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1
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1 2 3
4 5 6
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N«r-!3«.''
Oanadian Agnenlt urn. —Part L
THE PBAIEIE.
•»A
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PnoFRssoR W. FRRA^^, H.Sc. Lond., F.LS, rg.S.,
COIXEOK or AGUIClTLTnti;. DOWNTO;^, SAl.tsr.l-UY.
TC^
LONDON:
TRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREICT AND CIIARIXQ CROSS.
1885.
¥AP 0y'A''TAUJMM' I
UP C,
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FROM THK
JOUUNAL OF TIIK UOYAL AUHlCUl/iUKAL SUOIKTY 01 KNOl.AND.
VOL. XXI. -ss. rAKl' 1.
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1
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'I' 11 1 ] P 11 A I R I E .
The Doinlnion of (^an.ula includes the wludo of British North
Aiiioricii fxccpt Xcwlouiuiliuul. liy the |]ritish North America
At;t, passed in 1(S()7, the provinces of Upper and Lower Cana(hi
(Ontario and (^uelx'c), New Hrunswick, and Nova Scotia were
united unchT tlu; tith» of the " Dominion of Canada," and pro-
vision was made in th(! Act for the admission at any sthsecjuent
period of the other provinces and territories of British North
America. In 1870, at the close of the Red River H.ebellion,
the province of Manitoba was formed, and, with the remainder
of tlie vast lludsorj's Bay Ttjrritory, now called the North-West
Territory, was a<linitt('d into the Dominion. British (Columbia
followed in 1871, and Prince Kdward Island in 18711. New-
loundland is now the only province not included in the
federati(m.
At the last census, that of 1881, the following figures were
obtained : —
liicrt'iisp iiv
■r 1871.
Tki »VIN<'KS,
Ari'ii in Scimire
Mill's.
roiiiiiiitidii,
18S1.
Niiinoriial.
IVr ci'tit.
rriiicc Kdwtinl Itjland ,.
2,i:]3
108,891
14,870
10-8
Nnva Scdtia
20,9117
440,572
r)2,772
]:^«]
New hnuiswick
27,171
;52 1,2:5:5
:!;'), (;:i9
12 T)
(^lUlu'd
is.s,r.HS
i,:ir)9,027
itJ7,:)ii
140
(►iitiirio
ioL.7:i:!
1,92:5,228
302,:577
i8-<;
iMiiiiitolia
I2;{,2()i)
t!5,y.")4
4(;,9r)9
2t7-2
r.iiti.sli Cnliiml.ia
;mi,:{05
49,4r)9
1:5,212
oCt • 4
Tliu 'JVnitorius
2,(;(!.">,2.V2
r)(;,44tj
4,44i;
8-r>
Total
;{,470,:5!»2
4,:324,810
0:^7, 78«J
l--n
The s(|uare mileai;e stated is the land area; adding to this
the area of the },Mcal lakes and rivers, bays and inlets, 14(),()()0
n
iHi
•r
h
4 Canadian A(/riciiUure.
s(]uare miles, there results a total area of over .3,0 10,000 square
miles, which may be compared with the area of Europe,
0,1100,000 square miles, and with that of the United States,
2,5»oo,5«8 square miles, or, including Alaska, 3,510,i)78 square
miles.
Out of the entire population, 40ii,491 persons, that is, about
one-tenth of the total, were owners occupying their own lands.
Holders of ten acres or less numbered 75, '280. Those who held
lands of eleven to 100 acres were 24l),9J)7 ; of from 101 to
200 acres the number of holders was 102,243 ; and of more
than 200 acres, 3(),4i)i).
The area of land occupied in the Dominion in 1881 was
45,358,141 acres, of which 21,899,181 acres were improved,
15,112,284 acres being under crop, (1,385,562 acres in pasture,
and 401,335 acres in gardens and orchards.
The latest available figures which show the extent of trade in
the Dominion are those of the Trade and Navigation Returns
for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1883. The total imports
were valued at 26,450,805?., and the total exports at 19,()17,1()0/.
The aggregate trade, including imports and exports, was appor-
tioned thus: with Great Britain 19,839,530/., and with the
Unit«'d States 19,540,211/., so that, notwithstanding the close
proximity of Canada to the United States, the larger portion of
her trade is still with the mother country. Upon the total
value of imports the Customs revenue amounted to 4,()34,4()2/.,
being an average duty of 17*52 per cent., and an average ol 'I'ls.
per head of tlie population. The exports of the produce of
Canada, shi])pi d at Canadian ports, were : —
£
PrtKluce of the mine, 5'.)4,177
„ fisheries 1,7()J,824
„ forest 5,074,1-15
Animals ami their iimduce ,. .. 4,<»5(),H(1!)
A;;rieultural products '1,5();;5,704
Manufactures 700,()M
The chief items under " animals and their produce " were : —
£
Horses .. ,, ,. ai;(;,(;58
Horned cattle 771>,(i05
Sheep 277,(;ll
kSvvine and their produce 117,7l(i
liutter 341, k;;;
Cheese 1,'J1)0,;574
Furs 217,505
Hides i)*J,l'.t7
i^acoii H7,;!'.)5
Wool 5(;,iOf5
K;:i];s 451,.'>17
F
.■/^KK !.W < lt)H!gJ I ' MI'l-J "*" " "
]
Canadian Ayiicalture. 5
The chief items included under " agricultural products "
were : —
£
Barley 1,258,047
Wheat l,17(i,LMl8
Fl.mr m\\,V,)i
ILiy 180,121
Malt 227,;U0
Totatoos 20!i,7i>L
Peas 4^52,342
In addition to the above, \vheat, in transit from the Western
United States, w.as exported to the value of 1,104,377/.
As Canada is a young country, with a sparse population
widely scattered, her revenue is derived from indirect taxation,
there being at present many obstacles in the way of the collection
of direct taxes. The inland revenue in the fiscal year ending
June 30th, 18«3, amounted to 1,375,652/., of which 780,573/.
was raised from spirits, 81,005/. from malt, and 377,260/. from
tobacco. Of the last-named article, 0,558, 1)52 lb. were manu-
factured, of which 454,1)22 lb. were exported. For reasons
already stated, and on account of the proximity of the United
States, where Protection prevails, a protective tariff is imposed on
all, or nearly all, imports into the Dominion ; and it is claimed
that owing to this " national policy," formulated in 1878, the
manufacturing industries of Cr»nada have been very greatly
developed. Air. Patterson, Secretary of the Montreal Hoard of
Trade, in one of his reports, said that "in 1881 the total foreign
trade of Canada was larger, in proportion to the population, than
that of the United States ; while the shipping of Canada, per
head of the population, was more tnan four times as large."
The imports of wheat and bread stuffs from Canada into the
United Kingdom during the last ten years, are set forth in the
following table : —
Wheat.
Wbeat-mcal uiid
!■ ItPiir.
1 I'wts.
Cwts.
1S74
.S, 807, 174
;58s »,;{.-).-)
1S7.)
;{,(;04,t;io
;{r)8,7(it>
187tJ
2,117,151
282, ().".;{
1877
2,!H2,178
254, (;;»;-)
1S7S
2,(;(i;{..')8(]
2i»4,118
lS7lt
4,(!70,(;S«J
4(;o,4:!5
iscso
;!.s:»:{..-)i4
521,702
ISSl
2,8i;(),8r)4
2tiO,;M'J
1882
2, 1 184,828
:i;!i>,:!05
188:5
1,7U8,05G 1
40D,4tJ0
A country that spans the globe from the Atlantic to the
i
A
Canmlia n At/n'culturc.
Pacific, whose southornmost point extends as far down as the
Latitude of Rome, whiU' its northern limits are h)st amid the
ice-fiehls of the Arctic seas, and whose area is nearly etjual to
that of Europe, must necessarily possess many and striking
variations in its physical features. And yet, in a few words, it
may be said that the eastern part of the Dominion— the pro-
vinces of Xova Scotia, New l^runswick, (Quebec, and Ontario —
is forest ; the western jiortion, I^ritish Columbia, is mountain ;
while the intermediate area of vast plains with their woodland
borders constitutes the prairie region of Manitoba and the
JN orth-West Territories.
"To diarnctnist' in a fi-w lines a cunntry covorin'j; move than half the
continent of Xorih America, and reaehinj; tVoni tlie hitituile of Coiistantinoplo
to the X'lrtli Toh' — a ctmiitrv whose circuitous coast-line on the Atlantic
nieasuns lO/'OO miles, and whost; western slioic n[ion the i'acilic, titndded
with islands and indented by seeiire harbours and deep inlets, attains alnu)st
an equal length — a countiy where mai/.e and jieaches are staple crops, and
vhere veuetation lades out U[ion the desolate and melancholy shores of the
Arctic Ocian, — to characterise such a country by a I'ew treneral phrases is
evidently iniiiosisiblo. If wo look at the eastern portion alone, we see the
t;reatest ionsl region in the world. If we consider the central ]iortion, \vc aru
n'-^ai-ding the iireat prairie country ; but if we eruss the passes into tlie racilic
Province, \vc enter upon that ' Sea of ^lountains,' comjmred with which the
ni(»st mountainims country in Kuro[ie is of limited extent.
"And yet, there are aspects in whicli, when British C'olundiia is excepted,
this great country may be aiiitrehended by a wide generalisation, Jt is a
country of broad lakes and flowing waters. A enuntry where the abundance
of streams and tlu; regidarity of summer rains ]ireclud(! the ]!ossibility of
druuuht. It is a land of gra.-s ami forest. A country containing by far the
largest portion of fresh water ui'oii the globe; where, 2000 miles from the
ocean, the traveller may lose sight of land and be prostrated by sea-sickness.
A land containing tlie most extensive water-ways in the worltl ; where
thousands cif miles of navigable rivers may conduct connnerce into the
remotest corner of the continent at its widest part. The slope of the land
Irom the lloeky ]\Iountains is so gradual that tlie rivers tlow with an even
stream, and their sotu'ces arc so certain that they flow with an eipiable
volume. The (jiily abrupt fall of land from Kdmonton to the sea is the terrace
at Niagara, 'i'hat lall, and the minor rapids of the St. Lawrence, are overcome
b\' the most complete system of canals in the world, aixl, with one tranship-
ment at ^bmtreid, goods can be landed at the head of Lake Suiierior in the
centre of the continent, 'JoSi nules from the; Straits of llell(i.>-le. Ol this dis-
tance, LlOi) miles are in fresh water ; but if we turn farther north, and enter
Canada by Ihidson's Lay, the ocean shi|i will reach, at I'oit Nelson, the out-
let of a river syt^tem stretching out with few interruptiejns to the very
backboiK! of the continent; and ilraiinng an interior basin, remot<'r than the
St. Lawrence basin, of over '_',0^^0,OOU sipiare miles in extent. 'this iirofouiid
]ienetraiion and peiimation of the country by water-ways is the great
charaiterisiie of (.'anada. From I'ort Nelson to Liverpool is L'lMl ndles —
from Ni'W York to Liverpoo is oOlO miles. It is diirienlt to realise the fact
that there, in the very Centre of America, an Englishman is til) miles nearer
home than at New York."*
* 'llaudbuok for the Doininion of Canada.' Dawbon Bros., Bloutreul, IMSI,
p. 1.
,,:**afiiBi«»««if«»»!<«»w:,.
J
Canadian A(/riculturo. 7
In wrltlnji^ on such a subject as tlio acfricuUuro of Canada, it is
hardly possible to at once plun<j^e into technical details, without
onteriny^ at some little lenj^th into the natural features of the
dlfrercnt sections of the Doniinion. In discussinji^ the farniin<^
of, for example, an I'^nji^lish county, it would be safe to assume on
the part of tlu; reader a general knowledg^e of facts which, in the
case of the; vast area of Cjlreater Britain now under consideration, it
would perhaps be hardly fair to take for granted. The Marquis
of Lome, in a beautifully illustrated work recently published,
which should be read by every one who is interested in the
nonunion, speaks of "the general ignorance of Canada in
I'^ngland," and remarks aptly enough * : —
" AltlioiiLi;]i CiUiada is now only ei^lit ilays from our sliorcs, and Australia
can be veaclied iu the tiniu wiiicli a sailing vcssi'l I'ornioily took to roach
AuKirica, yet there is still a vast amount of niiacoiieeiitioii ol' the ])osition ami
]inis]iects of our dependencies. It is, ])erha|>s, a misfortune that men often
heiiin to acquire a useful knowled^^e about the cnlouies when it is too late lor
tiiem to make use of it for tluir own pnul. The information as regards the
prospeels of life in these %yva\. teriitories should be ;j,iven in the schools and
universities. 'I'o many a buy an accurate knowle(lv;e of how money can best
bi; made, and the early years of nuiidmnd most profitably spient in Australia,
New Zealand, and the Donniuou of Canada, would be of far nuire use than
much of the oi)S()lete erudition still rrtaiied to him in our Knulish ptibljc
schools. 'I'lie VDvaL^es of Conk, nf (diamplain, and Vancouver are as inter-
est im; as are those of Ulysses, and the sid>se(|rient history of the lands they
discovered the most edifyiiej; lor an Kii'^lish boy. if trne iiilbrmation were
readily obtained, and colonial life were brou^lit as familiarly to the minds
of l'aiu;lishmeii as their own home lile, it is diflictilt to believe that thi'i-e
wo\Ud n'Uiain so many here who have no occupation liut the provirbial privi-
]ei:e of grumblin-- at their own fate, and at all around them. In Canada, if it
Vi'ere net tor the constant bri:;ht sunshine, and for certain improvements in xXw.
art of Government, both central and local, the Scotch and Kni;lish euu;j;rants
iniuht ima'j:iiie that they had never left the Chi World, so ijood are the
schools, so orderly an; the peojile, so easy th.e coiuuuiiiication from one district
to another."
During the last two or three years, that jiortion of Canada
known as the Prairie has attracted far more attention in I'lnirland
than has lately been bestowed upon the older and better-known
provinces of the Dominion. It has been deemed advisable,
therefore, to devote the first part of this paper to a discussion of
the natural and agricultural leatures of Manitoba and the North-
VVest. As the agricultural development of a country must be
largely inHuenced by the character of its surface, the constitu-
tion and capabilities of its soils, the composition and value of
its native herbage, and, above all, l)y its climate, a notice of
these and allied subjects will naturally prepare the way for the
;
8
CaraiJinv A(/n'rii}fiirr.
siibscquont description of prairie farminfj;. The latter part of
the paper deals with the ajjriculture of the longer settled and
better known provinces of Eastern Canada.
The Puaikie.
Physical Features. — The surface of the prairie region of
British North America occupies three extensive steppes, or
table-lands, the lowest of which is on the east, and the most
elevated on the west. The political boundary between Canada
and the Western United States is here identical with the 4l)th
parallel of north latitude, and along this line the prairie extends
from the 9Gth to the ll2th meridian, a distance of about
900 miles from east to west. Northwards the prairie becomes
narrower, and where it disappears on the bleak coasts of the
Arctic Ocean its width does not exceed 400 miles. The Cana-
dian prairie is bounded on the east by the rocky plateau which
fringes the western shores of Lake Winnipeg, and then strikes
west and north-west to Lake Athabasca. This plateau consists
of very ancient crystalline rocks, of Laurentian and perhaps
Huronian age, and does not present an unbroken front to the
prairie, for it is penetrated by the Nelson and Churchill rivers
on their way to Hudson's Bay. The character of this plateau
may be well observed in travelling along the Canadian Pacific
Railway from Port Arthur, Lake Superior, to the city of Win-
nij)eg, a distance of 429 miles, nearly 340 of which are across
this boundary ; much of the scenery is wild and rocky, and sug-
gestive of mineral wealth, while in some parts dense woods and
undergrowth, and in others extensive swamps, meet the eye.
This wide belt of country presents few or no features of agricul-
tural interest, and, indeed, whatever agricultural development it
is capable of is likely to be long deferred, while such vast areas
of fertile treeless prairie remain to the west. In the neighbour-
hood of Telford, 338 miles west of Port Arthur, and 91 inih^s
cast of Winnipeg, the rocky plateau, with its poplars, tamaracs,
and other trees, gives place to a level sweeping country with
stunted shrubs, and the clear rapid streams of the rocks are
repl.aced by sluggish, muddy rivulets. The land of rock and
swamp and timber is left behind, and the rich alluvial soil of
the eastern fringe of the prairies is entered upon, for this is the
Red River valley, with its eastern belt of muskeg, or floating
swamp, 20 miles wide.
The western boundary of the prairie region is constituted by
the magnificent natural rampart of the Rocky Mountains, the
junction of plateau and mountain being usually flanked by foot-
liills, such as those to the south and west of Calgary, among which
Cdnadian Aqriculturo.
y
tho Canadian cattle ranches have been established. This
sujM'il) mountain axis (tonsists really ol a series ot parallel
ranjjes, their total breadth iVoin east to west extendinfj some
hundreds of miles, and the loftier peaks beinj|»- clad with per-
petual snow thrown into bold relief when contrasted with the
dark ji^reen hues of the pine trees which clothe the lower sloj)es.
Professor Ramsay, of Cilasjjow University, writes : —
" 'I'licn' avo few u;niMilfr slights than tlie circle of the Alps as se^ri from
tlu! Milan Cathedral, sriirccly less line is tlx' vast wall of tiie Pyrenees as
si^^lited I'roni Toiiloiise, hiil neifluir the one nor the other presents so nia.'^nili-
ceat a spectacle as that stee[), strai'^ht line of snowy ]iealvs, vising; in one
endless chain out of the ll;'t to put houmls :it h'n^th to the seenui]'j,ly bound-
less praiiie.'"
The Rockies constitute the water-partinjj * which separates
the rivers that takt; their ori^^jn on the eastern water-shed from
those whii;h an; fed bv the draina<;e of the Pacific slopes.
Almost coincident with the; political boundary on the south of
tiie C'ana<lian prairie then? stretches in a sinuous course from
<'ast to west a line of water-parti njj^ which separat«?s the river
basins of the Mississippi-Missouri system on the south, from
tliose of the Saskatchewan, the Assiniboine, and the Red Rivers
on the north, whose waters, passin<j; through Lake Winnipe<;,
are ultimately discharged into Hudson's Hay. I'^ast of the Red
River this water-partinj:^ attains an elevation of some 1400 feet ;
farther west, in tlie State of Dakota, it rises to 2000 feet ; and
as the mountains are approached it reaches a heiglit of about
4000 feet above the sea-level.
Considerably to the north, in the rcfjion of the 54tli parallel,
another water-partinpf, trendinfj jjenerallv east and west, separatees
the «lraina<j;e areas of those rivers, such as the Athabasca and
Peace Rivers, which How directly into the Art^tic 0(*ean, from
those of the great Saskatchewan system ; l)ut this line of water-
parting attains a less lofty elevation than the more southern one.
Roughly speaking, the Canadian portion of the three steppes
or plateaux forming the prairie; region, ma" be regarded as
enclosed or embraced by the four natural boundaries whose
position 1 have endeavoured to indicate, — the old Laurentiau
plateau on the east and north-east, the Rocky Mountains on
the west, and the two lines of water-parting lying respectively
north and south. Although, as has been statetl, the vast plains
extend to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, yet north of tho
North Saskatchewan River the essential prairie features are not
* " To avoid all amhij^iiity it, is perliiips best to sot aside tho orif»inal nieaninjij of
' watersiied,' anil employ the term to denote the slope alouf;; which the water
(lows, while the expression ' water-piirtiajj; ' is employed for the summit of tbii
tilope." — lltixley, ' iMiys.oin-iipliy' l>. is
m
1
IK' > H
m
m
't:;1
iff
11
10
Cavadiau Aiirirultnre.
rotainod, most of this northorn area hoing^ oovorod witli douse
forests of evt'r<i;reen trees.
'J'lie whole of the prairie rej^^ion has a <;radual but gentle
slope from west to east, amountin<j^ for the entire area to about
h feet per mile. Ahnij; two lines, however, whi(;ii are more or
less parallel, and which trend in a north-west and south-east
dircM'tion, a rise detldedly marked, but not abrupt, is encoun-
tered in proceeding" from east to west ; these are the escarpments
which form the boundaries of the second and third prairie
steppes. The lowest and most eastern prairie-level is that
which comprises tiie Red River valley, •ind Lake VVinnipejj^
with its adjacent lands on the west. The averajife altitude of
this plain is about JSOO feet, the surface of Lake Superior beinjif
()27 ieet above the sea ; its average breadth exceeds 100 miles,
and its area is about ;')(), 000 scpiare miles, of which one-fourth is
water. This level is bounded on the east by the Laurentian
plateau, and on the west by the first escarpment, which is
ascended in the neighbourhood of ALacgregor, 80 miles west of
Winnipeg. This escarpment trends north-west, through the
"mountains" lying to the west of Lake VVinnipegoosis.
When the summit of the first escarpment is reached, in the
neighbourhood of Macgregor, a vast open country, called the
(ireat Plains, and forming the second prairie steppe, is entered
upon. On tlie 4ilth parallel of latitude this second steppe is
280 miles wide, while farther north, on the 54th parallel, its
width is not more than 200 miles. Its average elevation is
about 1(')00 feet, and it is bounded westward by the remarkable
physical feature known as the Grand Coteau of the Missouri
(Fr. coteau^ a hill-slope), which is chieily a great mass of glacial
<letritus and ice-travelled blocks, resting upon a sloping surface
of rocks of Cretaceous age, and extending diagonally across the
central region of North America, from south-east to north-west
for a distance of about 800 miles. On the 4i)th parallel the
Coteau is 30 miles wide, and it broadens out somewhat as it is
traced northward. As the Coteau is ascended from its eastern
base, the surface is seen to become gradually more undulating,
and in its upper parts the drift materials are confusetlly accu-
mulated into low hills, which, however, seldom attain a greater
height than 100 feet above the level of the Coteau, the average
elevation of which, at the 49th parallel, is 2000 feet. The
Coteau belt is practically destitute of drainage valleys, hence
the waters of its pools and lakes tire charged with salts, parti-
cularly magnesium and sodium sulphates. The western part
of the Coteau contains wide deep valleys, with tributary coulees^
which are mostly dry, or else occupied by chains of small
lakes, which dry up in summer, an<l thus leave large white
(Jttnttth'iin Ar/n'ciiJtiiri
11
patches of cllloroscent salts, whi(*h present a marked contrast
with th(' crimson tufts of the marsh samphire, Salicornia,
frinj^ing the border. Besides the smaUer sheets of water, there
are much Iar<fer saline lakes, such as the Old Wives' Lakes,
which are persistent. The Missouri Coteau is about 400 miles
west of Winnipeg;, and frin|^es the eastern margin of the third
and highest prairie steppe, which extends, with a gentle ascent
westward, to the base of the Rocky Mountains.
