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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. ata ilure, 3 5y 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 '"mt^ %■■ e .<■ ^' «' .*i^. ^ ■ !*1 "ft V. Campbcii's §vttbh-5lm£vicau ^ScviCiS ot ^chxrol goohsi. OITTLIIiES OP aENERAL III^TOIIY. BY WTTJJA^M FRANCIS COLLTEn, LE.D., TUIMTY COLLKcn":, DVULIN; X riKui fir ''iiisKiRY oi" Till: liunisii icmimim;," " uistouv of t.Nui.isii MTKU.vrriii:, " eh:. FOR TH? L'SE OF SCHOOLS IN bHIiibH NORTH AMERICA. TORONTO: J A iM t: s c; a ivt i» i j r. t^ i. a. n r> so isr. MUCCCLXXIII. I I 1-1 it ifl mi i #■ P R E F A C E. I Ln lliu following worlc I have aimed afc ft-lving, of course ii, mere outline, .a connected narrative of the principal f;icts in the History of the World. I have endeavoured to group them in such a manner as may help to indi- ciito their relative importance, and show the bearing which one event or age has upon another. In my book entitled " Tlic Clrcat Events of History" I have described in succession the great landmarks of the Christian (V'nturies. The present volume takes a v.-ider sweep, for it aims at filling up the gaps necessarily left in following out the plan of its predecessor, and thus presents a complete sunnnary of General History. It is needless to enlarge upon the uses of such a work in small com]iass. AVe nnist know the history of our own countiy first and best : then should follow the his- tories of those adjacent lands, which have influenced r" y ( {y • PREFACE. Groat Britain most ; but it is also needful for every per- son of education to possess, in general outline, a know- ledge of the History of the whole Civilized World. And such knowledge can be obtained most conveniently from an epitome like the present volume. W. F. C. i UDiNcnuQD, Fvbruari/ 1868. t ^ *l C N 1^ E N T S. ANCIENT HISTORY. Adam to Babtl, ... Abraham to Joscplj, Iliatory of Egypt, ... Tlie Hebrews, ClialduDa — Assyria — Babylui'^ Itedo-Perslan Empire, Other Ancient States, History of Greece, The Macedonian Empire, ... History of Rome, ... Ciiicf Dates of Ancient History, I'ago 9 11 11 U Ifi 19 23 26 32 38 61 THE MIDDLE AGES. FIRST PERIOD (47G-814 A.D.). The Byzantine Empire (476 3C7 a.d.), Italy (476-771 A.D.), Persia (226-651 A.D.), Arabia to 753 A.D., The Franks to 814 A.D., Tlie British Isles (449-827 a.d.). SECOND PERIOD (814-1201 A The Mohammedans (753-1250 A.D.), Th;; Crus;uhs (10:iO-1201 A.K.), D.). 65 68 70 71 73 75 77 80 i^i li' I'rl •r:. 1 1 ■ 1 ill J mr^ VI CONTENTS. Germany (811-1273 A.D.), .- France (314-1323 a.d.), - Italy (774-1305 a.d.), - Byzantine Empire (S67-12G1 A.D.), En;^laad (S27-1C09 a.d.), - Scotland (843-132D a.d.), ». States Rising into Strenstli, «•• I'ftga 82 • tt *.» 3G • §• tl* ... 90 9i !«• • •• •MJ • •■ liiO • •• • t • • •* f •• • • • 102 THIED rEPvIOD (1201-1453 Germany (1273-1493 A. 1.), Italy (1305-1500 A.P.), France (132S-1453 A.D.), •■• England (1399-14S5 A.D.), ••• Scotland (1329-1437 A.D.), ... Spain (1212-1492 A.D.), ... Fortugal to 1493, ... Scandinavia, roland-rrussia-IInngary-rvusm, Byzantine En>pirc (1201-1453 A.D.), Aiiia in the Middle Ages, ... Chief Dates of tlio Middle Ai;e3, ... A.D). 105 108 112 115 113 123 124 125 126 128 130 133 I MODERN HISTORY. EUROPE. Britain from 1485 a.d., France from 1483 A.D., Holland and Bclsinm, Denmark from 1397 A.D., Sweden and Norway, Germany from 1493 A.D.. Prussia from 1525 A.D., Austria and Hungary, Switzerland from llSl A.: Spain from 1492 A.D., I'ortngal from 1493 A.D., Italy from 1500 A.D., Turkey from li53 a.d.. 138 156 172 173 181 ISO 197 203 204 1:07 210 2:1 ^30 COiJTESTS. i'ftga 82 SG 90 06 100 102 105 108 112 115 118 123 124 125 126 128 ISO 133 Greece from 1320 a.p., rolandfroinir.TO A.P., llussia from 1462 A.r., India from 1525 A. p., Persia from 1502 A.D., Oliioa aud Japan, .. ASIA. NORTH AMERICA. United States, IJritish America, ... Mexico, ... Central America and West Indies, ... Nine Republics, Brazil, Guiana, ... Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, SOUTH AMERICA- AUSTRALASIA. 215 218 258 2G5 272 27-i 290 295 208 302 u03 301 305 306 9^ m 1* •>!. AFRICA. 138 156 172 173 181 186 107 203 204 207 210 2:1 2ZQ Barbary States, Cape Colony, Chronology of Recent Events, 30r 311 I I't I ii;i y t i H I I |{ mut OUTLINES OV (iENERAL HISTORY. 'ii'i —^- \Vi; (livido History Into tlircc portions ;— ^ 1. Ancient History, extending from the Creation to llic Fail of Home in 47G a.d. 2. Medieval History, extending from the Full of Ftonie to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d. n. Modem History, extending from the Fall of Constantino[.lo to the present time. m ANCIENT HISTORY. The nations, that played the most prominent part in Ancient History, ^vere Egypt, Phoenicia, the Jews, Assyria, ]3ahyh^n, Persia, Greece, and Pvome. ADAXd TO BABSL. The Bible is onr oldest book of History. The first twelve chapters of Genesis narrate almost all we know of the 2000 years between the Creation and the time of Abraham. The date generally assigned to the Creation of Man is 4004 years before the Birth of Christ. Eden.— Wo learn from tbc Bible that our first parents were ])laced in a beautiful garden, probably among the mountains of Armenia; and that their disobedience of God's command not only caused their expulsion from Eden, but laid the whole Imman race under sentence of death, as the doom of sin. ' m t 1 f ' m 1 1 »* M f , I 10 ADAM TO BABt'^L. ■'I Deluge. — 111 tiiG (lays of Noah God sent a great Flood to destroy the wicked inhalutants of the eartli. Only eight persons ^vcre saved alive, lacing shut, with the various lower animals, in a great ark of gopher-wood, that floated above the mountain- tops and was laid hy the subsiding waters on Mount Ararat. Almost every nation on earth preserves the tradition of an ancient Flood. This Delu2:e, which lasted about a vear and did not necessarily cover the whole earth, is said to have begun in the year 2349 b.c. Babel. — About midway between the time of Noah and that of Abraliani occurred that revolution which dispersed the human race. Some descendants of Ham began to build a great tower of brick cemented with bitumen on the site of the city Babylon; but God so confused their language that they could not under- stand one another, and they therefore stopped building and went away in different directions. Thus arose the varieties of race upon the earth. Each son of Noah Avas the parent of a great division of mankind, which has had its turn in leading civilization. The children of Ham began the great work, reaching their highest development in Egypt. Of the descendants of Shem, the Assyrians, the Hebrews, and the Phoenicians played the chief part. }3ut it was reserved for the sons of Japhech to ]"ise into the greates<^ nations of History. The Japhetic languages, otherwise called Aryan, are spoken from the Ganges to the Thames, and have lately overspread nearly all America. The Semitic tongues belong chiefly to the basin of Euphrates and Tigris, Syria, and the Arabian peninsula. The five great varieties of man are : — 1. Caucasian, inhabiting India, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and nearly all Europe. Colour chiefly white. 2. Negro, inhabiting Central and Southern Africa. Black. o. Turanian or Mongolian, r(3presentcd by Tartars, Chinese, and Eskimo. Yellow or olive. 4. Malay, scattered over Polynesia. Chiefly brown. T). American. Colour, copper-red. m it HISTORY OF EGYrT. 11 ABRAHAM TO JOSEPH. Origin of Hebrews.— A great Cliaiaruan Empire in Mesopo- tauua-a great Egyptian empire uj tlie Nile-a Syrian centre of power called Damascus-and nmncrous strongliolds o the Canaanites and Philistines existed, ^vllen Abrani tlie HeLrev., Lorn in 199G b.c, was told hy ^^^^^ to leave Ur of tlie Clialdees and travel westward with his family. Resting at Ilaran fcr a tmie ho left it in 1021 B.C., being then seventy-five, and journeyed into the land of Canaan. There he grew rich in cattle, and was vceognizcd as a powerful prince. So powerful did he become, that after the battle of Siddim-the first recorded m history-hc ^vas able to measure his strength with the Chaldean victors, from whom he rescued Lot. Every reader of the Bible -knows the story of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph ; and can trace the wonderful thread of Providence in all that befell these men and their kindred, untd the tannly- now increased to seventy souls-was led down to Egypt, to undergo a stern discii^line of suffering, from which they were destined to emerge— the nation chosen of God. HISTOEY or EGYPT. Mizraim—Before the call of Abraham a great Hamitic power had grown up in the valley of the Nile. One of the early names of the nation was jMizraim, the name of one of Ham's sons and a dual word, representing the division of the comitry into Upper and Lower Egypt. Memphis became the capital of the latter ; Thebes of the former region. Menes (about 2717 b.c.) is regarded as the first kmg of Egypt. But several dynasties rose and fell in the obscurity of early times. They have left, however, monuments engraved with hieroglyphics, and vast stone pyramids, the tombs of their kings, to tell dimly the story of primeval grandeur.^ The pyramids of Gluzeh cum- memorate the monarchs of the Fourth Dynasty. ?Ul 4 i' IP. II: ',' 1 ' (;; •- jrZjfgea gy . M ~ 12 HISTORY OP EGYPT. i| Slierherd Kings.— In the Twclftli Dynasty an invasion of Semitic warriors, probably Arabs or Phauiicians, ovcr- 2080 tlircw the power of Lower Egypt and seized :Mcmphis. B.C. Tliose conquerors are known in history as the Shepherd Kin^-s. It was during their domination of about five hundred years that the history of the Jews came first in contact with tliat of Egypt. Some schohars maintain that Abraham visited Egypt in^he reign of Sahatis, first of the Shepherd Kings; and that Joseph was raised to distinction by Assa, fourth of the line. Exodus.— At a date variously given between 1101 B.C. and 1652 B.C., the Israelites, increased from a family to a nation, made tlicir Exodus from Egypt. After having dwelt with their flocks in the land of Goshen, along the eastern edge of the Delta, for more than two bundled years, they found a champion and leader in Moses, who conducted them into the wilderness, after God had smitten the cruel Egyptians v/ith plagues that humbled them for a time. It may be noted that Pharaoh is a name common to a great number of the Egyptian kings. Thebes. — There lay in Upper Egypt on the Nile a city, said to have had a hundred gates, each of which could give egress to an army and its cliariots. The traveller, who now views its ruins at Karnak and Uksor, beholds pillared temples and statues of a size so vast as to seem like the work of giant liands. This was the celebrated Thebes, queen of the Upper Nile ; and from this centre issued the power that finally expelled the Shepherd Kings. Sesostris. — The Greeks related the deeds of a great Egyptian king, Sesostris; but they seem to have ascribed to him deeds which were achieved by many heroes of the Nile. The monarch, whose renown is brightest and who best deserves to stand as the original of the legendary Sesostris, was llameses II., a king of the Nineteenth Dynasty, who began to reign about 1327 B.C., and reigned sixty-one years. He waged war 1266 ^^'^^^^ ^^^^ Ilittites, and carried the sword, some say, even to Thrace and Scythia. He ruled also over Ethiopia. He planned and began a Suez canal, decorated Thebes with temples, 1327 B.C. to ^1 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 13 •I especially the Rameseum, and placed colossal statues of Limseli throughout the land. Egypt and Assyria. — The great empire of Assyria came into collision ^vith that of Egypt, to the loss of the latter. Tiglath- pileser I. claimed to he the conqueror of Egypt ahout llilO B.C. ; and an Assyrian dynasty probably occupied tlie throne for a time. Shishak, who defeated Rehoboam and took Jerusalem in 971 u.c, was the first of this race. Psamineticlius.— In Psammetichus (CG4-G11 b.c.) the glory of Egypt gave a bright but dying flash. When the oracle had announced that he, of the Twelve Princes, who should pour wine from a Irunze cup, should rule the rest, this prince, standing last, and to whom no golden cup was given, filled his helmet and made libation. Another oracle promised him success with the aid of lra;:en men ; and they appeared, says the legend, in the shape of brass-mailed lonians, driven ashore by a storm. Forming an army of Greek mercenaries, he faced the Assyrians, from whom he took the citv of Ashdod, a frontier fortress in the Philistine country. The siege lasted twenty-nine years. Ills love of Greek and the Greeks cost him dear; for the Egyptian soldiers deserted him in a mass and went to Ethiopia. Later Events. — Necho, the next king, took Carchemish on the Euphrates, slew Josiah at Megiddo, and made Jchoiakim vassal- king of Judica. But Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, a new p(3wer risen on the ruins of Assyria, soon made Jerusalem his own. Under a later king, Pharaoh-IIophra, this conqueror is thought to have ravaged Egypt and reduced Thebes. A new conqueror from the East appeared in the Persian Cam- byses, son of Cyrus, in whose hands the capture of Pdusium, the key of Eastern Egypt, left all the valley of the Nile— 525 B.C. A period of revolt followed ; but the final blow was dealt on Egypt l)y the Persians about 353 B.C., when Nectanebo, last king of the Tliirtieth Dynasty, fled up the river into Ethiopia. In 332 B.C. Egypt fell under the dominion of Alexander of l^Iacedon, who founded on its shore the great sea-pm-t and literary centre called Alcxundria, One of his generulsj named Ptolemy, m m r. II HEBREW HISTORY. \ ■ -f . T f,..^mont of the divided empire in 323 B.C.; received Egypt as liis ragmeut ot tne ai J . ^ and tlieneeforth for three ^^^'^^'^l^^^^^^^^ 3O B.C. will the Nile. How Egypt became a Roman provmco m be narrated afterwards. THE HEBREWS. entered on his task ui ic.auuio i-'^^ ■»- i, 1 a „ *!,« i^ilUis c)£ mmim tho tvibes-a region dad with gvccn imUu-es, its luU-s.acs Orcssc ,vitli vino and olive, its forests full ol honey. JudE83,-Joshua died in 1426 B.C. ; and then heg.an «'« P" ml of the Judges, ^vhieh lasted for 330 years. It was a trouhlod La Session of lapses into idolatry and fie.e atW.. Y Philstincs, Ammonites, Moabites, Midiamtcs and other foe , whieh eall d forth ehampions like Gideon and Samson SamuU ,vas the last o£ the Judges. When tho P-f ,'^""7 "^.„\'^^f; he nnointed Saul, a man of great stature and dark vmdictivo spu.t. .} HEBREW HISTORY. 15 B.C.; gs by 3. will E Pha- ]Mosc3 Diniscil lavs oi spcciul "by tlio ;cd tlie le-and- caiis of I forget led Sea of tho of tho olidatcd catcd in n, wlien icar tho the con- t amoiii; s dressed ic period troubled tacks l)y her foes, Samuel id a king, ivo spirit. .} Kings. Theocracy thus gave place to monarchy. The sue* cessor of Saul was David, the great lyric-poet of the Hebrew race, who, distinguishing himself at an early ago by his combat with Goliath, was hunted by the unceasing jealousy of the king, on whose throne he was destined to sit. Having held his court at Hebron for more than seven years, David assumed the sceptre of the whole land in 1048 B.C., and fixed his capital at Jerusalem. His power finally extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea. He held an alliance with Hiram, King of Tyre, a city of Phoenicia which was already rising to commercial greatness. Greatest Splendour.— The reign of Solomon (1015-975 b.c.) was the most splendid period of the Hebrew history. His ships rode both on the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. His wis- dom attracted eminent visitors from the limits of the known world. And, as if to crown his reign with a surpassing splen- dour, for him was reserved the privilege of building that great Temple of God, whoso cedar-work and gold, lilies and pome- granates, are described with loving minuteness in the Book of Kings, and tho prayer of whose dedication went up to heaven with the smoke of countless sacrifices. If the splendour was great, great also was the shame of Solomon's reign ; for, allured by his idolatrous wives, this wise king forgot his wisdom, and set up strange altars in the land. The division of the kingdom followed tho death of Solomon. Disgusted with tho insolence of llehoboam, Solomon's Bon, ten tribes followed Jeroboam, who establish l him- 975 self at Shechem, as King of Israel. To Rehoboam were b.o. left but two, forming the kingdom of Judah. Israel.— The history of Israel is a tale of blood and sin. The wickedness of her kings culminated in iVliab, whose wife Jezebel outdid her lord in crimes. His capital was Samaria. Wars with Judah and Syria cost Israel much ; but a worse foe arose in tho East. Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, carried into exile the tribes east of Jordan ; but a final blow fell on Israel, when her last king Iloshea yielded to the As.syriau Shalmaneser ; and the ^\^m n .!. iH'll ■', 11 jr. I i ' I I' ' > i ' !» 10 IIISTOIIY OF JUDAII. ten tribes ^verc carried into captivity-721 B.C. ^ The land yas peopled with Babylonian settler., ^vllo, coalescing ^vltll a few Hebrews, formed the nucleus of the Samaritan i;ace. Judah.-The kinc^dom of Judah held out during 13o years lonc^cr. Three reigns shine bright in its annals. The wise reforms of Jehoshaphat were somewhat tarnished by his fatal alliance with Ahab. Ilezckiah, fired by the eloquence and wisdom of the prophet Isaiah, restored the ancient worship. And the pious Josiah contributed to advance the same good work. It was ni Ilezekiah's reign that the army of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, was destroyed in a single night, probably near Pelusmm. ^ Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, was the evd genius of Judah. Beducing Jerusalem in G05 t,.c., he caiTied oil the ilower of the Jewish vouth into a captivity which lasted lor seventy years. Shadowy vassal-kings reigned for a time in the city of David; but the end 'soon came (580 n.c), and tln^ popu- lation of Judah were all torn from their homes to pine m Babylon The restoration of the Jews by the edict of Cyrus, in ooh B.C., will form a new starting-point in their history. CHALDffiA-ASSYHIA-BABYLON. Wo have already mentioned great kingdoms that rose in the basin of Euphrates and Tigris-the cradle of the human race- and connected themselves closely with the history of both Egyp- tians and Jews. The twin streams, rising on opposite sides ot Mount Niphates, enclose a great trjangular plain, which became the scat of three successive monarchies. Of these the oldest was Chaldsea. It was founded by ^ imrod, son of Cush, whose name is still attached to the great pyramidal heap of ruins called Blrs Nimnul, built of bricks stamped witli writino- in wedge-shaped characters. ]5abylon was chief m tlie tetrapolis, or system of four cities, founded by this Ilamitic dynasty. Chedorlaomcr, defeated by Abraham, was a loading Chaldean king. Wo owe to this ancient people the rudiments of arithmetic and astronomy. In 1518 B.C. a coalition ot Aral (IST) ing fi ,1 HISTORY OF ASSYRIA . 17 e land was vith a few 135 years vise rcfonns tal alliance sdom of tlio I tlic pious It was in • of Assyria, nm. 1 crcniiis of ried off tlio k lasted for time in the id the popu- ; ill Bahvlon. 53G B.C., will ; rose in th.e lunan race — f both K.i.^yp- ■)slte sides of vhicli hecanic d hy Nimrod, sat pyvanndal stamped with i chief in the this llaniitic ;as a Icadinf:^ the rndinients lition of Arah trlhcs swept, like a destructive simoom, from the desert, and overthrew the ChaldcTan power. Assyria. — This, the second of the great monarchies of the East was founded hy Asshur, who left Chalda?a and marked out the site of Nineveh, near where the Great Zab joins the Tigris. Names bright with ancient romance meet us at once. Revolt- in^-- from the King of Babylon, say Greek legends, Ninus went on a career of victory, until he came to Bactra. Then the conqueror was conr|uered. For Semiramis, wife of a Bactrian noble, displayed such courage in the capture of the city, that she won the love of Ninus and became his queen. He soon died ; and outside the walls of Nineveh, which he had built, she raised a pyramid to his memory. And then the widow surpassed in military renown the husband she had lost, imtil a great defeat in India brought her to a check. The building of Nineveh was ascribed to him : to her, the decorations of Babylon. After a line of worthles-s descendants, the myth describes the extinction of the dynasty in Sardanapalus, an effeminate prince, who lived in his harem, dressed in woman's clothes, until the approach of Arbaccs, satrap of Media, stung him to action. The cffeminato monarch displayed the courage of a soldier, and, when hope was gone, heaped his treasures into a vast funeral-pile, and died amid its flames with all his wives. Assyrian liistory falls into two periods : the Upper Dynasty (1273-747 B.C.)— and the Lower Dynasty (747-G25 B.C.) These periods are divided by the Era of Nahonassary who effected a revolution in Babylon in 747 B.C. After Nin, the head of the list, Tiglath-pileser (Tiger Lord of Asshur) and his son Asshur-dani-pal (the original of Sardanapalus, but totally unlike that mythic prince) are notable among the kings of tlie Upper Dynasty. To this time belong the winged bulls and lions, and the sculptured palace walls, which have been dug from the mounds by the Tigi'is. In the records of the Lower Dynasty we fmd the names of another Tiglath and Shalmaneser, two kings already mentioned as the conquerors of Israel. But the most gloriou.9 reign in (1S7) 2 'ill ml ''I '4 H ill I tl il I'! I II -I t ' i 111 If I I if I > ■J f ! > 18 HISTORY OF ASSYIIIA. Assyrian history .-as tk.t of Sennacherib ( . 02-080 i .c.) Lc. d « beauHfyIng Nhieveli ^vith a magnificent palace ho turned to d lu f war. He fought with Babylon and with the nations of t lest. Crossing Euphrates, ho advanced until confi.n^^ tho Egyptians; and then, turning upon Ilezckiah, who had boon encouraged to I'evolt, ho laid siege to Jerusalem, exacted u tribute, d stripped tho Jewish King of some territory. The sudden destruction of his army probably occurred during anothcn- move mont upon Egypt. Some time later ho was murdered in tho temple of Nisroch by his sons. i .. i aL vast Assvrlan Empire, never better than a loosely tmd bmidle of petty slates, then began to fall to pieces. Ami behind tho mountains of Zagros, on the table-land of Iran, a power was -rowing, destined to smite it with destruction. " Nineveh was rather a cluster of fortified palaces and temples, with occasional fringes of meaner dwellings, scattered along tlie bank of Tigris, than what is now understood by a city, l^or about sixty miles momuls of ruin exist by the river; and out ol some of these remarkalde works -.f art have been dug. 15ut the heart of tho vanished city seems to bo represented by tho heaps which are opposite 3Iosul. In 025 B.C., when Saracus was king, an allied force of Modes, Ciialdieans, and Babylonians, tho latter headed by Nabo- 625 polassar, a revolted Assyrian general, marched against B.C. Nineveh. The king resisted tho siege, mitil a flood o tho Tigris swept a part of tho wall away and admitted tho foe. He then set lire to his palace ; and a great flame con- Bumed his city and himself. ^ Bahylon.-Babylon, which had never lost a certain degree ot independence, and which had undergone a favourable change under Nabonassar in 747 B.C., now revived with new vigour. ^ Nabopolassar (025-004 B.C.), having received this city for his services in the overthrow of Nineveh, set himself to consolidate his empire. But the clasping arm of IMedia was always round him on the cast and north. It was under his greater sun, Nebucliadnezzar, that the empire ,'■■-* il tllSTOUY OF BABYLON. 10 Besides nictl to tions of iitcd by ad been tribute, sudden L* mo ve- in tlio lely tied I behind Avcr was temples, long tbo ly. For id (»ut ol' 15ut tbo be heaps f Medes, jy Nabo- l against , flood of admitted unio con- decree of change L^our. iy for bii? ynsolidato \ys round lie empire reached its height of glory. Having in earlier life proved the sliarpness of his sword upon Kgypt, he, during his reign of forty- three years (G04-5G1 B.C.), undertook other wars, in which the Kic"-o of Tyre and the sieges of Jerusalem stand out as conspicuous achievements. The former lasted for thirteen years; the final destruction of the latter city took place in 58 G n.c. Babylon, whose site was in the vicinity of HilJah^ a modern Arab village, was a square city, at least five times as large as Lon- don, and traversed by the Euphrates like a diagonal. Its walls — 338 feet high and 85 feet thick — were studded with towers and pierced with brazen gates. Its palaces and its hanging gardens— u system of terraces formed, to please a Median (picen, in imita- tion of mountain scenery — were among the wonders of the world. In G08 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar, among other Jewish captives, car- ried off a youth named Daniel. To him wc owe our most vivid knowledge of this great king. His dreams and their meaning — the golden idol and the flcry furnace — and that terrible insanity of seven years, during which the greatest monarch in the world fancied himself a beast, are familiar stories of our childhood. Then came four kings, the last being Nabonadius. He made Ills son Belshazzar a partner of his throne ; and, wlicn the sire fled before Cyrus to Borslppa, the foolish and arrogant son held sway in Babylon. One day, in a fit of unusual folly, he brouglit the sacred Jewish vessels, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, into the bancpiet-hall, and used them in revelry and idolatrous libation. A hand traced upon the wall words of doom, which the Hebrew prophet alone could road. That hour these words 533 were in process of fulfilment. Setting the Persians to turn B.C. the Euphrates from its bed, Cyrus made his way to tlio cpiays. The river-gates were not shut. The foe poured in ; and in the carnage Belshazzar was slain. Thus fell ^he Babylonian power in 638 B.C. MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Medes.— On the table-land cast of the chain Zagros dwelt a hardy Japhetic race, the Medes, with whom are always associated m m : i • m li "I n y i;, Tij ! 11 'U 20 HISTORY OF MEDIA. I the Persians, ^v^lO socm to have been the flower of the Aiyan stock. At first the Mcilcs were supreme, their kingdom beini,' founded by Cyaxares about C33 B.C. This monarch achieved two things— he destroyed Nineveh in 625 B.C., and ho extended tho Median power to the river Ilalys in Asia Minor. Lydia.—Tlierc was then in Asia Minor, between tho Ilernius and the Meander, a powerful state called Lydia, a territory rich in gold and other mineral wealth. With Alyattes, King of Ly(lia, the Median monarch came into collision ; and for six year^i a war went on, until an eclipse of the sun, occurring in the midiit of a battle, frightened the combatants into a peace. Persians. — Astyagcs the Mede was dethroned in 558 B.C. by Cyrus the Persian. The Persians were a hardy yet poetic racu of mountaineers, akin to the Medes. Tliey worshipped tho elements ; their priests were the 3[ay octic racu ipped tho ophct Wii;-} idctl int.) iry and a le fiithcr'iJ zyrus into ic current lould con- : of killing Harpagiis I it on tho 3 his own )lc station. t over his icd to tho ook a bar- 's son and )f. Cyrus lis time of ecret mes- by crowds CR(ESUS AND CYnUS. 21 of desorting troops, and hy their aid overturned the Median throno —558 n.o. Croesus. — This last King of Lydia was tho riost famous. Tho name of Croesus (508-554 B.C.) became a proverb for great wealth, lie it was whose boast of liappincss was rebuked by Solon tho Wise, with the words, " that no man can be called happy till ho dies." Extending his dominion eastward to the ITalys, he was rash enough to measure his strength with Cyrus. The Persian {iuddenly appeared before the towered rock of Sardis, and put tho Lydian cavalry to flight by forming his front line of camels, an animal hated by the horse. The siege of Sardis then began. A Lydian, who had dropped his helmet over the edge of the rock and was climbing down for it, was seen l)y a Medc, who ascended by the same path ; other soldiers following, the citadel was taken, 554 n.o. "When Croesus was mounting the funeral- 554 pile, to which Cyrus condemned liim, he uttered Solon's B.C. name thrice in a mournful tone. Cyrus asked tho meaning of the exclamation ; and on hearing the story of Solon's rebuke granted life and favour to the fallen king. Asia Minor in general .soon acknowledged the supremacy of Cyrus. Jews Restored. — The second gi'cat event in the reign of Cyrus was the conquest of Babylon, already described. An immediate re- sult of his success was the celebrated Edict of 53G B.C., by which he restored the captive Jews to their own land, providing thcni with food and money for the journey, collecting tlicir sacred vessels from the l^abylonian temples, and even adding offerings for the Temple. Such was tho fulfilment of the prophetic words, in which Isaiah uttered the very name of this king, so favoured of God. Death of Cyrus. — Tlio twenty-nine years of Cyrus' reign closed in a war with tho Massagetaj, a Scythian tribe dwelling east of the Caspian. Tomyris, the barbarian queen, wreaked a brutal revenge on her dead enemy by dipping 529 his head in a skinful of gore, " to give him," she said, e.g. " his fill of blood." The sword of Cyrus extended tho ersian Empire from the Indus to the Hellespont, from the Jax- •D m ri lis i: if Mi I m I' t v\ I Mi \{ \ I'' ; m I *' i 22 TUP. PERfTAK EMriBE. nrtcs to the Syi-ian shore. Egypt was the only important territory afterwards added to it. , . i r Camhyses— The son of Cyrns succeeded him, and reigned for pcven years (520-52-2 n.c). The chief event of Cambyses' reign was his invasion of Egypt in 525 luc. Led by a mercenary guide across the desert between Philistia and ]\gypt, lie took Memphis, and soon afterwards forced the Egyptian king Tsam- inenitus to drink poison. Among his efforts to extend his power in Egypt was tlie despatch of an army of 50,000 to destroy tlic temple in the Oasis of Amnion, now called Slwah; but the ex- pedition perished— probably in a simoom, although the current story asserted that they were whelmed in a sand-storm. Cam- byses gave way in Egypt to his wantonness and cruelty. lb; Hhocked the Egyptians by stabbing a calf, which they regarded as sacred. On one occasion, when a courtier told hiin at his own reciuest that popular rumour blamed him for drinking to excesf^^, he proved the steadiness of his hand and eye by piercing the heart of that courtier's son with an arrow. He also murdered his brother Smerdis. But a IMagian impostor, professing to be Smerdis, proclaimed himself king; and, when the news reached Cambyses, he went to mount his horse, and was accidentally wounded in the thigh with the point of his own dagger— 522 B.C. Darius I.— A few months saw the death of Smerdis, upon which Darius Hystaspes, a monarch second only to Cyrus in fame, ascended the Persian throne. His reign lasted for thirty-six years (521-485 b.c). Ho o-'r:nized the vast empire, making roads to every part, and so bli Uno" the distant provinces to the great centres of Persian j>.>wt-r. Tiiese were Susa, the spring residence of the king; Ecbatana, his summer abode; and Baby- lon, the winter quarters. The power of the Satrops, as the governors of provinces were called, was checked by frequently giving the command of the soldiers and the administration of law to hands independent of them. Darius waged important wars in opposite corners of his realm. He sent soldiers into India, and lie went in person across the Danube to fight with the Scythians. It was here tliat the ■t. > HISTORY ov nur.NiniA. 23 : territory )ignc(l for ses' reign ncrcciuary , he took no: Psam- liis power cstroy tliG t tlio cx- 10 current n. Cam- 3ltv. IIo r regarded it his own to excesr?, arcing the murdered ;ing to 1)0 ^'3 readied :cidentally —522 B.C. rdis, upon IS in fame, thirty-six •e, making nccs to the the spring and Bahy- fj}s, as the frequently stration of his realm. across the 2 tliat the Greeks kept guard over his hridgo of hoats, and Miltladcs pro- posed to destroy the Persian amiy by breaking it up — a proposal foiled by the craft of Ilistianis. Wliile Arta[»hernes, brother of Darius was ruling the western provinces, Ionia revolted from the Persian King (r)01 w c). This brought Greec(i and Persia into collision; and on the phun of Marathon (490 d.c.) the despot of the East learned a lesson, of which more shall afterwards be said. IIo was preparing for a second invasion of Greece, when a re- volt in Kgypt turned him from the project. His death took place in the following year — iST) n.c. Later Events. — Nearly all that is striking in the history of ancient Persia henceforth interweaves itself with the story of (J recce, and shall be more fully set forth there. Xerxes — the Ahasuerus of l']sther * — who reigned from 485 B.C. to 405 B.C., recovered Kgypt, but underwent terrible defeats at Thermopylae and Salamis. lie was murdered by conspirators. Artaxerxcs Longinianus (404-425 B.C.) and Darius II. suc- ceeded; but greater events happened in the reign of Artaxerxcs Mnemon, to ^\■ho.sc time belong the Ptctvcat of the Ten Thou- sand and the campaigns of Agesilaus. It was Darius Codo- mannus who fought with Alexander the Great at Arbela in *>il B.C., and was slain by Bessus, Satrap of Bactria. ' J m OTHER ANCIENT STATES. Phoenicia. — The land called Phoenicia, from the Greek Phocnicr^ " land of the date-palm," was a strip between Lebanon and tho sea. Its shore, rich in good anchorage for ships, came to be tho scat of great sea-ports, of which Tyro and Sidon were the most celebrated. It is probable that the population, originally Ilamitic, was overwhelmed by a Semitic wave. Growing strong in com- merce, Phoenicia rose to bo the great colonizing power in tho ancient world. The first step w\as naturally to Cyprus; but it is easy to see how tho rakish fifty-oared galleys would dart across * /f/'(Tsvrr;(.'? was a name applied to several Tcrsian monarclis. In Daniel it rcpro Ecnts Cyaxarcs — in Ezra, Cambyses— in Esther, Xerxes. jtJ m >/ii % 1 i'i I \ I ft' 11 V" .11 I ■^. I- 24 HISTORY OF riKENICIA. to Asia Miiior, visit the Grecian sliores, cross to Sicily, from that centre reach Africa by way of Malta, and Spain by way of Sar- dinia and the Balearic Isk-R, and would even venture througli the great gate of the Mediterranean and breast the waves of the Atlantic. In later times her ships reached the Canaries and the southern shores of Britain. Among their earliest colonics we find Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, and Utica in Africa. The legend of Cadmus, a Phoenician emigrant, who founded Thebes in Bojotia, and taught the alphabet to the Greeks, is based on some early colonizing expedition. Sidon and Tyre existed— the former having the greater power —at the time that Canaan Avas divided among the tribes. Those cities were included in Asher, but were not subdued by the Hebrews. A blow inflicted upon Sidon by the Philistines raised Tyre to higher power. When Illram, the friend and ally of David and Solomon, was king, the commerce of Tyre was veiy extensive. Her ships mailed to Tarshish (the south of Spain), and on another sea sought the gold of Ophir along the eastern coast of Africa. Phcenicia grew rich also by exports, of which the chief were the embroidery and glass of Sidon, and the Tyrian purple, a dye yielded by th(5 local shell-fish, in the shape of a single drop of cream-coloured juice from each mollusc. There was also an active slave-trade. The marriage of wicked Ahab, King of Israel, with wicked Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, King of the Sidonlaus, brought misery on the former land. This Ethbaal was a priest, who had suc- ceeded in overturning the dynasty and founding a sacerdotal power. The greatest of the Phoenician colonies was Carthage — the New City— founded near Utica on the African coast, in a central commanding position. The legend runs as follows : — Pygmalion and his sister Dido were tlic great-grandchildren of Ethbaal. Dido's husband, a wcaltliy priest, was murdered by Pygmalion, who hoped to secure his liehes. But Dido carried off the treasure, and sailed away with a retinue of discontented Tyrians. They finally landed on the African coast and built the citadel Bp'sa, from which grew Carthage. The story concludes V :«i HISTORY or ATI AM. 25 i' om that of Sar- tlironcrli !S of tlio and tlio ■\ve find g'cnd of Boeotia, 10 early !!' power These by the es raised lion, was or ships !a sought [Phoenicia Lbroidcry 1 by tho •coloured !-trade. li wicked l)ronght I had sue- al power, age — the a central lildren of dered by o carried contented built tho concludes by describing tho suicide of Dido on a vast pyre, in order to escape from a marriag-e with the Lil)y.^r, king. Tlie foundation of Carthage is assigned to the year 878 B.C. A probable conjec- ture supposes the real origin of this great city to have been tho building of a factory by the merchants of Utica, to whom aid came from tlie mother-city. Tyre underwent several sieges, the most noted being those by Sargon the Assyrian (721-717 r..c.) — Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon (598-585 e.g.) — and Alexander the Great (332 B.C.). The Persians under Cyrus gained ascendency in Phoenicia, and f )r a considerable time tho Phoomcian navies formed a far-stretch- ing arm of Persian power. The land of Phoenicia then came to lie a prize contested by Syria and Egypt, falling to the latter in the days of Antiochus the Great — 198 B.C. Neither the foun- dation of Alexandria as a rival port, nor tho subjugation of Syria by the Bomans destroyed the commercial greatness of Tyre; for she still gathered into her ships the riches of the East, and sent t1iem abroad througli the Great Sea. It was not until tho IMiddlc Ages that her light went out : and she became a " place for tho drying of nets." Aram. — The descendants of Aram, one of the five sons of Shem, occupied the highlands of Syria and Mesopotamia. The city of Damascus and the state Ilamath appear frequently in the history of the Jews. King David achieved a great victory over Ilad- ade/er, Iving of Zobah, and defeated also a great army from Damascus, wliich reduced that city to a tributary condition. Bezon, a servant of defeated Iladadezer, maintained a guerilla warfare among the mountains, and in the days of Solomon suc- ceeded in re-establishing the power of Damascus. Henceforth Israel had a formidable foe to contend with on the north. Beidiadad I. troubled Israel with war. Benhadad II. fought Avith Ahab, and received a terrible defeat at Aphek. Ilazael, nerv'ant of this Syrian monarch, smothered his master by laying a wet cloth on his iace, and thus became king. He carried off the sacred vessels from the Temple at Jerusalem. But the end came, when Beziu was Kinc of Damascus and that state had existed as a m I 1 f. ■.r. •II M '^ ■[: 20 STATE? or ASIA MINOB. i kin£?dom for 235 years. Tiglatli-pilcscr of Af>syria came against Damascus, killed the king, and canicd off tlio people into cap- tivity— 740 B.C. Syria rose into new splendour after the death of Alexander the Great, when one of his generals, Seleucus, estah- lishcd a dynasty, to which the celehrated Antiochus afterwards helongcd. But the closing pages of Syrian history belong to the annals of Rome. States in Asia Minor.— Very early in history wo find in tho peninsula of Asia Minor the names of certain kingdoms, which are connected with the poetry and fable of the Greeks. Such vras Troij or Ulmi, besieged for ten years by a host of confederate Greeks under Agamemnon, King of Mycena\ The fall of Troy is assigned to the year 1184 n.c. In the centre of tho peninsula was I'Jmjr/la, whose peasant-king, chosen in obedience to an oracle as iie jolted in his waggon into the market-place, placed the cart in the temple. The twisted piece of bark, joining the pole to the axle, formed the celebrated Gordian Knot, severed by the Bword of Alexander. Midas, whose gold-creating finger and ass's cars are familiar to every reader of Greek mythology, was the son of Gordius. But far greater than those realms was the kingdom o^Lydia, of which some account has been already given. Tho western coast and islands of Asia Minor became Greek at an early period. The iEolIau Greeks settled in Lesbos and on the adjacent shore, where Smyrna for a while was their most important city. Tlie I(jnians, an offshoot from Athens, occupied the two great islands of Chios and Samos an.l tlie coast between Ilermus and Meander. Ephesus and INIiletus were tho chief Ionian cities. The Dorians held Caria and the adjacent islands, especially llhodes. Tliese Grecian States became tributary, for the most part— at first to Lydia under Crccsus, and afterwards to Persia. HISTORY OF GREECE. Colonization.— From Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia jNIInor colo- nists passed over the sea to Greece, and laid the foundation of l.r^r earliest cities. The storv of the Trojan War is the first I li"* t[ i mSTOIlY OF nnEEOE. 27 occaf^ion on which the Greeks appear prominently in history as warriors. The ten years' siege of Troy, closing in 1184 B.C., afforded brilliant material for early poetry : the great Epic poet Homer founded his Iliad and OJysscT/ on certain incidents and consequence-i of this war. The Return of the Heracleids — a movement of northern Greeks upon the south — was the second great event in Grecian history. Starting from Epirus, they descended into Thessaly, and afterwards conquered Bocotia. This was called the JEolian M'ujration — 1124 B.C. A hand of Dorians from the north slope of Parnassus moved, twenty years later, towards the Peloponnesus, and, crossing the strait, overspread the peninsula — 1104 B.C. Sparta. — Of the Dorian States, thus founded in the Pelopon- nesus, Sparta soon shot ahead. She ow^ed her organization to the great lawgiver Lycurgus, who commenced his patriotic toil in 884 B.C. To make the Spartan youth into hrave and hardy soldiers, was the great object of his system of education. "When Ills work of legislation was complete, he exacted an oath from tho Sl>artans that they would make no change in his laws, until ho returned from his travels : and he then left his native land for ever. Messenian Wars. — Sparta soon came into collision with Mes- pcnia, a grassy tract lying to tho west. The invaders seized Aiiiphea, whereupon the Mcsscnians fortified Ithome. The first war lasted for twenty years (743-723 B.C.) ; the second, in which ]<]ira was the Messenian stronghold and Aristomcnes the Mos- Bonian hero, lasted for seventeen (G85-G08 B.C.). The result was a dispersion of the Messenians in various colonics, of which one— IMessina in Sicilv — retains its name to this day. Athens.— As Sparta had her Lycurgus, so Athens had her great statesman Solon, who gave laws to the flower of the Tonic race. When Codrns, King of Athens, sacrificed his life to save his city from her Dorian assailants (10G8 B.C.), the name of King was abolished, and Athens was ruled by Archons. Confusion took place ; and Draco issued a code of laws so severe that they wero said to be written in blood. But it was upon Solon, a native of Salamis, that the great task of shaping the Athenian Constitution Hi \y I M u J K . 1 1 I r; II I I ■\'\ HISTORY OF GREECE. devolved. Named Archon in 594 B.C., he relieved hopeles. deul, aLolished most of Draco's laws, and organized the Jovern;ent. Before his death, which took place m 5o9 B.C., he saw rbe^innin, of a revolution, which ultimately raised Pisis- "u the head of Athenian affairs. As Tyrant, winch m is e"-lier sense simply meant a democratic usurper he rided w sc y or many years, encouraging literature, and especially disting nsli- 4 himself h; collecting in writing the scattered Homenc lays U;on his death in 527 B.C., his power devolved upmi his .nee sons ; and the survivor of these, Ilippias, was expelled from Athens ^vith'the aid of a Spartan force, 510 B.C. Persian Wars.-Greece and Persia soon afterwards canie mto ^varlike collision. We have already seen how the great Kastcru monarchv, founded by Cyrus and built up b; Cambyses, was consolidated by Parius Ilystaspes, who became king in .) 1 lu First irar.-The aid given by Athens to Anstagoras of Mile- tus who had taken up arms against the Persian monarch, drew down the wrath oi Darius upon Greece. After a preliminary failure in 492 B.C. by Mardonius, a great Persian fleet sailed across the .Egean, under the command of Datis and Arlapliernes. ilippias was on board. After reducing several islands, a descent ^vas made on Eubcea, when the town of Eretria fell. ]5ut the plain of 3Iarathm was the final scene. There, 1 etween the mountains and the sea, one of the greatest conflicts in history took place. The Athenians had no aid except six hundred men from Platava. Their leader on the day of battle was IMiltiades, who as Tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese had already 49C become acquainted with the Persians during a campaign B c of Darius in Scythia. Permitting the Asiatics to pierce his centre, this skilful general closed his wings upon them, and inflicted a decisive defeat, which brought the war to an end — 490 B.C. f^ecoml TFar.— Xerxes, the son of Darius, resolved to avengo the Persian loss at Marathon. After si)ending four years in preparation, he crossed the Hellespont with a force of nearly two millions. Athens and Sparta united their strength to resist liin.i-. m HISTORY OF GREECE. 20 Lcoiiifli^s, with tlircG hundred Spartans and five thousand others, withstood the Perriiau host at the pass of Thermopylae^ between the sea and a ridi^e of precipitous cliffs. The defence was suc- cessful, until a traitor led a band of Persians by a path across the mountains, and thus enabled them to attack the Greeks in the rear. The Spartans died almost to a man: seven hundred brave Thespians shared their fiite — 480 B.C. 480 The Persians, however, sustained a great defeat in the B.C. narrow strait of Scdamis, where the wily Athenian, Themistocles, forced the allied Greek fleet to give them battle. Xerxes then hurried baek to Asia, leaving Mardonius with r»00,000 men to continue the war. This general was defeated and slain by the Greeks at Plata?a; and on the very same day a victory, won by the Greeks on the promontory of Mycale in Asia Minor, filled Xerxes with alarm that these invincible I'uropenns might think of striking at the heart of his own em- pire in reprisal for his invasion. A colleague of Themistocles iu the war against the Persians was Aristides the Just, the great political work of whose life was the formation of a vast Ionian Confedeiacy, at the head of which stood Athens. The Tliird IMesscnian War (404-455 r.c), and the formation in 445 B.C. of a Thirty Years' Truce between Athens and Sparta^ carry us on to the age of Athenian splendour under Pericles. Age of Pericles. — The leaders of parties in Athens now came to be Cimon, head of the aristocratic faction, and Pericles, wlio represented democracy. The banishment of Cimon left Pericles witliout a rival. Under him art and literature flourished exceed- ingly at Athens, and the foundation was laid of that intellectual supremacy, which Athens maintained over the ancient world. Peloponnesian War. — Before the death of Pericles, the rivalry b(>t\veen Athens and Sj^arta had broken out into a contest, known as the Peloponnesian AVar (482-404 B.C.). Sparta, a military power, represented the aristocratic principle; Athens, a naval power, represented democracy. The Thirty Years' Truce was oidy half expired at the outbreiilv of hostilities. The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between i- IV:iiM ■1 ' i\ i ■' • ' t 1 -iil! iu V . i !■■ V ,' f^^^^^^l r' l^^^l 1 :i ■ m • : &■ ,/■ 9H ^HH ti' ^^^H^H ^^^^1 n '^ M .' i liil ■'1 '\ V I I ' 30 IIISTOIIY OP GREECE. hk plan o£ warfare u-as followed namclj, .0 co Athenian force .virtuu the city, m.l tl.o 'levBtahon oE the e^ jy coasts with Athenian ships. But he ched m 42J B.C., and iilace was hut poorly filled hy the noisy tloon. , , „ „f ' T , "^volt of lLs from Athens, and the hravc de enoo ino ie%on, ci „ .„ „„,,,t events iu the earlier part P?((tea against the fcpaitiius%\ciCoU,.if. >,ln,.Ic.„led of the war. The affair at ,'^,,/,«c-««, ,a « -k co^-'y - f^-^> ' The command of the armament was given to N'c a , U adiu and Alcibiadcs; hut the last-named, hemg recalled '» AU'cns <,i a char-e of impictv, contrived to escape to Sparta. Ihe by.a :4.n :xpediti„\. .Vs a total failure ; and the »"empt o^Je a^^^^^ to escape hy land ended in ;gnonunious_surrender. Ihese events of the Sicilian campaign occurred 111 -lla-llo ii.c. Alcihiades passed from Sparta to Sard.s, where he made .a f, end of Tissaphernes the Versian satrap. By the veeoyery of Lux. a and some hrllUant naval victories, he seemed a ruimphal retu n Athens, when tears of joy welcomed him. But the intrigues of a hostile faction drove him into a second exile. Athens, wi the madness that precedes ruin, executed six other generals and a fatal blow tell, when Lysander surprised their heaehed gallej at .©'os-potanJ in the Hellespont (405 ,..c,). The siege and surrender of Athens in the following year hrouglit t 'O war to au cud Wo owe our knowledge of this contest eluelly to lUu.N- I HISTORY OF GREECE. 3t I I slain TllG 'i-y dicIcB, wlio wroto the history of its first twenty-one years : Xeno- phon narrates the events of the remaining six. Thirty Tyrants. — Thirty magistrates, called tlio Thirty Ti/rants, ruled Athens with the aid of a Spartan force, until Thrasyhulus seized the Piraeus, and deposed the rapacious archons. A Council of Ten was then elected. Athens stooped to receive Persian gold for the rebuildhig of the Long Walls and the ramparts of the Piraius, which Lysander had destroyed. This was hut one of many preparations, that were making throughout Greece, to curb the overhearing pride of Sparta. The expedition of Cyrus (401-400 B.C.) afforded to the world a fine example of Greek prowess and fortitude. Starting from Sardis, 13,000 Greeks, under Clearchus, a Spartan, marched to the Euphrates, and fought the battle of Cunaxa victoriously; but Cyrus was killed. Then began the Bctreat of the Ten ThousanJ, in which the historian Xenophon was their leader. Through Media and Armenia they struggled on to the shore of the Black Sea, whence tliey made their way home. The ascendency of Sparta was wv]\ maintained by Agesilau,^. But a naval defeat at Cnidus (394 u.c.) shook her power; ami soon the Peace of Antalcidas was concluded (387 B.C.), giving up the Asiatic cities to the Persian King. Sparta and Thebes.— As the power of Sparta shook, that of Thebes grew bright and strong. The two rivals soon engaged in war. Phoebidas, a Spartan general, seized the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes ; but the foreign garrison was expelled by a band headed by the brave Pelopidas. Athens sent assistance to Thebes ; and Pel(»pidas, chiefly with the aid of the famous Sacred Band, consisting of 300 chosen Tliebans, secured the supremacy of Thebes in Bcrotia. But Athens then deserted her ally ; and Thebes maintained the struggle alone. Cleombrotus the Spartan, with 10,000 men, was signally defeated at Lcnc- 371 ira bv Ei'^-^nnondas and Pelopidas, who led only COOO b.c. soldiers to battle, 371 B.C. Tlie Thebans then began to invade the Peloponnesus; but they were not successful in reducing Sparta. Arcadia, at fust i I hil ' ' . }' \Hj 1 i '■■'i;! i: , ill t';[i, illjljfi t •If #» niSTOIlY OF MACEDON. r . ill « i ■ rr • ■! I !i ♦ i ''. I Ik their friend, broke off, as Athens had done, from their alliance. Pelopidas fell in a Thcssalian ^var ; and at Mcmthcxi, facint; a confederate host of Spartans, Arcadians, and Athenians, the great Epaminondas died of a spear-wound in the breast— 3G2 b.c. THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Origin.— A fourth claimant for supremo power now arose in the north, where the kingdom of Macedon had been growing fur about three centuries. Its territory was separated from Thraco by the River Strvmon, and from Thessaly by Mount Olympus. A population of Illyrian and Thracian tribes, with a mixture of Hellenic settlers, occupied the soil. Philip.— The residence of riiilip, son of Amyntas, in Thebes, where he was detained as a hostage, afforded him an opportunity of studying Greek literature and politics. And, when ho 359 ascended the throne in 359 B.C., he organized an army, B.C. which in his skilful hand proved to be a weapon of victory. He began by seizing Amphipolis, and estab- lishing the niilitary station of riiillppi. Choosing a time when the Athenians were embarrassed with a Social War, whicli cost thciu the control of many islands, he interfered in tho Sacred War, which had arisen in 357 B.C. between Tiiebc.l iuid Phocis. A victory over the Thocians left him master of Tliessaly: and he then laid vigorous siege to Olynthus, which he took and levelled to tlie ground. Meanwhile the great Athenian orator Demosthenes had been uttering the thunder of his voice in warnings, which his countrymen took but tardily. The conquering Northern then overran Phocis, and received a scat in the Amphictyonic Council. It was at Perinthus and Byzantium in the north that tho Macedonians and Athe- nians first came into collision. The Athenians under Phocion forced him to raise the siege of these cities. His sudden seizure of Elatea brought about an alliance between Athens and Thebes. But victory crowned the Macedonian arms at ChcGronea (338 B.C.); and Athens gladly accepted the humiliating terms of peace offered !i ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Or by tlic conqueror. A Macedonian garrison occupied Hicbcs. AH things augured success to Philip, until an assassin named Pausanias slew him at Mgtxi during the procession of a marriage — 336 b.c. Alexander the Great, aged twenty, then ascended the throne. llraced with campaigning in Scythia and Illyria, he fell sud- denly on Thebes, which liad revolted against the Macedonian garrison, and put the inhabitants to the sword. Athens trem- bled in expectation of similar treatment ; but a plan for the conquest of Asia fdled the mind of the ambitious youth. Leaving Antipatcr as regent in Macedonia, he crossed the Hellespont with a small army, and advanced to the Granicus — 334 n.c. A Persian army, lining the banks of this stream, could not withstand the charge of the phalanx, which Alexander led in person. lie then passed victoriously through Asia Minor, among other achievements " cutting the Gordian Knot," which fastened the pole of a Phrygian car at Gordium. Meanwhile, the Persian king, Darius Codomannus, had been getting his ponderous army into marcliing order, and moving towards the scene of action. The monavchs of East and West met in conflict on the narrow plains of Isms^ where the vastness of the Persian army proved to be worse than useless. Tiie rout was complete. Darius fled with speed, leaving his mother and liis wife as captives — 333 n.c. Alexander's next achievement was the reduction of Tyre. Tlie siege cost him seven months ; but lie built a pier across the F.trait, half a mile wiile, which separated the island-city from the maiuland, and thus gained access to the walls, which were b'vttercd and carried by ^;torm. lie then reduced Gaza, paid a visit to Jerusalem, and passed into Kgypt, whose people desired to throw off the Persian yoke. The foundation of the great sea- port Alexandria, on the site of a village called Bacotis, was a result of his sojourn in that country. But the invasion of Persia called him eastward. Eflcctinjr the passage of the Euphrates at Thapsacus, he mnrelied through Mesopotamia, and then struck down the Tigris. Darius chose the plain of Gaugamela, twenty miles from the town of ArhcJa, as tlie arena on which the decisive battle was to be fought. The result ^^< ft ■ .liil i i!' !.:i:. !»: m ,f i l lid (J- fi !i11 W •s. t \ it ■. -k H ALF-XAXUEr. THE GREAT. was the .amc n« tlmt of Issus. A milUou of Persia.,, were scaUcrc J by less than fifty thousand Greek.. T>.mM <.n 3. Lysiraachus ... $t 4. Aiitipater ... a 5. Ptolemy Lagns, „ ruliyloMia. Asia Miimr. Thnco. Miicotlonu and Greece. Egypt. Asia Minor.— The kingdom of Asia Minor, soon after the If N- IIISTOUY OF CUEECE. 35 nn bnttlc of Ipsus (301 r.c), bvokc into several indcpciv.lcut states — hitliyii' Pontus, C .(l0( Galatia ; l)iit tlicso rergaiuf were gradually absorbed into tlic spreading ]^]nipire of Home. Syria 'vvill bo referred to under lloman history. Later Events. — Tbo later liistory of Macedou was very cliangeriil. After tlio death of Antipater, Polyspercbon and Oassander contended for the mastery. Demetrius Poliorcetcs, sou of Antigonus, who calbnl liiniself King of Asia INIinor, de- feated tbo latter and relieved Athens more than once. A great defeat at Ipsus in Phrygia, where Antigonus \vas 301 killed, checked the career of Demetrius for a while, but li.c. lie ultimately made himself King of Macedon. lie wart supplanted by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who himself gave placo to Lysiniachus ; l)ut Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, re- covered the IMacedonian crown, and founded a dynasty that lasted for more than seventy yeai's. Phil"p V. and Perseus were the hist kings of Macedon, which became a Pvoman province in 1G8 r.c, after the battle of Fyfhia. Achaean League. — The later history of Greece is a confused jumble of changing names, fruitless wars, intriguing and blood- shed. But two names shine out clearly, Amtus and riiUopocmeii^ both connected with a patriotic confederacy called the Aclia'an Lcwjuc. This was a democratic association, originating with four towns of Aehaia, but idtimately spreading over nearly all the Peloponnesus. Its main object was at first to withstand the Macedonian power. Aratus, a native? of SIcyon, expelled the tyrant from his birth-place, and secured that city for the League. ]>eing made Stndajus in 245 B.C., ho was reappointed seventeen times ; and under him the Achaean League gained the adhesion ol Corinth and Megara. Sparta, however, opposed the League ; and Cleomcnes took the field and fought victoriously, until Aratus called in Macedonian aid. The battle of SeJIasia (222 B.C.) ended disastrously for the Spartans. It was at this battle that Philopoemen, a young soldier of Megalopolis, first won distinction. He, too, became Strategus of the League several times ; and in the exercise of his duty razed the walls of Sparta, i; it S6 GRECIAN COLONIES. M li • r 11' <,■ :| i and forced the pcoi^Ic to abandon the code of Lycurgns. Taken prisoner by the rebel Messenians, lie was killed by poison— 183 B.C. But before that event the Komans had begun to intcrloro iii the affairs of Greece. It k necessary now to trace the rise and progress of that mighty nation. Chief Grecian Colonies.— Besides the Greek colonies in Asi:i Minor, there were others which played an important part in history. The southern part of Ilesperia or Italy was studded ^vith Greek cities, more or less thriving ; and from this fiict it took its name of 3rarjna Gmcla. The earliest founded of these Avas tlie ^olic colony of Cumcp., on the northern promontory of the Bay of Naples. Tarcntnm, founded by Spartans in 707 B.C., was at one time the most powerful city in Magna Gnecia. ^ But it was in Sicily that Greek colonization planted itself most firmly in this region. Zandc or Messana, A'a.ro.s, Syracuse, Gcia, and Agrigenium were among the most noted settlements in the ishuid. Syracuse especially, founded by Corinthians in 734 B.C., bore tlic brunt of wars with the Carthaginians, who contended for^ the dominion of the island. Gelon, Iliero, and Dionysius the Elder were the leading Syracusan despots. The colony of MassaVui (Marseilles), founded near the mouth of the Rhone in GOO b.c, by tlic Ionian Tlioca^a, headed a cluster of satellite Greek cities on that part of tlic Mediterranean. And on the African coast, some enterprising Spartans founded Curenc, opposite the Morca. Tlic kings of this region, whicli was called Cyrenaica, held their qww stoutly against the attacks of the Egyptians, but became sul>ject with Egypt for a time to Persia. The government of Cyrenaica afterwards became a democracy, \ » * ;■< 1 * } HISTOEY OP ROME. Rome Founded. — Before the foundation of Rome, a race called the Etruscans, of considerable progress in civilization, occupied the territory we call Tuscany. As wc liavc already Been, the Greeks planted numerous colonies along the Kshorcs of IIISTOllY OP ROME. 37 Foutliern Italy. Between tiicso two powers of Etruria and Magna Grascia, on seven hills about fourteen miles from the mouth ol' the Tiber, a city arose, which was destined to sway the world in more ^vays than one. Its foundation is generally assigned to 753 u.c, and its reputed founder was llomulus. For about tw.) centuries and a half Kings reigned in Home ; but the details of their history are largely mixed v.ith legend. The list of Kings is as follows ; — 1. Romulus, 753-715 2. Numa rorapilius, 715-672 8. Tullus llostilius, 072-^40 4. Ancus Murcius, 640-616 5, Tarquin the Ekler, G16-57S G. Servius Tullius, 578-531 7. Turquiu the Uaughty, 534-509 Kings of Rome. — By making his city an asylum for all the vagabonds in the vicinity, Boimdus filled it with inhabitants, who then stole wives from the Sabines. Under the rule of lionmlus the citizens were organized into three tribes ; — Baimia^, or Ilomans ; Titles^ or Sabines ; Luccrcs, probably Etruscans, 'i'lie reign of Numa was noted for institutions of religion ; 2\iUus, the third king, warred with the Albans, whom he conquered and incorporated with Home ; Ancus devoted himself chiefly to works of peace ; Tanjuin the IJIder, who was an Etruscan stranger, secured the throne for himself, when left as guardian over the cliildren of Ancus. He built the Great Sewer and the Great Circus. It was to Servius Tullius that the ideheians^ a lower class, formed by multitudes of conquered people being drafted into the city during Alban and Latin wars, owed the recognition of their right to meet in public assembly for political discussion. The last king of Homo was Tarquin the Ilauyhfij, who gained the crown by the murder of Servius, his father-in-law. But ho was inferior in wickedness to his wife Tullia, who drove her chariot over the body of her father, as it lay in the Wicked Street. A reign so begun could not end well. The tyranny of Tarquin made many foes in Home • and the brutal conduct of his son Sextus towards a lady named Lucretia, who slew herself for p ')h i'itj •■; II,! 