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Las diagrammas suivants illustrent la mathode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I iu;|2£ ill 2.5 yo ™^ lilies y. |3.2 ||2.2 ^Uf ^ us 1 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ST^ '653 East Main Slreet S^S Rochester, New York 14609 USA '-as {^'6) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^^ (716) 288 - 5989 - fan ••''---, 5- iTii'-f::!.--.-!^ rTV""^^^^*" Hi SHEIK-EL-BELAD. Ancient Egyptian Wood Carving. (Circa 4000 B.C.) »iv .-^^ ~ ,. MiiiliiM^^iittXiii^i^ Easy Lessons in the Art of Practical Wood Carving SUITED TO THE WANTS OF CARPENTERS JOINERS, AMATEURS AND PROFES- SIONAL WOOD CARVERS BEING A PRACTICAL MANUAL AND GUIDE TO ALL KINDS OF WOOD CARVING. INCLUDING CHIP CARVING FLAT CARVING, INCISED WORK AND FIGURE CARVING, TOGETHER WITH AN ESSAY ON THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN FOR CARVED WORK OF ALL KINDS By FRED T. HODGSON, M.O.A.A. AUTHOR OF "Pr.ctic.1 Tre.t..e on the U« of the Steel Square," "Modern C.rpentry," "Com- mon.Sen,e Stair Building and Handrailing," "Drawing Self-Taught " "Hard- wood nnUher," "Modern E.Umator and Contractor'. Guide" etc Over Two Hundred Illustrations, Diagrams and Designs CHICAGO, U.S.A. FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 1905 COPYRIGHT, 1905 BY FREDERICK J. DRAKE & COMPANY CHICAGO, U. S. A. TTPOORAPHT BT IIABSH, AITKEN & CUKTI8 COMPANY, CHICAOO OSttUIiHO Ci.'i-'iL'X-T .i . A PREFACE The author and compiler of this work prepared a series of articles on Carving for "The National Builder" a few years ago, and also a series on the same subject for The Carpenter," the official organ of "The Brotherhood of American Carpenters." Since these articles were prepared, the writer has received many requests asking that the articles be put in book form and in compliance with these requests I have selected from these articles what I consider to be the better portions, have amended many of them, rewritten others and added much new matter, for which I am indebted to The Woodworker," "Wood Carving," by George Jack, "Wood Carving for Amateurs," by David Den- ning, also to several other standard works on wood carving, so that the reader of this book -although he may have read the articles referred to-will have an almost entirely new phase of the subject placed before him. Besides culling the best from the articles referred to and embodying it in the present work, I have selected from many sources such matter, instructions and illustrations as I thought would be suited to the wants of the American workman who aspires to become a carver of wood. The designs in the first portion of the work are purposely made simple and easy to work Ifforts^' *° '^^"^ '^^ workman steadily on to greater I have gone to some length in describing the tools required, the methods of using them, and the care they 9 'S.'fSnJHesfr 6 PREFACE demand, giving such rules as long and successful experience has taught as the best. This portion of the work is, perhaps, the most important to the young student, for without a thorough knowledge of the tools and a complete mastery over them, no person can ever become a good wood carver; indeed, a complete control of all the tools necessary in this fascinating art is in itself an education of a high order. The section on "ChipCarving," with the illustrations and designs given, is in a measure a complete treatise m itself, and may be reckoned as such by the amateur workman who does not care to follow up the art to a higher plane. In a work of this kind our province is to keep as much as possible to things appertaining to architectural work. Carved woodwork, as an accessory to archi- tecture, is an ornamental and refined detail that presents an infinite charm to the cultivated mind. It is a mistake, and a serious one, to carve wood too fragile, or indeed fragile at all. There is no real skill, in point of fact, in too much undercutting. In figure work, too, uplifted and extended hands or arms, and especially pointing fingers, are a weakness and a snare. Much anxious labor is spent in their creation, and is simply thrown away, yea, and worse, for in a few short years, maybe only weeks or days, those pro- jecting parts, obtruding from niche or newel, will surely be knocked off by some careless duster. Of course the broken pieces maybe mended, stuck together with glue, but is there anything more humiliating to an ambitious craftsman than to see a statuette, the project of days or weeks, thus mutilated? Yet whose is the fault? Not altogether that of the careless one who does the actual damage. Surely a much larger PREFACE 7 amount of blame must belong to the unthinking and unmindful workman who, forgetful of everything but the fact that-in his own eyes-he is doing something wonderful upon his bench, makes that which cannot be expected to have a long life in the position for which it is destined. A boy— a girl for that matter— cannot begin to learn the art of wood carving too early. Thirteen years old IS a good age; fourteen quite late enough. It is a great mistake to keep a youngster at schoof until he begins to fancy he knows more than his father or any one else. We never knew any one lo first went to the trade, say at eighteen or nineteen, turn out really well. A boy learning in a good shop (if an apt pupil) by the lime he is of age feels compete.n to hold his own with any ordinary workman. That is one of the grandest and haj^piest feelings a young man can possess when starting the battle of life on his own account. It is a curious but well-known practical fact that a youth wh.j has served a time at wood carving (if he possesses ordinary appli^-ation) can always learn to carve stone or marble afterwards, and with a few years' practice will be able to hold his own with pay follower of either of the latter branches. On the other hand, we never knew a stone or marble carver who could carve wood properly. Some of them moy think they can, but they really cannot do it. The knack of treating the graix in wood must always be acquired in youth, or it vill never be thoroughly mastered later on. The stone or marble carver v/ho tries his hand at wood tears rather than cuts the stuff, and when he finds he cannot do it properlv, swears, and there's an end of it! Some of the most successful I r- -^i^ 8 PREFACE artists who ever lived commenced their brilliant careers as wood carvers. *"«rcers The good carpenter finds no trouble whatever in cutt n5 "7 '"""P ^'""^^^^ '^'■^ knowledge of cutting and manipulating woodwork in a hundred iZ7L t H ''^'T'' '■""• '^'^^ ^^ ^^^ "-^ °f tool is cale. ?' '''^' '"' ^'^^ ^*^'P ^^^"^ go^d joinery or cabinet makmg to carving is comparatively an easy one and we may say right here that this book is pre- pared more especially for the carpenter, joiner and tha^"f Tt" ^': '""^ ^^'"^^^•"' °^ woodworking than for those who intend to follow wood carving alone as a profession, though the work cont.: ,s much that will interest and instruct the professional '"lilt t^^b " ul """^^. ^^ '^^''^"^ -^ '•"--^-• Ihat the book has its faults and shortcomings goes without saying. What book has not? Buf if 1 thought to be as good as any other like book on the sub ect 3„, .3 ^^^ , ^^^^p^^^ ^^^ .^ ^ e partcu a,s ,s superior to other books of the kind. Ihat It IS more suited to the wants of the ordinarv woodworker the editor feels confident, knowt^ ' he does, just exactly what (heir wants are in this direction and on this ground, along with its oth good .juaht.es, the book is placed in the hands o is readers with an assurance that it wi:i be welcomed bv thousands who have -ead the writer's other works. " Fred T. Hodgson. COLLINGWOOD, ONTARIO, April 1st, 1905. :.as:M'^''w M*!Sgpimi3nm.-\< -v-"^"- Practical Wood Carving INTRODUCTORY JHarry Hems, the celebrated English carver, says: No doubt, as a matter of pojition it is better to be a good wood carver than a good joiner, but a poor carver IS a long way down the scale below the handy carpen- ter. It IS not every one that has the natural 'gift' to become a really clever carver of wood. Parents should ever be careful to give their sons several months' probat.on ere the fate of the youngster is decided upon. If a boy has no real talent for wood carving he never ought to be apprenticed to the profession for hard work and the most diligent app cation will rarely make i:p for lack of natural ability. Of all the many hundred businesses that go strictly hand 'in hand with the bu.ld.ng trade, that of a figure carver in wood or architectural purposes has its fewest representatives. L!^ r?K """' '" '" ^"^'^"^ '' ^, i/. H and J inch sizes, will be a fair proportion ' ^' ^'' ^ ^"^ "^ These tools are almost flat like chisels, but instead of bemg quite so have a slight curve. Between the flat gouge and that with the "quickest" curve there are several with varying degrees of sweep, and two of a medium quickness may be added in. say H inch size, as well as one of the "quickest " These latter, when of the smallest size, are known as veiners. from their frequent use in carving the vebs or small grooves in leaves. Till some measure o facility has been gained with larger tools their employ- ment will be found difficult. Chisels are of two kinds, those with the ends ground straight across and those with bevel ends. These latter are known as skew or corner chisels, and next to the cllT^n "■' r\^' '^' '"^^^ "^^f"' t°°l^ of the (TinrU^ "^ t'^'J" ^'"^ °^ '^'''^ '■" ^he smallest (tV inch) and % inch sizes will be useful, but in these as indeed in other tools, the selection must chiefly de- pend on the style of carving the worker prefers A parting or. as it is commonly called, a V tool is 20 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING '%:*% another useful one, and is almost irdispensable, but at first it is difficult to use properly. The reason for its familiar designation will be recognized. The J4 inch size will be most useful to the beginner. All the tools that will be required at first are what are known as "straight," All varieties are, however, made in both "bent" and "curved." Their object is to allow of their edges cutting in places which could not be reached with the straight tools. The curved variety is of comparatively litJe use, as the beginner will find that almost everything, he is likely to attempt can be done with straight or bent tools. If any bent tool is got with the first lot of tools it should be a bent chisel of the smallest size, as it will sometimes be useful in cutting away the ground in places which could not well be reached by the other tools. In choosing these tools do not be too easily satisfied, or inclined to think that the first that is seen will suit, but rather take time and examine each separately until those of the right sort are found; for, as in other matters, there are tools and tools. Choose, then, those that are long and slender, and of which the points when pressed on the table feel somewhat springy; they should also be slightly, almost imperceptibly, bent up towards the end; this curve must not be exaggerated, or it will weaken the tool. Sets of tools for amateurs are generally sold handled, but for ordinary carvers' tools the handles arc supplied separately. They can be fitted on by the tool dealer; if, however, the carver prefers to do this, great care must be taken to set them in very straight, as otherwise the tool will not work truly. The handle itself should be small but long, about one-half of the %' v' CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 21 whole length; this is especially necessary in those tools with which a mallet is used, in order to have plenty of room for the hand to grasp it without fear of being hit. The length of handle for the smaller tools, which are chiefly used without the mallet, must be regulated by the size of the hand, the forefinger of which should rest on or a little below the hilt, while the butt end rests in and is push -d forward by the hollow of the pa/m. The form of ready-made handles is generally round, but an octagonal or hexagonal shape, with the thickest part in the middle rather than at .he end, is a very useful variety, as it thus affords a firmer grasp for the fingers. Handles should be made of some hard wood, such as ebony, rosewood or box, or indeed any wood capable of being made very smooth and highly polished; if otherwise, the palm of the hand would be liable to be galled by the constant friction and pressure. This is a point of great impor- tance, and should always be borne in mind, for the very best carver could hardly fail to turn out bad work when wincing under a blistered hand, and nothing is so certain to cause this as an ill-made or roufjh handle. For this reason it is well to avoid using a tool the handle for which has been beaten and frayed with blou , from the mallet, without repolishing it with a file or sandpaper. If, instead of the modest number of tools I have suggested, a greater quantity is purchased, it will be found very convenient to have the handles of various woods and colors, so that each may be known at a glance; thus, for instance, the smaller gouges might be of rosewood, the largest cherry wood, the chisel ebony, and others of boxwnnd; also it is convenient to have a number or any special mark branded on the 23 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING handle to denote the size; by this means no time is which would certamly be the case were they all alike without any means of distinguishing them. All these jttle matters, trivial and hardly worth noticing though .hey may seem, are nevertheless, as long experience has taught, of very material assistance In any but the lightest work a mallet of some kind IS necessary for no tool should be pounded with a hammer. The carver's mallet should have a round head exactly like a stone mason's mallet, though an ordinary mallet will serve the purpose, but the former IS preferable. Wood carving may be said to be of three kinds, the simplest of which is Surface Carving; it might be called engraving, and is appropriate for the adornment of objects that are handled, such as caskets, book racks, book covers, glove and other small boxes. This work .s better known as Chip Carving, of which I wi'I have nore to say later on. Surface carving is most effective when done on a polished (shellacked) surface, where a design, say of leaves and blossoms, is left bright, and the background IS roughened or grained by stamping and afterward darkened by oiling. Another method of carving is called incised work. It is relief intaglio, the design being outlined and modeled, leaving the re- ma.ninr surface of the wood untouched. This method .s sometimes, though incorrectly, called intaglio carving But intaglio cutting or engraving is the re- verse of relief, such as a cameo; it is an engraving or carving which, when impressed on wax or plaster, gives a raised or relief design. Incised carving"^ is modeled m relief, but done without lowering or cutting away the remaining surface. A more general and more artistic CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 23 method of carving is relief work, where the design when completed appears wholly raised above the uniform depth. The background may be smoothly finished or it may be grained by stamping. The rough background, absorbing the oil, appears to give a heightened effect to the carving. The tools shown in Fig. 1 are about all that will be required for a tart. The shape of the tool is given, also the cut it gives. An expert workman may use a larger number of tools, but for the beginner the follow- ing list is amply sufficient; as he advances he can add others, as the work in hand may demand. The follow- ing eleven tools will serve for all kinds of carving ex- cept perhaps modeling in the round, yet they are used in this kind of carving in some cases. The first of the illustrations, the carver's chisels, are called by the trade firmers, to distinguish them from the chisel used by carpenters. Of these useful tools there are a great many sizes, from ^\ of an inch to 2 inches in width. Thv. smaller sizes are called picks; carvers generally make them themselves. Of chisels select two sizes or three, one ^\ of an inch and one >^ inch. The second lot are very useful tools for cutting into corners, veining and other purposes. Of the tools chooso two sizes, one % - ^=^ ILICHTLT CUIVED BINT TOOU ^ = =4=" DIEPLT CUItVECi JIT TOOU. VI u l-ASTINC TOOL ; (B) VCINEI. Fio. 1. Carving Tools. 1 24 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING one")"of '"^""k '^ 'f^- ^^Ihe gouges shown, select one ^ nf an inch and one ^ of an inch. Gouges are of a. I . n.tuaes of curves, from the slightest curve tha. M- almost be taken for flat to the half of an oval < these select one >^ and ore H 01 v. inch When the tools are purchased they are not ground, nether have they handles. The tools must first be sei '" handles. To put the han- t::^ j:^ t:~— 'J'^s on, the tool is held in ^ C •;;;— ^ •> ^'s^. the handle is pushed onto the tongue of the tool and twisted backward and forward to make the hole in the handle larger. This should be continued until it can be pushed within three- quarters of an inch of the ..^ , . . , shoulder of the tool; it is then driven r.ght home. This method prevents the hand, f „ ,^,,^,.^^ j^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ J^^^ e and make very good carvers' tools, but probably the are V V h"; •" '?"^'^ '"^' "^^^^ '^^ ^^''^^ '^"^ ^hey are \ery high priced. ' The cutting edges of a variety of tools are shown in as he" y -"^ r'' ^^^ ^"^^"''■^^ "^y ^he workman as he advances in the art. fig. 3 shows a number of * fi punch points which will come ^ -*■ Y ^ in for diapering or padding ° + the background of the work '' '"""=""• man u , 1 1 be able to make himself out of round and square bars of steel of the proper s.-ction. Th. steH can be sottened by heating and then let cool gradually, QflCK TOOLS. Fi CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 25 after which the pattern on the end may be worked out w.th a file cold chisel or drill, as the pattern may demand; after which the steel must be heated to a cherry red color and then plunged into oil or into a stick of sealing wax. This process will make the tool quite hard enough for ordinary purposes. A very useful punch, and one that is easily made, is shown in Fig. 4, also the impression it makes. This •;•• Fi style of padding is very often used. It is quite effective. . ^ Every carver should provide himself with a bench He may make one for himself according to the size and construction shown in the illustration Fig r The top should be made of two 11.2 inch bo'ards and as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed ai .he joints should have some care. Those in illustration are shown to be formed by checking one piece of wood over the other, with shoulders to resist the lateral stram. Proper tenons would be better, but more difficult to make. It must have a projecting edge at the front and ends to receive the clamps. The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw" attached to the back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its edges or ends. The feet should be secured to the floor by means of iron brackets, as considerable force is applied tn carving hard wood, which mav movr^ th- bench bodily unless it is secured or is very heavy i-rofessional car^•ers use a bench which is composed of I 26 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING beech planks three or four inches in thickness and of such a length as can be accommodated by the room available. Another bench, somewhat more elaborate than that shown m Fig. 5, is shown in Fig. 6. This has a top 36x36 mches. which is ly, inches in thickness; it IS not necessary to be hard wood; red or white pine is quite strong and suitable enough; it should be square Fig. 5 edged and should project 3 inches clear of the legs and rails. The legs and rails should be of fairly heavy material, as regards si.e. to give the whole bench sufficient weight. An open shelf and a drawer for the tools should be provided. The dimensions of the bench and its parts are given in the sketch. A bench like this has many advantages; it is strong and heavy It enables the learner to get to both the end and side ot his work. It provides accommodation for his tools the work IS easily fastened to it, and one of the greatest advantages is that there is room enough ia CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 27 the center for a light to be placed, whether electric, gas, or lamp light, without anything being able to obstruct its free passage to the student's work. rhe bench shown in Fig. 7 is quite different from the previous ones, but is the one preferred by Harry Hems, and is from an illustration of his making Fig. 6. Regarding it he has the following to say, which I think worthy of production at this poinl: "A wood carver dearly loves his bench, and is not altogether quite at home without it. In this he differs from the stone carver, who prefers to carve what he is about tnsit». A carver's bench is quite different in construction from a joiner's; the latter is portable and may be put anywhere at will, the former is stationary and should always be fixed under a window I as PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING •The carver's bench is also somewhat higher than a joiner i, i.e., it must be 3 feet 2^ inches high. The niain portion, that which is actually worked upon, should be of well-seasoned beech, 4 inches thick and i foot 8 mches wide, firmly planted upon framing of the same material, with upright supports (4 x 3 inches) about 3 feet apart. Behind this, i.e., farthest from the Fig. 7. worker, it should be widened out by a deal plank i foot 4 inches wide or thereabouts, fixed so that its surface is 3 inches below the actual working bench This allows the tools to be spread upon it without their handles projecting quite so high as the top of the bench itself. Thus a large job may always be turned about without in any way interfering with the tools CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 29 which lie upon the lower level. The height given is an excellent and comfortable one for the average wc -n, whilst a short one or boy can always suit his own convenience, as necessary, by having a block or iwo to stand upon. About I foot from the ground there should be a shelf of 1^ inch pine. This is always found most useful, not only to stow away odd pieces of stuff that are sure to come in handy some day, but also to put a foot upon now and again when a change of position is desired. In one of my own sUidios we have a continuous bench measuring 70 feet long. It offers fairly ample accommodation for twenty carvers, i. ., allowing 3 feet 6 inches for each crafts- man. "As it is essential for light that a carver's bench be fixed under windows, it is also necessary that the latter be provided with blinds. The head is bent forward whilst its owner is at work, and in warm weather the sun pours upon it inconveniently. "It is only careless wood carvers who work upon the actual bench itself. There should always be cutting boards of i inch yellow pine between the bench and the job in hand. The'se not only save the benches, but if work has to be pared or cut through, the softer material saves the under edges of the finished carvings from breaking away. The benches may be bored in a couple of places to take the hold-fast, and a couple of smaller holes at convenient distances be made for the bench-screw. For the latter, bored blocks are required to pack up the screw under the bench board, and care shoulc' be tak n never to fasten down the hold-fast upon the work to be carved with hard wood. Use a piece of deal, otherw-se the carving itself may be bruised. Ofcouisj a slight dent of the kind in oak 30 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING may always be 'lifted- again by a few applications of spittle, the moisture of the saliva swelling the dent up "Most jobs can be best carried out on benchf-s. but ex- on must be taken to figures and figure panels These should never be laid on the flat, save for under cuttmg. A plant may be fixed vertically from the floor to the ceiling joists. Holes can be l)ored in this at convenient heights, and by means of a bench- screw— or more than one, if necessary-the statue or panel can be securely fixed level with the eye. Then the worker may bang away at it and see what he is doing. "It is only thoughtless carvers who put finished or partly finished work down upon the floor, even for five minutes. There is always more or less dust upon the floor of even the best appointed shop, and soiled work IS ever an abomination. Never let the glue pot touch the floor either. Dirty glue, of all things, is disgrace- tul. What looks worse than a black joint that sug- gests that somebody has been lining it with a lead pencil? Further, never use cheap glue. Tne u ore costly is the best and cheapest in the long run The benches should be fixed firmly against the wall immediately under a continuous row of windows It is well for the latter to be glazed with ribbed glass up to a leve' ' -p the ordinary line of sight. This prevents ^"^' ^ ''"ff looked through either by workmen or pass. 'Vork naturally suffers if attention is diverted fro... ... "It is a great mistake for a carver's bench to be placed, like a joiner's, in the midst of a shop; the light IS then all wrong. The greatest number of wood carvers I ever saw at work together was M Pullman's car works, a dozen miles or so out of Chicago. It was CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 31 in 1893, at the time of the World's Fair. There were fully 3Q0 of them, all erriloyed on piece-work, and the majority not earning more than they would have done in England. In the different shops there were two rows of continuous benches, one line of them arranged directly under the windows, and the other running parallel a few yards behind. I rt collect those working m the rear complained bitterly how severely they were handicapped in regard to light." E.\perience tells us that in winter time and on dark days It is always economi to keep plenty of arcificial light burning in a carve. 's shop. At all times it ''pays" better to light up half an hour too soon than five minutes too late. A man can always work better and more readily utilize an "inspiration" when the surroundings are cheerful. In dull weather it is well to keep the gas burning all day. As a rule, in a carver's studio when more light is required warmth is also desired. Gas gives light and makes warmth, and hence is better than electricity, for there is no warmth in the latter. When at work the carver should always wear a blouse — white by ch lice — and "s, >ort"aclean one every Mon- day morning. Blouses not on- ly greatly save the clothes, but are a pleasant distinction from the joiner s apron. As I stated on a former page, the ma' let made use or by the carver should have 1 rnuru] f-.-^ -,- i _.. ' ""-' "rt»t. a ruuiiu rd(.c, as shown in tigs. 8 and 9. though this is not absolutely necessary, Fig 8. Fig. ;-•.