IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I Ui»22 |25 12.2 mim IL25 1 1.4 li^& i^ m 6" (?> ^ >^ / 4^W '^^^V '^J" >' Photographic Sdences Corporation ^ \ \\ o^ 23 WEST MAIN STRIET WEBSTIR,N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4S03 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical IMicroreproducxions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiquas Technical and Bibliographic Notaa/Notaa tachniquaa at bibliographiquaa Tha Inatituta haa anamptad to obtain tha baat original copy avaiiabia for filming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibiiographicaily uniqua. which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction, or which may aignificantly changa tha uaual mathod of filming, ara chackad balow. □ Cdourad covara/ Couvartura da coulaur [~~| Covara damagad/ D D D D n Couvartura andommag^a Covara raatorad and/or laminatad/ Couvartura raataurta at/ou pallicuMa pn Covar titia miaaing/ La titro da couvartura manqua □ Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gtegraphiquaa un coulaur Colourad ink (i.a. othar than blua or black)/ Encra da coulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) pn Colourad plataa and/or illuatrationa/ D Ptanchaa at/ou illuatrationa it coulaur Bound with ottiar matarial/ RallA avac d'autraa documanta Tight binding may cauaa ahadowa or diatortion along intarior margin/ Larailura aarr4a paut cauaar da I'ombra ou da ia diatoraion la long da la marga intiriaura Blank laavaa addad during raatoration may appaar within tha taxt. Whanavar poaaibia. thaaa hava baan omittad from filming/ II aa paut qua cartainaa pagaa blanchaa ajoutiaa tora d'una raatauration apparateaam dana ia taxta. mala, loraqua caia 4tait poaaibia, caa pagaa n'ont paa *t* filmiaa. Additional commanta:/ Commantairaa supplAmantalraa: L'Inatitut a microfilm* ia maillaur axampiaira qu'il iui a AtA poaaibia da sa procurer. Laa ditaila da cat axamplaira qui sont paut-Atra uniquaa du point da vua bibliographiqua, qui pauvant modifiar una imaga raproduita. ou qui pauvant axigar una modification dana la mithoda normala da filmaga aont indiquia cl-daaaoua. Tl to pn Colourad pagaa/ D Pagaa da coulaur Pagaa damagad/ Pagaa andommagiaa Pagaa raatorad and/oi Pagaa raatauriaa at/ou paiiiculAaa Pagaa diacolourad. atainad or foxat Pagaa dAcoioriaa, tachatiaa ou piqutea Pagaa datachad/ Pagaa dAtachiaa Showthroughy Tranaparanca Quality of prin Qualiti inAgala da I'impraaaion Includaa aupplamantary matarii Comprand du material aupplAmantaira Only adition avaiiabia/ Saula Mition diaponibia r~n Pagaa damagad/ r—l Pagaa raatorad and/or laminatad/ r^ Pagaa diacolourad. atainad or foxad/ r~n Pagaa datachad/ rri Showthrough/ r~\ Quality of print variaa/ rn Includaa aupplamantary material/ r~*| Only adition available/ b< t» ai ot fii al 01 s w M dl ar b« rt« ra m Pagaa wholly or partially obacurad by errata allpa. tisauaa, etc.. heve been refiimed to eneure the beat poaaibia image/ Lea pagea totaiement ou partieilement obacurciea par un fauiiiet d'errata. una peiure. etc.. ont At* fiimAea i nouveau da faqon A obtanir la meilleure image poaaibia. Thia item ia filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document eat fiimi au taux da rMuction indiqu* ci*deaaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X »X y 12X ItX aox MX 28X 32X Th« copy filmad htm hM b««n r«produe«d thanics to th« g«n«rosity of: D.B.WeMon Library UniMrtity of Wttttm Ontario (Ragionai Hiitory Room) Tho im«9«o appoarinfl horo aro tiM boat quality poMibIa conaMaring tha condition and lagibility of tha original oopy and in Icaaping with tha filming contract •padfieationa. L'axampialra fiimA fut raproduit grica i la g*n4roait« da: D.B.Wtldon Library Univtnity of Wattam Ontario (Ragional Hiitory Room) Laa imagaa auivantaa ont At* raproduitaa avac la plua grand soin, eompta tanu da la condition at da la nattat* da raxampiaira fiimA, at it conformit* avac laa conditiona du eontrat da fNmaga. Original copiaa in printad papar eovara ara fllmad baginning with tha front covar and anding on tha iaat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa- •ion, or tha bacic covar whan approprlata. All othor original copiaa ara fllmad baginning on tha flrat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa- •ion. and ending on tha iaat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraaaion. Laa aiiamplairaa orlginaux dont la couvartura on papiar aat imprimda Mint flimte on common^nt par la pramiar plat at an tarminant Msit par la dami^ra paga qui comporta una omprainta dlmpraaaion ou dtiluatration. salt par la sacond plat, •alon la eaa. Toua laa autroa axamplairaa orlginaux oont flimto an common^ant par la pramlAra paga qui comporta uno omprainta dlmpraaaion ou dlHuatration at an tarminant par la damMra paga qui comporta una talla amprainta. Tha Iaat racordad frama an aach mierofleha •hall contain tha cymbol ""^ (maaning "CON- TINUeO"). or tha oymbol ▼ (maaning "END"), whichavar appiiaa. Un daa aymbolaa auivanta apparattra sur la damlAra imaga da chaqua mierofleha. salon la caa: la •ymfiolo -*> •ignifia "A SUiVRE", ia aymbola ▼ oignifla "FIN". Mapa. plataa. charta. ate., may ba fllmad at diff arant reduction ratioa. Thoaa too large to ba entirely included in one expoaure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand comer, left to right and top to bottom, aa many framee aa required. The following diagrama illuatrate the method: planchee, tableeux. etc.. peuvent itre fllmde i dee taux da rMuetion dlffArenta. Loraqua la document eet trop grend pour Atre reproduit en un eeui cllchd. il est flimi A partir da I'angia aupMeur gauche, da gauche A droite. et do haut en boa, en prenent le nombre dimegee ndceeaaira. Laa diagrammea suivants IHuatrent la mithoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^m FOR SALE, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL, BY Brewer, McPliail, & Co., tORONm fRltrES bF riTATIONAL SCHOOL BOOKS vik. : — First, Second, Third, Fourih, and Fillh Hooks of Lessons, an English Grammtir, atid an Arithmetic. Wal^'ingariie's Arithmetic; English ReQ On the Deluge,'. ...... Mineral Kingdom, No. 1, — Mines in Great Britain, — . —. No. 2, . :- — -— No. 3, . No. 4, . No. 5, . No. 6, . No. 7, — Organic Remains ■ No. 8, . No. 9, . . . . — — 7— No. 10, . P8g» 1 ' 8 6 1 17 2C 2a m 32 35 39 42 47 53 59 62 67 vi I , ': ' HISTORY. IflSTOUY AND ChUONOLOUY. 1 t Puge H2 i^NciKNT History. — Kirst kru, HI Secoiul Km, • m Third V)n\, 81) Foil 1*1 h ICni, • 00 Firth I'lra, 02 Sixth ICrn, 0(1 Sevnith ICru, . 104 Eighth Ern, • 135 Modern History, . • • •■- 166 * First Era iiftor Christ, I6fl Second Era, 185 Third Ern, 193 Fourth Era, 197 Fifth Era, 201 Sixth Era, 200 PHYSIOLOGY, VB?GETABLE AND ANIMAL. Vbgetable Physiology , Introduction to 212 Roots, • • 216 Stems, • • 210 Functions of Loaves, 232 The Sap, . The Flower, . • • 225 228 The Seed, • • 230 4mmal Physiology. — ■Animal Life, 232 The Integuments, The Bones, • • • • • • 234 235 Marks of design in The Muscles, . The Teeth, the Human Body, • • • • « • 238 241 244 The Digestion, . • • • 248 The Heart, • • • 251 Respiration, • • r • • ^& vH Ha H7 ftH 81) «() 00 104 NATURAL PHILOSOPHf. Natural Philosophy, Introduction to Goneral Properties of Bodies, . Laws of Motion and the Centre of Gravity, The Mechanical Powers, . . '., AsTnoNOMY.— Th^ Earth's Annual Motion, Planets, ... Fixed Stars, The Terrestrial Globe, The Seasons, . The Mooii aiid Eclipses, The Tides, . . 238 268! 274 290 203 20T aOfli 803 80€( 808 Hydrostatics.— Mechanical Properties of Fluids, 811 Specific Gravity, . . . . 815 Springs, Fountains, &o 818i I ? Pneumatics. — Mectianical Properties of Air, . 822 Optics, .... Refraction and Colours, Structure of the Eye, Electricity, . Galvanism, Magnetism, diio.. Caloric, . Chemistry. — ^Introduction to Chemical Affinity, Simple Bodies, . Simple Bodies continued, Carbon, . . 826^ 88^» 847 «52 a»4 865 866. ^8 870 SiTl v||i POETICAL PIECES. ^rue Liberty, .... Pollock, 371V The Coral Insect, • . . Sigoumey, . .*W<1 8now, ..... Thomsonf 377 benefits of affliction, . . . Cowper, 378 Procrastination, . * . . . Youngy 380 ^Tastc, . . , . . Akenside, 381 Blethished Pieces, . . . Shakspeart, . Qn Milton's Blindness, . . Milton, • 382 aso . Captain Bobadil's method of defeating ' an Arifty, . . . . Ben Jonson, . 387 a The Post arrives in the Village, . Cowper^ v 388 1 Report of an Adjudged Case, not to « t I ' be found in any of the Books, . Coujper, a9Q 1 The deserted Wife, ' . " . . Anonymmu, . 391 i Gertrude of Wyoming, . ". Campbell, 392 1 Lines written in a severe Frost and 1 strong Haze on Sunday Morning, Anonymous, . 394> 1 On the Effects of Time and Change, Beattie, 395 1 Mutual Forbearance necessary to the Happiness of the Married State, Cotoper, 396 i The Convict Ship, . . . T. K. Hervey, 39d |. , Christian Benevolence, . . Wilcosy 399 W' llie Last Minstrel, . . . Seott, . 400 i The Moral Change anticipated by 1 Hope, . . . . . Camphftll, 402 1 The Snow Flake, . i^ '"^'^GouM, . 409" H To a Waterfowl, . . 'I Bryant, 404 K The Blind Mother, . > • Anon. . 405 ff Song for May Day, . . . Anon. ... 406 m The Silent Glen, . . , H. Neele, 408 B Who is my Neighbour, . . Anon. . 409 ■Miii I^IFTH BOOK SECTION I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLQGY. ROTUNDITY OF THE EARTH A GREAT variety of appcarapces, bqth on the surface of ihe earth, and in the heavens, prove conclusively, (hat the earth is s^ spherical or round body. — l. When we stand on the sea-shore, v^hile ^he sea ia, perfectly calm, we perceive that tho surface of the water is not •juite plaiie, but 'convex or rounded; and if we are on Ihe si'ip of an arm of the se'*, and, with our eyes near the wut :r, cok tpwardi tli^ opposite coast* we' plainly see the water elev(?tcd bet\\'een our ey^? a^id the sjhore, so as to prevent our seeinj? tise lan(^ nsar the edge o\ the water. — ■2. When an object is seen at a distance ^iXMi tjie surface of the earth, a part of its baM is hid ...»afe4«>l»..J<^'^ *. from the view. As the distance is Icsssened, a greater portion of the objoct becomes visible, and when brought sufficiently near, the whole of it is seen. If, on the other hand, the dif;tance is increased, the visible part of the body is continually diminished, and at last the object entirely disappears. Every person >vho has paid the slightest attention to tho manner in which mountains, towers, and ships begin to appear and disappear, must be familiar wiih these flicts. — 3. Magellan, Drake, Anson, and other nuvifjators, by holding an easterly or westerly cours", ut last arrived at the point of their departure. They, thus sailed upon a line, which, in one revolution, returned into itself, ending where it began; and, therefore", tiie surface on which it was described, must be a sphere, or must resemble W sjlh^re. Tliis was further confirmed by the voyages of Captain Cook, towards the south pole, from which it appeared that the course round the earth gradually diminished as it approached the pole. — 4. When we travel a con- siderable distance from north to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, and many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction. — 5. All these proofs are con- lirmed and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rotundity. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the body of tlie earth between the sun and the moon ; in which case, the shadow of tho earth falls upon the moon. This shadow is found in all cases, and ifi' eyery position of tho earth, to be of a circular figure; which incontrovertibly proves, that the whole mass of land and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly of a globular form. It may be objected that the earth cannot be of & spherical form, as its surface presents the most irregulai aj)pea ranees, being in innumerable places elevated intv mountains, or depressed into valleys. But thesr* irrcjTularities bear no greater proportion to its whol« bulk than a few grains of sand to a common terrestrial l,MS*.at»KMiSM^atiJt»-^ ■ mm the globe, the highest mountains on its surface being Utllo more than the two thouvsandlh part of its diameter. Some of the mountains on the surface of the moon are higher than those on the earth, and yet that body appears, both to the naked eye, and through a telescope, of a bpherical figure. Equally futile is the objection, which has been improperly and ignorantly drawn from the expressions occasionally to bo be met with in the Bible. The object of the inspired writers who used these expressions, was not to advance a true system of natural philosophy, or to cortect the popular errors of the day, in matters of mere science, but to illustrate or enforce some precept or doctrine, or to record the occurrence of some remarkable event, v/hich could not have been done intelligibly but by adopting expressions in agreement with the opinions of the age. On the knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth, the ah 6f navigation in a great measure depends ; and all tho voyages of discovery, which have been made in later years, were undertaken in consequence of the knowledge of this fact. Had mankind remained unac- quainted with this discovery, the circumnavigation of the globe would never have been attempted — vast por- tions of the world would have remained unknown and unexplored — no regular intercourse would have been maintained between the various tribes of the human race — ond, consequently, the bl63sings of tivine Reve- lation fould never have been dohimunicated to th^ greater wv^ of the Gentile world. ' t^^ ^ GE.\^?IAL VIEW OF. THE GLOBE. ntw est* toltt riai In looking over a map of the world, it is seen *• once that the surface consists of various spaces of land, surrounded by an extensive field of water called the sea or ocean. Of these spaces of land, two are of vast extent, and on this account are termed pontinents. The larger of these continents inpludes the thre^ divisions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is dis- tinguished by the title of the Old World, from ita having, till the discovery of America by Colunnbus, in the year 1492, been the only part of the globe witli the existence of which Europeans were acquainted. The other, which include* North and South America, is named the New World. , ' The general direction of the land in the two con- tinents is entirely different. In America, it is from pole to pole : in the Old World, it is from south-west to north-east ; and if we k«cp Africa out of view, it is almost parallel to the equator. The longest straight line that can be drawn on the old continent commences on the western coast of Africa, from about Cape Verd, and extends to Behring's Strait in the north-east of Asia. It is about 11,000 miles in length. A similar line, traced along the new continent, passes from the strait -^f Terra del j^uego to the northern shore of North America, and is nearly 9,000 miles long. In both continents the direction of the large peninsulas is similar, almost all of them running towards the south. This is the case with South America, California, Florida, Alaska, and Greenland in the New World ; and, in the Old, with Scandinavia, Spain, Italy, Greece, Africa, Arabia, Hindoslaii, Malaya, Cambodia, Corea, and Kamtschatka. The only exceptions to this remark are the peninsula of Yucatan in Mexico, and that of Jutland in the north-west of Europe. Both of these are Jirectcd towards the north ; but they consist of plains and alluvial land, whereas the other peninsulas are more or less of a mountainous character. There is a further resemblance between the two continents, from each being divided into two parts by an isthmus. But m the character of their outlines they differ very much ; for while the coast of the Old World (excepting Africa) IS broken equally on all sides by gulfs, bays, and inland seas,- the New World has a series of openings on 'Ab eastern shore only. On its western side, the only mlet of any magnitude is the gulf of California. Besides the two continents, many extensive portions of land are dispersed through the ocean, particulwly »\ fW. nss mm i5»iw,Lrtb^*ai* »j*#$*w«k).«»>iy '-^: 5 ily ms •lY the immense regions of New Holland, wliich occupy a space nearly as large as the whole of Europe. There are also the islands of New Guinea, Borneo, Mada- gascar, Sumatra, J pan, Great Britain, New 2ealandj Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and tliousands of others, of different dimensions, scattered through the Pacific, the Indian, and the Atlantic Oceans, and which form a very considerable poition of tlie liabltable regions of thxi globe. '^ - :;v.v The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, iiiid penetrates into the interior parts of mafiy countries, sometimes by large openings, and ft-equeritly by small straits. Though it is, strictly speaking, b>it one im- mense body of water, extending in various directions, yet different names have been appropriated to different portions of it. The Pacific Ocean, divided by the equator into North and South, is inclosed betM'een America on the East, and New Holland, the islands of Java and Sumatra, and the continent of Asia, on the west ; on the north, it terminates at Bohring's Strait. The seas of China, Japan, Okhotsk, &o. form parts of this ocean. The Indian Ocean lies between Africa oii the west, and the peninsula of Malaya, with the islands of Sumatra, Java, &c. and New Holland, on the east, and is bounded by Persia and Hindostan on the north. The Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the Persian Gulf, and the Bay of Bengal, are all parts of this ocenn. The Southern or Antarctic Ocean is bounded on the north, by a line drawn from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope, thence to Van Dieman's Land, and again by the south of New Zealand to Cape Horn. Those three oceans form what may be called the great South-Eastern Basin, the waters of which cover nearly half the globe. The Atlantic Ocean commences, in the south, from a line drawn from Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hop'', and is terminated on the north by the Arctic Circle. It is divided into North and South by the equator, and its branches are the Mediterranean, the North Sea or German Ocean, the Baltic, Bafiln's Bay> Hudson's Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. The Arctic or Northern Ocean surrounds the North i, . ■ J* Pole, and ia. bounded, on the south, by the Artie Circle, and the northern ishores of the two continents. The Atlantic and Artie Oceans may be called the Westefn Basin, which forms a channel between the Old aid New Worlds. The Ocean, which is thus subdivided, is spread over nealrly seven-tenths of the globe ; but it is remarkable now unequally th^ land and water are dislVibuted. If we compare the northern and southern hemispheres, tba^ is^ the two equal parts into which the globe is divided by the equator, we shall find, that, if the quan- tity of land ii^ the northern hcJmisphere be represented by 16, the quantity in the southern will be scarcely equal to 5. Bii^bn, and some other philosophers, therc-^ jfore, asserted, that a great contioent must exist towarc'i the South Pole, in order to counterbalance the mass or |and in the northern hemisphere ; but the high southern latitudes have as yet been found to contain only a fe\v islands. This fact, however, does not prove that there ^8 a less mass of weight of land in the southern than in the northern hemisphere ; for it is possible that the land may be only rather depressed in the 'south, and quently covered by the se^. couse- mou:ntains. Mountains are distributed in various forms and sizes tl^PfUgh every region of the globe, and serve as a sort ojT oonnecting-band to the other portions of the earth's surface.' The larger mountains are generally arranged in immense chains, which extend, in nearly the same direction, for several hundreds, and even thousands of miles. The highest in the world are the Himalayas, in the north of liengal, on the borders of Tibet. The loftiest mountain in this range, is stated to be about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles, in perpen- dicular height, and is visible at the distance of 230 miles. Next to the ITimalayas, are the Andes, in South America, which extend more than 4,000 n^iles t .'. I M .-■■ .,. .^ ^.^u^^t.-, ., -^ ■■....■■ - .,iiiiii>nMi»»m-^. t- in length, from the province of Quito to the straits of Magellan. The liighcst summit of the Andes is Chimborazo, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly four miles above the level of th& sea. The highest mountains in Europe are the Alps, which run through Switzerland and the north of Itnl)' ; the Pyrennees, which separate France from Spain ;" ond the Dofrafeld, Whi6h divide Norway fron Sweden. Tlio most elevated ridges in Asia, are tlie Himalaya, Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, Ararat, with the Uralian, Altaian, and Japanese mountains ; in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the Mountains of the Moon. ' In order to 'obtain a connected view of the loftiest and'most Extensive system of mountains upon the globe, we must suppose ourselves placed in New Holland, with our face turned towards the north ; America will then be on the right, Asia and Africa on the left. From CaptJ Hoi*n to Behring's Stra it, along the western coast of America, there is an almost uninterrupted range of the highest mountains. From Behring's Strait again succeeds an enormous line passing in a south- westerly direction through Asia, leaving China and Hindostan to the south, somewhat interrupted as it approaches Africa, but still to be looked upon as con- tinuing its course in the mountains of Persia and Arabia Felix. From Gape Guardafui in Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, there appears to be a chain which completes the view. The series of mountains which we have thus followed, is in the form of an imfticnso irregular curve, which comprises within it the Pacilic and Indian Oc6ans, with their innumerable islands, besides a portion of Asia, including China, the Birnian dominions, and the Indian peninsula. It presents a steep face towards these oceans; while, on the other side, the land very generally slopes towards the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. But, though the ijiost considerable elevations of the surface of the earth are thus formed into chains, some mountains are completely insulated, that is, are quite remote from any chain or group. Volcanos are more particularly of this kind. The term volcano is derived from Vulcan, the name whicii the Romans gave 1q iheir imaginary god of (ire, and is upjilied to those mountains which sand firth, from their summit or sides, flame, smoke, ashes, and streams of melted hiatter called lava. Upon ascending to the top of a mountain of this kind, therj is found to he an immense and deep hollow, which is denominated the crater or cup. From most of the volcanos which are not extinct, there is a smoke more or less frequently arising ; hut ithe' eruptions, which are discharges of stones, asjies, lava, &c. accompanied with lofty columns of fire, violent explosions, and concussions of the earth, happen at irregular and sometim'^s very long intervals. It seems to be a very general rule that the greater the mass and the elevation of the mountain, the less frequent . and more tremendous are .the eruptions. Stromboli, the small volcano on one of the Lipari islands, is almost always burning ; Vesuvius has more frequent eruptions than Etna; while the immonse summits of the Andes, Cotopaxi and Tungurahua, havo an eruption hardly ■ 'spnce in a century. The volcanos of Am'^rica, besides 4;he common lava and rocks, &c., east out scorified clay, carbon, sulphur, and wator, acconipaniod, in some instances, by fishes. The mountain of Maccaluba in ^icily, some hills near tho town of Zaman in the Crimea, and a volcano whicli is situnt?d towards the mid lie of the island of Java, in a plain abounding with suit springs, send firth eruptions of mud. it is remarkable that, in the Old Continent, the prmcipal chains of mountains contains no volcanos, and that islands and the extremeties of peninsulas are alaic^ the seats of these convulsions ; while in the New World, the immense range which runs along tho shore of the Pacific Ocean, possesses more volcanos than are to be met with in the whole of the Old Continent and its adjacent islands. No volcano has yet been discovered on the continent of Africa, but most of its groups of Islands are distinguished by them. A line drawn round the great Pacific Ocean, so as to include the long range of mountains on the west of America, the Asiatic peninsula of Kamtschatka, and the islands as -» i.viariM««i>i»i...i mm 9 of Sumatra and Java, will have within it by far the greatest and most extensive volcanic system on the globe. From Terra del Fucgo (t/ie land of fire) to the peninsula of Alaska, a completo scries of volcanos may be traced. The Aleutian islands, which stretch from that peninsula to the opposite poninsula of Kamt- schatka, possess several. On Kamtschatka, there are some of great violence. The islands of Japan and Formosa have several ; and, beginning with Sumatra and Java, they are scattered over all that immense archi^lago, which forms so remarkable a feature of the Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean, the islands of St. Paul, Amsterdam, and Bourbon, have volcanos in action. The most formidable volcanos of the Mediterranean, are Etna in Sicily, and Vesuvius near the coast of Naples. Between these two mountains are the Lipari islands, all of volcanic character. The Atlantic Ocean contains several groups of this kind ; Iceland has suiTercd frequently from the terrific erup* lions of its volcanos ; tha Azores and the Canaries, and some of the West Ind'a islands, also experience the eftects of subterranean fire. In some places parts of the land which are covered by t!ie waters of the ocean, are the seats of volcanos ; and it lias sometimes happened that new island? have be?n farmed during submarine eruptions. S ivoral mount lins baar evident marks of having, at some veiy distant psriod, been the outlets <5f fires, and on this account, 1h;'y are called extinct volcanos. Altogether about 205 volcanos are known, including only those which have been active within a period to which history or tradition reaches. THE OCEA.N. The vast body of water wliich surrounds the conti- nents, and is the common receptacle of their running waters, is indispensably necessary to the support of animal and vegetable existence upon the earth. Its perpetual agitations purify the air; and the vapours which the atmosphere draws from its surface, being 10 condensed and dispersed through the upper regions forra clouds, which are the source of a constant supply of rain and moisture to the land. The ocean, also, by the facilities for communication which it offers, is the means of uniting the most distant nations, while it enables them to interchange, with mutual advantage, the productions of their several climates. The bottom of the sea appears to have inequalities similar to those on the surface of the continents ; the depth of the ^vater is therefore extremely various. There are vast spaces where no bottom has been found ; but this does not prove that the sea is bottomless, be- cause the line is able to reach to but a comparatively small depth. If we were to found our opinion upon analogy, we might-conclude tiiat the greatest depth of the ocean is, at least, equal to tlie height of the loftiest mountains, that is, between 20,000 and .30,000 foot. Along the coast, its depth* has always been found pro- portioned to the height of the shore. When the coast is high and mountainous, tlie sea that washes it is deep ; but when the coast is low, the water is shallow. If we reckon its average depth at two miles, tlie ocean will contain 296 millions of cubical miles of water. We shall have a more specific idea of this enormous mass of water, if we consider that it is siifliciont to cover the whole globe to the height of more than eight thousand feet ; and if this water were reduced to one spherical mass, it would form a globe of more than 800 miles in diameter. The general colour of the sea is a deep bluish green, which becomes clearer towards the coasts. This colour is thought, by some, to arise from tiio same cause as the azjure of the sky ; it is probable that the former is due to the rays of blue light being reflected in tlie greatest quantity from the water, and the latter to their being reflected in the greatest quantity from the particles of the air. The other colours exhibited in parts of the sea, depend on causes which are local, and sometimes decep- tivo. The Mediterranean in its upper part is said- to have at times a purple tint. In the gulf of Guinea the tea is white ; around the Maldive islands it is black ; > '•Iff i i>i»Bj i ji,.i.wj i . »ii im i . < n i nj g I ••*»» 11 and in some places it has Uoon observed to be red. These appearances are probably occasioned by vast numbers of minute marine insects, by the nature of the soil, or by the infusion of certain earthly substances in the water. The green and yellow shades of the sea proceed frequently from the existence of marine vege- tables at or near the surface. The water of the sou contains several extraneous sub- stances, in proportions varying in ditFerent places. The component parts, in addition to pure water, are com- monly sulphate of soda ; chloride of sodium, (common salt) ; chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and potassium ; with some organic matter. Common salt, which for salting meat is preferred to the salt of springs, is obtained by boiling the sea water so as to evaporate It. The saltncss of the sea appears, with some local exceptions, to be less towards the poles than near the tropics J and, in particular places, it varies from temporary causes. The violent tropical rains have an effect in diminishing it, especially near coasts, where an increased volume of fresh water is brought down by the rivers. The Baltic is at all times less salt than the ocean, and when a strong east wind keeps out the North Sea, its waters are said to become almost fit for domestic uses. The most curious phenomenon of all, is that of springs of fresh water rising up in the midst of the sea. In the bay of Xagua, on the southern coast of Cuba, springs of this kind gush up with great force at the distance of t\vo or three miles from the land ; and other» occur near Goa, on the western coast of Hindostan, and in the Mediterranean Sea, not far from Mai'seilles. Various theories have been advanced to account for the saltness of the ocean. Some assort the existence of vast beds of salt at its bottom. Others have supposed that the sea may have originally received all its saline par- ticles from those existing on the surface of the earth, which were dissolved and carried down to the ocean by the action of the rivers. The most probable solution of the matter is, that it is an essential and absolute quality impressed upon it from the creation of the world by the Great Author of nature. Its presenco, .2 uuitcd to tho action of tho tides and waves, preserves (jhe vast masa of waters from corruption, and at the same time gives it u specific gravity which enables it more easily to (ioat tho large bodies vrhich move in it, or upon its surface. The Ijittcrncas which exists in sea-water, but apparently not beyond a certain depth, is with much probability considered to be owing partly to the vegetable and animal matter held there in a state of de- composition ; and partly to some of the salts it contains. From the former cause some account for the luminouai nppearancp which the sea often presents at night, par- ticularly in summer and autumn, while others ascribe it to electricity, or to innumerable minute animaU moving rapidly through the water in all directions. - ^ Water being a bad conductor of heat, the temperature of the sea changes mucli less suddenly than that of the atmosphere, and is by no means subject to such ex- tremes as tlie latter. It is also modified by currents, which mingle together the waters of different depths and regions, and by the neighborhood of shallows and banks. Thus bays, inland seas, and the spaces among- clusters of islands, where the action of the waves ia more coufmed, and the water usually of less depth than at a distance from land, are the most favourable placei^ for the production and accumulation of marine ice. It is on this account that the navigation of the Baltic is annually stopped by the ice in a latitude not . more northerly than that of tracts which, in the main ocean are always open to the passage of ships. In like manner, ice extends from five to eight degrees farther from the., south than from the north pole, owing, it is probable, to the almost entire absence of land near the Antarctic Circle ; while tho north pole is so nearly surrounded by land, that the ice of the Arctic Ocean is shut up, and, cannot be carried forward to such a distance by the current, which sets towards the equator. The ocean has three kinds of motion. The first ia; that undulation which is produced by the wind, an4" which is entirely confined to its surface. The second^ niotion is that continual tendency which the whole- water in the sea has towards the west, which is greatel •.18 rtear the equator thaii towards the poles. It begins oil the west side of America, when it is moderate ; but as the waters advance westward, tlieir motion is accelerated ; and after iiaving traversed tlio globe, they strike with great violnncc on the (;nstcrn shore of America. Being stopped by that contliieut, they rush, in the form of ah impetuous current called by navigators the Gulf-stream, into the Gulf of I\fexioo, and thence proceed along the coast of North America, till they come to the south side of the great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn suddenly otF and run down through the Azores, or Western Isles. This motion is most probably owing to the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, which is in a direction contrary to tlio current of the sea. The third motion is the tide, which is^a r^ular swell of thq ocean every 12i hours. This motion is now ascertained to be owing to the attractive in/luence of the moon, and also partly to that of the sun. There is always a flux and reflux at the same time, in two parts of the globe,, and these are opposite to each other ; so that when our antipodes have iiigh water, we have the same. When the attractive powers of the sun and moon act in the same direction, which happens at the time of new and full moon, we have the highest or spring tides; but when their attraction is opposed to each other, which happens at the quarters, we have the lowest or neap tides. SPRINGS— RIVERS— LAKES. The origin of the numerous springs that break forth, froiu beneath the earth's surface cannot be referred to one exclusive cause. The internal reservoirs by which they are supplied are, in many cases, derived from the water which the earth absorbs from rain and melted snow and from these reservoirs, wherever there is uneven or mountainous ground, the water flows out by minute fissui'es in the sides of the hills. But when we see springs rising up in plains, it is evident tha.t ihey must have ascended, that is, travelled, in a direc- - u,.ixia,i-«tt^.., -^.....- -.-..«A^:Viyj'^.^ig-^:j , ., , .. , ■Illjj1-r"'~' ^w.^Vi^^.w,«i;.^ii^y^P|t.lr, 14 tion cobtrary to that produced bv tho force of gravity, in order to roach the nurfucc. This, no doubt, is some- times to bo attributed to water flowing under ground, from distant elevations, and to the natural tendency of a liquid to fiud its level. IJut soiuo persons believe that the rihiug up of s])ring.s in pluins cannot always be accounted for iu tbis nmnuer ; and have, therefore, de- vised other modes of explanation. Springs which suffer no diminution, even from the longest continued dry weather, would appear to bo derived from a source quite independent of rains and other external mcana of supply. They have been attributed to some vast body of water within the earth ; and it has been concluded, though without sufilcicnt reason, that many springs arise froni^e ocean, filtering through the porea of the earth, the salt particles being lost in the piassage. Springs which have their waters combined with mineral substances, and are, &om that circumstance, called mincralj are vciy numerous, and of various kinds. Warm and hot springs are also common, espe- cially in volcanic countries, where they are sometimeei distinguished by violent ebullitions. Iceland is noted for these curious phenomena : its celebrated boiling fountain, the great Geyser, frequently throws out its contents to the height of more than a hundred feet— sometimes to twice that elevation. Kivers are to be traced to springs, or to tho gradual meltings of the ice and snow, which perpetually cover the summits of all the most elevated ranges of moun- taijis upon the globe. The union of various springs, or of these meltings, forms rivulets ; these last follow the declivity of the ground, and commonly fall, at different stages, into one great channel, called a river, which at last discharges its waters into the sea, or some great inland lake. The declivities along which descend the various streams that flow into one particular river are called its lasin ; a terra, therefore, which includes the whole extent of country from which the waters of the river are drawn. As mountainous regions abound iu springs, we find that most rivers, more especially thoso of the fiist class, commenoe from a chain of mountains ; li-.l n each side of a clmin also )ias its uprmgs, and /he riverf which originate on one side flow in thn o(?nosite direction to those whicli rise on the other. As it m the property of water to follow the most rapid dr.scf^nt that comes in its way, the courses of streams natunUly point out the various declivities of the earth's surface, and the line from which large rivers How in contrary directions will generally mark out the most elevated parts of the earth. When rivers proceed through a mountainous and rugged country, they frequently fall over precipices and form cataracts, in some cases several hundred feet in depth. The most celebrated falls in the world are those of Niagara, in North America. In the tropical regions, most of the rivers are subject to periodical overflowings of their banks, in consoquonce of the rains which annu- ally fall in such abundance in these countries during Ae wet season. The overflow of the Nile was considered »y the ancients, who were ignorant of its cause, as one of the greatest mysteries in nature, because in Egypt, where the overflo^v takes place, no rain ever falls. The apparent mystery is easily explained from the circum- stance of the rai»s descending and the snow melting upon the mountains in the interior of Africa where the Nile rises. Tlie consequent accumulation of the waters among the high grounds gradually swell the river along its whole extent, and in about two months froni the commencement of liie rains, occasions those yearly inundations, witliout which Egypt would be a desert. Rivers, in their j miction with the sea, present several appearances worthy of notice. Tlie opposition whicii takes place between the tide and their own currents nccasions, in many instances, the collection at their mouths of banks of suncf or mud, called Mrs, on account "jf the obstruction which thoy oUbr to navigation. Some streams rush with such force^ into the sea, that it is Possible to distinguish for a considerable distance their Waters from those of tlie sea. Many of the largest rivers, as the St. Lawrence and tlie Rio do la Plata, mingle with the ocean by means of a singb outlet, wliile others, as the Nile, the Ganges, tlie Volga, the Rhine, and the Orinoco before their termination, divide Mo 10 gevoral bmnchca. In some of th« sanchf plains of tb« torrid zone, the rivers divide into branches, and, from the nature of the soil and the heat of the climate, are absorbed and evaporated, and thus never reach the sea. Lakes may be classed into four distinct kinds. The first class includes those which have no outlet, and which do not receive any running water. They are usually very small ; and some appear to be the craters of extinct volcanoes. The seco»id class are those which have an outlet, but vvliich receive no running water. T}»ey }\ave been formed by sprinos fknsing into some large hollow : upon the water rishig up to the top of the" hollow, it would, of course, run over the lowest part of the edge, and thus find an outlet ; and these outlets are, in some cases, the beginning of very large river",. The third class, which embraces all those which both receive and dischareo streams of \\-u.tcr, is much more numerous than any. Though they are the receptacles of many streams from the neighbouring country, they usually Lave each but one outlet, which often takes its name from the principal river that runs into the lake. The larges* lakes of this claps ai'e the immense bodies of water in North America, between Canada and the United States. There are five, (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario,) almost all like soas in extent, connected together, and having their purity maintained by means of the continual ihw of water which is kept up from one to another. Their iin;d outlet to the Atlantic Ocean is the great river St. Lav.-rence. Lake Baikal, in Asiatic llu^sia, is al«o remarkable f()r its size ; it sends forth a large stream which joins the Yenisei. The fourth class of lakes comprises a very small number, but they are the most sifpgular of all in their character. They are tiiose which roceivo streams of water, and often great rivers, but have no visIMo outh't. The most celo- hrated are tlie Caspian iTea, Lake Aral, and the Dead Sea, all situated in the west of Asia. The Caspian is between GDI) and 701) mils long, and, in one part, be- tween 300 and 400 miles in width. It receives some very larj^e rivers, the chief of which are the Volga, the Ural or Yaik, and the Kur. Lake Aral is much smallei than the Cafipiftn, but possossoa the eaine peculiarities ; wul, fi'om tlio cluiriict'T of fac istliraur, which separate* jhorn, it is supposed lh.it th-y f'jJMvrly c-nnposed ono 'vjcly of wiittr. Til -y r.ro h 't.h s dt hdc^s, aiid'ure dis- tin<(uishcd hy inariiiff productions; iroin which it has been conjectured tli;it they must, iit a very rennote period, have been connected with the Black Sea. The Dead Sea is still sinulUr than the Lake Aral, it is also salt and exceedingly bitter. Library of Useful Knowledge. CHANGES IN THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. From the quiet and regular succession of natural events to whicii we are accustomed, and the repug- nance we feel to the idea tliat it is possible for the course of nature to suffer interruption, we migiit, without due investigation, almnst p-'rsuade ourselves that the phy- sical features and condition of the globe potisess an unchangeable character. So fiir, however, is this from being the case, tliat there is no country wherein trace* are not discoverable of the violent revolutions of which the earth has fiormerly been the theatre : and even yet it is experiencing clianges of a very perceptible kind. Of the several agents which contribute to these changes water has the widett sphere of activity. Streams which descend along the Hanks of elevated grounds carry along with them some portion of the materials of their respective slopes, especially when swelled into violence by rains or the melting of snows ; and such as come frora mountains sweep down with them even some of the fragments of rock that have been collected in the high valleys. In proportion, however, as these streams reach the more level country, and their channels become more expanded, they deposit the fragments and stones, till at last their waters convey along only particles of mud of the minutest kind. If, therefore, these waters do not a* .■*r^ li fim too mpidly into the sea, or the particlea in question do not proviously sotl.lo in somo Inkn through which the , Tiv(M's [)!i.ss, \\w mild is deposited on tho sidos of their mouths, l()rinlii;jj low ason, that mation to , aided by ) Rhone is lid appear i of 1800 hat many )f the sea, ; frowi the ! Po, since heir beds ith great Q of new ia, which tuated dL sen miles imo time, made id ts bottom roofs of Po are between ions per- cs which down by lie lake^, he latter blrie, one is every pebbles eeds and lake of Geneva is also said to have been considerable withik he memory of man. The f(>rrnation of new islands constitutos tinothor Jis- tinct and interostin-r oliiss amoni^ tlio charis to wKicb the surface of Iho ^loho is siibjccit. Tlioso wliiclj have been raised up by volcanic aL!;oticy arc comparatively few ; but those of coral, wliich owe their origin to marine insects, (of iho class of zoophytes or phm anhnals,) are iununierahlo. Of tlie dillerent coral tribes, the most abundant is that named tlio niadrapore. It ia most common in the tropical seas, iind decreases in number and variety towards the poles ; it surrounds, in vast rocks and reefs, many of the islands of the South Sea and Indian Ocean, and increases tiieir size by its daily growth. The coasts of the islands of the West Indies, of those of the east of Africa, and the siiores and shoals of the Red Sea, are encircled with rocks of coral. Several navigators have furnished us with accounts of the curious manner in which these formations take place ; the following is extracted from Capt. Basil Hall's narrative of his voyage to the Loo-Clioo islands : — " The examination of a coral reef, during the different stages of one tide, is particularly interesting. When the tide has left it for some time, it becomes dry, and appears to be a compact rock exceedingly hard and rugged ; but as the tide rises, and the waves begin to wash over it, the coral worms protrude themselves from holes which were before invisible. These animals are of a great variety of shapes and sizes, and in such prodi- gious numbers, that, in a short time, the whole surface of the rock appears to bo alive and In motion. The most common of the worms at Loo-Choo is in the form of a star, with arms from four to six inches long, which are moved about with a raj) id motion, in all directions, probably to catch food. Others are so sluggish, that '.hey may be mistaken for pieces of tlie rock, and are generally of a dark colour, and from four to five inches iong, and two to three round. When the coral is broken, about high-water, it is a solid hard stone ; but if any part of it be detached at a spot wliich the tide reaches every day, it is found to be full of worms of 30 f ( different length and colours ; some being as hne ae a thread, and several feet long, of a brigiit yellow, and fiomctinjcs of a blue colour ; others rcsoinblc snails, and some arc not uiilikc lobsters in ;;b;ipe, but soft, and not above two iucbes long. T!io grewrh of tbo coral ap- pears to ct'Uiic wlien tlio wu'in is no longer exposed to the washii)!^ of tlio sea. Thus, a reef rises in the form of a caulillowcr, till its top has gained the level of the highest tides, above whicb the worm has no power to advance, and the reef, of course, no longer extends itself upwards. Tlie otlier parts, in succession, reach the surface, and thci-c stop, f )rnung, in time, a level field with steep sides all round. The reef, however, continually increases, and being prevented from going higher, extends itself laterally in all directions. But this growth being as rapid at tbo upp;'r edge as it is lower down, the steepness of tbe face of the reef is still pre- served. These arc the circumstances which render coral reef so dangerous in navigation ; for, in the first place, they are seldom seen above water ; and in the next, their sides are so steep, that a ship's bows may strike against tbe roclc, before any change of soundings has given warning of the danger." Another navigator gives the following succinct ac- count of the manner in which, after being raised up, the coral islands gradually acquire a soil and vegetation : — ; ** To be constantly covered with water seems necessary to the existence of the animalcules, for they do not work, except in holes upon the reef, beyond low- water mark; but the coral, sand, and other broken remnants thrown up by the ^ea, adhere to the rock, and form a solid mass with it, as high as the common tides I'each,- That elevation surpassed, the future remnants, being rare»y covered, lose their adhesive property, aad remain- ing in a loose state, form what is usually called a Key, upon the top of the reef. The new bank is not long in being visited by sea-birds ; salt plants take root upon »t, and a soil begins to be formed ; a cocoa-nut, or the drupe of a pandanus, h thrown on shore ; land birds visit it, and deposit the seeds of shrubs and trees ; every high tide, and still more every gale, adds somethiog to %. 21 reach level Q\& hank. ; tho form of an island is gradually assumed ; and last of all comes man to take possession." The other cliiel" ugciits in chaiigiug tho surfiicc of the farth lire volcauos a)id eartli-iuiikcs. The chung-es occasioned hy th'^ eruptions of the foniT^r are very con- siderahle near the neat of action, hut they operate over a less extensive Held tlian cither of those which have heen already mentioned. The principal effect of the issue of suhterranean fires is the elevation of the surface of the surrounding country ; and the size of the mountains themselves must have heen prodigiously increased by the matter thrown up during successive eruptions. Earthquakes appear to ho brought about by the same causes as volcanic eriiplions ; but their action is much more tremendous than that of the latter. They are frequently accompanied by loud subterraneous Ijoises, and are sometimes so violent, that the ground heaves up, and undufates like an agitated sea. They are felt, almost at the same instant, over a mos" astonishing extent; tliough happily, compared witi this extent, their destructive ravages are confined within a small range. In those parts, which appear to be near the centre of their action, the most calamitous effects sometimes occur : whole cities are destroyed, and their inhabitants buried beneath tho ruins ; springs are stopped, and others gush out in new places ; fissures are made in the eai'th ; and enormous masses of rock and other materials sink down, or are detached from the mountains. Such are the principal changes, which the surface of the globe is now undergoin (.can has retired, or fiuiik in Jcvc), in ollirrs it has isioroauiu'il upon tho lan.l ; wliilo it is kiii.",, n tuit many luirbors of the M'jiliterruiican haw r.irs "rved exaetly ili<' same level biiice tlie lime el' ihe r.^u-!. iils. It is plain, thcrefure, tliat all vai'ialious up.»n the cDu^fi.s of l!io ocean are merely of a local kin;l, aiid ihat if the diif 'rent accounts are balanced, we mu^l arrive at the conclusion, that the general volu.nc of t!m ocean, and i)erhaps even its su- perficial extent, sulK-r ndihi r increase nor ditn/nution. Librarij of Useful Knowledge. TlIK ATMOSriltlllE. •| The atmospheric is one of the most essential appen- dages to the globe we inhabit, and exhibits a most striking proof of Divine sUiU and omnipotence. It is now ascertained to i)e a c: impound substance, formed chiefly of two very different ingredients, termed oxygen and nUrogen gas. Of l()i» measures of atmospheric air, '21 are oxygen, and 70 nitrogen. The one, namely, oxygen, is tlio principle of combustion. It is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life, and is one of the most important substances in nature. The other {nitrogen) is altogether incapable of supporting either flame or animal lite. But the term atmosphere is also applied to the ^s'hole mass of lluids, consisting of air, vapours, electric llaid, and otiier matters which sur- round the eartli to a coitain heiglit. This mass of iiuid matter gravitates to the earth, revolves with it in its diurnal rotation, and is carried along with it in its course round the sun every year. It has been con- puted to extend about 4o miles a.bove the earth's sur- face, and it presses on the earth with a force propor- Itioned to its height anvl density. From experiments inade with the baromet'jr it has been ascertained, that 2:j it presses with a weight of about 15 pounds on every square inch of the earth's surface ; and, therefore, ita pressure on the body of a middle-sized man, is equal to about 33,000 pounds, or 14 tons avoirdupois, a prest sure which would be insupportable, and eyen fatal, were it not equal on every part, and counterbalanced by the spring of the air within us. The pressure of the whole atmosphere upon the earth is computed to be equivalent to that of a globe of lead, 66 miles ii^ diameter ; in other words, the whole mass of \he airj, which surrounds the globe, compress^es the earth witl\ a force or power equal to that of five thousand million^ of millions of tons. This amazing pressure is, however^ essentially necessary for the preservation of the present ponstitution of our globe, and of the animated beings \vhich dwell on its surface. It prevents the heat of the sun from converting water, and all other fluids intQ vapour; and preserves the vessels of all organized beings in due tone and vigour. Were the atmos- pherical pressure entirely removed, the elastic fluids contained in the finer vessels of men and other animals would inevitably burst them, and life would become extinct ; and most of the substances on the face of the earth, particularly liquids, would bo dissipated into vapour. Besides these, the atmosphere possesses a great variety of other admirable properties, of which the fol- lowing may bo mentioned. It# the vehicle of smells, by which we become acquainted with the qualities of the food which is set before ua, jand learn to avoid those places, which are damp, unwholesome, and dangerous. It is the medium of sounds, by means of which knowledge is conveyed to our minds. Its undu. lations, like so many couriers, run for ever backwards and forwards, to convey our thoughts to others, and theirs to us, and to bring news of transactions which frequently occur at a considerable distance. A few strokes on a large bell, through the ministration of the air, will convey signals of distress, or of joy, in a quarter of a minute, to the population of a city con- taining a hundred thousand inhabitants. It troosmltg 24 } to our ears all tlie harmonies of music, and expressog every passion of the soul : it swells the notes of th& nightingale, and distributes alike to every ear the pleasures, which ariso from the harmonious sounds of a concert. It produces the blue colour of the slcy, and is the cause of the morning and evening twilight, by its property of bending the rays of light, and reflecting iiven in different places in the same country, the ot.tfutity that falls is difRjrent. But the most curious ia*if of all, in the natural history of rain, is the diiTcre^^c^ of quantity, which ia collected at di He rent hoigncs at the same phvce. In one year, q, rain-guage on tfla top of Westminster Abbey, received 12 inches ; an'/n^sr on the top of a house in the vicinity received iS iw^-lies ; and a third on the surface of the ground received 22 inches. Dew, or Ine moisture insensibly deposited frpm the atmospner yrhich it communicates its caloric. Its solvent power being thus reduced, it is unal)le to retain so large 8P(]l2tiQ,fi 01 watery vapour, and deposits those pearly tops failed dew. This view of the matter explains the ^e«aon 'Vi^hy (^ew falls more copiously in calm than in (rtonpy weather, and in a plear than in a cloudy atmos- phere. Accumulations of moisture in the atmosphere not only prevent the free radiation of the earth towards |he upper fegions, but th^^$ielves radiate towards the earth; whe^s^i^^ in p^ear nights, the radiation of the fiarth passes without obstacle through the atmosphere \o the distant regions of space, whence it receives no caloric in eijichange. The same principle enables us toi ej|p)ain the reason, why a bottle of wine taken fresh ifrom the cellar, (in summer particularly,) will soon be poveaed with dew. The bottle, being colder than the ^^rrounding air, ahsorbs calorip froni it ; the moisture therefore, which that air contained, becomes visible, f,nd forms the dew, which is deposited on the bottle. n like manner, in a warm room, or in a clo^e carriage, the inside of the windows is covered with vapouif, be- cause the windows being colder than the breath, de- privcGi Jt of part of its caloric, and by this means convert it into watery vapour. Bodies attract dew in propor- tion as they are good radiators of caloric, as it is this! qualHy which reduces their temperature below that of the atmosphere. Hence we find, that little or no dew ;s deposited on rocks, sands, or water ; while grass and living vegetables, to which it is so highly beneficial, attract it in abundance ; a remarkable instance of the wise and bountiful dispensations of Providence. The ■ame benevolent design we may observe, also in the ^bi^ic(a,noe ef dew in summer and in hot elimatesi in 31 ce previously irth is an ex- losphere does degree. To- leaX declines, es, the earth s the skies; 1 its heat, but urface of the !. Its solvent etain so large those pearly 1* explains the calm than in iloudy atmoss- 3 atmosphere larth towards towards the iation of the i atmosphere receives no 3 enables us taken fresh will soon be er than the le moisture mes visible, the bottle. which its cooli '^ effects arc so much required. Th» more caloric the earth receives during the day, the more it will radiate afterwards ; and consequently, the more rapidly its tetiiperature will be reduced in the eyeninjr, in comparison with that of the atmosphere. In the West Indies, accordingly, where the intense heat of the day is strongly contrasted with the coolness of the evening, the dew is prodigiously abundant. When dew is frozen the moment it iklls, it gets the n£!.me of hoar-frost. Snoto is another of the forms which the vapours of the atmosphere assume. It consists of aqueous vapour, congealed either while falling, or when in the air pre- vious to falling. The first crystals, produced at a great ■height in the atmosphere, determine, as they descend, the crystallization of aqueous paiticles, which, without their presence, the surrounding air would retain in a state of solution. The result is the formation of hexa> gonal darts, or stars of six rays, when the weather is sufficiently calm, and the temperature not too high to deform the crystals by melting off their angles ; but when tie atmosphere is agitated, and the snow falls from a great height, the crystals clash together, unite in groups, aid form irregular flakes. Hail, according to all app.arance, is a species of snow, or of snowy rain, which has undergone a variety of congelations and superficial meltings in its passage through different zones of tlie atmosphere, of different temperatures. Its foinnation evidently depends on electricity. It is by an electrical apparatus, that we pan produce artificial hail ; and it is well known, that volcanic eruptions are often follo^ved by the fr.il cf hail- stones of enorm^s size. Such are the principal circumstances which are sup- posed to concur in the formation of aqueous meteors. Their beneficial influence upon tiie eartli is a point more easy to determine. We observe all nature languish, when the atmosphere retains, for too long a time, the moisture arising from the earth. Plants fade and iroop; animals feel their strength failing them; man himself, breathing nothing but dust, can with difficulty FT' 83 |rooure elielter \tom the sultry heat, by which his frame i« parched and ovcrpoworcd. But scarcely have the waters of heaven flesc( nded from the clouds, when all living beings begin to revive ; tl.e fields resume their green attire ; the flowers their lively tints, animals the sportive freedoin of thi. ir motions, and the elements of ihe air their healthful equilibrium. Snow itself, whose very name alarms the natives of the tropics, is produc* live of real advantages in the economy of nature ; it se- cures tlie roots of plants against the effects of Intense cold: it serves to moisten gently those lands, from which, owing to their local situation, the rain is too 8oon carried off; and it pave for the inhabitant of the north, commodious and agreeable roads, along which he gaily skims in his light and nimble sledge. Hail alone, of all the aqueous meteors, never appears but as a harbinger of distress. Birds and quadrupeds in» Btinctively conceal themselves, as soon as they have any presentiment of its coming. Man can neither foresee its approach, nor arrest its ravages ; he has been able to ward off the thunderbolts of the sky, but he sees the nail destroy his corn, break his f"iuit trees, and shatter the very house where he dwells, without being able to prevent it. M'Cullloch's Course of ReadiTtg. ON THE DELUGE. It stands on record in Scripture, that this globe was twice enveloped in water ; once, when God by his work of SIX days, described in the first chapter of the book of Genesis, raised it up from what is uj?Ually called its chaotic state ; and a second time in the days of Noah. Now, the effects of these two immersions of the earth in water are -distinctly marked in the present form of it. In regard to the first, it is a vulgar error, to which the Scripture gives no countenance, that the earth was first brought into existence when God commenced his six days' work. A more careful reading of the narra- iiff9 will convince you, that this work was merely ly^fWl^ 33 )utting it in order, and fitting it for being the habyatlon )f man. The words of Scnpture oro, "In the boginning God jrcatod liie lieavoa aivj the cartli." This is a general linnounconient of what \vhs d'lne in the beginning ; but ^ow long atitecodont to tJio Fubsequcnt history that be- |[inning was, we are not inf jrmcd. Tlie narrative pro- reeds, " And the earth was without form and void ; and larkness was upon tlie fane of tho deep, and the Spirit if God moved upon the face of the waters." This jescribes tho condition in whieli the earth was, when rod commenced his worlc of six days. How long it had 3en in that condition is not said. There are indica- |ons, however, in tlie formation of the crust of thp irth itself, that it had been for a long period in that mdition, and that its then chaotic state was the result some former revolution or revolutions. Now, in ^rfect conformity with this history, there are evidences the present dry land having been immersed in water, )r a much longer period than its transient immersion the deluge. For example, there are immense masses solid rock, some at great heights in the mountains, |)me deep in the bowels of the earth, entirely formed of pells and other marine remains cemented together, ^any of the most beautiful marbles are thus formed, digging mines, after piercing through many strata of jks of various descriptions, and arriving at great bpths below the surface of the earth, miners come to kmains of plants and of animals, that must have been Irmed in waters of the sea. These, and many other phenomena, not only prove, ^at the globe was immersed in water, but that it must ive continued in that condition, for a much longer tried than the waters of the deluge remained upon it. But there are other phei:iomena, that indicate, that ler the earth was brought into its present form, its iountains and valleys, and rivers and seas, nearly as fe now sec them, it was suddenly immersed in water, mich also suddenly receded. The phenomena to which now allude, are such as fossil shells, marine plants, )nes, ^c. which &re found in eartli, or gravel, or ^and, 31 f ' and in other situations, which indicate a much movt recenf deposit, than the shells and other marine sub. stances formed into solid rocks, already alluded to. In every part of the world, tlicre are found indications of a submersion of the dry ground in water, much later than the formation of the mountains and valleys, and affecting the condition of the globe much more superficially. Caves, for example, have been found in countries tne most distant from outj another, in Europe and in New Holland, containing large quantities of bones of animals, mixed with earth or gravel, and in many cases, covered with a substance called stalagmite. In many cases, the bones belong to species of animals, that no longer exist in the countries in which they are found. Bones of elephants, hyenas, rhinoceroses, &c. have been found in Britain, and in many parts of Europe. It seems now to be generally admitted by scientifio men, that there are means of ascertaining at what dis tance of time a deluge covered the earth, and that the calculations founded upon them point uniformly to the time marked in the Scriptures. The following passage is from Baron Cuvier : — " Thus, while the traditions of all nations have pre- served the reraen»brance of a great catastrophe, the deluge^ which changed the earth's surfapc, and destroyed nearly the whole of the human species, geology apprizes us, Jjiat of the various revolutions, which have agitated our globe, the last evidently corresponds to the period, which is assigned to the deluge, " \ye say that, by means of geological considerations alone, it is possible to determine the date of this great event with some degree of precision. f* There are certain formations, which must have commenced immediat«ily after the last catastrophe, and which, from that pwiiod, have been continued up to the present day with greai regularity. Such are the de- Dosits of detritus observed at the mouths of rivers, the inasses of rubbish which exist at the foot of mountains, and are formed of the fragments, that fall from their summits and sides. These deposits receive a yearly in. creasei which it is possible to measure. Nothing, tiiere- 35 fcrt^ w more easy, than to calculate the time, which it has taken them tr» acquire tbfiir present dimensions. This calculation has betin made with reference to the debi-is of mountains ; and, in all cases, has indicated a period of about four thousand years. The same result has been obtained from the otlier alluvial deposits. In short, whatever has been tlie natural phenomenon, that has been interrogated, it has always been found to give evidence in accordance with that of tradition. The traditions themselves exhibit the most astonishing Con- formity. The Hebrew text of Geneeis places the de- luge in the year 2349 before Christ. The Indians make the fourth age of the world, that in which we now live, to commence in the year 3012. The Chinese place it (about the year 2384. Confucius, in fact, represents the I first King Yeo as occupied in drawing off the waters of the ocean, which had risen to the tops of the mountainsj and in repairing the damage which they had occa- sioned." — Carlile on the Divine Origin of the Holy Scriptures. ations have pre- I.-~MINERAL KINGDOM. There is perhaps no portion of the earth's surface, of the same extent, which contains so great a variety of (hose mineral substances which minister to the neces- sities and comforts of life, as the island of Great Bri- tain ; and it would almost seem, from its internal struc- ture, as if Providence had pre-ordained that it should 'be the seat of an opulent and powerful people, ana I one of his chief instruments for the civilization and advancement of the human race. That this is no extra- vagant, overstrained expression of national vanity, may, v^e think, be very easily made apparent, by a few reflections on the vast advantages, which the British empire itself, and, through it, the civilized world, have deriyed, from the circumstance of our possessing Kit M abnndftnoe of one peirticular mineral under the surfao* of dur soil. The almost inoxhau.stiblo mines of coal, which are foiuvl in hd luuiiy dtiliuTnt parts of our island, have unquostionably been one of the chief sources of our vvoallh, and of our influence among the other nations of Europe. All our great manufacturing towns, — Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester, Glasgow, Paisley, are not only situated in the imme-^ diate vicinity of coal, but never would have existed with- out it. If we had had no coal, we should have lost the greater part of the wealth we derive from our me- tallic ores ; for they could neither have been drawn from the depths, where they lie concealed, nor, if found near the surface, could they have been profitably re- fined. Without coal, the steam-engine would probably have remained among the apparatus of the natural philosopher. Not only did the fuel supply the means of working the machine, but the demand for artificial power, ill order to raise tliat same fuel from the bowels of the earth, more immediately led to the practical ap- plication of the great discovery made by Walt, while repairing the philosophical instrument of Dr. Black. Before the invention of the steam-engine, the power required to move machinery was confined to the im- pelling force of running water, of wind, of animal &nA human strength, — all too weak, unsteady, irregular, and costly, to admit of the possibility of their extensive ap- plication. But the steam-engine gave a giant power to the human race, capable of being applied to every pur- pose, and in every situation where fuel can be found* Thus, manufactures arose, and from the cheapness with which labour could be commanded, and the prodigious increase of work done in the same space of time, their produce was so reduced in price, as to bring luxuries and comforts within the reach of thousands, who never tasted them before. New tastes thus excited, and in- creasing consumption, multiplied manufacturing estab- lishments ; and their demands led to great manufactures of machinery ; competition led to improvement in the steam-engine itself, and thus, by the reciprocal action of improvement and demand, our machinery and manu* ST or the surfao* lines of coal, p'dvts of our of the chief ce among the manufacturing , Manchester, in the imme- 'c existed with- [1 have lost the from our me- ^e been drawn [1, nor, if found I profitably re- would probably of the natural pply the means id for artificial Tom the bowels le practical ap- by Walt, while of Dr. Black. ine, the power iicd to the im- of animal and , irregular, and lir extensive ap- giant power to id to every pur- can be found* cheapness with the prodigious of time, their bring luxuries lids, who never [xcited, and in- iicturing estab- ,t manufactures jvement in the Iprocal action of ry and manu« fectures graduftUy acquired Aftt high degree of perfedi tion, to which they are now arrived. With the im- provement of the stoam-engine, came the wonderful ap- plication of it to navigation, which has already, in a fevir years, produced such extraordinary results ; and which, when combined with its farther application to wheel carriages, must, at no great distance of time, occasion a revolution in the whole state of society. Next to coal, our iron is the most important of out mineral treasures ; and it is a remarkable circumstance, Ihat the ore of that metal, which is so essential to the wants of man, that civilization has never been known to exist without it, should in Great Britaii oe placed in greatest abundance, not only in the vicinity of, but ac- tually associated with, the ccgil necessary to separate the metal from the impurities of the ore, so as to render it fit for use. In Sweden, and most other countries, where iron mines exist, the ore is refined by means of wood ; .but no space on the surface of our island could have been spared to grow timber for such a purpose ; and thus, without coal, in place of being, as we are now, great exporters of wrought and unwrought iron to dis- tant nations, we must have depended on other countries for this metal ; to the vast detriment of many of our manufactures, which mainly owe their improvement and extension to the abundance and consequent cheapness of iron. There are extensive mines of uEAD in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Northumberland, Lanarkshire, Dumfries- shire, and several other places in Great Britain, suffi- cient not only for the internal demand for that metal, but yielding a considerable amount for exportation. Copper is produced in large quantities in Cornwall j and the same county has been celebrated for its tin mines, for nearly two thousand years. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and tin, are the principal minerals of our country, which, in common language, are usually associated with the idea of the produce of mines. Silver and Gold we have none, with the excep- tion of a little of the former contained in some of thf ores of lead, which is separated by refining, when ii 4 83 •■A(Hent quantity to yield a pro(h. beyond the expense of the process ; out we have some other metals, highly useful in the arts, such as zinc, antimony, and man-* ganese. Besides the substances above mentioned, we Have many other mineral treasures of great importance still to be noticed. Of these the most valuable perhaps is limestone, from its use in agriculture, to meliorate the soil and increase its fertility, and from its being an in, dispensable ingredient in mortar for building; and there are not many parts of the island far distant from a supply of this material. Building stone is found in most parts of the country ; and although we must go to Italy for the material for the art of sculpture to be em- ployed upon, we have fgee-stone applicable to all the purposes of ornamental architecture, and we have many marbles df great beauty. If stones be far off, clay is never wanting to supply a substitute ; and the most dis- tant nations have their daily food served up in vessels, the materials of which, dug from our clay-pits, have given occupation to thousands of our industrious popu- lation, in our potteries and ciiina manufactures. For our supply of salt, that essential part of the daily sus- tenance of almost every human being, we are not de- pendent on the brine which encircles our island ; for we have, in the mines and salt-springs of Cheshire and Worcestershire, almost inexhaustible stores of the purest quality, unmixed with those earthy and other ingredi- ents, which must be separated by an expensive process, before a culinary salt can be obtained from the water of the sea. ♦ Familiar as is almost every one of the mineral sub- stances We have named, in the common business of life, there are many persons who have but a very imperfect idea whence they are derived, and M^hat previous pro- cesses they undergo, before they can be made applicable to our use. In the formation of organized bodies, that is, in the structure of animals and plants, the most su- perficial observer cannot fail to discover a beautiful and refined mechanism ; but if we cast our eyes upon the ground, and look at heaps of gravel, sand, clay, aiAd -Aft nd the expense metals, highly ony, and man- ned, we Have mportance still ble perhaps is meliorate the ts being an in, building ; and distant from a le is found in we must go to iture to be em- ible to all the we have many far off, clay is d the most dis- i up in vessels, b1 ay-pits, have ustrious popu- factujes. For ' the daily sus- ve are not de- island ; for we Cheshire and es of the purest other ingredi- ensive process, rn the water of le mineral sub- nisiness of life, very imperfect previous pro- lade applicable ;ed bodies, that the most su- a beautiful and eyes upon the and, clay, atd stone, k eeems as if ch'ance only had brought tnNii io'« gether, and that neither symmetry nor order can be dis^ Covered in their nature. But a closer examination sooii convinces us of that, which reasoning from the wisdoni and design manifested by other parts of creation, we might beforehand have very naturally been led to ex- pect, viz. that in all the varieties of form, and structure, arid change, which the study of the mineral kingdom displays, Itiws as fixed and immutable prevail, as in thei most complicated mechanism of the human frame, or in the motions of the heavenly bodies : and if astronomy has discovered how beautifully "the heavens declare the glory of God," as certainly do we feel assured by; the investigations of geology, that the earth "showeth his handy work." — Penny Magazine. II.— MINERAL KINGDOM. , The land rises from the surface of the sea in the forni of islands, and of great continuous masses called conti-^ nents, without any regularity of outline, either where it comes in contact with the water, or in vertical eleva- iion, its surface being diversified by plains, valleys, hills,' 9^nd mountains, which sometimes rise to the height of twenty-sijc thousand feet above the level of the sea.' Numerous soundings in different parts of the world have shown, that the bottom of the ocean is as diversified by? inequalities as the surface of the land ; a great part of it is unfathomable to us, and the islands and continents,' >Vhich rise above its surface, are the summits of moun.t' tains, the intervening valleys lying in the deepest abysses. Different climates produce different races of animals/ and different families of plants ; but the mineral king- dom, as far as the nature of stone is concerned, is in- dependent of the influence of climate, the same rocks being found in the polar and in the equatorial repfjoris.' 