The lowest and most eastern prdirie steppe is largely iden-
tical with, though broader than, the Red River valley. The
floor of this valley is entirely of alluvial origin, and coniists
chielly of the sediments of a great lake of post-glacial age, com-
prising exceedingly fine silt, covered by black vegetable mould.
The valley is about 40 miles wide, and extends along either
side of the river from north to south of the province of Mani-
toba. Its surface is perfectly flat and undiversified, " the
most absolutely level prairie region of America."
From the western boundary of the Red River valley to the
foot of the Rocky Mountains, the distance across the second and
third prairie steppes is about 700 miles. The surface of the
second prairie steppe is less even than that of the Red River
valley, and is covered with thick deposits of drift, consisting
chiefly of detritus worn from the soft underlying rocks, but
mingled with other mineral rubbish transported from a distance.
From the prairie level there arise in certain localities low hills,
such as Turtle Mountain and the Touchwood Hills, composed
of accumulations of drift materials similar to those of the Mis-
souri Coteau. Turtle Mountain nowhere attains a height of
more than 500 feet above the prairie. It is a region of broken
hilly ground about '20 miles square, is thickly wooded, and
hence presents a marked contrast to the general features of the
prairie. As a ruh', the; hilly regions tromposed of gravel are
wooded ; whereas the finer material of the plains has a grass-
covered surface, except in some places along the sides of
streams where timber also grows.
The third steppe, lying west of the Coteau, has a much thinner
covering of drift deposits, a good deal of which consists of frjig-
ments of quartzite from the Rocky Mountains. Its eastern part
presents in places thick deposits of true till or boulder clay.
Its surface is more worn and diversified than is the case with
the first and second steppes, and, as the Rockies are approached,
it is found to consist of fragments of quartzite with softer shaly
and slaty rocks and limestone. In various localities boulders
are numerous, and some of these have been used in modern
times by the bufTalo as rubbing-stones, and are surrounded by
basin-shaped depressions formed by the feet of these animals : —
1)
a
m
'1
'1 '
mi
12
Canadian Agriculture.
*' The buffalo is now extinct on tliese plains ; but abundant traces of its
former presence exist in the rubbing-stones, wallows, dt'oply-worn paths, and
bleached skeletons, and at one place on the llovv Kivcr we saw a large de^wsit
of bones covered with earth washed down from above, and apparently indica-
tive of the destruction of a herd from some natural cause, perhaps unusual
cold and heavy snow. The latter, when followed by thaw and frost, pro-
ducing a hard icy crust, has sometimes proved destructive to cattle on the
higher plains." *
The third steppe, which has a width of 450 miles on the
49th parallel, narrows rapidly as it is traced northwards.
" The geology of our great North-West, like our vast plains and immense
rivers, is on a magnificent scale. To the eye of the gcoloj^ist a grand vision
appears as he contemplates tlie marvellous jianorama that rolls liefore him,
jwrtraying the geological features of the country lying between the Laurentian
rocks to our east, and the lofty mountains of tlie west. The ibrmer, represen-
tatives of the first rocks to triumph over the universal waters of j)rimeval
days, and the latter belonging to a ]ieriod near the summit of the geological
series. Between these great natural boundaries we see stretching before us
the three vast prairie-steppes of the North-West, rising in succession above
each other and distinguished by characteristic physical features." f
Underlying nearly the whole of the prairie region are clays,
sandstones, and limestones of Cretaceous age, or (in the more
western parts) shales and sandstones of the Laramie } or Lignitic
Tertiary group, the age of the latter being probably interme-
diate between that of the Cretaceous and of the Eocene of
England. The nearest parallel to be found at home is afforded
by the greater part of the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk,
where Cretaceous rocks (chalk in this case) are overlaid by
glacial detritus or drift. The alluvium of the Red River
valley rests upon strata of Silurian age.
Though the prairie soils are largely either of glacial or of
alluvial origin, they are not the product exclusively of such
agencies : —
"Long continued growth and decay of vegetation ujton a land surface not
only promotes disintegrfvtion of the sujierfuiul rock, but produces an organic
residue, the intermingling of which with mineral debris constitutes vegetable
soil. Undisturbed through long ages, this process htus, under favourable con-
ditions, given rise to accumulations of a rich dark loam. Such are the
* regur,' or rich black cotton soil of India, the ' tchernay/.em,' or black earth,
of Russia, containing from 6 to 10 jxt cent, of organic matter, and the deep
fertile soil of the American ])rairies and savannahs. These formaiious cover
plains many thou.sands of square miles in extent." §
Nor must the effects of animal life be overlooked : —
" Burrowing animals, by throwing up the soil and subsoil, expose these to
* 'Observations on the Geology of the Line of the Canadiau Pacific Railway.'
By Sir J. W. Dawson, F.R.S. ' Quart. Jour. Geol. 8oc.' 1884, p. 387.
t 'Geology of the Red River Valley.' By J. Hoyes Panton, M.A.
X A term derived from Laramie City, in the State of "Wyoming, lat. 42°.
§ 'Text-book of Geology.' By Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., p. 458.
a
t
It
mii^m^m
nsa
Canadian A(/ricuIf.iu'p.
13
be dried and blown awi\y by tlui wind. At tlie same time their subterranean
passages serve to drain off the superficial water and to injure the stability of
the surface of tlu; ground above them. In Britain the mole and rabbit are
familiar examples. In North America the prairie dog and gopher have
undermined extensive tracts of pasture land in the west." *
These last are little animals allied to the squirrel, the so-called
prairie dog being a rodent, and not a carnivore. I saw numbers
of them scampering along the ground beside the track of the
Canadian Pacific Railway. Their open burrows are incon-
venient to horses travelling across the prairie, and sometimes
the animals become a nuisance by devouring newly sown seed ;
on the Bell Farm a halfpenny each is given for their tails.
The beaver, again, though receding at the approach of man,
has left unmistakable signs of his former presence :—
" The flow of streams is sometimes interfered with, or even diverted, by the
operations of animals. Thus the beaver, by cutting down trees (sometimes
one foot or more in diameter) and constructing dams with the stems and
branches, checks the flow of water-courses, intercepts floating materials, and
sometimes even diverts the water into new channels. This action is typically
displayed in Canada and in the Rocky Mountain regions of the United States.
Thousands of acres in many valleys have been converted into lakes, which,
intercepting the sediment carried down by the streams, and being likewise
invaded by marshy vegetation, have subsequently become morass and finally
meadow-land. The extent to which, in these regions, the alluvial formations
of valleys have been modified and extended by the oixiratlons of the beaver is
almost incredible," f
The conservative action of animals upon the earth's surface is
less marked, but the following case deserves mention : —
" In the prairie regions of Wyoming and other tracts of North America,
some interesting minor effects arc referable to the herds of roving animals
which migrate over those territories, 'i'lie trails made by the bison, the elk,
and the bi'j;-horn or mountain sheep, are firmly trodden tracks on which vege-
tation will not grow for many years. All over the region traversed by the
bison, numerous circular patches of grass are to be seen which have been
formed on the hollows where this animal has wallowed. Originally they are
shallow depressions formed in great numbers where a herd of bisons has rested
for a time. On the advent of the rains they become pools of water ; thereafter
grasses spring up luxuriantly, and so bind the soil toijether that these grassy
patches, or ' bison-wallows,' may actually become slightly raised above the
general level if the surrounding country becomes parched and degraded
by winds." J
On the level prairies the buffalo trails may be seen, stretching
away in dark and well-defined straight lines, till the eye fails
to distinguish them in the distance.
I
* •Text-book of Geolo-ry,' p. 455. f 'Wrf.
X Il'id. ; and CoiiiHtock in Captiiin Jones'8 * Reconnaissanee of N.W. Wyominz,
1875, p. 175
D 2
i-i':!'
1*1
V !•
m
m
II
wc.
U
Camidian A(/rlculturc.
It is worthy of note that the earthworm, the most useful of all
animals in the soil, appears to be absent from the prairie, or is
at least very uncommon. Professor Macoun informs me that
he has never seen one on the prairie, nor has he ever heard of
one beinjj seen by the Dominion land surveyors. Of course,
this is only nejjative evidence, but if the lowly annelid be not
already a dweller in the prairie soil, it is difficult to imajjine
why it should not become so, save perhaps in the alkali lands
and " bad lands." This absence is, however, probably apparent
rather than real, for Darwin states * that " earthworms are
found in all parts of the world," althou<j:h he dt)es not refer
specifically to the American prairies.
Soils. — The remarkable richness of much of the prairie soil
of Manitoba arises from the accumulation for ag^es past of the
excreta of animals, the ashes of prairie fires, and the decayinfj
remains of plants and animals, in a loamy matrix resting upon
a retentive clay subsoil. In 1882, between forty and fifty
samples of soil, taken at intervals between Winnipegr and the
Rocky Mountains, were exhibited at the Royal Agricultural
Society's Show at Reading; they were shown in glass tubes,
four feet in length, each tube containing a core of the soil and
subsoil from the surface downward. Three samples of the
surface soils were submitted to Sir J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., and
Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S., for the determination of the nitrogen.
No. 1 was from Portage la Prairie, 5(5 miles west of Win-
nipeg, and had probably been under cultivation for several
years ; the dry mould contained 0*247 1 per cent, of nitrogen.
No. 2, from tlie Saskatchewan District, about 14{) miles from
Winnipeg, had probably been under cultivation a shorter time
than No. 1 ; its dry mould contained ()v)027 per cent, of ni-
trogen. No. 3, from a spot about 40 miles from Fort Ellice,
might be considered a virgin soil ; the dry mould contained
O^aOO per cent, of nitrogen. In general terms, these soils are
about twice as rich in nitrogen as the average of the Rothamsted
arable surface soils ; and, so far as can be judged, are probably
about twice as rich as the average of arable soils in Great
Britain. They correspond in their amount of nitrogen very
closely with the surface soils of our permanent pasture land.
At the recent meeting of the British Association at Montreal,
Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert presented to the Chemical
Section a paper " On some points in the composition of soils,
with results illustrating the sources of the fertility of Manitoba
prairie soils," and I am indebted to Dr. Gilbert for his kindness
in revising a Canadian newspaper report, from which I proceed
* ' The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms,' p. 120.
^^^m
■"■I""""
( ^tnadian Af/rifu/fun:.
1")
to in;ikt' a lew rxtraits. l](>si(I(>s tlie tlnce sciils already loltMn'd
to, four otlier Manitoba soils were examined in {greater detail.
They came respectively Irom Niverville, 41 miles west ol
VVinnipejjf ; Iroin Hiandon, l.'i.'j miles west ol Winnipeg; Irom
Selkirk, 22 miles north-east ol" VVinnipej;^; and Irom Winni-
yteg itsell". Th«?se soils showed a very hij^h perccnitage ol
nitrogen ; that from Niverville nearly twice as high a per<:eiit-
age as in the first G or I) inches ol ordinary arable land, and
about as higli as the surface soil of pasture land in (ireat
iiritain. That from J^randon was less rich, still the first 12
inches of depth is as ri(;h as the first 6 or i) in( lies of good old
arable lands. The soil from Selkirk showed an extremely high
percentage; of nitrogen in the first 12 inches, and in the second
12 inches as high a |)ercent.ige as in ordinary pasture surface
soil. Lastly, both the first and second 12 inches of the VVinni-
j)eg soil were shown to be very rich in nitrogen, richer than the
average of old pasture surface soil. To determine to what
ext(mt the nitrogen in these soils is susceptible of nitrification,
and so of becoming available lor plant-growth, the soils an«l
subsoils were placed in shallow dislies, covered with plates of
glass, kept under proper conditions of temperature and moisture
for specified periods, extracted from time to time, and the nitric
acid determined in the extracts. The periods were never less
than twenty-eight days, and the rate of nitrification declined
alter the third and fourth periods. In the case of the subsoils,
there was a very marked increase in the rate of nitrification
during the eighth period as compared with the seventh, there
having been only a tenth of a gram of garden soil containing
nitrifying organisms added. This result is very striking, and
of much interest, affording evidence that the nitrogen of subsoils
is subject to nitrification if only in suitable conditions, and the
result lends confirmation to the view that deep-rooted plants
may favour nitrification in the lower layers of the soil.
The authors further state that official records show that the;
rich prairie soils of the North-VVest are competent to yield
large crops, but under present conditions they do not give
yields commensurate with their richness, compared with the
soils of Great l^ritain, which have been under arable culti-
vation for centuries. That the rich prairie soils do not yield
more produce is due partly to climate, but largely to scarcity of
labour, and consequent imperfect cultivation, thus leading to
too luxuriant a growth of weeds ; and until mixed agriculture
and stock-feeding can be had recourse to, and local demand
arises, the burning of the straw, and deficiency and waste of
manure, are more or less inevitable, but still exhausting practices.
So long as land is cheap and labour dear, some sacrifice of
11
r
1'':
'iv: '
il
16
Canadian Aiirivnlturc,
fertility is unavoidable in the pnxTss of bringing these virgin
soils under profitable cultivation, and the only remedy is to be
found in increase of population. Still the fact should not be
lost sight of, that such practices of pioneer settlement do involve
serious waste of fertility. It may not be out of place to append
the opinion of the Rothamsted investigators, that a fertile soil is
one vi^hich has accumulated within it the residue of ages of
previous vegetation, and that it becomes infertile as this residue
is exhausted.
Through the kindness of my colleague. Dr. J. M. H. Munro,
F.C.S., 1 am able to give the following complete analysis of,
and report upon, a sample of prairie soil taken from the first
12 inches : —
AnahjHlis of Prairie Soil fraui Jiirth\ MauHuha.
The soil dried at 212° F. contains—
Organic matter iind combined watiT .. ,. 1»*70
Small stones ami i^'ravcl I'll
Gravelly sand 2* 'If)
Coarse sand (11 "20
Fine sand 11-70
Clay and clayey .sand (ignited) 10'54
100-00
Associated in the air-dried soil with —
Moisture (J- 70
The fine earth (passing through a sieve oO meshes to the incli) dried at
2]2°F. contains—
Organic matter and combined water ,. .. lO'OT
Rand and silicates 88-41
Peroxide of iron and alumina 4-105
Carbonate of lime •".)(>
Potash (KjO) 0-271
Phosphoric acid (PgOj) 0-l<J5
Magnesia (MgO) 0-487
Chlorine 0-010
Sulphuric acid (SO3) tnicu
>t'ot determined, and losis 0-402
100-000
I'er cent.
Total nitrogen 0-412
'i'otal minerals dissolved by cold water .. 0-048
Potash soluble in water 0*0081
The sand and gravel of the soil consist chiefly of fragments and pebbles of
quartz, with an admixture of other minerals derived from igneous rocks, and
here and there a spangle of mica. Ihe black colour is due to vegetable
matter, which is i)re8ent in very large proportion, and is the chief sourct'of the
great fertility of the soil. A rough measure of this fertility is the percentage
turr.
Canadian At/riculture.
17
»tf nitrogtii ill llie thin earlli, wliich in at least double that found In the bur-
face uoil ul' j^ikkI Et»;;li8h piistun;. Tlicre is an ample projiortioii of phosphoric
acid, and tlm supply of potash is very larjic, as is usually the case with soils
formed of thd li/ihris of vulcanic rocks. Lime alone, of all the elements of
fertility, is present in feeble proportion, and its application to this and similar
soils will proliably be of <^reat benolit in the near future, before the noed arises
for the us(! of the ordinary artificial manures. The hijh relative proi)ortion
of magnesia is noteworthy in coiuicction with the wheat-j;rowing properties of
the soil.
Native H(trlKt(/c. — TIjo most essential feature of the prairie is,,
]>erliaps, its treeless character, this characteristic beiri^, in fact.,
indicated in the name (Fr. prairie, a meadow). Thus the great
mass of the vegt^tation of the prairie is composed of herbage,
tliough shrubs may sotnetimes be seen in swampy localities,
and the course r)f a river or stream is often indicated by a line
of low tnu's. The character and feeding quality of the prairie
herbage are matters of prime importance irom an agriculturfd
point of view, and it is well to recall the fact that for ages
the prairie has been the grazing ground of vast herds of
buffalo, whose descendants are now fast disappearing. This
fact alone is highly suggestive of the nutrient character of the
plants which clotlie the prairie ; much more so, in<leed, than
might at first be inferred from a cursory examination of the
prairie flora. On my journey to the Rocky Mountains I was
fortunate in making the acquaintance of Professor John
Macoun, M.A., F.L.S., the botanist to the Geological and
Natural History Survey of Canada, and still more fortunate in
being allowed, through this gentleman's kindness and courtesy,
to avail inyself of his advice and experience, founded on years
of arduous labour and exploration in the North West. On my
mentioning to Professor Macoun my desire to familiarise
myself with the native forage plants of the prairie, and par-
ticularly with the grasses and clovers, 1 was much surprised by
his informing me that there is not a single true clover, not one
species of the genus Trifoliurn, indigenous to the prairie soil.
Nevertheless, the leguminous family, as a whole, is by no
means unrepresented on the prairie; and, as a matter of fact,
while in Ontario only twenty-six species of Leguminosa; have
been recorded, no less than forty-two species have been found
in the North- West, the most noteworthy of these being, perhaps,
the so-called purple prairie clover, Petalostemon violacenm ; the
white prairie clover, P. candidus ; the purple prairie vetch,
Vicia Americana ; the prairie pea or purple pea-vine, Lathyrus
venosus ; and various milk vetches belonging to the genera
Astragalus and Oxytropis. Though the leguminous herbage
of the prairie presents no species identical with those of
Britain, the species of Graminex, (m the other hand, coincide
!'■•*» ]
pi
J.s
Canadian Agriculture.
in a few cases with native Ikitish grasses ; but this is the
exception rather than the rule. Species of grasses common to
both the prairie herbage and the British flora are Agrostis
vuli/ariii, Kccleria cristata, Poa j)ratensis, P. annua, Triticum
repens, T. caninutn, and Hicrochloe horealis. I was surprised at
the quantity of couch grass, Triticum rcpens, known in
Canada as quick or quack grass, which came under my notice ;
but Professor Macoun tohl me that the variety which grows on
the prairie is non-stoU)niferous, and therefore does not form the
bed or couch of interlacing underground stems, which are
found so objectionable by the English farmer ; it is readily
eaten by stock, and constitutes a most valuable grass on all
clay and alkaline soils of the prairie.
The f<)llowin<; is a list of tlie chief prairie grasses, arranged
alpliabeticall} iiistea<l of in botanical sequence : —
Systcnuitic Name.
ComnKvn Name.
Jr/yw/i.K Kcahra.
A. r»/(/((r;V.
A ii<lr<ipo[jOH ^viipiirittii.
Urizojujinni fpirdtiitit.
* ISoutelona oligoKlnchiid.
*Calam(i(jroi<tis Canaileiisis.
Da nth on ia ('al i/arn ica ,
I), i 'eriiicdia.
1>. fcricrd.
1). fpirata.
h'liiiiiUH rtimlfni<(i(iig.
*(ihiri ria airoidcii.
ii. diiians.
*G. tenuiflora.
JJurochloe hun'alii<.
Hmditnn jiOxiiiiin.
Kochria cristaiu.
Van iinnna.
J', amia.
/'. prati iisits.
}\ >« rtitiiKi.
*!'. Ii iiiiij'oliit.
Stfariit t^etiinK.
*>'>ljnrtiiia cyiiunanutltn.
*S. ijnicili:'.
SiKinilidlux liftfroh j)ix.
ISfipa iMiiuita.
*S. ><fiurtva.
iS. riii(lul((.
Triticum ciininum.
*T
repi'm.
* VilJ'n rnnjiidiifd.
Zizanin miiintiru.
'J'icklo j^russ.
lU'd top or lowland puHfuro
.tri'i»88.
rurjilo wood grass.
SjiiUe f:;taKM.
Buffalo fzra.-8.
Bhio joint gra^H.
(,'nliforiiiuii oat },'ras8.
J'rairif oat uniw^.
Silky oat grass.
Wild oat grass.
" Buiicli " grass,
Narrow-kavfd sju ar grass.
Meadc.w spear grass.
Seneca grass. Holy grass.
Squirrol-fail grass.
" Bunch " grass.
Annual spear grass.
Hod top or June pra.ss.
Fowl lueailow grass.
Slendcr-ltiived I'oa.
" Foxtail."
Freshwater cord grass.
(Jrac^ful Milt-iiiarsh grass.
Dropijced grass.
" Jiuiich " grass.
" Willi oat " buffalo grass.
Feather grass.
Dog's-to(jth grass.
Couch grass.
I^l^h grass.
Wild rice.
Usual Habitat.
River banks.
Conunon.
Sanily ."^lopes.
Salt ni;irslies.
Diy or sandy plains.
Swamps and woods.
('yi)ress liill.<i.
IJith i)rairies.
Bow Kiver.
Forest openings.
Southern plains.
Salt marshes.
Ditto.
Ditto.
I'rairiee, very
eonuiion.
Salt iiiarslurs.
Dry hills and river
banks.
Around Winnipeg.
I'rairies.
Kverywhere.
Wet places.
I'rairies.
I'rairies.
I'rairio nuirshcs.
Siiit marshes.
I )ry soils.
Rather scarce.
Everywhere.
Ditto.
Thickets and river
banks.
Salt marshes.
Damp prairies.
Swamps.
w'm'iBww
Canadian A(jricallai'e.
11)
As the reader will probably be a(!(|uaiute<l with some ol these,
at least by their eominon names, it may be well to add a lew
descriptive details. The true American buffalo ^rass, unknown
in Canada, but common in the states of Kansas and Colorado, is
Buchloe dactyloides ; it throws out numerous runners, like
a strawberry, and these, takinj^^ root, form new plants. The
Canadian buffalo grasses are, Bouteloua vUfjostacliya^ growing
most abundantly in the southern districts, and Stipa spartea^
which, though lound on all the prairies of the North West,
is commonest in the northern regions, and particul.irly on the
Buffalo Plains. Stipa spartca is the famous grass of the hills
in the Bow River country, and forms the bulk of the winter
pasture of the great plains. It is allied to the ornamental
feather grass, Stipa pinnata, of l*]nglish flower-gardens, and has
an awn some seven inches long. The " bunch " grasses are
so called from their habit of growing in bunches or tussocks.
Our English meadow foxtail, Alopecurus pratensis^ is neither
native nor cultivated in Canada, and the term foxtail is there
applied both to the barley grass, Ilordeum juhatum^ and to the
millet gr.ass, Sctaria setosa. The two grasses called red top,
At/rostis vuhjaris and Poa ]>ratrnsis, are found chiefly on the
eastern prairies ; the latter is also known as the blue gr.ass of
Kentucky. The wild rice, Zizania aquatica^ grows luxuriantly
in damp and marshy situations in Northern Manitoba, and it
(•onstitutes a delicious article of food. It is quite distinct from,
though related to, the common commercial rice, Oryza sativa^
and its grains are dark coloured.