-.",»)! k li 32 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING as will be shown later on. The mallet. Fig. 9, is shown L7,T7: rJ''' ^°' "''^^ ^'- ''--' the proper meth^^ of hold.ng the chisel or gouge when the mallet Another shape of mallet is shown in Fig. u, where some examples of tool holding are also ilfustrated L which the proper po- sition of the hands is shown while at work. Except when using the mallet, hold the tool with both hands; in the right, the han- dle, the first and sec- ond fingers of the left hand resting on and guiding the tool an inch or so from the end. With both hands above the sharp edge, all dan- v^nf«^ xxr. ger of accident is pre- vented. When some force is required the mallet should be used. The handle of the tool should then be hdd firmly m the left hand, between the fingers and If the mtnet"^"^' ^^^"^ ''' ^^ ''' ^^^^ ^'^ -^^^ The best carvers' mallets are turned and made of pouldr^',^'^ ""^r ---^e weight istu-o pounds A larger one may be rather cumbersome for general work. Don't have too small a mallet; one we.ghmg under a pound gives the impression of playing w h work rather than doing it. Hence it is not sug gest.ve of a d.l.gent journeyman. In the old days Fig. 10. ^^S-Mr^ m^^'M -*>'^ CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 33 mallets were oblong, like those used by joiners, although generally rounded off at the top. I remem- ber when I went to the trade my first task was to make my own mallet of iVi. :hape. This I managed fairly well, the mort. ,.nf,' for the handle being the most awkward part - ■ t^.e business to a mere novice; for (TAHPINC Till aACKCROUND. Fig. II. OITTLININC rOK KLilF WO*N. there were no mortising machines in those days, or not at least in my own shop at Sheffield in the forties. Although a mallet is not so necessary a tool to a wood carver as it is to the carver of stone, to whom it is an actual essential, its use cannot be too systematically cultivated. All rough-cut should be done with it, and 34 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING -* i 1 bosses, cornices, and other work intended to be fixed at a height from the eye, should invariably be finished with the mallet. When engaged on these classes of work the mallet should never leave the carver's hand, for the cut left by the chisel with the mallet behind it is always the most effective when looked up at from the ground. Further, by the free and continuous use o the mallet the work is got over in half the time i would otherwise take. In architectural carving the great end to be attained is general good effect. If it is to be successful, the lights and shadows, the outlines and general grouping must be happy and effective when seen from the real point of sight, i.e., the floor. Half a dozen strokes judiciously administered may make a really effective patera, whereas half a day's minute work upon a bench may produce something which, when placed in position upon the wall plate of a roof, will not only be disappointing but practically invisible. It is a very general practice of wood carvers to use the half-closed palm of ine hand as a sort of human mallet, and for light work this is a useful and whole- some custom. All experienced wood carvers have a large hoof in the middle of the palm as a result thereof. It must not be ignored or overlooked, however, that this practice, if carried too far, may have unpleasant or even dangerous consequences. As it is, few mature wood carvers can open their right hand quite straight. In course of time the habit causes the fingers to become rigidly bent inwards, although the flexor tendons and joints arc unaffected. Subcutaneous division of the contracted bands sets the fingers free, but a relapse is nearly sure to occur. An eminent surgeon says, "There are quite half a dozen different operations in vogue for this deformity, but I never CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 35 knew one hich was really successful— that is to say, which resulted in a permanent cure." Carvers sharpen their chisels and gousiTes quite dif- ferently from joiners and carpenters. These latter rub all from one side and get a hard beveled edge; the former get a thin, keen edge— on chisels and gouges alike— in the middle of the steel, rubbing from back and front. The best oilstones probably are known as Washita, and most favorite "slips" are those from Arkansas. The latter are, of course, for sharpening the concave insides of gouges, and are ground to various sweeps to fit them. After properly sharpen- ing, the edges are "strapped" upon a buff leather— a soldier's belt makes a capital strap, rubbed in with crocus powder and tallow. It is a singular but certain fact that soft wood requires keener edged tools to finish work cleanly with than hard wood. Thi's deal or cedar must be carved with sharper tools than oak demands. Besides hi? Met and chisels a carver practically wants nothin, a hold-fast, screw, and a pair of calipers. Thei .ic is set up, and can go anywhere, and— if the ability is in him— do anything. A good carver rarely carries a lead pencil. He trusts to his eye. What will deceive a practical and well-trained optic will readily deceive the whole world. He never carries a rule under any circum- stances. If by any chance he should require one for a minute or two, he borrows it from a joiner. One of the most important branches of the carver's art is a knowledge of the proper methods employed in sharpening the tools he or she has to make use of. Sharp tools solve the mystery of clean cutting and good work. Great care should be taken that the edges i^^-^l 36 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING of the tools do not knock or rub against one another. The good carver keei)s his tjols parallel with each other when not in use, or better still, he rolls them up in a slightly oiled cloth, havin^ one layer of cloth between each tool. Sharpening tools is to the wood carver what thread- ing the needle is to the seamstress— a continual annoy- ance, yet not without its advantage, as it breaks In on a too long continued abstraction in work. Tools must be of very good quality and very sharp. Many tools which are brittle at first, at the edge, improve after this has been worn away. It will be necessary, while carvmg with one tool continuously, to touch it up on the hone ai>out once in ten or fifteen minutes. It is hardly necessary to describe how tools are ground, for there is hardly a place in the world where there is not a tool seller, a carpenter, a smith or tinker who can shov you the method. A grindstone and an oilstone are almost as necessary as tools. Carpenters' tools are sharpened on only one side, carvers' tools on both. The V tools and gouges are sharpened externally on the wheel and stones as chisels are. But the grinding on the inside is done with a bit of Arkansas oilstone called a slip, ground or filed down so as to e.xactly fit the edge. Remember that to do this with only the stone and the tools is dangerous for the fingers. There- fore set the slip in a piece of xvood, which may be screwed into a vise or laid on the table and held fast by nails. After tools have been ground and had the first dull or wire edge removed, they must be set on an oilstone which gives them greater keenness. They should then be stropped on a piece of leather. If there is no strop at hand a substitute may be found in the smooth sur- ^^w CAR\ r:R.S' TOOLS AND APPLIANXES 37 face of a planed pine board. It is difficult for a tyro to grind and set the V tool or gouges. Those who intend to carve should first of all learn to sharpen and set tools. It IS by no means difficult to do this if they will on y try. Gouges and chisels when p-rchased are beveled at the cutting edge. This bevel should always be preserved. When grinding th. tools the gouges are held to the grinding stone at precisely the angle indicated and are moved backward and forward bv the motion of the wrist across the grindstone, and .' the same time are twisted between the thumb and fore- hnger. This action preserves the curves, which must always be perfect. Little difficult^■ will be found in sharpening the chisels, as they are held to the grind- stone perfectly flat; yet they must be moved from one side of the stone to the other or you will work a groove in the stone in a very little time. The oilstone is a tool that very few take proper care ot. It IS indispensable and therefore should be treated as carefully as the sharpest cutiing instrument Oil- stones should never be allowed to get clogged up with dirty, dried oil. They should be kept free from dust and grit. The best oilstone is one in a I'lbst'n 'ZV """'.V "^''^ "^■•'^•"- ^^^»<^n^a^ oil oed d " "''' ''^ '" P""'^^''^ *he same way and wiped dry every time they are used Fi^ 77 T^ T '^ "'^""' '" "''^^^"^ '^ ^hown in ^>g. 12. It IS distressing to the trained mechanic to Fig. 12. i 38 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING saunter through a workshop and sec about half the oilstones on the bench worn hollow in the center Hke a sway-backed horse. This evil will be corrected if the stone ,s set in a block, as illustrated in the sketch with pieces of hard wood about i^ inches long at each end and flush with the face of the stone, ^his ^ill en bU. he workman ,n sharpening his tools to whet mcr the ends of the stone as well as in the middle of M thereby keeping ,t straight. Should the stone, after long use, show any hollow places, take a piece of No. 2. sandpaper lay.ng it on a flat board, turn the stone face down and a br.sk rubbing will soon put it in good wh f n .'''"^f"^^'^'^ "P^" 't, the latter will not slip whilst rubbing the stone. ^ When being honed, tools are held to the stone at the saine angle or bevel as when being ground. The flat tools are rubbed up and down the stone, as if you were making a long figure 8. Hone on one side and up and down the stone, twisting the tool between the thumb and fingers. These tools should not be pressed hard upon the stone. The action should be quk-k and ■ght or the tools will have ragged edges, v^hlch are very hard to remove and very often destroy the curve you are rriost anxious to preserve. A gouge properly sharpened upon a flat stone should not want the sp applied to the concave side. It should only be us d when there is a feathery edge. The constant use of the sip ,ns,de will spoil the curve, whether the stone nts It exactly or not. unlnZ '•'7"'''^ °.f ^ ^^^S<^ has been clearly rubbed up to the edge, the inside is to be rubbed out with a washita slip of the proper shape, as shown in Fig 13 tif 'm:''-3mm3Msss: CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANXES 39 to the extent of half as much as the outside The handle of the tool should be graspea in the left hand while Its blade rests on a block of wood, or on the oilstone. Hold the slip between tne fingers and thumb, slanting a little over the inner edge, and work .t in a seri-3 of do^ nward strokes, beginning the Fig. 13 strokes at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at he other, as shown in Fig. 14. Strop the outside of the tool and test for burr, then lay the leather strap over the handle of another tool and strop the inside repeating the operation until all burr has been fTuse ' '" P^^^bably the tool will then be ready The veiner requires the same kind of treatment, only trai ^t ", " """? "^ ' ""'^ '" '^^ section-having and ir • ^'^""^^'^-^-half must be done at a time! and t ,s well to give the straight sides one stroke o so ,n every half dozen, all to itself, to keep it L^^\uf^ """'' ^^ '^'^'^^" ^^"'^h this tool, as it is easily rubbed out of .shap*- ju^;^ -^^ ^„^, ^ c- , r^ff ,...fu .1- , , "^F- * ■■■- ■n--."e must be finisned off with the Arkansas knife-edged slip, one side at a ■ f .->-■' I t i m338H PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING time, as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section of these deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must follow as before, but as this tool is so small that the Fig. 14. leather strop will not enter its hollow, the leather must be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn along its edge until it makes a little ridge for itself vCATwe Fig. 15. which fills the hollow and cleans off the burr; the method being shown in Fig. i;. If any burr adheres outside, a slight rub on the Arkansas stone will prob- ^' CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 41 ably remove it. When the edges of the tools begin to get dull, it often happens that they only require to be stropped, which should be frequently done. A strop suitable for the carver's use may be made from a piece of good harness leather, or from an ordinary razor strop. It is a good idea to glue a piece of ^-ood, suitable leather on tl'c top or cover of the oilstone, which may be used for stropping flat chisels and many other tools. Of course, a loose strop should always accompany a set of carving tools, whether the set number many or few pieces. As the treatment of all gouges is more or less like what has been described, practice wi'l enable the beginner to adapt it to the shape which requires his attention. There remain only the V tools, the spoon tools and the macaroni which will require special attention. The point of the V tool is so acute that it becomes diflficult to clear the inside. A knife-edged slip is used for this purpose, and it is well also to put a slip of wood to a thin edge, and after rubbing it with paste and oil, pass it down frequently over the point between the sides. Unless a very' sharp point is obtamed, this too' is practically useless; the least speck of burr or di-llness will stop its progress or tear up the wood. In sharpening it, the sides should be pressed firmly on the stone, watching it every now and then to see what effect is being produced. If a gap begins to appear on one side, as it often does, then rub the other side until it disappears, taking care to bear more heavily on the point of the tool than else- where. If the sides get out of shape, pass the tool along the stone, holding it at right angles to the side of the stone, but at the proper angle of elevation; in this case the tool is held near its end, between finders ft »;-> — 4* PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING and thumb. Spoon tools must be held to the stone at a much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the right relation to the surface, or thev may be drawn s.dewise along it, taking care that every part of the edge comes ui contact ar d receives an equal amount of rubbmg. These may be treated half at a time, or all round, accorduig to the size and depth of the tool However it is produced, the one thing essential is a long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not a rounded or obtuse one. Strop the inside by folding up the leather mto a little roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the tool. For a small set of tools one flat oilstone and two slips will be found sufficient for a beginning, but as a matter of fact, it will be advisable, as the number of tools is enlarged, to obtain slips of curves correspond- ing to the holl . of all gouges as nearly as possible. Many professional carvers have sets of these slips for the insides of tools, varying in curves which exactly fit every hollow tool they possess, including a triangular one for the inside of the V tool. The same rule some- times applies to the sweeps of the outsides of gouges- for these, corresponding channels are ground out in flat stones, a process which is both difficult and laborious. If the inside, are dealt with on fitting slips, which may be easily adapted to the purpose bv application to a grindstone, the outsides are not so difficult to manage, so that grooved stones mav be dispensed with. It is well to impress upon the beginner the extreme importance of keeping his tools ii. good order. When a tool IS really sharp it whistles as it works; a dull tool makes dull work, and the carver loses both time and temper. There can be no doubt that the great tech- CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 43 nical skill shown in the works of Grinlinj,' Gibbons and his followers could not have been arrived at without the help of extraordinai.ly sharp tools— tools not merely sharpened and then used until they became dull, but tools that were always sharp and never allowed to approach dullness. Sharpening tools is indeed an art in itself, and like other arts has its votaries who successfully conquer its difficulties with apparent ease, while others are baffled at every point. Impatience is the stumbling-bU ck in such operations! ** II I — I u 1 A . AhOUE. FGR ^OPTWOOO - AJHCkue FOR HAf^OWOOO Fig. 16. Those most painstaking people, the Chinese and Japanese, according to all accounts, put magic into their sharpening stones; the keenness of their blades being only equaled by that of their wits in all such matters of delicate application. To make a good beginning is a great point gained. To carefully examine every too' ^nd at the expense cf time correct faults of management, i. the only way to become expert in sharpening tools. When tools are to be us-d in soft woods their bevels will require to be longer than when for use in the harder woods. I show both angles in Fig. 16. which im.,j» 'Ifc- 44 TRACTICAL WOOD CARVING will give the reader some idea of the requirements in both cases. Lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an angle of about 15 degrees, with the handle in the hollow of the right hand, and two fingers of the left pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as possible. Then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone, taking care lot to rock the right hand up and down, but to keep it as level as possible on the blade with the left hand, to keep it well in contact with the stone. Rocking produces a rounded basil or bevel edge, whii h is fatal to keenness. Practice alone will familiarize the muscles of the wrist with the proper motion, but it is important to acquire this in order to form the correct habit early. It should be practiced very slowly at first, until the hands get accustomed to the movements. When one side of the tool has been rubbed bright as far as the cuttmg edge, turn it over and treat the other in the same way. Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed on both sides, in the proportion of about two-thirds outside to one-third inside. When a keen edge has been formed, which can easily be tested by gently applying the finger, it should be stropped on a piece of stout leather. It will be found, if the finger is passed down the tool and over its edge, that the stoning has turned up a burr. This must be removed by stropping on both sides alt.Tnately. A paste com- posed of emery and crocus powders mixed with grease IS used to smear the leather before stropping; this can either be procured at the tooi shop or made by the carver. When the tool has been suflficientlv stropped and all burr removed, it is ready for use, 'but it is as well to try it on a piece of wood f^rst and test it for burr, and if necessary strop it again. ■i'S ^ -d-- CARVERS- TOOLS AND APl'LIANCES 45 Before wc leave this tool, however, wo shall antic- ipate a little and look at it after it has been used for some time and become blunt. Its cutting edf^'e and the bivel above it are now polished to a hi{;h (le^jree, owiny to friction with the wood. We lay it on the stone, taking care to preserve the original angle (15 degrees). We find on looking at the tool after a little rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along the edge, in contrast with the gray steel which has been in contact with the stone. This bright rim is part of the polished surf.»c« whole bevel had before we began this second . jning, which proves that the actual edge I .,ot yet touched the stone. We are tempted to lift the right hand ever so little, and so get rid of this bright rim (sometimes called the "candle"); we shall thus rub away all the steel behind it. We do this, and soon get our edge; the bright rim has disappeared, but we have done an unwise thing and have not ^nvcd much time, hecaus. we have begun to make a rounded edge, which, if carried a little further, will make the tool useless until it is reground. There is no nelp for it, time must be spent and trouble taken in sharpening tools; with method and care there need be very little i^'rinding, unless tools are actually broken. A good way of testing the keenness of edge on a tool is to try it on a piece of soft pine, cutting (7cross the grain, when, if the tool is properly sharpened, a clean cut, without any tearing of the grain, will be the result. Before commencing a piece of carving I should recommend the student to spend an hour or so in getting in order those tools likely to be required, and unless the work is of an intricate character, a dozen or 46 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING eighteen will be sufficient When in use, the tools are placed on the bench with the blades pointing towards the worker, and owing to the slight difference in the size and sweep of many of them, it is advisable to know the tools by the handles, so as to be able to at once pick up the tool required. In case the beginner has unground tools supplied him, and must rely on himself or the friendly aid of a carpenter to do the grinding, the difference between the edges of xn ordinary cutting tool, such as a chisel, and of carvers' tools must be noted. What might be a very good edge for ordinary joinery would not suit the carver. Tools for carving must aper much more gradually, so that they have a more knl e-hke edge than a joiner's or cabinetmaker's tools. Figs. 17 and 18 represent approximately the Fig. 17. Fig. 18. I I two kinds of edges, that required on carving tools being the thinner of the two. If the tools are ground by any one unaccustomed to the wants of the carver this difference must be insisted on, for however keen the actual cutting edge may be, satisfactory work can- not be ^done unless the tools have a long-tapered edge. It IS therefore at least as important to see that the grinding or initial sharpening is correctly done as the subsequent sharpening on the oilstone. Though this, as well as the former, requires skill, there is less risk of spoiling a tool by a novice, and if he cannot get a carver to do what is necessary he need not hesi- tate to do the sharpening himself. Indeed, the sooner he learns to do so the better, as fools are constantly CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 47 requiring to be sharpened, and the practice of getting an expert to do this whenever needed ; not always convenient. Even if it is, it is far better that the carver should be able to keep the tools in order for himself. If the tools are new, even if they are said to be sharp," it is often a tedious job to get really satisfactory edges. A good deal of patience may be necessary, but any trouble is justified by the result When once the tools are right, it is a comparatively easy matter to keep them so. To prevent misunder- standing, It IS well that the beginner should know that the edge should be as "sharp as a razor." An edee that would do for even a sharp knife would not do for carving. The tools must cut quite cleanly without tearing or bruising the wood. The work should look as If It had been cut, not as if it had been worried or gnawed by rats." K W^VJ''*''"''' ^" roughness left by grinding must be rubbed down, and no sharp angle must be left where the bevel and the straight part of the blade unite Tools should be sharpened on both sides, as in Fie i;, and not only as in Fig. 18. This especially applies A Z \.f. '" ^°"^^' '^^ difference is hardly so deeded. When sharpening chisels, care must be taken to keep the bevel straight, and not to let the edge get rounded off. The sharpening of gouges presents greater difficulty han in the case of flat tools, and the rule may be ated as being that they should be ground on the out- side and sharpened on the inside. It is, however necessary to use the oilstone on the outside first, to remove the roughness left from grinding, and occasion- ally afterwards to keep the edges in condition. Great care must be taken with gouges that the edge acros ii •=!rtM 48 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING «ng or sharpening. ^""*^" The best directions the beginner can have are that the sharpening should be done evenly all nLJJT edge being sharpened equally This \hhn h what diffi.-i,U ;„ r. .• ■'^' ^"'^' '^'^hough some- Tt one end of h ^^' '' "^''^ ^^ ^""^ ^y ^^Sln-'^S at one end of the stone, against which a corner of the drawn -:r'%r' ""'"^"-^ ^"^"'"^ ^he too s t i aU he ; n?"^ •" T^"' ^" ^^^' ^^^er end, the tool being all the time at right angles to the stone, as before stated This applies to the outside of the troupe Th; sharpening proper must be done on the TdT ! or this the smal- .ips alread/rrflrt^ lo"^ t.t used. Many amateurs find a difficulty in usine these page. In other word, toVLfn^^f °? " '""'°"' the lool, and no, .„v '. °„ ' The ,^ "" '^""" In the case- of or.linary cu.ling ,„ob the stone pro- ""T^^T^^^ CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 49 duces a sufficiently keen edge, but not on carving tools. They must be finished off by stropping, much in the same way that a razor is stropped. Much has been written at various times about preparing strops for carvers, but they cannot do better than follow the suggestions given. Still, any piece of buff leather may be used It should be prepared by rubbing in a little preparation composed of grease and some very fine powder such as emery flour, putty powder, the finest pumice powder, or even dust. This latter, from its fineness, is the best when the strop has been matured, but with It alone some time is required to get the strop into condition. Emery powder, even when -n its finest form of flour, cuts away the tool rather too much if freely used, and as a happy medium between the two extremes there is nothing superior to jewelers' rouge Whether this or anything else is used it is just rubbed into the leather with a little grease of any kind At most tool shops a "razor paste' is sold in small, col- . lapsible tubes, and does well for the carver. The strop must never be absent when the carver is at work, for it is in constant requisition, and it is a bad plan to neglect its use. The older it gets the more •ghly ,t IS esteemed generally, and if the tools are properly used an occasional rub with the strop will eep (he.r edges in such condition that the oilstone ■ 111 seldom be required. JTu "'T" ^^\'» the habit of letting the tools all get dull and then having a general sharpening up- it cZ7TX" ".^ '''' *''^ '^ "°* ^ ^^^^ °-' -d^he TJ y. u^^^ " ^'^'''''' °^ ^^^P'"& his tools con- stantly ,n the best possible condition. Before concluding on this subject it may be well to 50 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING give the novice a reliable test by which it may be ascertained whether the edges of the tools are sufficiently sharp. It is very simple, and consists merely m cutting across the grain of a piece of soft wood, pine being generally used for the purpose. If the tools cut the wood cleanly, leaving a smooth sur- face, they are all right. If, however, there is any appearance of roughness from the grain of the wood havmg been torn through rather than cut, the edges of the tools are not sharp enough, and the carver should not be satisfied with them until they will stand the above test. It may be noted that an edge may be sharp enough to cut a hard wood er,sily and yet not cut a soft one clearly. Hence the lecommendation to test tools on pine. If they cut it properly they may be used on any knd of wood. I do not know that I can add anything to the fore- going in the way of sharpening the tools mentioned; there will, however, be other cutting tools we will meet before the volume is completed, the care and sharpening of which wi!! be discussed when we reach the proper place. It will now be in order to consider the methods in general use to hold the work in position while being operated on. Those who cannot command a work- room and regular bench may b- assured that excellent work can be done on an ordinary table provided it is substantial enough to be rigid, or can be fixed in some way as already indicated. It can hardly be too strongly insisted on that unless the table or' bench be sufficiently firm to resist the thrusts against the tool when carving, good work cannot be done. Therefore those who have not a perfectly firm bench will do well ^^w CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 51 to confine themselves to small carving, such as can be done without moving or shaking the bench or table. It may be as well to say here that even a table with a good top which one would not wish to injure, such as a dining table, may be used by the carver. The next important point to be considered is the method to be adopted for holding the wood while it IS being carved, for it must be known that both the carver's hands are engaged with the cutting tool. It is useless to attempt to hold the wood with one hand and to carve with the other. Although the wood must be rigidly held so that it cann. t slip about on the bench top. it is also desirable that It should be easily released and fixed in an altered position, for it is often necessary to do so to get at particular parts. A good deal depends on the work itself as to what is the most convenient way of securing it to the bench, and it is impossible to give directions which shall apply equally to each and evry case. The carver must use his own discretion and consider what facilities are available. To guide him, the following suggestions will be sufficient. If an ordinary joiners" bench is used. It will be provided with a bench vise, which may be useful occasionally, but it is so rarely indispensable to the carver that nothing more need be said about it For flat work, i.e., incised or chip carving on the flat, by far the most convenient appliance for holding the wood is the "bench hold-fast," shown in ^'g- 19- It consists of a round bar of ir6n which passes through a hole maae for the purpose in the bench. The arm is hinged on to it and is raised and depressed by means of a screw working on the top of the bar, fixing the wood firmlv to the bench in the Pig. 19. 