered by her. When pIga are weaned, great care Is neoeaaary to prevent them falling ufff and they ought therefore to be fed with the richest milk, mixed with either barley, peas, or oat meal. Much of the after prugresa in feeding depeuda upon the care that b taken of pigl ftt wean- ing. If starved at this period, they selaom falriy re- ouver ic Where the cottager has not the meena of giving milk, the next best thing la meal and water, and that should not be too thin, and repeated six or eight times a-day- Swine rre subject to a variety of diseasee, but these cannot be treated of to any advan. tsge here I theukust be studied from books written expressly for lb purpose. The dung of the hog, owing to the nature of Ite food and other clrcum- stiinces, fiirms the richest of the animal manures, and will prove of great value to the cottager's garden If carefully atteuded to* THI GOAT. Where cottagers have not the means of keeping a cow. a gjat will be found a very useful animal; it Is eokliy fed, and generally pastures on such grasses as are rejected bv the cow and the sheep. To those peasauu who live in the neighbourhood of high moun- tainous countries, the trouble and expense of keeping a couplo of goats will be nothing, aa they will find su^ ficlent uourishmeut in the muit heathy and barren grounds. Heaths, also, which are unfit for any kind of pasture, will afford this animal an ample nupply of food ; and It reoulres no care or attention, easily providing for Itseu proper and sufficient food. In mouutalnous countrna goata render considerable ser- vice to mankind, the flesh of the old ones being salted as winter provision, and the milk la uaed In many places for tne making of cheese. The flesh of the kid Is highly palauble, being equal, if not superior, in fla- vour to the most delicate lamb. In Britain the goat produces generally two young at a time, aometimea three, rarely four. In warmer climates it Is more prolific, and produces four or five at onoe, though the breed is found to degenerate. The time of gestation is five months. The male is capable of propagating at one year old, and the female at seven months, but the fruits of a generation so premature are generally weak and defective t their best time Is at the age of two years, or eighteen months at soonest. A goat Is old at six years, although the life of this getiuh extends to fifteen years. If goats are properly trained, they will return to their owneri twice a'day to be milked, and prefer sleeping under a roof when accustomed to it. The milk of the goat Is sweet, nourishing, and medicinal ; not so apt to curdle upon the stomach as that of the cow, and therefore preferable to thone whose digestion Is but weak. The peculiarity of this animal's food gives the milk a flavour diflferent from that either of the cow or the sheep ; for as it generally feeds upon shrubby pastures and heathy mountains, there is an agreeable mildness In the taste, very pleasing to such as are fond of that aliment. The quantity ef milk produced dally by a goat Is from three half pints to a quart, which yields rich and excellent cream. If pro- perly attended to, /« goat will vield milk for eleven mouths in the year. In several parts of Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, the goat is the chief pORsession of the inhabitants. On those mountains where no other useful animal could find subsistence, the goat continues to glean sufficient living, and sup- plies the hardy natives with what they consider a varied luxury. They lie upon beds made of their skins, which are soft, clean, and wholesome; they live upon their milk, with oatbreod ; they convert a part of it Into butter, and some Into cheese t and the flesh furnishes an excellent food, if killed In the pro- )jer season and salted. They are fattened iu thesanw manner as sheep; but taking every precaution, th^r flesh is never so goud or so sweet in our climate as that of mutton. It is otherwise between the tropics. The sheep tliere becomes flabby and lean, while the flesh of the goat rather seems to improve, and iu sume places is cultivated in preference to that of the sheep. The cream of goat's milk coagulates as easily as that of cuw's, and yields a larger proportion of curd. Tlie cheese Is of an excellent quality, and high flavoured ; Hud although to appearance it looks poor, it has a very delicate relish, and strongly resembles Parmazau cheese. Some farmers have been in the practice of adding a little guat's milk tu that of cows, which ma- terially improves the flavour. In winter, when native food becomes scarce, the goat will feed upon turnip, petflings, potato- peelings, cabbage-leaves, aud other refuse of a house. THB EABBIT. In a wild State, the rabbit lives in holes in theearth, where it brings forth its young, aud retires on the approach of danger. Its fecundity is truly astonish- ing. It breeds seven times In the year, and generally produces eigbt young at a timet irom which it is cal- culated thdt one pair may increase, in the courae of four years, to the amaxlng number of o»tf miltion two hundred and eeventjf./our thomand eight hundred and /ortif. The rabbit produces at the age of five or six I month! * the female goea with young about thirty days. Prerioua to her bringing forth, she makee a bed with down, which she pulls off h«r own coal. She never leaves her young but when pressed with ■ llay. ■ ' * hunger, and returns aa aoon aa chat la ftll«yo4j which she elfbcte with aurprising quickneaa. During the time ahe aucklee her young, ahe carefully conoeala them from the male leeC he ahould devour them, and frequently covera up the n.outh of the hole that her reCreaC may noC be dlaeovered. The rabbit lives to Che age of eight or nine years, and prefera warm and temperate cimiatea. Such la the account of the rabbit In a wild atate, and the aame will apply In all respecta tu that in a domeatlcated condition, which, however, grows tu a much larger slae than the wild rabbit, from which it originally sprung. The domestic rabbit is of various colours, such aa fawn-colour, black, white, brown, and frequently variegated. The akin of the rabbit la of value for making hats, and a ready market can In consequence be found fur them at aU times. In coun- try situations Che breeding of rabbits may be oulti> rated to much advantage; they will eat a great many wild planta, which can be easily procureid M food, auoh aa daadelion, sour docks, colewort bladesy. grass, clover, strawberry leaves, cabbage blades, tur- nips, carrots, the leaves of turnips and greens, and other succulent plants. The hog-weed ia also a fa- vourite food with them, as they will eat root, stem, and leaves; It is a tail plant, which grows abun- dantly In hedgerows and coppices Iu many countlee of England ; its flower and seed are exactly like those of the parsnip. Previous to fattening rabbits for food, they should be fed on hay, and afterwards on shellings and oats, when the ^flesh will be mure deli- cate in ttavuur than even that of the wild rabbit. Wo knew a family in the country which had a small gar- den surrounded by a wall; part of this was separated by the tenant (a labouring man) from the rest by a railing, and trenched to the base of the foundation of the wall, and laid with slabs. In the corner wae erected a small wooden house, well thatched, fur the rabbits to live in i and on this spot, with the assli- tanoe of his children, he fed a great many rabbits an- nually, which served them for llesh, and he sold the akius. The usual annual number which he killed was about twenty doien. During the time the doe has young ones, she will require a plentiful supply of green meat, and that of the most succulent kind, and should besides gat a few oats once a-day. The houaet. in which rabbits are kept shuuld be well aired every day if possible, and ail rotten vegetable substancee swept carefully away, as the effluvia from these pro- duce diaeasea in the young ones. FOWLS. They must be considered careless cottagers who do not contrive to keep a few domestic fowls ; even one good laying hen ia a treasure tu a humble familv. The ordinary fecuudity of this useful bird is tiuly astonishing, as it usually lays, in the course of a year, two hundred eggs, provided it be allowed to go at liberty. Is well Mf and has a plentiful supply of water. Many instances have been known of hens laying three hundred in a year. This is a singular provision In nature, and It would appear to have been intended peculiarly for the use of man, as the hen usu- ally incubates only once in a year, although she will occasionally bring out two broods. Few hens are ca- pable of hatching more than from twelve to hfteen eggs; so that, allowing they were all to sit twice a- year, and bring uut lifteen at a time, there would still l»e at least one hundred and seventy spare eggs for the use of man. .It is therefore evident, tliat in Hituationa where hens can pick up their food, they must prove very profitable; for, supposing that the eggs of one fowl during the year were sold, without any of them being hatched, they would bring on an average nine- pence per dozen, or fourteen sbiiiingi, and the hen herself would be worth two shillings at least. As the number of eggs which are annually brought out by a hen bear no proportion to the number wltich she lays, schemes have been imagined tu hatch all the eggs of a hen, and thus turn her produce to the greatest advantage; so that, in place of twelve or fourteen chickens, upwards of two hundred may be prot^uced. The hen's nest is made without any cure, if leu to herself; a hole scratched in the uruund among a few bushes is the only preparation she makes for the season of incubation. Nature, almost exhausted by its own fecundity, seems to inform her of the proper time for batching, which she herself testlHes by a clucking note, and by discontinuing to lay. The good housewives, who often get more by their hens laying than by ttielr chickens, artificially protract this cluck- ing season, and sometimes entirely remove it. Aa soon as their hen begins to cluck, they stint her In her provisions ; and if that fails, they plunge her Into cold water ; this for the time etfecttially puts back the desire for incubating, but then it often kills the poor bird, who takes cold, aud dies under the opera- tion. General Management of PouUry.'^Oii the general management of poultry, Mr Main gives the following iulerestlng particulars, resulting from bis own experi- ence :— '* Every kind of poultry should be kept In a se- parate house, difl^ereut kinds being exceedingly pugna- cious towards one another. The individuaiu of every species are also pugnacious among themsclrea ; end on this account the uumberof cock birds is always limited. One cock to seven hens, one gander to six geese, on* CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. w»l« nin ih r-r '•* — •* i"' 1*" ■ i twrliay. )f«lii»».lii, ■* >■»»■»,«■» wfir fmM lwwto «•>• Outlet ■•m win «MM h«M, oatl far DM. m4 At kuk M kw MM*, lamioh H*<**>l<*l'*'*l"aia ba f l aai * •Mhwtaa an Ianana4 ollli oatis nivan Ibam ia tballow aarttwn puna of vawr. TuAajpa aia baat fauaaad vtth harlaTmaal and milk i kui with pan t Mil n aul fc idiin, many rich and aonaiuml ia(fMlaiiu ara mtxoA with ihalr (xid, tmk furaad down Uia IhioaH o( *a MplaM Mrdt. Diiaka ara fauaaad Uka Ibwla, bul ■mat ha all» poullrjr of any kind «UI ikriva if ■at kapt parfafllly daan i and aran with tka unraM eua, a placa «h«ra pimliry kan baan k»f kapt b*. oonaa what tka koaaawiTaa call talnMd, aad itkiii thay will tkrira na loniiar. Thamrfkoaofikagnmnd kaoamaa laturaMd with Ikairaauaia, and latkatarMan* kwfar haahky. To anM (Ma alkai, aaoia paukaiara in tha nrnntry ffaqiiantly okanca tka ailai af ihair poaltrv-kouM^ to okuln fiaah graund i aad to guard •aalnii tha lani* miafortuna, (arawra wha aaanat aSanga tbair hanhanaaa and yarda, purify iba kouiaa Sy funigationt of hiaaing pitah, by waaWiig wiib bat ■a-walar, and by iirawiag laaga ^ndaiMaa of puia and hflih wlihln and witkaat tha ponltry.hauiaai Waahing tha floor of tha knuaa aaary waak ia naoaa. aary i for which purpaaa It ia alto nacataary tkM it l>a farad aithar with Konaa, brieki, or tUaa." But aa thaaa tbiaa modaa an acpanaiaay w« would ncommand In tha eotia g a r an aonaMy goad floariag, whkh !• mueh chaapar: that ia, by mating a aoiapo. •ition cnmpoMd of lima and •mluiy-aabaa, te ya bar with tha riddling! of amaman kilchan uheai and thiwa iiMvintf iHWii all flnaly bn>ltan, mutt t>a mixed togaihcr whh walar, aad pot on tka flaor wMi a ■laann*! tmwal, and niaaly amaol h a d on tha •uafa*^^ If thia ii pnl on a floor Miiah it in a MlaraMy dry •itnatinn, and allnwad to hardan bi f ira bilag uiad, it will iiacoma naarly aa aolid and oompael aa atona, and b ahnoiit as diirabfa. Tha floora af aaah houiaa should ba washad out with a mop, which is much mora aasily done than with a washing-ekHb. Tha Iniida of tha taylng*boiaa raquirca fraquent waahing with hot lima- water to free tham from rarmln, wkiah graatiy inr. aunt the lilting hens. Far the same purpasr, pmihry thould always Bara a heap of dry aand laid under •oma enrered place, or thick tree, near tkc4r yard, far tkem to dust tnamaelvea In ; Ihia being Ikair ras eu rca fiir getting rid of tha varmin with which ikay are an- noyed. Oeeae may Inich eietan or thirtaaa eggs; ducks tha aama ; fawU Ihi i tas n ( turkeys, guiiisa. hens, and peafowls, eboosa their own number. Tur. key ahicis cannot be reared If haiehad after the and ef September. Chickens ara aubjeot to a disaaae called tha ronp or croap, which saiaea tham whan alietit three weeks old, or just aa the faatliers appear on the head. It is caused by small worms breeding in the windpipe In such nnmbars aa so stop rmpi r atioa, and which, if they cannot emigh them up, aaon bill tkem. An iiifusinn of yellow toad>Aaz, a nauseans and bitter weed, in given as a preventive, but hi Beldam sueeaas. fill. The dlsmwe metiiioned by Mr Main ia alsocallad the gsp<4. The worm l>y which it ia produeed baa a ronnd body, which is aeuminst^Hl at the pMtariar end, the lower aperture projecting nn a long stalk or arm, that aatendH rather beyond the anieriar end of tlw •kl- • Itltla, or are snmewhai funnel-shaped, by which the .animal adheres to the traehaa, fram which it cannot 'he removed without cimsiderakle dlfllcuhy. It is of a Jdrep ItliMMi.red colour, and ab admit uf Iha heal pataing thrmgh, sa aa lo warm tha hanhousa, than a pan of tka wall may ka taken out, and a lira- brick or suna pariliiuii placed ia the aparlura, which will allow ludicianl beat lo uaaa thcough. But what ia still bailar, a aast-irun pUla, baiJIg a muta affea- lira coaduatar of beat, will nnswar a great deal belter. Take care to kiara tka walla of tha poultry. kaua* sa tkiak tkat ihay will aetaia the heat, aad the raaf ought alsa to ha well and atfactualiy doiiad, so as Hfc present tha asaa p a of heat ur thaeutraaaauf cold air. A raryaffsstaal matbod is m have tbeapsca lietween Ibaalataanreaiiing tilled with bay ur straw, which ia a pUa universally punuad in UuUand. It would ha wwllalaa to hang tka walls aud diiur rwind with straw mala. Tha Oiuah ihaiak Iba whole roof and sides uf lb* fawlbotti* dually winlar. Where tha traphKia is in Iha intacior wall uf tha house, tha beat malkad far warBiaff the poultry .kvute ia to kara aamali pit dug ia lb* boWom of the llaor, nrar whiah ia pbcad aauma.ar nlaw af itaa, and thia pit thouU ba AIM with hotamWa, of which a sup. ply aaica a.day will afsolually warm Iba apartments. Aiwiber matbod ia ta oamniuniania h»>i to a ciatern of water under Iba floor of the pouiuy.house, by moans of pipaa passi n g from the kiuihen hre; but this, al. though eunparalirely aimpia, ia to* nuah oul uf the caatmon way to ba adopted by laliaurii^ people. Puultry.beusaa may ba made of any farm or siaa t but let iham ba iurariaUy in warm and dry siUMiorA it oiie.hall' of the fonis liniiight to the Kdiiu burgh market wuuid be wmsidacad uitaaiabln in Lun. I dun. To improve the breed ought to ba a pilmarr I il^ad in differant paru af Iha eounlry i and ikM nigha.badoiia by nracurlag egga from Dorking, In durnjr. B«sidet this, • batter syttam of faedliig oa nwre aulriihwa lOimaitl should ha adoptni Baal ara parllaularly fund of ah red particles uf flesh mea^ IhacafUs* of the labia i and If such nutriment he given la tham alur aoukiug In tha autumn, ihay wia Im. nadiataly coairoenaa laying. Chldunioughtto bala agaod aondithui (ur marbat whan iwaira mnnihs al4 If too little atlaMloa U paid lo puuUry, last is givaa la Iha wupar nratarration af sfga, arhlch often cuim to market with a Strang flaroiu of raak straw. If not abaolulalp nlimi. Aa agga aasilr ooutract a b id fla. taur, tkay ought to b* aaradilly put aside in soma clean alaaa afiar hdac lakan from the nest. Ilran It a gaod mttarlal lu lay them aatongst for a cerwia langtb of tin* b*&»e aaadiug tham to market. ontai. Our common tame goose is tha wild tpaelat doraaa. ticaiad, known to uaiuralisu by ih* name of the ien or stubble gooee. Where paiipla hare a right of common, or lira In tka rldnlty of marshy heaths, the breeding aad rearing of gaasa will prove rery pro. Aiable, for in such situations they ara kept at a rarjr IriHing expen•«•,) of dis- posing of geese is in a dead sute ; as nearly the sama sum uaii be obtained (ur Ibem as if they weie ulire, and then vou have the feathers, which are VHluabla, aud may be suld to much advantage by themialraa when yuu have cullected a siune wei|(ht or mure. (iaasa are kept in vast quantities in the fens of Liliooiushira, several persons there having as many as a tiiousand breeders. They are bred fir the sake of their quills aud leathers, lor which they aie strip, ped while alive, once iu the year for their quills, and no less than live times for their leathers. Tlie flrst piuokiug couimenues abuut Ladyday, for both, and the othw four are between that time and Miohaelmaa. II is said tliat in general the birds du not sulfer very much froni the upei atiun, except when cuiti weather sett in, wttich then kilU great iiiiinbers of them. The old geeaa submit quietly to the oueration, but the youny oues are very nuisy and unruly. The possessurs, ex. eept in tiiis cruel practice, treat their birds with great kiuduess, luitging them very often iu the same room with themseivus. These geese breed in general only once a.year, but, If well kept, tbey sometimes hatch twice in a season. The beiit method for uromuting this is to Iced tham with corn, barley, malt, fresh grains, and, as a Iti- niuiaiit, they should get a mixture uf pollard and ale. iiuring tiieir sitting, each bird has a space allotted to it, in rows of wiufcer pent pUoad one abuva auoibar, COTTAGE ECONOMY. w^ m4 tk* faoMkOTd who km Ik* Mi* of thm Mr— tka whol* Hoek M watir tkrlt* •■4>y, »n*, krlaflnR IkMl baok lo Ihatr hnhluilan, ^luM mry liM(«llk> •ut mlMlnn (•■ ■Mrslly put Ui In (MM. Tb* ilnw of InciikMloo rariM from imnt^Mnn M ihirtjr r I* Manh, but Ik* tin* •< ih* iwinik d«. ■audi upon Ik* IIM* of Ik* Minatpk*r*. Wh*n go*. linn* >r* «nl allairad to « al Urg* witk tb*if tea, avary plaoi a( kamlack wfaiok grom wlihin Ilia aaiant of ikair rann ikflnld b* pulM up, aa thav ara vary apl to aat ll, wh4ak ganarally prorta ftual lo than. NiKhMlMKla h atio a^aally parnicioui u> Ikan, and tkay bava baan knowa to ka polaonad bjraallng apriga of yaw-M«a> Tiniitvi. ThU ii aartalnly ana of tha imm» nlaabla fowh whioh hoTa haan natufallMd In iMi country, but H v*ry diffioult to r*ar. Th* ttirkay.bai layi Aram M. taan M twanly agga, and tkan tm npaa tham. 8h* will bring onl two broodi In a yaar. Tba aggi ara of a pala yallowM-wliita anionr, finely tiraabad and ipottad with raddiab-yallow, Tkay ara a tnntt dalloliina l«ni, rnnch mora delloiu* In thair tavoar than tkoaa of tha common han. In England ar 8«>l> land, kowarar, tha agga ara aaldom to ba nwl witk fur ula, baing daamad too valuable In ba naad aa food. In Ireland tkay ara to be got In the markeii in giaat ahundaiKW, aaaacially In tk* midland oaunileii, where ve har* bougM them a< nln^Mwaa par doaan. In that country, whan tba mrkay-han kna laid about hair a doaan agga, tkay aflarwarda take away one dally, by wUak meaaa tka hana an Induced lo pro. duoa a gnater nnmber of agga than olharwi**, Thii thay acain by maana of itlmuTathig fnod, iuch ai kanp. teed and bnck-wkaal. Tkera It an laiaryai of a day between the kiytag of eack egg. It ia nid that tha Aral twoeggi whicB the layeare nnf^ultfnl. A tni key- hen can ialdom hatch mora than from liiteon to eighteen eggi. Tha time of Incubation varin H>m twenty-iaran to twanty-^ight daya, at which lime .ha young bagin to pierce their ihelly priaoa, and rmer^ from It. When they Ant come forth, ikcy arc ca. tremely weak, and much anidnoua cure it neceiaary t* rear then. The Ant thing to he attended tu, ia to raaaora them to a ailuatlon where they are not ex. poicd to the nn'a raya, which at Aral are ton powerful for than. A woody place ii the moat aiiitalile to their natural hahlu. Noihing la an deitmctiTe to them u rain, fVom whirb they mntt be protected. When ynang tnrksya accidentally get wet, tbey abonld b* bronght Into a konie, oarcrally dried by ap- plying ioft lowela to them, and then placed near a Are, and ffHt upon bread which haa been mixed with a amall f Mpartton of ground pepper or ginger. Tt ihonid be made up in the form of amall peaa. If the bread la too dry for thia purpoae, it may be mnlitened with a litlla tweet milk. Should the turkey- poma rcfuae to eat It, a few of thete pelleta may be forced down their throaia. Even heavy dewa prove deatructire to them, and frmt fa no leaa Injnrinua in ita effrcn. Thrae mnat therf^ore he moatcarefully guarded aguimt,wWn the hana inrubata in .March nr parly in April. Dry and aandy Hiniatiana are mnit con;{eiital for breeding turkeya, and raiieriaiiy eievaleii litnationa where large wmMia nre coiitignonB. A ainRle male turkey ia tufli. chjnl fi»r twelve or aixteen femnlea, althnugh the for- mer number ia probably tha aafeat, to prevent jlerillty In the e^ga, which ia frequently the caae with thoie of turkpya. Egga abnuld never he entruated to the care of a female until alie It at leaat two yeara of age, and tliey may be kept fiir tiie purpnae of inculiation till they reach their Afth year. The largeal and ttrnngent hena ahnuld alwaya he kept for Ihia pnrpote. During the time the hen la tilting. It hecomea neoea. larv tn plr.ca fne In the wall. In a barn or other convenient place, and each femali^ ia aupplied with rriTO aiiteen tn twenty of her own egga. The wtiitliHva and doora are then cltiaed, and only opened once in tlie twenty-four hniira for the adniiabliHi nf air, and for tlie piirpnite of feeding the lieuH. They are taken otT their neata, fed and replaced, and again ajint u|i. On the twenty-iiath day, the pennn who ia entniHted witli the manaKemeiit of the birds, exa- miiiea all the egga, and reinovea those that are addled ; feeda the liens, and dnea not again diaturii them till the pouts have emerged from their sheila, and Imve be- come perfectly dry, from the heal of the parent hird, aa to he aiiiijected to cnld at this time would certainly kill them. When llie ynnng birds are thoroughly dried, two nf the broods are joined tngether, and tlie care of tlieiii eiitrusteJ to a single hen ; and llinne which have been deprived nf their offiiprliig are again placed nil hens* nr ducks' effgs, ami aiiiijected a sei-nnd time to the tedioua operation o( inculiatinn. In which eaaa it It not ununual for them tn bring out thirty aggt. We cannnt recommend this practice, in point of humanity ; fur the poor heni, whan tbey have ac. 307 cnmplitbad tkair teeoad iltting, ara literally raduoad lo skin and lH«e, and frc^naally a* w«ak aa hardly to ha able to walk. A a iiefura kinied at, great *w« ikoaU ba lakaa at the yaung turkey-pnuu i betldea waniHk, propar And, and thade, the nearer they ai« to • pure laaaloir aiream, th* belter, at tbey drink a great deal, an* nolkinji ii of neater lapartanaa to meir being §■*■ larea aa f i ' ' ■fnlnr real freih drink. Tk*y mnit k* alto carafnlly protected from alronf gum at wind, aad on the tllghiatt apnaaranea of a thaodertMrm, aiioaM ba lamadMlely taaan lata a bouta, Tbey shoakl get no food for larmty-iiur b*ara aftar Hmy iMTa tba agff. Their Arit food thould ba kai4.kolM ff *"«lr chopped and minJ with cmmka nf bread. Canle la ail* an eseallaM fi ed far them. When they are alraal a week old, balled peat aad mincad icrMloni are given to thetn. If eggs are contfna«d, lb* shoHa should ba mincad down with their fhod, to atilit digaatbin, or tome very oMm land, ar minula pabblei. They tkoald ba M tlirfaa a-day t aad at thar gat elder, a mixture ef lettuce-milk will k* (aund beneAciai, to- geliwr with alacad aaMlat. Barley kolled In milk It another mcatlant food at thia period, and th*n oala iNdlad In milk. Ia ikon, tk* ooniiltution of Tonng turkeyi rmiuire* at all a(at ntrj kind of admulatlng food. When about thre* waeka old, their meat ihould ooniiat of a mioura of minoed lettnae, nettlai, abiin- iheum, curdled milk of bnrdoekt, bran, and dried camomile t but when all tkeae cannot be readily ob- tained, part of ibam muit b* ni*d. Fennel and wild endive, with all planta which are of a tonic chatae- ler, may be lafafy givan to them. Too raach lettace, however, baa been fonnd lo be Injnrfont to them ; and it la a ouHoai (act, that both cultivated and wild velcbea are a anieen to ymng tnrkeyt i the great blue-floweiad digltalia, cicuia, and henbane, are alto fatal tn itiem i so that, wherever Inrkeyi are kept, these ihoald ba carafnlly rooted out. When pest metliod. i)are should, however, lie taken to feed them abundantly before they are allowed tn range aliout in the morning, and a meal shnuld also lie prepared fur them at mid-day, to which tiiey will geiicraily re- pair homewards of their own accord ; they shoiiH lie ted at night, liefore roosting, witli natmeal i>:ia skim- niilk; and a day nr two previiiua tu their being killed, they ahould get uats exclusively. We ourselves have I'nniid from experience, that when inrkeya are pur- cliased for the table, and conped up, they will iievci- in- creaseiii hulk, hnwever plentifully they may be supplied with food ami fresh water, but, on the contrary, are very liaiile tn lose Aesh. When feettiiiK them for use, a change of food will also he found lieiielicial. Boileil carrots and Swedish turnips, or pnlatoes iiiixeil wiili 11 little Imrley or oiit meal, will lie greedily taken by them. A cruel metliiiii is practised by suiiie to render till keys very tat, wliich is termed crainining. This ia done by forming a paste of cruintis of bread, Aonr, minced suet, and tweel milk, or even cream, intoimall balls tha ifaaof a aiarbl*, aad, afMrtkablnl haaa a meal In th* ordinary way, that* ar* foraed down ki throat. Difcn. Dacki an a kind of fowl aatlly Wpi, particularly aear ponde or NrMcaa of water. In keeping then la adeaiattte ttala, aaa drakeltananypnito Avednrke. The ducki bagin to lay In Vakniary i tkefr time nf layk lag being elthar at night or early in the morirtar. Th*y an aatremaly apt lo d*pMli ibeir eggs in amn* teq a eWe n d ipel, aii4 •* ennceal them with laavea ar straw. From alann l» Afteen i^gt it the number whioh a fuck can property euver. Tlw lint* uf irnxK batton la ahont twenty-eight dayt. The pket whan thay Imnbate thould be aa qnlef and mind aa posak hie; and If they have Nberiy, they will five no trou- ble whatever in Heeding, at lb* duck, when the Asvlt fh* call al hunger, covera her egga carefully up, and neks fcad for hcrielf, either ky gning Is th* etnw u tt nr diutbn la h*r nelghbmirhood, or, if no sneh an M hand, ah* will ooaa* to th* ooitaga and Intlmai* h*f wann by k*r equalling. Wh*n th* yaviig are hatclMrf, Ihev thould be left to the can of iLa duek, who wiH teas tkem forth In due time ; and when she doea Kt^ prepan a coop for them, whioh shjnld he pla«t*d «a abort grass, if the weather ia mild ; and \i eoM ov Mormy, they thoiiM be kept under covar. Tke Anmn strength of th* brood will depend mucsti upon the cara (hat It taken of them for the Ant three or fnnr week* after th«y have emerged from tka shell. Dnekllnr|pi will begin to waih ihemielvea tfe» Artt day after they an hatched. If they And water n band. Tberefaiv, a flat diah filled with that element ahould be alway* within their nach. Many persona an in tha practiet of clipping the tail, and the down from beneath tt, ta diicklingi, If the weather ia wet dnring th* llrtt w«*lt« of ih*lr exitlence. Thii ta to pnvent them (torn draggling themielm, which hat a tendency to proa diice iniettinal dlieaaee. Frnm a fortnight to three wnka h all that It aecatiary to conAn* them to th* coop. The Am thing on irlileh dnckllngt an IM it a mix- tun of barley, peaa, or oat meal, and water. They may aflerwarda be fed upon a mixture of buck-wheat and any of the above-named meals. The greatest at- tention miiatbe paid to keeping their bed warm and dry, and with young ducki a frequent change nf ttnir la ahsolutely necettary, at their beds toon get dirty and wet. It it a common practice to hi ducks' egga un- der a hen t but when water It at hand, and the duok- llnga are permitted to enjoy ihii element, lo natural to them, tne practice of giving them an adopted mother ia not to he recommended. In feeding dncki for ute, pent and oat meal are la be pnferred. It it said that barleymeal rendera thrir Aesli soft and insipid. Bruised oats should be girea tn them freely for tome weeks before they are killed- which renders their flesh solid and well tailed ; and the same general principles recommended in the feed- ing of geete thould be kept in view. It hat been found that the offals of butchera' ihnpt feed ducka quickly, and that thii doei not Impair the flavour of their ifeth. Those who have paid much attention to the ma- nagement nf domestic poultry assert that geese and ducks should be kept apart from other fowls. Tha former ihould have their houtea ranged along tha banks of a piece of water with a fence, and sufficiently extensive tor walks In front, with doors for their aa- ceti to the water, which can be cloied at pleaiura | for, at we have alnady observed, too much exercti* on water it not coududve to their feeding quickly. riOEOMS. Pigeoni are aim very easily kepi about a cottage, and occupy a apace in the roof which is At for no other puN pose. They require little or no care ; and as for food, they will generally seek that for Ihemselres, although it will lie necessary occasionally to give them a little^ Care must be taken that the dovecut ii not approach^ able by call or vermin. When thej are Arst liegun to be kept, a pair or two ought to he got which have not Aotvn, otherwise it ii ten to one but they will leave their netv dnmicile. They shniiid lie kept shut up IA tha place appropriated for 'keeping them, and well fed during this time. Of the ilomestic pigeon there are nut fewer than twenty varielira, such as carriera, croppers, pnwiera, faniails, lumlilers, &c. 