In some regions of the prairie, and particularly in the more
I
One only of these, C. distic/ia, is also British, and a British species
of rush, Jnncus lia/ticus^ the Baltic rush,* is likewise common
on the prairie. The sedges constitute much of the prairie hay,
and make up the greater part of the vegetation of the ponds
and marshes. On the other hand, in the vicinity of woods,
wild vetches and peas, and various rosaceous and composite
plants, mingle with the grasses and yield excellent prairie hay.
The elegant little prairi(> rose, Rosn hlanda, which (mly attains
* Tliin is the wire-grtiB8 of Utah,
l!1 ■
l^l
;i:
swampy districts, certain sedges enter largely into the composi-
tion of the herbage, the following being the commoner ones: —
Systoiimlic Name. Coninion Name.
UsuaJ H.-ibiUt.
■"' 'I '
*Carex arlKfatd. Awncd sedge.
C tUntichtt.
*C Jmniginusfi. Woolly fruited sedge.
('. prnirca. , Prairie sedge.
*C. iiKircidti. i
Marshes.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Open prairies.
1 '
20
Canadian Ayrkalturc.
■A height of about six inches, supplies in its hips a much-
relished food in the fall of the year to horses and to the prairie
chicken ; and the composite plant, Artemisia frigida^ known
as " pasture sage," and the general appearance of which
resembles that of wormwood, constitutes almost the sole winter
food in some localities. Eiirota lanata, the " white sage,"
a plant allied to our spinach and goosefoot, is abundant on the
tops of dry hills in the southern plains.
The grasses and sedges marked with an asterisk in the
foregoing lists, are held to possess special value as forage
plants. Hierochloe borcalisj which is the holy grass of Scotland
and Northern Europe, having been formerly used for strewing
on the floors of churches at certain seasons, is very general on
the prairie, and possesses a pleasant, lavender-like fragrance
which it imparts to the prairie hay ; the Red Indians plait it
into the form of a border to surround the birch-bark mats they
are so expert in making. Professor Macoun told me that, on
high dry grounds, the best pasture grasses met with are :
Androjwfjon scoparius, Doutehua oli(/ostac'/n/a^ Hierochloe horealisy
Poa ca'sia, P. temii folia, Sporoholus hcterolrjn'sy Stipa comata^
S. spartea (the best of all), aS. viridula, Triticum caniimm, and
Vilfa cuspidata. The good forage grasses of the salt marshes
are : Glyceric airoides, Spartina cynosnroidcs, S. yracilis, and
Triticum repens. Horses left to themselves find their chief
summer food in Carex aristata of the salt marshes; but as this
dies with the appearance of frost, the horses then betake them-
selves to the higher lands, and graze on Stipa spartea in the
winter. No pastures are more valuable in summer than those
of the salt marshes, juuI working horses when set at liberty
make straight for then..
The prairie herbage varies greatly with the locality ; in that
part of iVIanitoba north-west of Fortagc-la-Prairie the hay
is very coarse, containing large quantities of Sjmrtina cynosu-
roides, mixed with Calamayrostis Canadensis and Poa scrotina.
A western horse accustomed to finer hay will scarcely touch
this, while the ponies of the neighbourhood eat it with avidity.
On the drier prairie this kind of hay is not seen, while other
varieties are abundant. Where ponds abound, much of the hay
consists of certain species of Carex, Poa, and Calamayrostis.
If the soil is rich and not too moist, the Carices disappear, and
grasses of the genera Danthonia, Elymus, Hierochloe, Triticum,
and Vilfa, with numerous Rosacem and Leynmijiosie, appear in
great profusion. The hay in river valleys is almost whf)lly
Carex aristata, Calamayrostis Canadensis, and Poa serotina ;
this is also the hay of the mixed forest and prairie country.*
* ' Mauitoba auil Hit (jircut North- AVcal.' iiy Johu Mucuuu, M.A., F.L.S.
Canadian AyricuUure.
21
The nutritive value of the prairie grasses is not only due to
their abundant foliage, but in some cases to the production of
grain also ; and Professor Macoun attributes their eminent
feeding properties, not so much to the inherent value of the
species themselves, as to the soil and climate in which they are
grown. It must not be forgotten that for many centuries the
prairie, in the production of buffalo beef, has been simply
grazed ; how its herbage will submit to the new order of things,
in which large tracts are to be mown year after year, remains to
be seen. Numerous species of grass, which on the Canadian
prairies grow tall enough to be cut for hay, in the drier country
south of the political boundary seldom attain a greater height
than a icvi inches. I was told everywhere that during the
months of May and June, when most of the plants are in
flower, the prairie presents a most lovely sight ; nor was
it difficult to imagine this after seeing the floral stragglers
which still decked the plain in September. As to the life-
sustaining capability of the prairie in the winter, I cannot do
better than quote the following words,* merely remarking that
La Belle Prairie, where Viscount Milton and Dr. Cheadle
wintered in 1862-3, is west of Carlton and somewhat north
of Battle r)rd, on the North Saskatchewan River, and adding
that Dr. Cheadle, in whose company I had the pleasure of
travelling across the prairie, has lost none of his enthusiasm
with regard to the future of the vast territory which he did so
much to make known to his countrymen twenty years ago : —
"Wc now prepared to loavo our winter quarters, as soon as the snow had
disappeared sufliciently to admit of travelling; with carts. 'J'he first tliinji to
do was to find the horses, which had been turned loose at the coniniencenient
v)f tiie winter. We had seen tiieni or their tracks from time to time, and
knew in what direction they had wandered. La IJonde tbllowed their trail
without difliculty, and discovered them about eight or ten miles away. Wc
were very mucli astonished at their line condition wlien he drove them back
to La J5elle Prairie. Although very thin when the snow be<!;an to fall, and
two of them had been used for sleiL'h work in the early pan of the winter,
they were now perfect balls of fat, and as wild and full of spirit as if fed on
corn — a most unusual condition for Indian horses. 'J'he pasture is so
nutritious that animals fatten rapidly even in winter — when they have to
scratch away the snow to feed — if they find wiK)ds to shelter them from the
piercing winds. No horses are more hardy or enduring than those of this
country, yet their only fiRxl is the grass of the jjrairies and the vetches of the
copses. 'J'he milch cows and draught oxen at lied Kiver, and in Minnesota,
feeding on grass alone, were generally in neaily as tine condition as the stall-
fed cattle of the Baker Street show."
As the political boundary between the Can.adian and the
American j)rairies is of an entirely arbitrary character, being
determined simply by the i'Jth parallel, it is evident that many
* 'The North-west Passage by Lund.' By Viscount Milton, IM.T., und W. B.
Cheadle, M.D. ; CusbcU ami Co., ]). lOS.
m
urn
'■ I* -iffl
Wihs
Mi'
»
■•^■%
M
: . ■ifS
'II
i'l
CaiuuHau Agriculture.
of the n<'\tural history foatiiros of tho rojii^ions north find south
ot" this lino may be icUmtical. Particularly is this so with
regard to the general character of the flora, so that the following
observations from an address of surpassing interest, on the
" Characteristics of the North-American Flora," delivered by
the veteran American botanist, Professor Asa Gray, before the
Biological Section of the British Association at the Montreal
meeting last year, may be appropriately quoted here : —
" Between the wooiled country of tlie Atlantic side of tlie eonlinont and
that of the Paeilic side, liea a vast extent of plains, whieh aiv essmiiady wotnl-
less, excejit wliere tliey are traversed by inuuntain-eiiains. 'i"he prairies of
the Atlantic States bordering tlie Mississippi, and of the \Viiini]ie,g country,
shade oil' into the drier and irradually nxm; suline jilains, which, with an even
and jiradiial rise, attain an elevaiioii of oOOO feet or more wliere they abut
a'jaiiist the Kocky Mountaiiis. I'niil these are reached (over a s]»ace from the
Alle;;haui(s wij^iward of about L'O degrees of loni^itude) the plains are un-
broken. To a iiHtdera'e distance beyond the Mississippi the country must
have been in the main naturally wooded. 'I'liere is rainlall enoni;h for forest
on these actual ja'airies. Trees grow fairly well when planted ; they arc
coming up spontaiieonsly under present opiiortunities; and there is reason for
thinking that all the prairies east of the ^lississi[ipi, anil of the Missouri up
to Mimiesota, have been either greatly extendi d or were even made treeless
under Indian ocenpation ami aiuiuai burnings. 'I'hese prairies are flowery
with a good number of characteiisiic ]ilauts, many of them evidently derived
from the plains farther west. At this season (August) the predominant vege-
tation is of ('um| osita', especially of Asters and Sol idagoes, and of Sunllowers,
Silphiunis, and oilier lleliantlioid ('oiiiposit;e.
"'I'he drier and barer plains beyond, clothed with the short Buffalo-Grasses,
jirobably iicvi r bore tnes in tlnir ]iresent state, except as now, some (Jtittoii-
wdods [i.r., i'tiplais) (.111 the niari:ins of the long rivers whieh traverse them in
their course fioni the Bocky Mountains to the Mississipj)i. Westward, the
plains grow more and more saline; and "Wormwoods and (.'heiio[iodiaceie of
various sorts lorm the dominant vegetation, some of them «»/ //(./(t/v's, or at
least peculiar to the country, others identical or congeneric with those of the
steppes of Northern Asia. Alouu' with this common campestrine vegetation,
there is a lar'ie infusidu of peculiar American ly[ies, which 1 suppose came
Irom the southward,"' *
Climate. — The essential connection between the climate of a
country and its agriculture renders it indispensable to make
some observations on the climate of Manitoba and the North-
West Territories, and in this particular case it is all the more
desirable, inasmuch as considerable misapprehension and, it
may be, prejudice exist in I'^ngland on the subject. The region
under notice is bounded on the south by latitude 4l)°, on the
north by latitude (UT, on the east by the meridian of 95", and
on the west by the llocky Mountains, and it covers, in round
numbers, an area of G()8,()0() square miles. Much information
was obtained in Captain Palliser's expedition in 1857, and many
important facts have been subsetjuently established by Professor
I
Nature,' Jan. !."», l8Sr), p. lifll.
CiUuulidH A< I ri culture.
'l?y
Macoun. The conditions which detorininc the climate of th<!
vast continental rp<j^ion occupied by the prairie may be most
conveniently studied as the factors of a physiographical problem
of national importance. The normal seasons comprise a long-,
severe, but dry winter, a hot summer with abundant rain, a
short pleasant autumn or " fall," and a still briefer spring,
which is usually dry and sunny. The opening of spring, as
marked by the first appearance of spring flowers, is about the
middle of April, the period being practically the same over the
entire area. The diurnal temperature rapidly rises, and summer
neat prevails till the middle of August, about which time a great
and permanent fall in temperature takes place, and autumn sets
in ; the closing days of this latter season are often very beautiful,
and they form the period known as the Indian sum»ner. Winter
begins within the first fortnight of November, the navigation of
the Red River being closed simultaneously, though the Peace
River, much farther north, usually closes later. Unfortunately,
our Knglish conceptions of the climate of the Canadian prairie
are based almost exclusively on the readings of the thermometer.
We hear, for example, of a temperature of 20° below zero on a
winter i\i\.y in Manitoba, and shudder at the bare tliought of
such extreme severity, as we try to imagine what suffering such
a temperature would bring with it in England. But this is
where the error creeps in, for the bodily sensations accompany-
ing a temperature of, say, — 20^ in England, and those associated
with the same temperature on the Canadian prairie would be
quite different. In fact, the thermometer alone is an insufficient
guide ; besides knowing the temperature of the air, it is also
necessary to know the amount of moisture it contains, before
arriving at a conclusion as to the agreeableness or otherwise of
the atmospheric environment. Dry air is a bad conductor of
heat ; moist air is a better conductor, the conducting medium
really being the water vapour or water dust which confers the
moistness, so that, below the point of saturation, the more
moisture the atmosphere contains the more freely will it conduct
away heat from the surfaces of the animal body.* On the other
hand, the drier the air is, the more completely does it act as an
insulator, enveloping the animal body in a medium which
conserves the animal warmth in so far as it offers no facility for
the escape of the latter by conduction. These simple physical
facts supply the reason that the winter temperatures of the
* " Varying amounts of moisture in tlie air materially affect the liealth and
comfort of man. . . . INIoist air is a better ctnuluetor of heat than dry air, which
accounts for much of tlie discomfort felt in winter wlien a thaw takes place as
compared with the feeling of elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather,
therefore, moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, ami
colds conse<|uentlv result." — ' On some relations of Meteorological Phenomena to
Health.' l{y John W . Tripe, M.D., F.R.Met. ^oi\
•it- . i 1
■.■> 'I
'Si;
>4 .
['■
24
Cunadian Agriculture.
Canadian prairie, though undoubtedly low, are yet tolerable.
All over the prairies the air in winter is dry, and hence is
physically different from the humid atmosphere which is asso-
ciated with our insular position in this country. The dry air
of the prairie performs for a man in the wintci" the services of a
blanket ; it cannot, any more than the blanket, bestow heat
upon the man's body, but it can, equally with the blanket, pre-
vent the dissipation of the warmth of the body. No doubt, if
the winter temperatures of Manitoba and the North-West were
associated with humidity at all approaching that of our English
atmosphere, the effect would be well-nigh intolerable. Last
autumn Professor Glaisher, in travelling across the prairie, made
a series of observations with the dry and wet bulb thermometer.
At Portage la Prairie the dry bulb registered 80° and the wet
bulb 07°. The next day, at Swift current, the readings were
yi° and 72° respectively. In fact, throughout the journey there
was a difference between the readings ranging from 10° to 19°.
To this low percentage of moisture in the air is attributed the
peculiar hardness, or flintiness, of the wheat grown in Manitoba
and the North-West, a property of the grain which renders it
peculiarly valuable in milling operations.
The Report of the Department of Agriculture and Statistics
of the Province of Manitoba for the year 1882 is specially
valuable, in that it contains the results of eleven years' meteoro-
logical observati(ms, from 1871 to 1881 inclusive. The record
would extend back to earlier dates, but that the observer, Mr.
James Stewart, had the misfortune to lose everything at the
time of the Red River Rebellion. From the years recorded,
1 have selected, quite at hazard, the year 1879, and constructed
the following table, an examination of which may prove of in-
terest, it being remembered that the freezing-point is at 32° F.: —
Temperatdue Observed at Winnipeg, 1879.
Mean.
Mean
Maximum.
l\lcan
Miiiinuim.
Hipliest
Maximum.
Lowest Minimum.
Mean
1 Height of
Barometer.
I )e (Trees.
iH'grees.
DegreeR.
Degrees.
Dsprees.
Inches.
January ..
- 2a
7-7
- 14-3
29-0 on 2Gtli
- 34-3 on 14th
29-1918
February ..
- 5-2
5-3
- 181
28-5on2l8t
- 43-6 on 26th
29-2979
Llarf"),
14-2
270
- IG
.TO-Oon 30th
- 22-4 on 16th
29-1458
April
401
50-7
28- 1
71 -5 on 21st
- 10-3 on 3rd
29-2126
^«KV
53 5
6«-4
414
78-5 on 28th
28-3 on 6th
29-1886
.'*;.■»■ .. ..
e;i-5
75-7
fill
88-3 on 3rd
33 0on l»t
29-0250
Zci\' .
*;7 9
80-7
.56 -3
P30ou 12th
48-4 on 29th
29-0375
Aofrwet
n4-2
76-4
.')2
87-5 on 9th
40-3 on 20th
29 0784
September
.')l-3
«.5-3
38-6
77-5 on 4th
22-3 on 24th
29-1536
October
44-4
hi -2
31 2
88-5 on 6th
r)-2on30th
29-0663
November
20 ft
29-4
100
48-4 on 6rh
- 10-3 on 20th
29- 16.50
De<'eml»er . .
-128
- 4-8
- 24- 1
17-4on3l8t
- .W-.^on 24th
29-3210
Twmm
Canadian Af/riculture.
25
The coldest day of the year appears to have been the 24th of
December, when the highest reading of the thermometer was
—28-4°, and the lowest —50-5^.
The following table contains further information relating to
the same year : —
Meteorological Observations at Winnipeg, 1879.
Rainfall, j Snowfall.
Total
Rain and
ftUlted
Snow.
Days on
which
Rain fell.
Days on
wiiich
Snow ft'II.
Number
of
Fogs.
Number
of
Thunder-
storms.
January .
February .
March
April
May , ,
June ,.
July . .
August
September
October
November .
December
Total .
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
16-72
1-555
9
7-30
0-055
G
0-210
5-30
0-025
1
3
1
l-!»70
2 -65
2-230
10
1
1
1
2-78r) ;
2-785
14
5
7-050 :
7-050
15
10
3 705
3 705
IS
15
1-820 i
1-820
12
2
0-740
0-740
10
1
1-420
1-420
9
2
0-050
3-70
0-300
2
7
1
24-23
2-200
13
1
19-810
50-00
25-235
91
39
9
37
But perhaps the best general idea of the climate may
be derived from an examination of the Table on page 20,
in which are summarised the results of eleven years' obser-
vations. In that Table the total annual amount of aqueous
precipitation must, of course, be looked for in the line devoted
to " total rain and melted snow," as, in making up these numbers,
the fall of snow is rendered into its equivalent of water.* It
will be seen that, on an average, the waters of the Red River are
open for navigation during seven months of the year, so that
the winter season extends over five months. Mr. James Stewart,
of St. Andrews, Manitoba, in presenting to the Deputy Minister
of Agriculture and Statistics the figures upon which the
three tables here given are based, makes use of the following
remarks : —
" The climate of this country, I believe, is the finest in the world. On ac-
count of the bracinii dry atmosphere the fluctuations of the temperature are
not inconveniently felt, as is the case iu places where the atmosphere is more
humid. The warm days in suuimer are generally followed by cool evenings,
and such a thing as very sultry and oppressive heat is scarcely known. The
warm days, followed by cool nights and copious dews, facilitate the growth of
cereals in a wonderful degree. The winters here are also very pleasant and
bracing, proceeding from the same cause, namely, the dryness of our atmos-
* "On
■ Metcoroio
a very rough estimate a foot of snow yields about an inch of rain."-
logy." By R. H. Scott, F.R.S. ; Kegan Paul and Co., Third Ed., p. 1
mw
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Canailiti n Aiiriruliiiro.
27
pliero . . . As a riik) tlie nviiis aro chiolly iii llw; moiitlis of May and June,
tlio tiuM! tlicy aro most wanted lor vegetation, while the fall months are gene-
rally dry, so tiiat rarely any diiViculty is experienced in liarvesting the crops.
The months of Septemher, October, and November are looked upon as the
finest seas(jn of the year, being remarkable for fine cool dry weather, unknown,
F believe, in any other country."
A description of tho climate of the Canadian North- West can
hardly be deemed satisfactory unless it includes an examination
of the more f^eneral physioji^raphical phenomena which combine
to HMider that climate what it is, and I therefore propose to
make a brief reference to the phenomena in (juestion. The
{jeneral rule that the tcunperature increases as the equator is
approached, or as the poles are receded from, is liable to many
local variations, determined chiefly by the relative disposition of
land and sea. If places which have the same averag^e annual
temperature are joined together on the map, the line so drawn is
called an isothermal line, and sometimes the isothermals are
fairly parallel with the equator. But there are many exceptions,
and a notable one occurs in the case of the Canadian North-
VVest, where, between the meridians of 100° and 120°, the
isothermals rise very considerably to the north, the physical
significance of which is that the North-West enjoys a much
higher average temperature than many other parts of the globe in
the same latitude.
" The line of equal mi'an temperaturL", es|)ecial!y for the season of vegeta-
tion, between ^larch and October, instead of following lines of latitude, bends
from the Mississippi valUty far to the north, carrying the zone of wheat from
Minnesota away to the (JOth paralltd in the valley of the Peace River, repro-
ducing the summer heats of New Jersey and Southern Pennsylvania in Minne-
sota and l)akt)ta, and those of Northern Pennsylvania and Ohio in the valley of
the Saskatchewan. Within the isothermal lines that inclose the zone west and
northwest of Minnesota, which is being or is soon to be opened to cultivation,
lies a vast area of fertile lands from whicli might easily be cut out a dozen
new States of the size of New York." *
At Fort Vermilion, 58° 24' N. and 116° 30' W., Professor
Macoun found barley cut on August (kh, 1875, and wheat almost
ripe, and this, be it observed, in a latitude coincident with that of
the extreme north of Scotland. In Blodgett's ' American Climat-
ology ' it is stated that the buffalo winters on the upper Athabasca
at least as safely as in the latitude of St. Paul, Minnesota, and the
spring opens at nearly the same time along the immense series
of plains extending northward from the city of St. Paul to the
Mackenzie River. Again, meteorological observations show
that Winnipeg and Fort McLeod, 600 miles apart, but in the
same latitude, have about the same temperature, while Fort
1^.
i
.i
IK. >
r I
A'- hi
ill
* J. W. Taylor, United States Consul at Winnipeg.
' Manitoba iinri the Great North-Wpst,' p. IH2.
Quoted in Mocovin's
E
28
Canadian Agriculture.
Simpson, 770 mllos duo north of F'ort McLeod, is wanner. To
understand thoroujjhly the cliinate of tlio North-VVt-st we must
pass beyond the artificial boun<lary at tlie soutli of the Dominion.
On the other side of this line (lat, 41)' ) there is, in the United
States territory, a vast re<;ion of arid country, coveriii<j[' an area
of about half a million s(|uare miles, and occupyinji^ a fjeneral
elevation of about six thousand feet. Over this, the (ireat
American Desert, as it is called, the moisture-laden winds flovv-
in<j northward from the Gulf of Mexico, have to pass on their
Way to the Canadian prairies — "south-west winds come across
the dry, hot plains west of the Mississip|)i." * Any cause which
tends to reduce the temperature of the atmosphere thereby
lessens its capacity for moisture, so that when an atmospheric
current is suniciently cooh^d, its vapour is usually precipitated in
the form of rain. But, in summer time, the heat arisinj^ from
the burninj; plains of the American Desert is so jrreat that the
northward flowinj; air-currents retain their temperature, and
therefore their moisture, and it is not till the winds encounter
the cooling- influence of the grass-covered plains o. the prairie?
that their temperature becomes sufhciently nMluced to allow of
the precipitation of their moisture in the beneficent showers of
rain which constitute so marked and so essential a feature in
the meteorology of the Xorth-VV'est. The American desert is
thus the indirect cause of the summer showers of the prairie, as,
were it not for this desert, the air currents from the south would
probably be deprived of their moisture long l)efore they reached
tlie \orth-VVest. IVut this same desert is in winter the cause of
that dryness of the atmosphere which ren<lers the winter climate of
the prairie so much less trying than it otherwise might be, for at
this season the " suspension of those desert effects which fjave the
summer rains," in other words, thecoolingf of the desert, induces
the main air-currents from the Gulf of Mexico to trend to the
east. This change of direction takes them over the region of
the g^reat lakes, where they deposit an abundant rainfall. f
^^ Bad Lands.''^ — The area within whic^h is comprised what I
have referred to under the name of the Great American Desert
is not described as "desert" by the American geog^raphers.