11 i '■ ' • |l m 1'^ i '1 i piupi f 1 "■ V<'' if I 1 i * '\ ! ■ J 1 >, i! f 1- ■ ^ \ 1 ■■ ; ' 1 1 < ■ . '§ 1 :. 1^' 1 ^1 >■'■■■, 1'' ■ 1 . ' . « 1 n 4 i , W A t«l!ii ♦ ^\ : 1 1 ' '• • ■ tip ss IIlSTOnY OP KOMR. ) # ?'* ! 1'^ ., f n . i t '-' * '!) shame, roused a revolution, l.y ^vlucll the luitod aim y wero eKpelled. Brutus and Collailnus, Lucrctia's liusl.and, ueic tlicn appointed Consuh, for inonarcliy ^va,s overturned and tlio name of King abolished— 509 n.c. Efforts to Restore the Tarduins.— When the peoi>le of ^1 ai- quinii and A^eii formed an army to restore the exiles, Brutus was slain in a duel with Aruns Tarquin. He had previously, as Consul, condemned his own sons to death for sharing m a eou- F]>iracy in favour of the expelled tyrant. Lars Porseniia of Clusium, lor.l of the Kiriiscan cities, soon laid sieo-e to Home in behalf of Tarquin. Every reach'r of Macauhiy's Lays kn-ows ho^v IToratius kept the bridge in tlu^ face of the whole Etruscan army. In spite of such a l)rave defence, and other heroic deeds, rorsenna reduced Home; but the Tarquins were not restored. The thirty Lalin cities then united under a Dictator; an example followed by the citizens of Home, who appointed Lartius to be their first Dictator*— 41)0 ii.c. Tlio battle of Lake Uojilhi.^^ in Tusculum, fought two yeai-s later, destroyed all the hopes of restoration, long cherished by tlic Tarquins. Tribunes of the Plebs. — The population of Home was divided into two sections, severed at this time by a wide gulf. Tim ratriciavs were descend<-l from the old Bomans ; the Plrheiau^ were the newer importations of conquered pecqile— not a mere mob of paupers, but chielly yeomen or small farmers. Debt pressed sorely on the latter ; and the rich drove the poor to mad- ness by usury and the cruelties permitted by law to a creditor. The matter came to a crisis at length. Tlie IMebeians refused to take the field against the Volscians, and seceded to Mom Sacer, two miles from Home, where some of the wihler 494 spirits talked of founding a new city~4i)4 n.o. But the u.c. fable of the ]5elly and the Limbs, told by a knowing old Patrician, induced them to listen to a compromise. Debtors were relieved ; slaves for debt were si't free ; and, more * A Dictator received supreme and irresponsible command for a limited time under the pressure of some cmcrgenry. lie luul nut, like tlic CousuU:, to render an account of hU command, niFTOllY OF noMi^ S9 iinpovtmit Rtlll, two mno-istrat(>s, clioscn from tlio ri(l)olans, aiul called Trlhum-s of the richs, were appoiutecl. Those afterwards iHH-amo Ini iii uniuLer. They held office for a year, diirin.i^ which their persons were sacred ; aiul they could nunily any deci-ee oi Ihc Senate by the word Vc(<>, I forhid it. Patrician Heroes. — Of these Coriohmus was one. IIavin,<^ ^von this surname hy valour at Cori..li, lie displayed great arro- puico towards the Pleheians, especially when he insisted that lJ,(W should sell their right to have Trihunes for a supply of corn -in |";imine tini(N. '.riie storm t.liis demand raised drove him from j{onu\ lie found refuge at Autium, a Volscian town, and ^soon .vturned at the heaJ of a Vulsciaii army to hesiegc Ilcnne. Every t-ltort to turn him from his purpose proved vain, until he yielded to the tetirs of his wife and his mother. He was afterwards killed hy the A^dscians. Cincinnatns was another Tatriciau hero. Taken from his little farm to liead tin? lloman army as Dictator, he relieved the Consul, who was heset in a narrow valley by a host of il^iipiians, and then r(^tired to his rustic honie. Decemvirs. — Tn -151 i\.v,. ion men (Dcccmvirr) were cliosen from the Patricians to arrange a code of laws, ^riiese enactments were graven on copper, and set up in the Forum. During the iirst ytvir the Decemvirs acted well, and they were ro-clected, as the work was not complete. After the second year they became oppressive. The murder of a brave v)hl centurion named Den- tatus, and the death of young Virginia, whom her father stabbed rather than let her fall into the hands of Appius Claudius the Decemvir, r.)us(>d a storm of anger, whicb overthrew the tyranny of those magistrates. The Gauls.— After the siege of Yeii, which cost the Homans ten years, and fell in ^% n.c. before the prowess of CamiUus, the Senones, a Gallic tribe, invaded Etruria and advanced towards Home. Drennus was their leader. The llonums were defeated at the River Alia (300 u.o.), and the Gauls entered the city. ]Jut the Ca[.it(d held out for seven months, until the Gauls, tired of the siege, agreed to go on receipt of a thousand pounds of gold. .A ..(< < I' W^' :i: '^11 'I I i.h hi ! ' J 1::. ■■ '■It hi; mm. 40 HISTORY OF ROME. it |i)t . 1 .i! k The Plebeian Struggle.— Tlie struggle for political riglit.^ upon which the Plebeians entered by tlie first secession to Mons Sacer, continued for a long time, but ended in tlieir favour. An Agrarian Law, proposed in 4SG B.C. by Spurius Cassius, was a ])oint of contention, for it aimed at dividing the domain-land of the expelled kings among tlio Plebeians. The tyranny of tlio Decemvirs gained sympatliy for tlie struggling suilerers. But the contest reached its heiglit, wJien Licinius and Sextius, Tri- l»unes of the Plebs, brought forwaixl a series of Bills known a.s the Licinian Ilogations. Tlie most important provision of these was that one of the two Consuls should henceforth be a Plebeian. After a contest of ten years the llogations passed into law — obi B.C. Lucius Sextius— 3G5 b.c— was the first Plebeian Consul. One office after another opened to the victors— Dictatoivshij), Censor- ship, Pra^torship, and finally, in 300 B.C., the sacred functions of Pontiff and Augur. Samnite and Latin Wars.— When Capua in Campania, being threatened by the Samnites, implored tlie aid of Kome, tlie lir.st Samnite War began. It lasted two years— 343-341 b.c. After a war with the Latins, Rome engaged in a second and lou'-er struggle witli the Samnites— 320-304 b.c— dui-ing Avhicir a Ptomau army, having surrendered at the Caudine Foi-ks, was forced to pass under the yoke. But the P.omans soon re- trieved their position. And in the third Avar th(5 decisive) battle of Scntinum (L>95 b.c.) crushed a great alliance of Sam- nites, Umbrians, and Gauls, who had united to overNvhelui Kome. Campaigns of Pyrrlii:3.-The Greek cities of Southern Italy watched these successes with jealous eyes. Tarentuni soon be- came embroiled in a quarrel with Home, and sought the aid of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. This region, lying west of Thessaly and Macedonia, was the seat of tlie ancient Pelasgic religion- and Its kings claimed descent from Achilles. ' Pyrrhus, coming with 25,000 men," subjec-fed the luxurimis larentmes to a rigorous discipline. At ITcraclea— 281 b.c— Greek IIISTOllY OF ROME. 41 and Roman met for the first time in war. Tho Romans fouglit stoutly, until what tliey conceived to be gigantic gray oxen came tliundering down on them; and before these unexpected foes tliey turned and fled. Thus Pyrrhus owed his victory to his elephants. That the Roman spirit was not broken by this blow, may be judged from the reply made to Cincas, an eloquent «n-ator in the service of Pyrrhus, '' that the immediate departure of the King of Epirus from Italy was the only condition on which the Romans would listen to terms," Pyrrhus defeated tlie Romans ut Asculum in tho second campaign, and then passed into Sicily to make war with the Mamertines and tho Carthaginians. Ills failure in the siege of Lilyba3um led him to leave the island after three years. And his great defeat at Iknevenium, where Curius Dentatus headed the victorious Romans drove him from Italy — 275 n.c. ' The First Punic War.— Rome was now mistress of Italy. But on the opposite shore of the Mediterranean lay a great rival city, called Carthage, a colony, as we have seen, from Tyre; and with this she now came into collision. Sicily and the sea' were the first arenas of this struggle. The expulsion by the Romans of a Carthaginian garrison from Messana commenced the First Puiiio Viw, which lasted twenty-throe years (2G3-241 b.c). The reduc- tion of Agrigentum was the first great exploit of the Romans. In order to cope with the Carthaginians at sea, they built a fleet, taking a stranded ship as a model; and by grappling with thj enemy's ships secured a naval victory at Myhe. Another triumph by sea at l^^cnomus opened tho way to Africa, whither Regulus went in command of a Roman force. Rut he was defeated at Tunis and made prisoner~255 n.c. The war was then confined to Sicily, where the Carthaginians suffeied a severe defeat at ranornuis. Rut disasters at sea befel the Romans, who lost fleet after fleet, until a navy raised by public subscription took the sea, and by the victory of A^:"int of the Pyrenees, ]io crossed the Rhone, marched up the valley of that river 218 to the island of the Allobrogcs, north of the Isere, as- B.G* cended that river to the valley of Chambory, and climbed over the Alps by the pass of the St. Bernard. Tho march took about four months, and cost him oo,000 num — 218 n.c. Once in Italy, he lost no time. A cavalry skirmish on tho Tici}io — a battle on the Trebia, near PJaccntia — loft him master of Northern Italy. In spring he passed into i]\Q basin of tho Arno and routed tho Romans in a fog by " reedy ^'m.smR??c " —217 Ji.c. The citizens of Home expected an immediate attack; but he turned in among the Apennines, from whoso lieights tho cautious Fabiiis watched and harassed his movements. A disaster worse than any yet undergone awaited the lloman arms. On the bloody field of Cannw, strewn with the golden rings of lloman knighthood, Hannibal won a signal victory— as Mil- tiades had won Marathon — by pcrmilting his weak centre to bo pierced, and then enclosing the exhausted assailants with liis wings— 21G R.c. So far all things smiled on ITannibars onterpriso. lie met his first check at Nola, where J^rarecllus repulsed him in ;; sallv. A winter at Capua disorganized his army and weakened his soidiers. And the Carthaginians would send him little or no aid. Several years of desultory wai-lai-e followed, during which tho Romans gained ground, taking Capua and Tarentum from Hanni- bal, who was hemmed into the toe of the peninsula. ^i IIISTOUY OF HOME. 43 ^loaTiwliIlo ill Spain a young Iloman soldier — PuLllus Sclpio — M-iis inflicting scvcro loss upon Carthage. Taking the Punic capital there, lie reduced Spain to the condition of a llonian pro- vince— 20G IJ.C. Ilasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, escaped from the peninsula, and entered Italy by the same route as his illustrious brother liad followed. Intercepting him on the Afc- tanrns^ a Ptonian general defeated and slew him; and the first intimation Hannibal received of liis brother's arrival in Italy was tlie sight of that brother's bloody head tossed in contempt into liis camp — 207 u.c. Scipio then carried war into Africa. Forming a naval camp, lie lay there for a winter. He then defeated the Carthaginians at the Great Plains so sorely that they called urgently to Hanni- bal to return. He came; and on the plain of Zama the final battle of the war was fought. In vain Hannibal reserved Ills Italian veterans, and at a critical moment launched 202 them against the Koman lines. The victory went against u.c. liim ; andCarthagegladlysuedforpeace — 202 B.C. Forthis glorious termination of the war Scipio received the inxmeAfricamis. Macedonian Wars. —When Philip V. of Macedon made a treaty with Hannibal, lie put liimself in opposition to Home; and war speedily ensued. The first war (215-205 b.c.) was barren in great events. But in the second Flamininus com- pletely broke the Macedonian power at Cynosccplialce in Thessaly — PJ7 B.C.; and in the ibllowing year there was a great public demonstration in the amphitheatre at Corinth, upon which occa- sion the Iloman Consul proclaimed that Greece was free. I*er- Fous, the successor of Philip, entered on the Third Macedonian War in 171 B.C. After some campaigns, which deluded Perseus with gleams of success, the battle of rydna took place in 108 b.c. This triumph of tlio Iloman arms overturned the ^laccdoniau throne for ever. Syrian Wars. — In 280 b.c. Seleucus Nicator founded a dynasty, Tinder which Syria flourished and grew great. An uneventful period passed away, until, in 223 b.c, Antiochus III., or the Great, jisceudcd the throne. A great object of this monarch's ambition ■Hi ■* il* ■ l.:ii % ^ ..r i^ ;, i'- i '-'. ■■ 1 - * ^ i - '' * Ill !': !'■ lii 1:^ 44 IIISTOKy OF nOMK. was tliG conquest of all Asia Minor; and in alliance with Philip of Macedon he engaged in o])crations hurtful to Rome. Tho reception of exiled Hannibal at Ephesus placed Iiini in moi-o open hostility; so that wlien the J^]tolians, discontented with tlie Romans for preference shown towards tlie Achiuan Lca/nio, invited him into Greece, ho was nothing loatli to go. He seized J'^ubwa, hut in the following year was defeated at Tliermopyla? and driven into Asia, whither the two Scipios folloAved him. He made a stand at 3Ia-al) IIISTORY or ROME. ■*"■ T\'liile tlio ColilLoriniis of Castile collected their strength in Nu- inantia, ■which defied the Romans, until Scijiio Afiicanus the younger reduced it in 133 B.C. An insurrection of slaves in Sicily, who fixed their stronghold at Enna, also created much anxiety at Rome, until suppressed by Rupilius. The Gracchi. — Class was once more arrayed against class in Rome. The Optlmate^^ or new nobility, contended bitterly with the PojniJares, or masses of the people. Tiberius Gracchus, being elected Tribune, projioscd an Agrarian Law, to limit the quan- tity of land held by individuals, and to divide the surplus land among the poor. Octavius pronounced tha veto ; but Gracchus, too strong for him, secured a vote of the Tribes expelling Octa- vius from the tribuncship. But at the Capitol, having raised his hand to his head, the action was interpreted to mean that lie sought a crown; and, a mob of Senators rushing out with clubs, he was beaten to death — 133 B.C. Ten years later, his brother Cains was made Tribune. lie harped ceaselessly on the death of Sempronius, but also proposed many laws for the benefit of the people. Ilis arch-foe Opimius, being made Consul, excited the Patrician fury against him, and a conflict took place, in which tlic ex-Tribune was slain — 121 n.c. Jugurthine War. — Jugurtha having usurped the entire king- dom of Numidia, the Romans entered on a war with him. 3Ietellus held the chief command; but his lieutenant Marius dii:- jilaccd him. Tlie capture of Jugurtha, however, which ended the war, Avas due to a young oflicer of cavalry named Sulla. Here we find, in close connection, the names of two men, whose later contest for supremacy deluged Rome witli blood. 11io Jugurthine war lasted six years — 111-105 B.C. Gallic and Servile Wars. — A great movement of Gallic tribes — the Teutones and the Cimbri — upon Northern Italy was bafllcd ly the victory of Aix, won in 102 b.c. by Marius; and that on the Raudian Plain near Vercellai, won in the following year. A Becond Slave "NYar, crushed by Atiuillius, belongs to the sanio time. Social or Marsic War. — "When the Rouiun franchise was rc- i..i i I I .1 < i pijilf If , ! 1 ■'■i'i ' ,i. ^1'^ 1 I ' ■\ t I iif 40 IIlSTOnV OF ROME. ■ 1 ' f ft fused to the Italian Allies, tlic latter, amowg whoiii the foremost were the warlike Marsians, fixed on Corfinium as a rival capital and took the field, at first with much success. The Julian Law, granting the franchise to some, allayed the hostility a little; but some of the allies held out, until Sulla brouy-ht the war to a dose (90-88 B.C.). Marius and Sulla.— A contest between lAIarius and Sulla (or the command in the Mithridatic War caused the latter to lead his soldiers to Home, whence Mai-iiis fied. After some perils on the Italian coast the old man found his way to Africa. Sulla mranwliile besieged and burned Atliens. Taking advantage of intestine struggles, Marius, upori the invitation of an expelled Consul, returned to Italy, and entered Kome. Fur a week a dreadful massacre continued— 87 li.o. Marius and Cinna became Consuls without election; and, a fortnight later, the former died. Sulla, having enriched his soldiers with the spoils of Asia, conducted his army across Greece and landed at l^rundusium! His chief opponents were Carbo and young Marius. The army of the former, leagued with the Samnites, was defeated by Sulla at the Colline Gate of Home, and the fall of Pra>neste drove Marius to suicide. The blood of massacre then flowed a second time— in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscription were pub- hshed every day; and the porch of Sulla's house was full of heads. Calling himself Dictator, Sulla then proceeded to reform the State after its ancient constitution. Of the changes he made, the Criininal Code was the most successful. ]^-evious to his death (78 B.C.), he passed two years in luxurious ease at Puteoli Sertorian and other Wars.-The boldest stand for the Marian cause was made in Spain by Sertorius. Pompey opposed him ; but M ith little success, until the brave Spaniard was murdered. A war hmdled by Spartacus a gladiator, who had escaped from Capua' Avas crushed by Crassus ; and Pompey swept the IMediterranea.l dear of pirates, especially by a blow inilicted at Coracesiuni on tnc Cilician coast. Mithridatic Wars—A Second Mitl.ri.latic War took jilaco l^o-bi B.C.). Tho Thir.I, aii.sin- from an iidevkvam of t!.o JEWISH IIISTOUY, If pontic King with Bithynia, began in 74 n.c. Lucullus took d Mithridates fled LuciiUi to Armcji: soon supplanted by Pompcy, who continued the Armenian War. Mithridatcs took poison in 63 B.C., previous to which Tompey made Syria a Roman province, and devoted three months to tho tsicge of Jerusalem. Tliis is a convenient place to take up tho thread of Jewish history for a time. Jewisli History (530-37 r..c.).~Tho Edict of Cyrus brought a portion of the nation under Zeruhbabel back to Palestino, where after some years a new Temple (the second) arose — 515 B.C. Prom tho time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the land was a \)in't of tho Persian Empire, its affairs being ruled by high-priests. A Jew named Mordecai was made prime minister at the Persian court of Xerxes, as related in the story of Esther; and in tho time of Artaxcrxes, two Jews — Ezi-a, a priest, and Nehemiah, cup-bearer to tlm King — distinguished themselves by reformin^ij and organizing the Jewish people, and putting Jerusalem in a state of defence. The chief trouble of the restored nation camo from iSamaria, which was occupied with a mixed population of J^'ibylonians and renegade Israelites, who set up a rival temple on 3Iount Gerizim. Alexander the Great visited Jerusalem, and, it is said, offered sacrillcc in the Temple. V/lien Alexander's empire was torn to pieces by his generals, Ptolemy the son of Lagus took Palestine, which remained under tlie rule of J'^gypt for a century, enjoying a peaceful prosperity for a considerable time. It then became a subject of contention between ]\gypt and Syria, and fell into the power of the latter in 198 B.C., when Antiochus the Great defeated the Egyptians at Panium near the source of the Jordan. The struggles of an Egyj)tian and a Syrian faction then con- vulsed the nation, which began to be affected too by influenced from Greece. "SMicn Antiochus IV. took Jerusalem by storm, lie offered up swine on the altar, in order to destroy the Jewisli veneration for their religious rites. This and other oppressiona roused the Jews to a struggle for independence. iommundii rv\ mg ^y 1 ^ iiiflll m '<] I. i I IM#I m „ ■H ■ l!^ *t^H xm * ^H -'^1 ,i'H vu <^^l ,i^^H • i-^^H - ^ ^^^^H f''HH| -<■! t ^^^H ';[{'■ ' ii.i'^H j'liH - 1 ^jum iU -iif 48 JETTI^II IIISTOrir. nfter the Syrian fasliion excited a piicst named Mattathias, then dwelling at Modin, to revolt. lie .slow an officer of Antioclnis and pulled down the licatlicn altar. The Jews rallied round him, and the work of reformation spread. But Mattathias, old and feeble, died in 1G7 B.C., leaving the war to his five sons. The third of these was the famous Judas Maccabaeus,* from whose surname the whole family received the name o^ 3faccahccs, Tlicy were also called the Asmoimaii line, from Chasmon au ancestor. In a succession of victories — at Bethoron, Emmans and Bethsura — Judas routed the Syrian armies, and won au entrance into Jerusalem. There he restored the service of the Temiile. When the successor of Antiochus IV. marclicd to relieve the Syrian garrison of Mount Zion, Eleazar, one of the Maccabees, crept under an elephant and stabbed it. The deeil cost him his life, but taught the Jews, previously terrified by the monsters, that elephants were not invincible. The victory of Adasa — 161 B.C. — won over the Syrians by Judas, all but secured the independence of the insurgents. The JMaccabec then sought alliance with Borne, which the Senate granted. J^ut at this critical time, in face of a Syrian army, the Assid n.c. Nothing then remained for Catiline but to die, sword in hand, which he did at Pistoreia. The First Triumvirate.— Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caisar formed the First Tiiumvirate in 59 i\.c. Cato the Stoic was tlieir principal opponent; but he was sent as Praetor to Cyprus; while Cicero, through the intrigues of Clodius, was exiled from Rome. Campaigns of Csssar in Gaul.— -In .58 r,.c. Ca\sar began the successful Gallic Wars described in his Covnncntarics. Carrvin:-- iire and sword through Helvetia, Caul, and Germany, he reached the narrow sea, beyond which lay Rritain. And on this island he made two attacks, neither more than temporarily successful. While he was winning such laurels, the death of his daughter Julia, Pompey 's wife, and the n.iurder of Crussus in Parthia (1871 4 . i- -.f I !■ M I Ml i'l' if. i ) I nl"^^ 50 lIISTOnV OF KOMK. iff 1 1 r \(< whither lie li;ul gone to lay hantU on the treasures of Onxh's, broke up tlie Triumvirate; and events rajjidly brouyht Ciesar and Pompey into liostility. Pompey'a demand tliat some of Caesar's legions should he given up, caused Ca}sar, who had come to Eavennti, to cross the lluhicon, and l)egin a civil war in 49 u.c. Corfinium soon fell; and the departure of Pompey into Clreeeo left Ca?sar master of Italy. Instead of following l*ompey, Ciesar went to Spain, which he subdued. IJut the decisive battle was only postponed. It took place at Phaisah'a in Tliessaly — 48 n.c. The veterans of Ca\sar proved too strong for the new levies of Pompey, wdio was foi-ced to seek a refuge in Egypt. Thei-e ho was nmrdered, as he was 2)reparing to step ashore. When Cicsar reached Egypt, he was fascinated by Cl(>opatra, who afterwards became Queen; but, although he delayed a long time there, he found time also to hund.le Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, in the battle of Zela in Syria. It was after this battle that he wrote his llmious despatch, couched in the words, •^Vcni : vidi : ricf. After Caasar returned to Europe, he suppressed a dangerous mutiny at Capua, and then crossed to Africa, where he scattered the remnant of Pompey's party at Thupsns — 4G n.c. Cato tho Stoic committed suicide at Utiea in consequence of this defeat. Cicsar was then created Dictator for ion yeai\s. lie went to Spain, defeated the sons of Pompey at JlfniiJa, and cam (3 back to Rome to accomplish and meditate on great reforms. The people suspected him of aiming at a crown, and Antony tried their temper by offering him a diadem at the feast of Pan. Discontent grew into conspiracy, of which the chief 44 movei-s were Brutus and Cassius. And on the Ides li.c. (i.e., 15tli) of March, 44 b.c, Julius Ca>sar sank bleeding ' Avith mortal wounds at the foot of Poinppy's statue. The Second Triumvirate.— Antony and Octavius now r(.^.^ to the head of affairs at Pome. Together with Lepidus, they arranged a coalition called the Seccmd Triumvirate. The fii.^t care of the Triumvirs was to slay their foes at Rome. Cicero. > . lIlSTOr.Y OF ROMK. 51 ' '♦ vl'.o was limit lercd jiear lus vma n t ¥ ormuo, was llic no >blobt vit;tiiii of Una proscription. Then followed tlic inilltaiy opera- tions in Greece, wlicre tlio battle of riiilippl ruined for ever the cause of l>rutus and Cassius, who killed themselves — 42 B.C. Tlic Iionian world was then divided between Antony and Uctavian. '^^Flie former, whoso portion was tlie East, met Cleo- patra at Tarsus, and accompanied her to Alexandria. Tlie Par- tliians were then in arms; and Sextus Poinpcy bad established liimself as a pirate-chief in Sicily. Agrippa reduced Pompey, and Veiitidius defeated the Parthians. IMcanwhile Antony sank (lcc})cr in indolent luxury, while Octavian was fighting in tlio West. A cpiarrel arose between them ; and Octavian, armed with a decree of the Senate, entered npon a war witli Cleopatra. Tlie Queen's flight in the naval battle of Acthnn, fonglit off tbo Aiubracian Gulf, decided the victory in favour of Octavian. The ik'feated pair sailed to Egypt, where Antony stabbed liimself, and Cleopatra, according to the common story, killed liersclf by letting an asp bite her — 30 tj.c. Reign of Augustus. — Rome now changed from a Ptopublio to an Empire. In 27 B.C. Octavian, saluted witli the titles of Augustus and Imperator, began a reign distin- 27 guished by works of peace and literary splendour. Horace, B.C. A'irgil, Livy, and Ovid were among the great names that added lustre to the time. Augustus instituted the Praetorian Guard, a body of soldiers which afterwards influenced the destinies of the Empire considerably. The few wars of the reign were on the remote borders of the ]']nipirc — in Spain, Parthia, and Germany. In tlie last-named country a great disaster befell the Roman arms in 9 a.d., wlieu the Governor Varus was induced by Hermann (Arminius), chief of the Cherusci, to undertake an expedition, which led him into an ambuscade. For three days the Romans were mercilessly beset in the dark woods, till scarce a man survived. Augustus died at Nola — 14 a.d. Birth of Jesus Christ. — Herod the Great signalized his acces- ^h)\\ to the throne of Judaea, Avhen the favour of Antony trana* l.; '^'4 <■» Wli ' '-i 1 1 i • - ( ! ' ■ ft^i 1 1 1 > /'J i f .( i li^ - r ll»,M !■ !: '..v His ' '"' 52 formed lilni from a HISTORY OF ROME, Tetrarch to a King, by a massacre of lils tllG of enemies. Under his tyranny Jerusalem wore tlic aspect oi a Homan city, with a theatre and gladiatorial games. He changcil tliC Temple of Zerubhabel, which had grown ruinous through time and war, into a magnificent structure of white marble and gold, which gleamed on the summit of Moriah like :i crest of snow. lie put to death some of his sons for plotting against liis life; and lived a life of constant terror. It was this whicli induced him as he lay on his death -bed, a mass of ulcers, to issue tlie order which led to what we call "The Massacre of Innocents at Bethlehem." For in that little city of David there 0: was born in the year 3 b.u. a child Jesus, whom the wise B.G. men of the East hailed as the King of the Jews, whom ice revere and love as the Saviour of Mankind — God made manifest in the flesh. Bethlehem was so small a place, that the number of children under two years could scarcely have been more than twelve. Reign of Tiberius. — The twenty-three years of t liis reign con- tain some of the darkest pages in Roman history. The jealousy of Tiberius Avas excited by the victorious career of his nephew and adopted son, Gennauicus. The legions in Germany ])ro- posed to raise this gallant soldier to the purple; but he resisted the temptation. Nevcrlhcless Tiberius [»L)tted his dowufnll. Ilecalled from Germany, he was sent to ihe j^ast, wherc^ he was poisoned near Antioch by Piso, a creature of Tiberius. The Emperor afterwards yielded to the persuasions of Scjufu/f^, who undertook the government, while Tiberius lived secluded on the island of Capretc. Tiberius did little state-work in his retreat but sign death-warrants: Sejamis, whose statues surpassed those of the Emperor in nmnber. excelled his master in bloodshed and rapacity. But the Senate received a letter, as Sejanus thought, appointing him Tribune, but in reality charging him with liigh treason. lie was killed that very day. Macro then took the post of favourite; and with the aid of Caius — afterwards Caligula —son of the good Gcrmanicus, smothered the Emperor with [)illows — 87 A.D. i IlISTOllY OF ROME -Before Ilcvod tlic Great Jicd in r.c. S3 3, ho The Herods. y,,aa I., who persecuted the infant Church of Christ, slaying James the brother of John: aval he was the impious king, upon whom, as he sat, clad in a silver dress, in the blazing sunlight amid the shouts of flatterers, the judgment of God fell suddenly, bo that "he was eaten of worms' — 41 a.d. His son .IIcrn,I-Ar *■ ::% 'Mr If' ! . • t ■ H ■ M : .. a .. i^ ■' It: HISTORY OF ROME. the \vilJost folly, was succeeded by liis uncle Claudius. Under the sceptre of this Emperor the Ilomans gained a footing in Britain, a spot distant from the lieart of the empire, hut destined one day to be itself a centre of civilization. The Britisli hero ui this war was Caractacus, chief of the Silurcs, who maintained a bravo strut^dc aL-'ainst the Ilomans, until he was defeated in Wales and betrayed. His demeanour during tlio triumph at Rome won his pardon from Claudius. When a poisoned feather, applied to his tliruat, put an end to the life of Claudius, Nero assumeil ilio purple o( the Cicsars. Eeign of Nero.— This man— last of the five Ctrsars who were really of the Julian line — was of accomplished mind and delicate taste. The lapse of years developed in him a character of the worst kind. The murder of his mother and his wife were pre- liminary trilles in his career of guilt. His name has become proverbial for cruel tyranny. To his reign belongs the iir.st great persecution of the Christians, who were maliciously accused of having set Rome on lire — a disaster more probably due to a wicked freak of Nero himself. In 04 a.d. the arena swam vvith Christian blood, under the teeth of tigers or the .■^teel of gladia- tors : and martyrs, clad in pitched sackcloth, blazed as torches to illumine the chariot-course of Xero. A rebellion of the Prto- torian Guards under Galba drove this tyrant to ixot himself killed — 08 A.D. The Jews, — MHien Gessius Florus became Procurator, the Jews were ground under such intolerable oppression that they revolted against Rome in GO a.u. The Roman soldiers and the Zealots came into iierco collision; and the latter under Kleazai.* worsted their opponents. Then the Holy Land was filled wiili massacre. Cestius Gallus, Governor of Syria, laid siege to Jeni- salem ; but was driven northward in headlong flight. Nero entrusted the Jewish "War to A\>spasian, under whom his sou Titus held a command. The Jews were divided into a Moderate party and the Zealots, who would bro(dc no subjection to Ronso on any terms. Among the former a leading man was a jjriest, Joscjjhus, whosc skill in languages fitted him to be the historian ing 1 'iTl HISTORY OF HOME. 55 of the war. This man, tlefcatccl by Vespasian at Jotapata, hid in a cave until he made terms with his conqueror, to whose train he attached liimself as a mediator and interpreter. Ptolcmais or Acre was the point at which Vespasian concentrated his forces, while preparing for a great hlow, which should crush the Jews for ever. Before long he was called to the purple by the soldiers (G9 A.D.); and the task of quelling the Jews devolved on Titus. Then began the most terrible siege earth has ever seen. Gathering round Jerusalem in April, 70 a.d., the lloman legions began to rain rocks and javelins from their siege-engines on the place. All tho efforts of the garrison, which was torn with intestine factions, could avail notiiing. On the fifteenth day the 70 first wall yielded. Famine soon began its tortures. Tho a.d. llomans stormed the Tower of Antonia ; and in August firo was set to the Temple, whose fall was echoed by a wail from the despairing Jews, as they gazed on the conflagration. The siege had lasted one hundred and thirty-four days. Titus and his Successors.— During tho reign of Vespasian, Agricola, who made more impression upon tho ancient Britons than any other Koman soldier, began tho career of victory of which wo read in Tacitus. Hi:] campaigns were seven ; and in 81 A.D. he fought tho battle of the Gnwqnans, in which Galgacus was defeated. Upon the death of Titus (79-81 a.d.), Domitian, a persecutor of the Christians, became Emperor; and his murder in UG a.d. placed Nerva on the throne. But his reign, a time of economy and peace, presents no striking events. Reign of Trajan.— The Spanish soldier Trajan, who had won renown in German wars, and had endeared himself to the legions by mixing familiarly among them and sharing their toils, was made Kmperor in 1)8 a.d. llis lirst movement was upon Dacia, where beyond the Danube the barbarians were already threaten- ing Home. Building a bridge over the great river, Trajan fol- lowed Decebalus into the heart of his territory, inllicted a signal defeat on him, and made Dacia a Boiiuin province. A pevsiM-\i- tion of the Christians in ]5ithynia and Pontus occurred duiing this reign. Trajan afterwards undertook a war in the Kast, wheiu • 111 \h u„ '.' 1 m'A t i i 1 &• ! r \ul\m V i : t Slit .i '4 < . ill .1 i Hi< 1 I "'j:-J 1 iilT' it;:, ■ i i *i ., ^'y 50 HISTORY OF ROME. l! :*>r *K I he roduccd Armenia, Paillila, and Persia, following for a time the track of conquering Alexander. The reduction of Ctesiphon beyond the Tigris was one of his exploits. He died on his way home at Selinus in Cilicia — 117 a.d. Hadrian, who succeeded Tiajan, spent a gi'cat part of his reign in travelling through the Roman Empire, visiting its extreme l)0unds — Britain, Parthia, Africa. He spent six years at Athens, and some time at Alexandria, gratifying his philosophic tastes. Among the works of his useful reign were the cstablislimcnt of the Atlienceum, as the germ of a Roman university, and the pub- lication of Edictum Ferjjetuum, a collection of edicts spoken by magistrates and emperors. He died of dropsy in 138 a.d. While ill Britain he left a memorial of his name in a wall, built from the Solway to the Tyne. The Three Antonines. — The reign of the first Antonino, who was surnamed Pius, presents a time of unruffled peace, thongli the noise of mustering barbarians was to be heard on the eastern and northern frontiers of the Empire. The second of the Anto- nines was Marcus AurcVius the Philosopher — so called from his Stoic opinions. A war in Parthia crowned the Roman arms with success, which was due chiefly to the prowess of the ofTicers of Verus. An avenging plague came back with the army, and swept Italy with fatal effect, in spite of all that men like Galen could do. A war with a coalition of northern tribes, of whom tlie Qua M and Marcomanni were most prominent, called Aurelius to the field. While the li^uil contest with the QuaJi was going on in ITi a.d., a smhlen b c of rain and thunder, in answer, says the story, to the prave of a Christian legion, refreshed the Romans but distressed their foes. IJeforo his death in 180 a.d. Aurelius had associated his wortldess son Ormmodus w'ith him in tlie p]nipire. Two persecutions of the Cliristian Church disgraced this reign : the one at Smyrna, when Polycarp suffered martyr- dom — the other in the heart of Gaul, at Lyons and Yienne. Commodus, priding himself on his enormous strength, wore a lion's ekin in imitation of Hercules, and fonglit with the gladiators in the arena. His useless and detrraded Mi i return was 57 IIISTOUY OF nOME. closed by assassination. His mistress Mavcia, seeing a cnp of poison fail to kill him, called in a wrestler, ulio succeeded m slranglinj? this last of the Antonines— 192 a.d. After the Kmpiro was held for a year by Pcrtinax, who had risen from the hmnblc grade of a charcoal-burner, U was sold by auction by the Praitorians to Didius Julianus— 193 a.d. ' Severus came from Germany to expel this stupid mati, who ,vas soon beheaded. But two rivals contested the purple with Severus. The defeat of Niger at Issus in Syria, and Albmus at Lyons in Gaul, left him victor. In 208 a.d. he went to Britain with his sons Caracalia and Geta ; and penetrated through the Caledonian forests to the Moray Prith. He died at York m 211 A.D. /. -n r\C The next sixty years saw sixteen Emperors of Komo. Vi these, the effenihiate and tyrannical Elagabalus was worst: \loxander Severus was the best. Through all the confusion of generals proclaimed and emperors killed, signs of weakness were growing visible in the lloman state. Tribes of ominous name- Goths, Franks, Alciuanni— were bursting through the northern frontlei-s of the Empire. Aurelian, a peasant's son, proclaimed by the legions on the Danube, became Emperor in 270 a.d. Under him Home shono with a revived lustre. He pacified the Goths and broke the power of the Alcmanui in Northern Italy. But his greatest exploit was the subjugation of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. This princess, whoso beauty was equal to her courage, was versed in many tongues, and skilled in the chase of bear and lion. ^Yith her aid her husband Odcnathus had repelled the Persians and the Goths. Now, left a widow by his murder, she measured her strength with that of the Emperor of the West. But the strife was miequal. This daughter of the Ptolemys, defeated at Antioch and Emesa, retreated to Palmyra, whose walls rose amid a gird- ling tract of scorching t^and. Hither came Aurelian to besiege the^city. But all her ballistas and engines that flung lire from the walls were unavailing. Palmyra fiill; and the dromedary, on which she sought flight, was outstripped by a bund of lloman iH'iil H;.iii •iili i i '■■',i 4 58 HISTORY OF ROME. horse. Among those wlio cHed was Longinus, the Greek cntic, who had been her prime minister — 273 a.d. Zenobia, in chains of gokl, adorned Aurelian's trimnph at Kome. Am-elian was nmrdered by conspirators near tho Bosporus . Diocletian reigned for twenty-one years (284-305 a.d.). Not content with dividing the Empire with Maximian, lio took Galerius as an assistant for himself, and enjoined his colleaguo to take Constantius Clilonis. During his reign Britain was for a time lost to Rome, when Carausius, admiral of tho lloman fleet in those seas, declared his independence, and maintained it for seven years. In 303 a.d. the fiercest of all the persecutions that strengthened and spread early Christianity broke out in Nico- media, a city of Bithynia, selected by Diocletian as his capital. An edict appeared condemning Cliristiau worship, and 303 degrading all who followed Christ. For eight y(>ars A.D. every mode of torture was put in force against the * unhappy people; nor did the flames die, till coming death terrified Galerius into withdrawing the edict of perse- cution. The chief Christian persecutions were : — 1. Under Nero at Rome, 2. Under Domilian, 3. Under Trajan in Uitliynla, 4. Under ]\Iarcus Aurelius at Smyrna, 5. Under Aurelius in Gaul, C. Under Soverus in Africa, 7. Under Decius Trajan, 8. Under Valerian, 9. Under Diocletian, A.n. Ui P5 110 167 177 202 249 2.'.3 8U3 111 305 A.D. Diocletian abdicated tho purple, obliging IMaximiau to do the same. Tlien came a struggle of nearly twenty years, during which, at ono time, six claimants contended for the empire. Of these, Constantine, son of Constantius Chlorus, proved the most successful, defeating Maxentius at the Red Kocks near Rome, and Licinius in Thrace. In 324 a.d. tliis man, who has been dignified witli the title of Great, ruled alone over tlio Roman world. His reign of thirteen years (324-337 a.d.) wu3 ■•(' HISTORY OF ROME. 59 i'J-i gignalized by tlic erection of a new capital, where Byzantium stood by tlio Bosporus. On tlie day of dedication in 3.30 A.D. the name of New Rome was given to the city: 330 I :t this was soon exchanged for Constantinople (^Stam- a.d. loul). There is a tendency to call Constantine the first Christian Emperor of Home ; but he gave little evidence that his profession of the Christian faith was sincere. The reign of Julian (301-303 a.d.) is notable for his unavailing efforts to "overturn Christianity and restore the worship of the old lloman idols. It was a complete failure ; though he applied to the task all the philosophy that the works of Plato could teach him. His name— Julian the Apostate— was bestowed owing to his public renunciation of Christianity, while he was governor of Gaul. While Valens and Valentinian reigned, the Roman Empire was finally divided into East and West— 304 a.d. The fall of the latter half closes the record of Ancient History. It was a fatal day for Rome when Valens permitted a million of Goths, pressed hard by the Huns, to settle in 370 a.d. south of the Danube, which had hitherto been the great barrier of the Roman Empire on the north. In two years he was engaged in war with them, and was soon slain near Adrianople. And in exactly a centuiy after this blunder Rome fell. Theodosius, becoming Emperor in 379 a.d., fixed his camp at Thessalonica, whence he assailed and repelled the Goths. But his death in 395 a.d. left two feeble sons, Arcadius and Honorius, to face a task too strong for them. Honorius abandoned Rome and hid himself among the swamps and pine-trees of Ravenna, when he heard that a great chieftain of the Goths, named Alaric, who had wrested from Arcadius the sway over Illyricum, was coming into Italy. There was indeed a Roman o-eneral, Stllicho, able to withstand the invader: but Honorius killed him; and the Goths swept round Rome, clamouring for the destruction of the ancient city. In 410 a.d. the capital of the Ci^sars was for a week a prey to the ruthless barbarians. Genscric, at the head of the Vandals, overran Africa; and a worse liiil , I M ii ■^ -' ^^4^1 ■*■! 'H ! ■ 1 i !l M"« m i ' < 111 AiA CO END OF ROMAN IirSTOKY. t} V I tluiu either Alaiic or Genscric appeared in the person of A'ttila the Hun, who invadeil Gaul in 451 a.d. The decisive battle of Chalons, won by Aetius and Tlieodoric, checked his career for a time; but he turned into Italy and menaced Rome, until the prayers or the offerings of Bishop Leo induced him to spare the city. The next miserable event in the story of Home is the sack of the city in 455 a.d. by the Vandals and Moois. Leo tried to soften the barbarous heart again;, but failed this second time. Tlie glories of art were strewn in shapeless pieces through the streets. In the later days of Konie, Count Kicimer, sou of a Sucvian chief, made and unmade monarchs as he pleased ; and in 472 A.D., a month or so before he died, he gratified his instincts by nlundering Rome. Romulus Augustulus, whose name might have kindled some spark of the ancient fire in the breast of him who bore it, was the last of the Roman Emperors. Odoacer, 476 chief of the Ileruli, a Gothic tribe, was proclaimed King A.D of Italy in 476 a.d., when Augustulus was pensioned off, and went to live at Misenum. Thus ended Ancient History. Eastern History. — The kingdom of Sijria, even before the time of Antiochus the Great, was beginning to break asunder. Arsaces declared himself independent in Parthia in 250 B.C.; and one of his successors, Mithridates I., conquered Asia between the Euphrates and the Indus. The Mithridatic ^Yars of Rome have l>ccn already mentioned. It was in Parthia, fighting against Orodes, that Crassus was slain ; and there was a grim humour in the victor's rebuke of avarice by pouring melted gold into the mouth of the doad Roman. ''J'he Parthian cavalry were diflicult to subdue, owing to their method of shooting arrows backward as they fled. Phraates IV. defeated Antony in 35 n.e. : and later kings came in collision with Nero and with Trajan, by the latter of whom Parthia was reduced. In 22G a.d. a new rcrsian Empire was established on the over- thrown Parthian Kingdom by Artaxerxes, son of Sassan; from whom a dynasty, reigning more than four centuries (226-651 a.d.), was called the HassaniJ.es. The second of these monarchs — ■ Sapor I. — took prisoner the Roman Emperor Valerian ; but waa ANCIENT CIinOXOLOGY. V* subilucd in turn Ly Aurelian. Another— Sapor II.— was suc- cessful against Constantino, and extended his conquests to^ India. Armenia too broke off from Syria in two parts— Major and Minor. Tigrancs, ruling Armenia Major, joined Mithridates ngainst the Romans— 80 u.c. Dojotarus was raised by Pompey in C4 B.C. to the throne of Armenia Minor, which afterwards was probably joined to Major. Armenia became a Roman province in 11-i A.D. ; and was conr|uercd by Persia in 412 a.d. CHIEF DATES OP ANCIENT HISTORY. The I)clu,2C (Usalier), K,'vpt invailed by the Shepherd King", Call of Abraham, Clialda'a overrun by Arabs, Exodus of Israelites from Egypt (Ussher), ... Period of Hebrew Judges begins, ... Ramoses II. (Sesostris) reigns in Egypt, Fall of Troy, ^olian migration ia Greece, Dorian migration, Death of Codrus at Athens, David King of all Israel, ... Ileign of Solomon, Foundation of the Jewish Tem])1o, Division of the kingdom into Israel and Judah, Probable foundation of Carthage, ... Legislation of Lycurgus, ... Reputed foundation of Rome, Era of Nabonassar, ... First Messenian War, Captivity of Ten Tribes— End of Israel as a kingdom, Reign of Sennacherib in Assyria, ... Reign of Psammetichus in Egypt, ... Destruction of Nineveh by Cyaxincs, Reign of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon, SIXTU CENTURY, B.C. Solon Archon at Athcn3, ... Kingdom of Judah overthrown, Revolution of Pisistratus at Athens, Cyrus founds the Persian Empire, Reign of Croesus in Lydia, Cyrus tiikcs Babylon, ... .»» ••> »•♦ ft. ft 2:54 f> 20S0 1921 1513 1491 1-12(3 1 327-1 2r.(> list 1121 not 10G3 1043 1015-975 1012 975 8Sl 753 747 ... 743-23 721 ... 702-680 ... G04-G11 625 ... 60-1-5CI 58S 560 553 568-554 533 wm attle of Marathon, Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, IJatUes of Thermopylae and Sulamis, ... ... Twelve Tables at Rome, ... Alliens under Pericles, reloponnesiau War, Battle of Delium,... Peace of Nicias, ... ... ... ••• .•• Siege of Syracuse, ... ... Eattle of Cuiiaxa, FOURTH CENTURY, B.C. Death of Socrates, ... ••• ••• ••• Suck of Rome by the Gauls, Theban War, ... ... ... ••• ••• Liciiiian Rogations passed at Rora«», ... ... Reign of Philip of Macedon, ... ... ... Reign of Alexander the Great, Lattle of Arbela, ... ... ... Surrender of Romans at Caudine Forks, Battle of Ipsus— Third partition of the Macedonian Enii>iio, THIRD CENTURY, B.C. Defeat of the Samnites at Seutiuum, Pyrrhus defeated at Beneventum, ... First Punic War, Aratus head of the Achaean League, Siege of Saguntum, ... ... ... ... Second Piuiic War, ... ... ... ... l>attle of Cannne, ... ... ... ... ... Buttle of Zam.a, ... ... ... ... ... SECOND CENTURY, B.C. Philoposmcn abolishes the laws of Lycurgus, Cato Censor at Rome, Battle of Pydna overthrows I\Iacedoniau Monarchy, ... Fall of Carthage and of Corinth, ... ... *m Ti:iie of tlie Gracchi, Marias made Consul, ... ... ... ... .1. ... ... *■. ... ... ... ... ... B.C. 536 5-'9 510 609 49t 492 490 480 450 445-29 432-04 424 421 415-13 400 399 ?,90 3S2-(32 307 359-36 335-23 831 821 301 295 275 203-41 245 219 218-02 216 202 183 184 108 146 ... 133-121 107 ff«t t*t • •• %•• • •• Marl.an mai Proscriptio: Conspiracy First Triur Julius CaiSi His invasio He crosses Battle of P Murder of Second Tri' Battle of P Battle of A j\ ccession ( Birth of J« Defeat of T Death of I praetorian The Crucil Claudius i Kero pers( Siege and Agricola ii Keigu of 'J Trajan cot Ivlictum I Jerusalem The Empi Severn s ii Sapor of 1 Palmyra t Division o Fourfold ( Christian: Kcign of ( ANCIENT CIIRONOLOQY. FIl.ST CENTUIIY, B.C. Marian massacre at Ronao, Proscriptions of Sulla, Conspiracy of Catiline, First Triumvirate, Julius Cajsar in Gaul, His invasion of Britain, .. He crosses the Rubicon, .. Battle of Pharsalia, Murder of Caesar, Second Triumvirate, IJattle of Philippl, Uattle of Actium, • Accession of Augustus, Birtli of Jesus Christ, ••• • •• THF. CHRISTIAN ERA. FIRST CENTURY, A.D. • •• Defeat of Varus in Germany, Death of Augustus, Prwtorian Guards quartered at Ronif*, The Crucifixion, ... . . ••• ••• ••• Claudius invades I'ritain, ... ... ••• ••• Kero persecutes the Christians, ... .. Siege and destruction of Jei-usulciii, . ... ••• Agricola in Britain, ... Keiga of Trajan, ... SECOND CENTURY, A.D. Trajan conquers Dacia, lidictum Porpetuum pul)lished by Hadrian, Jerusalem restored as iElia Capitolina, The Empire sold by auction, TUIRD CENTURY, A.D. Sevcnis invades Britain, ... ... Sapor of Persia takes Antiocli, Palmyra taken by Aurelian, Divisiuu of the Roman Empire under Diocletian, I'ourfold division of the Empire, ... FOURTU CENTURY, A.D. Christians persecuted by Diocletian, Kcign of Coustuntinei >•» ••• )3 B.C. 87 82 63 59 [^ 65 4i» iS 44 43 m 81 27 3 A.n. S) U 23 30 43 64 70 78-84 98-117 lOi 131 137 193 203 261 273 286 292 303 .. .)-■!— (Jul/ M: - * \% \ ■ I'- ''\\ •'I : if Ml l-ri. Ci ANCIENT CIIRONOLOGT. Constantinople m.Kb Capit.il of the East, ... Valcna and Valentinian divide the Einpiic, ... Goths allowed to settle in Thrace, ... Paganism abolished by law, FIFTH CKNTURV, A.D. Ala.-ic the Goth sacks Rome, Romans abandon Britain, Carthage seized by the Vanlals, Teutonic settlements in Britain bc^;'in, Battle of Chalons, Pillage of Rome by the Vandals, Fall of Rome before Odoacer— End of Ancient History, An. 330 'MA 37') 3L/i dlO 4r!9 449 451 •155 47ti TiiK Inst ill 47G A, of very i first six ] l)iirlj.'irisi: traces of Tlio ^ portions I. ] IT. ] III. ] Tlic 1 tiiiiau's of Charl doiii in i f 1^ Relig mistress (474-41 iiig the U87) THE ]MID1)LE AGES. TiiK Llstovy of tlic Middle Ages extends from tlie Fall of Rome ill 47G A.D. to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d.— a period of VL>ry nearly one thonsand years. Of these ten centuries tlio first six liavc been called tlie Dark Ages, from the ignorance and harharisni which overf;i)read the world, suLmei-ging almost all the traces of ancient civilization. The ^Middle Ages may for convenience Lc divided into three portions : — I. From 47G to 814— the Death of Charlemagne. IT. From 814 to 1201— the End of the Crusades. HI. From 1291 to 1453 — the Fall of Constantinople. FIRST FERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM 47G A.D. TO 8U A.D. The leading events of this Period were the conrpicsts of Jus- tinian's reign; the growth of Mohammedanism; the foundation of Charlemagne's empire; the establishment of a Teutonic king- dom in England ; and the origin of the Papal Power. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (476-867 A.D.). Religious Strife.— The downfall of Komc left Constantinople mistress of the world. Zeno was then Emperor of the East (474-401 A.D.\ Previous to his time a great controversy regard- ing the nature of the Saviour had been convulsing the Eastern (187) 6 I |i h|f • ' • li • ill !•■: \ i -y GO BYZANTTNK HISTORY. in U H ^-f- M.« Chuvcl., in spite of soTCral General Council ca led lo ,lecMe „pou the questions in dispute. The pn . heat.on hy Ze„o o£ an liuet of union ealled IIc»ot!c<,n availed l.ttle to ealm the storn,. The rival faetions-the orthodox :vearing W«o, their opponents ,.,.oe«-otteu met in deadly eonilict, strewing the streets ^vith dead. The Persians and the Huns were the cliief foes of llio Byzan- tine Empire at tin's time. ^ Justinian (527-5G5 A.D.)--Aftcr Anastasms and the peasant- Lorn Justin Irul reigned, a nepliew of the latter attained th,3 crown He was called Justinian-a name connected honoural.ly with the great task of reducing the chaotic Roman laws into a simple and orderly system. Justinian was fortunate In possessmg a o-cneral named Belisarius c.f famous military genius. Having 1,1^533 A.D. coiuiuered Gelimer, the Vandal King, and taken roiii Carthage the vess-ds of the Jewish temple, this great soldier crossed the sea, ana overran Southern Italy, nntil he was master of Rome. The Ostrogoths, who then held Italy, mustered to besiege the daring victor in Home ; hut he repulsed them, took Ravenna, and was thus master of Italy. In later years ho inflicted signal defeats upon Nushirvan, a distinguished monarch of the race called Sassanides, who held the Persian throne from '^^G to G51 A.D. In spite of these glorious services, he was recalled for uttering some rash words against the Empress, and was disgraced. This was partly due to the intrigues of his rival Narses. Ilis campaigns in Italy against Totilas the Goth, and his repulse of the wild Bulgarians, who crossed the frozen Panuhe to inenaco Constantinople, were his later achievements. After this, worse disgraces were indietcid on him. Narses, hav- inn- in 553 overthrown the Ostrogothic kingdom in It:dy, Lecamo the first Exarch oi Ravenna. Justinian's system of law, compiled with aid from Tribonian, consisted of— 1. The Code, an J'Jjntomc ; 2. The Inylilnlcs, w Elements ; 3. The Di'jcst, or Fandrch, containing the Roman jurisprudence ; 4. The Novels, or Justinian's new laws. Tiie religious riots and massuovoH still continued ; one in 532 BYZANTINE IITSTORY. 67 A.-n. called Nika, was specially notable. Justinian died in 5G5A.D. Decline of Power. — Under Justin II., successor of Justinian, Narses invited tlie Lombards under Alboin into Italy. Origin- ally from tlie Baltic, they now came out of Pannonia, and estab- lished themselves in the plain that bears their name — 5G8 a.d. Tlic Persians, too, began to assail the Empire on the cast. Nor was it until Ileraclius the African gained the Byzantine throne, by means of a revolution which overthrew the vicious Phocas, that the tide turned. Chosrocs II. was then King of Persia. Antioch, Jerusalem, even Tripoli fell before him ; and a Persian camp lay for ten years in sight of Constantinople, on the oppo- site side of the Bosporus. Ileraclius concluded a peace and promised tribute. But he then made a mighty effort, and suc- ceeded in driving the Persians back over the Euphrates, and expelling Chosroes from Ctesiphon. He reigned from GIO to 040 A.D. Of the twenty-two Byzantine l^hnpcrors, who filled the throne l)ctween the death of Ileraclius and the beginning of the Mace- donian Dynasty in 8G7, but few deserve mention. The seat of tlie ]<'astern Empire was tlircatened by Bulgarians and Arabians, especially the Latter, against whom in the great seven years' siege (G08-GT5 A.D.) the famous Greek fn-o was used with telling effect. During tins time a controversy about the worship of images began to convulse the Church. Gregory III. in Pome de- nounced the sin of inuige-breaking, after Leo III. at Constanti- nople had interdicted the worship of images. The successors of the latter coiithmed to forbid the idolatry; until Irene, mother of Constantino YL, assumed power as Ilcgent, and soon caused her son to bo blinded and al'terw^ards slain. By her exertions the Council of Nica^a in 787 declared the worship of imager -ood and right. But the Eastern Church never accepted tho roconeiliati..u with Home, opened by this change. The idolatries of the East grew so great as to call forth the Synod of Frankfort, ]u>ld in 701 by Charlemagne, at wiiich all image-worship was distinctly forbidden. Irene was dethroned in 802 a.d. \ 5 m M-tt^ ! ( M\^ m A ft C8 HISTORY OF ITALY. • Under Thcoelora, luotlier and guardian of Micliacl III., the veneration of images, but not tlieir worship, \va.s restored in tho East hy a Council of Nica\a, hchl in 842 a.d. In 8GT the Macedonian Dynasty was founded hy Basilius, a man of humble extraction. As Italy and Persia have been named frequently in tho fore- going sketch of Byzantine history, I now take up the thread (.f events in these countries, before proceeding to describe the straui^c doings in Arabia under Mohammed. ITALY (47G-774 A.D.). Odoacer.— Tliis chief of the Ileruli ruled in Italy as Fatyiciim over the llomans, and Kuig of his own Goths until 403 a.d. He permitted the Visigoths to hold Southern Gaul and the Vandals to occupy Sicily. But it was from Constantinople that danger came. Zeno saved the Eastern Capital from a menaced siege by inducing Theodoric the Ostrogoth— a gallant prince, who as a hostage had resided long at the Byzantine court— to turn his arms against Italy. Defeated at Verona, Odoacer retired to Bavenna, and was soon afterwards slain at a feast — 493 a.d. Theodoric— The reign of Theodoric (493-52G) was poacofiil and prosperous. New buildings arose, and the land was culti- vated. Though a holder of the Arian tenets, which denied the divinity of Christ, he tolerated other creeds. The Italians held most of the civil offices ; but he retained military posts for tho Goths. Cassiodorus the historian was his prime minister. In addition to Italy he ruled over Bhaetia, Illyricum, and Sicily; and by the marriage of his daughters extended his influence into Spain and Gaul. In his latter years he became suspicious of intrigues formed against him at the court of Constantinople; and among the victims of his fears was Jh/dhtiis, who, being im- prisoned at Pavia, wrote a well-known book, De Consolalivm rhilosopldcc. Theodoric died in 520 a.d. Decline of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. — The Greeks under Bclisurius, a general already named, soun invaded Italy. A'itigi s I fho Ostr. him. T King of Byzantii s;arius. Pvavenna disagree Empero] to iuvad Loml whose c seated i ilture drunk 1: 508 A.I descend his capl into lla Lorn' with g thirty-!- siding ; Amonp Boman Adrlat; dation^ f »r ten Lombi" pnnnii Jlothai Anoth Bubdu( on Be giantc Desid* Ori; insTor.Y or italv. C9 fho Ostvogothio King ^vas defeated, and Rome .vas wrested from l,im The Franks also took Milan. Nor was Totilas, tlio next King of the Ostrogoths, ahle to withstand the amis of the livzantinos, when directed hy Narses, the successful rival of Boli- .arius. Having slain Totilas, the conqueror, as I«areh of Itavcnna, administered the affairs of Italy wisely for a time. A aisagrccnicnt between Narses and Justin II the By.antino Kmperor, led the former to invite Alhoin, King of the Lombards, to invade Italy. , , , t i t Lombard Invasion of Italy—The Loml)aras ov Longobanli, ^vhose orii^hial scat probal.ly ^vas tlie bank of Elbe were tbcn seated in Pannonia ; and Alboiii was rejoicin- over the disconi- ilture of the Gepid«, from whoso king's skull he had drunk blood after the fashion of those brutal times. In 5 6 d 508 A D. he led his whole nation over the Alps ; and a.d. descended into the basin of the Po. There Pavia became ^ ^ his capital. The Byzantine power shrank before this mvasion into Ilavenna, Home, Naples, and a portion of the coast-line Lombard Rule in Italy.-The Lombards treated the Italians with great cruelty. After the murder of Alboin am Cleph, thirty-six Dukes held the power for ten years (5<4-8-i). Ke- .Idlng in the towns, they extended their ravages on cN-ery side. •Vmong the results of such oppression was the flight of various lloman families to the islands and lagoons at the head of the \driatic, where, engaging in a seafaring life, they laid the foun- ciations of the Venetian State. After the Dukes had held power for ten vears, elective monarchy came into favour again; and the Lomba;ds engaged in struggles with the Popes, now nsing into l,rominence at Kome. The most noted Lombard King was Jlnthans, who published in 644 a.d. a code of written laws Another able lawgiver was Luitprand, whose successor Aistulf subdued Ilavennn, and overthrew the Exarchate. His designs on Home sent the Pope to the Franks for aid ; which Pepm granted, defeating the Lombards. The last Lombard King was Desiderius, who was made prisoner by Charlemagne in n4 a.I). Origin of tlio Paioacy.— Side by side with the Lombard King- i ! ; ;ssjin:^m ■ ' r 4-. ■ ,{*^ If- -» i' I I ^!i :!f|i( HIi: A\ a I m \ 70 IIISTOny OF ITALY. dom and tlio Exardiato, a power had Leon growing up at Rome, destined to a lifo and influence incalculably greater than these. This was the Papal Power. From very early times the Bishop of Porno became a leader in the Christian Church. The first great pontili was Innocent, who, while llonorius cowered in ilavenna, was head of Pome, and who, when Alaric Backed the city, raised it from its ashes. The controversy between Augustino and Telagius, regarding original sin, raged during his time : and he sided with the great African. Leo I. (440-4G1 a.d.) was the Pope, who headed a procession of priests to the camp of Attila the Ilun, and prevailed upon the barbarian to spare Pome. He was less successful with Genseric the Vandal. Meanwhile men like Jerome, And)rosc of Milan,^ and Augustine of Hippo were shaping the doctrines of the grow- ing Church. Gregory the Great (590-60-1 a.d.) wrote a well-known letter to the Patriarch of Constantinople, objecting to the use by that pontiff of the title. Universal Bishop. It was under this Pope that Augustine was despatched to Britain in order to bring that distant island within the pale of the Church. He saw the fierce Lombards also yielding to the softening influences of Chris- tianity. Under Gregory II. (715-731) the controversy about the wor- ship of images, already referred to, arose between Pome and Con- stantinople. Tlio beginning of the temporal power of the Pope dated from the ,^'Ift by Pcpln the Sliurt to Pope Stephen 11. of the Exarchate, taken from the Lombards (755). PEESIA (220 A.D.-G51 A.D.). TIiO Sassanides. — l^y the overthrow of the Arsacidcs in 220 A.D., Parilila becnmc a new Persia, with an Artaxerxes on i(s tlirono. This monarch, and his successors — the Sapors — waged victorious war against the llomans; and, when Pome had fallen, the Sassanides measured their strength again and again with the generals of tho Past, In pai'tlcul.'ir, Cho^iroos or Nushirvun PEnSIA AND ARARIA. 71 ^531-579 A.D.) contcndca with Bclisarius fiercely and not witli- out result. Unaer this great nionarch Pcrnia extended its herders from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartes to Arahla. Chosroes 11. engaged in war with Ilcraclm. the Byzanthio Emperor; hut, after a career of victory m Syria, rulestinc, and Asia Minor, he yielded to superior geniu. re- tveated hevond the Euphrates, and was expelM from Ctesiphon. The last Sassanid monarch was Yczdcjcrd IIL, ^vho.c empire bank in 051 a.d. hcforo the Aruhs. r t lii Mi . • m ARABIA to 753 A.D. Two Ilaces.-In addition to the Bedouin?;, claiming descent from Ishmael, who wandered among the oases of Arahia, ther. ^vas a coast population, husily engaged in commerce and the ar .. Spices, jewels, and rich cloths were the articles o their trade The centre of their worship was the Caaha at Mecca, rehun. about 4-10 by the head of the family Korci^h, which henceforth acted as guardians of the sacred place. In 525 ^.n. a conciuerm;: army from Abyssinia taught Christianity in \emen, the south- ^vestern angle of the peninsula ; but these were expelled by a Persian force in 575 a.p. Mohammed.