4(r Although there h considerable diversity in the structnr* of the earth, it is not in any degree connected with particular zones, as far as relates to circumstances^ which are external to it ; nor can we say, that the wonderful action which burning mountains tell us is going on in its interior, is confined to any part of the Rj)here, fof the volcanic fires of Iceland bum as fiercely as those that burst forth under the line. From all the observations hitherto made, there is na reason to sup- pose, that any unexplored country contains mineral bodies, with which we are not already acquainted; and although we cannot say beforehand of what rocks an unej^mined land is likely to be composed, it is ex- tremely improbable, that any extensive series of rocks should be found, constituting a class different from- any which have been already met with in other parts of the globe. When we dig through the vegetable soil, we usually come to clay, sand, or gravel, or to a mixture of these unconsolidated materials; and, in some countries, we* shall probably fitid nothing else, at the greatest depths to which we are able to penetrate. But in most places,- after getting through the clay and gravel, we shouTcf come upon a hard stone, lying in layers or beds parallel to each other, either of one kind or of different kinds, according to the depth. This stone would vary in different countries, and in different places in the same country, as well in its constituent parts, £is in the thick- ness alternation, and position of its beds or layersv It has beeflf ascertained by the observations of geologists, in various parts* of the world, that the crust of the earth is composed of a series of such layers, distinguishable from each other by vei*y marked characters in their internal strueturer The elements, of which they are composed, are not very numerous, being for the most part the hard substance called quartz by minerak)gistSy. of which gun flints may be cited as a familiar example, these being wholly composed of it, and the well-known substances, clay and limestone; but these elements are aggregated or mixed up together in so many propor- tiofis and forms^ as to produce a considerable vuriety of ii 41 s tell us is Tookfl. Bcsidoo tliis elemontary composition, or what may be termed their si/iipi'c structure, the greatest proporti'on of the rocks, tliut are so arranged in layers, contain tijnign bodies, such as IVagniciits of o*her rocks, •shells, bones of land and amphibious animals, and of fishes, antT portions of trees and plants. It has furtlier been found, that tiiese dill'erent layers or strata lie upon each other in a certain determinate order, which is never, in any degree, inverted. Suppose the series of strata to be represented by the letters of the alphabet, ,\ being the stratum nearest the surface, and Z the lowest : A is never found be/ow Z, nor under any other of the intervening letters ; nor is Z ever found above any of the letters that stand before it in the alphabet : and so it is with all the strata represented by the other letters. It must not, however, be imagined, although this regularity in the order of superposition exists, that all the diHcrent members of the series always occur together; on ive contrary, there is no instance where they have all been f()und in one place. It possibly may happen, tliat vviiere C is found in a horizontal position, by going deeper all the rest would follow in succession ; but this we can never know, as the thickness would be infinitely beyond our means of penetrating : and there are reasons, which render the existence of such an un^ interrupted series extremely improbable. It very sel- dom happens, that more than three or four members of ihe series can be seen together ; — we say of the serieSf because each member is composed of an almost infinite number of subordinate layers. This order of succession, established by geologists, has been determined by the combination of many observations made in different countries at distant points. The order of three or four members was ascertained in one place ; the upper stratum in that place was found to be the lowest mem- ber of a second series in another place, and the lowest stratum at the first station was observed to be the uppermost at a third point; and, in like manner, the order of superposition was discovered throughout the whole range. Neither is it to be supposed that the ■trata, which lie next each other, are always so in 4* 42 nature ; m, for mstanoe, that, wherever G k fbnnd a«- ■ociated with another member, it is always either with F above it, or H below it : it very often hapiifens that F lies upon H, G being nltogether absent ; arid C may even be seen lying on R, the whole of the interven- ing members of the sories being wanting. * Very fre- quently one of the lowest members of the sefies appears at the surface. Every one mny have seen sometimef> chalk, sometimes slate, lying immediately beneath the vegetable soil, or even at the surface witliout that scanty covering. But if a lower member of the series be seen at the surface, however deep we might go, we shoulc never find any one of those rocks, that belong to the higher members of that sories. The immense practical advantage of this knowledge of the determined order of succession will be seen at once ; for if O were found to occupy the surface of the country, it would be at once known, that all search for coal in that spot would be fruitless^ lUd. Ill— MINERAL KINGDOM. The means, by which geologists have been enabled to fix the order of superposition in the strata composing the crust of the globe, have been partly the fhineral Composition of each member of the series, partly their Containing fragments of other rocks, but chiefly the remains of animals and plants, that are imbedded in them. They observed, that there was a class of rocks distinguished by a considerable degree of hardness, by closeness of texture, by .their arrnngement in slaty beds, and by possessing, •**!*:« m thick masses, a glistening structure, called b'- K''rr.eralngists crystalline, of which statuary marble or lojif sugar may be quoted as familiar examples ; and these were, even when associated with rocks of another sort, always lowest. — Above, and in contact with them, another group of strata was ob- 48 been enabled served, which, in minerul composition, had a good deal of resemblance to those below them, but contained rounded fragments of other rocks : and, when these fragments were examined, they were found to be iden- tical with the rocks composing the lower strata. This second scri«'s was observed lo be covered by another group of strata, which contained shells and corals, bodies that had never been seen in any of the lower strata. Thus it was clear, as the including substance must necessarily be formed subsequently to the pebble or shell it contains, that, previous to the formation of this third group, there had existed rocks to supply the imbedded fragments, and to contain the waters of tho ocean, in which the animals that once inhabited tho shells must have lived. Ascending still higher, that is, observing the strata as they lay one above another towards the surface, it was found, that many were entirely composed of the fragments of pre-existing rocks, either in the form of pebbles, or of sand cemented together : that there was a vast increase in the number and variety of the imbedded shells, the latter forming very often entire beds of rock, many feet in thickness ; and that the remains of plants began to appear. In this manner certain great divisions of the strata were established, by very clear and infallible distinctive characters. But it was reserved for an English prac- tical mineral surveyor to make a discovery, which gave a new direction to geological inquiries, and v;hich, in the course of a few years, introduced into the science a degree of precision and certainty, that was formerly unknown. About thirty-five years ago, Mr. William Smith, of Churchill in Oxfordshire, by an extensive series of observations in different parts of England, as- certained that particular strata were characterized by the presence of certain fossil or petrified shells, which were either confined to tljpn exclusively, or in pre- dominating quantity, or were of rai'c occurrence in other strata : and he was thu ; enabled to identify two rocks at distant points as belonging to one stratum, wh^n mere mineral characters would either have left - 44.^ f^im m uncertainty, or have entirely failed in decidtr^ the question. When this (liscoveiy became known to i;eologists, nun *ous observations v.erc made in other «;ountries, wl:ic»- completely proved, that the principle was not only applicul)le in those places, which Mr, Smitn had had an opportunity of observing, but that it held good generally, and throughout tlie whole series of strata, from the lowcat, in ^vhieh organic remains are found, to those nearest the surfuee. Under the direc- tion of this guide, geologists have been enabled to dis- cover lines of separatioi^in the great divisions, which, as already mentioned, had been established by prior observations, pointing out distinct epochs of deposition, and revealing a succession of changes in the organic find inorganic creation, in a determinate chronological order. This more accurate knowledge of the structure of the crust pf the globe is of the highest interest and importance ; not only as a matter of speculative science, ]but as regards the practical advantages in common life, that have been derived from it. An examination of the phenomena, exhibited by the internal structure of this series of superimposed rocks, has established this farther principle — that all the strata must have been deposited on a level foundation — ^that is, on pre-existing ground, that was either horizontal pr nearly so, at the bottom of a fluid holding their materials either in suspension, or in solution, or partly both. Now, as we know of no fluid in which this could have taken place except water, geologists have come to the conclusion, that the chief part of all the strata, how- ever elevated they may now be above the level of the sea, were gradually deposited at the bottom of the ocean ; and the remainder of them at the bottom of inland seas, or lakes. But if this be so, what mighty revolutions must have taken place to cause rocks formed in the depths of thi*»ocetin, to occupy the sum- mits of the highest mountains ! By what known agenc) can so extraordinary a change <>i position have beeu effected ! That the fact of elevation is indisputable, ia proved by the shells embedded in stratified rocks at the 4f> greatest elevations ; and geologists, irho have ^ndca- iroured to discover by what cause this change in th0 relative position of the rock and the sea has been brought about, have, by an c**entive observation of the phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos^ and tl*« re- sembla-nce between the products of the latter and cer- tain parts of the earth's structure, which we have yet to notice, arrived at a very prebable solution of the problem. Although the strata were originally deposited in a horizontal position, and are often found so, especially as regards the inferior members of the series,,they are not uniformly so, but are frequently inclined, more or less ; and they have been seen, not only at cvp'y angle of inclination, but very often in a vertical position. When a vertical section of a mountain is exposed, as is often the case m valleys or the deep bed of a river, fluch an appearance as that represented here is not m>- (a) (J) common ', and if the stratum a be composed of rounded blocks of stone surrounded by fine sand or clay, and if the stratum b contain a layer of shells lying parallel to the sides of the stratum, and if they be unbroken, although of the most delicate texture, it is manifest, that these strata could not have been deposited in their pre- sent vertical position, but upon a level ground. Some, times they are not only disturbed from their horizon- tality, but are bent and contorted in the most extra- ordinary way, as if they had been acted upon by soma powerful force while they were yet ii) a soft flexible i!:!i| 4e ftate. This appearance, very common in the slate rocks of the north coast of of DevoHj is shown in the diagram. This seeiiUKg (ILsordur and confusion is evidently a part of the order and harmony of the universe, a proof of design in the structure of liie globe, and one of the pro- giissive steps, by which the eartli seems to have been pj'epared as a fit habitation for man. For if all the strata had remained horizontal, that is, parallel to the surface of the globe, if ti)ey had enveloped it like a shell, or to use a familiar example, had they surrounded it like the coats of an onion, it is clear that we should never have become acquainted with any other than the upper members of the series ; and that tl e beds of coal and salt, and the ores of the metals, all of which are confined to tlie inferior strata, could never have been imade available for the puiposes of man. Without this elevation of the strata, tlio earth would have presented a monotonous:; plain, unbroken by the beautiful forms of hill and valley, or the nuijestic scenery of mountains. With these inequalities of the surface are intimately connected all the varieties of climates, and the divci'si- fied products of animal and vegetable liff? dependent thereon ; as well as the whole of what may be termed the aqueous machinery of the land — the fertilizing and refreshing rains, the sources of springs, inland lakes, and the courses of rivers and brooks in their endless iramifications. Throughout all this there reigns such a harmony of purpose, that the conclusion is irresistible, that the breaking up of the earth's crust is not an ir- regular disturbance, but a work of design, in perfect accordance with the whole economy of nature. ■ We have said, that if we dig through the superficial covering of sand and clay, we usually come upon atone 47 1 the slate rocks n the diagram. idently a part se, a proof of me of the pro- to have been For if all the >arallel to the )ped it like a ley surrounded lat we should other than the e beds of coal of which are ';er have been Without this lave presented bautiful forms of mountains, ire intimately id the divei*si- ife dependent ay be termed rertilizing and inland lakes, their endless reigns such a s irresistible, is not an ir. ^n, in perfect iure. he superficial ne upon atond ■■» disposed in layers; but there are many places, wheid we should find a rock without any such arrangement, which could continue of the same uniform texture, and without any parallel rents dividing it into beds, however deeply we might penetrate into it. Such unstrat'Jied rocks, although of limited extent in proportion to the stratified rocks, constitute a considerable portion of the crust of the earth, and in all parts of it they generally rise above the surface in huge unshapen masses, sur- rounded by the stratified rocks ; and sometimes they Dccupy districts of great extent, where none of thia iitter rocks can be seen. In mineral composition they are essentially difierent from the other class; never consisting of limestone, or sandstone, or clay, and never containing rounded pebbles, shells, or the remains of any oth^r . nd of organized matter. Their elementary constituc ' , t are simple mineral substances, which, although , P , t Ties found in the stratified rocks, are always, in the rocks we now speak of, in difierent com- binations : they are always in that particular state called crystalline ; and when the parts are large enough to be distinguished, they are seen to interlace each other, and by this arrangement they form a very hard toughi stone, very difficult to break into regular squared forms, or to work with the chisel, and they are very often ca- ■Qable of receiving a high polish. The substances mos^ fe^miliar to us in common life, which belong to this clas^ -Jjf rocks, are granite, whinstone and basalt. Ibid* IV.— MINERAL KINGDOM. We have shown, that the crust of the globe is conri. posed of two great classes of rocks, one of which con- sists of a series of beds of stone of difierent kinds, iying upon one another in a certain determinate order pf succession, called the Stratified Rocks, or th« 49 Strata ; the other of a class of stones distinguisha]ble from the strata by peculiar mineral composition, by never containing pebbles or the remains of animals an4 plants, and by never being arranged in parallel layers, from vk^hich lust character they have been denominated the Unstratijied Rocks. We shall now proceed to show in what manner these two classes of rocks are associated together. It is quite evident, that ^he mode of formation of the two must have been totally different. \Vhile the strata, by their parallel arrangement, by the pebbles of pre-existing rocks, and \>y the remains of living bodies which they contain, Remonstrate that they must have been formed nndei^ ^ater, by deposition from the surface downwards, — ; ^e whole qharacters of the unstratified rocks equally grove, that they mt^st have come to the surface fron^ le interipr of the earth, after the deposition of the strata ; that is, that they have been ejected among the strata from below in a rnelted condition, either fluid or in a soft yielding state. Geologists have come to this, conclusion, from a careful examination and comparison of the unstratifled rocks with the products of existing volcanos, or those burning mountains, that have thrown out streams of melted stone or lava, both in past ages, as recorded in history, and in our own time. By this comparison they have discovered a great similarity, often an identity, of composition, between the unstrati- fied rocks and lava, and the closest analogy in the phenomena exhibited by the masses of both kinds, and in their relations to the stratified rocks, with which they come in contact. In every case the unstratified rocks lie under the stratified. This order has never been reversed, except in cases, which have been afterwards discovered to be deceptive appearances, and where they have been pro- truded between strata. But it may be said, that this fact of inferiority of position is no proof of ejection from below, far less of posteriority of formation : for they might have been the foundation on which the ftfata are deposited. But their eruption from the fc ■ 4D jiterior, and that that eruption took place after tho irtrata were formed, are proved by other evidencea, as we shall presently show. A section of the crust of the earth, where the stratified and unstratified rocks have been found associated together, has of m exhibited the appearance represented by the diagiam, . r vr,^ A and B are mountains of granite or of whinstone, with strata of limestone lying upon it. From A branches or shoots connected with the principal mass are seen to penetrate into the superincumbent strata ; M and in the mountain B, the granite overlies the lime- ,E stone for a considerable way near tho top, as if it had ^ flowed over at that place, and lower down it has forced its way between two strata, end' \g like a wedge. Now, as the penetrating substance must necessarily ba of subsequent formation to tlie body that it penetrates, it is evident, that the gi'anile must have been formed after the limestone, although the latter rests upon it. But if any doubt romained, it would bo removed by the additional fact, that the granite veins in the moun- tain A, contain angular fragments of limestone, identical with the strata above 5 and the fractured ends are seen to fit the places of the continuous stratum, from which they have been broken off. The posteriority of the formation of the unstratified rocks to the strata is thus made evident from their relative positions ; their forcible ejection from below is equally proved by the penetration of their veins or shoots from the superincumbent strata in an upward direction, often witli tho most slender ramifications to a great distance, and by tho portions broken from the strata and enveloped in the substance of the vein. That they were ejected iii a soft melted state, produced 50 by l)ie action of heat, is shown hy the close resorn- plance, in mineral composition, of tlie unstratified i'ocks to llio products of existing volcanos, and by. remarkable changes often observed to have taken place in the strata, wliere they come in contact with granite and whinstone. Soft chalk is converted into a hard crystalline limestone like statuary marble; clay and sandstOiii:! are changed into a substance as hard and compact us fiint, and coal is turned into coke; all of them chaug's which are antibigous to what takes place, ~\vhon the substances are subjected to a strong aitificial heat under great pressure. In the case of coal, it is very remarkable ; for when a bed of that substance, and a stratum of clay lying next to it, come in contact v.'ith whinstone, the tar of the coal is often driven intp the clay, nnd the coal loses all property of giving flame, although, at a distance from the whin-* stone, it is of a rich caking quality. We ha'i'e shown, that we are enabled to fix a chro. nological order of succ'ssion of the strata with a 3Ucci'ssion of of precision ; the strata and order of considerable degree oi precision ; ana aitnougft we have not the same accurate means of -determining the relative ages of fho unstratified rocks, there are yet very decisive proofs, that certain classes of them are older than others, that ditfcrent members of the same class have been ejected at distinct periods, and that the same substances have been thrown up at different times Inr distant from each other. Granite, in veins, has never been seen to penetrate beyond the lower strata ; but whinstone and the lavas of existing vol- canos protrude in masses, and send out veins through all the strata : veins of one sort of granite traverse masses of another kind, and whinstone and basalt veins are not only found crossing masses and other veins of similar rocks, but even of granite. Upon the principle, therefore, before stated, that the penetrating substance must necessarily have been formed subsequently to the body penetrated, the above phenomena demonstrate successive formations or eruptions of the unstratified irocks. '' As the highly elevateds broken, and contorted 'M' close resein< m » unstratified |b irios, and by "M » have taken m coniact with 'M onverted into M marble ; clay 'M xnce as hard M d into coke; ^ to what takes 'Wi i to a strong \^ the case o? ^M I bed of that ^ xt to it, come 4 coal is often | 1 property of ^ >m the whin" J^ o fix a chro. [-M trata with a y although we | terinining the here are yet of them are |^ of the same ^M ods, and that W^ p at different ^j lite, in veins, ^B| nd the lower aH existing vol. ]^| 'eins through oH ni'te traverse j^| 1 basalt veins WM her vems of ^M the principle^ ^^B ng substance «H }uently to the nH demonstrate ^H 3 unstratified ^K id contorted ]^h positions of the strata are only cxplicabre on the supposition of a powerful force acting upon them from below, and as they are seen so elevated and contorted in the neighbourliood of the unstratified rocks, it is a veiy legitimate inft;rence, that the mountain chains and other inequalities on the earth's surface have been occasioned by tiie horizontally deposited strata having been heaved up by the eruption of tliese rocks, although the latter may not always appear, but be only oceasioiially protruded to the surface, through the rents produced by the eruptive ibrce. The phenoaieua of earthquakes are connected with the same internal action, and these have often been ac- companied by permanent elevations of entire portions of a country. This theory of the elevation of moun- tains by a hvce acting from the interior of tlie earth is not a mere inference from appearances presented by rocks, but is supported by numerous events, which have occurred repeatedly within the period of history down to our own time. In the middle of a gulf in the island of Santorino, in the Grecian Arciiipelago, an island rose froui the sea 144 years before the Christian era ; in 1427, it was raised in height, and increased in dimensions ; in 1573, another island arose in the same gulf; and in 1707, a third. These islands are composed of hard rock ; and in that lust formed, thero are beds of limestone and of other rocks containing shells. In tiie year 1822, Chili was visited by a violent earthquake, which raised the whole line of coast, for the distance of above one hundred miles, to tiie height of three or four feet above itS former level. Valparaiso is situated about the middle of the tract thus per- manently elevated. A portion of Cutch, near the mouth of the Indus, underwent a similar revolution in the year 1819, when a district, nearly sixty miles in length by sixteen in broadih, was raised by an earth- quake about ten feet above its original level. A vol- canic eruption burst out in an adjoining part of India at Bhooi, at the exact period when the shocks of this earthquake terminated. These cases must not be con, Jo^anded with the production of new mountains, sucU il 1 r at that of Jorullo, in Mexico, in the year 1759, whtch was raised to the height of 1600 feet above the table land of Mai pais by eruptions of scoriae and the out- pouring of lava. The appearance of a new island off the coast of Sicily, in the year 1881, is another phenomenon of the latter class. It rose from a part of the sea, which was known by soundings a few years before to have been 600 feet deep, to the height of 107 feet above the water, and formed a circumference of nearly two-thirds of a mile. It was composed of loose cinders, and the part that rose above the level of the sea, was washed away in the winter of the aanne year j but an extensive shoal remains. It must not be supposed, that these internal movfr. ments only took place after the whole series of strata had bee^ deposited i Ther« must have been lone intervals between the termmation of the deposition of pne member of the series and the commencement of that of the stratum immediately above it ; and internal piovements, accompanied with disturbance of the already deposited strata, after they had come to consoli- date into stone, appear to have taken place during the whole period, that the strata, from tlie lowest to the uppermost in the series, were deposited. The clearest evidence of this is atlijrded by certain appearances exhibited by the strata, in all parts of the globe, that have yet been examined. The diagram that follows yepresents a case of very common occurrence, and will explain our meanhig. It must be borno in mind, that it is an acknowl'jdged principle in geology, that all stratified rocks, in whatever position they are now found, must have been originally deposited liorizontally. There ai'e here five different series of strata, a, J, c, «f, e. Now, it is evident that the series a must have been first disturbed ; that after its change of position. 53 r 1759, which 30ve the table and the out- a new island 81, is another from a part of I a few years height of 107 mmference of posed of loose 3 level of the he same year j nternal move^ eries of strati^ ire been Ion? deposition of menpement of ; and internal )ance of the )me to consoli- oe during the lowest to the The clearest appearances he globe, tha| that follows nee, and will in mind, that ogy, that all re now foundj ontaUy. Esae the series b and c were deposited, coveriiiu' t?ie ends of the strata of the series a. But c appears to have been acted upon by two forces at distant points, when thrown out of its liorizontal position ; for the strata din in opposite directions, fonnin<^ a basin-shaped cavity, in which the series d was deposited. In like manner, after the disturbance of c, the series e wua deposited, covering the ends of c; but the internal force, which raised the beds e from the depths of the sea to the summit of the mountain where they are now seen, appears to have acted in such a direction, as to have carried up the whole mass without disturbing the original horizontality of the structure. It is obvious, that all the interior strata must have partaken of this last disturbance. There are, besides, numerous proofs, th^^ there have been not only frequent elevations of the strata, but also depressions; that the same strata which had been at one time raised above the surface of the sea, had again sunk down, preserving an inclined position ; that they had formed the ground, upon which new sediment was deposited, and had again been raised up, carrying along with them the more recently formed strata. - Ibid, strata, a, b, c, a must have e of position. v.— MINERAL KINGDOM. The subjects, which it is the province of the geologist to investigate, are by no means confined to questions concerning mineral substances, but embrace a wider field, involving many considerations intimately connected with the history of several tribes of animals and plants. It is not possible to give even a brief out- line of the doctrines of geology without referring to the great orders and classes, into which naturalists have divided the animal kingdom. It will bo neces- sary, therefore, before prococdin^ij to describe the •divisions of the stratified rocks, vvhicli geologists have ^ablished, and which are founded mainly upon Xh^ distinctivo characters afforJed by tlie romaiiis of organized bodies contained in tlie different strata, to say a few words upon the chissification of animals, iff order to render the terms we nust employ more intelligible to those who are unacquainted with th« subject. Animals arc divided into f^:)ur great bra~^ ^hes, dis- tinguished by the terms Verlehrated, Mc'JuscouSy Articulated, and Radiated. The first ^ division includes all those animals which are provided with a l^^ckbone ; and because the similar bones, or joints, of which it is composed, are called by anatomists vertebra, (from a Latin word signifying to turn,) the indi- viduals that belong to this division are called VertC' hrated Animals. It is subdivided into four classes; 1. Mammalia, comprehending man, land quadrupeds, and the whale tribe ; that is, all animals which give suck to their young ; the term being derived from mamma, the Latin name of that part of the body, from which the milk is drawn. 2. ^irds of all kinds. 3. All those animals called Reptiles by naturalists: the word means nothing more than that they creep, but i^ has in common language a far more extended sense than that to which it is restricted in natural history. Frogs, serpents, lizards, crocodiles, alligators, tortoises, and turtles, are reptiles, in the sense of the word as used by naturalists. 4. Fishes, of all kinds, except the whale tribe, which belong to the class mammalia. The SECOND DIVISION includes tribes of animals, which have no bones ; and because their bodies contain no hard parts, they are called Molluscous Animals, from a Latin word signifying soft. But with a few exceptions, they have all a hard covering, or shell, to which they are either attached, or in which they caj inclose themselves, and be preserved from injuries, t« which, from their soft nature, they would otherwise ba constantly exposed. There are six classes in this division, founded on certain peculiarities of anatomical structure in the animal, but tliese we shall not notice for, without a much longer description than we can ^ter upon, it would be a useless enumeration of har^ t » remains of rent strata, to of animals, iv employ more ited withi th« brc ^hes, dis- , ilic •luscous, liST ^ DIVISION ovided with a s, or joints, of mists verlehrcBf n,) the indi. called Verte- four classes; d quadrupeds, lis which give derived from the body, from all kinds. 3. aturalists : the y creep, but i^ extended sense atural history, ators, tortoises, ' the word as kinds, except s 7nammaKa. s of animals, bodies contain cous Animals, it with a few g, or shell, to hich they cai 3m injuries, t« d otherwise ba lasses in this of anatomical all not notice than we can ration of hard! names. It will answer our present purpose much l)etter to say, that the animals belonging to this division may be classified according to differences in the forms of their hard covering or shells, for it is the hard parts of animals which furnish th«^ records of their Ibimor existence ; these only are preserved imbedded in the strata, all traces of the flesh or other soft parts, as far as form is concerned, having entirely disappeared. Molluscous Animals, therefore, are divisible into, 1. TJnivahe.s, that is, animals armed with a shell or valve forming one continuous piece, such as snails and whelks. 2. Bivalve-t, or those having two shells uniteil l)y a hhigo, such as oyylcrs, cockles, &c. 3. Muhivakes, or those having more than two shells, of which the common ])arnaclo is an example. The THIRD DIVISION is assigned to what are called Articulated Animals, these having a peculiar anatomical structure, called articulations, from arliculus, Latin for a little joint. It is subdivided into four classes; 1. Annelides, or those having a ringed structure, from annulits, Latin for ring : leeches and earth-worms are examples. 2. Crustacea, or those which havp theii? soft bodies and limhs protected by a hard coating or crust, which in common language we also call shell, such as lobsters, crabs, and prawns. 3. Spiders, which form a class by themselves. 4. Insects, such as fiiesij beetles, bees, and butterflies. The FOURTH DIVISION comprehends a great variety of animals, which have an anatomical structure like an assemblage of rays diverging from a common point, and from which they are called Radiated Anitnals, radius being Latin for ray. It coiitains five classes, but as three of these are animiUs witliout hard parts, we may pass them over : of the remaining two, the one contains the echini or sea urchins ; the other, the very numerous tribe called zouphites, from two Greek words signifying animal and plant, because the animal is fixed to the ground, and builds its strong habitation in the form of a shrub, or branch, or leafy plant. Corals and sporges belong to this class ; and among all the different animal remains, that are found in tho QA strata, there is no class, which bears any proportion, in point either of frequency of occurrence, or in quantity^ to this hist. The great divisions of nnlinals, so far as the re- mains of species found the stratii are concerned, or, as it is termed, in a fonsil state, are thereby briefly Jhese : — I. Vertcbratcd Animals ; Classes — Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Fishrs. II. Molluscous Animals; Classes — Univalve, Bivalve, Multivalve Shells. III. Articulated Animals; Classes — Crustacea, In- sects. IV. Radiated Animals; Classes — Ecliini, Zoophites. Each class is farther divisible into several ^am/ic* / each faqtiily into several genera; each genus into several species, according as greater or minor points of resemblance and difference bring individuals near to each other. There are certain other great distinctions, which it is necessary to mention, viz. that some animals eat animal food, the Carnivorous; others vegetable food, the Graminivorous; some can live both in the air and in water, the Amphibious. Among fishes, molluscae, and Crustacea, some live in the sea, some in fresh water, some in both ; and of those inhabiting fresh water, some are peculiar to rivers, others to Jakes. There are also land-shells, such as the Gomnjon garden-snail. It is scarcely necessary to remind our readers, that certain species are peculiar to particular regions of the earth, being adapted by their nature to the different temperature and othei peculiarities, that exist in different countries. The number of distinguishable genera and species of fossil plants bears but a small proportion to that of fossil animal remains. The lowest members in the order, in which the stratified rocks are placed one above another, are dis- tiBguished by the great predominance of hard slaty rocks, having a crystalline or compact texture, but chiefly by this circumstance, that they have not been ^und to contain an^ fragments of pre-existing rockS| ftt fur as the re- are concerned, thereby briefly [immalia, Birdn, ivalve, Bivalve, -Crustacea, In- hini, Zoophites. iveral families ; ,ch genus into minor points of ^iduals near to eat distinctions, fiT.. that some vorous ; others iome can live le Amphibious. some live in both ; and of re peculiar to md-shells, such cely necessary es are peculiar ng adapted bv uro and othei ries. and species of ion to that of in which the tiother, are dis- of liard slaty it texture, but have not been existing rockS) lor the remains of ornr.iniz'^d b otVi 'S. On this acoount Ithoy lidvo born cull'^d the puimahy strata, as if [fisiiiKMl |)ri"i' to till' (xistriico of iiiiinml life, and as 'mt:iiiiing no cvid: i)(;o of other rocks having existed >cf()ro th''in. That we o'tnnot now discover animal ^emiiins in tlipso strata is, howovpr, no proof that they »!id not pr(>viously oxistfd, because we meet with ^ocks containin'j orvl»i«'h iM'illtPi' lVii|';m<'iilH nl" |M'(>-p\iMliii|r mrltH nor oi'j^funic rrmniiiM Imvo yd Ihm'ii iliMcovot'od, ^ooIo^iHlN nro juNlilK'tl in ilrMif.nnling llii'in llic /'/v//;///*// hIihIu ; 'o «'nll iIkmo i>riiiiHiv(\ MM llipy iihciI to Im<, nnd indopd nUII lU'c ralN'd l>y noiiip ji.'iil(if>;i:ilN, is |o cniplny ii Irl'in, whirli r\|>irNtH'H nunih nioro (liun wo uio •'iilillcd lo Tlio niiNlfiilirnM| I'lioK. iummI iiNMidly iiNSojdHlod wilJi \\\o piiiuaiy sir.'ilii. in i',i'iuMlt\ ol' dilU'i'cnt vnridicH ol' oouinoNition, iiMntdly lyiiif^ iindci- llimi in fi;i'oul inusH(>H, niid iMii'Nling tlii'onsrh. iniinini* loOy pinntirh'H, iih in (ho Alps, (jind Noini'linioM s<'ndin}.i; I'oilh sIiooIm «n" voinw, wliioli priiuMindi( pidddoM, iind iiitoi'slralilipd \\illi tliii'lv Ix^ds of linirNtono, iiu!lnp(»sitory of \\\o u\('\n\\\r on\s. 'I'lu'y «in», lor wjint ol' M Im>II( r tcitn l>y wliioli tlio rliiss ciiii \m dislinjk!;iiish(o)ogi,slN, hcciuisM lln'y were hii[i. |K\sod to I'orni n sti p or irjuisiliDn {'roin tlin priinitivo Ptivto ol' tlio j.vIol»> to \\\o condition in wliiidi it l)(';j;iin to be inhidnlt'd l»y livini;' Imdirs ; in strictness tla-y lorni tho lowest mcnil)crs ol' the nc\t vhi<'h is distinjfnishcd hy the iminc of t/ii' Secono\irtf liorhs. 'rhi>s(» will be trealed of in oiii noxt stolion. — lliid. Hi'- 69 tlint (Mitillnn v\n mil living UmWvH I'lMllliiHI Hilt, UN l»it<(l hy Mtnitii, in Hliii|jr I'nrKM noi' • Vt'l'Cll, >|;tMt|(»|^iHlH ii'iudii'ij Ml ruin ; 'o . 1111(1 illlltMMl Nlill «'ni|»lny II li V iiNSorialril will) i«r(l •' i'<»cliii|H)silii)n, but NOIIIC |llH. Tiicy an», tliii rlasM run l>i» (ion strut a, u niiino lO tliry WIM'O Niip- oiu tlin priniitivo wiiich it l)rji[mi lo ii'tiKss tliry t'onn It (livisii)ii of tin- h(> Maine of the rcatfil of in ow i'l.— MINKU/Vr. KIN(ilK)]VI. Thn Hi'.t'oN!tAi(Y RocKM (lompif'liriHl i» ^.^rent varlitfy of «liirnrrnt ImiIm <•!' hImiic, cxI' iMliiif/ IVom llm pririmry Htmtii to til" ckialli, wliirli Hiiiiim tlir upper or rnoHt rmnnit intiriilinr of tlm iliviHion. 'riicHP ror,ks (junslMt ol' an «'xt»'nNiv(! w rirM of Htnitn, of linirHtotH'H, Han Crustacea, such as Lobsters and Crabs. . Plants. Fresh -water shells, found in lakes and riveri Land shells, such as the Garden Suail Quadrupeds. Reptiles. Birds. Insects. Stems of trees and woods. , ,; .Smaller plants and loaves. ~ These several bodies are not found indiscriminately throughout the whole series of the secondary and ter- tiary strata ; some are peculiar to the lowest beds, some to the intermediate, and some to the superior. But allf of whatever description they may be, which occur in the secondary strata, belong to species now wholly extinct. By far the greatest proportion of those fbnnd in the tertiary strata, belong likewise to extinct species. It is only in the uppermost beds that there is any very considerable number of individuals, which are identical 'vith animals now in existence ; and there they prepon- derate over the others. The bones of man are not more liable to decay than lihtJSe of other animal^ ; but in no part of the earth, to which the researches of geologists have extended, has there been found a single fragment of bone, belonging to the human species, incased in stone, or in any of those accumulations of gravel and loose materials which form the upper part of the series of strata. Human bones have been occasionally itiet with in ftones formed by petrifying processes now going on, and in oaves, associated with the bones of other animals ; 6* 66 but these are deposits possessing clmracters which prove them to have bbcn of recent origin, as compared with even the most modern of the tertiary strata. The geologist may bo considered as the historian of events relating to the animate and inanimate creation, previous to tluit period when sacred liistory begins, or the history of man, in relation to his highest destiny. Although it belongs to tlie geologist to study the events that have occurred within his province during the moro modern ages of the world, as well as those which are in progress in our own day, his special object is to unfold the history of those revolutions, by which the crust of the globe acquired its present form and structure. The solid earth, with its stores of organic remains, which how rises above the surface of the sea, may be com< pared tO; a vast collection of authentic records, which will reveal to man, as soon as he is capable of rightly interpreting them, an unbroken narrative of events, Cominencing from a period indefinitely remote, and which, in all probability, succeeded each other after intervals of vast duration. Unlike the records of human transactions, they are liable to no suspicion that they may have been falsified through intention or ignorance. In them, Ate have to fear neither dishonesty nor the blunders of unlettered and wearied transcribers. The mummies of Egypt do not more certainly record the existence of a civilized people in remoje ages on the banks of the Nile, than do the shells, entombed in solid stone at the summit of the Alps, and Pyrenees, attest that there was a tin^e, when the rocks of those moun- tains occupied the bottom of a sea, whose waters were as warm as those within the tropics, and were peopled by numerous species of animals, of which there does iiot now exist one single descendant. Some scattered observations, and some fanciful theories founded upon them, show that a few of the philosophers of antiquity, and a few among the learned since the revival of letters, were not altogether una^afe of the existence of these archives; but it is little more than half a century since tlteir true value began- to bo understood. The cause of lliis i.^ rnsMy oxplained. Geology has grown out of the advanced state of other branches of knowlodgc. Until chrmistry, minera]ogy, botany, and above all, zoology, or tlie natural history and comparative anatomy of animals, had arrived at a considerable degree of perfection, it was impossible to comprehend the language in which these records aro written. Many of the early geologists, and some even in the present day, appear indeed to find no difficulty in reading them ; and when they moot wilh a passage which is obscure, they cut the knot, and reason upon some bold interpretation, which they arrive at by conr ferring upon Nature, powers wliich she herself has never revealed to us that sl^e has employed. But §ince the discovery, in recent times, by Cuvior and others, of a key to the language of these precious documents, many have been unrolled ; the errors of former inter- pretations have been discovered; and we i>iay now entertain a well-grounded hope, lliat if we cease to guess at meanings, and patiently search and compare the materials that are accessible to us, we shall arrive at such sound conclusions, that geology will be placed on as secure a basic; as the most exact of the sciences. Ihi4, VIIL— MINERAL KINGDOM. OKGANIC REMAINS. We find in the lowest beds of the series of the ksecondary strata, that the organic remains consist chiefly [of corals and shells, that is, of animals having a com- fparatively simple anatomical structure; and that as we ftscend in the series, the proportion of animals of more complicated forms increases, the bones of land qua- drupeds being almost entirely confined to the mora recent menibors of tlio trrtinry strata. From these circumstances, it is a reeoived opinion, among certain geologists, that the animals wliich were first created were ofnn exceed in ernu«Kt strjita. A niw.'^t cuiious cii'ciiM).-;liUicu lonnec ^-d with fossils, JH, the unequivocal evidence they ullbrd ^f there having h.jcn llinnerly a coinplelely ditlercnt state of our planet wi)h regard to cliniiites, from that which now exists. Throughout all the strata, from the lowest member of the secondary series, up to tiic last luycjr lying imme- diutoly bentalh that wiiich, in geological language, is termed a formation of the recent period, we find, in our northern latitudes, numerous remains of animals and plants belonging to genera, which are now . known to exist oidy in tropical climates. In the most northern part of J\siatic Siberia, at the mouth of the Hiver Lena, which flows into the Arctic Ocean, in the 70th degree of latitude, there are vast accumulations of the bones of an extinct species of elephant, and these in such a state of preservation, that a great part of the ivory used in fc5t. Petersburg, is brought from thenoe. Indeed the quantity is so great, that a Russian natural- ist has stated it as his belief, that tho number of elephants now living on the globe, must be greatly '( inferior to those which occur in a fossil state in those parts of Siberia. Tne entire carcase of one of those animals was found enclosed in a mass of ice, where it must have remained incased for thousands of years ; and yet, from the preservative quality of the ice, the flesh was in such a state, that, when it was disentombed by the accidental breaking up of the mass, it was devoured by the wolves and other wild jinimals. Moreover, it was thickly covered with hair, of which the existing species of elephants are nearly destitute ; thus proving that it was of a species adapted to a cold climate. Then, as to plants, specimens cf rocks have been brought from Melville Island, t/ie remote northern land discovered in our late polar expv ditions, some of which contain, imbedded in the ston j, portions of plants belonging to an order now krvoim Iq 7i) pxi.st only iiitiK' \V!rnn<\«!l [kuLs nl lln- 1 (|iiiii,re does nr,t appear to have hen very dill*- rent froni what it is now. To endeavour to account f >r this wonderful change in the temperature of tlie north- rn latiludes, is one of the most dilHcult prohlems in the physical history of the globe, Wc!'.u;>e it involves sucU a variety of con- siderations ; and we know iJiat tlui most important and extensive changes in the iorms of organized botlies, are brought about by very nice shades of difference in the circumstances of climate and soil under which they are placed. In the early stages of geology, many theories were started : the earth was said to have been originally in a highly heated state, and to have gradually cooled ; and it was maintained that during the progress of cooling, the various changes in climate took place: according to another theory, the position of the axis of the earth \vas at one time diit'erent from ^yhat ^t is no,w, and was 80 directed, that tTie polar regions \yero exposed to a inuch more direct action of the solar rays. But the inventors of these theories did not trouble themselves much with inquiring, whether they were in harmony With the laws which regulate the motions of the heavenly bodies ; and when they were subjected to the examination of the astronomer, they could not stand the test of his severe investigations. An ingenious theory has been lately proposed by IVtr. Lyell. His theory is, that all the indications of the former preva- lence of warmer climates, may be accounted for by a different distribution of land and water ; and we know irom geological appearances, that a very different pro- Dortion of superficial land and water must formerly navo cxistrd in ili"' I'^itlicrri lumispiUT;' fiini that wliiclMvc now riml. It is not vory fusy to i-fiite llio irmuuils of liiis ihcory in an abridged fonn ; but the mllosving explanation will p'-rliaps convey an intrliigibla idea of it. Wherever tli'-vc is a gnat expanse of wiiter, lilic tiio sea, there is always a more uniform tcmpfra. ture in the adjoinmg countries throughout the year, less extremes of heat and cold. On the contrary, extensive tracts of land are liable to considerabh* vicissitudes ; and hence the dilTcrcnce of an insular and continental climate in the same parallel of latitude. Moscow and Edinburgh arc very nearly in the sumo Altitude ; but while ut the latter place, there is neither extreme cold nor excessive heat, at Moscow, the cold m winter is sometimes so intense as to freeze quick- silver, and there are often days in summer as hot as at Naples. In like manner, the higlicr you ascend, tho air becomes colder; and tims in lofiy mountains, such as iEUia, the sugar-cane grows at the foot, and the lichen, or moss of Ireland, at tlie summit. In the Ijfty mountains of South America there are regions of eternal snow under an ccjuaturial sun. If we suppose, therefore, extensive continents, lofiy mountains, and numerous islands to have cxiskd in southern hititudes, where there is now a wide expanse of sea, and an ocean to have occupied the place of mn-thcrn Europe unS, Asia, it will be readily conceived, from the principles above stated, that very different climates would exist in the northern hemisphere from what now prevail. All the solid strata, most abundant in animal remains, are either limestones, or contain a large proportion of lime in their composition. JMany thick beds of clay also abound in them ; but in that case, limestone, in some form or other, is generally associated with tlie clay. From this it has been inferred, and not Avithout a strong semblance of probability, that anuaals have mainly contributed to the forniatioa of many limc.stone strata, in the same way as wo see them now at work forming vast limestone rocks in the coral reefs of the Pacific ocean. A rocf of this sort extends for three hundred and fifty miks along the east coaHt of Ne.v HoHand ; and between that country and New Guinet^ the coral formations have been found to O'tend, with very short intervals, tlirou/fliout a distance of seven hundred miles. Of all the forms of organized bodies, which are found in a fc^ssil state, from the lowest stratum m which they occur, to those of most modern date, shells and corals constitute by for tlie greatest propor- tion. All the stiata must have been deposited in soas pr lakes; and it is therefore natural, that animals living hi water should be most abundant. Besides, as shells and corals are not liable to decay, they remain, while the soft boneless animals, which inhabit them, perish entirely; and fish-])ones, being more perishable than shells, are comparatively rare. lUd. IX.— MINERAL KINGDOM. We have said that shells are by far the most nume- rous class of fossils : tlioy are found in all formations, from the lowest stratum in which animal rcnjains bave been seen, to the most recent doposits now in progress. To a person who has made couchology a special object of SLudy, there appear many sirikUig diiferences be- tween those found in a fossil siutc, and such as now exist in our seas, lakes and rivers ; but wei'e we to describe, or give ropn s' Jitations, of even remarkable fossil shells, a general rcrul-r would discover, in most of them, nothing so pociiliar as to arrnst his attention. There is, however, one_, vv'hicli is so diilerent from nny thing now living, and of such conunon occurrence, tliat we are induced to give it as a good example of an extinct genus. It is called the Ammonite, or Cornu Ammonis, that is, Horn of Amnion, from its resemblance rfo those horns which are adixcd to the head of the statues of Jupiter Amnion. Kl .■■■■'}-h,:. Here is a representation of tho extori'or of one of the Iftmerous species, of which this genus is composed. These shells are found of all sizes, from that of a fe^y lines to nearly four feet in diameter ; and ahove three hundred diireront species are said to have been ob- served. The diagram here given represents the two sides of a species of cruslaceoua marine animal, which has been wholly extinct from an early period in the forma- tion of the crust of the globe ; many ages may have elapsed since it ccr.s'^d to exist. There are ses^eral species of the animal, which has been cjilled TriloUte, from the body being composed of longitudinal divisions or lobes. It is found in the British i^les, in Germany, and Sweden : and specimens have been brought from North America. In some, parts of Wales the slate is »9 full of fragments of the animal, that millions must h^'? i^warmed on the snot. ^ 71 j^nothor fossil iuihiml u liich i.-; vciy peciiiiar in its ibrni is liiis called the Lliy Eacriiuto. Il resembles \hat flower upon its stalk, arid still more so when the several parts of which the flower-like extremity is conii- Jwsed, are 'separated and spread out ; specimens of it in this state are not unfreqiiently met with. That stalk is not a single piece, but consists of a number of distinct joints like those of the backbone, or like a iiecklace of beads, on which account the fossil has been sometimes called the Necklace-form Encrinite. The stalk is peiforated through its whole length, and the joints, when separated, have figured surfaces such as are represented above in the circular bodies, the figure being diflerent at dilFerent parts of the stalk. Thisy«w«7^ of radiated animals, which consists of many ■extinct genera and species, has not wholly disappeared, like the trilobite and uiumonilo ; living representatives of it are still found in the seas of the West Indies, and a very perfect spcciiuen may bo seen in the JMuseuii? of the Geological Society ; but the lily encrinite, that branch of the family, is not only M'hoUy extinct, biU has been so ever since tlie period when the New Red Sandstone was deposited. It appears to have had comparatively a short exist enco, for it has only been found in a limestone which occurs assooiutcd witli thj New Red Sandstone. It is met with abundantly in that particular limesto)ie wliiclj occupies a great extent of country in Germany ; but the fo.ssil has never been seen in England, and that kind of limestone is not found in our if'land. t" ■ 75 The remains of fishes ocour in .ilmo.vt c^vciy stratum, from the Old Jlcl Simdstono ii[) to tlio most recent de- posits of frcnh-water lakes. Fosisil fi.sli have been less accurately made out, as to the goncr.i to which they belong, than any otlier kind of animal remains ; be- cause the natural history of fisiies is not so far advanced as that of most other departments of zoology. The great French naturalit^t, Cuvier, brgan an extensive work on the subject; and, had he lived, much would have been done, for his masttr-Jher marine productions of a similar description — of q 76 few kinds of ci'ustacea, that i;.-. animals having a crust or shell like that of tlio lobster or crab, a few kinds of fish, some groat reptiles, and a few insects. No remains of land quadrupetli-', or of l!io niarinf^ mammalia, or of birds, have yet been met with in clialk or any stratum under the cluilk, except one supposed instance. Among the numerous animal remains tliat occur in tiie secon- dary strn'n, there is rsot a sinj.do ?'ii'?ci( 'i v,'!ii.?h has not been for many ages (xtinej ; rnd tvtn wliole genera have totally ceased to exist. Tiie exiinction of species is so importaiit a fact in all tliut ndatos to the geological liistory of the earth, that we will, even at the risk of some repetition, endeavour, by a little popular cxplauiition. to make clear what is meant by the term. Eacli particular kind or genus of animal usually consjsis of several individuals, which, while they possoss a convinon characler or class of characters, have particular forms wliioii dis inguish them from each other ; and such individuals constitute the species of a genus-. I'ho chtiAacters, by which geolo- gists distinguish the rchitivo ag s of strata, in so far as animal remains i;ro concerned, depend, not upon genus, hut on ihc sijccii'-s J lor wli':].; sp cios have become ex- tinct, one after the ot'u-r in sueer !;.-ion, the genera to which they belong hrut, not one of i he many species of oyster, which are met wit'i in almost id! the stj'ata from that lime-stone up to tiic chalk, is identical with any species pf oyster inhabiiing our present seas. It is unnecessary ibr us to jrive the names of the marine remains, wliicli arc most abundant in the sccon- dary strata, becau.so even with the assistance of figures, they would convey to tlie general reader no clear idea of their peculiar forms, as distinguished from those of piarine sliells, corals, sponges, &c. now existing ; but gome of the marinf^ reptiles are so extraordinary in point of form and ^17,0 as to deserve a more particular notice. Of the^e monsters of the ancient seas, nine i < different j:;;enern have already been foiiiKJ enlombed in the secondaiy strata, and of some of ihe genera there are several species. They have been called saurians by geologists, from the resemblance t!iey bear to ihe lizard tribe, saura being tiie (Jrcfk nunio for a lizard. A common green lizard is a tolerably good minialuie representation of tl]o general form of these reptiles , but a crocodile or ullig;itor gives a still better idea of them, h must he f'>!fi( ni1)ercd, hovvevci', t!iat in speidc-, iiig of the fossil lemains of those animals, we mean only their skeletons or bones ; the flosli is never con- verted into a fjssil state. It very seloom happens, also, that llio entire skeleton of any large animal is found, particularly in the strata that Vv'cre deposited at the bottom of a sea, and for this reason — the bones in the living body are kept together by a cartilaginous substance or gristh^, which after death putrefies, and then the several monjhers fall asunder. Very often, too, we find only dLt'iclicd bones; and this may be accounted for by another circumstance attending the process of putrefaction. When that connnenoes in a dead animal, a couhadorahle quantity of gas is gene- rated, which .s^\•e)ls up the body, and, if that bo in water, makes it ho mucii lighter that it lloats. In pro- cess of time the skin bursts, and the gradually loosened bones are scattered far apail. Sucli detiielied bones frequently cotruute all tiie data, by vvhieh we are ejiabled to decide upon tlie nature of the animal ; and the general reader may perhaps think :hat they arc ButTiciently scanty materirds, considerl* u' the important conclusions which gx'ohtgists soivn.iii.ies di;i.w from them. But the discoveries of philosopi:!')s, v. ho have occupied themselves in comparing the unati/mical struc- ture of the lower animals wilJi that of th' '.lumr.n frame, and liave created tiie interesting and oeautif d department of science called Comparative Anatomy, liave enabled them to establish certain fixed and inva- riable principles f)r our guidance intliis curious bi-anch of geological inquiry. This field of investigation has only been entered upon within u ft w years; but it lias already yielded so rich a harvest, tlii,t it has establishetl I'moiii*' 78 some of the mr>si iniportaal Iruths coimccted with the past history, of our planet. — Tho groat discoverer of those general laws of the aiiiimil kiugildin was the illus- trious French naturalist, the Baron Cuvier. He has shown, that there reigns such a liarnionv throuohout all the parts of which the skeleton is coniposed, so nice an adaptation of the forms to the wants and huhits of the animal, and such a degree of mutual suhordination between one part and another in portions of the struc- ture apparently quite unconnecled, that we are enabled, by the inspection of a single bone, to say with cer- tainty that it must have belonged to a particular kind of animal and could not have formed a part of tho skeleton of any other. Thus, if we present to a skilful comparative anatomist a small bone of the loot of a quadruped; ho will not only pronounce Avith certainty as to the size of the aniurd, to which it belonged, but v/ill say what sort of teeth it must have had — whether it had horns, and wJieiher it fed upon the flesli of other animals, or on vegetable substances. If many detached bones belonging to the same kind of animal be collected, the rskill of the comparative anatomist enables him to put them together in their true places; and thus a complete skeleton has been constructed of separate fossil bones, which liad belonged to several individuals of the same species. In tliis application of anatomy to geology we have a beautiful illustration of the intimate connexion of the sciences A\'ith each other. The discovery, in one of our stone quarries, of a few mutilated fragments of bone, imbedded in the solid rock, reveals to is the Kind of animals that must have inhabited this region of the earth it the remote period when the rock was in the act of being deposited at tho bottom of the sea, and tells us also that the climate was not that of the temperate zone, but of the tropics. The most remarkable of the fcssil saurians, which are found in the secondary strata, are those which have been called ichthyosaurus, plcsiosaurus, mcgalosaurus, and iguanodon. The first of these is so called from the characters of the animal, partaking at the same time of the nature of a fish and of the lizard tribe; '■-is ^Tl 79 ichthyis and saums bcinjj; two Cicok words signifying iish and lizard. Its head rcsoinblos that of a crocodile, only it is much larger and sharper, its snout ending in a point, almost as acute as the beak of a bird : it has a most formidable supply of shiup conical teeth, no less than sixty in each jaw. Its head was of an enor- rnous size, for jaws measuring eigiit feet in length have been found ; and it was furnished with a pair of eyes of still more extraordinary proportion, for the oval lioUo\ys for that organ, in a skull in the possession of a gentleman at Bristol, measure ft)urteen and a half inches in their largest diameter, llie size of a dish on which a tolerably good-sized turkey could be served up. The head was about a t()urili of the whole length of the animal, and was joined to tije body by a very short neck : the back-bone was composed of joints or vertebra dillerent from those of land animals, and similar to tlioso of fishes ; it was supplied with four paddles like those of a turlle, in the ?ower part of the body, and by means of these, and its very powerful tail, it must have darted very swiftly through the water. It was a most singular combination of forms, for it had the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of a croco- dile, the head and breast bone of a lizard, extremities like the marine mammalia, and vertebras like a fish. We can, however, form no idea of the appearance of the animal when alive, except such as is conveyed to us by the sight of the skeleton ; a very imperfect one, no doubt, as we know by the diirorenee between any animal and its skeleton placed beside it. The foregoing representation of the complete skeleton of the ichthyo- saurus, as restored in the way we have alluded to]i is given by the Rev. W. Conybeare, the eminent geolo. gist, to whom we are indebted for the most complete Bpcount of these fossil suuriana. ;.-: ' &0 -.. ". . ■ Remains of the ichthyosaurus liave heen found in all ihe secondary strata, between the red sand-stone and the chalk, in many parts of England ; but they are most frequently met with in the lias lime-stone, and in great- est abundance at Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire. They have also been found in SL;vcral places on the continent, especially in Wurtemberg. The plesiosaurus is so called from its near approach to the lizard tribe, plcsion being Greek for near. It has a considerable resemblance in the body to the ichthyo- saurus, but the head is much smaller, and is altogether ©f a different structure ; but its most remarkable cha- racter is the great length of its neok. In man, all quadrupeds, and other mammalia, there are exactly seven joints or vertebrce in the neck ; and so strict is the adherence to this rule, that there is precisely the same number in the short, stiff neck of the whale, and the long, flexible neck of the giraffe. Reptiles have from three to eight joints — birds many more ; the swan, which has the most, is enabled to make the graceful oujpves of its neck by being provided with twenty-three of those separate vertebrae ; but the plesiosaurus had np less than forty-one. Mr. Conybeare, to whom we are indebted for the first description and name of the plesiosaurus, has given the following representation of this extraordinary long- necked reptile, in a restored state, in the same way aa he hiis given us a figure of the ichthyosaurus. •^!sm^. Some fragments of the bones of a saurian of gigantic size were discovered by Dr. Buckland, a few years ago, in the quarry of Stonesfield, near Wooclstock, in Oxfordshire. According to the opinion of Cuvier, who examined them, they must have belonged to an indiyi- 4ijal of the lizard tribe, measuring forty feet in length Rl and ImviPg a bulk rqiir.l to tli;i.t ni^ an rlfpliant setren foot high. This fossil nnii))al was distinguished by Dr. Buckland with the niinio megafosauras, oii account of its great size, mcgale being Grct k for great. A most curious discovery was made a few years ago by Dr. Buckland at Lyme llogis. He had often remarked a number of long rounded stony bodies, like oblong prbblrs or kidney potatoes, scattered on the shore, and frequently lying beside the bones of the saurians when these were discovered in the rock. He was induced to make a closer examination of them, and they turned out to be the dung of the saurian reptiles in a fossil state. When found along with the bones they are always under or among the ribs. Many specimens of them contained scales, teeth, and bones of iishes that seemed to have passed undi- gested through the body of the animal ; just as the enamel of teeth and fragments of bones are found undigested in the dung of the ravenous hyena. Jt was thus shown, that these great monsters of the deep Ted not only on their weaker neighbours, but sometimes even on the smaller defenceless individuals of their own species ; for Dr. Buckland found in one of these stones a joint of the back-bone of an ichthyosaurus, that must have been at least four feet in length. He has called the stones cropolUes, from kopros, Greek for dung, an4 litlios, a stone. Since his attention was directed to the subject, he has found similar bodies in many other strata, and belonging to different animals. "In all these various formations," he says, " the cropolites form records of warfare waged by successive generations of inhabitants of our planet on one another ; and the gene- ral law of nature, which bids all to eat and to be eaten in their turn, is shown to have been co-extensive with finimal existence upon our globe ; the carnivora in each period of the world's history fulfilling their destined office to check excess in the progress of life, and main- tain the balance of creation." lUd, SECTION II. HISTORY AND CIIRONOLOGV. History is tlvc rcooid of puMic events that hay© occurred in the difrorent ngos and nations. Chronology treats of the proeiso dates at w liicJj these events took place. Our knowledge of hhlorical events is derived chiefly 0*on» the writings of individuiils; but these are aided by puhlic records, inscriptions, coins, and other documents of a similar nature. Our knowledge of the chronology of these events is drawn from similar sources. History and Chronology therefore are inti- mately connected ; yet they are so distinct as to suggest very diflia'ont trains of investigation. History treats r"" the characters of the persons engaged in the events which it records, the motives which influenced them, the cir. p^n^btances M^high le4 to the eyents, the incidents which accompanied them, the effects which resulted from them, involving considerations of the state of the na- tions that were engaged in them, their advancement in civilization and useful arts, and their relative position with respect to one another. The study of chronology, pn the Qt^er j^and, loac]s to the examination of the divi- sions of tinje that have prevailed in ditierent nations ; their modes of reckoning l\ours, days, weeks, months, years ; difierent epochs that have been used in ditferent ages and nations ; cycles and other periodical revolu- tions of years; the deciphering of the devices and legends of coins and medals, the calculating of the eclipses that are mentioned in connexion with historical events ; and, in short, the investigating and estimating of any notices of time that may be discovered either in natural objects, or in any record kept by men of the tran- sactions in which they have been engaged. 83 The Ile])rows were the o;ily nation of antiquity, who hull among thoin a rrn;u1iir chronological history. In the Sacred Scriptures, there is a chain of such history from the crontion of the world till profane history assumes an authentic form. In tho early portion of this history, tho chronology is determined hy a suc- cession of first born sons, ucconipanicd by a statement of the ace of each indivichial, at the time when his eldest son was horn. In the later portion ot ibi* 'ustory, the chronology is determined by the time ji nd tor the continuance of tho authority of a succession of judges, and afterwards of kings. There are some difficulties in adjusting this chronology, chiefly arining from variations introduced into manuscripts and trans« lations of the Scriptures, during a long course of ages; but still, tho best, perhaps tlie only guide, to a general view of ancient chronology, is the history contained in the Sacred Scriptures. As the land in which the Israelites were placed, was in the very centre of the World's population, in tlie neighbourhood of the great empires that successively arose, and as it became an integral part of these empires, the history of that people is intermingled with almost all that is important in the history of our species. In reading the sacred history, there is brought before us in regular succession the sovereignties established on the banks of the Tigris and the Euphrates, and the states that arose to eminence on the eastern shore of tho Mediterranean sea ; the kingdoms of Egypt, Ethiopia, Syria, Assyria, Babyjon and Persia, and the influence which they possessed in the affairs of men in diflerent ages of the world. The regular chain of Jewish hislbry and chronology is broken off at the building of the second temple, after the return from the captivity of Babylon, when tho Persian monarchy was at its height ; but a general view of the subsequent history of the world, marking the rise of the Grecian empire on the ruins of the Persian,' its separation into several kingdoms, the advance of the Roman empire in its gigantic strides to universal sovereignty, its strength and character, itj IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V- ^ ^i 4^ 1.0 1.1 £f U£ 12.0 H& f^ v± ^ ^ 6" » f^tographic Sciences Corporalion 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WIBSTIR.N.Y. 14S«0 (716) 172-4303 ^> *^ .5» V Q 84 decay and overthrow, is given in the prophetic visions of a Hebrew prophet, so graphically, and in a manner 80 perfectly conformable to the truth of history, that when we lose the aid of Jewish history, we cannot follow a better guide than the bold characteristic sketch of subsequent events furnished by the Jewish prophecies. The history of the world naturally divides itself into two great periods, namely, that which elapsed before the coming of the Saviour Jesus Christ into the world ; and that which has elapsed since that event. The appearance (Jf that illustrious personage on our planet was the commencement of that great revolution of mind, which has already produced such stupendous 6fi^cts, and which is every day extending and strength- ening its influence. It was then that those sublime views of the Deity, and that pure morality, which the nation of the Jews had received from the Scriptures, began to be diffused over the world, a process which soon changed the aspect of the Roman empire, and laid the foundation of that superior illumination and humanity, and those just conceptions of the rights and liberties of men, which distinguish Europeans from the rest of mankind, "as well as all who are of their kindred in other regions of the globe. The commence- ment of this mighty movement is happily marked among the nations professing Christianity, by their adopting it as the fixed era, from which they date all other events either before or afler it ; stating the time of their occurrence by the number of years before Christ, or afler Christ. We shall regard the birth of the Saviour Jesus Christ, as the great turning, or hinging point of the world's history and view the chro- nology of all other events with reference to it. Our attention, therefore, is, in the first place, to Be directed to those events which took place before the birth of Jesus Christ. The various dates and periods noted in the Hebrew Scriptures, as examined and compared by many learned men, make the duration of the world, from the 65 oretition recorded in the book of Genesis, till the birth of Christ, 4004 years. For aiding the memory, this period may be conveniently divided, as follows : . At the middle of this period, or two thousand years before Christ, and two thousand after the creation of the world, Abraham was born ; and the call of Abraham was the commencement of that important dispensation of Providence, by which one family were separated from the rest of the world, increased to a nation, planted in a central place of the earth, that they might presertd among them the knowledge of the name, and character, and law of the true Grod, and ultimately diffuse it among the rest of mankind. In the middle of the period between the creation of the world and the birth of Abraham, or about the year B. C. 3017, Enoch was translated to heaven, as a token of the favour and approbation with which Grod regarded his devout and holy character. In the middle of the period between the birth of Abraham and the birth of Christ, or about the year, B. C. 1004, Solomon's temple was finished. This period marked the fulfilment of the promises made to Abraham in their literal sense ; for then, and not till then, did his seed reign in peace and prosperity, from the great river Euphrates to the shores of the Mediterranean sea. Thus the whole period of four thousand years is divided into four parts of a thousand years each, every successive period commencing witb a remarkable event, namely, the creation — ^the transla. tion of Enoch — the birth of Abraham — and the comple- ting of Solomon's temple. These four periods, thus distinctly marked, may be further conveniently divided into eight, each of 500 years. So little is recorded respecting the first two periods of a thousand years, that it is of less importance to divide them into half thousands. We remark, however, that the first thousand years, namely, from the creation of the world to Enoch, is divided nearly equally, by the birth of Jared, the fifth descendant from Adam, which, was according to the common chronology, in the year B. C. 3544. The second thousand years, namely, from Enoch to Abraham, is 8 • 80 divided nearly equally, by the denunciation of the deluge and the commencement of the building of the aHc. The divisions of the latter two periods' of a thbuiliand years are marked by very important eras. That which intervened between Abraham and Solomon, is divided by the mission of Moses to the Israelites, their deli, verance from Egypt, and the giving of the law at Mount 8inai, which is determined to the year 1491, or nearly 1500, years B. C. The last period of a thousand years, or that which intervened between Solomon and the birth of Christ, is equally divded by the building of the second temple, after the return of the Jews from the captivity of Babylon, which event is determined to the year B. C. 615. Thus the whole period from the crea- tion of, the world to the birth of Christ is divided by liemarkable eras, into eight periods, of about 500 feank each, as in, the following table. ' if 6. ERAS. Years after Yean beli»n the Creatioii. Chrisf. A.M. i.C. I. CREATION. 4000 II. Jaked. 800 3M0 , III Erogh. 1000 1 3000 IV. Noah. isoo aAOO y. ABRAHAM. sitaD ' 306b i ^'* Moses. two IfiOO vn. SoLOMon. 8000 1000 vin. fezEA. flioo MO IX. JESUS CHRIST. 4000 A.D. •T ■ I ■ '* n of the delugo the bHc. ., .1 of ath6uli«uiia . That which ion, is divided 3s, their deli, law at Mount 191, or nearly bousand years, 9mon and the e building of Jews from the irmincd to the from the crea- is divided by •out 500 feaxk r YMnbefen Chriif. t C. 4oee ' 3M0 8000 asoo SMMO IMW 1000 «00 A.D. In tihe flbllowing ohapleni a tyooioct view of Ui a temporary check to their wickedness, it had done nothing towards purify, ing the human heart, from its proud, ambitious pai|sions. That very crime against which Almighty God had repeatedly pointed his indignation, which had brought destruction on the old world — violence and the sheddini; of human blood, soon began to appear in all its ferocity, and scenes of carnage commenced, tvhich have dis- graced and consumed mankind, and kept whole regions of the earth in desolation and wretchedness, till the present day. FIFTH ERA. Abraham. A. M. 2000.