The region in question extends over considerable portions of the
States of Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, between the
latitude of Santa Fe (86" N.) and that of Cheyenne (41^° N.),
an<l between the meridians of \)\f and 111° W. Much of it is
occupied with what are known as " bad lands," and it is these,
with their ari<l climate and scant vegetation, which impart the
desert character. They also extend .around the Uinta Mountains,
* Anstcd. ' rhys. Geofrr.,' Fifth Ed., p. 295.
t ':MiUii(nl)ii lui.l till' Ori'ut North- W(!.st,' p. l-ijO.
Canadian Agriculture.
29
ill latitude 41'', duo east of Salt Lake City, and in this locality
were traversed by the original settlers in that rity before their
eyes were j;ladden('<l with a sight of the *' promised land." I
cannot do better than let the American geologists describe these
" bad lands " in tlu;ir own words : —
" !m tlic arid rej^ion of the wcsU-rn jwrtion i»f tlio (I litcd States, there are
ccrtiiiii tracts of country vvliich Imve rcceivftl ilio AK:\\i q[ maauaises terrea,
or l»;i(l liuitls. Tlifse luc dreary wastes — naked lidis, with rounded or coidcal
forms, roniposed of sand, sandy cl;iys, or fine fra'^in.'nts of flhaly rocks, with
steep sl()]ics, and, yielding to the iiressure of tlie loot, tliey are ciimbed oidy
i>y tlie <ireatest toil, and it is a [alninr of no inconsideralile nia<^nitude t»»
penetrate or cross sticli a district of conntr\'.*
'* 'i'iie vast jilains to tlio west of Clieyenne are covered witli the drab-yellow
and li|j;lit-'^ray sands, marls, and clays of the great freshwater lake deposit,
known as the ' bad lands,' " f
And Dr. S. Aughey, in his report on the superficial deposits
of Nebraska, describes the b.ad lands in a manner which 1 have
only space to briefly summarise. He says they do not really
belong to the surface deposits, as they constitute a peculiar
formation, where most of the soil capable of being cultivated has
been removed bv denudation. They belong to what Hay den
calls the White River group of Tertiary rocks, and are believed
to be of Miocene age. The materials of the deposits are white
and yellowish indurated clays, sands, and marls, with occasional
thin beds of lime and sandstones. "The geologist r«ever tires
of investigating these deposits and their curious remains. The
almost vertical sections of variously-coloured rock have been
chiselled by water agencies into uni({uc forms. Indeed, viewed
from a short distanct; they remind the explorer of one of those
old cities which only exhibit their ruins as reminders of their
ancient greatness. Among these grand desolations, the weird,
wild old stories of witchery appear plausible and possible. It is
in the deep canons at the foot of stair-like projections that the
earliest of those wonderful fossil treasures are found which have
done so much to revolutionise our notions of the progress of life
and of Tertiary times." " Agriculture in such a region as this,"
adds Dr. Aughey, " where often nothing is now growing, is, of
course, out of the question. Whether there ever will be such an
increasetl rainfall as to start vegetation in this region and make
its surface capable of cultivation, is a problem of the future." |
* ' Exploration of the Colorado Iliver of the "West.' ■\Viishinglon : Government
Printing Otlice, 1875, p. 14'.).
t ' United States Geological and Geographical Survey of tlie Territories, for
1873.' By F. V. Hnyden; Washington, 18 <4, p. 17.
X 'United States (ieologioal and Geographieul Survey of Colorado and Adja-
cent Territory, 1874.' By F. V. Hayden, U.S. Geologist ; Washington : (JoveVn-
ment Printing Office, 1870, p. 2(12.
E 2
m
!!
^M
m
fi
80
( \i mil/ id II . li/riiii/tiin\
Manh'oua.
I li«' I'loviiHO ol Manitoba is iiicn-ly the iVcmticr ol tlir ^rv:\\
\(»rili-\\'<'st. I'onncily known ;is the llcW Kivcr SrttU'ini'nt/itwus
ill i?S7(), at the close ol, ami as a (•ons«'(|m'nc(' of, tin* \ivi\ Kivrr
K«'l)('llion, the suppression ol wliic h was ellected l)y Colonel
(now (ieneral Lord) W'olseley, raise<l to the «li<jnitvot a separate
Province and admitted into tlu- federation of the Dominion. Its
l)oun<lari<'s are <letermined by the parallels of 4i)' and r)!^ N.
lat., and the meridians of IM)' and 101' W. lonjf. It is in the
v(My et'ntre of \orth America, and, in the words of the I'larl of
Dud'erin, "may he rcijarded as the keystone of that mi};;hty an'h
of sister Provinces which spans the Continent from theAtlantii!
\n tht> Pacific." Its area, r2.'),()()() scjuare miles,* is slijjhtly in
excess of that of the Hritish Isles, 121,11') s(]Uare mih'S : hut the
|)opnlation of tin; Province is onlv about l'2r),()()0, of which
VVinnip('«;, the capital, claims M0,00(). This city is most
advaMta;;eousl V placed at the ronlluence of th(! Red and
Assiniboine Rivers, occupy inj; the site of the old Fort Garry,
on<' of \\ut he;i(l-(juarters of the Hudson's Hay Company, and
thouj;h the fort is now unfortunatelv destrovi'd, its name will
linjjer in history as that of the j)lace where the insurrection of
the French- Indian half-breeds culminated, un«ler the leadership
of Louis Riel, in the Red River Rebellion of 18l)l)-70. The
fjreat obstacle to the {jrowth of Winnipe<;, and with it the
ilevelopment of Manitoba, arose from its inaccessibility. The
country between Lake Superior and the prairie metropolis has
already been described, and it occupied Colonel VVolseley and
his troops three months (May to August, 1870) to traverse this
region, whereas the journey across the same district, from Port
Arthur to Winnipeg, is now accomplished by the Canadian
Pacific Railway in less than twenty-four hours. The first
railway communication with Winnipeg was effected in the
spring of 187i) through American territory, via Chicago, and
the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway, and this at
once gave an enormous impetus to business enterprise. But it
was not till the winter of 1883 that the railway between Port
Arthur and Winnipeg w.as completed, and then, for the first
time in history, it was possible to gain railway access to
Winnipeg without leaving Canadian territory.
" Tlie chief rivers emptying into Lake Wiiinipeg are the Winnipojj, the Fed,
and the Saskatchewan. The Assiniboine Fiver, -'avigable from 2.'-0 to 350
* By a rfc(>nt doci.sion, h()WOV(>r, of tlin Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council, an cxtniBive area of laml, lying to the north and north-west of Lake
Suporior, the poBscHisitin ol which wuh disputed by the ProvinecB of Alanitoba
and (hitaiiu has been awarded to the latter.
( \uiii({i(in A(/n'iiUtufr.
M
iiiilos i\)\- sU'iuiKTs (it li<;lit ilrau;;lit, euttTS tlio lictl lUvci I,") milos Iroiii I/ik)'
\Vimii|if4. liiid III lilt! coiilliu'iicc (if tlie rivers (" tliu Folks'") is HilUiitcd llif
city 1)1 \Viiiiii|ic;^, Tlic \Viiiiii|M j^, wliicli llows I'nuii tli»! ti'rritnry l.\ in^
Mnitli-rast lit Lake Winniiit'ij;, m a inihlc rivrr Sdiiie lidO iinlcs loni;;, tliat alter
ieaviiif; tlie Lake nl' the Woods, dashes witli itscU'ar water over many eascules,
and traverses very heautiud scenery. At its tails I'roin tho Lake ot tlie Woods
is one of ilie L'reati'st and most easily utilised water-jiowi rs in the world (at
liat I'nrta'Ae). I, ike m^st rivers in the New W'orM, the lied IJiver is at inter-
vals of years sidijict to lioshets. In the 70 years' e\|ierienee of tlio Selkirk
colonists there have l)een tonr "lloods." 'I'lic hi.;hest level of the site of tlio
city of Winni|ie;; is said to have lieen under o feet of water for several weeks
in May and June in IH'JO, under L'i teet in iSo'J, not covered in IKCil, and
otdy imder water on the hiwest levels in ISSli. The extent of overtlow has
thus on eacli oeeasinn heen less. '1 he loose soil on the iianks of the river is
every year carried away in <;reat masses, and the channel has so widened as
to reniler the recurrence of an overflow nidikely. 'I'he Saskatchewan, though
not in the Province, eni|ities into Lake WinnijieL' le^s than half a dej^rec! from
the northern boundary. It is a mighty river risin;^ in the llncky ^lountains,
and crossinu IH deiirees of lonj^itude. Near its mouth are the lirand i;aiiid>.
.\l)ove these, steamers jily to I'ort Kdmonlon, a I'oini upwards of SOO tnilc^
north-west of the city of Winni|ieg. Steamers lun Irom (iraiid llapids,
throuLih fiako Wiuniiieg, up Iveil lUver to the city of Winnipe*;."' *
At the time of the Rebellion, in 1870, the popuhition ol
Winnipeg was 300; eU'ven ^ears later it had risen to DOOO ; in
tlie loHowinj; year, 1882, it rose to 21,000, and there are now
30,000 inhabitants. Tlie total annual assessment ol" the city in
1878 was (;70,0()0/., whereas last year it had risen to 7,G0O,OOO/.,
and the preeedinji; year it was even hij^her. In laet, the opening
up by railways ot th(! vast territory ol whit h Winnipeg is, and
must continue to be, the head-quarters, led to a "boom"
am(mgst speculators, the reaction from which is still felt, though
haj)pily it is dying away.
If a stranger should happen to be in Winnipeg on a wet day,
as it fell to my lot to be, lie will cany away with him a memento
of the city which is likely to make a lasting impression, if not
on his mind, at least on his garments. 1 know in my case it
did. It is the Winnipeg mud. Most of the roads are rivers of
mud when the weather is wet, and the oxen in the lied River
carts, and the unfoitunate horses, seem (|uit(^ accustomed to
stand shoul(l(!r-deep in the mire. As I was out and about all
day long, I receivetl a very liberal plastering of that mud. 1 had
it operated on in Toronto, in Montreal, in Quebec, in Halifax,
in 8t. John, in R(»ston, in New York, till the cents began to
mount up into dollars, and still that mud clung. In Liverpool,
and again in London, the attack was renewed, but the indelible
stains remained. Raflled and disheartened, 1 abandoned the
struggle — I abandoned the garments too. It was suggested to
* 'Eneye. Hrit..' Ninth Kd . IHS.'t, Art, '•Maiiitel.a."
■I '
im
32
Caiiadidn Ayrivnlture.
me that the slime in the roads alForded strong; indicotions of the
fertility of the soils in the Red River vallej, but the illustration
is one that mi^ht profitably be dispensed with. The condition
of its roads is a reproach to Winnipeg;, but it is one which its
enterprising citizens will no doubt soon make a thing of the
j>ast.
1 have spoken of the Red River cart, a remnant of bygone
days. The Marquis of Lome says* : —
" It is a very roii!^!) stnictiii-f, Init in^ciiiously made, fur its wlioela arc ]mt
togeiber witliinit one jiiLrc d iroii. TIuto is iicitht-r nail nur niutal tiri'.
Fig. \.~Thv lied lUcer Cart.
(From 'Ciuiudian rictiires,' — liy i)ermission.)
1^^
^■^
'llie tliin;; rnak^ Imniliiy, lut :in>\vris iis iiiii|i(ist- well. Caravans ul' tlicst;
conveyances liavo for tlic last thirty years taken tlie liall-brccd's i^uoils liy the
prairie trails to all pnrts of the urtat valleys, and often oceupy 'JO davs in
)_'ettin^ tu Kdnionton."
The word Manitoba means the land of the great spirit, an<l is
of Indian orijjin. In pronouncing the word, the dwellers in the
Prf)vince, I noticed, place the accent on the third syllable, and
not on the last, as is sometimes heard in l^ngland. 'J'he tide of
emigration to this Province during the last six or eight years
has made the name very familifir to English agriculturists, and
in the course of an eloquent address upon Manitoba by the I'^ari
of Duflferin, during his tenure of the office of Govcrnor-Cieneral
liiriiirlian Tiettofh." y. 1
H»!,
Canadian AijricnUurc.
33
of (Janada, on the occasion of his Lordship's visit to Winnipeg,
in August, 1877, the following words occur: —
"It was liore that ('anada, onuir^iiiL!; from lior woods aii<l I'oivsts. first gazod
upon her roiliii'^ jtrairics and unuxjilorcd Nortli-Wcst, and loanit, as ])y ati
iincxjR'Ctcd rt'Vi'latioii, that lior historical territories of the Canadas, her
<astern si-alMjards of New Urunswick, Laljrador, and Nova Scotia, her Lauren-
tian hikes and vaih'vs, corn hinds and pastures, tiioui;h tiiemsclves more
extensive llian lialf-a-duzeii Kurupean kingdoms, were but the vt-stibules
and ante-chambers to tliat till then undreamt of Dominion, whose illimitable
dimensions alike conlbnnd the arithmetic of the siu"veyor and the verifica-
tion ()'( the explorer.
" It was here that, countim; her past aehievements as but the preface and
l)relude to Ik r future exertions and exjiaiidini: destinies, she took a fnish
departure, received the aOlatus of ii more imperial inspiration, and felt herself
no longer a meve settler alom; tiie banks of a sinii^le river, but the owner of
half a continent, and in the niaii^iHtude of h(!r possessions, in the wealtli of her
resources, in the sinews of her material mi;^ht, the j)eer of any power ou tlie
earth,"
Tlie reason tliat I\lanit()ba remained so long unnoticed, and
practically unknown by the outer world, was undoubtedly the
difliculty of getting to the Province. Viscount Milton and
Pr, Cheadle, writing some six or seven years previous to the
lied River Rebellion, observed*: —
"Tlie farmers of J!ed lliver are wealthy in flocks, and henls, and grain, more
than suflicient for their own wants, and live in comparative comfort. The
soil is so fertile, that wheat is raised year alter year on tlie same land, and
yields oO and (10 bushels to the acre, without any manure being reipured.
The pasturage is of the finest quality, and unlimited in extent. 'l"he countless
herds of builalo which the land has siij)ported are sufiicieiit evidence of this,
Uiit, shut out in this distant corner of the earth from any communication
with the rest of the world — except an uncertain one with the young State of
Minnesota by steamer during the summer, and with lMi.:land by the
t'oiiipany's stiip wliieh iirinLis stores to York Factory, in Hudson's l-ay, once
a year — the farmers liiid no market for their produce,"
And it is possible that some of the soldiers who served in the
Red River I'^xpedition n'gret they did not seize the opportunity
which, according to the following remarks of the Marquis of
Lome, was oflered to them f : —
"Many fjx'ak as though the experience of faniiing in the jirovince of
Manitoba dated only from yesterday; but this is not the case, tbr Lord Selkirk
many years ago brought in a colony consisting of Scotchmen from his estates
in the north, taUing them by Hudson's l!ay up tlie Nelson lliver to Lake
Winnipeg, and then settling them not far from where the ])rest'nt city bUiuiIs
(then called Fort darry), at a place named Selkirk, It is cnriou-* how few
of the members of that force under Sir tiarnet Wolseley, which jiut down tlie
half-breed insurrection in 1870, seem to have l)een sufiiciently impressed by
the exi>erience of the Selkirk settlers, for the soldiers were not desirous to taky
1 »>wj
■;';•; -iJ
si .
iu\"l
* ''I'lie \ortli-west Vassnge liy Land.' p. Hl».
t '("Hiiadian I'ietnres," p. 1.17.
;m
Ca It Oil ill n A (I r U ullurc.
ii]i (lie land allotrueiit which was ottered to every ineniber of the expedition-
ary corps. Yet if tliey had renieniln'red liow tlie eiirly i)ioneers had told tliem
tliat tlie wheat ^rown on their lands came to a total of about '60 bushels ])er
acre in each year, and that these cor))8 were raised jiivinji the land a time of
rest every fifth year oidy ; if they could liave realised within how short a
time those ]ilaces wliich they themselves had reached with so much toil by
march and cani>e iH)rtag;o, throui;h woods and endless lakes, wouUi not only Iw
reached by railways, but become >:reat railroad centres, they would not so
carelessly liave llirown away their chance of making a fortune. When 1 was
at Winnipeg in 18-^1 the city had scarcely 10,000 jieojile ; now it has 30,000,
The streets are full of life. Kxcellent sho| s, large warehouses, and some
handsome churches have been erected. The great want is a good jtavenient,
for the soil is a tenacious black stulV, which clogs and sticks to everything it
touches after rain. Fortunately it soon dries, and in the neighbourliood of
the town the prairie sikI gives good surl'ace for anything but heavy traftic."
The provincial authorities in Manitoba are artinjj wisely in
fostering^ and guiding the development of agriculture. The
periodical and other publications issued under the authority ol
the Minister of Agriculture, Statistics, and Health, are very
useful, and, provided the farmers of Manitoba will study then),
cannot fail to prove of excellent service. The ' Manual of Acts
and Orders in Council relating to the Department of Agricul-
ture, Statistics, and Health,' issued in 1884, indicates very
j'learly the kind of bureaucratic control which guides the j)ro-
gress of agriculture. It is enacted that all that part of the
administration of the government of Manitoba which relates to
agriculture, immigration, statistics, and the public health, in-
cluding hospitals, shall be un<ler the control of the Deparfnu^it,
which shall be administered and managed by tin; Minister, wh(»
n)ay decide all matters of doubt or dispute as to the construction
or working of the Act, his decision being final, except that an
appeal may Ix' made to the Lieutenant-CiIovenior-in-Counciil.
It is the duty of the Department to institute intjuiries and collect
lacts and statistics relating to agricultural, manufacturing, or
other interests of the Province, to adopt measures for circulating
and disseminating the same in such manner and form as may be
lound best adapted to promote the piogress of the Province, and
to encourage immigration from other <-ountries. Certain persons
are boun<l under a jienalty of 4/. to furnish information to the
Department when such is asked for; they comprise all ofl'cers
ol the Poard and Council, the officers of all electoral division
agricultural societies, continued or organised under the Act, and
ol all municipal councils, school boards, boards of trade, and
other public institutions, railway, navigation, and other incor-
porated companies, and all public officers of the Province, and
all medical practitioners and veterinary surgeons ; they are re-
(jnirr«l Irom tirnr to linn- to lullect and tabulate farts accorfling
lo instiui lions to be luinishrd thcin from the Department, and
aa«i*«iSf»ii*w>,.s«'i
Canadia n Ayr lea Itu re.
35
to make diligent efforts to supply correct inlorination on all
(juestions submitted to them.
The special agricultural functions ol the Department are
entrusted to the Board and Council ol Agriculture. The l^oard
is composed ofone rej)resentative from each electoral division,
appointed by tlie Lieutenant-Ciovernor-in-Council from among
the agriculturists of note in the Province. They are entitled to
no compensation for services other than for expenses occasioned
by presence at meetings of the Board or Council, the sum for
which is fixeil by the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council. Seven
form 'A quorum, and a meeting for the despatch of business
must be held on the third VVednesdav of February in each year,
in Winnipeg. Special meetings are held when extraordinary
circumstances arise to necessitate such. A member absent
from two consecutive meetings forfeits his membership, unless
excused Irom attendance by resolution of the J^oard passed at
the second meeting Irom which he may be absent. The duties
of the Board are to advise the Department on all matters relating
to the agricultural interests of the Province; to organise agricul-
tural and industrial exhibitions open to competition from all
parts of the Province ; to arrange, when practicable, for the repre-
sentation of the products of the I*rovince at exhibitions in other
provinces or in other countri<'s; to supervise the management of
i'lectoral division agricultural societies, and generally to adopt
«!very means possible to promote improvement in the agricul-
tural interests of the I'rovince. The J^oard niav, subjei:t to the
approval of the Lieutenant-(iovernor-in-( 'ouniil, pass i)ve-Iaws to
regulate its proceedings, and lor other purposes not inconsistent
with the provisions of the Act.
The Council of Agriculture consists of six mend)ers of the
Board electe«l at eat^h annual meeting i)y ballot. They have
full power to act for and on behalf of the Board, and all grants
of nuniev, subscriptions, or other funds, mad<> to or for the use
of the Board, are expended undi'r their direction. Tliev meet
as circumstances mav re(juire, at the summons of the Secretary-
Treasurer of the BoanI, under orders from the Minister or Presi-
dent ol the B<»ard. Three lorm a <|Uorum, and vacancies in the
Council are (died by the remaining nu'mbers thereof. Abst-nt
members are <lealt vvitii on the Council the same as on the
Hoard. The President and V ice-President of the Board arc
elected bv ballot from among the mendjers at each annual
meeting. 'I'hev are cx-affirio members of Council, and the
President or, in his absence, the Vice-President, presides at all
meetings of the Poard and of the Council. Tailing both, a
If'mporarv rhainnan is cicitcd from anuMig the mcndx-rs
present.
m
m
i.
I;.
ii
t ''■■.!
I
36
Ca n adia n At/ r ic n If u rr .
'V\\Q I^oanl may ostaMisli, carry on, and manage a vcterinarv
rollogo lor the instruction ol" pupils, by competent and approve*!
teadiers in the science and practice of the veterinary art, and
may arrange lor the examination of such pupils in anatomy,
physiology, materia medica, therapeutics, chemistry, and as to
the breeding of domesticated animals; and, upon j)roof to the
satisfaction of the Council, that such pupils possess the recjuisite
qualifications, may grant (li]>lomas under the seal of the JJoard,
and the signature of the President and Secretary-Treasurer
thereof, certifying that they are competent to practise as vete-
rinary surgeons. A registtM* is kept of veterinary surgeons
jiractising in the Province, and any j)erson acting as a veterinary
surgeon >vithout being duly (jualified is liable to a fine of from
4/. to 20/.
The (Council must authorise the organisation of an agricul-
tural society in any electoral division in which there may not
be one in existence, after a petition — signed by at least fifty
persons, each of ^vh()m must liave actually paid in to the secre-
tary-treasurer ])!•(> fern, not less than one dollar (4.s-. 2r/.), — has
been filed in tiie Dcpartincut in the form set forth in the Act.
The objects of such societies are generally to promote the pro-
gress of agriculture by hnlding exhibitions at which prizes may
be awarded for live-stock, agricultural and horticultural pro-
ducts, implements, and machinery ; and for any excellence in
agricultural pro(lu(;ti()ns or operations, by imj)orting or other-
wise procuring seeds, jilants, and pedigree animals of new and
valuable kinds, or bv offering bonuses for the introduction of
tlie same ; by ofleriuir ])rizes lor essavs on (juestions relating to
agriculture, arboriculture, or horticulture ; by ]>romoting the
circulation of agricultural, arboricultural, and horticultural
publications ; and by holding meetings lor discussion, and
securing the delivery of lectures on subjects connected with
agriculture, arljoriculture, or horticulturr .