-The great founder of Islam was horn at Mecca in 571, from parents of the nohle race KoreUh-i\io guardians of tlie Caaha. After forty years spent in mercantile life, he pro- clain.ed his system and his mission (Gil a.d.). The preaching of his dortrincs excited his own tribe against him to such a degree that nothing but a si.cody flight from Mecca saved his life The date of this escape— July 10, id'l a.d.— b.:.^ f.rms th.e llcjh-a, from wliich Moslems reckon the years a.d. of their liistorv. Medina was the place of IMohammed s vofu-c. Eroin a ther,rist on religion he became a fierce warrior, aunmmeing that '4he sword is the key of heaven aiid lu:ll ^Varriug hoth with the KonAsJi. and the Jews settled n Northern Arabia, b.o won the .rcat battle of Ilonem. And a. M"la i-ar the Dead Sea he met the Byzantiue troops, and rg- w it ,! } ^4 I l;u,!i; .1; f! Hi ii'ii'iii y ^.% ti; 72 MOHAMMED. Ml ^'1 W.M: m 'If nally defeated tlicm. In 629 a.b. lie occupied Mecca ^v^tll liia Koldicrs, and strewed the Caaba witli the fragiiionts of tliree liuii- di-cd and sixty idols. His lieutenant took Akaba on the lied Sea : and he was going to Damascus himself, when he felt the approaches of death, and returned to 3Icdina, where fever cut him offin632 A.D. Omar. — After Abu Beker, one father-in-law of Mohammed, had reigned for two years as CaJijih or successor, Omar, another father-in-law, took the caliphate. lie in G37 conquered Jeru- salem, where a mosque with his name soon rose to replace the Jewish temple. The conquest of Syria followed. In Egypt Amru took Alexandria; in Persia another lieutenant defeated the last Sassanid King at Kadcsia and took Madayn his cupltul. Omar was assassinated in 044 A.n. Othman and Ali. — Under Othman the conquest of Persia was completed, and the power of the Arabs extended to Tripoli in Africa. Having built a fleet, the Kmir of Syria took Cyprus and llhodes, in the latter place breaking to pieces the brass Colossus or statue of the Sun. In order to curb the pretensions of men, who strove to interpret the Koran after their own fashion, Oth- man published a new edition of the book, altered to meet h!,t views of government. The murder of Othman made Ali caliph; but discord was beginning to break up the central power of Islam. Two great factions arose — Soiniites or Orthodox, ami Shi lies or Schismatics (as their foes called them). Tlie former opposed Ali : and the division thus begun runs through tluj whole history of Moslemism, separating to this day the Turks, who are Sonnitcs, from the Persians, who arc Shiitin, The murder of Ali in GGl elevated Moawyah, 3'hnir of Syria, to the caliphate. lie was the first of the Ommiyadcs, who held power until 749 a.d. Dynasty of the Ommiyades. — This race took their name from Onimiyah, one of the Koreish, who governed Syria under Omar. Moawyah, the first caliph of the lino, fixed liis ca|)ital at Damascus, as more central than Mecca, and, with a fieet on the Mediterranean under an Amir-al-Ma (captain at sea, the original hi MOf?LEMISM. T dciv. Hi icutcnaut admiraT), lie extciulcd liis territory :bali conquered the nortlicrn shore of Africa as far as Tunis, south of which he founded Cairouan. At two points — the Bosporus and the Strait of Gibraltar— Europe ahnost touches anotlier continent : and at these the Arabs made fierce invasions. For seven years (GG8-G75) they carried on a siege of Constanti- nople, but were repelled by the Greek fire. Another attempt in 717 was still more signally foiled. But thcs • defeats wei-c counterbalanced by success in Africa, where Cyrcne, Tripoli, Carthage yielded in succession ; and the Moslems poured on in a resistless flood to the headlands opposite Spain. It was during the caliphate of Walid that Tarlk, a lieutenant of Musa . the Saracen leader, led an army across the Strait of 710 Gibraltar to the peninsula, where a great Yisigothic king- a.d. doiu had been existing since before the fall of Home, lloderick, " last of the Goths," was defeated on the field of Xeres 3[usa secured the conquest — and the Moslems soon established themselves in Cordova as a centre. But Spain did not content them. Crossing the Pyrenees, they attempted the conquest of Franco also; but a defeat at Tours, inflicted in 732 a.d. by Charles Martel, drove them southward beyond the mountaiii- >vall. Discontent grew into rebellion at the centre of Moslemism. Ibrahim rose against Mervan II., last of the Ommlyad Caliphs ; and, when the rebel was slain, his more successful brother tool; up ids sword, and drove ISIervan in flight to Egypt, where he was hiUod in 750 A.I). This ended the Onmiiyad line in the East : the Abbasides now began to hold the caliphate. Although this does not bring the history of Moslemism down to the time of Charlemagne, it is convenient to drop the thread at this point, and turn to the history of the Franks. THE TRANKS to 814 A.D. Clovis.— AMien the feeble hand of Borne let go, in her decay, the possession of Gaul and Germany, a great number of wild I i m \-^ •\ :-.*,• \. ;i'^ ! 1 1 ii'i ] 7-1 niSTORY OF FRANCK. f tribes reigned riotously in tlio dark forests of tliosc lands. But the Franks (franh, free) rose to tlic head of affairs, especially when Clovis, a captain of the Sallan Franks, who at first occupioil Belgium, fixed liis station at Lulctia or Paris, and set up a show of royalty with a crown and mantle, sent to him from Constan- tinople — 511 A.D. This man, whoso softened name is fomiliar in French history as Louis, founded the Frankish monarchy. Merovingian Dynasty (511-75:2). — The race of Clovis liad already been called the Merovingians, from Mcroicvho dwelt chiefly round the Wcser. They had a brave warrior, "Wittikind, who appeared in arms again and again, until he was fmally defeated at Dethmold. This war lasted from 772 to 804 A.D. A shorter war defeated Dcsiderius the Lombard King, whoso final stand was made at Pavia— 77-i a.d. Charlemagne then assumed the iron crown of Lombardy. The remembrance of the field of Tours excited Charlemagne in 778 a.d. to lead an army into Spain, where the Emirate of Cor- Jova — a Moslem power independent of the Abbasido Caliphs — had grown into strength. The capture of Saragossa laid Aragon and ' Navarre at his feet. But the disaster of lioncesvalles, where in a dtjfde of the Pyrenees his rear-guard was destroyed by the Basques, took some brightness from these laurels. Charlemagne having engaged in a war with the Avars, his son penetrated Hungary, and took the Pving at Buda, a fortress stored with riches. Tlie proudest day in this great monarch's reign was the Christmas of 800, when Pope Leo III. crowned him in St. Peter's at Home as '' Charles Augustus, Emperor of the llomans." "With sad foresight Charlemagne feared the Norsemen, own empire, whose centre was Aix-la-Chapellc, was safe enough, wliile he lived; but the gentle Louis, who was to succeed him, was ill fitted to cope with foes so fierce. Charlemagne died in SI 1 A.D. 800 A.D. Ilig THE BRITISH ISLES. ENGLAND (4i9-827 A.D.}. Teutonic Conquest.— It is said that three ships, led by Ilengist and llorsa, came to Tlianet in Kent in 449 a.d., and landed t liltll \ t PS i*'i I.J ii ■ ^ ■ i ! 11:1 iil 76 TiiK imiTi?=ii ism:?. Lands rcprcscntlnj,' tlircc Teutonic tribes — Anglos, Saxons, nn.l Jutes. During tlie next century and a luilf seven kingdoms, called tlie Saxon Ileptarcliy, were founded along the castei-n and southern coasts, and in the centre of South Britain. These ^vere: — I.Kent; 2. Sussex; 3. Wessex; 4. Ksscx; 5. Northuni- bria; G. East Anglia; 7. Mercia. Various men of power arose in the wars which convulsed these j;tates ; — such as Edwin of Dcira; Ina, the lawgiver of AVessex; Penda and Ofia, fierce men of war, who ruled in Mercia: but the tendency of every change was to centralize all power ultimately in Wessex, which extended its bounds from Hants and Wilts until it occupied the whole land. The wars, which fused the Seven States into the single realm of ICmjIaml, blended the various, though kindred, races of the early settlements into the Anglo-Saxon nation. During the progress of this change, the coming of Augustino as a missionary from Home in 597, and the beginning of Danish invasions at Dorchester in 787, were notable events. Egbert, King of "Wessex, who attained to supreme power over all England in 827, was a contemporary and friend of Charle- magne, who giW'Q him shelter for fourteen years, during which a usurper held the throne of his rightful kingdom. SCOTLAND. North Britain was at first inhalntod by the Calodcmians, or " people of the woods," who arc regarded as being of (lothie de- scent. The tribe Scoti, who ultimately gave a name fo tho country, emigrated early in the Christian era from the nortli of Ireland to Argyll, whore they founded a kingdom called JJal- rlada. A nation called tlie ricla hold the districts north of Forth and Clyde, while a small independent realm, lleged or Strathclyde, occupied the basin of the Clyde. The same process of conquest as expanded "Wessex into England, made Kenneth MacAlpin, King of Dalriada, sole monarch of the northern part of the island in 848 a.d. But the name of Scotland was not in use for at least a century afterwards. Scotlai passed fr^ —the Cu nortli of Thop< fies, gave were in 1 tiou is a last refu! Meath. the narr called " uf the c: hide in t the Dan iu the s( The many ol the Nor eTenghiz over tw uf the S In A ^losleiii Al-3Iai centre < his . tal Tlin MOIIAMMKDANS. 77 Scotland was Clni.stiauuod by aii Iilsli monk, ColumLa, who passed from D'.iiogal to lona about 503 A.D., and whose disciples —the Culdcc.-^— spread the knowledge of the Crospel even into tho north of England. IllELAND. The position of Ireland in tho extreme west, as its name signi- fies, gave it peace from external foes, while England and Scotland were in the throes of national construction. The present condi- tion is a sad reverse of the picture. Tinder Uie Komans it was a last refuge of the Druids, who fixed their great temple at Tara in :\Ioath. But St. Patrick, who was a native of Strathclyde, crossed the narrow sea to preach Ohristia.iity in what afterwards was called " The Island of the Sa hits." Leogaii i MacNelU was first uf the Christian Kings. Religion and learning prospered side by tiido in this island; and some of the arts also flourished. At last the Danes found their way to the coasts, and obtained a footing in tho sea-ports, where they were called Ostmen. SECOND PEKIOD JF THE MIDDLE AGES. rr.O.M SU A.D. TO 1291 A.D. The reign of Alfred the Great (871- 1); tho reign in Ger- many of Otho the Great (9G-2-l)73/, the conriiKbtof Eiigla'xl by the Normans in luGG; the Papacy of Hildebrand; the career of Jenghi/. Khan; and the Crusades, eight in number and extending over' two centuries (109G-1291), form the mo 't notable features of tlic Second Period, into which I have divided the Middle Age i. THE LIOHAWMEDANo (753 to 1250 A.D.). in Asia. — "We liave seen that Abul Abbas established the IMoslem dynasty of the Abbasides in 75:] A.D. To his successor Al-Mansur was due the foundation of Bagdad, which became a centre of Eastern splendour. But the Caliph, who most adorne 1 his station and wielded the widest influence iu the world, was 1 P 11 i-;;'. :' il ;v; m.. ii.'.,; \t M ! » ' i' % » < ( t 'J t ' 1 * Ifi ? >. P'f i-l ■s 1 ■ \\% (•! ' \\ nlmost all that the English King achieved, lie won a battle at Joppa, advanced within twenty miles of Jerusalem, and then made a truce with Saladin before returning to Europe. 4. The events of the Fourth Crusade (1195-97), undertaken by Henry A''!., Emperor of Germany, were the capture of Beirout, and tlie ignominious flight of the Crusaders from the siege of Thoron. 5. The soldiers of the Fifth. Crusade never reached Jerusalem . Pandolo, Doge of Venice, who was to supply transports, induced them to retake for him the city of Zara in Dalraatia, which had revolted. ^J'hey then accepted an invitation to restore Isaac, the dethroned Emperor, to his position in Constantinople. ])andolo, though blind, lent them valuable aid even in 1203 actual fight; and the fall of Constantinople (1203) caused a.d. the usurper to vacate the throne of the Byzantine Empire. G. Frederic II. of Germany headed the Sixth Crusade. A feud with the Pope, Gregory IX., however, caused the clergy to look coldly on his successes in Palestine. These were rather works of peace than of war; for he secured by treaty the pos- session of JerusaliMU and Bethlehem (i*2:i9). 7. The Seventh Crusade was led by Saint Louis IX. of I'rance. ITis principal exploit was the reduction of Damietta; but a defeat at Manriourah pi'eparcd the way for his ca])turc at jMinieh. xhe restoration of Damietta and the payment of a largo sum in gold purchased his release, after which he spent four use- less years at Acre previous to his return to France. 8. Saint Louis went upon an Eighth Crusade to Africa, where l)estilence cut liim off. Edward I. of England, then only Prince Edward, afterwards led his Crusaders to the Holy Land, but achieved nothing of consequence there. The fall of Acre in 1291 before Sultan Khalil and his Mamelukes may be regarded ns closing this great series of wa::;. (187) lIlSTn.'lV OF 'II'IIMANY. n^ ^If F t if * GSrvMAlTY (314-1373 A.D.). Division of Empire. — Louis Ic Dcbonnairc, a gentle moukisli scholar, who succeeded his father Charlemagne in 814, felt the task 01* govornlng so much beyond liis strength, that he divided his cMupire among his three sons, giving a preference to Lothairo tlio eldest. This made Louis and Charles discontented; and after ilieir father's death, which occurred in 840, they united their strength and defeated Lothairo at Fontcnaille. Two 843 years after this battle, a treaty was concluded at A^erduii A.D. (S43 A.D.), by which Louis received Germany, and Cliarles France, while Italy was left to Lothairo. Charles the Fat, a son of Louis, became Emperor of all in S84; but liis feeble rule ceased in 887, and out of the Frankish monarchy grew four States — France, Germany, Italy, and Bur- gundy — of which three are still represented on the map of Europe, THE SAXON EJirEROIiS. Carlovinginns ruled in Gennany until 911, when Conrad of Franconia was raised to the throne. At this time live Dukes became prominent, possessing a power largely independent. 13ut of the five — Saxon, Suabian, Bavarian, Franeonian, Tluiringian — the first gained the supremacy, and Saxon Emperors began to rule in Germany. These, five iii number, held the Imperial throne for more than a century. Henry I. (the Fowler). — The union of Saxons and Franco- nians placed Henry, a Saxon, on tl':c throne in Oil). His first task was the subjugation of certain Dukes, who opposed liis elec- tion. But the irruption of Hungarians from the east gave him most trouble. IL; built fortified castles on that frontier, cipiippcil .1 fine cavalry force, and so withstood the fierce ^Magyars, that he broke thfir power f )r a time in the battle of ^Merseburg in 9J);>. Before his death, in 930, he had attained the position of being the greatest monarch in Eurojje. Otho I. (the Great) succeeded his father. A victory on the i ^ Lcchfelc inroads; Austria- uf Lotlu of the \\ .Tolni X iron crc needed 1 named I The lav to the freedom, Otho Kmpero: uion of '. were bai Bon, thr( Otho acted as feelings his fathc the lead air and ] the age Henr: ruled ui] Conrn Tinder 1 1039. Eenr: nnd opp nobles t< during t E vcr Li ■%■ niSTORY OF GEKMAXY. IS I Lcclifcld near Augsburg relieved his territory from Hungarian inroads; and ho then formed an Eastern district — tlio nucleus of Austria — to guard his frontier. Having married Adelaide, widow of Lotliairc, King of Italy, he applied to the Pope for the crown of the Western Emjurc. Ho received it in 1)G2 from Pope eJolin XII., having been previously dignified with the 962 iron crown of the Lombards at Milan. Italy much a.d. needed the strong hand of a reformer. The Pope, sur- iianied Infamous, was forced to give place' to an honestc/ man. The lawless nobles were stripped of power, which was given to the bishops; and beautiful Italy felt again the breath of freedom. Ctho II. married Thoophano, daughter of the Byzantine Kinperor, Romanus II., who gave him as a dowry the domi- nion of Lower Italy. But his efforts to secure his power there were baffled by a defeat at llossano. He died in 983, leaving a son, three years old, to succeed him. Otho III., brought up by his mother and grandmother, who acted as regents, took a sharp revenge, when lie came to have tho feehngs of a num, upon Home, whoso factions had been liustile to liis father and himself. The Consul Crescentius, who had been tho leader of the opposite party, suffered death. But the Italian air and liis Iloman troubles combined to cut off the Emperor at tho age of twenty-two — lOOii a.d. Henry II. of Bavaria was then elected to the empire, and ruled until 1021, when the line of Saxon Emperors ended. FIIANCONIAN' EMPlUiOllS (1024-1125 A.D.). Conrad II., Duke of Pranconia, was then elected Emperor. Tinder him Burgundy was added to tho empire. lie died in 1031). Henry III, his sou, in onler to relieve his poo^do under famino nnd oppression, promulgated the Truce of God^ which obliged all nobles to observe peace from Wednesday evening to Monday, and during the seasons called Advent and Lent. Ever since the time of Otho the Great, the Emperors had been ij.' C: ^ i« ■I % ! \- il ) m^ '!: Hi- i^ii ■ I > 84 IlTSTOnV OF nrr.MAN'Y. ar-customc-l to wield great influcuco in the papal elections, until the llomaii nol)les, who tlesired to sell the oftice, began to claim the right of interference. Henry put this firmly clown, taking the election of Pope into liis own hands (104G). lie also curbed the German dukes, and disponed of their duchies in various ways. Henry IV. succeeded his father. During liis nonage there were contests as to the care of his person ; hut lie fell into the liands of Adalbert. Archbishop of Bremen, wlio encouraged him in luxury and vice. The most striking event of his reign was connected with a serious quarrel that broke out between him and Pope Gregory YIT., earlier known as the 3Ionk Hildebrand. Tlie grand aim of this pontiff being to make the papal power supreme over all Christendom, he issued a decree that all the clergy, who had been appointed by laymen, should resign. This was specially levelled at Henry, who, instead of submitting, appointed an Archbishop of Cologne. The Emperor, moreover, convoked a synod of German bishops, who declared that Gregory had no right to the tiara. The Pope retaliated by 1077 cxcomn-iunicating Henry : and in 1077 the greatest A.D. temporal monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Canossa for three days waiting for admission to the presence of Gregory, v.-ho withdrew liis direful edict only on condition of complete submission. l>ut Henry failed to keep his promises : Ptudolf of Sual>ia was elected Kmperor: and a war began between the rivals. In lOSO Iiud(jlf die(l of a wound. The tide then turned. Henry besieged Rome, wliicli fell in three years. Guido of Kaveniia, under the name of Clement III, was made Pope, Gregory having been driven into exile at Salerno. Then died Hildebrand in 10S5, almost with Ills last breath uttering maledictions on Henry and the Pope of his election. The last days of Henry were troubled by the rebellion of his sons, and continual struggles with the Pukes ainl Counts of the Empire regarding whether the succession should be elective or hereditary. They supported the former plan; he fought for the latter. In 1105 the old Emperor resigned the crown of a realm which under him had been torn with endless f^:. I'CCO iinP' i IIISTOUY or G HUMAN Y. ClVl 1 tliscovd ; find in the following year lie died snddcnly at Li<',u'e. Henry V. continued the "War of Invest iiurcs until the question was compromised between tlic Emperor ;;;■ 1 tlic Pope by the Con- canhtt of Worms^ in 1122. Another and fiercer strugghj wan liilo orrowing to a head. This was the war between tlio inoanw Guelphs and the Ghibellincs, to which further allusion will bo made in the history of Italy. The feud arose from a bequest made to the Church by Countess Matilda of Tuscany. Tlio Ouelphs upheld the Italian cause; the Ghibellincs that of tho Kmpcror. Henry V.. last of the Franconian Emperors, died iu 1125. suABiAN' rMi'Knons :n2j-i2:2 a.p.). After Lothalrc of Saxony had held tho Imperial crown lor twelve years, it passed to Conrad of Suabia, \vho ruled as Conrad III. (llo7~1152). lie stripped of all liis dominions Henry the Proud of Bavaria, who had received also Hanover and Saxony by marriage ; but he restored Saxony to Henry the Lion. His name has been mentioned as a sharer iu tho disasters of the Second Crusade. Frederic Barbarossa (Ked-beard), tho nephew of Conrad, was elected to succeed him. Ho soon engaged in a struggle with th-^ Lombard cities of Northern Italy, now growing strong and pros- porous, and claiming tho rights of repulilics. Milan fell before liim in 11G2; but a strong resistance, called tho Lewjnc of Lvm- hinh/, was framed, and the struggle lasted for nino years, ending at tho battle of Legnano (1176) in the deci. ive triumph of tho (-ities, wiiicli by tho peace of Constance (1183) acquired tho right to govern themselves. A successful war with Henry tho Lion of Siixony also marked his reign. Frederic met his death in Asia Minor, while bound for Pales- tine to fight in tlie aiiird Crusade— 1189. Henry VI., surnamed tho Severe, reigned for scarcely eight years. His con<|uest of Naples and Sicily was marked with exces- sive cruelty. During the minority of Frederic II., Otho IV. managed to M: ' ti 1. ■ \ ;■ ' 1 ; i I': ' ■; 1 ' 1 , ' 1 80 HISTORY OF GERMANY. RGCuro the crown : l>ut tlio Poi^o turned against liim ; and wlion rrederic bccanio old enough, lio received the mipevial power, llesiding" for Iho most part in Italy, Frederic delayed to fulfil his promise of taking the Cross, until the Pope rehukcil him. Frederic ravaged the raj)al territory, and drew down (ci Iiimself the thunder of cxconmiunication. Then ho weiit t'l Palestine in spito of the Pope, and, as heforc related, suececilu I in obtaining Jerusalem by treaty from the Sultan. The rest of Frederic's reign was .spent in an Ita.li;ni war, fomented by the Pope, Gregory IX., who stirred up the Cities against him. A defeat at Parma caused him to retire to Naples, v.herc he died of fever in 1250. Hanseatic Leaf^ue. — In 1247 Hamburg and Lubeck united in a league to defend their shij-jping against pirates, and to extend their commerce. This league, known as the Ilavsa, attracted all the chief cities of the .sea-bord along the German Ocean anr1l -ill m 00 IIISTOnV OF FRANCE. , M in vain Rumnioncd the French clergy to Rome, They Hided witli tlieir King, who audaciously declared, " that thoro wcro kings in Franco hcforo there were l)isho2:is/' Out of this contest grew tlio Sl(({cs-Gcnc)'(iJ, or rejiresentatives of tho three estate??, convened for the first time in 1302. Pliilip, with much cruelty, :ilK)lishcd tlic order of the Knights Templars. The threo sons of Philiii — Louis X., Philip V., Charles IV. — reigned in succes- .sion hetwccn loll and 1328 ; liis daughter Isahella was married to l^^dward II. of England. Jane, tho daughter of Louis Ilutin (ike QnarrcJsomc), was deprived of her chance of succession by Philip her uncle, whos<} adherents secured tho operation of tiio Salic law, excluding Avomen from tho throne. Tlic kingdoni has never thcrelore ^' fallen to the distaff/' With tho death of Charles IV. tho lino of Capet, properly so called, ceased to hold tho French throne ; and that branch of it called the House of Valois commenced to rcign. M i :.' I ; I llii KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY (679-1032 A.D.). During this period a Kingdom of Burgundy, wdiich must not be confounded with tho Duchy of Bui-gundy, that was so .sharp a thorn in tho side of France, rose and fell. It broke off from Franco in 879 imder Boso, under tho name Aries, or Lower Burgundy^ which contained the upper basins of Illione and Saone. lu 934 it was joined by lludolf II. to Upper Burgmidy; and the kingdom expanded to tho delt:; of tho Rhone, and over a great part of Switzerland. But in 1032 the stronger power of Germany absorbed it, ITALY (774-1305 A.D.}. Wg must noAV view the history of Italy in four sections : — 1. Northern Italy under tho Franks and tho Emperors; 2. Papal Italy; 3. Southern Italy ; 4. Venice. Northern Italy.— The defeat of tho Lombar.ls in 774 left IIT?TOn\ >V ITALY. M Charlemagne master of NoiMicvu Ital '. lu SUO lir -is .< wnetl at St. Peter's as Emperor oi' tlio Romans. Ill 8^8 tlio Dukes of Spoleto and Friuli contested tlio crown ; (ind a iieriod of confusion followed, wMdi ,ok tlio Ftron!^ Iiaitd <)f the Kmporor Otho I. to bring to some degree of order. TIij power of the Emperors in Italy then gradually declined, wliib tliat of tlio Lombard Cities grew strong, in spite of bitter ani- mosities among tliemselvcs. The Lombard League \s formed in 11G7; and the rcaco of Constance in 1183 sccuica the iudc- pcndencc of the cities. The growth of tho contest between Guelphs and Ghlbollino.; lias been already noticed. It devastated the land, but stimulated thii intellect of Italy, some of whoso greatest men belonged to this time. Papal Italy. — We have already seen how tho Pope became a temporal sovereign. It took some furth^.r tinio to consolidate Iiis power. . Under Leo III. (795-SlG) tho Arians were suppressed In Spain and Italy; Boniface preached tho supremacy of the Popo in Germany; and the Pontiff acquired tho rank of first Bishop in the West, although lie still continued to bo a vassal of the Prankish Monarch. During tho anarchy whicli arose in Italy under the later Carlovingians, tho power of tho Popo steadily increased, This however, as already told, met with a decided check from tho German Emperors, who claimed and exercised the right of inter- fering in the Papal election. It was midcr Gregory VII. that the contest between Emperor and Pope blazed most fiercely. This great Pontiff (1073-85), whose original name was Ililde- brand, was a Tuscan. When lie assumed the tiara, simony (i.e., the selling of ecclesiastical preferments) was rife everywhere ; and he set himself to root out tho evil. Upon this point he came into collision with tho Emperor Henry IV. — with what result we have seen. Gregory died at Salerno, wdiither he had retired upon the triumph of Henry. He, like our AVolsey, had his famous " last words " — *' I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." {■•: * • '^.A^%>^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / O lo ,<° m^ #o^ i.<' m^- "^ ^ £?. #k 1.0 I.I |50 '"'■= 1^ IIIIM ^ m S m IIM 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 1 ^^ ^ 6" — ► p^. V] "# %, # % .> /A PViri+rinpqnhip Sciences Corporation 4^ \ iV \\ ^^ V c> «^ c^? <^::% ,<-^ a^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 k ^J /l^. 6^ no IIISTOnv OF ITAI.V I : f- I It was umloi' Th'ban U. that tlio Orusailcs began. Tlic qiiarvel about Invest itiiros was not settled until 1122, under Pope Calixtus TT., wlion a oomjn'omise was made, assigning to tlie ro2)(j tlie right of investing bishops with ring and crozier, and to tho i^nipcror the conferring of tlie sceptre in sign of temporal power. The language of the Popes thenceforward grew more aiitliori- (ative, reaching even tho point of speaking of Germany as a Papal i'.d. "When Adrian IV. granted Ireland to Henry II., he did so on tho ground that all islands were tlio property of St. Peter. Innocent in. (1198-1210) vastly increased the Papal jiowor. lie forced tho Imperial Prefect at Konie to swear allegiance to liiiu. IIo set on foot tho Crusade that crushed tho Alhigenses. lie ]iuml)led King John of England, and imposed a tribute upon bim. Ill fact he claimed to he Sovereign of Europe — an earthly King of kings. Tho extirpation of lieresy and tho exaltation of tlie tiara over every diadem in Christendom — these ■were tho objects he pursued with unflinching rigour. This great Pontiff died in 121G at Perugia, after having raised tho Papacy to tho greatest power it attained. To his time was duo tho institution of monastic orders — the Dominicans or IJlackfriars, and the Franciscans; and after hh death the terrible machinery of the Inquisition was put in force. The greed of the clergy for money, combined with tlie corrup- tion of tho Roman Court, excited anger in many lands ; hut tho Popes tried to wield a still more despotic power. Tho quarrel reached a crisis between Boniface VIII. (1294-1.303) and Philip tlie Fair of Franco. It was like the contest between Henry IV. and Hildcbrand. Philip forbade tnc French clergy to pay any- thing without leave. He arrested tho Papal Legato, and burned the Papal Imlls. Boniface excommunicated him, and confoned France on the Emperor Albert I. Philip retorted that the Pope's election Avas illegal , and, going further, sent Nogarct into Italy to seize the sacred person of the Pontiff. A fever, arising from rage, killed Boniface ; and las successor, yielding the point, can- celled the bull of excommunication. Southern Italy.— After the death of Charlemagne the Arabs ill K Ilf IIISTOKY OF nALV. 93 conquered Sicily, toolv Tlail. mid plundered Rome. Malta fell into tlieir power in 870; I'ut in tlie following year Louis II. ex- pelled til em from Bari. The Arab and the Greek Avero then engaged in constant wars, until the Othos of Germany sought to fiubdue the southern peninsula; thi.s caused a union against Iho common foe between the recent enemies, who triumphed. A band of Norman adventurers did good service, soon after the year 1000, in repelling Saracen pirates from Salerno. They soon made a lodgment for themselves in this luxurious country, llobert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, two handsome daring Normans, subdued Apulia and Calabria. In battle with the Byzantine troops the former won the field of Durazzo. The latter took Sicily from the Moslems. Roger II. succeeded his father Robert as King of Naples and Sicily, and fixed liis capital at Palermo. He drove both Greeks and Arabs from his realm. The crown of Naples and Sicily was transferred from the Normans to a prince of the llohenstaufens by the marriage of the Kmperor Henry YI. to Constant ia, daughter of Roger II. "When she died. Innocent HI., for his own purposes, became guardian of young Frederic II. This prince made Naples his capital. After the reign of Com*ad there was a strngglo for the crown of Naples between Manfred, Frederic's illegitimate son, and Charles of Anjou, the nominee of the Pope. The death of Manfred and the execution of Conradin, the last heir of his name, led to a Btriiggle between Charles of Anjou and Peter of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter. Naples declared for the former; Sicily for the latter : and before the year in which both died (P285), the island and the mainland had become separate realms. A striking incident in Italian history is known by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The execution of the handsome young Conradin by Charles of Anjou, the French compieror of Naples, festered in the hearts of the Italians, with whom 1282 the vcnddta is often an hereditary duty. This feeling A.D. blazed out into massacre on the 30th of 3Iarcli 1282, at ralermo. It ia said that a Frenchman iusiulted a lady in the cathe- ^ 'H ■(; \Lk v. -rm^ lis ■ 1 MM ■ I" ,i Mil, ^^^, /. l)i THE nYZAN*TTKE EMrlRE. ^IJ' ) !'- • ^' f tl m f-,iii v\ dral. However that may have been, the iirst notes of the vpspcr- bell had seaicely rung, when every stiletto leaped from its sheath; and Ly next dawn there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily! Venice.— -On the lagoon.s at the mouth of the Brenta a colony of iibhermen and salt-makers huilt a city, over which ruled a Bo-c. Its patron saint was Saint Mark ; its foundation dated from 809. And when the Crusades caused the silks, gems, mnl spices of the 3!:ast to flow into Europe, the commerce centred L. thijj Queen of the Adriatic. Genoa grew rich from the same source. One of the most celebrated of the early Doges was " blind old Dandolo,'* who, at the age of m'uety, in spite of Ids blindness, lod the successful attack of the Crusaders upon Constautinoj)le iu 1204, and i.fused the Imperial crown, which they offered hini iu adiraration. Venlco gradually acquired Balmatia, the :^Iorca, Candia, and Cyprus. For a time she monopolized the East Indian trade. It was about this time (1275) that Marco Polo, a great Venetian traveller, crossed Asia, visiting Kublai Khan in Chinese Tartary, and having passed through China to the racific, sailed by Ceylon back to the Persian aulf. THE BYZANTINE EMPIEE (867-1261 A.D.}. The Macedonian Dynasty (807-1050).-- This dvnnsty was founded in 807 by Jjaslllus I., who reigned from 807 to 880. iris successor was Leo \L (880-911), surnamed tlie Plulosopher. I3ut John Zimisces (909-975) was the most famous of tlic lino. The empire was then pressed by foes on tlirec sides— Arabs, l^ulgarians, and llusslaus. During John's reign the last, uudeJ a savage leader named Swastoslof, penetrated as far south as Adrianople ; but the Emperor drove him back upon the Danube. This was a splendid period in JJyzantine history. 'J'he silks and woollen cloths of ConstantIno])le were prized everywhere ; and the gorgeousness of the Court struck wonder into euvovg from the infant states of the West. liusil II., who couiiuered the Bulgarians, left tlio throne iu THE BYZANTINE EMflRE. 05 1028 to liib daughter Zoe. She murdered lier liu.sband to raiso a Paphlagoniaii to the throne; hut this favourite, in a fit of remorse, rejected the guilty Hi»lendour. Zoo then made his cousin Michael Cahipliatcs emperor ; hut his disohedieucc cost him a throne and his Bight. Her hist choice was Constantino Mono- maehus. Theodora, sister of the wicked Zoe, was the hist of tho Macedonian lino, which clof^od in 105G. The Comneni (1057-1185).— Tho wise hut infirm Isaac Com- nenus was elected to the throne hy the army. His rctirenu nt led to tlio appointment of Constant ine Ducas, against whom the ►Scljtik Turks made successful inroads from tlieir caj)Ital of Ico- nium in Asia Minor. Ills widow Eudocia married a soldier of fortune named Komanus Diogenes, who was made prisoner hy the 8eljuks. When released, lie found his wife in captivity and his throne cxnipled. He was then hlinded. The Seljuks of Asia and the Normans of South Italy were l)ressing the empire so hard that Isaac and Alexius, nephews of Isaac Coninenus, were placed in command. The latter of these hecame Emperor in lOSl. ^ It was in his reign (1081-1118) that the sons of Tancred the Norman wrested from the Greeks the last remains of the Ex- archate in Italy. Otic of them, indeed, Kobert Guiseard, carried the war across the Ionian Sea, and hcsieged Durazzo ; where, in si)ite of the bravo A'aranglans — a Norman body-guard of the ]>yzantiiicl']mperor — the victory rested witli the invaders (1081). Great was the dismay of Alexius, when the half-million of wild warriors, bound on the First Crusade, came trooping into Con- stantinople ; and great was his roller, when he saw them safe in Asia, engaged with the Seljuks. The succeeding Comncnl— John II. and Manuel I.— held their own, although the hitter was pressed in 1148 by lloger of Sicily, because he tried to tliwait (lie movements of the Second Crusade. 'I'hc murder of Alexius II. by Andronlcus was punished in 1185, when Isaac Angelus dethroned and slew the murderer. House of Angelo (1185-1201). — Isaac was dethroned and hlinded by his brother Alexius ; whereupon his bou Alexius IV. U 'liny • i.' it' ' - 'I i. M "I- MM f : '\ OG Tin: r.YZAXTTXK KArrrnr:. • » in ^H fl Rouglit tlic aitl of the Crusaders, then engaged in warring on be- half of Venice against Palinatia. The French and the Venetians handed togetlier against Constantinople, to whieli they sailee, resembled Kdward II. in his nature and his fato. His reign was troubled with discontent among the Commons, which blazed out into an insurrection headed by Wat Tyler. The death of the rebel, who was .struck to the ground in Smithfield by Walworth, the Lord flavor, put an end to the rising. TIio jealous .struggles of the King's uncles formed another source of trouble. In this reign Wyeliffe's disciples, called Lollards, began to preach vigorously against the Church of Home. Richard was deposed by Henry Duke of Hereford, son of John of Gaunt; and in a few months was murdered at Ponte- fract Castle. With him ended the direct I'lantagcnet lino in 139D. SCOTLAND (843-132D A.D.) The story of Duncan and 3Iacbeth derives from the play of Shaksperc an interest greater than it really Jias in Scottish his- tory. Duncan was certainly slain; but it was in daylight at Rothgowan— a smith's hut, as some consider the wordto nican. His son Malcolm Canmorc, escaping to England, got from K.l- ward the Confessor aid, whicli enabled him to recover his father's throne. Malcolm III. (1050-93) married a Saxon princess, ^largaret, who did much to soften the barbarism of the Scottish people. The shires of Northumberland and Cumberland then formed a district^contested fiercely between Scotland and England. Dur- ing an incursion southward Malcolm was killed at Alnwick. In the reign of David L (1124-53) was fought the battle of the Stan.lard. Espousing the cause of Matilda Plantagcnct, David met an English army on the Moor of Northallerton, and was signally defeated (1138). David founded many rcli^'ioui n msTor.v or ?!f'(rrr..\vn. 101 1 IM" ni "■iM Iiiiuscs. anioiiL^ wnicli wno tlic ubbcys ( il.l) Unl Vl'ooU illU 1 Mel lOSO. M 111 1153 lie was louud dead in bed willi liii luiiids joined, us if iu j)rayor. After tlic reign of Malcolm the Maiden (1153-05), who ceded lo Knojland all right over Cuinl)crland and Northumberland, William the Lion ascended the Scottish throne. Ilis reign — tlie longest in Scottish lustory (11G5-1214) — is chiefly notable for his submission to the English King Henry II., "wliosc prisoner he became at Almvick iu 1174. In order to obtain his freedom, he agreed to hold Scothmd as a fief of tlic English Crown, sm-render- ingat the same thne live castles — Edinbm-gh, Stirling, Roxburgh, Jedlmrgh, and Berwick. Long before William died, llichard T. of England, who was gathering in money on every side to meet tlio cost of a Crusade, restored the freedom of Scotland for 10,000 merks. Alexander IT. was chiefly engaged in wars with the Celts and the English. Ilis successor, Alexander III., played the same part in repressing Norwegian incursions as English Alfred had played in repelling the Danes. Ilaco, King of Norway, having passed from the conquest of Bute and Anan to the Ayrshire coast, was defeated at Largs (1203) and «leprived of the Hebrides. Alexander curbed the nobles and administered a purer justice to his subjects. Ills death left the crown to Margaret his grand- daughter, the 3Iaid of Norway ; but she died at Orkney in 1290. Hubert Bruce and John Baliol, both descended from David I., then claimed the crown. Edward I. of England, reviving the cancelled vassalage of Scotland, put Baliol on the throne, but soon found a pretext for removing him and invading Scotland. At this crisis William Wallace arose. Having successfully stormed several castles, he met the English at Stirling Bridge (1297) and completely routed them. Next year he was 1297 defeated at Falkirk; and was soon afterwards betrayed a.d, into the hands of the English, who hanged him. The great Bruce, grandson of Baliol's rival, now came into prominence. The sacrilegious blow, by which Bruce laid Comyn Lis rival bleeding on the altar-steps at Dumfries, cost him many ijini. 11' h."M i I-- m 10: M f i) ti SCOTLAND AND IltELAND. fnonds; l,i,i ],o was crownal in 1.300. The no^rs evoJ^l n The Initio of Bannockl.urn r.Tnnn 24 l:n4) .vaq f1>. 13U iiUr, ,„ts a«g in fr„ut cE the So„(tM, li„e, -ami" ^.... of s,,, ,, , , ,,^ , .„^^ rw;::r ; ; :': li.'li iiito a (li.-i^-raci'fiil (|i„l,i " K.hvaivl ir. In.sk.goa liorwia- vainly in 1310 • !„ loo, -.^ ;. l>a,Iian,ont adcnowl.lgea „,o i,!,,,.pc„!,i ^stfl u ^ '""' ■" ""-• i"ll""j,- year llulert IJrucc die'l. ' lEElASD (1005-1313 A.D.). The ffroat opponent of the Banes in Ireland wi. Kin,, 11 • Boru, who fought tu-cntv-r.vo battles (hJl.T ^ ^^'"S I^'"'" lacing at Clont^vf in nil U^^'J^t^ ^'^ "T f '"'""' 111 lolS at Pa^rlier near Duudalk. ^ Ji .'t STATES PJSIKG IKTO STRENGTH. .u1?''a7^^'' ^''''' "'^"'"^^ '^^•^ ^^^^^^^^^^« "^ '^^^ Iberian Tenin. .wm an STATES IlISIXO INTO STllENGTII. 103 AlplionfiO VI. of Castile resigned Portugal to ]m cousin, Ilonfy of Buvgimdy, iu 1005. The Saracens received a decisive bl(j\v at Tolosa ill I'Jl'i ; and were soon reduced to the possession ol only Granada, Switzerland during tlio nintli century Lelongeil to tlio Icing- dom of Ijurgundy, l)Ut ^vas afterwards attached to the lloniano- Germanic Kinpire. Among its small, semi-independent Canton>;, those round the head of Lake Luccrn rose to prominence. One of these, Sclnjw::^ gave its name to the whole country. Northern Europe. — The Xorsemen appear in history as pirates ahout the time of Kghert. In Vanish history Gorni the Old f^hines out, as ruler of Jutland and the Danish Isles in 8G3. lie was virtually the founder of Pennuuk. Harold Ilaarfagcr of Norway was a contemporary of Alfred. After the death of Canute, who added England to his realm, Sweyn Kstritson in 1047 estahlished a new dynasty in Denmark. Of this the most powerful was Waldomar I. (1157-8-) and Canute YI., under whom Pomcrania, Ilolstein, and Esthonia were suhdued. ]>ut iu 1227 the defeat of Bornhovede cost Denmark all these new possessions. The Kings of Norma jj turned much of their force upon the British Isles, where they came to possess the Hebrides, Man, and even Cantvro. King Olav introduced Christianity into Norway, whence it spread to Iceland, and even to Greenland ahout 1000 A.D. I'liis caused a groat contention in Sweden, where the Pagans of Upsala elected a Si'-rrhcr king in opposition to the StoJcil king of the Christians. The hitter were soon extirpated. The great power of Itussia was founded in a little nucleus called Novgorod, hy Iturio in 802. His daughter-in-law, Olga, estahlished there the Christianity of the Greek Church. ]]ut it was Waldlmir the Great who, ahout 1000, planted this creed firmly iu Russia. Prussia. — ^Tho fierce Borussi having troubled Poland, a luili- tary brotherhood, called the Short-swords, instituted by llie Bishop of lllga in 1201, were sent against them in vain. A ''iilil #^'flii!i ,!• ^■'.■i i ■ ': 1, Mi;. ( I 101 STATKS IirsiXa INTO STKEXGTir. Ktvor.gov forcG was then summoned— tlio cnisading order of Teutonic Kniglits, wlio from tlieir cai)ital of Thorn waged a fierce nn^d successful, war against tlie native tribes for fifty years. ■\Vlien tlie conquest was complete, the Order fixed their capitul fit Marienberg. These soldiers ruled Prussia until 14()G. Poland.— ^J^hc duchy of Tolonia, inhabited by the Sclavonians, expanded into the kingdom of Poland about 1025 under Albert of Prague. For a time its existence was a ceaseless struggle with Germany. Its chief city was Cracow. Hungary.— Pannonia, conciuered by the ^fagyars from :\rounfc Ural, grew into the kingdom of Hungary. Stephen the Saint taught the nation Christianity about 1000, and organized tl,,i state. Their worst foes came from Asia in the person of invad- ing Moguls, wdio in 12-11 reduced the basin of the Thelss to a desert. I I! rt f / h ' ■M i f t THIRD PERIOD OF THE .MIDDLE AGES. PJIOM 1-291 A.D, TO lirij A.D. The leading events and features of the Third Pci'^.d nf n,,, Middle Ages consist of, — 1. The brilliance of Italian literature and ])ower, csneciallv at r lorence and Ivome. 2. The successful struggle of Switzerland against Austi-ja ; a contest ill which infantry jn-oved victorious over mailed knighthood. ^ 8. Tlie struggle for one hundred years between Ihigland and France, resulting in the almost complete expuLsion ..f the former from the Continent. 4. The beginnings of the Rcf irmallon. as sln.wn in ih.- lives of 'W^'ycliffe, IIuss, and Jerome. 5. The Asiatic conquests of Timor (h(> Tartar. (). The invention of Printintr. 7. The fall of the ]3yzantiiie Empire. 8. The successful accomplisliment of two great voyages- ih-it of Columbus in 141J2, opening the West— thai of A'a.sco'di Gama in 1498, opening the East, to commerce. UISTORY OF GERM ANY. 100 ho t GERMANY '1273-1493). THE IIArSBURGS AND OTHER EMrEROKS. Rudolf I., ^v]lo took Ills name of Ilaps'burg from the Ilawlv'n Castle on thu river Aar in Switzerland, was chosen Er.iperor iu 127o, \\lien ho was engaged i?i the siege of Basle. His domin- ion extended over the Aargau and other portions of Switzerland. Pope Gregory X. acknowledged him as Emperor, the more readily t^inco lludolf gave up all jurisdiction over Home, Ancona, and Hpoleto, retaining only the right of investing new hishops. Ilia chief opponent was Ottocar of Bohemia, from whom lie wrested Austria, Styria, and Carniola, which ho made over to his son Albert, thus founding the dominion of the Austrian Empire, lludolf ruled Germany wisely with a strong hand, devoting himself to the reduction of rcjhhor-nohles, and the cucourugemeut of commercial towns. He died in 1*201. A struggle between Adolf of Nassau, and Albert, Rudolf's son, resulted iu 1298 in the success of ;ho latter. Albert I. was the Huko of Austria under whoso oppressive rule the Swiss Cantons made their remarkable rising for independ- ence. Tlie Tliree Forest Cantons — Schwintz, Uri, and Underwal- den — were those in which the flamo broke out. And it centred at first in the case of William Tell. Kefusing to bow before the ducal cap of Austria, set on a pole at Altorf, Tell was forced to try his famous shot. And, when he was being carried in chains across the lake, and was bidden to steer the boat in a squall, ho contrived to leap ashore. Gesler fell a victim to a bolt from his deadly cross-bow after a time (1308). AVlicu Albeit heard of this, he hurried to Switzerland, where liL- met his death. Having crossed the Reuss in a boat without liis guards, he was murdered by his nephew, John of Suubia (l;]()s). Death })rev(Mitod Henry of Luxemburg, the next Emperor, fioiii secuviiig Italy with a firm grasp: and his successor, Louis of Bavaria, who gained the Empire by the victory of Muhldorf -^ •! '¥ .. | f 4 ' ' 1' ?■ - ■ . i. M •*.l 100 IIISTOrvY OF GERMANY. over Frcaorie of Austria, continued to strni^jrle ^-itli tlie Pope and the King of Naples. The Pontiff used the ohl weapons of curse and interdict : but six of the German Electors united at llensc (1338) to maintain tlio cause of Germany against Italy. The principal event in the reign of Charles IV. of Bohemia, who next secured the imperial crown, was the publication at Nureml.erg of the Oohlen Jhdl (13oG), which settled the numher of Electors and the laws of election to the German Enii-iro. Tho Seven Electors were : — 1, ArcM)Isliop of Mainz. 2. ArcliLishop of Treves, S. Archbisliop of Colo^'ne. 4. King of Uoliemia. 5. Count Palatine of the Rhine. 6. Duke of Saxony. '. Margrave of Brandenburg. The reign of Charles lasted for thirty-one years (1347-78). After a period of thirty-two years, during which Wonceslaus of Bohemia, Frederic of Brunswick, and Kupert of tho Khiuo reigned in succession, tho Empire devolved on Sigismund Kinj of Hungary (1410^37), a younger son of Charles lY. Sigismund underwent reverses of fortune, before he attained to tlio I'hnplre. lie was not popular in Hungary, and a defeat hy tlie WallacLians and Turks at Nicopolis (1390) drove him o.s an exile to Piliudes, Constantinople, and Venice. When he returned to Hungary, tlie discontented nohles imprisoned him; hut ho escaped, defeated his foes, and resumed tho crown. He ruled over P>ohemia too; .ind hecoming Emiuu'or, secured Moravia, Ijrandeuhurg, and Silesia. The story of John ITuss, a disciple of our English Wycliffo, casts a dark stain on Sigismund. As rector of tho university of Prague, this man preached against tho Pope, purgatory, and indulgences. Tho Archl)ishop of Prague tried in vain to silence him. Excommunication drove him from Prague, hut lio after- wards returned holder than ever. He was then summoned to attend the Council of Constance j to which ho went, armed with AUSTRIA AND STVITZERLAKD. 107 a Riifc-coiKluct from Sigismund. There he was arrested and bumed. Jerome his disciple soon shared his fate. Sigis- mund paid dearly for his treachery, for a war flamed up 1415 in all Boheuiia, where Zisca led the Hussite armies and a.d. defeated the imperial troops in many battles. Peace was not concluded until 1437, when with mucli difficulty the Council of Basel effected a compromise. Proeopius led the Hussites after the death of Zisca. Sigismund visited Franco and England. Ilis death in 1437 caused the Empire to pass to the Austrian line. AUSTRIAN EMPEROrvS FROM 1437. The short reign of An3ert II. was followed by the long reign of his cousin Frederic III. (1440-1493), who had been i)ulve of Styria. This prince, who was more devoted to the study of botany and alchemy than to the toils of empire, had views so ambitious that ho inscribed on his palaces the vowels, A. E. I. 0. U. : for Austria est imperare orhi imiverso. But his powers fell short of his plans. He managed so badly that he was kept in constant trouble by wars in Hungary and Bohemia, and in- testine feuds throughout the Empire. But he succeeded in cementing one of the most important marriages of mediajval history, when he secured Mary of Burgundy, the rich heiress cf Charles the Bold, as a wife for his son Maximilian (1477). It i 5 notable also that the invention of printing took place in Germany or Holland during this reign. In 148G Maximilian was made King of the Romans. SWITZERLAND (1264-1481). The Hapsburg family inherited the possessions of Kyburg in 12G4, and soon afterwards, by the election of Rudolf to the Empire, as already narrated, gained ascendency in Europe. Duke Albert's oj^prcssion of the Swiss, and the resistance of Tell have been spoken of. This was only a beginning. DukQ n if ii! ; 'fli ' ■ ' i^ 1 * 1 t ■ : 1 1 1 '1 ■ 1 . V ;^ii 1 ■•' : ( ■ , ^ ■'liH tt li : * ' ?:{■(■%■ 'ih\ •i-k, I* 4 1 •4 lOS fiWITZEnLAXD AND ITALY. V.- Leopold, Albert's son, went into Switzerland in 1315 to punish the rebels ; but he was caught with his army in the narrow pass of Morgarten, and utterly defeated by the mountaineers. Then ■was formed a league, which was a revival of the old coalition of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ; and soon after 1350 the list of the Eight Cantons was complete. There was, however, another battle to bo fought : it took phu-e at Scmpach in 1386, when Arnold of Wiulvelried devoted his life to his country. The victory of Nefels followed ; and in 1303 the Sempach Convention united more firndy the cantons, now free from the Austrian voice. In the following century Switzerland gathered strength ; but it was severely tested in 143G by a civil war, in which the cantons allied themselves against Zurich. The siege of Zurich was formed ; and then the French came to the aid of the citizens. In 1452 the Austrians lost their hold on Switzerland, which was soon afterwards engaged in a fierce struggle with Charles the 15old of Burgundy. In this contest the Swiss shepherds es- tablished their character as soldiers, especially in the battles of Gransi ,. and Morat (1476), in both of which Cliarles was defeated. A heap of bones, covered with grass, long continued to mark the scene of the latter. The Duke of Burgundy fought his last field in a winter-storm at Nancy in 1477, when the Swiss were again victors. His body was found among the trampled and bloody snow. Henceforth Burgundy was powerless either against Franco or Switzerland. The Convention of Stanz admitted Solcurc and Freiburg to the Helvetian Union. t3 ITALY (1305-1600). The history of Italy divides itself into several branches, which must be taken in succession, including Milan, Tuscany, Genoa, Savoy, Venice, the Papacy, Naples, and Sicily. Milan, which was the leading republic city in central Lom- bardy, was ruled for one hundred and fifty-nine years (1288-1447) UISTOIIY OF ITALY. 109 by a family named Vhconti^ of which the founder was ^latteo. Having wrested the power from the liands of the DeUa Torre faction, he incurred the wrath of Pope John XXII., by appoint- ing his son Giovanni to the see of Mihan. The bull of excom- munication was recalled by another Pontiff ; but it finally broko the spirit of Matteo, who died in 1C41. Francis Sforza^ a soldier of fortune, who married Bianca the daughter of the last of the Visconti, made himself master of ^lilan in 1450. The Sfurzas ruled this capital of Lombardy for half a century, soon after which it became an Austrian possession. Ludovico Sforza, surnamed the Moor from his dark complexion, liaving a quarrel with Ferdinand of Naples, invited the French to his aid, and Charles VIII. invaded Naples. But Ludovico soon saw tlie necessity of driving out the foreign soldiers. Louis XII. of France took Milan in 1499 ; but a revolution restored the dukedom to Ludovico. The defection of his Swiss guards placed // Moro in a French prison, where he died. In Tuscany Florence and Pisa were the centres of power and Bplendour at this time. Pisa equipped a fleet, and embarked in war with Genoa, until the naval cugagemcnt off Meloria in 12G4 crippled her power, and rendered her an easy prey to Florence. Florence fell in 1250 under a democratic magistracy called tho Si'jnoria. The Guelph faction then split into the Bianclu and the Kcri, or White and Black. "SValter Brienne, Duke of Athens, a leader of Free Lances, seized the city in 1342. But out of all change and trouble sprang the illustrious house of Medici, The first of these to rule the state, though under no distinct name of authoi'iy, was Cosmo di Medici, son of Giovanni, tho money-changer. lie died in 14G4, honoured with the title of " Father of his country." Lorenzo, frustrating a conspiracy of tho Pazzi, then became ruler of Florence, in room of his grandfather. A lyric poet and student of Plato, Lorenzo encouraged art and letters. He spent much money and care in tho collection of Eastern MSS.; and afforded aid and refuge to the scholars of Constantinople scattered by the fall of that learned city. In many ways he earned liia " j ■1 ' A.n i , !• II 1 ' ■ If! ' ^1 • ■ ■' : 'I i ' t ! i. ■( « ! ■.^ It,-: 'I. ^M H| I ■r t I 1 * 1 !.l !1f no HISTORY OF ITALY. iianio of the jhvjnificent. A few years before liis dcatli, wliieli liapi^cncil ill 1492, the Italian rcfonaer Savonarola, afterwards burned for heresy, began to preach at Florence. Lorenzo's second son Giovanni transferred the family splendour to Home, %vhen lie became Pope as Leo X. The Florentine re- public came to an end in 1537, Avhcn one of the 3Iedici was mado Duke. Genoa.— After liaving crushed Pisa as a rival by sea, Genoa came into collision with Venice. This was partly caused by the favour sliown to the Genoese by the Byzantine Empire. Owing to aid given in the wresting of Constantinople from the liatins, Michael Palreologus permitted the Genoese to occupy the .suburb of Pcra, whence they extended their trade into the Black Sea. Genoa at one time (1378) was so near victory that her ships were in tlie lagoons of Venice, and her soldiers camped upon the islet of Chioggia. But Venice made a desperate eflbrt, besieged the island, and forced the Genoese to an ignominious surrender. At home Genoa was troubled with Guel])!! and Ghibelline feuds, in which the Fieschi on the one side and the Doria on the other were the principal contending families. The latter have given more than one great name to Italian history. The defeat at Chioggia and the fall of Constantinople were among the chief causes of the decline of power in Genoa, The influence of 3Iilau prevailed there for a long time. Venice. — The rise of Venice has been already noticed. Ilcr golden period of commerce -was now past : and that darkly romantic time had come, when the Council of Ten (1325) and the still more terrible and mysterious Three (1454) held the threads of life and death in Venice. The dagger — the poisoned flower or ring — the close gondola — the still deep canal were all at hand as the instruments of secret execution wrought upon those whose names were branded with suspicion. Marino Faliero, who was beheaded in 1355 for conspiracy against the State; and Francesco Foscari, under whom Lombardy was conquered, but who died an exile, were among the great Doges of this period. [«■ ' tllSTOnY OP ITAT.Y. Ill Venice clM good service to Europe by (IcfcatJn.^ tlic Tmlciis'i fleets ill tlic Mediterranean. Her decline may be dated from tlie voyage of Vasco (1498) and the League of Cambray (1508). Papal Power, — For seventy-two years (1305-77) the Pope.i dwelt at Avignon in the south of France. Komc was meanwlulo convulsed witli internal feuds among great families such as the Colonnas, the Savelli, and the Orsini, Out of these struggles arose Rienzi, the last of the Tribunes. This scholar, a man of humble birth but a friend of Petrarch the poet, took advantage of Stephen Colonna's absence to seize the chief power in Rome. The nobles being expelled, he ruled for about seven months, until his vanity estranged the citizens, and, when a time of peril came, none gathered to his side. ]7-1453). A naval victory at Sluys in 1340, and, yet more decisive, that victory at Cre^y, won chiefly by the English archers, in 1340, gave the English power predominance. The capture of Calais in 1347 afforded to tho islanders a firm footing in France. Tho ravages of the Black Plague then caused war to languish for a time. The struggle centred for a time in Southern France, until John the next King was taken prisoner at Poitiers, where the French !l iiTSTonY or rnAxcE. 113 Rufi'orca a groat ilofcat at tlic liands of tlio Black Prince in 1350. The captive moiiavch was conducteil \vlt]» niuclj ccreiiiouy to Lon- don, wlicre lie lived in the Savoy. Edward concluded the Treaty of Brctigni with Franco in 13C0, but John found his people so turbulent that lie left them to the Dauphin and returned to Lis prison, where he died in 13G4. Charles V. (13G4-80), who succeeded John, was surnamcd the Wise. lie had to aid liiin against the English the sword of iJertrand du GnescHn, one of the greatest soldiers France lias producefcB ^^^^H r'^^^ ^H i;fflj ^^^^B iitHU ^H |uH , J ^^^^H I'^^mII ' ^^^^B r f f f^T ^^^H )'.;.« till • ^^^V ^^^^^H ^^H ^^B ^^^^B - ^^^H H 1: '^^1 '' ^^^^^^B t 1 ^^H 1 ^^^H h. ^^1 ^ ^^H " |^H> 'i ^^^^^^^^B II ^^H: •'. ^^H "■^ ^^■•' ^^K ^* ■•''1 fi. ^^■' ^^^^^^^Bi ' ^h! '' H> '|i i' ^^^B * '^ ^^^■■' Wm' ' ^^H: ' ^ ^^^^B > ^m -An] ■' M ^1 iMi : ^^^^^^K ^^^H .1, ]\ ^^^^^^^H I'c i^;ji territory of tlic French King slirank so iiuicli that there wns lllf!»» mockery in calling him, as lie wan called, " King of IJourges." TliG struggle between France ami England at last centred in Orleans, to wliicli Salisbury and Talbot with an English hurt laid siege. Tlie siege became a blockade; and the hopes of France, wasted almost to despair, were saved by a peasant girl, the famous Joan of Arc, who, riding on n black horse wiili u holy banner in her hands, led a strong reinforcement into the city. She then fulfilled her destiny by crowning Charles at 1429 Rhelms (1420). This turned the tide. Joan, made pri- A.D. soner by the Knglish, was burned at llouen (1431); but the work she inaugurated went on steadily to success. Burgundy became reconciled to the King — he had prcvIo»isly supported the English — and Charles ruled in reality after 1437. This monarch created a standing army, and turned it to so good account, that, in spite of all that valiant John Talbot could do, Bordeaux fell in 1453, leaving England no footing in France except Calais. The rebellion and wickedness of the Dauphin embittered the later life of Charles, who died in 14G1, Louis XI. (14C1-83) was a strange mixture of craft, cruelty, and superstition. lie had not been long on the throne until the nobles, perceiving that the monarcliy was fast verging to a des- potism, took up arms .against him in the War of the VuUlc Good (14G5). The ruling spirit of this league was Charles the Bohl, Count of Charolais, afterwards Duke of Burgundy. The v/ar ended by the concession on the King's part of all the points in dispute, especially those regarding remission of taxes. An inva- sion of France by Edward IV. of Englaml was staved oil* by Louis, "who bribed so skilfully that he obtained the Treaty of Pecquigny. Louis had removed previous foes by poison: he was now strong enough for a public revenge ; and the head of the Constable St. Pol, who had been among the rebel nobles, fell under the headsman's sword at Paris in 1475. How the Swiss rose against the Duke of Burgundy and defeated him at Granson and Morat; and how, to the great joy of Louis, Charles the Bold lost Lis life at Naucy (1477), have been already uurrattid. IIISTOUY OF FllANCE. 113 Tl»o liand of Mary of Ijiirgimdy, tlic liclicss of Charles, was a fi^rcat prize, for Lcsidcs Ijiiryiiiuly .she rulLvl all Flaiuk-rs and the Low CVuntries. Louis rosolvcd to marry lior to the l)aii[)lnii, pro- posinLj to take possession at once in lils sou's name of lier terri- tories. But she preferred Maximilian, the Emperor's Boii, to whom yhe was married in 1477. After this Louiti 1477 prepared to try his dead vassal, Charles of Burgundy, a.d. fur treason, for the purpose of confiscating his estates. The trial was ahandoned; hut ]\raxiniilian took up arms. The battle of Guinegate decided nothing, hut taught Louis the ucces- bity of training a large infantry force for war. As Louis grew old, his superstition and cruelty increased. lie used to wear little lead images of saints in his hat, and would often take them out and implore them with fervent prayers. In 1478 lie caused the Duke of Nemours to be beheaded, and under the loose planks of the scaffold he placed the five children of the sufferer, that the dripping of their father's blood upon their heads might teach them the duty of submission to a King. Louis XI. died in 1483. His reign is a turning point in French hiistury, marking the close of the Middle Ages. "i i ''^liMII iliii'' « ENGLAND (130D-1485). The history of England under the rival Houses of Lancaster .ind York, into which the Plantagenet family divided in lo'J'J, is included in the present period. Henry IV. (l^J!)y-1413) was the first Lancastrian King. He was the son of John of Gaunt, third son of Edwaid III. Ilis reign w;is troubled with plots and revolts, of which the most formidable was the alliance between the Percys, a great Northumbrian family, and Owen Glendower, a gentleman of Wales, whose learning caused men to believe in his complicity with Satan. Hotspur, the son of Northumberland, was slain in the battle of Shrewsbury, in v.