'Their prin- cipal fund is grain ; tiiey drink much, and nnt at in- tervals like other birds, init by a continued draught like quadrupeds. The bouse.dove or common pigeon, as ia well known, breeds every month. Dnring lireed- ing time, they associate In pairs, and pay court to each other with their bills ; the female laya two egga, and the young ones that an produced are for the mott part a mala and a female. When the egga are laid, the female, in the space of Afteeii days, nut including the three days during which she is emploved inlay- ing, continues to hatch, relieved at interv'ala by the ninle. From three or four o'clock in the evening till nine the next day, the female continues lo sit ; she la then relieved by the male, who takes his place from ten till three, while his male is feeding abniad. In thia manner they sit alteniately till the ynung comn out. The cottager who keeps a few pigennt and rab- bita can never be at a loss lor a little palatable aud nuuritbing food, and that consisting of two kinds. BREWINO ALE AND BEEB. Stany oottagcrs have no accommodation or posadaa IM meani to brew (heir own b«er i but othenhave both, : fi I: CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. •od to thtM th« fiillnwln> praetiokl obMrvMlonl will Im found UMful I— (>«• of lb« «mi and moil wmiiiUI thinp In ho •llrnilMl to In browliiu la a prn|i«r know. Mn of th« qmlliy of mall lo bo uMd for ihut pur. Mi*. Wbon nail It (ood, il it full of Hour, or, mora proMrlr iMiiklnfi l'»l lubilanot fram whlck flour li bad* If iliadiln of ih* (ralni ia Ibin, and yitldi nally and tr—lj wkao bliun atundar, Il la a luro proof of iht Biall balnf of a aood quality i but, on ika oibar band, IT tbo ikln II tblok, bard, and biltilaw It U luro to bo bad. Baaldoa tbo iOulUr ouantlty of nulrltloua mat- Mr In Ibli lau kind, li will ba found not to malt ao wall aa craln of a good quality i that la, Il will ba loBfor (H ahoolla* out Iba rww and azhlbllln| ilgni of vafatatlon, and aran loma of tbo rooti will not ap> paar at all i ao ibat all that doaa not (boot li loat, ai It romalni ilmpljr barlay i and thut thai portion of It kaa not banallad tka baar In any dofraa. Whan nail ia not homa-mada, but purckaaad froin a nallttar, It la ■enalliiMa found to bo aduluralad with barlar. To dalaM tbia, laka a cupful of iha unfround nail, and pat II Into a batin of cold waMr i ml> Il with iba wa- ter io that all tko itraiu hara boon fairly wal i all thai art mallad will iwim, and tba barlay which baa bam addad, or Ibat whleh la but Imparfactly mallad, •III alak la iha bottom. Tba ipaclffc gravity or walftbl of barlav It much grtalar than that of malt, and iha balUr Iha quality oftbabarlay, ththaaviiritlii oonioquonlly the liai'lar tha malt ii, when oppoiad to llffhi mall, Ine bftt«r it li alio, aa not only producing llrongar but b«tl«r bear. Soma paraona are in tha practloa of miaing barivy with tha mall In making bf«r, but axparianca hai movt aaliifactorily prured that Iha bo«r it neither lo gmtd nor ao airong, neither la it ao wholeiomat ao that Iha beat, though daamt at Aril, it cheaper in iha aud. ffopi.— There ia alto conilderible rarieiy in tha quality of hope, which can only ha detected by ezpo- rianca. 80 dtlTerani indeed are thay, that ihev vary Id price from one to Are ihlllingi a pound. The uae of nope In making beer ii to preaerre it. The coarser kind, at one ahilling ^r pound, may have ai much of Iha hlllar principle a> ihe flnrr qualliin, and, con- aaquanllr, la aa effectual a preaervalive ; but then they will be onarae, and harah In the flaviair. Imparl. Ing a dliagraaabla taile lo the beer. 'Hopa are the aead.podi ir butka of a apedee of Tine called the hop.ylue. Theea are lubject to great variety, de- gtndingon aoil, cultWatlon, and other circumatance*. ood hopa hare a pleasant and fresh smell, and will keep for any length of lime. Indeed, they have been known to lie perfectly freih al^r Ihe lapse of twenty yeara. The quantity «r hops used in beer will de- pend upon their quality aud the lengtli of lime which the beer is intended to be kept — if ibey are good, a pound to the bushel of msit, providing the beer Is made In the cool season of the vear, and not |4> be too long kept ; but If the weather Is warm, and the beer wished to be preserved for a length of time, then It will be necessary louseone pound twouunceaioapound and a quarter of hups. iVater — The more pure the water used for braw. Ing, the belter, and hard water ii at all timaa to ba avoided, aa, from Ihe great quantity of mineral aalts and other substancea which II contains, the beer which is made from it Is generally flat and 111 tailed. The best water Is rain water, and neil Is that from a pure stirlng, and, last of all, river water. Uumilt — The sixe of the utensils will of course depend upon the quantiiv required. We ahall sup. pose that a family will brew at one tlrae eighteen gallons of ale and thirty.hix of small beer. Il will be eaay, from the dimenalotia which we point out for these qttantitlea, to calculate what alzes of utensils will be requisite for larger or smaller quantities. I. A copper tHillcr capable of conuining forty-two gal. Ions. 3. A mashing.tub of such dimensions aa will contain sixty gallons, to be broader at top than bot- tom, iu depth and width being nearly equal. In the centre of the bottom there is a hole for draining off the wort. Into tbia perforation Is fitted a stick tapered at the point for the space of six inches, so as to answer the purpo«e of a cock for slopping the hole above mentioned. This stick most be a fool or eighteen Inches Irmger than the deptli of the mashing.tub. 3. An underlutck or shallow tub, which is placed under the mashluh for the purpose of catching ihe wort which nins from Ihe grains. 4. A tun-tub capable of conuining thirty gallons, ft. Two coolers. These are shallow lubs about a foLt or fourteen inchea deep. Some ufe from three lo four, so as lo cool the liquor more quickly. A simple subatitute for these are the heads i»f wlncbulli or pipes, i*roeeii to U purtutd. — The copper boiler muit be filled with water, and brought lo the boiling point. An adequate quantity of water is added 10 the mall In Ihe maahlng-lub, so as to let it be freely stirred and separated ; the water must be heated 10 one hun- dred aud aeveiity degrees by the tliermometer ; but when the cittager has nut this instrument In his pos- session, let the malt be added as soon aa, by lookin,- into the tub, the face can l>e diatinctly aeeu aa In mirror. Lei it l>e well stirred -vltb a briMimstIck f a quarter of an hourj fill the copper, and bring it to the boiling point ; about forty gallons of water must be added, ai the grains will absorb about ten gallons. The mashing-tub should be covered over with socks, and al- lowed to Bland for two houra; the wort la then drawn off; In this operation the tub should In raicsd on two ■toola, as that the underbuck may be placed beneath it for the rtreptlon of the won, which ought to be run off very slowly, to prevent the sediment from following. It Is then removed to the tun-tub. Empty the cop- per, and put Ihe won Into II, with a pound and a half of hopa, which ought lo l>e prevloualy well rubbed and Bvparalad. Ilriiig il to the boiling p manure. To Ihe mine of dung of the pigsty. If there be one, add the leaves of the vegetablea, Ihe soot and ashes from the chimney and Are, and every other article which will make manure; aud this kind of compost will form on excellent enricher of the soil of the garden, or small potato pa'loh. Cottagers are often so ignorant as to allow the fluid which runs from their cr atteu- tiou to neatneaa, and an enjoyment of more ctimfori, than the occupiers of the mlnerabie uimdornrd hutn iu other counlriea can possess. The sijjlii of sui-li MUprrJImtitt is a gratifying voucher thil nrcfixariff are not wanting. The following are the seasons usually appropriated to the sowing aud planting of vegelatiies iu the cot- laga or kitchen garden ; — iu January, delve up the aoil to meliorate with Iha weather. About the middle ol February, sow the prinrlpal crops of early peas, beani, and radishes, aud make planutlnna of straw, berry, gooseberry, and currant planu 1 eonilnua also to delve and clear Ihe garden of winter refuse. In March and April, bow yellow lurnlpa, the larger sorta of ptaa lo succeed those sown last month 1 alio Aill oropa of onions, leeks, and carrots ; and plant early cabbages, greens, Ac. In May, S4iw cahbagea and eau. Iltluwers lor a lata crop ; also all kInA of flower seeds. In June, clear the garden, water iboea planii lequiring luch alMnllon ; sow red beet for pick, ling, transplant leeks, die., and stoke Ihe peaa and beani. In July, sow spinach, turnips, small salading, lettuce, Iu August, sow unions, cabbage, lettuces | iilao cauliflower «,u sund the winter. Septemlier li a go id month for transplanting all kinds of greens. In Uclober and tha three folhiwlng months, dig and trench all vacant ground. This rough outline will suggeit the course of general culture In the garden ; and wo may add, that as Ihe weather and ollmaie change, so must much ba left lo the good aensa of the coilager in arranging the periods of sowing, planting, and trench, ing his garden. Il is of the utmost oinsequenca to have Ihe fencaa of gardena aeiure and complete, and this mailer aluna ought at all times to meat with dut itlenlion. HINTS ABOUT acKi. It Is not every cottage garden that Ilea io commodl- ouslv to the sun, or is in so secluded a situation, aa to render il available for bees ; but where such is tha case, and where Ihe labourer has a Utile leisure, Il li extremely advantageous In many instances Iu keep une or two bivee. Often haa the poor but Industtioui cottager been relieved from embarraaaad circumatancaa liv ilie loll uf a swarm of bees. Nature having sup. plied this iiieful Insect with fuiid, Il puu iu owner to little or no expense fur ihst article. That which It ihiefly requires is a oomfuruble and quiet abode. There have lieen many impruvemenu of lata In hat- hivei, or ikept, as they are called in Ihe north; but the good old-fashioned rustic straw hive Is still reckon- ed among Ihe best. It should be situated in a nict sunny sheltered spot at the end of the garden, and will lie all the btller fur having flowers and shruba in iu immadlala vicinity, on whlcii the beea may at tlmta settle. It ought 10 ha placed upon a ruundlsh board, supported on three or mora feet which cannot be climbed up by vermin. The heal lima for eaublish. Ing a hive ii iuil before ehsel held beneath, and remain dormant till their nive is robbed. The smoke munt Iw prevented Irom eacapiiig by the aid of a cloth. This lurculic may be purchased tu Luoduu, at Uutler's Herbalist, Covent (iarden. ('otugers entirely iguurant ut the habits of bees ought lo procure a manual fur their directiuu, Amung omer liooka ul this kind, we recommend a recent publication, entitled *' The Mauagemeul uf Bees, by Samuel Uagsier, junior.'* iLiiiNiiL'RuH ) Piiblutinl by W. and R. t'HaHBaaa, lu, Waterloo I'lufi alio by Onn and smith, PaU'moitvr How, London 1 anil UKimoK Yoi'.vo, Dublin. Sold by -luho Haclsod, Qlaa- gow, and all other Bnukacllera. t'mn ihs 8IMm-Pcssa of W, and R, C ] CHAMBERS'S I INFORMATION FOll THE PEOPLE. No. 47. CONDUCTED BY WIIiLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF "CHAMBERS'S JOURNAL" AND "HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Pnioa Ijrf. A 11 C H I T E C T U R K. IlIITOHY or AHClllTCl'TURe. AacHiTKCTOHK ftppciiri tohure Iimd ftmoog Ihsflar- Uett inveiitloni, Knd Iti works have Lmr einnmnnly rfgnliied by lutn* principle of htrtdlury imiutlon. M'liiitcviT rud0 itructure lite climtM and matariali of any country hava obliged tti early InhabiUnls to ailiiiit I'lr their temporary ilielter, the lame itriioture, with all ill priiminent feotiirei, hat bean afterward! kf)it lip by their refined and opulent poiterlty. Thm, the r.^yptian ityle of building haa lu origin In the (luveru and mound ; the C'hlueae aruhltaoture li KiiMilded from the tent; the Ureolan U derived from tlie wiKiden cabin i nnd the ftothlo from the bower or treoH. The flrit bahitalioni of men were inch ni na. tiiro afforded, with but little labour on the part of the occupant, and lufficient to supply his simple wants — liuti, grottoes^ and tents. Uut as soon as men rose above theftateof nature, and becama acquainted with tome of the arts, they began to build more durable and more commodious habitations. After they had learned to butld bouiei, they commenced the erection uf temples to their gods, and these they made still ■tore splendid than private dwflUngs. Thus, archi- tecture became a fine art, which was first displayed on the temples, afterwards on the habitations of prlncps, and public buildings, and at last became an universal waiit in society. Traces of these eras of advancement in the art of erecting buildings, are fiiund iu various quarters of the gl ihf, especially In eastern countries, where the reuiHJnk of edlficeii are diiicjvereil, of which fable and pueti'v csD utone give any account The most re- utirkable of these vestiges of a primitive architec. tnre, are certain pieces of masonry In the Island of Sicily, as well as In some other places, called the works of the Cyclops, an ancient and fabulous race of giants, mentioned by llumer in his Odyssey. The walls they erected were composed of huge stones, laid la this manner :^ According to Vltruvius, a celebrated Roman writer of the first century, mankind at first erected furked stakes for wulls, and disposed twigs between the in- terstices, covering the whole with loam; others, he aays, piled up drycluds of day, binding them together with wood; and to avoid rain and heat, they made a covering with reeds and boughs ; but finding that this roof could not resist the winter rains, they made It sloping and pointed at the top, plastering It over with clay, and by that means discharged the rain water. That this was the original mode of erecting dwellings, may be concluded from observing that to this day some nations construct their habitations of the same kind of materials. The erection of houses chiefly of timber, and thatching the same with straw, is still a common practice in the country parts of England and Nor- mandy; and we need not travel beyond Ireland and the rude parts of Scotland to see dweUingl;ice! of men of as great genius as ever first drew breath iu tliv dwellings of princes. Tbf originally rude style of house architecture was first improved in Italy, from whence a superior taste 9^T9nd over Europe; yet even till a comparatively re* c-nt era, the chief towns of Kuglaud and Scotland were erected in an exceedingly mean style. We find that In tha twelfth century the style of domeitio building which'^btalned in the better order of Scottish burghs was Just one advance beyond the primitive cot- tages which gave shelter to the peasantry. From a specimen la the town of Perth, which was only de- stroyed in the last age, and which Is known to have been erected In the thirteenth century, It would ap- pear that a good house, such as might be occupied by one of the better order of merchants, consisted of one strongly built ground.flat, with a more flimsy sup^**- Htrnoture of wood, having an open gallery or balcony in front. Specimens of such buildings exist to this day In the meaner parts of Edinburgh, with apparently little alteration from their original condition, exoept what consists in tha substitution of slate for thatoh. The following Is a sketch of one of the most ancient of these itrueinref, situated between houset of modern erection. The repeated ocearrence of Area, and the progress of a better taste, as well at the great diffusion of wealth by means of trade, have at length concurred to esta- bliiih all over Britain a prodigiously improved system of city architecture, whether of brick or stone; aulin the present day we find the dwellings of persons not only in the higher, but the inferior ranks, inhabiting mansions, which, in architectural decoration, emulate the most splendid temples and palaces of ancient times. When we consider what these magnificent edifices were more than a thousand years ago, it seems mar- vellous how such a length of time should elapse be- fore a good style of architecture was applied to domes- tic erections; but a satisfactory reason is given for this in the circumstance of the exceedingly slow ad- vancement of a middle class In society, and the ages of superstition end barbarous warfare, which for many hundreds of years interrupted the cultivation of thehuman intellect, and, consequently, the establish- ment of comfortable usages. Architecture has been so littl3 considered as a science affecting domestic Btructuies, that its history refers almost exclusively to the erection of temples; and as it is mainly from this species of buildings that all modern architectural de- coration has spning, it will be necessary to go back with our account to the times when these temples were erected. The most ancient nations known to us, among whom architecture had made some progress, wore the Babylouiantt, whose mest celebrated buildings were tht; temple of Uelus, the palnce and the hanging gardens of t^emlramis ; the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich In splendid buildings ; tlie PbosnU olahs, whose cities, Sldun, Tyre, Aradus, and Sa- repta, were adorned with equal magnificence; the fsraelites, whose temple wai. tonsidered as a wonder of architecture; tha Syrians and the Philistines. No architectural monument of these nations hht, how- ever, been transmitted to us; but we find subterra- neous temples of the Hind J, hewn out of the solid rock, upon the Islands Elephanu and SulsetU. Of the Persian architecture, the ruins )f Persepolls still re- main ; of the Egyptian obelisks, pyramids, tem|ili>i, palaces, sepulchres; of the Etruscan, some sepulchi^s and portions of city-walls. The character of this el- der architecture was tmmov ^ule firmness, gignn>ic height, prodigal spleuuour, which excited admiration ^nd astonishment, but comparatively little pleasure The Oreeks were the first who passed from the rough and gigantic to a noble almpUclty and dignity. The Doric order of columns characterises this first period. The greatest masters, Phidias, Ictlnus, Caillorates, and others, encouraged and supported by Pericles, emu- lated each other, as soon as peace at home and abroad was restored. The beautiful temple of Rllnerva waa erected upon the Acropolis of Athens, also the Propy- Iwum, the Odeum, and other splendid buildings. An equal taste for the art^ arose in tlie Peloponnesus and in Asia Minor. A high degree of simplicity waa united with majestic grandeur and elegance of form. The beauties of architecture were displayed not only In temples, but also iu theatres, odeums, colonnades, market-places, and gymnasia. The Ionic and Corin- thian columns were added to the I>oric. At the end of the Feloponnesian war, the perfection of architec- ture was gone. A noble simplicity had given place to excess of uruameut. This was the character of the art at the time of Alexauder, who founded a number of new cities. But a strict regularity hitherto pre- vailed in the midst of this overcharged decoration. After the death of Alexander, 323 u. c, the Increas- ing love of gaudy splendour hastened the decline of the art more and more. In tireece. It was afterwards but little cultivated, and, in the edifices of the Selen- cidaj in Asia, and of the Ptolemies in Eg}'pt, an Im- pure taste prevailed. The Romans had uo temples, or similar public edifices, equal to the Grecian master- pieces, although they had early applied their Industry to other objects of architecture, viz., to aqueducts and sewers. The oapltol and the temple of the capitollne Jupiter were erected by Etruscan architects. But soon after the second Punic war, 200 b. c, thoy be- came acquainted with the Qreekii. ! Sylla was the first who introduced the Grecian arohl- tecture to Kome ; and he, as also Marius and Csesari erected large temples in this and iu other cities. But under Augustus tho art first rose to the perfection of which it was capable at that time. He encouraged the Greek artists, who had exchanged their country for Rome, and erected, partly from policy, manysplen- did works of architecture. Agrippa built temples (the Pantheon), aqueducts, and theatres. Private habita- tions were adorned with columns and marble. Splen- did villas were built, of which the rich Romans often possessed several. The interior was adorned with works of art obtained from Greece. The walls were covered with thin marble plates, or were painted, and divided into panes, tu the middle of which were re presented mythological or historical subjects. They were also surrounded with the most elegant borders These borders were what we call grotesques. Almost all the successors of Augustus er.bellishtid the city more or less, erected splendid palaces and temples, aud adorned, like Adrian, even the conquered coun- tries with them. Constantine the Great transferred the imperial residence from Rome to Constantinople, so that nothing more was done for the embellishment of Kome. But at the time when the Romans received the art from the Greeks, It had already lost, among the lat- ter, its perfection aud purity. In Rome, it rose In* ■ f CHAMBERS'S rNFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. de«d in a short time to Its funner height, but lOon degtnersted, with the oniiiimmny incrianiiig maglil- ficenreof the emperorB, into extniv»g(inoe of ornammit. About thin time, iheJlomannr Compunite tohimn otI- glnated, which wm employed in templeii and splen- did biitldingi. In the time of Nero, whom golden palace ii ieiebrated, the exterior und interior of tlie builtlingH were profusely adorned, Adrian* who en- couraged arttflts as much as pnsBiMe, was not able to restore a nnhle and timple taMe in archlteelure. In- stead of imitating the beautiful models already exist- ing, the endeavour, in his time ^ as to invent new styles, and to embelliih the heauiuul more and more. Now origiiiHted the many curved and twisted orna- tnents, the high pedestal under ihe cohimns, the nu- merous liat- reliefs on the exterior of buildings, the Ihilings of the cohimns, the reduction of the same ac- cording to a curved line, the i-oupled columns, the reduced pilasters behind the columns, the small co- lumns between larger ones, the round and cut pedi- ments, and the concare friezes. Thus the art was practised from tlie time of Ves- pasian to the reign of the Antoninci. Works w«re produced in this period which may still be considered u jnaater piece*, hut which want the great and noble itvie of the Greeks. In the provinces taste became still more corrupt. Architecture declined continually after the Antonines ; more ornamtnte were rontinu. ally added, which is proved paiticularly by the Arch of the (ioldsmiths, so called in Home. Alexander 8e- verus, indeed, himself a connoisseur, did something for its improvement; hut It rapidly declined under his succesBon. The buildings of this time are either orcrcharged with mean and trifling ornaments, as those of Palmyra, erected about tMH) a. d., or they bor- der on the rude, like those of Rome, erwot«d andar Constantiutf. Little was done under the following emperors for the embellishment of the cities, on nc- oimnt of the continually disturbed state of the empire. Jastinian, however, built much. His principal edifice WM the church of bt 8ophia, at Constantinople. The beautiful works of ancient architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Ooths, Vandals, and other barbarians, in Italy, Spain, Greece, Asia, and Africa; and whatever escaped destruction remained in neglect. Thaodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, a friend of the arta, endeavoured to preserve and restore the ancient baildinffs, and even erected several new ones, the ruins of which are still to be seen in Havenna and Verona. We may consider this period as the era of the ori- gin of modem art. We see a new style taking place of the ancient classioal architecture, and eventually eottending as far as the conquests of the <}oths, through Italy, >'rance, Spain, Portugal, a part of Germany, and even to England, whither, however, the (lotlis did not penetrate Whether this mtxlern architecture, which is called Gothic, originnted from the Germans, ii not decided. We And, In the buildings erected under Theodoric, nothing attem,ited but simplicity, strength, and the display of national taste in their exterior (the interior is unknown to us^. Hut the baildingB erected during the I^mbard dominion In Italy (from MS), and all the monastic architecture of that time, have been erroneously called Gothic Since the error was perceived, it has been dtstlni^ished by the name of the old Gothic, from the proper Gothic, which is called tlie modern Gothic. The I^imbards entertained ii(» respect for antiqui- ties, and neither spared nor preserved them. What- ever thtfy built was tasteU^se and faulty. On the flstterior of their churchen they placed small semi- circular columns, and small pillars in a row along the cornice of the pediment*; in the interior, rosme pil- lars united by semicircular arches ; the small windows and doors were finished with semicircles; the columns, capitnls, and arches, were often overlaid with Incon- gruous sculpture; the roofs of the naves covered with beams and boards, whfcli were afterwards changed into arcb?s, and on this account often required arched buttreKsee on the outside. This Ijomtiard style in architecture clearly pruves tbe decline of science and art. It wan employed in the sevonteenth century in Pavin, the chief city of the l.omtard ttiiigdnni, in the erectioa of the churches of Mt .lohn and Ht Michael; at Parma, in the church of St J^thn ; at liergnmo, In tbe church of St Julia ; in the chapel uf Altenuuing, in Bavaria ; in tlie caatle of Nuremfierg ; in the Scot- tish chnrcl\ at Hatifthoii, \.c. The architects driven from ron8iantinople{ny7.an- thim) were thu first who cnmhined with ft the use of the Ionic pl>de^tals and columns, provided with oepi. tals formei) according to their own taste, among which were twistt-d 4>nes. In this Lonibard.^li}7.antine style wert erectiid the cathedriili! of Ilamberg, Worms, aud Mfutz ; atsi> the church Minlatn al Monte, near Do. renrc, and the most ancient part of the minster of StraKburtf. (!upola« were afterwards added, as used in the Kant; aud these, w well as the tastel<**.s capitals, and the nmny slender pillars and niinaretH, nf which we often fve two rows, one ftn another, indicate the prnp«r Byzantine or Oriental style of architecture. in thi.. style were erected, besides the rhurch of St Hophia in Constantinople and others, the church of St Alurk, in Venire, the lUptlsterium and the ca- thedral of I'isB, aud the church uf St Vitalis, In Ita- Tenna. The Norman* who had settled in Sicily hullt the eathedral uf Mesiiim upon the foundation of an old temple — a huge but tasteless edifice, in which, by I of the chaogM made In difTereal caaluriM, we 870 may observe, at the same time, the rise and fall of the art. The Vandals, Alani, Suevl, and Vlsigothti had penetrated into Spain and Portugal : the Arabt and AInors expelled them in the eighth century, and destroyed the kingdom of the Goths. The AlussuU mnn coui)uaroii had at that time almost exclusive possession of the arts and sciences. Saracen archi- tects rose in Greece, Italy, Sicily, aud other countries; after some time, many Christians, particularly Greeks, Joined them, and formed tt^ther a fraternity, who kept secr'it the rules of their art, and whose members recognir .' one another by particular sl^i. At th.a period, three diflerent styles of architecture prevailed — the Arabian, a peculiar style, formed after Greek models; the Moorish, which originated in Spain out of the remains of Roman edifices ; and the modern Guthio, which originated in the kingdom of the Visigoths, In Spain, through the mirture of the Arabian aud Alooriiih architecture, aud flourished from the eleventh until the fifteenth century. The two first styles differ but little from each other : the Afoorish style Is principally distinguished from the Arabian by arches in the form of a horee-shoe. Hut the Gothic, or old German, is very different. Swin- burne mentions the following marks of distinction :— The Gothic archee are pointed; the Arabian circular: the Gothic churches hare pointed and straight towers ; the mosques terminate In globes, and have here and there minarets, covered with a ball or a cone: the Arabian walls are adorned with Aloaaic and stucco, which we find in no ancient church in the Gothic style. The entrance of a Gothic church Isadeep arch| di- minishing towards the interior of the building, and adorned on the side walls with statues, columns, niches, and other ornameuts ; but those of the motquee, and of other Arabian and evea Moorish buildinge, aro shal- low, and made in the same manner as doors are at present. Besides, Swinburne observes, that, among the different Arabian capitals which he sew, he found none resembling, In design and arrangement, those which we find in the Gothic churches oFEogUiid and France. The Aloorlsh arehitecture appears In all Iti splen- dour in the ancient palaee of the Mahommedan mo- n:irchs at Grenada, which It called the Alhambra, or Hed. house, and which reeemUee more a fairy palace than a work of human hands. The eharaeter of the Arabian architecture was ItghCneu and ei^endoar. Rich ornaments and ligfatnees In the tingle parte render it agreeable to the eye. The moatom Gothic architecture, which originated in the attempts of By- zantine artists to cover the coarseness and heaviness of the old Gothic by an appearance of lightness, ex- cites the imaglnitiwi by its richlv adorned arches. Its distant perspective, and Its reugioue dlmiiaet, pro- duced by its painted windows. It retained, from the old Gothic arcliitecture, the high bold arefaae, tbe firm and strong walls; but It ditguited theu under Totutes, flowers, niches, little pierced towert, to that the stairs appear hanging In the air ; they gave to the windows »n extraordinary height, and adorned the building itself with statues. This style, in which many chtirchet, conventt, and abbeys, were ereeted, was formed in Spain, and thence extended over France, Knglaud, and Germany. The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of Charlemagne. He introduced from Italy to Germany the Byzantine style, then common. Afterwards the Arabian architecture had some Influ- ence upon that of the western nations; for the frer- nwin art dhows tto churHcteristiot in thepointetl arches and the buttreMen, ^.i. This n-asunited with the By- zantine style, to which in general they ttlU adhered, and thus originated a mixed style, whivii maintained itself until tlie middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the modern Gothic or German style, xvhich we may also call the romantic, since it was form .! by the romantic spirit of tbe middle ages. (Growing up in (jermany, it obtained lis perfection in the towpnt of the mintter of Stnuburg, iu ilie cathedral of Cologne, in the chttrch of St Stephen lu Vienna, the eatliedral uf Krfurt, the church of St Sebaldus in Nuremberg, tbe churcli of St EIi^aheth in Marburg, \c., and ex- tended ititelf from thence to France, Kngtand, Spain, and Italy. The German architecture sho\vi aUo the intluences of climate and religion, particularly in the cbtircbei. The slender columns, always united in groups, rise to a lofty height, resembling the giants of the grove, in whose dark shade