52 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING required position. To use it, the long portion is passed through the hole in the bench top, the panel is placed under the end of the curved portion, and the screw turned. To prevent the panel being damaged by the iron, a piece of waste wood can be in- serted between them. The "wood carvers' screw," shown in Fig. 20, is another useful appliance of rec- ognized merit for all kinds of car\'- ing, and indispensable to the pro- fessional carver. It is very simple, consisting only of a strong iron screw, which is passed through a hole in the table, into which it should fit somewhat . . tightly; it is then screwed up into a similar hole bored in the body of the carving and secured by an iron nut under the table which, when screwed home, fixes it down to the table as firmly as required; the iron may penet ate into the wood as far as the nature of the carving will permit, the farther the better, as the greater hold it takes so much the more firmness will be insured. Great care must be taken on first bor- ing the hole to guard against the carv- ing and also to see that the boring is straight. It will often be convenient to have a block of wood with a hole in it for ^'°" ^°- the screw to pass through underneath the bench. This block not only prevents the wood about the hole in •«i.l "«!»"* "US^Bfe""-. '^^ir-_^i. CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 53 the bench being worn away, but saves a good deal of time and trouble otherwise. The screw although it may be used for panel carv- ing IS specially useful for work which cannot well be kept in place by the "hold-fast " Apart from the cost, the chief objection-from an amateur s pomt of v.ew-to both hold-fast and screw is the necessity of having a work bench or table used exclusively for such, on account of the hole in the top. ih.s, of course, cannot be allowed on a table and other means must then be devised for holding the work. That these are not altogether of a makeshift Fio. 22. character may be inferred from the fact of professional carvers occasionally using them As the protection of the table'top is often an object, ZnAA^u l^'"^^^^' that this can be sufficiently provided for by having what may be called a false top The size of this piece must depend on that of the cTrved P -i : -'^ '^ '"""^^ '^ ^ P--'. being carved Provided it is larger, nothing more is wanted! so that a piece of boarding i inch thick and a few inches larger than the panel will do very well To hold this board to the table the ordinary wooden h^ndscrews, as m Fig. 22, may be used, and if the 54 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING K;Mn>ff„f>,„f' !! carving is sufficiently far from the edge of the wood they do well. The manner of its working is shown in Fig. 23. There is, however, the objection that the ends of the screws, being above the table, may be in the way of the carver. Un- I ^ I rr* less the work is very large, T=Y ^ small iron cramps, of which I / there are many varieties, are Fig. 23. preferable; one of them is shown in Fig. 24, and it will be seen that by having the screw downwards there is very little projection above, and even this may be done away with by cutting a small space in the top of the carving board. The method of its application is shown in Fig. 25. It is seldom that one cramp will hold this firmly, but as they are very cheap it is not a serious matter to have two or three of them. If possible, the board should be placed at a corner of the table, as it is then so much easier to se- cure it. The work being carved may be fastened to the board or simply held to it in any position that may suit the carver. In the former case the position of the board must be altered, and to do so is not always convenient. Which is Fig. 24. CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 55 the better plan to pursue, the carver must decide for himself. If the panel is to be fixed to the board, it may be managed by means of scre-'s or glue. The screws are merely driven through from below the board into the panel. This way does very well if the screw holes are not a disfigurement, and if the panel is suflficiently thick for the screw points to hold in it without there being any risk of the carving tool coming in contact with them. If the screws are inad- missible, glue must be used; but if the two surfaces are di- rectly glued together it will be diflficult, if not impossible, to get them apart again without injury. The way to manage is to glue them together with a piece of paper between. Thus a piece is stuck on the panel and this is then glued to the boards. When the work is done, by inserting a knife blade between the two pieces the paper splits and they come apart. Almost any kind of paper &.\y be used, but none is better than newspaper. It is seldom necessary to glue the entire surface, as a touch here and there, at the discretion of the worker, is generally sufficient. It may be as well to remind the beginner that it is sometimes useful, even when the hold-fast or carvers' screw is used, to have a piece of wood fastened on behind the carving; for instance, when the former might damage the carving if laid directly on its face, Fig. 25. 56 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING or when the panel is so thin that the screw could not be used with it. .K^u*^" '^ '' '^"''■^'^ ^° ^^''^ ^^'^ carving movable on the board, the devices that may be used are almost endless in their modifications, and only a few can be suggested. Three or four screw nails may be driven into the board, close to the edges of the panel, so as to prevent Its movng. The heads of the nails clamp the panel down sufficiently. This method seems more cumber- some than it really is. for it is seldom necessary to remove and refix more than one or two of the screws whenever the position of the panel is altered. A more fanciful method, and one which has some advantages over the foregoing, is to bore a series of holes ,n the lower board and cut pegs to fit them. With a sufficiency of holes and a little management, it will be found easy to fix the panel in any desired position with four or five pegs. These should be of sufficient stoutness to resist the thrusts of the carving tools and must project over the board, so that the panel is against them. A fresh hole can easily •■- made whenever required. A more workmanlike plan, and one that is wen simpler than the above, is tohaveoneor more wood- en catches shaped some- what as Fig. 26. They can sisp,, P/ 86. wood. The part cut away for the thickness of the CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 57 panel should be a trifle less than this, so that on tightening the screw the carving is firmly held. If loosening and tightening the screw each time the panel has to be moved is objected to. the alternative of having the opening deeper than the thickness of the panel may be adopted. The panel then fits in quite loosely, and can be easily fastened with a wedge or two driven in above the panel. Putting in the wedge below the panel would have the effect of tightening up, but the panel might not lie firmly, i.^-., it might give too much under the pressure of the tools It is in just such instances that the discretion of the carver will come into play. What may be the easiest and best method in certain circumstances may be awkward and unsatisfactory in others, and so much is this the case that it may almost be said that an expert carver has no hard and fast regulations for fixing work, but varies his methods as occasion requires. All he requires is that the work shall be held sufficiently firm to allow of the tools being used efficiently, and that alterations in position can be made easily and with- out loss of time. If the learner will remember these general principles he will be saved some perplexity in knowing how to hold any piece of carving he may be engaged on. An exceedingly good device to fasten on a table or bench IS shown in Fig. 2r. it has the advantage of compactness and is made to use on any table without injuring it; for this object the three rests on the table and the top of the little movable square, C, are covered with baize; when screwed up close to the table the stand IS p^-rfectly secure and it is a plan which I can recommend from my own experience; should it, how- ever, be desirable not to go to this expense, any old 58 PRACTlC.vF. WOOD CARVING tabic will answer th. purpose if it can be fixed so as to be perfectly firm. , },! levice is a little costly, but is well worth all that m..v : ■ paid for it In addition to the abo..- tools, carvers occasionally use one called a "r >„f t " or what the carpenter call^ Fig. 27. an ''old hag's tooth." Fig. .8. This is a kind of plane with a narrow, perpendicular blade. It is used for d.ggmg or 'touting" out the wood in places where i s to be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be recommended for the use of bcHnners -h 5 m Uarnir^^^) ~ • . "^^r^'nUU^,, who should learn to make suflfic.ently even backgrounds .vithout the Flo. 38. CARVERS' TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 59 aid of mrchanical contrivances. Carvers also use the r.rier. wh.ch .s a bent file. This is useful for very fine work u, hard wood, and also for roughly ao- proxiniating to & / F rounded forms before finish- ing with the tools. A fi vv join- ers' tools are very us( ful to the carv< r and should form part of h.s equ. .ment. A wide chisel «ay al.,ut ,>^ i„, hes wide, a small ,.n "bull-nose'' piane^an. a keyhole saw will all be hdpful and save a lot of unnecL sary la- bor with the carving tools, also one or two Ftg. 29. ordinary - ivvs fo cut- , ., _,. *'"? off and rmping stutt. The regular carpenter, of cour e. u :!1 have al! these tools, but as this work is prepared i ,r ail so. ot people, many of whom mav not be . iri-nter general instruc- ' ' tions must be |V~ S^ ^^^ — v^ given. \ V;^^r:= i^ff :^ ^ The "riflcr-' \ ^ %Zr^=r-^r .^=:^S^ or bent file is \ shown in F\ 29. It is used Fu;, 30. 3. for cleaning out or smoothing surfarts where the flat tools cannot be used. These iiav be bou^h, a^ tb- haruware store, or files may be .ottent .nd bent to shape and then hardened again. 6o PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING The bench hook is an indispensable article to the wood carver whether amateur or professional, its pur- pose being to hold the wood while the shoulders etc are being cut. Fig. 30 shows a piece of wood marked out ready for shaping into the "hook," the grained portion having to be cut away. .cj.e., .H. o.„ 3.e, .e,„, . .c^es^iV.^ The complete hook is shown in Fi^ ,1 ^nA ;„ t s laiH ar-,,r>co ♦!, L i 7. '^ 's 3 ^ and m use latter Jt A . I u ^"'^' '''PP'"& ^he sides of the latter at A while the wood to be cut rests aeainst K wh.ch receives the thrust of the saw. ^ ^' Fig. 31. CHAPTER II WOODS After tools, the materials on which to use them stand next m importance. In the choice of these the worker must be guided by the nature and style J carvings he ch.efly affects; speaking generally, oak !s the best wood for large subjects, and ebony or box! wood for small, mmute work; but walnut, whitewood chestnut (both horse and Spanish), mahogany and basswood are all suited to the purpose, whife sandal- wcod, apple, pear, holly, cypress, fig and lemon tree bemg hard and fine grained, may all be used with good effect, according to the style and size of the carving and other circumstances. English oak is much to be preferred to home-grown wood, which is of a hard and tough nature, and liable to knots, wh.ch are a great impediment to the carver and from which most fofeign oak ,s comparatively free. These oaks may be known by the close and smooth grain and somewhat gray tinge, our wood be.ng coarser grained and of dingy color. Oak .s especially suited to decorate work in a ^orZZ n'^"' '^^ -^'-•-^'-' P-poses and tor imitation antique carving nextatrnfk'f""* '"^ ""'^^^'"^ "^^ »^^ ^'^^^^d next after oak for carvings which, though large, require ITIT:V?''''''- ^' -^hogany the're ar ' wo very d st.nct kinds, one of them being comparatively Inv h '\k"T f .^^y-^'^^d or Honduras mahog- any-the other kind ,s harder and darker and known 6i 62 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING as Spanish; many of the works of the great Gibbons are carved in this wood, though many of them are in the softer and less durable whitewoods. Black walnut is a wood always in favor. It is of moderate hardness and cuts cleanly. Other walnut wood is not so suitable, though occasionally used. Sycamore, whitewood, holly and woods of that nature, being white or cream colored, are only suited to that special style of carving the beauty of which depends on great purity of coloring — such, for instance, as a minute basso-relievo after a picture, models of figures in imitation of ivory, groups of birds, or delicate foliage, such as we sometimes see exhibited in proof of the artist's skill — but all these woods, unless pro- tected by glass, soon lose their extreme whiteness and with it their chief beauty; therefore they are little used, excepting for the trifling purposes we have just mentioned. The woods of the apple and pear trees arc, from the hard texture and fine grain, exceedingly pleasant to work, but their value as productive trees renders them rare, and the occasional deep-colored veinings sometimes interfere with the design. Box- wood is equally hard and fiiie grained, and is far superior in uniformity of color, which is a rich yellow. The great bar to the free use of all these hard woods, apart from any difficulty in carvinfj them, is the difficulty of procuring them in pieces of any size, for they are mostly of small growth, rarely attaining to more than lo or 12 inches in diameter. Ebony or black wood is very suitable for small carvings of every description, whether for use or ornament, the deep black color and the hardness and fine texture of grain giving it, when polished, the appearance of black marble. This wood is also some- jj^^r^^v.r\:r-'m^-:['>rwiL*''T:^''mitmBS^mir^it WOODS 63 what difficult to procure in large blocks, for it rarely arrives here in logs of any size that are not more or less riven and spoilt by cracks and flaws— "shakes," as they are termed in timber merchants' parlance. There are two kinds of ebony, the green and the black, but for carving purposes there is little or nothing to choose between them, though the black is capable of taking a finer polish, its only drawback being an occasional white or red streak. These are rare and can be easily obliterated by applying a little ink to the spot after the carving is finished. Sandalwood, from the texture, beautiful color (a rich yellow brown), and the delicious scent which is familiar to everybody, is especially suited for small carvings. The superabundance of oil, which emits so delightful a fragrance, causes it also to take a beautiful polish merely by rubbing it slightly with the hand. The best sandalwood is brought from India and Ceylon. It also, like ebony, is difficult to procure in sound pieces. It is sold, as are the most valuable woods, by weight. Small pieces are cheaper than large ones in proportion, unless they are prepared and squared to any given size, and then they are far more expensive, as in the course of preparation two or three logs may perhaps be cut up and spoilt before one can be found without flaw, and of course this waste is taken into account and charged for by the wood merchant. Ebony and boxwood are sold in the same manner. Each little piece is valued for the smell, even the chips and sawdust being treasured by some people to burn on the hearth to scent the room. Ordinary woods— oak, walnut, mahogany, white- wood, maple and others— are generally sold by 64 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING measur- ments and can be bought in quantities from a timber Ticrthant, or if only a smalf piece be wanted, from a carpenter or a cabinetmaker. The hard woods,* if the carver live in the country, are more difficult to procure. Occasionally a carpenter with a good stock may be found, and he may be willing to sell some, but this is often an expensive way; therefore It would be wiser to buy from a regular dealer when possible. It is needless to say that the longer all kinds of wood are kept before being used so much the better seasoned they will be. We would, therefore, advise all who can conveniently do so to lay in a stock of those woods which they are in the habit of using. It must however, be stored up with care, excessive heat and all damp being avoided. If possible, saw out the piece required a short time before the actual carving is com- menced, as then any little defect which on first being cut would be imperceptible will be detected. This is a very wise p-ecaution, as nothing is more dishearten- ing and provoking than to be obliged to cast aside work commenced, and on which perhaps time and labor have been expended, on account of the material turning out worthless. It will generally be found that wood got from a dealer of repute is seasoned, but this is not always the same as being dry; hence the necessity of the foreffoine caution. ^ Pine is generally regarded as being too common for carving purposes, but there is no -eason why it should be altogether neglected. It is cheap and soft, so that for the beginner it is perhaps the best wood that can begot. If care be taken in selection, it can be got free from knots in sufficiently large pieces. Red or WOODS 65 yellow pine should be used, not spruce, which is very knotty and unpleasant to work. Whitewood is another good and cheap wood which has come into co'isiderable use the last few years. It cuts cleanly and is remarkably free from knots or flaws of any kind. When suitably stained it is very like walnut in appearance. As ivory has a fascination for many amateurs, it should be pointed out that this material is very costly, and that the difficulty of carving it properly is so great that It is quite unsuitable till considerable proficiency has been acquired. Various imitations are made, but the best of them is xylonite, which so far as appear- ance IS concerned is not to be distinguished from the real thing. To prevent disappointment, the variety known as ivory grain should be got. It cuts fairly easy, the only objection to it being that it very quickly blunts the tools. The following woods may be considered as having nn intermediate place between soft and hard: syca- more, beech and holly. They are light-colored woods, and very useful for broad, shallow work. Of the hard woods in common use the principal kinds are oak, walnut, and occasionally mahogany. Of oak, the English variety ii: by far the best for the carver', being close in the gr in and very hard. It is beyond all others the carver's wood, and was invariably used by them in England during the robust period of medic-Eval craftsmanship. It offers to the carver an invigorating resistance to his tools, and its character determines to a great extent that of the work put upon It. It takes, in finishing, a very beautiful surface when skillfully handled, and this tempts the carver to make the most of his opportunities by ad.ipling his execution ft 66 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING to Its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian and American, are often used, but they do not offer quite the same tempting opportunity to the carver. They are, by nature, quicker growing trees and are, con- sequently, more open in the grain. They have tough, sinewy fibers, alternating with softer material. They rarely take the same degree of finish as the English oak, but remain somewhat dull in texture. Good pieces for carving maybe got, but they must be picked out from a quantity of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for oak, but is better fitted for large scaled work where fineness of detail is not of so much importance. Italian Walnut. This is a very fine-grained wood, of even texture. The Italian variety is the best for carving; it cuts with something of the firmness of English oak and is capable of receiving even more finish of surface in small details. It is admirably suited for fine work in low relief. In choosing this wood for carving, the hardest and closest in grain should be picked, as it is by no means all of equal quality. It should be free from sap, which may be known by a light streak on the edges of the dark brown wood. European walnut has too much "figure" in the grain to be suitable for carving. Our own walnut is best fitted for sharply cut, shallow carving, as its fiber is caney. If it is used, the design should be one in which no fine modeling or detail is required, as this wood allows of little finish to the surface.* Mahogany, more especially the kind known as Honduras, is very similar to our walnut in quality of grain; it cuts in a sharp caney, manner. The "Spanish" variety was closer in grain, but is now almost unpro- 3! WOODS 67 curable. Work carved in mahogany should, like that in American walnut, be broad and simple in style, without much rounded detail. It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of woods beyond the few kinds mentioned. Woods such as ebony, sandalwood, cherry, briar, box, pear- tree, lancewood and many others are all good for the carver, but are better fitted for special purposes and small work. As this book is concerned more with the art of carving than its application, it will save con- fusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft wood and good close-grained oak as representing hard wood. It may be noted in passing that the woods of all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very liable to the attack of worms and rot. No carving, in whatever wood, should be polished. I shall refer to this when we come to "texture and finish." -^"'^'^-•^"^■'""^^ i CHAPTER III SOMETHING ON THE GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER IMPORTANT MATTERS It Is curious to imagine what the inside of a young enthusiast s head must be like when he makes his first conscious step towards artistic expression. The chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling about m Its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic effects, which to h.m look l.ke the most lovely pictures. If he could only learn to put them down! Let him but acquire the echn.cal department of his art and what is easier than to realize those most marvelous dreams? Later in his progress It begins to dawn upon him that this same technical department may not be so very obedient to his wishes; it may have laws of its own which shall change his fairy fancies into sober images not at all unlike something which has often been done before by others. But let the young soul continue to see visions; the more the better, provided they be of the right sort. We shall n, the meantime ask him to curb his imagination and yield his faculties for the moment to the apparently simple task of realizing a leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted valley With the student's kind permission we shall, while these lessons continue, make believe that teacher and pupil are together in a classroom, or better still, in a country workshop, with chips flying in all directions under busy hands. I must tell you, then, that the first surprise which awaits the beginner, and one which opens his eyes to 68 L GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 69 a whole series of restraints upon the freedom of his operations, lies in the discovery that wood has a decided grain or fiber. He will find that it sometimes behaves m a very obstinate manner, refusing to cut straight here, chipping off there, and altogether seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort. liy and by he gets to know his piece of wood— where the gram dips and where it comes up or wriggles— and with practice he becomes its master. He finds in this his first technical difficulty, a kind of blessing in disguise, because it sets bounds to what would other- wise be an infinitely vague choice of methods. We -hall now take a piece of yellow pine, free from knots, and planed clean all round. The size may be about 12 inches long by 7 inches wide. We shall fix this to the bench by means of two clamps, or one clamp and a screwed block at opposite corners. Now we are ready to begin work, but up to the present we have not thought of the design we intend executing, being so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack upon the silky wood with their sharp edges. The illustration, Fig. 32, gives a clue to the sort of design to begin with; it measures about ii inches long by 7 inches wide, allowing a margin all round The wood should be a little longer than the design, as the ends get spoiled by the clamps. This little design need not, and indeed should not, be copied Make one for yourself entirely different, only bearing in mind the points which are to be observed in arranging it and which have for their object the avoidance of difficulties likely to be too much for a first effort Ihese points are somewhat to this effect: the design should be of leaves, laid out flat on a background, with no complication of perspective. They should have no 70 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING undulations of surface. That is to say. the margins of all the features should be as nearly as possible the ongmal surface of the wood, which may have just the leas poss.ble b.t of finish in the manner I shall describe later on. The articulation of the leaves and flower is represented by simple gouge cuts. There should be "oth.ng ,n the design requiring rounded surfaces. The passage for tools in clearing out the ground between the features must not be less than ^ inch; this will allow the A inch corner grounder Vo pas Fig. 32. freely backwards and forwards. The ground is sup- posed to be sunk about ^ of an inch As you have not got your design made. I shall, for convenience' sake explain how Fig. 32 should be begun and finished. First having traced the full-size design. It should be transferred to the wood by means of a piece of blue carbon paper. Then with either the ve.ner or V tool outline the whole of the leaves etc about yi inch deep, keeping well on the outside of the tlrawi.j^. ij^nore all minor detail for the present 4>i .-<;, GIL\IN OF wool AND OTHER MATTERS 71 blocking out the design in masses. No outline need be grooved ior the margin of the panel at present, as It should be done with a larger tool. For this purpose take gouge No. 6 }i inch wide (see Figs. 37 and 38), and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of the panel', cut a groove about ^j inch within the blue line, taking care not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process; begin a little above the corner at the bottom and leave all a little below that at the top. The miters will be formed later on. In this opeia- tion, as in all subsequent ones, the grain of the wood will be more or less in evidence. You will by de- grees g e t t o know the piece of wood you are working upon, and cut in such a way that yo^r tool runs wi^/i the grain and not a^ains/ it; that is to say, you will cut as much as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber This cannot always be done in deep hollows, but then you will have had some practice before you attempt these. Now take chisel No. 11 and with it stab into the grooved outline, pressing the tool down perpendicularly to what you think feels like the depth of the ground. The mallet need not be used for this, as the wood is soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the hand alone as shown, but remember that the force Fig. 33. 72 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVINCx must be pro,,orti...u the hollow on until the tool reaches the bottom of the hollow nmnin" along the top; as soon as this point is gained, turn the tool out and pitch it a little up in the wav shown at c iMg. 36, in which the tool is shown at an angle which' brings tne edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the m.ter to be f rrned. Ikginuing as it does at fi, this quick turn of the handle to the left takes out the little m.-ji.Trs.v %rMJLlL' ; tfi.r HT ^•^'^Sl GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 87 corner of the chisel will do most of the work, sloping it to suit the different angles at the bottom of the holes. Each chip should come out with a clean cut, but to ensure this the downward cuts should be done first, forming the raised diagonal lines. When you have successfully performed this piece of discipline, you may, if you care to do more of the same kind of work, carry out a design based upon the principles we have been discussing but introducing a very moderate amount of variety by using one or more of the patterns which are from the same dusky artists' designs and cannot be im- proved upon. To satisfy the present re- quirements of fashion, how- ever, it is necessu.y that I should show a number of the prevailing styles of carving in this kind of work, so I offer as a start a simple de- sign in which the notches are of a fair size and so do not include too many small curves. To any one who can use a pair of compasses and a rule, or has any knowledge of geometry, the difficulty of drawing the designs on wood will be so trifling as not to be worth considering. As the designs I offer show the shading, and consequently the inner or bottom angles, and not merely the outlines on ihe s.urface, it will be well for (he learner to know that he need draw only the latter; the angles indicated by the others form themselves naturally as the cuts are made. Thus Fig. 42 represents a regular hexagon, containing Fig. 42. 