— B. C. 2000. At this era idolatry had made some progress. Even the family of Shem was corrnptod by it. Tera, the father of Abraham and of Naclior, wlion he lived on the other side of the E^iphrtitos, we are told, "served other gods." But instead of cIi! eking this evil by some awful infliction similar to the deluge, God selected a family with whom he might dcj) osito the knowledge of himself and his will, and to wiioui lie might give so con- spicuous a station among tiic nations of the world, as would tend to preserve that knowledge in the world, and diffuse it among the rest of mankind. This measure he commenced by calling Abraham to leave his native country, Mesopotamia, and to reside as a stranger and a wanderer in the land of the Canaanites ; a land which lay between the rivtr Jordan and the Mediterranean sea. To Abraham, wlio was fulling into the contagion of idolatry, he revealed himself, and maintained an in- tercourse with him from time to time, promising to give hini a numerous posterity, while yet he had no child ; to give the land in wiiich he had come to sojourn to his posterity ; and to make of them a great nation,, and to give them dominion from the Eujihrates to the shore of the Mediterranean sea. Abraham obeyed the call of God, and came from Mesopotamia to llie land of Canaan. This land was occupied by diflerent families descended from Canaan, the son of Ham, but to a great extent open and un- cultivated, yet with some towns or cities scattered oyer it. The sea-coast to the southward, was in possession of the Philistines, from whom the whole country after- wards derived the name of Palestine. The valley of the Jordan, which river seems to have then flowed to the Red Sea, especially that part of the valley which lies between the mountains in the south of Palestine 08 and a mountninous district .mx the eastorn side of it, sroms to huvo hnon more tliickly peopled, having in h several cities in the midst of a luxuriant country, of which Sodom and Gomorrah were the chief. The in- iiabitants of thosp cities had hccome profligate in the oxtrt'iuo. They were jroverncd hy kings, each city haying its own king. But these kings were tributary to an empire, tlie centre of which was on the eastern hank of the 'J'igris. It is probabfe that the kingdom erected hy Nimrod had, by this time, extended itself to the Jordan. The kings of the cities of the plain of Jordan had, about tlie time of the call of Abraham, rebelled against the king of Elam or Persia. And the next year, Cliedorlaomer, with four confederate kings, one of whom was the king of Shinar, came upon them with an army, defeated them, and plundered Sodom and Gomorrah. They were, however, ovortaken, in return- ing home, l)y Abraham, with his servants, and some of the neighbouring chiefs, and the booty recovered from them. Egypt was then governed by a king, and seems to have retained some knowledge of the true God. Damascus was built in a beautiful valley, watered by two rivors, on the edge of the wilderness. It is called by the inhabitants? of that country Sham, which renders it not improbable that it was built by Shem, the son of Noah. Abraham had brought with him Lot, his nephew, who went down to live in the vale of the Jordan, near the city of Goinonah. While he was there, the wicked- nrss of that and the neighbouring cities became so in- tolerable, that God rained fire and brimstone upon them, and destroyed them ; and, at the same time, the ground feeems to have sunk, so that the Jordan, instead of flow- ing through the valley to the Red Sea, was arrested in its course, and formed that salt lake which is called the Dead Sea. After this, Lot, who had been warned of the impend. ing fate of the cities, and fled with his family, lived among the mountains, to the east of the Dead Sea, where he had two sons, Moab and Animpn, by whose 04 (IcsRonclHiifi timt diatrict of country was aAorwards peopled. • Abraham had a ron by Tlngar, an Egyptian wonnan— Jshmael, whom he sent away from him, and who took iip his residence in the wilderneas, between the south of Palestine and Egypt. ' In his old age, Abraham had his son Isaac, who fva« to inhisrit the pronuses that had been made to him on leaving'his own country. Isaac, before the death of his father, married his near relative Rebekah, by whom he Jiad two sons, Esau and .Tacob. Esau, or Edom, became a man of the field, and frequented Mount Seir, to the k>uth-ea8t of Palestine. His descendants, for many ages, occupied that district. Under tlie ilame of £domitee(, and more recently Idumieans. ^' Jacob weiit to Mesopotamia and married two of his near relatives Rachel and Leah, and by them, and two other wives, he had tAvelve sons, who became the heads •of the twelve tribes of Israel. Abraham had also children by Keturah, another wife, whom he sent away from Isaac towards the eastward. Among these was Midian, who' became the head of ti nation, which is frequently noticed in the subsequent history. Jacob remained in the land of Mesopotamia for 21 years, arid then returned to Canaaii, where he found Isaac still living. Esau, his brother, who had addicted himself to the chase, and probably also to warfare, was at the head of 400 arrhed men," and resided chiefly in Mount Seir. Jacob had iele'ven sons at the tiMe of his return to Canaan, and one was born to him after his return. The two youngest were sons of his favoured %ife, Rachel, and were distinguished by him from his other children by particular tokens of aUTection. This occasioned discontent and envy in the others, which iieing increased, with TesJ>eot to Joseph, the elder of Rachel's sons, by his fidelity in reporting their vices, and by certain dreams, which he related, that seemed to indicate an ambition of ruling over them, they seized an opportunity of his being at a distance from his fether, to sell him tp a company of merchants passing 18 a Ac r wards M through the country. These morchnnts, who were Ishmaelitcs and Midianitcs, brought him to Egypt, and sold him there as a slave. * While he was there, the king of Egypt had a re- markable dream, which gave him unoasinoss, and Joseph being informed of it, felt himself warranted, by a divine impulse, to propose to interpret it. He was accordingly brought before Pharaoh, and intcrprotod the dream, to signify that it indicated that there would be seven years of plenty in the land of Egypt, followed by seven years of extreme scarcity. Joseph was immediately laised to the highest rank in the kingdom of Egypt, being intrusted, during the years of plenty, with the collecting of grain for supplying the deficiency of the approaching years of famine. While ho was engaged in the exe- cution of this office, during the years of scarcity, the famine having reached to Canaan, brought down his brethren to Egypt to purchase corn. Joseph immedi- ately recognised them, although they did not recognise him ; and after a variety of measures, the purport of which seems to have been to bring them to a sense of their guilt, he at length made himself known to them. The result was, that, on the invitation of Joseph, and also of the king of Egypt, Jacob and his whole family removed to Egypt, where he lived about seventeen years, and died. The Israelites, being placed in a fruitful part of the country, increased, under the blessing of God^ with ^mazing rapidity. Egypt. — Egypt had now become a powerful kingdom. That king, who reigned in the time of Joseph, in con- sequence of his having obtained the command of the supply of food during seven years of extraordinary scarcity, had been enabled to make his own terms with the people. And the arrangement which he had made was, that the people should pay to him a fifth part of the produce of the land, in lieu of rent as proprietor of the land, and of taxes as head of the government. This arrangement enabled the king to maintain a powerful and well-appointed army, with abundance of horsemen '». vad war chariots. It enabled him also to engage in those stupendous works of architecture, the remains of whfch are still the astonishment of the world. Egypt had also commenced the practice of embalming the bodies of the dead, by which it has been rendered so remarkable. Forty days were employed in this- opera* ^od in t\^e time of Joseph, SIXTH ERA. Moses. A. M. 2500.— B. C. l;500. ; The Israelites. — The rapid increase of the Israel- ites rendered them in process of time objects of alarm to the Egyptians ; " a king arising who knew not Joseph," }ie began to adopt the most rigorous and unscrupulous measures to diminish their number. He reduced them ^o the most abject slavery, employed them in building cities, exacting of them exhausting and overpowering labour. But finding that they still continued to increase, he commanded that all their male cliildren should be thrown into the river as soon as they wore born, and only females preserved alive. At this time Moses was born and was preserved from the eilects oi' tliis edict in consequence of having been taken under the protec- tion of the king's daughter. • His parents Iiad placed him in a chest of bulruslics, and laid him amon;]^ the lla.'iT,, by the brink of the river, and Pharaoh's daugliter finding him, adopted him as her own son. Thus Moses received an education which fitted him for the impor- tant office to which he was destined, as leader and governor of the Israelites. When Moses came of age, however, having been made acquainted with his de:scent from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and having been' in- structed by his parents in the privileges bestowed upon their nation by the God of heaven, he relinquished his fair hopes and prospects, as an Egyptian of high, even of Xoyol rank, and claimed his connection with the d^* 97 •pised and persecuted Israelites. He chose " rather to suffer affliction with the people of God, than to enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season." He saw an Egyptian smiting, probably putting to death, an Israelite, and taking the part of the Israelite, he killed the Egyptian. This being discovered, he fled acruss the Red Sea, to the mountains which lie between the gulfs into which the Red Sea divides itself at its northern extremity, which was then called the land of Midian, doubtless in consequence of Midian, the son of Abraham, fixing his residence there. He thus obtained an opportunity of becoming acquainted with tliut district of country, and with the whole of the desert that lies between it and the land of Canaan. While Moses was in Midian, the Lord appeared to him and commissioned him to return to Egypt, there to call together the heads of the Israel- ites, and then to go to Piiaraoh and demand liberty tor the people to leave the land of Egypt. Moses did so. The demand was, of course, refusctl; but, by a series of plagues, which Moses was commissioned to inflict on the land of Egypt, the last of which was the destruc- tion, in one night, of all the first-born sons in Egypt, Pharaoh was compelled to yield to tlie demand, and to let the people go. Moses accordingly led them towards the Red Sea, as if he intended going round the northern extremity of liie vvc.si.e.]-n gul f of it ; but by direction of God, he turned, and encamped close by the gulf, on the western side. Pharaoh seeing tlio immense body of the Israelites, consisting of 600,000 men, with their wives and children, entangled in the land, and appa- rently within his reach, pursued them with his whole army, and came up with them as they lay encamped, unable to go forward, lor the sea was iu their front, or to turn either to the north or the south. In this extremity, the Lord caused Xhe sea to divide, and directed Moses to lead the people through the bed of it. The Israelites thus passed in safety into the Ara- bian desert ; while the Egyptian army, in attempting to follow them, were caught by the return of the sea to itf usual bed, and drowned. 08 ^oses then conducted the people to the mountainous disfiict, where he himself had found refuge ; and thero ihe law was given to them, and their civil and ecclesi- -ftstical polity arranged. They then marched nortl). wards towards Caneian, and were directed to enter it, but, being afraid, and refusing to go, they were con- qemned to wander forty years in the desert, till all th« j^enerat'iott that came out of Egypt had died, with the fexception of two persons. During their wanderings, they met with many vicissitudes, fell into many sins, suffered severe corrections; but, at length, they were led round by the south of Edom, and, after defeating two kings who attempted to withstand them, they found themselves encamped on the east side of the river .Tor- dan, opposite to Jericho. About this time Moses died, and Joshua succeeded to the comraahdv He led them across the Jordan, which -was mii'atiiilclusly divided to afford them a passage. He first took and destroyed the city of Jericho, and after- wards passed through the greater part of the land, took the cities wherever he went, extirpating, or driving out the Canaanites, and setting the Israelites in their room. ' ,'■ Joshua did not complete the conquest of the land, many of the tiati vies retaining their footing in it. After •his death, the people fell from time to time into idolatry, and the Canaanites, who were in the land, or the neigh- bouring nations, particularly the Moabites, Midianited, and Philistines, obtained power to oppress them. During this period the Israelites we^e governed by judges, who sudceeded Joshua ; and these led them in war, and administered justice to them in peace. ■ In the first century, after the death of Joshua, Cushan-rishathaihi, king of Mesopotamia, oppressed ihem for eight years, when, on their repentance, 0th- neil was raised up to deliver them, B. C. 1405. The pesople enjoyed rest for forty years, but returning to idolatry, they were invaded and oppressed for 18 •years by the king of Moab, aided by the kings of Ammon and Amalek, and on their repentanqe were de= /-■ 09 livered by Ehud, who slew the kin^; of Motib, B. C. 1325. In about 20 years afterwards, the Israelites, having returned to their idolatry, were invaded and oppressed by Jabin, king%of Canaan, for 20 years. Ou their re- pentance, Barak, and Deborah, a prophstcKS, under the direction of God, assembled an army near Mount Tabor, on the banks of the stream Kishon, and, on their being attacked by the army of Jiibin, totally defeated it, B. C. 1285. This victory gave occasion to the celebrated ode, composed by Deborah. Another relapse into idolatry brought upon them an oppressive invasion of the Midianites, who tyrannized over them for seven years : and, when they repented, and cried to God for deliverance, Gideon routed the army of the Midianites, with 300 chosen men, B. C. 1245. On the death of Grideon, idolatry again began to appear, and on this occasion the people were chas- tised by internal warfare. Abimelech, a son of Gideon by his concubine, slew all the rest of Gideon's chil- dren, and was proclaimed king by the Shechemiies, but his adherents afterwards quarrelling, destroyed one another. On a subsequent relapse into idolatry, the Philistines and Ammonites obtained power over the Israelites, and oppressed them for eighteen years. Jephtha waj?, on this occasionj raised up to deliver the people, tie de- feated the children of Ammqn in a battle fought on the east side of the river Jordan, B. C. 1187. The Ephraim- ites quarrelled, on this occasion, with him, for not taking them to the war along with him ; and he intercepted them at the fords of the Jordan, and slew of them 42,000 men. About 33 years after this, Eli, the high priest, was judge ; and during his weak governn^ent the people fell into their besetting sin. The Philistines then came upon them, overran the country, and miserably op- pressed them for forty years. It was during the go- yernment of Eli that Samson performed his feats of piraculous strength. At length the Israelites wero 100 roused to resist the Philistines, and the sons of EH brought the ark out of the tabernacle, for the purpose of Inspiring the people with courage, and of terrifying the enemy ; doubtless, also, with some expectation that Grod would not permit that sacred synlbol of the cove- nant to be taken by the Philistines. But they were totally defeated, and the ark taken, B. C. 1116. Eli re. ceived so great a shock by this event, that he fell back- wards and died. Samuel, who had been brought up in the temple with Eli, then became judge of Israel. He was the last of the judges. His sons, being entrusted by him with the government of the kingdom, conducted themselves in the most profligate manner, so that the people demanded a king, that thoy might be like the nations around them. Samuel was directed by God to comply with this de. mand, and Saul was chosen the first king of Israel. He, however, proving unfaithful, the Lord rejected him, and chose David to be khig. This choice came to the ears of Saul, who from that time pursued David with the most deadly malignity. At length, Saul and his son Jonathan, a youn,?; man of the noblest and most amiable character, were siaiii in haitlc liy tiie Philistines, and David ascended the thi'one of Judah, B. C 1055, and became king of all Isi'uel, B. C. 1048. David was a warlike prince, and subdued the Syrians, the Philistines, the Moabites, and Edomites, and brought that whole district of country that lies between the river Euphrates and the Mediterranean sea under tribute, A-fter an eventful life, David died, leaving his dominions to the undisturbed possession of his son Solomon, who gucceeded him, B. C. 1015, Palestine. — This country had in the days of Moses become more densely peopled than it was in the days of Abraham. It was occupied by several tribes, descended from the same stock, namely, the family of Canaan, aa tho Hittites, Hivites, Amorites, and Jebusites, These tribes had built many strongly fortified cities, and had brought the ground into general cultivation* The cities on the 101 tea-coast had commenced that commercial career whioh^ for many ages, gave them much influence in the poli« tioal revolutions, which mark the general history of the world. But, in their prosperity, they had cast off all fear of the God of heaven, and had rushed, with one consent, into the most debasing idolatry. They occupied that land which Grod had destined for the seat of his own people ; and, by the time that the Israelites had become sufficiently numerous to occupy the country, they were, by their wickedness, ripe for the fate that awaited them. They had abundant warning given to them of the^ purpose of God to expel them. After the Israelites had been separated from the Egyptians by their passage through the Red Sea, they hung on the borders of Canaan for about forty years, wandering in a desert, in which no such body of people could have existed with- out a miracle. But the Canaanites, so far from taking warning and retiring from the country, seem to have been at the more pains to fortify themselves in it ; so that when they were attacked by Joshua, they seem to have regarded thtmisclves quite prepared by their for- tresses, their armaments, and tlieir leagues for mutual defence, to repel him. They were, however, subdued, with amazing rapidity, but not wholly expelled nor extirpated. Considerable numbers of them remained in the land, and for many ages greatly harassed the Israelites. In the time of David these original inhabitants of the holy land were either extirpated, or thoroughly subdued. Tlie empire of Jabin, king of Canaan, the capital of which was Hazor, towards the north of Palestine, and which rose to its height about 300 years before the time of Solom'on, scorns never to have recovered the blow that it received from Deborah and Barak. The Philistines also were tlioroughly and per, manentjy subdued by David. Of the states on the coast, Tyre rose to great eminence ; and the inhabi- tants of Tyre became celebrated for their skill in navi.. gation and commerce. Hiram was king of Tyre in the days of Solomon, and the two monarchs seem tQ 9* 102 have lived on terms of undistured friendship. Hiram gave Solomon mucii assistance in the building of the temple, and they sent out fleets together from Ezion- Geber, on the Red Sea, for commercial purposes. The places which these fleets visited, are not exactly Icnown. The nations immediately surrounding Palestine, as Syriq, Moab, Amnion, Edoin, and Midian, were, in the days of Dayid, brought into subjection to his empire. Moab and Midic^n had, at different times, invaded and oppressed the Israelites ; but they as well as Eclom, were subdued by David, and did not dare to molest Solomon. Of the more distant nations, Mesopotamia at ono time attained to great power under Cushan-rishathaim. They invaded, and greatly oppressed Israel, for a time; |)ut were defeated by Othneil, the son of Caleb. This seems to indicate, that the kings of those eastern countries still continued to aim at the extension of their dpminion towards the westward, as they had done so early as the days of Abraham. Of those descendants of Abraham who settled in the neighbourhood of Palestine, chiefly in what is now the penmsula of Arabia, the Ishmaelites, Midianites, and Edomites, had increased and become nations, governed by kings of their own. The Moabitcs and Ammonites also had become independent kingdoms. These several kingdoms formed a kind of cordon of kingdoms of tha kindred of the Israelites, on the eastern and southern boundaries of the land that was allotted to them, whose language was totally different from that of the Canaan> |tes, and also from that of Egypt. Egypt. — Egypt was at this time the chief seat of arts and sciences. If the book of Job was written by Moses, as is generally believed, astronomy, mineralogy, and natural history, had been cultivated to a considerable extent, and the \yritings of Moses manifest the most ppr- feet simplicity, purity, and sublimity of diction. Much pf these beauties of composition, doubtless, must be at- tributed to inspiration. Yet, observing how the natural gifts, and the acquirements of the apostles of our Lord, 103 were wrought up with inspiration in the compositloi of their writings, there can be no dou|)t that, \q the know- ledge which Moses exhibits of a vast variety of subjects, which were not likely to be communicated by revela- tion, we have some indication of the advancement of the Egyptians of that age, in science and art. Greece. — The kingdom of Athens is supposed to have been founded about the time of the birth of Moses, by Cecrops ; and Deucalion's flood, in Thessaly, is sup- posed to have taken place about the time of the mission of Moses to Pharaoh. Others think that this flood was a mere tradition of the universal deluge, and that Deu- calioft was Noah. The people, who settled in Greece appear to have been refugees from many nations ; and isociety among them seems at this time to have been in its elements. Their most ancient traditions, chiefly respect marauding "Expeditions, and the destruction of cities. About 260 years before Solomon, when the Israelites were governed by Judges, an expedition was undertaken by Jason, in ^ ship called the Argus, having on board 50 followers, who entered the Euxine sea, and coasted along till they came to Colchis. Here Jason carried away with him Medea, the daughter of the king of Colchis. This e:^- pedition seems to have been very much like what we might expect to have taken place among the New Zealanders, or the inhabitants of Tahiti, previously to the introduction of Christianity among them. About 70 years afterwards, Paris, the son of the king of Troy, in a similar piratical expedition, carried off Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. Menelaus prevailed on the Grecian states to espouse his cause ; and thi^ gave rise to the celebrated siege of Troy, whicli ended jn the total destruction of that city. It is supposed to have been in the time of David, that Cadmus intro- duced letters into Greece from Phoenicia ; and Homer, who celebrated the siege of Troy in his poem called the Iliad, is supposed to have flourished about the time of Solomon. 104 SEVENTH ERA. Solomon, A. M. 3000.— B. C. 1000. Thf Kingdom of Judah. — Solomon, on his coming to the kingdom, was in possession of every tiling that could contribute to the greatness and happiness of a mighty f)rince. His possession of tlie throne was undisputed — lis dominions at perfect peace — his government re- spected by the surrounding nations, and abundance of wealth flowed into his kingdom through the means of an extensive commerce. He himself was a master of all the learning of the age, and possessed much knowledge, in which the rest of mankind did not participate. He wrote treatises, which arc not nov/ extant, on plants aila on animals. He wrote many proverbs, or moral say- ings, and also many poems, some of which are extant, having been embodied in the book of inspiration. He lived in the utmost magnificence, and was energetic and able as a judge and a statesman. His great work was the erecting of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which, for many ages, was, as the tabernacle previously had been, the centre of divine wovsliip. Arts and sciences must have made considerable progress in the days of Solomon. The temple, which he built at Jonisalem, seems to have furnished the modi'l for tlic most chnsto and simple of the Greek temples, being, like the Gri ok temples, an oblong house, divided into nn outer and inner apartment, the inner the most s;icred ; a portico also, supported by two pillars, with tlieir bases, shafts, and capitals, and probably also, with, an entablature and pediment, being placed in front of tlie principal entrance. This temple was built of stone, hewn and polished in Mount Le- banon, the wood part of it also being of timber cut in that mountain j and the whole materials for the erection ^f the temple were prepared there, brought by sea to 105 Joppa, ani thence conflucted ov ;• tlio niouiitains to Jerusfilern ; so th;it, when ihoy came to be erected, no sound of any tool was heard. T'lis, of itself, exhibits Iiigh udvanccmcint in the incc'aanical uris. In the art of composition, nothing can (\\C( 1, fji* sublimity and ten- (lerncss, the Psnlnis of David ; fjr terseness and force, the Proverbs of Solomon ; or, for beauty and sim- plicity of narrative, the history of the reigns of David and Solomon. And this a the wicked king of Israel, in ah enterprise against Raoioth Gilead, whicli was in possession of tlie Syrians. In this enterprise, Ahab was killed, and Je- hoshaphat escaped to his own kingdom. Jehoshaphat engaged in another military expedition along with Jehorami now king of Israel, against the Moabites J and the two kings, after being in imminent danger of losing their armies and their lives from wimt of water, were, by applying to Elisha the prophet for directions, not only delivered, but enabled ,to defeat the Moabites; Jehoi^haphat died in 889, B. C, and was succeeded by his son — Jehoram.-^This prince had married Athaliah, daugh- ter of Ahab and Jezebel. On his accession, he mur- dered his brethren and introduced idolatry into his kingdom. Another Jehoram, son of Ahab, was, at the^ same time, king of Israel. In this reign the Edomites revolted from under the dominion of Judah, and never were again subdued. Jehoram was warned, by a letter from the prophet Elijah, of the judgments of God about to fall upon hipi ; but in vain. God then brought the Philistines and Arabians against him, who broke into Judah; plundered the king's house, and took away his wives and hid ^ons, so that he had rio sdti left him but Jehoahaz and Ahaziah.* Still remaining incorrigible, he was smitterf with violent disease, and died miserably, in the 8th year of his reign, B. G. 885: Ahaxiahf .his younger sSftn, succeeded him. He was the son of Athaliahj the daughter of Ahab, who seems to have been absent when the Philistines pame and took away the other wives and children of Jehoram. Under the advice of his mother, he followed the ex- ample of the house of Ahab in all manner of wicked, ness. Having entered into an alliance with Jorara, king of Israel, to make war upon Hazael, king of Syria, Joram was wounded, and Ahaziah went down to * Ahaziah and Jehoahaz are Bubstantialfy the same name, the Hebrei^ letlen being the same, but transposed. Azariah wai another name by which he was known. 108 Jczreel to visit him. There he wns Involved in ono common destruction with Jornm. Joliu, wlio had risen up against his master, finding tlie two kin^fs together, slew them both, B. C. 884. Athaliah, his detestable mother, then murdered all his children, with tl»e exception of Joash, who was saved by Jehoshabeah, a daughter of King Jehoram, the father of Ahazioh ond husband of Athaliah. Jehosha< beah, wlio had been married to Jelioiada, the priest, concealed Joash in the temple till he M'as seven years old, during which time Athalial), the queen mother, reigned over Judah. But, in the seventh year, Jehoiada brought forward joash to the people, who received hira with joy, and Athaliah was put to death. Joash thus began his reign, in the 7th year of his age, and reigned 40 years. Ho acted well during the life of Jehoiada the priest. He repaired the temple, and renewed the worship of. God, which had been sus- pended under the influence of Athaliah and her sons. On the death of Jehoiada the priest, Joash, listening to the suggestions of the princes of Judah, left the house of God and worshipped idols. Prophets were sent to remonstrate with him ; but in vain. Among these prophets was Zacharias, the son of the venerable Jehoiada, to whom he owed his life and his kingdom. He stood forward, and declared to the people, that, as they had forsaken the Lord, so he had forsaken them ; on which Josiah was so incensed, that he commanded him to be stoned to death, which barbarous command was executed in the court of the temple. Zacharias, when he was dying, said, " the Lord will look on it and require il ;" and, accordingly, before the end of the year, the Syrians came up, destroyed all the princes, and left Joash himself dangerously ill, probably from wounds which he had received. When he was in this helpless condition, two of his own servants, an Ammo- nite and a Moabite, conspired against him, and murdered him on the bed on which he lay. Amaziah succeeded Joash, and reigned 29 years. Amaziah raised a great army to make war on the 100 lldomttes, and recover them to his kingdom. In thif irmy he had embodied 100,000 men of the king- dom of Israel, whom he had hired for 100 talents of silver. But a prophet remonstrating with him on the sin and danger of accepting the assistance of a people whom God had forsaken, he sent back the Israelites to their own country. Amaziah then went on his expe- dition against the Edomites, defeated them, and treated them with great cruelty, as rebels. On his return, however, he brought their idols with him, and set them up and worshipped them. In the mean while, the troops thai ho had hired from Israel, enraged at being dismissed, came up when he was absent in Edom, ana committed great ravages in Judah. This induced Amaziah to challenge the' king of Israel to meet hiin in battle, and the challenge being accepted, a battle was fought, in which Amaziah was defeated, and taken prisoner. The king of Israel then brought him back to Jerusalem, h-roke down 400 cubits of the wall of the city, seized all the gold and silver that he found, and taking hostages with him, returned to Samaria. Afler this a conspiracy was formed against Amaziah, on which he fled to Lachish ; but was overtaken and slain there, B. C. 810. To Amaziah succeeded his son — Uzziah, in the 16th year of his age, who reigned 52 years. He was a warlike prince, and seems to have reduced war more to system than it ever had been before. He had a standing army of 307,500 men, well arrtied by himself, that went out to war by bands, according to an enrolment made of them. He fortified the city, and placed engines upon the walls to hurl darts and great stones upon any assailants. He at- tacked the Philistines and dismantled their principal fortified cities. He also succeeded in an expedition against the Arabians, and brought the Ammonites under tribute, and became celebrated for his military talents and success. But Uzziah's prosperity proved his destruction. He became proud and self-willed, and insisted on entering into the temple to burn incense according to the custom of the monarehs of other countries, but in direct opposi- 10 -: 110 lltdfa to the law of God. He was resolutely withstood by a body of priests ; and, becoming angry, he was struck with leprosy, and instantly hurried out of the temple to retire to a separate house, in which he lived till his death, B. C. 758. Joiham, his son, succeeded him, and reigned well for 16 years. He followed up the defensive preparations begun by his father, by erecting forts and fortified cities in the mountains of Judah. He defeated the Am- monites, and brought them under tribute. On his death, B. C. 742— Ahazt one. of the most profligate princes that evei reigned in Judah, succeeded, and reigned 16 years. He rah headlong into idolatry, with ^I its accompa- nying abominations. His dominions were invaded by the king of Syria, who topic away a multitude of cap. tives to ' Damascus. Afterwards Pekah, who had usurped the throne of Israel, defeated him with immense loss; 120,000 men being killed and 200,000 taken prisoners. The prisoners were conducted to Samaria, where it was proposed to make them slaves ; but on the remonstrance of the prophet Oded, they were not only set at liberty, but clothed, treated kindly, and sent back to Judah. After this, Aha:^ being distressed by incursions of the Edomites on one side, and Philistines on the other, and also threatened by the king of Syria, applied for help to Tiglathpileser, king of Assyria. This was readily given, as Tiglathpileser, was now meditating conquest, and he grasped at the opportunity of inter- meddling with the western kingdoms of Asia. He invaded Syria, took Damascus, and killed Rezin the king: J&ut he only harassed Ahaz by exacting gold and silver for his army. Ahaz stripped the temple and the palace of their gold and silver to pay the demand made tDn him. He even took the vessels out of the temple, shut it up, suspended the worship of God, and raised idolatrous altars in every corner of Jerusalem. At length, after a mischievous and disastrous reign of 16 years, he died, B. C. 726. . Ill Ihxckiah, LAs sor^ succeeded him, and reigned 20 years. Ho was an exemplary prince. He restored the worship of God, and made strenuous efforts to reform his kingdom. In his reign Samaria was taken by ShaU rnaneser, king of Assyria, and Hczekiaii endeavoure4 to collect the remnant of the people, and bring them up to Jerusalem, there to worship God in his appointed way. Afterwards Sennacherib, who had succeeded to the throne of Assyria, came up against him with an overpowering army, demanding unconditional submis- sion. Hezekiah having laid the matter before the Lord, the whole army of Sennacherib died in one night. Sennacherib fled, and was afterwards murdered by his own sons. ; and sent back We shall here pause in the history of the kingdom of Judah, and look back to the history of other countries during the same period. One reason for this pause isj that several of the great eras in the history of the most famous nations of antiquity, belong to this century^ and several of the most important, to the time of Hezekiah. Thus, the era of the building of the city of Rome, A. U. C. was the year B. C. 753. The era of Nabonassarj or rise of the Babylonian empire^ was B. C. 747. The dissolution of the kingdom of Israel was B. C. 721. The first Olympiad, from which the Greeks., were accustomed to compute their history, was a littliB earlier in this century, namely, 776 B. C. and the found- ing of the kingdom of Lydia still earlier, namely, B. C, 797. Besides these more remarkable eras, it may ho^ noticsd, that the first Messonian war was begun bjr Sparta, when Hezekiah was about geven years old, B. C, 743. To all this, it may be added, that about the close of the preceding century, the kingdom of Media, and also that of Macedonin, were foundt^d ; the former,' B. C. 820, the latter, B. C. 814. The young student of history, therefore, should fix in his memory the eighth- century B. C. as that in which the great kingdoms of antiquity began to be organized, and to lay the founda- tion of their iiitwj'e cminor?r>." 112 Israel. — Wo havo already observed, that ten of tho twelve tribes of which the whole nation of the Hebrews consisted, revolted at the cniTim':)ncornent of the reign of Rehoboatn, son of Solomon, fi'oin the fiunily of David, and elected Jeroboam thoii" king. Jerohoam, finding liiin.self olovaLol to the sovereign power over the larger pro|)')rtion of the nation, began to f'iir that his newly acquir..;d subjects miglit, if they went up to JorusiilfMn to woriliip at the temple, be induced to return to their allegiance to the family of David, and therefore erected two idols, one in Bethel, and the otiier in Dan. Before these idblis he com- manded the people to assombie, instead of going up to Jerusalem. This was tlie introduction of a corruption into that kingdom, from wliich it never recovered. He was in coi^tinual warfare with the Kingdom of Judah, and suffered that defeat from Abijah, which has already been mentioned. He reigned 22 years, and rfied to» wards the beginning of the reign of Asa, king of Judah. He was sjccoedcd by his son— Nadab. Baasha conspired against Nadab, and mur. do rod hiin. Baasha then usurped the kingdom, destroyed the whole family of Joroboam, and reigned 24 years. There was a war between him and Asa all his life, and his kingdom was invaded at the instigation of Asa, by Benhadad, king of Syria. B:*asha dying, was succeeded by- _ .: . _ -^^ Elah, w}) ) reigned two years, when his servant^ Zimri, conspired against him, and killed him, Z/'wjn succeeded him, but reigned only seven days; for the people did not approve of him, and called Omri, commander of tlie army to the kingdom. Zimri, how- ever, in his short reign, destroyed the whole family of Baasha. Then, Oniri came against him to Tirzah, and he, seeing no hope of success or of escape, retired to the palace, set it on fire, and perished in it. Omri succeeded ; but lie had a rival, called Tibni, who was followed by half of the people. Omri's party, however, prevailed; so Tibni died, and Omri reigned 113 iab, and muF- j his servant, alone. Little im recorded of Omri, but his wickednyei^ In his reign, Suinaria was built, which afterwards be. caine tho capital of the kingdom. He reigned 13 years, and diod towards the latter end of the reign of Asa, king of Judah, leaving his crown to his son. Aliab. — This prince is still more distinguished than his father, for his audacious wickedness. He married sL heathen woman, Jezebel, daughter of the king of Zidon. He then set up the worship of Baal openly, in Samaria. It was to stem the flood of iniquity let in upon the nation by this wicked prince and his queen, that the prophet Elijah was raised up; — but nothing could arrest them in their career of wickedness. His kingdom was inVaded by Bcnhadad, who still reigned, at Damascus, over Syria, and who seems to have sub-i ducd the neighbouring tribes, for he had thirty-twol kings with him in his army. Ahab, under the directioii of a prophet, was enabled to defeat this host. Next year the Syrians returned, and were again totalljF routed, and Benhadad forced to sue for mercy. Ahab and his wife Jezebel, in their career of wicked. ncss, persecuted the prophets of God, and established prophets of Baal in their stead. Ahab wished to pui*- ciiase the vineyard of Naboth, one of his subjects. Naboth refused to sell it, because it was the inheritance of his father. Jezebel then contrived the murder of Naboth, which was executed, and Ahab took possession of his vineyard. For this Elijah denounced on him, his wife, and his kingdom, the terrible judgments of God. Ahab, after this, persuaded Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to join him in a war against the Syrians, and was slain in battle, B. C. 897, haying reigned 22 years. Ahaziah, who had been associated with his father in the throne for some time before his death, lioW succeeded to the entire government of Israel, and reigned two years. His death was occasioned by a fall from a lattice in the upper part of his house. He \lra» succeeded by — Jehoram. lie came to the throne, during the reignf of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, who had a son named^ 10* 114 lehoram associated with him In the kingdom. The king of Moab having, on the death of Ahab, withheld a certain tribute which he was accustomed to pay to the kings of Israel, Jehoram invited Jehoshaj)hat, king of Judah, to assist him in subduing the king of Moab. Jehoshaphat consented ; and the two kings had well nigh perished with their armies by want of water, but were delivei'ed, as has been noticed under the reign of Jehoshaphat. The king of Moab, in his extremity, offer- cd up his eldest son as a sacrifice, to obtain deliverance from his God. It was to Jehoram that the king of ' Syria sent Naaman, the commander of his army, with an insolent letter to be cured of his leprosy. After this, he went to war with Hazael, king of Syria, and was wounded. He retired to Jezrcel to be cured of his wounds ; and while he lay there, Jehu, one of the commanders of his army, formed a conspiracy against him, and put him to death. Ahaziah, king of Judah, was slain at the same time. Jehu succeeded, and reigned 28 years. He put to death Jezebel, and the wliole family of Ahab,, and massacred all the priests of Baal ; but he himself con-' tinned to worship the idols which Jeroboam had set up. In his reign, Hazael king of Syria, encroached upon the territory of Israel, taking possession of that part of it which lay to the east of the river Jordan. On the death of Jehu, Jehoahaz, his son, succeeded him, and reigned 17 years. The Israelites persisting in their idolatry, Hazael, king of Syria, was permitted to invade the land, and to succeed in oppressing it during the whole reign of Jehoahaz. This prince dying, was succeed- ed by Joashy or Jehoash, his son, while Joash, the son of Ahaziah, reigned in Judah. He reigned 16 years; and, though he persevered in the hereditary idolatry of the kingdom, yet manifesting respect and attachment to Elijah the prophet, God gave him three victories over the Syrians, and enabled him to recover the cities which had fallen into their hands. Joash also defeated 115 Aniaziah, king of Jiidah, and broke down part of the wall of Jerusalem, as has already been noticed under the reign of that prince. Joash died, and was suc- ceeded by Jeroboam, the second of that name. He reigned 41 years in Samaria. In this reign, the Israelites were still further secured from the oppression of tiie Syrians, and even obtained possession of Damascus and Hamatli, which David had subdued. He died 784 B. C. upon which followed an interregnum of eleven years. Jonah the prophet lived during his reign. Jeroboam was succeeded by Zacliariahy his son, who reigned wickedly six months. Shallum conspired against him, and slew him, and usurped the throne, but reigned only one month, for Menahem attacked him and slew him, and reigned ten years over Israel. His reign was, like those of tho other kings of Israel, idolatrous, and wicked. Tho Assyrian kings, who had hitherto boen restrained from intermeddling with Israel and Juduh, now began to harass Menahem ; and he, to purchase peace, gave to Pul, king of Assyria, 1000 talents of silver, equal to about £340,000. ' Menahem having died, Pckahiah succeeded, and reigned ill two yeiars. Pekq,h, the son of Remaliah, an officer in his army, conspired against him, put him to death, usurped his throne B. C. 759, and reigned twenty years. PektUi made a league with Rezin, king of Assyria, against Judah ; but it did not succeed. He invaded Judah in the reign of Ahaz, and gained tliat great victory which has already been noticed. In his roign, Tiglathpileser invaded Israel, and took posse^ssion of the country east- ' ward of Jordan. Hoshcq, formed a conspiracy against Pekah, put him to death, and usurped the throne B. C. 730, in tlio reign of Ahaz, king of Judah. Iloshea reigned wick- edly, like the other kings of Israel. His dominions were invaded by Shalmancsor, king of Assyria. Hosea submitted to him, and paid him tribute ; but after >vards Shalmaneser discovering that Hosliea was giving 116 himself into the hands of So, king of Egypt, and with, holding tribute from him, went up and besieged Samaria, took it, and carried the people captive to his QY^n land, and thus put on end to the monarchy of Israel, in the year 721, B. C. after it had continued from the reign of Jeroboam I. 254 years. We now bring down the accounts of the heathen nations to the time cf Hezekiah. Of the original inhabitants of Palestine, tlie inhabitants of Tysk, wliom wo found advanced in civilization, skilful in muvltiine alfairs and commerce, still continued to rise in riches and power. The Philistines also continued to bo an independent people. In the reign of Jfirnni, king of Juduh, B. C. 888, theyi made an inroad into Judah, and carried away the wives and sons of Joram. Tiiey were, how- ever, rapidly falling under permanent subjection to the great monarchies that were rising up around them. Similar observations are equally npplicable- to the other small states around Judah. The Moabites and Edomites, at an early period of the nintli century, B. C. threw off the yoke of the Jews, by whom they were never again subdued. The Edomites, or Idu- means, elected a king, and were afterwards governed by their own kings. Of Egypt, little is known, from the time that elapsed between the departure of the Israelites out of it till Solomon. In the days of Solomon it was still a great kingdom and seems to have carried on a considerable trade ; for it is recorded, that Solomon imported, from Egypt, horses and chariots, and linen yarn, not only for himself, but for the kings of the Hittites, and for the kings of Syria. And soon after the days of Solomon, we find Egypt performing a distinguished part in the history of the world. In tlie reign of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, Shishach, supposed by some to be Sesostris, invaded Judah, laid it under tribute, and carried away the shields of gold 117 >. ich Solomon had made, and jilso much treasure, I'». C 971. At a latrr period, during the roign of Jlrzckiah, Sabacus, or So, an Kthiopian, was king of Egypt, B. C. 725. He ench-uvourod to persuade Hoshea, king of Israel, to forsake his alliance with the king of Assyria., nnd enter into an alliance with himvself. This indicates that Egypt, in the d;iys of Hezekiab, was attempting to rival the power and influonce of the Assyrian king. Syria, towards tlie middle and end of the first century after the age of Solomon, was making con- quests. Benhadad, king of Syria, or Damascus, re- peatedly invaded laracl, hut was ultimately defeated by Ahab. Afterwards, r( covering himself, Benhadad in- vaded Israel and bcsi(>gi d Samaria ; but Ids army fled in a panic, which God sent upon thiin. In a subse- quent war, Ahab was slain by him iii battle. In the same year, 885 B. C. Ilazael, a servant of Benhadad, murdered hit=n, usurped tlie tlirone, and raised Syria to the greatest height of power which it ever reached, lie invaded Israel in the reign of Jehu, defeated him. arid ravaged the kingdom. He afterwards invader. Judah, but was induced by presents, to withdraw Ids fliwy. He, however, returned, and in the reign of Jehoash, sacked Jerusfdem, putting to death the p'-in- ees, and canying oil" much plunder. Hazael died in 839 B. C. leaving the kingdom to his son Benhadad, who was the third king of that name. He was de- f.-ated by Jehoash king of Israel, and his kingdom again brought under tribute. At a later period, in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, of Pekah, tiie son of Remaliah, king of Israel, and of Rezin, its own king, Syria, was attacked by Tiglathpileser, king of Assyria, and brought into a bondage from which it iias never »" covered till the present day. ■ , - Assyria was now iiidulging ambitious projects. Pul, apparently the first who rendered Nineveh th^ mistress of an extensive empire, brought Israel undei* U8 Tig. tribute in the roigh of Mcnahom, B. C. 771. Jiithpilcscr, who succeeded Pul, reigned 19 years at Kineveh, invaded and conquered Syria, and exacted tribute from Judnh. After him Slutlmaneser, in the reign of Hoshca, invade d Israel, tooli Samaria, and put nn end to that monarchy, B. C. 721. He also made war upon Tyre, ond besieged it five years, without success. Scnnacliorib succeeded Slialmaneser, and in- vaded Judah in the reign of Ilczekiah, and took several towns, lie was pncificd for a time by the payment of a tribute, and went rgainst Egypt. He, however, re- turned to besiege Jerusnlem ; but. Ilezekiah, having jaid his letter and his blasphemy before the Lord, in prayer, the wliole of his army were destroyed in one night. He himself fled lo Nineveh, and was there purdered by two of his sons. ■ { ■■ ■ ' Babylon, having hitherto been dependent on Nine- veh or Assyria, became an independent state, a short time before the reign of Hi zckiah. Nabotiassar, from whom the rise of the Babylonian or Chaldean monar- chy is dated came to the throne, B. C. 747, which year is called the era of Nabonassar. Merodach Ba- ladan, one of his successors, was he who sent the in- sidious message to Hezcklah, for the purpose of ascer- taining the state of his kingdom. Media, also, had sometime before this, thrown ofl' the yoke of Assyria, and become an independent king, dom under Arbaces, who reigned over it 28 years. ^he reigns of this prince and his successors, however, for upwards of a century, are by many considered as little better than fabulous ; and the rise of the Median monarchy is dated from B. C. 700, during the life of Hezekiah, when Dejoces was elected king. In Greece, Lycurgus, while Athaliah was in pos- session of the throne in Jerusalem, B. C. 884, intro- duced his system of laws into Lacedaemon, And in he reign of Hezekiah, the Spartans were engagecl in I U9 their first ferocious and deadly struggle to enslave th# Messenians, having begun it B. C. 743. During the reign of Joash, king of Judah,- and while Jehoiada the priest was yet living, B. C. 869, Ci.RTHA6E^ is said to have been founded by Elisa or Dido, sister of the king of Tyre ; she having, m consequence of the murder of her husband, fled to Africa. In Italy, Rome was built by Romulus, B. C. 753, which year is the era of the building of that city, marked by the Initials, A. U. C. Anno Urhis Conditce. This was in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah. In Hezekiah's ' reign, the infant city was yet engaged in its contests with the neighbouring states. The rape of the Sabine virgins was in 750 B. C. FROM HEZEKIAH TO EZRA. The Kingdom of Judah. — On the death of Hezckiah| he was succeeded by his son, Mana,sseh. — The beginning of the reign of Manasseh was marked by extraordihary wickedness. He entered, with his whole heart, into the practices of the heathen ; built idolatrous altars in the courts of the temple ; made his children pass through the fire in honour of Moloch; used enchantments; dealt with a familiar spirit, and made the streets of Jerusalem flow with innocent blood. His subjects seem to have entered with him heartily into all the wickedness ; so that the Lord finally denounced upon his kingdom that doom, which about half a century afterwards was executed. Manasseh was visited with severe chastisement. The king of Assyria sent an army, which took him prisoner, and brought him to Babylon in fetters. There, in his affliction, he remembered the Lord Go4 120 of his fathers, repented of his sin, and besought tlie Lord to pardon him ; and the Lord heard him, and restored him to his itingdom. He then set himself to qndo, as far as possible, the miscliief that he had done in the former part of his reign ; but the pacple do not seem to have entered so heartily with him into his measures of reformation, as they did into his apostacy. Although he himself was pardoned, the sentence against the nation still remained unrepealed. He died, after a reign of 55 years, B. C. 643. ,He was succeeded by his son, Afnon. — He followed the wicked example of the early part of his father's reign ; but did not follow him in his repentance. After a reign of two years, his servants yfConspired against him, and murdered him. The people resented this conspiracy, put to death the pons^irators, and raised tp the throne his son, Josiah, in the eighth year of his age. His character is one of the most beautiful m the whole sacred volume and his efforts to reform the nation were the last that were made to retrieve the downward course of the kingdom. It Avas in the eighth year of-his reign, or the 16th of his age, that he began seriously to ?eek the Lord God of his flithers ; and in the 20th year of his age, he had begun his measures for purging his kingdom from the gross and open wickedness that had overrun it. Having banished idolatry from the land, he revived the worship of the God of Heaven in the temple at Jerusalem. In the course of purifying the temple, the book of the law was fbunH, which seems to have been concealed from him bj- a sycophant priesthood ; and, when he read the commands of tlie law, and the denunciations annexed to them, he was in deep distress, and sent immediately to inquire of th.e Lord respecting the book. The reply justified his apprehensions, that destruction was hanging over his kingdom ; which, however, he was informed, sliould not come upon it in his day. The poopJe, although to a certain extent, externally rcfjrmed, retained all their predilection for idolatry, which accordingly broke out 4new on the removal of .Tosiah. 12X The occasion of liiii death wtis this. Pharaoh Necho, who reigned in Egypt, waa a powerrul monarch ; and Babylonia, having fallen under tho government of a bold ambitions prince, these two moiiarchs were soon in- volved in war with one another, Pharaoh seems to have been the assaihuit, for he led his army as far as the Euphrates, to bf\sicge Cnrchemish. Having in his march to pass near to Jivlah, Josiah went out to inter- cept i)im, and M'ould not be dissuadf.d from thus em- broiling himself in the quarrel. The result was, that in a battle botween the arn>y of Egypt and that of Judah, Josiah was kilh il, ufler having reigned 31 years. ^rsmodiatoly on lii.s death, the people raised his younger son Ska//ui/i, or JcJioahaz, to the throne ; but the king of Egypt, having, by iiis victory, acquired an ascendancy over the kingdom of Judah, set aside .j" election, carried Jeiioahiiz to Egypt, and placed tj elder brother Eliakim, whose nuine he changed^ Jehoiakim, on the throne. He then proceeded on his expedition against Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, but was defeated. Nebuchadnezzar, thus obtaining the ascendancy in Judah, d.'posed Jehoiakim, and put him in fetters, for the purpose of carrying him to Babylon ; Dut on his promising to hold the kingdom under him, he restored him to it. It was at this time that Daniel and his three friends, Shadruch, Mcshiicii, and Abed- nego, were carried captives to Babylon ; and it is from this first incursion of Nebuchadnezzar into Judah, that the 70 years' captivity of the Jews, to the first decree for their restoration, are computed. Jehoiakim, having mainta;acd his allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar for three years, at the end of that time revolted. The consequence was, that Nebuchad- nezzar sent an army against him, which hiid waste the country, took Jehoiakim prisoner, and put him to death in the year B. C. 599. On the death of Jehoiakim — Jelioiachin, (named also Ccniiah and Jeconiah,) his eon, ascended the throne ; but not having obtained the QQi^sent of Nebuchadnezzar, he. after reigning thro* 122 months, was set aside, and carried to Babylon. Along fWith him, Ihoro were taken nil the gold and silver "Vessels, and treastiros of the tempi'*, also all tho able fnen, and men of influence in Jerusalem, to the nuni- |)er of 10,000, and 8,000 artiilcors from the country ; ihe poorest of tho people only being left. It was in this captivity, that Mordecni and Ezekiel were taken ; iind Ezekiel reckons tho tiniR, in his prophecy, from this captivity, which took place in the reign of Jfehoiachin. • Zedekfah, brothei' of the fijrmer king, Jchoiakim, was theii placed on the throne by Nebuchadnezzar. Meanwhile, tho king of Egyj»t bore, with impatience, the increasing power of Babylon, and watched for an opportunity of curtailing it. In the 8th year of tho reign of Zedekiah, ho made a feeble elTort to revive tho power and , influence of his kingdom, and persuaded Zedekiah to break faith with Nebuchadnezzar, and join in alliance with Egypt to resist him. On the revolt of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar camn against him ^ and, having laid waste the country, besieged Jerusalem. Tho king of Egypt came up for tho purpose of relieving the city. Nebuchadnezzar raised the siege, and marched against him ; but he retreated within his own territory, leaving Jerusalem to its fate. Nebuchad- nezzar then returned to the siege. The city was exceedingly strong, and well calculated, from its position tind fortifications, to resist the implements of warfare then in use, so that Nebuchadnezzar had no resource but to reduce it by famine. He surmunded tho city with his army, to prevent all ingress or egress, and, After holding this position for about two years and a half, the distress within tlie city was so great, that the people were devouring one another, ana women were discovered cooking and eating their own infants. Al length Zedekiah made an attempt to pass through the Chaldean army, but was discovered, overtaken, and brought to Nebuchadnezzar, who treated him . as a febel, made his children be put to death before hia eyes, and then caused his eyes to be put out- In the inean while the Chaldean army burst into the city 123 made a dreadful ctiruuge uiiiuii;^ the |> 'oplo, buracd the temple and all the principnl edUicf s, iiuil umdo slaves of all whom tliey did not put to the awun'. Zudckiah was curried to Babylon, wluro he died. ' 'Ims was dissolved the kingdom of Juduh, in the your B. C. 588 ; and it is from this captivity that iho 70 years aro to bo reckoned to the decree of Darius Ilystu.'r.pe.s, king of Persia, to restore tho city and tenii)le. DA'oYL.ON.-r-Tho era of Nabonassar, who may bo considered tho first king of B;il)vlon, has bot^n de- termined to correspond to tho year B. 0. 747, or three years after the birth of Hezokiali. For somo time, Ihe history is obscure, tho kings of Assyria and Babylon sometimes scemiuij to bo the same, and some- times dillercnt. Tho general current of the history seems to have been, that tho kings of Babylon were at first govcnors for the kings of Assyria ; but that, ufler various struggles, they rendered tliomselves indo- j)endent. To Nabonassar succeeded several kings, little or nothing of whom is known, and whoso names it is not necessary hero to record. After the death of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, who Invadi^ Judah in the reign of Ilczekiah, Assarharddon, t^ucceeded him ; and, during the latter part of his reign, had Babylon, as well as Nineveh, under his dominion, lie came to tho throne during the reign of Hezekiah, and died in that ofManasseh. lie was succeeded by Saoadiichinus, of whom nothing is known. It was probably in his reign that Manasseh was restored to hia kingdom. To him succeeded Chyniladan, who is supposed, on good grounds, to havo been the Nabuchadonosor of the book of Judith. If so, he occupied Palestine with his army, prob-ably during the reign of Josiah, when tliat prince was yet too young to resist him. To Chyniladan succeeded Sarac, or Sardanapalus, — lie committed his forces in Chaldea to Nabopolassar, who rebelled against him ; and, to strengthen his rebellion, invited the Modes, who had always borne the sway of the Assyrian empire ^yith impatience, to uaite wi''^ ^Mm. They did so. 124 and the two armies besieged Nineveii. Sardanapalus, dreading the calamities that seemed to be coming upon him, retired to his palace with his wives, and, having set it on fire, was there destroyed, with his whole family and property. The allied army of Medes and Babylo- nians, some time afterwards, took Ninuveh, and destroyed it. Nobopolnssar associated his son, Nebuchadnezzar, with him on the throjie, two years before he died ; and, on his death, was suc<^eeded by Nebuchadnezzar, when Jehoiakim was on the throne of Judah. His troutment of the Jews has already been noticed. Under him the Babylonian empire, or the first of the four great monai'chies; d(iscribcd in the pro- phecies of Danic-l, readied its greatest lieight. Having established his government in the cast, he attacked Pharaoh Necho, and drove him within the boundaries of his own kingdom. He then set himself to strengthen and ornament the city of Babylon. He enclosed an immense space of ground witiiin an enormous wall, and erected hanging gardens, or gardens on elevated terraces, which have been the wonder of the world. He seems to have rcpaii'cd the tower of Babel, and fitted it to be a leiapie iur jiis god ; und there probably he set up that golden initige Vv'iiich the tin'ee Hebrew captives refused to worship. While these events were passing in Babylon, the nations to the west of the Euphrates were seeking an opportunity to revolt against him. I'he leading pov, ers in tins confederacy seem to have been Tyie and Egypt. Tyre had then become the greatest conunercial city in tlic world, and possessed the greatest nmritinie power then known. Nebuchadnezzar laid sie^re to Tvre, f)ut met with a most resolute and forinidabie cnfMuy. For 13 years ho carried on his operations against it, till the Tyrians, eeeing that they were not-^iktdy to bo able to holdout much longer, l)!jiit o city on an island, a lilLlo way from the shore. Thither they removed all their wealth, aud left to Nebuchadnezzar merely the walls and empty houses of the old city. Having thus done what ho ould towards chastising Tyre, he turned his army against Egypt, speedily overran it, laid it desolate, au(i 125 loftded himseir with its booty He then returned to Habylon, where becoming intoxicuted with pride and vanity, he was struck with insanity, and, for a time, set aside from governing tlie kingdom. Ho was, however, restored, resumed tiie reins of government ; and then he proclaimed to all his subjects the character of the one living and true God. Al'ter his restoration he liveel but one year, and concluded an eventful reign of 43 years by dying, B. C. 5G7. Evil Merodach succeeded him ; a weak prince of profligate habits. Ho is supposed to have wantonly invaded Media, and laid the foundation of that hostility between the Medes and Babylonians, which proved the destruction of his kingdom. His relatives conspired against him, and put him to death. After a struggle for the throne, in which two princes became nominally kings, and perished, Belshazzar succeeded, who is supposed to have be<,n the son of Evil Merodach, and the grandson of Nebu- chadnezzar. He also was a weak and profligate prince. In his reign, Cyrus, the Persian commander of the Median and Persian army, took the city of Babylon. Belshazzar had made a feast for his nobiCs, and brought hi the sacred vessels of the temple at Jerusalem, to be used in the entertainment ; when, in the midst of hi.^ riot, four fingers of a man's hand appeared, writing mysterious characters on the wall opposite to him. The king and his nobles were thrown into the utmost consternation, and sought for some one to interpret the writing, but no one could be found. At length the queen came in to him, and informed liim of the prophet Daniel. Daniel was immediately called, and interpreted the writing to signify, that the kingdom was divided and given to the Modes and Persians. On that night the prediction was fulfilled. At the vcj-y time ihce-io things were proceeding in the palace, Cyrus had entered the city by the bed of the riv. r ; and ■ his soldiers, assailing the palace, slow Belshazzar ; and Darius, the Median, took possession of tho empire. Thus, the ftrst of the four gieat monarchies, d(>scribed by Daniel the prophet, fell, in the year B. C. 538, after ■- 1*26 it had existed sfparute from tlie Assyrian etnpirc about ^8 years. The Medo-Persian Empire. — The Medos and Persians were originally two monarchies, of which the Median first rose to eminence. Previous to the time of Hezekiah, the Modes were subject to the Assyrian monarchy. On the reverse which Sennacherib met with in Judah, during that reign, it is believed that the Medes revolted, and after a time of anarchy, elected Dejoices king. He reigned 53 years, and seems to have devoted himself entirely to the internal regulation and improvement of his kingdom. He was succeeded by his son, Phaortes, who, being a warlike and ambitious prince, attacked tl)o Assyrian empire, under Chy- niladan, or' Nabuchodnosor ; but was defeated, his capital city taken und destroyed, and afterwards he himself taken and slain. He was succeeded by Cyaxeres, his son. — Cyaxeres recovered from the Assyrians what his father had lost. Not, however, contented with, this, he was eager to revenge the death of his father, and the destruction of Ectaban by the Assyrians. He accordingly attacked and de. feated the Assyrian army, and laid siege to Nineveh ; but was obliged to raise the siege, in qonsequcnce of an invasion of the Scythians. Being unable to yepel the Scythians by open force, he had recourse to treachery, and succeeded in having the greater part of ihem massacred in one night. Having freed the country of the Scythians, he resumed the siege of Nineveh, and to strengthen his hands in this enter- prise he obtained the ca-operation of Nabopolassor, king of Babylon. These two confc derate kings took that great city, and utterly destroyed it, about 612 years B. C. After this success, the two kings directed their forces against Pharaoh Necho, and defeated him. They then separated, and Nebuchadnezzar advanced upon those western provinces of the Assyrian empire that lay to the southward, as Syria, Edom, and Pales- tine; while Cyaxeres attacked those that lay to thtf • • 137 northward, as Armonia, Ponfu?!, nnd Cnppadocia, which he subdued, with great slau<5hter of the inhabitants. Cyaxcres is also supposed to have added Persia to his empire ; ahhougli that acquisition is, by some, ascribed to his predecessor. He died in the 40tli year of his reign, leaving his throne to Astyages, liis son. — Astyagf s married a Lydian princess, to cement the })caco that had .been made between that kingdom and IMcdia ; and from that marriage was born Dariu.s, called in Scripture Dariui tlie Mcde ; but called by the (jret-k writers, Gyaxeres. Astyages, during the same year in which Darius was born, gave his daughter Ma;id;mo to Cambyses, a Persian nobleman, or, as olhcrs say, t!ie Persian king, in marriage, and of that marria^re, was born the cele brated Cyrus. Cyrus was tin reforo the nephew of Darius, and was only about one year younger than he. Astyagcs reignod 35 years. The only incidents men- tioned in his history, worthy of record, is, his repelling the unprovoked invasion of th"; Babylonians under Evil Merodach. In this war, Cyrus, then a young man, greatly distinguished hims^'lf. On the death of Astyages, he was succecdvd by his son, Darius, or, Cyaxeres II ; but Cyrus, his nephew held the command of \h<^ army u;i(br him, and conducted the military operations of his reign. It was during the reign of Darius, that Cyrus took Ba])yIo:i, as already noticed ; after which event Darius came to Babylon, and there, in concert with Gyrur^, settled the govern- ment of his new empire. They divided it into 120 provinces, over each of which a governor was ap- pointed. Over these governors th^rt! were three pre- sidents, and the chief of these presidents, was the prophet Daniel, who might, therefor.', be regarded as the prime minister of that vast empire. It was in this reign, when Daniel was about 80 years of age, that ho was cast into the den of lions, for persevering in the worship of God, in defiance of a foolish decree which Darius had been persuaded by his courtiers to make. In about two years after the capture of Babylon, Darius died^ leaving Cyrus solo monarch of r^« lb* 'impire, B. C. 586. Tiic Persian rmpire now ex- tended from the river Inrlns to the shore of tlio Archipelago, and frojn the Caspian and Euxine seas, to the seas of Arahia. Cyrus, on comiiiij to the tlirono, issued a decree for the restoration of tho Jews ; in consequence of which, that people assembled from various parts of his empire, to the number of 42,300, oxclusivc of servants, amount- ing to 7,337, mukinjr a total of nearly 50,000 persons, And proceeded to Jerusalem. Tiie rirst care of these restored captives was, to rebuild the city and temple of Jerusalem. The jealousy of the surrounding nations, especially the Samaritans, greatly retarded their opera- tions. They could not op'.'uly oppose them, because Cyrus was avowedly their friend, and Daniel was at the seat of govprnment to protect them. But, from the distance of the capital, thes" nations had it in their power to throw many obstacles in their way. Soon after this, Daniel died, at Ihe nge of 90 years ; Cyrus also, soon aftervvards diful, i)\ tlie 7!h year from tiie restoration, and 70th of his age. He is one of the greatest men of antiquity, not in regard of his exten- sive conquests ; but in regard to the nobleness of his character. There is, indeed soine groimd to hope, that he was a convert from heathenism to the worship of the true God ; and the neaceful and beneficent character of the latter part of his r'^igii, gives addilional countenance to this opinion. O;'. tlic death of (Jyrus, Cninhi/ses, his son, succeeded to the empire, a weak and profligate prince. Karly in his r; ign. he invaded and oI)!iun(Ml possesiwon of Egypt, u l;ieh had furiuirly been subdued hr Nebuehadu* /zar. lie had a brother named Smerdis, whom, in a tit ol' ji'alousy, he caused to be killed. But, wliilc he vas absent in Egyi>t, a pretender to the throne appeared, v/ho personated Smordis, the brother ofCambyscs. Cambyses marched from Egypt against him; but eta mounting his horse, his own sword fell from its scabbard and wounded him on the thigh, of which M'ound he di( d. Stnerdis, the usurper, who is usually called Smerdis the magian, because he belonged to the priesthood, 199 .finch, in Persia, vvns ciillcd lli- Mi:gi, I'l ij^iicd for a eliort time, till Ixnng drtt etcd ajid c.\{>)scfl, l>y a lady of liigli rank, whom ho liiid inarrud, .seven of tho nobles conspired against him, and alcw him. The family of Cyrus being now extinct, these noblcy agreed that one of theme); Ives should b.:- elevated to the throne. To deterniine which it should he, they agreed that he whoso horso on a cei-tEsin d:iy should first neigh, after the rising of tiie sun, siiould be- king. This seenia to have been an act of adoration to the sun, which the Persians worshipped. The horso of Darius, tho son of Ilystaapes, one of tho generals who had served under Cyrus, having first neighed, ho was immediately elected king, and is known by the name of Darius Hytaspcs, and is ciin fully to be distinguished fi'om Darius the Median, and also IVom two other jwinces of the name Darius, who afterwards attained to the empire. During the reign of Cambyses, and Smerdis the magian, the enemies of the Jews contiivcd to pre- vent them from proceeding with the temple, having poisoned the minds of tiiese princes against them. But on the accession of Darius, he, having married two of the daughters of Cyrus, and allectiug to reign as hijj successor, was disposed to fulfil all his intentions. He, therefore, issued a new decree for the rebuilding of the city and temple of Jerusalem ; and, in the 6th year of his reign, the second temple v/as finished, and dedi- cated, exactly 70 years after it had been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. In the 5th year of Darius, Babylon revolted, and was besieged by him. As in the form' r siege by Cyrus, he was constrained to attempt to reduce it by famine ; and at lengih became master of it by the devotedness of one of his officersk This person having cut and maimed himself, fled to Babylon, pretending that he had been so treated by Darius. He thus obtained the confidence of the Babylonians, and found an opportu- nity of betraying the city to Darius. Darius then began to think of extending his empire towards the West. He already possessed Egypt on the south, and Asia Minor on tho north of tlie Mediterranean : but he 130 'proposed to himself an expedition against the Scythians who inhabited tlie country between the Danube and the Don, under pretence of avenging the Scythian invasion of Media, 130 years before, lie accordingly crossed the Hellespont by a bridge of boats, marched through Thrace, and crossed the Danube by another bridge of boats. The Scythians retreated before him, till, finding no sustenance for his troops, he was com- pelled to return, having lost one-half of his army. He then purposed to extend his empire eastward. In this he succeeded better, and laid India, or at least that part of it which borders on the Indus, under tribute. In the 18th year of his reign, commenced the war between the Persians and Greeks, which brought so many calamities on both nations. A sedition, in some of the Greek Islands, of the people against their governors, led to an application to the Persian governor of Asia, from one of the parties, for assistance. This was granted, and that interference led to a hostile expe- dition into the Persian province of Asia Minor, the capital of which was Sardis, in which the Athenians took part. The Greeks proceeded to Sardis, which they plundered and burnt; but were compelled to retreat, and were defeated before they could reach their ships. Darius could never forget tliis insult on the part of Athens, and determined on an invasion of Greece. ^e sent an army across the Hellespont, round by Macedonia, a fleet being appointed to follow and co- operate with it. The fleet, in doubling the Cape of Mount Athos, was overtaken by a storm, and totally disabled, having lost 300 ships and 20,000 men ; and the army having encamped without sufficient precau- tion, was attacked by the Thracians, and so roughly handled, that it was forced to return to Asia. Darius, however, was not to be diverted from his project of re- venge, but fitted out another army. Tliis he sent directly across the Archipelago to Attica. There it was met on the plain oi Marathon by a small army of Athenians, under Miltiadcs, and totally defeated. The remains of the army escaped to the ships, and returned to vVsia. Still determined upon his scheme of revenge, Dariua 131 fitted oilt another army, wliicli lie deteraiined to leaS in his own person ; but b?iiig now an old man, he first took the precaution of settling the succession. Having ddnfe this, he died, in the 36th year of his reign, leaving his dominions, but leaving also his quarrel with the Greeks, to his son Xnrxos, B. C. 480. During the reign of Darius, Ezra, the Jewish scribn, was born ; but his public operations belong to a sub'5ec(uent reign. The conclusion of the reign of Darius Hystaspea brings the Persian history down to the end of the 7th period of 500 years from the creation. We now, there- fore, pause, and take a brief view of the other nations of the world during the same period. Egypt having fallen under the dominion of th' Babylonian empire, and soon after under that of Persia, from this time held the rank only of a tributary state. All the countries round Palestine were in the same cir- tumstances. . , Greece. — It has been already mentioned, that, so far back as 884 B. C. while Athalia reigned in Judah, JjycurguG had settled the constitution of Lacedaemon, as a monarchy, with great powers conferred on the aristocracy. Athens was then governed by Archons, a kind of hereditary magistrates. These about 754 B. C. while Jotham, son of Uzziah, was king of Judah, about the time of the building of the city of Rome, were ex- changed for elective Archons, who enjoyed this office only 10 years. After about 60 years' experience of this mode of government, a further change was made, and the government placed in the hands of nine Archons, who were elected annually. But although the legislative authority was nominally in the hands of the people, the executive was in the hands of the nobles. This gave rise to continual con- tests between ruling families. Some remedy was required, and Draco was called to form a code of laws, 624 B. C. His laws were so absurdly severe and san- guinary, that they could not be executed. A ^- " 133 timo of confusion ensued, when Solon was invited to reform the constitution. Ho executed his task with great succf'ss, and constructed a coile of laws, which forms the basis of the hiws now existing in most of the kingdoms of Europe. The Romans founded their laws upon those of Solon ; and, through the Romans, they havo boon dilfusod over the civilized world. Solon flourished 594 B. 0. when Zodekiali was kingof Judah, tributary to Nebuchadnezzar, and about the time of the birth of Cyrus, afterwards king of Poraia. The constitution of Sparta was highly aristocratical ; that of Athens was continually becoming more demo- cratical. In nearly all the Greek republics, there was a perpetual struggle betAveen the nobles and the people, the former looking to Laccdtemon as th^ir protector, the latter to Athens. Athens itself was agitated by similar conflicts between the nobles and the people. In the course of these strngglcs, Pisistratus, a popular leader, seized the Acropolis, and reigned over the city as a king, for 33 years, although his reign was twice inter- rupted, lie was succeeded by his sons Hipparehus find Hippias ; but they bpcoming tyrannical, first orie was killed, and then the other wus forced to retire from tha city. He fled to Darius Hystaspes, who now reigned in Persia. After the expulsion of Hippias, the old dis- putes between the aristocracy and democracy were renewed. Isagoras was banished, and applied to Sparta for aid, which readily granted it. The Athenians were thus threatened with a war with Sparta, and applied to Persia for help; but they xcceived a haughty reply, requiring them to subject themselves to Darius. In the mean while^ Hippias had prevailed on the Peijsian governor of Asia Minor to espouse his cause, and to insist on his being reinstated in the government of Athens. This the Athenians peremptorily refused to comply with, and thenceforward regarded themselves as at war with Persia. Soon after this, Darius sent heralds into Greece, de- manding earth and water, as tokens of subjection; which demand was indignantly rejected by Sparta and Athens. While matters were in this precarious state 133 iuse, and to lx!tween Persia and Greece, the Athenians were led to take part in that expedition into Asia Minor, which haa been already noticed, in which Sardia was burned^ Then followed the invasion of Greece by Darius, in which his artuy was defeated, at Marathon, by Miltiades, the Athenian general. Rome. — According to ancient traditions, which are the only authority extant for the history of Rome, at its commencement, Rome was founded, B. C. 757. It was for the two first centuries of its existence, a monarchy, and the chief occupation of its kings and citizens, was fighting, and gradually subduing the neighbouring states, or incorporating them into their body politic by treaties. The first king was Romulus, the founder of the city, who reigned 30 years. Having collected a number of loose persons together, all males, he procured wives for them, by inviting the neighbouring tribe, called Sabines, to a religious festival, and there directing his men to seize upon the women. This created a war, which ended in the two nations being incorporated in one. Having subdued several of the other tribes, he was killed by his senators, B. C. 717. After an interregnum, he was succeeded by ' " - Numa Pompilius, who was of a pacific disposition, and gave his attention chiefly to the internal regulation of his kingdom. To him succeeded Tullus Hostilius, B. C. 660, who reigned 32 years, while Manasseh was king of Judah. In his reign was the celebrated battle between the Horatii and the Curiatii. The Albans and the Romans were at war for superiority, when it ^as agreed to leave the matter to the event of a battle, to be fought between thr^e chosen men on each side. Three brothers, on each side, were chosen, when the Roman champions proved victorious. Tullus Hostilius is said by some to have been killed by lightning, with his whole family ; by others, he is said to have been murdered by Ancus Martins, who suc- ceeded him. Ancus Martius came to the throne, B. C. 633, during 12 134 (be r^gn of Jostah In Judah. He was a warlike prince, and subdued the Latins, and several other neighbouring tribes. He died, leaving two sons, the eldest only fifteen years of age j he left them to the care of Tarquin, the son of a merchant of Corinth. Tarquin took advan. tage of the youth and inexperience of his pupils to obtain the throne for himself. Tarquin came to the throne, B. C. 609, about the time that Josiah was killed by Pharaoh Necho. His reign was occupied in repelling the invasions of the neighbouring states, and subduing them. He greatly Btren'gthened and beautified the city, and constructed those celebrated aqueducts, for draining and cleansing it, that were accounted among the wonders of the world. Tarquin reigned 88 years, and was assassinated in his palace by ihe sons of Ancus Martins, whom he had originally deprived of the kingdom. He was succeeded by Servius TulliuSy his son-in-law, B. C. 672, dunng the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. He reigned 44 years. He was a politic prince, and, with much sagacity, introduced important changes into the constitution. Till his reign all Roman citizens, rich or poor, had contributed equally to the funds of the city. Servius proposed to ease the poor, by laying the burden chiefly on the rich. This he accomplished by a dexterous distribution of the people into classes and centuries. Servius had under his care two sons of Tarquin, the former king. One of them, Tarquin, to whom he had given his daughter in marriage, formed a conspiracy to obtain the throne, in which he was at first disappointed, but was aflerwards successful. Servius was murdered, it is stiid, at the instigation of his own daughter. Tatqtdn II. surnamed the Proud, succeeded him, B. C. 529, and reigned 25 years. He proved a most despotic and cruel tyrant. .At length, in consequence of an outreige committed by him upon Lucretia, a Roman Lady, he was deposed, and Rome became, frow that time, a republic, B. C. 505. This was in the roigil of Darius Ilystaspes. CAttTHAGE had been founded by the Phcenicians, under the domiiiicn of the kings of Persia.' 