the ancient Teuton uireti to htilld his altar. In the cAtaro oscuro of the dome, thesoul, divested of earthly thoughtn, mustcid- lect itnelf, aud rise like Uie dome to Its Alaker. Tiio decorations of the ancient Chrintian churches are by no means an uccident;tl ornament. They speak a figu- rative religious language; and at the tahernacle, or cibarlum. over the altar, where the pyx is kept, the whole temple is presented iu miniature to the view of the beholder. In these edifices, every one must ad- mire tbe accurate proportion*, the bold yet regular construction, tbe tinwvaried Industry, the grandeur of tbe bold masses on the i>xtcrior, and the severtt dig- nity in the interior, which excltee feelings of devotion In every spectator. We must therefore iiscrlbe to the Ge'-iuan architecture more symbolicnl than hiero- glypliic t'loiiMcnce ami dignity. The Italinnn disengaged themselves by little and little from the Bycautine taste. Kven in the eleventh cvntury, Byzantine «iLhite».ta built the cathedral oi Pisa and the church uf St Alark in Venice. Btit in the twelfth century, • German arcbi(eot| named Wil. liam (Guglielmo), and, in the thirteenth, Jacob, with the torname Capo, who died In 120t2, and his pupil or sou Arnolf^ are mentioned as having huilt ehurchae and convents in Florence. The modern Gothic style passed from the churches and abbeys to the castles, palaces, bridges, and city gates, many of which were built in this manner ; for instauce, in Alilan, sixteen city gates of marble, and several new palaces ; in Padoa, seven bridges and three new palaces; In Genoa, two docks and a splendid nqueduct : and the town of Astf, in I2(t0, almost entirely. Architecture was continually improving In Italy, particularly In the fourteenth cen- tury. egunin Italy. Italian masters, and young artists sent to Italy, introduced the Roman taste into foreign countries, which gradually supplanted the Go- thic. Since that time, architecture has experienced different destinies in different countries. It has risen and declined at different periods ; yet laudable attempti have been made iu recent times to advance It to Ite true perfection, though we cannot affirm that they have succeeded every where. ELEHEKTARY PARTS OP RUILSIKO!!. Tbeetseutlalriementary partsofabuilding are those which contribute to its support, encloiure, and cover- ing. Of theee, the most important are the foundation, the column, the wall, the lintel, the arch, tlie vault, the dome, and the riKjf. lu layiuf; the foundation of any building, it is neceiiary to di^' to a certain depth in the eartli, to secure a solid basts, below the reach of frost and common accidents. The most solid basis is rock, or gravel which has not been moved. Next to these are cliiy and sand, provided no other excava- tions have been made in the Immediate neighbourhood. From thitb-tsisa stonewall iu the points of pressure by an inverted arch. This distributes the jirettsure equally, and prevents the foumlHtiou from Hpriuging between the dllTerent piihits. lit loose or muddy situations, It is alwayti unsafe to build, unless we can reach the solid bottom l>elow. In salt marshes and flats, this is done by depositing timlters, or driv- ing wooden piles into the earth, and raiAlng walls up- on them. The preservHtivo quality of the salt will keep these timbers unimpaired fur ii great length of time, and makes the foundation equally secure with one of brick or stone. The simplest member in any building;, though by no nuMuH an essential one to all, is the lulumu orpIU lar. This is a iierpeudicul«r part, rommonly of equal hrendth und thickneiot, not intendc'l fur tbopuriioseof enclosure, hut simply fitr the support of some i»art of the superstructure. The principal force which a co- lumn has to resiiit Is tlmt of perpendicular pressure. In its shape, the shaft of a r^dunui should not be ex- actly cylindrical, but, siiu>« tbe lower part niuKt sup. port the welKht of the superior pait, in iiddition to the weight which preiFen ftninlly on the whole column, the thickness should gradually decreanc from bottom to top. The outline of columns should be a littlo curved, s'l as to represent a portion of a very long Rpheroid, or parabuhiid, rather than of ii cone This figure Is the joint result of two calcnlalhuiH, indepen- dunt of beauty of appearance. Oiu' of these is, that the form Iwst adapted lor stability of base is that of a cone I the other ii, thei (be tifurci which would be«f ARCHITECTURE. «quftl itrength throughout for lupportiog a Buperin- cambent weight, would be generated by the revolu- tion of two parabolai round the axis uf the column, the Tertlces of the curves being at iti extremities. The swell of the shafts of columns was called the entasis by the ancients. It has been lately found that the columns of the Parthenon at Athens, which have been commonly supposed straight, deviate about an Inch from a straight line, and that their greatest swell Is at abuut one-third of their height. Columns in the antique orders are usually made tv^ diminish one-sixth or one-seventh of their diameter, and sometimes even one fourth. The Gothic pillar is commonly of equal thickness throughout. The wall, another elementary part of a building, may be considered as the lateral continuation of a co- lumn, answering the purpose both of enclosure and support. A wall must diminish as It rises, for the same reasous, and In the same proportion as the co- lumn. It must diminish still more rapidly if it ex. tends through several stories, supporting weights at different heights. A wall, to possess the greatest I strength, mu6t also consist of pieces, the upper and lower surfaces of which are horixontal and regular, not rounded nor obliuue. The walls of most of the ancient structures which have stood to the present time, are constructed in this manner, and frequently have their stones bound together with bolts and cramps of iron. The same method Is adopted in such modern structures as are intended to possc-^s great strength and durability, and In some casus tlie stones are even dovetailed together, as In the lighthouses at Kddy- fitone and Belt Rock. But many of our modern stone walls, for the sake of cheapness, have only one face of the stones squared, the inner half uf the wall being completed with brick, so that they can in reality be considered only as brick walls faced with stone. Such walls are said to be liable to become convex ouu wardly, from the ditference in the shrinking of the ce- ment.' Hulible walls are made of rough irregular ■tones laid in mortar. The stones should be broken, if possible, so as to produce horizontal surfaces. The cotfer walls of the ancient Romans were made by en- closing successive portions of the intended wall in a box, and filling it nith stones, sand, and mortar, pro- miscuously. This kind uf structure must have been extremely insecure. The Pantheon, and various other Roman buildings, are surrounded with a double brick wall, having its vacancy fliled up with loose bricks and cement. The whole has gradually consolidated into a mass of great Armncss. The reticulated walls of the Romans, having bricks with oblique surfaces, would at the present day be thought highly unphi- loflophical. Indeed, they could not long have stood, bad it not been fur the great strength of their cement. Modern brick vra]U are laid with great precision, and depend fur firmness more upon their position than upon the strength of their cement. The bricks behig laid in horizontal courses, and continually overlaying each other, or breaking joints, the whole mass is strongly Interwoven and bound together. Wooden walls, composed of timbers covered with b^iards, are a common but more perishable kind. They require to be a)i)«tautly covered with a coating of a foreign substance, as paint or plaster, to preserve them from spontaneous decomposition. lu some parts of France and elsewhere, a kind of wall is made of eartti, ren- dered t\>mpact by ramming it in moulds or cases. This method is called building in pisvy and is much more duralile ttian the nature of the material would lead us to suppose Walls of alt kimls are greatly strengthened by angles and curves, ;tl»o l>y projections, such as pilasters, chimneys, and l>uttressen. These projections serve to increase the l>rt>adtii of the foi.n- dation, and are always to be m«de us-i of in large builitiiig!<, and in walls of consiJt^ralile length. The lintel, or Ipeiim, cxlenils in ft richt linn over a vacant space, from one cn''imri or wml to aiintlier. The 8tr(Migth "»f tlie lintel will lie grtviter in proportion as itN transverse vertical diameter exceeds tlie horizon- tal, tne striMigth liciiig alwayit as the ntiuare of iho (leptlt. The tloor is the lateral conttiuiution or cou- nectiou of beam» by means of a covering uf boards Arghcd. The arch Is a transverse memt>er of a building, an* sweriiig the same f)urpuse as the liutiil, but vastly ex- ceeding it in stren^ah. The arch, unlike the lintel, may consist ufany . imber of constituent pieces, with- out 'mpairiiigits bt.reiigtb. It is, however, necessary tiiat ail the pieces .should possess a uniform shape— (he shape of a ptirti )U uf a wedgr^-and that the joint" furnied by the cuniiii'F uf their Siirfaces should point towards a common centre. In this case, no oue portion of the arcH can be displaced or forced in- ward; and the arch canrot be broken by any force which is uot BUlhcieut to crush the materials of which it ii made. In arciies made of common bricks, the •ides of which are parallel, any onu uf the bricks might be forced inward, were it not for the adhesion of the cement. Any two of the bricks, huwtiver, con- stitute a wedge by *he disposition of their mortar, and cannot cullectively he forced inward. An arch of the I '>p«r form, when complete. Is nndared ttrojiger, in- stead of weaker, by the pressure of a considerable waight, provided this preiiure be uniform. While building, however, it requires to be supported by a centring of the shape of its internal surface, until it li oomplete. The upper stone uf «u areh Ii called the Jttvitoae, but li uot more eiunttal than utr other. 371 In regard to the ihape of the eroh, itemost simple form is that of the semicircle. It if, however, very fre- quently, a smaller arc of a circle, and, still more fre- quently, a portion of an ellipse. The simplest theory of an arch sopportiDg itself only, is that of Dr Hooke. The arch, when it has only its own weight to bear, may be considered as the inversion of a chain, suspended at each end. The chain hangs In such a form that the weight of each link or portion Is held in cquilil>rium by the result '>f two forces acting at its extremities; and these forces, or tensions, are produced, the one by the weight of the portion of the chain below the link, the other by the same weight increased tiy that (if the link itself, both of them acting originally in a vertical direction. Now, supposing the chain inverted- so as to constitute an arcli of the same'form and weight, the relative situa- tions of the forces will be the same, only they will act in contrary directions, so that they are compounded In a similar manner, and balance each other on the same conditions. The arch thus formed is denominated a catenary arch. In common cases, it dllTers but little from a circular arch of the extent of about one-third ofa whole circle, and rising from the abutments with an obliquity of about thirty degrees from a perpendicular. But though the catenary arch is the liest form for sup- porting its own weight, and also all additional weight which presses in a vertical direction, it is not the best form to resist lateral pressure, or pressure like that of fluids, acting equally iu all directions. Thus the arches of bridges and similar structures, when covered with loose stones and earth, are pressed sideways, as well as vertically, in the same manner as if they sup- ported a weight of fiuid. In this case it is necessary that the arch should arise more perpendicularly from the abutment, and that its general figure should be that of the longitudinal segment of au ellipse. In small arches, in common buildings, where the disturb- ing force is not grea', it is of little consequence what is the shape of the curve. The outlines may even be perfet.tly straight, as in the tier of bricks which we frequently see over a window. This is, strictly speak- ing, a real arch, provided the surfaces of tlie bricks tend towards a common centre. It is the weakest kind of arch, and a part of it is necessarily Auperfluous, since no greater portion can act in supporting a weight alwve it, than can be Included between two curved or arched lines. Besides the arches already mentioned, various others are in use. The acute or lancet arch, much used in Gothic architecture, is described usually from two centres outside the arch. It is a strong arch for sup. porting vertical pressure. The rampant arch is one in which the two ends spring from unequal heights. Abouttheeighlh century, the Anglo-.^^axims In Eng- land began to erect churches on plans partly borrowed from the remains of Roman edifices in this country. They in particular introduced the circular or rounded arch ; and a few very beautiful examples of this kind of building still remain in ditferent parts of tlie cimn- try. It is called Saxon or Norman, from its having prevailed during the reign of the Saxon and Norman kings in l^ngland. It commenced at the establishment of Christianity amnng the Saxons, in the sixth century, and continued tillalmut the year 113.1. in the reign of King Stephen. The entrance to tlie Temple Church, London; the Abbey (iate, Bristol; and the Church of Romsey in Hampshire, are in this styltMif architec- ture. The doors in this Rtylo are sometimes quite plain, and sometimes very richly carved. Of the lat- ter the following is a specimen Between the reigu uf Stephen nnd that of Henry III., the circular arch began to disappear, and before the death of the latter monarch, gave way to the pointed arch. At first the two arches were Inter- mixed, and t!ie style was then called semi or half Norman. Some suppose that the pointed arch was introduced from the Saracens by the Crusaders to the Holy Land, and from this circumstance they r^ll it the Saracenic arch ; but the greater number of per- sons imagine It to have arisen from the accidental intersection of several rounded arches with each other. That this will produce pointed arches of different widths and heights, according to the points of Inter- section, may easily be shown by placing two hoops or rings across each other, allowing one point of the hoops or rings to rest upon a floor or table. The crossings of the boughs of trees Iu au avenue also af- ford a famil.^tr illustration ol the same fact. In the Temple Church the two arches may bo found united, and other soecimens may be seen iu the Church of 9t Cross near Winchester t the ruins of Bulldwas Abbeys Shropshire; Fountains Abbey, Rievaulx Abbey, r^od Roche Abbey, In Yorkshire. When the circular arch totally disappeared In 1220^ the early English ^tyle commenced. The wli^dcr«a of this style were at first very narrow in r^mparisoa with their height : they were called lancet*shaped| and were considered very elegant : two or three war* frequently seen together, connected by dripstones* In a short time, however, the windows became wider, and divisions and ornaments were introduced. Some- times the same window was divided into several lights, and frequently finished at the top by a light in the form of a lozenge, circle, trefoil, or otlier orna* ment. A specimen of this kind may be seen In the beautiful church of St Saviour's, Southwark, which hu lately Iteen thrown open to view by the improve- ments connected with the erection of the New Luudon Bridge, and another and a very beautiful example ia the " Lady Chapel," near London Bridge, on the Surrey side of the Thames. With reference to the formation of this arch, It is curious to examine the ex* treme accuracy witli which the masonry is connected at the springing of the arch. It is in this respect much superior to that of a later period. The door of St Alary's, Lincoln, Is also in this style, of rhich i?e Bubjoia an example. Abont the year 1300, the architecture became more ornamental, and from this circumstance received the name of the decorated English style, which Is consi- dered the most beautiful for ecrlesiastlcal buitdiogs. Thewindowsof this style areveryeasilydistinguished ; they are large and wide, and are divided into several lights bymullions, which are upright or perpendicular narrow columns, branching out at the top into tracery of various forms, such as trefoils, circles, and other figures. York Cattiedral atforda a fine specimen of this sort of architecture, and tliore is a beautiful win- dow of the same style iu tlie south transept of (.'liiches- ter Cathedral. The west front of that of Kxeter la another specimen, and the doorway of Lincoln Cathe- dral is in the same style. The tiansition frum the decorated to the florid or perpendicular style was very gradual. Ornament after ornament was added, till etimplicity disappeared beneath the extravagant additions ; and atfout tlie year I'dltO, tlie architecture became so overloaded and pro- fuse, that it o'l.tainoil the title of florid, whiclihysome persons is called the perpendicular, because tlie lines of division run in upright or perpendicular lines from top to bottom, which is not the case in any other style. King*8 College Chapel, Caniliridge, begun in the reign of Henry VI., thou^'h not finished till Nome time after; (iloucobter Cathedral ; Henry \'[I.'s Cliapel ;kt West- miiitter ; St (ieorge',s Cliapel at Windnnr ; \\'rexham ('hiirch, Denbighshire; and the Chitpel on tlie Bridge at M'akelii'Iil, VorkHhire, are ail of t)iis iharacter. Many small country churches are luiilt tii this stylo; and thtir si/e not admitting ot' nimh ornaiiu iit, ttiey are distinguished from .itructures of a Inter date liy mou'dings running round their arches, and i:iMieraIly by a square head over the olitnse-pi)inted ar* li of ttm door. A peculiar ornament of this style is a tlowur of four leaves, i-.illed from tlic family reigning at time period the Tinh»r flower. In de cribing arches, the upper turface is deno- minated the extrado:<, and the inner surface tlte in- tradus. The Bpringint^ lines are those wlieie the intrados meets the abutments or supporting walls. The span is the distance from (uie springing line to the ether. The wedge-shaped stones which form an arch are sometimes called voussoirs, the uppermost beinr the keystone. The part ofa pier from which anarch spriugs is called the impost, and the curve formed by the upper side of the v ceuary that the walls, abutments, and piers, on which arches are supported, should be so firm as to resist the lateral thrust as well as vertical pressure of the arch. It will at once be seen that the lateral or sldewajr pressure of an arch is very considerable, when we re- collect that every stone or portion of the urch Is a wedge, a part of whose force acts to separate the abut* ments. For want of attention to this circumetanoey important mistakes have been committed, the strength of buildings materially impaired, and their ruiaaoot* \i I ; CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. lerAtetl. [ti diime cnsejt, (lie wniit of lateriil tlrmnetiB In till* walli ii L-ompeimatecl by a bar of iron stretched acroit the ipan uf toe arch, and ooanecting the abut* meuti, like the tie-beam of a roof. This ii the cue in the cathedral of Milan, and loma other Gothic building!. Arcade*. In an arcade, or continuation of archen, it i* only HKv^Hary that the onter ntipportitif the terminal arohei Klt(>iild be strong enough uireilit horiKiintHl preisure. In the intermediate nrthetij the luteral force uf each arrh in connteracted by the opposing lateral force of lie one rnntlgixms to it. In bridgen, however, where inilividiial arches are liable to be desfroyfd by acci* (tt'iit, it is deoirnble that each of the piers sh.iufd pus. fp^% .nt)ntiation of an arch, nerving to coVer an area or pnAPage, and bearing the same relation to the arch thnt the wall does to the column. A sim- ple vnnlt Is oonttructed ou the principles uf the arch, and distributes Its pressure equally along the walls or abutments. A complex or groined vault is made by two vaults intersecting each other. In which case the pressure is thrown upon npringlng points, and is greatly increased at thoiie points. The groined vault II common in Oothic architecture. Donici. The dome, somke either a segment of a spheru, of a spheroid, or of any similar figure. When built of stone, it is a very strong kind of structure, even more so than the arch, sinc« the teudencv of each part to fall is coun- teracted, nut only by those above and Ih-Iow it, hut alio by those on each side. It is only necessary that the coustituent pieces should have a common form, and that this form should be somewhat like the frnx. turn of a pyramid, to that, when placed in its situa- tion, Its four angles may point towards the centre or axis of the dome. During the erection of a dome, it ia not necessary that it should be supported by a cen- tring until complete, as is done in the arch. Each circle of stones when laid is capable of supporting it- ^elf without nid from those above it. If follows that the dome may be left open at ton without a keystone, and yet \>e nerfcctly secure in tliis respect, beii,g the reverse of the arch. The dome of the Pantheon at Rome has been always open at top, and >et has stood unimpaired for nearly two thousand years. The upper circle of stones, though apparently the weakest, is nevertheless often maue to support the additional weight of a lantern or tower above it. In several of the largest cathedrals there are two domes, one within the other, which contribute their joint support to the lantern, which rests upon the top. In these build. ing«, the dome rests upon a circular wall, which is supiKirted in its turn by arches upon massive pillars or piers. This construction is called building upon pendeniives, and gives open space and room for pas- sage Iwneath the dome. The remarks which have been made in re-^ard Ui the abutments of the arch apply equally to the walls immediately supporting a dome. They must be of sufficient thickness and soli- dity to re»iBt the lateral pressure of the dome, which 18 very great. Tlie walls of the Roman Pantheon are of great depth and solidity. In order that a dome in itseli Bhiiuld be perfectly secure, its lower parts must net l>e too nearly vertical, tince in this case ihev par- take of the nature of perpendicular nails, and are acted ispon by the ipreadint? f.irce uf the parts above them. 1 he dome of St Paul's Church in Lcndon, and some others of similar construction, are bound with chains or hoops of iron, to prevent them from npreading at bottom. Domes which are madeof wmid depend in part for their strength on their internal carpentry. The llalle du Hied, in Paris, had origi. nally a wooden dome more than t«o4inndred feet in diameter, and only one foot in thickness. This has since been replaced by a dome of iron. R.K.fi. The TOttt is the most common and cheap method iT covering builtllngs, to j roU'Ct them from rain and other rlfects of the weather. It is somctlmi's flat, but more frequently ..blii|iie, In its shape. The Hat or plaif..rm-rnof is the haa advantageous fur shedding mill, and is seldom used in northern countries. The pent rrted by r^tftrrs, which n»nit on the walls on ericb side, like the citrcniities of an arch. If no other timlwrs ex^rni except the rafters, ihey would exert a strong lateral pressure on tlie wilN, ttiiding to Mparate and overilirow them. To counter.ict this lateral ftrie, a lie. beam, as it Jsc^ilM, extends acrons. , receiving the ends of the rafteni, and protcc.itig the wall fnm their horizontal thrust. To prevent the tie-beam from lagtiing, or bending downwaid with lU own weight, a king, post is erected from this beam 10 the upp«f »n»'9 of the rafters, Mrvinff to connect 37a the whole, and to suspend the weight of the beam. This is culled trussing. Queen-pOMts are sometimes added, parallel to the king-post, in large roofs; also various other cary to ex- plain certain terms which are used to deiu>te their diirerent constituent portions. The architectural orders will bespoken uf under the head of the Uretluu and Unman styles, but their component parts ought previously to be understood. The front or fu^-adi of a building, made after the ancient models, or any portion of it, may present three parts, occupying different heights : — The pedestal is the lower part, ufeualiy supporting a column ; the single pedestal it wanting in moir. The mid- dle or tiat portion enclosed ny the cornice of the pediment is called the tympanum. Pedestals (or statneK, erected on the summi* and extismities of a pc.:imeiit are called acroteria. An attic is an upper fiurt of a building, terminated at top by a hortzoiit:il ine Iniitead of a pediment. The diiferent moutding> in architecture are described from tlieir sections, or from the profile which they present when ^^ut across. Of these, the torus is a convex moulding, the ^eltion of which is a semicircle, or nearly so; the astragal is like the torus, but smallci ; the ovolo Is convex, but its outline is only the quarter of a circle; the echinun resembles the ovolo, but its outline is spiral, not cir- cular; the tc<)ti;i is a deep cnnca\'e moulding; the cavetto is aSo a concave, and occupying but a quarter of a circle; the cymatium is an undul.ited nioulding, of uhith the upper part la concave and the tower cn?ivex ; the oge« or t;ilon Is an inverterl rymatium ; the tiili't is a small square or lint moulding. In ar^hiti-cturiil measurement, a diameter means the width of a column at the bane. A module is half a dlametiT. A minu'e is a sixtieth part of a diameter. In reiirrscnting cditicrs by drawing*, architects mnke Use uf tlie plan, elevaticm, Fectinn, and perspective. The nlan is a map or dcJgn of a horizontal surface, showing the tchnojrnphlc projection, or groui:dwo!k, with the relative po^itionof wall«,(olimiu", doiri, .Vc, The elcv'ttion Is the orthographic projection of a front, or vcnlcil Rurfacc ; this deli g represented, not as ii is nrtriajly seen in i erspcrtive, hut as It would appeai if Bein from an ainnite distance. Tlie sec^lrfii showa the it teiior of a bulhling, sti'nc- tures peculiarly Egyptian. 6. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes caived in stone, and sculptures in out- line of fabulous deities at d animals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which beloni; to this style of architecture. The architecture ol tha ancient Hindoos appears to have been deiived from the same original ideus ua the Egyptian. Tlie mu!*t remarkable relics of this [leople are their subterrane- ous temples, of vast size and elaborate wuikmanship, carved out of the solid ruck, at Klephauta, Ellura, and S'alsette. The Chinese Mlyle. — The ancient Tartars and wan- dering shepherds of Asia aiuiear to have lived from time Immemorial in tents, a kind of habitation adaptid to their erratic life. The Chinese have made ilic tent the elementary feature of their architecture; imd oi their style any one may form an tJea, by in.s^ictin^ the t^gtires wliich are depicted upon comniou Ciiiu;i ware. Chineae roofs are cimcave on the upper side, as if made of canva's, insteiid of woml. A (Jiintsa portico is nut uniike the awnings spread over &hop win- dows in summer time. The verandah, sunutimus copied In dwelling-huuses, is a structure of tliis sort. The ( hiiu'se tuners and pngodaa have concave roofs, iiku awnings, projecting over their several stoii^a. The lightness of the btyle used by thu Cliinevu leads tliein to (uiiM uUh woud, ■oiii«iluies with I rick, and behhrni with stone. The iirecian a/y/^.— (irecian architecturo, from which have been derived the* ruo.»t .splendid structures uf later ages, had its origin in the wooden hut ore. bin, formed ut posts eet in the earth, and covered with transverse poles and ralterp. Its liegiunin^^s weru very simple, being litilu more than imitatiouh in htoue of the original posts and huanis. Ity degrees, the»o were modiiied ami d(.'Corated, so as to give ri>ti to the distinctitui of what are now called thu orders of archi- tecture. Ity the architectural oidersare understomi certain miKles of proportionini; and decorating the column and its entablature. They were in use during the best diys of (freeco and Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. They were Inst sight of in the daik ages, and Again revived by the Itnli.tns, at the lime of the rc'oiailiin of letters. The (Jreeks hatl three orders, calK'd tlio Doric, hpoic, and Coricithl, n. Tliese were ailiifited and modiiied by the Romans, •.'!>o also added two others, called the Tn.sran and Comp'-stio The Tuscan onU-r, as an Hiittque, exists mily in the works of Vitruvins, ihe description in wiiicb, being very oliscure, has left a wide field lor the ingenuity of inoitern architects. Among tbeite, Pulladio coin- p')5ed two profiles ; one from the description of the ancient tnaster, and the other, according to his own ide:i of a nimplillcatioii of the Doric. Th:it of \'ig. iiida, however, has been most generally ai>]'roved and adopted. The base of this order consists of a sim[>lo tonif, witti its tillet; it Is, as are in general all the Roman orders, ncconipanird by a plinth. The proportlcmii, from t*Ir W. Chambers, are as follow i The column, fourteea module! j the entablature, three aiodulee ARCHITECTURE. lil'tetiu niiiiutes. Of ihefurmer, the base occupies one miHlulu; the Bliaft (including the aitragal, which di- vides it from the ca|t-ptncP!t, arsenals, and the ia- ferinr parts of large buildings. We now Cvjme to the />o- rio ordcTf of which numerous ancient examples exist, and wliich will in consequence fur- nish us with more materials for description than the preceding. It is represented at fig. 3. The origin of the Uorio oidcr is thus descrihed by Vitruvius: — '* Duru«, son of Hellen and the nymph Crises, reigned over _ Achaia and Peloponne-ius. He built a temple uf thltt order, on a spot eacred to Juno, at Argos, an ancient city. Many temples similar to it were afterwards raised in the other pnrtii of Auhaia, though at that time its proportions were not precisely estal>liBhed.