88 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING two triangles and a six corner star in the center as shown in the design. The lines at the bottoms of the shaded pockets or notches are clearly discernible, but need not be drawn on the wood; it is merely the outline as shown in Fig. 43. An examination of Fig. 43 will clearly show how the various lines are set out, and, Fig. 43. supposing the design is now transferred to the wood with carbon paper, fairly will represent the drawing before carving is commenced. In making the cuts the precise angle at which the blade IS inclined to the wood is not of much conse- quence, but It should be as uniform as possible The hand will almost insensibly become accustomed to cutting at the same slope, or so nearly the same that the difference in depth of the same sized notches in any piece of work is not noticeable. As far as possible, the cuts should be made cleanly and to the required depth at once. This, however, is often impracticable, and it is necessary to make more than one cut to get to the bottom. When this has to be done, the utmost care should be taken that the second GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 89 and succeeding cuts are exactly at the same angle as the first, for if not the notch, or rather that particular side of it, will show a ridge wherever the cut has been unequal, instead of being quite smooth. The irregular- ity may be pared away afterwards, but to do this is a waste of time and the work seldom looks so clean as if done properly at first. J Perhaps the novice may be inclined to think that it would be easier to begin paring away a notch from the center, gradually increasing the size till the outline is reached. At first it may be so, but facility will not be obtained in doing the work, and he should begin, as indicated, boldly on the outline. From the point of the knife penetrating further than it need at the bottom of the notches, it will often be observed that there is a kind of slight burr turned up. This may easily be removed if the work is small and for Close inspection, otherwise it may be disregarded. The cuts themselves do not require any attention. When the carving has been done, the work may be cleaned off with glasspaper used in the ordinary way over a cork block. It must be remembered that the notches themselves cannot be worked on with the paper, which only cleans up the surface of the wood. The dust will work itself into the cuts referred to in the previous paragraph so that they will be barely distinguishable. To make the work as clean as possible it should be finally brushed with a stiff brush, and may then be regarded as complete. As to the wood, very little need be said. At first it is not advisable to use any hard kind, and none is more suitable than a piece of good, sound, clean pine; it is soft and cuts cleanly. Another good kind to begin with is American vvhitewood, though pine is on the 90 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING ill whole to be preferred. In the course of time it assumes a pleasant, warm tone. It or any other wood may be varnished, for French polishing is out of the question; but it is a matter of opinion whether the appearance is improved, as size causes the surface to swell and roughen, and as there is i, means of rubbing them down again it must not be used. The varnish must be applied instc ad till it does not sink. Stains are also objections' le for the same reason as size. If any must be used, let them be mixed with spirits or Fig. 44. Fig. 45. turps instead of water, though even then the result is seldom pleasing, as more is absorbed by the end grain than elsewhere, giving the work a dirty, patchy look. A less objectionable way is to treat it with Aspinall's or some similar enamel. Instead of painting all ovei with one color,- the notches may be picked out with various tints, and if these are judiciously chosen very pleasing effects may be obtained. In the same way bronze paints of different tints may be used, though at some risk of the decoration tending rather to bar- baric splendor than to artistic taste. ^^iM.. _,Vijj^yp T« HOLS THE KNIPC GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 91 When sufficient progress has been made to enable it to be worked, there is no wood better than oak. Though hard, it is not un- pleasant to cut if a nice piece has been got It is not, however, suitable for very small work, for which a fine, close-grained wood should be chosen. Chip carved oak looks remark- ably well when darkened either by oiling or by fumigation, or by a com- bination of both, and then wax polished. Varnish destroys its beauty and gives it a coarse, common- place appearance. Some very fine effects can be obtained by a di- vision of the circle to the designs shown in Fi^js, 44 and 45. The various methods of cutting these ornaments with the knife shown in ;'"'gs. 39 and 40, are shown in the illustrations given in ViiTt 46, where the knife IS seen at work and the position of the hand dur- ;.,_ it. ,.. HOLD.no TMI fAHTIWC TOOU ing the cuttmg process. pic, 46. MAKINQ THI riMT CUT. NOW TO HOLD THC KNIft rOR SECOND CUT 02 PRACTICAL VVUUD CARVING In using this tool, first draw a few lines parallel with the grain of the wood, following exactly one of these lines with the parting tool, holding the tool in the same position and exerting an equal amount of strength throughout. When you have succeeded in cutting a line clean, straight and uniform in width, draw several across the grain in different directions. The tool will meet with more resistance when cutting across the grain, but a few trials will give confidence and successful results. Curves should also be practiced in this manner. First large ones, afterward the arcs of very small circles may be attempted. Never "wriggle" the tool in the wood. Do not attempt to remove too much wood at a time. Cut clean; whenever possible, with the grain. Never break or pry off any pieces of wood. Work slowly and carefully at first. Leave no rags, jags or frag- ments. Clear out completely every corner. Get your work as smooth as possible with whatever tool seems best to use. Let every stroke of the chisel, gouge or parting tool be made and regulated with purpose and design. The use of sandpaper is not recommended as the best method of smoothing work. Sharp tools, careful cutting, with the skill acquired from practice, will soon render other aids unnecessary. The wood to be carved must be smooth, close- grained, firm, but not hard; well seasoned, not kiln dried. Much practice renders the carver indifferent to the hardness of the wood. But the amateur is easily discouraged by wood that requires great strength to cut, when a skillful use of the mallet has not been acquired. An ideal wood on which to chip carve is sweet gum, «S!fe<-'^i Trn'-m^ GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 93 containing no streaks of wliite. Gum wood is beauti- ful in grain, light brown in color. The path of the tool through it is smooth and glossy. This wood must be properly secured against warping when used in cabinet work. Sycamore is of a delicate cream tint, flecked with brown. It has the same advantages as gum wood, but must also be secured against warping. Black walnut is dark brown in color, taking a beautiful finish. Oak is very hard, and should only be used after the beginner has had some practice upon other, woods. Fig. 47 Whit maple is very even in grain, almost as white as holly and as hard as oak. Poplar, pine, whitewood are easy to work and take stain quite readily, and may be used for small articles, but for large pieces or for furniture woods less easily scratched should be used. I show herewith a number of designs the learner may try his hand upon, as they offer no particular difficulty either of design or construction, being of the simplest sort. In the ornament shown in Fig. 47 the whole scheme is a semicircle, with a series of radial grooves on its outer rim. The lines forming the boundary are -c^■:^Jfe^■ Lime 'iP. «.if&/i?*'. '-"WPv.' ■■ 94 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING simply Incised work, cut in the wood V-shaped, as are also the radial lines and the inside boundary lines, hence the fi},'ure so far is made ul simple V lines chased in the wo6d with the V tool only. The lozenge-sha[)(cl ornaments are marked off and left flush, and the crescents are then worked to them, the center lines as mark«.-d being left as a hollow ridge sunk below the surface. Another piece of chip carving is shown "n Fig. 4S. In this case lines shov the raised ridge, while others Fio. 48. show hollow or sunk ridges. There is a depression on the ends of the wings as deep as the sunken ridge. The boundary lines show a raised portion of the work. This is an extremely simple pattern. Fig. 49 shows a circular ornament complete, made on the same lines as Fig. 48, only more of it. The two triangles are left flush, as shown, and are pebbled with a punch made for the purpose. Fig. 50 shows a corner of a picture frame or a border for a glove box or lady's workbox; it is worked on '^ -,r.^ sv-iiiiij, jjraciice and exnerienrp Jn tu.^ manaRcmentof his tools and the me.hod' of "ork A cont,nua.,o„of these examples will be proceeded with jr.T.^(%^r^ GRAIN 01- WOOD AND OTHER MATTKRS „; The ornamentation shown .a Im^j. 51 is a little more complex than previous examples, but I do not think the workn m will find it difficult to form or to .xecttc, as tlie pattern is chiefly composed of parts of circles and straight lines. I would advise the beginner not to attempt making his work too deep until he becomes well accustomed to the patterns and has r good com- FiG. 53. mand of his tools. A low relief or a shallow pattern is much easier to work and does not require so much labor to execute; thouLjh, of course, it is not as effect- ive .!■ would be a pattern work' J in deeper; never- •'s^r'^fir^^^a y 98 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING V^ 7^^ >N^ ^ i^ vW-ji^ ^j^^^^^^^ VV >< V 5^^C/ ^NJ//' 4 ^^^^ &^ ^^ theless, work of this kind when well done has a very pleasing effect. Another example of this kind and I am done, as I think there r/ill be sufficient to enable the young work- man to both exr ecute this work and form his own designs. Fig. 52 exhibits a couple of de- signs suited for Fig. 54. bordersof boxes, sides of tables, tabourets and similar pieces of furniture. In almost all of the examples shown the cuts forming the ornaments are beveled from the surface down to the bottom of the work, so that the bottom lines are formed by the two sides or slopes mak- ing a junc- tion at the lowest point of the work where the two sides meet. This is a peculiar characteris- tic of chip carving. The border shown in Fig. 53 looks complicated, but is really very simple both to lay out and to make, and when finished is quite striking. Fig. 55. ':k ; GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS 99 The two examples shown in Fig. 54 may be used for corners of box lids or other similar work with good results; the same maybe said in regard to the three- sided ornament shown in Fig. 55, which is well adapted for corners of any kind. The circular, orna- ment shown in Fig. 56 is sug- gestive and can be made to suit many situations. The series of designs shown in F'gs. 57, 58, 5Q, 60, 61, 62 and 63 may be found useful for many purposes, and they offer sugges- tions to the designer for other designs of a similar kind. The borders 61, 62 and 63 will be made available for the edges of lids, tabouret tops and like work. In Fig. 64 I show eight simple examples of borders, all in chip carving, that can be made to do service in many situations. These borders are of a kind that aie easily made and when made can readily be adapted to a thousand and one purposes which are not necessary to mention here. With the six examples of finished work shown in Fig. 65 I will close the chapter on "Chip Carving," Fig. 56. Fig. 57. but before doing so I must apologize to all my readers for the length of time I have devoted to this subject, as I am aware that most expert carvers look with con- tempt on this branch of the art. My excuse, however, 100 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING for toying with this particular branch of the art so long is, that this book is intended more for young beginners than for the finished artist, and to these young people chip carving has a sort of fascination, because of its simplicity, that the more intricate work does not possess, and offers an inducement to thein to become carvers, an event that would not happen if the more difficult branch was the onlv one thev could commence with. Of the six examples shown in Fig. 65, two of them are circular, These should be roughed out in a lathe GRAIN OF WOOD AND OTHER MATTERS loi and the renter cut out to receive a porcelain plate or other china ornament. The jewel box may be obtained Fig. 59. all ready to carve from any wood turner. The plate frame is really a picture .frame, the wooden rim being Fig. 60. 102 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING turned with the center cut out to receive a valuable plate or other china; the frame is then carved in any design determined upon. ■I Fig. 6i. Fig. 62. With this we leave this branch and start operations on another and a similar oiie, namely, "Flat Carving." CH/.PTER IV FLAT CARVING This Style of carving is something similar to chip carving the only difference being that in flat carving leaves fruit, foliaj-e and other objects, to which mav be added lace or strap work in Celti.- style, are introduced. This mode of carving is very . ,ch in vogue among the Turks, the Persians and Afghans. Fig. 6:1. An example of Turl-ish work in this style is shown '" t-.g. 66. This IS supposed to be the top of a tabouret. The work is laid out i„ a similar manner to c^iipcarvmg. the dark lines all being one uidth and ine light portions being removed. In this kind of work care must be taken not to have one portion of the work deeper than another, as the 103 104 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING '■0^/<^ ""''5- '. 'v^ '. ^Sr^-^ ^ ■ ■ *• -'Six-v-^c^r^i. ^^-/-l Fig. 64. "m^fM^Rym^w^\:'^ FLAT CARVING eye will detect any inequality in tiie surface h th e raised ornaments. When finished, th 105 eneath look as thoiitrh it had ^^rown th e wcrk should ere. io6 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING A good pattern to practice on is shown in Fig. 67, which may all be clone with the V tool and the narrow chisel. In laying this out gn the wood the lines should be formed with a good black pencil to the width Fig. 66. required. Then cut away all the black lines, the thin lines being taken out with the V tool and the thicker ones either with a gou.L,rc or narrow chisel. Under this head, "flat carving" with . background maybe considered, as the difference only consists in ■WW FLAT CARVING 107 the fact that the groundwork is pebbled, padded or stamped. The three examples shown in I'igs. 68, 69 and 70 exhibit designs with simple scratched backgrounds. This scratching is done with a tool which has a dia- mond point, and which, when used, is "drawn" to- w a r d s the workman — never pushed. These examples will give the young learner an opportunity to learn to use the left as well as the right hand, an acquirement that must be obtained before the operator can become an expert carver. The ac- complishment is not diffi- cult, and should be ac- quired after a month or so of practice. People who are left-handed, when be- ginning to carve, ex- perience no difificulty whatever when learning the art in making use of the right hand. The two corner ornaments shown in Figs. 71 and 72 are very simple in outline and have punched back- ';rounds. They may be formed of thin pieces oT wood and nailed or screwed in position where wanted. If screwed in place the heads of the screws should be plated or oxidized lo harnioni/e with the color of fhe wood employed. .-^■^■^^■M^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^^-"*^* ^ Fig. 67. io8 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING The border Fijj. 73 is a very jjood example and one that the learner can easily follow, as the curves, with the exception of the little lu-aih, are of {,'ood sized sweeps and can be easily wrought. The bottom or Fig. 68, background is padded with a small irregular-shaped punch, and the work is made as irregular as can be, but care should be taken not to have the punchings in too close clusters; they should spread over the grounds pretty evenly, ho far as markings are concerned. This -jgy -'yaT.':T^:fSSP(?^^-J»IK A' ■<■:'•.'•• : ■Ir.'^^.^-' Vi FL.vT CARVING 109 applies to all sorts of pacUlinj^ on backgrounds, unless ornamented punches are used. A simple leaf design is shown in Fig. 74, which may all be executed in the flat with the exception of the groove in the center of the leaf, which should be veined with the V tool. The pa\ '.•,:,':...:. Fig. 73. ••.?•:■ ^.••••..•.:n" J^i'ir-'^l. Fig. 74. FLAT CARVING "3 limits assigned to this book I illustrate another series of punches or stamps, most of which the learner may be able to make himself. These are shown in Fig. "jf, where twelve different shapes are illustrated. Perhaps a few words regarding the use of these Fit;. 75. stamps may not he out of place at this juncture. It should be horne in mind that results from the use of these stamps are always better in hard wood than in soft wood, owing to peculiarities of the grain. The pounil- ing of the stamp should always be even. If hit hard Ml some places and gentle in others, the stamping or 114 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING Fic. 76. padclinj,' will show uneven on the background, moic particularly in the softer woods. A regular and even tap on the end of tlie pum. Ii ^^ or stamp can be given readily ▼ after a little practice. Hard wood requires a heavier blow © J'^OE o V^ ^ >/ ^^ ^ ,„,t ^^.^^^^,^ .^,^^, j,^j^ ^^^^^ ^, Fig. //• to make an impression than •0( be considered. It v\-a)-: IS a FLAT CARVING 115 good plan to try one's hand on a piece of wood of the sort we are workin},r before commencing to pad the groundwork of the carving, and then the right depth of impression may he regulated by the quality of the tap given the punch. Before 1 e a v i n g this subject I deem it necessary to sub- mit a few elaborate designs in this style of carving which are taken from existing examples. I show these in Figs. 78, 79 and 80, and, al- though all classed under the style Ja- cobean, the exam- ples represent three distinct species of decoration and may therefore be con- sidered separately. Fig. 78 is in real- ity four panels em- bodied in one de- sign, i.e., if each Fig. 7S. quarter is taken separately and repeated it will make a distinct panel. Whilst thus differing in minoi points, the designer intended that these panels should he used together in the same article. This element in the design brings out an important feature in ancient as well as modern Jacobean, viz., general uniformity and balance of parts, combined with pleasinj variety of ii6 PR.^CTICAL WOOD CARVING ■ detail. It would have been easier for the designer to have struck off one portion and to have written on the corner, "Repeat four times," but such a multiplication would not do for tlie author of these sketches. In Fi^'. JS we, more- over, find a l in- ventional treat- m e n t of plant forms v.'hich has been so much cul- tivated since our artist set the fash- ion, an element which is the dis- tinguishing char- acteristic of mod- e r n Ja c o b e a n car; Ing. It will be seen that the four ideas em- bodied in this one panel are equally suitable for a per- pendicular or hor- i/OMtal p(Jsition. In Fig. 79 we get a more ancient sijccimcn of carving in the same style. It is a little study that servi's to mark the connecting link between the Elizabethan and the later pluses of English Renaissance. The inlluence of "strap work" originals is most evident in h'ig. 79, anfl the design should be useful as showing how essentially decorative such a "motif" is when properly handled. The handsome Fi( FLAT CARVING 117 entablature set forth in FIlt. So marks the period when Jacobean was rich in char- acteristic detail. In the cen- ter panel, with its Tudor rose and surroundinj,r strap work, we arc reminded of Eliza- beth n, while the ground- work from which it stands out is more Jacobean in treat- ment. The presence of those ever recurring enriched bosses or pateras, the scroll corner and egg and tongue margin, all denote the source of the design. In these ex- amples the sections will be found sufficiently indicated to guide the carver in niakiu"- a full-sized working drawing from them to the desired proportions. Of late wars carving in relief has not been so much cultivated as it 01 lit to have been. To sa\ pense the decorative it of Jacobean has been omitted, and what was left of oh! lines has been badly madcuip and often dubbed "Early English." In my opinioi, the production of Jacobean or Stuart work worthy of such names is impossible Ii8 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING 1 I without the aid of the chisel, and we are therefore glad t" ' • able to place before our readers these carefully c\ ted designs, showing the correct thing to cut Fig. Si. when they are called upon to enrich work produced uiultn- such nomenclature. It will be noticed that there is much "flat" or sur- face carvin.i,^ in these examples, and thev may be easily traced. Fi-. ;.S cff.Ts a fine example for the learner FLAT CARVING 119 to practice on. The liti.s are easily followed and little "roundin},' off" is reciuired. I give three more examples of surface carving in Fig. 81. These are Arabian carved panels, and are very fine. They are shown here rather as e.xamples of what can be done, than to be followed. We now close this chapter and will take up carving proper in the next. I CHAPTER V ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER It will now be in order to take up work that is more difficult and more artistic than any we have yet dealt with, namely, rounded work and foliage. Contour or rounding and modeling, of course cor- respond to light and shade, but plain gouge and cavo- cuttmg IS simple sketching. Any animal, or a human figure, a vase, flowers or vines may be thus carved, the only further condition being that the outlines shall be broad and bold. Great care should be exercised not to make too many lines, especially fine ones, and m all cases to avoid detail and make the design as simple as you can. When in thus outlining an animal you have clearly indicated, with as few lines as pos- sible, what it is meant to be. you have done enough, as in all sketching the golden rule is to give as much representation with as little work as possible (Fig. 82) It may be observed that familiar and extensive practice of the very easy gouge groove work and of simple flat or cavo-cutting in hollows, if carried out on a large scale, as for instance in wall and door patterns gives the pupil far more energy and confidence and is more conducive to free-hand carving and the sweep cut than the usual method of devoting much time in the beginning to chipping elaborate leaves and other small work. Therefore it will be well for the pupil to perfect himself in such simple groove and hollow work This was the first step in mediaeval carving, and it 120 ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 121 was the proper one for general decoration. It was in this manner that the old carvers of England and their masters, the Flemings, taught their pupils. Compared with plant forms, examples of which we will illustrate later on, the elements drawn from the animal kingdom are few in number; his is very probably due to the greater difficulty experienced in adapting these forms for decorative purposes; it is Fig. 82. certainly not advisable to introduce the animal form too frequently. With some nations, too, religious difficulties stood in the way— the Mohammedan religion forbidding the representation of any living beings; and further, the restriction was applied to vegetable forms, too, and this has resulted in the art of the Mohammedan being based almost entirely upon genmetrical principles. It will be found that the same rules v>hich guided the ;i * 122 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING selection of plant forms apply to the selection of animal forms, viz., (i) the ornamental possibilities of Fig. 83. the form, and (2) the symbolic nature of the fo ms. These decided what particular members of either king- dom should be used in decorative schemes principally. dwr ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 123 Those animal forms most used in historic ornament arc the lion, tif,'cr and |)anlher amongst the wild animals, and the horse, ox, doj,' and ^joat amongst the domesticated animals. The dolphin (Fig. 83) is the only generally used representative of ocean life; but it has been very largely used, partly because of its ornamental possibilities and partly because of its symbolic sig- nificance. Amongst birds the only form that has largely entered into decorative design has been the eagle. Olher birds have bct-n employeil, but mostly in an auxiliary manner, chielly naturalistic, as in the enriching of scroll ornament, in which birds, reptiles, insects, as well as built-up artificial forms, cherubs and similar elements, were used; but no other bird appears to have been used as a principal ornament typical of any artistic principle so much as the eagle. Amongst animal forms we may class those mythical animals which are known as dragons and griflfms (Fig. 84). Separate parts of animals, such as heads and wings, are used as independent elements. Lions' heads and the wings of doves, ducks, geese, as well as bats, are used in this connection. Wings are attached to mythical animal forms such as the dragon, also to angels and to imps. In providing angels and cherubs with wings, it may be n-marked that doves' and pigeons' wings are most generally used; they are often conventionalized and extended, but this particular I'-rni of wing provided the general idea, whilst a bat's \viiig forms the hiisis for the use of wings for Satanic purpos's. Other forms— such as that of the serpent, because, principally, of its symbolic meaning and use, and the shell, because of its ornamental possibilities- have been largely used at different times. The lamb was 134 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING I '1 * >i ^i Fig. 84. ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 125 somctim«» used in Christian ornamcnl, generally in conjunction with the cross. Grotesque heads ..t animals were used very largely in buildings of the Gothic period, in addition to ^'rotes(jue human heads. Ilutnan Ft^nms.— The representation of the human form has, since man became sufficiently developed to accurately portray it, been a favorite element of decoration. It h • been used in a very larj^'e measure as symbolical « seasons, hours and elements, as virtues and vices, good and evil, stren{,'th and jjrace, and many other attributes anil (lualities. both real and abstract. The j,'ods have always been represented as "tilorified men." and anj,'els and devils have partaken of man's physical form. The human form, too, has been represented very often solely on account of its decorative value: as beinjr the hi),'hcst possible expression of art and beauty. iiiere are some fine e.xamplcs in existence in Europe and this country of chests and cabinets decorated with human figures principally in full relief; that is. the figures are complete in themselves. This full use of the actual human figure is not, how- ever, so common as the use of the conventionalized figure; generally, this takes the shape of portions of it, being used either separately or in conjunction with other arbitrary and conventionalized forms, such as occur in their use in satyrs, centaurs, Neptunes, mermaids and sphinxes, or as grotesque masks, the Medusa head, cherub heads, and cherubs and cupids, and it is sometimes used to represent Death, as in the skull and crossbones. The use of the mask appears to have originated in -mz^^ESL^^j 126 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING , ^1 ■^'"i ' V) J |i i Greece, and to have been transferred for use in the theaters. As they were used in this connection to represent certain characters, the use of certain definite forms of masks became attached to certain definite characters, and gradually they became elements of decoration and were used to represent certain artistic principles. They were extensively used in the Renaissance period, sometimes in conjunction with other elements, as where the mask forms a center from which spring flowers and fruit, and as where the mask forms the terminal ornament of a scroll or stalk. The mask was often employed in a grotesque form, often being treated entirely as a caricature, leaver being used as beard and hair, and other elements often being employed to represent certain portions of the face which the mask represented. These grotesque masks were largely used by the artists of the Middle Ages, both Gothic and Renaissance. Enough has been said to indicate what the elements of decoration are, and we will now give some of the principles upon which these elements are built up into designs suitable for wood carving purposes. Having got a clear idea as to what elements may be used, we are ready to build them together to form designs for our work. We may decide to use either geometrical forms, natural forms, artificial forms, animals or the human figure, either separately or combined, and the combination may consist of any of the elements of decoration. Whatever we decide to use will be built up or put together 10 form the design according to the following principles: 1. Even distribution. 