136 Profand Motory has now begun to assume a prcoise and authentic form ; nnd many documents are still extant, besides the Sacrrd Scriptures, which shed a clear and steady light on the utfairs of men at this era. JuDEA was now a tribut!\ry kingdom, the history of Which is involved in that of Persia, and the monarchies Hrhich succeeded the Persian. We^ therefore^, conw aenee this period with f*B)tsii;. — -At the eonclusidn of the foi'mer era, B. C^ 000, Darius Hystaspes was on the throne of Persia, and we noticed his history till his preparation for a fecond invasion of Greece, which, however, he did not Uve to aocoinplisb. H« died, leaving Xerxes, his son, as his successor. The first care of Xerxes was to prosecute the invasion of Greeca, for Which preparations were made by his father. To prei vent the Greeks from receiving assistance from their colonic* in the west, he entered into a treaty with tlitf Carthaginians', liy which they tindcrtook to attack the Greek settlements in Sicily. Ho then proceeded with his army to Greece. He took the same routie which D'ailus had taken on his invasion of Scythia, crossing tho Hellespont, as he did, by a bridge of boats into' Thrace, and passing along the head of the Archipelago througii the southern part of Macedonia. He then fumed southward towards Attica, but was withstood a^ the straits of Thermopylae, (a narrow pass in the; southern part of Thessaly, between the mountains and the sea,) by Leonidas, with 300 Spartans, and as many other Greeks as made up the whole number to 4000.- This little company, aided by the natul*e of the ground, arrested the progress of the whole Persian army hf two days, till a Greek betrayed it, by leading a Persian' detachment across the mountains. The Greeks seeing tiien)ji»lveB menaced with an attack on their rear,- 1»7 retired, with the exception of Leonidas, and the remain* of his 800 Spartans, who kept their ground till they were overpowered and cut to pieces. The Persian army then proceeded southward to Athens. The Athenians retired to their ships, and phiced their wives and chil- dren, for protection, in cities on the opposite side of the Peloponnesus. Meanwhile the Persian and Greek fleets were assembled near to one another. The Persian occupied the Athenian port of Plmlerus, and the Greek fleet under the command of Themistocles, the . neigh* bouriiig straits of Sulamis. There the Persians deter- mined to attack them ; but the narrowness of the straits rendering it impossible for their huge armament to act in concert, the Greeks contrived to throw it into con- fusion, and utterly d( stroyed it. The shattered remains of this fleet retired to the opposite shore of Asia. Xerxes, seeing his fleet destroyed, and fearing that the Greeks would sail for the Hellespont, and interrupt his return to Asia, fled thither ; and finding his bridge of boats broken by storms, was under the necessity of crossing the strait in a small fishing boat. While Xerxes was suffering thesT disasters in Greece his confederates in the west were equally unsuccessfuL Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general, was surprised and slain in his camp by Gelo, the Sicilian king, and his fleet and army totally destroyed. After the departure of Xerxes for Greece, Mardonius retired with the army to Thessaly, and then returning next year, and finding the Athenians still determinea not to submit, burned whatever remained of the city, and committed all manner of excesses. But the Greeks of the Peloponnesus had collected an army, and were marching towards the Isthmus of Corinth, by which they threatened his communication with Thrace and Asia, and he retired to Boeotia. There the Greek army, commanded by Pausanias, king of Lacedaemon, and Aristides, the Athenian general, followed him, and came up with him near the city of Platsea ; ■'vhere the Persian army was totally routed, and cut to pit ces, with the exception of 40,000 men, whom Artabazus, a Persian general, foreseeing how the battle was likely to 12* laB isano, withdrew curly from the fiolcl, and brought to Jiyzantium, where Ihcy ro-cro.s.sod tlio Ilcllcspant into Asia. On tlio same day with tlio batlln of PhihRa, the com. bincd Greek fleet attaeked unn deslroyod llio Persina fleet at Mycah^, a promontory on the coast of Asia. Tlie Persian sliips were drawn* np oii tlio shore, sur- rounded by a raiiij)art, iuul defindcd l)y a land army: but the G rooks forced the rampart, a.id burned the ships. Thus ended the celebrivted exprdilioii of Xerxes against Greece ; and in consequence of tho;;e victories, the Greeks were dolivorod from any further invasions from Persia, or the east. - v/' - . r ■ Xerxes, on the defeat of his armies, retired from Asia, and took refuge in Susa, ♦he Persian capital, triierc he gave himself up to the greatest licentiousness. in the meanwhile, the Greeks were prosecuting the war against him with vigour and success, and depriving him of his possessions. Ciinon, the Athenian commander, In one day destroyed a fleet, said to bo equal to that Which had been destroyed at Sulamis, and defeated an iirmy equal to that which w as defeated at Plataja. At Jcngth Artabancs, the captain of his guanl, formed a conspiracy against him, and put him to deatli. B.C. 465. ?^- Artaxerxes, surnamed Longlmanus, who is believed to have been the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther, suc- ceeded him. lie secui'cd himself on the throne by putting to death Artabanes, and defeating his partizans. He ihen celebrated a great feast, on which occasion it was, that Vashti, the queen, was repudiated ; and Esther, a Jewess, made queen in her stead. Towards the begin- ning of his reign, the Egyptians revolted from him, being aided by a fleet and army of Athenians. Artaxerxes sent an army against it ; but it was defeated with great slaughter, and the remnant of it shut up and besieged in Memphis. Artaxerxes sent another army to raise the siege, in which he succeeded, having de- feated the revolters. ■ .-.;' In the 17th year of Artaxerxes and 458 B. C. Ezra, the Jewish priest and proj)liet, now in captivity, obtained, u IBU j>robiiMy ihroi!<^'!i the intorposilioii of Esllinr, an aniplo coninii\:^^io!i lo rolnrn to Jcriisalojii, with asinuny Jews ns choyo to accompany liliu. l']/.ra hniiiodiatoly {iddrcssod himself to thG worlv of Liin ^ , ad tlie 4C3th of his reign, B. C. 359. On his death, Oclms, hjis son succeeded him, having cleared hijs way to tjic throne by the murder of those of his brothers who rivalled hiai in the succession. These murders he soon followed ^p by an indiscriminate massacre of all the royal family, without distinction of sex, age, or character. On his accession, tlie western provinces revolted, but returned to their allegiance. Egypt had never beeij thoroughly subdued since tl^e last revolt. Nectanebus was now king of that country.. Oohus marching into Egypt, lost a large proportion of his army irj the quicksands of Ijake Sorbonis. He, however, succeeded in driving Nectanebus out of the kingdom. Nectanebus was the' last native king of Egypt ; that fine country having, from that day tjill the present, been under the dominion of foreigners. But >ihile Qchus was in the midst of his success, he was laying the foundation for his own destruction. He had A ftivourite servant named Bagoas, an Egyptian, who accompanied him ; and Ochus, not satisfied with sub- duing Egypt, insulted its religion, kilted the sacred bql|, pnd ^ave his flesh to his attendapts, Bagoas deterniine4 ll'J u> rcveri 7'3 :his ij:sult, and nt" loiijjfth siiCcocdcU in poj. Zoning Ouhus. ■Arses, tlio youngest of the kingV* scnis, was raised to (ho tliiono by ij;;jj:o;is ; but not finilinj^ him sufticiontly compliant, ni<;roaH poisoned hiin also, IJ. C. 3'}H. Ho ih'jn hro;i.uht I'lrwni-d a ili^scendant of Darius Nothus, a.uncd Coiioniaiinns, a;;d [)hiued liinj on the throne. Codon'Ka:.iUS tool: liie uauio of Darius Cuduntannus. — Fearing th.at ho might ^^ treated by B-.iooi.fi, as Oclius and Arses liad been, he put Bagoas to ilc.ith, and tlius secured himself on the tin'one. IJiit the Persian cmj)iro was now hastening to its ruin. Thg afiairs of C^irit ';e had by this time fallen under the undisputed direction of the lung of Macedon, and Alexander, the son of Philip, had combined the whole strength of its various triix-s, in a long threatened enterprise against tliat great, but ill compacted empire. The events that led to the downfall and death of Darius, belong rather lo the liistory of Greece than of Persia. We merely »nentii;n here, that Alexander passed over to Asia at the head of the Greek army, and defeated ^he forces of tlie Penuans in several battles, the last of which was near Arbeia. Darius, after thi^ defeat, fled to Ecbatana, Ihe capital"* of Media. On Alexander's approach, hu retired to Jlactria, and was there murdererj by Bessus, the govenor of that province. Thus fell Darius Codomannus, and with him the Persian empire, B. C 3J30, after it had existed, from the taking of Baby- lon, 209 years. ?• t^ \ We shall here pause, as we did at the reign of Hezekiah, and bring down the histoy of the other nations ',o the time jaf Alexander ; when the whole political aspect of the world underwent a mighty revo- iution. Greece. — It has already been noticed, under the Jiistory of Persia, that Xerxes succeeding Darius, at- tempted to carry into eflect his father's schemes of |§veiige, and invaded Greece with an immense armament ( \ 11^3 which was totally dcwtroyod in the diirerent battles ot Salamis, Plataea, and JMycale. After these victories, the Greeks continued still to carry on tiic war with Persia, chiefly by descents on their coasts, till peace was concluded, in the reign of Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes. The Spartans were at C iS time, the acknowledged leaders of the Greek confederacy, but their king, Pau- sanias, carrying himself proudly and contemptuously to the allies, they put themselves under the patronage of Athens. From this time the Athenians held the decided ascendancy at sea, and over those Gfe(ii< states and colonies which were approached by sea. At first, they used their influence with equity and moderation '^ but gradually feeling their strength, they became mora haughty in their cojiduct, and more dictatorial in ex- acting the service of their allies. The result wasj that the allies of the Athenians eventually became subjects, from whom the Athenians regularly exacted tribute : but they were impatient subjects, and ready to avail themselves of any opportunity to emancipate themselves. The Spartans eyed the growing power of Athens with jealousy, and xevo prepared to ernl)race the first plausible occasion of going to war with it. Such an occasion was not lon. C. 401. In the fidlowing year, Conon obtained a ileet frot.n Artaxerxeti Mn;Mnon, tho Persian monarch, with wliich he defeated the Laee- dsBOionian (Ibet ; and, afterward.s sailing f!)r Athens, ho rebuilt the walls, and thus raised Athens to nearly hn fofmer greatness. It. was at this time that the Greek mercenaries engaged themselves in tho service of Cyrus, the brotlier of Artaxerxes, to dethrone that monarch ; in which expedition Cyriis was killed, and the Greeks, tinder Xcnophon, performed their celebrated retreat. Meanwhile, the contests betwetn the oligarchies and the democracies of the Greek" state5" were proceeding With their uaial violence. In the midst of one of those Struggles in Thebes, two men of singular talents attained to the chief iniluciice ; placed their city, for a time, at the head of the afiairs ofGreeco; and permanently changed the relative position of its diflcrent parties. These Avere I'ipamiaondas, and I'elopid.is. The demo- cratic party being predominant in Thelies', a war broke Out betvy'ee!! them and Lacediemon, in which Epami- nondas, by a change in the usuaj mode of conducting •battles, totally defeated the Spartan army wilii inferior force. This first of iliose 'jattlcs, which broke thn power of Sparta, was fmght at Leuctra, B. C. 371. Epaminonclas afterwards invaded the Laconian territory, ravaged the country, and built a city in the neighbour- liood of Sparta, which he called Messinl, and gave it to ihe Messenians, .>vhoni the Spartans had kept for several 117 centuries in the most vigoious Ixtrulngp. Thl- nrov«>« nn elFectual cuib on tlio power ans were defeated and fled. Tho troops of Alexander follow in^j. closely, entered the city 148 along with thcni ; and tlic soldiers, finding tliemselves within the city without any control, and many of them brloru;iiij;t('r<>, iuid iilli'iiiitcly jovoilod tlm city to the jimund — murd'.'fiii'j;. or Mi;d;in.'j!; f'.hivos of mU tLio in!);d)it;Mits. 'J^iii.s (.'xccuii')!! slriif !< .t'Tror into tlui rest of'Clrcoc; and onivh' >d Alo\;ind"r to carry for- Avard his suhoino ot" tho iiiva.d'ui oC IN^i'sia, without in- tcrniptiou. Ahwnndcr thru ^•|■o^;spd tiic [I('rii'sj>ont, B. C. .^34, into Asi;i Minor. There lie VvMS mot by tho Persian troops, whom lie drfoatt^l at the passage of tho Grani- cus ; and lluis eli-iircd his way to tlio posscsRion of the whole of Asiii Minor. After air:m.ij;injT the aflhirs of Atjia Miiuu',. iif procooil^d towavd:^ iSyria, and crossing Mount Tau'rus, encountered the Persian army, under Darius Codomnnnus, at Lssus, and totally defeated it. He thru proer(l(>s, aiifl the plchrinns or [)(Y)pl<', and by Witrs ibr suprcmacv, witli ibo nrM"lil)oiiiiiM>; states. Tho goneriil toiulfiuiy ol' tlie movomfnt.s tli:it wen^ tMlvIn;^ plaoc if till' city, was towards u (b-inotracy. Tho j>a. tricians bad assuuiccl to ibfMiisrlves tho excdusivo 5.fov- crrmKMJt of tho pcf^plo ; but ihti poople, as thr^y came to understand thoir iii;portance and wci'^ht, grachj illy vin- dicated their owji ri;ihls. In one ot' these contests, nn anny in liu; lidd deserted the consuls, and oncainped in the vicinity of Rome; and the pntrieiah.s were reduced to tlic humiliating nece^ ty of proposing terms to the plebeians. Tiie ciiief incident of importance, in this part of Ro- nian history, is tiie invasion of tli(^ Gauls, lirennus had attacked one of tho northern states, that were in treaty with the RomanH. The Romans intirjiosed f(jr the assistance of their allies. The Gauls nisd Romans came to a battle, near thf> eily of Rome. Tho Roinan army was entirely deflated, ihe city taken and bunied, and the Capiiol, or citadel, closely besieged. The Romans were constrained to purchase tho retreiit of tiie Gauls, (B. C. asri ) by giving tiani 1000 pounds of gold. This was during the reign cd" Artaxerxos Mnem«)n, king of Persia. It was Jiot till the year 200, B. C. that the Ro- mans were masters of all Italy. » Cautiiage. — This city was still growing in opulence and power. It was busily engaged m attempting to make conquests — the chief ol\ject oT iis military opera- tions being Sicily. The object of the Cartliagiiiians was to obtain possession of that Island ; but in that they never succeeded. The sea coasts of Sicily were colo- nized by Greeks ; and they, partly by their superior military tactics, and partly by obtaining aid from Greece, frustrated every attempt of Carthage, powerful as she was, to enslave them. ■ 13* lAO FROM THE DEATH OF AIJO:\:A.NDEil, li. C. J:2:J, . TO THE BIRTH OF CHlilriT. Ahxamler, lidviiiu; ilicd ii young man, loft no clilMrer. qupable of a.s>miMiii;jr the govi'i'iiiTUMit f»f his cmpii'o, This circumstance imniediately linl to v. il)alj and in- trigues ai.iong his principal ()Hi(^crs — tho object of which was, to secure, cajii for iiiui.-;o]f, as great a ;-i'i:.rc of tho empire as possible. At iirst, an attempt was luad;^ to erect a governniont in the inimo of one of Alexander y cliildrcn, with one of tho Macedonian generals for hi.i J>r6tcctor ; the provinces being ilistributed among olher generals, as governors. Tlie centrid government, how- ever, wanted strength to keep the governors in subor- dination. Every one soon sought not only to make himself an indepondent piince, but to seize on his neigli- hour's territory. Thon f )llo\ved a scene of confusion, of treachery, and of bloodshed, such as the world has scarcely ever witnessed. One of tho first results was, that the whole family of Alexander were successively murdered. Olympias, his mother, tho wife of Philip, perished by the hand of thy executioner. At length, after nearly all of tho generals of Alexander had fallen in battle, or had b(!en mui'dered, the result of tho struggle was the partition of tho en^pire into four kingdoms, as predicted by Daniel the prophet. To Ptolemy Lagus were allotted Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, Ccelo-Syria, and Palestine. To Ca.ssandcr, tiie son of Antipater, (whom Alexancer had left in Greece, to watch over his interests there,) were allotted Mace- donia and Greece. To f^ysimachus, Thrace, Blthynia, and some other Asiatic provinces ; and to Soleucus, all the other parts of Asia, as far as India. I>ut, although these four kingdoms were thus formed out of Alex- ander's empire, there was no cessation of hostilities. Pn the contrary, there were alniost perpetual wars among them, till they were all swallowed up by the Roman empire. 151 Syuia. — Tl.c llrr;•'•^l of ►'■'x Icucus at l^ahylon, B. G* yi'2, to tiiko [>n:;sfy"I',)ij of il'.t> oa.jtoiii provinces of Alcxaudcr'y tjupirr. .vUir liaviiii^ bei ii obliged by Atiligonus, to fly Jo I''(;\ pi, is call »1 IIk! era of tho S.'liHiciila.', which y'\}u) iin-nris the (Icscoiidaiity of SoKiuciis ; aii.l wa:'* jIim (■•••i whicii was long in use in tlio cast, for CMni}>ut.i.u_M; Imi ". Sc/ciicus WHH a iifiAict? of n-rcat talent, and niucl^ hilovud by I:is sulfj'v.ts, I'm' Jii.-; <.^rcat clemency, llo was at war with AiitJrro,*"'^, us .soon us lie canio to the tlirono; and sit I'ln.^ih tau^cfodril in defeating and shiyitifj; him in battle, rt I'^^ii;-!. 1!<' luid ivysimacbus were now tho only tairviviHu f!;ener.i!.s of Alexander. When both wen; abnit ht:v' uty ytars of aj^e, they wont to war with oue nhoLhcr, : iid liVsimachus was» slain. Soon afierwards. S. lii:c,us hin.sclf was treacher- %usly miirdert'd. SeU lu us UviiU many cities, 10 of which he named Antiooiu. ul'tcv tho name of iiiy son, tho laost celt'hrated of \\ hiidj wu** Antioch in Jsyriu on tho Orontes ; several he niimed tSch ucia, fit)m his own name, and several A()aii);a. tVoiu the name of his wile. Si'leueus was succeeded by Anllochus ^'olvr, who ri;',.n(d 19 years, and was succeeded, 1>. C. 201, hy hi.-, .son, Auliochiis II. or Tluo.<. — I'avino divorced his wife," Laodice, for Berenice, dan\.dit( r of Ptolemy, kisjg of Ejfypt; and on the dealh of I'tob my, having pnt away Berenice, and talvoi Uack Laexllce; the latter, to secure herself from I'lurher dis;>raee, poisoned him, uiul rai-scd her son, Stl. ucus» to tlie thron;^, B. C 246. Seieucu.ii II. or Ciilintcas, vvitb iiis wicked motlier, then put Berenice and her son to de.ith ; which bo enraged her brother, Ptolemy, Umt ho invaded .the dominions of Seleucus, and ^>i;ttiu,(4- T...ijLodico into his hands, put her to death. Scleneus e>»barkcd in i-v< expedition into Pailhia, where bo ws^.s Jnfeated, taken prisoner, and after four years' eactiviw, 4W. He was succeeded by Seleucus III. or Ceraunus, who af^e** reigning ono year, was poisoned by two of his olV»o°'>» Anliochus, surnarued the Gre»t;. wnTwde^ 'nrn. 152 His reign was a continued sorifs of wars with the noiglibouring princes, particularly Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, and A.r.sncrs, king of Parlhia, which led to no inipovtant or j)orniancnt result. His reign is remarkable for liiiviji;.-; first given occasion to the Romans to interfiro in llio affairs of tlio east. Ptole- my, king of Egyi)t, dying and leaving a son only five vears old, to succeed him, Antiochus formed a con- spiracy with Philip, king of Macedon, to seize on his dominions. Upon this, the Alexandrians sent to Rome for protection, which was readily granted ; and Anti- ochus was required, on the authority of the Roman republic, to desist from his attempt on Egypt. Anti. ochus, afterwards, on the advice of Hannibal, the cele- brated Carthaginian general, made war with the Ro- mans : but was ultimately defeated, and was oblige^ to purchase peace on the most ignominious termsr Antiochus was afterwards slain, when he was attempt- ing to rob the temple of Jupiter at Elymais. Seleucns IV. surnnmed Philopator, succeeded him, B. C. 187. After a reign of twelve years, he died, leaving his throne to Antiochus IV. surnamed Epiphavcs, one of the most blood-thirsty and barbarous tyrants, that ever dis,. graced any throne. The Romans, now in effect, gave Jiiws to Syria, so that when Antiochus hesitated about obeying some of the commands of the Senate, the Roman ambassador drew a circle around him, and insisted on receiving an answer before he should leave that spot. It was this prince, who, by his outrageous persecution of the Jews, drove them to exasperation ; and stirred up that successful resistance of his authority, which is recorded in the two books of Maccabees. In the midst of this Jewish war, he went on an expedition to the east. In his absence, his generals were de- feated by the Jews ; on which, he hastened back to revenge himself upon them ; but died miserably on his journey. v_ After his death, the Syrian throne fell a prey to a Buccession of usurpers and impostors, who rapidly followed one anpther, and whose names it is no^ 15a necefipnry to record. The last of thnm wns Anliockua Asialkus. In his roign, Pon)pry, the Roman general, overran his doniiiiion.s and r. C. 181, and thus left his dominions tjo . '' ;-'•-. > -pi)ortunity of availing himself of the distracted state of tiie kingdom, to obtain possession of it. Antiochus then proposed to invade Egypt; but was* prevented from doing no, by the intervention of tho Romans. Philometer was one of the best of that race; and Physcon, one of the very worst. Under the sanction of the Romans, Philometer reigned in Egypt, and Piiyscon in I ibya and Cyrene. Philometer was slain in battle with Demetrius king of Syifa, and Cleopatra, his queen, attempted to secure the kingdom for her son : but Physcon making pretensions to it, ho married her, and then nuirdered her son in her arms. Tho remainder of his reign was a continual series of the most revolting crimes. He died, B. C. 117, and was succeeded by Ptolemy Latkyruti —Cleopatra, mother of Lathyru^, 155 attempted to govern liim nrid tlio kingdom ut the samo time; but finding liiin not '.■ud'u-'i'-'Wt]:/ tr; clr.blc, sho instigated tlio Aloxnndria)^.^ to drive him A'om the throne, and to piano hjs yonngnr iTrotlier Alexander, upon it. lie, finding li!« nioiher's dict;i1ion insup- portable, caused linr to he mnrdercd. He was then driven from the tiimne by the ps-opl^^, av1-o would not have a matricide for tlioir king ; and Latliyrus was recalled . Thebes Avas one of the cities wiiich had rebelled against Latliyrus, an.d it continued to resist him; but, after a tiiren years' Mi, till thoy wore botlj swallowed up in that ull-abyorhing empire. We, tliorefore, j)rocecd to give a brief view of liio history of Rome, from the nj;e of Alexander, till the advent of tho Saviour of tlio World. The last and most formidablo enemy, that tho Romans met with, in their wars to obtain ll»o sovereignty of Itnly, was Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Ho was brouglit into Italy by the Samnitcs and Tarentines, to assist thorn against the Romans ; and it was not till after n six years' war, that tho Romans were able to expel them. Pyrrhus waa killed at thd siege of Argos, B. C. 272f; after which, the unsubdued states of Italy submitted to Rome. Soon after thi.s, tlie Romans were engaged in the first war with the Carthaginians ; usually called the first Punic War, from the Carthaginian name, PoBni, ot Phojni, which they had, as being descended from the Phoenicians. This war was occasioned Uy the Car. thaginians having possession of part of Sicily, and grasping at possession of the rest. The Mamertines, having been defeated by Hiero, king of Syracuse, and reduced to great distress, had resolved to surrender the city of Messina to him j when Hannibal, the Cartha- ginian general, obtained possession of it by gtratagem. The Mamertines called in tho assistance of the Romans ; and thus brought Rome and Carthage into direct colli- sion. The war continued 24 years ; and ended in the Romans obtaining possession of Sicily, and forcing the Carthaginians to conclude a peace on very disadvan- tageous terms. The interval between the first and second Punic Wars, was occupied in subduing some tribes of Italy that had revolted; and also in taking possession of Corsica, Sardinia, and Malta. The second Punic War was purposely provoked by the younger Hannibal, novl" general of the Carthaginian army. He found a pre. 167 text ibr oflaoktng Sognntum, a city In alllanoe with Rome.- The Romans remonstrated, but in vain ; and war was tlie consequence. Hannibal, having takoa measures for securing Africa and Spain, crossed th» Pyrenees, and then contirjucd liis march to the Rhone. This he passed, in the face of some opposition from tha Gauls ; and tiicn^ scaling the Alps with his army, h« descended into the plains of Italy. There, by a seriett of able measures, military and diplomatic, he main<< tained himself for 10 years ; defeated the Romans id Beveral pitched battles, — namely, at Ticinium, at Trebiaf at Thrasymene, and at CanncB ; and brought Rome itself into the most imminent danger. Had he been supported by liis country, as its interests required| 1m probably might have turned the scale permanently in its favour. But an envious faction at honre refetrayed . by one of their own ilizeiis, the city was taken Jby storm, and destrnycd B. i'. I4tr, The manner in which the Roiwnns wc/o led to inter, fero ill the affairs of Eg3-pt, on the ncccssion of Ptolemy Philometcr, has already hrrn related. Similar causes led to llicir iiiicrference in the affairs of Greece. After the deatli of Pyrrlius, king of Epirus, the Macedonian kings resumed their authority over Greece. An effort was made by a confederacy among the Gre9k states, called tiie Acha?an league, to assert their h*^rties ; but, in consequence of their mutual jealousies, and want of good faitli, they never shook off the shackles, in which Philip, the father of Alex- ander, had bound them. At length, the ambition of tho Macedonian king, induced him first to enter into a league with Hannibal, and afterwards to engage in an enterprise against Egypt, which was under the protection of the Romans. These aggressions, toigether with an application for protection from Athens, induced the Senate to declare war against Maccdon, B. C. 200. This contest lasted four years, when Philip, having been defeated by tho Consul Flaminius, agreed to peace. Philip died B. C. 179, being in the interval between the second and third Punic Wars, and dur- ing the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria. Perseus, his son, succeeded him, iind immediately be- gan to make preparation for war with Rome. The Romans, anticipating him, sent an army against Ma- cedon. Perseus at first defeated the Romans ; but was tiltimately defeated by the Consul, Paulus ^Emilius. When the Romans first defeated Philip, they pro- claimed freedom to Greece ; and the infatuated Greeks exulted as if they were really free. They seefri to have forgotten that, by receiving tlieir freedom from Rome, they put it in the power of Rome to take it away. Accordingly, in the same year that the Romans destroyed Carthage, their Consul Mummius destroyed Corinth ; and reduced Greece to the rank of a Roman province, B. C. 14t). Not long after this, a contest commenced between the patricians and plebeiauM, which ended not, till i' 150 fwd oiftsfcted the ruin of the ropublic, Tlboriii^ Gracchus, a tribune, proposed to revive the Agruriaii or Sempronian law, by which no citizen was peiiriitted to hold above 500 acres of conquered lands. This attempt so irritated the senators, that during the tumult of an election, they assassinated Gmcchus, and 300 of his partizans. His brother Cains (Iracchus, when tribune, made a similar attempt ; and on his return to a private station, was porsccutf d to death. Thus was begun, by the senators^ that system of persecution, wliich very soon fell most heavily u]M>n themselves. In the meanwhile, however, the repiibliq continued to be successful in its foreign wars ; and country after country was annexed to tlie empire by bonqile^, or by treaties, or by the bequests of sovercigtl princes. The next important transaction, in which the Romania were engaged, was the war against Jugurtha, king of Numidia; He had come to the tlirone l)y the murder of his uncle's sons, Hicmpsal and Adherbtil. An ap- peal was made to the Romans against the treacliery and oppressions of .Tugurtha ; and they made war on him, and ultimately took him prisoner, and brought him to Rome ; where he was strangled in the prison. In thiis war, the celebrated Marius fiist distinguished himself. The Cimbri and Teutoncs, threatening to cover Italy with desolation, Marius was sent against tliem, and de- bated them with immense slaughter. But the ambition and revengeful spirit of Marius" brought innumerable calamities upon the republic. Ho proposed again the execution of the Agnirian law, relative to the lands recently recovenjd from their enemies. This produced the social war, — so called because it was a war of the Italian states upon Rome, provoked by the operation of the Agrarian law. It lasted three years ; and, after a slaughter of more tlian 300,000 men, the-Senate succeeded in pulting a stop to it, by granting, in part, the demands of the allies, B.C. 87. j-r^^.K^-y^r The next importaiit war in which the Romans wet© 160 cngffge(T, TTOB tho( with Mithridates, king of Pontm This prince ohtaincd possession of Phrygia, by bribing one of the Roman generals. He was driven out of it, by Sylla j ami tiii;* oipiilsion laid the foundation of determined enmity to the Romaics. He proved one of the most fonnidiihlo rnomifs llioy ever had. He was, however, subdued, and ibrued to sue for peace. But this war was the oeeasion of more disastrous conse> quences to the state, than the resistance of Mithridates. Sylla and Marius contended for the privilege of con- ducting the war, which was likely to prove Lucrative. Marius gained the popular inter* st, an(I was appomtedf to the command ; but Sylla marched to Rome, with six legions, proscribed Marius, and eleven of his adherents, who fled. Sylla, now deeming himself secure, returned to prosecute the war with Mithrnl'ates; but Marius returned to Rome, massacred great numbers of citizens and distinguished senators, and abrogated the laws of Sylla. Marius then caused himself to be elected consul with Cinna : b»t survived his election only six- teen days. Italv, on Svlla's return, became the theatre of civil war; in which Carbo the Consul, and the younger Marius were slain. Sylla, every where victorious, entered Rome its triumph, trampled on the laws, pro- srribed' 80 senators, and several thousands of citizens, »mf gave up his enemies to military execution. Julius Cesar, who was nephew of Marius, narrowly escaped the carnage, whil^j Pompey was a zealous pai'tizan- of Sylla.. Sylk died, B. C. 78. - . : .. , it • >r 1 The eivil wai- still cmitinived ; and also a servile war against about 40,000 rebel slaves raged. Pompey so much distinguished himself in these wars, that he was vested with the supremo command of the Roman army^ and sent against Mithridates, king of Pontus, whonr he subdued ; and canyinj^ tho war boyund Pontus, he subdued Armenia, Syria, and Palestine. From these conquests, he returned to Rome, B. C. 63. Meanwhile, Julius Cesar waa signalizing himself i* the west. Returning in triumph from Spain, he found Rome divided into two factions j the one attached to 161 t*omp«y, the other to Crftssns, who was the richest of the citizens. Those men, Ci-sar had the address to unite and to bring to an agrocmeut to form a tri- umvirate with hini, the object of which was, to divide Jhe government amonj^ themselves. They accordingly partitioned the provinces among them : Pompey taking Spain ; Crassus, Syria ; and Cesar, Gaul. Crassus, on entering on his province, made war on Parthia ; and was defeated, and slain. This broke up the triumvirate; for Pompey and Cesar, coming into direct collision, a contest immediately arose, whc should be at the head of the state. Pompey ha4 chief influence in the senate ; Cesar among the soldiers. Cesar marched to Rome, and forced Pompey to retii'e. Pompey went to Greece, where he raised an army Jo withstand Cesar. Thither Cesar followed him : and encountering him at Pharsalia, totally defeated him Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherouslj murdered. Cesar, after this battle, overran Egypt, Syria, and Pontus, and then returned to Rome. Pompey's party was not yet extinct : one portion of » was in Africa. Thither Cesar went, and defeated it* Another part of it, was in Spain : thither he next led his army, and overthrew it. He then returned to» Rome, where he was greeted by the acclamations of the citizens ; but, almost immediately afterwards, was assassinated in the senate-house, at the foot of Pom- pey's statue. His death rekindled the flames of war. The senate had its interests to promote ; Antony, master of the horse, had his ; and Octavius, Cesar's sister's grandson, then only 18 years of age, had views and interests different from both. After a series of intrigues and treacheries, a second triumvirate was formed, consisting of Octavius, who had assumed the name of Cesar Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus. The temporary alliance between these three, was founded upon a proscription of the enemies of each : and 300 senators and 2000 knights being included in this proscription, it soon filled Rome with bloodshed and terror. The triumvirate then proceeded to subdue the conspirators 14* 1G2 ngainst Cesar. Tho contest wns (kcided in Greece } flio last decisive battle bring foiigbt at Pbilippi. After the death of tho conspinitors, tho triumvirs divided the Roman empire among thorn. Antony, by this par- tition, Went to Egypt, to govern the eastern kingdoms. 'I'herc he met with the notorious Cleopatra, and was so fascinated by her, that he censed from that time to attend to his own interests with energy. Meanwhile Octavianus, whose unceasing aim w.-is to centre tho supreme power in his own person, easily found means to undermine Lepidus, to deprive him of all authority, and force him into banishment, where he died in obscurity. He then contrived to quarrel with Antony. The pretence was the insult which Antony had offered to his sister, whom he had married, and then deserted for Cleopatra. The war was decided by a naval engagement at Actium, in which Antony was defeated. He fled to Egypt, whither Octavianus followed him; and, finding it impossible to retrieve his affairs, he put himself to death. Cleopatra, also, after a fruitless attempt to gain Octavianus, caused herself to be bitten by an asp, and died. Octavianus thus became sole monarch of the Roman empire, B. C. 27, — and received from the senate, the title, Augustus, by which title he is usually known. Augustus, having firmly fixed him. self in the sovereign authority, his ferocious character Beems greatly to have softened ; and he employed himself sedulously in promoting the welfare of his empire. It was in the 23rd year of the reign of Augustus Cesar, when the empire was in profound peace, that the Saviour of the World was born at Bethlehem. The Christian era began four years later. The reason of this was, that the birth of the Saviour was not used as an era for the computation of time, till some cen- turies afterwards; and, in computing the time back- wards, a mistake was made of four years ; so that his birth really took place in the year of the world, 4000 ; although, in consequence of this error, the Christian era corresponds to the year of the world 4004. JuDEA.— The only country besides Rome, whose 163 nffairs,- during this poriod, it is nrcossnry to notioo> is Judpn. Aftor tho doatli ol" Alexander, tlio Jews fell under the dominion ulte'niately ol" the K^vptian nnd Syrian kings, as the one or the other wore uhlc to tuko possession of Palestine. Judeu was, con.'fqueiitly, during this period, almost constantly the the it re of war. Antiochus Epiphanes, on his accession to th< throne of Syria, B. C. 175, heing much in want of money, received an ofler of n.")() talents from Jason, thd brother of the high priest, on condition that he shoul<\ be made high priest instead of Onias, and that Onias should be confined for life at Antioch, This contract was completed. Jason entered on the oflice, and being a zealous aduiirer of Greek customs, ho sus. ponded the worship of Clod in tiie temjile, and gave himself up to Paganism. Jason was afterwards sup- planted, in the same manner, by Menelaus, another brother, who otferod 300 talents more, for the high- priesthood. A report afterwards, reached Jerusalem, that Antiochus was dead. The people could not refrain from expressing their joy, which coming to the ears of Antiochus, he entered the city, and put to death, it is said, 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sold- as many more for slaves. Sonie years afterwards, Antiochus having been mortified by the Romans, resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, antl sent his general with the moc;t sanguinary orders to put an end to their religion. Ji. scene of carnage then com- menced that has hardly any parallel in history, till the people were driv«Mi to des])erati()n ; when a priest named Mattatiiias collects d a small body of resoluto men, and, after many struggles, succeeded in driving the Syrian army beyond the boi'ders of the kingdom. He was succeeded by his son, the rcinowned Judas Maccabaius, who defeated the Syrians in five pitched battles, and baffled all their attemj)ts to recover Pales- tine. Antiochus was in Persia, wiiilst this revolutior was taking place in Judea. Mad with rage, he hastenec back, breathing out slaughter and destruction agains. tl)e Jews, when he was seized with h mortaJ di>i»ease, 164 and died at Tabji>, a town on the frontiers of Persia and Babylonia. Tiie Syrian generals renewed the war, and were defeated rcj)eMt»'(lly by Judas, who was at length slain in battle, li. C. 161, and was succeeded by Jonathan, his brother. Jonathan conducted the affairs of the nation with the same prudence and success, till he was treacherously murdered. He was succeeded in the command by his brother, Simon ; who, after governing wisely, for some years, was murdered by Ptolemy, who had married his daugiiter. Simon was pucceeded by his son, John Hyrcanns, wlio took the title of king. He was the first king after the caj)tivity ; and in his reign, the nation rose to greater prosperity than it had enjoyed at any period since tlic restoration. On his death, B. C. 107, he was, succeeded by Arislohuhts, his eldest son, who proved a tyrant and a murderer. After a short reign, he was sue- ceeded by Alexander JanncBiis, B. C. lO.'j, who made some con- quests to the eastward of Jordan. Returning from his conquests and triumphs, he gave himself up to luxury lEmd dissipation ; and brought upon hirnaelf diseasiss, of which he died. He was succeeded by Alexandra, his wife, B. C. 78, during the contests of Mithridates, king of Pontus, against the Roman power. In her reign, the Pharisees having obtained her ear, rose to influence, and persecuted the party that was op, posed to them. She died B. C. 70, and was sue. ceeded by Hyrcanus, her eldest son ; who, in three months, was driven from the kingdom by AristohuluSi -his younger brother. It was in the con- test between these two brothers, that Antipater, an Idumaean proselyte, and the father of Herod, the first of that name, came into notice. Under pretence of supporting the cause of Hyrcanus, he contrived to ingra- tiate himself with the Romans, and, after Jerusalem was taken by Pompy, B. C. 63, in the war that ensued be^ tween Csesar and Pompey, Antipater found an oppor. 165 tdnity of obtaining the fuvor of the former, and the re- suit was, that Herod, his son, was made lun^r of Judea, hy Mark Antony, n. C 40. 11«' hoeam • oiv. of tlif; luoA l'iii'if)us blooil-lhirsty tyiMufs, whose nanins sliiin iho p-'iS'^ of history. He hud iiinrried the diuightcr uf llyrcuuiis, through whom his fiuuily en)r)yc'(l all its dignity and in- fluonce. Becoming joalous of" the rank which she pos- ficssod independently of him, he caused hor and all her family to be put to dtnitli. After he was fanily .settled on the throne, he set hhiwclf to beautify his dominions. He rebuilt Samaria ; culling it Sebiiste, in honour of Augustus Cosar. He built a stutfly palace on Mount Zion : he also built the city of Ccsiiroa ; which name ivas given to it also in honour of Augustus. But his most celebrated work was the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem, on a scale of great magnilicence. It was towards the close of his reign, that the Lord Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem ; on v.hicli occasion he caused all the infants in Bethlehem, under the age of two years, to be m;issacred in cold blood, in the hope that itiie new-born MessiiUi would poriyh ai«ong thom. He soon aftci' died himself, in extreme torture, leaving his dominions divided among his four sons; who, from their iaheriting a fourth part of the kingdom, were called Tctrarchs. , One of these sons was that Herod, tetrarch of Galilee, who put to death John the Baptist, and who derided our blesac^i Lord, when he was sent to him by Piiate the Roman governor. Archelaus had Judea for his province ; hut iiicurring the enmity of his subjects, they accused him at Rome, and ultimately procured his banishment. Judea was then made a Roman province, and continued to be so- till the destruction of Jerusa- 1cm ; except for a few years, during which by the fa- vour of Caligula and Claudius, that Herod reigned, who put to death the apostle James, and imprisoned Peter ; and who, after a vain-glorious speech, was smitten with the diseases of which he died. Agrippa and Bernice, befpi^e whom Paul pleaded his cause, while Festus was IGO Roman govorfior, wore alsoof llie same family. Agrip. 5>n, reigned howcvfM-, not over Judea, but over some of i he neiffhoouriniT districts. MODb^N ITISTORY. That portion of the history of the worh,^, which fol lowed the birth of the [jord Jesus Clirist, may fitly ht v;alled Modern llistvxy ; Ix'cnuso the institutions of the pmpire of Rome, uiiich tiicii liad reached its height, still continue (o iuihionco tiie western world; and par- ticularly, Ijocauso that groat revolution of religion, and generally of tlie human mind, which then commenced, has continued to advance ; and, in the present day. U proceeding with unabuti <1, or rather renewed, vigor^r. This portion of iiistory, like that which preceded it, froui the creation of the world, might also be regarded as distributed into periods of 5t)U years, by romarkable eras. The iirst period of 500 years, after the Ciirislian era, is marked pretty nearly by the reign of Justinian, and the fall of the western empire. The second period is marked by the reign of William the Conqueror, and the settlement of the (jotiiic nations. The third ia marked by tha discovery of America, the fall of the eastern emj>ire, and the Reformation. These divisions, aowever, do not suggest the leading revolutions in the history of the world, since the birth of Christ. We rather, therefore, adopt the following eras, as our rest- ing points. The dates are given in round numbers. I. The era of Constantino, marked by the toleration of Christianity, and tlie division of the Roman territory into the Eastern and Western empires, A. D. 300. II. The rise of Mahomet, A. D. 600. III. The Qrusades, A. D. 1100. IV. Charles V. of Germany, and the dis- covery of America, A. D. 1500. And V. Bonaparte ^nd the French Revolution, A. D. 1800. i.D. ^RAS. io 100 it:.iiVS CiiU 101 to to 300 ,)U1 to 400 eONSTANl 401 to 500 "m to 600 601 to m MAHOME 701 to 800 801 to 900 001 to' 1000 1001 to 1100 CRUSAD] 1101 to 1200 1301 to 1300 i30l" to MOO ;. ; ■- 1401 to 1500 IMl 1 CHARLi:g to , 1600 1601 to 1700 1701 to 1300 BONAPAR 107 i.D. ^RAS. Ccn- tiiry TRINfJll'AL PKUSONS OR EVENTS IN KACIl CENTURY. io ino Ji!:bUS CHRIST. 1st Jesus Ci uiilied under Tiberius, Emperor, A.D. 33. Jeius.liin (icsliojedby Titus, A.D. 70. Persecution of Christians. 101 to m 2nd Tiajan, 1 inperor. Antoniaus Pius, Emperor, lei secution of Christians. to , .. j-v \\. 300 3rd Pertinax, Emperor. Dioclesian, Emperor. , ;, . ; Persecution of Christians. m to 400 GONSTANTINK 4th Persecution ceases, A. D. 313. Constantinople built, and Empire divided. ^01 to 500 "m to 600 6th Rome plundered by Alaric the Goth, A. D. 410. Attila, king of the Huns. Western empire overturned by Odoacer,A.D.47tt. - .,.-^,V---v,-;-..- 6th Justinian, Emperor of the East Belisarius. Narses defeats the Goths in Italy. 601 to m MAHOMET. 7th Mahomet's flight, or Hegira, A. D. 622. Caliphate established. : , - Saracenic conquests. -• 701 to 800 8th Saracens defeated, and their progress stopped hy Pepin, king of France. [Charles Martel. Charlemagne. "Western Empire revived. 801 to . - 900 9th England united in one Monarchy. Danes invade England. 1 - Alfred. 901 to' 1000 10th Normans establish themselves in France. Hugh Capet, king of Fnince. 1001 to 1100 CRUSADES. 11th Canute, first Danish king of l-jigland. William tin; Conqueror, king of England, 1066. Crusades coninience, A.D. l(J9o. 1101 to 1200 •• - - Hcnij- 11 ()f Kiigkii.tl, receives tlie submission of 12th the"ln,8h Kings. Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, A.D. 1193. 1301 to 1300 isoi" to MOO ■ ' \ ' * 13th Magna t:liiirta, signed by King John, 1216. Zciigis Ivhaii overru.iS Asia. - Rise of Ottoman Kmidre. • * ' ■_ 14th Battle of Bannockburn, 1314. Tamerlane ovcrrun.s Asia. Henry IV. uFuri)s the English throne. 1401 to 1500 15th Printing invented, A.D. 1440. Constantinople taken by the Turks, A.D. 1453. America (li.';rovered, A.D 1102. IMl 1 CHARLES V. to . , - 1600 Henry VI il. king of Kugland. 16th Rpformntiou. J'',li/.abeth. Defeat of Spanish Armada. 1601 to 1700 FiOuis XIV. king of France. 17th rharlos I. king of Kn.-^land, beheaded, A.n. 1619. AVilliiim and Marv, kinof and qiieou of tit. Britain. 1701 to 1300 BONAPARTE. ISth Peter the (iieat, of llussia. U. ^it.iii:s of Atiipricii acknowledged, A.D 17?3 I.ouis W'l. kiiii,' of Kr.inco, beheaded, A.D. 1703 10th Union of (irctil IJritain luid Ireland. Soutli Amciiciin Hcpublicsi separate from Spain Abol. of Slave Trade, A.D. l&Ofi.of Slavery, 1834. 168 At the birth of Je?;us Clirist, nonrly the whole* of that territory that had been siiccossively occupied by the Babyloiiian, the Persian, and Grecian monarchies, Was under the dominion of tlic city of Rome, now itself governed by a despotic monarch, retaining, indeed, the forms of a republic, but really under the absolute government of a military chief. And besides tbe territory of the former monarchies, this great empire now included under its sway those western countries, Spain, France, Holland, or Batavia, as far as Britain, which were scarcely known to history, even at the latest of the former eras. It was, with the single ex- ception of Palestine, pagan. That country was inha- bited by the Jews ; who derived their religion with more or less purity, from the Scriptures of the Old Testament. ; ' ' * ^ FIRST ERA. Birlh of Jesus Christ. -- , ; • FIRST CENTURY. T " - After the birth of the Saviour of the world, Augustus continued to govern the empire with muclt good judg- ment aiid clemency, attonding to ils iii'ernal order and prosperity, and to lis proieotitui iVom foreign invasion. Towards the end of his rdgii li'; adopted his step-son, Tiberius, and appointed him his successor in liie eni{)ire; lie died, A. D. 14, in the scvenl.y-sixth year of his ;igr^, and the foi'tv-iirst of jiis reian. Tiberhis snccooAcd him, a man naturally t)f a dr:r!< suspicious temper — a disposition which was fostered by oc- the circumstances in w iiieh he was placed — lill he p-'inie a torment to himself, and a scourge to all who fell .vithin his reach. In ihe 121 h year of his reign, he retired to the island of Capreie, oj)posile to Naples, which he luis rencrly oi' lii^- city and enipiro ; Ijutthey were opposed by Uie poj)u]ace atv] the s'.Micry, wiio preferred to the u-ovfrnint n^ <.'f a siu !!f\ l!ii' Jara'csses and the si'.ows bv wliieh the en-jo.-roi-s sought to secure their favor. The soldi'Ts aad the popidae*^, tlierefore, were resolved to iiav(i an t?mperor ; and some of tlurm pass- ing round the paltieo. {'m\)<\ (.'Jaudiu'-, the made of Caliguiii, a man about 50 years of ny:<\ who had been known chiefly by his iiubccility : — him they took upon ^heir slionhJHrs, and proclaimed emperor. Claudius began, as most of the emperors did, to veign well. Me p.dd great attention to the making of \lciuiBducts, roads, bridges, JKuivours, a!;i] (Hla-r works of public utility ; but i)artly luider the iidluenee of aa infnni us wt-iunn, his >vi!(>, iitid partly ihnaiuii suspicions and fears to which liis < .\aited rank exposed him, he bo- enme jealous and cruel, .oal a nudtltude ol' p: rsons of the fn-st (anilli; s in Rome li II ;i sacriHoe to his uj)|)rd\ensions. At length his wife, bpcomiiia. apprehonsive fiir her own safely, caused hi>r\ 1o be poisoned, after ho had reigned 13 years, A. D. 54. In the reign of Claudius, Britain Was invaded a second time by the R imaus. They wore I'ejsi.sted by Bu.ulicia, a iii.iUfth Qutu'n ; but her army Was totally defeat J, and liie Briion'j deprived of lh< 170 \pwcr, and, as it would appear, the inclination to resist, jle was succrrdcd by Nero, son of Agrippina, the sccfnid wife of Claudius. Jle, too, began to reign well, but afterwards rushca with such headlong fury into every species of wicked jievss, as to eclipse the enormities even of Tiberius, Cajigula, and Claudius. The first indication which hfl gave of the nalive cruelly of his heart, was the order- ing his mother Agrippina to be executed, and coolly observing, when he saw her di-ad body, that he never had thoviglit hU uiother was so handsome a woman. The whole of his nilure life was divided between the most frivolous occupations, and the perpetration of cruelties — the recitals of which make the soul to shud- der. Chariot-diiviuf" Mas hi.s favourite auuisement. He also valued himself upon liis skill in music, and even condescended to appear as a public pcrffirmer. But on the other hand, his thirst for blood was insatiable. • During his reign, a great part of Rome was burned ; and most historians attribute to him the contlagration. To remove the odium of it from hinvself, he attributed it to the Christians, who were then beginning to attract attention ; and upon that pretence comm<^nced an in- human perseeutioji against tliem. Sonje of them wore covered with tlic skins of wild beasts, and in this dis- guise, devoured by dogs ; some were crucified, and others burned alive. It was in this persecution that Paul was imprijionrd the s(v'ond time, as mentioned in his vsecond epistle to Timothy, and in all probability suftered death. Peter also, it is generally believed, suifcred about the same time. Seneca, the celebrated philosopher, had been \m tutor; and Nero, having taken up some suspicion that he was accessary to a conspiracy against him, sent hiiu an order to die ; which order Seneca obeyed. Lucian, the poet also, the nephew of fe<'neca. received a similar order, for the same cause, and obeyel it. Nero mui'- dered his wife. Octavia, tliat he might marry an in- famous woman, named Poppnja, and her he afterwards killed by a kick, while she was in a state of pregnancy. ' For thirteen years was he permitted thus to outrage 171 human nature, till at longth the ompii-o was roused to rill itself of such u monster. Sevvius (lalba, who waii at that time governor of 81)111 n, ami mnoh revered both by the soldiery and tlie citizens, accepted an in- yitation that was given to ])Im to march an army towards Rome. When Nero heard tliat Galba had de- clared against him, he gave himself up (or lost. He mado one or two etlorts to put liimself to death, l^ut hi<) courage always failed him. iia at length fled o,ut bt the city to the country iiouse of out; of his freedmen. There again he purj)nsnd to put himself to death, but dared noi, till he heard that the senate had decreed that he should be put in the j)illory, and scourged to death, and that the sokliejs were actually in piiisuit of hinj for that purpose. Then, by the assisianee of an utr tendant, he n-ave himseii a moj'ial wound svith a daffjier, and expired, just as the soldiers who pursued him burst into his apartment. Galha succeeded him, and soon found that, being raised to the throne by the army, it required more stea. diness of purpose and of conduct than he-could com- inand to keep the soldiers in subordination. In his attempts to do so he rendered himself unpopulnr, and furnished an opportunity for Otho who had boon a favourite of his, and who expected to succeed him, to attempt to undermine and depose iiim. In this Otho succeeded: — the soldi. iS bore him on tlieir shoulders to the Forum, where they found Gulba, and put him to death. ■ -- Qlho, accordingly, succeeded to the throne, but did not possess long Ids newly acquired diu,nit/;, CHhe; commanders of armies, fniding that the thronr; ^v;-.:- xi die disposal of the sohliery, began to aspire t > that dangerous elevation. Vitellius, wIk) eommaiMlcd the army in Germany, persuaded ids S!)ldi<"-s to prejlauii him emperor, and inmiediatcly marohed towards Home. Otho went to meet hinj ; and, after a desperate conflict pf several days, in which the two armies f 'It that they were contendingw for the disposal of the whole Roman world, fought with great obstinacy and fur} . At length ^m 172 Ptho was defeated, and soon afterwards killed Himself, having reigned three months and five days. Vitellius was then declared emperor by the Senate, He entered Rome as a town that he had taken by con- quest, and immediately crave iiimself up to the indul- gence of all kiiids of luxury and pi-ofuyion, and ren- dered himself proverbial hv his jrluttony. By these degrading practices, as well as by his cruelties, he too eoon became unpopular; iuid the legions "f tlie east availffl ihemsclves of tlio o]>jX)ftunity of declaring their j^jf ucral Vesparijin emperor. When the first army from the enpt entered lta!y, Vifr^llius sent one of his generals ;.o meet it, but he being defeated, ViL'llias j)roposed to resi!4U the empire to Vespasian, on condition of his life IX ing spared, and a suilicient revenue allotted for his S'upport. Other circuiustancesj however, occurred to indues him to attempt to dr-fcnd himself in the city. Vespusian's commander laid siege to the city, forced his way into it, slaughtered a large proportion of the army of Vitellius, ajid at ]en',] v* Inch it stood plowed up find sown with salt as ibr^ miblfm of perpetual dpsoL-itior.. Thus was tho prrd'cti.DU of our Lord fulfilled, iluit not one stone of tb.c temple should he left on another. Vespasian and Titus tlien entered PiMiuo in triumph. A triumphivl areh was erected for tiio occasion, wbieli still stands almost entire. On this arch are sculptured some oi'the sceius of th(^ Jewisri war, ;.i;d among others the Rointui sol'li^rs bearing in the ciliiuiph, the tabh" of show bread, the silver trujiipets, and the golden candle- sticks with seven ]>ranches. Vesp.-.sia:! also l>uilt a pi'o- (lij,dous amphiiiientre, capat)le of boldiag SO.OGO spec- tii tors seated, and 20.000 standing, wh.ich siiil remains ahnost entire, and is known by tJie iiame of tb.e Coli- SRuni. Twelve thousand Jeul.sli captives were em- pinycd in its erection. Ves[ui„i;:n v< igned in all ten years, and died of natural disease, leaving hiiSon TiLus lo succeed to the empire. .-- . 15^= 71 Titus ascended liio tlirone A. D. 79, and litis hrcn licld up to nil ages as a priiuro possessing nlmost every vir- tue. It is to be observed, however, that he reiifuod only two years and two nionlius, and that most of tlio Roman emperors began their reigns well. Had Nero himself reigned so short a time, he too v.ould have been set forth as an example of every thing amialjlo and great. In the first year of his reign, A. ]). 80, eruptions of Mount Vesuvius took place, by wiiich the city of Herculaneum was overwhelmed in a torrent of lava, and Pompeii buried under nn immrns;^ mass of ashes. These towns were discovered in the beginning of ibo last century, Herculaneum in 1713, and Pouipeii 40 years afterwards; and IVom their ruins have been collected some of llic most iiiteresiing remains of an- tiquity. Towards the latter end of tlio reign of Vespasian, Agricola had been sent to Britain ; and, in the reign of Titus he succeeded in bringing the southern part of the island under the dominion of the empire. After a reign of two years and two months, Titus was seized with a violent fever, of which he died, not without the suspi-. cion of having been poisoned hy jiis In'otlier Domitian. Domitian succeeded him, A. D. 81, and, at first, he, too, reigned well, but soon became one of the most de- graded and detestable of the Roman emperors, ilis character was a compound of arrogance, cruelty, and licentiousness. Agricola's success in Britain filled him with envy ; he recalled him, and that general dying soon after, it is suspected that Domitian procured Ins death by poison. Men were daily put to deatli for the most trivial causes. In his roign, the second persecu- tion of the Chri,3tians took place, when the Apostle John was banished to tl;e island of Patmos, and tlior^ wrote his Apocalypse, or book of Revelations. The governor of Upper Germany revolted from him ; but prematurely : — he was defeated and slain. At length his wife Domitia, having discovered that her name was in- serted in his tablets to be destroyed, and also the names of several officers about the palace, headed a con- spiracy against him, by which he was put to death. 175 His death was rogrotted only by the soldiery, whose favour he had taken care to secure, by frequent and large distributions of money among them. The senate immediately began to load his memory with reproach, and proceeded, before the soldiers had an opportunity of making an appointment of their own, to name his sue ccssor, so tiiat on the very day of his death, Nerva was chosen to the empire A. D. 96. Nerva was an amiable but somewhat imbecile man. The people, however, had been so much accustomed to be governed by the most furious tyrants, that they re- garded his gentle reign with rapture. Nerva recalled all the Christians who had been banished from Rome during the fornier reign. Finding the soldiery disposed to dictation and tumult, and his own slrength decaying, for he was about 65 years of age wlicn he was called to the throne, he wisely, overlooking his own family, chose Ulpius Trajjin to succeed him ; and, about three months after this, he died, having rcignfd only one year and four months. Nerva was the first foreigner that ever reigned in Rome. Trajan accordingly succeeded him, A. D. 98. Ho was a Spaniard by birth, and at the time of iiis adoption by Nerva, was governor of Upper Germany. He had been the pupil of the celebrated Plutarch the biographer. He was a man of great vigour, both of body and mind, and proved a warlike and energetic prince. The bar- barous nations that lay upon the outskirts of the em- pire were now becoming troublesome and dangerous. The Dacians that inhabited the country to the north of the Danube, invaded the empire. Trajtm marched against them, defeated tiiem, erected a bridge across the Danube which consisted of 22 arches, the ruins of which remain till the present day, and reduced Dacia to the condition of a province of the Roman empire. Trajan, however, led away by the prejudices that existed against the Christians, permitted them, about the ninth year of his reign, to be furiously persecuted ; and many of them were put to deatli by popular tu- mults, and by judicial proceedings. After some time, however, being satisfied that they were an unoffeiiding 176 people, he put n stop to the persecution. In his reign, the Jews made a fiuiatical insurn ction against the go. vernment of Rome, in nil parts of the empire, expecting that some sijrnal (lollverancc would be sent to them from God. They tocik udvaofnjrf; of tiio absence of Trajan, in an expedition to the east, t(i massacre all the Gi'eeks and Romans whom they could get into their power, per. Eetrating tiie most revolting cruelties. Their crimes, owever, only recoiled upon themselves, and brought upon them a terrible retribution from the enraged army and populace of the empire. In the east, Trajan extended the limits of his empire ; but, on returning towards Rome, he was seized in the city of Selucia with apoplexy, of which disease he died after a reign of 19 years, A. D. 117. A splendid columR was erected to his memory during the reign of his suc- cessor, wiiich still continues to be one of the most inte- resting ornamfnts of modern Rome, j' SECOND CENTURY. Adrian, his nephew,*Svas chosen to succeed him— — The character of his government was totally different from that of Trajan. He was a man of peace, and adopted every mitliod to promote and maintain peace. He was one of the most remarkable of tiie Roman em- perors for the variety of his endowments : and, although his private clMracter was stained with many faults, his public acts seem to have been dictati^d by sound policy. The barbarians still continuing thiir irruptions into the empire, had adopted the method of watching the ab- sence of the Roman armies to make their incursions, and retiring before them when they came to drive them back. Adrian, tindim; that accordino; to this mode of warfare, the bridge which Trajan built was at least as convenient for his enemies as for himself, destroyed it. His mode of obtaining peace in the eastern part of the empire, was an act of more questionable policy. He 177 pnrchns! c1 the bnrbarinns ofT by Ini'jrp gums oi inoney ; u'liich could only encourii^e thiu) to meditate new iuvii.sions. lit! giive fM'dors for the rcbuiMiDg of Jcrusalenj, which work was pcrfonncd with j^roat, expedition, by die assistimc!^ of the Jews ; but lliut infatuated people heing enraged by'tiie privileges which were granted to the Pagan worshippers in their renovated city, fell upon the Iloniiins and Christians that were dispersed through Judea, and mercilessly put them to the sword. Adrian sent a powerful army against them, which subdued them, but not till after two years of warfai during which 1000 towns were demolished, and nearly 600,000 men killed in buttle. Adrian banished all Jews from Judea, and forbade them, on pain of death, to come within view of it. Adrian spent a considerable part of his time in tra- velling through the empire. Among other places, he visited Britain ; ' and, ibr the better security of the southern parts of this province, he built a wall of earth and stone across the island, between the river Eden, in Cumberland, and the Tyne, in Northumberland, some portions of w])ich can still be traced. After 13 years, spent m strivmg to regulate the empire, and reform abuses in it, he returned to Rome, with the intention of ending his days there : and while there, he introduced many wise regulations into the city, particularly the restraining of masters from putting to death their slaves without trial, and preventing slaves from being tortured to discover the murder of their masters. As he advanced in age, he became subject to great bodily pain, so that he ardently desired to die, and requested those around him to dispatch him ; none how- ever could be found to engage in so dangerous a service, and he was permitted to die naturally, after a reign of nearly 22 years, A. D. 138. He was succeeded by Antonius, who, partly from his attachment to the idol- worship of the empire, and partly from his tenderness to Adrian whjle he was dying, has obtained the name of Pius. His character stands high for justice and mo» deration, and generally for primitive strictness of morals. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I UilM |25 ■u ^ 122 US 140 IL25 Ulu 20 1.6 Photographic Sdsices Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTER.N.Y. 14SS0 (716)«73-4S03 178 No regular account of the transactions of his reign hns come down to us ; but his general policy was rather to preserve the bounds of the empire, than to extend them. He was wont to say, after Scipio, that he would rather save one citizen, than kill a thousand enemies. He died of fever at the age of 75, having reigned 23 years, On his death-bed he confirmed an adoption of Marcus Aurelius, which he had previously made, and nominated him as his successor. Marcus Aurelius, who also took the na'me of Anto- mnus, accordingly succeeded to the empire ; but asso- elated with him Lucius Verus. Marcus Aurelius is frequently called Antoninus Pkilosophus; and is thus distinguished from his predecessor, Antoninus Pius. He is justly regarded as one of the best of the Rotnan emperors. Verus was almost a contrast to him in all the features of his character, being dissojute and igno- rant ; yet they seem to have conducted the affairs of the empire in uninterrupted amity. ' When Antoninus came to the throne, he was urged by the pagan priests and others to persecute the Christians; but he received that proposal with indig- nation ; and, on the contrary, interposed his authority for their protection. During his reign the empire was visited with several heavy calamities. An inundation of the Tiber destroyed a vast multitude of cattle, and caused a famine in Rome. This famine was followed by an invasion of the Parthians, and about the same time the Celti made an. irruption into Gaul and Rhoetia. Verus went against the Parthians, defeated the^i and drovp them out of Mesopotamia. About the same time a pestilence ran over the ejiipire, making dreadflil havoc of the inhabitants. The Marcomanni, anothey German tribe, began to take up arms against the Romans. The two emperors marched to meet them, but Verus died by the way. In the conflict that ensued, the Romans were defeated with great slaughter. The emperor made vigorous preparations for renewing the war ; but his army being blocked up by the Quadi. a German tribe, an incident happened which has givei^ rise to many contradictory statements. The Roman 179 armj were In dangct of perishing with thirsty arid the enemy assailed them in that condition, when Sbddehly a copious rain fell, which refreshed the Romans, whii6, at the same time, a storm of thunder and hail beat ih the faces of the assailants, and enabled the Romans to overcome them. The pagan writers ascribe this thtel'- position to magicians : the Christians ascribe it to the prayer^ of a body of Christians who were in the army, chiefly in the 12th legion, from which that legion ob- tained the name of the thundering legion. Soon after this Aridius Cassius revolted, but was killed by a Ceti- turion. In A. D. 179, the Marcomanni again invaded the empire. Antoninus went against them and obtained a victory over them ; but died before he had completed tlie war, A. D. 180. During his reign, the Roman rampart which ran between the Forth and the Clyde in Scotland, known vulgarly by the name of Graham's Dyke, was built. Antoninus was succeeded by Comtnodus, his son, a weak and dissolute prince, who has made himself remarkable only for his licentiousness, cruelty and'-injustice. After a rcigfi of 13 years, he was assassinated by d conspiracy of the members of his household. He was succeeded by Peftinax, A. D. 192, who had been previously nomi- nated to the empire.^ He was of loW birth, and had risen to eminence by his military virtues and talents. He reigned but thfee months ; after which, he was mur- dered by the soldiery. The praetorian soldiers then set Up the empire for sale ; and it was purchased by a weak but rich man, named Didius JuUanus. Didius had amassed his money by avarice; and, continuing to manifest an avaricious disposition, he soon became unpopular With the sol- diers ; and Severus, an African by birth, induced the army, which he commanded, to proclaim hirti em- peror. Severus immediately marched towards Rome, and Didius was slaiet. Severus succeeded him, A. D. 194, having overcfomd two other competitors for the throne. His reigri was energetic, but cruel. He went against the Pamiians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire, and 180 overoame them,— oompelled the submission of the King pf Armenia, and destroyed several cities in Arabia ^elix. He entered Rome in triumph ; a splen> did triumphal arch having been erected to receive hira, which is still in good preservati'^n. The Roman sub. jeqts in Britain being harassed uiQ u. 'langer of being destroyed by the northern inhabitants, he jvent thither, drove back the Caledonians, and built a wall across the island between the Solway Frith and the Grerman Ocean. He did not long survive his successes in Britain, but died at York^ after an active though cruel reign of about 18 years. , ■V' TBIRI) CENTUST. Caracdtla and Getat the sons of Severus, being acknowledged as emperors by the army, A. D. 211, began to manifest their hatred of one ai^other even before their arrival at Rome. Caracalla,, at length, resolving to govern alone, rushed into Geta's apartment, followed by a troop of ruffians, and murdered Geta in his mother's arms. He then became one of the most execrable tyrants that ever disgraced the empire. He even outdid Nero and Domitian in his barbarities ] till Macrinus, the commander of the forces in Mesopotamia, was roused to get rid of him, and employed a person to assassinate him, after he had reigned six years. The soldiers then fixed upon Macrinus as emperor, not knowing the part which he had taken in the assassination of Carapalla. He was permitted to reign little more than one year, when, having been defeated by some seditious legions of his own army, he was pursued and killed. Heligobaluaf a boy of about 14 years of age, was then called to the throne by the army. ^His whole reign was a compound of effeminacy, prodigality and cruelty. At length, after four years, thei^^ldiers be- eame, 4ired of lum, mutmied, pursved ^^ into his m 181 palaoe, cfragged him out, murdered him, aiid threw hi* body into the Tiber. Heliogabalus was succeeded by Alexander^ his cousin german. He was a prince of great energy, strict justice, and great humanity. Al- though but 16 years of age when he was called to the empire, he was one of the most accomplished and able of the emperors. In his reign, the Germans began to pour, in immense swarms, into the empire. They pass- ed the Rhine and the Danube, and threw Italy itself into extreme consternation. The emperor resisted them in person, and drove them back ; he was, however, cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers, after a reign of 13 years. Maximin, who had been the chief promoter of the sedition against Alexander, was then chosen emperor^ He was a man of great stature, strength and courage. He had, by his extraordinary personal .qualifications^ attracted the notice of the emperor Severus, who intro- duced him into his bodyguard; and from that station he rose to the throne itself. The leading feature of hit character was brutal ferocity, which his elevation gave him ample means of indulging. He, howevv<«r, carried on his military operations with great vigour, and defeat- ed the Grermans in several battles. His cruelties pro- voked several attempts to destroy him, none of which succeeded, till the soldiers, having gained over Ms guards, entered his tent while he was asleep, and c^w both him and his son, after a reign of three years. After him Pvpienus and Balbienus reigned A. D, 238, but dis- agreeing between themselves, they were both slain by the soldiers. After the murder, the soldiers passing along the street, met Gordian^ whom they declared emperor on the spot, A. D. 238. He was a youth of 16 years of age, and of good dispositions and abilities. The army, however, soon began to be dissatisfied, and their complaints were artificially fomented by one Philip an Arabian. Philip succeeded in having himself associated in the empire with Gordian ; and when he found his authority suffi- ciently strong, he ordered Gordian to be slain. 