*' This nccount, o§ well as thone of the orders which we shall presently examine, is very incredible, and Is now generally rejected. The Doric is the earliest and rriost massive order of the Greeks. It is known by its largo columns with plain capitals; its triglyi)hs resembling the ends ol beamst and \i% mulules cnrrespnnding to those of raf- ters. The column, in thu examples at Athens, is about f\% diairetf rs in height. In the older examples, as thn«o at Fa-stum, it is but four nr five. The bhaU had no base, but stood directly on the stylubate. It had twenty flutingn, which were snpertkiaf, and separateii by angular edges. The perpendicular outline was nearly slrnight. The Doric capital was plain, being formed of a few annulets ur rinses, a large echinus, and a Il;tt stnne nt top c.dled the abncns. The architrave was plain; the frieze was intersected by oblong pro- jections fitlled triglyphs, divided Into three parts by vertical furrows, and ornamented beneath by guttw, or dmpa. Tlie spnces between the triglyphs were cnlled metopes, and commonly contained sculptures. The sculptures representing Centaurs and Laplthro, cnrripd t'y Lord Kl^in to I.imdon, were metopes of the Parthenon, or teniptc of .Minerva at Athens. The fornico tif the Doric order consisted of a few large monhiings, having on thtlr under side a series ol {tqnare hlcping prnjections, resenitding the ends of rafters, and called mutules. These were placed over both ;rij,'lvphs and metopes, and were ornamented, on their under side, with cirrular guttw. The best speci- mms of the Doric order are found in the Parthenon, Propjliea, and the temple of Theseus, at Athens. The ionic is a lighter order than the D;irlc, its co lu:nn being eight or nine diameters in heiKbt. It had a base uflin conii>o'rti «f a tmns, a scotia and a scaiud ti.rua, with intervening lilb-ts. This is called Oie Attic base. Others were used in different pHrl.H of (Jreot-e. The hh.ift h:ul twenty-four ormore tint- Ing«, whirh were narrow, as deep as a semicircle, and !:eiiiirntt'd by a iillet or ntuaie ed^^o. The rapitnl of this order consisted of two paridlul dou' lo ocrolls, callt'd volutes, occupying opposite sides, i.nd supp.irt- iiig im libiicus, which was nearly square, but moulded at its edges. These volutes have been considered as c ijiii'd from ringlets of hair, or perhaps from the l.orns vi ./itpiter Amnion. When a column made the angle of au edifice, its volutes were jhced, not upon oppo- !.;t.^ but tin contiguous hides, each fronting oulwards. 1.1 t!Js case the volutes interfered with eai:h cuher »i t' e corner, anil were oblij.,'ed to askume a diagi>nal dl. 1-. (■■.i>in. The Ionic entablature lonslsted of an arehi- ti iv.' and frieze, which were continuous oruubmkeu, ri!..l ;i cornice of various successive motildings, at ibe I .vt-r I'art of « hlch was often a row of denfels, or fq'iiie teeth. The examples nt Athens, liissns, which was stauiling iu i^tuart's time, se- venty years since, but is [U)w extinct. Ti:e Coi-inthiiui was the lightest and mo-ft deco- r!tt>'il of V.iH (irerinn orders. Its base rcseinblt'd that of ili^t Ionic, but was nniio cmnplicatcd. The abaft was olU'it tin tliameters la height, und was fluted like the li'iiu!. The ci|)ii:il was ritapt d like nn Inverted bell, and co\ered on the outtitde with two dws ot leavt^i >ii the plant acituihus, above which were eight pairs of tunall volutes. Iih abacus was moulded and concave on its bides, and truncated at the corners, with a flower ott the cuutre of each ^ide. The entab. latureuf t^o Curiulhiau order resembled that uf the 373 Fig. 8. loniCi but was mure complicated and ornamented, and had| under the cornice, a row of large uhlong projeo- tlons, bearing a leaf or scroll on their under side, and called modiUloni. No vestiges of this order are now found In the remains uf Curiutb, and the most legitU mate example tt Alliens Is in the choragic monument of Lyfiicrates. The Corinthian ordc was much em- ployed iu the subsequent structures uf Home and its colonies. The finest Roman example ot this order is that of three columns in the Campo Vacclno at Rome, which are commonly considered as the re- mains of the temple uf Jupiter Stator. This example has received the commendation of all mi>dern artists, yet has seldom been executed in Its original form. This is probably owing to the excessive richness and delicacy of It, wliluh reidert its adoptii n verv expen- sive, and perhaps the moditlcatlon of It by Vignole ii preferable to the original, possexsing a sufficient en- richment without the exces^ive refinement of the other. In this order (which has been adopted by Sir William Chamberh) the base is one module in height; the shaft, sixteen modules twenty minutes ; and the ca- pital, two modules ten minutes; thus giving ten dia- meters to the whole ctdumn. The architrave and frieie are each one module fifteen minutes in height, end the cornice, two modules. The cornice Is dis. tinguished by modilllons Interposing between the bead-mouldings and corona; the latter is formed by a square member surmounted by a cy* utatium, supported by a small ogee : the former Is composed of dentils, supported by a cyma reverse, and covered by the ovolo. When the order Is en- "iched, which is usually the case, these mouhtiiigs, except- ing the cymatlum and square uf the corona, are all sculp- tured : the column isalsoflutedf and the channels are simetUnes filled to about a third of their height with cablings, which are cylindrical pieces let into the channels. When the co- lumn IS lari^e, and near the eye, these are recommended ai strengthening them, and ren- dering the I'lllets less liable to fracture; but when they are not approached, it is better to leave the llutes plain. They are sometimes sculp- tured, but this should be only in highly enriched orders. An example is given in tig. 1. The flutes are twenty-four In number, and com- monly semicircular In their plan. The Corinthian ua^e is similar to that of the Composite order, ex- cepting that two astragals are employed between the scotin instead of one; but the Attic Is usually em- ployed for the reasons before assigned. " The Corinthian order," says Sir William Cham- bers, "is proper for all bniluings where elegance, gaiety, and magnit'icenre, are required. The ai.cients employed it in temples dedicated to Wnns, to Flora, Proserpine, and the nymphs of fowntains, because thu flowers, foliage, and v'obitei with which it is adorned, beemed well a lapted to the delicacy and elegance of such deities. Being the most splendid of all the orders. It Is extremely proper for the decoration of palaces, public squares, or grtljeries and arcades sur- rounding thom ; ft)r churches dedic.tid to the Virgin .^lary, or to other vlrt;iti sainti, and on account of its rich, Kay, and graceful appearance, it m.^y with propriety be used In theatres, in F'all or ba'upietting nwms, and in ail p!nres consecrated to festive mirth or C4invivial recreation." Caryaliile.'* — The Greeks sometimes departed so far from the htrict use of the orders, as to introduce sta- tues. In the place of columns, to support thu ent.ibla. turo. Statues of idaves, heroes, and g<>ds, aii^tear to hive been employed, occasionally, for this purpose. The principal specimen of this kind of arcliityi turc which rem. ins, is in a portico calltd Pandnti-ouiu, at- tached to the temple of Virectheus at .Athens, in uhich statues of Carian femulec, called Caryatides, arc sub- stituted fiir column*. One of lhi'?e Ktntuea h:i8 btea cariied to l.oudtut. Grecian Umpfe — The most remnrkab!e public ed(. flees of the (IreeV.s were their teinplcs. Tlu-so l»e- ing intended as |>l3ccs of resort for thu pi ie^ts, rather than fur the convening uf af-embH.s with- in, were iu general obscurely lightid. Their form was c.ininioiily th t of an oblong ^(^ua^u, having a 1!' lonn ide wuh.iut, and a walled cyll within. The cell was usu: l!y without windows, receiving its light only from a d.inr at thd end, and itome:i:ne» from an ipening hi the roof. The part of the colnnuado which formed the front I'orticn w;i8 called the pnma.'S, and that which formid ihe bat k part, the posticus. Tbo colonnade wan subj.ct to great variu:y iu the number and dispositi.iu of its columns, from wliich Vitruvius hasdesciibi'd seven different upet.icuni'teniplcH. '1 Iiobh were, I. The temj'lo with aiil;^. Iu this the fruit was composed of piljisten, called an i', on the sides, and twocolumnsiu ihemlddle. 1. Theprostvlo. This bad a row of I'nlumus at one end only. II. Tlieaniphl- nrostyle, having ii row d" coluniiiH at each end. 4. The peripteral temple. This was surrounded by a single ruw uf cjlumni, having si:i iu front and Iu rear, and eleven, counting the angulHr columns, on each side. b. The dipteral, with a double row of columni all round the oell, the front consisting of eight. 6. Tht pseudo-dlpteru diflFen from the dipteral, la having ft single row of columni on the sides, at the same dli* tance from the cell ai if the temple had been alpteral. 7. The hypnthral temple had the centre of Its roof open to the sky. It was colonnaded without, like the dipteral, btit had ten columns in front. It had also an internal colonnade, called peristyle, on both sides of the open space, and composed of two stories or cidon- nades, one above the other. Temples, especially small ones, were sometimes made of a circular form. Whea these werfi whoUv open, or without a cell, they were called mouopterai temples. When there was a clrcu* lar cell within the colonnade, they were called perip. teral The theatre of the Greeks, which was afterwardii copied by the Romans, was built In the form of a horse-shoe, being semicircular on one side, and square on the other. The semicircular part, which contained the audience, waa filled with concentric leata, ascend- ing from the centre to the outside. In the middle, or bottom, was a semicircular floor, called the orchentra. The opposite, or square part, contained the actors. Within this was erected, iu front of the audience, a wall, ornamented with columns and sculpture, called the scena. The stage or floor between this part and the orchestra was called the proscenium. Upon this floor was often erected a muveable wooden stage, ctUed by the Romans pulpUum. The ancient theatre was open to the iiky, but a temporary awning was erected to shelter the audience from the sun and rain. Grecian architecture is considered to have been \n. its greatest perfection In the age of Pericles and Ptddltis. The sculpture of this period Is admitted to have been superior to that of any other age ; and although archi. tecture Is a more arbitrary art than sculpture, yet It is natural to conclude that the state of things which gave birth te excellence in the one, must have pro- duced a corresponding power of conceiving sublimity and beauty in the other. Grecian architecture was In general distinguished by itimpllcity of striicture, fewness of parts, ab«ence of arches, lowness of pedi- ments and roofs, and by decorative curves, the outline of which was a spiral line or conic section, and not a circular arc, as afterwards adopted by the Romans. Rcnmn style Roman architecture had itsorl^-in In copies of the Greek models. All the Grecian orders were introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number was augmented by the addition of two new orders— tht) Tuscan and the Compo&Ite. The order derived from the ancient Etniscans is not un« like the Doric deprived of its triglyphs and mutules. It had a simple base, containing one torus. Its co- lumn was seven diameters in height, with an nstragal below the capital. Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, con&isted of plain running surfaces. There is no vestige of this order among ancient ruins, and the modern examples of it are taken from the descriptions of Vitruvius. The Romans modified the Doric order by increas- ing the height uf its column to eight diameters. Instead of the echinus, which formed the Grecian caplthl, they employtd the ovolo, with au astragal and neck below it. They placed triglyphs over the centre of columns, not at the corners, and used huriziuital mutules, or introduced foreign ornaments iu their stead. The theatre of Alarcellus has examples of the Roman Do- ric. The Romans diminished the bize of the volutes in the Ionic order. They also introduced a kind of Ionic capital, in which there were Ijur pairs of diagumU vuiutes, instead of two pairs of parallel unes. This they UNUally added to parts of some other capital ; but at the present day It Is often used ahme, under the n:ima of modern Ionic. The Composite order was r.-ade by the Romans out uf thu Corinthian, simply by com« billing its capital with that of the di;igonal, or modern Ionic. Its best example is found in the arch of Titus. Tho favourite order, however, in Rome and Its co- lonics, was the Corinthian, and tt is this oidi-r ivhich prevails among the ruiius, n>>t ni.Iy uf Rome, but ojf Nismis, Pola, Palmyra, and Bailnjc. The temples of the Komans sometimes resembled those uf the Greeks, but olt^Mi differed from them. The Puuilit'on, whicli is the most ijurfectly [iiestrved temple of the Aui^us'hu Ht;e, is a ciicular toiiliiing, li^htid only from au aperture iu thu dome, and lav. ing a Corinthian portico iu tVonr. The ampliiili'iure differed from the tbeiitre. in being a comj) t'H'ly cir- cular or rather elliptical buildtut;, tilled on ;ill m.jcs with nsrending seats for spectators, and ieavin.' -oily the central space, culled the arena, for the coinbHiMits and public shows. The Coliseum is a stu e; (l->u.i structure of this kind. The a-^uiducts uere >tino canals, supported on massivo arcades, and Cioiw-ving lar^o streams of water for tliu supply of ciii.s. I'ho ' triumphal arches were commonly solid ooloog -true- ' tures, ornauiented with sculptures, and open » uli j.nty ' arches for passengers below. The basilica oi il« Ro- mans was a hall of justice, used biso as up ex< hange or place of meeting for merchants. It was hned m the inside with colonnades of two stories, or viith two I tiers of columns, one over the other. The *a liesC Christian chtirches at R>'mu were somet'.nien called ' hasilinu, from their posaussing an luternul C')li riaii, Roman architecture 1$ oontidered to have beeu on ttie decline. Amoog the marlu of a deteriorated etvle^ introduced in the later period*, were coiumni with pedeitalt, oolumne lupporting archaa, oonvaz frieeei, enublaturai iqaarad lo ae to repraeant tha con- tinuation of tha columna, padastoli for statues project. ing from the sides of columns, niches covered with little pediments, &c. Grteo-Gothio i/yJ^*.— After the dismemberment of the Roman empire, the arts degenerated so far, that a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings with the fragments of old ones, which were dilapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to an irregular style of building, which continued to beimi. tated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Ureclaii and llomaii details, combined under new furms, aud piled up iutu Htructures wholly uulike the antique originals. Ueuce the names Greco. Gothic and tlomanc#iiue architecture have been given to it. It frequently contained arches upon columns, forming successive arcades, which were accumulated above each other to a great height. The effect was sometimes imposing. The cathedral and leaning tower at Pita, and the church uf St Mark at Venice, are cited as the best specimens of this style. The Saxon architecture, used anciently in Kuglaodf has soow things in common with this style. . HOOERN TASTE. So much for the varietiti's of the Greek and Roman styles of buildiug, whicli have properly enough formed models fur the erection of public udinccn in every na. lion of muderu times. IJut, as we have already hinted, the adoption of these models has not been always sue. cessfiiL It wooid seem as if the architects of ancient times had exhausted human ingenuity, and left no- thing to be invented in the cunstructiou uf ornamental and tasteful edifices; at least the architects of mo> deru ages have not had the hardiltood to attempt, or the genius to be successful in, original compusition. They have copied Greek temples, porches, pillars, pe- diments, and cornices, without regard either to cli- matu or situation, and also without bearing in raind that they lack the marble, and cannot alTord the ez- peniive sculpture which lent so much beauty aud frace to the forms of Athenian architecture. 3iagni. cent temples which crowned the summits of rising grounds in Greece, we find imitated in hollows; and the eye of the spectator, Instead of taking in a bold and lofty outline of pillars relieved against the clear blue sky. Is offended by looking down upon clusters of chimney pots. Thus innumerable public buildings in England aud Scotland, positessing intrinsically good architerture, are completely lust by the want of taste in those who have placvd them in unseemly awkwurd situations. It appears to us, likewise, that far itw little attention in usually paid by architects to the na- ture of our ciiinnte. We cannot recal to remembrance one public edifice in the Greciau style in this country which does not posiiess a dingy damp bxik. At every projectintr point, and particularly over the pediments, piUarH, and flat corniwti of dixirways, there is gene* rally an ugly »piit ntvert'd u-itli moisture, and exhibit- ing the early rudiments of vegetation on the wallti. All this (iirends tlie eye of the spectator, and excites univerAnl nntice, except among tlit>ne cannot l>elteve th:it they exhausted their art. Grecian literature has not prevented the rise of H liiernture in Kufrlnnd suitable to it* geiiinii, so neither ought the eximence of a Grecian »tyte of architecture m he for ever un obstacle to the r\*>v and proifieMt of 4 purr modern ntylet»f building. Hitherto tlieit* has bfen t4K> great a disposition to cavil at the effort* of m<»dt-rn artists, as if it were beyond the boutidN of {KHsibility to disciiver and establish new and tenlly Iwautiful styles in painting, sculpture, or HTcbiteciure. We are most anxious, for our national crettit, to see an end put to this severity of criticism. We hope that our young archltecu, while studying the chaste models of antiquity, will persevere in en. desvouring to elaborate something itiU hetter, at leait •ome vpccies of architecture which will be In better accordant^ with our climate, as well as the national geniui aud habits. As poweifulty tending to produce ■o benefti-ini a res^'U, we hail the appearance of such worksasthe AuciMTrcTirRAi. MA()Ai!iNE, conducted by Mr l^mdou, which is designed to improve the na> liimal taite in architerturr, building, furnishing, and the various trades connected therewith ; and which, from its cheapness, may lw.ome popular among all 374 thoea olaiwe ut artiaaai whota ganiue it It ibtendad to cultliwta. Wa cannot hot daem it a matter of aato- niihment that to liltla hafi up till a very rtoent pe- riod, been donate improve the style of houfeballdlog. It is certain that bad taste Is not neeeiiarlly cheap. Under proper management, a tasteAilly oonitraeted domicile is not more expensi«^e than one tha reverse — most llkdy H Is leu expensive ; and there can be no question as to Ita supariorlty, and the greater degree of pleasure U yields to those who contemplate Us aa- pect. Utility may thus be found associated with the twautifttl and tha eeonomloal to an extent which many will imagine to be hardly possible. OLD CNOLIBU STTLS OF AXCUtTXCTURE. The style of arohitoeture used in the erection of gen- tlemen's country reeidencct is at present undergoing a most wonderful improvement all over Britain. The cltunsy square domiciles, oftener resembling cotton mills than gentlemen's seats, and which were brought Into fashion In the reigns of George the Second and Third, are giving way to more tasteful erections In alUanoe with the cluu-acter of rural scenery amidst which they are placed. The square ohest.llke houses are in the course of alteration into odifices construotod in the styles which prevailed in the days of miaabeth and Jamas, technically called the old LnglUh style of architecture. The origin and nature of this ornamen- tal style are thus descrilwd by a writer In the Quar^ terlr Review for July 1831 :_ " Kvery country has an architecture more or less ftecnitarly its own, formed, like the character and anguage of its Inbablunts, by tha blendlngof various foreign Ingredients whldi have at different periods introduced and naturalised tfaeniselves, hut which have been also In turn modified by the original stocks, as well as by the local peculiarities of climate, soil, social condition, and political history. The national character attachea itself far more to domestic architec- ture than tc that which is displayed In public build- ings, eoelesiastloal or civiL In the erection of these, the architect, ofton himself a stranger, or tiught abroad, has sometimes wholly copied a foreign model, and merely transferred the entire cathedral or palace from the banks of the Rhine or the Po, to those of the Thames and lais. But in designing the residences uf the opulent classes of any country, it became necessary to ctmsult the manners, habits, and wants of the fu- ture occupants, the character of the climate, and the nature of the ordiiury materials within reach. And in whatever degree the architect has neglected to adapt his design to the type required by tliese local circum- staucea, to that extent has he sinned against taste and propriety, and failed in producing that harmony of ideas, that association of ornament aud purpose, which , na an essential element in the quality of l>e&uty, it is the object of his art to create. In the erection of a country residence where the choice of a style li not fettered by the proximity of other buildings, associations of a general and imagina- tive nature come int) play, and dictate the adoption of the national and indigenous architecture. In this country, which is still rich In the posiesslou of nume- rous specimens of buildings, twtb erclciiastical and domestic, belonging to the earlier ages of its history, the old Hnglish style. In some of its varieties, is that which we consider specially appropriate to a country residence. The natural scenery around presents con. genial imageit iu the veneralple grove, and the ancient oaks spreading their broitd arms over the lawns and frlHtles of the park. The local annals of the estate, of the nite itself, or of the proprietor's family, combine to c.ill fi>r the emplftynimt of MRtyte which )s ctmim'ted with so manyof the mri pleasing recoltectlonn of our national history. The irreguhtrity of outline which it admits, and, indeed, almmt req'iire.n, allows of au arrangenierit of tlie apartnieiil* wliich roml'ort or fancy m.iV ^tlggest, and accommodaten it to all tha viiried wants of modern life. However, it is equally appro- priate to every rank of halutation, fr«m the princely palnce down to the 'nog parxouage or hnniMe cot- t:i(d the defenceless ciuidition of tlie inland wnich rendered it so e;uiy a urey to the Norman c«n- ()ueror ; and it was to remedy this defect, and se- cure his newly acquired dominions, an well against invasions fn>m without an relH-llions within, that WIU liam lost no time in erecting strong castles in all the principal towns Hf his kingdom. His fallowers, among whom he had parcelled uut the lands »f tlie Knglinb, had likewise to pnitiMrt themselves against the resent- ment of those they had desptilled, and Imitated their masters* example, by building castles im their ertates. * The whole kinf^om,' says the author of the Saxon Chronicle, * was covered with them, and the poor peo- ple wuni out with the forced labour of their enaction.' Many of '.he castles of this age were of great ni/it, and possessed a certain rude grandeur of design. After the a|;e of Edward III., who bifth ameliorated the Institutions of the country, and Introduced into it a certaiii degree of elegance and refinement, we find a eonsiderahle Impmvement In the character of the habitations which remain to tis. By degrees, It was found possible to associate much convenience and mag- nificence with the strength requisite for defence ; and the confined plan of the close fortress expanded Into a mixture of the castle and the mansion. At a la'««r period, a still fKrtfaer change took place. The reign of law had gradually succeeded to that of the strong hand. The peaceable were able to trust to the execu- tive for the defence of their persons and proparty, rather than to the strength of their own walls, and roof-treei, or tlie falchions and Iron mails of their friends and retainers. The residences of the nobility and rich landed proprietors again assumed, though by degrees, and with the exception of some districts like the borders of England and Scotland, a civil, in place of a military appearance. Beauty aud ornament were consulted by the builders instead of strength, and the convenient aooommodation of theordlnaryindwellers, in lieu of the means for disposing of a crowded gar- rison, and its necessary provision In time of siege. The mansions erected under these circumstances par- took but slightly of the castellated character. They usually retainea the moat and battlemented gateway, and one or two strong turrets, to build which a royal Itceuce was necessary ; but their defensive strength could only have availed against a audden aud momen- tary attadi. They were generally quadrangular la form ; the larger class enclosing two open courts, of which one contained the stables, offices, and lodginga of the houHohtttd ; the second, the principal or stete chambers, with the hall and chapel. Such buildings difflBred but little from the raonasdo residences of the same, or uf an earlier date. Of the minor country residences of that and the earlier reigns, many inter- esting examples remain scattered through the Island, sometime* fulfilling their original destination, hut far more frequently employed only as farm-houses, and going fast to decay. In a few of the houses built during the reign of Henry the Ktghth, we may observe some slight traoee of the Italian architecture, which in the next reign was more liberally Introd'iced, and mixed up with the original Tudor, or early English, into an irregular, certainly, but inmost instances an exceedingly rich aud effective composition. Whilst iu England, and the north of Europe generally, the debased Roman architecture of the lower empire, which forms the foundation of the Saxon, Norman, or Lombard style, had been successively improved into those several beautiful modifications which are now classed indis- criminately under the term Gothic, the architects of Italy had never stepped out of their ancient track. With the seat of empire, the arts had migrated to Constan- tinople ; and when the towns of Venice and Pisa were desirous of exhibiting their newly-born opulence in the erection of splendid cathedrals, it was In Consten- tinople, the capitel of the lower empire, where St Sopliia had already risen to astonish the eastern world, that they were compelled to seek a fitting artist. But on the revival uf learning, the ancient Roman edifices were disinterred, and admired, and measured; and the eastern, or, as it is called in Italy, Lombard archi- tecture, was in turn corrected, by reference to its classiciU original. The architecu uf Italy soon rose to eminence, and their fame was a subject of deep interest In this country, where the rage for building was no less strong and general than in Italy. Iu the brilliant reign of Elizabelli, the English nobles and pnnculy proprietors vied more than ever with each other in the magnificeuue of their mansions. It might have tteen supposed that the nohlu Tudor houses, with their panelled walls, buttresses, and battlements, tra- cerieti windows, suulpturt^ dripstones, tlorid pinnaclei, and embossed cbimney-shafts, were sulhciently rich aud gorgeous to satisfy the prevailing taste for splen- dinir ; but in their uuxiety to btrike and rurprine the admiration of their countrymen, many deserted the native styles, and sought for designs, and oven artlstf, from abroad. Italian architecture became, by degrees, the mode; and even where the indigenous style was adhered to in the general design, many of the enrich- ments and oinamentiil features were borrowed from the Italian. First of all, the porch or gateway, as the most couxpicuous points on which to cxlubit the^e exotic uovelticff, were decorated on eitlier hide the entrance, aud, perliups, a second and third story almve with pihisters, belonging to tlie different Greek ordem; the doorway itself exchanged the low.pointed or Tudor, for the circular arch ; the deep, elegant, and sweeping (iothic mouldings, for the^'itruviuua^chitec- tur•■, cut across by the awkward projecting imposts. Next was iuiruduced the cupola, whose invention in Italy had made so much noise, that it t*ppeiirn our country sijuires were anxious to have miniature spe- cimens of it at home. It was applied an a covering to the high turrets, round, square, or polygi>nat, which flanked the entrance or terminated the angles uf the biiildii „ and, surmuunteil with gilded vanes, certainly priMluced a rirh and imposing effect. Then followed the removal of the panelled battiementi, and the sub- stitution of a p.irapet oirved Into fantastic notches or scrolls, or perforatele building. To ui it hai always appeared that this architecture of the Elizaltethan age constitutes a style of its own— • a compound of two extremely different modesi the Italian and the Tudor Gothic It is evident that the Italian design was always greatly altered to suit the climate and the taste of EuKland. Indeed, were we not ufraid the comparisuu might be considered pro- fane, we should say there is something in the rich irregularity of the KlizHbetlian architecture, its im- posing diffnity, gorgeous magniticence, and quaint and occasiODally fantastic decoration, reminding us of the glorious visions that flitted across thn imagination of Hliakspeare, the immortal bard of the same age. He, lilie the architecu of his day, borrowed largely from the foreigner, but made his Importaticus appear exoiiikively his own. The architectural garden, which always accompanied this style of aiausiuu, is not the least pleasing part of it. We delight in its wide and level terraees, decorated with rich stone balustrades, and these again with vases and statues, and connected by broad flighu of stone steps— iu clipped evergreen hedgM — its embowered alleys — its formiU yet intnoate parterres, full of curious knoU of flowers— iU lively and musical founuini — iu steep slopes of velvet turf -Uts trim bowling-green — and the labyrinth and wild- ness which form its appropriate termination, and con- nect it with the ruder scenery without. This kind of ornamental garden came from Italy, with the change we have been didcussing, in domestic architecture. The quadrangular embattled mansion of the last Henries affords scope for the display of much grandeur and magnificence, and adapts itself more conveniently tO the plan of a modern house. The carved oriel, aud deep many-lighted bay window, often projecting la a maltltude of capricious angles and curves, besides the regular octagon, the panelled angle-turrets, with richly embossed finials, and the wreathed chimney-shafts, are characteristic beauties of this class of buildiog. The gabled manor-house, together with these orna- mental features, admits at the same time of a much greater irregularity of form aud outline, so as to ac- commodate iUelf to every variety of disposition, aud to buildings of every size, from the barouial residence to the parsonage and grange. All the forms which partlcuorly mark the Elizabethan style may be wrouffht in the cheapest materials with comparatively little labour ; and a small portion of ornamental work, tastefully disposed, is capable of producing very con- siderable effect. Lastly, the Elizabethan house is distinguiihed by the number and size of its rectangular and many-mullioned windows, which gave apecullar lightness and elegance to its several parts. The roof- line may be either horizontal or broken with gables, ttirrets, and cupolas. In either case, it is enriched witii perforated parapets, balustrades, or ocher archi- tectural devices, while similar embellishments orna- ment the entrance, and the terraces which connect the building with the garden." Fortunately, as we have said, this light and elegant style of domestic architecture is gradually superseding the clumsy style of the eighteenth century. A better taste is evidently extending itself, particularly as re- gards the erection of villas, cottages, hunting-seats, gatu- loftges, and other rural residences. To these the old English style is peculiarly well adapted. The lead- ing feature of this style applied to cottages is the doing away with unbroken lines. The house Is composed of different parts projecting at right angles from eauh other, with also a projecting porch, and the uutshot octagonal wiudows commanding views la three dif- ferent points. It also sometimes possesses an open rustic arcade along a portion of the front or back, which will be found useful and agreeable both In sultry and cold broken weather, A usual plan with a cottage of this kind is to have on the ground>floor two parlours, communicating by folding doors, four- i ''-at by twelve each, aud ten feet in height; a ^Uv....ii and scullery, with a porch seven feet by five feet six inches, opening to a staircase seventeen feet six inches by eight feet, with three rooms above. The gnbles are enriched with pendants and ornamental dressings to the 'ioorways and windows, and handsome octagonal chimney-stacks. In erecting ornamentul cottages of thin kind, there ought to be a lightness in the |ii)iiitiiig of the upper projecting windows, with a sharp nngumrity In the roof; and the chimney-stacks on^tit to stand well out. In or *.er to create effect in different points of view. ^Vhen the little gardens ad- jacent are welt trimmed and blooming, und the wiwd- blnu and ivy trilned round the porch or muUioned window, the prospect exhibited is such as it would be impossible to surpans in rural elegance. W 3 have not here nmm to en largo on this interesting topic, and we can only conclude by recommending, tbat, iu apply- ing <:ottago architecture to a residence, much cure ought to be taken to preserve the cimplieity of the component partn, or the idea of the cottage will be lost iu the magnitude of the dwelling. Loudon's Kncy- olopeediaot Architecture should certainly becimsnlted by gentlemen itad others iu the country before lixlng on the style or mode of construction of their residences — that Is to say, when skilful architects are not em- ployed hile the architectural character of genUemen's seata and other rural rcsideuces la at present Improv- ing In its tone, so also is there now a better kind of taste exerted in theerectlon of ecclesiastical structures, particularly In the northern part of the United King- dom. Throughout the greater part oflast century and part of the present, the style of church architecture which prevailed in Scotland was what Is now called the bam onfw, from the buildings resembling barns, and seldom poasessing any kind of ornament or work to distinsolah them as eoclesiastloal structures, except a tall pointed steeple at one of the extremities. With- in the last twenty years, however, this grovelling and unsightly style of architecture has merged in favour of a very superior taste. A class ^ arohitMts or planners has arisen (chiefly In Edinburgh), who, by the encouragement given them by the heritors, or those on whom is Imposed the burden of building parish churches, have erected a considerable number of ecclesiastical structures in a neat and simple Gothic style, charmiag to the eye in the midst of rural scenery, and strikingly picturesque when viewed in connection with the grey hills and ruined baronial castles which usually characterise Scottish landscapes. In general, these handsome Gothic churches are calculated to ac- commodate from a thousand to twelve or fourteen hundred sitters, are neatly fitted up with pews and galleries, aud cost from three to four thousand pounds. It is but justice to the heritors to say that they rarely grudge the erection of these odifices, aud to them will Scotland stand indebted for the possession of many tastefully erected country chmrches, highly decorative of ite romantic seenery. CITY ARCHITECTl'BK. The style of architecture Iu cities differs very ma- terially in difl!