2. Order. 3. Balance. ■^S"^''- ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 127 4. Proportion. 5. Repetition. 6. Alt<-- ition. 7. ' ;, ■nmel! y. 8. K.T^I aliori. 9. Ninety. 10. Contrast. 11. Fitness. 12. Repose. These are the main principles that govern the elabo- ration of design. It should also be noted that ornament should always be employed in such a manner as to emphasize the member it is used to decorate; it should never hide or destroy its outline and shape. It should also be used with a definite regard for the outlines of the member; that is, the boundary or margin lines should contain the whole of the design. There are exceptions to this rule which will be taken into account at a later period, but it is as well to work from this rule at the first until sufficient progress has been made to warrant a departure from it. Even Distribution. — This means that whatever space we have at our disposal should be filled by the elements we are using, duly observing a certain balance between the elements and the groundwork. Fig. 85 gives illustrations showing good and bad methods of distribution. In the sketch marked A it will be noticed that a balance e.xists between the groundwork and the design; there is not a big amount of space followed by a close gathering or congregation of elements. Notice, too, that the corners of the rectangle are well and evenly filled. Sometimes it occurs that a design is made for a rectangular shape that would better fill a shape having a domed top margin, as I 128 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING shown in the sketch marked B by the dotted lines. It can without difficult)' be seen where the uneven dis- tribution lies. The spaces marked X require filling: but it should be remarked that judgment has to be exercised in the filling; any element stuck in only for the express purpose of filling up the space will not do. It should be taken as a primary rule that all parts of a design should be absolutely necessary in its building up; all elements made use of should each fulfill a pur- FlG. 85. pose, having a definite reason for its use with regard to the artistic necessities of the whole design, and not merely because of its being required to "fill up." And further, in a complete and well thought out design any element which may be taken away would mar the construction and effect of the design. A design should be so well constructed that no portion can be taken away without impoverishing its general con- ception and completeness. It is possible to fill up any unnecessary open spaces ^h. .?^SF^M^-m: ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER ug With elements that do not suggest that such was the intentional object in so using them, because the design may have, in its original conception, been deficient in just these elements and at just that particular point, so that their addition does not mar but actually com- pletes the design. This does not often occur, however, and when it does the student may consider himsell" fortunate that such is the case. A design is at fault respecting even distribution when it is complete so far as the general conception and use of the elements are concerned, that is, when the addition or subtraction of another element would spoil its construction and effect, and it does not then conform to the law of even distri- bution; when, on the one hand, it is obvious that other elements are required to fill out the spaces and that this cannot be done without, on the other hand, destroying the constructive value of the design. Order.—K consideration of this principle leads us to the r^^'-rrlusion that our designs should be well con- side to the relations and proportions that should exisL een their various parts; and that a certain definite plan should be followed in the building up uf the designs. Order should be observed both in the selection and in the distribution of the elements. This implies that a certain unity should exist between all the parts of a design. All the elements should be selected with a view to their probable combination; and this combination of elements should be well and carefully considered with regard to the effect to be produced in connection with the object the design is for. Further reference will be made to "Order" in the next chapter. Balance and Proportion.~T\\if=>^ principles are of the very greatest importance. In the first place, in con- I t-: =JS s^L W^t^ 130 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING structing any design it should be well considered as to the proportion that shal' exist between the various parts of the article to be carved. It is a very com- mon 'thing— much too con-.'on— to see the whole of the exposed surfaces of an article carved, and that, too often, in the most lavish manner and with not a plain relieving surface of any description; often enough, too, the defining edges of mouldings, which should mean so much to the whole effect of the con- ception, are rounded over or cut up by elements of the design, and thus their distinctive value is destroyed and the very reason for their existence is ignored. There are at least two good reasons why furniture should not be carved over its entire surface as a rule; one is that the effect of each separate design is in danger of being killed or destroyed by that of the adjoining designs, and the other is that it produces a sense of unrest and often irritation — the whole article gives you the impression of being too "busy," too much cut up; there is no place upon which the eye can rest to obtain relief from the effect of the carved work. We do not say that objects should »e7'er be covered with carving, because attention need only be called to Indian and other Oriental carving to see that success can be gained by such treatment; but it needs a very great gift as a designer to so balance the various designs for the different members, and to so arrange them as regards proportion of mass and line, large and important elements with smaller and less important, and so forth, as to gain that repose that is necessary to all good design ; and it does not appear that Western artists have been as successful in this respect as the Eastern ones. x give the best expression to any particular design, and this should be well considered by the student in evolving his designs. Wood also is weak in a direc- tion "across the grain," and any design made should be influenced by this consideration. With regard to the kind and (juanlityof the elements, the selection of these should be governed by the demands of the article to be carved and the particular parts or members to be ornamented. And this applies also to the arrangement or general plan employed in their building up. By a judicious selection of elements and a well-judged and carefully thought out plan, the design can be made to suit the article so that the necessary emphasis is given to those parts that need such attention being called to them. Repose. — This is often sadly absent from designs. So many are the elements introduced, and so little care is exercised in their arrangement, that the effect obtained is one of irritation; the whole design seems worried to death by an attemj)! to give richness and variety. Too much contrast is fatal to the wellbeing ROL'XDKD FORMS OR CARVIN(, PUol'KR 139 should Repose of the tlesi^'ii Simplicity, not richness, exercise the most influence with the student, is induced by (1) A suitable arrangement of the elements; (2) A suitable method of treatment. The latter is a very powerful a^'ent in Kettinfj that rep«)se necessary. The surface should not be cut up and scored across by means of many gou{,'e cuts, without there beinj,' a corres.,ot " amount of plain surface introduced in such ma :hat it balances the many j^^ouj^fe cuts. "' "M, i-.nooth surfaces have a very j^reat value as decorative af,'ents, and should hv plentifully introdnc d. We are now, having obtained some knowledge of what elements are used in design and the principles upon which they are arranged, in a position to build up any design by using or arranging the elements in accordance with the principles given. The spaces and sizes of spaces to which design can be applied are so varieci and numerous that it is impos- sible, in a short series, to give examples illustrating each and every shape possible. There is the parallef- ogram, circle, ellipse, triangle, spandrel, column, pilas- ter, octagon, hexagon and many other shapes both of regular and irregular forms. Varied though these forms and shapes are, however, there is a similarity as regard their planning; there is a certain principal course to adopt that is the same throughout, varying only in the modification necessary to adapt the general plan of the design to the necessities of the shape. This being so, we cannot do better thnn select the parallelogram as the object of our present work, and we will show how a design, or designs, should be built i 140 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING up by the application of the principles described to a rectangular shape, such as a square or an oblong, these forms being easy of application as panels or pilasters, bosses, etc. It should, in the first place, be decided just what particular kind of carving it is intended to adopt in the scheme of decoration, because this has much to do in deciding just how to build the design and what elements to use in its composition. If it is intended to execute the work in very high relief, then the principal consideration should be that of "mass." The object of high relief vork is to produce deep, black shadows, which, when contrasted with the light reflected from the raised portions, produce a definite effect in light and shade; and when the shadows are well arranged, so that a good balance and a certain specific proportion exist between them, then the work may be considered good. It may be remarked here that high relief should be decided upon from a con- sideration of the above principles of balance and pro- portion of light and shade. I am afraid it is often introduced from a desire to "show off"— the desire to show an admiring world how clever the artist is, both in the design and execution. This is always bad and should be avoided as you would avoid poison. In all periods the degenerate in art has been and can be identified by this tendency, and the result is extrav- agance of ornament, both in conception and execution, without any connection with, or consideration of, its real decorative value. In low relief work, on the other hand, the chief con- sideration is that of "line"; that is to say, the decora- tive value of the design depends upon the arrangement ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING l^ROPER 141 of the curves and principal lines. There is no attempt to produce deep, black shado.^.-^- the whole effect is produced by beauty of curve and the particular arrange- ment of the outlines of the design. Between these extremes lie many gradations, each combining more or less the two principles of mass and line. Most designs for ordinary amateur's work, or, for that matter, any work, are built up upon a con- sideration of both principles. 'i / - -V- dL i x / . • 1 -I ■ 5 Os r 1 v:: j^ ^T— -{— ! VX Fig. . 87K. The question will arise, naturally, as to what it is that governs the use of either principle. Broadly speaking, high relief should be used in any place where it is obvious some ornament should be, but that is too far removed from the eye to enable any detail work to be seen or appreciated. It is in just such a position as this that the broad effects of light and shade produced by this method are most valuable. Low relief can be used, and is the most suitable, in places nearer to the eye, where the effect produced by the beautiful curves, the close detail and the delicate cutting can be most appreciated. 142 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING It can be seen that if high relief is desired, then the design will be built up upon the arrangement of mass. The position of the masses will be decided upon first; then they will be joined by stalks or bands, etc., as may be determined, and the character to be assumed by the masses decided upon— that is, as to whether they will be flowers, fruit or foliage, animals or birds, or human figures. In Figs. 87}4 and 88 is shown a square panel, and in the sketches comprising the series Fig. 88. are shown the various steps leading from an entirely blank surface to the completed design. In the first place we determine the position and general arrangement of the masses, which in this case consist of a central large mass surrounded by four smaller masses. The next step consists in joining the masses in a decorative yet intelligent and natural manner. In order to do this we must decide just what form and character the masses are to partake of. It will be obvious that the central mass should be of the greater interest, since its position and size render it capable of ifW' r.iw^i'mi^swBa'jmr TTT ■;-fci,iv-. ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 143 being invested with greater significance. This be ng so, we can decide to make the central mass into a head, either that of an animal, or, if we are very ambitious, we could decide upon a human head. We will, how- ever, not go quite so far as this just at present, and will content ourselves with a mask. The four other minor masses may be determined into flowers. It will then be apparent how we can connect the various masses together in a natural and decorative manner, by causing the flowers to spring from the central mass by means of stalks. These can be flanked by leaves, or can have any suspicion of stiffness modified or counterbalanced by the introduction of ribbon work or strap work. In deciding what details should be used in the com- position of the masses, the distance of the panel from the eye should always be kept in mind; if this be effectually done, the mistake of putting in too much detail will be avoided. In this connection it may be as well to call the attention of students to the peculiar ornament called the "mask," used byth j stone carvers of the thirteenth century, sometimes as a hood mould; sometimes also it .s found in corbel-tables. Seen at a small distance, this appears to be merely a peculiarly shaped terminal, but when placed in its proper position, at least several feet from the eye, it assumes the appearance of a human face, somewhat grotesque, no doubt, but nevertheless reproducing faithfully the lights and shadows that go towards the composition of the face of a strongly marked individuality, as in Fig. 88. If this panel has been well designed, it should answer to the tests which may be applied by means of our knowledge of the principles described and set forth previously. It should, for instance, be well and evenly »» !i i4 inch depth, and it should be quite smooth and uniform; in the photo of this design the ground, it Fig. 90. mm ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 149 will be noticed, is punched, but this is not necessary, and it should be the aim of the students to get the ground well enough done to dispense with this artificial aid to effeci. In "setting in" around the berries, it is better to proceed as in Fig. 91, "setting in" along the lines a a; this protects the berries from damage to their outlines when taking out the ground. It should, however, be pointed out that the tools should not be driven in too far, else the cuts made by them show upon the ground when we have cut the berries back to their ultimate outline. Now cut the berries back; this can easily be done now, and this treatment ensures a firm and clean edge to their outline. The next step in carving the berries is rather important; beginners generally "set in" each separate '* iiiiiita lii tt msmmm ISO PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING borry now, and the xcsuU is that the whole mass oi berries presents a /iaf, uniform and monotonous appearance The better way is to "set in" along the edge of the calyx, marked ^^ in Fig, 91, and then model the sur- f:i ,e of the berries as in Fig. 91, treating them as one whole mass and giving it a section as in Fig. gi, In this way the whole mass of the berries partakes of the general shape of the member or element they spring from, and it effectually prevents them being all in the same plane and thereby inducing monotony. Of course, it will be noticed that the pencil lines have gone, and we can now redraw them, or merely allow the tool to outline them; the latter is better training for the eye. In this connection it is main- tained by some car /ers that every one who aspires to be a credit to the pro- fession should be able to ^pensewith pencil lines; especially i: .lis the case with solid work where tl original pen- cil lines, if ever there, have all been cut away. This may seem to be too severe, and in many cases quite un- necessary; but it has this great virtue, that if il is set before the student as an ideal at which to aim, he unconsciously strengthens his sense of proportion, accurac of judgment of distance and curve. It may bo pointed out here that the size of the berries is an important consideration. They should be pro- portionate to the size of the member they adjoin or spring from, and ihey should never be too small; keep Spctdc Fig. 92. ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 151 them on the large side; if too small they appear to be too insignificant and lose thereby in true effect. The next step is to outline them with whatever tool most nearly fits the curve; a "spade tool" is the best to use for modeling berries, I'ig. 92; the particular shape of these tools enables them to be worked into corners an ordinary tool will not touch. The result will appear as in Fig. 93. Where the cuts join one another will appear tri- angular spaces; these will be taken out and a ^mall platform will be left; the spade tool by being tilted will sink these triangular platforms until all the cuts meet at a point. It is needless to say that clean, accurate cutting is neces- sary, and the tool points or corners need to be quite sharp and pointed. It will be found of advantage sometimes to have tools ground for left and right hand to better enable the berries to be cut clean down to the lowest point. The tool used to clean off the surface of the berries should be as near the curve of the surface as it is possible to be, so that the berries will be free from unnecessary tool marks. It is sometimes thought necessary to finally take a gouge, the exact curve of the outline of the berries, and lightly "set in" around the outline by hand; this gives a definiteness to the berries which they often lack. A common fault is to get the berries flat, too much being taken off the sides, leaving th' hGrr'ms pottUed at Fig. g3. 152 I'RACTICAL WOOD CARVING the end , id with distinct ridges down the sides where the two mirl meet. This can partially be avoided by holdinj,' fh' ,- ige quite horizontal when beginning the cut for joiiiidi. .J the berries, and then taking it slowly over. 1 o n«;t lave the berries all one si/e; this especi.'lK rrfer to largr clusters; it is evident that the berries .n t; ^ ,. iter should be the largest those at Mie sides b 1,^ th- sm?''<'r, because of the dem nd of perspe« i ive. This c(.v wr or. M iplc .>f perspective is in the flowers in this p. rticu.ir design, and will now be considered. When floAers ar* .^hown quite full face, each petal is practically the same size, and it is treated in a similar manner; but when they are tilted, some of the petals are foreshortened; in fact, they all are affected by the altered position, in proportion to the amount of tilt, and each petal requires somewhat different individual treatment to make it play its full and effective part in the scheme of decoration. As the design is sunk only }^ inch, it is obvious that as the flowers here shown are, roughly speaking, i% or 2 inches in diameter, and they are tilted, they would have a portion of their width and depth lying behind the plane of the ground as shown in Fig. 94, this hc'mg a longitudinal section of that part of the pane and, similarly, the front petal and part of the sid< petals would be projecting in front of the surface of the panel. This, of course, is an impossible way of treraing the flowers, and so we arrange them so that it appears as if the flower had been pressed up against the back- ground and has its back or top petal forced f ^ward and the front petal made to lie backwards and d(iwh- wards, as at b, V\g. 94. In this position we must make it appear that the lifeMiai ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 153 flower is tilted iit an angle intended by the designer; and it must be said that a great deal depends upon the manner of treatment adfjpted. It will be noticed in the photograph that the back petals are hollowed, as |ht P*ig, 95, /?, whilst the front petals are made /ul/ and to/oul, as at d. Fig. 05. The side petals should iie carved s at f, Fig. 95; these sections, it should be borne in mind, are cross sections at right angles to the direjlion of the petals. With regard uj the centerpu ce re [re- senting the stamens, etc., this should be inclined at a suitable angle to the plane of the ground. In the photo it is shown rounded; an alternative is to hollow it, and then sink a cut in it, as sht) vn at c, Fig. 95. This ap- parently throws the cen- ter fnrther back and com- plete th' llusion, if it may be so termer, of depth. -Sometimes th* cei or .ortion of the flower is sunk below the level of t; • ^^round, especially when the grounti is taken t onlv }i inch or less; this is quite lep^itimate, but ,hoi !d '^c ither sparingly adopted; it has the best eff< t when only occasionally u -d. It may be reniarked ' it a common error into which beginners often fall .do certain aids to effect. SB 154 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING As in the case here illustrated, they are so struck by the effect produced by a simple "trick" (it may be truly so called) like this that they at once apply it to every flower upon their work, and fhereby assist in the failure of their work as a scheme of decoration. An occasional element treated in the manner de- scribed may be conducive to the general good, but a whole series of elements so treated would be very much open to question. Most of the difficulties which are likely to be ^ , encountered by ^^ vs^fe.. the beginner have now been mentioned and explained, and the student should be ready for a really diffi- cult piece of work. This is provided by the panel, the design for which is given in Fig. 96. One or two new elements are introduced, the principal being the dragon in the center. This winged dragon is really the chief object of interest in the panel, the other elements merely constituting a "setting" for it; consequently it should receive a special amount of care and attention. It will also be noticed that the groundwork is not punched and that it has no margin, but the ground is taken quite to the edge of the panel. This latter fact makes the carving stand out further than it would if it possessed a margin, and this enhances the eftect. In working the panel, proceed as in previous examples. Trace the design from center or margin lines (center Fig. 95 ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 155 lines preferred) to ensure it being on the wood true and square, then run the V tool round the elements to relieve the pressure of the surrounding wood, then "set in" and proceed to take out the ground. The ground should be sunk to a depth of not more than jV inch; % inch is sufficient, although beginners would naturally imagine that a design containing an element of the nature of the dragon, with its wide body and various prominent peculiarities, should stand quite a Pig. 96. long way off the ground. Reference will be made to this later. The size of the panel, which should be in hard wood (oak or walnut preferably), is 30 inches by 12 inches and should be 54 inch or 3| inch in thickness. Gauge the depth (^ inch) around the edge of the board with cither a single prick gauge or a pencil, and proceed to ground out as already described. Get the ground uniformly level and as smooth as possible; and it may be here remarked that a ground finished off witn the carving tool and showing the marks of the tool is of more value than a ground leveled down with the "router" and taken absolutely 1 56 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING level and smooth. It has a greater educational value, because of the really genuine ability it implies, and it also, in our opinion, has a greater decorative value because of the tool marks and the clean, crisp way in which they are cut. Take care that in the grounding, or rather in the pre- liminary 'wasting away" of the wood, the quick gouge is not taken too deeply, or the cuts will show after- wards. It will be noticed in the panel illustrated that this has occurred at the top about a foot from the right-hand end. Make all cuts meet each other, and H r Fig. 97. always cut ivWi the grain where possible; and where it is necessary to cut againsjt the grain use the sweep cut before described. In this way the carving partakes of that shiny character of surface that has in itself the greatest decorative value, and stamps the work as being that of a carver who possesses more than an elementary knowledge of the grain of wood and the treatment that is due to it. Many a fine piece of wood has been mutilated and utterly spoiled in the most fearful manner by being hacked and torn with just as fearfully blunt tools against the grain and across it, and in any way but the right way. mm ri^^s*^ii ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 157 All these remarks apply particularly to modeling. Let the tool be perfectly sharp, so that it can have a chance to show what it can do; don't be afraid to use the strop from time to time, and whenever a tool shows the least sign of dullness or has the tiniest "gap" in it, attend to it at once. All cuts, especially the finishing cuts, should be clean, smooth and crisp. In modeling this design, it may be as well for the student to turn and read again the remarks given on the necessity for a due arrange- ment of mass, how some parts, the least important, should be subordinated to others, the most important; some parts should be sunk to the ground or there- abouts, while others should be kept raised the full height. In so arranging the masses, always do so from the collective standpoint of the welfare of the whole design, so that all the parts shall be in harmony and that one part shall not be given unduly prominent effect at the obvious expense of another equally important part. One tendency observable in the evolution of the beginner is that of wishing to give undue prominence to one particular portion of the carving because of its great beauty, irsespective of any possibility of thereby destroying the harmony of the whole by so doing. E.xercise restraint in treating any design, but especially do so when treating a design that has any element or element-s that border upon the ornate and extravagr.nt. In this design the stalks can be kept low, swelling out in height as they swell out in width; the flower and the scroll at the right-hand end, the flower with the berries or seeds, and the one large leaf on the left end of the panel may be left full height; the other members lowered to whatever depth may seem best to 158 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING the student, always keeping in mind the unity and harmony of the whole design. With regard to the treatment of the individual members themselves, after they have been taken to their respective levels, the law of variety, as applied to length and breadth and sur- face, should be applied. Siak one side of a leaf, as, e.g., the leaf at the left lower corner of the design. This leaf is lowered at its top edge and kept raised at its lower edge, as a leaf, turning in the manner it does, naturally would appear. Other leaves should be twisted by being lowered at opposite corners before the surface by the ultimate and finishing cuts that give the leaf its final shape. All cuts should have a definite relationship to the cun'c of the member or group of members, so that it emphasizes the curves. A careless cut, here and there, can very easily entirely spoil the character of the member; and often by so doing to one member can spoil the effect of the whole carving. Notice in this panel how the ridges enable the eye to follow the curve; how the tool marks even act in a similar manner; how they all lead the eye in the direction the designer intended they should lead it; how beginning at the sources of the elements the eye is easily carried to the most ultimate point of each leaf and flower; and how, vice versa, beginning at the points or endings of the members, the eye is carried easily aiid obviously to the source of them all without break, without distraction, and therefore without annoyance. It is being able to do this that gives pleasure, that makes one feel that all the possibilities of the design have been realized, that the carver's powers of execu- tion have been equal to his powers of conception. In carving the berries, follow the instructions given, i.