16 182 PM^ then became emperor, and associated his son With himi A. D. 248, a boy of six years of agCi Th^ army; however^ scion revolted iii favor of Decius Ju- lianus, his general, when Philip was put to dfeath, and'D, Dediu« became emperor A. D. 248. He was a maiii of talent and moderation, and seemed for a time to re^. tard the fall of the empire. He was killed, after a reigd ^f two years and a half, by an ambuscade of the enemy. He was a furious persecutor of the Christians. Chltust who had betrayed the Roman army, had sufficient address to get himself proclaimed emperor, A. D. 251. He was the first that agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Groths to induce them to cease from disturbing the empire. Giilliis wished for relief from foreign enemies, that he might give himself up t6 indulgence. Meanwhile, however, he permitted the Pagans to wreak their malice on the Christians, who were becoming very numerous. A pestilence raged throughout the empire with great fury in his reign; At length his general jEmilianus revolted from hinf, and Gallus and hii^ son were slain in the battle that ensued. The senate refused to acknowledge iGmilianu?, and an army that was stationed near the Alps chose Valeriany their commander, to succeed to the throne A* D. 253. He seemed to set about reforming the State with vigour, but the Persians invading Syria, Valerian was taken prisoner, and suffered an imprison' ment of seven years, in whiclh he was treated with ever^ indignity. When Valerian was taken prisoner^ . GaUienus his son proposed to revenge the insult, and was chosen emperor, A. D. 259. But it soon > ppeared that he was more intent on the indulgences rnan the labours of royalty ; and set himself down to a life of ease and luxury. At this time, there were no less than 30 competitors for the throne, who are some- times absurdly called the 30 tyrants, in reference to the Athenian rulers after the Pelopbnnesian war.- One of these aspirants to the throne had taken possession of Milan. Gallienus was obliged to march against him, but was slain during the expedition, by his own soldiers. Flavius Ctat^uSf wais named to succeed him, A, Df 183 203, a man of energy and talent, liaving done excellou( service against the Gotlis; but afler a great victory pvcr these unwearied enemies, he was seized with A fever, of which he died. Upon his death Aurelian was acknowledged by all the states of the empire. He was a man of great courage and personal strength) and rapid in his military movements. One o^ the most noted events of his reign Ivas his subduing and taking prisoner Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra. Longinus, the celebrated author of the treatise on the Sublime, was secretary to Zenobia, and he was by Aurelian's orders put to death. This emperor's sovc- rities were at length the cause of his destruction. His own secretary having been threatened by him, formed a conspiracy against him, which succeeded, and he was slain, having reigned five years. After some time, the senate chose 'tacituSy a man of 75 years of age, to succeed hira,' A. D. 275. He was a man of great merit; no way ambitious of the honors that were olPjred to him. He began with moderation ; but after reigning six months,^ he Was seized with fever and died. After his death hi^ half brother attempted to succeed, but being defeated by Probus, he killed himself. Prohus was then declared emperor ; he was bred a soldier, and was noted for his determined bravery. During his reign, every year produced neVv calamities to the empire, by the incursions of enemies. These he repelled with great energy, being every where victori- ous, till, as he was marching to Greece, he was slain by his mutinous soldiers. He was succeeded by CaruSy A. D. 282, who associated with him his twd sons Carinus and Numerian. Several nations in the west having revolted, he sent his son Carinus against them, and advanced himself against his eastern ene- mies. He defeated them, but was struck dead by light- ning, after having reigned about 16 months. In the midst of the tumult and the attempts of Numerian and Carinus to secure the empire that was occasioned by the death of the emperor, Diochsian, one ^f the ablest generals of his. day; 184 was chpsGiv, A. D. 284. In his time, the northern barbarians having discovered tl)e want of discipline and energy in the Roman If^gions, poured down in swarms on the devoted territory. Tlie Scythians, Goths, Sar- matians, Alani, Cursii, and Quadi, assailed it along the whole northern i'rontier. Di(jcleaian had chosen Maximian as his colleague, and afterwards took two other colleagues, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius, with the title of Caesars. 1'hese emperors gained many victories over the barbarians, but without the slightest ffiect in putting a stop to their incuri^ions. Dioclesian has rendered himself notorious by the most furious and periievf ring persecution of the Chri^ tians, which they were ever called to endure; but, ia kis etibrt to crush them, he was as much disappointed, as iti his attempts to subdue and restrain the barbarians. At length, being threatened with a civil war, Dioclesian and Maximian resigned the empire, and on the same day, both retired into private stations. Dioclesian lived in his palace near Salona, amusing himself in the cul- tivation of his garden till he died, either by poison or insanity. After the resignation of Dioclesian and Maximian, C&nstantius Chlorus and Galerius, the two Csesars, were universally acknowledged as their successors. Galerius immediately began to take measures for ulti. matcly centering the sole government in himself; but his arrangements were rendered abortive by the elevation of Constantino, the son of Constantius Chlorus. Constantius died at York, A; J). 300, having appointed his son Constantino as his successor. Galerius died soon- afterwards^ and his government was distributed between Licinius and Maximian. There were now, therefore, four emperors, Maxcntius and Maximian, .vho had entered into a secret treaty with one another, Constantino and Licinius, who were naturally led to associate for mutual defence against their rivals. Maxentius was in possession of Rome, and a stedfast supporter of Paganism. Constantino marched against him, and during his inarch he made a public profession •f Cluristianity. Most of liis army, it is said> were 185 Christians; and his profession of Christianity, not merely attached thcin tiio mora to him, but procured for him many adlicrcatS in all parts of the empire. Maxentius was defeated, and drowned in his flighti while attempting to cross the Tiber. Maximian, who governed in the east, marched against Licinius, but was also defeated, and soon afterwards died. > SECOND ERA. Constantine. At this era, the -Roman empire still retained itf ascendancy ; but its armies had lost much of their energy. They had been pampered and rtiined by success, and had taken into their own hands the appointment of tiie emperors. Constantine haying built Constantinople, constituted it the capital oi the eastern portion of the empire, and thus rent the empire into two parts. He also became professedly a Christian; and his accession drew multitudes into the church, many of whom, in all probability, knew little of Christianity, beyond the name. FOURTH CENTTIET. Constantine atid Licinius thus remained undisturbed possessors of the Roman world. It was not, however, likely that both would be satisfied with only a share of sovereignty, and accordingly, a contest soon arose, which terminated in favor of Constantine. Constantine thus having become sole monarch, adopted measures for establishing Christianity as the religion of the empire, which was effected, as it would appear, without much difficulty. The battle had already been fought in the diffusion of the truth ; so that » 16* 186 lai^e portion of his subjects were already professing Christians. Another important change introduced by this emperor was his building Constantinople, and constituting that city the capital of the empire, and removing thither with his whole court. This measure ultimately caused a division of the empire into the western and eastern ; the capital of the one being Rome, and that of the other Constantinople. This result was hastened by his dividing his empire among his three sons. Constantino died, A. D. 337, and was succeeded by his three sons, Constnntine, Constanlius, and Constans. The weakness produced by this division encouraged the enemies of the empire, who had been restrained by the power and vigour of Constantino, to take up arms. The most remarkable and dangerous of these enemies was Sapor, king o^ Persia. He was vigorously opposed by Con- Btantius, but with various success, till both parties being wearied with the struggle, and new enemies to each appearing, they concluded a peace. In the mean while, Constantino attempted to dis. possess his brother Constans of his dominions, but perished in the attempt. Constans governed so tyranni- cally, that he provoked an insurrection, headed by Magnentius, who commanded the western troops of the west. Constans was unprepared for this insurrection, and fled, but was overtaken and put to death. Mag- nentius had now to contend with Constantius, the othef brother. A decisive battle was fought near the town of Mursa, on the river Drave, and the army of Mag^ nentius defeated, and almost extirpated. This battle Wais diBCisive, not only of the fate of Magnentius, who afterwards put himself to death, but of the empire itself. So many well disciplined veterans, as were lost on that fatal day, could never be replaced ; and never again did an emperor command an army such as that which fell on the plains of Mursa. Constantius thus became monarch of the whole Roman empire. But the emergencies of the state compelled him to nominate an associate. Gallus and Julian his cousins, nephews of Constantino the Great, 187 Imd been kept in confinement from their chiMhood. Gallus was now called forth to bo associated witii Con- stantius; but conducting himsolf indiscreetly, he alarmed the jeiuousy of Constantius, ond was put to death. His brother Julian was then chosen, who con- ducted the affairs of the western empire with much ability. Constantius became jealous of him also, and demanded some of his troops, under pretence that rein- forcements were required in the east. The troops re- fused to march, and Julian, after some delay, sanctioned their disobedience. A civil war was averted by the death of Constantius, when Julian became emperor A. D. 361. He had been educated in Christianity, but had a strong bias towawJs the Pagan religion and philosophy. Wliile he was a subject, he continued to profess Christianity, or at least not openly to deny it ; but when he attained to supreme power, he openly embraced Paganism. From this circumstance he has acquired the name of the apostate. He did not, however, persecute the Christians. He had observed that persecution only increased their numbers. He therefore attacked them by more subtle means, — by fomenting quarrels among them, by dis- countenancing them, by encouraging and favouring Pagans, and by reviving the Pagan worship, wliich had fallen into disuse, in all its splendour ; also by argu- ing against Christianity in his writings and conversa- tions. For the purpose of providing such an argu- ment, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusa- lem; but could not succeed. The most respect- able writers of his age attribute the defeat of this attempt to a miraculous interposition, which inter- rupted the workmen, so that they did not dare to proceed with the work. But whether the interposition lyag njiraculous or not, it is agreed on all hands, that the attempt was made by Julian, a monarch of the Roman empire, and that it failed. The Persians were at this time carrying on wa? against the Romans with vigour, and Julian marched to oppose them. On hi^ way, he revived the Pagan worship wherever he went, consulted the ancient ,, im •raoles xcspocting tho event of his cnterprifw, and was uniformly nQsurod of buccoss. Full of hopo and con- fidence, inspired by llioso nrssti rimer's, ho marched towards Persia, crossctl thn l']u|tliriites oiid Tigris, and penetrated sorrm way into \\w enrmy's territory. But the Persians had laid wnpto tlin country on his line of march, and ho was at length compolled to re- treat. The Persian horso now harassed him con- tinually. It was in vnin thatttho lloinans were victo. rious in every encounter, the r noniy only retired to renew the assault, till, at length, Julian, in his eager- ness to repulse one of these attacks, was mortally wounded, and diod the snine ovenin^jj, having reigned only twenty months. The army, reduced to great straits, chose Jovian, an able commander, to succeed him, A. D. 863. When Jovian was thus raisod to the tirrone, he and his army were in imminnnt danger of perishing by fkmine. Unexpectedly the Persians sent proposals of peace, upon the condition that the Romans should restore five provinces which had been taken from them in the reign of Dioclesian. To these condi- tions Jovian agreed, and tiiis was the -first permanent dismemberment of the empire. Jovian did not live to return to Rome, or even to Constantinople ; but was found dead in his bed on his way thither. At Antioch, however, he had revoked all the laws that Julian had made against Christianity. Valentinian was chosen emperor, and then named his brother Valens as his colleague. The empire being assailed on all sides by the barbarians, the two em- perors divided the empire between them, Valentinian receiving, as his share, the western, and Valens the eastern part of it. The Goths, in the reign of Valens, advanced up^to the very suburbs of Constantinople, defeated and killed the emperor, and then laid siege to Adrianople, but were repulsed with great slaughter. After their repulse, great numbers of them were cut to pieces by the Saracens, who had come to the aid of the Romans. Valentinian continued to make thead against the barbarians who invaded his part of 199 the empire, till A. D. 87^, when he died in the lUth year of his reign. At his death ho was succeeded in the west by Gmlixn, and the wostorn ( inpliv being Bt this time willioiit niiy fMiiperor, lie ohluiiir.d tlio si»vtMii<^nfy of *lhnt iilso. ITo w.-iH linui«"Iiittcly <'iigavretched remnant of it was ff)rcpd to surrender at dig- prction, and sold for slaves. Stilicho was thus hailed u second time as the deliverer of Italy. ITonorius, however, was exposed to a worse enemy than the barbarians, namely, iiis own jealousy and weakness. Stilicho, after all his services, was accused pf corrupt niotives, and put to death. This opened Italy to the Goths, and Alaric, a Gothic king professing Christianity, descended upon Rome itself. He was at lirgt induced to spare the city i)y a large ransom, but afterwards, he assailed it, took and plundered it^ mas^ pacreing many of the inhabitants. * In the eastern empire, nothing worthy of being noticed in this brief narrative is recorded, from the reign of Coustantine, till the end of this century. ;,;•(-. FIFTH CENTURY. Alaric had taken and plundered Rome, A. D. 410, and Honorius died, A. D. 428. It is not necessary to give the names of the ditferent nominal emperors of the west, who assumed that title, during the early part pf this century. None of them ever possessed the real covernnient of the empire, almost every province of it Being now in full possession of the barbarian tribes that had invaded it. At length, when a youth, called |n derision, Augustulus, who had bee<> raised to the pominal rank of emperor by his father Orestes, a general of the Roman army, was in possession of the 101 title of emperor, Italy was invaded by Odoacer, a Gotht Odoacer defeated, took, and slew Orestes, went to Ravenna and took Augustulus ; but spared his life in consideration of his youth, and appointed him a liberal maintenance. He then went to Rome, which readily submitted to him, and he ?ramediatcly caused himself to be proclaimed king of Italy. Thus the very name of the empire of the west was obliterated. Britain had long been abandoned by the Romans. Spain wag held by the Goths and Suevans. Africa by the Van- dals. The Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and Alans, had erected several governments in Gaul, and at length Italy itself, as we have just seen, was enslaved by a barbarian, whose family, country and nation can scarcely be traced. In the east the empire was attacked by the most formidable enemy it had yet encountered ; Attila, king of the Huns, a Tartar race who had come from the great wall of China, spreading blood and desolation over their track. Attila called himself the scourge of God, and boasted that grass never grew where his horse had trodden. He afterwards advanced westwards to Gaul. His empire is supposed to have been the most extensive ever acquired in one reign ; his authority being acknow- ledged over the north of Asia and Europe, from the shores of the Pacific nearly to the shores of the Atlantic. It was, however, greater in territorial extent than in population and importance. Aoetius, the Roman pre^ feet of Gaul, who had induced the kings of the Goths and Franks to make common cause with the empire against Attila, met him near Chtilons-sur-Marne, and defeated him with the loss of 200,000 men. But Attila though defeated was not subdued ; he sent ing message to the emperor, and received defiance. He then resolved to raise all and invade Italy, and actually penetrated a threaten- in reply a his forces far as as Milan, which he took. Such was the terror that his approach occasioned, that many of the inliabitants took refuge among the canals and inarshes that wei-e at the extremity of the Adriatic Gulf, and there gave origin to the city of Venice. Attila was dissuaded by the Ida Pope from advancing upon Rome. Acctlus compelled him to pass into Gaul, and there Thorismond, king of the Goths, gave him as signal a defeat as he had formerly received from Aoetius. In 476 a great conflagration took place in Constan- tinople in which 120,000 books were consumed. To- wards the end of this centuiy, the Ostro Goths, or Eastern Goths, erected a kingdom within the limits of the eastern empire, as the Visi Goths, or Western Goths, had done in the West. SIXTH CENTURY, The western empire is now at an end. In the eastern empire the chief object worthy of attention during this century is the reign of Justinian. He came to the throne, A. D. 527. The first enemy that he had to encounter, was the Persian monarch. This monarch, although successful in one battle, was routed afterwards by the celebrated Belisarius. The war, however, was con- tinued, with various success for many years. During this war, one of the greatest civil tumults, recorded in history, took place at Constantinople. It began with different factions in the Circus, but ended in open rebelion. One party went so far as to proclaim a new emperor, and seemed to carry every thing before them, till Belisarius, who had been recalled from the Persian war, came upon the rebels when they were assoml)lc(l in the Circus, attacked and slew 30,000 of them, and effectually quelled the rebellion. Justinian now turned his arms against the Vandals in Africa, and the Goths in Italy, both of which pro- vinces his able generals Belisarius and Narses recovered out of the hands of these barbarians. In A. D. 558, Jus- tinian purchased peace with the Persians by paying a lurge sum of money. The same year a body of Huns having passed the Danube, marched towards Constan- tioople, and came within 18 miles of the city. The 193 indefutigabLe and faithful Belisarius went out against them with comparatively a handful of men, and put tliem to flight. This was his last exploit. On his return to Constantinople, he was digraced, stripped of his employments, and confined to his hou^e, on pre- tence of being paity to a conspiracy against the emperor. Justinian thus, by the talent and bravery of his generals, seemed to revive the ancient grandeur of tlie Roman empire. But he is scarcely less celebrated for the difToront digests of the laws which were exe- cuted under his auspicies, and which have been of the most essential use in arranging the jurisprudence of the difierent kingdoms of Europe. He also founded the Cliurch of Saint Sophia at Constantinople, which has been converted by the Turks into a Mahometan mosque, and is still regarded as a master-picce of architecture. Justinian died, A. D. 565, in the 83d year of his age, and the 39th of his reign. THIRD ERA. Mahomet. At this era the Wostern division of the empire was no more. Barbarian tribes, from the north and east, had burst in upon it, and were in possession of much of its territory : and Homo itself was governed by a lieu- tenant, sent hy the emperor of Constantinople. In A. D. 600, Mahomet was preparing to propagate that celebrated imposture, which has obtained possession of so large a portion of the human race. SEVENTH CENTURY. This century is remarkable for the rise of the >4»^ % inetan imposture, which produced important rew.-U ll 194 jhe history of tho world, during this and the succeeding period. Mahomet was Ixirti townrds the close of the brevious century ; but diy John Sobicski, king of Poland. While the southern parts of Europe were thus occupied, a power was rising in tlie north, which was destined to produce important changes in its social state. Russia, whicli had scarcely been felt or even heard of, in European politics, till towards the beginning of the eighteenth century, now began to emerge from its obscurity. This empire may be said to owe its exis- tence, under Divine Providence, to the extraordinary enterprise of Peter, more justly called the Great, than many of those who have obtained that title, and who ascended the throne of Russia A. D. 1682. The measures which ho adopted for raising his country to eminence, were not conquest ; but the introduction into his dominions of civilization, and of the arts and sciences. By these means he rendered available the resources of his vast territory ; and his successors, following up his plans, with the addition of direct eflbrts to enlarge their territory, the Russian empire has assumed a more commanding and formidable position, than any single state now in Europe. In Asia, the Tartars again overran China, and com- menced a new Tartar dynasty on the throne of that vast empire. ,. ... ■ . - ^' ' ». » ■» ' EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. The commencement of this century finds England and several of the states of Europe combined to resist the ambitious projects of Louis Fourteenth. And the Duke of Marlborough, general of the forces of the allies, gained several great victories over the armies of France, which ultimately led to the peace of Utrecht* The attention of Europe was also directed to th« war 205 of Fredeiiok Third, king of Prussia, with the German emperor, for the possession of Silesia : and the rise of llie Prussian kiiigclotn to influence. Also to the wars of Chci.rles Twell'ih, kin,!t;uit irregular motion. Tho leaves of the sun-dow, near the root, are covered with bristles, hedewed with a sticky juice. If u fly settles on the upper surface of the leaf, it iy at first detained by this clarnujy liquid, and tluju the leaf closes, and jiolds it fast, till it dies. Plants in general, turn their leaves towards the light ; and, when growing in a room, they spread out tlxMr branches towards the windows, ns if they were sensible <>^i' the benefits they derive from Jight and air. Plants appear albo to bo susceptible of contracting pabit^. The mimosa, or sensitive plant, if conveyed in ji carriage, closes its leaves, as soon as the carriage i.s put in motion ; but after some time, it becomes Accustomed to it, the contraction ceases, and the leaves expand. Plants, which arc brought from tho southern hemis- phere, faithful to the seasons of their native country, make vain attempts to bud and blossom, during our frosty winter ; and seem to expect their sultry summer' at Christmas. These, and many other phenomena, exhibited by plants, do not permit us positively to say, that plants are wholly devoid of sensibility ; but the evidence against that opinion is so strong, as to amount almost to proof. Had Providence endowed plants with the sen- sations of pleasure and of pain, it would, at the samtf lime, have aftbrded the means of seeking the one, and of avoiding the o^ier. Instinct is given lo ani^nals for that express pwrpose, and reason to man ; but a plant rooted in the earth, is a poor, patient, passive being: its habits, its irritability, and its contractibility, all de- pending on mere physical causes. The properties of plants may be separated into two classes: first, those which relate to their structure; such as their elasticity, their hygrometic |)ower : these iproperties may continue after death. • Secondly, those Which relate to their vitality ; such as contractibility j which, consequently, can exist only in the. living state. The elementary organs of vogetablec arc of thre« 21{i kinds, ipirst, tlie cellular system ; consisting of minute colls, of an hexagonal fi)rn», apparently closed and separated by their partitions, somewhat similar to tho construction of a honeycomb. These cells in plants are marked by small spots, which have been conjec- tured to be apertures, through which fluids are trans, mitted from one cell to another ; but these marks are sq minute, as to render it hazardous to venture on deciding- for what purpose they are designed. The vascular system forms the second set of elemen- tary organs. It consists of tubes, open at both ends : they are always situated internally. The organs of plants are so extronicly small, that, though aided by th.^ most powerful microscope, it is frequently difficult tu examine the structure of their parts, with a sufficient degree of accuracy, to be able to ascertain their func- tions. It has long been a disputed point, whether the sap ascends through the vascular or the cellular system of organs ; the latest opinion is, that it passes through neither ; but that it rises through the insterstices which separate the different cells. The third system of elementary organs, is the trachaaa; so called from their conveying air both to and from the plant ; they are composed of very minute elastic spiral tubes. Air is so essential nn agent, in promoting the nourishment and growth of plants, that it is scarcely less necessary to their existence, than to that of animals. The whole of the vegetable kingdom consists of masses of these several elementary organs with th?^ exception of fungi, mosses, ond lichens, whose vessels are all of a cellular form : they have no vascula^ system whatever ; and this affords a strong argumeni against the passage of the sap through the vascular system. The layers of wood, which are seen in the stem or branch of a tree cut transversely, consist of different zones of fibres, each the product of one year's growth. The bark consists of three distinct coats, the cuticle, the cortex, and the liber or inner bark ; of these, the cuticle is that which is external. It covers the leaver 2ie and flowers, with tho exception of the pistils and an« thers, as well as the stem and branches. The cuticle of a young shoot, af\er it has been fbr some time exposed to the atmosphere, becomes opaque, dries, and being distended by the lateral growth of the branches, splitSi and after a year or two, falls off. A second membrane is then formed, by the desiccation of the external part of the cellular integument ; but it differs from the former, in being thicker, and of a coarser texture. This en- velope is distinguished froni \he former by the name of epidermis, \ ROOTS. The root not only supports the plant by fixing it in the soil, but affords a channel for- the conveyance of nourishment. At the extremity of each fibre of a root, there is an expansion of the cellular integument, called spongiole, from its resemblance to a small sponge ; being full of pores, it absorbs the water from the soil. There are pores in every part of a plant, above ground, but they are almost wholly for the pur- pose of exhalation. The roots have no pores, except in the spongioles at the extremities. It would be useless for them to be furnished with evaporating pores, since they are not exposed to the atmosphere, where alone evaporation could take place. The tendrils of vines, and of other climbing' plants, which serve to fix them against a wall, or the trunk of a tree, cannot be considered as roots ; since, thnuf^h they answer the purpose of sustaining the plant, tlioy are unable to supply it with nourishment. But there ire some parasitical plants, such as the misletoe, which, Aaving no immediate communication with the earth, atrike their fibres into tlje stems or branches of a tree, and derive their nourishment from this richly prepared soil : yet, as the absorption in this case is not carried on 217 by the regular mode of spongioles, the tibres are not denominated roots. The spongioles act only by cnpillf^ry attraction, and 8uck up moisture, just as u lump o* sugar absorbs tho water into which it is dipped. As a proof of this it hai been shown, that il roots, saturated with moisture, be transplanted into vory dry earth, the latter will absorb the moisture from the roots. Absorption docs not immediately cease upon the death of u phuit, as the blood coascs to circulate upon the expiration of unimnl life ; but when tho vessels, through which tho fluid should pass, have lost their vital energy, that susceptibility of irritation and con- traction, wljich tnidjlcd thein to propel the fluid upward, couscs, niid under ground, souu-timcs disguised iindc^r an extraordinary form: the stem of the tulip, for instance, is contained within tl\e hulb, which is commonly, but impropcily, ciillcd its root ; that of the forn is suhtcrraneons. The functions of the root and stL'm aro totally dill«:^rf jil : tho former, merely sucks up nourishment from the soil, and transmits it to the leaves; the latter is supplied with organs to distribute it, variously modified, to the several parts of the plant, the leaves, the flowrrs, ikc. The stems of plants are divided into two classes ; those which grow internally, hence called endogenous ; they aro also called immocolyledons, fiom thgir seed having only one cotyledon, or loho ; and those which grow exteriially, called exogenous, or dicolyli'dons, from their seed having two Icbes. There is a third class, denominated acotylcdonny which have no cotyledons, and no vascular s3^stiMn, such as fungi, lichens, &c. The date, the palm, and the cocoa-nut tree, tho sugar cane, and most of tho trees of tropical climutds, bnlong to the monocotyledons, or endogenous plants. Their stems are cylindrical, being of the same thick- ncss from the top to the bottom. Their mode of growth is this : a hollow stem shoots up to a certain height, and there stops ; layer after layer grows in the interior of, this hollow stem, till at length a period arrives when the outer coats are so hardened and dis- fended, as to yield no longer, the stem has then attained its full growth in horizontal dimensions, and offers a broad, flat circular surface to view, which has scarcely risen in height above the level of the ground. In this stage it resembles tho stump of tho trunk of a tree, which has been cut down. Tho following spring, ^here being no room for a now laver of wood to extend 220 itself horizontally, it shoots up from the centre of the stem vertically ; fresh layers every year successively perforate this central shoot, till it becomes hard, com, pact, and of the same horizontal dimensions as the base ; the second period of growth is then complete. The leaves and fruit of this class of plants grow from the centre of the last shoot, and form a sort of cabbage at the top of the tree, on cutting off which, the tree perishes. Endogenous plants have no real bark, the external coats of wood are so much hardened as to render such a preservation unnecessary. When an European wood- cutter begins to fell a tree of this description, he is auite astonished at its hardness. "If I have so much ifficulty with the outside," says he, " how shall I ever get through the heart of the wood ?" But as he pro- ceeds, he finds, that, contrary to what he lias been ac- customed to, it gets softer. This circumstance renders it very ea&y to perforate them, and makes them pecu- liarly appropriate for pipes, for the conveyance of water, and such like purposes. These plants liave usually no branches; Corn, and all gramineous plants, the lilaceous tribe of flowers, and bulbous roots, are all endogenous. Some of these send forth shoots, but they are not from the stem, but from a knot or ring upon the stem. The sugar-cane, which grows in this manner, is the largest of the gramineous plants. The structure of the exogenous plants, or dicotyle- dons, to which the trees of our temperate climes belong, is much more complicated. The stem is composed of two separate parts : the one ligneous, the other cortical, in other words, it is formed of wood and bark. The wood consists, in the iirst place, of the pith, a soft medullary substance, which occupies the centre of the stem, and is almost always of a cylindrical form. This soft, pulpy body, does not grow or increase in size with the tree, but retains the same dimensions it l^riginally had in the young stem. 221 The first layer, surrounding the central pith, grows freely during a twelvemonth, but the following year it is enclosed by a new layer ; being, by the pressure of this layer, prevented from extending laterally, it makes its way where there is no pressure ; that is to say, vertically. When during the third year, a third layer surrounds and compresses the second, this, in its turn, escapes from the bondage by rising vertically. This process goes on year after year, so that the stem grows in height, at the same time that it increases in thick- ness. This mode of growing renders the form of the stem conical, the number of layers diminishing as the stem rises. These layers of wood attain a state of maturity, when they bfxjome so hard by continued pressure, as to be no lonn;er susceptible of yielding to it. Previous to this period, the layers bear the name of alburnum, signifying white wood, for wood is always white, until it reaches this degree of consistency. . The length of time requisite to convert the alburnum into perfect wood, varies from five to fifty years, according to the nature of the tree. The vegetation of the bark is precisely tiie inverse of tlmt of the wood ; that is to say, it is endogenous, its layers growing internally : the new soft coat of bark, therefore, lies immediately in contact with tiie new soft layer of wood. The outer coats of bark, when they become too hard to be further distended Ijy the pressure of the internal layers, crack, and becoming thus ex- pased to the injury of the weather, fall olf in pieces : it is this whicli produces the ru(i,gc(hiess of the bark in some trees. The other layers, us they become exlornal, and exposed to the same sources of injury, experience the same fate. It has long been a disputed point, what part of the stem the sap rises tiirough : some have maintained the opinion, that it ascended through tlie pith : otliors, that it rose through tlie bark ; but they iiave both been proved to be wrong. By colouring tlie water, witl\ >vhich the plant was watered, it has been traced withini 19* . 222 the stem, and found to ascend almost wholly in tho alhurnutn, or young wood, and particularly in tho latest layers. THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES. If the leaves of a tree be stripped ofi*, the fruit comes to nothing, which is exemplified every year in goose. berry bushes, the leaves of which have been devoured by caterpillars ; and though the fruit-trees of warm climates, jmrlly naturalized witii us, grapes and peaches, for instance, ripen their fruit sooner, perhaps, if partially deprived of tiieir loaves; yet if that practice be carried too far, the fruit perishes. The white mul- berry, indeed, cultivated in the south of Europe, for the food of silkworms only, bears wonderfully the loss of its foliage three or four times a year. These facts have led some to think, that leaves were merely a clothing, or a protection against cold and heat. Though this is undoubtedly true, still it is a very small part of the use of leaves. That leaves give out moisture, or are organs of insensible perspiration, is proved, by the simple ex- periment of gathering the leally branch of a tree, and immediately stopping tho wound at its base, with wax, or any other tit substance, to prevent tho eHusion of moisture in that direction. In a very short time, the leaves droop, wither, and are dried up. If the same branch, partly faded, thougli not dead, bo placed in a very damp cellar, or immersed in water, the leaves revive, by which their power of absorption is also proved. The great annual sun-flower is said to have lost by perspiration, 1 lb. 14 oz. weight, in the course of twelve hours, in a hot dry day. In a dry night, it lost about three ounces ; in a moist night, scarcely any alteration was observable ; but in a rainy night it gained 223 two or lliree ounces. The cornelian clierry is most remarkable in lliis respect : the quantity of fluid which evaporates froiii its leaves, in the course of twenty-fouir liours, is said to be nearly equal to twice the weight of the whole shrub. The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to be re- markably copious. Of these some j^row constantly immersed in water. Their leaves are peculiarly vascular, and dry very quickly in the air, withering in a few minutes after exposure to it. Other aquatics iloat with only tl>e upper surface of their leaves ex- posed to the air, which siirfaise is so contrived, that water will scarcely remain upon it. These leaves, though extremely juicy, dry with great rapidity, as does every part of the plant, when gathered. It id probable that they imbibe copiously by their under ijidcs, and perspire by their upper. Light has a very powerful elfeet upon plants. The green colour of the leaves is owing to it, so that plants raised in the dark, are of a sickly wiiite ; and it is well known that the blanching of celery is eftccted by covering the plant, so as to exclude the light. Light acts beneficially upon the upper surface of leaves, and hurtfully upon the under side ; hence, the Ibrmer is always turned towards the light, in whatever situation the plant may haj)pen to be placed. IMants, ill a hot-house, present tln^ fronts of their leaves to the bide where there is most light, not to the (juarter where most air is admitted, or to the Hue in search o* heat. It has been found, that vine leaves turn to the light, even when separated from the stem, if suspended by a thread. Nor is this effect of light peculiar to leaves alone. Many flowers are equally sensible to it, especially the compound radiated ones, as the daisy, sun-flower, marigold, &c. In their forms, Nature seems to have delighted to imitate the radiant luminary, in the ab. sence of whose beams, many of them do not expand their blossoms at all. The stately annual sun-flower displays this phenomenon more conspicuously, on Recount of its size ; the flower follows the sun all day, and returns, aftov sunset, to tho cast, to meet his sun- beams in the morning. A great number of leaves, likewise, follow the sun in its course. A clover field is a familiur instuuce oClliLs. f:^ ei The chuuilcal actions ol' liglit, lieul, unJ the com- ponent parts of tho atmospheric air, upon leaves, are now tolerably well understood. It is agreed, that in the day time, plants imbibe, from the atmosphere, carbonic acid gas, (which is a compound of oxygen and carbon,) that they decompose it, absorb the carbon, as matter of nourishment, which is added to the sap, and emit the oxygen. The burning of a candle, or the breathing of animals, in a confined space, produces so much of this gas, that neither of these operations can go on beyond a certain time ; but the air so con. taminafed, serves as food for vegetables, the leaves of which, assisted by light, soon restore the oxygen, or, in other words, purify the air again. This beautiful discovery shows a mutual dependence of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and adds another to the many proofs we have of the wisdom, and wonder-working power of the Creator of all things. In the dark, plants give out carbonic acid, and absorb oxygen ; but the proportion of the latter is small, com- pared to what they cxiuile by day, as must likewise be the proportion of carbonic acid given out ; else the quantity of carbon added to their substance, would bo but trifling, especially in those climates, in which the proportion of day to night is nearly equal, and which, notwithstanding,*we know to be excessively luxuriant in vegeiation. There can bo no queRtion of tho general purpose, answered to the vegeiable constitution by these functions of leaves. But when we attempt to con- sider, how the peculiar secretions of different species, and tribes of plants are formed ; how the same soil, the same atmosphere, should, in a leaf of the vine, or sorrel, produce a wholesome acid, and in that of a spurge, or manchineel, a most virulent poison ; — how «weet, and nutritious, herbage should grow, among the tcrid craw-foot, and aconite : — we find ourselves strato a c 225 totally unable to eomprehoiirl \ho rxistonco of such wonderful powers in so stnall, jukI, soeniingly, Bimple an organ, as the leaf of a plant. The agency of the vital principle alone can uccDtint for these wonders, though it cannot, to our understandings, explain them. The thickest veil covers the whole of these processes; and so far have philosophers hitherto been from re- moving this veil, that they iiavc not even been able to approach it. All those operations, indeed, are evidently chemical decompositions and combinations : but we neither know what these decompositions and combinations are, nor the instruments in which they take place, nor the agents by which they are regulated. The vain-glorious Buflbn caused his own statue to be inscribed, " a genius equal to the majesty of nature ;" but a blade of grass was sufficient to ^'oiifound his pretensions. Sir J. E, Smith, - THE SAP. The sap of trees may be obtained, by wounding a branch, or stem, in spring, just before the buds open: or in the end of autumn, though less copiously, after a slight. frost, yet not during the frost. It ha'^ always been observed to flow from the young wood, or alburnum, of our trees ; not from the bark. A branch of the vine, cut through, will yield about a pint of tftis fluid, in the course of twenty-four hours. The birch also affords much sap. It fljws equally upward and downward, from a wound. This great motion, called the floiving of the sap, which is to be detected principally in the spring, and slightly in the autumn, is, therefore, totally distinct from that constant propulsion of it going on in every growing plant. This flowing of the sap has been thought to demon- strate a circulation ; because, there being no leaves 220 at the time to carry it oflT by perspiration, it is evident that, if it wcro at these periods running up the sap vessels, it must run down again by other channcla. But as soon as the leaves expand, its motion is no longer to be detected. The effusion of sap from plants, when cut or wounded, is, during the greater part of the year, comparatively very small. It is thought, therefore, tiiat this f owing of the sap, is nething more than a facility of the sap to run, owing to the peculiar irritability of the vegetable body, at that period; and that it runs only when a wound is made — being naturally at rest till the leaves open, and admit of its proper and regular conveyance. As soon as the leavea expand, insensible perspiration takes place, very copiously, chiefly from tho^e organs ; but also, in some degree, from the bark of tl 3 young stem and branches. The perspiration of some plants is very great. The large annual sun-flower is said to perspire about seventeen times as fast as the ordinary perspiration of the human skin. The sap, in its passage through the leaves and bark, becomes quite a new fluid, possessing the peculiar flavour and qualities of the plant ; and not only yield. mg woody matter for the increase of the vegotal)lc body, but furnishing various secreted substances more or less numerous and different among themselves. These, accordingly, are chiefly found in the bark. In herbaceous plants, the stems of which are only of annual duration, the perennial roots frequently contain these fluids, in the niost perfect state ; nor are they, in su«h, confine_d to tlie bark, but deposited throughout the substance, or wood, of the root, as in rhubarb and gentian. Gum, or mucilage, a viscid substance, of little flavour or smell, and soluble in water, is a very com- mon secretion. When superabundant, it exudes from many tree^, in the form of large drops, as in the plum, cherry, and peach trees, and different species of the mimosa, or sensitive plants, one of which yields the gum arable, others the gum Senegal, &c. Resin is a substanqe soluble in spirits, as tlie 227 turpentine of tlie fir and juniper. Most vegetable exudations partake of a nature between resin and mucilage, being partly soluble in water, partly in spirits; and are therefore called gum-resins. The more refined and volatile secretions, of a rei^inotis nature, are called cssnntial oils ; and arc ol'ten highly aromatic and odiferous. One of the most exquisite of these is afforded by the cinnamon bark. They exist, in the highest perfection, in the pcrfunled effluvia of flowers, some of which, capable of combination with spirituous fluids, are obtainable by distillation, as those of the lavender and rose. Acid secretions are well known to 1)e very general in plants. The astringent principle is a species of acid ; it may be derived from various sources^ — for instance the tanning from the oak^ willow, &c. An acid is found united with even the silgar, in the sugar cane. Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally found in plants. It abounds in various roots, as the carrot, beet, and parsnip ; and in many plants of the grass or cane kind, besides the famous sugar cane. It is curious to observe not only the various Secretions of different plants, by which they differ from each other in taste, smell, qualities, and medical virtues, but also their great number, and striking difference, frequently in the same plant. Of this, the peach tree affords a familiar example. The gum of this tree is mild and mucilaginous : the bark, leaves, and flowers abound with a bitter secretion, than which, nothing tan be more distinct from the gum. The fruit is replete, not only with acid, mucilage, and sugar, but with its own peculiar aromatic and highly volatile secretion, on which its fine flavour depends. How far are we yet from understanding the vegetable body, which can form, and keep separate, such distinct and discordant substances ! The odour of plants is, unquestionably, a volatile, essential oil. Its general nature is evinced by its ready union with spirits or oil, not with water. To all the foregoing secretions of vegetaWes, may be added those, on which their various colours depend. 228 Wo cun but inji)ojicctly accnuru ibr the groort, go universal in their hevboOT ; but wo may gratefully acknowledge the bcjieficcnco of the Creator, in clothing the earth with a colour the most pleasing, and the least fatiguing to the eye. Wo may bo dazzled with the brilliancy of a flower garden, but our eyes repose at leisure on the verdure of a grove or nioadnw. Abridged from Sir J. E. Smith. THE FLOWER. : ^ ■ ^ .' . ' . ' , m The flower consists of several parts. The calyxy or flower cup, forms the external integiN ment which protects the bud, before it expands; it consists of several parts, called sepales, resembling ismall leaves, both in form and colour. These sepales are, in general, more or less soldered together ; some- times so completely, as to form a cup apparently of one piece. Above and within the calyx, rises the corolla, which is the coloured part of the flower. It is composed of several petals, either separate or cohering, so as to form a corolla of one single piece : in the latter case, the flower is called monapetalous. When the petals first burst from the calyx, and expand in all their beauty, they still serve to protect the central parts of the flower. They are at first curved inwards, forming a concavity around the delicate organs which occupy the centre. This not only shelters them from ex- ternal injury, but reflects the sun's rays upon thenii like a concave mirror ; thus rearing them, as it were, in a hot-house. When these parts are full grown, the artificial heat being no longer necessary, and the admission of light and air, being not only safe but advantageous, the petals expand ; leaving the internal organs exposed to tho free agency of these elements. At the base of the petals is generally situated an one, situii 229 organ organs cftUed the noclary. This is the store whenofl tho bcc derivGH lionoy. Tlic most importiint parts of the flower are those wliich occupy tho contic. It is liere that tlie seed wliich iy to propagate tho pUmt, is lodj^ed, in a vessel called the ovary, or seed-vessel. From its summit rises a little threadlike stalk, called a style ; which, at its oxtreniity, supports a small, spongy sub- stance, denominated the stigma. These three parts form a whole, which bears the name of carpel. Immediately surrounding the pistils, are situated the itamcTis ; each of which consists of a slender fdament, lupporting a little bag, or case, colled an anther, filled with pollen, which is a species of dust or powder. The anthers, when ripe, burst ; and, being more elevated (han the stigma, shed their pollen upon it; without Irhioh no seed can be perfected. In some vegetables the stamens are in one flower, and the pistils in another; ^'n others, the stamens and pistils are upon separate plants. In these cases the pollen is conveyed from the one to the other, by means of the wind, or by winged insects, which, in penetrating, t>y means of their long and pliant proboscis, "^vithin the recesses of the corolla, in order to obtain the nectar, cover their downy wings with the pollen. This un- heeded burden they convey to the next flower on which they alight ; and in working their way to the nectary, It is rubbed off" and falls on the stigma. Every insect, however ephemeral, every weed, however insignificant, has its part assigned in the great system of the universe. In Persia, very few of the palm and date trees, under cultivation, have stamens, those having pistils being preferred, as alone yielding fruit. In the season of flowering the peasants gather branches of the wild palm trees, whose blossoms contain stamins, and spread them over those which are cultivated, so that the pollen comes in contact with the ^>istils, and fertilizes the flower. There were two remarkable palm-trees in Italy. The one, situated at Otranto, had no stamens j the other, 330 Qt Brindisi, which is about forty miles distant, hftd no pistils ; consequently, neither of those trees boro seed But when, after the growth of many years, tliey not only rose superior to all the trees of the neighbouring forests, but overtopped all the buildings which inter, vened, the pollen of the palm-trco at Brindisi was wafted by the wind, to the pistils of that of Otranto ; and, to the astonishment of every^ oncj the latter bore fruit. ■'^ THE SEED. u. The seed, from which the future plant proceeds, is the sole end and aim of all the parts of fructification. It consists of several parts, the most essential of which is the embryo, or germen, called by Linnceus, corculum, whence the life and organization of the future plant, originate. The dbiyled&ns, or seed lobes, are immediately attached to the embryo, of which they form, properly speaking, a part. They are commonly two in number, and, when the seed has sufficiently established its root, generally rise out of the ground, and form a kind of leaves. Hihim, the scar, is. the point by which the seed is attached to its seed-vessel, or receptacle, and through which alone nourishment is imparted for the perfecting of its internal parts; it is also the print through which the radical is protruded in the first stage of germination. There is no part of the vegetable kingdom, which offers so many striking proofs of admirable contrivance as the seed. The care, which Providence has bestowed upon it, is astonishing. Independently of the innumerable means which are adopted for maturing and protecting the organs, on which the production of the seed depends, and which form part of the system of provision for perfecting it— 201 hidoponiknUy, too, of the coQntlcss^contrfvancca, sbnio higlily artificiul, for tho iinmccUato purpose of perfecting It, — tlio mode in which this organ is -prcnerved after it ia matured, evinces consummate care and wisdom. Some, times it is packed up in a capsule, a vessel composed of tough and stronf» coats ; sometimes, as in stone-fruits and nuts, it is closed in u t^lrong shell, which again is enclosed in a pulp ; sometimes, as in grapes and berries, it is plumped overhead in a glutinous syrup, contained within a skin or bladder: at other times, as in apples and pears, it is embedded in the heart of a firm fleshy substance ; or as in strawberries, pricked into the sur. face of a soft pulp. These, and many other varieties; exist in what are called fruits. In pulse, and grain, and grasses ; — in trees, and shrubs, and [lowers, — the variety^ of the seed-vessel is incomputable. We have tho seeds, as in the pea-tribe, regularly disposed in parch, ment pods, which completely exclude the wet; the pod also, not seldom, as in tho bean, lined with a fine down distended like a blown bladder ; or wo have the seed enveloped in wool, as in the cotton plant ; lodged, as in pines, between the hard and compact scales of a cone ^ or barricadoed, as in the artichoke and thistle, with epikes and prickles ; in mushrooms, placed under A penthouse ; in ferns, within slits in the back part of thi^ leaf; or, which is the most general organization of all. we find them covered by a strong close, tunicle, and attached to the stem, according to an, order appropriated to each plant, as is seen in several kinds of grain and of grasses. Equally numerous and admirable are the contrivances /or dispbrsing seeds. Who has not listened, in a Cahn and sunny day, to the crackling of furze-bushes, causc4 fty the explosion of their little elastic pods, or watched »'he down of innumerable seeds floating on the summer 6reeze, till they are overtaken by a shower, which moistening their wings, stops their fuj tlier flight, and at the same lime accomplishes its final purpi se, by im- mediately promoting tiie germination of each seed iii the moist earth ? " . -h. ■ How little are children aware, as they blow away tllf' 239 seeds of the dandejion, or stick burs in sport on eaoli other's clothes, that they are fulfilling one of the great ends of nature. The awns of grasses answer the same purpose. Pulpy fruits serve quadrupeds and birds as food, while their seeds, often small, hard and indigestible pass uninjured through the intestines, and are depositeti far from their original place of growth, in a conditio! perfectly fit for vegetation. Even such seeds as are thdimselves eaten, like the ▼ariotts sorts of nuts, are hoarded up in the ground, and occasionally forgotten, or carried to a distance, and in part only devoured. The ocean itself serves to waft the larger kind of aed9 firom their native soil to far distant shores. M'Cullocb's Course of Beading, u ANIMAL LIFE. Living bodies are usually divided into the animal and vegetable kingdoms. It may seem at first suffixjiently easy to make the distinction between an animal and a plant; and, as long as we confine our views to the higher orders of animated beings, there is no room for doubt. But when we descend in the scale to the ra- diated animals, which present no distinct nervous systenF, no organs of sensation, no observable mode of commu- nication with the external world ; it then becomes necessary to enquire more accurately into the peculiar points, which should decide us to arrange them under the one class, or the other. Perhaps the most certain of these, is the presence of a digestive organ. Cuvier mentions three other marks of distinction, which, however, are by no means so general. They are, the presence of nitrogen, as one of the chemical components of all animal bodies ; the existence of a circulation ; and respiration. Nitrogen, it is true, exists in all animal bodies. 233 but all vegetables, likowiso, contain it, and some in cdW» sidcrable quantities, aa the extensive classes of fungi and cruciformia ; in ca/cin, a principle extracted from coiTee, there is actually a greater amount of it, than in most animal substances. Circulation is not found to exist in the lowest class of animals. As for respiration, the leaves of plants so exactly resemble, in their action, the lungs of animals, that they are now familiarly spoken of by vegetable physiologists as respiratory organs. •What life is, we know not ; what life does, we knaW well, hifo counteracts tJie laws of gravity. If the fluidi^ of our bodies followed the natural tendency of fluids, they would descend to our feet, when we stood, or to oui" backs, when we lay. The cause, why they do not, may be referred immediately to the action of the heart and vessels ; but it is evident, that they derive that power from life. Life resists the effects of mechanical powers. -~-Fnction% which will thin and wear away a dead body, actually is the cause of thickening a living one. The skin on A labourer's hand is thickened and hardened, to save it from the effects of constant contact with rough and hard substances. The feet of the African, who, without any defence, walks over the burning sands, exhibit always a thickened covering ; and a layer of fat, a bad conductor of heat, is found deposited between it, and the sentient extremities of the nerves.— --Pressure, which thins inorganic matter, thickens living matter. A tight shoe produces a corn, which is nothing more than a thickened cuticle. The same muscle, that with ease raised a hundred pounds when alive, is torn through by ten when dead. Life prevents chemical agency. ' The body, when left to itself, soon begins to putrefy j the several parts of which it is composed, no longer under the influence of a higher controlling power, yield to their * chemical affinities ; new combinations are formed ; ammonia, sulphuretted, with carburetted hydrogen, and other gases are given off, and nothing remains but dust. This never happens during life. Life modifea il\e power of heat. Beneath a tropical 20* 234 sun^ Of wtthtti the arctio olrolo, tho temperature of thti human body is found unaltered, when examined by the thermometer. Some have exposed themselves to air, heated above the point at which water boils; yet a therhiometer, placed under the tongue, stood at the usual height of about 98° ; and the sailors, who, under Cap. tain Parry, wintered so near the north-pole, when examined in the same way, constantly afforded the same results. Finally, life is the cause of the constant changes that are going forward in our bodies. From the moment that our being commences, none of the materials, of which we are composed, continue stationary; Foreign matter is taken in, aiid by the action of what are termed the assimilating functions, becomes part of our composition ; while, on the other hand, the" materials, of which our frame' had been built up, being now unfit any longer for the performance of the nece«8ary duties, are dissolved, as it; were, into a liquid or gaseous form, conveyed by the absorbents from the place which the new matter isomes to occupy, and finally expelled from the system^ PeHCIVAL B. LoRDii THE INTEGUMENTS. The integuments form that substance, which covers «/ery part of the surface of the body. They constitute what is termed the hide, in various animals, and consist of three parts ; the scarf-skin, a mucous net work below, and the true skin. The scarf-skin, or cuticle, which is intended to pro- tect the pfirts beneath, arid to preserve their sensibility, is itself insensible. A blister will raise the cuticle, and render it apparent. Strong work will harden it, as in tho hands of labouring people ; and, afler many severe complaints, the scarf-skin peels off, just as it does in some animals, as serpents, which cast their skin at car tGiin periods. add The scarf-skin has in it numerous minute holes or pores, by means of which perspiration is cffeeted, and through which the hair issues. The colour of the scarf-skin varies very little in the different races of mankind : even in the negro it is very little darker than in the European. The seat of colour is, in fact, a very thin layer of soft substance, which is interposed between the scarf-skin and the cutis, or true- skin, and is termed the mucous net- work. In the negro it is of a very dark colour : and the colouring matter is capable of being communicated to water. The true gkin, and the parts belovv, are of the same colour, both in whites and blacks. €•* There are five principal varieties of colour in the human species, and all of them dependent on the dif- ferent shades of the n'-our coat: the first is the Euro- pean, or white ; the s:^' i is the Mangolian yellow, or olive ; the third is the . ■^i ,can red, or copper colour • the fourth is the Ethioj.iaii, or black ; the fifth is the Malay brown, or tawny. The true skin constitutes the organ of touch. This power exists in the greatest degree at the ends of the fingers, in slight elevations of tjie skin, called papilla). The immediate organs of sensations are, however, small white threads, called nerves, which are more or less immediately derived from the brain, and these are dif- fused very plentifully over the ends of the fingers, and particularly over the papillae, which, by this means are calculated to communicate minute impressions with great accuracy. Most animals have, independently of the general dif- fusion of- sensibility over the surface, some particular part which possesses the sense of touch in a pre-eminent degree. The nose or snout is a very common organ for this purpose, in many animals ; and in tlie elephant, arge anil unwieldy as it appears, the extremity of the trunk is provided witli an organ, as small and delicate as the human finger, and capable of taking hold of very small objects, as neeJlcs or pins, with great facility. Some animals h ive an exceedingly thick epidermis or ccarf-iikin, as the elephant and hippopotamus. I'hoss 236 that live in the air, have thoir cuticle dry and horny j fish, on the contrary, have it mucous or oily, so as to prevent injury by the action of tlie water upon it. Some Animals, as has already been observed with regard to serpents, cast their cuticle onco a year, and this in so perfect a way, that even the'roiundity of the eye is dig. fjoverable in the exuviaj. The greater part of silk- worms, and of the caterpillars of butterflies, cast ofl:' their cuticles seven times, and some insects even ten times, before they pass into the state of chrysalis. There is a peculiarity in the attaclnnent of the skin of the frog and toad to the body, which is not found in other animals. «il is only adherent at a few points; being in other respects a loose bag inclosing the body ; whereas, in most animals, it is closely adherent to the muscu}ar surface beneath. THE BONES. ^'f The bones form, as it were, the foundation of the body ; and, besides being a basis or ground-work for the soft parts, are intended to enclose and support some organs, which are of the first importance in the animal frame. The skull or cranium, which contains the brain, is fixed at the top of the vertebral column, or bones of the back : In the centre of these bones, is a hollow space, destined for the reception of the spinal marrow, a sub- stance which is a prolongation of the brain, and resem- blea it a good deal in nature and function. At a little distance from the skull commence the ribs, which are all fixed behind to the bones of the back, and the greater number to the breast'bone before. Their curvature forms a cavity, which is called the chest, and contains the heart and lungs. At the lower part of the vertebral column is placed a ^ni| thick, strong, and irregular, bony structure^ synovia, as 237 called tlie hips, which encircle a sort of hollow space termed the pelvis or bason. At the upper part of the ribs, are the fihouldor blades, into which the upper extremities are articulated or jointed ; and at the lower part of the pelvis are articu- lated the lower extremities. The form, magnitude, and 'node of junction of bones, vary, according to the design which they are intended to serve. Where strength is required, with flexibility at particular parts, we have bones, like those of the arm and leg, of firm texture, with joints at certain intervals. In the hand and foot, there is, by means of the nume- rous joints of the fingers and toes, and the mechanism of the wrist and ancle, a facility given to the various important actions of the hand, and to the more limited motions of the foot. In the back, great solidity is required, and the mo- tion in any one part of it is very small. In some of the joints, the power of motion is in all directions, as in the shoulder and hip ; while in the elbow and knee, there is only the power of bending or extending them. The joints which compose the shoulder and hip are of the description which is called, in mechari.cs, the ball and socket. The bone of the arm is attached to the shoulder blade, which is connected with the breast bone, by the intervention of the collar bone, or clavicle. The ends of bones are covered with a gristly sub- stance, called cartilage^ which, together with the oil, or synovia, as it is called, which is secreted in every joint, prevents them being injured by the constant friction to which they are exposed. The bones, hard and substantial as they appear, were originally nothing more than soft pulp, contained within a membraneous covering, which gradually became harder, and, at the proper period, acquired solidity suffi- cient for all the purposes of life. The younger a person is, the greater is the quantity of jelly ; and in old people there is a much larger proportion of ossified matter. jSome fish have their bones composed entirely of car* tilage, as the shark) skate, sturgeon. 238 In some aniinui.s tho bony structure is on tho outsitftj of the body, as in all the tostnceous tribes, wbioi» aro enclased in one or more sb.ells ; us tiie oyster, snail, "bilk, &^ii. ; and alst) in ibe crustacca, \ybiQh comprise .e crab, lobster, sbriinp, &c. In tbc crust.-ccous, as well as in the testaceous, there is a powcv of renewing tlu shell in ease of injury, which in tho former, not only c^xtt^nds to the shell, but likewl s, cylindrical bones to which they can bo fastened. The spine- had likewise to furnish a support for the ends of the ribs ta rest upon. 240 How admirably is all this accomplished ! The spine ia cbmposed of a great number of bones, (in man, of twenty-four,) joined- to one another, and compacted by broad bases. The breadth of the bases upon which the parts severally rest, and the closeness of the junc- tion, give to the chain its firmness and stability ; the number of parts, and consequent frequency of joints, its flexibility. This flexibility varies in different parts of the chain ; is least in the back, where strength more than flexure is wanted ; greater in the loins, which it was necessary should be more supple than the back ; ?ind greatest of all in the neck, for the free motion of the head. In order to afford a passage for the descent pf the spinal marrow, each of these bones is bored through \n the middle in such a manner, as that, when put together, the hole in one bone falls into a line, and corresponds with the holes in the two bones contiguous to it. By which means, the perforated pieces, when joined, form an entire, close, uninterrupted channel ; at least, while the spine is upright, and at rest. But as a settled posture is inconsistent with its use, a great difficulty still remained, which was, to prevent the vertebraB shifting upon one another, so as to break the line of the canal as often as the body moves or twists. But the vertebra), by means of their processes and projections, and of the articulations wliich some of thorn form with one another at their extremities, are so locked in and confined as to maintain, in the surfaces of the bones, the relative position nearly unaltered ; and ^o throw the change and pressure produced by flexion, almost entirely upon the intervening cartilages, or gristle, the springiness and yielding nature of whoso substance admits of all the motion which is necessary, without any chasm being produced by a separation of the parts. For the medullary canal giving out in its course a supply of nerves to different parts of the body, notches are made on the upper and lower edge of each vertebrae ; two on each edge. When the vertebra) are put together, these notches, exactly fitting, foj'in small holes through which the nerves issue out in pairs, in order to send their branches through every part of the. 241 body, and witli an equal bounty to both sides of the bodv. The structure of the spine is not in general different, in different nnimalR. In the serj nt tribe, however, ft is considorubly vari« d ; but vviih slrict reference to the convenience of the aniuiul. For, wJioreas in quadrupeds the number of vertebra) is from thirty to forty, in the serpent, it is nearly one liuii(hed and hfly : whereas, in men and quadrupctls the surfiiecs of the bones are flat, and tlicse flat surfaces laid one against the other, and h'^und tight by sinews ; in the serpent, the bones play one within tiie other, like u ball and socket, so that they have a free motion upon one another in every direction j that is to say, in men and quadrupeds, firmness is more jconsulted ; in serpents, pliancy. Pale^'s Nat. Theology. - THE MUSCLES. The muscles are dirjtinct portions of flesh, capable of contraction and relaxation. They are composed of fibres of two kinds; the one soft and irritable, of a *red colour, from the blood that is in them : these generally constitute the body of tlio muscle ; whilst the other sort are found, for the most part, in the cxtronnties, and are of a harder texture, and of a white glistening colour : if these are formed into a round, slender cord, they are called tendons. What we commonly term flesh, as the lean of meat, is the substance of the mus- cles. The fibres of which they are composed are ex- quisitely fine. , The muscles are generally attached to the bones, by means of tendons, and are so artfully situated, that whatever motion the joint annexed is capable of per- forming, the muscle is adapted to produce it. The knee, and the elbow, furnish examples of this agree- ment. Both being hinge joints, formed to move back- wards or forwards, the muscles belonging to them ai'e placed parallel tq the bone, so as, by their contrao 21 213 xion or relaxation, to ellJ'Ct that motion, and no other. The shoulder and tho hip jolntH, hy their construction, admit a sort ol" swet^jiiiio- or cireulur action, and aro ipicoordln^ly ^u|)pli(?d with mtisclcs ;idit|)ted to it. A joint ujifurnisiied with suitnhlo miitscles would bo fnotionloss ; jiiusule^ deprived oi' tlio joint, would ho unavailin^f. Thoy aro necessary to each other ; and their unioti disj)lii ys the hii.diest iiiiukH of wisdom and goodness. Tho rerl ei>lour of the niuscular or Mesliy parts of aniinals is» owin;^ to innumerable blood vessels, that aro dispersed through their sul>stanee. When we soak tho fibres of a nn^sclo in water, it becomes white. The blood vessels are acconipanii-d by nerves; and they aro (>6th (iistributed so abuiidantly in the fleshy parts, that in etaleavourinjjT to trace tlie course of the blood vessels in a muscle, the imiseh^ would appear to ho tbrmed altoia necessary to eUrct it. The least impediment to our Ijreathiin; throws u>? into the greatest distress ; I>ut how litlki do wo value the inestimable blessing, till disease or accident makes us sensible of its enjoyment. The exquisite autl delicate meehnnism of different parts of the frame claims our highest admiration ; but our wonder is greatly increased, when we consider, that it performs its different functions for fifty or sixty years together, with very little diminution of its power. VVhat hinge could the m t skilful workman contrive, that might bo used as often as our elbow-joiiit is, for so lonjj a term, without briuif disordered or worn out ? flave we not here a strong proof of the vast superi. ority of the works of God, to the most ingenious con- trivances of man. Those important faculties of sight and hearing, which are of so much use, and which procure us so many enjoyments, depend upon muscles so extrcMuely small, that they nuist bo niagnilied to be visilsje. In the tongue the nmseles arc very numerous, and so im- plicated wi"li one another, tiiat the nicest dissectors cannot trace them; yet they are so arranged,- that they never interfere wiih each other, nor interrupt the various oflices of speaking and swallowing, in the other parts of the body, the same adnural)lo economy is preserved. The muscles are every where did'used ; they lie close to each other, in layers, as it were, over one another, after crossing, sometimes passing through, and even imbedded in one another, yet each at perfect liberty to perform its peculiar oJlice, without inter- rupting the power of its neighbour. The action of nmseles is often required where their situation would be inconvenient. In such a case, the body of the muscle is placed in some coinniodious position at a distance, and comnmnicatcs with the point of action by means of slender tendons, or strings, rc- s.e|nbling wires. If the muscles, which move the lingers), 244 had been placed in ihe palm or back of the hand, they would have enlarged it to a clumsy and very incon. venient thickness. They are, therefore, disposed in the arm, and even up to the el how ; from this position they act by Ion<^ tendons, strapped down ut the wrist by ligaments, beneath wliich they pass to the fingers. The same artful arrangement is observed in the muscles thiit give motion to the toes, and many of the joints of the foot. Instead of swelling and distorting the foot, they form a graceful enlargement of the calf of the leg. The variety in tlie figure of the muscles, according to their situution and oHioo, is likewise beautifully con- trived ; some have double, some triple tendons ; others none : in some places, one tendon belongs to several muscles ; in otlicr places, one muscle to several tendons. One set of muscles enables us to move a certain pai* one 'way, and a different set enables us to move it another way. Tliat we have the power to frown, smile, cough, breathe, to lift up or close our eye-lids, raise or bend our heads, stoop, incline to one side or the other, move our fingers or toes, raise or depress our limbs, walk or sit down, spc-»ak, or sing, swallow, open or shut our months, or perform any action whatever, we owe to particular muscles, which are aj)pointcd to set that part in motion. Surely no one can be acquainted with the art and wisdom so wonderfully displayed in the structure of the human body, without acknowledging that there is a God, and that the work is his : for nothing short of inli. nite intelligence, could have produced any thing so oomplicated and so perfect. THE TEETH. The functions of circulation and of respiration are carried on by means of organs situated in a cavity, which is called the chest, or thorax. The organs which are concerned in the preparation of the food, and in nutrition, lie in a cavity beneath, called the cavity of 245 ti abdomen. The chest is occupied chiefly by the heart and the lungs; the abdomen by the stomach, the intestines, tlie livor, the splren, and the pancreas or sweet-bread. Those two cavities are sf pariitrd by a partition, calK'd th«} diiiphraj^in, or nicdiiir, wliich is partly of a. fleshy, and partly of a nifnibram-ous nature, and readily gives way, by its laxity, to the altoniato expansion and contraction of tlie chest in the action of breathing, to whicli its muscular power eminently con- tributes. The stomach is connected with the mouth, by means of a long tube, which is called the ccsophagus, or gullft, by means of which, it receives the food from the jnouth. The first action, to which the food is subjected, is mastication, or chewing, and for this pujpose, most ani- mals are provided with teeth. VVhc n tii; re are no teeth, other resources are provided in the .stomach itself, for that sort of preparation which it is ni^ccssary that the food should undergo, previous to digestion, liirds have no teeth ; and with various other animals, as fish, and serpents, the teeth seem to be adapted oidy to prevent the escape of that prey which is swallowed whole. The nature of the teeth depends on the nature of the food which the animal is designed to use ; namely, whether it is animal, vegetable, or of a mixcnl nature. By the inspection of the teeth, therefore, we are able to form an opinion as to some of the most material habits of an animal. The teeth whicli first exhibit themselves, are called milk, deciduous, or temporary teeth, from their being intended to continue only a few years. Those which supply their places wiicn they are shed, are, from their never being shed, called p'n-maneut. The teeth in man are composed of two parts ; a liony, which constitutes the body of the tooth, and is very similar to real bone, and a bright, smooth, tlun external covering, called the enamel. The part which is out of the jaw, is called the crown and nee if : while the fangs, or roots, are planted deep in the jaw. There is a small cavity in the body of tiie tooth, which descends in the form of a sm.dl tube into tlie fangs, and cojitains the vessels and nerves, which were employee! 