-Iiicli Henry broke the power of the rebels (140C). In this reigii a persccutiou arose against the Lollards, or disciples of I V(i n J • Mi '< k In I li * » m insror.v ov i:xfir.Axn. Wycliffo, one of wlioni, nainod Sawtro, a Lotvlon clori^yinan, wu:] ]»urncil. Henry died in 1413. HenryV. (1413-22), the** Pilnco ITul" of Slialvsporo, dlsap. pointed all liis boon companions by turnini,' wise and steady after liis aceession. lie continued tlie Lollard perseeution, coniniittin,:^ to the flames a leader of the sect IANT>. no tluxt ^T-'^vjorlo Bnico marvie natives, and repression on the part of tlio ]]nj^lish. In 1405 Vinju'iD^jH Law gave tlio Knglish Sovereign {'oniplcto control over the rarlianicnt of Ireland. Henry VIII. raised Ireland to the rank of a kingdom in 1541. 15 ut the actual eon(piest of Ireland was not completed until the reign of Eliza- heth, when in hotli south and north the rel)elliou.s chiefs woro defeated. Hugh O'Neill, Karl of Tyrone, the most formidable of these, was finally crushed in 1G02 by Lord Mount joy. SPAIN (1212-1492). After the battle of Tolosa in 1212, the Mohammedans declined in power, and two kingdoms — Castile and Aragon — grew great steadily. Castile occu[)ied the centre of the peninsula, and under Ferdinand III. absorbed Leon, Estremadura, and Murcia. Tho reign of Alfonso X. was distinguished for advance in science and law, but was troubled with conspiracies. Greater trouble convulsed the realm under IVtcr the Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the W \ck Prince. Henry, a brother of Peter, having seized the throne, by means of aid from France, Peter offered Biscay as a bribe to the Black Prince, who invaded Spain, won tho great victory of Navarretta, and restored the deposed tyrant. On the retirement of the English prince, however, Henry slew Peter. The smaller kingdonr of Aragon owed much to James I. (12L3-127G), who conaucrcd Valencia and the Balearic Isles. Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia also became appendages of this realm. Disputes for the crown produced great troubles ; but at last it passed to Ferdinand the Catholic, who, in 14G9, had been married to Isabella of Castile. This imion of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, which took place in 1470, may be regarded as the beginning of the greatness of Spain. II i n - 1 'is' r: ! " Ir' 1 'it ;' ;:' r : t Ir^tli'.^' hP f ' " 124 SPAIN AND PORTIJOAL. These two great monarclis set themselves to perform the task that lay before them — the uprooting of the Moorish power in Spain. The war of Granatla began in 1481 by the surprise of Zahara. The sack of Albania, regartloil as the key of G rauada, occurred in the following year. Malaga and Baza fell; and in 1491 Ferdinand pitched his camp by Granada. Famine at last forced llie gates, and on the second day of 1492 the keys of the Alhani- bra were surrendered. This great year, 1492, was further signalized by the discovery of America by Columbus, an Italian mariner, to whom 1492 the Spanish Queen Isabella gave the use of three ships. A.D. The expedition sailed from Palos, and in less than three months saw the low green shore of Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. Navarre, lying close to France, had come by various marriages to belong to such great French houses as Evreux, Foix, Albret; but the Kings of Aragon contrived to lay their liands ou a great portion of the territory. PORTUGAL. The kingdom of Portugal was an off-shoot from that of Castile. In 1095 Alfonso VI. of Castile made over this maritime distjii.t to his son-in-law, Ilt-nry of }?urgundy, whose son Alfonso as- sumed the title of King in 1139. For many years there was a fierce contest with Castile. ^J'he Pope gave a weighty decision in favour of Portugal possessing a separate regal dignity. In 1290 the University of Lisbon was foundo1 — (lie Rupposcil original of Prcstcr Juliii, ii iiiyHtorlous Christiim luoimrch of Asia, in whom early popes, travellers, and navIgat()r.^ liclieveJ, and who kept his court near the Amour, north of tlio Chinese Wall. Zenghis Khan repaid the protection and confidence of Ouiigh, ■who had given him his daughter to wife, by btealing the affections of his soldiers and defeating him in hattlc. Then at the Selinga the daring chief caused a great assembly of Mongol.4 and Tartars to proclaim him under his proud title (1205). An old seer confirmed his election by describing a vision he had seen from heaven, ^vherciu the monarch was proclaimed by the en- throned Deity. After making laws and organizing an army, Zonghis proceeded on his career of conc^uest. His first acquisition was China ; ho then overran in succession Tibet, Cashmere, and parts of Persia and llindostan, laying in the last iianied country the foundation of a great Mogul Empire, which afterwards centred at Dcllii. Mohammed Kothbeddin, the Turkish Sultan, attempted to with- stand his approach towards Western Asia; but in vain. Tho battle was fought in 1218 near the Jaxartes; and resulted in tho ultimate victory of Zenghis. Having marched in triumph into the great cities of Carizmc, Herat, Balkli, Candahar, Bokhara, and Samarcand, he found himself master of a vast conglomcrato empire, extending from the Volga to the Pacific, from the Altai to the Persian Gulf. Zenghis Khan died in 1227. The sons, and more especially the grandsons, of Zenghis, ex- tended and completed his conquests. His grandsons, Batu, Hoolagoo, and Kublai, devoted themselves to different portions of the Eastern World. Batu, son of Joojec, invaded Russia, defeated the great Alex- ander Nevski, and exacted tribute from the House of lluric. Not content with this, he advanced into Poland, burned Cracow and ]5reslau, and so threatened Central Europe that a great gathering of nations under Henry of Silesia met him at NoUstadt near Liegnitz in 1242, and were defeated. Nothing could then have saved Europe from being overrun but the inability of the Mongol to take w\allcd cities. They did not know the art of besieging. (i V •;''f?{i , r>' m' 1^- 'i »li. ill i : 'f t ASIA TN THE MIDDLE ACiES. Hoolagoo, anotlicr grandson of Zongliis, retlucctl Bagdad, tlie capital of the ^Moslem Calijihs, in 125S ; and followed up his vic- tory by the invasion of Syria and the Holy Land. But the Mamelukes expelled the Mongols from the latter. Kublvii established the Mongol i)Ower firmly in China in I'iTO, by overthrowing the Sonj dynasty, and conc^uering the province Quang-tong. lie died in 1294. The four divisions of the empire then were : — 1. Iran, or Persia. 2. Zcxjafai or South-eastern Asia. 8. Kaplscha/r^ a part of Russia bordering on the Caspian. 4, China. The power of the Mongols grew to yet greater prominence under Timur (i.e., Iron), a descendant of Zengliis Klian and a native of Zagatai. He is otherwise called Tamerlane, a corrup- tion of Timm'-lenk, or Timur the Lame. This soldier of fortune secured his iwsition, like Zenghis, by an act of ingratitude. Turning against Ilusein of Khorassan, he defeated him, took the throne of Zagatai, and fixed his capital at Samarcand. Ilis first important conquest was Great Tartary, or Turkestan, and part of Siberia, which he took from the Getes. The storming of Herat, whose beautiful iron gates he carried off, laid Khorassan at his feet. Persia, weakened by the contention of its petty prhices, then became his prey, though not until a war of five years had wasted it. He then pushed liIs way towards Lidia, conquering I^agdad as lie went. His prudence as a general may l)e judged from the fact that, when he took this city he emptied all the wine-skins in the [ilace into the Tigris. The year 1398 witnessed his famous campaign in the norlli of India. Penetrating the Hindoo-Koosh by means of the passes, lie reached the Indus, which he crossed at Attock, where Alex- ander of Macedon had also made the passage. Before he crossed the Sutlej, as he was passing across the Punjaub, he collected so many captives, that he deemed it necessary to slaughter them all in one great pile, lest they might rise in mutiny against him. Near Delhi, which with its vast treasures fell into his hands, he defeated the Indian army. i I ir,i ■^ the ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 1^3 Turning then to Asia Minor ho came in collision ^vith iha Ottoman Turks, uliose city of Siwas (Sebaste) lio took, and ^vhose Sultan's son he murdcrca. Sultan Bajazct (i.e., U 5C3 571 ... 590-GO-t 5D7 C-22 632 g:37 044 GCS-75 \i mm S i; mi MEI>I.i:VATi OHROSOLOaT. '*/ n ii ■yti h •*!'. J {• ElOimi CKNTUUY, A.D. Samccns invade Spain, ..t Battle of Tours, ... ... ,., Meroviiif^ian Dynasty (Franks) ends, Dynasty of Abbasides established, Ileign of Charlemagne, Charlemagne defeats Desidcrlus tlie Lomlard, lleign of Caliph Harouu-al-llaseliid, Danes begin to invade England, Chailemagno crowned at Homo, ... NINTH CENTl-'UY, A.D. Irene detlironed (Byzantine), ... ... Venice founded, ... ... ... Egbert reigns iii England, ... ... ... Treaty of Verdun, Kenneth JlacAlpinc rules all Scotland, Kuric founds tl.e Russian Empire, Gorm the Old unites the Danish Isles, Alfred reigus in England, ... TENTH CENTUUY, A.D. Rollo the Norseman settles in France, ... ... ]leign of Otho the Great in Germany, Otlio crowned at Rome, lleign of John Zimisces (Byzantine), Capet Dynasty begins (France), ELKVKNTII CENTUUY, A.I). Massacre of St. Brioe (England), ... Battle of Hastings (England), ... Papacy of Ilildebrand, ... ... Seljuk Turks take Palestine, Henry IV. of Germany excommunicated, .,. Siege of Dnrazzo by tlie Nornianp, ... ... ... Tiloorish Empire established in Spain, ... ... Portugal separated from Castile, ... First Crusade begins, ... ... The Eight Crusades continue, TWELFTH CENTUUY, A.D. Battle of the Standard (Enghmd), ... Plantagenets begin to reign in England, The Lombard League, ... ... ... ... • •• • tt ••• A.1>. ••• 710 ••t 752 ••• 752 • t* 1 t>J • •• 771-8U ••• 771 • • • 7SG-803 • It 7S7 87 101i.> 10% un tft • •t uss ttt t*t 11. ^t «•• ttt 11G7 MEPIJE^'ATi ClIRONOLOflY. • •I • •• Saladin conquers the Fallmilcs iu Esiypt The English occupy Ireluml, 13;ittle of Legnano (Italy), ... J'hilip Augustus reigus iu France, ... Third Crusade, ... ••• ••• ••• ••• THIRTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Crusaders (5th) take Constautiuoiile, Zenghis Klian proclaimed, Battle of Tolosa (Spain), ... Magna Chavta signed, ... ••• Teutonic Knights conquer Trussia, J3attle of Liegnitz, Ilausa League formed, Moors in Spain possess Granada only, Latin Empirf> of Constantinople overthrown, Hattle of Largs (Scotland), Kudolf of Hapsburg emperor, Sicilian Vespers, ... Wales conquered, ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• • •• ••• • •• ••• ••t •t« t*t • •t • If * *• ••• ••• • t* • f« • tt ••• • •• FOURTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Popes at Avignon, llobert Bruce reigns in Scotland, "William Tell Battle of Bannockburn, ... Battle of Morgarteu, Council of Ten at Venice, ... Casimir the Great rules iu Poland, Beginning of Hundred Years' War, Battle of Crc^y, ... llevolutlon of Ilienzi, Llarino Faliero beheaded, ... liattle of Poitiers, P>:ittle of Navarretta, Stuart dynasty in Scotland, Genoese defeated at Chioggia, Convention of Sempach, ... Battle of Nicopolis, Union of Calmar, Timur the Tartar takes Delhi, • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• FIFTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Timur defeats Bujazot at Angora, ... I'altio of Shrewsbury, ... ••• ••• • I* #•• •tt ttt 13.5 A. p. ... 1171 1172 ... 117G 1180-1223 ... 118&-D2 t«t • tt 1203 1205 1212 ... 1215 ... 1228-81 1242 1247 1250 ... 12G1 12G3 1273 ... 1282 • II 1305-77 ■ ■4 1300-29 • «• 1307 »ll 13U » >« 1315 tit 1325 tai 1333-70 • It 1337 III 134(J III 1347 »•• 1355 1*1 135a III 1307 • •• 1370 • It 1373 It* 1393 lit 1390 lit 1397 tit 1S93 • It 1402 • •• 1403 : i* :t.>i \'J \ mo 1443 1450 14r.3 IU4 145.5 1461-83 14(]i I4fi.'i 1474 147*5 1477 U^5 3 41*2 1407 i; ' ^H "i m MODERN HISTORY. In undertaking an outline Sketch of ^loilcrn History, embracing every event of striking importance that took place during thi? porioil in every country of the World, it seems be.si to give up the plan, hitherto adopted, of making the various histories run, as fur as possible, in lines abreast of each other, and to fall back upon a plan which, in dealing with a multiplicity of details, will be less confusing. Henceforth, when the thread of a country's history is taken up, it will be followed to the present time. The order adopted, based upon relative importance or geographical position, will be as follows : — EUROPE. 1. British Empire. 2. Adjacent Countries: i.e., France— Belgium— Holland — Denmark — Sweden — Norway. 3. Central Countries: i,e., Germany— Prussia — Austria — Switzerland. 4. Southern Countries: i.e., Portugal— Spain— Italy— Greece — Turkey. V 5. Kastern : llussia. ASIA. 1. Colonization of Asia. 2. India. 3. China and Japan. 4. llest of Asia. NOHTII AMKUTCA. 1. Discovery and Colonizatiun. 2. United States. 3. British America. 4. Mexico. 5. West Indies. 6. Best of North America. ^I'L-iii^l^ •': (J H ins IIISTOKY OP KNCLAND. .. ^ 'i SOUTH AMERICA. 1. Discovery ami Colonizati r. ' S. Oiiili. 2- l^i-i^^il. : 4. Host of South America. AusTRAMA,— Discovery aiul Colonization. Africa, — Colonization and Exploration. HISTORY OP ENGLAND. THE TUDOR SOVERKIOXS (11S3-1G03>. Henry VII. (1485-1509) was a cautious and economical man, who by his marriage Avith Klizahetli of Yoilc, represcntativo of the White Hoses, managed to unite tlic parties whoso wars Imd convulsed tlie land. His reign was full of conspiracies. First came Siiunel, a baker's son, pretending to bo the Earl of "Warwick, a son of Clarence. The battle of Stoke crushed liii claims. Then appeared, also in Ireland, Perkin AVarbeck, wlio announced himself to be Richard Duke of York, the younger of those princes whom popular rumour regarded as having been smothered in the Tower by Richard III. A landing at Deal-— a visit to Scotland, where James IV. received him kindly— a fruitless invasion of England on the north— and a Cornish insur- rection, after which Perkin deserted his army, only to be taken prisoner, were the leading events of this imposture. In 1502 took place the wedding of the Hose and the Thistle— the marriage of James IV. King of Scotland to ^largaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. Upon this uni(m rested the claims of Iiapless Mary Qwccn of Scots to the English throne, and tho .succession of her son tu the same royal seat. Henry VII., who saw how England might rise to an extended commerce, built ships, and encouraged maritime enterprise. Under his patronage the Cabots sailed from Bristol and dis- covered Labrador (1497). Henry VIII. (1509-1547) had for his minister during twenty years the celebrated Thomas Wolsey, who raised himself by nTST0R7 OP ENGLAND. 139 force of talent from a Immblc station to bo Archbishop and Cardinal of York, High Chancellor of England, and Papal Legate. Henry won two battles early in \m reign ;— one in Franco at Gulnogatc, known as tho battle of 1513 Spurs ; tho other at Flodden, where Surrey defeated and a.d. slew James IV. of Scotland (1518). V/hen Henry VIII. heard of tho doings of Luther in Germany, he (or Wolsey) wrote a treatise defending the seven sacraments of the llomish Church. For this the Pope rewarded him witli the title Fidel Defensor. But it soon happened that Henry, enamoured of Anne Boleyn, wished to obtain a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his first wife. Wolsey, acting under the Pope's inlluence, delayed the gratification of this wish, and so lost favour with his royal nuister. In 1529 the Cardinal was banished from court, and in the following year he died at Leicester Abbey. Sir Thomas More succeeded him as Chanccl- ' lor, but lost his head in 1535, because he refused to ackuowlcdgo the King's supremacy as Head of the Church. During the remainder of his reign Henry was engaged in attempts to force on the Kngllsh people a religious system of his own, the details of which he often changed. He embodied his doctrines in a set of Acts in 1539, which he called the Six Articles, but which the people came to call iho Bloothj Statute . In addition to this, he suppressed and plundered the monasteries, but rather for the spoil they yielded than from a religious mo- tive. He was lickle in his choice both of wives and of ministers. Of the former he married in all six ; and of these two— Anne ])uleyn and Catherine Howard— were beheaded. Of the latter four were prominent; and of these two also— More and Thomas Cromwell— went to the block. His great contemporaries in Kurope were the Emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of France. His interview with the latter in 1520 near Calais was culled the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The last victim of Henry's ferocity was that accomplished Earl of Surrey, who wrote the first blank verse used in English poetry, and whose only crime was the adoption of the arms of Edward in i-i i li: :!ii n V I 140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. tM 1 i M (' t ^Bm f^mii ^ 1 f 1 ll^l 1 R./ tlie Confessor on his shioUl. Ilonry died in 1517, Lelng tliou ngcil fifty-six. Edward VI. (1547-1553) reigned for only six years, l)ut tliev were years teeming with great resnlts. Under tlio Protector iSomerset a war witli Scotland began. An English army invaded Scotland, and defeated the Regent Arran at Pinkie, not far from Edinburgh (1547). Yet this did not force the Scottish people to marry their little princess Mary to young Edward. An enemy to Protector Somerset aroso in the person of Warwick, afterward,! Puke of Northumberland, through whose intrigues the Protector came to the scaffold in 1552. Put the greatest event of the reign was the foundation of the Anglican Cluirch in a Protestant form, .•md the publication of that beautiful Jjitnrgy— the ]>0()k of Com- mon Prayer— which came forth in English under the superin- tendence of Archbishop Cranmer. The death of Edwar^abetli owed much to her statesmen, of whom the ehief were Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, and Francis Walsinghani. The hitter had much to do with the uidiappy affairs of 3Iary .Stuart. Driven from lier Scottish throne, this rash, perha[).4 guilty, woman fled in 15GS to England. There the Duke of Norfolk— the leading lloman Catholic noble — sought her in mar- riage. It was a perilous time ; and the air was charged with ter- rors of conspiracy and massacre. The frightful carnage of St. ]5artholonie\v in France (1572) added to the terror; and, when one plot after another arose to set Mary on the throne of Englautl and kill Elizabeth, it was deemed necessary to bring the Scottish Queen to trial for connivance in Babington's conspiracy. Tried at Fotheringay, she was found guilty : after some reluctance, real or pretended, 3':ilzabeth signed the death-warrant; and the grey head of once beautiful Mary Avas struck off in Fotheringay Hall (1587). In Iho following year Philip II. of Spain, having resolved, as the champion of the lloman Catholic cause, to crush Elizabeth, a defender of Frotestantism, sent out that great fleet of 132 ships, known as the Invincihlc Armada. The Duke of Farma also col- lected an army at Dunkirk, ready to invade England. Tho English fleet, 191 strong, but composed of small and light hhlps, was under Lord Howard of Efiingham. The foes 1588 came in sight near Plymouth, and for eleven days (July a.d. ID-oO) tho active English vessels followed the heavy castles that bore the Spaniards up the C^uumel, fighting as they {ailed in pursuit. Eight little ships, filled with combustible materials, were sent in among the Spanish fleet as they lay at anchor near Calais ; and the Armada scattered in terrified flight. There was no way open except that to the north ; so that the remnant of the fleet was forced to sail home by the Pentlaud Fiiih. 'Ill 11 1 :*' LA * ilks m |H t. i" 4 I ii I I U2 lIISTOnv OF OllEAT imiTALV. »i 1 . E i i 'j^B ■i i^S ■fll I^^^B ^HH r » H . . * >_ dilS ^ ■ Durini^ tho Yc\ i*li. i 'i lit IIISTUIIV OF tlllKAT nUITAIN'. i> • ».Mr Lili fMWi^. J/tmWjt^ pEih ' !Jp t" ■ ' I ^ i if I »i l" kl« I luitlle (jf Kdgoliill was the first cn.c^agomcnt, Clmvlcs; fixed liis ]ieail-(|uavtcvs at Oxford, and took Bristol. But lio was foilt'd in besiegiiij^ Gloucester; and tlic Koundlicad caiiso soon acliicvcd a Fpleudid triuni|)li at ]Mavstou Moor, chiefly owing to Oliver Cromwell and liis Ironsides (1G44). Tlie battle of Naseby, also a lloundhead victory, decided the result of the war. Charles fled from Oxford to the Scots at Newark, where a Covenanting army was encamped. '^J'he Sc(As gave him u[) to tlic moderate English Presbyterians, but lie was seized and im- prisoned by order of Cromwell. This daring genius then marclied against the Scottish lloyalists mider Hamilton, whom he defeated jit Preston. Tlicn, returning to London, he placed sohliers round the Parliament House, to keep out the moderate Presbyterians, and thus reduced the assembly to about forty Independents 1G49 devoted to his cause. Charles was then tried at West- A.i). minster Hall for levying war against his i)eople ; and on the 30th of Januarv 1049 he undaunted! v bowed h*« head r.nder the axe in front of the Banqueting Hall of Whitehall Palace. The Commonwealth (1G49-1GG0) then began. It consisted of three periods. 1. From Charles' death to the appointment of Cromwell as Lord Protector (1G49-53). 2. The Protectorate of Cromwell (1G53-58). 3. The interval of anarchy (1058-00). During the first period Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection with great severity. He then wont -with Monlc to Scotland, where he won the battle of Dnnltar (1050) and secured the sur- render of Edinburgh. Charles IT., appearing in the following year in Scotland, invaded England at Carlisle, and penetrated Koutluvard to Worcester, where Cromwell defeated him — 1051. IMeanwdiilc a naval war with the Dutch had been progressing, 3>lake being opposed to the Dutch admirals Van Tromp and De Kuyter, whom ho defeated. In 1053 Cromw^ell with his soldiers expelled the Long Par- liament, and soon, by the Indntment of Guvcmmcnt, was mado Lord Protector. Under his firm rule the name of England grew great abroad. Jamaica, one of her chief colonies, was taken from Spain in 1G55; IlISTOUY OF GUKAT LJUITAIN. 115 nii'l ill 10')7 r>lakc (U'fcatc.l tlic Spaniards at Tenoriffo. At ]u)nio lie ciiilurtMl iiuiny troubles from Levellers, FiCtli Muuareliy men, (Quakers, and otlier strange growths of Puritanism. Ho selecteil preachers by means of examiners called Triers, and for a timo kept England under the military dominion of IMajor-Generals. His later life was embittered by fears of assassination, and by tlio re[)roaches of his favourite daughter, who died before liim. llo breathed his last at Whitehall on the 3rd of Septcnd)er 1G58. Kicliard Cromwell, Oliver's son, succeeded as Protector, but held the ofiice for only eight months. Then followed a year of anarchy, until Moidc came from Scotland with an army, the Long ]*arliament dissolved itself; and a Convention of Cavaliers and Presbyterians invited Charles II. back to the throne of his father. Charles II. (IGGO 85) entered London on the 29th May, 16G0. I'or a time, like Konum Nero, he promised well, but his dissolulo habits soon became apparent. The companion of his exile, Edward 1 lyde, was made Lord Clianccllor, with the title ot Lord Clarendon, but in lf)G7 he lost favour and w^as deposed. Before this time ]'higland had suffered a great degradation at the hands of the Dutch, who, under Admiral De Kuyter, sailed into the estuary of the 'J'hames and burned the Englii^h shipping. During this reign bitter persecution was inflicted on the Scottish Covenanters, who, rising in arms, were defeated in 1GG6 by Dalziel near the Pentlands; but in 1G79, after the murder of Archbishop Sharp at Magus Muir, gained a victory over Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog. The government of Charles after Clarendon's dismissal rested with live men, called the Cabal from the initial letters of their names. These were followed by Danby, and then by Temple and Halifax. The chief political event of the reign was the passing of the Habeas Corjms Act (1679), by 1679 which the detention of a person in prison after a cer- a.d. tain time without trial is forbidden. Towards the end of the reign, the "Whigs, led by Russell and Sidney, formed a plot to put Monmouth, a natural son of Charles, on the throne. This, called the Bye-house Plot, was crushed by the execution of the chiefs. Charles died in 1685, (187) I m*, i^;: I W i , n i % f ir UQ irT?TonY or crvRAT BurrAiy. 4«ll' ^^ \Mii James II. (1GS5-SS), previously Duke of York, snccoodod Lis brother on tlio tlirone. Moiimoutli IuikUmI in Dorsetshire, luid was defeated at Seilijcmoor witliin tlie year (Kisf)). TI<^ suffered on tlic seaffold ; and Jeffreys, in Avliat Avas ealled tlie JJloodi/ Assi?:Cj inflieted capital punishment on more than three hundred of his fulh)\vers. With blind ol»s(ina(:y James attempted both to aet inde|)(Mi- dently of th(3 laws, and to force the Konum (Jatholie religion U[)on Kugland. lie published on his own authority a Declara- tion «f I)i(luhjciicp^ giving lilierty of worship to all, and eom- numded all elergy to read it from their pulpits. U'ho London clergy refused to obey; and six bishops, headed by Archbishop San- croft, the Primate, presented a petition against it. For this they were tried, but were acquitted ; and about the same time William of Orange, wdio in 1077 had nuirried IMary, the elder daughter of James, Avas invited from Holland to iill the ]^]nglisli throno. He landed at Torbay — James fled to France — and the Decla- ration of Jii(jht;i, i")assed by a Convention (i.e., a Parliament not summoned by a Sovereign), conferred on him and his wife the crown of England (1080). William III. and Mary II. (1080-04).— James, however, did not yield without a struggle, of Avhicli Ireland was the chief scene. IJesieging Londonderry in vain, ho was signally 1690 defeated at the Boyne in 1G90. After his return to A.D. France his generals were further defeated at Aughrim and Limerick (1001). Two years earlier, the death of Olaverhouse, Viscount Dundee, at Killiecrankie in Perthshire, had deprived the Stuart cause of its chief partisan in Scotland. The death of IMary in 1004 left her husband to rule alone. This he did liy prudently conceding a good deal to the Parliament, providing that they gave him money ^o carry on the war with Louis XIV. The chief events of this war were the defeat of the French fleet off Cape La llogne (1002), the battles of Steinkiik and Landen, and the siege of Namui'. The Treaty of Piyswick brought the struggle to an end in 1007. William did not treat Scotland w^ell. The ma.sbacrc of the . iTTSTOnY Oli' CnEAT BHITAIN. 147 Macdonalds nt. Gloucor (1002), and his iict>-lcct of the Seotli.^li colony at Davien were two notable instances of tliis. The chief enactment of the veign was the Act of ScUlcmad (1701), hy which it was decreed that the Sovereign shonld Ixdong to the Church of England. A fall from his horse caused AViUiam's death in 1702. Anne (1702-14), f.ccond daughter of James II., was the last of the Stuart sovereigns. During a great part of her reign the AVar of the Spanish Succession went on. Its chief theatres were Spain and the Low Countries. In 1704 Ivookc took Gibraltar, and IMarlborongh won the battle of Blenheim; and then Kamilies (1700), Oudcnardc (1708), ^lalphupiet (1709) added new laurels to those won at Blenheim by the great captain of the war. In Spain, Peterborough took ]>arcelona; but Berwick, fighting for the Bourbon, won in 1707 the great battle of Almanza. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) terminated the struggle. The chief political events of Anne's reign were the Union of the Scottish Parliament with that of England (1707)— a measure which to a great extent laid the foundation of Scottish prosperity; and the strn-vlo between the Whigs and the Tories, which culmi- nated in 171 'J in the triumph of the latter. Ilarley and St. John came into power; Sunderland was dismissed, and Marlborough disgraced. But the intrigues of St. John (Bolmgbroke) caused the" fall of Ilarley (Oxford) before Anne's death, which took place in 1714. THE BllUXSW^ICK SOVEREIGNS. George I. (1714-27), Elector of Tlanovcr, now luH'nmo King of Eiiti'laud, the link thnmgh which lie succeeded being tlie marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., with Erederie oE Bohemia. His accession restored the Whigs to favour. The .Tacobites — as the favourers of the Stuart cause were called — intrigued continually for half the century. In 1715 a rising took place in Scotland under the Earl of iMar ; but he was defeated at Sheriffnmir. On the same d;iy the English Jaco- III r - '- ^i 1. * J: IP ill '.rl li : ti m t V 1, ' ;. I a 148 HISTORY OF GREAT DRITAIX.' Ifitcs were cruslicd at Preston. The Pretender James merely slioweil liimseir, ere lie fled from Montrose back to France. The conmicrcial disasstcr called the South Sea Bubble bcloni^s to this reign (1720). The shares of the company rose to an enormous price, and the nation went mad with speculation, until reliction and ruin set in. Robert Walpolc saved the nation l)y his prompt measures of finance. The Septeimial Bill, limiting the duration of a Parliament to seven years, was the leading enactment of the reign. George I. died while travelling in Hanover (1727). George II. (1727-GO), his son, succeeded. For nearly half the reign— /.c, until 1742— Sir Ptobert Walpole ruled in the councils of the State. In 1733 this minister, who managed tlio Parliament by bribery, brought in an Excise Bill, which was ultimately withdrawn, owing to the storm of opposition it raised. In 1736 the Porteous Mob excited a riot in Edinburgh, break- ing into prison and hanging on a dyer's pole Captain Porteous, who had ordered the City Guard to fire on a crowd. Britain, having sided with Maria Theresa of Hungary, en- gaged in war with France. Dcttingen (1743), in which* King George II. defeated a French army, and Fontenoy (1745), in which Saxe defeated Cumberland, were the leading battles of this war. The Jacoliite rebellion of 1745 now began. Landing near Moidart on the west coast of Scotland, Charles Edward, the young Pretender, pressed on to Edinburgh, where he resided in Ilolyrood Palace. After wimiitig the battle of Prestonpans, he invaded England, and penetrated to Derby, but turned there and retreated into Scotland. A victorious skirmish at Falkirk roused his hopes, but at Culloden he was finally defeated (April 16, 1740). The Treaty of Aixda-Chapello (1748) brought a temporary lull, but England was soon involved in tlie events of the Seven Years' War, with which was interwoven a struggle with Franco in India and America. In the former land the battle of Plassey (1757), won by Clive, left the British masters of Bengal: in the II iJ ' > i sn cn- iiistohy of great biiitain. 140 latter, the victory of Abraham's Plains, won above Quebec ancl dearly bought by the death of General Wolfe, wrested the pro- vince of Canada from the French (1759). Tha victory of Minden iu Hanover was a further blow to French power in the same year. William Pitt, tlie *' Great Commoner,'* afterwards Earl of Cliatham, rose to eminence as a statesman during the last years of George II., wlio died in 1760. George III. (1700-1820) spent a nominal reign of sixty years, but insanity and blindness made more than the last decade a mournful blank. Ere the reign was five years old, symptoms of the great and (to Britain) disastrous American War began to appear. In 1705 was passed a SUunj) Act, imposing upon the American colonies duties similar to those in England. This was afterwards repealed ; but other taxes were imposed, which excited the colonists to arms. The war broke out in 1775 at Lexington, and the battle of Bunker's IIIU followed. In 177G the Ameri- cans declared their independence ; and after seven campaigns, during which George Washington was the hero of the struggle, and the British were twice forced to surrender — at Saratoga and at Yorktown — the mother country was forced to acknowledgo the independence of her trans-atlantic daughter, who exchanged monarchy for the republic, a form of government always dear to the Puritans, by whom the thirteen States had been chiefly founded (178o). A war with France and Spain was chiefly notable for tlie great siege of Gibraltar (1779-82), which was bravely defended by Kliott, aiid relieved by Admiral Lord IIowo. The reign of George III. was fruitful iu colonial history. The vast island of Australia may be said to have been now joined to our empire through the enterprise of Captain Cook and other lieroes of discovery; and in India the work of conquest and nnnexment, so well begun by Clivc, was continued by Warren Hastings, who, however, on his return home in 1788, was brought to trial for tyranny. On this occasion magniiicent orations wero made by Sheridan and Burke. Al)OUt midway in the reign the Frencli Revolution occurred. 1| i * ■ ir ■ 1: I *'; ! i' > i - if 1 ■M'- II 150 IITSTOnV OF GUEAT DRTTATN. » i m f i ,1 I M h 'i and out of its bloodshed and confusion roso Napoleon Bonaparto, one of tlio crrcatest foes ^vitll whom Britain has ever contended. She was fortunate in possessing two defenders, who proved their liirht to be ret^^arded as her greatest sailor and licr g-reatest soldier. To Horatio Nelson, who destroyed the French lleet in 1708 at the Nile, and in 1805 died at Trafali^-ar, where he in- fiieted a terrible dereat upon the navies of Franco and Spain, belongs the glory of the former name ; Arthur, Duke of Welling- ton, "the hero of a hundred lights, who never lost an English gun," taught the Corsican to respect a nation, whosu soldiers could withstand and repel the bravest troops of France. In 1798 a rebellion broke out in Ireland ; it was crushed at Vinegar Hill in Wexford: and in 1801 took place the Union, which merired the Irish Parliament in that of the British Enn/n-o. In 180G Pitt and Fox, two rival statesmen of tho greatest eminence, died. Tho earlier career of Napoleon I. will bo sketched afterwards. It was in 1808 that he tried to make his brother Joseph King of Spain. Britain resisted this, and war began. For six years (1808-14) the Peninsula was tho scene of deadly struggles, in which Wellesley — afterwards Wellington — step by step drove the French marshals back, until the final triumph of Vitoria (1813) sent them flying across the Pyrenees. During these years politics at homo were troubled by discus- sions about a Regency ; for George III., ever since 1788, liad been showing symptoms of insanity. In 1809 an expedition of English troops to Walcheren ended in miserable failure ; and t\ short American War (1812-14) took place, during which Canada was invaded, and the British burned part of Washington. The escape of Napoleon from Elba in 1815 called Europe onco more to arms. Wellington commanded a British force 1815 in Belgium, where on the 18th June 1815 wns fought A.D. the decisive battle of Waterloo. On thls^ eventful day, aided by the Prussians, the British utterly defeated tho splendid army of the Emperor, and deprived him of every hope. The few remaining years of King George's life were barren m \ iijLj of I IIISTOUY OF flllEAT HRITAIX. 151 events. Lord Exmoutli bombardcil Algiers, and crushed that j.ivato-ncst in 1816; and in the following year the hope of the nation— the Princess Charlotte, daughter of Prince George and wife of Prince Leopold, died. The reign— which had been a PiCgcncy since 1811 — came to an end in 1820. George IV. (1820-30) had already been Regent for nine years. He was profligate and extravagant. A great scandal arose when Queen Caroline, whom lie had treated badly, was repulsed from the door of Westminster Abbey on the day of the coronation. The ill-used princess died a few days later (1821). George Canning was the great statesman of the reign. In 1827 Britain took pa'i-t with Prance and Ilussia in forcing Turkey to acknow- ledge the independence of Greece ; and the battle of Navarino wa^ fought. The last year but one of this reign witnessed the groat political struggle, which resulted in the emancipation of the iloman Catholics from injurious penal laws. This measure, passed under the ministry of Wellington and Peel, received the royal signature in 1829. George IV. died iu the following year, aged sixty-eight. William IV. (1830-37) had been a sailor by profession ere ho Fucceedcd his brother. The first railway— running from Liver- pool to jManchester— was now opened, but the triumph was marred by the sad accident of Mr. lluskisson's death. This eminent statesman was killed by a passing engine The fu-st Itr/onn BUI, proposed by Lord John, now Earl Russell, was passed in 1832. By this measure the franchise was extended in towns to tenants paying £10 of rent, in counties to tenants paying £50, or freeholders of £10. Another political achievement of the reign was the Negro Emanc'ipailon Bill, by which, through the efforts chiefly of Wilberforce, all slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire. William IV. died in 1837, aged seventy-one. Victoria (1837) has now reigned for more than thirty years. Iler accession caused the separation of Hanover from the British crown, since the Salic law prevailed in that state. Early in her rcigu vioiyut Eudicais, culling themselves ChiUtists, dioturbed f ^m K * ir ritisli commerce. In 1843 a number of ministers and laymen seceded from the Clmrcli of Scotland, and founded the Free Church. This event was named the Disruption. The conquest of Scinde (184G) and the Punjaub (1849) in- creased our Indian territory by the addition of the basin of the Indus. Napier and Outram were the leaders in the former struggle; Gough and Ilardinge in the latter. A great domestic event was the llcpcul of ihe Corn Laii 3 in 1846. Lancashire was the cadle of the movement — Richaid Cobden its ruling spirit. Certain classes, interested in l^^nglisli agriculture, were for Protection — i.e., laying heavy duties on corn from abroad. But Sir Robert Peel, at first resisting the measure, yielded at last, and the Bill was passed, reducing the tax on foreign grain. The following year (1847) witnessed much loss and trouble from wild speculation in railway shares. In Ireland a blight of the potato crop was followed by famine and fever; and the agitation for a repeal of the Union broke out in 1848 into a feeble rebellion. Tliis was but a vibration of the revolutionary throes which, as will be seen, shook all Europe during this year. In 1851 the first International Kxhibition of Arts and Manu- factures was opened in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. The experiment has been I'cpeatcd several times since, especially in 18G2 in London, and in 18G7 at Paris. About this time England lost two of her greatest men ; — Sir Robert Peel, who v.-as killed by a fall from his horse in 1850; and the Duke of AVellinii'ton, who died in 1852 at the aure of eighty-throe. Born in 1709, the latter was forty-six when he won Waterloo : the rest of his long life was given to peace. In 1853 the Russian War began, excited by the occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by tlic C/ar. France and Jvnidanfi T ;h! IIISTOUY OV CHEAT nillTAIX. 153 sidcil Avith Turkey. There was fighting on the Danube and in the Baltic; but the chief scene of the struggle -vvas the Crimea. The Allies, having forced the passage of the Alma, formed the siege of Sebastopol (Oct. 17, 1854). Close by, Avere fought tho great battles of Balaklava and Inkermann — the former memorable for a daring charge of tho Light Cavalry. Bitter were tho sufferings of the troops in the trenches during the winter ; nor was it until Sept. 8, 1855, that the French troops took a fort called Malakoff, the key of the defence. Peace was signed in 185(5. A little later occurred the Indian Mutiny. After its outbreak at Mcerut in Northern India (May 10, 1857), the native troops or Sepoys seized Delhi, which was besieged by tho British (June 4-Sept. 20). Another centre of the struggle was Lucknow on the Goomtce in Oudo, where the British were besieged in tho llesidency by yelling mutineers, until relieved by the gallant and pious Ilavelock. But he too was locked up by the approach of a yet greater swarm of Sepoys ; and it was not for many weeks that a second relief was effected by Sir Colin Campbell, who was afterwards created Lord Clyde for his services in stamping out the mutiny. The massacre of Cawnpore (June 27, 1857) was the most tragic of all the terrible scenes enacted during this outbreak. During the years 1850-57 a second Chinese War was proceeding. An important result of the Indian Mutiny was the transfcrenco of the government of this greatest of our Asiatic dependencies from tho East India Company to tlie British Crown. This Avaa accomplished by the India Bill of 1858 ; and Indian affairs are now controlled by a special Secretary of State. During a third Chinese War, in 1800, Pckin was entered by a French and English force. In the following year began that American "War, between North and South, of whicli a sketch will be afterwards given. Britain remained neutral; though for a time, owing to the seizure of two Southern envoys on board of a British steam-boat, there wa.s fear of entanglement. The war acted indirectly upon Britain by stopping the supplies of cotton from the Southern States, ujion which the mills of Lancashire then mainly depended; and the !li'^ i I I .. 1! 151 I5RITI«1I OHKOXOl-OaV, I N !>l work -people wero rediiccil for a tiiuo to want iliulng tliU Cotton Famine. Tlie death of Prince Albert in 18G1, ami tlie marriage of llio Prince of Wales in 1803 were important events in the lloyal l^anilly. In 18GG the l^^lectric Cal)le was Kuccessfully laid between Ireland and America : and a cable, laid previously in 1858, was recovered by grappling, and made fit for use. A new Reform Act was passed in 1867, establishing a house- hold franchise in boroughs, and a £lli franchise in counties. In the following year an English force compelled the King of Abyssinia to release a number of English captives whom lie had seized. MODERN BKITISII ClIUONOLOGY. Accession of tlie Tudor SovcreI;'ns, rcikiu War beck's iiuposLure crushed, ... ... SIXTEICNTIl CRNTUR7, A.P. ^rarrlft;rc of James IV. of ScotluuJ to Mury Tudor, .... Uattle of Floddon, ... ... ... ... Wolsey a Papal Lcj^ato, ... ... ... ... Death of Cardinal Wolsey, ... ... ... Act of Supremacy passed, ... ... ... Suppression of the IMouasterics complete, ... Battle of Pinkie, ... ... ... ... ... Anglican Liturgy completed, ... The Spanish marriage, ... ... The ]\rarian persecuLious, ... ... Loss of Calais, ... ... ... Puritan secession, ... ... Kxecution of ]\Iary Qnoeu of Scots, Defeat of the Spanish Armada, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... SKVKNTEENTII CENTURY, A.D. Accession of Stuart Sovereigns, ... ... ... Gunpowder Plot, Kxecution of Raleigh, Disgrace of Bacon, Petition of Right, Trial of Hampden, National Covenant signed, Long Parliament uiccts, ... ... ... ... •.. ... ... ... A.n. 1185 1502 1513 1513 1530 1531 1539 1517 1552 1551 1555-G 155S 15C0 1587 ... Henry VIL ... Henry VII. ... licnry VIII. ... Edward VI. ... Mary I. ... Elizabeth. 1G03 1605 1618 1621 162S 1637 1633 1610 ... James r. ... Chai'lea I. BRITISH CIIRONOLOaY. 155 tliU Civil War, ... •«* ICxccution of Charles I. IS.ittle of Dunbar, li.ittle of Worcester, ... Long ravliament expellotl, Cromwell Protector, ... l)catl» of Cronnvoll, ... Kestorutiou of Stuarts, Ilabuiis Cori)U3 Act, ... I'.attlo of Sedgemoor, ... Trial of the Seven Bishops, f>'i.'Coml Kiij^li ih Revolution, ];:ittle of the Uuyue, ... Jklussacre of (ilcucoe, ... ••• ••• •*• ••• ••• A.D. 1642-5 ... Charles I. 1649 — 1650 ... Oliver Cromwell. 1651 — 1653 — • ■• • •• tfl* ••• •t* ••t 1653 — 16G0 ... Charles II. 1C79 — 1685 ... James II. ... 1683 . — ... 1688-91 — 1C90 ... William III. ... 1692 — EIQUTEENTH CENIUR7, A.D. • •• • •• Act of Settlement, iSattle of Blen'.ieim, Scottish Union, Treaty of Utrecht, First Jacobite Rebellion, South Sea IJubble, liattle of Dettingen, ... I'attle of Tontenoy, ... Second Jacobite Rebellion, I'attle of Cullotlcn, Battle of riassey, Canada taken, The Stamp Act, American War, ... Trial of Warren Hastings, Battle of the Kile, ... • •• • II • •f III • •• 1701 ... William III. 1704 ... Aauc. 1707 — 1713 — 1715 ... Gco)ge I. 171^0 — 1743 ... George II. 1745 — 174G *- 1757 — 1759 — 1765 ... UeorKG III. ... 1775-83 ... 1783 ... 1793 KINIIEEKIH CENIU&Y, A.D. Irish Union, ... *» Battle of Trafalgar, ... I'eninsular War, Battle of Waterloo, ..t Catholic Kmancipation, First Reform Bill, Repeal of Corn Laws, .. Russian War, .. Indian Mutiny, .. The India Bill, Atlantic Cable laid, Second Reform BUI, ••• «ii III 1801 ... George III., 1805 — ... 1808-14 — 1815 — 1829 ... George IV. 1832 ... William IV. 1816 ... Victoria. ... 1853-5G — ... 1857 •• ... 1853 — ... Isoo -^ ... 1867 •- il 1 fl p' i ! ' \ U)j^ K J11 ^ i < • ■in ' 156 IIISTOUY OF FRANCE. HISTORY OP TRANCE (since 1483). IlorsK C? VALOIS— conft'nita?. Charles VIII. (148n-9S).--Of tlio twelve sovereigns of tlie ITouso of Valols wlio governed France, seven reigned after Loui;? XI. His son, a feeble child, came to the throne as Charles VIIT. Tlio sister of this boy, Anno of Bcuujeau, and Louis of Orhuujs, next heir to the crown, contended for supremacy, which the former gained. Tliis stern and sagacious womaii forced her brother, in spite of his betrothal to tlie little daughter of 3Iaxi- niilian of Austria, to marry Anne of IJretagno, a powerful heiress, for whose hand Maximilian himself was seeking. Anil)itious to be classed among conquerors ]il;c Caesar and Alexander, Cllarle.'^ invaded Italy iu 1494, and swept victorious through Tuscany, Komc, and Naples. But there his course was stayed by tlio coalition of A''eniee, Milan, the Pope, and Maximilian, who united iigninst him, obliged him to retrace his steps, and in spite of liis victory at Fovnovo over the Venetians, stripped him of all his conquests. The chief result of his campaigning was the love of art he imbibed in Italy. An injury, received by knoclung hi:i head against a beam while showing a new tennis-court to tho Queen, caused his death in 1408. Louis XII. (1498-151')). — Louis of Orleans, casting tho ser- pent's skin lie had worn but retaining the wisdom ascribed to that reptile, now succeeded as Louis XII. Obtaining a dispen- sation from tho Pope to put away his wife, he married Anne of IJretagne, the widow of tho late sovereign. Claiming the two Sicilies, he, in conjunction witli Ferdinand of Aragon, invaded Italy, and in 1499 forced Frederic of Naples to surrender. But a quarrel arose between France and Spain regarding the partition of the conquest, and the su2)erior craft of Ferdinand induced Louis to weaken his forces, so that, in spite of the devotion of tho Chevalier Bayard and others, tho Spanish Captain Gonsalvo drove the French from Naples. Louis had engaged to marry his daughter to the grandson of Ferdinand ; but an assembly of tho French people, convened at Tours, absolved him from the neces" HISTORY OF FRAN'CR. loT Kity of fulfilling this promise, and p^ratefully calling liini " tliu rutlicr of Ills rcoplo," rctiucstecl liini to bestow the hand of tlio princess on the Duke of Angoulcnie, afterwards Francis T. Julius II., more a warrior than a Pope, after vainly striving to rid Italy of foreigners hy cmLroiling the I'rench and S[)aniards, joined the Kniperor and them in the Lcatjuc of Camhrarj against Venice (1508). Louis overthrew the Venetians at Agnatlello, but the defeated Italians made submission to the Pope, who won the Spaniards over and turned against the French. Then, like a briglit but fleeting meteor, came the splendid campaign of Gas- ton do Foix, wlio conipiered Italy in a single season, and died in a blaze of victory at Ravenna in 151 12. The success, however, melted into nothing; for the French could not keep Italy. "When death deprived liim of Anne of Bretagiie, Louis married tho Princess Mary of England, sister of Ilemy VIII., a gay young creature of sixteen, who loved dances and shows ; and in three months his death left her a widow. Francis I. (1515-47) is prominent in history as the contem- porary of llcmy VIII. of Fiiigland and Charles V. of Germany. Lured by the deceitful lustre of Italian conrpiests, he invaded that land in 1515, won the battle of Marignano, and reduced Milan. His vanity was sorely hurt in 1519 by the election of Charle.i of Spain to the Empire; for ho had sought that liigli station himself. Francis and Charles, thus pitted against each other, courted Henry of England. Francis met him at the Field of tho Cloth of Gold ; Charles negotiated m<)re tpiietly and cheaply in England, and bribed Wolsey by promising to use his iulluence in the next election for Pope. Francis made an enemy of the Constable do Boiubon, who fled from France and intrigued with the Spaniards and Italians. Tlic renegade drew the sword in Korthern Italy. To him was opposed Bonnivet; but this leader was driven across the Ticino. In tho battle at tho bridge, the celebrated Bayard, last of the Knights, -was killed by a bullet in the side. Francis chn^eil Bourbon, who had reached Marseilles, back into Italy, and with a btdendid army laid siei?o to Pavia. There in 1525 ho suffered m il III ■i- lin- cal JJeaijn; '"whicli was to produce a balance of power in Europe f'-i I mSTOTlY OF FRANOrJ. 101 Tl by slicaiing tlic overweening greatness of the IlapsLurgs, who iu Spain and Germany swayed the destinies of more than half ]-dicd to tho rescue of the French King. This kindled tho mob. The Tuileries was stormed, and the King imprisoned. Meanwhile, Dumourie/. defeated the advancing armies at Jemappes (1792). Before this Franco had been made a Republic — tho Assembly giving place to the National Convention, of which Danton, Marat, and Robespierre were the leaders. A time of blood and terror was inaugurated by the execution of Louis XVI. by the h !^^il ■ f !: fy4 r I ■A, ■ ■'l.'S' it ijl'.]'. 1. 1^ ^r\' 166 HISTORY OP FRANCE. guillotine (Jan. 21, 1793). The Jacobins turned on tlic Girondists, and slew without mercy. The Queen was beheaded: and tho mob glutted their cruel eyes with tho spectacle of bleeding heads. Meantime tho Royalists were in ai'ms in Vendee and tlio south. At Toulon tlic cannon of the Republic were successfully directed by Colonel Ronaparto. The death of Robespierre by the guillotine marks the end of a period, justly called Tha lleuju of Terror. ... Louis XVII. died in tho Temple, wasted by suffering and privation, at tho age of ten (1795). In that year the Convention was succeeded by the Directory^ during the establishment of wh-ch Napoleon Bonaparte, 1795 being placed in charge of the artillery, tore a hostile crowd A.D. to pieces with grape-shot. The peal of this cannonado may be regarded as the knell of tlie Revolution Period. ^ Henceforward for twenty years Napoleon Bonaparte, to whosa I'irth in Corsica allusion has been made, is the central figure in French history. In 179G, appointed G-encral of tlie Army of Italy, he achieved in that and the following year a succession of the most brilliant victories. And yet lie was only twenty-six. Lodi, Areola, Rivoli were among tho battles, in which lie scattered tho Austrian armies. Having overthroAvn the Government of Venice, lie made tho Treaty of Campo Formic (1797). His next military expedition was to Egypt, en ronte as ho fondly hoped to India. Rut Nelson destroyed his fleet at tho Nile, and he was repulsed from Acre, Returning home, ho overthrew the Directory, clearing tiic ball with soldiers, and ho then becanu! First Consul (1790). Remembering the national passion for military glory, it is easy to understand how this great military genius became the idol of the French nation. Austria was at first his great foe. Undertaking a second Italian cam- paign, he crossed the Alps in 1800, cmu'aiing Hannibal's achieve- ment ; and inflicted a great defeat upon the Austrians at Marengo. Beaten iu the same year (1800) at Hohenliuden, HISTORY OF FRANCE. 107 they were glad to conclude tho Treaty of Luncvillc (1801). In the following year the Peace of Amiens, between France and Kngland, enabled Napoleon to gather new strength. In 1804 he assumed the title of Emperor with tho consent of the nation. Recognizing in Britain the rival he had most cause to dread, ho revolved a plan of invading that island, but was baffled chiefly by tho vigilance of Lord Nelson, who guarded tho Channel with eagle-watch. The star of Napoleon shone brightest in tho victory of Austerlitz, where he delcated a host of Austrians and Kussians (Dec. 2, 1805). Under his control the ancient 1805 Kmpire of Germany was then merged in a new Empiro a.d. — that of Austria — which began to exist in 1800. In order to secure his hold on various countries, ho placed friends and relations on the thrones. Joseph was made King of Naples ; Louis, King of Holland ; Murat, Grand Duke of Berg. Having subdued Austria, he set himself to humble Prussia. The battle of Jena (1800) crushed the power of that nation, and opened a path of triumph into Berlin. Thence he issued decrees ordaining that no British goods were to be received into the ports of the Continent. In the battles of Eylau and Friedland he repulsed the Russians (1807) : but in the following year his attempt to place Joseph on the throne of Spain excited the Peninsular War, in which tho Duke of Wellington so signally defeated his most skilful generals. The Emperor was so much occupied elsewhere, that ho left this war almost entirely to his marshals. A last hostile effort of Austria to resist the conqueror's power ended in utter prostration at tho village of Wagram near Vienna (1809); and the humbled Hapsburgs were glad to give this Corsican soldier of fortune a wife from their princely ranks. Divorcing the faithful Josephine, he married Maria Louisa in 1810. His annexment of the Papal States and seizure of the Pope soon followed. But retribution came. J 1812 he invaded Russia, intending to winter at Moscow; but, when he reached that central city, it 'Uillf VA ■■■■■■ I * ■ ■■■ I * r ..' % * < IGS IIISTOUY OF FRANCE. broke into flame, and lie was forced to order a retreat. Ills'tory lias nothing more terrible than the story of that struggle with the horrors of a Russian winter. Of more than half a million, ho could muster only a few thousands, as the frontier was repassed. At Leipsic in 1813 he made a final stand against the allied hosts, sternly gathered to crush his overweening ambition; and in 1814 by a movement of the Allies on Paris was forced to abdi- cate, and was imprisoned in the small Italian island called Elba. After ten months in Elba Napoleon escaped. Landing near Cannes, he pushed on to Paris, whence Louis XVIII., who had returned to the Bourbon throne, fled to Ghent. A Congress was sitting at Vienna, which from its central position has been often selected for such meetings ; and the task of reconstructing the map of Europe, so rudely shaken and altered by the ex- Emperor, was going merrily on, when this news came. It ix Baid to have been greeted by the assembled diplomatists, fi;st with a silent stare of incredulity, and then with a roar of laughter. But Napoleon was in Paris, levying troops: action must bo prompt and decisive. Ilesolvetl to deal firoL with the armies near- est to him, Napoleon invaded Belgium, where Welling- 1815 ton and Blucher lay. And there at Waterloo — a field A.D. which the French call Mont St. Jcan~he was signally and finally defeated by the British and the Prussians (18th June, 1815). In the October of the same year he was landed on the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821 of an ulcer in the stomach. His last words, spoken as he lay dying amid the crash and glaro of a tropical thunder-storm, were suggestive : " Tctc iVarmcc'^ Louis XVIII. (1814-24).— The nine years between Waterloo and the death of this King were spent in efforts to establish a parliamentary government in France. ^lagnificent orations lihook the House of Assembly with the thunders of applause they dii;-w forth ; but tlierc was an element of change and storm Btill brooding. The only military enterprise of note was a BuccessM expedition into Spain under the skilful Dnked'Angou- leme for the purpose of reinstating the King Ferdinandj who had 1; -HI' f HISTORY OF FRANCE. ICO been ilctlirouctl by a revolution of Liberals. Louis XVIII. died ia 1824, and was succeeded by Charles X. (1824-30). — Absolutism now set in. Laws wevo prepared to alter trial by jury and to crush tlic liberty of tlio press. In vain the people expressed their opinion by shouts of ♦' No Censorship ; " they were scornfully rebuked by the Kiiii,', who was possessed of an obstinate blindness to results that reminds us much of the Stuart infatuations. While the strugglo between despotism and freedom was proceeding, with an ever- growing Lil::^ral majority in the Chamber of Deputies, an expe- dition was successful in wresting Algiers from the pirates, who had been long the scourge of the 3Icditerranean. The Second French Revolution (1830) deprived Charles X. of his throne. Excited by three foolish Ordinances, repressing liberty of speech and freedom of election, the people of ViXxU mounted the tricolor cockade, tore up the pavements to erect barricades, and made themselves masters of the city. The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe, was elected King of the French, while Charles found refuge in Ilolyrood at Ediuburgli. Louis Philippe (1830-48).— The Citizen King, as the ncwly- cleeted monarch was called, gradually acquired position, especially by the recognition of England. The rising, excited in favour of her son by the Duchess of Berri, failed. But the life of the King was attempted more than once, notably by Fieschi, who caused the explosion of a shell on the Boulevards, killing fourteen persons, but not injuring the King. A nephew of the great Emperor, by name Louis Napoleon, the son of the King of Holland, now began to be heard of. He liad one fixed idea — that he was destined to be Emperor, as his uncle had been. In 1836 he made an attempt to excite insurrec- tion at Strasbourg ; but it failed, and he was permitted to go to America. After a residence in England he made a second effort this time at Boulogne ; but he was arrested, tried, and com- mitted to prison at Ham. After six years he escaped to England, whence ho returned after the Revolution had opened his way to the throne. !!i= f 4 ' -■1 ,1' , »' i rrrssss^^-. .'it 170 IIISTOUT OF FnANCB. The reign of Louis Philippe, whose avarice was insatiable, dissatisfied the people, and estranged, by political trickery, liiitain and other nations that had been friendly at first. At hist the growing discontent canie to a licad ; ami he was expelled from the throne (1848). The Third French Revolution was excited by a refusal of the Government to permit a Reform banquet on George Washington's birthday. The King found a r'^fugo in England, where he died. Louis Napoleon, elected for the department of Seine, was voted President of the Republic in 1848. Three years later (Dec. 2, 1851), by a coup iVttat — that is, a massacre by military force and a midnight arrestment of his opponents — he gained possession of Paris, which was only a step towards his election as Emperor (Dec, 1852). In 1854 the French and tlie English united in the Russian War. The siege of Scbastopol was carried on by them in conjunction; but the chief glory of reducing this great stronghold belongs to our Gallic neighbours. The decisive coup was the storming of the Malahoffow the 8th Sept. 1855. Marshal Pelissier was then in command of the French forces — St. Arnaud having died, and Canrobert having resigned. While Britain and France united in a Chinese war in 1858, a conspiracy, of which Orsini was the leader, aimed unsuccessfully at the life of the Emperor ny the explosion of shells. Li 1859, war having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the French Emperor in person took the field in Northern Italy as tho ally of the latter state. Humbled at Montebello, and on the greater fields of Magenta and Solferino, Austria sought peace, which was concluded at Villafranca. The province of Lombardy was ceded to France, and by that nation truusferi'd to Sardinia. But as a recompense, France received Savoy and Nice. In the autumn of 18G0 Pekln surrendered to the combined forces of England and France, which had already gained several victories over the Chinese ; and in 18G4 the same allies, in con- junction with tho Dutch and the Americans, forced the Straits of Siaioiio in Japan. Such expeditions have tended £;rcatly to opun tvlC't. 5I0DEnN FllKNCII CIIRONOLOOY. ITl to the infliicncos of civill/atioii those rcniot- Orioutnl < ^iiutries, which have hcen soalcd up against fuicigu . A.I>. League of Canibray, ... • •1 • •t 15US It. Louis xir. Gaston dc Foix killed at Ha\ ouaa, • •• • •• 1512 _ Inutile of Favia, • •• • •• 1525 lit Francis I. Defence of Metz ly Guise, !•• • •• 1552 ... Henry II. JJuttlc of Jarnrtc, • •• tit 156l> .11 Charles IX. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day • (t tat 1572 — Tiie Holy League, • •• tit 157(5 ... Henry III. Kattle of Ivry, • ft ti* 1590 ... Uenry IV. £dict of Nantes, • •f tit 1593 — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, A.P. Ascendency of Riclielicu, • •• • It 1621 '2 ... Louis XIIT. Siege of La Rochelle, ... t»* • •• lQ2b-d — Keign of Louis XIV., • *t • •• 1G13-1715 ... Louis XIV. Peace of tlie Pyrenees, #•• • »■ 1C59 — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, ... • •• : ^9 1GG3 •m. Peace of Nimeguen, ... • •• • •t 1673 — > Battle of La Hogue, ... • •t III 1(392 — . Tr.aty of Eyswick, ... ttt tit iGDr — I-lOnTEKNin CENTUUY, A. War of Spanisli Succession, ... • •• tit 170M3 ... Louis XIV. Tieaty of Kastadt, • ta ... 17H — Mi^:sissippi Bubble, ... ... «•» tit 1719 ... Louis XV. I'attle of Dettiiio'en, ... ... • •» • tt 1713 — JJuiile of Fontenoy, .« ... • •• • •• 17J5 — Second Treaty of Ai;. ''^hapellc, • It • •1 174S — Seven Years' War, ... • •* ail 1756-G3 — Peace of Paris, tit III 17G3 — Great French Revolution, • ■t • *• 1789-95 ... Louis XVI. France a Republic, ... • •• lit 1792 — — Kxecutiou of iving Louis XVI., • • > • *• 1793 — Reign of Terror, • It tit ] 793-1 ... Anarchy. Kupok'ou Tlr^t Consul, ... • ■• • It ITJ'J — I •?i iW m i^il^: I 72 MODKux i-u:::>cii ciiuoxology. \4\ m >M Mil. f! NIXKTliliNTII CU.NrUr.Y, A.D. Peace of Amiens, Napoleon I. becomes Kiupovor, Tattle of Austerlitz, ... Disastrous Russian Campaign, Tattle of Loipsic, Napoleon ii; Elba, I'.attle of Waterloo, ... Second French Revolution, Third French Revolution, Louis Napoleon Kmneror, Fall of Sebastopol, ... Franco- Prussian War, Proclaraatiou of Republic, \.T> 1802 . 