-'i;ss*r^i?»-fPiE;5r;^' ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 159 and give special attention to the oiitiine of the berries and the crevices between them. With regard to the dragon, the photograph, Fig. 97, shows the method of treatment. It is, of course, quite an imaginative creation. No "dragon" as depicted in this design was ever in existence, but although imaginative in its present form, it is really based upon a combination of natural animal forms. The griflRn, an imaginative creature in use as an element of design from the earliest times, is the chief repres.entative of this kind of ornament. It is a com- bination of the lion and the eagle, having a lion's body and the head and wings of the eagle. Sometimes we find the fore part of the griffin possessed of an eagle's legs and feet, the hind quarters being those of the lion. As men, in their eternal search after the new and strange, the novel and the original, became tired of existing elements and were limited in choice of entirely new objects (either natural or artificial) from which to draw new inspiration, they turned their attention to existing elements, and by a process of pulling to pieces and subsequent building up they produced the wonder- fully varied grotesque forms found in Pompeian and Roman ornament; and subsequently in the Renaissance these forms were appropriated and developed The present dragon possesses a head that migh. be a development of either an eagle or a lion; an eagle's wings, no feet or legs, and a fish's tail. The body is scaled, the scales extending each in the form of an entire ring around the neck and body. These scales may be cut up into smaller scales, as in Fig. 96, if thought necessary. It will be observed that the artificial leaf, which has been a feature of the designs used in this series, enters largely into the composition of the r' i6o PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING dragon. Its breast is covered with these leaves of thrbird'^th ""^ '''':'' ^°'"^''^"* ^''^ '^^ -""e of the bird; they form .ts beard, also its ears and e.r .nfluence is observable in the treatmen of the that" „,Y V ''"'' '° '^" ^'"^'' '■' "'■" ^' ^''^^^^'^ ha naturalness, grace and lightness characterize both the. concept.on and treatment. Often these wings are too wooden" and stiff, unnatural and ungracefu m both respects. Keep the feathers of varyinTnl and w.dths. although it maybe pointed out^thaMhi should not be overdone-there is a hapny mean tha should be sought for. The use of tool marks is evident here; if the seoa rate feathers are cleaned off quite smoothly al the edges cut neatly and so on, then it will be evidln that the workman who carved the wing was able to -t well and accurately; but it will not be evident thl' the wmg has any suspicion of life beyond tha su^ gested by its particular shape ^" is™;;;^^'-''" '""'^"^ and accurate cutting s necessary, that inner perception of the true aim of the designer, wh.ch alone enables the worker to Jive a worthy interpretation of the design, is essent al tn.U good work; and this inner perce'ption can b^g Ld m'^^anTn^. A?'' ''"' ^^"'^■' '^>' ^^^'"^ '^ ^athom'he meaning of the great works handed down to u. from early times, and which are preserved in our mn anrl nr«- r^-,ii« • . H'cacrvea in our museums and ar galleries; and works, too, of recent years should be studied, so that by a process ofcZl thp BtiiH«r,* I ".y rt process ot comparison he student can learn the lessons to be drawn from these works. "'awu irom thil d'estnl?'."^ instructions app.y to the treatment of h. design If sunk only to the depth of ^ inch But •f .t IS desired to use the panel in a position that is a ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER i6i good distance from the eye, then the depth could be much greater, so that the consideration of mass, which is essential in such a case, shall receive the proper emphasis. In this event, the principal attention should be given to the proportion of the masses, rather than to detail; in fact, too much attention to detail is quite un- necessary and would simply be labor thrown away. At a distance all that is perceived of the design is mass- and curve. Get the masses in proper proportion, so that a good balance exists between all parts, and pay attention to the cutting of the curves, and the design will be a success. Get this well grasped first, and let the details alone. The treatment of the indi- vidual parts will be as before described, but the differences in height and depth will be magnified. The cutting should be clean, strong and bold. We now come to the consideration of the building up of a design, which is based upon the principle of ''line.'' Perhaps it would be as well to point out that it is, in reality, almost impossible to separate mass from line. In nearly all really satisfactory designs both have to be considered to a greater or less extent. But it is evident that in originating any design it is attacked from either one or the other point of view- that of mass or line— and it should be well evident in the completed design from which point cf view the artist started. If from that of mass, then the consider- ation of line has been, and should easily be seen to be, an auxiliary, a subordinate consideration. If from the point of view of lines, the opposite, of course, is the case. Surface carvings and all carvings in low relief should be considered from this point of view, that of "line." All these carvings are to be used in such a titiiiMftiiiiii'mi fatiSiii''" mmt mm 162 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING position that they are always comparatively close to the eye, and therefore details can be easily seen and appreciated— details such as clearness and sharpness of outline, beauty of curve, arrangement of small fruit, flowers and buds. It is not necessary to have any great effect of light and shade, as in the case of designs regulated by mass. Continuity and beauty of line and curve are the principal consideration. It will then be evident that the designer should arrange the direction and distribution of the lines in the first place. If any mass is introduced afterwards, its size and position and character will be determined. ■Showing th« Formation or a DtiiisK. Fig. 98. necessarily, by the general arrangement of the lines of the design. In this case they will be subordinate to the "line" idea, as the latter was subordinate to the idea of mass in our first example, described in the last chapter. The space at our disposal, then, is planned out by the use of what may be termed "leading" •■ principal lines. These lines determine the whole < laracter of the :'.jsign. They may be always visible, or may be quite obliterated by being covered with ornament; but they are always obvious, and form, as it were, the skeleton of the design. It is, therefore, of very great ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 163 importance that the "leading" lines should be planned and arranged with great judgment ami care; judicious and careful thought should be expended upon their arrangement, so that the ultimate design built upon them shall be strong, vigorous and graceful. Figs. 98 NO. I. Fig. 99. Xo 4- and 99 give a series of illustrations showing the method of filling in and arranging the "leading" lines. It will be evident that their arrangement depends upon the ultimate position of the panel; as to whether they shall proceed from the side, or a corner, or an end, or ^^^^jy^TSBB ^SP ,64 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING the middle; also, whether they shall partake of a radiating nature, or a horizontal, or a vertical posat.on and. of course, much depends uiK>n the style we choose from which to take our elements and our msp.ratton^ It can be said that designing from a consideration of "line" limits us more as regards the arrangement of the elements than designing from a consideration qf -mass " We do not know what will be the size, or shape.' or character of our masses until we have arranged the "leading" lines. In practice it will be found, as has already been suggested, that unless we confine ourselves to designs of the nature of Celtic, in which the ;n././ is entirely that of line, it will be impossible to arrange our leading lines without some consideration, however vague, of mass. Our modern designs are based very largely upon natural forms, and in nature the two ideas of mass and "line" are always found together; any design, therefore, which is true to nature should take into account both idea. It should, however, be evident as we have already said, from which Pos-Uon the design was conceived and thought out. Therefore, although we must consider to some extent what masses II intend using-their size and character-the design in this case must be approached from the point of view of arrangement of leading lines. In planning the panel, its ultimate position will decide the character of the planning. We will con- sider that it is to be used as an independent panel, that is, it does not share with other panels or members in the entire scheme, but is the entire schenrie in itse . We can then treat it in various ways In the first place, we can arrange the leading lines over the whole of the space without reference to any cen- E:7S£mm-wm<\''^^i^^'*.ML,^ ROUisDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 165 ter line or lines, as shown in the first set of sketches in Fig. 98. In this case, care should be exercised in arranging the lines, because of the absence of an obviously symmetrical arrangement, and the tendency which naturally would follow this of falling into an arrange- ment that is deficient in order, and the difficulty of fretting the design well balanced and well propor- tioned. It may be noted that designs built upon this arrangement are more suited to schemes which necessitate the panels being pairs, and in which, there- fore, an equal balance can be maintained more naturally and easily. This a r r a n ^^ e ni c n t can be used as a single panel, without another with the same design reversed, when it is, for example, used as an end door of a sideboard, as in sketch, Fig. 100. In this case the drawers help, in a partial manner, to form the necessary balance required; it is more suit- able used in this way than as a single panel forming a complete, scheme. Take precautions to ensure the proper filling out of the corners in accordance with the principle of even disti-ibution. It will be noticed throughout these sketches that both mass and line have Fig. 100. 1 iA;.,.i"i -. .;*.?r;S. *^ rsRVSik^i'iis^t'ii. i66 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING been considered in planning; but it will also be noticed that line has Ijeen the chief consideration, and is well evident even in the finished sketi h. In the second set of sketches, Fijf. r th«' arrange- ment is that ot a desif/n ouilt upon two central lines, one horizontal, one vertical; in this, as is obvious, the whole of the design is contained in one quarter, being repeated and reversed to make the full design. Although this arrangement may appear to be com- paratively easy, because of the smaller space, and consequently fewer el< ments and a corresponding simplicity of plan, yet it is, perhaps, mor>- difficult than the two preceding methods; at any rate, it is more difficult than the third method. This is so because ol the fact that in arranging and considering only a quarter of the design, the appearance of the plan as a whole is not at once ai)parent, and it some- times happens that what app-ared to be suitable in the quarter drsign, is ill-balanced and badly arranged when the quarters are joined into the complete whole. It is, therefore, a better plan to consider the whole space rather than a quarter of it, and fill in, roughly perhaps, the leading lines in all four portions. This method will at least ensure their symmetrical and proportionate arrangement, and this is the principal consideration; the details can be filled in pretty easily. Let me here emphasize the necessity of building designs upon a certain definite, organized plan; a plan which is strong, without being clumsy; vigorous with- out being ungraceful. To do this think out the lead- ing lines with care; take time to consider their arrange- ment; do not unduly hurry that part of the process, and spend all the time in filling in detail work; a good, well arranged set of leading lines is much more ROUNDED FO. MS < )R CARVIN(i PROl'Kk iS; important than the most < xquisitc detail that could br introduced. It should be particularly noted that the siudeu.' must familiarize lijniself with the leading principles trcnt'd of in prcx ious parts especially (I -se of Kvcn Distribu- tion, Urtl r and Symmetry The consideration of these is especiallv applicabl.- {<■, the arrauL'inc o'f the It. ading lines. When these are salisfartorily plan led, and the m.isscb suitably placet! and decided upon, the U'tail can be filled iu and its t-rneral disposal arran^^c-d. F r alfhoUfrh wc ppt in the leading .ine^ first, yet w^ h.4V; I hI sou j id.:., as to what the detail would be like, and ,"s to wh-n it should be placed, and how; as, for instani . some of the lines w have inunded to indicate the ultimate position of stalks, other lines the place of folia^if and so forth. A certain general idea should be conceivol as to what the full design should bebei.re it i planned on pap.-r. If this is not so, the desijrnwili in all probability be p. ' ..-chan- ical. 'r must be pointed out that all . : .angements described in articles as to how to make designs, and all methods formulated, are aids only; (he student must dev loj) his own powers of conception by obser- vation, practice and experiments; these rules and principles here laid down and described are for his guidance only; they show the manner of any experi- ment, the way to practice, and to mould his concep- tions, so that they may be in accordance with the governing principles of design, and thereby express them in the best manner. The mode of procedure with regard to the arrange- ment of "line" designs, is somewhat similar to that of "mass." It can be summed up as follows: tAmstii^ i68 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING 1. Decide upon the style and the elements to be adopted and used, havinjj regard to the requirements of the space to be ornamented. 2. Decide upon the general arrangement of the design, such as whether it is to be a whole design or arranged upon a central line or lines, 3. Plan the space by means of leading lines, arranged upon a symmetrical and proportionate basis, and arrange what masses are to be used. 4. Build upon these leading lines the foliage and fruit or other elements decided upon. These lines may be entirely covered, but their existence will be evident, and should be, to save the design from appear- ing to be built u^on an unarranged and indefinite plan. Here we offer various designs the intention of which is to show how the prmciples of design may be applied. It may be said at once that there is no rigid, unalter- able rule about the application of these principles. If that were so. all designs would bear a certain similarity that would indicate lack of originality. Originality or freshness of conception is only kept alive by inter- preting the meaning and message of the elements from a separate individual standpoint. To do this suc- cessfully, we must not be bound too much by hard and fast rules. It must be understood, then, that whilst the observ- ance of these principles is essential to the production of good design, yet in their observance sufficient latitude is allowed for any number of designers to place their separate interpretation upon the elements and their arrangements to ensure designs that are quite different in meaning, character and treatment, although based upon the same mod/and governed by the same principles. -vsrrrrss'mrTrm ■9 mm.. ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 169 A few words as to the choice of elements may be given here. As we have seen in previous pages, the elements are grouped under six heads; and as under each head we can find many varying forms, it would seem a rather difficult task to exercise a choice that would prove satisfactory. Personally, I have always found artificial foliage and forms to be the easiest elements to use in forming designs; there is a direct- ness about them, an appearance that suggests the "manufactured article," that makes them easier to put into shape for wood carving purposes than using purely natural forms. The explanation is that these artificial forms have undergone a process of conventionalization at the hands of other artists, and have been handed down to us quite ready for immediate use. But this is scarcely satisfactory to those whose ambitions soar high, as should the ambitions of all designers. It would seem to be much more creditable to take our elements direct from nature, put our own construction upon them by altering them for use in accordance with our own artistic ideas and then build them up into designs. This procedure would, therefore, exclude from our use artificial objects and foliage; and as animals and the human figure should be only sparingly used, the chief mass of elements would be drawn, therefore, from natural foliage and geometrical forms. In drawing upon natural forms it is advisable to choose large fruit, such as applc-s, pears, oranges, lemons and pomegranates; small fruit, such as black- btiries, mountain ash, corn, etc., is extremely difficult of expression in wood. Likewise, the larger flowers, or rather those with suitable petals, such as the rose, lily, daffodil, primrose, tulip— to mention a few — are r^IP'WB'^^rff^i^^ 170 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING more suitable for carving in wood than those with smaller or a more complex arrangement of petals. Remember that quite as truly great effects are obtained by the use of simple forms as by the introduction of very highly cultured and complex elements. With regard to leaves, choose those whose shape and size will most readily lend themselves to the expression in wood of some principle of strength, or vigoi", grace, or delicacy. What is required is to take what appears to be the principal characteristic of the leaf, flower or fruit, and emphasize it by making it conform with our ideas of the principles of regularity, symmetry, rhythm and order. Thus the thistle would be used to give expression to vigor, ruggedness and severity. The acanthus has been employed in all ages in giving expression to ideas of beauty, proportion and grace. The straight stalk, full sturdy flower and short twisting leaf of the tulip suggest strength and self-reliance. The oak, again, is expressive of strength, and can be used as its indicating symbol. Certain foliage has been associated with particular ideas, and has been adopted because it visibly repre- sents these ideas. Such symbolism has provided a fruitful source of supply for designing purposes. The olive, for instance, is the symbol of peace, and is often used in the form of wreaths. The laurel has been used as the symbol both of atonement and of glory; the vine, too, will readily occur as being used for symbolical reasons. The Egyptians used the lotus as the symbol of immortality. Ivy, again, is used as being symbolical of friendship. Throughout the choice of all elements, the absolute ■\iii^, sxi,fK.^^ii' y^^'r:i:?r?f:^ui*^s;:sjsa^i^ii'aisiiasx,ma^-M.. famoiBamaaaBsidffiiss^i^si^sfsmmsBwxtsu^ ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 171 suitability of the particular element cliosen for expression in wood should be the designer's first care. It is of no use employing elements in building up designs that are not capable of being expressed by tJu cut oftlie tool, or that have no relation to it. Take a gouge and with it make a single cut in a piece of wood, then make a series of such cuts, employing tools of varying shapes and sizes, and make them an object of study. If an intelligent use be made of the results of such study, the designer will be able to use elements and make designs that have a distinct and definite relation to these cuts. Some designs are conceived which are much more suitable for expression in other material than wood, and to secure the desired result the tools have to execute, literally, a series of very surprising gym- nastics, so unsuited is the design to the wood. One point which beginners in design should particu- larly note is that the principles of strength and vigor should be well in evidence. These principles are well marked in Egyptian ornament, so much so that they give to the whole ornament of this style a severity that is very characteristic. Gothic ornament may also be instanced as giving full expression to these principles or ideas; and the student is advised to study, wherever possible, any work of these periods he may happen to come across, either actual examples, or drawings, or photograph; and if the study is carried out intelligently, he will begin to understand and appreciate to its full extent the reason that exists for strength and vigor being considered as primary necessities. It may be asked what is meant when we speak of these principles. They really mean this, that designs 172 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING should be built or constructed upon somewhat similar lines or principles to those employed in the construc- tion of buildings. The arrangement of the design should be such that the whole of the parts of which it is built should appear to be upholding one another and should suggest a feeling of there being in the arrangement a reserve of strength. The main lines, for instance, should be capable of sustaining the weight of any element, or group of elements, that may be built upon them. All stalks should have a free, natural curve that would suggest a capacity for holding with- out any undue strain the fruit or flower they carry. The fruit and flowers should be arranged so that they do not violate any natural instinct, so that they appear to be easily carried by the stalk. In the construction of furniture it is a primary principle that all weight and strain should be conducted to a limited number of points arranged at suitable places, so that the weights and strains should, as far as possible, counteract one another and so assist in strengthening the whole construction. In similar manner should designs be arranged, so that the ele- ments, or groups of elements, used may be so placed that their weight appears to be easily carried by the elements used as their supports. In the designs illustrated. Fig. loi shows a design intended as a panel for a small pulpit. It is based upon the oak, and shows both the leaves and acorns; it IS not intended to have much surface work in model- ing the leaves, the elements or individual parts being enough cut up by the broken outline; this makes it possible to treat the surface quite simply. This may be taken note of, that if the outline of any member be much indented or broken, as in this example, the sur- ^l^>SFS ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 173 face work may be quite slight and can present a fairly smooth surface. If, on Ihe other hand, the outline is fairly continuous, as in most parts of Fig. 103, then the Pio. 101. MMMifHtii -"^'^■^ 174 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING surface may be cut up in inverse ratio; this, be it un- derstood, is a general rule only and is not invariably applicable to all cases. Fig 102 shows a design based on the tulip, arranged somewhat in modern style. It suggests how an irregularly shaped space may be filled. In this case the shape of the space partly suggests the general arrangement of the design. Many designs of this kind are s . grotesquely arranged as to be quite devoid of Fig. I02. strength. This is so with many designs sent over from Europe, the sole aim of which appears to have been to introduce as many fantastic and grotesque curves and corners in the design as possible. Restraint has been insisted upon in previous chapters, but it may again be referred to here as being abso- lutely necessary to good design. Without its influence our work can easily degenerate into mere extravagant absurdity. wss^s^sa ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 175 Fig, 103 shows an arrangement of shamrock leaves, used partly because of their natural beauty and partly because of their national significance. The arrange- ment of the stalks may be pointed out in this design. They are all there for a definite pur- pose, and not one is introduced without ful- filling some useful end. It is sometimes a great temptation to the be- ginner to fill up a space with an element that does not bear a reason- able relation to the rest of the design. It is merely used to "fill up." This should be guarded against. Fig. 104 gives a pho- tograph of a design which has been carved. The reason it is given is to point out two de- fects which should be avoided. The first and most important defect is that the whole of the Fig. 103. foliage, forming nearly the whole of each (juarter, is borne upon a very inadequate support, giving the impression of weakness' and insecurity. There should have been some other arrangement v hereby 176 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING Fig. 104. ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 177 the foliage in question should h and more substantial in the radiation: th ave had a stronger support. Another defect is <-' imperfect nature of this is evident in several places, anti the attention of the student is directed to this point. There are also two elements introduced in this dcsij:n t.iat have no rela- tion to the rest and have ob "f^ll vii.usly been introduced (■, iin. Another example of rounded work is shown in P 105, but which is onl\' giv en .IS a suggestion for a anietita! design to be made by yourself. It i- a fund principle- that both design and execution should be the ame person, and I A-aiit you t) I was indeed work of one and the s begin by strictly practicing this rule. I one of the main conditions of production in the best times of the past, and there is not that it must as/a a ahadow oi doubt Ml come to be the i:niv'ersal rule if wood carving, real progress is to be made in th<- art uf or in any other art, for that matte;. Just think for moment how false must be the position of boih i»art when one makes anv les ii'-'smii and out. The "desi- mother carries it :ner" sets his head to work (we must not count his hands at p'resent, a'< they the result in a kinii of uriiing), a "d and handed o\er to th (Miiy note down esign" IS produced carver, sets his hands and {•>•<■.-: to wi oJier man's idc-as, or at lc,i?,i e carver to execute. He, the to rarr,' ou t th( the same, his heatl meanwhile 1 further than transfer tl interpret his notes for laving vtr\' lilMe to do very good reasons such le said notes to his haiu bound to come t< Por an arrangeiiKMit as this is grit f. O in' is. th.it no )iec( of carving can properly be s.u'd to be "designed" until it is finished to the la.