«rent countries. The houses of Paris, London, and Edinburgh, are respectively constructed and ornamented in a style conformable to the genius of the French, English, and Scotch. Architecture is snseeptlbie of fnr greater Improvement in Paris than in the other two cities mentioned. The stone which is used is a whitish sandstone, not very fine in the grain, but able to preserve a purity of colour from the absence of coal smoke. Marble likewise preserves its clear white appearance in Paris, and Is never seen loaded with tnat encrustation of culm or black dust which disfigures every public edifice and piece of ornamental sculpture in London. The French, be- sides, possess a much more refineu architectural taste than toe English. They spare no trouble or cost in the erectltin of splendid public structures, which, when at length erected, are not so liable to be defaced as in this ooudtry. The Parisian architects, or those who employ them, are ttt the same time more careful than we are In ;:hoosing good situations for their public buildings. They do not seem to grudge room, in order that a building may have a striking effect. This will be observable by all strangers in Paris. In London, space Is so exceedingly valuable, that few of the public buildings are allowed a proper proportion of room around them for purposes of effect A bad choice of lituatlou, and the want of space around, form the prevailing oharactffriitlcs of public edifices in all the large towns in Britain. In Edinburgh, which abounds in tine commanding rising grounds, some of the most splendid public buildings are erected in hollows, where they are seen to great disadvantage. From a pretty close examination, we consider that the modem FrenclT Grecian style of architecture is a great deal lighter, as regards the fabric, and more pleasing in outline, than that at work in Britain. The Bourse, or Exchange, at Paris, surrounded on all sides with Corinthlau pillars, and exalted above the sueet line, so as to meet the eye of the spectator in a proper point of view, has not, as far aii we know, an eqiwl in Britain. The domestic arohiteoture of these cities, to which we would here confine our remarks, lit as above no- ticed, diflferant in the different places. The Parisian, however, bears a reMmblance to that of the Scottish metropolis. The houses in Paris are very lofty, and contain a number of families, living on separate floors, and entering by one common stair. The houses in London, as In mostly every other English town, are built of brick, and of a size sufficient to contain only one family each. Little or no ornament is displayed in English domestic architecture, the comfort of the interior compensating the waat of external decoration. The houses of Edinburgh are of two kinds — thos^ of the Old Town, which are generally six and seven sto- ries in height, and thoseof the New Town, which are commonly three, or at most four stories high, and built on a regular uniform plan. All the modern por- tion of the town is constructed of sandstone, similar to that employed in Paris. In the more uewly erected streets, ornaments in the Greeian style, such as well- formed pillars, pediments, and cornices, at the door- ways, are common, but serve to enhance greatly the cost of erection, and, consequently, to raise the rents of the householders. In nearly all parts o!' the town, the division of houses into separate dwellingn on the different floors is too common, and proves a source of endless disqttietude to families. The style of house- building in Edinburgh seems to be yearly improving, BO far as external appearance ia concerned, and the extent of work done of this kind for a number of years has tended, among other circumstances, to oultivtite the science of architecture and the practice of stone- masonry. The peouiiariUoi of tatte of the English tad Sooteh in the erection of cheir domestic dwellings, form cer- tiilnly a fair subject for remark In the present sketch. The English build their houses of brick, and the Sootch of stone. This decided peculiarity of taste and habit Is so strongly associated with the character of the two nations, that It may be frequently observed wherever the English and Scotch are planted, ee- peclally in foreign countries. When a Scotchman ' crosses the Border, at almost any point, he wonders how the people come to have such a predominating taste for brick. Every house he sees seems to be bulU with no other material, and all the towns and vlllagn he travels through seem but piles of so many brick- kilns set in rows. As he proceeds, he gets accustomed to this, as it appears to hiro, very strange fancy ; but he always feels a certain degree of pity for those who are doomed to inhabit houses with walls so very thin, aud so little able to keep out the cold. When an Englishman, in the same manner, enters Scotland, he Is apt to be as much surprised at finding that the housea are all reared of solid stone, like so many cas* ties or public edlfioei ; and he Is led to imagine that the Scotch are really an extravagant people, in build* ing their dwellings with a material so dear and difficult to be wrought Some persons might he led to suppose that these di- versities of taste in the architecture of dwelling-house* are the result of necessity ; but they are by no meant entirely so. In many parts of England which are covered with brick houses, the district abounds in ex- cellent etone ; while in Scotland, in places where day is plentiful and stone is scarce, the latter material ia transported bv land carriage, at a heavy cV.arge, in preference to Brick, which could be easily and cheaply made. In erecting a brick house, the Englishman makes a point of consultinK his own comfort and that of his family. He rears bis dwelling with every ima- ginable couvenience; sections it off into neat snug apartments, almost calculating where his own easy chair is to stand by the fireside ; surrounds the house with a pretty kitchen and flower garden ; enclosea the whole with a smart green railing ; and finishes his goodly work by attaching to the wicket a clear- burnished fanciful brass knofS^er. Now, the Scotch- man's taste runs in an entirely different channel. He sets al)out his work by going through certain toilsome prelimiuaries, which are considered of paramount im- portance. His first object of search is a quarry whence he may have his stones dug, and transported to the spot where they are to be used ; his second point of inquiry is for a place to which he may convey the rubbish excavated from the fotmdatlon. When he has satisfied himself in these particnlars, he com- mences operations ou a scale of wonderful magnitude, generally contriving to commence his labours with the first appearance of fine weather at the close of winter, so as to make sure of having the roof on and the walls Elasterad before Christmas. The Englishman erects is house for the comfort of thoae who are imme- diately to inhabit it; but the Scotchman invariably calculafij on its uses to his posterity, or how *'tbe property*' will serve as a legacy to ms descendants. He appears to take a delight in building for future ages ; and in order to make up a good rent-roll for his grandson, or that he may enjoy the dignity of be- ing a lairdj he will put himself to great incouveuieuce. Thesediffereut processes i>f house-building are partly the result of the English and Scotch modes of letting land for long periods. In England it is the common practice to take leases of ground for building for a period of ninety-nine years, or perhaps less, and for this piecepf ground a certain rent is charged annually, with the arrangement that the houses on the property shall fall into the hands of the lord of the manor at the expiry of the lease ; and hence, in a great measure, the plan of building houses which will not last in good repair for more than a hundred years. The Scotch, being Iu every recpect a more calculating people, despise the prospect of only a hundred years' posses- sion — " what t some day to be turned out of our own house 1** Theytberefore take leases of ground which shall endu;>e till the end of the world, and think them- selves very badly off, indeed, when they are restricted to the brief period of nine lumdred and ninety-nine years I These perpetual leases they term feusy an expression importing that the 'essee becomes feudal vassal of the ground landlord. " Ground to Feu" is therefore to be found on hundr jds of sign-boards north of the Tweed, and to English visitants appears quite an Incomprehensible announcement. In Edinburgh and Its vicinity, the annual feu-duty is enormous, amounting sometimes to a charge of a guinea for every foot of ground in front; and this has to be paid as a chief rent for ever, under the penalty of loss of the property. Onegood results from thispeculiarconducton the part of the Scotch; ittenda, asnireadymentioned, to encou- rage a superior kind of architecturitl ta^^Ce, and greatly improves the general aspect of the country. There can be no proper comparison of the beauty of stone and brick, and the Scotch act very wisely in building stone hoiiaes, if they can afford the cost; but the general exercise of this refined taste has an injurious effect on society, and Is spoiling the large towns iu the uorth. It liniii.s the proprietary to a mere unit ; raif js np a body of large capitalists over the people, who arc re- duced to the character of yearly tenants ; and prolongs the very absurd custom of dividing housea into sepa- rate dwellings on the different floors. For example^ there are few merofaauts, tradeemeu, or shopkeeper* CHAMBKRSS INFORMATION FOR THK PKOPLK. Mge - . , termed ulf.utfnUiMea hou»«i; for tli« iimple rsniitii, tiiat they cannot affurd to builds or even rent u lom- plete HUine rosuiiou. Vet Iheycaa rrefiuentlypurchau Hjlat ; tliat li, m huuke up two, tlir«e, or fuur sUin i whereas, for the ium they thui «]^n(l f*''* » cuuGued ludgiiig, they could erect « lumcfant brkk houM from li>p to bi)ttom» calculiited to last during the whole periiMl of their own liveii and those of their immedittte descendants. But the prejudice! of society would seem to forbid that any such oourae ihuuld be pursued. MONUUCMTAL COLUMXl. The erection of triumphal or monumental columni was a favourite idea of the Komant. Augustus erected a column of white marble near the temple of Saturn, i\\ the forum at nome, hi a centre wheiii'e the accouut of the milet began in tlie calculatioa of distances from the city. This celebrated column, which Is still in existence, is however not of great altitude. Among tlie principal trlumphitl columns of anti<|i)ity now re- maining, IS what Is c.iUed tlie column of Fumpey, con- itructed of red granite, and situated on a rock,' about a mile without the whIIn of Alexandria In Egypt. The total height of this column Is variously mentioned ai being ninety.two feet and one hundred and fourteen feet The spectator can never be tired with admiring the Iwauty uf iu Corinthian capital, the length of the ahaft, nor the extraordinary simplicity of the pedestal. To whom this famous pUlar was erected is now un- known. It acquired the nnnie of Pompey*s ptilar to late as the fifteenth century. The following cut will convey a correct idea of its outlinet. The Trajan column, wbfch falli nemt to be men- tioned, it one of the most celebrated monumenta of antitfuity. Iu height, including the pedestal and sta- tue, IB one hundred and thirty.two feeU This moau- roeiital column n as erected in the centre of the forum Trajanl, and dedicated to the Emperor Trajiin fur his decisive victory over the Daclans, at Istettilied by the inscription on the pedestal. It is of the Doric order, and Itc shaft is oonstructod of thirty-four pieces of Greek marble, jolht^l with crampn of bronze. For ele- gance of proportion, beauty uf style, and fur siniplicity and dexterity of sculpture, it ik the finest In the world. The figures on the pt^de^tal ar? masterpiece* of Ruman art. It was formerly lurmounted by a statue uf Tra- jan, which has been succeeded by a statue of 8t Peter. There are other columnar erections in Rome. The column of the Empentr Phocas is near the temple of Concord. It Is of Greek marble, fluted, and of the Corinthian order, four fi^etdtameter, and fifty.four feet high, including the pedestal. The Antuuino oolumu was erected by the Roman senate bJ the glory uf Mar- cus Aurelius, for bis victories orer the Alarcumanni, in the reign of C>tlier ci>lumu bearing the same name, situated on the Mnnla Cittoria Itn shaft is uf itin^le piece of K^yptian granite, forty-tlvefMt la height, and five feet eit^ht incbes in diameter. Iu pedeKtal is ornamenteil with ban- reliefs, reprekcnting t'le aputhn>Bis of Antoiiiniis and Faustina, and other events relating to the history of Rome. The coltimn whicti orhHtDfuts the British metro^o- Iti, better known as the Monument, was designed by iiiir Chriitui[iher Wmi, and erected hy order ot uarlia- meot. In m<-mory of ttie lntrtiing of the citv of Lon- don, anno 1000, in t)ie ri-ry [ilace where the ^re began. Tbift pilKr was tpv^un iu ii;?!, Mui tinished in 1077. It is of tlie Doric order llutt-.l. :^(tt feel hi^h from th« ground, and fif.crn (e**t in ditmeier, ot silid PortlHud ■tone, with a staitCM»e m ilie middle, uf black mar- ble, containing three Inirtdred and eighty-flve steps. 371J The lowest part uf tlie pedesul is twenty-eight feet si)itare, and iu altitude mrty fectf the front being' en- riched with curious bas-reliefs. It has a balcony within thirty-twu feet of the top, ou which li placed a biasing urn of gilt brass. The column In Phaached by a wind- ing staircase within, of one hundred and seventy-iix ■teps. The capital of the column Is surmounted by an acroterium, upon which stands the statue of Napo- leon, measuring eleven feet in height, and weighing five thousand iind twelve pminds. The total expense of this uumptuouB munument was 1,&4K>,0U0 hvres. There are also several smaller columns, but of beau- tiful proportions, in various parts of England, in imi- tation of the above, but mostly of the Grecian or pure Doric order, as the Aiiglesea i^Iumn, erected iu com. memoration of the battle of WaterliN), and the noble earl of that name, in the island uf Auglesea; the co- lumn at Shrert-sbury, erected in commemoration of the same event, and uf another noble general, Lurd Hill ; ihe Nelson columns, at Yarmouth and In Dublin ; the Wellington column, at Trim, in the county of Meath, Ireland ; the monument commemorative of Lord Mel- ville, at Edinburgh ; and a similar one at Ht James's Par)(, of ttie Duke of York, Siv. A very common er- ror is committed in the erei:tion of monumental cu- Ium:ii, by loading their summit with a dum&y mass of matoiiry, on whicli the statue is placed, and technically c^Ufd an acroterium. The Alelville monument at Edinburgh prewntn the rao^t notable Instance of this kind of dtfect. If there niubt be an acroterium, it cannot \m too niodeiit In iu proportions, or too little seen by the spectator. To the abr»ve lint we may add the Washiiigt^m mo- nument, at Itiltimore, on which a nohwital statue of M'asbiiigtou has been placed. The pillar is of the Oteciau Doric order, and of very massive proportions. It suiids on a grand base or Eocle, and U lurmounted by a circular pedestal, on which the statue resu. This lia*e or xocle of the monument is 00 feet square, and 2>'> ftiet high ; tlie culumii is 20 feet in diameter, and with iu Bub.ba»e, 130 feet high; the capital is ih> feet square. The htatue Is 15 feet high, and the whole height of the nionut;ient, from the pavement. Includ- ing the staiuis will be I7fi feeu As it stands on a hill KHt feet high, this stnicture rises 'i'Jfi feet above tide. It is C4>nstiucted uf white marble, which is slightly variegated, and is a very oonsplcnuus object to every one approaching the city, whetlier by land or water. Tile suiue greatly increases itseffect, and gives finish and t>eauty ui the whole structure. The attitude given Ut the statue reprejtents the great man to whom the monument i(« dedicated in the act uf resigning hu com- miskiou, and the authority with which he had l>een invested by iiis country, again into the hands of tlie pi'uple, having accumplivhed the great object of hliap- piiiitment — tiie freedom and independence of the union. fne statue Is the work of Mr Causlci. HHinOES. The art of bridge-building is traced to the Romans. In the brightest days of the Grecians, when their fine style uf architecture was complete, when their porti- coes were crowded with paiutiugs, and their itreeu with itatues, the people of Athens waded or ferried over ttie OpUisus for want of a bridge. The Greeks du not seem to have valued the coustruclion uf the arch nullii i> ii'.ty to excel iu bridge-building. No pe>i)il>> of till Hticieiit world carried toe power of rear- I'lg tue Htupwiid'ius aixh and the nmgnibceot dome t<) such an extent as ;he Komani. After the construc- tion uf their great le-vers, the nqnedtict^ and I' le cu- pola over tlie Pantheon of AI. Agrippii, a bridge over the Tiber was of easv execution ; niid the Inventhn of the architecture of' stone bridges, as practised in Iti best and most elftctital manuer, must be conceded to this great and In fie fati gable people. The must cele- brated bridges of ancient Rome were not dlslliigiiiflhed by the extraordinary aixe of their arches, nor the peculiar lightness of their piers, but, like the rest of the magnllicent works of this city, as far as cunstruc- tiun is concerned, tliev are worthy of study from their excellence and durability. The ipan or chord of their arches seldom exceeded seventy or eighty feet, and the versed sine or height was nearly half of the chord, su that they were inuttly semicircular, or constituted ■ i^cment nearly of that form. Among the most celebrated bridges In modern times or those built subeeqiiently tu the debtntctlon of the Roman empire, are those of the AliHirs iu Spain, who imitated and rivalled the beiitcoustrucittniRof the Ko- mant. In Great Uritaln, the art of building bridges appears to have been diligently studied from early times. The most ancient bridge In England Is the Gothic triangular bridge at (rnyland, In IJncoInshire, said tohaveleeu built in IKiO. The ascent Is so steep that none but fimt passengeri can go over it, a com- mon peculiarity of old bridges. The greatest Improvement effected in modern tlmei upon brldge-bnildlng conxists In conitrncting them with su level a surface or ro;idway above, that tliey are easy of accens. The must splendid work of art uf'^this kind ii M'aterhK) llrldge, ncnm the Thames. Its length is 1250 feet It couHists of nine elliptical archei, each uf I'iO feet span, and 32 feet hi height. M'est- minster Bridge was cummenced In 17-lt)} and com. Dieted In 1750. It in IJ'JO feet long, and 44 feet between the parapets, ban 13 Inrge and 2 small arches, all lemlclrcular. The middle arch ls7V feet Iu span. The newly.erected London Bridge U also an elegant structure, and, excepting Waterloo Bridge, Is perliaps the finest bridge in the world. At Paris there are some remarkably goud stone bridges across the Heine, also an excellent sinipenstoii bridge. One of the most curious provincial bndgen In Great Britain is that ot Taff, In Glamorganshire. It is of one nrch, and tu space If rather more than UO feet. The architect of this bridge \ a poor uneducated man, and the per- severing courage with whidi be pursued his object till the completion of the editlce, Is worthy of record. II is first attempU failed In consequence of the enormous pressure of^the haunches or sides of the bridge, which forced up the key-stone ; and to obviate this, he pierced the stonework with cylindrical apertures, which re- medied the defect. Prior to the erection of this bridge, that uf the Kioltu had the largest span of any In ex- istence. Metal bridges are the Invention of British artists. The true elements of their construction are as yet but imperfectly understood. The Southwark Bridge over the Thames is at present tlie finest iron bridge in the world. It cousists of three arches. The chord uf the middle arch Is 240 feet long, and its height 24 feet. There are several other fine bridges of this kind in England, In particular one at Sunderland, in the county of Durham. The art of making inspenilon bridges Is not rew, but It ii only in recent times that it has been brought to perfection. In this kind of erection the flooring or main body of the bridge is lupiHirted on strong iron chaini or rods, hanging in the form of an inverted arch, from one poiut uf support to aiiothir. The poinu of support are the tops of strung pillars or small towers, erected for the purpose. Over these pillars the chain pavhes, and is attached at each ex- tremity uf the bridge to rocks, or massive frames uf iron firmly secured under ground. The great advan- tage of suspension bridged consiits in their stability of equilibrium ; In cuusequence of which, a smaller amount uf materiaU iv necessary for their construc- tiou than for that of any uther bridge. If a suepeu. stou bridge be shaken, ur thrown out uf equilibrium, it returns by its weiglit to Its proper place, whereas the reverse happens iu bridges which are built above the level of their supporters. The most remarkable suspension bridge in exist- ence is that constructed by Mr Telford over the Meiial Strait, Itetween the Isle of Anglesea and Caernarvon- shire in North Wales. It was finished in 1B2&. Ttio roadway was 100 feet aboce the surface of the wuter at high tide. The o{>eniug between the puinth uf mis- pensiou is 600 feet. The platform is abuut 30 feet In breadth. The whole Is suspended from four liiicH of strong cables, by perpendicular iron rods, five feet apart. The cableh pass over rollers ou the tups 01 pillars, and are fixt>d to iron frames uuder gr.tuud, which are kept duwn by masonry. The weiglit of tlie whole bridge between the points of suspension is 489 tons. There is but one circumstance which appeari at all tu afl^ect the btability uf its e^nihhtium, and tliat is, the heavy and measured tread ul a lung line uf mi- litary. The whute weight uf a numtier of men, whose feet drop at the same instant of time, would alTei^t any suspension bridge. The striking grandeur of this wonderful work of art cannot be descri 'ted. The bridge must be viiiited in urder to fully appreciate Iu beauty, its sulilimity, and ith uther merits. ICiiiNiiiHuii : Pul>lolit.-d by \V. and U- (HAMiiitHa, IU, Wntcrluu rid«-; alio by<>il smjtii, iMUiiuitUT Uow, Loiiiluu t Slid UluHoK ^*ot Nu, Dublin, buld I7 Jului Msclvudi Glas- gov, snd all o her Booku'llcn. Fruin the StesmFtni of W. and R. Chambers. CHAMBERS'S "•• ,,,..._ INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. ' No. 48. CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF « CUAUBGRS'S JOURNAL" AND << HISTORICAL NEWSPAPER." Price 1 jrf. CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO THE ARTS. TtienE ii nut an art or inanuraoture In which the principles of ohemlatry ar^ not In one way or another •mpliiyed, and practically ilhiitrated. The applioatinni of chfltnlitry in the arti, tnanuracturei, &o. are indetH) ■n nnmeroiis, that we can scarcely do more in thit pa. per than give a ihort account of the moNt important of them. In order to raiider our deiicriptiuni ai Intel- li(7ible aR poxilble, weiliall in the first place present a brief view of a chemical laboratory, with its various apparatus. THE CHEMIST'S LAUOUATORY. A UlHiratory it a ohemlnt's workshop. It ii the place where he performs his experin...its, and Is of course provided with all the utensils necessary for doiuK si** The sixe of an apurtnient of tliis kind ne- oessartly varies with the purpose for which it is con- structed. If it is attitched to a public institution, it should be large; if for private ezpertmenution, in ft very moderately sized room the most important processes of chemiual manipulation may be easily per> formed. It should, if possible, be upon the ground floor, and well lij;hted and ventilated ; a skylight throws a very agreeable and convenient illumination over sucli an apartment. Shelving should run round the walls for the reception of vessels. Tba chimney should be high enough to admit of a person standing under it, and as broad as posnible. Here the general working furnace, as well as others, both portable and fixed, t'gether with an oven and a sand*bath, may be ccuveuiently placed. It should also be provided with a pair of bellows. The other most essential fixtures are a large table in the centre of the room, on which experiments with the lamp may be performed, mix. tureii made, and so on. A sink having an abundant supply of water is a very important appendage ; for water is continually wanted In chemical operations, buth in the performance of experiments and in the cleanning of vessels. Itshould be placed in acornerof the roiim, to be out of the way. Cupboards, drawers, •mull portable tables or stands, blocks of wood, and boxes, are also very useful. The other small move- ables, or utensils of a laboratory, are hand-mortars, of iron, glass, agate, and Wedgewood's ware, together with their pestles; earthen, stone, meul, and glass Tesaels of diifereut kinds ; funnels, measures, &c. These we shall describe in course. Filters and troughs are very impoitant, and charcoal is an ei- aentiul arucle in the re[>leni8hing of a laboratory. MALANC-ES ANP SICASURE^. Correct weighing is indispensable to every chemical experiment, and therefore an exact and very delicate balance is an esrential reciuisite. There should be at least two balances ; one for weighing heavy matters, snd anntber for very minute quantities. The last in- btrnmeut should be sufficiently delicate to weigh from COD to 1000 grains, and downwards, Indicating, dis. tinctlv and certainly, differences equal to the l.d'),000th ur l-(>0,OUUth part of the weight iu the scale. These email weights are sometimes as low as the hundredths of a grain, and are usually mllde of platiita, because air and moisttire do not act upon that metal. As it h by cuiefiilly weighing sitbstances, both before and nfier being experimented upon, that the exact const!