21* 240 in the originjil ionuation, and subso<]iiontly in tl»o nu- trition of the tooth. This is the structure of the teeth in the omnivorous and carnivorous animals ; but in the graminivorous, the enamel descends into the l)o 247 Cattle and sheep, whose front tocth are conAned to biting the grass, have them sharp, and the enamel of these teeth covers their outside only, as in man ; but neither cattle nor sheep have incisors, in the upper jaw. In horses, where both the front teeth and the molarea are employed as grinders, the enamel is distributed through the body of the tooth, in both descriptions of teeth, in the same way as in graminivorous animals. There is a very curious dillbrence in the disposition of the enamel in the African and Asiatic elephant, which is worth notice. In the African, it is always in the form of transverse lozenges, wiiich touch each other in the middle of the tooth ; in the Asiiitic, it is in the form of transverse flattened ovals ; and this difference is so constant, that it may be always known, by a slight inspection, whether the tooth has belonged to the one or the other of the species. In the shark, whose teeth are spear-shaped, and very sharp, notched at the edges, and covered with enamel, several ranges of them are formed and continually forming in the jaw, to supply such as are broken or torn away. The same is the case in a species of skate, which has teeth of a similar kind, and is apt to have them injured, by breaking the shells of lobsters, crabs, &c. which are its chief food. There is also, a singular power of renewal in the teeth of venomous serpents. These animals arc distinguished by having a sharp, hollow tooth, or fang, in the .upper jaw, on each side, the base of which communicates with a poison gland situated below the eye. This tooth, in ordinary cir- cumstances, lies flat ; but it is capable of being erected ; and then, either on biting, or by the action of the same muscles which erect it, the poison gland is pressed upon, and a minute portion of the poison forced tlirough the hole of the tooth into the wound. The poison fang is very apt to get entangled and broken ; but there is a provision for its supply, in the germs of future fangs, which exist as pulp, in little bags in the jaw : the new fangs become ossified, and assume the office of the old ones. 248 THE DIGESTION. During the action of chewing, the food is mixed with the saliva or spittle. The food is then carried backwards into the pharynx, which is a sort of pouch at the back part of the mouth, from which it immedi- ately descends, into the cesophagus, or gullet, at the extremity of which is the stomach, into which the food is deposited. We may here mark a wonderful contrivance. The passage from the mouth to the windpipe, lies imme. diately before the passage to the stomach: we might suppose that the food would pass into the first opening, viz. the passage to the windpipe, before it reached its own proper passage. — And this would be the case were it not that there is a little valve standing erect before the passage to the windpipe, which the food in its way to the gullet, presses down, and thus closes the anterior opening of the gullet. Were this passage left open, we would be in danger of being choked by every morsel we endeavoured to swallow. The stomach is a kind of membraneous bag, not very unlike the bag of a bag-pipe, lying across the body, and having two openings : the upper, towards the left side, by which it receives food from the gullet, called the cardia ; and the lower, on the left side, called the pylorus or janitor, by which the food passes into the intestuies. Its inner surface consists of a soil membrane, called the mucous, or villous coat, which is carried through tiio whole alimentary canal j its middle coat is muscular, and, by means of this coat, the sto- mach has the power ol' emptying its contents ; its outer is a membraneous covering, common to the stomach, intestines, and all the other organs contained in the cavity of the abdomen. At the pylorus is a contrac' tion, which prevents the too ready passage of the food downwards. Between its coats are several small glands which secrete, and pour into the stomach, a fluid called the gastric juice, which dissolves the substances taken $nto the stomach, converts them into a uniform, greyish. V 249 pulpy mass, called chyme, and lima fits them for becom- ing nourishment. Digestion is totally indeperident of any pressure which is exercised by the coats of the Btomach, for it has been found tliat if portions of food were placed in silver bnlls, and these swallowed, such portions would be dissolved. When food has undergone the change which it ia meant to suffer in the stoinach, it passes through the pylorus or lower orifice, into the intestines. When the food has passed into the intestines, it receives the hihy which is a secretion from the liver ; and the pancreatic mice, which is the secretion of the pancreas, or sweet, bread. By the mixture of these substances, the food is so far altered in its nature as to be capable of afford- ing chyle, which is a fluid like milk. This fluid is taken up by small vessels, called lacfeals, spread upon the sur- face of the intestines. These licteals, uniting together, convey their contents into one of the large blood-vessels of the body, and thus supply the means of nourishment to the whole system. That part of the food which cannot afford nourishment, is carried off as excrementi^ tious matter. '' All carnivorous animals have stomachs of the same kind : and in them the digestive organs are of the nwre simple kind, as animal food is more easily converted into chyle. Many birds not only take in portions of gravel to assist their digestion ; but, as they have no teeth, and can divide their food in but a very imperfect manner with their bills, the gizzard is given them for the purpose of doing so. The gizzard is a muscle in the stomach with two bodies, called there-, fore the digastric, calculated to press any substance very strongly between the two parts of which it con- sists. But as the gizzard could not perform the whole of the duty at once, there is a bag, or enlargement of he gullet given to many birds, called the crop, which B situated in the front of the chest, at some distance from the gizzard. In this the hard and dry food is macerated ; it is then let into the gizzard, where it ia fcruised and divided, and mixed with the gastric juice, which is secreted bv p-lands near the entrance of tho 250 gizzard ; and thus the changes are produced upon the food, which fit it for nourishment. The crop, in such birds as have it, is principally to be viewed as a repositoiy, in which the food is first softened, and then transferred to the gizzard. But in all birds of the dove kind, and it is supposed in parrots, macaws, and cocatoos, the crop, both in the male and female, is endowed with the power of secreting a fluid which coagulates into a whitish curd, and is employed to feed the young for two or three days after hatching. It is then found to be mixed witli some of the common food ; and as the pigeon grows older, the proportion of common food is increased ; so that by the time it i% eight or nine days old, and able to digest common food, the secretion of the food in the old bird ceases. Jn some of the crustaceous animals, as the lobstei and crab, the division of the food is accomplished by Aieans of teoth placed in the stomach. These teeth are of the molaris or grinding shape, and are one on each side. Immediately behind them, is a single pro- jecting tooth, which answers the purpose of preventing the food fronri passing on till it is sufTiciently divided. The stomaoh of these animals is also lined with a hard substance, similar to the external coat, so that it is never collapsed : and it is a curious circumstance, that this coat, as well as the hard covering of the teeth, artu parted with, when the animals cast their shells. The tooth-like processes at the entrance of the mouth, which are sometimes represented as teeth, are nothing more tJian a kind of pincers, to grasp the food, and convey it into the mouth. Teeth are likewise met with in some of the worm tribe ; and such is also the case with various insects, particularly the Cape grasshopper, and mole cricket. The most curious apparatus for the conversion of vegetable food into nourishment, is that which belongs to the cow, the sheep, the deer, tlie camel, and other animals which usually chew their cud. In these animals there are four stomachs, which are concerned in digestion. The first stomach receives the food af^ei a slight mastication ; thence it goes into the second, 251 calfed the h&ney-ccnih ; and when it has been maoerate8 (or some time, it is curried ud into the mouth. It is then chewed, and passes into the third stomach, or many-plies, whence it goes into the fourth, or read, the proper digesting stomach, where its conversion intb chyme is completed. The animal seems to have the power of sending the food at once into the second, third, or fourth; and this they do according to the facility with which the dilFcrent kinds of food may be digepted. For instance, cows in the north of Scotland, and the Hebrides, are occasionally fed oh fish, which does not require a second mastication, and is therefore received at once into the third stomat:h ; and calves, when fed on milk, receive it into the fourth stomach; In the camel, the second stomach consists of cells, and is solely appropriated to the reception of water. By means of a curious muscular structure the orifices of these cells are closed, and the water pre- served from being mixed with the food. It is this tieculiar structure, which in the camel, dromedary, and ama, fits them to live in sandy deserts, where the supplies of water are so precarious. Bruce mentions ihat four gallons were taken out of the stomach of a wmel, daring one of his journeys in the desert, when here was much distress for want of water. THE HEART. f .-• The heart is the grand reservoir of the blood,' rhence it flows through the arteries to the utmost atremities of the body, and is conveyed back again by ihe veins. This organ is situated in the thorax, or chest, between the two lobes of the lungs. In man it is placed dmost cross-wise. — The base, or broad pr.rt, is directed towards the right side, and the point towards the left. It is securely enclosed in a mem- braneous sac, or pouch, which contains a fluid that gives smoothness to its surface, and ease to its motions. The substance of the heart is entirely fleshy or 252 inueouIaF. Its basis from which the great blood vessels originate, is covered with fat, and it has two hollow appendages, called auricles. Within, it is di. Vided into two cavities, or ventricles, separated from each other by a flesliy partition. The use of these ventricles and auricles is to circulate the blood througn the whole body, by means of the, power of contraction end enlargement which the heart possesses from its numerous fibres, that surround it in a spiral direction. When these fibres are contracted, the sides of the muscular cavities are necessarily squeezed together, so as to force out of them any fluid which they may contain. By the relaxation of the same fibres, the cavities become dilated, and of course prepared to admit any fluid which may be poured into them. The great trunks, both of the arteries, which carry out the bloiod, and of the veins, which bring it back, are inserted in these cavities. By dilating the fibres, which anatomists call diastole, the cavity of the ven* tricles is opened to receive the blood from the auricles i on the contrary, when the ventricles are contracted, which is called systole, the auricles are expanded ; and by this alternate action, they carry on the wonderful operation of supplying with blood the most distant parts of the body. The blood, which has been ejected from tiie auricles and ventricles, is prevented from returning, by valves, or little doors, placed between the auricles and ven- tricles, and at the mouths of. the great arteries. These valves open inwards, but not in the contrary direction j of course when the blood has passed through them the valves close, and a return is thus rendered impossible. You may perceive, by this account, that there is a continual exchange of the blood that fills the heart. It is no sooner emptied into the arteries, than it is filled again from the veins ; and this constraction and dilata- tion succeed each other with great rapidity ; and by its re-action causes that beating at the wrist, and other parts, that is called the pulse. It is supposed that the quantity of blood contained in the body amounts to between 25 and 35 pounds; 2d8 and that about two ounces paes on from the heart at each pulsation. In this way, at 70 pulsations in a ininute, 140 ounces will pass through the heart in a minute, or 8400 ounces in an hour. Hence the whole quantity of blood contained in the body, supposing it to be 25 pounds, will pass through the circulation in about three minutes, or about 20 times in an hour, or 480 times in a day. When we consider the same process in the larger species of animals, it strikes the mind still more forcibly. Dr. Hunter dissected a whale ; and he relates that the aorta, which is the principal artery of the body, measured a foot in di- ameter. Ten or fifteen gallons of blood are thrown out of the heart at a stroke ; what then must be the quan< tity of blood circulating through the whale in a day ! The structure of the heart, and the circulation of the blood, seem to be conducted on the same principlefl in man and in quadrupeds. We have just seen thai in the whale it is similar; and probably in fishes ia general. The circulation of the blood, as it appears in Die newt, a species of lizard, when seen through a good microscope, will illustrate what we have said on this subject. The bodies of these animals, when very young, are so transparent, that the blood may be seen to flow briskly through every part, even into the toes, and to return from them. The newt has three small fins, near the head, which are divided like the leaves of a polybody or fern ; .and in every one of these branches, the blood may be traced, running to the end through the artery, oind conveyed back again, by a vein of the same size with the artery, and laid in the same direction. In this' part may be seen above thirty channels of blood running at once, like the divided streams of a great river, diffusing life and vigour. Some insects have several hearts. If silk worms be examined, when full grown, there will be perceived a chain of hearts, running the whole length of their bodies ; whilst many amphibious animals, frogs for ex- ample, have but one ventricle to the heart. The chief distinction between the arteries and veins lies in this, that the arteries convey the blood from tho 23 904 fti^jUl; the veins carry it book agtlin. In order to ettect this purpose, the veins are continued from the extremities of the arteries, and, in general, every artery is accompanied by its corresponding vein. That we may clearly understand the subject before us, let us suppose two trees, united to each otlier by the extremities of their branches at the top, and their trunks terminating at the same point at the bottom ; each being hollow from the roots to the tips of the omallest twigs, and filled with a fluid which circulates incessantly from one through the other. Let us imagine this, and we shall have a tolerably correct idea of the circulation of the blood through the vessels of the human body. Four large vessels, from which all of the rest proceed, pass out from the base of the hedrt j two of these are arterieis, and the other two veins. The aorta is the principal artery, that dig", tributes the main stredm of tTie blood through in- numerable ramifications, to all parts of the body ; it arises from the left ventricle of the heart. The pul. monary artery originates from the right ventricle, and enters the lungs, where its branches are spread out on the air-vessels: by this means the blood is acted upon by the air which we inhale, and undergoes a certain change which is essential to our well-being. All the veins, which bring the blood from the upper extremities, and from the head and heart, pass into & large vein called the descending vena cava ; those veinsj which bring the blood from the lower extremities, pass into another large vein, called tho ascending veim cava. These two large veins unite as they approach the heart, and open by one common orifice into the right auricle. The return of the blood is promoted by the action of the muscles, the pulsation of the arteries, and the valves which are formed in the veins. Theses valves are so nicely adapted to their design, that they admit the blood to flow from the extremities, but oppose its returning back towards them. The circulation of the blood was first ascertained by Harvey, A.D.. 1628 ; by the aid of the microscope it may be very plainly observed in the web of a frog^s foot. ii&ft RESPIII/VTION. in forming tho organs of respiration In the higher orders of animals, the Creator has had two great ohjecta in view : the, one, that of forming llie voice ; tl>o other, that of comph^tiiig the charges which are requisite fjr adapting tho bh)od to the functions, wliich it is intended to perform in the animal economy. Tho orguns of respiration consist of tlie larynx, the trachea, or windpipe, and tho lungs. The larynx is tho projecting part, which you can sec and fool at the upper part of the throat. It is tho comuii ucomcnt of the windpipe, and is tho organ in which tlic voice is forincil. The windpipe is tiie tube which is cuniicctcd with iln.-.;, and is dividid first into two, and tlicn into .smaller branches, called bronchia, which at hist terminate jji small cells, that form the minute structure of the lun<.>s. These organs can only be considered as subservient to tho more innnediate functions of rc-piration. Thera are other parts, which are necessary for carrying on the mechanical process of admitting and ejecting the air from the lungs, and these in man and quadrupeds are principally a very large and strong muscle, called the diaphragm, which separates the cavity of the abdomen from the thorax ; and various small muscles which lie between, the ribs. The rheclmnism employed in dilatation and expansion, is exceedingly simple. The contraction of the diaphragm forces down the abdominal viscera, and thus enlarges the cavity of the chest downwards, while tlie action of. tho muscles between the ribs raises lliem, and produces an expansion in another direction. The necessary ellect of this increase of size is, that the air rushes into the windpipe, to supply the void which would otlicrwise occur; and when the diaphragm and intcrcos.tal i|Lus- cles cease to act, and become relaxed, tlxo elasticity of the cartilaginous parts of tlie chest, but uvn\) particularly, the tendency of tho nuiscles of the abdomen to recover themselves, have the e/Tect of diminisliing the cavity of. the chest; and of thits forcing out Irum the lungs, tho 250 fttr tfrhich has been received by inRpiration. The alter, nate dilatation and contraction of the chest, which thu8 takes placip, constitutes the act of respiration, which is partly dependent on the will, and partly independent of it. The lungs are of a light, spnuiry texture, one in each cavity of the chrst, ciipable oC swimming in water, separable into sub-divisions called lo1>es, and covered with a membfnne cidled the pkurcty wiiich cloubles back, and lines the cavity of the chest, as the peritoneum does the cavity of the abdomen. The lungs are very largely supplied witli blood- vessel.s, of which some appear to be destined for the nourishment of the organ ; but by hi the principal part convey the blood from the I'ight side of the heart, in order that it may, after minute division, and diffusion over the air-col k, be exposed to the influx encte of the external air, and be carried back to the heart in* a proper state for nourishing the body. The blood which pusses from the right side of the' heart into the lungs, is of a dark red colour. Aftefcir-- CUiating thron'gh the lungs, it becomes of a florid red*,- and has then been rcnderwl fit for nutrition. In this' progression through the lungs, it has been freely exposed to the air of the atmosphere, which is continually i*- ceived' and thrown out, by the alternate actions of inspi- ration and expiration. Atmospheric air is composed of about twenty-ond parts by measure of oxygen, or the respirable part; ana severity-nine parts of azote, called also nitrogen, or the" Ulirespirable part. With a shkiII portion, not exceeding two per cent, of carbonic acid gas. When an animal is confined in a certain quantity of atmospheric air, a part of the oxygon disappears, and an augmented quantity of carbonic acid gas is f()und to have been produced. Now, it is supposed by physiologists, that {)art of the oxygen is absorbed by the blood, ijivinnr it its florid red colour, a(p is carried through the body, that by its union with other elements it may form a species of diffused combus- tion. Tbis preserves a more uniform temperature than if the animal heat were produced on/y in the lungs, which are at a considerable distance from the extremities, and are not united with them by substances well calcu^ 257 lated to tranfiiTilt lioat. The remainder changes the venous blood in the lungs, by ubstracting carbon, aift forming carbnnio uoid ; this may bo easily shown by passing the air from the lungs through lime water, which will become turbid by the tbnnation of carbonate o^ lime. Physiologists have di flu red very much as to the quan- tity of air taken in at each inspiration. It would appear, however, t!mt about 40 cubic inches of air afe taken in at an ordinary inspiration ; and if we suppose ihat we respire sixteen time's in a minute, we shall respire, riuring the twenty-four hours, 9*21, (JOO cubic inches, o^ 533 cubic feet of air. This is an innncnso consumption of oxygen; and it may seem extraordinary, that, consi- • do ring the prodigious demands on the atmosphere, by tlie many millions of human beings who inhabit the earth, and the countless numbers of animals which re- quire a constant supply of air, the oxygen should not be consumed, and the air itself contaminated. God, how- ever, has wisely provided for the removal of wh.u it» noxious, from air, and for the supply of what is whole- some. Carbonic acid gas, which animals produQAi inf respiration, and which likewise originates from fermen- tation and combustion, is capable of being absorbed by water. It is also, in certain circumstances, taken in by plants, of which it forms a part of the food, so that there is no danger of any deleterious superabundance. Plants, likewise, when exposed to the rays of the sun, exhale oxygen, which seems to arise from the decomposition of the absorbed carbonic acid gas, the carbon forming part of the substance of the plant, and the oxygen, which' had been united with it, being thrown out. The influence, exercised by respiration, in the animal economy, is pretty much the same in all animals ; but the mode, which we have described, principally applies to man and quadrupeds. In birds, there are some im- portant modifications ; in fish the air is applied to the blood in the gills, through the medium of the water ; in amphibious animals, the principal characteristic is, thai the whole of the blood does not circulate through the lungs, and that they can bear the interrui^tion of fe^i- 22* 258 •^Tj: rattbn without Injury ; but in tho insect tribes aw\ most (S* tho inferior animals, tiicro are vnrioua tubes, or tra- chcsD, which ramify over tho body, and open externally by apertures, or stigmata, as thoy arc called, by means of which tho air is received and expelled : so that we witness over tho whole creation, an admirable accord, ance to the modes, for tho support of life and health which God has thought fit to adopt. The peculiarities, in the funationft of respiration in birds, are exceedingly curious. In this class of animals, their lungs are small, flattened, and lie close to the breast, but there is no diaphragm, and there is no alternate expansion of the lungs, as in mammalia. In them, tho lungs have several openings, by'means of which they conrununicate with various air-bags, or cells, which fill the ^hole of the cavity of tho body from the neck downwards. These cells are filled by air which passes into, and out of them, through tho lungs, and which, in its passage, produces those changes on the blood circu- lating through tho lungs, which are necessary for the health of tho animal. 13y admitting frequent quantities of|l|dr into these cells, and also into tiie bones, which ilir^hollow, for the purpose of admitting air into them from the lungs, birds have the power of increasing or dimii^shing their specific gravity, so that they can, not only walk on the earth, but soar in tho heavens, in all the varieties of density of atmosphere, which a greater or smaller proximity to tho earth necessarily occasions. No strength of wing could poise a terrestrial animal in air, unless there wore the power of admitting air into the inmost recesses of the body, as happens in birds ; and this has been so carefully attended to in them,, that the cells extend even among the muscles of the body, whore they are particularly large in the soaring animals, as tho eagle, hawk, stork, and lark. Those birds that pounce and those that dive, arc enabled to do so with great velocity, by suddenly compressing their body, which drives air out, and increases their specific gravity. The barrels of the quills in birds, too, are hollow, and contain air ; and it is said, that it is in some measure owing to the power of diminishing or increasing the contained 2&0 qunntlty, that tho turkoy, bulfinch, (k.c. arc ablo to pro- (iuco tho quick and voluntary erection of thoir pliinmgc. Wo rnay mention lujre, that the i)ower which birds havo of admitting a hirgo quantity of air into their bodies, enables them to keep up a much etrougrr, and moro continued current of ajr through tho larynx, than any other animnl can do; and gives them, tht^refiire, a volume of voice, which is very great, compared with their small dimensions. In fishes, as already stated, the air is applied to the gills through the medium of the water. 'IMie gills aro covered with a large flap, or operculum, which is edged with a fringe which can he accurately applied to thq part benpath, so as entirtly to shut up t!ie slit, or opening into the gills. When the animal breath(^s, tliat is, \\\\e\\ it wishes water to be api)riod to the gills, it acts w ith the muscles of this (lap so as to render it convex ; this can» not be done, it is clear, without, producing a vacuum under the flap ; and as the aniujiil is; in water, aijd there is an opening in tho mouth which communicates with the gills, tho water rushes ia among the gills, filling up the space made by tho changed form of the flap, and thus applying itself to the minuter ramlilcatioris of blood- vessels ditrused over the gills. When the air contained in this %vater is no longer equal to its purpose, the water passes away tlirough an nir-opcuing at the edge of tho operc.ulum, which tho animal bus the powi-r of making ; and by a repetition of tho process, a fresii sui)ply of water is obtained, and the fuuutiou of respiration kept up. Fish could not live in w;iter from which the air has been exp -lli'd by boiling ; and when a small pond is frozen over, the fish die unless an opening is made to admit the air. There is, in fish, a part of structure somewhat ana- logous to tho air-cells in birds, namely, the air-hladders^ or siuimming-bladder,s, wliicli are given to them, as the colls are to birds, for tho purpose of increasing, or dimi- nishing their buoyancy. These bladders are placed close to the back-bono ; they vary in size, shape, and number ; and are wanting, or very small, in such fish as are generally confined to the lowest depths. They 260 form what is called tho Bound of fish : a part which gourmands prize iiighly. Wlion the air-bladder is rup- tured, the animal loses the power of raising itself, and lies on its back, from the additional weight given to that par*' of the body, by the removal of the air. The air, in the air-bladders of fisli, cannot be admitted and thrown but at pleasure, as in the case of birds. The air is pro- cured from the vessels ci^'culating in the membrane which composes the air-bhuldcrs ; these vessels having the power of secreting the air. The air-bladdi^r is ordi- nar'ly full, and is then capable of being acted upon, and compress-d, either by the abdominal muscles, or by a muscular structure peculiar to this organ ; and thus the air is .condensed pursuant to the will of tiie animal, and an alteration made in the specifiQ gravity accordingly. It is a curious fact that the nature of the air variety very much, according to the depth which i^sh generally inhabit. Those which" live in shallow water, have azote, with a very small proportion of oxygen. As the depth increases so does the oxygen ; and after the d( pth of 150 feet, the average proponion is as much as 70 pef cent, while the mean ^result aiibrded by fish caught at less depth, is only 20 per cent. Pike, carp, roaches, and perch, which are frcfiih-water, and therefore shallow- water fish, have only from 3 to 5 per cent, of oxygen. There is a curious mode of respiration employed by frogs, toads, ca iieleons, and some others of the amphibia ous tribe, which is, that the animal, instead of breathing through its mouth, keeps its mouth shut, receives air through its nose, and by means of the muscles of the jaws forces it into the lungs, from which it is Veturned, through the nostrils, by thu action of the muscles of the abdomen — there being no diaphragm. With this con- formation, those animals would be suffocated if their mouths were kept open. V ' INTRODU -- f.-A 261 SECTION IV. f . / «. ',, " y INTRODUCTION TO NAIURAL PHILOSOPHY Natural Philosophy, in its most extensive sense, hoa for its province tiie investigation of the laws of matter, that is, the properties of mutter ; and it may be divided into two great branches. The first and most important (which is sometimes called Natural riu/osophy, by way of distinction, but more properly Mechanical P/ulosophy) investigates the sensible motions of bodies. The second investigates the constitution and qualities of all bodies, and has various names, according to its different lobjocts. It is called chemislry, if it teaches the pro- pertios of bodies with respect to heat, combination with one another, weight, taste, appearunco, and so-forthj AnatQmy and Animal Physiology^ if it teaches the structure and functions of living bodies, especially the human ; — for, when it treats of the functions of other animals, we term it Comparative Anatomy. It is called Medicine, if it teaches the nature of diseases, and the means of preventing them, and of restoring health ; Zno/ogy, if it teaclies the arrangement or classification, and the habits of the different lower animals : Botany, including Vegetable Physiology, if it teaches the arrangement or classification, the structure and habits of plants : Mineralogy, including Geology, if it teaches the arrangement of numerals, the structure of masses in which they are found, and of the earth composed of these masses. The term natural history is given to the three last branches tak(^n together ; but chiefly, as far, as they teach the classification of different things, oi Ih© observation of the resemblances and differences gf \ ilio various ; nimuls. plants, ami ungrov.kng siibstancca ill Hill lire. '' Here wo niiiy m.iko two ol)sorvation.s. The firaf. i.', that every su-ih distrilxiiion (){' tlio r.cit noes is nocrs- i»siaii(!(\s. Inertia exprcssico the risistiuico wiiitdi inactive matr ter makes to a ciumf^e of f>tJit(\ Hodirs appear to be not only incapable .of cluin b',- endowed with a yower of resisting such a chai.nT'. It requires force to put a body which in at rpst in motif)!i ; an exertion of "*rength is also r( quisite lo s^op a body which is alroadv in Uiotion. The resistances of a bcjdy to a chai!;^e of state is, in either case, enjird its inertia. In playing at cricket, for inslancp, considerable strenolh is nqnirrd to give A rapid n)otion to tho ball ; and in eatebinfr it we feel the resistancr' it mak»\s to l)i-.iii': stopj^cd. Inert matter is as incapal)lo of sloppinfj; of its-.df, as it is of putting itvself in motion. When the ball ceases to jitt.vo therefore, it must be stopjH'd by some other ca-ise or power, which you will uiidci'stand bettvM" after we h-ive treated of the next and last general property of bodies. AUracfion is the general name under wiiich we may include all the properties by vvhioli atoms of matter act on (;ach other, so as to make th«^.ni approach or con- tinue near to one another. Iiodiej»«consist of inhnit.tHJ.y ^\\sd\ particles of matter, each of whioli Liu;,dosf«g ttii 2G0 jiower of attrantin.'O; or druwing towards it, and unitin" fvith any other particle siilliciently near to bo within the inlluenco of its atlr;ictii)!i. This power cannot be Vceo«>nized in niiitiUc j>arlioh\s, cxc^ept when they arc in contact, or at least a|)p.i^ir to' be so: it then piakes fhcm stick or adl.ere toocther, urid is hence called the Utiraclion of cohesion. Without this power solid Ixxlios vvDvild ilill to pieces, or rather crmnblo to atom«. ' Tbr- nttraction of colusioii exists also in liquids; it is this power which holds a drop of water susj)endcd at jl'.f* end of the finj^er, iind keeps the nnnuto watery ]>;}tticles, of which it is composed, united. But as \\m [)^A^^'''Y is stronfrer in ])r<>portii)n as the particles of bodies are mure e^ostdy united, the cohesive attractions of solid |v.;!ies is niuch jxreater than that of fluids. It is owinp to the diderent de^^rees of attraction of different sub- fitajjces, that tiiey arc hard or soft; and that liquids are ihick or thin. Tl>e tehq density denotes the degree of tloseness and compactness of the particles of a body"; the stronjjrer th.e coiiesive. attraction, the greater is tlie density of the body, whether' it be solid or liquid. In philosopliical langujige, liowever, density is said to Be that property of bodies, by whicli they contain a certain ((uantity of matter, under a certain bulk or magnitude. Harifi/ implies a diminution of d<^nsity, thus wo should say, that mercury or quicksilver wasu very dense (hiid ; ether, a very rare one. We judge of the density of a body, by t!)e weight of it ; thus \vq say, that nietals are cknoe bodies, wood, comparatively a rare one. ;' ■ . ■ Capiilary atiracUon i:-; an interesting variety of tlin attraction of cohesion. ]x\ t.ilios of sm «U bore, liquids rise a certain height within them, from t le cohesive at- traction between the pactie-les of the liquid and tho interior surface of the tube. The smaller the boro, the higher will the liquid rise. All porous substances, such as sponge, bread, linen, &c. may l)e considered iis collections of capillary tul)es. If you dip one end of a lump of sugar into water, the water will rise in it, amJ wet it considerably above the surface of that into which you dip it. Capillary attraction probably contributes to 2o7 .lie rise and circulation of the sap in tlVo bark ami wolj? of vegetables. Altraclion of sj^rav/ldlion (IjII'th tVom Uiist of cohesion, nuisiriuch a.s the latter hiflui iiccs the parlic/ra of bodies at iinpcrccpUhlc disstuner'S, whereas the li)riner acts upon masses, and at any distance, howevi.'r great. Let U8 take for exarnj)Ie, a very large body, and observe whether it does not nltraet oth(U' holies. What is il that occasions the fall of a book whr-n it is no loni;ei supportee a^e some bodies which do not appear (o gravU fate : smoke and steam, for instance, rise instead of fall, but it is still gravity which produces their ascent. Thfe air nearer the earth being heavier than smoke, steam, or pther vapours, not only supports these light bodies, but, by its own tendency to sink below them, forces them to rise. The principle is just the same as that by which a cork, if forced to the bottom of a vessel of water, rises to the top as soon as it is set at liberty. Balloons ascend upon the same principle, the materials of which (hey are made, arc heavier than the air, but the air with which they are filled is considerably lighter ; so (hat, on the whole, the balloon is lighter than the air which is near the earth, and consequently rises. PN THj; LAWS OF MOTION, ANP THE; CENTRE; OF GRAVITY. \Phe science of mechanics is founded on the laws of motion ; it will therefore be necessary to explain these laws before we examine the mechanical powers. Mo- tion consists in a change of place. A body is in motion whenever it is chanL-ing ite situation wilii regard to a Oxed point. Now, as one of the gonoral properties of bodies is inertia, it follows that a body cannot move without being pw./ into motion. The power which puts a body into rriotion is called force ; the stroke of the hammer is the force wiiioh drives the nail ; the exertion of the horse in pulling, that which draws the carriage. Gravitation is the force which occawions the fall of bodies, cohesion that whicii binds thn particles of bodies together, and heat, a force which drives them asunder. When a body is acted on by a single force, the motion M always in a straight line, and in the direction in which \\ received the impulse. ■• The rate at which a body moves is called its veJocifi/ ; and it is one of the laws of motion, that the velocity of the moving body is proportional to tiie force, by wiiicli ^t is put in motion. The velocity of a body is called absolute, if we consider its motions, without any regard to that of other bodies. When, for instance, a horse 269 goes fifty inilf « in ten hours, liis velocity ii^ five milc^ an hour. It is termed relative when con»pared witl^ that of another body vvliich is itself in motion. Thua a man asleep in a ship under sail, remains at rest rela- tively to the vessel, though he partakes of its ahsolqtQ jnotion. If two carriages go along the same road, their relative velocity will be the difference of their absolute velocities. The motion of a body is said to be uniform, when it passes over equal spaces in equal times. It is produced by a flirce having acted on a body once, and having ceased to apt, sucli as the stroke of a bat on a cricket- ball. It may be said, that the niotion of the ball is neither uniform nor in a straight line. In answer to this objection, you must observe ibat the ball is inert, having no more power to stop than to put itself in mo- tion ; if it fall, therefore, it must be stopped by some force superior to that by which it was projected ; and this force is gravity, which counteracts and finally over- comes that of projection. If neither gravity nor any- other force opposed its motion, the criokot-ball, or even a stone thrown by tlio liand, would continue to proceed onwards in a right line and with a uniform velocity. We have no example of perpetual motion on the sur- flice of the earth ; because gravity, the rosiiitancc of the air or friction, ultimately destroys all motion. When we study the celestial bodies, we fiiid that nature abounds with examples of perpetual motion, and that it conduces as much to the harmony of the system of the universe, as the prevalence of it wcnild be destructive of all stability on the suriiice of the globe. Retarded motion is jjroduced l>y somo lorce acting on a body in a direction opposed to tiiat wliicii first put it in motion, and thus gradually diminishing its velocity. Accelerated motion is produced, when the force, vvhich puts a body in motion, continues to act upon. it during its motion, so that its velocity is continually increased. Lot us sujjposc, that the itistiint a stone is let fall from a high tower, the flirtu' ui^ gravity were annihilated : the atone would nevcrlhoLss descend \ for a 23* .. . 270 f/cxly, huviiii^ diioo rt'C('ivhical langu ige, action and reaction will be equal and in opposite" directions. Birds, in flying, strike the air with their wings, and it is the reaction of the air which enables them to rise or advance forwards. If we throw a ball against a wall, it rebounds ; tins D ; and if tht c, the ball v 271 rctuFn of tlie ball In owiri S^ 272 ^et us now suppose the two forces to be unequal, and not to act on the ball in the direction of a right angle, but in that of an acute angle. The' ball will move Fig. 3. y [F;g- 8] fir ^ A to D in the diagonal of a parallelogram, A B D c. For- ces acting in the direction of lines form, ing an obtif^e angle will also produce motion in the diagonal of a paralellogram. For {instance, if the body set out from b instead of w^, and be impelled by the forces m and n, it will move jij the .dotted diagonal b c. Oircular motion is produced by the action of two forces on a body, by one of which it is projeote4 forward in a right line, whilst by the other it is con- tinually directed towards a fixed point. For instance, if I whirl a ball fastened to my hand with a string, it js acted on by two forces, and has a circular motion j one of the forces is that which I give it, which repre- sents the force of projection," the other force is the string which confines it to my hand. If during its motion the string were suddenly to break, Jhe ba}} would fly off in a straight line, and this, because it would then be acted on by only one force ; for, as we have said, motion produced by one force is always in a right line. The point or line, to which the motion of a body is confined, is called the centre or axis of motion. This centre or axis remains at rest, whilst all the other pai'ts of the body move round it : when a top is spun, the axis is stationary, whilst eyery other part is in inotion round it. There is one circumstance in circular motion, which must be carefully attended to ; which is, that the further any part of a body is from the axis of motion, the greater is the velocity. The force, which confines a body to a centre, round which \i movesj is called the centriiJetal force j; and the force, 273 • # ich impels a body to fly from the centre, is called l)t centrifugal force. In circular motion these two foices balance each other. If a ball- be thrown in a horizontal direction, it i? acted upon by three forces, viz. the force of projection ; the resistance of the air tlirough which it passes ; and the force of gravity which finally brings it to the ground. Bodies thus projected describe a curve line in their descent. If the forces of projection and of gravity both produced uniform motion, the ball would move in the diagonal of a parallelogram : but the motion produced by the force of projection alone is uniform, that produced by gravity is accelerated ; and it is this acceleration which makes it fall in a purve instead of a straight line. The curve line which a ball describes, if the resistance of the air be not taken into consideration, is called in geometry a parabola. The middle point of a body is called its centre of magnitude, that is, the centre of its mass or bulk. The centre of gravity is the point about which all the parts of a body exactly balance each other, in every position of the body ; if therefore this point i&i supported, the body will not fall. When a boat is in danger of bejng upset, it is dangerons for the passen- gers to rise suddenly ; this is owing to their raising the centre of gravity. When a man stands upright, the centre of gravity of his body is supported by the feet. If he lean to one side he will no longer stand firm. A rope-dancer performs all his feats of agility, by dexter- ously supporting his centre of gravity ; whenever he finds himself in danger of losing his balance, he shids the heavy pole which he holds in his hands, in order to throw the weight towards the side that is deficient; and thus by changing the situation of the centre of gravity, restores his equilibrium. A person carries ^ single pail of water with great difficulty, owing to the centre of gravity being thrown on one side : but two pails, one hanging on each arm, are carried with much greater facility, because they balance each other. •M /■ • 274 When two bodies are fastened together, they «»•« to bo considered as forming but one body. If the twa bodies be of equal weight, the centre of gravity will be in the middle of the line which unites them; but if one be heavier than the other, the centre of gravity will be proportionably hearer- the heavy body thao ihfi ligb' one. « ON THE MECHANICAL POVV]BI^S. There are six mechanical powers, viz. the leve,', t}'* j^lley, the wheel and axle, tlie inclined plane, the wedge and the screw. Que or more of these enters into the composition of every machine. In order to understand the power of a machhie, tliei'o are four things to be considered. Firstly, the powei that acts ; this consists in the ellbrt of men or liorscs, of weights, springs, steam, &c. Secondly, the rcsiat- ance which is to be overcome by the power. The effect of the power must always be superior to the resistance, otherwise the machine could not be put in motion. For instance, were the resistance of a car- riage equal to the strength of the horses employed to draw it, they would not be able to draw it. Thirdly, we are to consider the centre of motion, or, as it is termed in mechanics, the fulcrum, which means a prop. And lastly, the respective velocities of the power, and of |he resistance. THE LEVER. The lever is an inflexible rod or beam, that is to say one which is not supposed to bend in any direction. Foi 275 instance^ the Bteel rod, to which a pair of scales is 8us< peiided, is a lever, and tlie point by wliich.it is sus- pended, called the prop or fulcrum, is also^ the centre of motion. The two parts of a, lever, divided by the fulcrum, are called its arms. Now, both scales ueing empty, they are of the same weight, and con- sequently . balanbe each other. We have stated that if two bodies of equal weight are fastened together, the centre of gravity will be in the middle of the line that connects them ; the centre of gravity of the scales must, therefore, bo in the middle between them, as the fulcrum is, and, this being sup- ported, the scales balance each.othcr. You recollect, that if a ,body be suspended by that point in which the centre of gravity is situated, it will remain at rest in any position indifferently ; which is not the case with this pair of scales, for when we hold them inclined, they instantly regain their equilibrium. The reason of this is, that the centre of suspension, instead . of exactly coinciding with that of gravity, is a little above it. If, therefore, the equilibrium of the scales be "disturbed, the centre of gravity moves in a small circle round the point of suspension, and is there- fore forced to rise ; and the instant it is restored to liberty, it descends and resumes its situation im- mediately below the point of suspension, when the equilibrium is restored. It is this- property which renders the balance so accurate an instrument for weighing goods. If the scales contain different weights, the centre of gravity will be removed towards the scale which is heavier, and being no longer sup- ported, the heaviest scale will descend. If the lever be taken off the prop, and fastened on in another point, that other point then becomes the fulcmm. In this case the equilibrium is destroyed; the loiig^x 276 arm of the lever ig heaviest, and descends. The centre of gravity is not supported, because it is no longer immediately below the point of sus- pension. But if we can bring the centre of gra. vity immediately below that point, as it is now situated, the scales will again balance each other. Thus if a heavy weight be placed in the scale suspended to the shorter arm of the lever, and a lighter one into that suspended to the longer arm, the equilibrium will be re- stored. It is not, there- fore, impracticable to make a heavy body ba** lance a light one; and by this m)eans an hn> position in the weight of goods is sometimes ef- fected. An ingenious balance, called a steel- yard, has been invented, on the principle that a weight increases in effect in proportion to its distance from the fulcrum. ^. V ■:•.. ' -:. When a lever is put in motion, the longer arm, or acting part of the lever, must move with greater velocity than the shorter arm, or resisting part of the lever, because it is further from the centre of motion. When two boys ride on a plank drawn over a log of Wood, the plank becomes a lever, the log which sup- ports it the fulcrum, and the two boys, the power and the resistance at each end of the lever. When the boys are of equal weight, the plank must be supported in the middle to make the two arms equal ; if they differ in weight, the plank must be drawn over the prop, so as to make the arms unequal, and the lightei^ ijoy must be placed at the extremity of' the longer arnb^ In order that the greater velocity of his motion may bompensate for the superior gravity of his companion, so as to render their momenlums equal. But we know that the action of the power must be greater than the resistance in order to put a machine in motion. For this purpose each .boy at his descent touches the' ground with his feet ; and the support he receives from it diminishes his weight, and enables his companion to raise him ; thus each boy alternately represents the power and the weight, and tlie two arms alternately perform the function of the acting and the resisting part of the lever. A lever in moving, describes the arc of a circle, fof k can move only aroulid the fulcrum or centre of rao-' tlon. It would be impossible for one child to risf ^tp^ l^ndicularly to the point a, or for the other to di* «eiM Bi a straight line to b ; they each describe arcs of theii respective circles ; and it may be judged from the dif- ^rent dimensions of the circle how much greater the 24 278 Trtnclty ^. ^^^ 11^^^ child must be than that of the bigger (biQ. Endrnious weights may bo raised by lerers of this description, for the longer the acting part of the levor is in comparison to the resisting part, the greater is the effept produced by it ;. because the greater is the velocity of the p5\ver compared |o that of the weights. We have all seen a heavy barrel or tun rolled over by thrusting the end of a strong stick beneath it and resting it against a log of wood, or any other object which can give it support, near the end in contact with \})fi barrel. Tlic stick, in this case, is a lever, the RupiK)rt, the prop or fulcrum ; and the nearer the latter is to Ihe resistance, the more easily will the power be ublo to move it. Thore are three different kinds of levers; in the ^rsU which comprehends the several levers we have de- Rcriliei, the fulcrum is between the power and the ireight. When the fulcrum is situated equally be- tween Ihe power and.thfe weight,- as in the balance, the ]K)wor Must be something greater than the weighty in order to move it ; for nothing can in this case bo gained by velocity. The two arms of the lever being eqtial, the velocity of their extremities must be so likewiseJ The balance is therefore of no assistance as a mechanical pt)wer, but it is extremely useful to estimate the res- pective weights of bodies. But when the fulcrum, f, of a le^er is not equally distant from the power and the weight, and that the power, p, acts at the extremity of the longer arm, the power may then be less than the weight, w, its deficiency being compensated by its greater velocity ; as we oh- seesaw. Therefore, when a raised, it must be fastened tp of a lever, and tlie power applied to F i w served ii\ §ieat weight is It) di(M'l«r arm describing the to be 279 •, / tttn longer arm. But, if the case will admit of putting tlie enci of the lever under the weight, no fastening will bo required, as you may perceive by stirring the fire.^ The poker Is a lover of the first kind : the point, where it rests against the bars of the grate, whilst stirring the fire, is the fulcrum ; the short arm, or resisting part of the lever, is employed in lifting the weight, which is the coals j and the hand is the power, applied to the longer arm, or acting part of the lever. A pair of scis. sors is an instrument composed of two levers, united in one common fulcrum ; the point at which the two loverr, are scrowed together, is the fulcrum.; the handles to which the power of the fingers is applied, arc the ex- tremities of the acting part of the levers ; and the cutting part of the scissors are the resisting parts of the levers: therefore, the longer the handles, and the shorter the points of the scissors, the more easily will they cut. Thus, when pasteboard, or any hard sub- stance is to be cut, that part of the scissors nearest the screw or rivet is used. SnuflTers, and most kinds of pincers, are levers of a similar description, the great force of which consists in the resisting part of the lever being very short i :i comparison of the acting part. in levers of the second kind, the weight, instead of being at one end, is situated between the power and the fulcrum. In moving it, the power be greater than that of the weight, as it is more distant from the centre of motion. We may sometimes see a barrel moved by means of a lever of the second kind, as well as byE one of the first. The end of the stick that is thrust under the barrel rests on the ground, which be- comes the fulcrum ; the barrel is the weiglit to be moved, and the power the ^ hands applied to the other "* the velocity of must necessai'ily BB9 ehd of the lever. In this instance there la an {mmenie difference in the length of the arms of the lever, the weight hciflg almost close to the fulcrum, and the advan. tage gained is proportional. The most common example that we have of levers of the second kind is in the doors of our apartments ; In these the hinges represent the ful- crum; the hand, the power applied to the other end of the lever ; and the door, or rather its inertia, is the weight which occupies the whole of the space be!ween the power and the fulcrum. Another very common in- stance is found in an oar ; the blade is kept in the same place by the resistance of the water, and becomes the fulcrum, the resistance is applied where the oar passes Over the si The pulley, which is the second mechanical power we are to examine, is a circular flat piece of wood or metal, with a- string running in a groove round it, by means of Which a weight may be pulled up. Thus pul- leys are used for drawing up curtains, ^vr the sails of a ship, &c. When the pul- ley is fixed, it gives no mechanical advantage. If p represent the power to raise the weight w, it is evident that the pbwer must be something greater than the weight in order to move. it. A fixed pulley is useful, therefore, only in alter- ing the direction of the power and its most frequent practical application is to enable us to draw up a weight by drawing down the string, connected with the pulley. But a moveable pulley affords mechanical assistietnce. The hand which sustains the cask by means of the 24* 282 cord D B, passing round the moveable pulley a c, does it more easily than if it held the cask suspended to a cord without a pulley; for the fixed hook h, to which one end of the cord is fastened, bearing one half of the weight of the cask, the hand has only the other half td sustain. Now, it is evident, that the hook affords the same assistance in raising, as in sustaining the cask, so that the hand will have only one-half of the weight to raise. But observe, that the velocity of the hand must bo double that of the cask ; for in order to raise the latter one inch, the hand must draw the two strings (or rather the two parts, d and e, into which the string is divided by the pulley,^ one inch each ; the whole string being shortened two inches, while the cask is raised only one. Thus the advan- tage of a moveable pulley consists in dividing the difficulty. Twice the length of string, it is true, must be drawn, but one-half the strength is required which would be necessary tor raise the weight without such assist- ance; so that the difficulty is over- come in the same iiianner as it would be by dividing the weight into two equal parts, and raising them successively. The pulley, therefore, a'jts on the same principle as the lever, the deficiency of strength of the power being compensated by superior velocity ; and it is on this principle that all mechanical powei is founded. In the fixed pulley, [p. 281.] the line A c may be considered as a lever, and b the ful- crum : then the two arms a b and b c being equal^ the lever will afford no aid as a mechanical power ; since the power must be equal to the weight in order to balanc6 it, and superior to the weight in order to raise it. In the moveable pulley you must consider the point a as the fulcrum ; a b, or half the diameter of the pulley, as the shorter arm ; and a c, or the whole diameter, as the 283 if it require you must be a sacrifice of* time to sensible how very ad- for power. longer arm. It may, perhaps, be objected to pulleys, tiiat a longer time is required to raise a weight with their aid than wilJiout it. That in true, for it is a fun» damental law in mechanics, that what is gained in power is lost in time ; tliis applies not only to the pulley, but to the lever and all the other mechanical powers. It would be wrong, however, to suppose that the loss was equivalent to the gain, and that AVe dcriycd no ad- vantage from the mechanical powers ; for since we are incapable of augmenting our strength, that science is of wonderful utility which enables us to reduce the re- sistance or weight of any body to the level of our strength. This we accomplish, by dividing the resis- tanpe of a body into parts, which we can successively overcome ; and attain this end, vantageously it is exchanged The greater the number of pulleys con nected by a string, the more easily the weight is raised ; as the difficulty is divided amongst the number of strings, of father of parts, into which the string is divided by the pulleys. Several pulleys thus con- nected, form what is called a system, or tackle of pulleys. You may have seen them suspended from cranes to raise goods into warehouses, and in ships to draw up sails. Here both the advantages of an iii- crease of power and change of direction are united ; for the sails are raised up the masts by the sailors on deck, from the change of direction which the pulleys ef- feet ; and the labour is facilitated by the mechanical power of a combination of pul- leys. Pulleys are frequently connected, as described, both for nautical and a variety of other purposes; but, in whatever manner pulleys are con- nected by a single string, the mechanical power is the same in its principle. When there are two, three, &c., strings the effect is greater ; but the apparatus is more Qomplicated, and its applicability is more limited. r , ,, 2y winding the rope, tp which it is attached, round the axle; if this bo done )vithout a wheel to turn the axle, no mechanical assist- ance is received. The nxlo without a wheel is as ini- {>otent as a single fixed piil- ejr, or lever, whose fulcrum jis in the centre ; but add the wheel to tho axle, and you will immediately fuid llie bucket is raised with much less difficulty. The axle acts tho part of the shorter arm of the lever, the wheel that jof the longer arm. The velocity of the circumference of the wheel is as much greater than that of tho axle, as it is further from the centre of motion ; for the wheel describes a large circle in the same space of timq that the axle describes a small one, therefore the power is increased in the same proportion as the circumference of tho wheel is greater than that of the axle. If the velocity of the wheel were twelve times greater than that of the axle, a power nearly twelve time less than tb« weight of the bucket would be able to raise it. THE INCLINED PLANE. The fourth mechanical power is the inclined plane. This is nothing more than a slope, or declivity, fre- ?iuently used to facilitate the drawing up of weights. t is not difficult to understand, that a weight may with inuch greater ease be drawn up a slope than it con b^ 285 raised the same height perpendicularly. But in this, at well as the other mechanical powers, the facility is pur- chased by a loss of timo ; lor the weight, instcaa of moving directly from a to c, must move from b to c, and as the height of the piano in to it^ hmgth, so is the power to the weight which it is intended to raise. Thus, if a pully be fixed at f, so tliat the string from f to w may be parallel to b c, and a string iixrd to the weight w were connected witlj unollier weight p: then if p bear the same prnporiioii to w thiit Iho line a c does to the Jine B c, the two weiglits will balance each other, a considerable portion of the weight w being supported by the plane b c, and only the residue by the power p. THE WEDGE. The wedge, which is the next mechanical power, ii composed of two inclined planes. Woodcutters some- times use it to cleave wood. The resistance consists io the cohesive attraction of the wood, or any other body which the wedge is employed to separate; and th^ 286 a,«i vantage gained by this power is in tlic proportion of Juilf its width to its length. The wodgo, however, acts principally by being struck, and not hy inero pressure ; [he proportion stated, is that wiiich expresses its power when acting by pres.sure only. •' All cutting instruments are constructed upon the principle of the inclined plane, or the wedge. Those (hat have one edge sloped, like the chisel, may be referred to the inclined plane ; whilst the axe, the hatchet; and the knife, (\\hen used to chop or split fisunder,) act on the principle of the wedge. But a knife cuts Ixjst when drawn across the substance it is to divide, as it is used in cutting meat ; for the edge of a |[nife is really a vpry fine saw, and therefore acts best ^hen used like that instrument. THE SCREW. The screiv, which is the last eiechanical power, is more complicated than the others. It is composed of two parts, the screw and the nut. The screw s is a pylinder, with a spiral protuberance coiled round it, called the thread; the nut n is perforated to contain the screw ; and the inside of the nut has a spiral groove, made to fit the spiral thread of the screw ; just ^ like the lid of a box which screws oh. The handle which projcicts .___ ^.^^^ ^ from the nut is a lever, without / ""^#*^. \ which, or something equivalent, L. \ the screw is never used as a L I mechanical power. The nut, with a lever l attached to it, is commonly called a winch. The power of the screw, complicated as it appears, is referable to one of the most simple of the mechanical powers, the inclined plane. If a slip of paper be cut in the form of an 88t a inclined plane, and wound round pencil, which will represent the cylin. der, it will describe a spiral line corr, s- ponding to the spiral protuberance of the screw, ^he nut then ascends an inclined plane, but ascends it in a spiral instead of a straight line. The closer the thread of the screw, the more easy is the ascent ; but the greater are the number of revo, lutions the winch must make ; so that we return to the old principle, what is saved in power is lost in time. 'the power of the screw may be increased, also, by lengthening the lever attached to the nut ; it is employe^ either for compression or to raise heavy weights. It is used in cider and wine presses, in coining, in book- binding, and for a variety of other purposes. All machines are composed of one or more of the six mechanical powers we have examined. One more remark must be made relative to them, which is, tha^ friction in a considerable degree diminishes their effect." Friction is the resistance which bodies meet with in rubbing against each other. There is no such thing as perfect smoothness or evenness in nature. Polished inetals, though they wear that appearance, more than any other bodies, are far from really possessing it ; and their inequalities may frequently be perceived through a good magnifying glass. When, therefore, the sur- faces of two bodies come in contact, the prominent parts of the one will often fall into the hollow parts' of the other, and occasion more or less resistance to motion. In proportion as the surfaces of bodies are well polished, the friction is diminished ; but it is always considerable, and it is usually computed to de- stroy one-third of the power of a machine. Oil or grease is used to lessen friction ; it acts as a polish by filling up the cavities of the rubbing surfaces, and also prevents them from being so immediately in contact, which makes them slide more easily over each other. It is for this reason that wheels are greased, and the locks and hinges of doors oiled. In these instances, the contact of the rubbing surfaces is so close, and the rub- 286 bfog so continual, that, notwithstanding their boing polished and oiled, a considerable degree of friction is produced. It is a remarkable circumstance, that there js generally less friction between two bodies of different substances than of the same. It is on this account that the holes in which the spindles of watches work, are frequently made of jewels ; and that when two cog. wheels work in one another, the cogs of the one are often 4iiade of wood, and the other of metal. There are two modes of friction ; the one occasioned oy the sliding of the flat surface of a body, the other Dy the rolling of a circular body. The friction resulting from the first is much the more considerable ; for great force is required to enable the sliding body to overcome the resistance which the asperities of the surfaces in contact oppose to its motion, and it must be either lifted over, or break through them ; whilst, in the other kind, the friction is transferred to a smaller surface, and the rough parts, roll over each ot'ier with compMrative facility. Hence it is, that wlieels are often used for the sole purpose of diminishing the resistance of friction. When, in descending a stoop hill in a carriage, we fasten one of the wheels, we decrease the velocity of the carriage, by increaslnfj; the friction, that is to say, by converting the rolling tViction of one of tho wheels into the dragging friction ; and when castors aro put to liio legs of a table, the dragging is converted uito tho rolliiig friction. A fly-wheel, whicli is a \?.v<.h) lioavy whool attached to the axis of one of tiic princlpui wheels of tho muchiiiGry In steam-engines and otiier .lar^'-e niachinos, acts in the first instance as a heavy v/ei,o;ht to impede thtnr Ireo and uncontrolled )notioii. However paradoxical this mode of improving macliinery may appear, it is, never- theless, of great advantage. The motion of a maehine is always more or less variable. VVIictlier tlie jiower consists in wind, water, steam, or the strength of animals, it cannot be made to act with perloct regularity) nor can the work which tho nuicliiiic has to perlorih be always uniform. Yet in manufactures, and most cases in which machinery is employed, uniformity cf action is 289 essentially requisite, both in order to prevent injury to jfhe macliiiie and imperfection in the work pertormed,^ The fly-wheel answers this purpose, by regulating the action of the machine : by its inert/a it diminishes the eflect of increased action, and carries on the machine with unifonn velofuty when the power transiently slackens ; Llum, by wiLher clieckiiig or impelling' the action of the machine, it r(!>f',j]atrs its motion so«as to render it tolerabry uiiifornj. U is not (liiTicult to understand the tnannei' in which a ily-vvh.fM 1 iicts. — The vast number of p;ir!icles of whicli ii c )n;-!i.v.i3 may lose, or gain, taken ;is ii whole, a ooiismI' riiblo (ju.iiiti'.y of motion, witiiout llieir hr\{)fr, intHci'LuiUf;) inii'.;!t itlfcl'd; that is, without tlie fly-whri !, ov — by c('n.seq!!MiC(! — UiO maciiiaery with which it is coiuv cSf.l i/( !!!:• ■seii;U)!u retarded* or accele- rated. Thu^ il I.s in iv-r-lity a liiiiguziiio in wliich motion is hoarded up, and when it is not waritini];, oris injurious — rea«]y, houevi i", to be givon out Mgain precisely at th© moment it i;; r((|uiic(J. There is imoLiier r,ircuin;.tancr: whicli diminishes the motion of bodies, aiul which jfreatly ailbcls the power of machines ; this la the rcaisi,.inco of the uildium in which a machine is woiLi generally proportioned to their ('cnsiiy ; lor t!ie more inatler u body contains, the greater t!ie rcslstatico it will oppose to the motion of auoiher body stiikitig against it. It is, therefore, more diuicuk to work a niacliiao under water than in the air. If a tOHcliia.' coul.l be woikudin vacuo, and vviiliout fjielioii, it would bo perfect; but this is uiuvttalnable. A considerable reduction of power must, therefore, bj allov/od fov tho resistance of tlie air, ASTRONOMY. THE E.MM'ii'.S ANNUAL MOTION. In attempting to give sdioo general notions on astro- RQtny, we shall not begin oy entciiit^ into an expUna* 290 jipn of the system of the celestial bodies, but select that portion which is most interesting to us, the earth, aad when we have formed a distinct idea of the part Vhich it performs in the general system, we shall be able to form some conception of the grandeur and immensity of the UHivorse. Let i^s suppose the earth lit its cretition tp have been projected forwards. We know, from the laws of motion, that if no obstaclft impeded its course it would proceed interminably in the ^anie direction and - ' ' ■ ' with a uniform ve- locity. Let A re- present the earth, $nd s the sun. VVc shall suppose tlie earth arrived at the pomt in which it is represented in the figure, having a velocity wliich Would carry it on to B in the* space of one month ; whilst the sun's attraction would bring it to c in the same space of time. Reasoning upon the laws of uniform motion we might hastily conclude that the earth would move in the diagonal a d of the paral* lelogram add c, as a ball struck by two forces will do. But the force of att,r,Tction is continually acting upon our terrestrial ball, and producing an incessant deviation from a course in a straight line, and thus converts it into a course in a curve line. Let us detain the eartn a moment at the point d, and consider how it will be affected by the combined action of the two forces in its new situation. It still retains its tendency to fly off in a straight line ; but a straight line would now carry it away to f, whilst the sun woul(\ attract it in the direction d s. In order to know exactly what course the earth will follow, another paral- lelogram must be drawn in the same maner as th« first ; the line d f describing the force of projection* and the line d s that of attraction ; and it will be found 281 that the earth will proceed in the curve line d o dirawq in thA parallelogram d f a e ; and if we go on through- out the whole of the circle, drawing a line from the earth to the sun, to represent the force of attraction, and another at a right angle to it, to describe that of projection, vy^e ^hall find that the earth will proceed in tv curve line passing through similar parallelograms till i^ Jias pompleted the whole of the circle. The attractiori of tfiie siin is the centripetal force, whiolV connnes the earth to a centre ; and the impulse of projection, or the force which impels the earth to quit the sun and fly off, is the centrifugal force. We have described the earth as moving in a clrc\e, merfely to rendfeir the ekplaiiatiori . more simple, for hi reality the centripetal and centrifugal forces are not so proportioned as to produce circular motion ; and the earth's orbit or path round the sun is not circular, bidt elliptical or oyal. * ^ |Let us suppose that when the earth is at a, its pro- jectile force does not give it a velocity sufficient to counterbalance that of gravity, so as to enable these powers conjointly to carry it round the sun in a circle ; the earth instead of describing the line a c, as in the for- mer figure, will approach nearer the sUn in the line A B. Under these circum- stances it will be asked, what is to prevent our approaching nearer and nearer the sun till we fall into it ; for its attractioiv iticreases as we advance towards it. There also seems to be another dan- ger. As the earth ap- proaches the sun, the direc- tion of its motion is no longer perpendicular to that of attraction, but inclines more nearly to it. When the earth reaches that part of its orbit at b, the force of projection would carry it to d, which brings it nearer the sun, instead of bearing it away from it : so that I' ' I) 202 bmng driven, by ouo power, and drawn by the otiier towards this coiitro of destruction, it would Bconj Impossible for us to escape. Hut with God nothing i& impossible. Th«^ eivrth oonlinnes npproaching the huu with nn accelerated motion till it renches the point r; when the projectile fortie impels it in the dinidion i-j k. Hero then the two l<)rces net [icrpi ndi«Miliuly to eiiolj other, and the eavih is ,sitii;\fiMl us iii ihn preceding ligure, yet it will not revolve rotmd \]v' son in a ciicU" for the li)llowin{.'; renf^<')ns. Tito centrifn'rul f()r(!o in- creases will) ihe v( locily of tjie body ; or, in olii' r words, I lie (|iiit :ivs be objpctccl to this system of the universe, that it is 4i>*ecUy in opposition to theevidonco of our senses, to which, it is pUTin und obvious, that the oartli is motionless, uud that tho sun und stars revolve round it. IJut our senses sometimes deceive us. When sailing on the wnlnr witii u very steady breeze, tho housos, trees, and every object appear to move, whilst ue arc insensible ol' the motion of the vessel in which we sail. It is only when some obstacle impedes our motion, that we are conscious of njoving; and were you to close your eyes while sailing on calm water, with a steady wind, you would not be sensible of your motion ; for you could not feel it, and you could see it only by observing (he change of place of objects on shore. So it is with the motion of tho eardi: every thing on its surface, and the air that surrounds It, (accompanies it in its revolution — it meets with no resistance, therefore we are insensible of motion. The apparent motion of the sun and stars affords us the same proof of the earth's motion, that the crew of a vessel have of their motion, from the apparent motiou of the objects on shore. Imagine the earth to be sai}- ing round its axis, and successively passitig by every fetar, which, like objects on land, we suppose to be moving, instead of ourselves. Persons who have ascended in balloons, toll us that tho earth appears to sink beneath the balloon, instead of the balloon rising above the earth. What an innnense circuit the suri and stars would make daily, wore their apparent nio- tions real ! Why should these enormous globes traverse such an immensity of space, merely to prevent the necessity of our earth revolving on its axis? The motion produced by the revolution of the earth on itji axis is about thirteen miles and a half in a minute to an inhabitant of London. A person at the equator moves much quicker, and one situated near the poles much slower, since they each perform a revolution in twenty-four hours. But in performing its revolution round the sun, every part of the earth moves with an equal velocity ; and this velocity is no less than a thou- sand miles a minute. 290 , In ancient times, tlio cnrtii was supposed to occupy the centre of tlio universe; and the sun, moon, and stars to revolve round it. 