The protection of game comes within the lunctions of the
Department, and an enumeration of the close times will carry
with it an indication of tlu' animals included in the restrictions.
None of the following are to be shot at, hunted, trapped, taken
or killed within the times specified : [a) All kinds of deer,
including cabri or antelope, elk or waj)iti, moose, reindeer nr
cariboo, or the fawns of such animals, between January 1 and
October 1. (/>) The varieties of grouse commf)nly known as
prairie chicken, or pheasants, and ])artridges, between Janu-
ary 1 and September 1. (c) Woodcock, plover, snipe, and
sandpipers, between January 1 and Auirust J. (d) Any kind
of wild duck, sea-duck, widgeon, teal, wild swan or wild geese,
except the variety of wild gccse commonly known as snow
Caiuu/idfi Af/riculfure.
;i7
fjeese or wavers, between IVIay 1 and Aujfust 15. (c) Otter,
(isher or p(>kan, beaver, inuskrat and sable, between May 15
and October 1. (/ ) Mink and marten between April 15 and
November 1. No jierson is allowed to liunt witli dojj, gun,
net or otherwise, within the enc^losed grounds or lands of
another without first obtaining j)ermission from the owner,
agent, or o(-(*u|)ant of such grounds or lands. In order to
en(;ourage persons who have imported, or may import, different
kinds of game with the desire to breed the same on their own
lands, no person is allowed to hunt, shoot, kill or destroy any
such game without the consent of the owner of the property
wherever the same may be bred. Most of the wild birds are
protected by law against capture, tlestruction, or injury, and,
excej)ting the birds w hose close times have already been enu-
merated, it is illegal to take, kill, or injure any birds save the
following, which are unprotected : eagles, falcons, hawks, owls,
wild pigeons, blackbirds, kingfishers, jays, crows, ravens, snow
buntings or snow birds, shrikes, bitterns, lurhiws, crimes,
grackles, cormorants, gulls, mergansers, j)elicans, and loons.
The penalty for infringing any of the bve laws lor the protec-
tion of game is a fine of from 2/. to 10/., and costs.
To assist in carrying out the stringent regulations relating
to the diseases of animals, the Lieutenant-(iovernor-in-Council
appoints, from time to time, as oHicers of the Department, one
or more veterinary surgeons (pialifii'd to practise in the Pro-
vince, and each person so ajipointed is known as a <listrict
veterinarian, because he has a certain district assigned to his
jurisdiction. Anv such veterinarian mav at any time enter
any common, field, stable, cowshed, or otiier premises where he
has reasonable grounds for s Mij^osing that any animal affected
with infectious or contagious disease is to be found. Th(^
penalty for impeding or obstructing such entry is a fine of 20/.
'i'he veterinarian, considering a j>lace to be infected, sends,
with all speed, a copy of his certificate to the Department ;
and if it appears that contiigious or itifectious disease exii. s, as
declared by the veterinarian, the Minister n»ay so determine
and declare, and may pn'scribe the limits of the infected place,
and may from time to time extend or curtail such limits by
means of notice in tlie ' Manitoba Cin/ette.' If any animal,
hide, skin, hair, wool, horn, hoof, offal, carcass, meat, dung,
hay, straw, litter or other thing, is moved in contravention
of the rules with respei-t to infected j>Iaces, the offender is
liable to a fine of 20/. A similar penalty is incurred by any
owner, breeder, or dealer, or by any veti'rinary surgeon who, on
perceiving the apj)earance i»f infectious or contagious disease,
fails U> giye immediate notice in writing to the Department at
ill
m
'ill
•11
iU/!i
3«
Canadidii At/riculturc.
Winnipeg, and to tin* veterinarian for the district. A lik<*
penalty is inllicted on persons wlio expose infected animals,
or the remains of such animals, and on persons wlio violate
such regulations for quarantine as inny be made by the Lieu-
tenant-Governor-in-Council. In cases in which animals are
ordered to be slaughtered a compensation amounting to two-
thirds the value of the animal may be claimed, but such
value is in all cases to be determined by the Minister; while it
the owner or his representative has been guilty of an offence
against any of the provisions of the Act, no compensation is
allowed. Any horse or other animal affected with glanders or
farcy is to be destroyed, and the carcass burnt or buried to the
satisfaction of the district v<'terinarian. lOvery steamboat, rail-
way and other company, and every person carrying animals for
hire in the Province, must thorouglily cleanse and disinfect, in
such manner as the Lieutenant-Ciovernor-in-Council may from
time to time di'-^'^'^ all steamers, vessels, boats, pens, carriages,
trucks, horse-box, s anit « liicles used by such company or person
for the carrying cS ':;?. .ils. In the case of non-compliance
a fine of 20/. is incurred.
It is easier to piv "ut the s]""'pad of noxious weeds in a new
country than in one wheu ihe sol! Ins been long under cultiva-
tion, but even in a new country it is difficult unless there is
concerted action over a wide area. This, however, is the cast?
in Manitoba, and it may perhaps surprise English farmers
to know that there everv owner or occupier of land must
cut or cause to be cut down, or otherwise destroyed, all wild
mustanl, wild oats, and Canada thistles growing thereon, so
often in each and every year as is necessary to prevent their
going to seed ; and if any owner or occupier of land allows any
such wild mustard, wild oats, or Canada thistles to grow
thereon and the seed to ripen so as to cause or allow the
spread thereof, he is liable to a fine of from 21. to bl. for every
such offence. Public; roads and highways are placed under the
charge of overseers or pathmasters appointe<l by the Municipal
Councils before Mart^h 1st each year; and if any Municipal
Council fails to make the necessary appointments these latter
are made by the Minister, and the funds of the municipality
charged with the cost. Pesides clearing the highways, the path-
master watches all lands within his district, and gives notice
to the owner or oc-cupier of any land whereon it is apparent
tiiat the weeds specified need cutting. If such weeds are not cut
within five days the responsible party is fined, as already men-
tioned, and is further mulcted in the sum of 1/. for every day
after the five during which the weeds inav be neglected. Sta-
tion-masters are siinilatlv resp(msil)le for weeds on railway
tmnmmimmmmmmmm
CoiKulittii /If/n'ciilfiin'.
ay
property, Jiltor l)ein<^ notified by the town clerk. Unoccupied
lands are cleared oi' w<!eds by the overseer or j)atlunaster, and
the owner is l)ound to pay sui;h expenses as are thereby in-
curred. The overseers or pathniasters are subjet^t to the control
ol one or more inspectors ol noxious weeds aj)pointed by the
Minister. Seed merchants are not exempt from the law, for it
is enacted that any p*;rs()n who vends for seed purposes any
jjrain, grass, or other seed among which there is any seed of
wild mustard, wild oats, or Canada thistles, shall be liable to
a fine of not less than 2/., nor more than 20/. Wild mustard, 1
mav observe, is identical with the charlock of arable lands in
b]ngland, and this weed-])est was introduced into Canada from
Kurope, and is there finding its way into all cultivated lands.
The Canada thistle, Canluns ai-rcnsis, is, despite its name,
another naturalised plant which has become a pestilent weed on
all badly cultivated farms, and in Ontario it renders some of
the country roads almost impassable in summer ; it is a common
weed in Kngland, growing to a height of from two to four feet,
;ind distinguished bv its dingy ])urple (lowers and more or less
cottony stem. The term " wild oats " is vague, and probably
includes several objectionable grasses, of which Arena fatrui
may possibly be one ; on the western prairies, however, the name
IS given to one of the most valued of the bufi'alo grasses.
Last summer the Department of Agriculture of Manitoba
issued a monthly Crop Bulletin, embodying a summary of the
reports returned to the Department in accordance with a regu-
lation already referred to. These bulletins, which are highly
creditable productions, are prepared by the Deputy Minister,
Mr. Acton Burrows, and addressed by him to the Minister of
Agriculture, Statistics, and Health, at present the Hon. A. A. C.
La Riviere, M.P.P. Elach bulletin opens with a report on the
weather, embracing a series of observations on the meteorology
of the preceding month. This is followed by reports on the
progress and prospects of field crops, given under such heads as
wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, field roots, hay, general prospects,
with notes on pests and noxious weeds, succeeded by reports on
live-stock, uncler the heads of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and
poultry ; and further information is given on such subjects as
wild bees, labour, prairie fires and timber. The bulletin is
usually supplemented with a summary of the agricultural
prospects in the United States and the United Kingdom. In
the circulars sent out by the Department, and from the replies
to which the bulletin is made up, correspondents are asked to
describe the weather, mentioning generally the rainfall, tempe-
rature, &c., and suitability for growth and harvest; to state
generally the quality of the hay crop, an<l the condition in
;l'l
I 'I
i\*{
■^:
l^%.
•'%■
^' if
I'i-
\w ' 1
40
Caiiatlidti Af/ricnifiar.
whi(;li it was saved, with tlie total (juantity saved, and the
avrrajje tonnajje per acre ol" prairie grass and of cultivated
jjrasses and clovers respectively ; to fjive the dates of" the begin-
ning' and ending of harvest, with the average yield per acre in
busliels, and (comparative (piality of each of the respective
grains, — wheat, barley, oats, llax and peas; to state generally
the (juality of the grains and th(? extent to which they have
been injured, if at all ; to give the respective average dates at
which the following varieties of wheat, viz.. Red Fyfe, White
I'yfe, VVhite Russian, Ciolden Droj), and Lost Nation ripened,
and the average yield per acre of each ; to state generally the
condition of field jjotatoes and roots, and their probable quality,
with th(! probable yield per acre ; to state whether the supply
of farm-labourers had been e(|ual to the deniand or not; to
report on native hops growing wild, as to whether they were
j)icked and sold, and with what success, and if hop-growing
could be made .'i paying industry in Manitoija ; to name the?
])rincipal varieties of fruit growing wild, whetlu'r they were
j)lentiful or scarce, and wiiat fruits had been cultivated, and the
success which attended tliem ; to state whether prairie chicken
and Vf-ild ducks were as plentiful or more so than last year, and
if the law for their protection was generally observed ; and to
state if hares and rabbits were numerous, and what damage they
had (lone. The foregoing indicate the principal topics on
whi(;h information was sent to the Department in the latter
half of 8epteml)er, and a summary of which appears in Crop
Bulletin, iVo. it, dated October 31, 1884. Last summer was an
unusually backward one in Manitoba and the \orth-West, but
the following figures r(dating to the ripening and yield of wheat
in the Province should, nevcrtliel(>ss, jiiove interesting: —
Vai;ii:iy of Wiikat.
I{r<lFvfc.. ..
AVhite'Fyfo ..
Wliite Hll^wiau
(ioldcii l)rn]i ..
Lost Nation ..
Avcnitrc I'ali'
Avi T.ifrc Yield in
liiisliciN per Aire.!
Aii-u.st 2.S
22-48
Alienist '2'.)
24 00
Sf|it('IllllLT ii
2.5-88
An^'ust 27
2:{-J8
Septembor 4
25-83
For the entire Province the average date at which cutting
began was August 27, and ended September 28, while stacking
ended October .') ; average ^ield 22*3 1 bushels per acre. Per-
(•(mtages of loss, and the causes, were estimated as follows : —
rain, -0140 ; hail, -OOaa ; frost, -0102 ; rust, -0001 ; smut, -003(5 ;
sprouting, 00(13 ; shrinkage, ■0152. A large percentage of loss
CanaJian A(/ricullare.
41
.arosn from {Train belnq^ cut in a partially unripo condition, tho
result of uneven {jrowtli and the fear of early frosts. In tli<»
eastern districts tlie loss arose principally from rain, which
shelled out much of tin? jjrain stand injj ripe, and caused that
which was cut and stacked to sprout. Fears of an occurrence?
of early frost caused much wheat to be cut in an unripe condi-
tion, and conse(piently a larjj^e percentage of loss from shrinkage
was observable.
The educati(mal value of these bulletins can hardly be over-
estimated. In the October issue the farmers of Manitoba are
plainly told that, so far as the wheat crop is concerned, they will
liave to wake up in many respects, and make themselves
ac(|ualnte(l with the recjuirements necessary to render wheat-
grow iny^ a sure and profitable source of husbantlry. The
ne(;essitv for the autumn ploughing of wheat land is insisted
upon. In every case in which wheat was sown as early as
practicable in 1881, on land that was prepared in the fall of
1883, the crop was not hurt either by frost or rain. Moreover,
the crop had the advantage of the moisture? contained in th(?
ground, which served eli'ectually to countera(!t the drought which
prevailed in the latter part of May and the beginning of June.
On the other hand, tlie later-sown part of tlu? (;rop after spring
plougiiing, through the elfects of a badly-prepared seed-bed and
of tlu? drought, (Niine up unevenly at first, and when rain came
later on, a s(?con(l growth started whi(;h led to uneven ripening;
conse{|uently a portion was prematurely cut, and considerabh?
loss from shrinkage was the result. I''armers are also warned
against cultivating more land than they can fairly expect to
manage, as seeding of the largest possible acreage does not
always imply th(> most suc(;esshd farming. The average amount
of seed wheat sown per acre in 1881 was 1'8 bushels; but there
is a feeling in favour of mu{;h thicker seeding, as this would
provide against immature seeds, s(?cure the retention of moisture
in the soil, prevent tin? growth of weeds, and promote early
matvu'itv. Wheat stools out very freely here and west of
Manitoba. On the Bell Farm, and also on the experimental
farms of the third prairie plateau, I noticed some extraordinary
c;ases of tillering. Much damage arose from want of care in
looking after grain that had been cut and stooked, but not
stacked, during the abnormally wet harvest-time. Imn .>per
care in stacking likewise led to loss. VVith printed information
of this kind circulating amongst the farmers, the agriculture of
Manitoba ought surely to undergo a marked and rapid im-
provement.
In 1883, the acreage under wheat in Manitoba was 200,842.
The yield, based on tlu? returns of the thresliers, gave an average
!*■?;
■ m
I >. ■ r
!•,!,'-
M
1:
( \nim/i(iii ^If/nrii/tiirr.
of 2rS l)usln'ls per acre, sli(>vviii<j ;i total vi('l«l of r),t)8<v'i5r)
buslu'ls. Ill 1884 the airoa<j(? was iiureasctl 18 per cent, vi/.,
to 310,1^81 acros. Assumiiifj the averajjo ) irld to be only 20
bushels j)('r aero, which is noarly 2 bushels below the estimated
averafre, the total yield would be (),205,()2() busiiels. Deducting
iVoin this, () bushels per head of the population for consumption
and 2 bushels per acre for seedin<^, the balance for exportation,
4,74(),0r)8 bushels, falls less than a million bushels short of the
total yield of 1883. These fijj;ures (convey some idea of the
increase in the production of wheat which is taking place in the
Province.
As the terms used to denote the (jualities of Canadian wheat
are now to be Iretjuently seen in English newspapers, it may not
be out of place to I'numerate here the Manitoba standards for
grain as defined by the Chief (jirain Inspector of the Pro-
vince : —
"No. 1, IIaki) Si'HIN(J Wiikat, — Shall be Rc(l FylV wheat, coiitaiiniig not
riiorc than 10 |HT cent, adinixtuic of sni'ter varii'ties ; must be sound, well
cicani'd, ami weii^li not less than <;0 lbs. to the measured imperial bushel.
" No, 2, IIauu Sjmuno Whi;at. — Shall be lUd Fyfe wheat, containing; not
more tiian 10 ])ercent. admixture of softer varieties ; must be sound, reasonably
chan, and weiuh not less than "iS ll>s. to the measured iMii)erial bushel.
" No. 1, Si'UiNCi \Vm.;AT. — Must be sound, well cleaned, and wei;4h not less
than 00 ll)s. to the measured imperial bushel.
" Xo. 2, Sriiisr, Wiikat. — ^lust be sound, reasonably clean, and weij^h not
less than 58 lbs. to the measiirod imperial bushel.
" No. 3, Spring Wiikat. — Shall comprise all wheat fit for warehousing,
not class enou;^li tor No. 2, and weii^hing not less than 5(j lbs. to the measured
imperial bushel.
" ItEJEf'TKi) Sprixg Wheat. — Shall comprise all wheat fit for warehousing,
but too low in weight, or otherwise unfit lor Xo. .'5.
"NoTK A. — All good wheat which is slightly damp shall be reported * no
grade,' with the inspector's notation as to quality and ctjndition.
"Note B. — All wheat that is in a heating condition, or too damp to be
considered safe for warehousing, or that has any considerable admixture of
foreign grain or seeds, or is badly bin-burnt, whatever grade it miglit other-
wise be, shall be reported 'condemned,' with inspector's notation as to quality
and condition.
"Note C. — Wheat containing any admi.xture of ' goo.se wheat' shall be
graded ' rejected.'
" Note 1). — Wheat containing smut or sjirouted kernels, in however slight
degree, shall in no case grade in its class as high as No. I."
With this classification before them, wheat-growers are en-
couraged to so clean and prepare their grain that the sample
may grade as high as possible, and so command better prices.
As the term " goose wheat " in Note C. may prove puzzling to the
reader, 1 may add that this name is given to a very leafy grass-
like plant which produces abundance of grain. The grains are
highly translucent, and have the appearance of very large, well-
Canadian Affricultare.
43
formed, sharp-pointed grains of rye, with a well-defined groove
or furrow, liut it is too large and shapely for rye. Professor
Macoun informs me by letter that it was first cultivated, and is
still grown, at Kdmonton, on tiu; North Saskatchewan, and that
the grain originally sown was obtained from the crop of a wild
goose some twelve years ago. He inclines to the opinion that
it came from Alaska, or from some Russian settlement across
Behring's Strait, and adds that wild geese invariably take to the
corn stubbles on their way from the north in autumn. The
Edmonton farmers call it "wild goose barley." I have a few
grains in my possession and hope to raise some plants, and thus
get an opportunity of examining "goose wheat" more closely.
The following figures sliow the acreage and yield of barley
during the last two years in Manitoba : —
:i;
*•;?
I;'
1883
18S4
Acrcau''.
(50,281
40,930
l!iisli(>Is prT Acre,
30-00
32-83
Totiil Viold.
Buslicls.
1,808,430
1,313,028
V
The acreage in 1884 thus shows a falling off of over 31 per
cent, as compared with 1883, and the yield is 464,^)02 bushels
less. The reasons assigned are the want of railway facilities in
some districts, and tlie unsatisfactory state of the markets in
1883. The average dates of harvesting barley in the backward
season of 1884 were : — cutting began August 26, ended Sep-
tember 11 ; stacking ended September 28.
Similar information about the oat crop is given in the follow-
ing table : —
1883
1884
Acreage.
Bushols por Acre.
Total Yield.
215,431
i
1 44-00
1
RiisliPls.
9,478,964
128,487
39-07
5,107,079
I 4
The falling-ofF last year is attributed to the unsatisfactorv
prices which were obtainable for the surplus grain in 1883, and
in many cases to the distance from market. Oats sown on
spring breaking of the sod were necessarily put in late, and, as
a consequence, the crop incurred damage. All information
collected last year points to the conclusion that oats, and barley
too, must be sown early to be successful, and until this point is
strictly attended to satisfactory results cannot be expected.
F
■Am
44
CtnuuUan /tt/ririi/fnn'
The (|\iality of the root crop of 1S81 was excellent, l)ut
turnips suflered eiirlv in tlie season Iroin tlie attacks of };rnl)s
and ilies. It is nnicli to lie hoped that the enterprising Hoard
of Aj;riculture of Manitoha will en* loni; e.«>tiniat«! the yii'ld of
ro(«ts in tons instead of hushels per acr(>. As it is, 1 can only
pivo the averajje yields in bushels per acTc, vi/., of ])otatoes,
201; turnips, I)*,t2 ; manjjolds, o')(» ; carrots, '2'2',\ \ beets, 275.
Turnips are usually estimated at (>() lbs. to the bushel. The
respective acreajjes were: of potatoes, tSS17; turnips, ir>(Sr);
manifolds, 275 ; carrots, 200; beets, 120 — in all cases a fallinjir
oir as compared with 1 8So.
Of pralri(? hay in Manitol)a there was cut, in l«S8l, a total
weifjht of 22r>,8r)4 tons, the average yicM beiiij; 1-72 tons per
acre. Of cultivated {grasses and clovers the total tonnag(» was
7()t>7, and the avera<;(! yield 1-25 tons per acre.
Tlie followin<>; averages relate to j)eas and (lax in 18S4 :—
Pins
Flax
ll;»lvist Hinaii.
Kn.lcil.
Vi
Ililslii'N
A in
I ill
Of)
Aiigimt 25 Scpteiii1nr 14
St'ltttiubi'r 7 St']iti'iul)er 22 1(
Native hops grow wild in every county of the ]*rovince, and
are the only variety used by settlers. 1 saw some excellent
samples at the Manitoba I'lxhibition, held at Winnipeg, in
Septeud)er, 1884. The general opinion is that the cultivation
of hops might bo made successful s(» far as yield and (juality are
concerned, but the (juestions of a market and the cost of labour
have yet to be considered. The native variety is of such
excellent ([uality that it is tiiought its improveuient by cultiva-
tion would probably be attended with irun-e success than the
introduction of ordinary cultivated varieties from Ontario or
elsewhere. It is feared that the high winds which fre(|uentlv
prevail on the prairies might interfere with the cultivation, and
the open prairie would certainly not be suitable for hop fields,
properly sheltered grounds being absolutely necessary.
Though Manitoba abounds in wild fruits, the cultivation of
fruit is nevertheless receiving increasing attention. The wild
varieties comprise strawberries, black and red raspberries,
black and red currants, high and low bush cranberries,
saskatoon berries, gooseberries, red and black cherries, red
plums, blueberries, whortleberries, juneberries, grapes, and
hazel nuts. Of these, only the saskatoon berries will appear
Ciintiifioti /l</rini/fnn
ir.
»
uiifiuniliiU' to tlic l'liiu;lisli rrador ; tlicy arc the liuit of cortfiin
ios:u<'(»us plants, Aiuchiiirlilrr (iluifolia and A. Cdiiiiiloisis var.
ofiloiK/iJ'oliii, alli<'(l to the medlar, tlu* apple, and the pear. The
cuitivati'd Iruits are chielly currants, jjooschcrries, strawberries,
raspherries, plums, aj)ples, and crah-applcs ; those most exten-
sively and most succm'ssIuUv jjrown l)ein<»' currants, {T;ooseberries,
and strawberries. Apples have not succee<led very well, owing^,
doubtless, to th<? fact that tlu' trees have fjemTally been selected
from more southern latitudes. Standards are, therefore, now
beinji; import«'d from Russia, and it is expected that these will
yield better r<«sults. Itaspberries, thou<;h less widely cultivated
than ^gooseberries and strawberries, have jj^iven encoura<;in<f
results. Plums, ;?rapes, and crab-apph?s are not at present so
widely spread, nor so successfully j2;rown.