- tJieiit parts of liotlius are determined, and the mrmt iuiportrtiit chemical truths ascertained, the balance and weifi^hts should be carefully examined at intervals, and their accur^ry ascertained. The methods of de- tet'iiiiiiing Jie specific gravity of bodies by immersion in WBUT, will be found described In our article upon UyUrostatics. Meanurei are necessary for ascertaining the bulk of liquids or gases, and two integers are sufficient, the pint and the cubic inch. Measures should be made of glass, and have a graduated scale marked on both sides. They are commonly of a cylindrical shape, lilte a phial bottle, and possess a small spout at the arifiiT. The graduations on these instruments are aometui:(>-t veryiniiiiite, and indicate exceedingly small guauiities of matter put Into thero. The measures should be verified by weighing into them successively portions of mercury and water. A cubic Inch of the former, at a temperature of 62*, weighs 3425.35 grains, and the saire 'juantity of the latter at the same tem- perature weighs 252.468 grains. Water answers well enough for estimation down to the cubic inch, but for the tenths and the hundredths of an inch, mercury ii both mora exact and more expeditious. rUHNACCH, LABIPB, AND BLOWPIPES. Heat Is one of the most powerful and extensively useful agents employed by the chemist for ascertain- ing the properties of bodies, and the methods of Itn production become of great moment to him. The most simple way of producing heat is by means of a common fire. Furnaces are more icientllically and elaborately constructed than our common firepl:ices and stoves, and a more intense heat is acc«>rdingly generated by them. The forms of furnaces are al- most innumerable, every month or even week giving birth to some new improvement upon them ; hut one general principle is kept in view in their construction ; that is, the production of the greatest amount of heat by means of the smallest expenditure of fuel. Mr Faraday describes a very cheap and useful furnace which he is in the habit of uhing, made of clay and plumbago, or black lead, mixed. It is simply a vessel shaped like a common flower-pot, and having holes perforated in Its sides for the admission of air. As it is liable to crack after being used, it Is bound with iron or copper hoops, or wire. A small portable cast- iron grate is made to fit into it, and repose about two-thirds downwards from the top to the bottom. Charcoal, the fuel employed, is placed upon this grate, and there reposes the crucible with the substance to be experimented on. A funnel pipe may be made to fit upon this furnace, by which means the draught, and conseqvently the heat, is greatly augmented. This is a very simple form of such apparatus, and can be obtained for a mere trifie. Furnaces upon a large scale are constructed in various ways of fire-brick, which resists fusion, at least until the temperature is very high. The main object is to produce an im* mense amount of heat, and this can be accomplished either by propellini; air upon the combustible matter by means of bellows, in which case the furnace is called a bitut-fumace, or by forming long flues and raising a high chimney, so as to produce a strong draught of air | this is termed a tcxnd-furnace* The best construction of furnaces has scarcely been ascer- tained, certain kinds of them being best adapted for certain purposes. Upon the top of the furnace, and even upon the flues, vessels containing sand, and hence called sand. baths, are placed. In these, bodies can be raised to a high degree of temperature. Char, coal is the substance most commonly used in furnaces. It produces an intense heat without smoke, but very soon consumes. Coke or charred coal produces a strong and lasting heat. A lamp may be considered a species of small furnace, and is a cheap and convenient source of heat. Spirit- lamps, which are trimmed with cotton-wIck iu the or- dinary way, and fed with alcohol, or spirit of wine, are the most useful. The flame of alcohol, which is pale, produces no smoke or fuliginous matter, and the heat which it generates Is very intense. Comai{)n olMamps, and also gaslight, are used, but the heat of such ap- paratus is not so great. By means of a very simple In. stniroent, the blowpipe, all the effects of the most violent heat of furnaces can be produced. A common blow- pipe is merely a glass pipe, about one.eighth of an Inch in diameter at one end. The hole gradually lesseus until it terminates at the opposite extremity in a very small orifice. Two or three inches of the narrow end are bent nearly at right angles to the longer part of the tube. By placing the thick end of the Instrument in the mouth, and urging a stream of air upon the flame of n lamp or candle, an intense degree of heat is produced, which may bo brought to bear upun any sub- Btanco piuced iu a small npoon of pare gold ur platiua. If the body to be fused be not of such a nature as tu sink Into the pores of charcoal, that substamo is com- monly used, A great many Important and beautiful experiments may be performed by tliii cheap and con- venient instrument, but the proper way of blowing it requires practice. If the two gases, oxygen and hydro. gen, be mixed together in the proportions which form water, and compressed to the amount of many atmo- spheres in a metallic box provided with a small tube, what is called an oxy-hydrogen blowpt -* Is formed. By this apparatus an almost Incredible degree of beat can be produced, but accidents often occur In using it. TniTOHATIOK, FUSIOK, BOLUTI0H,DI9TlI.LATI0N,&a As a general principle, having, however, certain \U mitations, it may be stated, that the moreminutely mat- ter Is divided, the more rapid will be the chemical actiou exerted between the particles. This division of matter is effected in various ways. First, by trituration, or the reducti.)n of suttstaiices to a state of powder, which is a mechanical action not affecting the phybical state of the iMHly, and only relating to solids. In accomplish- ing this, the pestle and mortar are generally used. Externally, mortars are usually shaped like a flower- pot, the inside, at the bottom, being curved like the thick end of an egg. They are made of various ma- terials, such as metal, porphyry, agate, and so on, ac- cording to the purposes to which they are applied. The pestle is generally of the same material as the mortar, and is a solid rod having a rounded bulb at one end for pulverising the substance in the mortar. Tritn- ration answers very well the purpose of promoting chemical action In a number of experiments, but by fusion and solution it is rendered more complete. Bodies are said to be in a state of fusion, when, heat being applied to them, they assume the liquid form, a state In which all the particles of a substance movo easily amongst themselves. When a solid body, such as a piece of sugar, is put Into water, it is gradually dissolved ; and when the lump of saccharine matter has disappeared, and become mixed with the water, and remain so, it is said to be held in solution by It. Heat greatly promotes the rapidity of solution ; and glass vessels having a rounded bottom, such as a Florence flask, and placed upon a spirit-lamp, are very com- monly employed. In processes connected with the subdivision of matter, those In which hot water ia merely poured upon the substance, the process is called infusion ; when heat is applied for some time, it is called decoction ; and when it consists of pouring hot or cold water on the substance, and allowing it to stand for some time, it is termed maceration* There is a process of solution called lixivationf which consistn ia the separation of a soluble body from an insoluble one by means of washing. Distillation and sublimatiim mean nearly the same thing; both consist in the conversion of a bndy into vapour, its transference in that state and consequent separation from other substances, and Its ultimate con- densation. The difference generally consists in the state assumed by the vapours when condensed ; if the product be solid, the process is called sublimation ; if liquid, distillation. The substance Is raised to such a temperature as causes it to assume the gaseous state, in which state It is conducted into a vessel containing water of a low temperature, where it is condensed into a fluid or solid state. A common still consists of a me- tal boiler for containing the substance to be distilled ; a head terminating in a peak is adapted to it ; the lat- ter is made to fit into the commencement of a spiral tube, called a worm, fixed in a tub; the whole of thii part uf the apparatus being called the refrigerator. The substance is raised into vapour in the still, and beln^ condensed in the worm, runs out at its lower extre- mity. Distillations are usually effected in the labo- ratory by means of glass retorts and flasks ; for substances, however, which require a grciuer degree of temperature to effect their distillation, metallic re- torts are etnployed, Bcdics which are very vuhtile I [ tA. CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. »re dUtillwi «r iublimed In an •lemhte, whicli consimi of »|tM"iUr boiwm and cnaiMl-ahnfed head, whenre ft nMft«r beuk panaaolT in ft downward directii)n Into •^II.TRATIOV, ETAPOIATIOX, && riltratlim runititti In putting mtied lubitanmtlnto Tetaeli which are poroui enough to ndmit of the pasi- ftM of one aulMUnce through them, but doie enough to ivUln another. Uuiisad pafxr. oloih, flannel, tow, •ponge, Hand, pulverised g)ai>i, AtntK, parous itonet, •arihenware, and many other ■nbstaiices, are used on different occntinni ; hut the Artt la almott exclusively uied in th« Uhoratory, a few of the oihert now ami then being re»ort«d to only on iMrticuUr 4Me eva. poralod . aiuug with a veteel contaiiiitig Rulphurio aeid, muiler ikm receiver of an air-pump. When the air was withdrawn, evaporation went rapidly on; and Uie sulphuric acid having a itrnng attraction for wa- ter, absiirhed the vapour is fast as it was given off, and ice was very boob fonaed. The drviug of luhstances, or dtsiccaiiottf at it is nsnally calledin scientific works, may l>e carried on without exhaustion by means of what is called desic CBiera or dryers. This ia better eINcted in dose res. sals than in the open air, unless a current be taken adraiit«ge of. In these prooeues, sulphurio acid, chlo- ride of calcium, carbonate of potash, quicklime, and stmllar absorbents, may be used. A basin of common mieklime, with a moiit precipitate placed above it, Uw whole being oavercd whh a Jar or receiver, will ■ooa dry the pivclpitata. caaCIBLES, KET0BT9, TIIOVOVIS. Omcililee are open resaets which resist very high •amperutures. They are made of various shapes, tri> angular or circular, and of different kinds ef materials, but by far the greater number are formed of earthen- ware. To promote chemical action, what are called JImsei (which will be afterwards described) are em- j^oyed. Now, it k imporUui that the crucible be made of a tubstanca which is not rendered more fusi- ble by a flux. Wedgewood's crucibles are made of a dose white ware; and although thin, they are not easily dissolved; and they reiaiu Auxca at moderate tcmpemtures longer than other crucibles. Those nade of a mixture of coarse plumbago and clay are also excellent ia these respectn. But the most valu. able in the laWratory are tlie Hessian and ruriiish cmclbles. rh:ircoal and metallic ones are likewise used ; thoM formed of platina being the mon gene- raUy useful, although they are at first very expensive. Retorts are vessels employed for many diiUUations, and most frequently for tliose which require a degree of.beat superior to that of boiling water. This vessel Is a species of bottle with a long neck, so bent that it Bakes with the globular belty of the retort an angle of about sixty decrees. The most capacious part of the retort is called its belly, its upper part the arch or roof, and the bent part the ueck. They are com-, posed of different kinds of materials, thohe of glass being by far tlie most common. They answer fur all operations C4>tiductcd at temperatures less than that at which glass softens ; aud I rum their ininspareney, they admit of cuuitaut i>ljMirvation oi the materials witnin : they are, besides, acted upon or injured by few substaucfs, and muy be eusily cleaned. To the bent neck of the retort various tubes can be fitted, and the evaporated subatauee conducted into a refri- gerst«(r. For distillations <»r subliroations requiring great de^^rces of temper^tturp, meullic retopen-inoutlie*iih water, inverted (lenfaththesurfareol the water in the trun^b, and put upon one (H'tliesestaods, atuUe Trom a r^iyrt i>r oihur distil iug ve^sel, iutro- ductd iiiif) tlii^ invertfd un'Uth t>i tliu jar, will bring over tin; vapiiury mitttcr, waicii di-piac;iig t)ie wnif r oecn[i\ ing itu! jiir, can tlius eimilv be C'lHeuttMJ iu it. In this matmer gii«i*s sre oi-iHitieJ. If tlie jar i»p provided with a iiu*|M-ock, tliey van enilly he nrtlt- drawu into vcmcIs fitted to trtaiu them. Instead of Water, nu'rcuiy, which is fluid at ordinary tem^era- tun-s, in uKi-il ill ex(it>timi'ii(n wtiere wntfi' Wduld ab- •Orb the gJtM's, or wttcrn exceciing niwty is required. A ^rt* 4t viirit'iy of Other npparatnA than tlioxo enn- nwrated .ire either ueceKsary or noefnl in a latioratory. £lectrtf)-iuf: tuuciiints, galvanic butteries, air-pumpr, lyriuge)!, iii\it\ l»t>iit int • variouii forms and oftliirereui Sizi'S lor filtihi; inmtlie iiecksof retorts, ^c, ilislit;^ tor huliliug botii holidt »iiil tluiil', as well as other mute. rieU which it in unnecessary ^> n:ime, are frequently required ;bnt a very cimvenieut small lattorutury, where a vast number of remarkable axperimenu cnu be per* 4, may be furuishad at very little flxpeuie. 378 TESTS, KI.UXEH, I.l'TKS, tUMKNTS, \c. Addsand Hlkalis I II a free State poHseAs tbe power, even iuverytmall t|uautitlus,ofeffectiug certain general and regular changes In the tints of some vegetable colours. Accordingly, colonrsof this description are used fur as< certalning the presence of these bodies when in excess or niicombinad, and are called UnUt Litmus and tur. meric papers are most generally used. They are pre. pared (>y dipping unsized and bibulous paper iu solu- tions of these sutistances. The litmus imparts a fine blue tinge to the paper, the turmeric a yellow one. In using these teit-papers with a fluid suspected to contain free acid or alkali, or knowing that one of these substances ia predominant, in order to ascertain which is so, all that is necessary is Co moisteu the pa- pers with the liqtiid, and observe the change which is effected ; If the fluid be acid, the blue colour of the litmus will immediately become red ; If alkaline, the vellunr colour of the turmeric will be changed to brown. A JIus is a substance made use ot to assist the fusion and union of minerals or mftals. It acts by protect- ing the substance from the air, by dissolving Impu- rities which would otherwiie be infusible, and by conveying active ageuts, such as charcoal and reduc- ing matter. Into ctmtaet with the substance operated upon. Upon a largeeoale, limestone and fusible spar art usad as duxas ; those employed in phUosuphioal exparlmenta are alkaline, aud they render the earthy mixt'ires fusible by couvertiug them into glass. What is called crude flux, is a mixture of nitre and cre»m of tartar, put into the vessel along with the subsunce to ba fused. H'hite flux consists of the same ingredl enia, iu equal quantitiw, but they are first deflagrated iu au earthen crucible heated red-luit at tlie botiiHn. Black flux has the same constituents as the prtced. ing, but the weight of the tarur is double that ot the nitre. £,ufef are soft adhesive mixtures, prtttetpally earthy, used either fur eloaiog apertures existing at the Juno. tion of different pieces of apparatns, or for coating the exterior of vessels which have to be subjected to very high temperatures. The lutes employed L^r junc- tions pass into the nature of cements, which are sub. stancee u^ed for uniting or Joining together things of thasamaur different kinds, so as to form a whole. The bast luta used for coating a vessel is made of Sbmr- bridge clay. It is formed into a paste, which should lie beaten until it becomes perfectly ductile and uuifurut, flattened into a cake, and then applied to the vessel which it is wished to ooat. The tame substance aliio an. swers for joining different parts of apparatns together ; but there are various other lutes and uements employed for the same purpose. What is called /nt lutt is pre- iMired by beatingdried and finely pnlverined clay (pipe- clay or Cornish clay) with drying linseed oil, until the mixture bo soft and ductile. Caustic lime, when mixed with variims mineral and vegetable subatancea iu soluiiou, affords numerous cemeuls aud lutei, which l)ecome hard when dry, aud are impervious to va. pours. One of the best is that obtained by using white of egg diluted with its bulk of water. The fluids ara to be beaten together until the mixture pours with perfect liquidity. The substance is than to be treated with dry alaked lime In powder, until the mixture as- sumes the consistency of thin paste. A solution of glue or the serum of blood is sometimes substituted litr the white of egg. White lead ground with oil also makes a very useful lute or cement. 8oft ce- ment consists of yellow wax(whicli alone is Miinctimes used as a cement) melted with iu weight of turpon- tine, and a little Venetian red to give it u colour. When cold, it is hard like soap; but wlien pressed by the h:ind, the warmth of the latter renders it pliant. With these prelimiuary observatloutt, we shall noir proofed to give a brief outhue of the principal aru and raauafactures ia which cbemlhtry has been applied. We shall not treat of there in the order of their rela- tive importance ; iudeed it wnnid he a diHicult matter to determine which is the mo^t Important, or mo^t largely contributes ti> human comfort. Jbt there are a lew, the names of which are mure ^miliar to tu than the rest, aud with tliese we shall coouaeuce. nLEACniNG. Bleaching is the art by which various articles used for clothing are deprived of the dark colour which they naturally possess, and are rendi^td white. lUeach'. ing, especially in Kgypt, where white linen or ciiltr Thomsrm,* tliei v is no foundation for tliin assertion. Until abnuteiulitv yuars ago, the urt of ble:icliing wus very little known or practised in Uritatn, it being cuktomary to seint ((ooiis tu Holland to l>t< purified. vVltoutihe year 1700, however, a bteacbiiig eHtiiiilbihnieut uus tai U'l lu the north of Scotbnd. The proce»it was then lopg and tediout; but an important change in the mrthi)il of bleaching took pl:>ce iu 17't7t 'or which we are in- debted to tlie celebrated clieniibt llt-rUiotlct. Xhir> was simply the employing of tlte sutiNtani-c now called chlo- rine, which itMnnesseH a woiiiicrful jitin-er uf di'.«troyiii^ vegetable colours. In the old prtfcena of bleitchiiig, the cloth was merely steept'd in a potash ley, washed with water, aud afterwards with sour milk ; then spread • Articlfl likatkittg tn the fincyclopatUa Uriiannka. out upon tlie Rrass, and expo.^ed for months to these, tion of the eoltr rays during summer. M'ithoiit ad. verting to the various impraveBunts which fram tima tn time were m;tde upon the idea sugKested and prac- tically acted upon by Uerthollet, we shall desortltetha process of bleaoliUig as it la now almost universally practised. The bleacliing-powder, or chloride of lime as It is usually called, in manufactured by exposiag slaked lime to the action of chlorine gas, till as mucn of the latter is alisorbi'd as the lime Is capable of com. bluing with under thene circumstances. Mr Tenant of ftlasgow, whodiscowered the process, prepares it by covering the flr of a sume chamt>er with a layer of slaked lime, to the height of a few inches. The floor is coated with a cement which is impervious to tha chlorine. Above there is an aperture by which the common air can make its escape, the door of the apart* mans Iwing air-tight and closed. A mixture of na- tive black oxide uf manganese, grtmnd to a fine powdar of common salt, and uf vitriol diluted with water, is put into a large leadeu vcskel, nearly spherical, and pro- vided at the top with a lid, which fits so as to be air- tight. From X\\\? top a leaden pipe pnsi^es into tha lime chamber, where by this means the chlorine gat is conveyed aa it is formed. The leaden vessel is cased in an iron one, n Sjtnce lieing left between the two fur tlie purpoi^e of introducing steam to heat the materials after the process has continued for some time. At tlta Iw^inning tliis is not required, bacauaatlie chemi- oal action goes on rapidly ; but after the process has continued fur tome time, in order to decompose tha whole of the salt, and disengage the whole of the oUo* rine gas, it Is at last found necessary. Before the bleocUiug powder is applied to the cloth, It is dtssolvaA in water ; aud the Quantity employed for the firit pro. cess consists of a solution of tveuty-four pounds of tUa powder to sixty galbms of water. The specific grarltjr of the Bulutilba, of cloth isU71 gallons. Iu cotton tdeaching, the cloth Is first boiled In liaa- watsr, one pound uf luue being necessary for thirty-flva iwunds uf ciuth. After being thus treated, it is car^ fully washed to remove the lime, and then subjected to the action of the blaaching powder. It is left in this cold solution alNHit six hours, and then taken out and washed with water. The next part of the prooese ia called tfuuriny, which is immersing the cloth in a solu- tion of sulphuric acid, sodiluted that it dues not injura the texture of the gihids, whilst it improves their co- lour. The sulphuric acid dinsolves and removes tha oxide of iron with which the cbith is always contaml- nalad \ it also removes the lime which may hava at- tached itself to the cloth during its previous treatment with that substance. It Is again washed, boiled In an alkaline lev, and once more carefully washed In cold water. Another solution of bleaching powder, two-thirds the strength of the former, is then ureparad, iu which the cloth is immersed, aud left for five or six hours; it finally undergoes another process of sour- ing, by which means It is rendered perfectly whita> The ucid is carefully removed by washing; and after each piece of cloth has been stretched to Its full length, it undergoes a process of mangling, by being passed successively between cylinders forced towards each other by levers, to which a c«jnsideruble weight is at- tached. The clotli being thus stretched, Bmoothed, and wound upon a roller, is rendered fitfuri/arcAtn^. The starch ts that uf flour, deprived of its gluten by remaining fir twenty-four hours in water, and then passed through a sieve, whiuh retains the bran» and allows tlie stiirch to pass. A .Uitle indigo is mixed with it, and sometimes porcelain clay. The starch li applied in the state of a pretty thick paste whilst the cloth la passing between a pair of rollers. The goods ure then drisd, aud passed through a calender fur the purpiMO of giving them a glois aud texture. Such is the process of bleaching as practised by the great bleaching establishments. The iiuml>er of pro- cesses which the cloth undergoes amounts to about tweuty.flve, but sonw of the earlier oues are occasion- ally omitted. Tiie expenseof bleaching and finishing n yard of cotton cloth Is about one halfpenny ; and with respect to the time required, we state the follow- ing circumstance on the authority of Or Thomson :— A bleacher in Lancashire received fourteen hundred pieces of grey muslin on a Tuesday, which on the Thursday foUowing were returned Ideuched to tha manufacturers, at tlie distance of sixteen miles, and on the same day they were packed up aud sent to a foreign market. The bleaching of linen Is similar to the bleaching of uuum, but more ditbcult; hence the bniiing in an lUkuliue ley, and the steeping iu the sulutinu of chlo- ride of lime, must be repeated tliree or four times. In general, the linen is expotied to the sun's rays for come weeks, but thin part nf the pntcens itt nut esseu' lialiy necennary. The los-" of weight ubich linen sns- tdiua during blenching amounts to about one-chird p.irt ot tlie whole gihtdn ; cotton scarcely hues oue- teulh-— a fact which proves tlie ditrereiice iu the diffi- culty between hleiichiMg the two kitiiln of cloth. In the blenching of wool, x- that suhtttatice contains an oily matter, the firm pnii c^' is to rie:iiise it of that greavi', by w:iiliing the cloth in an ummoui;tcui ley, which operation in called ncuurinif. I'lie ley is made by mixing live parts ui sole water With one part uf stale purified urine, which coiitiiins u cousiderabla quantity of ammonia. This mixture ia bniled for a short time, aud allowed tn cool to about &0", when tha wool it iinmcned in it. After being itirrad fur j CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO THE ARTS. DMtaina 'if ih&t leul ley. is mailA part of iderabl* leii for a rhen the fur wm« ltm«|UiiUkenoutftndrinMd, b]r«s|MMiire In bwk«la 10 ft ikrMiB of ruDning w«uir. Afior tbi«| tho wool li ■oniNtiniM carriod to tbo fuUiiig>nlll, wharo it ac. ^Irtt Mn •dditUmal dexreo of wbitenoas. Tht above It ohiflriy empbiyvd fur tbo coarMr wtHili, and wool that bas yet lo b« nardvU fur iho miifcinK of bnwd- •loth; but for the fiiior kind, it ii prHlerable to um a balh in whiub io«p hai b««n diitolvod. TUn wool is Mparutvd into •miUl parooJn, immerMd In the bath, waahed, and dried { it is then deprived of all iu na- tural oily matter by another ncourhig, aftt>r which It li combed tiefore U gui* (tuito dry. After combing, the W(K»I somelimea undergoes neverat otber washings, when tliH goods are waiitfd of a very delicate white. Fur the auke itf trcotiomy, fullers have long been known bi UM tt clayey matter, well known under the name oi j'uUet** earthy which combines with thr- greasy natter, Hud renders it more sniuble in water. Hut uotwitbhtHinling all tills ncouringHnd WHshing, before tlie wool can be brongbt to that brilliant state cif white- ness wliich is frequently required, it undergoes n pro. ccsM calM sulphuring, which is simply tbo rxposlng uf the giHHltt to tbe fumes of burning sulphur in a (iliistt rlmmber. Tbe sulphunms add destroys any colouring matter which remains, and the vapour It- self is removed by wnxhing. Properly se• carefully separated, so that the liquid may act upon both sides of the Ivhole of tbem ; and the boards may be easily made to rest upon tbe sides uf the vessel, so that only tbe paper enters tbe liquor. The latter assumes a yellow tint, and the leaves uf tbe book become white in propor- tion. In three or four hours the prooessof whileiting Is completed, and the book is tliuu plunged in pure water, fur the purpose of extracting the acid and de- atroying the disagreeable smell. Chaptal, a celebrated chemint, lirst suggested this method uf cleaning books and papers, and by it several of the most valuable works of the French natloual library have beea re- stored. DYEING. Dyeing, in the limited and more proper sfgnifieatlon of the term, is the art of imparting colours to wool, silk, featliers, cotton, or flax, or the thread or cloth formed uf any of these snbstanoes. This art was practised at a very early period, and probably orlgi- nated in Kg>'pt or iu India. In tbe time of Moses dyeing had nude great progress in the former country. At a very remote era it had arrived at a state of high perfet'tion in I'lmtiicia, and the purpleof Tyre passed into a proverb. The dye used was extracted from cer- tain species of libell'tinh. The fine colours given to cot- ton ehiths in India are well known ; the methods of doing HO are not nnidern inventions, but were prac tised in thitt country when it was visited by Alexander tbe < Jre;u. Thitt conqueror had, we lire informed by Pliny, trstisplaiited tbe art into Greece. But it would appear that neither amongst the Greeks nor the Ro- mans wns it carried to any groat degree of perfection, AmnngHt the moderns, the fir^t attempt at methodical arrangement of the diflferent processes was made In a wnrK pulilii^hed at Venii'e in tlie year 142!). The art w»'« jjreatly advanced by the tntrnductinn of indigo and ctu'liineal itito HurojK'. iilthon^h the importation nf the C'lrmpr substinci' was at tirFt prohibited in E;iK'£i"d ""d other CMiiiirit's. The reiisok* of thesL- ;i;u reatrlottons was, that pastel and woad, whli were l^uropean prodaollons, being employed for dyein, Hive, it was supposed that Indigo would supersede theti usa, and destniy one branch uf native industry. Under tbe administration of Colbert, dyeing was greatly en« couraged in Frani-e ; but the revocation of tbe edict of Nantes, iu I(1U5, was a fatal blow to tbe pre-emi- nence of France in the arts and manufactures. Tbe most skilful workmen were driven from the kingdom, and carried their knowledge into Britain and other countries. As chemistry began to be more generally studied, and to assume tbe character uf a distinct science, dyeing gradually advanced towards tliat high stale of perfectlun In which we now find it. Within the last thirty years, great improvements have taken plaue, and many new dye>stutfs have been introduced ( but we can only in this place give a brief view of the best methods of dyeing the most important articles, without adverting to the period at which the dis- coveries of the various processes were made. A remarkat.le circumstance ctmnected with dyeing is the ditferent degrees uf facility with which animal and vegetable substances imbibe the colouring matter applied to them. Tissues cipmposed uf the former, as silk and wool, receive more brilliant colours than (hone composed of the latter, as cotioit and linen. The cause of this is unknown; it is usually ascribed to the superior attractive power of animal bodies for tinging matter, but still tbe interrogatory, whut is tbe cau40 of this, [emuiuB to be responded to. llOItDANTS. Although in a great many cases it is easy to im* part colour to various tissues, yet when these be< come exposed to moisture, tbe dye-stuff is removed. It has therefore been found necessary to employ cer- tain chemical substances, which shall have tbe property of permanently tlxing tbe colour upon the body which is clyed. These substances have obtained the name of mordants (from the Latin word monierey to bite), liecause they were supposed at first, figuratively speak- | ing, tu bite the dye into the cloth. The same name has also been applied to those preparations which pos- sess the property of altering the snade or of heighten. Ing the colour, as it Is culled. The latter, at the suggestion of Berthollet, are sometimes termed alter, ants. The principal mordants are alumina, employed universally, we believe* in the furm of a salt, as that of alum ; the oxides of tin, employed like tbe former In the shape of salts ; they are prepared by dissolving tin in muriatic acid. Silk and woollen dyers, how- ever, employ nitric acid or aqua-fortis fur forming the salts of tin which they use. The salts of load and copper are likewise had recnurse to as mordants, and tbe nut-gall, which contains two very peculiar vegetable substances, tannin and gallic acid. Is nut only employed as a mordant, but lUso as a powerful dye-stuff. By varying the mordant, a great variety of shades may be derived from the same colouring matter. In- deed, tbe mordant itself, in many instances, supplies a colour. For example, in dyeing with cochineal, when the aluminous moVdant is employed, the colour produced is crimson ; but when oxide of Iron is sub- stituted fur the alumina, a black oulour is the result. The whole phenomena are accounted for on the prin- ciple of chemical atfinity or attraction. The mordant employed shuuid have an attraction both for the stuff to be dyed and tbe culuuring matter, and act as it were like a third party in reconciling two inlmicats. Tbe way in which it Is used must depend entirely upou the degree of alKnity