1804 . 1805 1812 1813 1814-15 1815 1830 1848 1852 18.o5 1S70-71 1870 Anarchy. Napoleon I. Louis xvirr. Cliarlos X, Louis riiiiippe. Napoleon 111. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. In tliG earliest centuries of the Christian Era the swamps anil sand hills of the Netherlands were held by three trihes— IJatavi, ]3el-a3, and Frisii, names which still exist in Batavia (capital of the Dutch Asiatic colonies). Belgium, and Friesland. These wild people lived a seafarin- life as fishermen and pirates. About the sixth century the Franks overran the country ; and it was made in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun a part of Germany. Petty princes, among whom the most powerful were the Bishop of Utrecht and the Counts of Flanders, ruled it for the period (1000-1300), after which it was absorbed into the spreadmj,' Duchy of Bu'rguudy under Philip the Bold, Thilip the Good, and Charles the Bold. Its cities— such as Brussels, Ghent, Mechlin, and Antwerp— had already begun to grow rich and strong by trade and manul\icturing industry. We have seen how Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Bur- -midy, fell in battle with the Swiss; and how his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, married Maximilian of Austria. The latter event brought the Netherlands under the dominion of Austria in 147/. AVhen the great Emperor Charles V., who was Maxiniilum's frrandson, reigned, the Seventeen Provinces were, by virtue of an arrangement called the Pragmatic Sanction (1548), annexed to ^ HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 173 tlic German Empire under the name of tlic Circle of Bnnjnmhj. It was liowcvcr under Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor of Charles, that the provinces emerged into great historical pvo- mincnce. The principles of the Reformation having taken firm hold in the rich and freedom-loving cities of the Netherlands, I'hilip, who was a bigot of the worst type, attempted to crush the newly-born 1^-otcstantism hy introducing the terrors of the Inquisition. Tho Dutch nobles — whom scornful courtiers nicknamed the Berjgars — protested ; and the people soon secured their protest by insurrec- tion. The Duke of Alva repressed the rising with massacre, Counts Egmont and Horn paying for their patriotism with their heads. This braced the spirit of the Dutch, who found a worthy leader in "William of Orange, called in history the Silent. IMic defence of Leyden, which was saved by cutting tho dikes and flooding the Spanish trenches (1574), was a great blow to Si)anish pride and power. William was made Stadtholder of the Republic, and Trotestantism was established, the Union of tho Provinces being accomplislicd by the Pacification of Ghent (157G). The struggling Dutch were enabled to confirm their constitution in 1570, when the Union of Utrecht 1579 formed the seven northern provinces into the Dutch Re- a.d. public under the presidency of William as Stadtliolder. This great prince was, by a base subterfuge of Philip, assas- sinated at Ghent in 1584 by a pistol-shot. Maurice (1585-1625), his second son, was elected in his stead. The war with Spain continued to rage in the southern pro- vinces, where the Duke of Parma made himself master of Antwerp. The decay of prosperity in this city was beneficial to the commerce of Amsterdam. Aid was given to the Re- public by England in this war. The Earl of Leicester led an army to Zutphen, near which Sidney received his mortal wound. In 1600 Maurice defeated the Spaniards at Nieuport. Tlien was formed tlie siege of Ostend (1601-1604), a city which Spinola, the Spanish General, took with great difficulty at the cost of much blood. His experience in this hopeless war induced f>, ' i hi' I 174 IlTPTOTlY OF TITF, KKTTIEnLAXT)?. him to represent the impossibility of subduing the Dutch ; and in 1G09 a twelve years' truce was made, recognizing the right oi the Dutch to carry on a trade with India, which they had estab- lished, and from which they already were deriving great profits. A Dutch East India Company had been established in 1G02. A religious dissension troubled the Dutch llcpublic after this time, when Barneveldt, an advocate of Arminianism, was opposed to Maurice, who upheld Gomer, a champion of Calvinism. The, Stadtholder, having convoked a National Synod at Dort, caused his opponent to be executed fur " vexing the Church of God." The extension of colonial dominion in the Eastern Seas brought English and Dutch into collision at Amboyna, one of the Molucca Islands, rich in cloves. So hot did the contention grow that a number of English were seized, tried, and executed, for an alleged conspiracy to expel the Dutch from this island. This affair has been dignified by being named " The Massacre of Amboyna." Maurice died in 1G25. Under Frederic Henry (1G25-47) the Spanish war went on, in conjunction with Dutch conquests in South America and Ceylon. In 1G39 the Admiral Van Tromp gained a great naval victory over the Si)aniards in the Channel. WiUiam II. (1G47-1G50).— The Teace of Westphalia (1G48) secured the final acknowledgment of the independence of the Dutch Eepublic by Spain. The ten provinces in the south (Belgium) remained under the rule of Spain, until the Treaty of Bastadt transferred them to Austria. After the death of AVilliam TI. (1G50) the office of Stadtholder was abolished for the time. While Cromwell ruled England, the English and Dutch fleets contended at sea, Blake being opposed to Martin Van Tromp and Do lluyler. An Act havin.g b^eu passed to exclude the House of Orange from holding supreme power, and the control of the provinces being vested in ^tho States-General, which were swayed entirely by John dc Witt, Grand Pensionary of IlolUmd, Charles II. of England engagedjii a war, nominally in behalf of his little kinsman, afterwards Wil- liam HI. of England, really however to secure the chance of some .^.^■.. 1 11 IIISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 175 on, money for his own pleasures. In tliis war (1004-07) a great disgrace fell on England, when Do Ruyter entered the Tlmnics and Lui-ned the .shipping at the Medway. Charles after this was only too glad to make the Treaty of Breda (1067), by which the possession of New York (previously called Now Amsterdam) was .secured to Britain. At this time De Witt induced the States-General to pass the rerpetual Edict (1007), abolishing for ever the office of Stadt- holder. He also formed the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden, being alarmed at the ambition of Louis XIV. Cliarlca of England however changed sides, r.nd Louis overran the Dutch pi-ovinces (1072); upon which the Perpetual Edict was repealed, and William of Orange (son of William II. and afterwards King of Great Britain) was made Hereditary Stadtholder. Tlii's triumph of the Orange party w%as stained by the massacre of tlio Dc Witts. Cornelius being impi-isoncd on a charge of aiming at A\'illiam's life, John, his brother, resigned his office, and wenl to receive his brother as he came out of prison. The mob set upon tlie carriage in the streets of the Hague, and murdered both the brothers (1072). William m. (1072-1702) found himself at once obliged to Aice Louis le Grand, who crossed the lihine in 1072; and for a lime it seemed likely that the Dutch would be forced to open tlie sluices mul flood their fields in self-defence. They had, however, a refuge in their navy, suppose the worst sliould come. Though seldom victorious, William contrived to hold his own, and to im- press the French King with a feeling, like that which Spinola had expressed, that it was impossil^le to crush the spirit of these sturdy mariners. The ^JVeaty of Nimeguen was made in 1078. When AYilliam of Orange became in IGSS King of England, he rejoiced in the opportunity of exercising greater resources in the opposition of Louis. The war, in whidi tlie battles of Stein- kirk anut the success of the French Revolu- tion kindled the flame of repuldicanism in the Netherlands high and bright. Plchcgni and Jourdan, leading the army of th-^ French Republic, overran Holland, drove the family of Orange from the land, and opened the way for the erection of the JUda- vian BcpuhUc (1795). This drew down the wrath of Britain, by whom Holland was Ftrippcd of some valuable colonies such as the Capo of G.u.d Hope, Ceylon, and Demerara ; and in 1797 A.lmlral Duncan in- fllr-ted a severe defeat on the Dutch navy off Campcr.hnvn. The English and the Russians then seized the shipping at the Tcxcl, aftc^'r which a convention at Alkmaar arranged terms for the evacuation of Holland by those triumphant enemies. Holland, after the rupture of the Treaty of Amiens, was forced --as a weak neighbour may be forced by a strong-to side wit,i xXapoleon in his schemes of conciucst. This of course put tho Dutch in opposition to the British, who conti^.iued to strike r,t i»H III.STOIIY or TIIK NKTIIKRLAXn?. 177 lioMcr, Succei:- . The to IIol- ikcn by solidary revived )t cujoy princo, Years' 5, \vheii faction, iir sym- 1 wliiJi Prussian ng luMMl Ilevolii- ids liigli ' of tli-^ Orange le Bata- land was of Good ncaii in- n. ig at tlie erius for as forced side with e put tlio strilu' i;t {]\o most vi(;d part of tlic strength of ILdhmd— her ricli and numerous colonies. In 180G the J3atavlan ricpuhlic was changed into tlie Kingdon\ of JTolhmd, on the throne of wliicli Napoleon put his brother Louis. But in 1810 Louis, whoso government was too liberal to please his iron brother, abdicated in favour of his sou ; an ar- rangement however wdiich did not suit Napoleon's plans. Hoi- laud was thcN fore for a time annexed to Franco. In 1813, wiien Europe was breaking the Napoleonic chains, Holland rose in revolution, and recalled the House of Orange, making William Frederic ruler with the title of Sovereign Prince; under whom, after the French had been beaten at Antwerp and a treaty of peace, with some restitution of conrpiests, had been made with Britain, the Congress of Vienna (1815) decreed tlu; union of the Seventeen Provinces (Holland and Belgium, which bad been separated for two centuries) under the name of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This union lasted for fifteen years; but in 1830 the Belgians, who aro French in their language and their manner of life, fol- lowed the example of France, and by a revolution established their independence. After Louis Philippe of France had refused to permit his son to fdl the throne of the new kingdom, the honour was offered to Leopold, a German pi-ince, wdio held the crown until 18G5, when his son Leopold II. succeeded him quietly. The Netherlands (as the Kingdom of Holland is now called) are ruled by William III; and enjoy a quiet, untroubled, money- getting existence. MOT)f]RN CURONOLOQY OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian of Austria, ilevolt in tlie Northern Provinces, Union of Utrecht— Dutch Republic coiistitutul, . William the Silent assassinated, ... Spain declires the Dutch independent, The Perpetual Edicc, ... Murder of the De Witts, William of Orange hereditary Stadtholdpr, (137) PJ /// fff ■a II m ii ! 178 IIISTOUY OF denmahk. William Becomes King of England, French under Pichegru ovcrruu Holland, I3ataviau llepublic formed, ... ••• ••• Battle of Camperdown, ... ... ••• ••• Kingdom of Holland under Louis Bonaparte, House of Orange restored, lleceives the title of King, Belgium made au independent Kingdom by a Revolution, ••• A. Ut 1689 • •• 1793 t*« 1795 • •• 1797 • •• 1806-10 • •• 1813 ••• 1815 • t* 1830 DENMARK (to the Present Time). Tlic Uiii^n of Calmar (concluded in 1897) was dissolved, by the triiinip^i of Swodisli struggles for independence, in 1523, ^vllcn Frederic I., Duke of Scldeswig and Holstein, was made King of Denmark and Norway. Under liis auspices tlio prin- ciples of the Lutheran Reformation spread in Denmark. His son, Christian III., besides obtaining froni Norway au acknowledgement of the suprennicy of Denmark " for ever," an- nexed the' Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to the Danish crown (1533). A code of law, styled the Recess of Kolding^ belongs to this reign. The reign of Christian IV. (1 588-1 C48) derives importance from the share he took in the struggle of the Thirty Years' War. There had grown up a keen rivalry between Denmark and Sweden—all the keener because they were such close neighbours, and because both claimed a right to take toll from passing vessels at the Sound. Now there was need of a Protestant champion ; and Christian hurried to arms in order to be beforehand with the Swedes. He was opposed at first by Tilly, who defeated him at Lutter in Hanover (1020), and afterwards found^ the peninsular portion of his country overswept by the Imperial forces under Wallensteln. So complete was his humiliation that ho gladly acceded to the terms of the Peace, of Luhcck (1029). Later in his reign (1043), Christian joined the war on the opposite side, in order to check the encroachments of Sweden; but the Swedes, under Torstenson, aided by the Dutch, forced Jiini to a peae .'c, and to make various concessions giving to Sweden t •• 1689 • • 1793 • « 1795 ••• 1797 f 1806-10 • «• 1813 ••• 1815 • •• 1830 olvctl, by in 1523, vas iiiade tlio pviu- orway an 2ver/* aii- ic Danlsli nportanco ty Years* unark and ^^iglibouvH, ng vessel ^4 champion ; I with the tod liiui at peiiiusular rccs under ho gladly Later in losite iside, but the ed him to Sweden .mSTORY OF DENMAUK. 170 the islands of Gothland and Oesd — to Holland, a reduction ol the Sound duties. Frederic III. (1C48-70) engaged in wars \vith Sweden, tha disasters of which, coupled with the tyranny of the nobles, in- duced the Danish people, assembled in the National Diet of lOGO, to confer absolute and hereditary powers upon the Sovereign. The troubles of Danish history during the eighteenth century arose chiefly from her desire to possess the Duchies of Schleswig and Ilolstein, lying on the neck or isthmus of her peninsular dominion. Having formed an alliance with Louis XIV., tht3 Danes secured Schlcswig in 1684; but it w-as not for nearly a century later (1773) that Holstein was securely and finally aimexcd, Kussia receiving in lieu of that duchy, on behalf of the heir, Oldenburg and another county. The eighteenth century was spent in growing prosperity by Denmark. Trade was encouraged ; and some colonies were ac- (juirod. Under ministers like Dernstorf intellectual pursuits w'cre cherished, and vassalage was gradually abolished: the latter good work being begun by Christian VII. in 17G7. Liberty of tho ])ress was also granted, though somewhat restricted afterwards, But at tho opening of tho present century, Denmark, wlioso chief strength lay in her navy and her position as gate-keeper of the Baltic, became embroiled with England, then beginning to be engaged in her deadly struggle with Napoleon. In 1800 Britain, exercising a right she claimed of searching ont.iin ships, took a Danish frigate, which had resisted. The vc. sel was afterwards released; but Denmark joined with Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, in a paction called The Armed Ncntmlitf/ if the Northf formed against the naval power of Britain. Admiral Nelson retorted, on the part of Britain, by attacking the Danish ileet in tho harbour of Cojioihagen, under the fire of tho batteries on shore, nnd destroying it at a blow (1801). In 1807 tho Treaty of Tilsit contained a secret article, pro- mising to g!vc up the Danish fleet to the victorious Napoleon. Having heard of this, tho British Oovornment resolved to bo beforehand with those trying to outwit them ; and, accordingly, r* ^^ ISO niSTOrwY OF DFA'MATIK. pt '1 ? i Gambior nnd Catlicart "bombardcfl Copenliagcn, until the floct of tliiity-tlireo ships Avas .surrendered. A war ensued, in whicli Denmark wivi stripped of several colonies; but the Peace of Kid (1814) restored all but the islet Heligoland, still in possession of the British. At the same time Denmark received Ponierania instead of Norway; but in 1815 she yielded this province to Prussia, receiving in lieu of it the Duchy of Laucnburg. As the present century grev.' older, it became more and more evident that Denmark and the Duchies must separate ; for the laws of royal succession differed in the two counti'ies ; and the people of the Duchies were in language and national .sympathies far more German than Scandinavian. The year 1848, wliich kindled revolutionary fire through all Kurope, excited the Duchies to struggle for tlieir independence, in aiming at whicli they receivctl aid from Prussia. IJut Austria threw her weight into the opposite scale, and thus the day of reparation was postponed. It came in 18G4, when Prussia and Austria in alliance crossed the Kider into Schleswig and drove the Danes from a rampart called the Dannewcrk. The fortress of Diippel was also taken ; and so much loss inflicted on Denmark that she consented to part with the three Duchies, wdiich were incorpoiated with Prussia. The war of 1866, afterwards dcscribcil, may have consoled Den- mark somewhat. The marriage of the Prince of Wales in 186;» to Alexandra, daughter of the Danish King, Christian IX., united Denmark to England, as the cotmtries had been previously united twice; for James I. married Anne of Denmark, and Quecu Anne married Prince George also of that country. The present royal family of Denmark indeed has since been suddenly lifted from semi-ob- scurity : for George, the brother of the Princess of AVales, was elected in 1863 to the throne of Greece ; while Dagmar (now Maria) has lately been married to the Czarewitch, the heir of Russia. Tlie Princess of Wales was wrongly styled by Tennyson, in Ills Ode of Wclccmie, a *' daughtci of the Sea-Kings : " she is a German princess of the House of Oldenburg. the floct in which ;c of Kid session of 'onieraiiia jvincc to ind moro ; for th(j and the mpathios rough all )cnclenc«», fc Austria ic day of 5 crossed rampart o taken; d to part Prussia. ilcd Deu- [oxandrn, iiiiiark to ,vicc; for married family of semi-ob- alcs, was lar (uoAV J heir of 'einiyson, ; " siliG is lIIiTOllY OF gWKDKX AND NOhWAY. MODEUN CHRONOLOGY OF DENMARK. Union of Calmar dissoIveJ, (y'Uristian IV. joins in the Tliirty Years' War, l)auish crown luaJo absolute and hereditary, Ilolstein and Sclileswig taken by Frederic IV., t'openhagen bombarded by Nelson, Second bombardment of Copenhagen, Ilevolt of the Danish Duohies, l>eumark loses the Duchies, ISl A.n. ir>24 1G25 16G0 171t> ISOl 1807 ISl'J ISCl SWEDEN AND NORWAY (to the Present Time). The dolivoranco of Sweden from tlie tyranny exercised hy Cliristian II. of Denmark was wrought by Gustavus Erickson, commonly called Gustavus Vasa. In 1521 Christian, who had imprisoned Erickson, massacred tiic flower of the Swedish nobles, among them slaying the father of his captive. But Gustavus escaped from prison, .-ind wandered among the mountains of Dolecarlia, workiug as a miner, and undergoing perils of death and capture. Once, when he was hitbh'n in a cart of straw, the Danish soldiers plunged their Fpears into the strav:, and, tliougli a point pierced his thigh, ho never moved ; so they passed on. Collecting an army, he soon moved towards Stockholm, which he took after three sieges (1523). Gustavus refused the crown at first; but at length, seeing political intrigues still rife, ho assumed the state of a monarcii (1527). His reign of thirty-three years (1527-60) w.as signalized by the adoption of tlic Lutheran doctrines, and the raising of Sweden to a high place among the powers of Europe. Four names— the cruel Erik ; John, favourer of Catholicism ; PIgismund, who was also King of Poland through his mother; and Charles IX., elected in room of the last named King, who was deposed by a civil war — carry us on to the glorious reign ofGus'^avus Alolphus (lGll-82). This great prince, whose measures were aide^ and carried out by his minister, Oxensticrn, at first engaged in war with Russia il I X \ f> l^ I I i 182 IIlSTOr.Y OF FWFnT:V A\T) NOHWAV. and Polaml, wlilcli lio stripped of valuaMo possession?;. Vn\t it Avas as Captain of the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War, after the failure of Christian IV. of Denmark, that his genius disphiyed its full lustre. Having', perhaps with fiomo presentiment of his coming fato, committed his little daughter, aged four, to the caro of tho assembled States of Sweden, lie crossed the l^altic to Kugeu (Ki^H)). The Lattle of licipsio — a glorious victory for Sweden— - u disastrous defeat for the Austrians under Tilly— secured tho ficoduni of Germany (1(I:>1). j>ut the jollowing year was fatal to the Swedish hero. "NValh-nsteiu pitched his camp 1632 1>y Liitzen; and there Gustavus attacked liim. Tho A.I). Swedish vlct(.)ry was signal and complete ; but tho Swedish King, ritliiig with careless courage too near the enemy, was shot dead (lOo'J). Christina (1032-54) was educated like .a man — taught from earliest childhood to listen without fear to tho roar of cannon. She studied Ilehrew, Greek, and polities ; and rode, shot, and liuuted in the dress of a man. Oxenstiern managed the Regency wisely: in 1G44 she took tho reins liersclf. She engaged in a Danish war (T(U3-45); and hy the Peace of Westphalia (1()4S) ohtalned Pomerania, llugen, l>remen, and other territories. She then mo and mrsuits. for Konio cd with [itly dis- nd, but enmaik. c of tho . to the '«i Ii;[!=TOnY OF SWF-DRN AND NftRTTAY. isn rence of JlocsJdul (1058), wliicli made liiiu master of Scania, and other portions of the Scandinavian peninsula held by tho Danes. But a repulse at Copenhagen, where Trusslans and Dutch assisted the Danes to resist Iiiin, is said to have hastened his death by mortifying his ambition and vanity. Charles XI. (lGGO-97), when in 1G72 ho becamo free from Iho control of guardians, ruled with wisdom. In the first year of his reign (1660) the Peace of OUva put an end to a war of f;uceession, which had been ragin^' intermittently for sixty years. The Swedes acquired Livonia, while the Poles gave up all claim to the crown of Sweden. Charles was involved by the craft of liouis XIV.—- that arch-uisturbcr of European peace during his own century — in a war with Prussia, by which he was strii)pcd of Pomerania— a territory, however, restored by the peace of Fontaincbleau(1679), An important domestio change reached its crisis during this reign. A struggle between the King on the one hand, supported by the masses of the people, and tho Senate and nobles on the other, ended in 1693, when the Diet by a formal act declared Chivies absolute. His whole reign was prosperous — debt was lessened, manufactures improved, and foreign trade much advanced. He died in 1697. Charlss XII. (loi>7-1718), surnamed "The Madman of the North," succeeded his father at the age of fifteen. His history is that of a monarch, so devoured with a passion for military glory, as to forget the higher duties of a crown. Charles, however, was forced into his first war by the coalition of Denmark, Poland, and llussia, 1.0 dismember and share amongst them his kingdom o) Sweden. This was called The Northern War. He first de- feated the Danes, and- then inflicted a great defeat upon tho llussians at Nar/a near the Gulf of Livonia (1700). Augustus, Elector of Saxony, was then King of Poland ; and as a revenge for the share which this prince had taken in the scheitfi'e against Sweden, Charles, during tliree campaigns, dctlironed him, and crowned in his stead Stanislaus Leczinski (1704). Tho invasion of Saxony by Charles completed the humiliation of Augustus. Then begau a great struggle between the two heroes of tho 'mh u i. (■! -,...< fi 31] 184 nisTonv OF swepkn and nohwat. North— Cliarlcs XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of Russia. Of the latter more will be said in a succeeding chapter. Chdle^ in 1707 invaded llussia with 80,000 men, resolved, as ho boast- fully said, to " treat with Peter nowhere but at Moscow." Peter laid waste the land, and waited. Snow, icy winds, hunger, fiickness harassed the Swedish army on their march; 1709 and, when their number was reduced to 18,000, and these A.D. were engaged in the siege of Pultowa, Peter came up with fresh troops, and utterly routed the Swedes (1709). Charles took refuge in Turkey; and at first the Sultan mado war witli Russia on his behalf. But ho afterwards quarrelhid with his host, and yet refused to leave Turkey. Meanwhile, Peter secured Livonia and Finland, while Prussia and Denmark took possession of the Swedisli provinces south of the Baltic. The last exploit of Charles, in which his former foe Peter was an ally, was an attack on Norway. But at the siege of Fredcrii-k- 8hald (1718) he was killed instantly by a shot striking his head. Ho was only thirty-seven years of age. The sister of Charh's XII. was elected Queen; but in 1720 she resigned her throne to her husband, Frederic of Ilesse-Cassel (1720-51). Under this sovereign Sweden lost her position as a great power in Europe. The Trcatij o/Nijstah (1721) mado over a considerable portion of territory to Russia. Domestic politics were troubled by a contest between two factions — the // \\^ 6^ . "'TOUV OF :-■^VF,^;I■X ANT* NORWAY. faining flio raiilc of a separate kingdom with its own constitution, was formally joined to the Swedish croAvn. Charles XtlT. dieii in 1818, Avhen the Crown Prince succeeded as Charles XIV. (1818-44).— Having been solemnly crowned at Stockholm and Trondjhcm, tliis ex-marshal of France, trained in the camp, and used to war from his boyhood, beat his sword into a ploughshare, and devoted himself to works of peace. Indeed m hh opening speech, when appointed Crown Prince, he had indicated his sense of the miseries of A\ar in the impressive worda, " No conquest can console a country for the blood of its children ^slied ilia foreign land." Swedisli commerce and agriculture flourished greatly during the twenty-six years of tliis reign. The Gota Canal, uniting the Baltic and North Seas, was opened in 1832. Oscar I. (1844-59), tlio son, and Charles XV. (1859-72), and Oscar II., the grandsons of Bernadotte, have reigned since liis death. The last now occupies the throne of Sweden and Norway. MODEUN GIIIIONOLOGY OP SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Revolution under Gustavus Vasa, Guslavus A(lol[)lius killed at Lutzen, ... Abdication of Christina, Teace of Oliva (Sweden and Poland), lleij^n of Cliarles XII., ... ... ... .•• Battle of Narva, ... ... liaLtle of Piiltowa, ... ... Treaty of Nystadt (Sweden and Russia), Finland ceded to llussia, ... ... ... Bernadotte made Crown Prince, Treaty of Kiel places Norway under the Swedish crown, jiernadottc made Kin?, ... ... He dies, ▲.s. 1521-3 1632 1654 1660 1C97-171S 1700 1703 1721 180D 1810 18U 1813 1814 GEEMAL 'i (since 1493). Maximilian I. (1493-1510), the husband of Mary of Bur- gnndy and the son of Frederic III., became Emperor of Germ.iny in 149:1. To the wisdom of this prince Germany owed much, lie divided his empire into si.K Circles— Franconia, 33avaria, TTTSTn-RY np nP,nM\XY 187 A.D. 1521-8 1632 1654 1660 I7-171S 1700 1709 1721 ISOIH 1810 181 J ISU Siialria, \]\c Uliiiu.', Westphalia, and Saxony ; to Avhicli were after- Nvards added four other Circles — Austria, Burgundy, Lower llhinc, and Upper Saxony. He also organized a standing army, Avith the three branches of military service — horse, foot, and ar- tillery— in complete equipment. .But wliat gives its chief interest to the reign of this Emperor is the beginning of tho Reformation in Germany. Martin Luttier, a native of Eisleben in Saxony, while at college at Erfurt, found in tho' library a Latin Bible, which gavo light to his miiuL Afterwards appointed Professor at Witten- berg, his anger v:as roused by the sale of indulgences, issued by Pope Leo X. for the purpose of raising money to build St. Peter's Church at Rome; and (1517) he nailed nindi/'five Theses on the church door at Wittenberg, attacking these papers as impostures, utterly unavailing to save tho soul. At Leipsic (1519) he dis- puted with Eck; and in 1520 he burned a Papal bull, issued against him by Leo, casting tho document into a fire of wood in presence of many people of Wittenberg. Charles V. (1519-58). — Summoned to the Diet of Wonm (1520), Luther appeared before the Emperor Charles V., who had Bucceedcd his grandfather Maximilian in tho previous year; nor could all the wrath and scorn he was subjected to shake the courage of the monk, though sickness had assailed him on the way, and the terrors of persecution for heresy loomed dark before him. It may be well, in order to avoid tho chance of confusion, to state shortly the other leading events of the Reformation in Ger- many, though in so doing many years of the reign of Charles V. nmst be anticipated. The friendly arrest of Luther, after tho Diet of Worms, and his confinement at Wartburg, it is supposed, by the Elector of Saxony, afforded him an opportunity of translating the Bible into German. In 1525, his marriage with a nun severed him still more widely from the Church of Rome. Tho Protestants first received their distinctive name in 1529 at Spires, when they j9ro- iestcd against a Roman Catholic decree. And at Augsburg in 1530 they published their Confession of Faith ^ a document drawn ':,> ■ % I •. iii ¥\ i' f ! .■■( • 1 idmMi ^, 18S UlSTOnY OF GERMANY. u np by Liitlicr ancl Melanctlion Jointly. They then at Smalcald fonucd a league, which showed such deterniination that the Em- peror, bent upon warlike schemes, cancelled his earlier edicts against them. Charles V. had been for three years King o! Spain, with the title of Charles I., when he was elected to the Empire. Be- hiucs Spain, he possessed Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. Ere long he engaged in war with Francis I. of France, who had been a candidate against him for the Empire. A sketch of this war has been already given. About 1524 the Peasants* War, caused by the Anabaptists, desolated the Rhenish provinces; and in 1535 there was another Anabaptist o'^t break, of wh\ch tl'.e centre ^vas Munster, called by them Mount Zioii. Charles V. did good service as the opponent of the Turks, who, having seized Belgrade and other forts on tlic Danube, had in- vested Vienna — 1520. In 1535 he defeated the pirate Barbarossa at Tunis; but at Algiers in 1541 he underwent great loss and disgrace. The great Coimcil of Trent, wdiich was convened against Pro- testantism, and in whose discussions the new sect called Jesuits took a leading share, began its sittings in 1545,. and continued to sit for eighteen years. Towards the end of Charles* reign ho published an edict called the Interim, which was offered as a settlement of the religious troubles rending the nation. But it did not succeed. Tlie Pro- testant cause was upheld by Maurice of Saxony, once a deserter from its ranks, who, however, now concluded an alliance with France, and took up arms against the Emperor. By u quick movement upon Innspruck this active prince almost made Charles a prisoner. The Treaty of Fassau (1552), confirmed three years later by a Diet cf Augsburg, secured the safety of Protestantism. In 155G the Emperor Charles V. resigned his sceptre to hh brother Ferdinand, and retired to the cloister of St. Yusto in Spain, where he died in 1558. Ferdinand I. (1558-64) asked Pope Paul IV. to crown him; i! i%i nisToiiv GEn^IANY. 1S9 liim; but Llie roul.a refused, because Charles Lad ulxlicatLHl \vilhuut Papal consent. Paul's successor acknowledged Ferdinand as Em- peror; but the dispute had the effect of causing the Electors to ■ abolish the custom of asking the crown from the Pope's hands, instead of which a letter of conipliment was to be forwarded to the Vatican. Ferdinand endeavoured to act as mediator between the Protestant party and the Council of Trent; but the elements were incapable of union. It may be noted that after the resigna- tion of Charles V. the House of Hapsburg divided into two great branches, one of which, descending from Charles V., ruled in Spain, while the other, tracing their lineage from Ferdinand, held bway in Germany and Austria. After the wise reign of Maximilian II. (1564-76), whose tem- perate treatment of both sides soothed tlio rebgious animosities of the time, came Rudolf II. (1576-1612), under whom were sown the seeds of a great European war. This Emperor was under the influence of the Jesuits; and the feeling between Catholics and Protestants soon took a hostile shape iu tlie forma- tion of two associations — the Evangelical Union under Frederic of the Palatinate, and the Catholic League under Maximilian of Bavaria (1610). Under Matthias (1612-1619) a contest for the crown of Bohemia caused that great struggle, The Thirty Years' War, to bcy in her arms, she came into the hall where the Diet was assembled, and told the Hungarian nobles that she liad no resource but their loyalty. With one accord they drew their swords and shouted, " Morlamnr 2>ro re'jG iwsfro Mavia 'llicrcf^a ! " This turned the tide ; the Bavarians and Freuch were driven back. Dnt Prussia, anxious to save Silesia from re-capture, camo again into the field, invading Uuhcmia. Frederic, however, Diatle the I'eace of Dresden with Maria in 1745. Dettingen and Fon- tenoy, which have been already noticed, belong to this war, in which 33rltain upheld, while France opposed, the cause of the Austrian princess. Cliarles VII. died in 1745, when the liusband of Marit^ Tlieresa, Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was elected Kmperor. Francis I. (1745-G5). In spite of the successes of France in the Netherlands, affairs tended towards peace; and the proba- bility of aid from Kussia being afforded to Austria, caused the conclusion of the Trecdi/ of Aix-la-Chapcllc (1748). The Seven Ye?vrs' War (175G-C3) occupied a great part of Francis* reign. This contest lias been already alluded to, but this is the fittest time to detail the events of the campaigns. In 175G the Prussians, invading Saxony, occupied Dresden; they also defeated the Austrians at Lowosit^. Tiio second was the greate^st campaign of the seven. Its leading events were the battle of Prague, a Prussian triumph; and the two great vic- tories also won by Frederic at llossbach and Lcuthcn. In 175S the Prussian King defeated the llussians at Zorndorff ; in 1759 they repaid the loss by routing hiui at Kunersdorr. The fifth X ■i - I;i (167) 13 < t iUt UISTORY OF GERMANY. campaign (17C0) way l>c rcgaraed as the final one. Duiinj? ihut year the PiUbsum Kiin< boiiibanlca Drcselen, anil ihicatcd Austria at Licguitz au.l Torgau. Utterly exhausted, Frcacric remained in his intrenchca camp in Sih-sia, uncertuhi uhat the future mi-ht bring, when the death of the Empress of llussia hrohe up the alliance against him. Tlic reace of Hulertshurg (1703) was made between Austria and Prussia— a peace having already been concluded at Paris by England, Prance, and Spain. Francis I. died in 1765. Joseph II. (1765-90) was the eldest son of Maria Theresa. He inaugurated many reforms, but they were not of a popular kind. So long as his mother lived-she died in 1780-he did not possess full control of affairs. Ilis edict of toleration, ap- plying to all religions (1781), was one of his most noted measures. Frederic of Prussia kept his warlike movements m The leign of Leopold II. (1700-2) was noted for the whole- sale abolition of most of the reforms established by his pre- decessor. In 1791 he concluded the Treaty of PiUnitz with Prussia against France. ^ Francis II. (1792-1806) found himself at once involved m war with France. Belgium was the first theatre of action. There in 1792 Duraouriez defeated the Austrians at Jemappcs, but was himself defeated in the following year at Neerwinden. In 179-t the French marshals Pichcgru and Jourdan were triumphant iii the Netherlands. But all their successes were outshone by the brilliant victories of young Bonaparte in Italy during the year 179G. Driving the Archduke Charles into Styria, and VVurmser into the Tyrol, the Corsican soldier forced Austria into con- cluding the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which gave Bel- gium to France in exchange for Venice. Second War.—lxi 1799 Austria and Russia, in alliance with England, renewed the war— at first with considerable success in Italy and Germany. But Napoleon's fortune became ascendant again. He won the battle of Marengo (1800) ; and in the same year his general Moreau, defeating the Austrians at Hohea- llI5T0nt OP GEUMANY. 105 J? that Austria iiained future ako up 3) was y been ia. He r kiml. id not >n, ap- noteil cuts in wliole- lis pre- tz with Ivcd ill There but was En 179-t )hant iu '. by the the year Vurmser ato con- ive Bcl- [\ce with uccess in .scendant the same , Hohen- linden, opened the way to Vienna, whoso fall was averted only by the Peace of Luncville (1801). Third War.—X new coalition of Austria, Russia, and Kngland now took plaec. Uut nothin.ijr could withstand Napoleon's rc- Bistlesi* march. He wa;< now l^hnperor, and in the Cathedral of Milan (1805) ho assumed the old iri)n crown of the Lombards— a sii;n that ho re-ardcd himself as the successor of Charlcmn-ne. His'buccesscs, dimmed at sea by Nelson's sad glory of Trafalgar, began anew. Mack, an Austrian general, was forced to sur- render at Ulm with nO,0U0 men. The French entered Vienna, and the battle of the Tlirec Emperors, the great victory at Aus- terlitz, whose sun ho was afterwards wont grandilo- (piently to invoke in general orders, gilded his sword 1805 with its chief splendour (1805). The Treaty of Pres- a.d. burg closed this war. A great change in the constitution of Germany now took place.*' ]5avaria and Wurtemberg were erected into kingdoms. The ancient German Empire, which had stood the storms of a thousand years, was dissolved; and most of the states were formed into the Confederation of the liUine, with Bonaparte as Protector. Two years earlier, Francis H. had constituted Austria an hereditary empire; this was now (1806) confirmed. As a specimen of Napoleon's stern dealing with those who sulTcrcd their patriotism to run counter to las schemes, we may notice the execution of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had circulated a pamphlet deploring the humiliation of Germany. Out of certain German states Napoleon, in 1807, formed the kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome. Fourth War.-'ln 1809 Austria began a fourth war with Napo- leon. It reached a speedy close. The field of Eckmiihl— the occupation of Vienna— the great battle of Wagram— were steps of victory leading to the Treaty of Vienna, and the marriage of the victor to an Austrian wife. Two names are distinguished for personal daring at this time. One was Andreio Hofer, an innkeeper of the Tyrol, who headed an insurrection of the peasantry against the Bavarians, to whom ? M \ .. u H' Hi . I ! il r 196 HISIORY OP OERMANT. i iJili''. ■ iililL An ^|: 1 I^^^^^IH j that province was transfcmvl by tlio Treaty of Trcsbur^. Three times, with aid from Austria, thin aarin.cf lcay the nver Mam North Geri.umv contain, twenty states under the guidance and control of Prussia. South Germany contains six under the nonu- nal Hupremacv of T.avaria. Austria .ince this tnne has had no share in the affairs of Germany; and I'rusKia is clearly ambitiuus to iiion..poUze the entire management of the Confederation. MODERN GERMAN CHRONOLOGY. • ■• #•• ••• ••• ••# ••• • •• • t* • t* ••• • •• • •• Protestant Rfcfornjaiion le^jins, Koi^'H of Chailo:* V., Coiiff ssion <>( Augslmrf;, ... Council of Trout, Treaty of Tussan, Tliivty Years' War, Tattle of Frague, Uattlc of Lutzeii, Peace of Westplialia, Kobloski saves Vienna from tli« Turks, Pragmatic Sanction (Oharlen VI.). War «)ftlie Austrian Succession, ... Seven Years' War, r>attle of Uossbaeh •;• Austria tnado an hereditary Kmpuc (Francis II.). lUttle of Austerlitz, ... - ^ "'. e*\.Vh\,.o Ancient (Jer.r,au Kmpirc disHolvod; ConfeJeration of the Rhine Con^res'^of Vicuna; Germanic ConfoJeration, ... •■• Six Weeks' War exp.Is Austria, giving Tmssia the ascendency, ... ... ... ... ... ... fiirnie AD. 1517 1519-56 i5r.o 15 t 5-03 1552 1G18-43 1020 1032 le-is 1C83 1724 . 1740-5 . 1750-03 1757 1804 1S05 .1, 1800 1815 1806 PRUSSIA (1625-lTOl). The -crm of the mi-htv Kin-dom of Prussia, wliieli took its name f.^m the l]ori:ssi, a'lierce Sclavonic trlLc, was the Duchy of Urandenhur-. Uetween 15'25 and 1G40, the latter -eing the a.to of the accession to power of Frederic AVilllaiu, the Great 3-:iector, this state, lying between Sweden and Poland, and to some extent overshadowed hv their superior gTcatness, was yet gaining stren-th and widening its hounds. ,.,,,, , Frederc WilUam the Great (1C40-SS) found his hlectorato wasted, disordered, and impoverished in the extrenic, hy tl.c ex- 1 •. |.t f»' '*1 L! :i ' r: 198 IITSTORY OF mUSSIA. actions of Wallcnstcin during tlic Tliirty Years' War. After reducing alniscs and restoring order, lie turned to his iieighhours. From Poland lie obtained an acknowlcdgcvnent of his title as Hereditary Duke of Prussia, that province heing as yet in sub- jection to the Electorate of Brandenburg. This \vas confirmed by the 'Ireaty of Wehlau, concluded with Poland in 1G57. Oliver Cruiuwell was so conscious of the services rendered by the Great Elector to the Protestant cause that he sent letters of congratulation aiUv coniplinieut to Prussia. In 1G72 Frederic William formed an alliance with Holland against France. In 1G75 Louis XIV. induced those old foes oi yy-^Hia — the Swedes — to invade Pomerania, in order to malce reprisals on the Elector. But the invasion called forth Frederic's highest powers. A secret and sudden march brought him, with only 5U00 men, face to face with a host of Swedes, numbering 11,000, whom he defeated at FelirhclUn (1075). Four years later, he carried his army in sledges over the frozen Frischc Ilaff, and, attacking the Swedes in their winter-camp, expelled them iVom the land (1679). His devotion to the Protestant cause made his dominions the grand refuge of those Huguenots, wlio were exiled by the revoca- tion of the^Edict of Nantes. He also protected the Waldenses. Frederic III. (1688-1701) was the last Elector of ]5randen- burg. He aided William III. of England in his contest with Louis XIV., and the Emperor in a struggle with the Turks. When the War of the Spanish Succession began, he l)argained with the Emperor to supply certain aid to the Austrian cause on condition of obtaining the crown of Prussia. This was consented to; and in 1701 Elector Frederic III. became King Frederic I. rent which he commemorated by the institution of Prussia, — an e\ of an order called " The Black Eagle. I PRUSSIA A KmGDOM (1701 to the Present Time). Frederic I. (1701-13) enjoyed for twelve years a crown, to purchase which he had engaged to give assistance to Austria in tliciu jiifTonY OP ruussiA. 109 Vr war., an.l always to vote for Austria in tl.e Pi.t. 1 .« l.u^ tut of 1.0 rvo">;^« -as rcdocnea by \n. se.u ,„s soVUch, vl o ^;:;;n Lrds ' t Blenl.ei,n and other groat fields. Ho d.ed ur "rlederic William I. (1 713-40) was a stern eeonouust and hater ,„■ u Ly. The Prussian avn,y owes to l.iur the u,st,..a.on of it 1 n" e drill ; and he surrounded himself ^v:th a hody-gua d , , w,>on; he spared no expense-stopped at no n.eans- o s ™c A war uith Sweden (1715) was one of the most nn- ant lH.hlie events of his veigu. His natural savageness of eu P V ^- tod itself upon his sou. who hated eordially the father A et that father/by drilling and diseiplin ug a n,agn, ce, I was nvenarin- the means of making Prussia one of the rSl^iliTro^ers in Europo,-a reputation she at present ^XlSTn^Cmr^), -nan.ed ihe Grea. was twenty-eight years of age when he sueeeeded his father. He was so , - ireated in early life hy liis father, tliat with (he aid o Katt Ld others he tded to e.seape to England. To ng taken, he was i,„p,.isoned at Custrin, and poor Katt was heheaded-a fa which, they say, .vouhl havo helallen the prinee a so, hut for th. entreaties of the Austrian ambassador. He Uved in retirement, ehiefly at Uheinsberg, until his father's death. \ oltairo was ono of liis chief correspondents. lie was scarcely settled on the throne, when the n"P>-otocte^ con- dition of INIaria Theresa led him into the Silcsian AA ar (1 /-10-i-). A second war took place (1744-5). The third and greatest is known as tlie Seyen Years' War, of whicli a sketeli has been already given. Out ol' fourteen battles he won vn,c, hglitnig against the combined strength of Austria, tlio German Empire, llussia, France, and Sweden. / After he had set tlie doniestio affairs of his realm in order, he turned his attention to Poland, then as always rent with internal dissensions, and therefore all the more liable to fall a victim to foreio-n greed. Forming an alliance witli Russia, ho took a sh.aro in the Fird ParilCwn of Vuland (1772), by which he gained tho ^ IT ' ' t m. \\ , i 200 HISTORY OF PRUSSIA. greater part of PolLsli Pnissia. It is said that this scheme was first formed by Frederic I. in 1710. The Emperor, pleased with the results of this wholesale rob- bery, called in diplomatic pliraso " partitioniu.r," cast his eye on Bavaria as a likely spot for a repetition of the process. But Frederic stepped in, and by the Treaty of Teschen saved Bavaria. It became necessary, however, for Frederic afterwards, in order to secure that land from the Emperor's schemes, to imite the German princes in a lengno called tlie Fnrslenhuml. Frederic the Great died in 1780, aged seventy-live. Thomas Carlyle has ^vritten his History, selecting him as a hero for the characteristic reason " that he managed mt to be a liar and a charlatan xis the rest of his century was." Frederic William II. (1786-97) was a decided failure as a successor of his great imcle. A foolish war with Holland— a couple of treaties with Austria— lleichenbach, 1790— Pilluitz, 1794 — carry us on to his share in the Second and Third Partitions of Poland, by which Prussia gained large accessions of territory. His war with the Republic of France was closed by the Treaty of Basle. Frederic William III. (1797-1840) had a long eventful reign. At first he sided with France, intending to add some of the smaller German states to his dominions. And in this he was partially successful, for the Treaty of Luneville gave him Hildeshelm, Paderborn, and part of Munster. He joined the Armed Neu- trality, which however was lirohen up by the murder gf tlie Czar Paul. By negotiation with France, Hanover was made over to Prussia, which led to a war witli England. But Napoleon heaped so many insults upon Prussia that there was a loud cry f(jr war, which began in 180G. Witliin a month Jena was fought and Berlin entered by the French. Prussia then got aid from Kussia; but this merely delayed the catastrophe. The battles of Eyhiu and Friedland sealed the fate of Frederic's kingdom : Napoleon entered Konigsberg — the ancient capital — and by the Treaty of Tilsit the victor consented to give back to the defeated monarch part of his confiucrcd kingdom. This was a terrible blow to H ii' HISTORY OF PRUSSIA. 201 Prussia. Out of portions of the conqucrctl territory Napoleon formed tlio Kingdom of Westphalia, and the Grand-Duchy of WiU-suw. Tor five years Prussia continued in suhjection to Napoleon, and furnished a body of troops for the Russian campaign : but in the heat of conflict during tiic retreat the Prussian General Yorck niatle a truce with the Russian leader to whom he was opposed. In 1813 Frederic William issued a proclamation of war against Franco, announcing the resolve of Prussia to obtain cither hiaiourablc peace or glorious destruction. Ho had previously made an alliance with Alexander of Russia. In this war tho name of Marshal Blucher becomes prominent. So unbending was tho courage of this now veteran soldier, that his King couhl fmd no better emblem to conunemoratc his deeds than an iron cross, with which he was acconlingly decorated. Tliough Napo- leon gained some successes at Lutzcn and Bautzen, tho Allies, among whom Blucher and his Prussians were foremost, defeated him in a scries of battles, which cuhuinated at 1813 Lcipslc, 1813. The great semicircle of veterans, which A.D. Napoleon drew round this city on the north to cover it from the approach of tho foe, was crushed, bent, and broken in three days of incessant fighting. It was Blucher who urged tho Allies to push on to Paris, which he would have sacked with no remorse, had not milder counsels prevailed. By the Congress of Vienna Prussia received part of Saxony, the Grand-Duchy of Posen, a large tract of Germany along the Rhine, and tho province of Swedish Pomerania. Blucher, the Prussian Marshal, was Wellington's ally in the three days' Belgian campaign. The veteran of seventy-three, fi-hting at ten in the evening at Ligny, had his horse shot, and was trampled under tho hoofs of charging cuirassiers, so that a report of his death f.piead, nmch to the delight of Napoleon. Nevertheless he led his Prussians from Wavro to Waterloo on the j;lorious 18 til of June, and aided to complete the final defeat of Napoleon. Bluclier died in 1819. Devoted to peace, Frederic William spent the rest of his reign in J )■ M 202 HISTORY OF rnrssiA. ur;l h ' !' •hK ' . 1.: h i endeavouring to repair tlie ravages Prussia had imdcrgonc during tlie desolating wars described. In 1815 lie had made a promise to give a representative constitution to l»is whole kingdom ; hut this ho never pcrfonned, although the people of Cobleutz and other places remonstrated with liini on the subject. He meant to do it, lie said, when tlie right time came. lie greatly advanced both German commerce and the influence of Prussia by the insti- tution of that commercial lengae among the States, known as the ZoVvercin, lie died in 1840. Frederic William IV. (1840-61), a pupil of Niel)uhr, suc- ceeded his father. When a revolutionary movement arose during the troubles of 1848 at Berlin, lie delighted the people by pro- posing a union of all German princes and peoples, with himself for guide ; and, though this was not carried out, lie calmed the tumults by appointing a popular ministry. Like Ids father, he objected to conferring a representative constitution on Prussia : " No piece of paper," said ho, at a meeting of the United Diet for the first time, " shall come between me and my people." And, though he was led to make certain needed changes, he alwavs tried to evade anvtliing which would clash with his own despotic desires. He died in 18G1. William I., the present King of Prussia, succeeded his brother in 18C1. The Banish War of 18G4, already described, and the Six Weeks' War of 18G6, have been the principal incidents of his reign. In June 18G6 Prussia and Italy declared war against Austria. For a time Austria had tolerable fortune. The Italians were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke Albert. But the Prus- sians, armed with the needle-gun — a breech-loading rifle of new construction — invaded Bohemia under the command of their King, and inflicted a signal defeat upon the Austrians, under Marshal Bencdek at Sadowa, near Konigsgriitz. Austria was ohliged to sue for peace, which was concluded at Prague in August. The Princess Koyal of England, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, is the wife of the Crown Prince, or heir to the Prussian (?pown. having been married to liim in 1858, HISTORY OF PRrSSIA. 203 sue- • •• ••t • •• ••• • •• • •• ••• rrvUS?IAN CIIRONOLOQY. Pnchy of Prussia ymxcl to tlie E!ooton;ta of Br.-inaeuburg, lV)liiiul acl;«o\vlt,vk'o.s the iinlei-ciuknce of Prussia, ... Tattle of Fchrl)fUin, I'lussia m.ielo a kingdom umlcr Frederic I., lleitrn of Frederic the (lr'):it, Silesia acquired l>y Prussia, Seven Years' War, Peace of Ilubertshurjr, Defeat at Jena— P.onai'artc iu Berlin, Treaty of Tilsit, ... Battle of Leijisic, ... Waterloo, ... ••• llevolutionary movement at Berlin, \Var with Denmark, War with Austria (NccJle-gun), ii^ ■ •t •t* •«• ••t ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••t •ft ••t ••• ••• ••• ••• ••t ••t ••• ••• ••• ••• ••t ••t ••• A. p. Ion 1075 1701 17iO-St} 17J2 170:) ISOO 1S07 IS 13 1S15 ISIS , 18C4 , 18G0 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. As WO liavc seen, Austria became an Empire in 180C. The House of llapsl)urg liad licUl sway over Hungary since 1527, nlthougli the free bold spirit of the nation, which liad made it invaluable as a bulwark to tlcfend Kurope against the encroach- ments of the Turks, rel)cllea against the despotic rule of the Austrian dukes. Until 1711 Ilimgary was much troubled with Turkish wars and civil commotions; but after that date she enjoyed comparative repose, until kindled by the revolutions of 1848. ^ , , AVhen the news of t!' ■ cuccessful revolution in France reached Hungary, the people cried out for greater concessions than they had been aU-eady asking. Hungary and Transylvania were made one kingdom; and other changes followed, which roused the anger of Croatia. The Croats invaded Hungary— it is thought, with the secret good-will of the Emperor, who desired to play off the rival races against each other, weakening both. But Count Lemberg, a royal commissioner, was murdered at Testh, which broke off all terms between Austria and Hungary. The Magyars appointed a Committee of Defence, with Kossuth as ita 1; ! 1 i 1 11 , ,1 . f: % /. i '' ''\ ' ■ •« i 1 ■ '., i i « • . A, 204 AUSTUIA AXI> IIUXGAUT. WV' president. War Legun, Gorgei actiiii^ as general of one part of tlic patriotic army ; wliilc I5em, a Pule, CMjuiniandecl in North Transylvania. Both there and on tlie Thelss victory crowned tha arms of Hungary ; but discord among the leaders of the patriotic movement proved fatal to the cause. In 1849 Kossuth caused tlie independence of Hungary to be proclaimed; a measure which displeased the Hungarian ofilcors, and excited Kussia to join in alliance with Austria — for in Poland Kussia had also a Hungary to be kept down. Gorgei' refused to lay down the command of tho army; and Kossuth, unable or unwilling to remove him, gave up his position and fled to Turkey. Upon this Gorgei surren- dered his army ; but many of the soldiers escaped to Turkey, where, through the interference of Britain and France, tliey were allowed to remain. A cruel round of executions succeeded; tho land was placed under military rule ; and only of late lias tho Austrian rigour begun to relax. BIODERN HUNGARIAN CHRONOLOGY. Albert of Austria succeeds to the crown of Hungary, Piittle of Mohacs : Turks victorious, Duke of Lorraine relieves liuila from the Turks, Hungary faithful to Miiria Theresa, Protestants allowed to build churclies in Hungary, ... Hungarian Revolution under Kossuth, ... ... ]?attle of Teroeswar, ... ... ... Emperor of Austria crowned King of Hungary, • •• A.D. 1437 15-26 1GS6 1740 1784 1848 1849 18G7 SWITZERLAND (1481 to the Present Time). In 1513 tho admission of AppcnzcU completed tho Thirteen Cantons that formed the Swiss Confederation. A war with tho Emperor Maximilian had previously taken place, resulting in his defeat (1-499). Switzerland took a prominent share in tho Ecformation. At Einsiedlen, Ulrich Zwingle, excited, like Luther in Germany, by the sale of indulgences, preached against those who sold thom, refusing the monk Samson admission into tho Abbey Church. HISTORY OF SWITZKULAND. 205 A.O. 1437 15*J6 1GS6 1740 1784 1848 1849 18C7 At Zurich ho iiKule a yet buUcr ^^tana. Tlicro, in the 1 own Hall lie dcfcn.lea the aoctrincs of the llcfornuitiou agamst lal.cr >vith'.such effect that the Canton soon formally cuihraccHl Tro- tcstantlsni (1.52:3). Bern, Basle, Schafihauscn fullowca, ^vith parts of Glanis ami Appcnzcll. In 1529 Zwiii!-;lc met Luther ami Melancthon at Marburg'; and thoy signed fourteen articles of faith, differing only ahout the Eucharist. ^ » , , x r 'J1ie interference of Zurich with the territory of the Abbot of St. Gall afforded the Konian Catliolic Cantons an opportunity of declarini? war against those which had embraced tlie Ketbrmcd doctrine^s. The Five Cantons by Lake Lucerne sent out eight thousand men, who met the Zurichers, under Zwinglo, at the village of Cappcl. Passing through a wood, the Catholics came upon the rear of their enemies ; and in the struggle Zwmgle fell mortally wounded. A soldier, when he refused to confess or pravto the Virgin, ran him through: and his body was after- wards burned and scattered to the wind (1531). The Synod of Bern afterwards published the Helvetic Confession of Faith. As the residence of John Calvin, the Reformer, who was of French birth, Geneva became a centre of the Keformation. From it spread the Puritan feelings, which so strongly impressed tho Church of Scotland, and caused secessions of the gravest kind from the Anglican Church. Calvin died in 1564. In 1533 Geneva established its independence of Savoy; whoso dukes, however, did not acknowledge this until 1603. The Peace of Westphalia acknowledged the independence of the entire Helvetic Republic. , r^ ., v In 1053, and again in 1712, tho Protestant and Catholic Cantons engaged in war; but the Treaty of Aaran (1713) put an end to such destructive dissensions. Meanwhile Switzerland received an accession of great importance to her manufactures and industrial arts in tho Huguenots, whom persecution had driven from France. In 1798 tho French armies overran Switzerland; hut were expelled from the central cantons in the following year by Austria s' ■ I ; ! I ,* 1 I 200 IIISTOUV OF SWl'i7.i:ilI.AND. M aiul Hussla. After tlio Peace of Liinevlllo, Fii.st C>iisul Tlonaparto proposed hkAdo/MeJialion (1802), which constitutea Switzer- land a Confeaeratioii of uineteen cantons, under Frcneli protection. Valais, Geneva, and Neuchatel were then annexed to France. When Napoleon's star waned, Switzerland permitted the Allies to approach France through her territories ; and, when the Con- gress of Vienna sat, the affairs of this moi.ntain-land were placed upon the old footing, as they had been before Bonaparte's inter- ference. The Confederation then contained twenty-two cantons. The questions of " Universal Suffrage," and *' Education Inde- pendent of Clergy/' luvve caused much excitement during tho present century. Out of the latter .nrosc a clamour from Aargau and other can- tons for the expulsion from Switzerland of the Jesuits, who directed education in many places. In order to secure this object bodies of armed men, called Free Corps, invaded Lucerne, one of the Catholic Cantons; and this movement roused tho Seven Catholic Cantons to form the Sondcrlund, a league of defence. In Geneva a revolution took place, giving the power to the anti- Catholic party, by whose means the Diet decreed that the Somhr- hund was illegal, and that the Jesuits should bo expelled. Then began a war (1847). Two victories of the Federal troops— at Frcyburg and Lucerne — obliged the Catholic Cantons to submit, whereupon the Jesuits were expelled from Switzerland. In 1848 was formed a New Constitution, vesting tho supremo power in a Federal Assembly of two Chambers, whose place of meeting was fixed at Bern. MODERN SWISS CIIUONOLOOY. Protestantism of Zwingle adopted at Zurich, Charles of Savoy tries ia vain to take Geneva, Treaty of Westphalia declares Helvetia independent. Peace of 13aden closes a civil war, ... Treaty of Aarau, ... ... ••• ••• ••• French form Helvetian Eepublic, ... Act of Mediation, ... ••• ••• ••• Congress of Vienna makes Switzerland independent, Sond^rbund War, «» «, «. ♦•♦ AD. •a* ... 1523 ... • «. 1C02 ... • •• 164S ... ..• 1656 •.* ..• 1712 »• ... 1798 ... ••• 1802 ••• •t> 1815 Mf •M 1847 HISTORY OF SrAIN. "M SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. AD. 1523 1C02 164S 1656 1712 1798 1802 1815 1847 SPAIN (1492 to the Present Time). The marriage of Fcrainand of Aragoii and Isabella of Castile baa been already noticed. It laid a solid foundation for the nioii- archy of Spain. When Isabella died in 1504, her successor in Castile wan the Archduke riiilip of Austria, who had married her daughter Joanna; but this prince died in 1500. ^ ^ The most prominent and celebrated man in Spain at this tnnc was Cardinal Ximenes, whom the Spaniards call Cisneros. By an austere life, and a princely expenditure of his revenues as Archbishop of Toledo, he acciuired a great reputation, which his deeds as a statesman did not belie. On the death of Philip he became Regent of Castile, and contrived to repress a nobility noted for turbulence. Charles I. (1510-1550).— When the son of Philip and Joanna, best known in history as the Kmperor Charles V., became King of Spain by the death of Ferdinand, Ximenes assumed the rcnis of government until the King should arrive. He silenced tho grandees, who objected to his Regency, by showing them a train of cannon from his windows in I\Iadrid. He also conquered Navarre: and such services Charles, who lingered long m Flanders, repaid by an ungrateful dismissal of this faithful minister, even when the old man was worn with mortal suiicring As the reign of Charles belongs rather to the Empire of Ger- many than to Spain, and has been already sketched under that head, we may pass on to tl of his son. PMlip II. (155G-98).— This monarch began his reign when Spain stood prominent as one of the great powers of the earth— a land whose enterprise had added the New World, with all its untold treasures of gold and silver, to the old European kingdom. He ruled Spain, the Netherlands, the SiciUes, and Milan. Before t lift !•' ; t t .\ri PI r t!OS II!SrOUY OF srAix. he couso.l lo rcM-n, tlic si»louaour of l.I« realm had been irre- covcral.ly tavnlshca, aiul its strcn^tli ^^itally injiirea. Wlion rhillp ceased, l.y tho aeatli of I^Iary lils ulfe, to have anv liol.l upon Kn-land, he devotea hhnsclf henceforth to Spam, loavin- tlic Nctlicrlan.Is to rulers, of uhoso tender lueveies wo have already learned the extent. . . His pitiless cruelty directed all the machinery of the Inquisi- tion a-ainst those ^vhom he called heretics: and the uuto-^hi-ja hhr/ed red in the land. One of the monuments of his reigu is the palace of the K^corlal near ^ladrld, huilt as a token of gniti- tude to St. Lawrence for the victory of St. Qucntin (see page 158). In compliment to the saint the huihling took the form of a grid- iron. He thenceforth made Madrid the capital of Spam instead of Toledo. A war with the Moors, ending (1571) in the extirpation or banishment of most of those that survived, was one of his re- ligious undertakings. lie also succeeded in subduing Portugal (1580), which continued for sixty years to be a Spanish possession. His career of ambition and conquest was checked in 1588 by tho defeat of the Armada, " that great fleet invincible" which he sent to reduce England to submission. That he had some 1588 philosophic composure in his character may be judged AD bv his words on receiving the tidings of tlie blow: "I sent my fleet to fight with the English, but not witli the elements." ,, ^ -, > n ^ -e A dark story belongs to the reign of Philip. By his fii;st wife, Mary of Portugal, he had a son, Don Carlos, who displayed a rash and violent temper. This young man was suddenly arrested on a charge of aiming at the life of the King his father ; and in a few months he died mysteriously in prison (1568)— poisoned, some say, by his father's command. Philip died in 1598, aged seventy-two, after having seen all his schemes of aggrandizement end in utter f\iilure. Philip III. (1598-1621) was an indolent prince, who sub- mitted to the rule of a favourite attendant, afterwards raised to be Duke of Lerma. During his reign a truce was concluded with the Dutch Republic (1609) which virtually acknowledged ,. i Ill; lOKY 01 J^l'MN*. 