The law as to the destruction of noxious weeds is rep;)rted as
I)ein<j; carefully carried out. Wild buckwheat sei'ms to be very
prevalent ; this plant is, I believe, identical with tlie black
bindweed, /*)/i/(/(tNinn Cotirolrn/as, of ICnfjlish cornfields. Lamb's
(juarter, similar to our dock, and wild sunllower are also trouble-
some ; whih; corn cockle, mustard, wild oats, and Canada thistles
abound, and would speedily become an oppressive evil but for
the steps takcMi f()r their continual suj)])ressi()n.
Stock-raising, in connection with jjrain-fjrowing^, is steadily
increasinji^, thouj^h want of railway communication and of suit-
able markets act as a check in some districts of the Province,
llorse-breedinjj has made a fair start, and a largo number of
foals were dropped last spring. IJesides native horses there were
returned, as in the Pnivince last summer, 13,41)3 horses, in
addition to 1()8 stallions, and they are classified under the
following heads: — French Canadian, Clydesdale, Coach, Mixed,
Heavy Draught, Percheron, Hlood, Roadster, General Purposes,
(vattle-raising is greatly on the increase, and, excluding native
cattle, there were in the Province last summer 45,810 head of
cattle, which are arranged under the three sections of Durhams,
Ayrshires, and Grades, the greater proportion belonging to the
last-named group. (irade cattle are the old-established or
native stock improved by crossing with English breeds, and
are usually styled " Shorthorn grade," " Hereford grade," tScc, as
the case may be, while " high grade " or " low grade " refers to
the extent to which they have been improved. Two or three
crosses of English blood would probably produce high grade
stock, while the first cross would usually be low grade.
Dairy-farming is practised as far as the means of the farmers
-will allow. The supply of locally made butter is far in excess
of the consumption in most of the townships. Very little
cheese is made beyond that required for household use, although
farmer:
il
I »■■
■\-^
I
■M
'J
ipp(
F 2
4«
Canadian Af/ricnifjnr.
The number ot sheep in Manitoba on July 1, 1884, was
reported as 3(517, (listribute<l nnion<;st the Merino, Leicester,
Cotswohl, and Southdown breeds. The nund)er, thoujjh small,
is proportional to the local consumption and to the demand for
wool. It is a lack ol niarket facilities which causes sheep-
raisiiijr to be in sucli a backward condition. The corre-
spondcnts ol tln' I^oard ol Agriculture aie unanimous in their
opinion that sheep-larming could be made to pay, and it is
claimed that the extensive pastures ol' good grass, the rich dry
soil and dry air, the temperate summer climate, and the absence
of rain or sleet storms in the winter, would all favour the
breeding and maintenance of ovine stock. Assuming that the
prairies in their wild state are capable of maintaining three
sheep j>er acre, and an etjual or larger number after seeding
with cultivated grasses, a great prospect is opened up for the
near future, and an extension of sheep-farming would carry
with it the athancement of agriculture, involving the best
means of cultivati()n for raising large ({uantities of cheap roots
and green crops. One drawbac k is suggested by the diHiculty
of keeping sheep fenced in and confined to their respective
farms, as wire fencing, the kind most generally in use, is very
detrimental to the wool. But appropriate branding of the
fleeces and the use of sheep-dogs would go a long way to
remove this difficulty, which certainly looks less formidable
than that of the winter management of the ilocks, for, with a
foot or more of snow on the ground, housing of some kind
would appear to be necessary.
On July 1, 1884, the number of pigs in Manitoba was re-
turned as 32, 701, arranged under the heads of Berkshire,
Suffolk, ^ Orkshire, Chester, and Poland China. The number
of thoroughbreds is rather limited as yet. I'^very farmer, as far
as possible, keeps enough pigs for his own use, but in several
districts very little pork is raised beyond the requirements of
home consumption. As railway and market facilities increase,
pig-breeding will no <loubt become more prevalent, and it is
even hoped to make Winnipeg such a centre of tin* pork industry
as Chicago, a thousand miles to the south-east, has become.
l*oultry is very generally kept in Manitoba, and with every
success. Fowls are, as might be expet ted, the most numerous,
and are in many instances kept in very large ilocks ; turkeys,
geese, and ducks are also profitably maintained. Special means
are necessary for housing in the winter, either underground
houses or cattle-sheds being used, and no losses are reported
from the severe winter weather. Minks, foxes, weasels, and
skunks often attack and sometimes destroy large numbers of
fowls. The cheapness of bird food in the Province and the
demand for eggs are other inducements to poultry raising.
Canadian Agriculture.
47
Live-stock throujrhout the Province appears to be almost free
from disease, and, with the exception of some isolated cases of
glanders among^ horses, nothing was reported hist summer. In
the preceding winter cattle were in a few places troubled with a
swelling on the jaws, which, however, disappeared with the
appearance of spring. Many sows and litters were lost, owing
apparently to over-feeding before farrowing, the abundance of
inferior wheat on hand having been supplied to the sows not
wisely but too well. Mr. Acton Burrows very significantly
remarks, "the country possesses many young and inexperienced
fanners who will have to make their calling a study in every
respect if they expect to get on and prosper."
The total number of farmers in Manitoba last summer was
()815, and the average number of acres occupied by each
was 279.
The condition of the labour market in Manitoba last July
may be brieflv stated. There was a good demand for labourers
in many localities, particularly in the ohler counties. In many
places help was needed from the beginning of spring work till
the ending of fall-ploughing and fall-threshing, the greatest
demand being during hay-making and harvesting. In a few
cases help was re(|uired during the entire year, but in the more
newly settled townships, where farmers are few, work is ex-
changed, and in this way, assisted by such implements as mav
be available, the harvest operations are g«>t tlirougli without hired
help. The wages paid to farm hands per month, with board,
vary from I)/. 12.v. to (5/., the average being 4/. iJ^.s*. It is very
diHicult to obtain female servants on farms, their ajipan'ut
<lesire being to get into the cities and larger towns ; wages vary
from 1/. 14.S'. to 4/. per month, the average being HI. As.
The distril)Ution of tin»ber in Manitoba is verv irrejjular.
While a great many townships possess none, others have supplies
capable of lasting from one or two to fifty years, and in some
rases for all time, if protected from fires. Wire fencing being
so generally used, comparatively little timber is re(|uired for
this purpose. In several instances wood has to be drawn long
distances, and in some cases the supply of woo<l for fuel is
becoming a serious (]uestion ; but, so far as Southern Manitoba
is concerned, the difficulty will cease when the South-Western
Branch of the Canadian Pacific; Railway is extended to the
Souris CoalfieMs. The following are the most abundant vari«'ties
of wood, nam<Ml in the order of their fre(|uency of occurrence,
those that are most generally distributed being named first: —
poplar, oak, ash, elm, balm of (iilead fir, maple, birch, willow,
spruce, tamarac (the American larch), cherry, basswoo<l (the
American lime-tree), pine, hazel, plum, thorn, and ironwood.
."'14
48
Canadian .If/ririilfurc,
The roason I have confmrd mysolf to the two years 18JS3 and
li>iSl in tliis hrict' survey of the a<;riculture ol Alanitoba is that
oflifial ri<i^ures for previous years were not reronhMl. In hut it
was not till 1882 that railway taeilities rendered iniinif;ration
into the Provinee possible on a larjfe seale, and the orjianisation
of the Manitoba Department of A<;riiulture was not eouuneneed
till the June of that year, and the first re])ort issued by the
Department bears date, March 31, 1883. liut as a country
covering an area greater than that of the IJritish Isles, and pos-
sessing; a soil whose wheat-jjrowinj; capabilities are of world-
wide lame, is far too important to be ignored by I'.n'jlish {Xf^ri-
culturists, it seems desirable not to omit any essential details in
the history of this remarkable Province. The Department, by
various means which n<'ed not be detailed, secured records of
the avera<;e yicdds of the various crops for each of the years
187<> to 1882 inclusive, and they are embodi(Hl in bushels per
aci-e in the followinir table : —
1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882.
Whrat 32
r.arlcv \I
Oalrt * ;"il
I'cari :!2
I'otutoes .. 22;t
llye
27
2!)
1
.".0
.82
1 US
n
K»
:{7
' .-,s
."is
•V.i
.M
' H2
;!s
•AS
:!(i2
:;is
;vjo
278
40
40
1 oo
•• 1
2!»
."i7
:u
21)4
:!5
Commentinjj^ on the yield of wheat in 1882, the first annual
liepoit contains the foUowinj^ observations : —
"Tho harvest of 1HS2 lins aiMcd aiiotlicr link to tin' loim cliiiin of cvidciico
which plows Maiiitoiia to l>e tlic iirciiTKjr wheat ilistrii-t of tii»! world. 'I'iic
practii-'al roiilts ol llic thix'sliiir_', Lriviuix an aveiajc yirld pt r aero of oL*
ItiKslit'ls, have shown that the tlieorifs iirevionsly udvanced wero foinuUd on
fact. Nor eoiild if will liave Ixen othi-rwisc, (or cliniatolo'^ist.s havt: loin;
.since satis'at'toiiiy dcuionsf rated that tiie etiltivatcd jilants yiidd tlic tircattst
jinKJuct near the iKtithcrnniost limit of their 'jrowtli. lUnrethe |H'rf(C'tion
of wheiit here, wliere, instead of Iteiii'^ develoji, d too rapitily, as is the I'asu
farther south, the niidtie Inxiiriaiiee of the stem or leaf is restrained by the
cool late sjirinj;, and tla^ ehiif tlevehipment of the plant thrown into the
ripeniii'^ ]ierioil. The a.ssertion of the distiii'^nished Amerieaii elimatoh j^ist,
|{lod;4ett, ' tiiat the l>a.sin of tlu; Winni|)eL: in the seat of the L^ieatest averu'^e
wheat pnuiiict on this eontinent, and prohahly in the world,' has heeii provi(|
correct liy the record of a yearly avera:^e ol over -'.» luishels per acre trom IHTO
to 1SS'_', In Ontario, the ISH'J sprini^-wlieat crop yielded Iml lO'") lin.-^hel.s
per acre, while tlie three ureal wheat States of the American I'nion yiehled as
follows: Dakota, lti'7 ImisIkIs; Minnesota. ]'.'>'■'< bii>hels; lo\
wa.
lels.
Miiiucisota is the empire wheat State of the I'nion. ItH averages for I'J years
Were: lS(i'>, 17-70 hush. Is i^r acre; 1S70, l.".-u7; IS71, lliL's ; l.s7'J, il-iO;
Canadian Agriculture.
41)
1H73, 17-01; ISTI, 11-J3; IHTf), IT'Oi") ; ISTC, U-fil ; 1H77, l<;-78 ; 1.S7S,
r-'T)0; LS7:t, ll-:U); 18S0, 1.",-;K). a yearly avcrimcM-ril-al bushels.
" TIk! report (if the Ontario A'jrirnlHiral ('oiuiiiissioti, whose iiivesliuations
(iiibraecd tlie results of years, ])laees the ;:;eiieral avi raL:;u ot' the Province at
11*5. In the 10 years, from 1H70 to 187it, the yearly avera<:;e jier acre over
the whole area of the United States was but I'J.".. Suulh Australia, <luriii<^
II years, averaged but H bushels, in (Jre;it iJritain and Ireland, with hiL.di
eultivation, fall wheat yiilded from l.S.")'J to 187!) an annual ivveratre per acre
of L'T;^ Inishels of Ol lbs, per bushel, eipuil to L'8,i^ bushels of 00 lbs."'
Though it appoiirs that autumn sown wheat may succeed in
sheltered places, it is spring wheat which best suits the Pro-
vince; for it is claime<l that not onlv is its average yield per
acre aliead of that of any other (-ountry, hut its weight per
bushel is also greater, and its flour-producing (|ualities are
unequalled. The St. l*aul ' Pioneer Press,' the leading journal
of the great wheat State of Minnesota, which adjoins Manitoba
on the south, wrote: —
"It seems to be a settleil fact that the farther north wheat is irrown, up to
a certain limit, the better it is. The lu'rry olitains an amber colour, rounds
out into a fulness it does not attain here, and is rich in t,duten, the life-sustain-
iuj; principle of tlour. Sonui two or three years a;_'o samples were procured
from several parts t;f the I'rovince of Manitoba for trial. The best of this was
pi. iced in the hamls of some of our leadiui^ wheat-Lzmwcrs for cultivation. One,
variety of Ited 1' vfe yielded the first year at the rale of ;)7 bushels to the acre,
of a hard and)er colour, which the wlieat inspector for the Millers' Association
at Mimieapolis pronounced the tiucst siMjcimeu he had seen since he had been
connected with the Association."
Nor less outspoken is the opinion of another United States
journal, the ' American Miller' : —
" it is (pute <;enerally conceded that the best wheat-fields in the world (or
the produeliou of the hard wheats so much desired in -jradual leduction
milbn.;, lie partly in Miinusota and l>akota, but chielly in Maniiolia. TIk;
jio.ssibh; acreage of Manitolia uliiat is only bounded by its settlement, and we
must expect a eonstantly-iiieriasim; crop in that [art of the Domiiuou for
many years to come."
Th(' testimony from these American sources may l)e appro-
priately supplemented by that of a Canadian genth-man of
extensiv(» business experience, Mr. W. \V. Ogilvie, managing
partner of tli(? ()gilvi(! Milling Company :~
" We liUe ^biuitoba wheat beeause it cojitains more gluten than any other.
This is the (pialily that is reiiuirid to make a \\%\\\ loaf o| bread. It is
alloijetlier in the sod, which is new, dark and deep; it has a greater depth of
dark soil than any part of the I'liiled Slates Yoii wdl ^et I'J lbs.
more and much better bread from 100 lbs. of Manitolia wheat-Hour than from
thilario wheat -llour. it will also .^ive '_' to ."> lbs. more lloiir per bushel than
Ontario wheat. 'I'lie wheat of Oiilaiio is every year jiettiu'^ weaker, and
eonlaiuinz nmre stareh and le.^s -^l ill en, so thai this yetir (18M') we find it
inipo.ssilile to make ^ood lloiu' out ol it. 'i'he element reipiind I'or i^iowiii:!
ft
1
'fi-S
ym
■ i
14:
115
!..
r-
I
\ '1
r--^
H
Si
50
Ca nadia n A (/n'rult a re.
•Si
c
c
1
i
;::!■; ii'i!'/'iiP;
P>ik1 wlu'at has )i;\s>cil out of tlio lainl, mid nn iiiiminiii<r will restore it. You
iiiav ''<• al'if to '_'r<)\v a uood yield <»t ijddd-ldnkin.' wlual, Imf it will nut liavt;
};liitt'ii tiiDUizh to make jio<Kl Itread. 'I'lie same tliiiiL: exists in the miildie and
eastern Slates, 'i'he sooner ( hitario, like N« w York State, j;ives up jirowinjj
wlieat, ami turns to dairy aiid cattle, the hetter. I have iravelltd over tlie
wiieat tieliis ot' Kurope, Asia, and Al'rien, and know very well all the wheat-
lamls of the I'nited States excejit ( aliturnia, hut I have never seen wheat-
lands equal toManitdha and the North-West Territxjry."
The wheat most suitable for Manitoba is Red F)Tc, and
Canadian A</riculture,
51
1<
CO
to
•FN
any one who examines a sample of this grain cannot fail to
notice the sub-translucent appearance it possesses, similar to
that of the (ihirka wheat jfrown on the Russian steppes, and
shipped at the Hlack Sea ports. Notwithstandiuif the prevalent
idea that Red I'yfe orijjinated in Scotland, and derived its name
from the County of I'ife, Mr. Slu'rilF I'VrjjfUson, of Kingston,
()nt.,the first Presitlcnt of the Agriculture and Arts Association
of Ontario, ^ives another and probably correct account of its
oriffin. A family, named Fyfe, residinjj near Kingston, Ont.,
left there in 1MJ7, an<l settled between I*ort Hope and Cobourjj,
■ t
'a
tj
1 '
i
>j
I
'*/
i '''
I,:
i:|
52
Cauodiou Aiiricidlnrv.
and while there received a U'tter from a friend in Scotland, con-
taining a few grains of (ihirka wheat taken from a vessel that
had arrived from the Hlack Sea, and was discharging her cargo
at Glasgow. They sowed the grains, and kept on cultivating
year hy year, till they obtained a sufficient (juantity to carry off
the first prize for spring wheat at the Provincial Exhibition at
C'obourg. The grain was improved by its cultivation in Ontario,
and has still further advanced in quality in its nearer approach
to the northern limits of cultivation in Manitoba. This inci-
dent is further of interest in showing the value of the Provincial
Exhibition as a stimulus to improvement.
The average yield of barley in Manitoba from 187<> to 1)S82,
both inclusive, was 81) bushels per acre. The report of the
Ontario Agricultural Comnussion places the y<'arly average of
that Province at 25 bushels. In the decade from 1870 to 1 871)
the yearly average in the United States was 21*1). During the
last two vears the vield of barley in Manitoba — 30 bushels and
i)ii bushels respectively — shows a falling off as compared with
the average of the preceding seven years, but this may really be
accounted for in part, perhaps, by the greater care with which
the estimates are now made, and the more thorough collection
of statistical information.
Similar remarks apply to the yield of oats. I'or the seven
years, 1870 to 1882, the average is n-ported at 57 bushels per
acre, whereas for the last two years the numbers have been
44 busiiels and 40 bushels respectively. The Ontario Agricul-
tural Commission reports the \ early average of that Province at
oi}} bushels. In the Unite<l States the average yield for the ten
years, 1870 to 187U, was 28 "3 bushels.
Indian corn has been but little cultivated in Manitoba, the
comparative shortness of the season and the cold spring being
unfavourable to its mature growth. But when it was urged
against the Province that mai/e could not be successfully grown,
the P)oard of Agriculture retorted that there was no reason why
it should l)e grown, that wheat-raising pays better, and that
corn is oidy cultivated t(»-day in many of the western States of
the Union because of their inability to raise wheat. This,
indeed, was frankly admitted at the convention of agriculturists
lu'ld at Washington, D.C, in January, 1882, under the l*resi-
dency of the United States Uommissioner of Agriculture, when
Mr. P)lount, of ( 'olorado, in speaking of the improvement of the
cereals, said of the wheat crop of the West : —
" Wliciit is full of eccentricities, niatle tip of wliinis ami frenkH. In hoiiic
Bectiuns it ])iniiiis»s one day to malie tlie fiirirer a miliiunaire ; tlie next tliese
jironii.ses iirc: all Ma^leil Ity lilastetl heads and rusty itlades. in money value
wheal is kin;^. Kveiy man can raise corn, l>iit every man cannot raise wlieat."
Ca nadia n At/ ricn If arc.
53
Tlie extension of" railway communication on the prairie will
not only greatly facilitate the means oi" transport, but will have
the elFect of developing new centres of industry. A case in
point is afforded by Minnedosa, which lies to the north-west of
Winnipeg, on the Little Saskatchewan River. It is now reached
by the Manitoba and North-Western Railway, and 1 am in-
formed by the Hon. Win. Nelson Hood, who is well ac(}uainted
with the locality, that the land around Minnedosa is of the
most fertile character, and that when its splendid water-power
becomes fully utilised, this rising young city is not unlikely to
grow up a second Minneapolis.
;!i f«
H
The Noutii-VVest.
When the traveller leaves Winnipeg for the west by the
Canadian Pacific Railway he notices that the line strikes out
across the open prairie, and for a distance of five-and-twenty
miles beyond the race-course there are no indications of cultiva-
tion ; this is due to the land being held by speculators who are
waiting for the " rise " which shall enable them to " clear out."
" The country has only one pest worse than mosquitos, the specu-
lators, called in vivid Western parlance ' boomsters,' who fortu-
nately have, for the moment, burst themselves in a vain attempt
to drink up the whole North- West ! "* The traveller journeys
on through the flourishing young towns of Portage la Prairie and
Hrandon ; and after a run of some two hundred miles he, on the
second prairie plateau, leaves the province of Manitoba, and enters
the great North-West. Recent as has been the settlement of
the majority of the inhabitants of Manitoba, that of most of the
dwellers in the North-West is still more so. Indeed, it was not
till the beginning of 18JS2 that the track of the Canadian Pacific
Railway emerged from Manitoba into the v.ast territory beyond,
and it was in the same year that this portion of the North-West
was, for purposes of government, separated into four provisional
districts, namely —
Assiniboia 1)5,0()() square miles
Alberta 100,000
Saskatchewan . . . . 114,000
Athabasca 122,000
Of these, Athabasca is greater, and each of the others less than
the entire area of the i^ritish isles. Regina is the capital and
the seat of government of the North-West territories, and also
the head-quarters of the North-Western Mounted P»)lice, who
are the guardians of the peace on the prairie ; it is in Assini-
♦ 'llumlbodk tbi tlir Uoiuiuiuii of Cuiuulii,' p. 332.
yy
»»
J>
»»
>)
>»
i
AM
ll
54
Canadian At/ricuUure.
boia, the other important towns being Moosomin, Broadview,
(^u'Appelle, Moose Jaw, and Medicine Hat. Here it should be
mentioned that Bishop Anson's Farm for the instruction of
intending colonists in the agriculture of the Province is at
Qu'Appelle. After leaving Manitoba, the railway traverses the
length of Assiniboia for a distance of nearly 500 miles, and then
enters the district of Alberta, which is bounded on the south by
the United St.ates, on the north by the district of Athabasca, on
the west by the Rocky Mountains, and on the east by the dis-
tricts of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, the latter lying to the
north of the former. Passing in a north-westerly direction out
of Alberta, the Canadian Pacific Railway enters the Pacific
Province of British Columbia, and almost immediately attains
its summit level of 5300 feet above the sea in the beautiful
Kicking Horse Pass of the Rocky Mountains, at a point 960
miles from Winnipeg. Had the line continued its westerly
course, instead of trending to the north-west, it would have
passed through the heart of the ranching country which extends
southward from Calgary. The chief towns in the district of
Alberta are Calgary, Fort McLeod, and Julmonton. In Sas-
katchewan the leading centres are Battleford and Prince Albert.