exerted between the stuff and the colouring matter. Where that is slight, the for- mer should be saturated with the mordant trefore tbe latter is communicated. A knowledge of the chemi- cal affinities and habits of the substances used la ne- cessary before mordants can be had recnume to as a medium of union in imparting colour to cloths or other stuffs which we wish to dye ; for by an Indiscriminate use of them, results tbe very opposite of those antiei- r»ated may take place. Practice, or a thorough know- edge of chemistry, is essential to success. It were impossible in this place to present a perfect account of the various methods of dyeing different stuffs of different colours ; all we can do is to mention some of the most useful and important of tbem. TO DYE RED. The principal colonring matters used in dyeing red are madder, cochineal, kermes, lac, archil, carthamus, Brazil wood, and logwood. Madder is the root of a plant ; cochineal is the name given to a small insect, a native of Mexico ; kermes and lac are also animal snbstances ; the remaining four dye-stuffs belong to tbe vegetable kingdom. fVooi. — In the dyeing of woollen goods a mordant is necessary; that one is employed which will pro- duce the peculiar tint required. Coarse stuffs are dyed with madder, after being boiled for two or three hours in a solution of alum and cream of tartar ; five ounces of the former and one ounce of the latter to each pound of wool is recommended, but the proportions are varied according to tho shade of oohnir wantiid. The quantity of madder used varies very considerably. Some employ one-third of the weight nf the wool ; others use more or less, according to cfrcum stance h. In dyeing with madder, the buth should not be boil- i[)g. When it is at a tempernturu nhlch the liaml Ciii lear, Hellot recommends the additir of h:tU" a pound of jjr'ipe miulder for every inunds and three quarters of cochineal. When a erust has farmed up- ou tbe surface, after tbe stirring has ceased, a qiian* tity of tbe solution of tin (some use twelve or fourteen pounds) is poured in. Tbe cloth Is boiled for an hecome clear, tbe sUk is put in, and kept clHtre for two hours ; It is then taken out and put into a madder bath. By the following pn)ceBs, a fine crim* son hue is imparled to silk : — The silk Is cleaned by washing and beetling. The bath is prepared by filling a large boiler two-thirds with water, to whmt are added, when it boils, from half an ounce to two ounces of powdered white galls for every pound of silk. When it has boiled for a few seconds, from two to three ounces of powdered cochineal for every pound of silk are put in, and afterwards one ounce of tartar to every pound of cochineal. After the tartar is dlf^ solved, one ounce of solution of tin is added for every ounce of tartar. For the solution of tin, Macquer (a great French chemist) recommends the fallowing pro- portions I — For twelve ounoes of water there should be one pound of nitrio acid, two ounces of sal ammo^ niac, and tiz ounces of fine grain tin. When tbeso ingredientii are mixed together, the boiler it to be filled up with eold water; und the proportion of the bath for every pound of silk is abont eight or ten quart . of water. In this the silk is Immediately immersed, and turned on the winoh till it appear to be of a uitiiona colour. The bath being kept iHiiling for two hDur% *he fire is then put out, and the silk removed to the dye-bath, where it remains a few hours longer ; then it is taken out and washed. Various shades of red are produced by employing carthamus. A scarlet cokmr is obtained by soaking silk for two hours in a selntioa of murio-suliihate uf tin, diluted with five times ita weight uf water. After being partially dried, Jt it Immersed in a bath prepared with four parts of ou* chineal, and three of quercitron bark. If the latter dye-Etuff is omitted, a rose-colour will be nbtaiued. Cotton and Linett. — The processes of dyeing these two v^etable products are the same. The brightest and most substantial red is that called Turkey red. The cloth, after having been steeped in a weak alka- line ley, is put into a liquor composed of the following ingredients : — One gallon of Gallipoli oil ; one and u half gallons of soft sheep dung ; four gallons of sulu- tioa of carbonate of soda of the specific gravity I.UO ; one gallon of solution of pearl-ash of the speciiic gri». vity 1.04 ; ndd water being added so as to mak« twenty-two gatlonn. After tbe cloth it dried unit steeped in a weak siduthm of pearl-ash, it is immersed in a ley somewhat similar to the preceding, whjoh process is repeated thrice, then washed in a mixed ley of penrl.ash and soda, (iailiug is the next itOj;. Let eighteen pounds of Aleppo galls be boiled in twenty- five gallons of water, till the whole is reduced to twenty gallons; this is sulHcieut to impregnate one hundred pounds of cloth ; after this, it undergoes a process of aluming. To a solution uf alum \\ water, of the ipe» cifio gravity 1.04, as much pearl ash, soda, or chalk, is added as is atifficientto preci; .tate the alumina Ci)n- tained in thealum. Through this muddy liquor, wl.ich should have a temperature of from lUO" to 1:20", the cloth is steeped and pressed for twelve hours. By this meiiiiH the cloih hccomes readily imT<'''>gnated with the ahuniiiu, after which it Ih stove*dr : I, and tiien \m~ into iho dyi'inij I)ath. From onu in three [Hmndiof powdered muddvr for every pound of cloth istiupiuyedy i CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE lh« qiiftutliv tMinf ilturinlnffd bjr th« ihMl* of ouloiir wauwd. Tha cloth !■ pni into the bolltr wh«n ooia, wi4 bolM for ivo hour*. For tttmy i«tniT-flT« pounds of clnth dy«d, on* gallon of bullock*! blood li Indii. paiiMbly roifulaiu for ubulnlnir » flnt r«d oolmir. Tha elolh than undorifOM a eltaring proetn^ ai U ii oallad, by IwliiK biiilad for iwelva hours or to In on* of tha aapnnaoaoua lay* fonnarly araployad. Laitly, It is bollad undar a pratfturaof two atmoapbarat, In a lolu- Unn roniiiting of ill pounds of soap and about aightaan ounnas of proiit-chlorida of tin. Huch ara tha sareral pnHiriika« by which this bnautlful and parmananl colour is HitHl itn cl«ith. Tba scar'at and crlnrtKin hnas sra impNrted til otitton and liiian by niaaus of cochinaal, but Ihay ara by uo maans parmauant. DVEINO YELLOW. Tba principal colourInK miitt»rs nsad in dyeing yalbtw Ufa wsid, fukiic, catachu, annotto, and quartil> trim. U'pid Is tha driad leaves uf a plant that glows wild in BritHin. und ditferent other Kiiropaan couu< tries 1 f iittif is tha winmI of m West India tra« ( cstm'hii la o>itaiii«Nl from curtain Kast Inilia pUiiti t nnnutto li the uniiiurt m no Aiiiariran berry ; ami i|iit*ri-itrnn la tliK burk al a Urgo tree which grows spontanaousty lu Niirtb Aiiieiini. To Oifif WtKil. — A pure and permanent yellow Is obtaiiit'd by d> ring woollen siulTit wiib weld, the mor- dants being Hluin and tartar. Tliial way, as already descritied iin* der the head dyeing of red. According to llellot, four ntmcfs ol tiliir o one ouncn of turtar are to be tunpliiyrd. From .hi "^ . aned by passing the cloth through hot water impreg. nated with line chalk. To obtain the most permanent C4ilours» tha stuff slionid be boiled for about an hour with (me-seventh of its weight of alum dissolved in a f»roper proportion of water. The siuff is then to )»e mmersed in thedyelng.bath, and turned through the boiling liquor until the proper colour is obtained. A little cleuu chalk added to the bath a short while be. fore the oper.aion Is discontinued, will be found to im> prove the odnur. Orange yellow is produced In a short spaca of time, by making ■ batlt of hot water, and putting in ten pounds of quercitron bark for every hundred pounds of ■tuff, and after a few minutes adding eight or ten pounds of murio-sulphate of tin. Golden yellow, and tha various other sba Jes of yellow, may be produced by Tarying tha abova>named substances \ a greenish tinge may be imparted by tha addition of a little tartar or verdigri«, ditsolved In vinegar. Tha colours pro> duoed by quercitnm bark are very durable. Dating Stik yeilow.-—\Ve\d was the only substance formerly eaiployed to dye silk yellow { but Dr Ban- croft informs us thrt all the shades of yellow may be imparted ti> it by means of quercitron bark. From one to two p«mnds of powdered bark for every twelve pounds of ailk is put Into tha dyeing-vat while odd, and whan heated to 100', the silk, hHving previoimly undergone an aluming proceaa, is to be immersed and dyed iu the ordinary way. I'carUasUes deepen the ahade, and a little murio-sulphate uf tin pntduce* a more lively >ellow. 8ilk is dyed of an orange shade by employ ing annotto; but the stuffs must be red- dened with vinegaruralum. Thete colours, hu*ever, are not permanent. Dyehiy Col' .d Linen YeUow. — Amongst theva- riouH uietbiHJs ui dyeing aitton yellow, we can only affuru (be lollowing on« by Dr Oaiicrufi, and it is one of the beHi : — One pound of sugar ol lead is to be disaolved in a sulKcieni quantity of warm water. The cotton or linen, after being properly rinsed, is to be soaked iu this mixture, heated to the temperature of 100% lor two hours. It is then taken out and mo- derMiely pieM^ei over a vessel, t» pi event the waste of the iilu'i inou* liquor. It is then dried by stove heat, aao alter being again soaked in tlie aliuniiioua solution, it ia wrung out and dried a fecund time. M'lthtMtt heiiig riuKed, it is to be b.^rely welled with lime-water, and afterwards dried ; and if a full, bright, and dura>»e yellow is wanted, it niMV )»e necevKHry to •oak the Mtiitr in the diluted aluni>noits mordant, and after drying, to wet it a second time with lime-uater. After i; hni> t>eei) iiOi>ki'd for ttie Ust time, it bhuuld be Wall Tinned with clean writer. Ill the pieparation of the dyeing-hath, from twelve to eighteen pounds of po«dereil quercitron bark arein- cluke>i in a hag lor every hundred pounds of the stuff, the proportions being varied according to the shade required. The burk m put into the water whilst it is euld t the stuff is then iinmer»ed, and the heat slowly IncreaHKl tlil the bath boils, at which temperature the ■tuff muiit only remain for a few minutes. U is theu taken out, rinsed, and dried. In tlie Kast, a pUn similar to that followed In dye- log Turkey red is practlaed. After the uaual prell* •Ainary ■(•r* »• taken, the cloth ii dyed with quar* citron bark. In this wmnlry, thtae proeesaei can be superseded, and as beautiful and permanent a eulour given to uoiton by impregnating It with acetate or nitrate of lead, and then passing the cloth through a solution of bichromate o( potash, nriiwa ai.ui. The grand dye-ituff used for Imparling a blue colour to cloth is Indigo, which la a regetable product of In« dia. IToo/. — Into a vat put four hundred pounds of dm- tel or woad (which, tiefora the Introduction of Indigo, was the subsunce used in dyeing blue), and let thirty iwunds of weld be boiled In a copper vessel for three hours, in a suHlriaut quantity of water to All the vat. Add to the decoction twenty pounds of madder and a basketful of bran. Continue the boiling for half an hour longer, then cool tha copper ailth water, takeout the weld, and after the liquid has settled, pour it Into the vat, which is stirred for half an hour, and then uivered up In a hot stale, and allowed to remain so for sis hours. It Is then uncovered, stirred again for thirty minutes, which process is repeated every three hours until blue stre;iks anpfsr on the surfare, when ei^ht or nine pounds of qnukllme are added, and from ten to thirty ptiundsof inditfi), according to the Inten- niiy of the hue required. The vat stands several days, and (treat cure must *-* taken to cover it closely up, and to put in a proper ^ intlty of lime; If too much lime be added, the necessary fermentation is retarded; and it there be too little, the putrilactlve process com- mences. Into a dyeing solution prepared as almve described, the ktiiff til lie ciiloiired in put after having b«en wet- ted with pure water a little healed i there it Is moved about until the proper tinge retiulred U imparled to it. To produce a Suxun blue colour on woutlrn stuffs, they are prepared with alum and tartar, and In pro- portion t when taken out, should be put up- on a frame kept con»tai>tly in motion. To produce Turkey bine, a strong bath of archil or cochineal is prepareil, and the iluth paused through it. A blue is ^ivel) to hilk by nieuiis of verdigris and logwood, but it pofosesKCs little dnrahility. CuUon anit l.incn — Of the various processes of dye- ing these »tulfii, tlie lollowing simple one Is followed at Koueii In France. Ttie vhu, which are coni>tructed of a kind of flint, are coaled within and without with line cement, snd are arranged in one or more parallel lines. Kach vat contains four hogiheads of water. The indigo, to the amount of eighteen ur twtmty pounds, being macerated for a week in a caustic ley strong enough to bear an egg. Is ground in a mill; three hogsheads and a half of water are put into the vat, and afterwards twenty pounds of lime. The lime be- ing thoroughly slaked, tiievat is raked, and thirty>six pounds ol copperas are added ; and when the solution is aimplete, the ground indigo is poured in through a sieve. It is raked seven or eight times the same day; and after being left al rest for thirty*six hours, It is in a state tit for dyeing. Tlie colour denominated Eng- lish blue is produced by the solution of indigo in sul- phuric acid. This comptmnd, improperly cilled sul- phate of indigo, has hitherto only been used In dyeing wool and silk, and cannot advantageously be applied to cotton or linen. DVEINO BI.ACE. The principal subitances which are employed to give a black colour are gall-nuts, which contain tan, and the red oxide of iron. Oak hark, which contains the same astringent principle, has been used, eipectally in dy eiiig hats. Logwood is employed to give a lustre to black colours. The black colour ia produced by the couibination of the astringent principle witii the oxide ot iron held in solution by an acid, and fixed un the stuff. Wool. — English d J ers use the following proportions of ingredient! in dyeing m ooI black :— For every hun- dred poundH ol cloib pnvinuhly dyed a deep blue, about live jiounds of sulphate of iron, Ave pounds of gulls, and tiitrtyof logwood, are iieccMiary. The first step in the priH-eftS is to Ihiil the cloth in galls, after which It is passed through tlie dec4K:tionol logwood, to which the sulphate uf iron hai been added. It is then washed in a river, fulled, and dried. Stlk In dyeing silk black, it is 6rst boiled with soap; then with three-loiirths of its own weight of galls for three ur four hours ; alter tliis the liquor re- matnn at rest for two hours ; the siik i^ then put into the bath, where it lies from twelve to tiiirty-six hours, and Is then taken out and washed. To (Muimunicate »hat is called heavy black, silk is alloMrcd to remain lunger in the gall liquor. The hath should al . ays i»e kept below the boiling point t and the gum ant solu- tion of iron are added to it in proportions vaiyiii^ ac- cording to the different proi:esses. To remove the harshiieSH which atuches to hllk after it has been dyed, it ia washed in a soapy uilution. \'elvet is dyed black in much Uie same manner. Cotton and /.i/ien.— -Alter undergoing galling, these stuffs are put Inu* a bath coiiuintng iron liquor, which is a solution of iron in aiet.c acid, i-'ive quarts of this liquor for every pound of htuff is reqiiiaite. The uittiHi is wrought with the hand, pound by pound, fur lif- leen minutea, and then taken out, wrung, and aired. The operation Is repeated, a fresh supply of liquor having been put in, after which the stuffi are taken ouk In the next operation, a pound of alder bark for every pound of stuff is btdled in a sufficient qiian. thy of waur for an hour. One-half of the bath which was employed In the galling, and about one-half th« qtiantltv of sumach as uf alder bark, are than added« The whole Is boiled together for two hours, and ■trained through a sieve. When this liquid Is cold, the stuffs ara Immersed, wrought pound by |H)nnd, and occasionally aired. They are afterwards put Into the bath, and after remaining for twenlvfour hours, are wrung out and dried. Tha above is a process, which, according to D'Apllgny, Is followed at Houen for dyeing cotton and linen. The proresi followed a| Manchester, though It differs from the above in son.e respects, is upon the whole so nearly similar to i| that we need nut detail It In this place. nVEIKO BROWX. A great number of vegetable sniMtanres are rapiible ofproduclngafawnorbrown iml.iur on d liferent Htiilfs, but thtise mostly used are walnut peeU and sinoail). The peels constitute the gieen covering tif the nut | they are iulernally of a white colour. wlii«:h Is ivu. vened into brown or Mack by expoanre to the air. Sumach is a iihrub produced naturally in loveral parts of Asia and Kurope. Iturk of birch, sandtlwoiid, ur soot, are likewim capable of priMlucing a fawn ur brown colour. llertholli't made a number of experiments to asccr* tain the diirerence of colour obttiined fmni the simple deciK'tion id walnut pt'els and the addiiioii of nietallio oxides as mordants. Theoxideof tin, he lonnd, yiflded a clearer und brighter fawn colour ihuti that of the simple decoction. The oxide of xlnc priMlnced a still clearer colour, inclining hi ash ur grey. The colour from oxide of lead had an orange cast, while that from oxide of iron was uf a greeniih brown. A fawn colour which has a shade of green is oh. tained from sumach alone ; but to cotton stiitrs which have been Impregnated with printers* mordant or acetate of alumina, sumach communicates a good and durable yellow. .^uch is a view of the most approved methods of dye* ing the simple colours, and comptmnd ones are formed by mixtures of them, and different nbades are ob- tained by different proportions. .Mixtures of blue and yellow form green ; and to dye green, the itutf Is hrst immersed tn oneof tbete colours, and then in the other. Hy the mixture of red and blue, there aie obtained violet, purple, dove-colour, lilac, and a great variety of other shades. Yellow and red form orange, and by the mixture of black with other cnbnirs, brown, grey, hazel, puce colour, marone, and other dyes, are pro- duced. CALICO PRINTING. Calico printing is the art of impressing different co- lours to particular parts of the surface of cloth, chiefly cotton and linen, whilst the real of the fabric is af- lowed to retain its white colour, or any other colour which may have been communicated to it, as blue or vellow. There are two methods of doing thin ; first, by block printing; and, secondly, bv cylinder print- ing. The former is a very ancient invention. The figure which we wish to commnnic^ite to the cb>th la cut upon a block of sycamore; thus making in fact a large woodcut. For fine lines, pieces of clipper are ingeniously indented in the block. The cylinder is a large circular copper plate, lieing a circular ruler seve- ral feet long, and several inches in diameter, upon which the different figures to lie given to the cloth are engraved. A circular motion in given to it, by which means t^e whole of these figures are imptessed upon the cloth as it moves under thu i*ylinder. In every case the treatment of the g lug Axed on thoiie parts to which it ia applied, that they may remnin white, or receive other coioiin after- wards. Siubsiancen poshesned of tbii property ara called reiist-ifRhtes. LuMty, it is freqtieiitly emploved to communicate mordantitHndco e potuHh or Koda, tba compound in used as a deiergt nt in wiuthing clothes. When an alkaline earth, or oxide t>l a common metal, such as lead, which forms litharge, &c in the base, the compound is insoluble in water. The Insolubla compounds, however, are very little used, tfxcept ia some few coses of aurgery. ur Vn thai wrllei of Kwpa and lapoaificatiou i— low at I it. the fori twc poti Th fnit ana: aoa em I to I Ion Wei of i_ froi iu Ibu lag out one CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO THE ARTS. I ** F«U ftr« compnundi of a loUd «nd ii lli)iild iiili. llwiM, lb* formtr called ittarint^ tha lutlar raMmbliitK T»f(tubl« oil, and iharafora oallvd tiain. When fat !• (rtatad with a hoi lay of pntaih or loda, tha cimitl- tuanU react on una Hnother, lo aa to caiiarata tha tolid paarly matter, margmrio aeid^ and tlia fluid matter, oUic aeidy both of which aniar Into a apeciee of ealina comlilnatlun with tha alkali \ whila the third matter thai li produced, the fiv««i principU, ramaine fraa. Wa tnnit therefore regard ourotimmon loap aiamlx- turaofanalkallnamarrfBrateand oli-ate, In prnp(iriloni detarmliiad hy tha relative propt>rtlitni of the two arldi producible friim the ptHJiillar Rpeclri of fut. It li protiiible, on the other hand, that the nonp fornted from v(>|(rtalile oil in chlatly an olcate. No uhemicnl rrat'Kn-htti hnva hitherto been made known on the coni)inuiidii of renin with HlkHlix, thou)rti thane conitl* Xwxv tliH hrown hoh^h «o exieiixively nmniiriiciured in thin romitry. All oiU or fati do not poiireHi in an p(|niil decree thn (iropttrly of NnpiMittU-iition.** In ^i*. nt'rid, thd oiilv noH^n tfmplnyHd in ciinun«rce are thuke of oiivH oil, talbiw, lard, palm oil, and roain. Olive (hi Soup in thnn mHnufuctnretl : — To one hun- dred pitrtn of olive nil, twenty paitn of that of rnpe- iM-d ni« Htbled, The»« re<)iiire about lifiy.four purw nl the noilii (l)Hrillrf) of ronimertei hikI three pHrti of Imriilii rei|iiire mie iif iiuicktime. Alier bruininK the niu\:i iind nlitkin^ the lime, they are mlnKl.d. »nil CoUl wtiier in poured upon the mixture. This In run olF at the end of twelve hourn, and in mV-' i the tint ley. Two other l«yi of a weaker deaaipt nt are nui;. cencively obtnlned Irom It. Alter a huitideiit quan. tity of ley in made, the niiip-hoillng eunnnencen. I.nrge bollerii ate nied, which have in all UHnei h pipe at the bottom, two Inches and two.ihirds in dilimeter, called the thorn (rpi/ir, French). Weak ley In Hrnt put into the boiler, then the oil in gradu- ally added, and the mixture boiled. After the com- bination li effected, which It In a fihort while, the Hre U tempered, and wenk ley and oil luvcennlvely added, takhiK care to keep the mnnn In a itate of equal con- liitency throuKmmt. When all the oil which we wlih to laponify hai been p(nired in, nome ttnmf^ ley Ii ilowly udded, which completes the naturatlim of the oil, converting the emnlnion with an oily eiceM into m perfect soap, which neparatei from the ley and doatn upon the surface. The ley in withdrawn by the pipe i frenh levs are added, and the tire rekindled, l>y which means t)ie perfect suturation of the oil with alkali in effected. The soap is of a blue colour, and Is con- Terted Into wliite, by mliiKlinK H H>'adually with di- lute leys, and Hp^ilyinif a gentle heat, allowioff depo. liticm to take place with a covered boiler. It it now taken out and run Into wooden frames, where it hardens In cotding. From these It is Hnally removed and cut Into Imm. Thin soap Is known in France under the name of soap in tables (/ it^on en table), and, according to M. Thenard, it uinstnti of suda 4.6 fat matter 60.2, water 46.2 in 100 parts. Hard Soap Is made in Scotland chiefly with kelp irid tuDow That crude alkali rarely contains more than from one to five per cent, of free noda, mixed with KomesnipliHtennd hydronul^hate, and nearly thirty- three pt-r ea-Bttllintbekelp. A quaniltyof ley, not well de tilted, in poured on themelted tallow, and the mixture in tioilrd. a workman Mgitatiiig the materials to facilitate the cotiibination. The fire lieing withdrawn, and the aqueonn liquid having nnbaided, U Is pumped off, and a new p.irttou in thrown In. A second tioil is given, and so on In nuc^^ennion. Two or three builn are per- fornifd every twelve hours, for nix days, constituting twelve or eighteen operations In the whole. Towards the ltt>t. the stronger ley in hronght into pluy. When- ever the workman perceiventhe napunffication perfect, the pri>c«ni is stopped, and the iuap it lifted oul aud poured into the raonida. So/t Soaps.— ^Th% compnunds of fata or nils with potardi, remain n d'c, or at least of a panty consistency. There are three kinds known in commerce — the maps from rH)ie>eed nnd other oleagiiioU" seeds, called green RoapM ; tliose nmdti with hogs* lard, called toilette loapnj and ihe common soft loHps made withfihhoiln. We UMii only Htford spnce for an Hccoiint of the me- thod of manttinctui-ing the latter, as practised by an eminent soap-boiler near Ulangow, Whale or cod oil to the amount ot two hundred and seventy-three gal- lons in put into a (toiler ahmght with four hundred- weigh tot tallow, and two hundred and filty twogallons of potash ley. On heat being applied, the mixture frothsup very much, but meann are adapted to prevent III boiling over. There are then added at intervals fourteen measures of stronger ley, each measure hold- ing twenty-one gallons. After euitable boiling wiih- oul agitation, the soap Is formed, anmunting in all to one hundred Arkini of nixty-four pounds each, from th« aboT« qutDlUy ofmateriaU, 3UI TANNING. Tanning la Ihe art by which the hldoa and sklni of animali are converted Intti leather, by being ma- cerated with lime and water, to promote Ihe ■epara* tlon of the hair and wo4>l, and of the fat and fleshy parts, and then saturated with certain aalrlngani principles, particularly the fiark of the oak-tree, which contains tha vegetalde principle called lanuin. The prooenn, though li may be shortly deacril)ed, la long and laborious. The hide, which oniniau for tha most part of gelatin. Is deprived of iia hair, fat, &r. by iMing soaked in water, nindlvd and iritddaii, and then inimeraed In milk of lime. Home un« an asces- ent infunion of hurley or rye menl, or spent tun, in- stead of lime, and ottiers reciMiiinend the apiilicutiou of lulphoric acid in a very dilute atate. HiniiUr aci- diiluiin wHiern are made uae of to raise or awell tlie hide when thiti Is required. The hide* are then put intoa cittern made In ttie ground, aloiignt with gronml oitk-bHik, the whole being dinpoied in regular layern, covered with half afoot of tan, and well triKldeii down, A little w.iter is found to Hccelerate the tnuniiig. Hir II. Duvy reconmiendn the slow tanning of leather, and the application of weak infuitionn of tiark. Hy thin treatiiient it appearn thitt the lenther in nofter and htronger than when It is tanned by strong Infuaions. POTTKRY. Pottery Is intimately connected with chemistry not only on account «if the nature and preparHtion of the materialn of which vesaels are formed, hut aUo from the way In which they are ttred and gUzed, and cotoiirn and engravings applied to tliero. The art, an may be Inferred from itn clone ceing moistened. The nruldn u«ed for platen, himI various other Kiiils ut diolifs which ore iDrinid \>y prenaing, are iini|ile in their ctuintiiictiin ; tnit others which are uned for the third departuittnt, that of canting, re* quire niuch skill for their iii%eiiiii'i»en tlie conaiatency of cream. The planter of Paiin, wbich has a remarkable affinity for water, quickly abrorbn the liquid, and a coating of clay remains in tlie mould ; another portion of dilute clay, but of a firinir contiatency than the former, In poured In after the I'lmt hat l*een allowed to dry; and the mould ia then ret in a stone, and tha article removed from It when aufiiciently dry to admit of separation. Firing antt GtaMing.~.*\hfr the vesaels are brought to a atate when they can undergo the first procena of firing, they are placed In circular boxen matle of fire* clay, called teygariy and which are capable of standing the most intenne degree ot heat Hiilouit being fused. Their oflice Is to protect the ware from the direct ap. plication of fltme, and fioiii smoke ; by this means, also, the heat is more nnlformlv applied. Methods are adopted to keep the articles in the seggars sepa- rate from each other. A great number of these are arranged together in a cyllndi ical.oven ; and here ther aru baked for about fifty hours, then graduallvclea. From the nimlUrity of itn appearance to weil-haked nhip bread, the ware Is now culled bitcuit^ In which state the substance which Is to impart the glaze Is ap. plied to it. It Is then put into what ia called the glass oven, disposed In aeggarn In the same way u formerly, and fired, till, by the fusion of the substance with which the veasela have been covered, they acqulro a glased aurfaoe. The gUxe usually employed for common kinds of earthenware ia compounded of li- tharge of lead and ground flintn, In the proportion of ten parts by weight of the ftirmer to four parts of iho latter. This mixture ia called the raw glaze, and Is f;iven to vessels by their t>eing dipped in a solution of t, of the connlstency of cream, and then sent lo iho oven, as already described, i'he glazes are Tarled to suit the different materials of which the ware is formed, and every manufacturer has his own. Those for por- celain and the finer kinds of earthenware are generally made yrith white lead, ground flints, ground fltnu glass, aud common salt ; Lynn sand, combined with soda as a flux, being frequently addeil. The dilTerent colours obiervable on the outer surface of drlnkiog- juga and other articles, ia owing to the partial uae of a gUze, the pari to which thin in applied becoming dark in the heat of the kiln, whiUt the glazing of the light-coloured portion ia caused by the introiluction of salt. This acts in a similar manner to a mordant, as dencribed under dyeing. Painting and Engraving,-~So refined and philoso- phical is now the process by which piinting on earthen- ware la eflTected, that in some measure it deservea the name of a science. Metallic oxides form the ttases of all vitriflable coloura ; but they nnut be combined with a flux to promote their funiou, and the composi- tion of the flux varies acC4>riiing to the means em- ployed for diluting the colours at the time they are used. Where a volatile oil in clioren for this dilution, a flux composed of glass, nitre, and borax, is moat pro- per; but when gum. water in nubttituted lor this oil, a compound of glass, lead, and nilfx. I:i preferable. The former nienstruum conHiftn of ptiwuered ^1^^*^ forty pans; calcined borax, twenty-two (ihrtn; and refined nitre, forty-four parts. Thene ingredientn are pounded in a mortar, and then fused Into a niusn in a crucible. By thin flux the colours are fixed upon the porcelain, and made to assume a renplendeni appearance; the metallic oxides being euvelojed l>y the flux, are pre- served from all contact with ttie air, and their colour is rendered permanent; the lunion taking place at a temperature too low for their tiestruciion. Metallic oxides which would have their colours altereii by a Btrong or often repeated heat, are employed after be- ing mixed with their flux, hut without having beea previouly fuaed with it. In many cases metallio oxldea are first fused with the requisite proportion of their flux, and are then ground for uae. Enatntl la glaaa made opaque by the o&ide of U% (: CHAMBERS'S TTfPORMATION FOR THE PEOPLK. wn4 mttil* fntlbl* h* iha oaMt of 1m4. All oooulii Ifiul |}«rtl('i()ii|i> it) lh« pr»|i«rtl« of aiiMMl. lUv fUM« ii«mI lor cwvariiiff Mii4«r p<>r«*l«tn arc of •U* nMUff*. Thvr.iliMiri rmpktyvd In palttKnK Uilt ^otUIii mm lh<»M which MrTV lor palHilitff In •rk- ■mI , ihvy rtt|tilr« I*hi» IIiii thmi o(l>«ra, bwiitiM th« ■arf^ ti) which ih«y «r« appltMl h»«i>mM mMi onrntifh t« Iw |wnMratf>rf by tharn. Hard f«»i-r«l»li), whoM •al«ff« !