'J'liis was tlie system of Ptolemy ; !)ut since llic beginninj; of the sixteenlH century, tlmt system lias been discarded, and the solar system, sucli as we liave deserihed, was established by the celebrated astronomer Cloperniciis, and bis fol- lowers, and is tlience callcfl the Cop«!rnican system. But tlie theory of gravitation, the discovery of the source whence this beautiful and harmotiious arrange- ment flows, we owe to the genius of Newton, who lived at a much later period. During the prevalence of the plague, in the year 1605, Newton retired into tlio coimtry to avoid the con- tagion. When sitting one day in his orchard, ho observed an apple fall from a tree, which it is said led to that train of thought, whence his grand theory of Universal gravitation was ultimately developed. Hia first reflection was, whether the apple would fall to the ^arth if removed to a great distance from it ; then how far it would require to be removed from the earth, before it would cease to be attracted ; would it retain its tendency to fall at the distance of a thousand miles, or ten thousand, or at the distance of the moon — and here the idea occurred to him, that it was not im- possible that the moon herself might have a similar tendency, and gravitate to the earth in the same man- ner as the bodies on or near its surface, and that this gravity might possibly be the power which balanced the centrifugal force implied in her motion in her orbit. It was then natural to extend this idea to the other planets, and he considered them as gravitating towards the sun, in the same manner as the moon gravitates towards the earth. Who woidd imagine that the simple circumstance of the full of an apple would have led to such magnificent results ? It is the mark of superior genius to find matter for observation and research in circumstances wliich, to ordinary minds, appear trivial, because they are conmion, and with which they are satisfied, because they are natural, without reflecting that nature is our errand field of observation— that within it ie. contained onr whole store of Icnowledge : in a word, that to study the works of nature, is to learn to appreciate and admire the wisdom of God. ^ ideas ; for tl THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. .vl As the earth is the planet in which we are most particularly interested, we shall explain the effects resultin^r from its annual and diurnal motions ; but for this purpose it will first be necessary to make you ac- quainted with the artificial terrestrial globe. This globe, or sphere, represents the earth. The line A B which passes through its cen- tre, and on which it turns, is called its axis ; and the two extremities of the axis are the poles, distin- guished by the names of the north and the south pole. The circle c d, which divides the globe into two equal parts between the poles, is called the equator, or equinoxial line ; that part of the globe to the north of the equator is the northern hemisphere ; that part to the soufh of the equator, the southern hemisphere. The small circle ef which surrounds the north pole, is called the arctic circle ; gh, surrounding the south pole, the antarctic circle. There are two intermediate circles, between the polar circles and the equator, that to the north, w, called the tropic of Cancer ; that to the south, tn, 301 called the tropio of Capricorn. Lastly, the circle lk, which divides tho globe into two equal parts, crossing the equator, and extending northward as far as the tropic of Cancer, and southward as far as the tropio of Capricorn, is called the Ecliptic. The delineation of the ecliptic on the terrestrial globe may convey false ideas ; for the ecliptic is an imaginary circle in the heavens, passing through the middle of the Zodiac, and situated in the plane of the earth's orbit. In order to understand the meaning of the earth's orbit, let us suppose a smooth, thin, solid plane cutting the sun through the centre, extending out as far as the fixed stars, and terminating in a circle which passes through the middle of the zodiac. In this plane the earth moves in its revolution round the sun ; it is therefore Called the plane of the earth's orbit ; and the circle in which this plane outs the signs of the zodiac is the ecliptio. The spaces between the several parallel circles on Ihe terrestrial globe are called zones; that which is Comprehended between the tropics is distinguished by the name of the torrid zone ; the spaces, which extend from the tropics to the polar circles, the north and south temperate zones ; and the spaces, contained within the polar circles, the frigid zones. The several lines which are drawn from one pole to the other, cutting the equator at right angles, are called meridians. When any one of the^e meridians is exactly opposite the sun, it is mid-day, with all places situated on that meridian ; and with the places situated on the opposite meridian, it is consequently midnight. To places situated equally distant from these two meridians^ it is six o'clock. If they are to the east of the sun's meridian, it is six o'clock in the afternoon, because the sun will have previously passed over them ; if to the west, it is six o'clock in the morning, and the sun will be proceeding towards that meridian. , Those circles which divide the globe into two equal parts, such as the equator and the ecliptic, are called great circles — to distinguish them from those which divide it into two unequal parts, as the tropic and polar ... 20 302 plroles, which are called small circles. All circles twe divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; and these degrees into 60 equal parts, called minutes. The diame- ter of a circle is a right lino drawn across it, and passing through the centre ; the diameter is equal to a little less than one-third of the circumference, and consequently contains a length equal to nearly 120 degrees. A. uie- ridian, reaching from one pole to the other, is half a circle, and therefore contains 180 degrees ; and the distance from the equator to the pole is half of a me- ridian, or a quarter of the circumference of a circle, and contains 90 degrees. Besides the usual division of circles into degrees, the ecliptic is divided into twelve equal parts, called signs, which bear the names of the constellations through which this circle passes in the heavens. The degrees, measured on the meridians from north to south, or from south to north, are called degrees of latitude ; those measured from east to west on the equator, or any of the lesser circles parallel to it, are called degrees of longi- tude. These lesser circles are called parallels of latitude ; because being every where at the same dis- tance from the equator, the latitude of every point contained in any one of them is the same. The degrees of longitude must necessarily vary in length according to the dimensions of the circle on which they are reckoned : those, for instance, at the polar circle, will be considerably smaller than those at the equator. The degrees of latitude, on the contrary, never vary in length ; the meridians, on which they are reckoned, being all of the same dimensions. Tiie length of a degree of latitude is 60 geographical miles, which is equal to 69i Englisli statute miles. The degrees of longitude at the equator would be of the same dimensions as the degrees of latitude, were the earth a perfect sphere ; but its form is not exactly spherical, being somewhat protuberant about the equator, and flattened towards the poles. This form proceeds from the superior action of the oentrifugul power at the equator. The revolution of the earth on its axis gives every particle a tendency to fly ofl' froni 303 the oentro. This tendency is etrortgor or weaker, in proi)ortion to the velocity with which the particle moves. Now, a particle situated near one of the polar circles makes a rotation in the same space of time as a particle of the equator ; the latter, therefore, having a much larger circle to descrihe, travels proportionably faster, so that the centrifugal force is much stronger at the equator than at the polar circle : it gradually decreases as we leave the equator and approach the poles, wjiore, as there is no rotatory motion, it entirely ceases. Even at the equator, however, there is no danger of our beinnj thrown from the earth, the force of gravity being thcr » 288 times greater than the ccritrifugal force; Bodies weigh less at the equator than at tho poles. There are two onuses for this, — the diminution ofgravity at the equator, it being at a greater distance from th(^ earth's centre than the poles, — and the increase of tho centrifugal force ; whicjh, as it tends to drive bodies from the centre, niiibt necessarily decrease tho power of gravity*'. " . THE SEASONS. We shall now explain the variation of the seasons,' and the difference of the length of the days and nights in those seasons — both effects resulting from the same cause. In moving round the sun, the axis of the eartl^ is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit ; in other words, its axis does not move round the sun in an upright position, but slanting or ol)lique. This you will understand more clearly, if you carry a small globe round a candle which is to represent the sun.—' You must consider the ecliptic drawri orl the small globe as representing the plane of the earth's orbit J and the equator, which crosses tho ecliptic in two places, shows the degree of obliquity of the axis of the earth in that orbit, which is nearly *J3i degrees. Th"e 304 points in which the ecliptic intersccti the equator ore called nodes. The globe at a is situated an it is iu tfii^ midst of summer, or wlint is called the summer solstice, which is oii the twenty-fi»*st of June. The north pole is then inclined towards the sun, and the northern hemisphere enjoys much more of his rays tlian the southern. The sun now shines over the whole of the north frigid zone, and notwithstanding the earth's diurnal revolution, it will cnntuiue to shino upon it as long as it remains in this '^■luation, whilst the south frigid zone is at the same time comoletely in obscority. I>et the earth now set off from its pni^iiion in the summer solstice, and carry it round the sj,n • observe, that the axis must be always inclined in the samo direction, and the north pole point to the sanve snot in the heavens. There is a fixed star situated u»vir that spot, which is hence called tlie North Polar star. The earth at b has gone through one quarter of its orbit. and is arrived at that point at which the eclipti)r gravity of the li([uid. The figure here represents an instjument called a level ; which ^ ^ i« constructed upon the principle " of the eciuilibrium of fluids. It consists of a s'iort tube, A' k, closed at both ends, and containing a Ijuid and a biiljble of air; when tho tube is not perfectly h jri/onlal tho fluid runs to the lower end, which makes t!ie bubble of air rise to the upper end, and it remains in the cc^ntre only when the tube does not incline on either side. It is by this means that the level of any situation, to which we apply the instru- ment, is ascertained. Solid br)dies, therefore, gravitate in masses, the strong cohesion of their particles mrddng them weigh altogether, while every particle of a fluid maybe considered as a separate mass, gravitating indep.vndently. Hence the resistance of a fluid is cnn;udorably less than that of a solid body. The particles of fluids acting thus indo- pendentlj', press against each other in every direction, not only downwards luit np^viv Is, and laterally or sde.- ways; and in conse-jiuiico (jftlns equality of press, »'e, every particle renKuiis ;tt iv.^t in the fluid. If du 27 m ^ffUate the fluid, you disturb this equality, and the fluid (vill hot' rest tiH its equilibrium be restored. ■ Were there no lateral pressure, water would not f^ow from an opening on the side of a vessel ; sand will not run out of such an opening, because there is scarcely any lateral pressure among the particles. Were the particles of fluids arranged in regular columns, there would be no lateral pressure, for when one pailicle is perpendicularly above the other, it c^H only -press it downwaixis; but as it must continually happen that a particle passes between twq particles beneath, these last sulfer a lateral pressure tjust, aa( a >Yed^o driyen into a piece of wood separates QQ the parts laterally. The lateral piressure is the ^O' result therefore of the pressure downwards, or the weight of the liqui(i| above ; and consequently the lo>Y.e^ the oi'ifice is made in the vessel, the greater will be the velocity of the water rushing out of it. The annexed figure represents tljie dfflerent degrees of velocity Witli 'which a liquid flows from a vessel furnished with three stopcocks at dilTeiont heights.. Since the lateral pressure is entirely owing to the pressure downwards, it is not affiioted ■. by the horizontal di- mension, of. the vessel, which contains the liquid, but merely by its depth ; for as evepy particle apts inde- pendently of the rest, it is only the column' of particiyi immediately above the orifice that can weigh upon and press out the liquid. The pressure of fluids upwards, though it seems in direct opposition to gravity, is also a consequence of their pressure downwards. When, for example, watei is poured into a tea-pot, the water rises in the spout td a level with that in the pot. The particles of water ai the bottom of the pot are pressed upon by the particles above them ; to this pressure they will yield, if there is imy mode of making way for the superior particles, anc} n^ as they cannot descend, they will change their direction and rise in the spout. Suppose the tea-pot to be filled with columns of pailiclcs of water similar to those described in the figure annexed, the particle 1 at the bottom will be pressed laterally by the particle 2, and by thiis pressure be forced into the spout, where, meeting with the particle 3, it presses it up- \yards, and this pressure will be continued fiorn 3. to 4 from 4 to 5, f^nd so on, till the water in the sj^out has risen to a leyel with that in the i^^. i I • SPECIFIC GRAVITY. .1 The specific gravity of a body means simply its weight compared with that of another body of the same size. When we say that substances, s^v^ph ns lead an4 stones, are heavy, and that others, such as paper and feathers, are light, we speak comparatively ; that is to say, that the first are heavy, and the latter light, in comparison with the generality of the substances in nature. Mahogany is a heavy body when compared to many other kinds of wood, but light when compared to §tone. Chalk is a heavy body compared to coal, but light if compared to metal. Thus our notions of light and heavy are vague and undefined, and some standard of coniparison is required, to which the weiglit of all other bodies may be referred. The body which has been adopted as a standard of reference is distilled water. When the specific gravity of bodies is to be estimated, it is necessary simply to weigh the body iinder trial in water. If a piece of gold be weighed in a glass of water, the gold will displace just as much Water as is equal to its own bulk ; a cubic inch of water must make way for a cubic inch of gold. The ^Ik alone is to be considered, the weight having 810 nothing to do with the quantity of water displaced ; for a cubic inch of gold does not occupy more space, and therefore will not displace more water, than a cubic inch of ivory, or any other substance that will sink in water. The gold will weigh less in water than it did out of it, on account of the upward pressure of the parti- cles of water, which in some measure supports the gold, and, by so doing, diminishes its weight. If the body under trial bo of the same weii-ht as the water in which it is immersed, it will be wholly supported by it ; if it be heavier, the water will offer some resistance to its descent ; and tliis resistance will in all cases bo the same to bodies of equal bulk, whatever be their weight. All bodies of the same size, therefore, lose the same quantity of their weiglit when completely jmmei'sed in watnr. A body weighed in water loses as much of its weight as is equal to that of the water it displaces ; so that were ihis water put into the scale to which the body is suspended, it would restore the balance. When a body is weiglied in water," in order to ascertain its specific gravity, it may either be sus- pended to a hook at the bottom of the basin of the balance, or, taking off the basin, suspended to the arm of the balance. Now, supposing that a cubic inch of cfold weiffhed nineteen ounces out of water, and lost one ounce by being weighed in water, the cubic inch of water it displaces must weigh that one ounce ; consequently gold would be nineteen times as heavy as water. The specific gravity of a body lighter than water cannot bo ascertained in the same manner. If a body were absolutely light, it would float on the surface, without displacing a drop of water ; but bodies have nil aome weiglit, and will, therefore, displace some quantify pf water. A body lighter than water will not sink tQ t> 317 level with the surface of the water, and therefore will not displatfe so much water as is equal to its bulk, but a quantity equal to its weight. A ship sinks to some depth in water, and the heavier it is laden the deeper it sinks, the quantity of water it displaces being always equal to its weight. This quantity cannot, however* alibrd a convenient test of its specific gravity, from the difficulty of collecting tha whole quantity of water dis- placed, and of measuring the exact bulk of the body immersed. In order practically to obtain tlie specific gravity of a body vvliich is lighter than water, a heavy one, whose apogific gravity is known, must be attached to it, and they must be immersed together : the specific gravity of the lighter body may then be easily calculated. Bodies which have exactly the same specific gravity as water, will remain at rest in whatever situation they are placed in water. If a piece of wood, by' being Impregnated with a little sand, be rendered precisely ot the weight of an equal bulk of water, it will remain stationary in whatever part of a vessel of water it ba placed. If a few drops of water be poured into the Vessel (so gently as not to increase their momentum by giving them velocity,) they would mix with the water ^t the surface, and not sink lower. The specific gravity of fluids is found by means of an instrument called an hydrometer. It con- sists of a thin glass ball, a, with a graduated tube, B, and the specific gravity of the liquid is estimated by the depth to which the instrument sinks in it ; for the less the specific gravity of the fluid, the further will the instrument sink in it. — There is a smaller ball, c, attached to the instrurhent below, which contains a little mercury ; but this is merely for the purpose of equiposing the instrument, that it may remain upright in the liquid under trial. The weight of a substance, when not compared to »hat of any other, is perfectly arbitrary ; and when vyateij' 3id J8 adopted as a stantlard, we may denonniiato its wpijrht Dy any numhor we pleuso ; but then the weight of all bodies tried by this standard must bo signified by pro. portional numbers. If we call the weight of water, for example, 1, then that of gold would be 19 ; or, if we Call the weight of water 1000, that of gold would be 19,000. In short, the' specific gravity indicates how much niore or less a body weighs than an equal bulk pf watec. SPRINGS, FOUNTAINS, &.C. The watev belpngip j to our globe exists in various states^ It is the same water which successively forms seas, rivers, springs, clouds, rain^ ai^d sometimes h^\\^ snow, and ice. When the' first rays of the sun warm the surface of the earth, the heat, by separating the particles of water, transforms them into vapour, which, being lighter than 'the air, a^oe'ncls into the atn^osphere. The atmosphere diminishing in density as it is more di3tant from the earth, the vapour which the sun causey to exhale, not only from seas, rivers, and lakes, but likewise from the moisture on the land, rises till it reaches a region of iair of. its own specific gravity, and there it remains stationary. By the frequent accession of fresh vapour, it gradually accunmlates, so as to form those large bodies of vapour which we call clouds ; and these at length becoming too heavy for \^ie air tc suppoit, fall to the earth in the form of rain. If the watery particles retained the state qf vapour, they would descpini only till they reached a stratum of air of their own specific gravity ; but during their fall, several of the watery particles come within the sphere of each other's attraction, and unite in the form of a, drop of water. The vapour, thus transformed into a shower, is heavier than any part of the atmosphere, and consequently descends to the earth. Observe, that if the waters were never drawn out of the earth, 3id vegetation would be destroyed by the excess of moisturti ; if, on the other hand, the plants were not nourished and refreshed by occasional showers, the drought would be equally fatal to them. Were the clouds constantly in a state of vapour, they could never fall to the gropnd ; or were the power of attraction more than sufficient to convert the vapour into drops, it ^yould transform the cloud into a mass of water, which, instead of nourishing, would destroy the produce of the earth. We cannot consider any part of Nature attentively without being struck with admiration at the wisdom it displays; we cannot contemplate these wonders without feeling our hearts glow with admiration and grutiludo towards tl> ir liounteous Author. Water, then, ascends in the form of vapour, and descends in that of rain, snow, or hail, v\l of whiph ultimately become water. Some of this falls into the various bodies of water on tlie surface of the globe, tlie remainder upon the land. — Of the latter, part re-ascends in the form of vapour, part is absorbed by the rq^yts of vegetables, and part descends ir.to the bowels of the earth, where it forms springs. The only difference between rain and spring water consists in the foreign particles which the letter^ meets with and dissolves in its passage through the various soils it traverses. Spring water being more pleasant to the taste, and more transparent, is coinjipnly supposed to be more pure th«|J^ r^ip water. Excepting distilled water, howevev, rain water is really the most pure we can obtain; it is this which renders it insipid, whilst the various salts and different ingredients dissolved in. spring water, giyo it a species of flavour, without in any degree affecting its transparency ; and the filtration it undergoes through gravel and sand in the bowels of the eartli cleanses it from all foreign matter which it has not the power ftf ?lissolying. When irain falls on the surface of .the earth, it con. tii)ue§ mak|hg it? way downwards through the pore* and crevices' in the ground. Several drops meet in their subterraneous passage, unite, and form a little^ 320 rivulet ; this, in its progress, moRts with other rivulets of a similar description, and they pursuo their course together in the interior of the earth, till they are stopped by some sul>stuneo which thoy cannot penetrate ; for though ,we haye said llvu v/nter under strong comprcs- sioii ppnetrat(^a the pores of gold, when acted upon by no other force than gravity, it cannot rnalce its way even tlu'ough a stratum of clay. This species of earth, though not remark ably dense, being of great tenacity, will not admit the par-sage of water. Wlien, therefore, it encounters any substance of this nature, its progrcs.j ia stopped, and the pressure of the accumulating waters form a bed, or reservoir. The next figure represents a section of the interior of a hill or mountain, a is a body of water such as has been'described, which, when filled up as lii^h as b (by the continual accession of waters it receives from tlie ducts or rivulets a, a, a, a,) finds a passage out of tho r.^-,.: Hf w i\^ ^ ^W> \ ,*! '^^'^ - ^— ^ ^ ll^Ol^. (VK*^. ^wMkw^^^il^ cavity; and, impelled by gravity, runs on, till it mak^s its way out of the ground at the side of the hill, and there forms e. spring, c. The spring, during its passage from B to c, rises occasionally upon the same principle that water rises in the spout of a tea-pot, but it cannot mount above the level of the reservoir, whence it i-^sues ; it must therefore find a passage to some part of the surface of the earth that is lower or nearer the centre than the reservoir. — Water may thus be con- veyed to every part of a town, and even to the upper stories of the houses, provided that it be originally brought from a height superior to any to which it is conveyed. * . 321 Reservoirs of water aro Reldoin fornifHl near «ummit of a hill, for in such elevuled situations there can scarcely bo a sufficionl ninnl^er of rills to supply otie ; and without a resorvoir there can bo no spring. In such situations, therefore, it is necosr-.i-y to dig deep wells, in order to meet with a spring ; and then it can rise in the well only as high as the reservoir whence it flows. When reservoirs of water are formed in very elevated situations, the springs which feed them descend from higher hills in the vicinity. There is a lake on the very summit of Mount Cenis which is supplied by the spring of the higher Alps surrounding it. A syphon is an instrument commonly used to draw off liquids from large casks or other vessels which cannot be easily moved. It consists simply of a bended tube. If its two legs are of equal length, and filled with liquid, if held perfectly level though turned down- wards, the liquid will not flow out, but remain sus- pended in the tube ; for there is no pressure of the atmosphere above the liquid, while there is a pressure from below upon the open ends of the tube ; and /P=\ . so long as this pressure is equal on both ends, the liquid cannot flow out ; but if the smallest in- clination be given to the syphon, so as to destroy the equilibrium of the water, it will immediately flow from the lower leg. When syphons are used to draw oft' liquids, the legs are made of unequal lengths, in order to render the pressure of the liqAid unequal ; the shorter leg is immersed in the casks, and the liquid flows out through the longer. To accomplish this, it is however necessary to make the liquor rise in the shorter leg, and pass over the bended part of the tube, which is higher than the level of the liquor in the cask. There are two modes of doing this : one is, after imnjersing the shorter leg in the liquor to be drawn off, to suck out the air of the tube from the orifice of thq longer leg ; then the liquor in the cask, which is ex- posed to the pressure of the atmosphere, will be forced by it into the tube which is relieved from pressure. Aa I 322 long as the tube continues full, no air can gain admit, t^nce ; the liquor will therefore flow on till the cask ia emptied. The other mode is to fill the syphon with the liquor, then stopping the two ends with the fingers, immerse the shorter leg in the vessel, and the same effect will follow. In either case, the water in tho highest part of the syphon must npt be more than aboui 32 feet above the reservoir ; for the pressure of the at mosphere will not support a greater height of water. The phenomena of springs which flow occasionally apd oocasiofially cease, may often be explained by the principle of the syphon. The reservoir of water which . supplies a spring may be considered as the vessel of liquor to be drawn off, and the duct tlie syphon, having Its shorter leg opening in the reservoir, and its longer at ^he s'urface of the earth whence the spring flows ; but as the water cannot be made to rise in the syphon by -eithef of the artificial modes which we have mentioned, the spring will not begin to flow till the water in the reservoir has risen above the level of the highest part of the syphon : it will then commence flowing upon tlie principle of the equilibrium of fluids ; but it will con- tinue upon the principle of the syphon ; for, instead of ceasing as soon as the equilibrium is restored, it will eonthiue flowing as long as the opening of the duct is in contact with the water in the reservoir. Springs ^yhjch do not constantly flow are called intermitting, and are oppasioned by the reservoir being imperfectly supplied. ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR. . We shall now examine the second class of fluids, distinguished by the name of aeiiform, or elastic fluids, the principal of which is the air we breathe, which sur- rounds the earth, and is called the atmosphere. Thero f§ a great ytiriety of elastip fluids, but they difler only in their chemical, not in their mechanical properties ; and 323 it is tlio latter wo are to examine. There is no attrac- tion of cohesion between tlio particles of elastic fluids, so that the expansive power of iieat has no adversary to contend with but gravity ; any increase of temperature, therefore, expands elastic fluids prodigiously, and a diminution proportionally condenses them. The most essential point in which air didbrs from other fluids is by its spring or elasticity : that is to say, its power of increasing or diminishing in bulk, according as it is less or more compressed — a power of which liquids are al- most wholly deprived. The atmosphere is thought to extend to about the dis- tance of 45 miles from the earth ; and its gravity is such, that a man of middling stature is computed to sustain the weight of about 14 tons. Such a weight would brush him to atoms, were it not that air is also contained within our bodies, the spring or elasticity of which counterbalances the weight of the external air, and renders us insensible of its pressure. Besides this, the equality of pressure on every part of the body en- ables us more easily to support it ; when thus diflused, we can bear even a much greater weight, without any considerable inconvenience. In bathing we support the weight and pressure of the water, in acidition to that of the atmosphere ; but this pressure being equally distri- buted over the body, we are scarcely sensible of it : whilst if the shoulders^ the head, or any particular part of the frame were loaded with the additional weight of a hundred pounds, we should feel severfe fatigue. On the other hand, if the air within a man met With no ex- ternal pressure to restrain its elasticity, it would distend his body, and at length bursting the parts which confine it, put a period to his existence. The weight of the at- mosphere, therefore, so far from being an evil, is essen- tial to our existence. When a pcison is cupped, the Swelling of the part under the cup is produced by taking away the pressure of the otmosphere j in corisequence of which the internal air distends the part. A column of air reaching to the top of the atmos- phere, and whose base is a square inch, weighs 15 lbs. 324 when tho air la heaviest. The rule tlmt fluids press equally in all directions applies to elastic fluid.s aa well as to liquids : therefore, every square incli of our bodies sustains u pressure of 15 lbs. and the weight of the whole atmosphere may be computed by calculating the number of square inches on the surface of the earth, and multiply them by 15. The weight of a sma:ll quantity of air may be asccr. taincd by exhausting the air from a bottle, and weighing the bottle thus empited. Suppose that a bottle six cubic inches in dimension, weighs two ounces; if the air be then introduced, and tho bottle re-weighed, it will be found heavier by nearly two grains, showing that six Cubic inches of air (at ;i moderate temperature) weigh about two grains. In estimating the weight of air, the temperature must always be considered, because heat, by rarefying air, renders it lighter. The same principle indeed applies, almost without exception, to all bodies. In order to ascertain the specific gravity of air, the same bottle may be filled with water, and the weight of six cubic inches of water will be nearly 16G7 grains : so that the weight of water to that of air, is about 833 to 1. A barometer is an instrument which indicates the state of the weather, by showing the weight of the at- mosphere. It is extremely simple in its con- struction, and consists of a glass tube, a b, about three feet in length, and open only at one end. This tube must first be filled with mercury, then stopping the open end with tho finger, it is immersed in a cup, c, which con- tains a little mercury. Part of the mercury which was in the tube now falls down into the cup, leaving a vacant space in the upper part of the tube, to which the air cannot gain access. This space is therefore a perfect vacuum ; and consequently the mercury in the tube is relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere, whilst that in the cup remains exposed to it; therefore the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup supports that in the tube, and prevents it from falling ; thus the 825 equilibrium of tho mercury is dostroyed only to progerve the general equilibriuni ol'lUiids. Tiiis rfiniple apparatus is ail that is cssonliul to a barometer. The tube anrftho cup or vase are fixed on a board, lor the convenience of 8uspendij)g it ; tiie board is grachiated for tlie purpose of ascertainiiij^ the height at whicli llie mercury stands in the tube ; and the small moveable metal plate serves to show that height with great accuracy. Tho weight of the atmosphere sustains the mercury at tho height of, on an average, about 29i inches ; but the exact height de- pends upon tho weight of the atmosphere, which varies much according to the state of the v/eathor. Tho greatef the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup, the higher it will ascend in tho tube. The air, therefore, generally is hea\ lest in dry weather^ for then the mer- cury rises in the tube, and consequently that in the cuj^ sustains the greatest pressure ; and thus we estimate the dryness and fairness of tiie weather by the height of the mercury. We are apt to think the air feels heavy in bad weather, because it is less salubrious when impreg- nated with damp. The lungs, under these circumstan- ces, do not play so freely, nor does the blood circulate so well : thus obstructions are frequently occasioned in the smaller vessels, from which arise colds, asthmas, agues, fevers, &c. As the atmosphere diminishes in density in the upper regions, the air nmst be more rare upon a hill than in a plain ; and this diiference may be ascertained by the barometer. This instrument is so exact in its indications, that it is used for the purpose of measuring the height of mountains, and of estimating the elevation of balloons. Considerable inconvenience is often experienced from the thinness of the air in such elevated situations. It is sometimes oppressive, from being insufficient for res- piration ; and the expansion which takes place in the more dense air contained within the body is often painful : it occasions distension, and sometimes causes the bursting of the smaller blood-vessels ii' the nose and ears. Besides, in such situations, the uody is more 28 ;->, 320 exposed both to heat and cold ; for though the atmoe. phere is itself transparent^ its lowfer regions abound with va^^rs and exhalations from the earth, which float in it, and act in some degree as a covering, which pre- serves us equally from the intensity of the sun's rays and from the severity of the cold. Now, since the weight of the atmosphere supports mercury in the tube of a barometer, it will support a column of any other fluid in the same manner ; but as mercury is the heaviest of all fluids, it will support a higher column of any other fluid ; for two fluids are in equilibrium, when their heights vary inversely as their densities : as, for instance, if a cubic foot of one fluid weighs twice as much as a cubic foot of the other, a column of the first ten feet in height will weigh as much as a, column of the other twenty feet in height. — Thus the pressure of the atmosphere, which will sustain a column of mercury of thirty inches, is equal to sustain- ing a column of water about thirty-four feet in height.' The weight of the atmosphere is therefore as great as that of a body of itater siirrdunding the globe of tlie depth of thirty-four feet ; for a column of air of the height of the atmosphere is equal to a column of water of thirty-four feet, or one of mercury of tt^enty-nine inches,' each having the same base. The comnion pump is cori^tfubted on this principle. By the act of pumping, the pressure of the atmosphere is taken off" one part of the surface of the water ; this part therefore rises, being forced up by the pressure communiOated to it by that paft of the water on the sur- face of which the weight of the atmosphere continues to act. The body of a pump consists of a large tube or pipe, whoso lower end is immersed in the water which it is designed, to raise. A kind of stopper, called a piston, is fitted to this tube, and is made to slide up and down it, by means of a metallic rod fastened to the crntre of the piston. The various parts of a pump are here delineated. A B is the pipe or body of the pump ; f the piston ; v 997 of Ulf! of tlu^' j)iisse(i Thus i •aive, or little door In the piston, \«wich, opening upwards, admits the water to'irise through it, but prevents tt& returning ; and y a similar valve in the body of the pamp.> When the pump is in a state of inaction, the two valves* are closed by theirown weight ; but when, by drawing down the handle of the pumpj the piston r ascends, it raises a column of air which rested upon it, and produces a vacuum be- tween the pistflri and the lower valve, y>; the air beiieath. this valve, which is immediately over the sui'face of tire water consequeiitly expandsj and forces its way throuf^) it'; the water then, relieved from the pressure of the ftir,' /ascends intO" the pump. A few strokes handi« totally; exclude the air from the body pinnp, and fill it with water, whitehj h^viug through both the valves, flows out at the s{)out.- the air and the Water successively ris,e in the pump on the same principle that thcMncrcury rises in the baro- meter» ' Water is said to he. drawn up into a pump by suction ;• but the power of tlie suction is no other than that of producing a< vacuum over one part of the liquid, into which vacuum the liquid- is fcn-ccd by .the pressure of the . atmosphere- on anotljef part; The action of' sucking 1 tkiroiigh . a straw consists' in drawing in and confining the breath, so as to produce a vacuuih, or at least to lessen m^iterially the quantity of »ii% iw the mouth; in consequence of which,- the air within the straw rushes unto tij© mouth, and is followed by the liquid, into which the lower end of the straw is ini- mersed. The principle is the same ; and the only oif- ference consists in the mode of producing a vacuunj. In suction, the muscular powers answer the purpose of the piston and valves. The distance from tht) Icvrl of tlie water in the well to the valve in the piston ought not to exceed thirty-two feet, otherwise the water would not be sure to rise through that valve, for the 32S weight of the air is sometimes not sufficient to raise a column of mercury more than twenty-eight inches, or a column of water much more than thirty-two feet; but when once it her, passed that opening, it is no longer the pressure of air on t!)e roservoii- which makes ii ascend — it is raised by lifting it up, ris you would raise it in a bucket, of which the piston formed tiie bottom. This common pump is, therofbre, called the sucking and lifting pump, as it is constructed on both these principles. The forcing pump consists of a forcing power added to the sucking part of the pvmip. This additional power is exactly on the principle of the syringe j by raising the piston, the water is drawn up into the pump; and by making it descend, it is forced out. The large pipo, A P, represents the sucking p'lrt of the pump, whicb differs from the lifting pump only in its piston, r, being unfurnished with a valve, in consecjuence of whicli the water cxnnot rise above it. "W hen there lore, tlie piston descends, it shuts ' the vidvo y, and forces the water (which has no other vent) into the pipe, d ; this is likewise furnished with a valve, V, which, opening outwards, ad- mits the water, but prevents its return. Tiie water is thus first raised in the pump, and then forced into the pipe, by the alternate ascending and de- scending motion of the piston, after a few strokes of thq handle to fill the pipe, from whence the water issues at the spout. ON OPTICS. Optics is one of tho most interesting branches of Natural Philosophy ; it is the science of vision, and toachcs us how we see objects. In this science, bodies 329 ffre' divided into him/nmis, opaque, and transparent. A. luminous body is oiio that sliines by its own light — as ;he sun, the firo, a candle, &c. But all bodies that shine are not luminous ; polished metal, for instance, when it shines with so much brilliancy, is not a lumi- nous body, for it would bo dnrk if it did not receive light from a luminous body ; it belongs, therefore, to the class of opaque, or dark bodies, which comprehend all such as are neither luminous nor will admit the light to pass through them ; and transparent bodies are those which aHmit the light to paf^s through them, such as glass 'and water. Transparent or pellucid bodies are frequently crdled mediums ; and the rays of light which pnss through them are sr'.id to bo transmitted by them. Liglit, when emitted from the sun, or any other lumi- nous body, is proje 'ti ' forwards, in straight lines, in every possible directi that the 'uminousd^ody is,- not only the general c :; whence all the rays proceed, but every point of it may bo considered as a centre which radiates light in every direction. A ray of light is a single liiie of light pro- jected from a luminous body ; -- and a pencil of rays is a collec; ^ tion of rays proceeding from any one point of a luminous body. Philosophers are not agreed as to the nature of light. Some maintain the opinion that it is a body consisting of detached particles, which are emitted by luminous bodies, in which case the particles of light must be in- conceivably minute ; since, even when they cross each other in every direction, they do not interfere with each other. Others suppose it to be produced like sound, by the undulations of a subtle fluid diffused throughout all known space. In some respects, light is obedient to the laws which govern bodies ; in others, it appears to be independent of them. Thus, though its course corresponds v/ith the laws of motion, it does not seem to be influenced by those of gravity ; for it has never been discovered to have weight, though a variety of experiments have been made with a view of ascer^ 28* 880 (titling thftt potnt. We are, bowerer, m ignomnt of the intimate nature of light, that we shall oftnfine our attention to such of its properties as are well ascer. tained. To return then to the examination of the effects of the radiation of light from a luminous body ; — since the rays are projected in straight linos, when they meet with an opaque. body througii which they arc unable to pass, they are stopped short in their course ; for they cannot move in a curve line round the body. The interryption of the rays of light by the opaque body produces there- fore darkness on the opp(isite side of it; and if this darkness fall upon a wall, a siiect of paper, or any object whatever, it forms a shadow ; for shadow is nothing more than darkness produced by the interven- tioniof an opaque body, which prevents the rays of ligiit from reaching an object behind it. B If the luminous body, a, be larger than the opaque body, b, the shadow will gradually dimi- nish in size till it terminates in a point; if smaller, the shadow will continually increase ill size, as it is more distant from tlio object which pro. jects it. The sha- dow of a figure, a, varies in size, ac- cording to the dis- tance of the several iip;fcifi-P»-— 1 ^i siirlaces,^ b, c, d, e, on ■ o c » ^^ which It IS described. I'iow what becomes of the rays of liglit which opaque bodies arrest in their course, and the interruption of which is the occiisioii of slindows ? This leads to a very iniportiint property of light, i? d by it, and part are reflected, and rebound as an elastic bull whicli is struck againnt a wall. Liiiht, in its roflectioii, is governed by the same laws as solid pM'Cctly elastic bodies. If a ray of light fall perpendicularly on an i 381 direction. opaque body, it is nflreted back in the samo line towarii tlie point whence it proceeded ; if it fall obliquely, it is reflected obliquely, but in the opposite direction, the angle of incidence bcinpf equal to the angle of reflection. If the shutters be closed, and a ray of the sun's liyht admitted tlirough a very small aperture, and reflected by a mirror, on v/hich the ray falls perpcndlcu/ar/y, but one ray is seen, for the ray of incidence and that of reflection are both in the same line, though in opposite directions, and thus are confounded together. The ray, there fore, which appears single, is in fact double, benjg composed of the incident ray proceeding to the mirror, and the reflected ray returning from the mirror. These may be separated by holding the mirror, m, in sucn a manner that the incident ray, A B, shall. fall obliquely upon it ; then the reflected ray, b c, will go oflf in another If a line be drawn from the point of inci- dence, B, perpendicularly to the mirror, it will divide the angle of incidence from the angle of reflection, and these angles will be equal. It is by reflected rays only that we see opa' ue objects. Luminous bodies send rays of light immediately to out eyes ; but the rays which they send to other bodies aijd invisible to us, and are seen only when reflected or transmitted by those bodies to our eyes. ' ' Let us now examine by what means the rays of light produce vision. They enter at the pupil of the eye. and proceeding to the retina, an expansion of the optic nerve, which is situated at the back of the eye-ball, iWre describe the figure, colour, and (with the exception of size) form a complete representation of the object from which they proceed. If the shutters be closed, and a ray of light admitted through a small aperture, a picture may bo seen on the opposite wall similar to that which is deli, neated on the retina of the eye ; it exhibits a picture in miniature of the garden, and the landscape would bo perfect were it not reversed. This picture is producer' by the rays of light reflected from the various objects in the garden, and which are admitted through the hole 933 in the window shutter. It is called a camera obscura, [dark chamber,) from the necessity of darkening the X)m in order to exiiibit it. The Irays from the glittering weathercock at the top •^;sC^ of the (building a, represent it at.a ; for the weathercock being much higher than the aporture in the shutter, only a few of the rays, which are reflected by it in an obliquely descending direction can find entrance there. The rays of light moving always in straight lines, those which enter the room in a descending direction will continue their course, in the siimo direqtion, and will consequently, fall upon the lower part of the wall op- posite the aperture, and represent the weathercock reversed in that spot, instead of erect in the upper- most part ol the landscape ; and the rays of light from the steps^ h, of the building, in entering the aperture, ascend, and describe them in the highest instead of the lowe&r part of the landscape ; whilst the rays proceeding from the JfRrt which is to the left, describe it on the wall to the rights Those which are reflected by the walnut-tree, c d, to the right, delineate its figure in the picture to the left, c d. Thus tlie rays, coming in different directions, and proceeding always in straight lines, cross each other at tlieir entrance thiough the apertures ; those from above proceed below, those from the right go to the left, those from the left towards the right ; thus every object is represented in the picture as occupying a situation the very reverse of that which it does in nature, excepting the flower-pot, e f, which, though its position is reversed^ does not change its a33 s. nation in the landticape, foe being immediately in front ot the aperture, its rays fall perpiMidicularly upon it, and consequently proceed perpondiculurly to the wall, where they delineate the object. It u thus that the picture of objrcts i.? paintcl on fh'"> rofhjii of the oyr>. Tha pupil of the eyo, through which the rays of light enter, represents Iho aporiura in the window-siuitter ; and the image delineated on tho retina is exactly similar to tiie picture on the wall. The diifcrent appiront dimensions of objects at dif- ferent diotanccs proceed from our seting, not the objects themselves, but merely their image on the retina. Here is represented a row of trees, as viewed in tho camera obscura ; the direction of the rays from tho objects to the image is expressed by lines. Observe that the ray which comes from the top of the nearest tree, and tliat which comes from the foot of the same tree, tneet at the aperture, farming an angle of about twenty-five degrees ; this is called tho angle of vision, being that under which we see tho tree. These rays cross each other at the aperture, and represent the tree inverted in the camera obscura. • The dimensions of the image are considerably smaller than those of the object, but the proportions are perfectly preserved; The upper and lower ray from the most distant tree, form an angle of not more than t\^ielve or fifteen degrees, and an image of proportional dimensions. Thus two objects of tho same size, as the two trees of the avenue, fonn figures of different sizes in the camera ob^icura, according to their distance, or, in other words, according to the angle of vision under wliich they are seen. In sculpture we copy Nature as she really exists ; in painting we represent her as she appears to us — that is to say, we do not copy the objects, but the image they form on the retina of the eye, 331 We cannot ju theirs relative • situa^ lions, anf^. their distances. ■ '•' ' Since an image is formed on the retina of each of our eyes, it would seem that we ought to see objects double. In fact, however, we do not; and' perhaps the best so- lution which has been offered of the difficulty is. this^ that the action of the rays on the optip nerve of eAch eye is so perfectly sinji)ar,.th*at they produce but a single sensation ; the mind, therefore, receives the same idea from the retina of Both eyes, and conceives the object to be single. Besides, each ey^ refers the.' bbjedt ta exactly the same place, from which we. unconsciously conclude that there can be but oHe object. Persons ^fliicted with a disease in one eye, which provent? thi 335 rays of light from affecting it in the same maimer as ih^ other, frequently see double. The image of an object in a 1 joking-glass is pot in- verted, because the rays do not enter the mirrc Dy p small aperture, and cross each other, as they do ^t thf» orifioe of a camera obscura, or the pupil of the eye. When a man views himself in a mirror, the ray* from his eyes fall perpendicularly upon it, and are re fleeted in the same line ; they proceed therefore, as i» they had come from a point beliind the glass, an* the same effect is produced as if they proceeded fror» an image of the oDJcct described behind the glass, an^ situated there in tiie same manner as the object before it. This is not the cJf^ only with respect to rays falling perpendicularly on the glass, but with all others. --Thus, a ray proc*^ediiig from the point c to D is reflected to a, and arrives there in the same manner as if it had proceeded from ir, a point behind the glass, ai the same distance from it as c is in front of it. A man cannot see himself in a mirror if he stand tc the right or to the left of it, because the incident rays falling obliquely on the mirror will be reflected obliquely in the opposite direction, the angles of incidence antf reflection being equal. There are three kinds of mirrors used in optics ; the plane or flat, which are the common mirrors, convex? mirrors, and concave mirrors. The reflection of the two latter is very different from that of the former. The plane mirroij which, as we have seen, does no» alter the direction of the reflected rays, forms an imag^ behind the glass exactly similar to the object before it ; for it forms an image of each point of the object at the same distance behind the mirror, that the point is before it ; and these images of the different points together make up one image of the whole object. A convex mirror has the property of making the reflected rays diverge, by which means it diminishes the image ; and a concave mirror makes the rays coDverge, anc^ 396 Vinder certain circumstances, magnifies the image. Let us begin by examining the reflection of a concave mirror, when this is formed by a portion of tiie exicrio,' surface of a sphere. If several pitrullL'l rays full upon it, that ray only which, if prolonged, would pa.ss through the centre, or axis of the mirror, is perpendicular to it. In order to avoid confusion, we have drawn only three ^)arallol lines, ab, cd, ef, to represent rays failiiig on the convex mirror, mn ; the middle ray, you will observe, is perpendicu- lar to the mirror, the others fall on it ohli. ly. — The thi-co rays being parallel would all be perpendicular to a flat mirror ; but no ray can fall perpendicularly on a spherical mirror, which is not directed towards the centre of t'le sphere, just eis a weight falls perpendicularly to the earth when gravity attracts it towards the centre. In order, therefore, that rays may fall perpendicularly to the mirror at b and f, tlie rays must be in the direction of the dotted lines which meet at the centre, c, of the sphere, of which the mirror forms a portion. Now let us observe in what direction the three rays AB, CD, EF, will be reflected. The middle ray falling perpendicularly on the mirror will be reflected in the same line ; the two others falling obliquely, will be re- flected obliquely to g and n, for the dotted lines are perpen- diculars, which divide their angles of incidence and re- flection, or they will proceed as ifthey came from the point L ; and since we see objeets in tlie direction of the reflect- ed ray, wo shall see an image, answering to that which would be produced by a body jilaced at l, which is the point at which the reflected rays, if continued through the mirror, would unite and form an imago. This point is equally distant from the surface and centre of the sphere, and is called the imaginary f jcus of the mirror. A, fbcus is a point at which rays unite : — the focus to »37 wliich parulk'l rays converge is called the prinapal focus. In the present case the focus is called an inta- jinary focxia, because the rays only appear to unite there, or rather proceed after reflection in the same dir^^ction as if they came from behind iho mirror, from that point ; for they do not pass through l!ie mirror, since ihoy are reflected by it. • A coacavo mirror ifs formed of a portion of the internal iurfcico of a hoUow sphere, &c., and its peculiar property !;■ to mniip the rays of liglu converge. If three parallel rays, a ];, c i), r, f, f.ill oa the concavo mirror, m n, the middle ruy will bo re- flected ill the SUM;) li '', being in the direciion of the axis of ho mirror, and the two othtirs will be reii^'cted (jbliquoly as they fall uljl:.iu<.'ly on the mirror. The two doUod |).;rp.ndiculav.s divide their angles of incidence and rcilecli ju ; and in ordtr that these angles jnay be equal, tho two oblique rays must be reflected to L, where they will uuile to the middle ray. Thus, when any number of purallel rays iliil on a concave mirror, thsy are all roll'.-vj^ed to u focus; fn* in propor- tion as the rays ar^.- muro di.siaui: fs'om tne axis of the mirror, they fall moi- ohliq.i' ly upon it, and are more obliqu.'ly roOucU-d ; in cons^'qiu ijco of wliieh thry come to a focus in the dirLClion of the axis of t!ie mirror ; and this paint is not an imaginary focus, (as with the convex mirror,) but tiio true fooiis at which the rays unite. If lays fall convergent on a concave mirror, they are sooner brought to a focus, L, than parallel rays ; their tbcus is therefore nearer to the inirror M N. Divergent rays are brt)Ught to a more distant focus than parallel rays, where the focus is at h ; but the principal focus of mirrors, either convex or concavo, is equally distant from tlio ce)i*ro and the surface of the sph' mo. If a "lo- tallio concave rairro>' of polisljed tin \'e exposed to the sun, the rays \\ill i» collected into a very brilliant locus; and a piecj :);)S fif paper held in this focius \v ill take lire ; for rays of ight cannot bo concent ratfil without accumulating a jproportional quantity of heat ; honco concave mirrors ; iiaye obtained thu name of burn. ing mirrors. If a burning taper bo phicrd in the focus, the ray which fulls in the direction of llie axis of tlie mirror will bo roneet<'d back in the same line ; but two ollxir rays, drawn from the fiit'us, and falling on the mirrur at B and f, will be reflpctcd to a and e. — Therefore the rays which proceed from a li.^lu plac(-d in the focus of a concave mirror fall divergent upon it, and are reflected parallel ; it is e:;aetly the reverse of the former figure, in which the rays fell parallel on the mirror, and were reflected to a focun. In other words, when the incident rays are parallel', the rellected rays converge to a focus ; when the incident mys proceed from the focus, they are reflected parallel ; this is a very important law of optics. ON REFRACTION AND COLOURS;. Refraction is the ellect which transparent mediums produce on light in its passage through them. Opaque bodies reflect the rays, and transparent bodies transmit them ; but it is found that if a ray, in passing from one medium into another of dilferont density, fall obliquely, it is turned out of its course. The power which causes the deviation of the ray is not fully understood ; but the appearances are the same as if the ray (supposing it to be a succession of moving particles, which is for this purpose the most convenient way of considering it) were attracted by the denser medium more strongly than by the rarer. Let us suppose the two mediums to be air and water : when a ray of light passes from aif into water, it appears to be more strongly attracted by the latter. If then a ray, ab, fall perpendicularly on water, 331) z^:j,:.r,y^iM. jt p ■"^-' .-'.^ ,t».,'i,r^Jfci Jb the attraction of wjitcr ncls in the sainn tlircction ii? the course of the ray; it will not tlicreforo cause a iloviation, and the r^iv will prnoiiud slcaifilit on to e: but if it fall obliquely as tlu; ray c b, the water will attract it out of its course. Let us suppo.so the ri\y to have reached the surface of u denser medium, a>id that it is th(ii*e aflcutcd by its attraction. If not couutcrack d by some other power, this attiaclioii would draw it por{)i'Mdicular]y to the water at b, towards e ; hut it is also inij)elled hy its pro- jectile force, which the attraction of the denser medium cannot overcome ; the ray, thoref^jrc?, acted on hy both these powers, moves in a direeiion between ihem, and instead of pursuing its oi'iginul course to u, or being im- plicitly guided by the water to e, proceeds towards F, so that the rays appear bent or broken. If 'a shilling be placed at the bottom of an empty teacup, fuid the teacup at such a distance from the eye that the rim shall hide the shilling, it will become yisible by filling the cup with water. In the first instance, the rays reflected by the shilling are directed higher than the eye, but when the cup is filled with water, they are refracted by its attraction, and bent downwards at quitting it, so as to enter the eye. When the shilling becomes visible by the refraction of the ray, you do not see it iu the situa- tion which it really occupies, but an image of it higher in the cup; for as objects always appear to be situatd in the direction of the rays which enter the eye, tiie shilling will be seen in tlie direction of the refracted ray at b. The manner in which an oar appears bent in water is a similar cficct of refraction. When we see the bottom of a clear stream, the rays which it re- fleets, being refracted in their passage fiom tiie water into the air, will make tlie bottom appear more elevated tUan it really is, and the water will consequently appear ■ ;i«rfTOii*JW»5jaw 340 inore shallow. Accidents have frequently been ocoa» BJoned by this circumstance ; and boys who are in the habit of bathing should be cautioned not to trust to ^bo fipparent shallowness of water, as it will always prove (ieeper than it appears. The refraction of light prevc-nts our seeing the hea, venly bodies in their real situation. The light they send to us being refracted "in passing into the atmos- pheie, we see the sun and stars in the direction of the refraeti^d rn}'^. If tlie sun were innnodiutcly over our heads, its rays falling perpendicularly on the atmos- phere woulil no! h(! r(>(Vacted, and we should then see it in its true situation. To the inhabiiiMits uf the torrid zone, where the sun is sometimes vertical, its rays are then not refracted. There is, however, another obstacle to sed the lieavenly bodies in their true situation, winch affects them in the torrid /one as well as elsewhere. Light is about eight miiuites and a hnlf in its passage from the sun to the earth ; therelbre, when the rays yeach us, the sun has quitted the spot ho occupied on their departure ; yet we sre him in the direction of those rays, and consequently iii a situation Avhich he had abandoned eight uiiuulia and a iudf beibre. lu speaking of the .sun's motion, we uk a)i Ills iippareiU motion, produotd by the diuiiuil rotuiiun of the earth, fi)r tlL2 elFeet h;.ing the same, vs'lictiier it be our earth or the hea\enly bodies which move, it is more easy to represent things as they appear to be, than as they really are. 'i'he retraclion of the sun's, rays -by tiie atmosphere rendori; iho days longer, as it occasions, our seeing an image of the sun, both beibre he rises. HJxd after he sets; for btlow the horizon he still shines upon the atmosphere, and his rays are thence refra.QtQd to, tlie earth. So likewise we see an image of tho s.un before. he rises, the rays that previously fajl upon th.^ iitcUxos- phere being reflected to the earth.. If light radiating from a luminons body continue?- to pass tiirough a mcdiuii) of the same dcu;sity its, direction, remains unchang( d ; but if it jiiisses froni, one. iraedlum Ip another of a dijercnt, its, d.ii:eQ.tip,tt lieQonxQ.!idm^5ettt,^ %n4 the ang^le, formM by lines^ ?Qy.i:ei?pr<.ti.t,»^ ^& M'mJi' 341 and latter direclioii« niukes what is culled the angle of refraction. When rays of light full perpendicularly on a surfiuco they are not at all rcfructod — the fxooptions to this rule, if any, a*'-^ -o rare that they nofdiiot i;e noticed. But when they fall obliquely on the surface of the second medium, if they pass from a less to a more dense me- dium they are tui-r^ed Loimtrd-i, if fiom a more to. a less dense nif diuiii llioy an^ turneerpendicuiar8 to the surface of tho prism where the Ay enters •aa^itnit. 344 succession, the blue, green, yellow, orange, and lastly, the red, which are the least reCrangible of the colo"red rays. The union of these colours, in the proportions in .which they appear in the spectrum, produces in us the idea of whiteness. If a e ivd bo painied in compart- ments vviiii thcso seven colours, ajid whirled rapidly on a pin, it will appear white. But a more decisive proof of the composition of a wliite ray is alTorded by re- unitini^ these coloured rays, and forming with them a ray of white light. This can be done by letting the coloured rays, which have been separated by a prism, fall upon a lens, which will make them 'converge to a focus ; and wh^n thus re-united, they will appear white, as they did beibre refraction. The prism, r, separates a ray of white light into , seven coloured fA * rays ;' and the lens, ll, brings them to a focus at F, where tlicy again appear white. Thus by means of a prism and a lens, we can take aTay of white light to pieces, and put it togrtlKM* again. This division of a ray of wldto light into different colours, being caused by the uncqutd r^frangibility of . the diffeiont coloured rays, must take |)lace, more or less, whenever the ray suilcrs \\ fri'-ction. Thus the rainbow, which exhiljits a. series of colours so analogous to those of the spectrum, is formed by the refraction of the sun's rays in their passage through a shower of rain, every drop of which acts as a prism, in separating the colouied rr>ys ns they paps through it. A body appears to bo of the colojjr which it reflects; as we see it only by reflected rnys, it enn appear but of (he colour of those rays. Thus grass is green, because it absorbs all except the green rays ; it is, therefore, these only which the grass and trees reflect to our eyes, and which make them appear green. The sky and flowers, in the same manner, reflect the various colours of which they appear to us: the rt se, the red j-ays ; the violet, blue ; the jonquil, the yellow, &c. If any one should imagine that these are the permanent colours of colours ; an 845 \ the grass and flowers, he would !)'^ mistaken. When- ever we see llic'so colours tiio oI)jocts must be illuminated ; and light, from whatnyrr source it pro- ceeds, is of the s lino naturt', compv-^od of the various coloured rays, which paint tho i;!M,ss, tlie flowers, and every coloured object in ntituro. Ol^jocts in tho dark have no colour, or arr hlack, which is the same thing. We can never see objects without light. Light is com- posed of colours, tliereforo there cnn b3 no light witliout colours ; and though every object, is hlack, or without colour in the dark, it becomes coloured as soon as it becomes visible. Bodies which reflect all the rays are white ; those which absorb them all are black. Between these ex- tremes they appear lighter or darker, in proportion to the quantity of rays they reflect or absorb. A rose is of a pale red ; it approaches nearer to wb.ite than black, it therefore reflects rays more abund uitly than it absorbs them. Pale-coloured bodies reflect all the coloured rays to a certain degree, which produces their paleness, approaching to whiteness ; but one colour they reflect more than the rest ; this predominates over tho white, and determines the colour of tlie body. Since, then, bodies of a pale colour in some degree reflect all the rays of light, in passing through the various colours of the spectrum, they will reflect them all with tolerable brilliancy, but will appear most vivid in the ray of their natural colour. The green leaves, on the contrary, arts of a dark colour, bearing a stronger resemblance to black than to white : they have, therefore, a greater tendency to absorb than to reflect rays. Blue often ap- pears green by candle-liglit, because this light is less puie than that of the sun ; and when refracted by a prism, the yellow rays predominate : and as the admixture of blue and yellow forms green, the superabundance of yellov gives to blue bodies a greonisli hue. The sun appears red through a fog, owing to the red rays having a greater momenta ai, which gives them power to traverse so dense an atmosphere. For the same reason the sun generally appears red at rising and setting : as tho increased quaniity of atmosphere 346 Nvluch tho obliquo rays miiat tniTcriio, loaUcil with the mists and vapours which aro usually formed at those times, prevents a larger proportion of the other rays from reaching u$3. The colour of the atmosphere, coiTimonly called the sky, is blue ; — now since all the rays traverse it in their passage to the earth, it would be natural to infer that it should be white ; but we must not forget that wo son none of the rays which pass from tho sun to the earth, excepting those which meet our eyes ; and this happens only if we look at the sun, and thus intercept tho rays, in which case, we know it appears white. The atmosphere is a transparent medium, through which the sun's rays pass freely to the earth ; but when reflected back into the atmosphei'e, their mo- mentum is considerably diminished, and they have not all pf them power to' traverse it a second time. Tho momentum of tho blue rays is least ; these, there^ fore, are the most impeded in their return, and are chiefly reflected by the atmosphere ; or it may be that, without any question of momentum, the colour which the particles of air must readily reflect is blue— just ua grass reflects the green, or a rose the" rc^ rays. This reflection is performed in every possible direction ; so that wherever we look at the atmosplicre, some of these rays fulls Upon out eyes ; hence we see thenfrof a blue colour. If the atmosphere did not reflect any rays, though the objects on the surface of the earth would be illumined, the skies would appear perfectly blaqk. This would not only be very melancholy, but it would be pernicious to the sight, to be constantly viewing bright objects against a black sky. When bqdies' change their colour, as leaves which wither in autumn, or a spot of ink which produces an iron-mould on linen, it arises from some chemical change, which takes place in the internal arrangemen» of the parts, by wliich they lose their tendency to reflect certain colours, and acquire the power of re- fleeting others. A withered leaf thus no longer reflects tho blue rays: it appears, therefore, yellow, or has a slight tendency to reflect several rays which produce a dingy brown colour. An ink-spot on linen at flrat 3i7 nf^Rorbs. all the rays ; but exposed lo the air, U under- poes a chemical clinngf, and tli? spnt partially regains Us. tendency to reflect the yellow rays ; and such is the colour of the iron mould. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. ■ The body of the eye is of a spliericul fjrui. It has two membraneous covetings ; the extcnuil one, aaa, is called I ho ;-ch rotica : this has a projection in that pjirt of the oyo whicli i*^ f xpijscd to viow, bh, which is c:iI1;m1 tlie cornoa, because, when dried, it has nearly tlio coiisi.stenco of very due Iiorn, and is suiliciently Iransp.uvnt f:)r tjjo light. to obtain , fidp p.iKsafiJe through it. The sec- ond memhrimn whicli lines the coriK a, and envelopes the eye, is called the choroid, cc : tins has an op. ning in front, just beneath the cornea, which (brms the piipil, rf(Z, through which the rays of light pass into . tlie eye. The pupil is surrounded by a coloured border of fibres, called the iris, ec, which by its motion always preserves the pupil of a circular form, whether it be expanded in the dark, or contracted by a strong light. The construction of tlie eye is so admirable, that it is capable of adapting itsf If, more or less, to the circum- stances in which it is placed.; In a faint light the pupil dilates so as to receive an additional quantity of rays; and in a stron>r Hglit it contracts, in order to prevent the intensity of the light from injurinp; llie optic nerve. The eyes sufler pain, when, from darkness, they suddenly come into a strong light ; for the pupil being dilated, a quantity of rays rush in before it has time to contract. And when we go from a strong light into obscurity we at first imagine ourselves in total durk- nest-! ; for a sufficient number of rays cannot gain adniittance into the contracted pupil to enable us to distinguish objects; but in a few minr'^^r It dil'-.tes, and «* 34 S we clearly perceive what was before invisible. The cho- roid, cc, is covered with a black substance, wliich serves to absorb all the rays that arc irregularly reflected, and to convert the body of the eye into a more perfect camera obscuni. When the pupil is expanded to its utmost extent, it is capable of admitting ton times the quantity of lij^ht that it does when most contracted. In cats, and animals, which are "said to see in the dark, the power of dilatation and contraction of the pupil is still greater; it is computed that their pupils may receive one hundred times more light at one tune than at another. — Witliin these coverinijs of the eye-ball are contained three transparent substances, called humours. The first occupies the space immediately behind the cornea, and is called the aqueous humour,/)^, from its liquidity and its resemblance to water. Beyond this is situated the cr3.stalline humour, gg, which derives its name from its clearness and transparency: it has the form of a lens, and refracts the rays of light in a greater degree of perfection than any that have been constructed by art : it is attached by fii^ros, m m, to each side of the choroid. The back part of the eye, between the crystalline humour and the retina, is filled by the vitreous humour, h h, which derives its name from a resemblance it is supposed to bear to glass or vitrified substances. The membraneous coverings of the eye are intended chiefly for the preservation of the retina, i i, which is by far the most important part of the eye, as it is that which receives the impression of the objects of sight. The retina consists of an expansion of the optic nerve, of perfect whiteness ; it proceeds from the brain, enters the eye at n on the side next the nose, and is finally spread over the interior surface of the choroid. The rays of light which enter the eye by the pupil, are refracted by the several humours in their passage throuffh them, and unite in a focus on the retina. Rays proceed from bodies in all possible directions. We must, therefore, consider every part of an object which sends rays to our eyes as points from which the rays diver^;;^, as from a centre. Divergent rays, on entering the pupil, do not cross each other ; the pupil, however, is sufficiently large to admit a small pencil of 349 them ; and these, if not refracted to a focus by thcf humours, would continue diverging after they had passed the pupil, would fall dispersed upon the retina, and thus the iina^ro of a single point would be expanded over a large portion of the retina. The divergent rays from every other point of the objr'ct would be spread over a similar extcait of space, and would interfere and be confounded with the first, so that no distinct image could bo formed on the retina. The refraction of the several humours unites the whole of a pencil of rays, proceeding from any one point of an object, in a corres- ponding point on tiie retina, and the image is thus ren- dered distinct and strong. That imperfoclion of sight which arises from the eyes being too prominent, is owing to the crystalline humour being too convex ; in consequence of which it refracts the rays too much, and collects them into a focus, before they reach the retina. From thia focus, the rays pro- ceed diverging, and consequently form a very confused image on the retina. This is the defect of short-sighted people ; and it is remedied by bringing the object nearer to the eye ; for the nearer an object is brought to the eye the more divergent the rays fall upon the crystalline humour, and consequently do not so soon converge to a focus. This focus, therefore, either falls upon the retina, or at least approaches nearer to it, and the object is pro- portionally distinct. The nearer, tiicreforc, an object is brought to the crystalline or to a lens, the further the image recedes behind it. But short-sighted persons have another resource for objects which they cannot permit to approach their eyes. This is to place a con- cave lens before the eye, in order to increase the diver- gence of the rays, the effect of a concave lens, being exactly the rovers? of a convex one. By the assistance of such glasses, therefore, the rays from a distant object fall on the pupil as divergent as those from a less distant object; and with short-sighted people, they throw the image of a distant object b-ick as far as the retina. Those who suffer from the crystalline humour being too flat, apply an opposite remedy ; that is to say, a convex lens to make up for the deficiency of convexity of the 30 * 800 CP7^^^^^^^ humour. Thus elderly people, the hHmouri of whose eyes are decayed by age, are under the necesaity of using convex spectacles ; and when deprived of that resource, they liold the objects at a distance from tlieir eyes, for the n.oro distant the object is from the crystalline, the nearer the image will be to it. Tiiese two opposite defocls are easily compreiiended ; but the greatest diflficulty remains, namely, how any sight can be perfect ; for, if the crystalline humour be of a proper degree of convexity to bring the imago of distant objects to a focus on the retina, it will not represent near objects distinctly j and if, on tiie contrary, it be adapted to give a clear image of near objects, it will produce a very imperfect one of distant objects. Now. to obviate this difficulty, and adapt the eye either to near ortodis- tant'objects, power is given to us to increase or diminish in some degree the convexity of the crystalline humourv and also to project it towards, or draw it back from the object, as circumstances require. In a young, well con^ structed eye, the fibres to \yhich the crystalline humour is attacheij, have so perfect a command over it, that the focus of the rays constantly falls on the I'etina, and an image is formed equally distinct both of distant objects and of those which are near. VYe cannot, however, see an object distinctly if we bring it very near to the cye> because the rays full on the crystalline humour too divergent to be refracted to a focus on the retina. The confusion, therefore, arising from viewing an object too near the eye, is similar to that wiiich proceeds from a flattened crystalline humour ; the rays reach the retina before they are collected to a focus. We conclude this subject with the following beautiful observations on the eye, from the pen of Addison : Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas ; converses with its object at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action witnout being tired, or satiated witn its proper enjoyments. The sense of feeling can indeed give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours.; but at the same time it is very much straitened and 351 eonfinod in its operation, to the number, bulk, and dis- tance of its partlculur objects. Our sight socms de. signed to sUpply all those defects, and niay be considered as a more delicate and ditfusivo kind of touch, that spreads itself over an infinite multitude of holies, com- prehends the largest figures, and brings wiiJdn our reach some of the most remote purls of the univt rse. It is this sense which furnishes the fmnginution witli 'ts ideas. We c;innot, indeed, have a single image in the fancy that*dkid not make its first entrance through tho sight ; but we nave the power of retaining, ulteriug, and compounding those images, vviiich we have once re^ ceived, into all the varieties of ]iicture and vision th'it are most agreeable to the imagiiKition ; for by this faculty a man in a dungoon is capable of enUM-taiiiing himself with scenes and landscapes more beautiful than can be found in the whole coni[»ass of nature. A beautiful prospect dt'liglits the soul, as much as a demonstration; and a description in Homer hasduirmed tnore readers than a chapter of Aristoile. Besides, tho pleasures of the imagination have this advanlago, above those of the understaiiding, that they are more obvious, and more easy to bo acquired. It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters. The colours paint themselves on the fancy with very little attenlion of thought or application of mind in the beholder. We are struck, wo know not how, with tho symmetry of any thing we sec, and immediately assent to tiio beauty of an object, with- out inquiring into the particular causes and occasions of it. A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures, that (ho vulgar are not capal>le of receiving. He can converse with a pictm'c, and find an iigreeable companion in a statue^ tie moc-ts with a secret refresh- »nent in a description, and often feels a greater satisfac- tion in tho prospect of lields and meadows'.'itl'Tu'i anolher cloes in ihe possession. It gives him, indocf)., a kind of property in every thing ho sees, and makc^:-} the inoi>t uncultivated parts of nature administer to his pleasures; so that he looks upon the world, as it were, in another, light, and discovers in it a iiiiiltituuc of churins, that conceal themselves from the; fut-raiiiy of maiikind. 