It is not within the scope of this paper to enter into further
details of this nature, but 1 have elsewhere given a fuller
account of the young cities of the prairie.*
In seeking to obtain information as to the agricultural features
of the great North-VV'est, the inquirer experiences considerable
difficulty, for, vast as this territory is, it possesses as yet no
history, and such ofhcial records as do exist are meagre and
insufficient. Originally the whole area was under the juris-
diction of the Hudson's Bay Company, and it is only within the
last two years that there has been any influx of population
from beyond its borders. But though Captain Butler, in his well-
known book, correctly calls it " the great lone land," it is destined
to remain lone no longer, for the irruption into its area of the
well-laid track of the Canadian Pacific Railway has placed it
within easy reach of settlers from the East, who will invade its
solitudes, and cultivate the wilderness which was till so recently
the home of the countless herds of buffalo which have now
well-nigh disappeared. And yet it is twenty years since
Viscount Milton and Dr. Cheadle advocated —
"the opening out and colonisation of the magnificent regions of the Red
Itiver and Saskatchewan, where Gr),0(X) square miles of a cnuntry of unsur-
passed fertility, and abounding in mineral wealth, lies isolated from tlio
world, neglected, almost unknown, although destined, at no distant period
* ' Across Canada : A Rc'pf)rt on Onnada and its Agricultural Reaourcos,'
obtrtinabic at the office of the High Commissioner for Canada, 9, Victoria Chumbera,
Loudon, S.W.
Canadian Af/rkulture.
f>b
perliaps, to become one of the most valuable possessions of the British
Crown."
The meteorological records of the North-VVest are necessarily
very scanty, and the only figures I am able to quote are those
indicating the temperature at lulmonton, in Alberta, on the
North Sask.itchewan River, during the months of 1882, the
following table being abridged from the ' Twelfth Annual
Report of the Meteorological Service of the Dominion of Canada,'
which was published last )ear. I have also added in a parallel
column the monthly mean temperatures in the same year at
Humboldt, a station in Saskatchewan, considerably to the east
of Edmonton : —
Teinppriitiiri' at K<lni<>nton, 1982.
Ih'grees Fulireiibi'it.
M''an
Maxiinurii.
Mean
Mininiuiii.
Mean.
I At Humboldt, 1«h2.
I Degrees Fulirenh(>it.
Mean.
tliinuary ..
February . .
March
April
May.. ..
•lune
July . .
August ..
Heptenilier
October ..
November
17
2.')
24
•77
12
62-4.')
6i>-37
72-00
73-3;)
Deceinl)er
42'
30-
15
4;>
-4-28
-3<;(;
1-08
37-00
47 04
49r.l
48-33
70
41
23
3.5 ■
27-
10-
19-08 ; -2-00
G
10
12
49
58'
00
00
48
34
20
8'
74
73
81
75
20
75
'84
98
78
36
54
-2-58
0-90
7-90
28-93
40-84
50-47
CO- 01
03- 16
49-23
34-47
10-97
5-03
in ^
i'
rii'-
1 ■
'! '1
The highest temperature recorded during the year 1882 at
Edmonton was on August 8, 9, and 10, on each of which days
the thermometer rose to 87°. The lowest temperature ( — 52°)
was touched on February 16. The thermometer did not fall
to freezing-point between May 22 and September IG, and only
on one occasion (June 21, 30°) did it sink below 40° between
May 25 and September 5. Hence there is a short, but rapid
season of vegetation during the summer months ; and, speaking
of Edmonton, Viscount Milton and Dr. Cheadle observe,
" wheat grows luxuriantly, and potatoes and other roots flourish
as wonderfully here as everywhere else on the Saskatchewan."
In describing their journey along the banks of the North
Saskatchewan towards Fort Pitt during the second week of
April, 1863, they say —
**-Tlie weather was beautifully bri-^ht and fine, and the snow had almost
pone. Flocks uf ducks and geese passed continually, and the whistling of
their wings, as they flew overhead on their way northwards, went on inces-
santly all night, almost preventing sleep. The country we passed through
Ikl
tl
;fi«
66
Canailiav /It/j'icnifinr.
was ut' the usii;\l ricl) I'liMrnctcv — miiv^lcd wixxls, rolliirj innirics. niid lakes
nncl slrcaiiis — cxi'cpt loroiitMliiy's itmrncy, wlicii \V('ct(issc<1 a McnU ami havrcii
tract. 'I'liis was a level ])laiii, liackiil by an aiiiiiliitln'alic u\' liaic, nii'^t'd
hills. Hut liryniid tliis, at ji place called tlic SuMroe, fiMiii a river wliieli S) riii]j;s
(lilt el" the <:ieuiid tlieie, the eeiiiitry rcsuiued its lunner character.'""'
Nor arc these intrepid travellers less entlmsiastie in their
description of the rejjions they penetrated alter leavinjjf I'Ort
Pitt and inovin<:!; westward towards I'Minonton : —
*'WeiH>w enlend a must ^lorimis country- — not indeed ;zranilly iiictnresquc,
Imt I'lcli and iH'antifnl : a c'Hintry ot" VdllinL:; hills ;ind t"erlile \ alleys, of lakes
and si reams, in'nvcs oi' hiroli and aspen, ini<i miniature jaairits; a land ot
ii kindly soil, and t'nd ot" iMiimise tn llie settler to cnme in I'utnre years, when
an eiili'ihtened jMilicy shall ojien out the wealth now uncarcd-t'ur or un-
known."' t
The system of survey adopted in the North-VWst Territories,
and earrie<l out by the Dominion Land Survevors, is very com-
plete, and so simple that a few letters and fij^ures servo to indi-
cate any given area without the least risk of ambiguity.
"The entire country is laid oil" in townships H miles sipiare, containintj; 30
sections ofOlO acres each, which are airaiii suhdividcil into ipiarter sietions of
l<iO acres. A road allowance, haviim a width of 1 chain, is ])rc)vided for on
each .section-lint' runnini: north and south, nini on every alternate sectioti-linn
runnini; e.ist and west. The following dia;4ram shows a township with tho
sections nuuibcred : —
N
\\
:u
:v2
• >.»
:!i
;i.-.
;{<;
r.o
21)
2S
27
2G
2.-)
];»
2(1
21
22
2:5
2»
IS
17
IG
1.*)
11
]:;
7
8
9
10
11
12
G
f)
4
8
2
1
l:
'The N<.r!h-W.Kt Passa-e hy Lan<l.' p, 172.
t III'I. l>. I7H.
( ^anailla n Af/nrtilfiirr,
57
" 'I'lic sccti'iiis aro .'ippDitilrd as i'.illdws : —
"Oi'KN i't)i{ lI.iMi;sri;,vi> am» I'iik-kmi'TIOns. — Xos. 2,\, H, 10, 12, II, IG,
lU 'III !>.> Ill •»< •>,> ■ll> <> I •>/•
in, -W, _„, _ I, _,S, ,,\.), .»_, .1 1, ..I).
"",'anaiiian I'ai II If liAii.wAY Si;i I'loNs. — Nos. 1, ;;, ;", 7, 9, 1'?, 15, 17,10,
_1, _.>, _.), „(, .>!, ,}.i, .1.1.
" Nt)s. 1, 1», !.'{, L'l, 'jr», ,*-5.'5 aldiiu' tlio iii:un liiii", Wiiiiii|i(<i^ to ^Moosc Jaw,
sold to Canailfi Norili-Wcst Land (..'(•iii|iaiiy, iho halaiici! ul' tlicir lands bciii;;
ill Siintlicrii Maiiitoha.
"Sciidoi, Slit riuN.s. — Xu.s. 1 1,'Jli (rcscrvcil liy finvciiiinetit mAdy fur sclioul
imriMiHcs).
"lluasciN's Bay Skctidn.— Xos. 8 and 2<)."
In the above diagram each little s(|uare reprc^sents an area of one
S(|uare mile, and it must be apparent from the details just given
that it is impossible for one purchaser to secure a very large
uninterrupted tract of land.
To encourage and promote the construction of railways, the
Dominion Government have granted certain concessions of
land to the railway companies, so that both the latter and the
Ciovernmcnt are in a position to olFcr lands to intending settlers.
The Manitoba and \(>rth-\Vest('rn Railway Company, at present
engaged in laving a line from Portage la l*rairie, in Manitoba,
to I'rince Albert on the North Saskatchewan, have a land grant
of 2,750,000 acres, out of which tlicy had at the beginning of
1881 ac(|uired a right to sell 512,000 acres. Tlie Company sell
land warrants, entitling the purchaser to one or more (juarter
sections of 1(50 acres each, to be selected by himself from any of
the Company's unsold land.
The Government grant to the Can.adian Pacific Railway com-
prises, in addition to other concessions, the lands lying within
a belt twenty-four miles wi(l(? on eatih side of the line in Mani-
toba and the North- West. These lands are offered for sale, at
prices ranging from lO.v. per a(;re upwards, with conditions
rc(|uiring cultivation, or at lesser figures without conditions. To
encrourage cultivation the Company stij)ulate that : —
"A rebate (if fi 1)111 H.s. to Ms. sterliiii; i>er acre, accordiirj; to tlie jiriec paid
for i\n' laud, will l>e alloweil on the acri'aL^e actually croinied, uu tlio following
conditions:
" 1. 'J'lie purciiaser will not be entitled to rebate unless at time of jmrchaso
he enters into un undertaking to cultivate the land.
"2. Une-halfof the laud Contracted for to be brought under cultivation
within four years from date of contract. In cases where jmrcliascrs »lo not
reside continuously on tlie land, at least one-eiglitli of tlie wliole quantity pur-
chased shall be cultivated during each of the four years.
•'3. Where a purchaser fails to carry out fully the conditions as to cultiva-
tion within the time named, he will be letiuired to pay the full i>urcliase price
on all the land contracted for. lUit if from causes beyond bis control, proved
to the satisfaction of the Company, a settler so fails, ho may be allowed the
rebate on the laiul actually cultivated during the four years, on payment of
the balance due, including the full purchase ^irice of the remainder of the land
contracted for.
. H
;!
r)8
Canadian At/rirnlfurc.
" All h:i]('s lire siil)i('rt to tin- lulldwliiu' i;i'i)cr,il coinlilitms : —
'' 1. All iinpnivi'iiinits iiliccd ii|iiiii laiKi imrcliiiscd to he maiiitiiiiu'il
tluTt'iiii until tiiiiil paviinut has Ih'imi made.
"L*. All liixi's iui'i ii.'-si'-;siiifiits liiwl'iilly imiHiscd ii|i<iii tlu? land or iinprove-
inciits til Ix' ]iaid liy lln' imri'lia-^i r.
".!. 'I'lii' i;oiui>iiiiy rcscrvt's from siilo, under these re.:ulati()iis, all mineral
and I'nal lands; and lands e<intainin'j; timher in iinanfities, stone, slate and
marlile ijiiarries, lands with water-] lou it thereon, and tracts lor town sites and
railway piuiioses.
"1. Mineral, eoal and tiinlier lands and (piarries, ami lands eiMitrollinj^
water-jxiwer, will he dis|ios(d nt" on very niodcnite ti'rrus to persons j;ivin^
sati>laetory eviilenee ol" thi'ir intention and aiiility to utilise the same.
" "). The Company reserves the ri^ht to tai^e witliout remuneration (except,
for the value of hnildini^s and improvements on the reipiired portion of land) a
strip or sirips of land 'Jno fn't wide, to he used tor ri^ht of way, or other
railway pur|ioses, wherever the line of the Canadian I'aeltic Railway, or any
liranch thereof, is or shall he located."
Oil its own lands the (lovorninciit ofTrrs 1 (>() acres (a (juartcr
section, that is) iVcc to each sj'tth'r, with the privileire of pre-
empting another 100 acres, the conditions being stated as
foUows : —
"Under the Dominion I/uids IIe'j;ulat ions, all surveyed oven-nunihered
sections, exer]itinj; !^ and 'Jtlin Manitoliaand the North-Wtst Territories, which
have not been hounsieaded, reserveil to provide wood lots lor settlers, or other-
wise dispi)sed of or reserved, are to Imj lield exclusively for homesteads and
jire-emptions.
" liomestea<ls may he ohtaintd upon jiayment of an oflice fee oi'2/., subject
to the followin.: conditions as to ri'sidunee and cultivation.
"In the' Mile i^'lt Kescrve,' that is, the eveii-nundtered sections lyin;»
within one mile of the main line or hranehes of the Canailian I'acilic iiailway,
and which are tint set ajiart for town sites or reserves made in connection with
town sites, railway stations, inounttd police po>ts, mini n<^ and other special
)>ur|ioses, the homesteader shall lie;^in actual residence upon his homestead
within six months from the date of entry, and shall reside upon and make tlu!
land his home for at least six months out of every twelve months tVir thren
years from the date of entrv : ainl shall within the tirst vear alter the date of
his homestead entry, break and pre[iarc for crop 10 acres of his homestead
quarter section ; and shall within the second year crop the said 10 acres, and
break and jinpare for cro|) lo acres additional — makim: lio acres; i'.nd within
the third year alter the date of his homestead entry, he shall crop the said
2") acres, and break and prepare for crop 15 acres aiiditional — so that within
three years of the date of his homestead entry he shall have not less than 2'
acres cro]iped, and lo acres additional broken and prepared for crop.
" Land, other than that included in Mile Melt, Town Site l{v>
Coal and Mineral districts, may l)e homcsteaded in either of the tw(' >vvinj;,
methoiis : —
" 1. The homesteader shall bcfjin actual residence on his homestead and
cultivation of a reasonable portion thereof within six months from date of
entry, unless entry shall have been made on or after the 1st day of September,
in which case residence need not commence untd the 1st day of June fol-
lowiiif;, and continue to live uixin and cultivate the land for at least six
months (jut of every twelve months for three years from date of homestead
entry.
"2. The homesteader shall be;4in actual residence, as above, within a radius
Canadian A(/ricnlfure.
51)
of two miles (if liis liitiiu'sfciid, iuul oontiiiue ht make liis Iimhic williiii mucIi
nuliiis for ut least six tiKHitJis nut of every twelve iiv.mtlis for the tliree years
next siieeeedini^ the date of liDinesteacl entry ; ami shall within the first your
from date of entry lireaU and prepare for crop 10 aeres of his iiomestead
• piarfer section ; and shall within the second year crop the said 10 acres, and
l)reak and prepare for crop If) acres additional — maUinu' -') acres; and witliin
the third year alter the date of liis homestead entry he sliall crop the said 25
acres, and hreak and prepare! for crop lo acres additional, so that within thrco
years of the date of his iiomestead entry \\r shall have not less than lio acres
cropped; and sliall have erecteil on the land a lialiifalile lioiise in which lio
shall have livi'd diirinL; the three months next precedm;^ his application for
homestead patent.
" In th(! event of a homesteader desirin;^ lo secnri; his patent within a
sliorter jwriod than the three years provided liy law, lu; will he permitted to
purchase his homesfea<l on furnishin'j; proof that he has resided on the land for
at least twelve months suhseijueut to date of ho!ne»tead entry, and, in caso
entry was nuule after the 2otli day of May, 1883, has cultivated oO acrea
thereof.
"In the case of a lioniesteader beincj ontitled to receive his Iiomestead
patent for land occupied by him for the full period of tliree years, he will, on
production of a certilicate to that efl'ect from the Connnissioner of Dominion
Laiiils, lie ])ermitled to make a second entry.
*' Any homesteader may at the same time as ho makes his homestead entry,
hut not at a later date, should there ho available land ailjoinin^ the homestead,
enter an additional (juarter section of and as a pre-emption on payment of au
oflico fee of L'/.
"'I'lie iire-emption ri^ht entitles the homesteader, who obtains entry for a
pre-emption, to purchase the land so pre-eiiii>ted on becoming entitled to his
homestead jiatent ; but should the homesteader tail to fultil the hoinesteail
conditions he forfeits all claim to his pre-emption.
"The price of i)re-em]itions, not inchi<lcd in Town Site Reserves, is 10.s. an
acre. Where land is north of the northerly limit of the land prant, along the
main line of the Canadian Pacific Itailway, and is not within 1:4 miles of any
branch of that railway, or V2 miles of any other railway, pre-emptions may bo
obtained for Ss, per acre.
For reasons already stated it Is Impossible at present to pive
any fijjures representinjf the acreajje under cropping, or ton-
veyinjT accurate information as to the averag'e yields, in the
districts of the North-West. Towards the ch)se of last year,
however, the Canadian Pacific Railway authorities sent out a
larjje hatch of queries to settlers in Manitoba and the Noith-VVest,
with the intention of publishln<r the replies received, and, throuj^h
the kindness of Mr. Alexander Hegj;, Canadian Pacific Hallway,
8S, Cannon Street, London, I"'.C., I have been favoured with an
advance copy of this publication, and propose to make use of
some of the facts contained therein, which I have less hesitation
in doin{», inasmuch as I am quite satisfied as to the h()?ni Jide
character of these replies, an(l I do not think they would have
JM<n anv diflferent had I sent out the questions myself.
Most of tlie settlers in the North-West are poor, and a great
many are forced to commence their operations with oxen only,
ijeing at first unable to afford horses. The tillage work of the
G
-H
I %
60
( h nadia n AqricnUn rr.
pr.iirU* is of a simple rliaractcr, and ns the sulky plough is ao
constructrd as to scat thr driver, even the ordin.iry skill of tin?
ploughman is not a necessity. The first field operation is that
of " breaking" ; the top soil is turned over to a <lepth of from
two to three inches, and in a slice varying from a foot to sixteen
inches hroad, — May, June, and July being the best months for
this work. " IJack-setting" follows in August and September,
and consists in ploughing between the slices and turning the
original surface to the top again, or, in some cases, w«'dging it up.
Then, in April or M.ay, after the long frost of wintcT has (Tumbled
the soil and produced a good tilth, the lan<l is ready for seeding
and harrowing. Sometimes sowing "on the s(jd " is resorted to
in spring, as in the case of oats, for example; the seed is sown
on the surface of the prairie, which is then subjected ti» breaking,
a sod a couple of inches thick being turned over.
It will not be thought that the soil all over the \orth-\Vest is
the same in char.ictcr tis the rich loam of the lied River valley,
which exten<ls through Manitoba ; what has already been said
as to the geological features of the great prairie region will show
that there may be considerable variation. I'lach correspondent
was re(jueste»l by the railway authorities to state the nature of
the soil on his farm and the depth of black loam. At Moose
Jaw, the roil is n'ported vari«)us, but all good, with i\ in. to
12 in. of loam; at Kegina, a black clay loam of unknown
<lepth ; at Moosomin, black loam, from S iti. to 'I'l "n. deep, with
sand or clay sub-soil. I'urther information of this character is
given later on in tin* description of the C I*. K. Ivxperimental
I'arms.
I'uel, abundant in some localities, is very scarce in others,
but the opening up of coal and lignite deposits in the N'orth-
VV'est, antl the increasing facilities for railway transport, will
gradually place the settlers more on an equality in this n'spect.
Wood is chielly use<l, though that has sometimes to be drawn
long distances. \N ater is obtained mostly from wells, sonu'-
times from cre«'ks, and in rare cases has to be drawn some
distance.
The yields per acre for wheat var\ between 2") and 40 bushels,
the most usual estimate bi'ing ."»<). liarley ranges from 25 to fiO
bushels, 40 being the most common estimate. Oats yield from
.if) to 7.') bushels, the usual ijuantity being about 50. Inferior
yields are attributejl by the farmers themselves to bad tillage
or absence of back-setting, (larden vegetables, and particu-
larly potatoes, are favourably reported. For p<»tato cultivation
the method is to plough and backset, and to harrow in the fol-
lowing spring, after which the seed tubers are laid in furrows
made by the plough, whi( h is then sent ln'twccn the furnnvs
to io\rr them up. J'his is dtmc in .Ma\.
Canadian Agriculture.
61
Stock are scarce, "67 cattle and 3 horses," and " 30 horses and
20 head of cattle," being the largest returns from individual
farmers. At Moose Jaw cattle <lo excellently on the prairie hay.
They are stabled in winter it the weather is very bad, but are
out most days. A< VVolsnIoy cattle fatten well on prairie hay
alone, which was there cut ()(i inches long last summer. The
general opinion is decidedly favourable to the maintenance of
sheep, though there is at present a drawback in the want of a
market for the wool. At Ossowa, sheep realise from fir/, to 7d.
per lb. in carcass. At Griswold sheep do exceedingly well ;
they run the prairie in summer, and are under shed in winter.
lOighty-four farmers expressed themselves <as satisfied with the
country, the climate, and their prospects ; but some say more
railways are necessary. Some want the Hudson Bay Railway
to be made, anil ask for free-trade in lumber and machinery, the
tluty of 33 per cent, on farm implements from the States being
objectionable. Notwithstanding this tariff, the American ma-
chinery seems to hold its place against that made in Canada ;
quite half the implements on the liell Farm are of American
manufacture.
Aske<l whether they had suffered any serious loss from
storms during either summer or winter, 154 farmers replied
briefly in the negative. Of the 60 remaining answers one-third
were adverse : hail, heavy rains, or frost causing the mischief,
though the injury from frost is sometimes acknowledged to be
due to late sowing. The autumn frosts on the prairie appear to
be somewhat peculiar :* —
" Frosts iiri' common tlicro in the iiiirhts of Soptomlicr, l)iit the fac-t li;is
boon noted by niiiny indojM'inlrnt ohsorvors tluit trost wliidi would injuro
»;riiin in many othor countries ;i|i|K'iirs to Ih* innocuous <m the IJod lUvor and
the Saskatciiowan. Various rcasnns have boon assitnod — such as the dryness
of the atmosphere, tiie heiit-retiiiiiin'4 char.uter of tlie soil, and the sudden
rhanne of teinpeniture tiiat oniilijes vijjorous plants to Uar an atmosphere at
'20° Wtter than at .'{">", when the latent heat of the eartli and tiie plants
has l»een <;iven off, Hut whatever \n>. the true cause, the fact apjx-ars tfi be
well attested. The cliief h'ssoii which exiierience has fa>ipht the farmer is to
sow his wheat tsarly in the spring, so that the ear shall Ikj past the milky
stage before the frost comes."
Notwithstanding the long and severe winter the reports as to
the climate nearly all concur in representing it as not only toler-
able, but bracing and healthy, and people who have gone to the
prr.irie in indifferent health have found the change beneficial.
An old Scotchwoman wrote home, " It is fine to see the bairns
play in the snow without getting their feet wet."
The settlers appear, in the great majority of cases, to have
11
' Kneyc. Urit,' Niiitii Kd., Art. "CHiiada."
«. -J
()2
Caundiau AijriruUnrc.
coinmcnrrd with less than 200/. rapit.il, frrqurntly with less
than 100/., and soinotinics with none. On the other hand, rases
are recorded in whieh the initial capital ranjred to as hif;h as
2000/. The eijjhtv or ninety fanners who liirnisli inlorination
under this head report their financial ]>osition as improved, and
in some cases very markedly so.
Hitherto the \orth-\Vest has <leriye<l the <jn»ater proportion
ol its settlers trom the eastern provinces ot the Dominion, chiefly
Ontario. The arrivals from Kurope have been almost entirely
from tiie Hritish Isles, but the country has not been opened
up h)n<j enough to allow of any marketl influx of pcjpulation
from the other side of the Atlantic. That has y<'t to come.