■ Manitcal with ihiHM itC ('hina and Maiony, lift* iwii kindi ill (luliMiri appllatl in Ic TliitM of iha Aril kind, whti-h aia ttiDd in tba rapraaeDWilim of dif. hrmtt tihjtcta, ara bakad hy a hvfti murh baltm thai B«Maaary fur ptireidMln t whIUl lh« itiHvr colmira, which ara faw In tnimhvr, mint h« axpnavd to tha klffhaat di*K'** ■■' l»mp«-r%liir« r»<|uir*d hy iha piirr*. Mil iiavlf. Tha nUf naad fur hard pfirfatalii hai Nlllt> lt«d in iu iS'mptwilltMi. In a«»nia m ami factor I'M fcldnfMr inAuwd iif \eA*i ia in wkh dmih|« ill Dwit »fi»(hi uf rumimm aalt To oh> tain a p«Ui>w onlmir, wIimi* oxtdn of antimony, ralswd whh Mild and uiida of lr«d, ara amployad, iha Ut- lar lubatanc* larvinf aa a flux m lb* oihcri. Blua eolnnra ara obta^nvd from cobalt ; grmmn from lYvapar ; bUek ofnlron; airawmlour froiii cbrirniinm ( N»ft*ii y«llu« from antimony and ImuI. By a mliuira of thtai»ed Tb««>''«r^::oftranafrrriBfrprliiMd4OTltn»t<>aarthen. ««r«, nay b« ahortly daacril«d. Tk« landttmpa or pattarn ii enffraved on copper, and tha odmir, which it aaixad with bnited Unaaipd (hI, It l«id an tha pUtr In lb« Mmr mannt'r aa ink U appliad by 4-npparpl«i« printara. To iiicrcaac tha tluidiiy ui tha itffi, tlta pUir ia than iflmporarily plarrd inailova, aaha««of dnrnpad tttaua ^par It laid mi it, and both ar* paaaad In tlir »rdin«fy naimar thrnut^h tlia prata. Tha papar wv\ wick tha c»e of diiialpalin^ Uie ail, praparatary m itt rtt«innff tha ffkiia. '£ha Rraat exrettenrf ot the pAri«laJa maniUkoMnad in Ohina ia pmverbiulW well kaawii. Tba liiliahj. «MMa of tlaal oeuntry empjny in thaaoaipowtion «f thlt artMa rws kindt M earihis and iw<» nik or raraiahaa. <)f tha eartkn, oni*, which it eaJltfd kau-iiii, la fouad liiflarariaed with partial« with aoutlaar mlKa- rnk raknaace, and the y Piiay to accident. The auiii«*nt KKyptiana ware M-eU acquainted witb the niauutactura ot thia tub* Uruidt ui' Britain^ but it would ap. Car that our regulur intiruntora ia Ihii art came from yoad teat in theteveath eenlury^ Car the purpnaaof ■laainf the wtndt»wt of the cliHrch and romiiutery ul WareiBimth in Durham. Uut the art made only tlow proftreat amimKit nt; it haa now, however^ baoo hrouf[h4 to a high atate i»f perfactioo, aad ia a tource •f conudarable uutioual reveuua* The fflau of commerce ia always compnaad of anane tiiidoua earth, the futioci and Titrifieation of which haa barn oncationed by certain alkaliaa aartht or •aHt, and tomelimct by the hid nf metallic oiideH. There are ftvequalitiea of fflaaa : — Firtt, Hint-glnttor eryaul; tecimd, crown or Uerman theet k'**"* tbii^, h»nad or common windnw-fflaNs; fminh, bottle or com- moD |^«en ^htt ; snd lifih, (ilnte-fftafm. Jn !|ivinf^ en tccoiuiiot liiern^ ihrxlauf miinufactiirini^ ihr«« revcrnl « oompounda, one remark we thall make, winch np^iit-s to the whoia of them. WhlWl tha general procattet mav ha depended upon aa pretty nearly tha tame for eacn, the prop^irtlont of the Infradltnta naad br dif. fereni maniifacln ran for forming iha tame k I nd of ffiati vary rery conalrtaralily. At we nhterved with rit. •pet'l lo earthenwari*. each haa hia own rerlpft, and ronildart them a« litllnltalr tuperlor ut tbtwe of other brethren of the trade. (>ne fat'l, hnwevar, may be relied upon aa aaaentU) in every kind of t(laa«, the pretence of liltna and an alkali. Thu latter it iiaed In the form of a citrbtmate, tha carbonic arid HylnK off durtiitf the munnfaetura, and the reanll it^ing a com. pmiiid of the Iwn anbtUncva mentioned. The varla- tlona of quality and diitlnotlve dtlffrencaa nbtervabli* In ((lata, principally reault from the bind of alknll employed, and iit df^rai* of pnrlly, at well at from thi> additlim of other nerettary IrtKreilicnta, atirh aa nitie, nilile of lead or of m«n((Mnetii, whiie otide of araenli'i liorai or i-balk. Nitre, which in uird in aniHll propor- tiiHia, laemployed forthn piir]iOHeof dntrnylnKanycitr- bonareiMit inntier which may bt* pretent In the othrr maifiialt, Thia »dU la added prariont to the fnaion of the f()aat. A% » deyree ol heat murh brlow thai of the furnace, nitre dri>imptet of ovv|(enatlon. It la ihua of iiae In tixiii)( artenir, the roUlile property of which lii'-reHM-a m it approachan tht< inetallic aiete. Oiideof le.id, eltbar In the form of JitharKe or red lead, enters liirgely Into the coaipotition of dint.glaia. ThiA metal acta, in the Aral place, at a mott powerful flux { and it nUo Imptrla veliuiliia propertiet to tlie glaai, of which it furmt a part, reuderlnff ll mure drnae, more tenadoiu when red hut, more vtpable ot t>earin){ uninjured auddeu chant(Pt of temperature, and more etfioicioua In rafractlnif the rayi uf liKht. The black oxide of man)cn»ete hat a ainf^ular effect upon f(lled down to a proper Htato of conaiitency, a hollow nihe about three feet long, called the punty, it dipped Into It, upon which the proper quantity uf material wanted for the article to be manufactured ia collected. It it rolled upon a •quare matt of '--mi metal, the lulie It blown Into, and the fluid maat exp«ndt tu the dimentlont required, when by variout meant it it faahioned Into different ahtpea. (fla«t doai not luddenly aaaume the toHd atato, but remaint tome iiroa in a onndlcion fit for workiag, awarding ample oppaitunitiei for giviag to it every ibape wkioh fancy or toato may tnggaat. Afiar the veaiiel it formed, It it put inw an even, where it la annealed, a pnieeta of very great impartaiioe, at withottt It ghtta would l>e liable toHy to piaoaa wHh the tmaiieet chaiiffe of teniperatttre, or thlver with the alighMKl seratch. Aanaaiing it timply a iwry gmdiiai oiii)ting, hy whitli it would appear chat the whm a>*ch other. By audden rouling, the exrernHl partiolet would t>a forcibly contracted, whiiat the Inaer lubtUHue would remain tolt and expanded. l4aaM cryttal veaaala are afterward! ground into variont taktoful thapea. Crount^/iuf.— The name of crown-glaai ia givan to the beat hind of glaaa onnunonly uaed in mahiag windowa, and for eimihtr purpiwea. It haa aometal. lie Hiix ill itt (Uimpoaition but maaganeae, and aoball in amiJi quBntiii(eoiMnet greater aad greater t iha kola JntI mentioned eapanda pntportloa- allyi and when in thlt ooniiimait progreaaion, tha doubled portbin oppotite to tbe irttn rod, and iNilween tha parlpbervof lbef(laaaand theorlrtee, itdlminithad to a ring only a few inchea wide « thlt inntantly diva completaly i»pen, and the glut* l« converted Inui a plana diat; ol lltiytoaixly Inchetdinmeur, bdvingauiiilornt tliii'kneaa tbrnugbout the entire plate, with the etcep* Itot) of the tpol where it it a.; ihed to the iron rod, and wliere there it a knot or Iu ' p, wliltk It riilled a iMill'a eye. Twelve iif iliete y't. fa make up what ll called a crato or _ of Mlaia. The effect of thlt o)>eratlon upon part4int who wt|> nett it for the lirtt lime, it Imtli pleating and turprta- ing iu a hlifh degree. Tbe force wherewith the glaaa diet open at tbe cliwa of the priM-att would be tulfi* oieiil, if ita hritllenaai were not removed by heal, to break it into iiuiunieiable fragroeult. Tbe plat% when tbui Aulthed, ia delaelieil from tbe rod iu the ittiuU manner, and plaued, retiiug on iu «dge, in tba annealing oven. BrtMni-iiiass it a coarte detcrlptlon ef the artiol^ which ll la unnecataary to deturibe. iloUi4-GU4a.~-Morm than one-half f tiui •MtliiK-Ubl«| «iiJ UltifC tbrown Into Kit iiitlln d ^ktdun, « turraul uf nwlMtl Hlui ii mditaiiljr puiutd aut au lh« lurfiuiM af lh« Utii*. wblufa muHi prvvioiiily Imve beau hHt«d| and wipail uerCiMUy ci^.n. Wbait iha dUw ^tt glM* ttiui formad bu l>a«D lufflclantly t\«adi«N, pHrtluularly ml- piiiir, or HI an oxide tir inlt. Of nil tba iron oral, Iron pyrlii't !■ tbt molt iiuivariallv dlitrtbiitod ( but otiiar tbraa kliidi of tba motal ara llkewlia brouHhtbank tii the nial.illlc itHta bv eertain chemlual pnitwtiaa. Tliey tra Ant roaitad in large baapi In tba open air, for the purpoia of eipelling the lulphur and artanlu with which they are oommonly comb.aed, and hIkj to faci- litate their reduction. The roaitlrig li miiiUd by the comliitition uf ooal or charcoal, Ttie ore li then tranipiirted to the imeltiuir furnace, where U '' ^"'- rertwl into iron by the appiicatlou of a powerful heat. That form of the maul called ram or plK-Ir.in, li ob. Ulaed by expoiing the orf, mixed if neceiiitry with limeetone ai a flux, to the actlnn of iitrbon at an ele- vated temperature lu a furnace urged by bellowi. The metal li reduced to a ntetalliu state by being fused lo a furiiaee, In which cuke li the fuel employed. Theie furnatfei are called pudMiny /uriMCti. The operation commancet with melting down the cait*irua in rellning furnacei. When It in properly luied, a tap>hi)le ii opened in the crucible, Hud tbe metal flowi out Into a fuiie bedewed with water mixed witbclayy which furmi a cuating to prevent tbe metal from itick- iog to tbe ground. After being cotiled with water to make it brittle, and alio to oxldiie it ilightly, U Is broken Into plecei, piled up In a reverberatory fur- nace 1 It li again meltedi and cooled more thaa once, formed lolo balli| and oondtOMd under rolUog tyliu- deri. ^/tfe/.— The following method of making steal waa comma ulott tod lu 1 >r Ure by an •ztaniive manufaoturer of Munkland .— *' Tba oheiti or troughi In which tha iron bars are itratlAed are nine feet long, and com- pt^ed uf an opon^gralned lilicioui freeatune unalter- able by tlie tire. Tbe Danuemora or Oregrounda iron ii alone employed for cuuveriion Into iteel at MonkUuid. The Increase of weight is from four to twelve uuncei per hundredweight. The average is therefore one in two hundred and tweuty.four parts. The Arst proportion conitltutei mild, and the second very hard steel. Should the proceas t>e pushed much farther, the sieel would then melt, and in the act of fusion would take a doae of charcoal sufficient to bring It to the aute of No. 1 cast.lrun. The charcoal uned In stratifying with the bar.iron la raised, so ai lo pasi through a qiiarter-lnGh riddle. Whenever the interior of the troughs arrives at ^^i'' Wedgewood, the carbon begins to be abiortied by the Iron. There Is no fur. ther diminution of the weight of the charcoal than what ii due to this coml>inatiun. What rciniiini ia employed at nnother charge. Great ditferenc«a are found between the ditft-rent kinds of bar.iron imported at the sume time, which occaHiun unexpected differ- ences in the reaulting steel." It is furthur added, that caat-ateel la made l>y heitig fused in a crucible without charcoal, which correi:ts a common error that carbon li Indiapeiisable In Its manufacture. The various unes to which iron and steel are adapted are tiH> numerous to t>e here entered upon ; indeed they scarcely lie within the limits of our aulgecl. Of tlie ottter metala, tin, lead, and cupper are the most important in a commercial point of view. The county of Cornwail in reniarkablH for the variety and value of its miheralugical productions, and, amongst the rest, tin Is found, and occurs in veins or Assures, locally called lodes, in considerable quantities. In one of the hirgeitt smelting eatabliahments, culnicox » used as the flux, in the proportion of about one-eighth to the ore, of which neitrly six hundred hundredweight Is smelted within six hours, and yields about three hundred and fifty hundredweight of tin. The tin Is run like iron from the furnaceti, and Is shaped into bliicki or pi^n. The uses of tin are very numerous, and so well known that they scarcely need to be pointed out. A very important Hpplication of tin is In the coating of otlier uietaln, Hitch aa those of iron and copper, which imvt* been formed into vettaels. The ailvering of looking- glasses, and the fabrication of a great variety ol v«h- bels and utensils for domeatio and other uaes, nre among tbe HdvantHgea derived from tliia metiil. Lead.—'Thiis valuable metal is found in \.irious parts of Great Hritain, andoocurs as an ore. It is liiat roamed to expel the aulphur, arsenic, ^.c. ; then smelted in furntcea, and caat into long biira in iiou moulds. Tiie diversity of uaes to which lead ia ap- plied in the (inlinary arts and m muiaciures, ia by lUr too great to admit even of enumeration. Cu/>/)«r.— Tiiitt metal is found, like tin, abundantly in Cornwall. Of tin orea there are hardly more than four or Ave, hut tlioae of copper are almost innumera* ble. The processes in a copper work are simple; they ati3 eonaiat of aUernale calclnailous antl funuiita. jty tlie foriDNr, the volaliJs mattor la eapellod, and tba wauli prevluualy cmnblned with the copper oxidised, the ge> neral fuHibtlity of the maaa being theraliy iiit:rea«ed. The furnatea In which these opviailoiis are carried ou ara reverberatory, and uf the uaual uvnatrnotiuu. Thia metal It Is wall known Is auplled to a great variety of uses, l^ut It is to its flombinatiuns with other metals that wa must more particularly atttnd. Urojis.— i, and other artiulea, In all of which tbe propurtloub' of tba ingredients vaiy. /*«u>/#r.— Thii in a compound of tin and copper, the latter being lu tbe proportion of about oue part to twenty uf the former. Otiier metallic ingredients are sometlmea added, according tu tbe experience of the workman, aa lead, xinc, bismuth, and antimony. Ur Ure says there are three sorts of pewter, disUnguishad by tht names of plate, iriAe, and ley-pewter. The Arst was formerly much used fur plates aud dishes ; of tha second are made the pints, quarts, and other measures of beer, so common in London ; aud of the ley-pewter, wine meaaures and large veaaels In gene* ru. The pewterers are auxluus to unite In their warti the greatest degree of hardness with a white or silvery oolour, and it ia this which haa led to auoh a divarslAtd uaa of the above-mentioned iugredienu. Various objections have, at one time or other, been raised against the large Intermixture of lead or copper in the cumpotition uf culinary utensils, and not with- out reason, when the articles are intended tu be sub. jaoted to heaL As a precaution against any poisonuus f>ropertles, the more tin pewter contains, tbe better it I uudoubtedly ; oi\ the other hand, It Is worse as it contains lead inexcessi not, however, that any delete- rious effects are to be apprehended in the latter ouu- etitution of the alloy, as usually exhibited. iiriuinnia Metal is made by au alloy of 3^ cwl. best block-tiu, lifl lbs. martial regulus of antimony, B lbs. uf copper, aud U lbs. of brass. The amalgamation is effected by melting the tin, and raising It Just to a red heat lu a stout cast-iron pot or trough, and theu pouring into It, Arst, the regulus, and afterwards tbe cupper and brass, from the crucibleii in which they have been respectively melted ; tbe caster meanwhile stirring the mass about duriuj^ tbe operation, lu or. der that the mixture may be ouiuplete. The fusion of tlie whole being completed, by the continual applU cation of tife tire fur a short tune under the pot, the liquid metal im in tbe next place transferred therefrom, by means uf large Iron ladles, to the casting- boxes, which are C4>iupiieed uf cast-irou, aud giv« to «h« mitui iioured into them the form ttf » Rlab Afteen incbea long, iiy «iz Inches wide, and anvt inch thick. It is like- wiHc put into other moulds, forming small ingota, tor tile convenience of being used in the Citating of such articles as are not made out uf the ahe«t metal. Type Metal. — The metal used by tbe typefounder is a compoaition conaiHiing chiuAyof lead and ref^nlns of antimony, with a little tin, and sometimes other in- gredients. The chief object of niixiure la to obtain perfect fluidity, so that tlie counterpart of the matrix shall come away sharp and pertect ; moreover, that the letters ahalt be hard enough to wear well, and stand to their work Armly, without ttt the same time twcoming brittle ; a type, however, will break sooner than beud. PRECIOUS METALS. Uy this appellation gold and silver are commonly denoted. The aimplest method of obtaining gold con- aists in collecting the graina nr amall particles from the beds of rlvera, eapecially after raina, which bring down freah matter Irom the munntaina. Tbe duat and graina of gold are smelted In Brazil with a Hux of muriate of mercury ; the furnaces ure heated with charcoal, and the contenta of the crucibles are poured into iron Ingot-moulda, holding about thirty-two pouuds of the metal. Oold is atterwarda purified by being Bnl>mitted to the processes of iiiAhration, part- ing, and quartatiun ; hy the former proce<(S the reAner gets quit of every particle of lead or other inferior me- tallic alloya, and liy the latter, separates any portion of ailvin- wliith might remain intermixed with the gold. ^llvu^ ia a nnicli more plentiful product than gold. It id lound both in a metallic state or in the aliapu of an ore, of which there are numerous varietiea. It is extracted from these either by smelting in the usual vfiy. i-r iiy Haialgamatioii. The meihiHl of extracting silver from lead, with which it is often combined, ia ti) expuse the mixture tu a strung heat in the open air. I'he lead tHi .^O AND "W. .tmo. Ollding anf* .ilvarlng a- ■ trii of cnvarlng th« surfaces of bodies w,th gold oi «.. .'er i aad to gWa an Idea of the proeeeaea, wa si... 1 conAne ourselves to gilding. Gold fi>r painting must Aral l>e reduced to powder, In which lUte It la called ahelUgold. For glldlntf by friction, a place of linen ragmnat hesweped In a soTutlon of gold, taken out, dried, and then hurnad to tinder. The article to bit ^\\i muat lie well polished. \ piece uf cork Is then diuped, Arst in a nolutlon of salt water, and afterwards Into ihe black powder. Tht at tide Is then to >>e ruht)e4l with It. For water-gild. Ing, the solution of gold muat Arst be evapnraiMl and suffered to cryaullii>e, and the cryntalii diisolved In wator. This la copiously diliiied with alenhol, aad Iron la glided by being slevped tiMrein. Hulpburla ether Is used Instead uf alc roaiva lubllasate are dissolved lu nitric aold, and • sohilloD of gold tiiada In this manslmum, whiok ii couoeatralad. Hiiver iHHwniM black when this li ay* plied to \x\ but If subjeetad to a red heal, U aasnaiM tbe amaraaea of gilding. Kllver, brass, ur (mpp«r, may lie gill by •■ amalgam, as follows i Eight nartt of marovry and en* of gold are IncorptH-alad by otal. When the gold la dieaolved, th« mixture li poarod tuto cold watar, whoa M is At for use. COLOUll-MAKlNa. This is a auhJMOt by far too extensive to ba antared upon In thIa (tapar. Colaurs are uhialued fnim a va- riety of suuccaa, hut metaliie oxidea generally yield the l>est and BHiat pennanant. Under tha heads dye- ing, calico-printing, and pottery, we have mentloaad what those metala are from which different colunrt are obtained, and also what vegetable aubatancei yield the moat beautiful dosoriptlons of colonriug matMr. GUNPOWDEU. DrUre thtia desorlbea the manufaetureof this wall- known aitnpound :— ** Thli explosive sulwtanoa oon- slsta of an hillmate mixture, in determinate propor- tions, of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur ; and U better In proportion, every tiling else beiikg equal, to the quality of th«a« ingredients. The nitre, in par- ticular, ought to ba perlectly reAned, by aucueasive oryatalllaatUtns, and Anally freed from adlieri % wa- ter, by proper drying, or hy fusion in iron ^.uts at a reguhited heat Nutklnff can lurpaas In tliasa re- specti the nitre prepared in lh« gnvernment powder.* works at Waltham Abbey. It is teated by adding to ila anlution iu dlaiilled water, nitrate of siivar, with whlol it ocoasiuna no perceptible opalescence. Tha sulphur p 'vht also to Iw s 16 ilO 77 U 9 70.7 14.4 9.0 00 16 6 CHAMBERS'S INTORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. U executed, by placing these lumpa la ilerei, en each of which UlaiaadJKCof/vnwm vila. The lieTei sre made of parchmtnt-aklns perforkted with* muUttude •froundholei. Heveral mtch.l^veiarefiudinafmiw, which by proper machinery hu luch a motion gireo to It ai to make the tignnm vitm runner In Oftch ilere move nmnd with conkiderable relodty, m m to break the lumpt of thb cake, and force the lubitanM through the aierev, fonntng grain* of lereral liaee. Thek. granular particles are afUrwardi Mparated from the finer duet, by proper aieTei and reels. 6i*i, The corned j powder li next hardened, and the rougher edgei taken | off, by being revolved in a cloee reel or eaak turning j rapidly on iu axii. This reisel lomewhat reaemblei i a barreKcharn ; it should be only half full at each operMllon, and has frequently square bars inside, pa- rallel to iu axil, to aid t).e poHih by attrition. 6th, The gunpowder Is now dried, which is done generally by a steam-heat, or by transmitting a body of air, elightiv heated in another chamber over canvass thelvtt covered with the damp gunpowder. QLUE. Glue 13 an intpiiiated jelly, made from the parings cf hides and other offals, by boiling them In water, Silling through a wicker basket, suffering Uie im- ties to subside, and then boiling it a second time, article* should lirst be digested in lime-water, to deauM them from tfreaie ana dirt t then stepped in water, stirring them well from time to time; and lastly, laid in a heap, to have the water pressed out t»e- fore they are put ititii the boiler. Some reaimmend that the water shnuM be kept as nearly ai pospit>le to a bull- ing heat, withuut'Suffering it to enter into ebullition. In this state it is poured into flat frames or moulds, then cut into square pieces when congealed, 'ini after* wards dried iu a coarse net. It is said tu improve by age; and that giue is reckoned the best which swells couiiderahly without dissolring by three or four days* infusion in cold water, and recovers Its former Mimen- sionH and properties by drying. Shreds or parings of vellum, parchment, or white leather, make a clear and almost colourless glue. INK. Although ink may be obtained of almost anv co- lour, yet we are only familiar with two' kinds, black and red. Of Mack ink there are three principal kinds, Indian ink, printers* ink, and writing Ink. Indian Ink — This article i* used in China for writ- ing with a lirush, and for painting upon the»t*ft flex, ibie pa))erof Chineie manufacture. Itii atcertainei, as well from ex( eriment as from information, that the cak» of this ink are made of iamphlnck and sixe, or animal glue, with the addition of perfumes or other substances not eMential to itt quality as an ink. The fine snot from the riame ol a lamp or candle, received by holding a plate over it, mixed with dean sixe from ■hreds of parchment or glove-leather nut dyed, will muke an ink equal to that imported, PrinteT$' Ink, — This is a black paint, smooth, uni. form in its a>mpo»ltion, and very tenacious. Linseed or nut oil a'^e employed in its manufacture, and lamp- black is the common material used f->r giving the bl^uk colour, of whi£h two ounces ai:u a half are suf- fident f<»r sixteen eunces of the oil, which must 6rBt be twiled down to the consistency of varnish. Ver- milion gi¥es a red colnur. Ten or twelve gallons of the oil are i^et over the tire in an iron pttt, capable of holding at least half as much more ; fur tbeoil swells up greatly, and its boiling over into the tire would be very dangerous. When it boils, it is kept stirring with an iron ladle ; and if it do not itfelf take f*re, it is kindled with a piece of llumlng paper or wood ; for aimple iMiiling, without the actual nccension of the n^.l, does cot-communicate a suHicient degree of the dry- ing quality required. The oil is suffered tu bum for half an hour or more, and the 6ame being then ex- tinguished hy covmng the vessel cl ire, ttie hotting is Afterwards cimtiuued with a gentle heat, till the oil ap(tfnrs of a proper connisfence; in which stHie It is callt'd varnish. It is ntcesiiary to have two kinds of this varnish, a thti-ker and a thinner, from the greater or le!>a boiling, to tie occnsionally mixrd uigeiher as different purposes may require i that which isnswers well in hot weather being too thick In colu, and large characters not requiring i^o stiff an ink as small entine. Neither water nor alcohol dissfilve it; but it readily enough mingles with fresh nil, and unites with uiucilagea into a maia diffusible in water iu an emulsive form. liuil- ing with caiiKtiu alkali pn>duce« a soapv compound. It is hy washing with hot soap-leys and s hrush that tlie pi inters chan their types. The oil Itwes from one- tenth tit a pale rose co- lour when heated, which disappears on cooling. 8. A solution of equal parts of sulphate of cupper and mu- riate of ammtuiia, gives a yellow colour when heated, that disappears when cold. Sympathetic inks have been proposed as the instnimenuof secret correspon- dence; but they are of little use In this respect, he- cause the properties change by a few days remaining on the paper ; most of them have more or let>s of a tinge ' hen thoroughly dry ; and none of them resist the test of heating the paper till it ' gins to be sntrched. Nitrate of silver for a surface impregnated with cartHmate of tiMla, and muriate of gold for one impregnated with proto-murtate of tin, furm good in- delible inks." FEUMENTATION. The word fermentation expresses the changes which animal and vegetable matter undergoes spontaneously when the principle of life ban departed from It, o. when its powers are siispeniled in individual parts. This is at once a priM:ess of destruction and rf repro- diietion; fur although there is not produced again a regularly otl over. From this ciicumstance, the process is called fernientation, from the Latin word /ervere, to thiil. The buhhlea created rise to the surface involved in a viscid mutter, the whole resem- bling froth, which, parting with the air, subsides t4i the bottom, and the liquor becomes tiaiiquil and trans- parent. This viscid matter is well known under the name ot yflaat or barmf and it haa the property of ex- citing fermentation In bodies not otherwise at the moment predisposed to It The reason of this hai not been properly explained. The grape Juice has now been entirely changed Into an Intoxicating liquor, the has* of which Is alcohd, and this process is termed vinoua ftrmtntatim. It thia liquor be kept for some time at about 75*, a new series of phenomena will take place. Providing there be a large quantity of It, the temperature may perhaps rise fifteen degrees. A slight motion takes place, accompanied with the disengagement of a small quantity of gas; and floating 61uments or ahreds be- gin to thicken in the liquid, collecting into a gelaiinotii cake. This is indicative of another change. The vinous flavour and the alcoholic or Intoxicating qua- lity has disappeared, whilst the liquid has become at once sour and transparent. In short, the wine has become ^negar, called in Latin acetum ; and the pro- cess is called the acetous fermentation. Let this vinegar lie kept for a length of time, and another, and from the previous quality of the' liquor, unexpected, change takes place. It becomes mantled with a green mould; the acidity and pungent acid smell disappear, and a fcetid odour liecomes percepti- ble. This proceeds from the rottenness of the vege- table matter present, and the change is called the putrifactive fermentation, from the Latin wurd pb- trescere, to rot. There ar<* thus three different kinds of fermentation, which it may be necessary more fully to explain. The question arises, What is the nature of the dif- ferent ferments which produce these changes P The attention of chemists has as yet been partif^ularly di. rected only to that one called peatt, and even our knowledge of it is extremely imperfect. FahronI, a celebrated chemist, considered yeast as Ideutica. with gluten, a suh^taiice which Imparts to wheaten tluur the property of forming a tough paste with water, and se- parable frum flour by kneading under water. This gluten, or some modlHcation of It, the above-named che- mist ouioidered m the real etnous ferment. It is most probably an approximation to it ; and It has been con- jectured that ferment may te a^ much a proximate principle of vegetables, as sugar or starch, and as ex- tensively diffused throughout nature. A great quan- tity of carbonic acid Is given out during fermentation, and the various changes which take place during the vinous fermentation have been thus brietly de^cril)ed ~-8ome of the carbon and some of the oxygen combine to form curbonio add t while the remainder uf the car- tiun, the remainder of the oxygen, and the whole uf the hydrogen, combine to form alcohol ; and we may totally neglect the decompiMitinn of the yeast, it amounting to almost nothing. Thus is thU inert, so- lid, Hxed, sweet matter, resolved by a new arrange- ment of its principles into substances which possesi none of these properties, and one of which exeru a ctmtrol of so singular a nature over the animal eco- nomy. The phenomena attendant upon acetous fermenta. tlon we have already alluded to, and the question occurs. What l>eoome8 of the alcohol, the roost re- markable Ingredient of the original vinous liquor, v/hen the latter is changed into vinegar? In answer to this, all that can be said is, that it has been de- composed ; its elemental particles, which, united in certain determinate or detiuite proportions, formed one paniciilar kind of substance, have separated, and com- bined again In certa: i other detinite proportions, by thii means forming an entirely new subHtance. It la to tie observed, that In every case where vinegar Is formed, whether It be from solutions of sugar, infu- sions of matt, or Tiom wines, the greater the quantity tif alcohitl which extoted in tlie liquor, the stronger will he the vinegar obtained, and tlie more difhuult and stow will be its formation. All vinegars prepared by fermentation cont.iin the following ingredients : — A considerable quantity of water, a little alcohol, some malic acid, a small proportion of sngiir, some glutin- ous and mucilaginous m >tter, with what is vaguely ciilted extractive matter, besides acetic acid. The last stage of s^jontaueous decomposition is the piitiifactive fermentatiuii. It is that final change which animal and vegetable life undergoes, the reso- luiiou of organic structures into the inanimate mate- rials of which they had been originally C4>mp >sed. The cause of the remarkable fietor which accompanies it ih not well underst(Hid, but it In part would u^^ear to ari^e from the hydrogen gas given out, holding phiisphoriis ami Mulpliur dissolved, which compounds are rein>trkahiy fceiid. It seems also partly to ari^e from some animal or vegetable nutter, or some otLer buhtitaitce being held in solution besides. Uptui the other and less important branches of prac- tical chemistry, our limits prevent us from entering; lull we liave stitdied to give an account of such processes as can be easily C4>mprehended by thote who have care- fully per.ised the number of this work upon Chemis- try,' and which are calculated to be most extensively useful. TMr: END. 3^burgh t Frinte