209 "I all the iiuk'pciulenco of the rcvoUoil provinces, l^ut Ji more serious tiling for Spain 'vas tlic expulsion of tlie Muurs (IGlO).^ Uu.ler charge of liypocrisy in their alleged conversion, and of intrigues ^vith their iViiMuls in Africa for the recjiKjuest of Spain, tlic^pro- vince of A^aleiieia ^vas stripped of a population, ^vho had bright- ened its gardens with delicious fruits and flowers, and had scut forth from their looms textures of the richest silk. It was liko the old fashion of bleeding a sick man; professing to l»c a cure, it really cxhaiisled the patient's strenglh, in many cases fatally. riiilip III. died of fever in 1G21. Philip IV. (1G21-1GG5) was controlled in his government for a long time by a favourite called Caspar Guzman, Count-Duko of OUcarez. This nobleman, whose great aim was to aggrandize the House of Austria, found himself matched with two minis- ters, Buckingham in lOngland, and llichclieu in Franco, the devoted foe of the Hapsburgs. But the schemes of Olivarez came to nothing but despair. The rebellious in Catalonia and Portugal, the latter of which secured its independence under tho Duke of Braganza (1C40), cost him his post as min.-ater; he was succeeded by Haro. The Peace of Westphalia (lG-i8) secured independence to the Dutch Republic by a hv^t and formal recognition. Before this end was gained the ships of Holland had more than once proved a match for those of the country whence the invincible Armada had sailed. , The relations between Spain and England were inten-uptcd in 1G25, on account of the marriage between Prince Charles (Charles I.) and the Infanta having been broken off. The episode of Masaniello belongs to the history of Italy, but may be related here; for Naples was then under Spanish dominion. The Spanish viceroy, Duke D'Arcos, having laid a tax on fruit and vegetables in Nai)les, the people, headed by a young fisherman, Tommaso Aniello (contracted into Masaniello), rose m revolt. The spark which kindled the liame was the flinging of a bunch of figs in the face of a magistrate. The revolt was sue- In his fisher-drcss Aniello sat with a drawn sword dis- ccssi fuL (I^7) r J W. il U i»,' 210 lllirOIlY OF Sl'AIN. pciising justice. Ills power over the mob was woiulorful: tlio lifting of his linger was suflicicnt to rouse them to fury or reduoo them to statue-lilvc silence. ]}ut liis mind gave way; his spcechod began to provoke latigliter ; and, as he reposed in one of the con- vent cells alter an exciting harangue, soldiers camo in and shot him (1047). Philip IV. made frantic efforts to recover Portugal; but in vain. Grief at his failures is said to have hastened his death (1G05). During his reign there was a protracted war with France, which produced no result to Spain but loss and disgrace. The struggle was closed by the Tmdy of the Pyrenees (1659). As a seal of this compact the daughter of the Spanish King, Maria Theresa, was given in marriage to Louis XIV. of France. Upon this union hinged important results. Charles II. (1GG5-1700) was involved in several wars with Louis XIV., 'svhosc over-reaching ambition troubled all his neighbours. For some years the Queen-mother acted as llegent, her opinions being contrijllod by a priest named Neidhard. This Btate of affairs resulted in misery to the country; and the feeling grew so strong that the favourite was banished. All the treaties of this ago saw Spain stripped of teiTiiory, France being an especial gainer by the Treaties of Aix-la-Chapcllo and Nimegueu. The plan of Louis XIV., during all his reign, was to secure the succession of Spain to the Bourbons. He accord- ingly induced L.c Spnnish King before his death to settle the crinvn upon I'ailip vi Anjou. Before this, France, England, and Holland had Mgned a Partition Treaty, which proposed to give Spain, America, and the Netherlands to the Electoral Prince of Bavaria; Naples and Sicily to the Dauphin; and Milan to the Archduke Charles (1G98). The death of the Electoral Princo left a Bourbon and but one Ilapsburg to contest the crown. Philip V. (1700-1 74G) was appointed King of Spain by tho last will of Charles IL, and was supported in his claim by all the power of his grandfather Louis XIV. of France. From 170-2 to 1713 the War vj the Spanish Succc$si7 *•• • •• 1S05 «•• ••* 1S03 •#• <•• — tt* #•• 1803-13 ••• • tt 1813 ■ •• • •• 1S20 • I* • •t 183G-10 Portaf;al regains independence, Peace of the Pyrenees, "War of tie Spanish Succession, Capture of Gibraltar, Sattle of Almanza, Treaty of Utrecht, Great siege of Gibraltar, Battle of St. Vincent, Battle of Trafalgar, Joseph Bonaparte made King, Defence of Saragossa, Peninsular War, ... Buttle of Vitoria, Revolution of Riego, Carlist War, PORTUGAL (1498 to the Present Time). Under Manuel tlie Great (1495-1521) maritime cliscovery went on bo rapidly and successfully that Portugal rose to .o one o£ the most considerahle of European States Vasco do Gama, roundin- the Cape of Good Hope, made good his landmg in India (1498). A lucky storm drove Cabral to the coast o Brazil ; ^vhile Ceylon and IMalahar were explored and colonized by other enterprising Portuguese sailors. , ti • John III. (1521-57) was the next King of Portugal. Purmg hi3 veisn the Inquisition was introduced, being intended at first to repress the Jews ; but after they were driven from the land, the terrible engine was retained for other uses, ihis monarch also permitted the Jesuits to find a home in Portugal, and gave his grandson, Sebastian, into the care of these monks to be educated. _ ...^■, Sebastian III. (1557-TS) grew up wholly under Jesmtical influences; a youth whose bvain teemed with crusadmg fancies and ideas of chivalrous warfare. Ilis great desire was to suMue Africa; and accordingly, in 1574, he undertook an expedition against the Moors, wdiich resulted in nothing However, a dis- pute regarding the succession to the crown of Morocco aftorded himan^other opportunity. With a force of 15,000 men he crossed the .ea to Arsila (1578), and in a short time met the HISTORY OF PORTUaAL. 21' A.1>. 1610 1659 1702-13 1704 1707 1713 1779-82 171>7 1S05 1S03 1803-13 1S13 1S20 183(J-10 scoverv c to 1)0 asco (le landing coast of olonized During 1 at first he land, luonarcli md gavo :s to l>c fcsuitical y fancies suIkIuo q-)cdition er, a dis- afforded men, ho wet tho Moors ill battle at Alcazar, wlicro ho was defeated. Sebastian, his Moorish ally, and his Moorish foe, all perished, cither in or after the battle. For many a day tho Portuguese could not believe that their prince was gone. They fondly hoped that he was still lingering in captivity among the Moors; and several impostors, claiming his name, played upon this feeling. After Cardinal Henry, an uncle of Sebastian, who had been appointed llcgent during the absence of tluit monarch, had held power as Henry I. for two years (157S-80), Philip II. of Spain, who is thought to have cncouragcil tho Moorish expedition in the hoi>e of creating a vacancy in the Portuguese succession, seized Portugal, which he made a dependency of Spain (1580). Then began a miserable period of sixty years' subjection, affording in its gloom and suffering a strong contrast to the golden ago of Portugal under 3Ianuel, only a century before. The Spanish yoke galled sorely ; tho country was unmercifully taxed ; extortion and ill-treatment were tho lot of the people. But this came to an end in 1G40, when a re* 1640 volution set Portugal free, placing on the throne John a.d. IV., Duke of Draganza, John IV. (1040-1050) was not acknowledged King by the Popo. He waged war with Spain and Holland. Tlic former was angry at the loss of Portugal ; the latter found in Portugal too powerful a rival in her colonial seas. The Dutch secured a footing in Ceylon ; but were in 1054 expelled from 35razil. From this reign dates an alliance which has long existed between Britain and Portugal, and which produced many important results; such, for example, as the Peninsular War. Alphonso VI. (1050-07) was much controlled by the Jesuits. The war with Spain continued; but victory was declaring plainly for Portugal. In the second year of Peter's regency— ho succeeded his deposed brother— Spain finally acknowledged Por- tuguese independence (1008). Peter II. (Regency, 1007-83 : Reign, 1083-1700) arranged a treaty with Holland, by which tho conquests of the Dutch in the Kast Indies were secured to them. The discovery of rich jv|. ■■»t ■ •4^ H A I ,;■(; I' M » ttm I ■ iifi 1 UA-^*^- 21 S lII?TOnY OF rOUTUC.ATi. Il ', « t l-^^f! gold mines in Bra/il croatea Portugal, but in otlior laud of trade to this tatrc consi anxious lerablo interest, not only in to participato in the profits Eldorado. In 1703 Britain ohtaiued the advan- d the Por- l»ad been of a treaty with Portugal ; and this alliance unicc causcc tu°uose to Nvithdraw tl.o M ami countcnanco tl.cy 1..' _ pSly giving to PLilip of Aujou in the Si.a.usl. Succcss.ou ^\o Ions veign of John V. (lTOG-50) was vroduotivo of few eve, U of conscponcc. A eolom-San Sacramcuto, ou the W -e a riata-thonoh assigno.! to Tortugal by move fan on trcatl especially the Peace of Utvcclit, caused disputes m U S ; ; The buLliug of tl,e u.onastery at Mafia and the estab- itCnt of the Acad^uy of Ilisto-y belong '» /^^ ^^n we whose devotion to the Pope and obed.enc to the cte y rewarded with the title " JiVx FMmwms, died in l.&O. Joseph I. (1750-77) sinK. into insignificanee m ustory b. side his minister, Don Carvalho, afterwards Marquis of Pombal. vh m tTe revival of Portugal among the nations of Europe is usUy -ribed. This statesman, who came to power owing to a Cv vhieh the Queen of John V., an Austrian pvincess took to Kf improved manufacture, agriculture, and learning, ami ,1 he Brazilians to cultivate coffee, sugar, cotton, nee and i ml "0. He made many enemies among the nobles, ^vhoso rl ty he repressed with an unsparing hand; and m curbing tiie , owcv of L Inquisition and banishing the Jesmts lie d.s- vcdt pitiless resolution. His contest with this power « der fonued the central event of the reign. With unwearied Su t y they had been pushing their emiss.arics everywh e almi^at the control of States and the direction of households^ V utes with the Pope. IIIPTOllY OF ronTUOAL. 210 lyin rofits Ivan- Por- "becn Qssion .{ few ic lUo n ono 5 with cstab- Jolin, Y wero )ry bc- ombal, irope is ng to a took to ig, and a, rice, J whoso curbing he dis- )owcrful iwearied •ywhere, iseholds. ^nfessors iipt was LS rage of [lity and Order of i2 ill dis- The great earthquake of Lisbon, killing 00,000 persons and laying the city in ruins, occurred in 1755. The taste of Tombal directed the rebuilding of the city. Maria Francisca Isabel (1777-89), daughter of Joseph I., deposed Pombal,— an event which gladdened the nobles and clergy, for it removed the wholesome curb which had checked their ill deeds. The gloom of affairs was deepened by the insanity of the Queen, in whose room the Prince of Brazil, her eldest son, was nominated Regent (1789). The secret compact for the partition of Portugal, entered into between France and Spain, has been already referred to in sketch- ing the Peninsular War. In 1807, ^Marshal Juuot, tlie general of'^Napoleon, who had declared that the reign of tlie House of Bragan^ia had come to an end, because Portugal would not con- fiscate the British goods in the country, crossed the frontier. The royal family of Portugal sailed away to Brazil, where they fixed their Court at Kio Janeiro, leaving Lisbon to the French. What befel the French in the ensuing five years has been already related. Upon the death of Maria in 1810, her son, who had been PiCgent with full powers since 1799, became King, with the title of John VL ; but he continued to reside in Brazil. ^ In 1820 the fire of revolution, kindled in Spain, inflamed Portugal also. Beginning at Oporto, the movement spread, without bloodshed, however, or riot, until a Provisional Govern- ment was established, and the Cortes of 1821, under the Arch- bishop of Braga, proclaimed the liberty of the press and the sove- reignty of the people. This recalled John from Brazil, where he had been for nearly fourtcxiu years. Not until he promised that he would observe the new constitution was he allowed to land. There was, however, an attempt on the part of Don Miguel, the King's second son, to restore despotism. John, who was not permitted to see any of the foreign ambassadors, was obliged to seek refuge on board of an English ship then lying in the Tagus. He then deprived Don Miguel of his command, and "gave huu leave to travel," ^■■j l, 'i 1 J! » ■ M i * ♦ i m ■■ ' r I I Hv 220 IIISTUllV OF POr.TUr.ATi.. 'I i « ^1 li vri in ^ slf :-i Jolm VI. cM ill 1*20. IIo iKul in the previous year aeknow- ledted hU eldest son, Don I'cdro, as Emperor of Br."...!; and ttat monarch preferring a transatlantic throne, nominated h« Jatir Dona' Maria da Gloria (1820-53), sovereign of Por- tu":i Tl"s prinees,, now only nine years old, ^vas sent over to Spe; butVvin.^io the intrigues of Don Migue , her une e SoLmed the title o£ King, she was carried to England as a ^'ton^S™ tli'Sic up anns in the eanse of his daughter,-a« enterpr s in .hieU England afforded him coriial assistanee^ Shorn the Azores (1832), his troops sei.ed Oporto, whero 'f figneUtes besieged him in vain. Lishon -n af .wa^ yieldedrand then the young Qneen came from Kng and to esun o her throne. The subjugation of Don M^nel, achieved hy the reduction of Santarem, resulted in the Convention of Evoi.i, S eVoHod the ns'urper (1834). In the same year Dona Maria, declared of ago, assmncd her full royalt y. On her death in 1853, Pedro V.. her son, hecme King- Hb promise of usefulness being cut short by a premature death m 1801, Ilia brother, Louis I., ascended the throne. pOKTCaUESE CURONOLOOT. Voyajjc of Vasco do Qama, ... The iJvazils diseovcreil l*y Cabral, .. Battle of Alcaiar, Portugal ft province of Spain, Jolm of Bragaiua made King, Dutch expelled from lirazil, Independence acknowledged by Spun, l-'artliriuake at Lislon, Jesuits expelled from Portngal, ... Portuguese Court emigrate to liriizil, Viraiero— Couvcntion of Cintra, ... Landing of Wellesley, Battle of Busaco, ... devolution at Oporto, Jtetnrn of the Court, Brazil declared independent, _ "■ Contest between Miguel and Maria • •• • •• • •• • • • • •• • •• • •• «!• • •• • •fl • •• • •• • I* • •• • •• A.D. ... 1407 ... moo ... ir.78 15S0-1G40 ... ICiO ... lont ... KiOS i7r»o 1807 ISOS . ISOO 1810 . 18-20 18-21 . 1825 . l8'2S-34 ••• • •• IlISTOnY OF ITALY. know- l; and cd liis { For- ever to uncle, ml as a cr, — an istancc. , where erwards resume by the Evora, ir Dona H^' His death in A.D. .. 1407 ,.. moo ,.. ir»78 15S0-1G40 ... mo ... lO^it IT'u) i7r»9 1807 1S03 . ISOO 1810 . i8-:o 18-21 IS'25 . 1S23-34 • •• ■ •• ITALY (1500 to tlic Ficscat Time). The history of Modern Italy is a most conipllcalcil nanativo. In order to preserve as much cloarucss as possible in tlio f.ill.nv- ing sketches, the history of Nortlicrn Italy— including Milan, Genoa, Sardinia, Venice, and Tuscany— is taken liist. Then follow the Tapal Territories, and the Two Sicilies or the King- dom of Naples. MILAN. "We left the French masters of Milan after the death of Ludo- vico Sforza. The defeat of Francis i. of France, at Pavia, left the Duchy in the power of the Emperor Charles V., under whom Francis Sforza held it. Andrea Doria, who may he called the Admiral of Charles V., for he commanded the fleets of that monarch against the Turks and the pirates of the Barl^ary shore, distinguished himself hy his patriotic deliverance of liis native Genoa from the French who had seized it. Appearing with liis ships before the city, he expelled the intruders (1528), and, under the protection of the Emperor, erected Genoa into an independent aristocratic republic, of which he became one of the Censi^rs. The plot of Fieschi (1547) troubled his old age, which he devoted to Genoa; he died in 1560, aged ninety-four. Before that time Milan had passed into the possession of Philip 11. of Spain, under the dominion of which government it continued until 1700. Tlie Fanicse nimily— a noble Roman race—had now become prominent in Italy, owing to the election of Cardinal Alexander Farnesc to the Papal chair, under tlic title of Paul III. (1534). This Pope conferred Parma and Piacenza, over which Milan exercised a claim, upon his natural son, Peter ; but that dissolute man was murdered by conspirators two years later (1547). His grandson, Alexander Farnesc, revived the fame of the family by his military genius, which he displayed in the Spanish Nether- tv ■ \ i IK I!- \ ' k » i. ■ !( } |,vi: ^ii-< (■!' I'! .. 222 IllSTOnY OF ITALY. ■|i iV ' ,|M land, fighting for Spain .ngninst tl,o Pnn, of 0.»ns«. ^^ « recosnizo in liim tl,o DuUo of ramia, who was prerard to t.iKB a Bliaro in the triumph of tl.o Spanish Arn.n.k, by launchmg »a Kcmy into Kngland across tl.o Strait of Dover. In 1713 the Treaty of Utrecht made over M.Ian and Mantim to Austria, winch afterwards ac^nircd Parma and r.accnz.i. This caused a revival of enterprise in Lon.bardy, winch had declined under the Spanish rule. It was, however, nr he rc.gn of Maria Theresa that the progress was most marked. Until the Bhock of the Napoleonic wars, Austria contmuod to rule tl.o thriving' province; hut the amtitious Corsican grasped it, witu vleti; and mad^ a so-called Kingdom of Italy by rmitnrg them But 1814 saw Austria again nristress of M.Ian, Mantua, and ^ITim the people of Lombardy, aided hy their Sardnrian neighbours, rose in revolt against the rule of Austria. A few eigL kindled the rising ; for the Milanese, be.ng resolved .to use tobacco in order to i..j..re the Anstna,. reven,.e, felt th r- selves i..snlted when the soldiers of the Austrian S;"»;°" «"'; ;'^^ them in the streets. The war was at first favou.able t,. the cue of Lon.bardy, which was nltin.ately a.n.exed to Sardinia, ..» under Charles Albert. But the vigour ot Radctzlcy, a.id espee ly the battle of Custo.=-.a, between tho Mii.cio and the Adige tu, d the scale so completely that a Sardinian force was obliged to capi- tulatc at Milan. * * • r,,,.i In 1859 hostilities broke out onoo mo.-o between Austria m.cl Sardinia. When the troops of the En.pe.or, hy cr««..ng the Tieino, committed an overt act of war aga.rst Sardinia c Empeorot the Freeh, Napoleon III., came to the aid of tic Laded state. Landing at Ge.ioa, he repulsed the Ans v..n MontebeUo, Palestro, Magenta, and Solterino, and by the 1 c o of Villafranca forced Austria to code Lombardy to him. He orthwith made it over to Sardinia ..ceiving as the gnerdon hi3 aid tho territories of Nice and Savoy, lying close to the Frcncli frontier. , . , -,.^^« ^f Genoa gradually declined, like Venice, alter the vojage of iS^itsf m^TOUY OF IT.VtY. to take ung ail Mantua laccnza, cli hii(\ ic reign Until rule tlio it, vith ig tliem. Lua, and lartlinian A few }d not to It tlicm- 1 smoked the caiiso Ilia, til oil especially ;e, turned d to capi- istria nnd )ssing tlio Llinia, tlio i\id of tlic istvians at the Peace hini. Ho guerdon of :)se to tho voyage of Vasco (Ic Gama luid opened a channel for the trade of tho Indies, which did not draw \vealth to McditciTancan ports. Ilcr con- fctant struggles with the Turks had early stripped lier of all her possessions on the Levant and the Black Sea. In 17G9 she niado over to France Corsica, tho last fragment of the external domi- nion lier galleys had won in tho Middle Ages. A French garri- son within the city under Massena stood a terrihlc siege in 1799 hy a comhineil army of Austrian^ and English; and when it afterwards fell into the hands of Bonaparte, he annexed the stato to France. It was however united to Sardinia hy the Congress of Vienna (1815). Savoy and Sardinia.— -The Kingdom of Sardinia grew out of the Duchy of Savoy. The transition took place in 1720, when Victor- Amadous II. wore the ducal coronet (1075-1730). This most distinguislied ruler took an active share in the wars of the Louis XIV. period, siding, whenever ho could follow his own inclinations, with the Allies, who withstood the amhitious encroachments of the French. The Treaty of Utrecht gave him Sicily, and ho afterwards adiuircd the island of Sardinia with tlie title of King. Tho successor of Victor- Amadous, Charles Emanuel IIT., in conjunction with the French, tried to wrest the Duchy of :\Iilau from Austria ; but in spite of his victory at Guastalla he did not succeed in doing so. This monarch, taking part with Maria Tlieresa in her distress, fought bravely against the French and Spaniards. At the Col do I'Assiotte the Piedmontesc defended their intrenched camp with such telling effect that the French did not invade their valleys for many a year again (1747). The storms of the French Revolution affected Sardinia, which fell into tho hands of the French, Savoy becoming tlic depart- ment of Mont-Blanc for a time. In 1799 the King (Cliai-lcs Emanuel IV.) was obliged to take refuge in the island of Sar- dinia; but the Court returned to Turin in 1814. In 1821 Charles Albert of Carignano was made rvogcnt by a revolution ; but the King, Charles Felix, secured the ascendency owinf? to aid from Austria. After wandering and fighting in 4\ S; ir; i 1 k, 224 nisTOUY Ol- ITAl.V. i » Sraiu ana .lseul,ci-o, Cliavles Albert bcea.uc^ lv„,^ i}^-'^-^)' He raiscl tl.c Italian banner against tl,c Anstrums in ISIS , ..,m1, a, ,ve have seen, at fl,-.t with sonn. ««,,■.«. ]!«t the .urrcndcr of >IiK™«-as a serious bh.u-. And yet n,..re aec,«ive .vas he battle of Novara (1849), «hich in the lolh-wng year cause,! the King to abdieate in favour of his son, Vietor l.n.anuel, the pre- sent Kinc: of Italy. ^ ^^ r ^•< Juder this dashing soldier Sardinia bccnine the ally of Iraneo and England d.uing the Crin,eau War, in whieh her soldiers Lught . ith much courage and success, especially at the Tchernaya. Then cauie eventful days, ,vhieh ehauged the l.ttle K.ugdonr of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy. Joseph Garibaldi, " the hero o! the red slurt, issumg ..om the vockv islet of Caprera, where ho had spent some nne .n rctire,ne,".t, lauded in May 1800 at Marsala iu S,e,ly proelamung himself Dictator f..r Victor Kmauuel. ^^'-^^"^.'''•j;:^^ capital o! Sicily, and defeating the troops ol the King of Napl s I ^Mcteo, he then invaded the mainland, forcing Keggio to capitulate. The King of Naples took refuge in the maritime fortress of Gaeta, while (iaribaldi entered the capital, and nonu- liated a provisional govcrmnent. The troops of Sardinia soon invaded the Papal States, whose armies thev defeated, and whoso seaport ot An«,na they forced to capitulat'e. Other victories followed. Victor Emanuel enter. 1 Naples, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies became a depend- ency Sardinia, or rather a part of the newly organized King- dom ot Italv. By vote or revolution all the other States, except the Tapal territories and the Austrian province of \enetia, were amalgamated into an Italian K"V?'1"'';^ -'•'-'''■;' f;):^; Turin where the first Parliament met m IsOl. l>ut iloienco , r s hi e been chosen as a fitter capital of Italy The evacuation orVenctia by Austria, and the withdrawal of Ereucli roops from Home are noteworthy points in the recent history of I^ y- Venice.-During the decline of Venetian commerce and powoi , consenuent upon the discovery of the sea-route to India am ho Kast, tliat state was cugag acred in a great 'OO* ft. M ■•>*^ HISTORY Of ITALV. rtO/J AvllOSC liulcdl Kuropo, at a critical period v'i lior history, owed nnicli to the ships of Venice even during tlic time of tliat romantic repuh- lic's decay. During tlie sixtecntli century the Ottomans took possession of the Morea and Cyprus, although their navy sustained an almost fatal hh^w in 1571, when Don John of Austria defeated them at Lepanto. During the century that followed t1io Teacc of West[)halia (1(118-1740) Venice engaged in three distinct wars with Turkey. The first war (1045-GO) resulted in the concjucst of Candia hy tlic Ottomans: the second (1083-99) closed with the Peace of Carlowitz, and left Venice again mistress of the Movca : the tliiid (1715-18) cost her that peninsula, which the Treaty of Tas- sarowitz ohliged her to give up in return for sonic border-towns in Dalmatia. The close of the eighteenth century saw Venice in the iron grasp of that Corsicau despot, who made wild havoc among the ancient States of Kurope. After the hrilliant cam- paign of Ptivoli and Mantua (1797), Napoleon, who had penetrated to within eight days' march of Vienna, turned and threw hhnsclf upon Venice, whose forces had been threatening his rear. Dire was the revenge he wreaked, carrying off the bronze horses of San Marco, and reducing the golden-decked Bucentaur to tlio condition of a bare dismantled hull ; in a word, humbling Venice to the very dust. Nor was this all. The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) decreed that the ancient A'enctian territory should bo partitioned. Austria got the districts lying within the sweep of the Adigc, including the capital. The western portions were added to the Cisal[)inc Ilepublic, which was forme!' hi I . 51 220 UISTOKV OF ITALY. I : '} ' lost its cohc^ior. wl.en the strong' grasp of IJonapavtc Rrcu- wealc Von ,"^ co.abination witl. tl,c VaUclinc, Mantua ana Jhlan ;" creet.,! into tl,o Kingdon> ol' Lon.Uudy and Ven.oo undev the sway of Austria. . -, , t i i,r ^, m^.O It has been already seen that Austria h.st Lonihardy n l^o and in 1867 she evaeuated Venetia, wliieh now ionus a pait of the Kingdom of Italy. Wo l.avo already glanced at tho period of Florentine IniUiance under the Medici. It was interrupted l,y » '-- •'Ef"-';^ the hec/umingof the sixteenth century, when MaclnavelU- vhose nle has hocc.n,e a by-word for stealthy and f--'-;^-!™ -pnlled the threads of Florentine politics, and visited the touits of France and Germany as cnroy and diplomatist. The Florentine llein.hlic merged in the Grand-Duchy o 1 n - eany in 1537, when Co.mo I. was elected to the due station, n fw" dese nded troin a hranch of the great house o JleiUu^ t was owing in a great measure to the powerful P>otoot .. Charles V., Emperor of Germany, that this prince owed li U m m-c a d position. He drew the chains of despotism igh ;.ound FlorencJ, the poi^oneup and the ^^f^"^'^"^^;;^^:; ,„i,asters of his arbitrary vengeance. in of - - f ;' power and application he had a eonsiderable share. A h i to c lerritories of Florence and Pisa, the hitter ot which l.id h n eoncpiered, he added Siena, which was given 1'"";; 'V^^j, . Philip II. of Spain, the dominions ot the Tuscan Giand-Pnch) ^^ W::;!d^lhe tragic story of two of Cosmo's so,._^.pted dramatically by Allieri. The current runionr was t lat Jol Cardinal had been slain by his brother Garcia, -l>om Co no . c father then struck dead in the fury of lus wrath : the motliei of tl u vouiig men died a short time afterwards. The suspicions proxi- mi^;°of the death, may have given rise to the story. Cosnn, s polfey with regard to Tuscany was very successful m preventing tit State from becoming a prey to the foreign donnnation and HISTORY OF ITALY. 227 v weak. iMilaii, 3 under n 1851), 1'- lilt of irilUaiico avcliy at — whose intrigue le Courts ' of Tiis- [ station. : Medici, tcction of owed liis ism tiglit often tlic nistrativc icn to tlie had 1.)ecn a fief I'Y nd-l)uchy s adapted , John the Cosmo the ther of the LOUS proxi- Cosmo's preventing nation and intestine trouhh\s which have been in modern times tlie banc of Italy. He refused at first to accept Siena as a fief from Diilip JI., on tlie plea that he was an independent Sovereign, and would oe vassal to no man : and he refused also to become master of Corsica, offered to him by the insurgents of 1504, because he foresaw that the rocky island would be a perilous and turbulent possession. Passing by Francis I. (1575-87), who was rather an East Indian merchant than a Sovereign ; and Ferdinand I. (1587-1G08), Avho also made money by merchandise and improved Leghorn vastly, wo reach the reign of Cosmo II. (1008-1021), during which riorenco derived lustre from the astronomical discoveries of Galileo, whose surname was Galilei. This distinguished native of Pisa incurred the anger of the Jesuits by joining in the poli- tical movement Avhich caused their expulsion from Padua. They accordingly set the terrible machinery of the Iiifjuisition in force against him, and after some preliminary attacks, the discoverer was summoned to Eome, where, an old man of seventy, he ap- peared before the assembled priests at the Convent of Minerva. There, for declaring that the sun is the centre of its system, and that the Earth moves, not only round this centi'al sun, but also with a diurnal motion on its own axis, he was committed to prison, and obliged to recite at intervals the seven penitential psalms. As he rose from his knees, after having signed an abjuration of his errurs — a step which alone could have saved him from worse penalties — he is said to have whispered in a friendly car, '■'■E jmr se qhuovc" (It moves, nevertheless). Galileo died iii 1042, aged seventy-six. After a period of al)out a century, during which iho degenerate Medici were swayed by monks and Jesuits, and the decline of Tuscany was continuous, the State received a new lease of Existence by being transferred, after the death in 17o7 of John Gasto, last of the Medici, to i.iincis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. This prince is well known in history as the husband of the celebrated iMaria Theresa. But the State of Tnscany. after lio became lhnp(M-(M' (17 ! ">), f^nnd Iho disadvantage of being ruled > . i II '• il m ! 4 f* (if: 223 nisioiiY OF rt.aV. intorofts of an E-nplrc. It was therctoro avranseal.at «-hcu 1,0 aSorircl'^-t J should .■cceivo tl,o Kn-ri-, -l..lc 1>- --0".! inlio'rltca the Gvand-Ducliv of Tuscany. T i ton °v,^ Leopold l. (1TG5-90), to .horn Tuscany owes a dcU deer uvatltuao. While he improved the huv«, abohsl e, lonoles,a,ul drained n.avshes, he devoted un.sell to a task To "raie/dt than any of these-the puvi.ieatiou o he .nonas- levies and the restrahit of the r.ower of the Popo witlun usuu H e uef coaaiutov in this work, which of course drew thunl - hoUs of angry flan.e fron, the Vatiean, wasEicci. h.shoi. of s- ti, °^^.o eert-'-ly deserves an hononvahlo nan.e anu.ng ItaUun "wr'Leorold. as had happened wUh his faH.er was called to « e mperld throne (1790), his second -"-f ^^^'"^ f ^^; nceeeded hin, in Tuscany. While he ruled, f'-""- ^' '^^ ^^ footsteps of his talher, the hand of IJonapavte was aid on Ita :Ui?oGrand Duhe, finding French troops ^ "S^- ;^^''-;;-| was forced to retire ^^ ^Tr^^^-Z^'J^:^^^ Napoleon's ascendency (li90-lbH) )u^can\ ume *lnn one change. In 1801 the con.iueror ere.ted it into the Sr. ./ i.-j Tn,.,,,.;., Comress Maria Louisa of Spain, who had heel, ruling Kbuiuv as iCt for her infant sou, reecivcd the little Duchy of Lueea, Tvliich in 1S47 reverted to Tuscany. nni. the long peace that succeeded Waterloo, Tuscany nndov her G™nd-Dukes"eijoycd a progressive prosperity, that made it ne of the happiest States in Italy. This was v-le 7 shake 1848-tlio year of revolutionary eartl.cpiako«-;vl>eu the G an p,,!.-,. was expelled and a rioreiitino Uepuhlie formed. Lut the I1I5T0UY OP ITALY. 229 hen lio secoiul owes ft olislietl a task inoiias- USCiUlV. lumdoi"- : of ris- Italiau s callod nd HI., tllO AVISO n Italy; years o( nt more into tlic ^, licrccU- 3 Frencli ilcrranco. id-Puchy course all . 111. was int of tlio o; Ktniria of Lucca, any under it made it shaken in he Grand- But the I Austrian soldiers stepped in to restore the former fitatc of things; which, liowever, did not last long. For, in the year succeeding the campaign of ^lagenta and Solferino, another revolution expelled the Grand Puke, and made Tuscany a part of the newly-estab- lished Kingdom of Italy. By a recent arrangement Florence, hoth as being more central than Turin and richer in liistorical memories, has been Keh'ctcd as the now capital of Italy. There are three names, which float conspicuously upon the surface of Italian history during the present generation, and of which a few words must therefore be .^^aid. These are Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini. Count Cavour, born in 1810 at Turin, was educated for a soldier, but settled down to a ftirmer's life afterwards. He felt a great admiration for the English Constitution; and, both by his work as a journalist and by his speeches in the Chamber of Deputies, he advised a close alliance with England in opposition to the Democratic party. He was Prime Minister of Sardinia fi'om 1852 to 1859, but resigned his office after the Peace of Villafranca. Made Premier again in 18G0, he was cut off prema- turely by death in 1861, just after Italy had been made a kingdom. Joseph Garibaldi, l)orn at Nice in 1807, has had a most event- ful and wandering life. After making some voyages as a sailor, he engaged in plots with Mazzini against Charles Albert of Sardniia. Escaping from the perilous consequences of these, ho carried his sword to South America, where he fought against Brazil on behalf of Bio Grande. On his return to Euro])C he aided in defending Bome against the French (1848). Another turn of Fortune's wheel — and ho appears as a soap-boiler and candle-maker in America; then is transformed to a farmer in the rocky islet of Caprera. In the campaign of Magenta he headed a band of volunteers called the Alpine Hunters. Ilis campaign of 1860 has been described : that over, and Italy a kingdom, he retired to Caprera. But in 1862, haunted by a desire to plant the flag of Italy on the Castle of St. Angelo at Bome, because the intervention of the Papal territories cut the new Italian kingdom in two, Garibaldi ^i- \ • .- L i 1 ■^■■■^h\ '■"■; 1i ; > ' '* f i 1 y l?^. ( i-.N. ■« V/ r, ' ' ¥% ii \\ :l*. ii 'A-' I' 2ao lII?TnilV or TTM-Y. excUctl a vising ut Sicily, and crossing' into Calultria, came into hostile collision with llie royal troops at Aspronionte, where a bullet wounded liini in the ankle. The tedious suffering consecpicnt on this injury comhined with other causes to keep him quiet for a time; l)ut in 1867 an insurrectionary movement in the Papal States, from which the French j-arrison liad been recently withdrawn, excited him to action, and lie now lies in prison for appearing in arms against the royal Italian tioops. Mazzini, born at Genoa in 1809, was actively engaged as a journalist in Italy, until his arrest on a false charge of lieing a Carlonaro — that is, a member of a certain secret society — drove liim into exile, wdiich he spent in France, Switzerland, and London, always writing and intriguing and hoping for a Ilepublic in Italy. In 1849 he went to Rome, wdierc as one of the Tri- timvirs he defended the city against Oudinot, whoso success (Irovc him again into exile. PAPAL STATES. The document, upon which rested the first establishment of the temporal power of the Popes, as sovereigns independent of the Emperors of Germany, consisted of letters patent issued in 1 278 by lludolf of Ilapsburg to Pope Nicholas III. (Cardinal Orsini). These defined tiie Papal territories as extending from Rudicofani to Ccprano, and from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, includ- ing the Duchy of Spoleto, the March of Ancona, and the llomagna. But the last named was not annexed until the days of the warlike Julius II (1513). Leo X. (1513-21) was a polished and learned member of the great family jMedici. His pontificate of eight years was noted for the beginning of the lleformation under Luther, already described in the history of Germany. But his age was memorable for the literary and artistic brilliance that shone in both Rome and Florence. These were the days of Michael Augclo and Raffaello —of Ariosto and Machiavelli. Under Pope Glement VILj who was the ally of Francis I. of I ■ TITSTOUY OF ITALY. 10 into here a 'd with B67 an icli tlio liim to against }(1 as a l)oing a — drove lid, and icpuLlic ;lio Tri- success at of til t of tlio in 1278 Orsini). idicofani , includ- omagna. ) wailiko 3r of tho noted for Icscribcd e for tlio ome and Raffaello ncis I. of France, Pvoine was Siiekcd by the troops of the Constable Bourbon (1527), who was shot in scaling the wall. Paul III. has been already named as one of the Farncse fixmily. He assembled tho last of the General Councils at Trent in 154G, and he was dead long before it closed its sittings in 15G3. The order of Jesuits, a most active and enterprising brotherhood, was founded during this pontificate. The founder was Ignatius Loyola, a native of Spanish liiscay, who, lying on a bed of pain — his legs having been injured by a cannon-shot at the defence of Pampeluna against the French — conceived tho id m of establishing a fraternity of monks. At Moiitscrvat in 1522 ho hung liis sword on the altar, and kept vigil, previous to entering on a lifo of spiritual warfare; and in 1534, with I'eter Faber and Francis Xavi3r, he took the oaths in the chapel of Montinartre. In 1540 and 1543 the Pope gladly caught at a novelty, v/hich would infuse new vigour ami enthusiasm into a system already much weakened by the assaults of the Protestant Reformers ; and by bulls the Order of the Jesuits received a formal sanction from St. Peter's chair. Fre long the members of the order were pushing themselves and the doctrines of tho lloman Catholic Church even into such remote regions of the world as Japan and Para- guay. Gregory XIII. (1572-85), influenced by tho Cardinal of Lor- raine, held public rejoicings at Home for the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Ho enjoys in history a more attractive renown as the reformer of the calendar, which by following the Julian cal- culation was much astray. By appointing every fourth year a leap-year, which is to be omitted once in the century, he reduced the error of time to the smallest possible amount. This — called the New Style — has been adopted in all the countries of Europe except llussia, Tho territory of Homo was increased by the additions of Ferrara, annexed in 1597 ; Urbino, purchased by Urban VIII. in 1681 ; and Castro, added in 1050. There arose in France a religious sect called Jansenists, from the name of their founder Jansen, once a Professor of Divinity at f' 'i i 1 r h\ il f|i' t t 1 1 1 1 1 ' \h r , 1'. .1 ■ r ]i ; f M 232 HISTORY OF ITALY. Louviua. This body set themselves in opposition to the Jesuits, and were condemned by the Popes of th'^ :.^>tcr hr.lf of tlie seven- teenth and the beginning of the cigh.. centuries. But it was Clement XI. (1700-21) who liurle.. a fatal thunderbolt, called the Bull Um'jcnitus (1713), which condemned certain pro- positions of a book written by a Jansenist, Quesnel. Tlio followers of Jansen, a small community at Port Koyal, were ultimately crushed by the weight of an opposition which imm- bered the chuiuent Bossuet in its ranks ; but they had many sympathizers in the Parliament of Paris. By Clement XIV., whose pontificate lasted only five years (1769-74), a bull was issued for the abolition of the Order of the Jesuits (1773). The Pontiff died in the following year, but the sus- picions of poison, excited by his sudden death, were not confirmed. Pius VI. (1774-99) witnessed the bursting of the storms which shook Europe, and Italy not least, in the days of the French Revolution and the campaigns of Bonaparte. Tlie antag- onisra between this Pontiff and the Tuscan Ricci, who held Jansenist opinions, has been already noticed. Among other U'orks of peace, Pius VI. drained a large portion of the Pontine marshes. So keenly did this Pope feel the evil deeds of the Revolution- ists in France that he issued a Bull of Excommunication. When Napoleon invaded Italy, he took possession of four districts, known as the Legations, iiamelv, Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli, which he annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. But worse was vet to come. In 1797 a number of Roman re^ iiblicans, among whom was Duphot, a French officer, when hot with wine after dinner, went through the streets with the tricolor flag. When the Papal soldiers came to disperse the crowd, they lied into the house of the French ambassador, and Duphot was shot. A French army under Bcrthier then entered Rome and expelled Pius VI. from the Vatican (1798). The Pontiff, now eighty years of age, would not abdicate his temporal sovereignty. Broudit to France, he died at Valence in 1799. Pius VII. (1800-21) at first found Napoleon easy and pleasant IIIJiTOHY Ol' ITALY. 233 csuits, KGven- But it erl)olt, 111 pro- Tho , W'OA'O I imm- , many 3 years • of the LllG siis- fivnicd. storms of tho > antag- 10 liehl r other Pontine olution- Wheu , Ivnowii d Forli, »rse was , among ne after When into tho lot. A expelled v eighty creignty. pleasant to deal with ; and a Concordat, or religious treaty, was signed between France and Home in 1801. Three years later, Bonaparte used his power over the Pope to secure the presence of the Pontiff at Paris, when Pius crowned him in the Catliedral of Notre-Dame. iJut in the following year the Pope refused to perform the same ceremony at Milan. Then began vai'ious troubles betwcju the Emperor of Franco and the Pope. French soldiers took Ancona and Civita Vecchia. Peremptory orders came from France, demanding that the sub- jects of all countries at war with Napoleon should be expelled from Home. And in 1808 matters came to a crisis by tho seizure of Ancona, Urbino, and other provinces, which were joined to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. In 1809 Napoleon issued a decree annexing the Roman States to France ; and the Pope, who published vain bulls of ex- communication, was obliged to take his Breviary, ascend liis car- riage, and leave Home. He was detained at Grenoble, Savona, and afterwards at Fontainebleau. In the last place Napoleon visited him to extort a new Concordat (1813), and in their talking often forgot himself so far as to speak roughly and sternly to the re- presentative of St. Peter. In 1814 the Pope was reinstated liy the Allies, liis territories being restored. He took an early opporturity to restore the Order of the Jesuits. In 184G Pio Nono (Pius IX.) was elected Pope. Ho showed a great desire to be liberal, and reformed the State exceedingly; but the revolutionary mania of 1848 inflamed the Roman populace with a desire for a rei)ublican form of government. His minister Count Rossi was murdered at the doer of the Chamber of Depu- ties; and he remained a prisoner, until he nuinaged to escape from the Quirinal in the disguise of a footman, and repaired to (laeta, where he lived under the protection of Naples. In 1849 Marshal Oudinot with a French army, aided by the King of Naples, assailed Rome, which fell before the besiegers (July 3), and was garrisoned by French troops. The Pope re- turned to tho Vatican in 1850. As already indicated, the French garrison has been recently 5 n r 1", 'I ^1^- ,, <-\ ' V p 1 1 .1.1 i ■ , jl. 1 1 ii: i i ' I i 1 cm JllrTuUY «')l' ITAl.V. Ill ^vitlKll•a^va {rem Rome; an insurrecllonavy movement is afoot; and it is not imrrol.al.le that the coming generation may sec an cn5. ' Ferdinand II., nicknamed Kinrj Bomlcf, from Ids icndency to resort to the convincing arguments of artillery in dealing with an obstinate city, became King in 1830. The Sicilians still cried for a repeal of the union; but their desires took the shape of panic in 1837, when an alarming outbreak of cholera desolated the island. Crying out that the wells were poisoned by the Neapolitan govermnent, the ignorant and frenzied mobs rose and plundered the palaces, flinging physicians and their families into the sea. Suppressed by military force, and the execution of the ringleaders, the revolt ended with the complete aboUtion of Sicilian independence, the island being declared merely a pro- vince of Naples. In^ 1848 revolutions broke out in both Naples and Sicily. Hessina and Palermo were the centres of revolt in the island,' where a parliament, voting the deposal of the Bourbons, prepared to establish a monarchy. ]5ut at Naples the King had let loose the lazzaronl upon the revolutionists and had secured quiet. Ho was therefore free to think of Sicily ; and accordingly Filangieri entered the island, which lie subdued city after city, until Palermo fell, and despotic rule, accompanied by relentless cruelty was restored. * The tyranny of Bomba after this excited indignation in every part of Europe, where freedom was cherished. But lie held to his doctrine that " liberty was fatal to the Bourbons," and set before him the Hapsburgs as a model to be imitated. ^«- lip ■ ' » V '. ■,i.- ■ s f. iw Kii '*i V n ^vW $]■ u '{% ' ■frh P:, ■ I * ■ k > i «* 236 HISTORY OP ITALY. f ■ u 'i i! ••• How Garibaiai, iu the campaign of 1800, drove tlic Bourl>on from Naple., has been told ah-ea.ly. The fortress of Gaeta, where Kin- Ferdinand and his wife held ont for five months (Sept. 18G0 to Feb. 1801), was their last stronghohl of defence. Naples and Sicily were tlicn added to tho new Kingdom of Italy. ^^„ MODEIIN ITALIAN CIIIIONOLOGY. Naples find Sicily provinces of Spain, Sack of Rome by Constable Kourbon, Doria makes Genoa independent, Jesuits acknowledged by the Pope, Cosmo I. made Grand Duke of Tuscany, Pope Gregory XIII. corrects the Calendar, ... Revolt of'^Masaniello at Naples, Kingdom of Sardinia founded, Milan vested in the House of Austria, Sicilies given up by Spain, ... » ••• Italian Republic under Bonaparte as President, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, ... Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples, Murat King of Naples, Papal Territories annexed to France, French evacuate Italy, ]\luratshot, Austrians restore despotism in Naples, Siege of Rome by Ondinot, ... Campaign of MagcuUi, Garibaldi lands at Palermo, Nc-.v Kingdom of Italy formed, 1504-1700 ... 1527 ... 1528 ... I.'') 13 ... 15G9 ... lt)o^ ... 1G17 ... 1720 ... 1713 ... 175U ... 18U2 ... 1805 ... 180G ... 1808 ... isoa ... ISli ... 1815 ... 1S21 ... lS-19 ... 1S5D ... 1800 ... ISGl TURKEY (1453 to the Present TiineV Mohammed XL (1451-81), tlic conqueror of Constantinople 'and the founder of the Turkish dominion in Europe, was a wiso 'nud active prince. His military activity was incessant. lie reduced Servia and Trebizond, became mastei- for a time of the Peloponnesus, and alarmed the potentates of Central Europe by his assaults upon the countries lying round the Danube bu cspeciallvbyhis conquest of Otranto in Italy, achieved by Ahmed Keduk in 1479. He ruled with stern cruelty at home, but established ?nany seats of leavnlnGf. iiisToiiY ot? T(;i:TcnY. 237 A.D. 4-1700 , 1527 , ir.2s . 1513 . 15G9 . 15S2 . 1017 . 1720 ,. 1713 ,. 1759 .. 1802 .. 1S05 .. 180G .. 1808 .. 1809 .. ISli .. 1815 ,.. 1821 ... 18-19 ... 1S59 ... 1S(U> ... ISGl After the rcigii of IJaJazet II., ^vllO was truubloil witli civil trars, led by Lis lu-otlier and liis mi\, and wlio Ic^st Otranto, Selim I. (1512-20) bccanie Sultan. After cleariu-^ away by execution a number of the near relatives, who mii^-ht contest tho throne, he commenced a career of Asiatic and African conquest, whicli added to liis dominions portions of Persia and Armenia, along with Syria and K<;ypt. Having overthrown the hast Caliph of Cairo (lolT), lie returned in triumph to Constantinoidc with 1000 camels laden with Kgvptian treasures. A noteworthy fact is his formation of a Turkish navy, whicli for many generations contested the dominion of the Levant and the Ionian Sea with tlic galleys of Venice. An orerdosc of opium caused Selim's death. Tlien began the reign of Solyman the Great (1520-CG), who was imdoubtedly the most celebrated of the Ottoman monarclis. When scarcely seated on the throne, he reduced the great Danu- bian fortress of ]>elgrado, and the island of Ilhodes, in defence of which the Knights of St. John fought with a valour all in vain (1521). His next exploit was the subjugation of Hungary, where, in the battle of Mohacz, Louis, King of the country, was slain (152G). The conqueror strode on to Vienna, his brain burning no doubt with visions of a European sovereignty; but the Western Powers put forth their strength to stay his career, and he besieged the Austrian capital in vain for four .seasons (1529-38). A successful struggle with the Shah of Persia, and a second war in Hungary (1511), excited by Ferdinand's seizure of the Hun- garian crown on the death of Zapoyla, the vassal of Solyman, fdled the central years of the reign. Tlie latter contest ended in victory for the Sultan, to whom the Austrian ceded the Hungarian ter- ritory round Buda, and promised to pay tribute for the rest. During this reign the Turkish navy became most formidable. There were fleets on the Mediterranean, sweeping its .shores to Gibraltar, and on the Asiatic Seas, contending with the Portu- guese beyond the gate of Babclmandeb. Elated by a victory over the .ships of Spain and Italy at Jerba, Solyman resolved to attempt the reduction of Malta, whose fortified rock was now t" ': li ■> , * 1 M 1^; \r. f .fe. n fl k ii -1' i 1 1 U S.M .■' 238 HISTORY OP TURKKY. o..0UPic,l hy 0,0 Kuiglits of St. Julm, to w ,om tl.c iMnporot ClKulcs V. Lad given tl.o hhnA after theu- csimki.,,. Iron. Rlioiles; but tl,o expedition failed after a riego of hvo mouths ^^ sS'>"'»'> lik» »" °"" J'^''"-"''^^ ^" '^'"",'" "''^ "°° " n'^'i"''; ness could not resist the Wast of tUo battlc-trtunpct. lie .l,cd i„ his tent in Hungary, wl.ilc engaged in the s.^'o of a tovn^ Under his reign the Ottou.an rule extended h'om t >e Bauuho to the Ti-ris, fron. the Falls of Dnieper to the I'alls of Ni e. Uuler Sclin> II. Yen.en, Cyprus, and Tunis wore added to Iho Turkish Ihnpiro; hut an ahnost fatal hlow was rceoive; hy Tnrkey, when her fleet under Ali Moc.ziu was all but anuihdaled at Lcpanto by Don John of Austria (1571). _ Si'ns of growing iniportanee, however, were vis.b o at this ,i„ °in the°relati;ns of Turkey towards the rest of hurope Though war was still raging with Austria, the n.os^ iornudablo obstacle to Turkish eneroaelnneuts in the heart of ^^o^'J^^ connnereial treaty was eoneludod between Turkey and England in the reign of Murad III. (1571-00.) Ahmed I. (1003-17) was no mateh for the European Kud. II who defeated the Turks in many battles, and relieved Austu.i from the ignoble burden of a tribute f...r Hungary, exacted by the strong hand of Solyman. .^t i ^t i TV ,ho T„,l^- During the supremacy of Osman 11. and Murad IV the Jam. ..vies tc^,k the upper baud in Turkey, whieli they long man - "l Osmau was strangled by them-, and they proelain.ed bu afterwards deposed, his tmele Mustapha. Bagdad was ta en by the Persians in the reign of Hnrad, but was eeded by l.eaty "'Sammed IV. (1C4S-87) had a long and troubled reign After many losses in Oaudia and elsewhere, after -^^^S^^ defeats from the Venetians by sea, the adnunistratiou of Koii restored Turkey to some strength and prosperity. Can luv was re- alen in 1G09. I'odolia was wrested from the Poles, who werc mouaeod under the very .alls of Lemberg. And a gleam of .uccess-brigl.ter than any of these-slioue on the rurk.J. aims. f.! iperor from lontlia wcak- (licil town. ul»c to to tlio liiliitcd at tlili^ Kuropc. uidablo c, yet a ilnglaiid Iludolf Austria il by tlie ic Jauls- cj main- )claiinLHl, as taken jy treaty ed reign, no- severe ■ Koprili mdia ^vas ■svlio were gleam of :isli arms, IIIiJTOKY OF TURKKY. 239 when in 1082 Kara Mustaplia, Serasker of tlie Turkish army, led his forces into Hungary, and encamped under tlie -walls of Vienna. The fate of tlie city seemed to bo 1683 sealed, and the Crescent for a time outshone the Cross. a.d. ]5ut an army, in which Jolm Sobieski led the Polish legion, came to the rescue; jMustajflia was completely routed and chased into Hungary, which in three years was swept clean of the turbaned hosts. This was oiily a beginning of reverses. The Venetians forced the Turks to evacuate Greece : and a re- volt of Janissaries — ^^ ho played in modern Turkey the rule of the Pnctorians in ancient Home — dethroned the Sultan. Turkey even now appeared to be breaking up into that sickness, which seems to deepen every century. The luxurious debauchery of some Sultans — th<' turbulent insolence of the Janissaries — the loss of some frontier provinces, and the difficulty of maintaining her ground in Europe in the face of enemies like Austria, Eussin, and Venice — combined to increase the troubles of her national exist- ence. While Mustapha II. (1095-1703) was Sultan, Peter the (Ircat concluded an alliance with Austria to curb and repress the Turks. Azov was taken : Prince EuG^enc inflicted a siirnal defeat upon the Turks at Zcntlia by the Theiss (1097); and the Peace of CarJowitz dismembered the Turkish Emnire, o-ivino: the districts between the Danube and the Theiss to Austria, the Morea to Venice, Podolia to Poland, and Azov to Pussia. Ahmed III. (1703-80) was the host of Charles XII. of Sweden, when that monarch camo, a beaten refugee, to seek safety in Turkey after the disasters of Pultowa. The Sultan declared war against Piussia on behalf of his impracticable guest. Peter the Great, neglecting a lesson he might easily have learned from his own successful tactics against Charles XII., crossed the Prutli into Moldavia, and suffered hiiusclf to bo cooped up in a position with no outlet. After three days' fight- ing, the cause of the Russians seemed hopeless, when the Czarina Catherine bought off the Grand- Vizier by collecting all the plate and jewels in the camp, and sciidiiig them to him with a letter. U j ■' t i ,i Uft Uiff V .(il i ; l^:t - A m" '■ 240 HISTORY OF TURKEY. * ♦, Tit i r 1 1 1.! M [^ Ml In 1714 tlic Morca was taken from ilio Venetians by Turkey in a single campaign ; and the possession of tliis peninsula Ava3 confirmed by tlic Treaty of Fassaroivkz (1718), by wliicli great concessions of territory in Wallachia and Scrvia ^verc made to Austria. . . . i i In the reign of Ahmed III. the art of printmg was introduced into Turkey. During the reign of Mahmud I. (1730-54) there was unsuc- cessful war in Persia; and the game of "give and trkc " was continued between Turkey and Austria, the latter of whom, by the Peace of Belgrade (1730), ceded that fortress, with the pro- vinces of Servia and Wallachia. Tlie growing strength of Kussia, and the proximity of that gigantic territory to Turkey now made it the most formidable foe of the Ottomans. Peter's dream of making the Black Sea a Russian lake involved the conquest of Turkey; and the succes- sors of that great C/ar ma.lc many attempts to realize that por- tion of his plan of conquest. A six years' war between Puissia and Turkey began m 1<(>^. On the part of the Russians, Ilumanzow overran the Crimea; and in 1770 a Russian fleet, sailing roimd from Cronstadt, destroyed the Turkish ileet in the Bay of Chesme— a name to be ranked with Lepanto and Navarino among the disasters of the Ottoman '''The war continued under Ahmed IV.; but it was not milil Kamenski penetrated to the passes of the F.alkhan that Turkey sought peace. ^J1ie treaty, signed at Kucluik-Kainarji (ln4\ n-ave important possessions and privileges to Russia, among which tvere the fortresses of Azov, Kertch, and Yenikale-all the country between the Bog and the Dnieper- the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a right of passage through the Bosporus and DardancUes-and the protectorship of all the Greek churclies m the Turkish Empire. A vain attempt to recover the Crimea from Russia was made in 1787. Selim III. (1789-1807).— A second war with Catherine oi Kussia broke out in 1787. Austria was in alliance with Russia liTSTOKt OF I'TJliKf.Y. -11 17(W. 10, as- against tlic Turks, rotcmkiu, tlic favourite of Catli.-ri,,., ... sunic.I tlic cliiof coiiiinand, in wliidi ]ie c:ij<.v(>a tlic aid c.f' Su- warow. At the Lattle of Kiuburn (1787) tl^c last-named general ordered liis infantry to fling away their knapsacks and ''char-o with the bayonet ; and, when the Cossacks fled before the strongly posted Turks, he turned them to victory with the taunting woitls, " Fly, cowards, and leave me to the mercy of the Turks " A complete defeat of the Turks at Fokshanv took place in 1789 The siege of Ismail was left to Suwarow. Promising his soldiers the plunder of the town, and ordering no (piarter to be given the general gave the signal before daylight by crowing like a cock' and the stormers advanced. Twice the liussians shrank from the cannonade, but returned to the attack. The 1790 slaughtered, after the assailants succeeded in scaling the a.d. walls, literally lay in heaps along the streets. Suwarow 's despatch ran thus : " The fort is taken ; and I am in it." This extraordinary general, who was wont to summarize the whole art ot war m three Avords, " Advance and strike," won the affer-tion ot the soldiers by bearing their hardships— sleeping on straw under a sheepskin, and eati-g black bread. He cultivated a rough address, and gave his ord; •■: in blunt laconisms. This war was concluded by a peace made at Szistowa with Austrna, and the Treaty of Jassy with Kussia (1792). In, 1798, France being then at peace with Turkey, Bonaparte suddenly invaded Egypt. The iMamclukes withstood Ids march to Cairo; but their brilliant cavalry charges could make no impression on the French s.piarcs, and they were scat- tered in the battle of the Pyramids. Nelson destroved 1798 tlie French fleet at the Nile ; and the declaration of war a.d. against France by the Sultan excited an insurrection at Cairo.^ This Napoleon disposed of with his usual pitiless deter- mination, blowing open with camion the doors of the Great Mosque, where the insm-gents had taken refuge, and staining it« pavements with the blood of massacre. Then marching into Pales- tine he besieged Jada, where a great massacre of prisoners took place among the sand-liills. But at Acre, the key of Svriu and the :i »i I \i , i i \\\ r •;! I- i I: :'! ^*i:' A •i li: ■■^ *J iv'* 1187; Ul - li II rV 1 1 f '}■■■' 1 m 1 1 I f a^ J i is! 1 I . ■ ^i1 IIISTOUY OF TUllKKT. East, ]k.napartc ^vas rcpollea l>y tlic united efforts of tlic rurlcs under Diezzar Pacl.a and some English ships under bir Sidney Smith. After fifty-four days he raised the siege and went to K..ypt; and, as he marched, one of his marshals wrote: ilio ^vi;ole country is on fire behind us." Homestead and harvest alike blackened in his destroying path. ]^:ngland retook Egypt from the French under Menou by ho battle of Alexandria, which cost her a brave general, Sir llalpli Abercromby. And, when Cairo capitulated, the province was made over to Turkey once more. ]3y a compact with Russia, Turkey now acquired the protector- «hip of the Ionian Islands, newly formed into a republic. Irench influence grew strong at the Porte, so much so that llussia and l^higland combined (1806) in a hostile movement against luvkey. Admiral Duckworth, forcing his way through the Stnuts, threatened a bombardment of Constantinople, but was obliged to hasten back to a more open sea. Selim lad been reforming the army and other portions of the State; but the defeat of the Turkish arms on the Danube, which the populace ascnbed to these changes, excited a revolt of the Janissaries, by wliom he was dethroned. ... n . ^ * The reign of Mahmud II. (1808-39) was fruitful m great events. A devoted vizier, Mustapha IJairaktar, saved the Sul- tan's power by blowing up himself and a number of the revolted Janissaries. But at first every province of the Empire seemed suddenly smitten with the desire of revolt. Most formidable of the insurgents were Ali Pacha of Janina,who revolted inEpirus; and Mehemet Ali, who in Egypt aimed at securing herediary power. The Peace of Bucharest (1812) was a necessity, for troubles were thickening. How the Greeks won their independeiicc will be narrated in a separate section. Tlie battle of Navarino (1827) humbled Turkish pride, and secured the independence of Glreece • The destruction of the Janissaries was one of the most im- povtant achievements of Sultan Mahmud II. The origin of this famous military body, fmt organized by Amurath, has bceu i-. : {■ r '■' '■^^ HiSTuKV OF Ti:i:Ki;v ic TurlvS r Sidney went to r. "The [ harvest u by tho ir Ralph ince was protector- . Ficnch ussia and t Turkey. J Straits, :)l)H,y;ccl to rniing tlio 'at of the scribed to whom ho I in great I the Snl- ]C revolted ire Bcemcd mid able of in Epirus ; hereditary for troubles iidencc will i Navarino dependence most im- igin of this ij has been already noticed. They soon learned to a1)U,so tliclr power. I'v rising in revolt, they could turn tho scilo of tlic Empire ; " could demand the head of an uii popular Vizier, and (L'poso or murder an unpopular »Sultan." Tlic attempt to restore tlieir old disci- jdine cost Seliiu his life. ]>ut Mahmud waited for a fit- ting time. "NVheu lie was ready, they nmtiuicd, only to 1826 find themselves ringed round with .shotted cannon. Tho A.n. Atmeidan flowed with the blood of 20,000 Janissaries ; and the name disappeared from tlio list of existing *corp.s. It was a terrible but necessary blow. In 1S2S war began between li ussia and Turkey. Two cam- paigns, in tho second of which Adrianople and Erzeroum fell, led to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), by wliich Ilussia acfpiircd Kars near the Caucasus, and secured an independent administration for Moldavia and Wallachia. The rebellion of Mehemeb All, Pacha of Egyi)t, ao-aiust tho Porte originated in the desire of this ambitious prince to bo possessor of Syria, which he accordingly invaded. His son, Ibrahim Pacha, had advanced in 1882 wltli a victorious army to Kutayah, little more than one hundred miles from Constantinople. ]3ut the interference of Ilussia averted the danger that menaced the Turkish capital. A renewal of the war, after Syria had been ceded to Mehcmet, took place in I8o0, a short time before the death of Mahmud II. The Turkish army was defeated by Ibrahim and Nezib — the Turkish fleet under tho Capudau Pacha had deserted to tho l^'gyptian side — and nothing seemed surer than the overthrow of Constantinople itself, when again intervention turned tho scale. An allied fleet, Austro-Endish, cannonaded several of the Syrian ports. Acre amongst them ; and the rebellious pachas were compelled to make terms, resigning Syria on condition that the Pachalic of Egypt should be made hereditary in their family. During these events Abdul-Medjid (ISSO-Gl) becamo Sultan. His Vizier, an eminent statesman, named lleschid IVhn, who, by residing as a diplonnUist in Western Europe, had accpilred wider notions of government than those prevailing in Turkey, ■I i : "k- . : • if'' (1- I Hrl ^* i t < ri".' 