4> 353 SECTION V, ON ELECTRICITY. If he word Electricity donotca a peculiar state, 0/ Which all bodies are susncptiblo, and wiiiich is supposed to depend upon the presence of a subsTaiice called the electric fluid. Some of its phenomena were known to the ancients, particularly tlioso attractions and repul- sions which a piece of amber, after being rubbed, exhibits, with regard to feathers, hairs, and otber light bodfcs ; and it was from its power of drawing light jJubstanccs to it when rubbed, that the Greeks gave ambei' the name ehktr'on, which is the origin of the word Electricity. Thales, who lived six centuries before the Christian era, was the first who observed the electrioa} properties of amber : and he was so struck with the ap- pearances, that he supposed it to be animated. Mr. Boyle is supposed to have been one of the first persons who got a glimpse of the clc ctrical light, or who seems to have noticed it, by rubbing a diamond in the dark. Sir Isaac Newton was the first who observed that excited glass attracted light bodies on the side opposite to that 6n which it is rubbed. An electric is any substance, which being excite J or rubbed by the hand, or by a woollen cloth, or other means, has the power of attracting light bodies. If A piece of sealing-wax be rubbed briskly with the sleeve (Jf 'your cbat, a silk handkcrohipf, &c., for some time, and then held near hair, feathers, bits of paper, or dther light bodies, they will l>e attracted ; that is, they Will jump up and some of them will adhere to the wax. If a tube of glass, or small phial, bo rubbed in a similai manner, it will answer much better. If this operation be performed in the dark, something luminous will be tfeen, which is called the electric mailer or fluid ; and all bodies that we are actiuainted with have more or 353 less of it in tliem ; lliough it seems to Vm dormant till it be put into ncti(jn by rubbiii'i;. The nir, and every thing, is full of this lliii;l, which iippjuvs in the -ihapo of sparks ; tlio rubbing of flie glass with tho liand collects it from tho hand, and tho glass, having now more than its natural share, piiits w ilh it to any body tiiat may be near enough to receive it. Tlie substanco rubbed and that with which it is rubbed are always found to be oppositely electrified — tho one body having more and the other kss than its natural share; indeed one kind of Electricity Is never obtained without, at tho same time, the productions of tlie other. Tiioso bodies whicli iiave been called I'llcetricr-!, will not convey elec- tricity from one body to anoLJivr, and iherelbre they are termed Non-Conouctous. The most remarkable are- glass, and all vitreous substances, precious stones, resins, amber, sulj)hur, baked wood, wax, silk, cotton, wool, hair, leathers, paper, white sugar, tiir, oils, metallic ox- ides, all d\'y vegetable subsl;inees, and all hard stonenj. Those bodies, which, when rubbed evcv so much, do not exhibit electricity^re called Non-Electrics. They convey electricity from one body to another, and tiiei'e- tbre are denominated Co.n'uuctoks ; they as are capable of having electricity developed upon them by friction as those bodies wiiich have been called " electrics," but it is conducted away as fast as it is producud. Some of them conduct electricity much better than otliers. Tho principal ci^nduciors are the m -tals, charcoal, all fluids except dry airs aiid oils, most saline substances, and stony substances. Woollen and silk, when wet, will, by means of the water, conduct electricity. VVlien a body has more than its natural quantity of this (luid, it is said to be electrified positively, or plus ; and when it has less than its natural (juantity, it is said to be electrified negatively, or minus. When bodies are electrified either of these ways, tiiey repel each other; but if some be electi'ified p/u.Sf and others luinusy they mutually attract ; or if one body be electrified jjIus, and the other not electrified in either way, they also ut- tract each otiier. 30* ' ■1/ S54 Tlicre are some fislics which possess the extraordinary 'acuity of being able, at pleasure, to communicate «iho'jks, like those of an electric battery or galvanic pile, to nny animal that comos in contact with them. They are called the torpedo, the gymnotus electricus, and the nlurus Indicus. Tiie most ren.arkable of these is the Gy. motus Electricus or Electric Eel, which is frequently found in the marslios and stagnant pools of Guiana, and other countries of South America. The shocks they give are exceedingly severe ; and Humboldt mentions a road which has been totally abandoned, because the mules, in crossing a wide ford, were, by these violent attr.cks, often paralysed and drowned. Even the angler on the bank \/as not exempt from danger, the shock being conveyed along his wetted rod and fishing line. The Electric Eel is sometimes twenty feet long. The electricity of all those fishes is exerted by them only when they please, and of course only while they are alive. vVftcr the animal has discharged its electrical matter, the next shock is weaker ; and when the animal is exhausted, it has lost all the power of producing any elieot for some time. There is no longer any doubt that the cause of thun- dor is the same with that which produces the ordinary phenomena of electricity. Tiie resemblance between (firm is indeed so great, that we cannot believe thunder itself to be any other than a grander species of elec- tricity. GALVANISrvi. (mlvanism is so iiitiinatrly connected with electricity, that it may bo coiisiderod as a branch of tliat science, ft was first acciilentally (iiscovercd in the cliemieal laboratory of M. Lew is (J.ilviuii, professor of anatomy in tlio university of ]> )l(iii;!ia, u[)on the following oceasion. The ladv of [\\v professor \)c\t\e in the animal. Volta was led to the discovery of the battery, by combining a number of pieces of metal together, because he was persuaded that the electricity was in the metals or fluids employed. These repeated combinations obtained the name of Gal- vanic, or more properly, Voltaic batteries : and the science itself is usually denominated, from the dia? coveries resulting from these batteries, VoUaism. The simplest galvanic apparatus consists of a set of tumblers, oontaiuing water slightly mixed with nitric of^ sulphuric acid, which are connected by bent wires with a piece of zinc at one end, and a piece of copper at the other; connect the tumblers by placing these in them all in the same order— one metal in the first and last, and both metals, in each intermediate one— rtouching the first copper and the last zinc with the fingers, will* occasion a shock. The pile is made thus ; take twenty or thirty pieces of zunc, each {A large as a penny. Get as many pieces uf popper about the same size, and also as many pieoea 353 »)f popcr or clolli, which arc to ho dipped in a solution of salt ami water. In building up tlio pile place zinc, paper, coppr r, &;c. oust uitly in ilie same order until the ujjole l>o rmishrd. 'i'iic sides of the pile may be supported v/'.tli rods of ^litdP, or varnished wood, fixed in the board cii w liich it stands. The following experi- ments may ih:;M be perfitriatd ; — Havinj^ wot boi'i h.imls, touch the lower part of the pile with cne hjUKi, and ilie upper part with the other; n slight shock of fhclfieity will be felt as often nh one hand is reiu;),\.d. If tlje hand be brought back, a siinilar shock w ill bo iMt. Put a basin of water near the pile, ai.d put the h ft hand into it, holding a wire, the one end of w hich touches the 4op of the battery or pile; thcni put the end of a silver spoon betwcc)^ thc! lip ai:d the gum, and with the other end of the spoon touch the lower part of the pile ; a strong shock is felt in the gum and in the hand. Take the lijft hand from the water, but still keep hold of the wire, and then perform the Irt.st experiment in the same man- ncr, and a shock will be felt in the gum only. Hold a silver spoon in one hand, and touch with it the batteiy ut the lower part, then touch the upper part with the tongue, the bitter taste is extreme. In performing the above experiments, if, instead of the two ends of the pile, the one end and the middle of it be touched, the iiensations will not be ne\u'ly so strong. The Galvanic trough is a very powerful appjivatus ; it is composed of zinc and copper plates placed in pairs, so that all those of one metal lie toward the same end. The end j)latLS have connecting wires; and when the trough is filled with water, impregnated with liitric or muriatic acid, and the points of the wires brought -toge^ thcr, the action is reniaikably powerful ; any numbey of troughs may be united and made to act at once. In this way substances have been decomposed on which the strongest fires had no elfect. Modern research has considerably "augmented our knowledge of Galvanism. It was, after %ome time, dis. povered that the efficiency of a Galvanie Circle dei zmc, 359 on its being formed of three bodies, two of which have a powerful effect on each other, but neither of them, if possible any, on the third. Hence perfectly pure zinc, or (what answers extremely well) zinc amalgamated with mercury, platina, and dilute acid; or charcoal,' zinc, and acid, form batteries which are very effective, and which from their long continued actions are called constant batteries ; indeed the zinc in them is not at all' acted upon by the acid in which it is immersed, unless' when connected with the platina, &c., by means of a' wire or some other coriductor ; and then only. to an ex- tent ptoportioned to the goodness of the conductor which' connects ti.em. * ' Galvanic action is now applied to a very interesting and useful purpose, which is called the Electrotype pro-^ cess. This enables us with great facility, and the most perfect exactness to copy medals, engraved copper plates, &c., and to cover almost any substance with gold, silver, copper, &c. In its simplest form it may' be illustrated by a small Galvanic battery, consisting of a vessel of unglazed procelain, within which is a piece of zinc immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and outside of it a plate of copper immersed in a solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) ; when the zinc and copper' are connected together by a wire, &c., the former will^ be gradually dissolved, and the latter covered with fine copper deposited from the blue vitriol. The experiment wiii be more perfect, when a gene- rating cell (a constant battery) and a decomposing cell are used. Let us suppose the generating cell to consist' of amalgamated zinc, platina, and dilute sulj>hitrlc acid ; and the generating cell to be a vessel contaii,>ir;«; a so^u* tion of blue vitriol, in which a pliite of copper an i tiie medal intended to be copied are immerse<;, Wuhout being in contact. When the zinc of the geiiaratiog cell is connected with the medal, and i*s platina w ith the plate of copper, the medal will in a few hours be covered with a plate of pure copper, whose thickness will depend on the time used in forming it, dtc, and which being removed from the medal, and placed instead of it in the generating cell, will couRtiiute a matrix, 300 and be covered with copper, thus afibrding a copy of the medal, than which nothing can bo more exact. The dame matrix will, it is evident, be sufficient for the production of an indefinite number of copies. MAGNETISM, &c. The production of mngnetism by electricity is ano- ;her of tli( inportont results which have arisen from our increased kuowledged of Galvanism. ' A'i.i">pt every one knows that property of the magnet whicb causes it to attract iron and a few other sub- stances. This attractive power may be communicatea tr-trporuriiy to .' jft iron, and permanently to steel, either yy the j.iitarul magnet (the loadstone) or the artificial (a ni.iirr.i^tjzed bar of steel). If a magnet be suspended ireely ii will arrange itself wor^A and south; that is, one pole or extremity will point almost north, and the other in the opposite direction. This directive power, as it is called, is what makes the mariner's compass so use- ful to the navicrator. By its aid he may traverse the pathless ocean daring the darkest night in the utmost security ; and yet it consists merely of a needle, (a small bar of steel magnetized,) balanced on a fine point, so that it can move. in every direction over a circular card, marked with 32 divisions (called points), in its circum- ference. If a bar of steel is carefully balanced on a point, and then magnetized by rubling it to a magnet, or by any other means — except in a part of the earth just midway between the magnetic poles- -it wi'i no longer remain in equilibrio, but will form an angle witli the horizon, which is called the angle of dip. Hence to make tho needle of the mariner's compass assume and preserve a horizontal position, we are oblii!:ed to render one end of it heavier than the other. We have already said that the needle does not when left to itself, point due north and south ; the angle it makes with a horizontal line lymg m the meridian of the place is called the angle of variation of that place. It is to be remarked that this same 861 ^ngle is not always the same even at the same plxtoe. Both "dip" and "variation" arise from that cause which makes the needle point to the magnetic pole's, namely, the earth being a great magnet and acting as such on the needle. We may illustrate both dip and variation by placing a magnetized har of steel under the needle, in such u ti'ay as that it will occupy thtj same positions with reference to it, as the magnetic axis, (a line passing through the magnetic poles,) Qccupies. it only remains to show why the earth acts towards the needle as if it wore a great magnet. The earth is what is called anelectro-mugnet; that is one formed by the circulation of electrical currents around it, The connection between electricity and inaguetism was long known; but that electricity circuluting around the needle will cause it to be doflectcd from its. ordinary position, and tliut the snnie current passing round a bar qf irpii would nKtfrneti/e it, are facts vviiich constitute a recent and very iuiportiint discovery. The currents which produce the magnetism of the earth are due to the enormous evaporation from its surface, and to the constant change of temperature caused* by revolution on its nxis, which exposes uiiTorent parts, of it in succession to the sun's niys. — Electricity developed during change of temperature has been de- signated thermo-elcctnciUj . We are not to suppose tliat only ferruginous sub- stances, (although the best for tlie purjwsc) or even metals alone, are capable of being magnetized by means of electricity. We may illustrate the most interesting facts in electro- magnetism by covering- copper wire with vvorsted, cotton, or some other bad conductor of electricity, and theri. coiling it round a bar, of iron. On connecting the ex- tremities of the wire-coil ox. helix, as it is termed, re- spectively, with the plates of a Galvania circle, tho iron bar will be found to be highly megnetic. It is necessary to cover tho wire with some non-conducting substance, or the electricity instead of traversing the length of it, and so passing romul the iron, would pass 862 vlirectly from one part of the wire to another, selecting. ak electricity alway does, the shortest path. • The helix is capaWe jiot only of profJ«jcing magnetism in iron, but also electricity in another helix placed around or intertwined with it ; and it is found, whether used by itself, or in combination with another, to give to the electricity derived from a single Galvanic.circle an intensity which could scarcely be obtained from the combiiuitiou of a very great number of circles— the zinc of one being connected with the copper or platina of the next ; whicii is the mode of arrangement required, when we desire to give to Galvanic electricity a gxeate; or less degree of intensity ; that is a capability of pro. ducing mechanical or physiological effects, and the power of traversing bad, or imperfect conductors. CALORIC. ''■--. . ■ ■ ' ' ■ ■ ..«)'" Meat, strictly speaking, is the name, of a sensation., though it is customary to speak of the heat of the sun, or the heat of the fire, just as readily as of the heat which these b(jdies are capable of exciting. It was with a view of avoiding t4ie confusion which. arose frora tlius confounding the cause and effect, that modern <;hemists adopted the new word caloric, to denote the principle which produce heat. The nature of caloric is not yet well understood, it being still doubtful whether it be a material substance, or a mere property of matter. It is generally regarded, however, as a fluid of great tenuity which pervades the whole system of nature. ; Caloric is produced, in various ways ; by combustion — by friction, — by penussion, — by the mixture of two or more substances, as when sulphuric acid is poured upon water or magnesia — by electricity and galvanism. But the principal source of caloric is the sun. Caloric is either latent or free. All bodies are sup- posed to contain cloric, but when it is neither percep- 0C3 tible by the senses, nor affects the lliermometer, it is termed latent heat ; if by any means we can ascertain its presence, it gets the name o^ free coloric. FreO' palorioal^^ays tends to diffuse itself equally ; in other wordis, when two bodies are of (^iflbrent temperatures, the warmer gradually parts with its caloric to the colder, till they ai*e both brought to the same tem- perature. Thus, when a thermometer is applied to a hot body it receives caloric, when to a cold one it gives to it part of its own caloric ; and tliis giving and receiving goes on until the therniometer and the body arrive at the same temperatui*e. Cold is merely a diminution of heat. When you lay your hand on a marble table you indeed feel it cold, but the cold you experience consists merely in the loss of caloric that your hand sustains whilst its 'temporatiire is being prought to an equilibrium with the table. • If you lay a piece df ice upoA the same table, you will fmd that a contrary effect will take place, the ice will be ifnelted by the caloric which it abstracts from the marble. The facility with which caloric enters or leaves bodies, depends much on the nature of the body ; some species permitting the passage of caloric through them with ease, and others, with niuch difficulty. Those substances which permit caloric to pasd readily through them are called good conductors; thus metals and liquids are good conductors; but silk, cotton, wool, wood, &c., are bad conductors. For ' example, if we put one end of a poker into the fire, the othe^ end will soon become hot, but this will' not happen with a piece of wood of the same length, and under the same cir- cumstances. A person may stand so near the fire, as to make the metal buttons on his coat too hot to. touch, whilst the temperature of the cloth will be apparently scarcely altered. When there is occasion to hold any metallic instrument, we take care that the part by which it is to be held shall not be made of metal, but of wood or bone. Good conductors of heat would evidently form bad clothing. The object of clothing 19 to intercept the heat, and preserve the body as much 864 9ifi , flpsible at a uniform temperature. In cold weathfir, the icmperature of the atmosphere being lower than thai of liie body, clothing formed of non-conductors prevent the two rapid escape of boat from the body to tlie 8ur- rounrrrng air; and, in very hot weather, it answers a contrary purposo, — preventing the l>j() rapid communicn- tir»n of heat to the body. Animals are ch>lhed in fur, wool, feathers, &c. all non-conductors ; and man bor- rows his clothing, in a great degree, from them. One of the most remarkable properties of- caloric is the Impulsion which exists among its particles. Hence It happens, that when this principle enters into a body. Its fust effect is to remove the integrant molecules of the Bubstanco to a greater distance from one another. The body, therefore, bepomes less compact than before, occupies a greater space, or, ip other words, ej^pands. Now this eflect of caloric is maTiifestly in opposition to cohesion — that force which tends to make the particles of matter approximate, and which must be overcome before any expansion can ensue. It may be expected, therefore, that a small addition of caloric will occasiop a small expansion, and a greater addition of caloric, a greater expansion : bocausw in the latter case, the cohe- sion will be more o^'orcome t'lan in the foR'mor. It may be anticipated, also, that wp.onever caloric passes out of a body, the cohesion being then left to act freely, a con- traction will necessarily follow ; so that expansion is only a transient etFect, occasioned solely by the accumu- lation of caloric. It follo\ys, niorcoyer, from this view, that caloric must produce the greatest exptmsion in those bodies, the cohesive power of which is least; and the inference is fully justified by observation. Thus the force of cohesion is greatest in solids, less in liquids, and least of all in aeriform substances ; while the expan- sion of solids is trifling, that of liquids much more considerable, and that of elastic fluids far greater, ft may be laid down as a rule, the reason of which is now obvious, that all bodies are expanded by heat, and that the expansion of the same body increases with tl\Q.. fluantity of caloric which enters it. "" 3making, dying, and bleaching — dojiend entirely upon chemistry ; and aW the processes of baking, brewing and distilling, and most of the culinary arts, are chemical operations. The translormations of chemistry, by which we arc enabled to convert materials apparently useless into important objects of the arts, are op^-ning up every day sources of wealth and convenience unknown to former ages. Who, for instance, would have conceived that linen rags were qapable' of producing more than their own weight of sugar, by the agency of one of the cheapest and most abundant acids — the sulphuric ! — that dry bones could be a magazine ot' nutriment, capable of preservation for many years, and re.ady to yield u{i their sustenance in the form best adapted to tiio support ; 1 1 ■■ 31* --i.^"-:^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 |5o ■^" IIMH >^ U^ 12.2 '^ ISA IffiBBI 1.1 l.-^KS 1.25 1 u ^ .« 6" - ► 7] '/: Ji' '/ /A Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716)872-4503 ) 360 of life, on the application of steam, or of an acid at once cheap and durable ? — ^that sawdust itself is sus- ceptible of conversion into a subtance bearing no remote analogy to bread ; And though certainly less palatable than that of flour, yet no way disagreeable and at once wholesome, digestible, and highly nu> tritive? Chemistry makes us acquainted with many facts, of which, Withbut it, we must have remained in ignorance. How wonderful that the diamond should be made of the same rnaterial \Vith coal; that the most part, by bulk, of water should be an inflammable substance ; that acids should be almost all formed of diflerent kinds of air ; and that one of those acids, the strength of which Can dissolve almost any of the' metals, should be made of the same ingredients with the common air that >y^ breathe. ; "' ' ' If we consider chemistry purely as a science, we shall find no study which presents more interesting subjects of research, and none which affords more striking proofs of the wisdom and beneficence of the Creator of the universe. In all the singular and sur, prising changes which every where present themselves, tlie more closely we examine them, the more we shall lidmire the simple means by which they are accom< plished, and the intelligent design and perfect wisdom displayed in them. CHEMICAL AFFINITY. That property of matter which occasions the combi- nation of heterogeneous bodies, is the cause of the principal phenomena of chemistry, and is therefore call- ed chemical affinity or attraction. It is also sometimes termed electric attraction, and the attraction of compo- sition, to distinguish it from cohesive or aggi'egative attraction. Chemical attraction may be defined to be that energy in consequence of which different kinds of matter unitf • *■ to form conipotiiids, having properties oAen dissimilar from those of their component pans; so that the resuTt of chemical combination (ban only be ascertained, at least in the first instance, by experiment. Thus, if iron filings be dissolved in sulphuric acid, or as it is com^nonly called, oil of vitriol, a substance will be produced whifch ^eiars no kind of resemblance to either of its compq- hent" parts, it is "called by chemists sulphate of iron', and vulgarly, copperas, or greeti yilr^ol — a greenish, fsemi-transparent crystallized substance, having nothi^i^ bf the appearance of the metal, nor of the sour tastfe''d| the acid. Acetic acid, or the dcid of vinrgair', in the same manner dissolves copper, and constitutes willi it the blue efflorescent salt called verdigris. Caustic vegetable alkali (caustic potash) is a deliquescent substance, vvliich, as ita pan](&' implies, corrodes .flesh ; and sulphuric acid is a liquid which, when concentrated, acts riiuch in the same in^nner on flesh ; but from the union of these bodies, so liiestructive to anm^al niatter, results the chemical com-; pouiid; stilphate of potash, a salt which, whether solid or dissolved in water, docs not apt on the skin, and may be swalJowetl with safety. Sometimes two liquids or gaseous bodi^s,r by their >inipn form at solid coiippound. Thus, the gas that rises from spirif'of hartshtirh; caileld by chemists ammonia, and muriatic acid gas, if mixed together in an empty jar, become condensed into a white saline solid, called muriate of ammonia, or sal fifl[ii|()Qj*iac. ., : The phenomena of chemical attraction are regulated by the following laws: 1; This attf active force is exerted in different de- grees fey difffereht bodies. ' ^ ■■*' '■■.> . i - ' S). . It operates only on very minute particles of bodies ; and hence chemical action is promoted by previous so. lution, trituration, or other mechanical methods of divi* ||ion and intermixture. - ,. > ; ., 3. When bodies combine, an alteration of temjjera- lure generally takes place, sometimes with the exhibi- tion of light. 4. Bodies which have an attraction for each other are ^Iways found p display opposite states of electricity. 369 5. All bodies are composed of certain atoms oi\ mole- cules, and chemical combination consists of the union of one or more alt with only in small quantities, and in few situations. The whole of the elementary suj)- stanccs may be arranged in two divisions ; the first conn prehending those which are'not of a metallic nature, th.e . entire number of which, now known, amounts to only thirteen ; the remaining forty-two elementary bodies are all regarded as metals, tiiough some of them exhibit, properties dilPiring consiiierably from those which cha. racterize gold, silver, mercury, lead, iron, and other bodies, to which the designation of metals was origi- nally applied. The following are the thirteen non-metallic elemen- tary substances : oxygen, chlorine, iodine, bromine, fluorine, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, selenium. • Book of Sceince, ! 370 ON SIMPLE BODIES, CONTINUED. Qxygen is one of the most important of the elcnentary bodies. In a simple stateyit is obtained only in the form of gas. It is an exceedingly abundant body; the air of the atmosphere contains one-iifth, and water is resolvuLle Into a mixed gas, one-third of which, by bulk, is oxygen, and the remainder hydrogen. It also exists in jnost natural products — animal, vegetable, and mineral. Oxygen gas is, like common air, colourless, invisible, tastelesis, inodorous, and clastic. But it is iieavier than common air, in the proportion of Hi to 10. It is a powerful supporter of combustion ; that is to say,' ^hen any inflamed body, as a lighted candle, is put into it, it burns very vigorously — much more so than when in common air ; indeed it is owing to the oxygon it con-i tains that commbn air supports combustion at all. Its presence is also necessary for the continuance of animal life. We cannot breathe air which Ijais been deprive^ of its oxygen. *' -fi'^h. ' ' i- .<^ Hydrogen is known only in the state of ga?, and is sometimes called indammable air. It is the lightest of all bodies that can be weighecj. Jt is one of the ingredients which forms xVate'r — -from which it can be easily procured. Hydrogen gas, when pure, pos- sesses all the mechanical "properties of common 4iir. It does not support combustion, though it is "itself - one of the mosj. combustible of all' bodies; for if ^^ lighted candle be put into a vessel containing hydrogen, the candle 'will be instantly extinguished, while the gas itsejf will be inflamed. It ianot fit for respiration, foi? animals which breathe it die almost instantaneously. If pure oxygen and hydrogen be mixed together, and the mixture set fire to, it explodes with great violencejand forms water. Hence we see the origin ' of the term hydfogen, which literally signifies the water-former. Hydrogen gas is, on account of its greater levity, em? ployed to fill balloons. Nftnigen, called also azote, is a gaseous body, rather I > lighter than common air ; of which it forms four-fifth parts, the remaining onc-fiflh being oxygen. It has neither colour, smell, nor taste. It does not support combustion, nor is it combustible itself, for if a lighted candle be put into a vessel contnining nitrogen, it is in- stantly extinguished, and the gas itself does not take fire, as is the case with hydrogen. Nitjrogen Js, fatal also to animal life ; any animal put into it oFes in a ver^ short time. ON SIMPLE BODIES, CONTINUED. CARBON. When wood is heated to a certain degree in the opert air, it takes fire, and forms, whilst burning, water and carbonic acid gas, till the whole of it is consumed. A small portion of ashes i« flie sol(? residue. But if the wood be heutod to redness in clos^ vessels, so that the atmospheric air cannot have free access to it, a large quantity of g aoous and other volatile matters is expelled,' and a black, hard, porous substance is left, called charcoal/. Charcoal may be produced from other sources. When the volatile matters are driven off froiTi coal, as in. the procpi^g for makuifj coal gas, a peculiar kind of charcoal, called coA,r, remains in the retort. Most animal and vegetable substanftes. yield it, when ignited in close vessels. ThiTs a very pure charcoal may be procured from fslarch or su.gar, and from the oil of turpentine or spirit of wine, by passing their vapour through tubes heati'd to redness. When bones are made red hot in a cov^ored, crucible, a black mass remains, which consists of charcoal mixed with the earthy matters of the bone. It is called ivory black, or animal charcoal. Carbon is the name given to the pure inflammable part of charcoal, of which substance the diamond is only a variety in a pure chrystallized state ; for pure charcoal and diamond, when treated in the same manner, pro- 872 4uco precisely the same results. Carlxjn is insoluble In water, and infusible by the most intense lif^ut, providec< air bo excluded. Animal and vegetable oils are com posed almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen. Tlu same may be observed of gum, .sug:vr, and starch Theso bodies, however, contain oxygen. Ciiarcoal absorbs the odoriferous and colouring prin ciples of most animal and vegetable substances. VVhen coloured ijifusions of this kind am digested with a duo qur\ntity of charcoal, a solution "is ohtnined, which is nearly, if not quite colourless.' Tiiinted flesh may be rendered sweet and eatable by this means, and foul water may be purified by lllering throug'i charcoal. Sulphur occurs as a mineral production in some parts of the earth, particularly in the neighbouriiood of volca- nos, as in Italy and Sicily. It is connnonly found in a massive state ; but is sometimes met with in a crys- tallized form. It is procured abundantly in combination with several metals, sucii as silver, copper, antimony. lead, and iron. It is obtained in large quantities by exposing the common iron pyrites to a read heat in close vessels. Sulphur is well known under the name of brimstone. It is a brittle solid body, of a greenisli yellow colour, emits a peculiar odour when rubbed, and has little taste. It is insoluble in water ; but if poured into it when liquified it retains its softness, and is in this state employed for taking impressions from seals and medals. . Phosphorus was discovered about the year 1609, by Brandt, an alchemist of Hamburgh. It is a semitrans. parent yellowish matter, of* the consistence of wax. ft is procured, in general, by the decomposition of tones. It is exceedingly inflammable. Exposed to the ^ir at common temperatures, it undergoes a slow com- bustion ; it emits a dense white smoke, which has the smell of garlic, appears luminous in the dark, and is gradually consumed. On this account, phosphorus should always be kept under water. On account of its very combustible nature, it requires to be handled with Bii j^Tefii caution ; gentio pressure between the fingers is sufficient to kindle it. It burns rapidly, emitting a splendid white light, and causing an intense heat. Chlorine was discovered in 1770. It is a substance bf much importance, being, in combination with other siibstances, extensively used in the arts. Chlorine is a yellowish-green coloured gas, which has an astringent taste, and a disagreeable odour. It is one of the most suffocating of the gases, exciting great irritability in tlie wiud-pipe, even when considerably diluted with air. when strongly and suddenly compressed, it emits both heat and light — a character which it possesses in common With oxygen gas. Under considerable pressure it assumes the form of a limpid liquor of a bright yellow colour. Chlorine is a supporter of combustion. If a lighted taper be plunged into chlorine gas, it burns with A small red flame, and emits a large quantity of smoke.. Phosphorus takes fire in it spfontaneously. Several of the metals, such as tin, copper, arsenic, antimony, and zinc, when introduced into chlorine in the state of powder, or in fine leaves, are suddenly inflamed. Chlorine, though formerly called an acid^ Jiossesses no acid properties. It has not a sour taste, nor does it redden the blue colour of plants, which nearly all acids do. One of the most important properties of fchlorine is its bleaching power. All animal and vege- table colours are speedily removed by chlorine ; and when the colour is once discharged, it can never be Restored. Chlorine, however, cannot bleach unless water b6 present. Chlorine is useful also for the pur- poses of fumigation, and is used to purify the air in fever hospitals. The infection of the small-pox is also de- stroyed by this gas, and matter that has been submitted to its influence will no longer generate that disease. Iodine is a substance much resembling chlorine in Some of its properties. It may be procured by drying and powdering common sea weed, and heating it with sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese : a violet coloured vapour rises, which, if received in a cool Vesife), vrill condense on its sides, and will form scalt ,i 374 ^rjstala, ot a somewhat metallic lustre. These crys, ta*s are the substance : from the violet colour of its Vapour it is oaUed iodine. It has the property of form, ing a beautiful btue colour, when mixed with a little powderecf str^ch, cfiAused through cold water; hence jo^ine .and starch are used as tesds of the presence of each other. lodme stams the fingers yellow, but not permanently. Like chlorine, it destroys vegetable co- leurs, though not so powerluil) . Iodine is used in me- dicine : in small doses it mcrea^ies the appetite ; but in Ipirge dolses, or continued too loh^ it produces a remark- able emaciation. ; To these simple non-metallic boiiies we might add brome, selenium, boron, fluorine (tne base of fluor spar), ^nd silicon (the base of flint.) But u^ they are of less ipriportande, and as the nature of some oi them iS still a iubject of dispute with chemists, we shall not omit the consideration of them for the present. ^ '■ : \ CT' 875 SECTION VI. TilUE LIBERTY. \'v True Liberty was Christian, sanctified, Baptized, and found in Christian hearts alone. First-born of Virtue ! diiughtor of the skies ! Nursling of Truth divine ! sister of all The Graces, Meekness, Holinrss, and Love : Giving to God, and man, and all below, That symptom show'd of sensible existence, Their due unask'd ; fear to whom fear was due ; To all, respect, benevolence, and love. Companion of Religion; where she came, ' There Freedom camej where dwelt, there Freedom dwelt; Ruled whore vshe ruled, expired where she expired. " He was the freeman whom the truth made free ;" VVho first of all the bands of Satan broke ; Who broke the bands of Sin ; and for his soul, In spite of fools, consulted seriously ; [n spite of fashion, persevered in good ; [n spite of wealth or poverty, upright ; Who did as Reason, not as Fancy bade ; Who heard Temptation sing, and yet turned not Aside ; saw Sin bedeck her flowery bed, And yet would not go up ; felt at his heart, The sword unsheathed, yet would not sell the truth Who, having power, had not the will to hurt ; Who blush 'd alike to be, or have a slave ; ; Who blush 'd at nought but sin, feared louglit but God ; Who, finally, in strong integrity Of sQul, 'midfit want, or riches, or disgraco, Uplifted calmly sal, and heard the waves Of stormy folly breaking at his feet; \ % '^,: 'i^^ # k 919 Now shrill with prai§e, now hoarse witli foul reproaolli And both deapised sincerely ; seeking this Alone— 4he approbation of his God, Which still with conscience witncse'd to his peaOe^ This, this iS freedom, such as angels usey And kindred fcr the liberty of God. First-bofn df Virtue ! daughter of the skies f iThe man, the state in whom she ruled, was free j Ail else were slaves of Sutan, Sin, and Death. Pot/Locc; tllE CORAL INSECT. Toil on ! toil on ! ye ephomeVal train. Who build in the tossing and treacherous main, Toll on — for the wisdom of man ye mock/ With your sand-based structures- and domes of rock jf Your columns the fathomless fountains lave, And your arches spring up ta the crested wave j Ite'te a pun^ race, thus boldly to rear A fabric so vast m a rcft^nfi so dre^r^ Ye bind the deep with your secret zone,- The qpean is seal'd, and the surge a stone f Fresh wreaths from the coral pavement springs bike the terraced pi-ide of Assyria's king ; The turf looks green where the breakers roU'd j O'er the whirl^oolripens the rind of gokl;- The sea snatcl^d isle is the home of taen. And n)oimt»ins- exult where the wave hath been.- fiut why do yoit plant, 't>eath the billoWs dark The wrecldng reef for the gallaift bark ? There are snares enough on the tented field, *Mid the blossomed sweets tJiat the valleys yield ^ There are serpentsto coil, ere th€ fDwers are up J TtieroV a poison-drop in man's purest eupp -m, i 377 There are foes that watch for his cradle-breath, And why need yo sow the floo'^;irts woulJ v^'^^^e, flow islow to loarn the iJictatos of His love, That hard by nature, and of J^tul>i)()rn will, A life of ease would make thcin liMrdi. r still. In pity to the souls his grace designed To rescue from the ruin of mankind, Called for a cloud to darken all their years. And said, " Go spend them in a vale of tears.* O balmy gales of soul-reviving air! skfutary streams that murmur there ! These, flowing from the fount of grace above j Those breathed from lips of everlasting love : The flinty soil, indeed, their feet annoys, Chill blasts of trouble nip their springing joya An envious world will interpose its frown, To mar delights superior to its own ; And many a pang, experienqed still within, Reminds them of their hated inmate. Sin. But ills of every shape, and every name. Transformed to blessings, miss their cruel aim ; And every moment's calm that soothes the breast Is given in earnest of eternal rest.' Ah, be not sad, although thy lot be cast Far from the flock, and in a houndless waste ! No shepherds' tents williin thy view appear, But the chief Shepherd even there is near. Thy tender sorrows and thy plaintive strain, Flow in a foreign land, but not in vain ; Thy tears all issue from a source divine. And every drop bespeaks a Saviour thine — So once in Gideon's fleece the dews were found, And drought on all the drooping herbs around. CowrE? 880 PROCRASTINATION. Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer ; N'exl day the fatal precedent will plead, Thn»on, till wisdom is pushed out oMifej Procrastination is the thief of time ; Year after year it steals, till all are fled, And to the mercies of a moment leaves The vast concerns' of an eternal scene. If not so frequent, would not this be strange f That 'tis so frequent, this is stranger still, ; ' * Of man'i^ miraculous mistakes tills b.^ars ' The palm, "That all men are about to live," For ever on the brink on being born : All pay thfyniselves the compliment to think They one day shall not drivel, and their pride On this reversion takes up ready praise ; At least their own ; their future selves applaud, How excellent that life they ne'er will lead ! Time lodged in their own hands is Folly's vails ^ Tpime lodged in Fate's, to wisdom they consign ; ■ The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone. 'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool ; • And scarce in human wisdom to domore. All promise is poor dilatory man, ' " And that through every stage. When young, indeed, In full content we sometimes nobly rest, • Unanxious for ourselves, and only wishj As duteous sons, our fathers were more wise, At thirty, man suspects himself a fool ; Knows it ^t forty, and refcrms his plan ; At fifty chides his infamous delay, '; -a*, v j 'J,; Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve; In all the magnanimity of thought Resolves and re-solves ; then dies the same. And why ? Because he thinks himself in^morta]|. AIJ menthink all men mortal but themselves ; Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread.. •81 But their hearts wounded, like tlie ivounded ait, iSoon .olose ; where, past the shafl, no trape is fqu94ii Ah from the wing no sea/* the aky retains, The parted wayc no furrow from the keel— r ^o dies in hurnan hearts the thought of death.: Even when the tender tear which nature sheds Q'e]^ thpse we love, wje drop it in their grave. TASTB. What tlien is laste, but these internal .powen, Active, and strong, and feelingly alive To each fine impulse ? A discerning sense Of decent and sublin^e, with (^uick disgust From things defprm'd, pr disarrjanged, ojp gross In species ? Thiig, nqr gen)3, nor stores of gold, Nor purple ^tate, nor culture, can bestow j But God B.\ojxe, yhen 0rst his SvCtiye h&v4 Imprints the secret bias of the soul. He, mighty Parent ! wise and just in all, t'ree as the vital breeze, or light of heaven, Heyeals the cjiarms of nature, Ask the swaiq Who journpys homeward ffona a i^ummer day'g jLong labour, why, forgetful of iris toil? And dije repose, he loiters to behold The sunshine gleaming as through amber cloudS| P'er all the western sky ; full soorj, I ween, flis rude expression and untutor'd airs. Beyond the power of language, will unfold The form of beauty smiling at hi^ heart. How lovely ! how commanding | ^ui tKougji He<>VOi| In every breast hath sown these early seed^ Pf love and admiration, yet in yain, VVithout fair culture's kind parental aid, Without enlivening suns, and genial showers, And shelter from the blast, in vain wa hdpe ^he Render plant should rear its blooming hei^f), 392 Or yield tho harvest promised in its spring. Nor yet will every soil with equal stores llepay tho tiller's labour ; or attend His will obsequious, wliether to produce Tlio oKvo or ti»e laurel. Diir.rent minds iDclino to different objects : one pursues Tha vast ulcus the \voi;^j( rful, the wild ; / !iother siji;hs for liiraii'MV, aiul ^rrace, And <^.>ntkst btinUy. Ilenec, win n lightning fires IlK nrch ol' luiiven, atul thunilcrs rock liio ground, Vv^Ikii i'urlous whirhviiiLis rend the howling uir, And oceun, gruaijinj; i'roin its h)wept lujd, Hei;\cs liis tenr,)) :,ed flither man's work, or hia own ^\{'\a ; who best ^ar liis mild yoke, they serve him best ; his state Is kingly, thousands ut his bidding speed, And pass o'er land and ocean without rest, They also serve who only stand and wait Milton. CAPTAIN BOBADIL'S METHOD OF DEFEATING ,, AN AiiMV. I will toll you, sir, by way of private and under seal, I am a gentleman, and live here obscure and tornyself j but were I known to his Mujosty and the Lords, ob. serve me, I» would undertake, upon this poor head and life, for the- public benefit of the state, not only to spare the entire lives of his subjects in general, but to save the one-half, nay three- fourths of his yearly charge in holding war, and against what enemy soever. And hoM would I do it think you? — Why thus, sir: — I would select nineteen more to myself, throughout the land: gentlemen they should be; of good spirit,' strong and able constitution. I would choose them by an instinct that I have. And I would teach these nineteen the special rules ; as, your Punto, your Reverso, your Stoc- cata, your Imbroccata, your Passada, your Montonto, till they could all play very near, or altogether^ as wdll as myself. This done, say the enemy were forty thou- sand strong. We twenty would come into the field, the tenth of March, or thereabout, and we would challenge twenty of the enemy ; they could not in their honour refuse us. Well — we would kill tiiem : challenge twenty more — kill them : twenty more — kill them : twenty more — kill them tno. And thus would we kill every man his? ten a dsiv — ten a day, that's ten score : ten score — ^that's two TTundred : two hundred a day — ^five days a thousand — forty thousand — forty times 388^ five — Ave times forty — two hundred days, kill them all by computation. And this I will venture my poor gentleman-like carcass to perform (provided there be no (treason practised upon us) by fair an4 discreet msR. hood ; that is, civilly — by the sword. Ben JoNSoif. Til AH 111 Ar THE POST ARRIVES IN TlIE VILLAGE. Hark ! 'tis the twanging horn ! o'er yoncjcr brittge, That with its wearisome but needful length Bestrides the wintry flood, in which the moon Sees her unwrinkl'd face reflected bright. He comes, the herald of a noisy world, AVith spatter'd boots, strapi)'d waist and frozen locks, News from all nations lumb'ring at his back. True to his charge the close packed load behind, Yet careless what he brings, his one concern Ts to conduct it to the destined inn ; And having dropp'd th' expected btig, pass on. He whistles as he goes, light-hoartcd wretch, Co'd, and yet cheerful ; nK^sscnger of grief Pf rhaps to thousands, and of joy to some ; T« him indifT'rent whether grief or joy. Huuses in ashes, and the fall of stocks, Births, deaths, marriages, epistles wet With tears that trickled down the >yriter's cheeksi Fast as the periods from his fluent quill, Or charg'd with am'rous sighs of absent swains, Or nymphs responsive, equally affect tlis horse and him, unconscious of them all. But oh, th' important budget ! ushered in With such heart-shaking music, who can say What are its tidings • have our troops awak'd f Dr do they still as if with opium drugg'd, Snore to the murmurs of th' Atlantic wave ? ^ I«dia free ? and does she wear her plum'4 i^tid joweU'd turban with a smile of peace ; r\ Tl So 380 til or 10 n* Or do we grind her still ? The ^rnnd debate, The popular haruiiguc, lliu turt reply, The logic, and iho wisdom, iind the wit, And llio loud laugh — I long to know them all ; [ hum to sf t 111' iniprison'd wriuigh is free, And give thorn voico and uttonuujo onco ngain. Now stir the fire, und close tho Hhuttors lust. Let fall the curtains, wlu-rl the sofa round ; And while the buhhling and loud hissing urn Throws up a steamy ci)liaun, and the cups That cluujr not to inohriato, wait on nach, So let us wf'lcomo poaceful cv'ning in. Not such his ev'iiiiig, who with shining face, Sweats in tho crowded thcatro, and squeez'd And bor'd with (dljow points through both his sides Outscolds tho rantintr actor on tiic stajfe. Nor his who patient stands till his feet throb And his head thumps, to fucd upon the breath Of patriots, bursting with lioroic rage. Or placeman, all tranquillity and smiles, This folio of four pages, happy work! Which not e'en critics criticise, that holds Inquisitive attention, wliilo I read, Fast bound in chains of sih^nce, which the fair, Though eloquent themselves, yot fear to break. What is it but a map of busy lii'o, Its fluctuations, and its vast concerns ? Here runs the mountainous and craggy ridge That tempts ambition. On the summit, see The seals of office glitter in his eye ; He climbs, he pants, he grasps them. At his Close at his heels a demagogue ascends. And with a dext'rous jirk soon twists him down And wins them, but to lose them in his turn. Here rills of oi'y -loquencc in soft Meanders lubricate the course they take. The modest speaker is asham'd and griev'd T' engross a moment's notice : and yet Begs a propitious ear for his poor thoughts, ffowever trivial all that he conceives. 390 Sweet bashfulness! it chiims at last this prniso : The dearth of iiiformalioii iind good sense That it foretells us, always comes to pass. Cataracts of dcclainutioii tliundcr Ix ro ; The forests of no-ineaning spread the page 111 which all coniprelieiisioii wanders lotit ; While fields of pleasantry amuse us there With merry descants on a ualion's woes. The rest Jippcars a wilderness of slrftnge But gay confusion — roses fiir the cheeks And lilies f()r the brow of faded ngc^ Teeth for the toothless, ringlets for the bald, Heaven, earth, and ocean plunder'd of the sweets, Nectareous essences, Olympian dewsj Sermons and city feasts, and f'av'rile airs, Ethereal journeys, submarine exploits And Katerfelto,* with his iiair on end At his own wonders, Wond'ring for his bread. COWPER. J REPORT OF AN ADJUDGED CASE, NOT TO BE FOUND IN ANY OF THE BOOKS. Between No and Eyes a strange contest arose, The spectacles set them unlmppily wrong ; The point in dispute was, tv.-. all tlic world knows. To which the said spectac'cs ought to belong. So the tongue was the lawyer, and argued the cause. With a great deal of skill, and a wig full of learning, While chief baron Ear sat to balance the laws, , So famed for his talent in nicely discerning. In behalf of the Nose, it will quickly appear, And your lordship, he said, will undoubtedly find That the Nose has had spectacles always in wear. Which amounts to possession, time out of mind. Then holding the spectacles up to the court — » Katerfelto, a celebrated juggler. 301 Your lordship observes they are made with a strftddl*! As wide as the ridge of the nosf* is ; in short Designed to sit to it, just liice a suddlc. Again would your lordship a momeht suppose TTis a case that has happened and may be again) That the visage or countenance had not a Nose, Pray who would or who could wear spectacles then 7 On the whole it appears, and my argument shows, With a reasoning the court will never condemn That the spectacles plainly Were nifule for the Nose, And the Nose was as plainly intended for them. Then shifting his side, as the lawyer knows how, ' He pleaded again in behalf of the Eyes ; But what were his arguments few people know, For the world did not think they were equally wise So his lordship decreed, with a grave solemn tone. Decisive and clear, without one if or hut — That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on, By day-light or candle-light — Eyes should be shut. CoWPEH THE DESERTED WIFE. He comes not^— I have watched the moon go down, But yet he comes not. — Once it was not so : He thinks not how these bitter tears do flow, The while he holds his riot in thai; town. Yet he will come and chide, and I shall weep. And he will wake my infant from its sleep, To blend its feeble wailings with my tears! Oh how I love a mother's watch to keep, O'er those sleeping eyes, that smile which cheenB My heart, though sunk in sorrow fix'd and deep, 1 had a husband once who loved me — now, He ever wears a frown upon his brow, And feeds his passion on a wanton's life, As bees from laurel flower a poison sip ! Put yet I cannot hate — O ^ there were hours, 303 When I would hang for ever on his eye, And Time, who stole with silent sadness by, Strew'd, as he hurried on, his path with flowers, I loved him then, he loved nie too — my heart Still finds its fondness kindle if he smile. *rhe memory of our loves will ne'er depart ! And though he often sting me with a dart, Venom'd and barb'd, and waste upon the vile Caresses, whiph his babe and mine should share ; Though he should spurn me, I will calmly bear His madness — and should sickness come, and lay Its paralysing hand upon him, then I would, with kindness, all my wrongs repay, Until the penitent should weep and say '.">;* How injured and how faithful I bad been. Anonymous. ">u. GERTRUDE OF WYOMING. On Susqueha^a's side, fair XVyoming ! Although the wild flower on thy ruin'd wall. And roofless hoqfie^, a sad remembranoe bring Of what thy gentle people did befall ; Ye^ t|iou wert once the loveliest land of all 'rhat see the Atlantic wave th^ir morn restore. . Sweet land ! may I thy lost delights recall. And paint thy Gertrude in her bowers of yore Whose beq,uty was the love of Pennsylvania's shore. Delightful Wyoming! beneath thy skies, The happy shepherd swains had nought to do, But feed their flocks on green declivities, Or skini perchance thy lake with light canoe, From morn till evening's sweeter pastin^e grew, ' With timbrel, when beneath the forest'^ brown, * . Thy lovely maidens would the dance renew. And aye those sunny mountains half way down, ^ould echo flageolet from soipe rornantic to>yn. r'^-^ (■. f^ 393 Then whore of Indian Inlls, tlie dayliglit takes IJis leave, how might you the flamingo see, Disporting, like a meteor on the lakes, And playful squirrel on his nut-grown tree; And every sound of life was full of glee, From merry mock- bird '^^ng, or hum of men. While hearkening, fe^Wig nought their revelry, The wild deer arch'd his neck from grades, and then, Unhunted, sought his woods and wilderness agnin. And scarce had Wyoming of war or crintie Heard, but in trans-atlantic story rung, For here the exile met from every clime, ' And spoke in frieijdship every distant ^ongue. Men from the blood of warring Europe sprung. Where but divided by the running brook; And happy where no Hhenish trumpet sung. On plains, no sieging niine's volcano shook, The blue-eyed German changed his sword to pruning- hook. Here was not rningled in the city's pomp Of life's extremes, the grandeur and the gloom, Judgment awoke not fiere her dismal tromp, Nor seal'd in blood a fellow-creature's doom. Nor mourned the captive in a living tomb. One venerajjle man beloved of all. Sufficed, where innocence was yet in bloorp, To sway the strife that seldom might befall ; ^nd Albert was their judge in patriarchal hall;*' How reverend was the look, serenely aged. He bore, this aged Pennsylvanian sire, When all but kindly fervours were assuaged, Undimm'd by weakness' shade or turbid ire | And though, amidst the calm of thought entire, Some high and haughty features might betray A soul impetuous once, 'twas eartiily fire. That fled composure's intellectual ray, As iEtna' fires grow dim before the rising day. ■ Campbell. 394 LmBS WRITTEN IN A SEVERE FROST AND STRONG HAZB, ON SUNDAY MORNING. How drear and awful is this- solitude ! Nature herself' is surely defdj^nd o'er Her cold and stiffened corse a Winding sheet, Of bright unsullied purity, is thrown. How still she lies ! she smiles, she breathes no more ! Yon drooping elm, whose pule and leafless boughs O'erhang the stream, hath wept itself to death. The stream that once did gaily dance and sing The live-long day, now, stiff and silent, lies Immoveable — congeal'd to glittering sli ingles, 'Tis beautiful in death ! That grove, which late Did woo the merry stream with ceaseless music, From morn till eve, with notes of thousand songsters. And all the night with those melodi-ous strains^ . With which lone Philomela tells her love, Now silent stands a bleached skeleton. The sky itself is shrouded ; now no more The rosy blush of. health, the glow of rapture, Or cheerful smile of peace her face illuiT[]ines ; One sickly vivid hue 'is spread o*er all. The veil of air wont not to hide, but show .;. With mild and softening azure tint more sweet The beauteous aspect of the varying heaven, Is now become a foul and dense disguise. The sun, that glorious source of warmth and light, Arrested in his course, flares through thb dlih And turbid atmosphere, as if expiring. Nought else appears — it seems as though this spot . "Were all creation, and myself the sole :. Survivor. Oh! how awful thus to find ' . j Myself alone with God— to know and feel That his all-seeing, his all-searching eye, Surveys my inmost thoughts ! How little, now. Appear the mighty joys, the hopes and fears, Pursuits and pleasures of a transient world ! A world wherein, till now, like other men, 1 ^-^ \ 895 I've toiled and grieved, with many anxious oares, But where I too have loved and been beloved, With more of happiness than oft is found In this probationary state. With Him Who gave me all, and day by day, hath still. With kind parental care my life preserved. To stand alone is awful, but not dreadful. Nay, sure, 'tis more than earthly bliss, here, thus To hold communion with my heavenly Father. Witness this heart, with gratitude o'ercharged. Which pleads and presses to present its thanks : Witness these tears which thus uncall'd obtrude, And half congeal M, fall to the frozen earth. An humble offering at the throne of grace : Witness this sweet, serene, and holy calm. At once bespeaking and befitting for The presence of my Maker ; semblance faint Of happiness to come, when bliss supreme Shall be the portion of these ransom 'd saints, Who through eternity shall join to raise Loud hallelujahs to their heavenly King. Anonymous. ON THE EFFECTS OF TIME AND CHANGE. Of chance or change O let not man complain, Else shall he never,, never cease to wail ; For, from the imperial dome, to where the swain Rears the lone cottage in the silent dale. All feel the 'assault of Fortune's fickle gale , Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed ; Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale, And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entombed, And where the Atlantic rolls, wide continents have bloomed. But sure to foreign climes we need not range. Nor search the ancient records of our race. To learn the dire effects of time and change, Which in ourselves alas ! we daily trace. J 396 Yet at the darkened eye, the withered face, Or hoary hair I never will repine : But spare, oh time, whate'er of mental grace, Of candour, love, or sympathy divine, Whate'er of fancy's ray or friendship's flame is mine. Beattie. MUTUAL FORBEARANCE, NECESSARY TO THE OF THE MARRIED STATE. HAPPINESS The Lady thus address'd her spouse^ What a mere dungeon is this house ! By no means large enough ; and was it Yet this dull room, and that dark closet, Those hangings, with their worn out graceSi Long beards, long noses, and pale faces,' Are such an antiquated scene. They overwhelm me with the spleen. . Sir Humphrey, shooting in the dark, Makes answer quite beside the mark ; No doubt, my dear ; I bade him come, Engag'd myself to be at home. And shall expect iiini at the door. Precisely when the clock strikes four. , You are so deaf, the lady cried, (And rais'd her voice, and frown'd beside,) "You are so sadly deaf, my dear, What shall I do to make you hear ! Dismiss poor Harry ! he replies, Some people are more nice than wise ; For one. slight trespass all this stir ! What if he did ride, whip, and spur? 'Twas but a mile — ^your fav'rite horse Will never look one hair the worse.— Well I protest, 'tis past all bearing ! dhild, I am rather hard of hearing ! Yes truly— one must scream and bawl,*^ 1 tell you, you can't hear at all. S9T Tiien with a voice exceeding low, No matter if, you hear or no. , Alas ! and is domestic strife, That sorest ill of human life, A plague so little to be fear'd, As to be wantonly incurr'd ; To gratify a fretful passion, On every trivial provocation ? The kindest and the happiest pair Will find occasion to forbear. And something every day they li?6 To pity, and perhaps forgive. But if infirmities that fall In common to the lot of all;, A blemish, or a sense impair'd, Are crimes so little to be spar'd. Then farewell all that must create The comfort of the wedded state. Instead of harmony, 'tis jar And tumult, and intestine war, The love that cheers life's latest stage^ {*roof against sickness and old age, Preserv'd by virtue from declension, Becomes not weary of attention ; But lives when that exterior grace, Whiteh first inspired the flame decays. *Tis gentle, delicate, and kind, To faults compassionate or blind, And will with sympathy endure Those evils it would gladly cure : But angry, coarse, and harsh expression. Shows love to be a mere profession, Proves that the heart is none of his, Or soon expels him if it is. g^/ COWMt l\ y/ 39S THE CONVICT SHIP. Morn on the waters ! and purple and bright Bursts on the billows the flashing of light ; O'er the glad waves, like a child of the sun, See the tall vessel goes gallantly on ; Full to the breeze she unbossoms her sail, And her pennon streams onward like hope in the gale ; The v/ind come around her, in murmur and song, And the surges rejoice as they bear her along. See she looks up to the golden edged clouds, And the sailor sings gaily aloft in her shrouds. Onwards she glides amicl ripple and spray, Over the waters, away and away! ' ":' ■ Bright as the visions of youth ere they part Passing away, like a dream of the heart ! '.;, Who, as the beautiful pageant sweeps by, '. ' ' Music around her, and sunshine on high, ' Pauses to think amid glitter and show, . • Oh ! there be hearts that are breaking below ! Night on the waves ! and the morn is on high. Hung like a gem on the brow of the sky. Treading its depths in the power of her might. And turning the clouds, as they pass her, to light ; Look to the waters ! asleep on her breast. Seems not the ship like an island of rest ? * Bright and alone on the shadowy main, Like a heart-cherished home on some desolate plainj Who, as she smiles in the silvery light, Spreading her wings on the bosom of night. Alone on the deep, as the moon in the sky, A phantom of beauty, could deem with a sigh, That so lovely a thing is the mansion of sin, And souls that are smitten, lie bursting within ? Who, as he watches her silently gliding. Remembers that wave after wave is dividing Bosoms that sorrow and guilt could not sever, Hearts that are parted and broken for ever ? n ■ MW |i| .| II J I •«ikM««(M< 399 Or dreams that he watches, afloat on the ware, The death-bed of hope, or the young spirit's grave I . 'Tis thus with our life, as it passes dong, Like a vessel at sea, amid sunshine snd song, Gaily We- glide in the gaze of the world. With streamers afloat, and with canvas unftirled ; All gladness and glory to wondering eyes, Yet chartered by sorrow and freighted with Sighs: Fading and false is the aspect it wears, As the smiles we put on, just to cover our iears, And the withering thoughts that the world cannbt know, Like heart-broken exiles lie bumins below ; Whilst the vessel drives on to that desolate shore. Where the dreams of our childhodd are vanished and o'er. T. K. Hbrybt. ii CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENCE. Wouldst thou from sorrow find a sweet relief? Or is thy heart oppressed With woes untold ? Balm wouldst thou eather for corroding grief; Pour blessings round thee like a shower of gold. 'Tis when the rose is wrapt in many a fold Close to its heart the worm is wasting there It6 life and beauty ;. not when, all unroU'd Leaf after leaf, its bosom, rich and fair, Breathes freely its perfumes throughout the ambient air. Some hiffh or humble enterprise of good, Contemplate till it shall possess thy mind. Become thy study, pastime, rest, and food, And kindle in thy heart a flame refined. Pray Heaven for firmness thy whole soul to bind To this thy purpose — ^to be^in, pursue. With thoughts all fixed, and feelings purely kind, Strength to complete, and with delight review. And grace to give the praise where all is due. # ^f- ..^. / wi -im w il 400 # No ^pod of worth sublime will Heaven permit To light on man as from the passing air ; The lamp of genius, though by nature lit, If not protected, pruned, and fed with care Soon dies, or runs to waste with fitful glare ; And learning is a plant that spreads and towera Slow as Columbia's aloe, proudly rare. That 'mid gay thousands, with the suns and showeii Of half a century, grows alone before it flowers. Beware lest thou from sloth that would appear But lowliness of mind, with joy proclaim Thy want of worth ; a charge thou could'st not bear, From other lips without a blush of shame. Or pride indignant ; then be thine the blame, And make thyself of worth ; and thus enlist The smiles of all the good, the dear to fame; 'Tis infamy to die and not be miss'd. Or let all soon forget that iJiou didst e'er exist. Rouse to some work of high and holy love, And thou an angel's happiness shall know- Shall bless the earth while in the world above, The good begun by thee shall onward flow, In many a branching stream, and wider grow, The seed that in these few and fleeting hours, Thy hands unsparing and unwearied sow. Shall deck thy gr^ve with amaranthine flowers, And yield thee fruit divine in heaven's immortal boweni. WlLC^ : n: THE LAST MINSTREL. The way was long, the wind was cold, The Minstrel was infirm and old ; Etis withered cheek, and tresses gray, Seemed to have known a better day ; The harp, his sole remaining, joy. Was cftrried'by an orphan poj ; I^M- mm ■^r* ^ 40 i The last of uU the Bards was lie, Who sung of Border chivalry. For well a day ! their date was fled, His 'tuneful brethren all were dead ; And he .neglected and oppress'd, Wished to be with them and at rest. No more on prancing palfrey borne, He carolled, light as lark at morn; No longer courted and caressed, High placed in hall, a welcome guest, He poured, to lord and lady gay. The unpremeditated lay ; Old times were changed, old maimers goM^ A. stranger filled the Stuart's throne, The bigots of the iron time Mad called the harmless art a crime. A. wandering Harper, scorned and poor, tie begged his bread from door to door, knd tuned, to please a peasant's ear, l*he harp, a king had loved to hear. He passed where Newark's stately tower Cooks out from Yarrow's birchen Tjower ; riie minstrel gazed with wishful eye. No humbler resting place was nigh ; With hesitating step, at last, ' The embattled portal afch he passed. Whose pond'rous grate, and massy bar Had oft rolled back the tide of war, But never closed the iron door Against the desolate and poor. , The ducness marked liis weary pace. His timid mien, and reverend face, And bade her page the menials tell. That they should tend the old man Well : For she had known adversity. Though born in such a high dfegree ; In pride of power and beauty's bloom. Had wept o'er Monmouth's bloody tomb ! ' ' 34* Scott. • #^^■ 408 IHE MORAL CHANGE ANTICIPATED BY HOPE Hope, when I mourn with sympathising mind, The wrongs of fate, the woes of human kind, , Thy blissful omens bid my spirit see The boundless fields of rapture yet to be ; I watch ths wheels of Nature's mazy plan, And learn the future by the past of man. Come bright improvement ! on the car of Time, And rule the spacious world from clime to clime. Thy handmaid arts shall every wild explore, Trace every wave, and culture every shore. On Erie's banks where tigers steal alone. And the dread Indian chants a dismal song, Where human fiends on midnight errands walk, And bathe in brains the murderous tomahawk. There shall the f^ocHs on thy my pastures stray > And shepherd's dance at summer's opening day ; Each wandering genius of the lonely glen. Shall start to view the glittering haunts of men. And silent watch, on woodland heights around, The village curfew as it tolls profound. Where barbarous hordes on Scythian mountains roam Truth, Mercy, Freedom, yet shall find a home ; Where'er degraded nature bleeds and pines. From Guinea's coast to Sabir's dreary mines. Truth shall pervade the unfathomed darkness there, And light the dreadful features of despair- Hark ! the stem captive spurns his heavy load, And asks the image back that heaven bestowed ; Fierce in his eye, the fire of valour bums. And as the slave departs, the man returns. Campbbll. • ■w 4f)t THE SNOW FLAK13. h •* Now, if I fa 1, will it be my lot To be cast in some low and lonely spot, To melt, and to sink unseen or Ibrgot ? And then will my course bo ended V 'Tvvas thus u feathery snow-flake said, As down througli the measureless space it strayed, Or, as half by dalliance, half afraid. It seemed in mid air suspended. " O, no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie, Neglected and alone, on my lap to die, Thou pure and delicate child of the sky ; For thou wilt be safe in my keeping : But, then, I must give tnee a lovelier form ; Thou'lt not be a part of the wintry storm. But revive when the sun-beams are yellow and warm, And the flowers from my bosom are peeping. "And then thou shalt have thy choice to be RestorW in the lily that decks the lea, In the jessamine blossom, the anemone. Or aught of thy spotless whiteness j To melt and be cast in a glittering bead, With pearls that the night scatters over the mead, In the cup where the bee and the firefly feed. Regaining thy dazzling brightness. "Or wouldst thou return to a home in the skies, To shine in the Iris, I'll let thee arise, And appear in the many and glorious dyt s A pencil of sunbeams is blending. But true fair thing, as my name is JEarth, I'll give thee a new and vernal birth. When thou shalt recover thy primal worth, And never regret descending !" 404 " Then I will drop," saiil the trusting fluke ; " But boar in mind that tho choice I make Is not in the flowers, on the dew to awake, Nor the mist that shall pass with tho morning ; For things of thyself they expire with thee ; But those that are lent from on high, like me, They rise and will live, from thy dust set free, To the regions above returning. " And if true to thy word, and just thou art. Like the spirit that dwells in tho holiest heart, Unsullied by thee, thou will let me depart. And return to my^native heaven; For I would be placed in the beautiful bow. From time to time, in thy sight to glow. So thou mayfst remember the flake of snow, By the promise that God hath given." GOVLO* TO A WATERFOWL. Whither midst fallipg dew. While glow the heavens with the last steps of day Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue ^ Thy solitary way ? Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, As darkly painted on the crimson sky. Thy figure floats along. Seek'st thou the plashy brink Of weedy lake or margin of river wide. Or where the rocking billows rise and sink On the chafed ocean side. There is a power whose care Teaches thy way along that pathless coast— The desert and illimitable air — Lone wandering, but not lost. 4()r> All day thy wiiign liavo faiiiuHi, At timt far hoi^^ht, the cold, thin atmOHplicre : fet, stoop not, weary, to the weloomo land Tliough tho dark night is near. And soon that toil shall end ; 60 shalt thou And a summor home, and rest, And scream among thy fellows ; reeds shall bend Soon o*er thy sheltered nest. Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaver^ Hath swallowed up thy form ; yet on my heart Deeply hath sunk the lesison thou hust given And shall not soon depail. He who from zonQ to zone Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone, ^ Will lead my steps aright. BUYANT. THE BLIND MOTHER. Gently, deur motI>er, here The bridge is broken near thee, and below The waters with a rapid current flow — Gently, and do not fear j Lean on me, mother — plant thy staflf before thee, For she who loves thee most is watching o'er thee. The green leaves as we pass Lay their light fingers on thee unaware, And by thy side the hazel clusters fair, And the low forest grass Grows green and lovely, where the wood paths wind, w Alas, for thee, dear mother, thou art blind. »*'i 4l)« . Aiul nature iw all biij;lit ; And tite faint gray and crinuson of llic duwn, Like folded curtains from the day are drawn ; And evening's dewy light Quivers in tremulous softness on the sUy — Alas, dear mother, for thy clouded oyo i And the kind look of friends Peruse the sad expression in ihy face, ' And the child stops umid his bounding race, And the tall stripling bends Low to thine ear with duly uuforgot — klas, dear mother, that thou seo'st them not ! But tiiou canst hear — and lovo •lay richly on a human tongue be poured, And the slight cadence of a whispered word And daughter's love may prove ; And while I speak thou knowost it'l smile Albeit thou dost not see niy face ti\e while. Yes — thou canst hear — and IJe Who on thy sightless eye its darkness hung, To the attentive ear like harps haih strung Heaven, and earth, and sea ! And 'tis" a lesson in our hearts to know, With but one sense the soul may overflow ! Anonymous. F U A B A SONG FOR MAY-DAY. It is May ! it is May ! And all earth is gay, For at last old Winter is quite away ! He linger'd awhile in his cloak of snow, ^To we the delicate primrose blow ; ^ He saw it, and made no longer stay— And now it is May ! it is May !- 4OT It is May ! it is May And we bless the day When we first delightfully so can say, April had beams amid her showers, Yet bare were her gardens, and cold her bowers ; And her frown would blight, and her smile betray — But flow it is) IVIay ! it is ^ay ! .» It is May ! it is May ? And the slenderest spray Holds up a few leaves to the ripening ray : And the birds sing fearlessly out on high For there is not a cloud in the calm blue sky, And the villc^ers join in their roundelay— > For, O ! itf is Ma^ ! it is IVf ay ! / It is May ! it is May ! And the flowers obey The beams which alone are more bright than they: Up they spring at the touch of the sun. And opening their sweet eyes, one by one, In a language of beauty they seem all to say- Ana otpcrfumes ! — 'tis May ! it is May I It is May ! it is May ! And delights that lay Chill'd and enchained beneath Winter's sway, Break forth again o'er the kindling soul ; And soften and sooth it, and bless it whole ; ■ Oh thoughts more tender than words convey Sigh out — It is May ! it is May ! ANONYMOUt. .') 408 yaE SILENT GLEN. This silent i(\en, this silent glen, Oh how 1 love its solitude ! Far from those busy haunts of men, Far from the heartlegs multitude ; No eye save nature's sovereign beam ; No breath, but heaven's, to break the dream | No voice, but yonder babbling stream. Dares on the ear intrude. The peace — the peace of graves is here ; O that it would but last ! But man lives like the waning year. Till joy's last leaf is past : His bliss, like autumn plants, of power To flourish for a transient hour. Ere the bud ripens to a flower. Dies on the wintry blast. Yon alder tree — see how she courts The zephyrs as they stray ; Yet every breeze with vhich she sports Scatters a leaf away : So man will wreaths of pleasure crave, Though with each flower a thorn she gave» And the last leaves him in the grave, ' To coldness and decay : How fearfully that hollow blast Raved round the mountains hoar ; Rufiled the wave, in fury pass'd The heath — and was no more ! Such is the fame of mortal man- In pride and fury it began. Yet sooner even than life's brief spaq, The empty noise was o'er. And even to those for whom is spread Joy's, banquet richly crown'd. This world is but a gorgeous bed, Where in fast slumber bound, )' 400 Pomp s gaudy trappings spread beneath, They dream away life's fleeting breath, Till night comes closing in, and death Draws his dark drapery round. Henet Nbeli ■■I WHO IS MY NEIGHBOUR T Thy neighbour ? It is he whom thou Hast power to aid and bless. Whose aching heart or burning brow Thy soothing hand may press. Thy neighbour ? Tis the fainting poor, Whose eye with want is dim. Whom hunger sends from door to door ; Gro thou and succour him. Thy neighbour ? *Tis that weary man, Whose years are at their brim. Bent low with sickness, cares, and pain ; Go thou and comfort him. ^ Thv neighbour ? 'Tis the heart bereft , Of every earthly gem ; Widow and orphan, helpless left :— Go thou and shelter them. Thy neighbour 1 Yonder toiling slayoi Fettered in thought and limb, Whose hopes are all beyond the grave : Go thou and ransom him. Oh, pass not, pass not heedless by ; , Perhaps thou canst redeem The breaking heart from misery : Oh share Siy lot with him. AifoKfirooii* /. TAB BNM.