->t stroke. A dr map of its gene al outlire, with uvini; is f)nlv a perhaps contours I I i i 178 I'RACllCAL WOOD CARVING appruximatcly indicated In' shading. In any case, even if a full-size model were supplied bv the designer, Fui. 1 ROUNDKD FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 179 the principle involved would suffer just the same degree of violence, for it is in the actual carving of the wood that the designer should find both his inspiration and the discipline which keeps it within reasonal^Ie bounds.. He must be at full liberty to alter his original inten- tion as the work develops under his hand. Draw and trace your outline in the same manner as before, and transfer it to the wood. You may make it any convenient size, say on a board 18 inches long by 9 inches wide, or what other shape you like, pro- vided you observe one or two conditions which I am going to point out. It shall have a fair amount of background between the features, and the design, whatever it is, shall form a traceable likeness to a pattern of some description; it shall have a rudi- mentary resemblance to nature, without going into much detail; and last, it shall have a few w/W^v/ forms in it, rounded both in outline and on the sur- face, as, for instance, plums. In setting to work to carve this exercise, follow the same procedure as in previous ones up to the point Fig. 106. when the surface decorations began. In the illustra- tion there is a suggestion for a variety in the back- ground which does not occur in the other. In this case the little branches are supposed to lie along the tops of gentle elevations and the plums to lie in the hollows. It produces a section something like this, Fig. 106. There is a sufficient excuse for this kind of treatment in the fact that the branches do not require much depth, and the plums will look all tlie better for WFJ^ i :V«I MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1.25 |4j ■ 30 1^ ■ 12 ■ 3.6 il 2.5 2.2 2£ II 1.8 J ^IPPLIED IIVMGE Inc Sr 1653 East Main Street 'JS Rochester. New York 14609 USA = (716) 482 - 0300 - Ptione as (716) 288 - 5989 - Fox r i8o PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING a little more. The depth of the background will thus vary, say between ^f inch at the branches and | inch at the plums. The branches are supposed to be per- fectly level from end to end, that is, they lie parallel to the surface of the wood, but of course curve about in the other direction. The h aves, on the other hand, are supposed to be somewhat rounded and falling away towards their sides and points in places. The vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a parting tool, as well as th > serrations at the edge, or the latter may perhaps be more surely nicked out with a chisel after the leaves have received their shapes, the leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher than the other and as though their points, in some cases, touched the background, while in others the oase may be the lowest part. The twigs coming out from the branches to support the plums should be somewhat like this in section, and should lie along the curve of the background and be in themselves rounded, as in Fig. 107; see section aa. The bottom of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border; this will serve to distinguish it as a starting point for the little branches which appear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground. The plums should be carved by first cutting them down in outline to the back- ground, as A, Fig. 108. Then the wood should be removed from the edge all round, to form the rounded surface. To do this, first take the large gouge and with its hollow side to the wood cut off the top, from ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER i8i pmm ,^//^7mm//r ^ FuJ. III. ^xswK:-^,z:^iii^^m^i^m^!m^- ^ ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 185 actually seen. The consequence is a loss of power in producing that instintaneous impression of harmony which is one of the secrets of effectiveness in carving. This is greatly owing to tne constant change of plane demanded by an in^itative treatment, as well as the want of formality in its background. The lack of restful monotony in this r- sped creates confusion in the lights, making a closer inspection necessary in order to discern the beauty of the work. Now the hi'nan imagination loves surprises and never wholly forgives the artist who, failing to administer a pleasant shock, invites it to come forward and examine the details of his work in order to see how well they are executed. These examples, you will say, are from architectural details whicn have nothing to do with wood carving. On the contrary, the same laws govern all manner of sculpturesque composition — scale or material making no difference whatever. A sculptured marble frie/e or a carved ivory snuffbox may be equally censurable as being either so bare that they verge on baldness and want of interest, or so elaborate that they look like layers of fungus. Do not imagine that we are urging any preference for a Byzantine treatment in your work; to do so would be as foolish as to ask you to don medi.eval costume while at work, or assume the speech and manners of the tenth century. It would be just as ridiculous on your part to affect a bias which was not natural to you. We are, however, strongly convinced that in the choice of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly masses (more particularly with regard to their appear- ance in silhouette against the ground), and also in the matter of an economical use of detail, we have much ' ^.''*ii^9rim?jf'immtmr%'mi^«iS'£i^mim3^if^ai^ms^&^^^. i86 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING to learn from the carvers who preceded the fourteenth century. They thoroughly understood and appreciated the value of the light which fell upon their work, and in designing it arranged every detail with the object of reflecting as much of it as possible. To this end, their work was always calculated for its best effects to be seen at a fairly distant point of view; and to make sure that it would be both visible and coherent, seen from that point, they insisted upon some easily under- stood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a glance. To make a pattern of this kind is not such an easy matter as it looks. The forms of the background spaces are the complementary parts of the design, and are just as important as those of the solid portions; it takes them both to make a good design. Now we believe you must have had enough of this subject ior the present, more espf^rJally as you have not yet begun to feel the extraoic nary difficulty of making up your mind as to what is i.ad what is not ."it for the carver's uses amongst the boundless examples of beauty spread out for our choice by Dame Nature. Meantime we do not want you to run away with the impression that, when you have mastered the principles of economy in detail and an orderly disposition of background, you have therefore learned all that is necessary in order to go on turning out design after design with the ease of a cook making pancakes according to a recipe. You will find by experience that all such principles are good for is to enforce clearness of utterance, so to speak, and to remind you that it is light you are dealing with and upon which you must depend for all effects; also that the power of vision is limited. Acting upon them is quite another matter, and one, we are afraid, in which no one can ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 187 help you much. You may be counseled as to the best and most practical mode of expressing your ideas, but those thoughts and inventions must come from your- self if they are to be worth having. We illustrate herewith two fragments of a kind of running ornament. Fig. in is a part of the jamb moulding of a church in Vicenza. If you observe carefully you will find that it has a decidedly classical appearance. The truth is that it was carved by a Gothic artist late in tli< fourteenth century, just after the Renaissance influence began to make itself felt. It is an adaptation by him of what he remembered having seen in his travels of the new style, grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand. It suits our purpose all the better on that account, for the reason that we are going to re-adapt his design to an exercise and shall attempt to make it suitable to our imiited ability in handling the tools, to the change in material from stone to wood, and lastly, to our different aim and motives in the treatment of archi- tectural ornament. Now do all this for yourself in another design, and look upon this suggestion merely in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile. In this exercise. Fig. 112, you will repeat all you have already done with the others, until you come to the shaping of the leaves, in which an undulating or up and down motion has been attempted. This involves a kind of double drawing in the curves, one foi .he flat and one for the projections; so that they may appear to glide evenly from one point to the other, sweeping up and down, right and left, without losing their true contours. Carvers call this process "throwing about," i.e., making the leaves, etc., appear to rise from the background and again fall towards it ■Y^ru:'!^- *«ffliHiw«»#s?^ - ^-vsrsr-^'j^^-^TV'Sv' y^ ■:ym-pathy between each su.face so "thrown about." It is precisely in th" observance of this last quality that effects of richness are produced. You can hardly have too much monotony of surface, but may easily err by having too much variety. Therefore, whatever system of light and shade you may adopt, be careful to re- peat its motive in some sort of rhythmic ordei all over your work; by no other means can you make it rich and effec- tive at a distance. It is well every nov and then to put your work up on a shelf or ledge at a distance and view it as a whole; you will see which parts tell and which do not, and so gain exper-ence on this point. Work should also be turned about frequently, sidewise and upside down, in order Fig. 112. to fii^d h<>w the lifh'; R( NDKI) KORMS OR CARVING PROPER i8g affects it in different directions. Of course you must not think that because your work may happen to look well wh< n seen from a little way off, it does not matter about the details, whether they be well or poorly carved. On the contrary, unhss you satisfy the eye at both points of view, your work is a partial failure. The one thin},' is . important as th- other, only as thi; first glance at carved work is {generally taken at some little distance, it is the more immediately necessary to think of that before we bef,'in to work for a closer inspection. First impressions are generally lasting with regard fo carved work, ar ., as we have said before, beauty of detail seldom quite atones for failure in the arrangement of masses. The rounded forms in this tlesign may give you a little trouble, but practice, and that alone, wilt enable you to overcome this. Absolute smoothness is not desirable. Sandpapered surfaces are e.\:remely ugly, because they obtrude themselves on account of their extreme smoothness, having lost all signs of handi- work in the tool marks. Almost every beginner has some vague impression that his first duty should be to aim at originality. He hears eulogiums parsed upon the individuality of some one or other, and tries hard to invent new forms of expression or peculiarities of styli , only resultiu' in most cases in new forms of ugliness, which it cms is the only po sibility under such coniscious eff ts after novelty. The fact is that it takes many generations of ardent minds to accom- plish what at first each thinks himself capable of doing alone. True originality has somewhat the quality of go< I wii »•, which becomes more delightful as time mel.ows its flavor and imparts to it the aroma which ca ,f long repute; like the new wine, too, /■i^vrw igo PRAC ;ICAL WOOD CA' VING originality should chyly hide itself in dark places until maturity warrants its appearance in the light of day. That kind of originality which is strikingly new does not always stand th' test of time, and should be regarded with cauti ,s skepticism until it has proved itself to be more t' .\ the passing fashion or novelty of a season. There is a kind of sham ar' i-rv ci)n- spicuous at the present date, popularly b. i .'d to be very original. It seems to have arisen out of some >. :h impatient craving for novelty, and it has been encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban refine- ment y/h'xch neither knows nor cares very much what really goes to the making of a work of art. This new art has filled our stores and e.xhibitions with an inverte- brate kind of ornament which certainly has the doubt- ful merit of "never having been seen before." It has evidently taken its inspiration from the trailing and supine forms of floating seaweed, and revels in the e.xpression o.' -uch bone •'•^s structure. By way of variety it presents us w. a kind o.' symbolic tree, remarkable for mor.' thnn archaic flatness and rigidity. Now this kind of ' v.ri^inality" is not only absolutely valueless . 't r it off, which will be when the handle is about three parts done, when a rasp or coarse file may be used to Ret it into shape, l-'iles are better than any tools for the purpose, as with them the blade can be f,'radually reduced with- out fear of spoiliu},' it by takint,' off too much. The ed^e of broken glass will also be found very useful for the same purpose. The blade of a large paper-knife, such as this, ought, when finished, to be one-third of an inch in thickness in the thickeiit part, that is, where it joins the handle; from there it should slope gradually and easily down to the point and cutting edges; these latter should be perfectly free from notches in the wood, or unevenness of any kind, nor should they be over sharp or they will soon split and break off. So to return to the handle, which has been left untouched, saving the design gummed or traced upon it. The first thing required is to cut away carefully all the waste wood in between the coils of the snake on the outside. Make the identations exactly at right angles with the surface of the design, or you will get into trouble when carving the reverse or under-side. Having done this, take the drill and make one or more holes, according to the space, in each part which requires perforation, though :f preferred this part of the work may be done with a fret saw. Then, with a knife, or if the wood be fixed in a vise, with a chisel, trim the edges away nearly, but not quite, up to the inked edge of the design. When this has been done roughly, go over it again, marking slightly but dis- tinctly where the different parts of the snake cross each other' When the general idea and shape have been ROUNDED FORMS OR CARVING PROPER 195 thus given, examine it carefully in detail and ask, before proceedinj,' further, such questions as, "Is this part ri^ht?" "Does that coil lie naturally?" "Am I leaving too much here, or cutting away too much there?" and so forth; do not dash and slash at it, but think in this manner as tlu; work proceeds, and work gradually and cautiously uj) to the desired end. A good carver is always thinking in this manner, and never does a stroke without a good reason, for carving and sculpture are not like painting or even modeling, where a false stroke can be obliterated; for, a little splinter once nicked off, the snake is gone for good and the reptile looks wrong and woodeny for the rest of its days. Having fashioned it carefully but roughly in the manner descri jed, take a coarsish file over it, guarding particularly against cutting away too much for fear of making it look attenuated, remembering that the size of the body is very considerably r-^duced by cutting and marking the scales, so that before this process is commenced it should look unnaturally plump and fat; and also bear in mind that in life the coils of the snake in crossing yield equally the one to the other, falling together and flattening each other, as it were, with an undulating appearance, and not crossed as so many sticks. Beginners are very apt to fail in this point. To obtain at once a correct idea, which is very essential for the execution of a lifelike car"iii,^. we strongly advise the carver to copy from life. This rule applies always when carving from nature, whether animate or inanimate, but is especially necessary to observe in regard to the former. Five minutes' examination would be of more service to the carver than a whole chapter of descriptions and directions. When the form has been cut out with tolerable ,96 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING accuracy, go over it all with a file fine enough to rende 'the surface smooth, but not polished. Ihe scales must be mark..-d with a pencil or scratched w.th a fine point, an inch or so of the body at a time if the pencil be used, or the marks will rub out. tor cutting them, use either the sharp point of a knife or gouges of the right size. From the size and form of the scales 'arying in each turn, it is necessary if the gouges are used to be c nstantly changing from one size to ■mother It i >f importance to recollect that not only does each y^ inch of the reptile vary in size, increasing from the head to the middle rind decreasing in like manner towards the tail, but also that the size of the scales increases and decreases in the same proportion. Moreover, that on the inner parts of the curve they are small and short, and in the outside exactly the reverse, that is, large and elongated, strc.ched out as it were When the scales have been roughly denoted, rectify mistakes and irregularities; and agam -o over the whole, this time more carefully, and tr; n and shape the edges, obliterating tool ma:ks, and define each separate scale so that they all lie equally and Ijcrhtly the one over the other. This done, the paper- knife may be considered as finished, and only requires polishing. For thi4 inches high, and is carved in jyc.imore, and stands on a base of the same material, and is preserved in the Gizeh Museum. Cairo T^,'ypt. This famous wooden statue is known as t... 'Sheik-el-Helad," that is, the chief of the village, a name which the Arabs who found it bestowed on it because its features closely resembled those of their own particular Sheik. The statue Is distinctly a portrait, and is generally sup- posed to represent one of the overseers of workmen and slaves, originally engaged in building the pyramids which abound in the district where it was discovered, and which recent "finds" have gone to prove are the oldest of all the pyramids of Egypt. Figure carving and figure carvers have always been held in high esteem since history began, and this fact has tended to make the carver have an exalted opinion of himself, so much so that as a rule he has begun to think himself something superior to other workmen and usually turns up his nose in contempt when brought in contact with the lower grades of craftsmanship. Quoting from a recent contribution by Harry Hems, we get the following on this subject: "In my opinion there does not exist a more con- ceited set of men than figure carvers. Here is a rough 200 MMt". w. 'tm-t FIGURK CARVING 201 sketch of one taken (Tif,'. 120), I h(.licv«j, from nn old illumination dated A.D. 1452, which seems to show that in this respect tluy do not differ from the crafts- men of four or five centuries aj^o. Fig. 120. "In the forty-fourth chapter of the liook of Isaiah, the following account of the figure carver's work is given: 'The carpenter stretchcth out his rule; he marketh it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, he 'i^Mdsii . . .^''■•:jLi j 202 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING markoth it out with the compass, and maketh it after the fij,'urc of a man, according to the heauty of a man; that it mav remain ir the house. ..." "If a carpenter of to-day were to assay to carve a statue in wood, would he not work upon precisely the same lines)' We can fancy him squaring up his stuff, putting the rule over it— chalk-lining it, perhaps- measuring it, and then making some sort of a halting start. A real figure carver, of course, after carefully modeling his proposed statue in clay, would simply put a bench screw in the back or base of the block of wood to be carved and, having secured it tightly in an upright position, level with the eye, without the least marking or measuring, would hammer away till fi;»-thcr orders, trusting entirely to inspiration. 'What draw- ing are you copying?' is the constant and perhaps natural query asked by visitors to a wood carver's studio of those busily engaged in modeling or carving the figure. 'Copying nothing,' is the cool and perhaps somewhat indignant reply. 'But surely,' the enquirer will add, 'surely you are not making that lovely angel out of your own head?' 'No,' he may retort, 'my head is not a clump of wood, and that is.' "Isaiah's carpenter cried to his statue after he made it, and said pleadingly, 'Deliver me, for thou art my god'; and to-day, although we do not actually worship, in a superstitious sense, the creations of our own brains, there is no doubt that our works oftentimes make deep impressions upon the minds of others." No doubt there is much truth in what Mr. Hems says concerning the "conceit" of recognized figure carvers, but then they have good reason to feel proud of them- selves and -" '^ '*-eir work, for it is not stretching the truth to s . among the eighty millions of people mm m FIGURE CARVING 20^ who own th» (• Unittcl Statt;s then- is not more than one in every 1 Million who maybe considered a gotxl figure carver; so, if in this broad land there arc! not more than tij,'hty persons deserving the name of good figure c rvers, these eighty immortals have some good reason to feel pr >ikI. I vervthin (!ls«; where greatness is attained, the ,urt c.r is born, not made. If thedi.inc not n hi! no amount of training or practice bly mak. famoi , fij.. ire carver, but ordinary ma) n ad ' attain an ordinary expertness ble -t) tun Hit ordinary work — the kind of I i( su^sts the < . lin.iry world— which, after all, ni' t appreLiaiid by the great mass of the stt cat n^ an W' is P' Figur viii,^ and tiu- representation of the human I- rm, r'>- in frUef or in statues, is without doubt t '- st Urani h of the wood carver's art, and we ^avc deferred any remarks respecting it .ntil it 1 Th rt mar. difficulties to be mastered and disapi "-"nt- lo be borne befoie the begintiers will be ab i sent accurately in wood the "human form <\\\ <,n th«, tcndri!!. of plantH, it is obviously necessary to prvjportion f'.ctn accordingly. Htsidcs figures, a good many other forms have from time to time Ijcen introduced as aids to decorations; and in many examples of Grinliti^ Gibbons' work, not only dead K-'ime, but also the implements of the chase have been introduced, although, perhaps, this c n hardly be termed or con- sidered a high-class method of ornamentation. In the examples shown in Figs. 119 and 121 the human :.nd other forms are in --ombination with f(jliage, etc. In this description of work the san.e process is gone through ai previously described, is traced on the sur- face of the wood, then roughly "blocked" in with a quick tool, taking particular care t. pre: erve a few points to work by. In carving any piece of work, however, which involves a great amount of labor and is in high relief, we should most strongly advise the beginner to model the design nrst of ail in clay, so ps to get a general idea of the effect; or, if clay is not available, cut in the design roughly in any soft wood, such as pine. This advice may at first sight appear to entail a great amount of additional labor, but in the end the extra work will be amply repaid, as the work will be facilitated in every way. In carvi.ig figures of animals, birds, reptiles, it is best, it possible, to have an actual figure or af^imal as a model, as a dog's head or a dead robin suspended on the slab by a ! ge-headed nail, of course an imitation one carved out of the solid wood. There are few more beautiful subjects for the carver than this of dead birds, and it is one which can be used in a variety of manners, either purely as an ornament to lay on a slab, or to hang up against the wall, or as a panel for I 206 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING a cabinet or sideboard. For tlie latter purpose half relief will be sufficient; for the former, three-quarters, or even entire relief, is desirable. It were useless for us to attempt to give any design of this description, for nothing short of a photograph or a most minute engraving could delineate the description and texture of the feathers; but this, however, is of little impor- tance, as the natural bird is about the best model that can be had, and this is within reach of every one; but we would remind all those who intend to study from models of this kind, that it is preferable to do so m the winter, for not only will it longer retain its ongmal pose, but the worker will not be tempted to hurry over his work for unsavory reasons. All difficulties of this kind, however, mav be avoided, and skill in carving materially improved if a slight knowledge of modeling in clay be attained. Of course, in speaking thus we mean modeling in its simplest forms, merely enough to enable us to retain forms in our memory for future use, which either by nature or circumstances are fleet- ing; such, for instance, as a specially beautiful group of^'leaves or flowers, which, even could they be gathered without destroying their pose, would wither before they could be expressed in wood; or, again, to return to the case in point, modeling is invaluable to enable the artist to catch the general outline of a bird, or a group of birds or animals, while they are still fresh, before they become stark and stiff; the feather- ing or fur, being a detail, can be copied from models of^he same kind, placed as nearly as possible in the same position. It may be argued that a slight pencil sketch would answer the purpose as well as a clay model, and with less expenditure of time and trouble, but it is nut so, for a few skillful touches in clay will FIGURE CARVING 207 convey an idea such as would be useful to the carver far better than could be done with the pencil, unless It were in very talented hands; moreover, as the rudiments of carving and modeling are the same (which IS not the case as regards drawing), it is probable that to express an idea in clay would be easier to the carver than to do so by means of the pencil. A good quantity of modeling clay can be bought for a mere trifle. It can usually be procured at any pot- tery works, from pipe makers, or at cast shops; but in this latter place it is generally more expensive. It is sold in the form of powder mixed with rough lumps- these must be thoroughly crushed, and the powder worked up with water into a smooth dough, which should be as stiff and dry as is compatible with its bemg easily handled, for the moister it is so much the greater will be the risk of its cracking when the water evaporates. In many cases ordinary clav will answer If properly managed. The mod.!, when you are not at work on it. should be kept damp with a wet hand- kerchief or rag thrown over it; if this precaution be neglected, it will dry unevenly and fall to pieces The same clay can be broken up and used over and over again by taking care to grind it finely before mixing it afresh. The few tools and instruments required for modeling are very simple and inexpensive merely little sticks of wood or ivorv with different- shaped knobs at the end, others, again, being pointed and curved. Half a dozen of the ordinary shapes would do to start with, and with the aid of a knife and some glasspaper a modeler could easily make as many others as necessity or fancy suggested, the chief point being to make them very smooth, that the clay may not adhere to them. Plaster of Paris, though not so 208 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING artistic, is not a bad substitute for <^l-y; ;* ";;j^\ ^^^ ground and mixed in the same manner, ^ut -t must be used with more water, as it sets quickly and soon dnes^ I can then be cut or scraped with a knjfe or tool, and should . mistake occur it can be easdy remedied by adding a fresh daub of the plaster. ^^e^ex.d«i,„,Ki..u.Ua„ea,^J^ora,e<.er„. carving from which this drawing is taken was executed chiefly from na- ture. It meas- ures 4 feet across the wings and stands 4 feet 4 inches high, irrespec- tive of the stand on which it is placed. This is, however, an unusually large size, it being intended for a cathedr.