244 ItlSTORY I'J TURKEY. M- , IM framed 1 system of refovm calle,! the Tmnimat, wlncl. was puV 1839 -d) tl.o control oi tl.c cruel and despotic .ac .as ,vho had I V hitherto honght their posts by auetion, and (2)_tho reUe ot the Christian suhjeets of the Forte from eertam pemdt e, „nl -rlev noes This doemnent kindled a flame of rppos.foi ,l.f"tho old Tmkish Conservatives, .ho regarded the measure amo.v. the out 1 ji,„,e„i„„ of the State; and the as aimed directi) aL,.uiKM- mu ^ r,^n,r r^.n-vlnd out -^r2t-si2:rj:str^thi.; the Ssh Christians belonged, after a tin>o de.uanded the pvo- e tmi of the Holy Haees at Jerusalem, -'-l "-I'- J^^^ davia and Wallachia, the Da.mb.an l>"ne,pl,U^^ m o du to £e:;Laidto;r... The^^^^^^^^ been already '--'<^^^^,^ '« j"^ , ,„ ,„ the ,3.„ube. >vhero St o*"ev tinted by the British officers Butler and Na my T massacre of Sinop., .hero a Knssian squadron ft.:mtbastopol destroyed a few Turkish frigates and slew two thousand men, excited n.uch anger througlumt Kuropo In the irtiltions that preceded the war, the Car xN.eholas referred to aS mnler the'metaphor of '; a sick man," whose possessions 1-iv readv for spoliation and pavtit ion. Vpon the death of Abdul-Medjid in 1801 his brother, Abdul- Aziz, who now holds the throne, became Kultau oi lurke) . W ■. MODEllN TURKISH CIIUONOLOOY. Constantinople taken by the Turks, Conquest of Greece, Turks gain a footing at Otranto, Solyman the Great takes Belgrade Battle of Mohacz, « ' Turks repulsed iit Vienna, ... 13att!c of Lepaiito, ... ^^url'S npquire Bacdad. ••• ••• *" Turks defeated at Vienna ly John Sobieski, • •t t*« SIS A, P. ]453 1458 1180 1520 1526 1529 1571 30.39 16S3 A, P. • t 3453 t« 1458 • • 1180 »•• 1520 ■ •• 1526 §•• 1529 • •• 1571 • tt ]*-.39 «■! lGb3 ! HISTORY OP GREECE. Peace of CarlowitZ; ... ... Peace of Passarowitz, Turkish fleet burned at Chesrae, Ismail stprmcd by Suwarow, JIattle of the Pyramids (Egypt), AH Pacha of Janina revolts, War of Greek Independence, Siege of I\Ii,ssolonghi, Destruction of the Janissaries, Pattle of Navarino, ... llussiaus at Adrianople, ... First ^var with Mehemet Ali, Publication of Tunzimat, Second war with Jyiehemet All, War with llussia (Crimean W;i:), Defence of Silhtria, ••• • •• • •• • •• • •• • tt • •t • •• 245 A.D. ... 169» ... 1713 ... 1770 ... 1790 ... 179S ... 1820 1821-30 1820-G ... 1820 ... 1827 ... 1829 ... 1832 ... 1839 1839-40 1853-6 ... 1854 GREECE (1820 to the Present Time). The rebellion of Ali Pacha in 1820 gave the Greeks an oppor- tunity of doing what tliey had long hecn desirous to try— rising in revolt against their Turkish masters and oppressors. This Albanian chief, who liad seized the pachalic of Janina, and who ruled all Epirus, with pai'ts of Albania, Thessaly, and Western Greece, became so formidable to the Poilc that a muster of the provinces was made and the usurper was deprived of Janina and liis freedom (1822). Ilis head was then cut off. The sparks of Greek patriotism had already begun to grow to flame. In Moldavia Ypsilanti made a movement for freedom, which was drowned in blood. I3ut the Greeks met at Kpidam-us, when Mavrocordato was proclaimed president. One of his ])est helpers was Marco Boz- zaris, a Suliotc chief, who commanded a remnant of that brave race, which had escaped from the butcheries of Ali Pacha. There are two sites in modern Greece, round which the chief interest of this war of independence centres— Missolonghi and Navarino. The former was defended at first by Bozzaris, who held out until the Turks had raised the siege. On the approach of another t i fK: I I I'M I}. ■>; * h-\H •1 n i:» 240 HISTORY OF GUKKCE. !l: ! i 1 Leo ,. ..m.. c..t to -'j^- j:j-;;:s: -s :s greatest hero of the -r-tl- I^onulus o , aun ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ T!,o place was badly fo.tifiea, and is i. 1 , ^^ cannon to oppose tl.e O^^'^'V' I™™ A pi it, an.l Resehld l>ael,a opened Lis ^''^ ^ ^^ , ^^^ ^^^^ I u a^e of tUo .ally after f ^ Y^lTco ^In o ttd: the city by sea, defenders. A 1 uikisli ilect «'™>"- ™ . ^j,, g^Uan tl.en was beaten by the Gveek slaps nnd Mmul, • i _^^^^^ gave the chief eonnnand to ILnd, n. ^^^^^ ^^ :^^,^ the r. new anny vonnd the ^^-^^'^^Tno t ,o "ht of snvrcndev. hearts of the garrison, yet they had '^^ «- ""^'^ ^,.,,,.,„, Ibrahinr rained shot npon the l'-^-f-t,Il educed the an in vain, until ^^ -f-^ ;!j" .l;;; rats and eats, they Egyptian force veady to ^^^^ ^ ^^^ ,,,,,, ere made the heroes died; some escaped, hut the ^ic. prisoners. ,i , ^r Vurm^o- and m particular, This event roused the syn>pathy of f"2•Tnn.^ formed a England, Uussia, and F.ance, '"'^"^ ; .;:iif "^;^^r„ppeav^ loaguc to aid Gveeee in the '"-f » » .J^Lely in of the Egyptians on the scene had ^^^^'^^^^.^ ^ \, „,,„y favour of the TurUs, who, m sp.tc of a b avo e^ y ^^^.^ of Karaishald, ^^^ f^^Z^^^ ^^^^^^-^'^' juncture, however, the AlUc ahead) ^^^^^^^ ^^ ttack Lortal s tlio IMis- Lord bvlns \ tlio t poor "Nvlieii it, and of tlie by sea, m til on .0 drew cd tlic L-render. n-eaches .ced tlio its, tliey Ai liost. 3y issued le wliolo ndved of }re mado lavtlcidar, formed a ppcarancc plctcly in the army At this [ — Russia, Franco hy s of power, IITPTOnV or GnEKCE. 247 Sir Edward Codrington, in command of a British squadron, in conjunction with ships from France and llussia, took up Ids position outside tlio liarLour of Navarino, in which 1827 the united Turkish and J^^gyptiau fleets lay. Ills plan A.D. was merely passive; hut a Turkish vessel fired on a boat, which di-ew a volley of musketry back in reply. A cannon- ball then struck the ship of the French admiral, and out blazed the fight in full fuiy. In a few hours the wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian ships strewed the harbour. This battle, which tijok place on the 20th October 1827, obliged tho Turks to evacuate the Morca. After the victory of Navarino, Count Capo d'Istria, a native of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece. In 1829 the Conference of London proclaimed the independonco of Greece ; but it was not acknowledged by the Sultan, until tlic advance of the Russians to Adrianoplo so menaced the capital of Turkey that a treaty, embodying this condition, was agreed to by the Porte (1829). The next task of the intervening States was to find a fittimr raler for this troublesome little corner of the Continent. Capo d'Istria had distinct leanings towards Russia, which did not please the Avestern statesmen. Tlie throne was accordingly offered to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who afterwards became King of tho Belgians ; but he, induced by letters from Capo d'Istria, and by his own misgivings as to his popularity and comfort among a nation so fickle and deceitful as the modern Greeks, resigned the honour after holdlKg it for a month or two. Otho L (1832-02), a prince of Bavaria, then accepted the vacant crown. He ibund a land pinched with poverty, torn by civil dissension, infested by brigands — a sad contrast to the glo- rious Greece of ancient days. Tho presence of German troops and Bavarian officials was a sore grievance with the Greeks, who forced the King to send them away. One ministry succeeded another, Russian intrigues adding to the native complications. In 1836 Otho took to wife a princess of Oldenburg, who displayed a warlike spirit, that led her husband into trouble. In 1854 her M U I H . if 1 f I i ^: iJ 248 HISTORY OF POLAND. iL M ; i ■ 1, H i ^ 1 ji' t^j 1 i j. ft \ BunDort of the insurgents, ^vlio raised ^vnr in the a.ljacent pro- Zes of aW^^^ ^-^Sl^t\he soiaievs of England and France to ^hcns for the purpose of binding King Otho do.n to a pronuse '"tuiated inl8G2,.hen a ^^h^-^-^^^^^^TZtr appointed. And in the foUowing year rnnce A dha.a of Penma h Mother of the Trincess of Wales, ^vas elected lang under the title of Goorgc I., King of the Ilcllones. MODKIIN GRKKK ClIRON'OLOGY. Revolt of Yijsilanti, Death of Bozzaris, Siege of Missolougiii, Battle of Navarino, Treaty of London, Klcctionof OtlioT., Electiouof Koi'i;.: I., A.D. 1821 1823 lS2:>-6 1827 1823 183J 1833 POLAND (1370 to ttc Present Timo). The ancient Polish .Ivnasty of Pinst, ,vhicl> ha.I its cnpUal Hyst „t Oncson «n,l then at Cvacou-, euad in 1370, a. 1k.s Voou saul, >vlth the ileatU ot Casiniir the Great, who acfiuirod Calic.a. in,o niavrlago of the beautiful Queen Iledvige, claughter o ■j.onis of Ilun^arv, ^vith Jagello, Duho of I.ithuau,a, muted tha ,,rov;nee to Pohu.d (1382), audbcgau a ^b-n_-ty,« uchoon mued „>til the death ot Sigismuud Augustus .n 1 ..->. Under the ;Xn of JageUo the power of tl,o Teutonic Kmghts ,va. crushed ,t tl battle of Gunwald by the allied avnue. ot l'ol.™d an,l Uhuania. While Casiudr III. wa. King, the T-="y;/;' -", iu 1402 united the Prussian provinces w.tl. Poland; and Dan/,..iJ was soon acquired as a seat of commerce Sigismund (1506-48) came into collision with ti.e Russians, whom ho defeated, although they managed to v^''-" f "'''»';;• which they had taken. In conjuucfon w,th us ""j-'f 1^"";; ,._., .!.„ 1.: 1,-.,,, (,. r.vderand rule liy curbing the tut- he reduced I the kingdom to order and ride by b pro- ncc to •onjise lit was miark, er tlio A.1>. 1821 1823 1825-6 1827 1829 1832 lSu3 Ital first 'cu said, ia. "liter of itcd tliat ontimicd lulor tlio ! cnislu'il land and 3f Tliorn d Pauzig Russians, 5Uiolensk, }r Bonar, • tho tur- lIISTOUy OF POLAND. 240 bulence of the nobles, \vlio impeded both the anthe Ian or gene- ral levy and the imposition of necessary taxes. Owing to his Queen, Bona, a beautiful but dissolute daughter of tho Milan Sforzas, tho Court of Poland, by the introduction of refinement and courtesy from Italy and Spain, became one of the most brilliant of the period in Europe. Under Sigismuud the doctrines of the licformation began to spread in Poland. He died in 1548. Sigismund Augustus (15 lS-72) received the voluntary submis- sion of Livonia, anxious to save itself from absorption by Kussia. In his reign also occurred tho Union of Poland 1569 and Lithuania, cemented at the Diet of Lublin (15G9). A.D. Tho Reformation took a yet firmer hold of the higher classes of Poland during this reign ; although the King did not openly declare in favour of the Protestant doctrines. When Henry of Vulois, a French prince, who, after holding for a few months the throne to which ho had been elected, escaped in disguise to France, and Stephen Bathory, a self-made Hungarian Bohlier, had reigned in succession, Sigismund IIL (1586-1632), the son of the Swedish King, was elected to the throne. It may bo noted in passing that this system of electing Kings proved ultimately most injurious to Poland, for it kept the embers of civil war always alive am ng the discontented and disappointed factions. Sigismund III. was completely under Jesuit control, a cir- cumstance which excited great dissatisfaction throughout Poland. In a great war which he undertook against Russia, he at first succeeded so brilliantly that his troops, .issisted by the Swedes, entered IMoscow, and extorted a treaty by which Vladislav, his son, was made Czar of J^Ioscow. But the renewal of the war ended in advantage to tho Russians. Vladislav was foiled in a siege of the Russian capital. Under Vladislav, when ho ascended the throne, Poland enjoyed a long peace, until trouble arose from a revolt of the Cossacks of the Ukraine. The war with these semi-savages continued imder John Casimir (1648-68). M^ 1 ij J 'l* 4 ! - I n T 1 J ■ n \ I t \' \ . ■ ■ !•. ■ lA- 1 i ■ ■' :^*. ■ 250 HISTORY OF POLAND. illi The reign of tliis pi nice was imfovtunato, in fiplto of his {^ood reputation" as a soldier. He was rasii cnoiigli to dispute tho tlironc of Sweden with Cliailes Gustavus, in couscqucnco of which a Swedish army overran PoLaud, taking hotli Cracow and Warsaw, and driving the King into Silesia. The land lay haro and desolate ; and yet it had a hold upon Polish liearts, wln.h roused thcni to a great effort for its liberation. But they were at first inclined to make Charles Gustavus King, nntd his taunt «' that a conqueror needed none to elect hhn monarchy 1660 Btirred them into a war to curb his pride. John Casimir A.D. was restored ; and in IGGO the Peace of OUva was con- cluded. By this treaty Esthonia and Livonia were transferred from Poland to Sweden, and the independence of Prussia was confirmed. A disastrous war with llussia, ending in the loss of Smolensk and the Ukraine, filled the remainder of Casimir s reio'u, which closed in 1GG8 by his abdication. The election of Michael Wisniowitski to the throne by the minor nobility then took place. Ho was forced by the same power that compelled him to the throne to pass a law forbiddmg the voluntary abdication of Polish Kings. . ^.^-i Then came the reign of the great soldier John Sobieski (1G<4- OG) The son of the Castellan of Cracow, this eminent man served in the mou8<^lletam:s of Louis XIV. for a time, but soon returned to his native land to use his sword against the insurgent Cossacks in John Casimir's reign. As Grand Hetman he led an army ot '>0 000 against a Tartar force of five times the size, and by the destruction of the hostile hordes saved Poland. In a war with the Turks he reduced the hitherto impregnable fortress of Kotzim. The result of such fame was that, when the Diet met to elect a successor to Michael, the cry arose, " Let a Polo reign over Poland," and John IIP was accordingly proclaimed. His first duty was to redeem the regalia, then in pawn with the Jews; his next, to raise an army and face the Turks. Surrounded in Lcmberg by a great force of Ottomans, he took advantage of a snow with decisive success. -storm, and charged the blinded besiegers And in 1G76, intrenched on the banks HISTORY OF POLAND. 251 ! good to tho iico of )W and .y liaro wliich y were s taunt [larcli " ]asinur [IS con- a were Prussia tlie loss isimir's by tlic 10 same blddini^ (1G74- n served •cturncd jossaeks army of 1 by tbo var witli Kotzim, i to elect igu over iwii with >. , lie took besiegers he banks of tbo Dniester, with a tremendous Turkish host in front, led by a pacha of Damascus, who was surnaincd the Devil, from his ferocity, he kept up a twenty days' cannonade, 1676 and then with liis handful of men charged the couplo of A.D, hundred thousand tnrl)ans, who fled, shrieking with terror at the appearance of the " Wizard »Sobieski/' This pro- duced peace. At home dissension was eating away the j^trength of Poland. A dangerous weapon — the power of pronouncing a veto upon the sit- tings of the Assembly — lay in the hands of the nobles, wlio did not hesitate to use it when the deliberations went against their views. All movements of reform were met by tbis engine of anarchy. IIow Sobieski saved Europe, when the Turks lay round Vienna under Kara Musla[)ha, has been already narrated (1083). The death of Sobioski, who strove in vain to stem the tide of faction and turbulence among the Polish nobles, took place in 1G96. lie looked sadly towards the future of his country, whoso battles he had gained from time to time, but whom he was power- less to save. Augustus II. (1G07-1704) was Elector of Saxony previous to liis promotion to the Ptdish throne. Forming a close alliance with Peter the Great of Kussia, he entered into projects of war with Swedcni. Invading Livonia, he formed the siege of Riga — a proceeding which called into brilliant action the military genius of Charles XII. of Sweden. The Polish cause grew worse and worse, until a battle near Clissow completed its overthrow. Tliis failure roused such opposition that a faction raised Stanislaus Leczinski to the throne of Poland (1704). Stanislaus enjoyed this position — if any enjoyment there vas — until ihc battle of Pultowa, overthrowing Charles, recalled Augustus to the throne again. Upon the death of Augustus II., Stanislaus made a second attempt to hold the Polish throne. He was besieged in Danzig by a Russo-Saxon force; and, when hope failed, he lied from the seaport in disguise. His own skilful pen gives a narration of his romantic and perilous escape. Stanislaus had a firm friend in France, for iiis daughter Maria U' H '• '<■ fi ■■«il 1 • ii M I « i ! mi I 252 HISTORY OF rOIiAND. was liiarricil to Louis XV. Accordin.cjly, upon tlio. conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna, 1735, lie was presented v/itli the Pucliy of Lorraine, whither lie retired to live a blameless life of devotion to his subjects, and (piiet literary occupation. During the feeble rei.ij^n of Augustus III. P(dand was com- pletely under Russian influences. He was succeeded by Stanis- laus Augustus (1704-93), the last King of Toland. Known as Poniatowski before his accession, this handsome and accomplished man was raised to the throne by the influence of a powerful family named the C/artoryskis, who were strongly supported by llussia in their schemes. These eidightcned re- formers, who were actuated by patriotic motives, aimed at abolish- ing, and succeeded in greatly limiting, the aristocratic privilege of' dissolving the Diet by the vdo of a member. l>ut Russia, Kceing these reforms tending to the strength of Poland, threw her weight into the other scale. In 17G8, a patriotic bishop named Krasinski formed a con- federation at Bar. a town of Podolia, lor the purpose of 1768 securing Poland against the foreign influences, which had A.D. been coiling round her for many years back. But it was too late. The troops of llussia easily defeated the raw- levies of the patriotic league. And when Turkey, coming to tl>.(> rescue of an ancient foe, through dread of a more terrible present and future enemy, was defeated, Poland was torn asunder by her three strong neighbours, who carried off each a large tract of ter- ritory. This act of oppression, known in history as the First Partition of Poland, made over to Austria Galicia and Lodomiria — to Prussia all Polish Prussia and the territory of tlic Netze— ■ 1772 to llussia the districts between the Dwina, Dnieper, and A.D. Drutsch. The Polish King was left with only the shadow of ' is power — the real authority being exercised by a Russian envoy resident at Warsaw. A new Constitution was forced upon the land; but this became distasteful to Prussia, who promised to assist the Poles in framing a better, ^vhicli was pro- mulgated in 1791. It abolished the veto, and declared the M III hision of Duchy devotion ^'as coiii- { Stanis- somc and DRCO of a strongly tencd re- t aLolish- privilcgo t Eussia, [id, threw h1 a con- )urposc of vhich liad ]ut it was 1 the raw ing to tlio le present ler by her act of tcr- Partition miria — to [C Netzc — ■ iepcr, and lie shadow cised by a :ution was iissia, who 'i was pro- idarcd the IITSTORY OF POLAND. O53 throne of Poland hereditary in the Saxoii lino. Ihit the llussians stirred \\\) a confederacy against tliis system. It met at Targowitza. Secretly joined by both the King and the I'russians, Kussia then ])rf)ceeded to a Soccnd Partition (170;}) which gave her 4000 additional square miles, and made Prussia [M.ssessor of the important ITanseatic towns of Danzig andTliorn. Then arose in the person of Thaddeiis Kosciiiszko one of those })atriotic souls, which shine out like sudden stars when the night of history grows darkest. 'Jlie jn-csence of insolent Pvussian troops in Poland, ospeci dly after the Second Partition, excited a wide-spread discontent, which easily fanned itself into the flame of rebellion. The fittest leader that could be found for the national party was Kosciuszko who liad learned in the battle-fields of America to use his sword and his brain. Putting himself at the head of a hastily-raised force, many of whom liad no better weapon than a scythe tied on a pole, the hero made Cracow a centre of operations. His 1794 first important collision with the llussians at lladavkc a.d. resulted in a decided victory, although the enemy were stronger in number. Enconragcd by this success, the people of Warsaw expelled their Russian masters; and for two months, lying in an intrenched camp before the capital, Kosciuszko kc[)t at bay a liost of Pvussians and Prussians. Then Suwarow came down like a vulture on the swoop, leading an overwhelming macs against the doomed city. Kosciuszko, nothing daunted, met him with a sniall force at Macziewice, about fifty miles from Warsaw. The odds were too tremendou.\ After a struggle of the fiercest, the gallant Poles gave way, and their leader, bleeding and cap- tive, cried, " This is the end of Poland." The suburb of Praga, commemorated by Campbell in his stirring verses, was then stormed by Suwarow, and the Polish capital surrendered. Kosciuszko, after being taken as a prisoner to St. Petersburg, was released, and for many years wandered in America, Franco, and Switzerland. In the last he died (1817) from the effects of a fall from his horse. ;l.i:i 1 1 : \\ ■t •' 251 lIISTOr.Y OF rOLAND. 'i I t. Si. In 1,90 ^■^^^'"^^'^^Z^l^^^^u^, patriot blooa, going to 1795 tl,o sanre thvco sroilevs «» ^'f° ? ^ ^^ ^^^^^ .„ Russia Austria, ami Prussia. iHo ivni„, o '■"• E;.-ski, .vas pernuttcd to live on a pension at bt. Petersburg. _ f p^_,,.,„ j i-ovivcd more During the Napoleonic W.US the u _^^^^^ ^,,^ tl.an oneo. Tl.ese grew bnglit, -' «=" "« ^' ; Tilsit cloude,l l-iussians at Jena and elscwbere-, ^- '« '^ ^w s formed into tl,e sky of Poland once more ^oW J ;"'^<,„,atution and a tlie Dueliy of AVarsaw, ^^^^^^ ,„„acd in 1800 Frencli code of laws, ilns^vas uu.u 'TlieCongressotViennanrrangedtl.eaf,u oa and. ^^^^ .eeeivedtboDuebyoi-Posena^^^^^^^^^^^^ Austria i«eeivedeertamteu.to es Uae^ ^^^^^^^_^ .^^^ and tlie rest was erected mto tlio Kingdom ^^^S^mises of liberty .d ^e^P- ^Po.^. ^»« T'-""f;eli~ "bf ir^r t;?;:;nny peeped out sliape of per ^"'- ^^^. -^ j,,, ,ff„i,, of education. 1,1 many wajs, but '^^l ^'^''^ ^^^ Czartoryski, bad been In 1803 an eminent Pole, Tiineo Aaa ^^ „,ade Curator of the University " J^^ j"= g^,,,,, „f them iosteraspiritofnationaUtya^^^ ^^^^^^ ,^ ,., were eharged with sedition, bcin pi ^ aespotism of tlie ^-^^^f ^f^ ^^^^^^^ -"^^ *» a, viceroy of Poland. Jhe systcni oi . ^^^^ speech and writing, .as put f-'-'V; ;;"",,,, ;, I their -' tary school joined he ulo^s ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ the two effected a union with the ioii.n i 1830 A.D. Ki't ^ t\ ItlSTOliY OF POLAND. 255 )f llGl ng to hours, iiisluiis at St. d moro cd the Clouded ed into R and a in 1809 rnissla Varsaw; epiihlic; iidev the tionallty take the ppcd out had hccn strove to c of them I hy the vho acted regard to ny of the for their miversity. : from tlic cd ^vith a the udli- orsity, and riic Belve- dere Pahu'C at Warsaw, witli all it.s girdling niuat.^, could scarcely protect Constantino, who owed his5 escape to some friendly soldiers. After a while the whole Polish army de- clared in favour of the insurgents, and Constantino was per mitted to withdraw his troops and guns from Poland. Adan' Czartoryski was made President of the Nati^^nal Government. ]>ut the Ptussian army poured in ; Prussia, though not actively hostile, watched the frontier, and would permit no supplies of any kind to enter the country. The hattles of Growchow, and, yet more signal, Ostrolenka, resulted in favour of llussia; (1831); amnmnition and hope were h('lh well-nigh exhausted by the end of the campaign; and at length Warsaw opened her gates once more to the despot. If Poland had suffered tens of injuries hefore the Eevolution, she suffered hundreds after it. Everything was done to crush the national spirit, which had caused the insurrection; and this imliappy land, whose destiny of misery somewhat recalls Italy to the mind, felt that there w^as indeed an iron hand under the velvet glove, with which Paissia had at first begun to mould her disorixanized aflairs. Wilna and Warsaw lost their universities; the libraries and museums were carried away to Russia; and many of Poland's most eminent and active spirits found a homo in foreign lauds. Amongst them was Czartoryski, who went to reside in Paris. The little republic of Cracow, which had been left independent only because the spoilers could not decide which of them should possess it, became in 1846 a focus of insurrection, which, how- ever, was speedily trampled out. Cracow was then annexed to the Austrian Empire. There was a collision in 1802 between Poland and Russia. Led by Langiewicz, the insurgents were beaten near Gagoscie, after which the chiefs of the patriotic party crossed the Vistula, and surrendered to Austria, J;} •» 1i A r 250 niSTORt OF RtJSSlA. MODERN rOLlSlI CIIUONOLOGY i 1*1 i i 1 Union of Lvibiin, Peace of Oliva, ... r»attle of tlic Dniester, J-.lm Subieski, ... IMussacre of Protcstixnts at Thorn, Confederation of Par, pivfet Partition of Poland, Second Partition of Poland, Pevolution nnder Kosciuszko, Defence of Warsaw, Tliird and final Partition, llevolution under Czartoryski, J^attles of Growchow and Ostrolcnka, Made a part of Russian Empire, ... A.l>. •t« ' • •• at* • t* l.WJ • •• • •■ aaa aat IGtJO ••t • t« • a* %*• 1676 «•• • a* aat lC7i-00 • •• • •• aat tat 17'24 • ■• «*t %•• tat 176S • •• aaa aaa 1772 • tl • •• • •* aaa 17^3 • ■t • •• • •* aaa 1704 • •f • •• ata • at 1704 ttt ■ •• • •* taa 1705 • •a ■ •• aaa aaa lSOO-31 • •• • «• aaa aaa aat at* 1831 is;j2 RUSSIA {14G2 to ths Present Time). The omaiiciration of Russia froiu the Mo souml of tl.e ininting-preBS became freciucnt in tl,e laud. All tl,e wliilo, too, Peter was gathernig strength lor another struggle witu Charles of Sweden; and at last all wa. '"iharles invaded Kussia-a fatal step (1707). As he .narchcd „n, loading his men deeper and deeper into the deadly wilderness ,vl ieh Peter had prepared for his reception, every step was a new .eal of death. When he was sufficiently far, and lus men were reduced by frost and famine to a crew ot spectres, attcmp in, the siege of PnUowa, Peter surrounded them witli a 1709 fresh annv ot 70,000 men. Tiie result in sp.to of des- 11 pevato vaiour on the part ot the Swedes, was a total rout. Charles fled to Turhoy. The Sn-edish King must have derived a pleasant consolation, two years later, from the disgrace which fell on the llnssum arms l,y the Prnth, when Peter and his army were saved from an ove - whelmin- mass ot Turl;s, who had snrronndcd them, only ly ho ollhe Carina Cathirine, wdio bought off the vi.ier with her jewels. Tliis disaster cost Kussia also Peter's first con59 is siib- wcilen, llct foi* ito tlio rvct af- wcnk- I pliilo- 1.1 us to )ccupicil coiiifovt Pcters- ;ow wai^ frctpietit mgtli fur all was ir.iu'clicil lldciTiOSS, •as a new ;ncn were ^tempting 1 with a to of tles- is a total )nsolatioii, ssiaii arms n an ovor- iily by tho ir with hci' lest, Azov, oblijjed to try and condemn his son Alexis on a chargo of conspiracy. Tho yonng man died in i>rison ; hut it is uncertain whether hy fair or foul means. Tlie death of Charles XII. at Frcdericshahl caused tho Swcdisli war to lose its cnerj^^y ; and in 1721 was concluded the Peace oj K./stwh, by which Hussia became possessed of Livonia, Esthouia, Tngria, and part of Carella. Soon afterwards Peter assumed tho title of Emperor. His last expedition was to Persia, where he gained Romo territory along tho Caspian Sea. IIo died of fever in 1725. Peter's widow ruled for two years as Catherine I. She had been originally a peasant girl of Livonia, and her first husband was a sergeant of dragoons. Prince Menzikoff, the favourite minister of Peter, who had also risen from the lowest station, maintained complete ascendency during this short reign. Under Peter K. (1727-30) Menzikoff was sent to Siberia, and the Dol- goraki family rose to supremo influence in tho State. They in their turn fell under Anna (1730-40), during whose reign tho Persian conquests of Peter tho Great were abandoned. A revolution now placed on the Pussian throne Elizaheth, tho daughter of Peter tho Great and Catherine (1740-62). Durini,' lier reign we find Pussia for the first time assuming distinct pro- minence as a great military power in Europe. As the result of a war with her ancient foe Sweden, she acquired the greater por- tion of Finland (1743). But her share in the Seven Years' liar, as the ally of Austria, won greater glory on a more conspicuous field. Though bloodily defeated in 1758 at Zorndorff, tiic Pus- sian soldiers, engaging with tho troops of Frederic the Groat, gained two signal victories at Gross Jar/ersdorff and Kunersdorff, and shared in the occupation of Berlin (17G0). Elizabeth died bi'lure the conclusion of peace. The dethronement and imprisonment of Peter III., after a rcigii of six months, during which this prince made peace with Prussia, led to the accession of his wife Catherine II. (17G2-9G), an ex- tremely profligate woman, who was not ill-pleased to hear that her husband had been strangled in his cell. i f I' ■\ i : ^' I It It %{) in:TiUv (>;• nrf:«tA. '^! .m m' 1 I ^..'.,v^'• lif>v fovoi'^n policy ll..r domestic policy -.s «t.n, bv.l «> ' > J ^^^^^ l.,.i„co Potemkin, a -"'f '" .1 n Ci fov I ti.no l.er favourito, Turkey, ^vlud. gave »>:^ '» f^.^^/^t Kainarji, scouvod Iho -nuH content, 7f '"S.;;;*; ;„\^,^-„K r„lc, ana gave llussia a inucpcnaonco °f ' .^^^''^^^ g^ ,^, r,,,;„>s took a tuvtUcr lioUl upon tlic black oca. au x • '::!; rid added the Crimea to *o.r »- Envpu. ^ .^ i second '^^^^^.ZJ^^X -icfoated t„o lieutenants, pvommcnt an«"° ;^™ ., ^^^ elsewhere, that pllTlTmotTsO ) ;;. "I'd his n,othcr Catherine. ITis the various departmontsot tl.o ^^^- ,,i,„ ,,„i At first he engaged -;;;\;*^ ,"""„,,, and t;iled coat. ,„wluehPaul,inu tat.u u ^ ^^^^^^^.^^^ ^^^^^ ^j soldiery, was recalled *» '=°'™", / ,.,,•„.,.. :,, Italy (1799), Austrians and Russians he '»"e f '' '^^^ „ ^^nlL han- .vhere anrong other v:etor,cs ^ — ^;,X"rland he was les, "^^''trtroS;:r^.Shard"^ the assistance of Kor- X tl 'r hreaicned hy Masscna, ho found lumself too T' ;-^- IIISTOIIV OF nussiA. 2Cl policy iiUey. nenta\ s, wlio inflicts .rcil l)y 1 other ar wltli rolaiitl. rod llio ilussla a further and h\^ ited tho that which re, >y ) promiso nnics rc- i^lUngs ill , who had lilcd coati^ le Hussiaii d force of y (1709), issian ban- e was less ;e of Kor- litnself too late, ftnd was hemmed in hy a French army in the valley of tho Keuss. However, hy leading his men in single file over tho momitains hy a chaiuols-path, he escaped this peril. The Em- peror, fickle in all he did, recalled the veteran, who reached St. Petersburg only to die (1800). The combined fleets of Puissla ftud Turkey hail meanwhile taken the Ionian Islands. Napoleon, wi.o read character fpilckly, gained the good opinion of Paul, after tho battle of Marengo, by sending back all the Piussian prisoners in France, with a supply of new clothing and muskets. A speedy result of this was the seizure of all English ships in Piussian harbours; and the conclusion of the Convention of the North with Sweden and Denmark, by which these nations, forming an Armed Neutrality, resolved to resist the searching of their veoscls by Britain. Tho secret of Napoleon's desire to be on friendly terms with Russia lay in the fact " that Ptussia held the keys of India." A secret expedition to India, by way of the Caspian Sea and Persia, was actually planned, when two events broke the alliance between Piussia and France. One was the dissolution of the Northern Convention by the bombardniimt of Copenhagen (1801), and the other was the death of Paul. On tho night of the 24th March a number of officers appeared in his apartments, and insisted on his signing a deed of abdication on the ground of mental incapacity. He violently refused ; and in tho struggle that followed was strangled. Alexander I. (1801-25) maintained a peace with France nntil liis indignation was roused by the murder of tho Duke D'Enghien and Napoleon's elevation to an imperial throne. He joined Austria, and had a share in the disasters of Austerlitz, at which field ho was present in person. After Prussia liad been Immbled at Jena, Napoleon pressed on to meet tho armies of Kussia under Bennigsen, whom he defeated at Eylait and Fried- land. The Treaty of Tilsit, concluded between Napoleon and the Czar on a raft in the middle of the Niemcn, added Russia to the adherents of the French Empei .'. The common ground, upon which thoso lately rival potentates agreed to forget their uifferenccs, was " hatred of Engla)id," ^ U m 1 1 r iv !(: 2G2 ITTSTOUY OF RTTSSTA. ;' < In accordance ^vitU this treaty Kussiiv niaelc war on Sweden m 1808, wliich ended in the complete conquest of Finland. ^ A Tuikisli war went on intermittently for six years (1806-12); l.ut ceased for a time durin- the existence of friendly relations between France and Ilussla. 13ut it was not natural that thes« friendly relations should continue. Russia was obliged to accede to the "Continental .System" of Napoleon, which exercised so Mi-hting an influence on her commei-ce, owing to the stoppage of alf connection with Kngland, that a cry of discontent arose. Tho seizure of Oldenburg by Napoleon, against which Alexander pro- tested, liastened the cri.sis, and war broke out in 1812. Napoleon in Eussia.— Assembling a force of French, Germans, Poles, Italians, and Prussians, amounting in all to nearly 500,0()() men, Bonaparte crossed the Niemen into Kussia (June 2oth, 1812). Ere ho left AVilna, his head-quarters in Lithuania, a foretaste of terrors to come displayed itself; for disease already laid its grasp upon the invading force. The llussians fell back ; Napoleon followed, sensible that to advance was liis oniy hope ol keeping so enormous a mass of men together. As it was, 100,000 vere lost by sickness or desertion during his marcli through Lithuania. At Smolensk there was n, battle (Aug. 16) ; but tho llussians evacuated the city. A more terrible, conflict occun-ed at Borodino (Sept. 7). Although the Russians lel't the invaders masters of the field, so great was Napoleon's loss that he might well regard it as a victory of most doubtful gain. A week later, the French entered the open gates of Moscow, and marchoa through silent streets, with only here and there the figure of somo prowling thief. A fire, which br. ,ke out in the coach-builders street, excited little attentiun, after it had been extinguished. Napoleon took up his quariiers in the ancient Kremlin. But that night the red dare was seen again, bursting forth in many places, and the wii-a caused t^a flames to spread with such fury that even the French Emperor in the Kremlin incurred some danger. It was currently stated that this conflagration was purposely kindled by the Russians, who wished to burn the invaders out of Moscow. But Rostojjchin, the $'oyernur of Moscow, flatly denied this, 1 nr?TOUY OF Rl'.«.SIA. 263 Btating tliat tlio fire was dno to tlic drunken French soldiery, and also to such iuhcabitants as preferred hurning their houses to Ict- tuig them fall hito the hands of the iuvaih'rs. The French, UfuiLle to oLtalii fuod, lived for weeks ii2)on salt liorse. On the lOtli Octol.)er, the weather heinLj deceit- fully line, the retreat hegan. Harassed l.>y clouds of 1812 Cossacks under the Iletniau Platoff, the iuvadln,!^ army, a.d. now reduced to 120,000, struggleil homewards : hut how few were to sec that homo ! Then earlier ihau usual (Nov. G) the Kussiau winter descended witli .sleet and ice. By the timo the army reached the Beresina, over wliich they had to fight their way, only 12,000 remained. At Smorgoni, Napoleon, h'aving tho army to Murat, hurried forward in a bledge; and issued a bulletin, telling Kuropo of tlio cumpleto destruction of his army. AVlicu the spring tliaw came, more than 800,000 dead bodies were collected and buried along tho track of that dreadful march. Alexander of Kussia, joining in tho coalition against Napoleon, was present at the battles of Dresden and Leipsie, and was ono of the Allied Sovereigns who entered Paris in triumph. Accom- panied by tlie King of I'russia, ho visited England, and was greeted with enthusiasm. After Waterloo ho formed a leaguo with Prussia and Austria, to which was given as a nanm Tlirltalu were impovilled in 1838, ulien a Pcrsiaii army, oHiceivd by llvLssians, advanced against Ilc^-at, ilie position of wlii'li in the iiorth-western an-lo of Afglianistan causes it to be r-M^-avded as one of tlie keys of India! But the attack fa'ded. The suspi.-ion, that Russia looCs %vit]i a covetous eve upon India, caused swnie people to trace tlio beginnings nf the In^liau Mutiny to the inti'Ii^ues of llussiaii emissaries. . . The interferonee of Russia, ^vhen she j^avc anl to Austrui m crushin- the llun-ariau rising of 1848, has been aheady indi- cated. In 1S4'J G<-.r-ei surren.h^'cd at Vihi.gos near Groswardem to the Russians, uho had dready won several battles. The dispute which led to the Russian War, as it is called m Britain, concerned tlio Holy riaces at Jerusalem. The inonk.^ of the Greek and Latin Churches contended about the templo and the sepulchre ; and the Turks, who were masters in the city, made arrangements for repair which pleased neither side. Men- yikoff went to Constantinople to demand redress of the Greelc 'Church grievances ; and, when none that Russia would accept as satisfactory was offered, he declared that the Czar would sei/e .i «' material guarantee." Russian troops then entered ^\allacl^a (.Julvtind, 1^53). 'IIM no ccmcessions on the part of Turkey would have satisHed Russia was evident from a secret proposal ma.le by Isichohts to Great Britain to eliect a partition of the Turkish hmpu'c, of which the British lion's share was to bo Kgypt. The chief events of tiic Jhissian }Var (1853-5G) have been already alluded to. During its progress the death ot Nichoks (1855) raised to the throne his son Alexander IL Althou ;h the title of Czar has been used more than once in the preceding- pa.. es to distinguish the Sovereign of this great Empire, it may be'noted that the fuller title, since the days of Peter the Great, has been " Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias.' In 18G1, the Czar Alexander issued a decree for the total abo- lition of serfage within two years. ^^ The number of slaves thus emancipated was twenty-three miliioiis. ?rille(i anced anglo t'V8 of . looks Lce tlio lussiaii tr'ui ill y iudi- ,'ardeiu Hod ill monki* tcmplo lie city, Mcii- j Greek :,'cept as i sei/o A ullauliia Hatisfiecl liolas to iplio, of ivo been Nicholas o\i 'h the )rccccling' B, it may le Great, otal al)0- ives thus IIISTOUY OF KUSSIA. 2C.1 An indirect connection has recently arisen between Britain ami Russia by the nmrriago ot* the Princess Dagmar, sister of the Princess of Wales, to the Ciiarowitch or eldest son of tho Emperor. »IODi:UN nUSSIAN CIIKONOLOOr. Line of Ruric eml.s, ... House of llDiuanolf from ... Keigii of P' tor the (iicat, ... Uattle (it '^ u-va, ... ... Dattlo of Pulto ,;l, Teacc of Nystult, Crimea Itccomes a Kussian » do Gania made his cchihrated vovago round the Cape iu 140S, o[)cmn.[r an occan-})ath to I ^ia and iho East — lias been a conimcii'ary upi>i! that ancient ])ropiiocy which declares " that Japhet shall dwell in iho tents of Shcui." In tl;o ^vork of eoh'uizatiun and ccucpiest the l^riti.-^h have taken tho lead. The historical interest centres in four countries — L.dia, Persia, China, and Japan. HISTORY OF INDIA (1525-1858). Baber, a descendant of Tinuir, inva(' 1 India from the north early in the sixtt>ent1i century, and found ^ in tho basin of the Ganges a Mogul Empire, of which ho made Delhi the capital (1525). I ii lfi< m i ! I r 2G0 HISTORY OF IN'PTA. 1^^ % V ■ li: h ■ ^ V iif ! If h i I Akbar (ir.5G-lC05) was the wisest of the native moimrdia ll.ut vuled iii Iliiulostan. The first luilf of Lis lei.^n was given to coiKiuest, l>y whicli lie exteuacd Lis sway iVoiu tLc Ilnu oo- • Koosli to the Dcccan, from the BniLuuipootm to CaiulaLar. l>u Lis peaceful works entitled Liiii to a greater fame. lie caused men of learning, in wLose society Le deligLted, to translate niany works from Sanscrit into Persian, wLich was tlie language of Lis Court He relieved tlie Hindoos from obnoxious taxation, and spared no efforts to imm-ove law, trade, and travel. TLe various provinces of tlio Mogul Kiupire were governed Ly meroys, called The i-ci-n of Aurunszebe (1C58-1T07) ^va3 tlic sunset of l«ul.aiic splon.lour in India. OLtaininpr tl.o llivono l,y tl,c nm.aci- of Lis three hiotliers, and the iniprisunniont of his aged lather Rhah-Jelian, this tyrant forgot the heuefioence of Akl.ar towards ll,e Hindoos, whom he taxed with severity. II.s grasp ol the seeptrc ^vas so firm, that for many years ot the re.gn the d.seon- tented spirits cowered and were at peaee. Bnt synipton.s of deeay heeame visible in the I'hnpire. The Mah-aUa., a tr, bo from the mountains between Canara and Gnzerat, n.a.ntamed .^ .-uerilla war under their chief Sevagi ; and the liypov's m Centra India (lung off tlieir allegiance, disgusted at the imposition of taxes and the wanton destruction of Hindoo temples Suspicion, terror ot assassins, and remorse fur many crimes darkened the declining years of this despot. ' . ^ ,■ After his death (1707) the Empire became a prey to intest.no convulsions. The Mahrattas came in 1735 to Delhi gates, and extorted a heavy tribute from the Great Mogu . Four years later xXadir Shah ot Persia occupied Delhi, and stripped the Kmperor of treasures in jewels and coin to the amount ot many millions, besides depriving him of all his provinces to the west of the Indus. And all round the degraded centre of the i^alm rebellious viceroys-the Nizam ot the Dcccan, the Nabob of ho Carnatic, the Subahdar of Bengal, Ac-dedared themselves m- dependent. " <• x i i-„v,'/^ Then it was, amid tlie conflicting fragments of a great Lar.aiic Kl ITTSTORY OF TNDTA. 2G7 111 arc! 13 i o;ivou [iiuloo- . But caused many e of Lis on, and various J, called msct of muvder 1 fatlicr towartls p of tho ! discon- ioms of a tribe itained a I Central isitlon of uspieion, 2ned tlie intestine ■ates, and :)ur years pped tlio of many LO west of :lie realm ob of the iselves in- t barbaric Empire, liastoning fast to dissolution, that tlio Europeans found the opportunity of securing a firm footing upon Indian soil. The Portuguese were naturally tlie first to establish their factories in India, at Cloa, Bombay, and other jdaces. Tha Dutch followed, and exitelled the earlier comers from Cevlon. Lancaster, an English captain, sailed from Plymouth to India m IGOl ; and some of his countrymen established factories at Surat (1G12), having obtained a charter under the title of the East India Company. The European competitors for empire in India were ultimately Britain and France. The hitter founded a station at Pondicherry, where an enterprising gcn'ernor named Duploix began to dream of expelling the Britons, and securing the whole of the golden peninsula for Prance. In refusing to restore Madras, an English settlement, which had been reduced in 174G by Labourdonnais, the governor of (ho IMauritius, this man made Ids first ambitious move. A dis])uted succession brought him soon into mure violent collision with tho ]']iiglish. The rivals were Chunda Sahib, supported by tho Prencli, and Mohammed Ali, supported by the Britisli : and tho position they contended for was that of Xabob of the Carnatic. Supporting in addition the claims of 3Iirzapha Jung to be Viceroy of the Deccan, Dui^eix received from that grateful usur})er tiio control of the whole Coromandel coast (1750). The question of British or French supremacy in India came thus to turn on tho relief of Trichinopoly, where Ali was besieged by the French. A young English clerk named Olive headed an expedition against Arcot, which he took, and where ho endured a siego of fifty days Buccessfully (1751). Next year the siego of Trichinopoly was raised, and Chunda was put to death. Dupleix went to France fi baffled man ; and tho French hopes of conquest in I dia were extinguished. We know what dreams of Indian conquest floated in the mind of Bonaparte ; but they were dissipated by his failures in Egypt, and other reverses. Clive signalized himself further by the conquest of Bengal. The cruelty of Sujah Dowlah, who hihumunly confined 146 I- ; 'i' I ,M ti d( II 111 I ! .:i 1,1 : 2C8 lIISTOilY or INDIA. Eno-lish prisoners in the Black Hole at Calcutta, causing tKe deaUi of nearly all tlio nuniLor, led to tlie battle^ of Plassey (1757), ^vllich secured for Britain the Empire of India. In 17GG Lord Clivo, \vlio liad been raisc^d to the peerage for his splendid services, extorted from the Mogul tlio right of collecting the revenues in Bengal, Orissa, and Bahur— a conces- bion which made Britain mistresii of the Ganges up to Patna. Warren Hastinss, appointed the first Governor-General of India in 1773, held that high po.Vition till 1785. He met v/ith much opposition from certain of his councillors, especially from Philip Francis; and a Brahman named Nuncomar, afterwards han--"ed for forgery, brought many accusations against him. There were two circumstances on which the trial of Warren Hastings, after his return home, chiefly hinged. One was his treatment of the Rajah of Benares, whom ho arrested and ill-treated because he would not pay a large addition to the usnal tribute ; the other was his treatment of the Begmns (princesses) of Oade, who were starved into surrendering their wealth. A war with Hyder Ali of Mysore, during the latter years of Hastings' rule, was at first disastrous. Enraged because the English did not aid him in the Mahratta war, he invaded the Oamatic (i780), where ho obliged Colonel Baillie to surrender, find made himself master of Arcot. But Sir Eyre Coote defeated himnear Cuddalore ; anddeath soon cut short his career. But heleft a fierce soldier behind him in the person of his son Ti,)poo Saib, one of tlie most determined foes the ]Miglish have had in India. While Lord Cornwallis, tlic successor of Warren Hastings, ruled English India, a war with Tippoo took place (1790-2). It ended in tlic cession of half Mysore. But Tippoo was stirred to action a few years later by French intrigues, and again the English in- vaded the plateau of Mysore. General Baird led an army 1799 to Seringapatam on the Cauvery; after a hot siege A.D. the city fell, and with it fell Mysore. Tippoo was found among the dead; and the prize of the taken city was committed to the charge of Colonel Arthur Wellcsley, aftcrwarda the great Duke of Wellington. ii:?7n::v ov ixdia. .■>/^- 3 Plassey •ago for ifrlit of (.'ouces- itiui. noral of let v/itli 11 y from tcrwards . There lasting^, tmcut of because lie other v'ho were years of aiisc the adetl the urrender, ; defeated Jutheleft poo Saib, 1 India. ngs, ruled It ended to action nglish in- il an army hot siege was found L city was iftcrwarda A \vnr wilii a pova-rfiil native prince, Sein'il;), gave Vu'llcsloy now oppoi-tunltics of training and displaying liis great military genius. At Assaye (1S03) he defeated a vast Lost of ^Nhdirattas; and at Argaom, the llajah of Berar. And meauAvhile General Lake took Delhi and Agra on the Jumna. At Furruckabad and lihurtpore tiie British were also victorious. Tlie conrpicst of Ceylon, begun in 170C by taking the sea- coast regions from the Dutch, was completed by the subjugation of the natives in 1815. The first Burmese War broke out in 1823. Sir Arciiibald Campbell took Rangoon, and stormed a succession of stockades n[) tlie river to Yandaboo, when a peace was made, giving Aracau and Tenasserim to Britain. A disputed succession led in 1839 to tiio Afghan War. Assisting Sliah Soojah against the intrigues of Dost Mohammed, an English army entered Candahar, and Idew open tho gates c»f Giiuznce Avith gunpowder. Mohammed fled from Cabul, of Avhieh tlie conquerors took possession. But trouble arose. The British were beleaguered in Cabul, and Sir "William Macnaughtan, the British Envoy, trusting rashly to the honour of an Asiatic, met Akb.ir, tho son of Dost Mohammed, in conference and was shot. A British force, marching through the snowy passes to Jelelabad, was almost anniliilated. Britain then put forth lier strength. Forcing the Kliyber Pass, General Pollock reached Jelelabad; and tile war was ended uy tlie occupation of Cabul (1842). Sir Charles Napier was tlie contjueror of Sinde, whoso Amcm^ or native princes, displayed such signs of hostility to the British that war was declared against them. As a result of llie victories of jllcaiipp and I)/ihha the territory was annexed in 1843. But the Seiklis of tho Punjaub were foes more difficult to subdue. Originally a religious sect formed in the reign of Baber by Naniik, they were moulded into a race of formidable soldiers by llunjeet Singh. Their passage of the Sutlej into Britisli India was an overt act of war (February, 1845). At Moodhca and Ferozc!i:rwSiA. Tli(3 year iS.jswas uotaMc for a tiiost import. wt dianp^c in the ^^^ovcrnniout of India. By tlio passing of the Iiidla ]>ill tlic Oouipaiiy, wliicli had directed tlio a flairs of tlio great peninsula of the Kast since ICOO, and had gra.hially found its fcw^ fac- tories grow into an Empire vaster than tlie ishand, to whicli it was a mere appendage, ceased to exist. Tlie government of India was transferred to the Queen, wlio transacts tlio business of the great colony by means of a Special Secretary of State. PERSIA. In 1502 the Tartar rule in Persia, which had been established by the conquests of Tamerlane, gave way to the Sufi dynasty, founded by a Turkoman named Ismael Shah. The most distinguished of the Sufi line was Abbas the Grecat (1585-1628). Persia, previously to his accession, had suffered much from the assaults of the Usbek Turks, who had overrun somo of the provinces—especially Khorassan. By a severe defeat near Herat, in 1597, the power of tliesc marauders was nmch crippled. To a keen desire of forming alliances against Turkey vnth Western Europe, may be ascribed the hospitality which Abbas displayed towards the Shirloys, English knights wlio visited Persia. On the whole his nvars were successful, the last battle of consequence in his reign being a defeat of Turks and Tartars between Sultanieh and Tebriz (1G18). Abbas looked with jealous eyes on the Portuguese settlement .it Ormuz, an island in the entrance of the Persian Gulf. Vv'ith tlie aid of ships from the English East India Conqiany U reduced the place; but his allies derived no commercial benelits from their interference, as they had hoped to do. Ispahan was made the l\>rsian ca])ital during the reign of Abbas. The Suh dynasty terminated in 173G, when Nadir 1736 Shah, the soti of a maker of sheepskin coats, but who A.D. proudly styled himself " the son of the sword," de- throned Tamasp, the last of the line, and assumed the sovereignty. 1 c in tho Bill tl.o cninsula few fac- wliicli it iiiicnt of business tutc. nisTor.Y op rr;n?iA. [alillslicd dynasty, he Great suffered run some •c defeat 'as much : Turkey ty which jhts wlio , the hist 'urks and etthniient If. Vvltll iipany he d Ix'neiits ahan wu>i len Nadir , but who rord," dc- sumed tlic I hn-Tf ■"'" "" """""'■'■"= ^''■''""■^' "•'"" ''-' <'l' Ami, ,,hcn the Emperor of DcH.i persisted iu .sl.oUcnV' 11,: '•'.t cityol the C.re.t M„;;ul, from ,vl,!,.), I,e ..mTiod off ^^u ;„. ii-lv fuuVuu. fi, f *i ?'^°^^^''^»''^"-S imd .some of them accon- I'-.-J}, liiKlini,- that tlieii- names were in -i ll.t nf ,.,... • r ••'"ticiiMled the Sluih by entering V " .If ^^^^^'^-^-'I'^^:'", him (1747). ^-'iuimg m.^ tent and murderh.Lr AfeortI.e ,lon.l. of Xa,!lr u <;,„o of .mnrel.y ens„e,I, .Inrl,,. d!;:'o?l!r;;::;:;r,;:-'''->-''™' -•'«■• i-no.,; Il«/v..' ., ,1! . • , ";■■""" "''"■'■"'<^ ^"'f' tl'" title of sio, • . ?"' " T'"''""' "■'''^'' '^'"■' S'«-v into p;«o.. Mon. J. nKey « anotlier European State ^yhkh Im been on^.ffe,l .Innng tl,!. century, in war. ,vitl, l-ersi,.. Herat, on the bor.ler.s of Khorassan an,l Afghanistan Ir., lon-^ s, (18.„-oS)of en months, -hning «ln-eU the Shah o.ertea •• I I. s »trenga. ,u van,. The galhn.t Uefenee of the pla.e wa' ^ ]!nt in 1855 Persia again interfercl v;ith a .lisiMito,! .ueee^ion ... Herat, „p„r, .hh.h Britain, fully alive to the i, po t o 'l^.«--.. I^oy to India on the north-west, doelared wa, TI e bomhardment of Jinshire, and defeats at lO.oshal, and ^vlea '..ont of the indepen*lenee of the stronghold of Khorassan H: '5 *i! hi r as?; 18 fij *'/i 271 U' , ; ,1 i. I! ' 1 m lIlr;T(>:iV ol' (.'IIIXA. cm HA. Dnrin;; C:\q proc;!--:?--. of { lie many 1 op'cn clary dynnstlo.^, of wliich tlie liistury of C]iiii;i is full Juriii;,^ tlie centuries before Clirisf, (•lily «.'ne ni'inovjiMe luiiiK) iippears. It is tliat of Kotig-foo-tsp, \vliieli luis Ircn Lai'nizcd into GoriiLicius. Tl-.is ])]iilaiitliropi(j veforuier, I'oru in the l:inp:tloiu of Loo, ro^o to be jirliiie-iiiinistGr, I'Ut v.-as l-;;!;i.;1i((l, owln-' to tlio jealousy of iMM.^'libouring sovo- rei';ns, to {]:i\ h\:y;'\in\i of Cliin, v/liero lio ended liis days in P",.-(>riy (anoiit -ITo hj\) His writings, of whicli there aro niiio LoiiAS, fo'.-'.a tlie sacred lileradii-o of China. Tlie fhrt nioiKireh of the Tciil dyna-,ty, nnitin.o: all tlu) petty states north i^i th.o Kian^j: lliver \un\o\- Ids govcrmnont, caused all the reeords of the past, iiududing the hooks of Confucius, to hcj I'urned (i^ IT r-.e.^: and to him was also due the huildini; of tlio Ctp-at Y\';i:l Oil the n-'vih t<> l:ly, China ae^piired si/.e, Ktrcngtli, ami spleii'lour C-'*T i'.''.-l:--0 \.v.)', and the fame of the nation ex- tended oven to ]:..:;i'.', wh(«n."o one of tho Antonines sent presents oi ivury to tin.; rc-i;;-nin.;.;' Ihiiperor. A new dissolution of the Ivii.pire was fallowed hy a new union, when in fiS.") f,.r tin? first tiiiii! Xorlh and South Vv'cre joined under (•nvi sef'tre, tlie ca.pital hein;' (iAi'd at, Ilonan. It is l.(.li;-vel Ihat s./Jie Nestnrir.n Christians reaeltod Chinii nl'ont 040 : there is n l-v.cnd statin;;- that foreigners with fair liair iirrivi-d in tie- la.n-h wl.ilo ;i nn)nunient, graven with a cross and a sunmia.y cf the Ciirisliau law, has heeu discovered. Tjio Tartar i:.v;-i-rs formed the great trouMe of the Chino^o l/.nperors in the :u!.hlIo Ages. It happened that, whenever they called in exi-rnal aid to repress their incursions, the allies turneil the hired sv.-'.rd npoTi their cniph.yers. This was especially lluJ case in the thirteenth century, wdieu the Kmperor of China, desirous to fdiahe off the yolco of the Kin Tartars, called in tlie aid of Zenghis-Khan and his Moguls. The Kin were ^^^^ f;uh>lued; hut t;o were the Cliincse. In 1279 Kublai \^ '^j \j A.I>. A.I). V'l: i:i-.:.ll eunqdoted the con-piesL of China oy reducing the :'i ^ I nrsT«v:v oy c.'jJNA. of wliich c Clirist, ii^-foo-tsp, uitliropiu iniiilstor, !ng fiovo- il;ivs ill iiro nino .]i(3 petty it, cnnsed lus, to bci v^ oi' tlio i;,4lj, ami cition ex- l present H is^olutioii , wlu'ii III ictl under 0(.l Ciu'iiii 1 fair lialr ci'u.>,s ami levei* tliey ios tunii'il 'c'uilly tluj of Clilnn, ed ill tlio Kin wcro 9 Kublai ucing tlio i.-..r (..>( s;. an.l those i,i turn -ivo way to tlio Han^cVn Jartars, who scizcl the throne in ]<;i4. Xiantc.oo :^.:iS;i;;;:/;;:;r:.;;;r^^ III I'^^.'JO a (lisi)uto jibout onlinn wIiicTi ihr^ r^i - "■"I ^ maivli upon Xai.ldn furce.l th.. TM / j, ' y^' *''"-"» ('omniissionor at r-int(^7i v..r„-. i . •' -» f.KU tl,e aav^.tu.-ous t!:::"' f il ? .1 U 270 IIISTOTIV OF JArAN'. M'/i 1 Marco Polo, tlio Venetian, who in 1275, in conjunction ^vith liia Irother visited China and asccvtaiue.l the existence of Japan. ^ From tlio year 1188 tlio f;upremc power has hecn iliviile-l between a temporal ruler called Tycoon and an ecclesiastical chief styled Dairi. 'J'lic Portngueso and the Putcli wero the first European nations that attempted a trade witli these islands; hut the former, hoth merchants and missionaries, were expelled in 10'>7, and the trade was narrowed to the latter, who with many jeahms restric- tions were permitted to have a factory on an island communicating hy a seated bridge with the fort of Nagasaki. In"l863, a squadron of British, French, and American ships attacked Kagosima, in conseciuence of outrages on I'lilish .subjects, and on the Frencli and British Hags. The result has been the opening up of Japan to Western commerce. In 18G8 the oilico of Tycoon, or temporal emperor, was abolished; and the Mikado, formerly the spiritual emperor, became sole ruler. ••• JIODEllN A«rATIO CUUONOLOC.Y. Sufi (lynaf^ty in Tcrpia, ... ... ^ ... «.» r,al)ev fouiia.s the Mo;.'nI Empire in Imlin, ... Shah Abbas rules in rersiii, First English factory at Suvat, Japan closed to all Europeans except tin- D-it. li, Chinese throne seized by the lluntc-hoo Tuiturs, Death of Aurungzebe (India), Nadir Shah rules Persia, ... Clive tahcs Arcot (hidia), Battle of riassej', French Empire in India overthrown, ,Sie;,'e of Seringa patani and fail of >^';vro, Haltle of Assaye (Indi;i), Ceylon annexed, Afghan War, ... ••■ *«• First Cliiu'^sc War, (ITong-K<»ti- gnlned), Seikh Wars (Punjaub conquered;, ... Second Chinese War, The Indian Mutiny, ... India made a Cruwu Golonj:, ... He volution in Japan, ... ... ... ... ••« A.n. 1502 1525 iri8WC23 1013 1637 1644 1707 1736-47 1751 1757 1701 i7ity 1803 1S15 ,. 1839-42 1839-42 1846-49 ... 185G-5S ... 18;T ... 18i>8 1868 ••• ••• ••• ••• • •• • •• • •• • t* • •• • *• ■•t k\\ 4 4 ^v^tll Ilia ipan. I tliviileil Icsiastical Kuropra!! former, , and the IS rcstrio- imlcatiiig can slilps 1 subjeets, been tho tlie oil ICO \i Mikuflo, A.n. ... 1502 1525 1D8WC23 1013 ... 1637 ... 1644 ... 1707 ... 1736-47 1751 ... 1757 1701 i7ity 1803 ... 1S15 ... 1839-42 ... 1S39-42 ... 1846-49 ... 185G-5S ... 18;T ... 18i>8 1868 IIISTOUY or TIIK rxiTi:T> FTATEf. 277 KOnTII AMERICA. Discovery and Colonization.— On tho 12tli of Octo^cr 149^ Christopher Columbus, a sailor of Genoa, having staited from lulus in Andalusia with threo Spanish ships, o.,antod for tho .^xpedUion by Isabella of Castile, caught sight of Sau Salvador, yno of tho iKdiania Islands. Fivo years latev am) Sebastian Cabot,a\enetian, sailln- from Uristol in Kngland, discovered Labrador and Newfoundland. These voyages rank with that of Aaseo ilc Gama in importance: for Jiey opened to European cniquest and commerce a New World iu tho West- as he by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, found an ocean-path to India .ind tho Last. Iu 1517 Cordova discovered the penin- s.du of Yucatan. Jacques Cartier. of St. Malo iu France, sailed up the lliver St. Lawrence, which he entered on the day in 1535 consecrated to that saint ; but it was not until 1G08 that Cham- plain established a French colony on the site of Quebec. ^ Tlie countries of North America, iu the order of their historicil nnportance, are the United States; tho Dominion of Canada; Mexico; the West Indian Islands, and the Kepublics of Central THE UNITED STATES. Foundation of States.— Between 1585 and 1732 thirteen T>!itish colonies, which formed tlio original Thirteen States of tho Union, wore founded along the North American shore. A list of them is subjoined : — 1. North Carolina was first colonized iu 1585 by settlers sent sJure datii^ from 102' itardeil its advaiicomeut fur uuiuy lut cuutcst=i ^Yi^l the luaians re ^"r*!^.. - 7, .0 called from tho ^vIfe of Clu^les I., ^vas col.v , nl^cd b 10^^ i>y Lovd^ IJaltlnunc, who selected U as an asyluu. fnr i\(MNfH'utcd Ivoinaii Catholics. nnmcl llogor WiUiau.s, .k, i.u.uved ,ov.,ocut.ou 1.. nuuuf.uu,,- ih(> doctrine of unlimited toleration. , , ., :: ^ «,lo„y on Iho vivc. aUcvoxa by aud nau..! aft. "o"\"r T.,, co!,-.nl.oa in tnvn l,v Bane, S.vclo, a.d r.ft;i;';Ls.l under Briti.U vulo in IGOl. It wa. altcnvanU l.arcliasod by a Quaker company. i- i, .„.,,„« from 10. Xte?,.«.-«r.! l.ud a Mniilar hktovy. It took it. uanic '"n.^!;:;;; CVnwL. originated in tko foundation of Cl.ark.ton '" ;.f Z,,„„..;?,«.,V,, ac-inired W Cl.avl.s IT. fr..n ^^ff,^ .val.d to WUlan. I>™n in 10^1. This .n.n.ent .Jnakev J • : land f.on. tl.o In.r.an, and n.adc "^«..l^'t.'■■^-;- ^^^'^^''''^' . r 1 ;„ lT--'/> hv Geneva! Oulethorpo, as oil 'i^ vUna fur dt-l.tors and vell.i^ioio refu-'ec.-^. "'-;: X lud i.ngli.U.-Wl.en tl.e existence o tkc .veat - - Mis:i.;.pi,i wa. diseovercl, tU. lu'eneU hastened to Uuld at lu mill iii?TonY or tht: rxrrnD ifiATi:.-. CVJ lU'iUtli tlic cit\ y Orleans!, as llie iiuelcu.s of a 'n-vltory vhicli was cillod Lnnistttut/, Tlii^ jlississi^ijii Si'luMiic, j-rojccti'il liy Julm Law, drew v.ucli aU('ti(i')u to i1m3 [>la(H' ; 1 iit ;i!lv.r lli.'. collap.s .f tliat L;;'oaL iiii[)osluro llio ri\'iu;li crown vcsniiicl tlii; land, >vliich had been assigned to llio cuiui'any. The ]iilti.-,li Colonies, lying between two sets of Froncli possessions, vepve- Fented by Louisiana and Canada, needed to bo aieit, uetive, and Belf-reliant ; for tl French treaclierously allied tlieniselvos witli the Lidians, wlion. iliey cncourai^vd to as^udl llio outlying ]]riti^li settlers with tomahawk and .seal^/mgdcnlfo. The claim, most distasteful to Ih'itain, \vas tli. advanced by the rreni.h, when they sought to lino the Ohio and the Mississippi wiih iV'rtresses, connecting their colonies and enclosing the 3]ritish wi'h a curve, out of ^vhich harm "svas sure to is.^ue. This led to a Cn,,,ucd War between Franco and Ih-itain. A volunteer arnnmient, manned by New England fishermen, wilh the aid of an Ihiglisli fleet, took Louisburg in Cape IJreton Island (171')). Tlio expe- ditions of 1755 against the French forts were Ivss successful. Cenerul Braddock was defeated at Fort Duqucsno and afterward:? killed; but the Ilritish successes in Canada, afterwards to bo described, destroyed the French Fm|>!ro in America. War of Independence. — Li 17(*)5, during tho reign of George III., tho Ministry of Lord Greuvlllo imposed a Sl^nnp Tax on American documents; and, though this v/as afterwards repealed, iho right to tax tho American colonies was insisted on l)y I]ritain. Tho colonists maintained their right to lie exempted, iccause thev liad no rei)resentativcs in tlio ]>riii.