-,!; from 22 to ,0 inches across the wings a^e ,hc usual dimensions. Before commenc r^g th s or =nv hrce worl< of a similar nature, it is advisable to mJk a small working model of the subject; this ::,del should be made ,o scale, that s, it ^M^^ a certain proportion to the large work, as, """^"";^; should it be proposerl to make the "«'<= ^'l nch« across, then let the model be 8 inches, that ,s, 4 mchei. Fig. 122. FIGURE CARVING 209 to the I foot. It need not, of course, be highly finished, the minor details of feathering, claws, etc., being of no account, as the sole object is to arrive at a just idea of the general effect, and to satisfy yourself that the pose and proportions are correct before com- mencing on the wood itself; of course, should you copy from a model the size of your own carving, these preliminaries will not be necessary; it is only when you are called upon either to greatly increase or reduce its proportions that this extra work is advisable. A very expert carver might even dispense with it altogether, but it would be ex- tremely rash in a novice to do so, for, as we have elsewhere remarked, carving cannot be altered at will, not at least to any extent; therefor-j the great- er caution used, so much the greater will be the chance of success. To make a rough m^odel, such as described, of the eagle in Fig. 122, it will be necessary, on account of the soft, yielding nature of the clay, to form it on a kind of frame, a skeleton, so to speak, which will give it strength to bear its own weight Fig. 123 represents such a skeleton, which consists of five strips of wood nailed or tied firmly together and fixed into a square of wood so as to form a solid base on which to stand; the two side pieces are tied strongly, as shown, to the crosspiece in front, while the middle piece passes in front in a slanting position, to form the slope from the breast to the extremity of the tail; the head, from being thrown back in the act of looking upwards, Fig. 123. I I I W ,-r' it 210 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVI.JG balances and supports its own weight. Some carvers prefer to make thjir models, as stated before, in soft wood, such as pine or bassvvood, and this plan has certainly the advantage in that it is more durable than either clay or plaster, but it is not so satisfactory on the whole, as in the latter materials the form can be altered and re-altered until it is quite to the artist's mind, which cannot be the case in wood. Be very careful in superintending the preparation of the wood, and the manner in which it is joined together. This should be entrusted only to a very skillful workman, and one who thoroughly understands his business, for the beauty and success of the work will mainly depend on the exactness and strength with which the parts are put together. Much judgment and care must be expended in the arrangement of the joins, in order that they m ly interfere as little as possible with the carving itself, as, for instance, the head should be in one piece, that is, with a join on either side, an^' not in the middle, and so on. The wood should be cut out of the block and expo to the air as long a time -s possible before it ;s b p; the longer the better, as the chance of warpn , which would be fatal to the work, is greatl.N- lessened by many months' exposure. Flaws and knots in the wood itself, though by no means desirable, are comparatively of little importance, as from the bold- ness and freedom of the design much is left to the artist's fancy, so that any little local flaw can be worked in and concealed amongst the irregularities of the plumage. There is yet one other point which reauires attention before the wood is finally clamped together, and tW^-- is to place those pieces side by side which agree the best in color and grain. Th- shades mmt FIGIJRK CARVING 211 of the different blocks should blend together so as to give the semblance as far as may be of the eagle being carved out of one entire piece; carelessness in this respect cannot be atoner' for by the finest carvings, for all the artist's skill could not save the bird from appear- in;r patchy ard woodeny if a stripe of lighter color than the rest ran down the breast. his is a misfor- tune which the most ignorant ..ovice can with a little care and painstaking avoid. In regard to the actual manual part of the subject, ii is useless to lay down any rules ^or the carver's guidance, as ic is better in these comparatively minor details that he should work in accordance with his own comfort and convenience. As a broad rule, however, it is always well to "rough out" the subject uniformly and to avoid entering into detail, so as to arrive as soon as may be at a just idea of the general effect, and afterwards to go over it again with a little more exactitude, repeating this process until it stands com- pleted as regards the pose and main features, but devoid, in the case of the subjects in question, of plumage and such like minutia. These should then in their turn be roughly delineated and gradually be worked up together into a perfect whole. It is only by rigidly following out this plan that a uniform and natural effect can be obtained by the inexperienced workman; if, for instance, one wing were highly finished in all its points before the other was begun, the greater part would probably have to be altered, or, as very likely this would be impossible, without cutting away too much of the wood, the two wings would look as if they did not belong to the same bird and the effect ii th whole carving would be spoilt. Doubtless this manner of working up the whole by slow degrees ir f i 212 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING i is somewhat a trial of patic-nco, especially if it be a first work of the kind, for it certainly is very temptui},' to finish up a little l)it in order to see the effect. This, though satisfactory for the moment, will spoil the appearance oi the finished work, or at any rate is a great risk on account of the danger of cutting away too much of a particular part before it is possible to judge of the whole. The feet and head of the eagle will require great care, especially the former. Procure, if possible, a real foot as a model. If an eagle's cannot be obtained, that of a similar bird of prey must do duty. Bestow much pains on observing and imitating the roughness of their texture and the manner in which the fluff falls over and around them. The eagle may be designed to stand on a ball of wood, or upon a rock, but be sure that you do not carve or draw a fancy rock out of your own 'head, for unless \ i are well practiced in such matters it will assuredly be stiff and conventional; but look about and find a real stone, to which, if too large to move, take your modeling clay and copy it faithfully on the spot, and afterwards at home model your eagle upcMi it. If the worst comes to th< worst, and you cannot light on either rock or stone which is suitable, you might find a worse model for your pur- pose than a piece of coal, which is in every one's reach. Take care in placing the model on the rock that the claws really clutch it, and that the bird is properly poised and balanced upon it. We will now pass on to the last and perhaps the most difficult branch of the art— that of carving in basso-relievo. For this a knowledge of drawing is almost a necessity, as is also the rudiments of per- spective; we say almost necessary, for in some rare FIGURE CARVING 213 cases the artist's eye is so intuitively af^curate that he can afford to dispense with such knowledge and may trust solely to an acute feelinjf of proportion and form to guide him aright; but this is very exceptional, therefore it would be well for those who intend to pursue this Ijranch to practice drawing from cases, if obtainable, and to make the rules of perspective a pre- liminary study. We would especially counsel ladies to follow this particular line of art, which, while necessitating skill of the highest order, involves the expenditure of less actual strength than those carvings which are in full relief. The student in this style has an abundance of beautiful and suitable subjects at his command, for not only are casts of most of the best works of this kind procurable, but there is also another field open to him in the many pictures and parts of pictures which are now placed within our reach by means of pho- tography. We could not, however, counsel him to attempt to carve from a flat object, such as a picture, until he has first practiced both carving and drawing from a cast, in order to educate the eye in the per- spective of figures for this especial purpose. No better models can be found than the casts from the basso-relievos of Luca della Robbia. After having w rked thus from casts, the r.ext step in advance is .' do so from photographs of basso-relievo sculpture; from thence you may, if you wish, pass on to carve from photographs of pictures. Having arrived at this point, you: choice of subjects is practically unlimited. Choose, to begin with, a bold and somewhat severe outline, such for instance as some of Ary Scheffcr's figures; carved pictures of this kind are, when artistically executed, \ cry beautiful; and the edge of I '\ \ I i t '\ \ I i i 214 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING the wood, beveled and finished with a simple ogee, is generally sufficient margin to set off the carving, or engraving similar to the one shown in Fig. 124, which shows birds, be' es, butterflies, insects and foliage. They present, when finished, the appearance of the picture of figure, beini; set in saucers or basins of wood, varying in depth according to the taste of the carver, and may be either round or oval, whichever is most suitable to the subject. For small picture carvings of this kind, a flat or slightly beveled rim or velvet laid on the wall about I or 2 inches in width is a great improvement and sets it off wonderfully. This style of wood sculpture was much practiced in the sixteenth century, especially in Spain, where there are many specimens of the kind still preserved; these, also, in many instances, bear marks of the background having been gilded and even painted in color. Whether the latter was an improvement is, we think, questionable, but as regards the former, ihere is little doubt that the gilding adds considerably to the effect of the carving, as the reflection of the gold on the convex background marks the outlines and throws it into great relief. Any good single head set thus, as it were, in a round dish or saucer of wood, would be an excellent study and form also an extremely handsome object in a room, hung picturewise on the wall; you will find some very beautiful heads suited for this pur- pose on the doors of the Baptistry at Florence. Excellent photographs have been taken of the original, from which a good carver could easily work. To find good casts is a somewhat more difficult matter, especially for those who live in the country. The plaster of Paris images which arc offered for sale in the streets would very probably mislead rather than FIGURE CARVING «5 ! Fig. 124. \ \ 2lC TRACTICAL WOOD CARVING guide and improve your taste, so that on the whole it would be sater and better to trust to drawings and photographs of reaiiy good works, which must be correct. The carver will, doubtless, in many instances, find it necessary to enlarge or rctluce the dimensions of his model or design, as it would be unlikely that he could find a drawing or photograph of precisely the retjuisite size. In this case we would advise him to adopt a mechanical plan in vogue amongst copyisls, namely, to cover the face of the design with a network of horizontal and perpendicular lines by means of a light pencil or chalk; or if you do not wish to make marks on the design, stretch threads across from edge to edge in the following manner: The picture or photo- graph must first be fi.xed on a drawing-board, or, if you have not one, any soft pine board which will not warp will do as well; then mark out a square enclosing it — let us say 12 inches in size; of course, this will vary according to the dimensions of the photograph. Each inch on both sides and at the top and bottom must be exactly measured off and marked with a short steel pin or tack; strain threads first horizontally and then perpendicularly from pin to pin, then take a sheet of drawing paper of the exact size you intend your carving to be, and on it rule the same number of lines as there are threads over the photograph. You will thus have the same number of squares in each, larger or smaller, as the case may be. In each square on your drawing paper sketch in the figure, i-art of figure, or whatever is the subject which is enclosed in the corresponding sijuare of the photograph. By this simple method even the most clumsy draughtsman is enabled to make a sufficiently correct outline. I FIGURK CARVING 217 In order, however, to f,'ive a «:Irar idra of !iow t<» enlarge a drawing wc submit the followinj; method: Readers who arc inexperienced in theartof draut,'hts- manship, and to whom "drawing to scale" is a term with a deeply mys- terious meaning, naturally find it very difficult to mak( use )f sketch or design which happens to be many times smaller than it is intended to be car- ried out. The en- I a r g i n g from a small sketch will be found tiresome and liable to lead to error; and again, where the beauty of the de- sign depends on subtle curvatuics and nice spacing, the inexpert will be apt to spoil the whole by injudi- cious touches. For all that, there is ACK^Cf^gj**^^ Fig. 125. C ab c d e jg j) Fig. 126. :ti8 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING V I Fig. 127. room left for the exercise of the clrauKhtsman's art, as will presently ap- pear. There are four ways of enlarKini^ a clesifjn. One is the method of enlargin^,' by means of squarlnfj over the design, and another involves the use of an instrument known as the panto- graph. When speaking of 'designs" in this connection, it should be understood that ornament rather than construction is meant. We shall deal first with that involving only the use of paper and pencil, drawing board, T-square, etc.; the method leaves some little drawing to the hand of the operator, which the pantograph does not, but few will be found unequal to the task, FIGURE CARVING .'19 more "life" in th trt-t- liti- mcchanicallv clone and there is jjener.illy a little hand drawin^^' than in that f ?4 inches cannot, of course, be acco mod. is showi explanation. ■> m- 1 1; one of these pages, so that only h.ilf riiis will make no difference to the Th e next process is the divisi on o f th e original drawing into a number of rectangular spaces. Any mber of divisions will do, but the closer they are nu the more exact will be the reproduction; but if too close will prove troublesome. As the drawing is an inch wide, it will be simplest to divide the width at top and bottom into eight equal parts ( 's inch each) and join up as shown in I'lg. 12O. Piad the width been, say, i^^ inches, eight divisions would still have I *\ m .r^:t'^» m IT" 220 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING f ]!^cn a very suitable amount, but the ordinary scale or )■ lie would have been useless and a pair of com- pr. scs or dividers would have to be used to space out the divisions equally. The important point is to get all the spaces accurately alike, as on this depends the correctness of the copy. The vertical height of the drawing has next to be divided up. There is not the least necessity to make these spaces the same as the others, so long as a con- venient width can be found for them, but in the pres- ent case }i inch spaces -u'i// be found convenient, largely because this happens to be the most ordinary spacing on a two-foot or other rule. Starting from the top of the drawing at A, therefore, mark off }4 inch spaces all the way down to C; and then do the same from B towards D. Join the marks so made so as to cover the whole drawing with a square network like Fig. 126. Use a fine-pointed hardish pencil for the purpose, and do not press too heavily; the page will not be spoiled by the process, even if the lines are not afterwards rubbed out. It will be noticed that owing to the length of A B (4I I inches) not being an amount exactly divisible into eighths, a small space about ^s inch wide is left at the bottom. Neglect this, as it will not in the least inter- fere with subsequent operations. Now turn to the outline already prepared for the enlarged drawing (Al Bl, Ci Ui, Fig. 127). Al Bl and Ci Dl have to be divided into the same number of spaces as A B,C D in Fig. 126, viz., eight. Obviousiy tnese spaces will be three times the size of the others, and )4 inch x 3 = ^s inch. Mark off A I Bl, therefore, at intervals of 3h mch and do the same at tne other end of the pilaster, and join up. Had A B been i^mm^i i*,>^ Z^_^, FIGURE CARVING 221 divided into eight parts with the dividers, owing to the impossibility of using a definite division on an ordinary rule, Al lU would likewise have to be divided with compasses, by trial, in the same way. Similar proceedings have to be taken in the case of the height Ai Ci. It is all plain sailing in this instance, as one has r ily to mark off intervals of -)4 inch all the way down from Ai and Bi and join up. Note that at the bottom a narrow space should occur, corresponding with that at the bottom of the original. To simplify matters, number the divisions on the original, and copy in some such manner as here shown, where / in Fig, 126 corresponds with i in Fig. 127, 2 with 2, a with a, d with b, and so on. We are now ready for transferring the drawing, the process being similar to that one learns at school for copying maps. Every point where a line in the original crosses either a horizontal or vertical line, can be located on the copy with absolute precision, and when a number of such points have been found, can be readily joined up by freehand drawing. Take the case of the piint marked :; (near the bottom of Fig. 126). This point marks a place where the drawing crosses both a vertical and horizontal line at their intersection. Following the lines along, they will be found to be No. 36 (horizontal) and c (vertical). Turning to Fig. 127, the intersection of 36 and c is easily found, and a dot should be made there, ::. The next point on the curve of the leaf to which we are paying attention is on line 35, at y; this is approxi- mately half-way between vertical lines d and c, and a similar position half-way between d and c on line 35 in Fig. 127 can easily be found; it is marked j. In the same way the points x, w, v, u are transferred to the 'n^m. - '•mmm^^m,J< "m^ 222 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING larj^fiT drawing;;, where they are marked by correspond- ing; letters, and so on, rijjht throiij^h the desi|;n. It will be foiuul the best plan to sketch in each leaf or similar small portion of the design as soon as the points markinj; its position have been fixed. This will avoid the confusion likely to occur if a larfje area is covered with dots, which will tend to become meanins;- less. Thus the leaf marked out may be sketched in quite regardless of the other leaves, stalks, etc., sur- rounding it. At the top of the drawing the finished design IS given, and it will be seen how closely this copies by the original, from which it was taken precisely by this method. It is not generally imperative that absolute accuracy should be observed in copying; consequently the little differences due to slight aberrations of the hand when sketching in will by no means mar the work. The unpracticed amateur will do well to follow the direc- tions given implicitly, but he will find in time that it is quite easy to do without marking any points on his enlarged drawing, simply drawing freehand, watching the original with one eye and the copy with the other, as it were. In this way a copy can be made with a very near approximation to accuracy and very quickly, all that is necessary being close attention to three lines— the drawing and the upright and horizontal lines. While all the above may be very clear in the com- paratively simple instance given, a number of slight variations may arise which are sure to puzzle a beginner. Suppose, instead of an enlargement of this simple kind, where the small drawing is to the large m the proportion of one to three, that the larger is no definite multiple of the other. To state a case, ^ssssiSm :-i?L_ '■ ?a; S^*«i4^ - ''lap*-^ FIGURE CARVLXG 223 we can imagine the worker to have a panel of suitahh- proportions to take the design (Fig. 125). only that it happens to be, say, 4,»« inches wide. All he has to do IS to divide the width int. eight equal parts, by means of the dividers, taking no notice of what the actual widths are on a scale (4/'« -. 8 = ,Y., an amount vhich could never be marked off with an ordinary rule with accurac)'). In this case the best way to mark off the vertical heights would be to stretch the legs of the dividers accurately to the full width of the board (4i«, inches) and mark off that amount all the way down each side. Then close up the dividers to am- space width and mark off each of the long divisions into eight parts. If the small spacing is marked off with the dividers right away down the side without the larger spacings to guide one, errors are apt to creep m and even to get multiplied as the marking proceeds If the side A C (Fig. 126) has been divided up into any given numbers of parts, so that these spaces are nonhc same as those along A B, all that need be done IS to divide up the sides of the board into a similar number of equal parts, ignoring the spacing (A B) altogether. It has been tacitly assumed in the above that the enlarged drawing was strictly proportionate to the other, both in width and length. It may, however, sometimes occur that the reader notes a design which he particularly desires to employ in filling a given space, which is a little too long or too wide for strict proportion. He must, of course, decide whether the disproportion is too violent, as it would never do to enlarge a drawing like Fig. 125 to, sav, twice the width and three times the length; vet it would h- reasonable to enlarge it to 4 inches in width and 20^ SWSLH»W*/*l, 224 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING inches in length, and few would be able to discover the discrepancy. To do this, it is necessary to divide up the long side, A B in Fig. 126, not into eighths, but into any equal parts, and then to divide the 20^4 inches into the "ame number of parts. In the present case those on A H will be slightly more than }4 inch each; the subsequent marking oft will finish the design. We have hitherto spf'';cn of carving in basso-relievo merely from a secular point of view, as works of art or embellishment of a room. But this style enter; also largely into ecclesiastical ornamentation, and there are few finer subjects for the carver's skill than an altar piece, reredos, or panels of a like nature. This, however, is not the place (nor, indeed, is it within the limit we have given ourselves) to enter into details as regards this speciil style of work. Those of our readers who intend to turn their attention to this branch of that art would do well before they undertake any work of this kind to consult with an architect, or some one well versed in such. matters (unless he has studied the subject himself), and to pro- cure a slight sketch of the style and proportions best suited to the church which he proposes to decorate, in order that his work may amalgamate with the age and architecture of the edifice. As this book is intended purely as a guide to begin- ners, those designs have been chosen which we consider as especially suited to this class, rather than to the professional carver, and for this reason we have con- fined ourselves to drawings and description of such subjects as the amateur can execute without the inter- vention of much professional help from the cabinet- maker. The main object of the beginners should be to pro- f- S^^aiaSM FIGURE CARVING 225 duce artistic work in which the mere expense is secondary and kept in abeyance to pure art. With this idea in view he will have a chance of excelling, and possibly of designing and executing original work, but this he cannot hope to do if he merely follow in the foot^'eps and copies, however faithfully and skill- fully, the works of professional furniture carvers, who, with the advantage of constant practice, combined with, perhaps, a long apprenticeshi[) in a large work- shop, will be sure to surpass the amateur in the manu'i' part of this work, however gifted the latter may be. In all employments the professional must work in such a manner and on such subjects as will ensure good and certain wages, and not according to his own special taste. The learner has probably ample time at command and therefore should give full scope to his own artistic fancies instead of reproducing other peo- ple's ideas, for it is to him that we must look for inventiveness and imagination. Let him then follow his own special line, feeling assured that what of skill may be wanting is more than compensated by natural talent, exceeding probably by many degrees the pro- fessional carver who pursues the calling not from any special predilection, but solel\- through circumstances or necessities. We now come to the (]uest!on. what are we going to do with all the pieces of carving which we propose to undertake? There is no more inexorable law relating to the use of wood carving than the one which insists upon some kind of passport for its introduction, wherever it appears. It must come in good company and be properly introduced. The slightest and mnst distant connection with a recognized sponsor is often sufficient, til « ■iF^fPH ifi 226 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING but it will not be received alone. We do not make carvings to rang on a wall and be admired altogether on their own account. They must decorate some object. A church screen, a font, a piece of furniture, or even the handle of a knife It is not always an easy matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise our wood carving talents. Our furniture is all made now in a wholesale manner which permits of no interference with its construction, while at the 3ame time, if we wish to put any carving upon it, it is absolutely essential that both construction and decora- tion should be considered together. A very modest beginning may be made in adapting ornament to a useful article, by carving the surface of a bread plate. These are usually made of some hard wood, such as sycamore. They may be made of oak, but sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color, which is more likely to be '*. ,iy ■\-%:^^'*^. FIGURE CARVING 22; section of edge and the position of all turned lines required for confinin;,' the dra\vin^^ If the plate is to be of any shape other than circular, then it must he neatly made by yourself. Many of you are, we have no doubt, handy joiners, and may be able to put together some pieces of furniture to serve at least as an excuse for the intro- FiG. 128. duction of your carving. Here are some suggestions for corner cupboards, chosen as giving the largest area for carved surface with the minimum of expense in construction. The material should be oak, if possible, or it may be walnut. The doors of Figs. 129 and 130 are in three narrow boards with shallow beads at the joints, those of the others are each made of i single board and should be /. to H inch thick; the doors 228 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING may l)e about ' feet 6 inches high, each having two ledges, about 3 inches wide, screwed on behind lop mi Si^ /gV>X:^ JBa/^ Fig. i2g. Fig. 130. WM FIGURK CARXING 229 and bottom to keep them from twistinfj. All mould- ings, beads, etc., are to be carved by hand, no planes Fig. 131 230 PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING ..cing used. lla\ inji traced the lines of your design iipDii the board, you may be^in, if there are mould- m^s, as in Fig. 13 1, In- using a joiner's marking gau.,'c to groove out the deepest parts of the parallel lines .a the mouldings along tiie edges, doing the same to the curvetl ones with a \' tool or veiner. Then form the mouldings with your chisels or gouges. Keep them very ''at in section, as in Fig. 133. The fret jiatterns in Figs. 131, 133 and 134, where not pierced, should be done in low relief, not more than }i inch ileep, and the sides of the. bands beveled as in section a. Fig. 132. The widths of these bands ought not to be less than ^ inch, and look better if they are wider. Very narrow bands have a better appearance <-CA«vinc Figs. 132 a.nd 133. if, instead of being cut straight down, they are hollowed at sides like b in Fig. 1 32. Fig. 136 is a detail of a kind of gouge work which you must know very well. One perpendiculai cut of a gouge driven in with the mallet, and one side cut, should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped holes. They should not be too deep in proportion to their size. Their combinations may be varied to a great extent. Two or three common ones are shown in the illustration. This form of ornament was in all likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with a turn lor art and a limited stock of tools for carving. His humble contribution to the resources of the FIGURE CARVING rrtant thin^; to cunsiilir. as all varirty is ohtainitl hy disposinj,' the CL€l4: inch at the deepest. As oak is more tenacious than pine, you wil! find - i.Tter fr