-h Pa.rliament. When Lord North tried to imposo a tax on tea, somo citizens of Boston boarded tho vessels and emptied tho chests of tea into tho harbour; a piece of audacity which tho 1773 British Guvt'iumcut punished by clo,')ing tho port of a.d. Boston. Tills daring defiance on tho part of Massachusetts was con- fn-med by a Congress of all tho States, except Georgia, which met at Philadelphia (177-1) and addressed a Ikdaration of Fii'i/h/s to the King. H 1^ I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I. •- IIIIIM |50 " 111 tk^ llllli III 2.5 12.2 1.8 1-25 1.4 1.6 •« ■ 6" ■ ► Phoiographic Sciences CorpOKiiion 23 WEST M.AIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 V i/3 ^ A W^./>^ ^^ ■ f $ 1 i <\ I p't i^r'ii'i m ■:1 MIhF Bl|lHMl%ij; i i ■^1 ualii ri 1 'iy ^^sl i I s*n ffimi ^: t uffii Ktl B • ■ i r'H R !v m \ . 1 ! m fflpf, ' tl uw * hi' „j,f) n;?roi!Y of the united states. ' The ^var l-mko out in 1775 ut Lexington. So.no BritkTi - t,.t t,.. vi-y .^ w.U^^.^-^^ ^^,^„ "' ''C:tl'oc toc^ tl,o con,ma,ul ot the Amevican orce. ai;eu ioitj-tlutc, louiv ^ ,„j ,i,.iil The wictclicd stato of wliicli he pvoccodea to "'^'"'''•"/'f ,''"■.„ ,„",„ or gunpowder „aaU. ,nay he judgca IVom the f-'"''^; ^l^ ^ «! . P ^_^^^_ then ou hand .onld not have '^''^f " "'' V^ „„,,„ ui.nselt Ho Wochadcd llowo "'«.°ffY;"ii™:ic English goncl n:,irtxs:;rXeateaton.i.....ne 1776 trBriLh'had fovced W..shington to evacuate New C,eno.UIo.ed.e;tedthoA».^^^^^^ "7^; 1 ^"""K,: t t S the British avu>s latov i« Philadolphia. hat <"*"'*''''' nnrchcd from C.inada to the ,l,e year, when Buvgoyne, who had "»'^ '« y„,., ,,.,,, Hudson in the hope of henjg ^'^^^^ ^Z^2^(0^. 1«. r-uvrounded at Saratoga, .and eompelled to Buucuat ^ ^' ''^- . ■ , ,. „..,s f .fd to the discipline of Howe's army, Tlie ensmng wnitc w..s .. . I to i I , ,,;^ „„i .,t ?'^';.r ^1 ': t ::i : tinuio:. . wasiUon «.« *'" rValLvFoge The operations of 1778 wcvo con.pa.a- Mavvmg .at \ alloy loigu „,„„„,,„„i Vl.ila.lelphn,, and U„ly -;'7-.';: \. JJ';i ,ui,u Wa.Uin,tou d.cw a Uue ot cuutuuiucuU. r' nialOBY OF TUB UKRED STATES. 'iSl 111 ; In ITTft tlio ,ivim-l]i:a events of tlie ^vav ^^'m^ tlivoo ; u ISviiisli „,ovemcut ou Vhaiuia; tlio cartuvo l.y CluUuu, Howes succos- B„r, of two rtronshoM. on the Ilucbon; and an uusucee.sful attonii* on Cliarlestou l.y the Auicvicans, wlio Imd legua m «'« l.vovious year to receive aid from Franco. . ^ ... , „„„, Sir Henry Clinton toolc Cluuloston in 1780. A Bnti.li officer, Major Andrt,, Imving been arpointed to conduct a secret negotm- .:,.» with Arnold, a traitor in tl.e An.erican can.p, was arrested, and, liy Washington's orders, was liiingcd as a spy. Tlie eighth campaign (1781) brought the war to an end. Its most in.p"rt"nt event was the surrenckr of Lord Corn- vallis at Yorktowa. Tliis general marched into Vir- 17 »1 cinia ; hut was hemmed in by a sudden movement A.D. of Washington and his French allies. No aid came to relieve Co.nw..lIis, who n.ade one wild attempt to sme the horses „f the French cavalry, and on its failure found that he had no hoiie but in surrender. _ -o.. .. The war was formally terminated in 1.83, when Bntam acknowledged the indcpoudence o( the Thirteen States. Constitution—The task of framing a Constitution then dc- volved upon the Congress of the infant BepuUic. AssemUmg nt I'hilaaelphia in 1787, the delegates constituted two Chambers _„ Hou.e o/i,V;,m«.(«(ac, elected by the people m proportion ,0 the amount of population in a State ; and a Senate. A Pr^i- ,k«l, whoso office lasted for four years but might bo rcneved as to act as head of affairs. Taxation was to rest with the legis- lature. Khode Island and North Carolina were t'-'-V ';• "'^^ ; i„,, this constitution ; but when they found the rest o t SWes resolved to carry out its provisions, they yielded m 1 .)0 (■:ie Washington was unanimously chosen the first rresident of tlic Kcpublic. , 1 . 1 r George Washington (1789-97) entered upon his duties as President with the same methodical system as had cluaracten.ed hiiwhen in command of the army. His first duty was to o - Il:o the various de„artn,en.s of the State and make hnusel t lugl.ly -'l-iutcd v,ilU all the details ol their wuUmgi his ' t ]•! !: \u 2S2 mSTOUY OF THE UNITED STATES. ! 11 next, to secure tlio position of the States as a power among tlie nations of tlie world. TUo establislaaeut of a national bank and the clevdopmcut of a nnlitia hy«teui were auK,i>g the fir.t Acts of Conncss. These thingn were not iloue quite p.acelully ; tor there were ulreaay two great factions in tho stato-the Benio- crats, hcaclecl by JcUcv.sou ; and the Federahst party muler lluuiilton. lu 1793 Washington wa. reCdectea to tho PresKlcney. Tho party .strug^•le.s still conthiueel to wax in bitterness; not- ^vithstau.rIn- which an Act was passed (1703), proch^uuing neutral- ity in tlic ailairs of Kuvopo. And in tho following year, in spite of tho elTorts of the Democrats, a commercial treaty with Great Britain was ratlliod and sl^'ued. Washington met tlK3 c amour o. his opponents firmly, declined to produce tho papers of negotia- tion, and showed so bold a front that his assailants ceased or .^sition. Tlio redevalist faction succeeded in securing tho l^resideney for one of tnemselves, John Adams (1797-1801), who had been Ueador iu tho preparation of tho DccJarathn of InJq>enJence, and had acted as Vice-President during Washington s adininistra. tion. After an uneventful tenure of oiticc, he was beaten at the next election by ^ ^ r xi Thomas Jefferson (1801-9), a determined opponent of the Federalists, and a man already celebrated as tho author ot the Declaration of 1770. Tho principal event of his administration was tho acauisition l.y purchase from Franco of an immense tmct of country calle.l Louisiana, but really including not^ only^ that Ptate T>ut all tho territory between the Mississippi ami 1803 the Ilockv Momitains. The importance of this ac^pusi- A n. tion rested on tho command which it gave tho Ameri- cans of tho trallio upon the greatest water-road m then- country In bS05 Jefferson received tho honour of reelection. ^ James Madison (1809-17) was President twice. During his administration a second war with England ai^^o There had always been an anti-KngUsh party, which m 1/94, but for the strong hand of Washington, would have begun war instead of ,,iaking a treaty. Under Madison, who wu. a Democrat, thw Jio^ilo fccliu!,' ripened into war. HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 2S3 When Napoloon issued Lis Berlin Penccs, aiul Britain retuli- ated by her Orders in Council, America t(^(>k uiubni.u'o at tlio lat- ter; but Britain insisted on her rl-lit to soardi Auicricau vessels for British swinon. A collision between the Lc"i>iwl, an 3;'"^^ij^» ship of war, and tho Chtsaj^eale, an American frig;ito (1807), brought matters to tho vergo of a rui)turo, but it was not luitil 1812 t]>at war was ailually dcchired. Before that event Ameriea, in ohcdieiico to Boiiai.aite's MHau Decree, ro- 1812 fused to permit the liriti.^h to search their vessels, and A.D. fchut their ports against the British ilag. An encounter between the iVinerlcau ship Pfc^ildud and the Kuglish bloop LMc Jklt hastened the crisis. Second War with Britain.— A month after tho declaration of >var (1812) tho American General Hull, with a force of 2500 men, crossed the Detroit frontier into Canada; but soon fell back on the Detroit fortress, where the brave General Brock forced bini to surrender. Tho Americans nnidc another invasion at Qucenston, on the Niagara River, but they were repulsed. Brock, however, was shot in the act of leading a charge. 'J^lic war went on vigorously by sea. Commodore Bodgcvs, looking out for our sugar-ships from the Wesl Indies, met tho KnglisTi frigate Jkhldcra, which fought tho huge Preddent and iindly escaped. lu another naval duel the British ship Guerrlerc, tliough crazv and deficient in annnunltlon, maintained a tlu'co lujurs' figlit witli the U. S. frigate Cou^'ilnlloii, not striking her flag until she became a useless wreck. With a similar result, tho Jura fought the Covd'!>ili<>n. In the following year (1818) tho Americans renewed their attempts in Canada, collecting boats upon Lakes Krie and Ontario. Tliey took York and obtained a fo^jtlng in Dearborn; but were afterwards repulsed both at Niagara and Detroit. Tlio Commander-in-chief in Canada, Sir George Provost, was un- bai)plly a most incompetent num, whose blunders were so glarin;,' that it is a nmrvel the American successes were not greater. The well-known encounter between the Knglish frigate Shunnon and the A.uieri;uii Iriijato CkaajjeaU took place off Boston (Juuo ¥' |u Ill I Hi' (I ■ I ■■■\ 284 HISTORY OP THE TJNITKD STATES. 1st, 1813): it lasted only a ciuarter of an hour, and ended in victory for tlic Biitiisli. ,,r i . . t 4 In 1814 the British troops, penetrating to Waslunprton, burned the public huiUVings in that city; hut at New Orleans the Au.cvicuns guinea the upper hand next Chvistma. ior they re- pulsed every assault of the KngUsh troops. The Ireaty of Ghent (1814) closed the war. ,. o, - o-x 1 Under the Presidency of James Monroe (181i-2i)), wlio was twice elected to that dignity, the most hupovtant event lu tho history of the States was the cession of Florida lu 1821. ihis old colony of Spain was taken possession of in that year by General Jackson. After John Quincy Adams (1825-29) - the dcuiocratic Andrew Jackson (1829>3T)^Van Buren (1837-41)-and Tyler (1841-45), ha, I held tho presidential chair in succession, its occu- pancy devolved upon James Knos Polk (1845-49). Mexican War.— A spirit of revolt from 3Iexico, long fcrment- ino. among the inhabitants of Texas, burst into open war lu ISSo; arid the Tcxans, with aid from the States, defeated Santa Auna, the Mexican general, at Jacinto. To obtain his release from captivity, Santa Anna signed a document acknowledging the in- dependence of Texas. But not until 1845 was the State adnutted into the Union. This kindled a war with Mexico During tho summer of 1846 California was conquered; in 184 < \ era tru/. surrendered; and in tho same year au American army entered the city of Mexico. The war, thus Inmight to au end, vesidted iu the cession to the United States of California, Utah, ^and New Mexico (1848). The Orcjon Treaty, concluded with Great Britain, had previously added some territory on that river o the States, which now claimed two great ocean sca-bords, cnclusin- an enormous tract of rich unoccupied land. ^ The interest of United States history derives a tragic tmgo from the events of the recent war. Recent American Civil War.-A hostile feeling between the Northern and the Southern States of the Union was fostered into actual war by several causes, of which the gicutcst was their dis- ft I c 1 I I tingo f HISTORY OP THE fSITKO STATES. 2S5 Bjn-comcnt of opinion npon tl:o «;'.:('stl«ni of nc-vo hlavory. TIi« j.Tiinters of tho South rcgardca it as a necessary coutlition of ilicir existence, while the niauufucturcrs and commercial men of Uio North cried loudly for its abolition. The appointment of Abraham Lincoln as President hurried on the crisis. Not a single Soutlievn State had voied for him. South Carolina took the iiutiutlvo hy seceding from the Union on the 20th of December 18G0 ; and before the end of the succee.l- \u>^ February, the following States hactwcon Leo mul M'Clellan, 1. 1 former rccntsscMl the rotuuiac. M'CIcllun was soon afterwards Miporseilcd Ity IJunvsMo. On the 23rd of Fo]>toml)er Abraliatn Lincoln issnotl a pro- cliuuation, proposing tlie abolition of slavery in all tlio rein.'! Stat»N. Third Campaign, 1863.— On the Ut of January 1S0:J this threat was put in execution. Two attacks of Federal iron-rlads upon Cliarlcston were haffled l>y the extraordinary strength of the defences; aiid in August Fort Sunipter was again unsuccessfully lotuharded. But one of the most striking cirounistances of the cainpnign was the siege and surrender of Vicksburg on the Mississippi to tlie I'ederals. Forcing liis way up the great river in April, Com- juodoro Farragut opened lire on the place^ which was afterwards llockadcd hy Grant. After forty-eight days of defence, durinj; wdiich the iidiahitants were reduced to feed on mules and dogs, the stronghold siu'rendercd. Li May a Federal army, strongly intrenched at Cliancellorsville, in a country of dense wood, was outflanked by *' Stonewall" Jackson, who attacked it in the rear, while tlio cannon of Leo thundered in front. Night alone savo.l the Federal force from annihilation. The Confedcralo victory was saddened by the death of General Jacks<->n, who was struck down by the random bullets of his own nicn (3Iay 2). In June Lee crossed the Potomac into JTaryland, thus invadin.g the tcM'ritovv of the North, where Uimsual levies were making. Led bv Meade, the Federals met the invading force at Gettychurs in Pennsylvania: and on the Srd of July fought so fiercely that the Confederates, after suffering great loss, retreated and reei-o^-sed the Potomac. ]>y the surrender of a Confederate force that guarded Cumber- land Gap, the Federals made their way into Teimessee, where, however, they were signally defeated at Chickaniaug.i (Sept. 20) by the Confederate General Bragg. Later in the year (Nov. 25) Grant, with Slierman under his command, worsted the Confede- rates at Chattanooga, ii !•' I. r ■ ?i- 2S.^ ni'Tonv OF riiv. cxiTri) states. 1 1, ,i ' rcurlli Car.:rc-i*cn,l'jCl.-ThIs cauii.ul-ii lUa not open lill April. Gcnovai Grant led a irreat army towards Richmond, near wliich was fou-ht, at Cl.anc(aiorsvnio and elsewheie, a Rcvics of most (lespcrato battles, in wliicli the Fodcrals wove worsted. Nor liad t]»ey more success when, transferrin.:^ liis army to tlie southern l>ank of the Jmucs llivcr, Giant directed au atlaek ai]jainst Pctershuri*. , r i i ' Oil tlie 10th of June a Federal ship, the Krano^;c, derended %vith iron chains han-in- over the huhvaihs, cn^^aged wilh^ tlic noted Confederate cruiser Ahdmna, ahont uiuc miles from Cher- bourL'', and in an hour the latter was? siid^in^f. A^Confederatc plundering raid in July brought the war within actual sight «->f the citizens of Washington. From Virginia, where the Federals were twice ropulsod at Petershurg, the scene of war shifted to Georgia and Tennessee. Atalanta, the capital of Georgia, was fiercely contended fi.r ; but at length (Sept. .^») it was evacuated by the C<.'n federates, after General Sherman had cut off their means of supply. In the Shenandoah Valley the Federals under Sheridan de- f,.atcd the Confederates under Karly at Winchester, and also at Fisher Hill. ^ , One of the holdest and most strildng moyemcnts of the war was a march by General Sherman from Atalanta to Savannah, a distance of ninety-thrcc miles, which he accomplished in twenty- three days. Unable to maintain his position in Atalanta, for Hood had cut off his line of supplies, he resolved to push for the Bca; and accordlnglv pretended au attack on I^lacon to draw off the Confederates. On his arrival at Savannah, he l.esi(>g.!d the city which yielded (Dec. 21). A bombardment of Fort Fisher at tiie entrance of Wilmington Harbour by the Federals was at . first unsuccessful. Fifth Campaign, 1865.— After a month's rest at Savannah, Sherman set out upon a northward expedition. Trees were felled and bridges burned, to obstruct his way; but his pioneers Biirmounted all difficulties. He entered Columbia, to tind the streets piled with burning cotton, tufts of which were blowing r till I. si lIlSTOUY 01? TUB tNltEb STATES. m like snow in tlio high wind. The city was nearly all buniud by the fires lit by deiiartlng Confederates. Sherman pursued liis victorious march, liy Fayettevillo aiul Goldsboro*, toward;* llichinond, cutting olf the inland lines of couminnication lield by the Confederates ou the sea-bord. Meanwhile Fort Fisher had fallen (January 15) before tho assaults of Federal Admiral Porter ; an event which led to tho speedy evacuation of Wihnington by the Confederates. During the night of the ITtli February tlie Confederates evac- uated Charleston, leaving 200 cannon beliind. The end now came rapidly on. After a severe final struggle at Petersburg between the Confederates under Lee, and the Federals under G rant, the former evacuated Richmond, April 3, thus virtually acknowledging themselves defeated, in tho 1865 long and bloody contest. Six days later, Lee and his a.d. army surrendered to Grant. Then occurred one of those strange sad acts oi blind revenge, too many of which stain the pages of history. While sitting with his wife in his private box at Ford's Tlieatre in "Washington, Abraham Lincoln was shot through tho head by a man, who came in at the unguarded door. The as- sassin, an actor named Wilkes IJooth, sprang on the stage with the cry, " Sic sevijjcr t>/raiuu's/' and escaped. But ho was pursued; surrounded in a barn at Bowling Green in Carolina County, Virginia; and shot, while tho building was burning. His ac- complices were afterwards hanged. On the night of Lincoln's murder a savage attempt was made on the life of Mr. Secretary Seward, who was lying in bed with a broken arm. When Sherman at Goldsboro' heard of the Federal success at Iiichmond, he turned to pursue General Johnston, who occupied a position covering Kaleigh. The Confederate army soon made an unconditional surrender; and on the 10th of May Jefferson Davis, President of the South, was made prisoner by a body of horse at Irwinsville in Georgia. He was released on bail in 1867, and was finally pardoned in 1809. (iss) 19 1% . »* (:li V' HI M If * I Pi f w 230 HISTORY OP BMTlSn AMEItlCA. llio great result ui this Llocly war was tlio complete abolition of Negro Slavery in America. Andrew Johnson, tlio next Presi- dent, in lii. iMcssagc, as tlie annual statement to Congress is culled, endeavoiirecl, instead of establislnng military government in the seceded l)ut now conquered States, to bind them to tho Union by conciliation. General Ulysses Grant became 1 a'sideut in 18G9. In the following year an Amendment of the Constitu- tion was adopted by the States, establishing the absolute equality of all men born or naturalized within the Union. General Grant was reelected President iu 1873. ' . . i A most important event in tho histories of both America and Europe was the successful completion of tho Atlantic July. • Telegraph Cable, between Valcntia in Ireland and Trinity 1866 Hay in Newfoundland. In September, by a series |.f A.D. gigantic grappling operations tho broken cable of lb(..) was recovered, and, being spliced, was laid down most successfully. BPJTISH AMEHICA. The British possessions in North America include Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, Prince ICdward's Island and Cape Breton, Newfoundland, the Hudson's Bay Territory, and British Columbia with Vancouver's Island. Newfoundland, discovered in 1497 by the Cabot^ was ccdo- nizcd in 1583 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a daring Kl./abethan explorer, who lost his life in a storm. As Avalou it wa^ fiHe^l ^vith lloman Catholic emigrants under tho auspices of^ Sii' George Calvert. The French threatened it in Queen Anne a reign ; but it was secured to Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht. Nova Scotia, fust known as part of the French settlement of Acadie, also became a British possession by the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. New Brunswick was a part of this colony until after the close of the American War. Prince EdivanVs hJand and Cape Breton fell into the hands of the British, when a volunteer force from Boston sailed to tha kttcr and attacked the city of Louisburg successfully. HISTORY OF BRITISH AMERICA. 201 Canada is the most important of our North American aopcn- dencics. Its liistory dates from the voyage of Jacques Cartier, who Bailed lip the St. Lawrence in 15:j5. A Froncli fur-trudhi^ Htation soon sprang np at tho month of the Sagnenay. An enterprising naval officer named Champlain then assumed tlio position of governor; and iho cohjiiy was truiihled long with contests between the French and their neighbours, whether lro(iuois Indians or New Fiiigland settk'rs. The spirit of the IJritish, always at this period ready on tlic least provocation to kindle into hostility against the French, took lire at the proceedings of Marquis DuquesRC, who built a chain of forts along the Ohio in onler to join the French colonies on the St. Lawrence to those at the mouth of the ^Mississippi. The attacks of the British upon this line were at first unsucccssftd; but after 1753 a brilliant change occurred. General Wolfe, planting cannon on Point Levi, and landing his troops on Orleans Island, began tho giegc of Quebec. After nearly two months of useless assault, a path ■was discovered, leading up the precipice onwdiich the Plain of Abraham lies; and British soldiers, having climbed by night to this position above the city, fought a battle next day, in which Montcalm and tlie French were defeated. This victory gave Canada to Britain. During tho American War of Independence the insurgents attacked Canada (1775). Montgomery, leading an army from Lake Champlain, occupied Montreal; and then, being reinforced by Arnold, assailed Quebec. But the besiegers retreated after four months of blockade. Li 1701 a Constitutional Act was passed, dividing the two Canadas. The troubles that have arisen in the colony have been mainly owing to the discontent of the semi-Fi'cnch population, gome of whom not even the Act of Qwslcc (1774), appointing tho French laws as the basis of all property transactions, could satisfy. In 1837-S there was rebellion iu CanaJa. Its beginning at Montreal under Papinenu was soon crushed. Mackenzie m Upper Canada vainly tried to seize Toronto; but was defeated 1759 A.D. % i . n i:ii M f \% 3(; ■ K * Iff: m li 20:: IIISTOIIY OV MKXIOO. by Colonel IM'Nab. A second outbreak under l.)r, Nelson wan quelled by Sir John Colborne. In 1840 the Canadas ^vere reunited uiulcr a single constitu- tion; and a valuable treaty between the States and Britain— th',; lleciprocity Treaty of 1854 — opened the navigation of the St. Lawrence and its canals to the States, while it secured for Canada the free use of Lake Michigan for commerce. In 1860 all tlie British Colonies in North America, except Newfoundland and Prince E.lward Island, Nvore combined in llu" Dominion of Canada, with Ottawa as capital. A Fenian raid oil Canada in the same year was an utter failure. MEXICO. Mexico, which derived its name ium\ .l/t-.r//^/, the Aztec god of war, rose under that ancient American tribe to considerable splendour. The Aztecs built cities whose ruins still strike with awe the traveller who penetrates the forests that overgrow tlunn : they had tlieir orators and poets, as well as their architects and sculptors. Cordova was the discoverer of Mexico; but Cortez was its con- queror. Landing on the shore of the Gulf (1518) he founded, near the site of Vera Cruz, the town of ViUarica ; and, before he pro- ceeded into the heart of the country, he broke his ships up, in order that his companions might have no hope but in vigorous fighting. Montezuma, the emperor of the Aztecs, admitted the Spaniards to his capital— a kindness which Cortez repaid by detaining him iii forcible custody, until he should acknowledge himself a vassal of Spahi. In a riot Montezuma was afterwards slain, and a victory over the Aztecs at Otumha. coupled with a successful siege of Mexico (1521), completed the reduction of the country. Mexico continued to be a Spanish possession for three cen- turies (1520-1820). Numerous Spaniards emigrated thither; and their descendants, Creoles, born in Mexico, felt bitterly to- wards the mother-land, when it became the policy to exclude I I u M \ W IIIJiTOrvY OF MEXICO. 291 \i from (lie ofilccs of Stnto, iiiciudin,^' commissions in tlic army, any but ncativo Spanianls. The hosiility, however, of the McsHzoh^ liiiir-l)loods between Spanish and Indian, kept the Crcoh^s from Very decidcil action. Svhen the Peninsidar War began to tronblo Spain, Mexico fitlt the stirrings of desire for iudcpendcnce. In 1810 Hidahjo^ jiarisli priest of Dobnes, lieaded a rebellion of Mestizos cgainst llio Government, until ho was taken prisoner and shot. Morehs^ another cura, was more successful, for he succeeded in establishing; ft Junta or Central Government (1813); however, he met with the same fate. The Viceroy crushed the various chiefs who si.rang up, and, ere the restoration of tranquillity, caused to perish Xavicr 3Iina, a Spanish guerilla, who had come to restore the cause of insurrection. Taking advantage of the troubles of 1820 in Spain, Iturbide proposed a plan by which Mexico was to have a resident sove- reign, either the King of Spain or his brother. This the Vice.oy accepted conditionally, upon tho reception of the royal assent; and Iturbide took possession of the capital. He then proclaimed himself Emperor, with the title of Augustus I. (1822); but, after quarrelling with tho Congress and the army, he abdicated and sought safety in Europe. Venturing to return in 1824, he was arrested at Padilla, and shot. The army, now in the ascendant, riodelled tho government into the form of a Federal Republic, after the fasliion of the govern- ment of the United States. Then began a period of ceaseless intrigue and revolution among various military generals, who struggled for the supreme power. General Santa Anna, the most prominent of these, was continually in the extremes of success and adversity — one month sitting in the presidential chair, ai-med \\ itli almost despotic power— the next a refugee and exile, lie liappenod to be President in 1846, when General 'J'aylor invaded Mexico with the United States army, and though with superior forces, retired before the invader, after a two days' battle; thus permitting the loss of much Mexican territory. In 1862 the French Emperor, resolving to interfere in the 294 HISTORY OF MEXICO. offairs of Mexico, sent General Foiey tliitlier witli an army. The city of Puchla^ ^vith some ilifticulty, fell Letore the invaders (May IS, 18G3); ami Juarez then evacuatetl Mexico, which was occupied by the French. Mexico, with the title of Kmporor, was then offered to tho Arclulukc 31axiniillan, a hrother of the Knipernr of Austria ; and ho accepted tlio dignity in ISCi. A sad tragedy put an end to his troubled reign. Driven from his throne l)y an insurrectionary movement of tho Kepublican party, headed by Juarez, tlio Emperor Maximilian, with two of his devoted generals, was made captive, and shot at Qucretaro on tho 19th of June, 18G7. NORTH AMERICAN CIIRONOLOOy. Colamlius discovers the West Indies, ... »• Oabot tllscovers the maijil-inJ of America, Cordova discovers Mexico, *.. Jlexico conquered by Carter, ... ..t Cartler explores the St. Lawrence, ... North Carolina colonized, ... ... ... . Jamaica taken by Britain, Georiria colonized, coiiiuletltif; the Thirlecn States, Volunteers from IJoston take Louisburg, ... ••• . Conquest of Canada, ... ... ... ... Ficqe of Ilavannali by tliC JBritiah, Stamp Act issued, ... ... ... ... Tea-viot at Boston, ... ... ... Outbreak of American War, Declaration of Independence, <•. ... ... . Acknowledged by Great Britain, ... ... . Constitution of United States formed, ... Negro Empire established in Ilayti, ... ... Second War between United States ami Britain ... Mexico shakes off the Spanish yoke, ... ... > ('entral America sliakos off the Spanish yoke, ... War of Mexico with United States, ... ... < Civil War in United States, ..i French expedition to Jlexico, ... Maximilian of Austria made Emperor of Mexico, Atlantic Cable successfully laid, ... ... ••• Federal Union of British provinces, ... ... llaximiliuD shot at Qucretaro^ ... ... ... • •• A.I>. 1492 1497 1517 1621 1535 1585 1655 1732 1745 1769 1762 1765 1773 1775 1776 1783 1789 1801 1812-14 1820 1823 1846-8 1861-5 1862 1864 1866 1866 1867 HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 295 A.n. 1492 1497 1517 1521 1535 1585 1655 1732 1745 1769 1762 1765 1773 1775 177G 1783 1789 1801 812-14 1820 1823 1846-8 1861-5 1862 1864 1866 1866 1867 \ CE17TEAL AMERICA. Wliilc the Rpanianls lieM an empire in America, tlic greater part of the istlinius formed tlic Kitigdom cf Guatemala — a region ^vherc, deep in tlio tangled tropical forest, were massive mined Aztec cities, displaying wonderful skill in artldtocture and mc- dianics. After the revolution of 1821 tliis v.as attached for a time to the Mexican Kingdom of Itmhide ; hut Ids fall left it free. Then (1823) the four States of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador formed a federal union under tho name United Stales of 0-ntral America. Tho union did not cohere long ; and tho various States Lccamo independent repuh- lics — Costa Rica forming a fifth. A district called Honduras, on the eastern edge of Yucatan, helongs to Britain. Columbus discovered it in 1502 ; hut tho British occupied it, and after much delay on the part of Spain, it was ceded by treaty in 17G3. The story of the Darien colony, mentioned in the reign of William III., belongs to the history of Central America as well as to that of England. The ^Fosqnito Kingdom is an independent Indian State under British protection. A proposal to join the Atlantic and Pacifio Oceans by a route passing up the San Juan River and through Lake Nicaragua, led to a settlement, chiefly American, at tho mouth of the river under the name of Greytown. It was bom- barded by an American ship in 1854. i» THE WEST INjDIES. Discovery. — ^Tho first part of America scon by Columbus in 1492 was the low green shore of Guanahani, or San Salvador,, one of tho Bahamas. Most of the islands were afterwards dis- covered and explored by him; in consequence of which tho Spaniards came to possess and to claim exclusive right to tho islands of this archipelago. They colonized all the larger islands, but left tho smaller ones to be occupied by pirates called Buc- caneers, from whom the colonies suffered much. \m\ . 51 IM \ 1.1 'ml ,1 290 IIISTOUY OF TIIK WKST INDIES. Cuba, tlic largest of tho West Indian group, still belongs to Spain, though the United States have cast a covetous eye upon it more than once. Its position gives it a marked control over the trade in those regions. When AVilliani Pitt was minister, he proposed to strike at Spain through her colonies, especially Ilavannali and Manilla; and Pitt's successors were forced to carry out the scheme. This led to an expedition against Havannah (17G2). A strong force under Lord Albemarle and Admiral Pococke attacked Port Moro, vhich was considered impregnal )lo. After a fierce struggle with the bayonet the place was carried, the British flag being borno in triumph over the body of the governor, who died in the breach. The city yielded a fortnight later (August 13, 1762). Some time afterwards Manilla was captured by Colonel Draper; but both of these conquests were restored by Britain to Spain in tho treaty of 1763. Puerto Rico, also a Spanish island, was attacked unsuccessfully by Sir Francis Drake ; and later, in 1791 and 1799, by British forces under Sir Ralph Abercromby and Sir Henry Har\'ey. Jamaica, the chief British possession of the "West Indian group, was colonized in 1509 by the Spaniards, who turned its fertilo Boil to account by raising cotton and sugar, by means first of Indian and then of Negro labour. It was taken by Britain in 1G55. Cromwell, anxious to strike a blow at Spain through Hispaniola, c^espatched Admiral Penn and General Venables to the West Indies at the head of a fleet and anny. They failed in the direct object of their voyage, but achieved the conquest of Jamaica; for which, instead of thanks, they got imprisonment. The island was kept in agitation by the Maroons, a race of half-bloods, who inhabited the mountains of tho centre; the Buc- caneers, who swept the adjacent seas; and the Negroes, whoroso periodically in revolt against their taskmasters. While the battle of Abolition was proceeding in England, a fever of agitation per- vaded Jamaica ; but in 1834 the slaves were transformed into apprentices, who were bound to serve their former owners for a term of years. niSTOUV OP THE WEST INDIES. 207 Ilecoiitly (18G5) a Negro insurrection convulsed Jamaica. On llic 7tli of October at Morant Bay the blacks rose ami killed many persons before means could bo taken to protect those in I'ositions of danger. It liappcned that Eyre, an intrepid Austra- lian explorer, was then governor of the island ; and without wasting time, he dealt stern measures of retribution, which hail the efi'ect of crushing tliis incipient rebellion. William Gor- don, a coloured member of Assembly, was arrested on a charge ci' secretly fomenting the insurrection, and after a military trial ho was executed. Paul Bogle, the leader of the nmrderous blacks, was hanged. A cry against Eyre for undue severity, especially in the former case, arose in England ; but public opinion has been much divided upon this question. The second in size of our West Indian islands is Trinidad, which had been occupied by Spaniards previous to Raleigh's visit in 1595. The Dons held it until 1797, when Admiral Harvey and General Abcrcromhy took it for Great Britain. Hayti, or Hispaniola, was colonized, as its second name indi- cates, by Spaniards, after its discovery by Columbus. In 1697 the French, who had made friends with the Buccaneers of Tor- tuga, wrested from Spain the western and more fertile part of the island. The agitations of the French Revolution extended even to this distant island. Rising under Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negroes, who could not reconcile the opinions of their French masters, proclaiming liberty and equality to all, with the practice and maintenance of negro slavery, proclaimetl (1794) the emancipation of all slaves. This chieftain, born at j.'rcda on the island, had passed through various subordinate positions, such as cattle-keeper and coachman, before he came to be an overseer of slaves,— the position in which the Revolution found him. Ho protested earnestly against the massacres, with which the rising had been accompanied. Taking advantage of the struggle between Franco and Spain for the possession of this most fertile of the Antilles, the negro chief threw his power into the scale with the former, and having released Laveaux from arrest, was made a General of ; 1 1:1 Mil! r y. i- "'ir ' ) J I ) h\ 203 HISTORY OP THE WEST INDIES. Division. In tliis position he conqnorctl a largo part of the island for Franco, aiul orgauizcJ a wellHlrillcd ncgvo army. He aftcM-- ^vards attained the position of Commander-in-chief — an oftico in wliich lie was placed in hostile collision ^vith General iledonviile, the French Commissioner. Ultimately, when ]>onapartc a -sinned supreme power in France, Toussaint imitated the cxamplo in llayti (1801). Napoleon sent an expedition against him; and alter a tnue, owing to the defection of his quasi friends, lie pro- j)osed to inalvO terms. Treacherously arrested hy the French, thifs greatest of the negroes was carried over the Atlantic to a prison near Kesancon, where lie died after ten months' captivity (1803). Dcssalinos and Christopho in snccofssion assimied the crown, hut perished, the latter by his own hand ; and after many troubled years, the island became an independent Republic in 1822, with lioyer as President. In 18 14 changes occurred, which led to tho establishment of the negro Empire of Hayti in tho western part of the island, and in tho east tho Republic of St. Domingo, con- sisting chiefly of mulattoes. The principal remaining European powers that hold islands of the West Indian grou]> arc France, which acquired Guadahupe and Jifartinique finally in 1814, though both islands had been more than once in possession of Britain ; tho Dutch, wdio hold St. Eustace, Curaroa, and other islands; and Sweden, which possesses St. Bartholomew. Denmark has very recently sold St. Thomas and St. John to the United States. 1' SOUTH AMERICA. Tlie conquest of South America for Spain was achieved- in 1533 by Francisco Fizarro, who rose from tho position of a swine-herd. Taking advantage of a dispute between two brothers for tho throne of Peru, he invaded that country, diizzled with visions of gold and jewels. Atahualpa, then Inca of Peru, was seized by tho invader, who afterwards took Qnzco and founded niFTorr or forrn America. 299 liiina. rizarro was slain in lull by couspirators, who burst in upon him (huin^of his siesta. With the exception of Brazil, of which Portiis^al took posses- sion after its discovery, all of South America worth owning be- longed to Spain for nearly three eouturies. l>ut in the opening of the present century these j,''<)lden possessions, on which tho hold of Spain had been gradually growing feebler, asserted their independence, and forniefl themselves into Republics. Nino States represent this broken ICmpiro of Spain. 1. Chili, tho strongest and most flourishing territory in South America, was conrpiered for Spain by two successors of Pi/^arro, named Almagro and Vahlivia, of whom the latter founded San- tiago. In ISIO a breach took place with Spain; but it was not initil the Chilian victories of Chacabuco and Maypu had been gained that independence was secured. In spite of political con- flicts, the prosperity of Chili has steadily increased. The jealousy of Spain towards her old possession has been displayed frec[uently; and recently (18GG) in the bombardment of Valparaiso. 2. Peru, after Pizarro's conquest, was made the 'chief scat of the Spanish Transatlantic Empire. The capital, Lima, rose to Buch splendour as to be styled " The City of the Kings." Occa- fjionally a flash of tho old Peruvian spirit blazed out, as in 1780, wlien there was an attempt to take La Paz by siege. During the war of independence in Peru, Chili remained tolerably tranquil, owing to the strength of the Spanish rule there ; but in 1820 San Martin came from Chili with an invading army and secured tho position of Protector of Peru (1821) — a position, however, which he retained for only a short time. The most remarkable man in the history of the struggle which shook off tho Spanish yoke in South America, was Simon Bolivar, born at Caraccas in 1783. What he achieved in Columbia will nftcrwards bo described. At the request of San Martin he entered Peru, and took possession of Lima (1822). Appointed Dictator, he led a Columbian and Peruvian army against the Spaniards, who were defeated at Junin, and more signally at Ayacuclio(1824). lie then resigned the Dictatorship. Tho Code or Constitution ■I ■" Hi n\ I SI ii 1 11 : ii . V M i ' m . soo IlISTOKY OF POUTII AMERICA. i "r in liamoLl by Bolivar was accepted, but afterwards rcjooted by Pcrti, wliidi in 1827 cstablisliod a Federal Kepublic after the model of l!ic United States. Contimial revoUitions have formed tlio hito history of Peru ; for transition is always a time of trouble. 3. Bolivia, the southern province of Peru, was formed in 1825 into a separate republic under IJolivar, wlujse name was given lo llic country. But the IJolivians rejected the Code of Bolivar very soon ; and, like Peru, have lived a life of storm since. 4. Venezuela owed its prosperity, though a Spanish colony, rather to the efforts of the Dutch in Curacoa, who promoted tho cultivation of cacao. The war of lil)cration, springing from tho troubles of Spain during the Peninsular struggle, began in 1811, when the Spanish flag was cut down, tho tricolor hoisted, and a patriot army under Miranda, with 15olivar as one of his colonek, took the field. The insurgents were at first successful ; but tho earthquakes of 1812 so appalled the superstitious people that tho royalists got the ascendency once more. Bolivar, aiding in tho arrest of Miranda, accused him of intriguing with Britain ; after which lie was delivered to the Spaniards, and died in a European dungeon. In conjunction with Ribas, Bolivar raised a new army, which victoriously occupied Caraccas (1813). The chief then assumed the titles of Dictator and Liberator. So hopeless was tho cause of Spain at this crisis that it was proposed to arm even the negro slaves ; and a " war of death " began, the royalists murdering pris- oners by scores — acts of cruelty which Bolivar was weak enough to retaliate by shooting eight hundred Spaniards in La Guayra and Caraccas. The defeat of La Puerta (1814) cast a cloud over the fortunes of the patriots ; and for two years Bolivar lived as an exile in Jamaica and Ilayti. But the struggle was renewed. Tlio Liberator entered Bogota ; and in the decisive battle of Carabobo defeated the Spanish General La Torre. The fall of Puerto Cabello, the strongest fortress of Venezuela, completed the expul- sion of the Spaniards (1823). 6, 6. New Granada and Ecuador (the ancient Kingdom of Quito) achieved their independence by the Kunie war. By the lltSTOnV 01' SOUTH AMKniCA. £01 * « Convention of Cucuta in 1821 tlie States in the novtli of Soiitli America formed themselves into the llepuhlic of Colombia, Hut in 1831 there was an amicable separation, uhicli dissolved tho union into the three States, Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada. 7, 8, 9. Argentine Confederation ; Paraguay ; Uruguay. Tho llivcr Plato (La Plata) was explored in 1530 by Sebastian Cabot, who, being then in the service of Spain, ascended to the site of Asuncion on the Paraguay, which was afterwards founded by 3Icndoza. The Spaniard Garay founded the city of Buenos Ayrcs in 1580; and these colonies were attached at first to the Vice- royalty of Peru. To this distant place the enterprising Jesuits penetrated, and they formed out of the converted Guaranis, who dwelt on the Parana, a thriving settlement. But in 1768 tho Jesuits were expelled. Rising in revolt against Spain, like the other Strtos of South America, the Argentine Provinces threw off the yoke in 1810; but the desire of Buenos Ayres to obtain an ascendency over tho other States led to much discord among them. United in 1826, they dissolved their union in the following year; and then a war "with Brazil complicated their troubles. In 1835 Rosas became Captain-general of the Confederacy, and under his iron hand anarchy was crushed for a time. But his efforts to secure for Buenos Ayres the sole right to the naviga- tion of the River Plate excited the anger of Paraguay and Uru- guay, which applied for help to Brazil. Great Britain and France, whose merchants had a strong interest in this land of hides and cattle, offered to mediate in the quarrel; but Rosas re- jected the proposal. An Anglo-French fleet then (1845) forced its way up the Parana, destroying the batteries of Rosas, and convoying some merchant ships which ha ' '^een prevented from ascending. At San Lorenzo, on the return voyage, Rosas opened a lieavy fire on the fleet; but a rocket-brigade soon silenced his guns. After England and France had withdrawn fiom the blockade, Brazil resumed the war; and in 1851, on tlic plains of Moron, ? 1 J li U i ^#^ I 802 IIISTOUY OF SOUXII AMEIIICA. tlio amy of Kosas was finally acfoatcd. Tlic clilcf cscapcil in disguise as a peasant, antl soon sailod for England. Urquiza then rose, to the head of tlic Confederation, 1)ut in- Burrcction and anarchy have prevailed in the State since. Paraguay sprang from the Missions of the Jesuits, who foundeil n settlement, which they jealously guarded from all intrusion, Icing armed by a royal order from Spain forhidding Spaniard;^ to visit the district without permission. This State, after the breach with Spain, refused to submit to the dominion of Buenos Ayres, and became independent under a lawyer named Dr. Francia, who was Dictator for twenty-six years (181-4-40). Lopez, the successor of Francia, adopting a more liberal policy, Bhowctl a desire to open Paraguay to the inlluences of foreign commerce. Uruguay, or Banda Oriental, was a subject of contention be- tween Brazil and Buenos Ayrcs until 1828, when, by the media- tion of England, the Seven Missions were ceded to Brazil, while the southern part was erected into a separate republic. ' j IH:' ii iti^" BRAZIL. * Discovered in 1500 by Cabral, a Portuguese sailor, Brazil was afterwards explored by Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine in tho service of Portugal. Thus it was that a comparatively unknown explorer, who had tho good fortune to publish a description of this region with a map, came to enjoy the honour of having a continent, discovered by Columbus, called after him. When a trade in dye-wood sprang up, and tho French be- f,'an to send ships for this article, King John III. of Portugal planted a settlement by granting largo tracts of the Brazilian coast to some of his richest nobles. In 1540 Bahia was founded as a centre of the colony. Resenting an attempt made by sonio expatriated Huguenots to establish themselves in the bay of llio Janeiro, tho Portuguese then founded tho city which forms tho capital at present. A vigorous attempt was made also by tho Dutch, wlio possesr,cd themselves of all Brazil north oi the San t ! : niSTOUY or £OL-riI AMKRICA. C03 Francisco, fixing their "btiso of operations at rcrnambuco; lut tlicy too were expellcil (l(j54). Tlic IJraJillians groaned under two grievances of tlieir govern* ment hy Portugal ; one was tlio jealous policy of forbiddin,;^ foreign commerce, which discontented the merchants; the other, tl»o honours and gifts showered upon new emigrants from Tortu* gal, to the exclusion of the descendants of old settlers. When, in 1808, Napoleon declared war with Portugal, the royal family of Braganza quietly took ship at Lishon, and sailed awa/ heyond his reach to Brazil. This visit was most benellcial to thu American possessions, where printing and free commerce took late root. The Portuguese King, when Napoleon fell, assumed tho .'idditional title of King of ]jrazil, and lingered in that seductive land until, in 1820, the disturl)ed state of Portugal recalled him to Europe. Before cmharking he proclaimed his son Pedro Regent of Brazil; hut the dread of being again placed under Portugal in a subordinate and crippled condition, led the Brazilians to de- clare their independence under Pedro as Emperor (1822). Except at Bahia, there was no bloodshed; for the Portuguese garrison* of ^laranhao and Para were glad to sail away to Europe. In 1825 Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil. Wlicn John VI. died in 182G, the Brazilians feared lest hi^ Bou might prefer the cro^vn of Portugal to that of Brazil. But he sent his daughter Donna Maria to ascend the throne of Portugal, while he remained in South America. The war witli Buenos Ayres, ending in 1828, has been already noticed. A dis- pute with the Chamber, resulting in a popular riot, whieli tho soldiers refused to quell, led to the abdication of Pedro in 1831. Pedro XL, who attained his majority in 1841 at the unusually early period of lifteen, w\as Emperor during tho struggle with lloiias, of which some account has been given. GUIANA. Guianca, discovered in the sixteenth century by Vincent Pinzon, was colonized in turn by the Dutch, the French, and the English, »' 1" I 11} . i ill :| sot ItTSTOUY or FOITII AMKUICA. who fitill divide its territory ainonic tliejn. The Dutch (1590) occupied tlio hnvor basin of the Demcrara ; tlio French took Cayenne; wliilo the English planted at ]>crl)icc and SurinaiJi colonics, >vliicli they afterwards, in the chiys of diaries II., yielded to the Dutch. But during the American, and yet moro decidedly during the Napoleonic wars, Britain retaliated on tho Dutch for siding against her by seizing these, with other colonics. In 1831 Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara were united into British Guiana. The chief troubles connected with these colo- nies have arisen from negro insurrections. SOUTH AMEKICAN CIIUONOLOGY. Cabral discovers r>rnzil, ... «• ••• ••• ••• Cabot explores La Plati, ... ... ••. ••• ••• Pizarro conquers Pern, ... ••• ••• ••• ••• Dutch expelled from Pernambuco, ... ... ... Jesuits in Paraguay, ... ... ... .•• ••• pjirth of Simon Bolivar, ... ... ... ... ••• Chili, Venezuela, and the Argentine Provinces throw off the Spanish yoke, ... ••. ••• ••• ••• ••• British Guiana finally ncqnircd, Convention of Cucuta— forms Colombian Republic, ... Brazil made an Empire, ... ... ... .•• Independence of Venezuela secured by the fall of Puerto Cabello, Battle of Ayacucho secures imlependence of Peru, ... ... ' War between Brazil and Buenos Ayrcs, Rosas Dictator of Buenos Ayres, ... ... ... ... Britain and France at war with Buenos Ayrcs, An. ... 1 .'>']0 lC90-17t;3 KSJ ... 1810-11 ISU 18-Jl 1S22 1S23 ... 1826-23 ... 18:55-'>1 ... 1815-43 AUSTRALASIA. In 1G08 the crew of a Dutch yacht caught sight (»f Capo York in Australia, but saw it vanish without having the least idea that a vast continent, as the huge island may be called, was attached to this projecting point. The coast was gradually traced, especially by the English Captain Cook. TJie name New Holland, given by its Dutch discoverers, was superseded after 1814 by the present appellation, Australia. r « ItlJJ'roUY OP ACSTUAMA'. 305 The history of tlio isLind consists ciitiroly of the Rcttloment of the vnriotis British colonics, now nunihoriiig five. 1. In 178& a convict settlement was planted at "Botany Bay on Port Jackson. This was the nncleus of New South WaloH. Undei' governors liko Macquarie and Bourko, the colony, chielly devoted to pastnring sheep, prospcriMl well. A new vein of in- dustry and wealth was opened in 1851, when Ilargraves dis- covered gold at Bathurst. 2. In 1S20 was founded West Australia, or Swan lliver, a coh:)ny which has never thriven well. 3. South Australia dates from 18o4. No sign of activity was, liowever, numifest until the discovery of copper in 1842. For a time this caused tin influx of emigrants; who, however, were soon turned aside hy the news of gold at Bathurst. 4. First colonized in 1835, Victoria, or Australia Felix, grew rich in wool and .sheep, until a desire for coh)nial indopendenca arose. This was achieved in 1851 hy separation from New South Wales. The sudden growth of Melbourne, its capital, has been a wonder of modern life. Where in 1835 a party of squatters pitched a few tents among the gum-trees, in 1801 stood a city of 108,00'^ iTdiabltants. This sudden change was largely due to the discovery of gold at Ballarat and Bendigo. 6. In 1859 Queensland was separated from the northern part of Now South Wales. TASMANIA. Tlic island once called Van Dieman's Land, but now Tas- mania, was discovered in 1G42 by a Butch sailor named Tasman. A convict colony was planted there in 1803, but it was not separated from New South Wales until 1825. Its prosperity as a great pastoral region may be ascribed to Colonel Arthur, who acted as govciiior for twelve years (1821-30). « ' (188) 20 m S06 IIISTOIIY OF NKW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. Every one knows tlio prophetic sentence, penned by jNIncaiilny ill one of his Essays, which dccLives tliat tlio time may conio " wlicn a traveller from the great Empire of New Zealand sh dl rl;;nd on a broken arch of London Bridge and sketcli the ruins of St. I'auls." The probability of New Zealand ever becoming the nucleus of a great empire is based upon the possession by this antipodean group of many characteristic features which have combined to make Britain great — mineral wealth, a temperato climate, insuLar form, and occupation by the Anglo-Saxon race. In New Zealand the missionary was followed by the merchant. J>ut it was not until 1S39 that the colony was recognized. There have since been several wars with a cunning tribe of much mili- tary skill and daring, called the Jllaoris. These wars aroso from disputes regarding the title to purchased lands, for one chief cannot sell in certain cases without the consent of the oth(>r loaders of his tribe. A recent war arose (1SG3) out of tho ^Vaitara purchase, afterwards abandoned. "William King was tho loading chief of the natives, who in their stockaded forts or jkjA.j defied our troojis for a time. Our loss was especially severe in officers, for the Maori marksmen fired from rifle-pits with deadly aim. Though the natives were defeated by Cameron at Taurauga (18G4), the war did not come to an end till 18GG, when Sfr George Grey, the Governor, concluded a treaty of peace with tho Maoris. But a kind of smouldering war is chronic in the colony. AUSTRALASIAN CIIRONOLOaY. r)IscovGry of Australia, ])l.scovcry of Tasmania and New Zc;ilaml, ... (.'oast explored by Captain Cook, ... Convict settlement at JJotany Bay, A'ictoria first colonized, Now Zealand recognized as a colony, Discovery of gold at Eathurst, Victoria separated from New South Wales, ... llecent Maori wars in New Zealand, A, p. ]7S3 1S35 183'J 1851 1S51 1800-00 hi A. p. 1770 1783 1S35 183'J 1851 1851 SGO-OU UISTOIIY OF AFIIICA. AFRICA. :07 Willi llio exception of Egypt, tlic Barloary States, and tlio Capo of Good Hope, Africa can scarcely be said to liavc any lils- t(jiy beyond tlio record of scattered settlements on the coast and advcntnrous explorations into tlie interior by following llio conrso of the great rivers — Nile, Niger, and Zambesi. Egypt in 1382 was rnled by a Circassian slave, who fonnded ;i ■Mamelnkc dynasty that lasted nntil 1517. The country then foil before an invasion of the Turks under Sellm I., who, without destroyinr, the entire inlluence of the Mamelukes, made Egypt a tributary republic. The government of the Porte was often re- sisted by these turbulent warriors ; but the Ottoman sway remained undisturbed until 1798, when Napoleon invaded Egypt. How the Englisli fleets and armies crippled bis powers there has been already told. In 1811 Meliemet Ali crushed the Mame- lukes by one cruel and sudden blow, having invited the principal oflicers to a feast in the citadel of Cairo. By introducing Eu- ropean arts and industry into Egypt Mchemet Ali improved \m Pachalic greatly ; and by his conquests he so greatly extended Jiis l)0wer as to excite the jealousy of the Turkish Sultan Mahmud IT. War accordingly arose between Turkey and Egypt (1832), -in wliicli Mehcmet's son Ibrahim Pacha defeated the Turkish armies and menaced Constantinople. The strife was closed by the intervention of the I'mropean powers. A later war had tho same result (1840); and, by the treaty which followed tho bombardment of Acre by an Anglo-Austrian fleet, INIehemct was stripped of his Asiatio domini-nis, but the government of J'igypt in subordination to Turkey was made hereditary in his family. The Barbary States, with the exception of Algiers, owe a nominal obedience to the Sultan of Turkey; but over Morocco, which has been governed by the dynasty of the Sherifs sinco l')!!, the Porto has never claimed any sovereignty. Morocco and Southern Spain were at one period of history closely linked PI m lIISTOnY OF AFRICA. . tiiiif ii together, especially when Yiiscf of tlio dynasty of tlio Almcra- vides established a dominiou at both Cordova and Morocco. Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli acquired an unenviable notoriety for piracy. The brothers Baibarossa, in the days of tlie Emperor Charles V., acting as admirals of the Turkish flag, swept the 3Iediterrancan with their galleys and ravaged the coasts of Italy and Spain. The Emperor in conjunction with Admiral Doria assaulted Tunis in 1534, and drove Barl)arossa II. thence. I3ufc the corsair took to the sea, and continued his career of devasta- tion. Tunis received a sliaip lesson in 1055 from Adtniral Blake, who battered Porto Farina and Goletta to pieces ; bnt the piracies were not abandoned until ISIG, when Lord Exmouth threatened to bombard the town. Algiers was the principal piratc-ncst for several centuries. Seized in 151G by Ilorush— the elder Barbarossa—it passed under the power of his brother, who, sulmiitting to the Ottoman Porte, was made Ptcgcnt, and provided with a body of Janissaries. The failure of Charles V. in 1541 in an attack upon Algiers, owing to a terrible storm that scattered his fleet, gave this .seat of pirates extraordinary powers of iucroasliig their mischief. Following the example of English Blake, tha various strong commercial States of Europe wrested foi-cibly from the Algei^ ines a promise—never well kept— of abstaining from piracy. But Italy was the chief sufferer among the weaker States. At last so crying did the evil of Christian slavery become that the Congress of Vienna resolved to put it down. Lord Exmouth, accordingly, taking advantage of an insult offered to the British (lag at Bona, bombarded Algiers (181G), and set free more than a thousand white slaves. In 1827 the Bey of Algiers struck tlie French Consul in the face with his fan : a burst of temper wliieli cost him his office ; for an expedition crossed (he IMediterrancan, and reduced the territory to the condition of a French colony (1830). Since then the French have engaged in several wars with the Arabs, both for the purpose of securing the colony aud of traiuiuL,^ their armies to face an enemy, i^ mSTORT OP AFRICA. 300 l^ Tripoli was held for twenty-one years (1530-51) by the Knights of St. John, who after their expulsion from Rhodes were placed in Malta by the Emperor Charles V. But the Turkish corsairs having taken it, it became a hot-bed of piracy. A Moor named Hamet Caramanli seized the Pachalic in 1713, and his family kept it until 1832, when the former practice of send- ing a pacha from Stamboul was resumed. CAPE OF 6000 HOPE. Diaz, a Portuguese sailor, was beaten back by storms from the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 : in consequence of which he named it the Cape of Storms. Vasco de Gama succeeded in doubling the extremity of Africa in 1497. In 1G20 a band of English- men took formal possession of the shore, which derived great value from its position half-way to India. But in 1G52 tho Dutch laid the foundations of Cape Town, and held tho colony, amid ceaseless native wars, until 1795. It then fell before an assault by the English; was restored; and was retaken finally for Britain in 1806 by Sir David Baird and Sir Homo Topham. What the Maoris are to the English in New Zealand, the Kaffirs have proved to our colonists at the Cape. Always ready to break into war, when in action they fight with a vigour and tenacity that render them no despicable foes. Tlic most serious of these outbreaks occurred in 1851. Sir Harry Smith directed the operations against the Kaffirs; and tho war did not close until 1853. • ( I'll f . Discovery and Colonization. — ^Tho Mediterranean const of Africa was well known to tho ancients. The Carthaginians and Romans probably traced the western coast as far as Scnegambia, and knew something of the interior and the southern outskirts of the Sahara. The modern discoveries of the African coast began with Frinco 810 Henry of Portuf IIISIOIIY OV AFttlOA. a younger son of Jolm I., who sent out ships that reached Cape liojador (1415). From Capo Blanco to Capo Verde— thenco to the Azores— the progress of discovery ad- vanced before Ileury's death, which took place in 1463. ^ Tho Guinea coast was next traced ; Fernando Po discovered the island hearing his name ; Diego Cam entered tho Congo or Zaire River, and sailed southward to Capo Crosi (1484). The voyages, of Diaz and De Gama have been adverted to. The French, having formed an African Company, began to plant settlements on the coast of the continent, which was already studded with Portugueso colonics, vigorously engaged in prose- cuting a trade, among other articles, in negro slaves for the Ame- rican plantations. Tho Dutch, Danes, and English followed the example. To the last-named nation is chiefly due the honour of penetrating the heart of this sealed continent and making known its inner mysteries to the world. Explorcation.— The Paver Niger attracted Mungo Park, Den- ham, and Clappcvton. Kichard Lander, a servant of the latter, discovered the mouth of the great stream. Druce traced a tribu- tary of the Nile to its source in the highlands of Abyssinia ; but more recently Spcke, Grunt, and Daker have ascertained that tho main stream flows from two largo lalvcs, which have been named the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza. Livingstone, as- cending the Zambesi, has discovered on it the greatest waterfall in tlie world, and has dispelled the idea that Southern Africa is a desert region. After spending two years in Fngland, he returned to Africa in 1S58, and continued his explorations in Central Africa till i864. He started on a third expedition in 1805, in which he is still engaged (1873). As a great cotton-field, inner Africa may yet come to have an important history. The influences of civilization have penetrated it last of all the continents, owing to its lack of inlets or gulls. Tho cast of Africa is still cursed by a nefarious slave trade, which efforts are now being made to destroy. lirr-is h h HISTORY OF AFRICA. 811 MODERN AFRICAN CIIRONOLOaY. Tracing of coast under Prince Henry, Voyage of I?:irU»olorae\v Diaz, Voyage of Vasco do Garaa, KniftUts of St. Jolm iu Tripoli, ... Charles V. defeated at Algiers, Sherif dynasty in Morocco bcRius, Jouruevs of Mun;;o Paik, ... Cape of Good Hope tiiken by tlie British, Suppression of Mamelukes in Egypt, Lord Exmouth bombards Algiers, ... The Landers discover the Niger mouth, Algiers made a Freucli colony, ^ ..• Livingotone explores the Zambesi, Speke discovers the Victoria Nyauza, Baker dLscovtrs the Albert Nyauza, • •• ••• • •• • •• • •• ••• • •• • t« • •• ••ft • •• A.l». ... 1415-63 ... 1487 ... 149T ... 1580-51 ... 1541 ... 1544 1795-1805 ... 1806 ... 1811 ... 1816 ... 18U0 1S30 ... 185G ... 18.^.3 ^ 18e2 CHRONOLOGY OF RECENT EVENTS. The Ionian Islands annexed to Greece,^ Feven Weeks' War (I'russia and Austria), Abyssinian Wav, ••• ••• r>,.opn TsaViolla of Spain dethroned, .- - Suez Canal opened for traftic, ••• - The Irish Church disestablished and disendowed ... ... A French Atlantic Cable laid between lire.t and St. P^enc. Kn<^lish Klementary Education Act, Tii'c Irish Land Act, ... -. •;• France declared \Var against Prussia .Tub), {Surrender of Napoleon III. at Sedan (^ept.), French Kepublic proclaimed, ,.. Amadeo of Italy elected King of Spam. ... ^"--^'i-,°^^^::^^v^::;!:":;::m:rof Alsace a;;d Lorrai.. ^•::;^i::;fo?p;u!;^^;:::5ain>aiKin^r.c.Ge^^^^^^ aniununist Insurrection in Paris (.bii^ to May), .^^ ... The Mont Cenis Tunnel opened foi traU.. Kome made the Capital of the Kingdom of Italy, ... ... {Scottish Elementary Education Act, The 13allot Act (to expire lu 18bO),_ (Jeneva award on the Alabama Claims, ... Death of Napoleon III. i"/^"" ^^^^^^^^^^^ „ ^{'...^y,, n^oclaimed, Abdicatiou of King Amadeo ot Spam, a iv.puuuc i 1864 IStSG (May), 18t)i) 18(39 18(30 1SG9 1^70 1870 1870 1870 1^70 1S71 1S71 1S71 1S71 1871 1871 1871 1872 1872 1872 1873 1S73 r t < 1 1 J I 'I- t \ XVVrtk THE ROYAL SCHOOL SERIES. A NEW SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL WORKS. I. fur,h Collc,idte Institution, and Author of Lat.n and GrcA. ^^'?S it hean-ideal of a class-book for the youn?. For my puplU* "■'TS^o^' th. pU. ami M.C execution e,.oUc"i Th. b»» deserves to »iicceo'. GEOGRAPHIES, ATLASES, &c. GEOGRAPHIES. 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