As the railway systems are extended in the i\orth-\V'<'St the
old-fashioned bullock freijjht-trains will disappear. 'I'hese,
consistinjr of some dozen wagj;^ons lashed topri'tluT in pairs, with
sixtet'n or ei<;hteen bullocks attached to each, were the common
means of transport between the scattered f< rts of the lludson's
Hay Company. The old unswervinj; Indian trails are much
used as roads ; but when dry and free from ruts, the beaten
prairie makes a very good road, the chief obstacle being the
numerous holes and burrows made by gophers, which often
render travelling awkward for horses; the buckboard, however,
is very li}»ht, and its four large wheels specially a<laj)t it to
prairie travelling.
During the long winter the soil becomes frozen to a depth
of six or s«'ven feet, and as the upp<'r layers thaw first and
allow seeding to l)e efr<*ct<'<l, the progressive thawing of the
lower lay<'rs, as tin* summer lu'at increases, provides an ascend-
ing curn'Ut of moisture, which, mectii.g with the heat from
al)ovc, constitutes a kind of natural hot-bed, and this phenom<>non
no doubt partly accounts for the very rapid rate at which
vegetation procee<ls during the brief p<'riod of growth.
At the present time the three most jirominent and instructive
features in the agriculture of the \orlli-\\"est an* prol)al)ly the
Hell I*'arm, the Kxperiinental barms of the Canadian I'ai'ific
llailway, an<l the Cattle Ranches of Alberta, and 1 ];rocec!l to
give some account of these in the order named.
Tin' liri/ /''iirni. — There is perhaps no enterprise in the North-
West better known in Mnglainl, at least by name, than the l?ell
I'arm, whi(h is so calle<l af"t«'r its manager. Major W. U. Hell.
It is situatr'd at Indian I lead, in Assiruboia, lU'J miles west of
\^'innipeg, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, and is included
in the o^x'rations (»f the (^u'Appj-lle \ alley I'arming (.'ompany.
Limited, whose capital comprises l'iO,0()()/, in shares of
'P
V
20/.
<\'»ch, «»f which 4.') per cent, is paid uj). I'he entire farm occu-
j»ies an area of 54,000 acres, and it was organised in 1882, so
Canadian Agriculture.
03
that the first harvest }i;athiMO(l upon it was in iJSbo, and thi;
second, which 1 was rortunat(> to see in progress, was in 1884.
In the I'resich'nt's Report, presented to the annual mtu'tinjjr liehl
on January Uth, 1884, at Winnipeg, it is stated that opera-
tions were l)e<>^un during the summer and fall (»l' 1882, when
ground was broken to the <'xtent ol about 2700 a(;res, and as
it was impossible to further prepare tiie land by back-setting,
it was d(!cided to sow on the " breaking," or once-turned sod.
Tlie experiment, for such it was, inasmu(;h as it had hitherto
been th(! custom to ba(;kset before sowing, proved successful,
and served to demonstrate that a crop might be raised after
merely bn-akiufi^ the sod. Wheat gave an average yield of nearly
20 busjjels of choice hard grain per acre, some of which was
sold at ?tii. 8^/. per bushel, delivered on the cars at the farm
station, Indian Head. Oats gave a light yield, attributed to
severe drought in the early summer. Hetween 3000 and
4000 bushels were sold at from 3.v. to 3.%-. 2</., but the bulk of
this grain, 20,000 !)ushels, was kept for seed and feed. Plough-
inff of fresh prairie land was commenced as soon as the frost was
sulliciently out of tlu* ground, and was continued with all avail-
able force until \ovemlM?r 7tii, 18H3, when active operations
were suspen<led owing to the approach of winter. The ploughs
were set to work on the stubbles as soon as the harvest was got
in, and by the close of the open season of 1883 there were in
all 7000 a<Tes readv for the "spritjg t(K)th" an<l "disc" harr(>ws
that precede seeding.
The annual r«'port for 1883 further states tliat during the
year building was carried on c«)ntinuously. Near the main
building, erecti'd in 1882, there was built a granary of 30,000
bushels capacitv, with "lean-to" additions for the storage of
implements, two barrack cottages for the accommodation of the
men at the main station, a blacksmitirs shop, and a horse-
infirmary, with sev<'ral necessary sheds, while twenty-two ad-
ditional (-ottages with stables were erect<'d on the surrountling
sections. M<'tal nmfing is chi<*(ly emph)yed. The cottages
are substantiallv Imilt, »)f a unihtrm si/e, 2() feet by 30 feet ;
each contains live rooms, and most of thes<' residences are
occupie*! by marrie«l tenants. Kach cottagj', with stable at-
tached, cost about 1(10/. A stationary farm granary, of 4000
bushels capacitv, and fourt«'en portable granaries, circular in
form, and capal)le of holding 10(M) bushels each, were add<Ml
to the storage facilities; and tlie Canadian Pacific Railway
authorities ha<l given their assent to the erccti<»n of an elevator *
II
II
Hli^
I ',
* TliiH fli-vuliir JH now ooiiipleti-d, iiiifl Iihh ft c«|)tt<'ily of r»fl,000 luishi'ls.
Gruii progreiitt wuu uiudu iu ibbl iu iLu building of olevatora, Ihu Cauiuliau
64
Canntlian AfjrirvUurp.
at Indian Head Station, at a cost estimated at 3000/. Three
miles of fencing were built, and six miles of the chief highways
had been planted with trees. The "Beautiful" lake at the
south of the farm had been let down the channel of one of the
three coulees, by which the farm is drained, so that by an appro-
priate arrangement of dams, the supply of water is now inex-
haustible : the railway company agreed to share the expense
of this work. Spring water of excellent ({uality h.id been struck
at the main house and other stations about the farm.
The financial figures embodied in the report for 188.S are
presented in rather a complicated fashion, but as they cannot
fail to interest English agriculturists, 1 reproduce them here
with as little variation as possible, merely remarking that in
rendering Canadian money into its Knglish equivalent, I have, in
this case, taken the dollar at its more exact equivalent of 4.<. 1^</.
sterling, most of the other values in the course of this paper
being arrived at by assuming five dollars equal to one pound
sterling. The gross expenditure for 1883 was 35,540/. ll.v.,
and the total expenditure since the organisation of the company,
50,453/.
Gross Dint i-Umtion for the year eudiuij Ni<remher 30, 18k:{.
Farm Kiind, fai-ital (Hcf 1m1,i\v, A.) .. 2'2,M(] ]7
Town Sit.. 1,40;» 11 4
I'anu halaiicf, 1HS2 l.'JT.") If*
i.istiiij; Sttx k 10 7
iSiIls H..-ccival)li- ::? I'J
Stuck .'w;h lit :\
VV. H. V,i']\, Mai.a^'iT Hf) '_'
llta.l onia- r.t«> 1(1
rami ruinl, Ciun lit (see Ik'Iuw, 15.) .. <),7-l IK !»
l'x|'fIlSf Aocniiiit IIH 7 I)
Interest Accoiiijt 41t> 7 H
hirwtois' Kt'cs 47 '.< <>
Hills I'aval.le M4 14 O
i'.ye-liiw h H S
H. .1. KbtTts, 'rrcasurcr ami Swrutary .. H H •»
Salaries 1,4'J1> 11 10
tarvMf; ii o
rills total will not, by the way, be founti e(|uivalent to the
Paoifio Railway haviiis; crictMl one at Fort Wiiliaiii, I<ak<' Superior, t<» lioKI
.'V20.000 bu^'llel!', niul aiuithiT at l'i)rt Arthur, with a eapaeity of one million
huhhi H. 'I'lio O^ilvic Milling (joinpuny lniilt f"Mr, imuih ly, Maiiiton, 4(),(iOO
hnBluIn; Morden, ArMKUt; Morriw. AAjiOO; Moosoniin. 4.'>.(M)6. Others, erectcil
la^t veur. wwre at Kiii<rw>ii, '27,000; (Jictna, 'Jti.OOO; MorriK, UO.OOO ; Manitoii,
:iO,0(K); Carberry, 4U,UU0: (iriiiwoia, 3(),000 ; and ut Virden, 2U,UU0 buaheU.
Ctinatlian Af/ririi/fnrc. i'lf^
rorrosponilinp^ one in the* puWllsliod .Kcounts, iii.isinucli as I Ciml
what apjiears to bran orri»r <>1 1(),()0() dollars in the lattor.
Tlic Dutliiy oil the lann, — il «. rf.
A. Krotn Capital AiTouiil 'J2,H3r, 17
I'.. I'roiii CiimMit Acc(nu\l •"•J'JI IK '.»
Contiiii^i'iit 7 17 <)
i'jK.-.cr, 1:5 ;;
is thus mado up: —
A. From Ciipital Acroiinl — C s. if.
IUIaiu-('.,n l'l..ii-l,ii,^ ill 1HS2 .. .. 'J14 10
Huililiii-^s 7,<j()0 7 H
Fiiil)i('iiu'iit.s 2 8.'?;{ I i)
llorst'8 .".lis 17 T)
I'ayinpiits, IJoal I'.stai.' AiTdiiiii .. .. f5,;',ltlO (>
MarnosH -lOl 11 7
Waj^oiis ami Slci.;lis iir,~t -1 10
Cows .'il'J O
Fiirnitiirt' ;>'» l''> '•
Wells ;{0H S r,
Cnnlces 133 ('» 4
tVncins:; '">•'» 4 4
HonK 13
l^aituiir fin Impri'vi'iiit'iit:* I/JOf) 1.") .>
Survey UahiH'f 14 ."» <»
• C'J-i,H:!t; 17 o
I'. Vunn Curn'iit Account — £ •<••. <f.
(mice 14 13 O
Mftiiit«'nanr«' 1,01H IC 10
[iit<'rt'st aini Kxi-lianyo 18 12
'i'lavclliiii: i;x|K!ns»'S, 'IVIi'^iams, \'c. .. 401 (5 d
Stable I- ml 1,101 10 I
Spp.1 Wheat 874 i>
SmlOatM 74L' 10 S
Salaries — Su[>«riiit<'ii(lcnt .. .. '_'!;» H '2
r.,M.k-l<.riKr .. .. I.') 1
2«1 17 «i
fhsurance "''^ l'> o
Priiitiiisi U 5 t)
Coulees I<i4 15
K«sH(lKMi.obvC.IM{.).. 133 H 4
;U s s
SedH 10 12 'I
Hhic-ksmith 16 10 :•.
(leneral Work 108 14 10
Lalxmr, ( uireiit 1,012 H 2
Teniniu;^ 3 10
WtKKi .' -7 13
Ice 1- l^ ^
£0.721 18 y
'.■'i
II
II:
Ofi
CdiKididii .l(//icultiin'.
1 hnvv liad to inkv n lew lil)f'rti('s with tlu' halanrp-slu'ct, not,
however, afleetiiif; its eorreetiiess, hut simply to ))res(>nt it in .i
forin, sdiowii on th<' opposite pajj^e, in which it will jierhaps in?
more easily understootl.
Mv visit to the Hell I'arrn was inatlo on September 14th, lf>St.
Major lie!!, who was exeeedini;! v kind, };ave Sir Kiehard
Temple, Proiessor Slu'ldon, an<l niysell seats in his wajij^onette,
and ohli«;int;lv answere<l tlu' manv (piestions we showered upon
him duriuij our tour of inspection. The lollowinji; statenients
are d«Tived iVom the notes I then took. In l«SSl, there were
7000 acn-s in wln'at, and in 1<S,S") it is propos<'d to hav«»
14,000 acres under this crop. The harv««st is usually over hv
the middle of Aufjust, hut the summer of l^tSl havinj; been an
abnormally cold backward season, tin* ni-<;atherinf; of the crop
was in lull-swin^ at the time of our visit, so that we had an
opportunity of seeiuj; .").'> self-bindin<j n'apinjj-machines at work
side by side. The sheaves are left in stook for a day or two,
and then carried to the threshinjj machines, the prain fnun
which is shot into larjje wooden jjranaries in the fields. Durin;;
winter, when work in jreueral is slack, the j;ranaries anM'iiiptied
and tlw wheat is conveyed in sleijjhs across tlu* snow to the
elevators adjoininj; the railway, whence it is transferred to the
frei<;ht wafij^ons as re(|uire<l. The standinj; corn pres«*nted a
«;ood, reirular, an<l <lean appearan<«'. The variety of wheat
•^rown is that known as Ked lyfe, or No. 1 Hard; and it
nd)l)ed out into a dry. briiiht, <'yen sample, \o "dockinj;" or
weedinj; of any kind has v»'t been resorted to, and thoujjh, in
the cas<' of one ficM, the prairi** rose seenu'd to hav«' accpiired
undisputed possessinii at th«' beirinnin^' of .June, the wheat
eventually overpowi-n-d it, and ultimately ijave a jjooil yield. Of
])opp' there was n() tra<'e whatev<M-, and 1 only saw one siditary
plant of corn-cockle, and that, too, in a (i(4d of wh(>at measurin*:^
seven miles from corner to corner; most of the fields, however,
are two miles loni;, by on«' mile wide. The straw was of fair
U'Ujrth ami Ix-autilully clean, lninji: free from even the faintest
trace of rust ; at present it is burnt as it comes from the
thr<'shin<;-niachine, bj'injr use<l as fuel for the enj;ine, and the
ashes are return<'d to the s(»il. The steam machinery comprises
seven threshing-machines with complete outfit. There are no
less than 100 sulky «»r f^anjj plouf^hs, and a lar};;r number of
seeders.
The soil of the Hell I'arin is a rich, deep, black loam, with a
clay sub-soil. A thre<'-horse team and a sulky plough, working
rin a Ki-inch furrow, and set to a depth of three inch(>s, can turn
up two acres a day, at a cost of 8.v. per acre. On an adjoining
farm belonging to Colonel Sykcs, and where stenm-ploughing
Ciimulian AtjricuUuro.
r.7
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t;8
Cniiii/inii Aqriiiiltinr
L.
was n-sorti'd to, tlir cost was -/. ()>•. jmm- ;u it. IMou;;l»iiij; noccs-
sarilv cc'iscs with the l)»'j;imrm<; of winter, hut tin* pulverising;
efl'eet ot the loiijj; frosts in the proinotiou of a ilesirable tilth
and the f(»rniati<»ii of a jfootl seed-hed, is a factor of <<)nsi<leral)le
jinportani-e iii prairie larmm<;.
The wheat is sown at the rate of
1.^ bushels per acre by means of hroad-cast sowin*; -machines,
each drawn by <»ne horse. 'I'he sowing; takes place al)<)Ut the
end of March on the rou<;li fallow, the sowiiijf-machines bein};
l(d lowed by sprinjjf harrows, each drawn by two hors<'s. The
(\iiuit/inii Atfriiiilliirr.
(;^>
I.
- *v
s.
rconoiiiv ol the i.inii provides lor a smnmcr fallow once rvcrv
three* years, so that otU'-thinl ol the acreajje uixh'r eiiltivatioii
would !»<• left in hare fallow every summer, thus alVordin;;
opportunity for keepinj; tin* land rlean, while the ajjjfretjate
vi«'ld of wheat will prohablv not be less than mijjht be obtained
by eontinuous cropping.
At the time of my visit about 20() horses were beinjj main-
tained, and all that were not ens^ajred in the harvest- work were
emplove«l in plou^jhinjf. The eost of a };<><>d carthorse, weijjhin}^
1400 lbs., ranj^es from or/, to 40/. In summer \'M) men are
- :i
70 CdiuuUan A<jricHHnrc.
t'inploycd, and in winter about lialf this number ; but of course
as tlu' acreage under crop is yiMW by year enlarjijed, tho number
ol labourers must correspondin^^ly increase. The hours ol work
are from 7 A.M. to (5 I'.M., with one hour out. The summer
labourers' waj^jes are at the rate of 'M).i. a wi'ek, and all found ;
while the permanent labourers {jet a cotta{;<' and one .'icrc of lan«l
tree with .{(l.v. a week in summer, and 3().v. a week in winter.
There are five foremen, — a first foreman, who {^ets b'ls. a week,
and all found, and four head foremen who ;;et ^O.*. a week ea(;h,
and all found. The farm is worked in five; divisions, known as
the central, and the north, the south, the east, and the west,
respectively. At half-past eijjht o'clock each eveninjj^ Major
Bell telephones from his residen<"e the orders for the ensuinjjf
day, and, as these are heard by all the foremen, the possibility
of confusion or misconception is veryslifjht.
With the 35 Deerinjf's self-binding reaj>ers already mentioned,
it was found practicable to cut ^00 acres of wheat per day, so
that, at this rate, the entire 7000 acres could be cut in nine
workings days. The averap;e yield of wheat in 1883 was
20 bushels per acre ; for 1884, it was estimated that the yield
would reach an average of 25 bushels. The cost «)f growing
wheat in 1883 was \s. O^r/. per bushel; in 1884, the cost was
estimated to be not more than 1a*. 5]r/. per bushel, or ll.v. 0(/.
pj'r (|r. Major Hell saitl he believed he could grow wheat and
place it on the wharves at Liverpool at about 23.«. per qr. This
price included 8 per cent, interest on the capital involved, and
anything above this figure, realiscil at the time of sale, would
represent profit. This result is in accordance with the fol-
lowing statement, which is, of course, open to criticism : —
E^tinuUed Cost of (jrowing a Bmhcl (60 Ih.) of Wheat on the Bell Far.m.
s. d.
Horses L't
liiibour si
Maintt'iiaiice ()f Labourers li
Suii(iri»'s, iiichi<liii<; Sei'il, Impleiin'iits, Deprecia-
tion, aiul 8 jitT cent, interest on Capital .. ,. *.)'i
1 5i
This is equivalent to l\a. (W. per (|r. of 480 lbs., and includes
the cost of tlelivery upon the cars at Indian Head Railway
Station, from whence to Liverpool is a distance of about 5000
miles. The freight-rate fnim Indian Head to Liverpool is at
present 11*. per (|r., thus bringing up the value of the wheat at
Liverpool to 22.<». Cw/. per (jr., this price including, as already
stated, 8 per cent, interest on capital.
Canadian Agrirulture.
1
Tlioro wcTP AOO acres of oats roady for cutting ; thoy would
yield from hO to (U) bushels per acre, and are largely use<l for
feeding the horses. A 4()()-acre field of (lax was nearly ripe;
it was being grown for its seed, which would sell for 3.v. per
bushel, and the land wouM go into wheat. Last summer 14(H)
tons ot prairie-hay were gatln'reil in ; the natural herbage of the
prairie is cut by inowing-ma< hines, allowed to remain exposed
f<»r about six hours, then horse-raked, laden on wagg(»ns, and
stacked, the hay-stacks being conveniently "roofed " up but not
thatched, the cost of the latter process being at present too
great. About sixty cows and a few pigs are k<"pt.
A good example is being set on the Hell Farm in the planting
ol trees ; sonu? were planted in 1881^, as has already be?en stated,
and last spring 2') miles of young poplar trees were set out.
They cost .W. each, and were planted 20 feet apart, the cost jx'r
single row per mile being therefore 5/. 1().<.
It is proposed when the whole area«»f the liell I^irm has been
brought under cultivation to divide it into .'iOO farms, each with
dwelling-lu)use, stabling, an<l shedding. The farms, with their
equipment, will be fairly valued, and then ottered to the men
wlio have taken part in the improvements, at the valuation
price, with libt-rty to render payment in five or ten annual
instalments.
Moreover, outside the 2(),0()() acres which constitute the I'ell
l''arm pr<»per, the (^u'App<'lle \'allev Farming Company ofler
th<'ir lands for sale in sections varying from 21.") to 'IhiM) acres
in fee-simple, without conditions, at from 1/. 12.s'. to .'5/. per acre,
j)ayable as may be agr<'ed. I'he Company undertake to break
and have ready for seeding the following spring, free of charge,
25 per cent, of the acreage purchased, and they ofTer various
other privih'ges. The estimates are best reproduced asotticiallv
stated, the exchange iti tiiis case being at the rate of 5 dollars to
the pound sterling.
'• hi Older tof^ivosomc idea of the cost, the followin;^ estimates have lieen
Civn'fuUy ]»re|i:ire(l, ami may lie taken as a guide. 'Jliey are frauud uii the
KUpiHisitii)n that all lalumr is hired, and tliat tlu- purchaser contributes com-
paratively nothing to the result lievond supervision. Tin- question of stock
is not j.'one into, thou<;h the a<ldition of cattle, sheep, and pigs wi>uld most
materially add to the profits, and indeed are a necessity to a thoroughly weli-
apiH)inted farnj.
" For u farm of 21.'} acres — one-third of a s(juare mile section — the size best
adapted for the team of three horses and one plo\igh, on tlie supi)ositii)n that
tlie purchaser starts work in April with 25 jht cent, ready for crop, and
without importing into the consideration the original cost of the land, nor
interest ou cajutal :—
it "
ik
Ml
7i
( \uiadian Aifricnlture.
FinsT Ykar.
£ «. (/.
t'ost tif cott.'if^c mill stiiblo onH'tcd the previoua
v.ar nOO
Siukins wi'lls (1>) 10
;nioisoaaiul Imriuss I'JO
1 Cow 14
1 lliuid ])l.m>;h f)
1 Harrow 7
1 Wnji-^un K!
1 StTiK r (crtjmtity 'J.'> acrt'8 |)or (liiy) 10
1 St'U'-l.in.lor (capacity <if'J(X) iicreV) HO
1 Huckltnanl or Binglc wai:goii 10
1 Sloi-h 7
(Jartlcii iiiiiilt'iiu-uts, &c. 2
Misccllaucoiirt tiitilH 2
Contiuj^cncies 20
Furniture, not (lotaiUd, but sjiy 00
Total on Capital account £633
£ ». d.
\\\\i\ lalH)ur, 1 man, 1 yoar .. .. »10
„ 1 luaitiHtrvaut .. .. 24
(>0 l',usli(>ls scetl wlxat tor 40 acres 15
2ri Huslitls oata lor 10 acres.. .. 2
Ctanlen seeds 100
Seed iK)tattK38, 1 aero 2 8
Maintenauco of Family (.">) and
servants .. .. ." 120
Heprtirs (i
( >m' extra liaud in liarvest, 2 months 12
Thresliin- laOO Kushels at 'JJ'/. •• 15
Oats ami liay lor lird belore harvest 30
Twine tor biudinj; 3
Total on Current account 290 8
Total Kxpenditure £'.>23 8
" In the mean time the ploiiuhman will have broken during the season 100
acres new land and stubble, and [iloughed 'lO acres, so there are ready 150 acres
for second year.
« 'p
The crop from first year will be : —
£ ». d.
1000 bushels wheat at (sm/) 3.s. -id. (abutd) ,. .. 160
5(H') bushels oats .. .' 40
250 bushels pjtatocs and roots 20
£220
Canadian Aj/riculture. 73
SkC(»NI> YkaU — KXI'KNDITUIIK.
£ n. it.
I-alKnir — niiin ami girl 84
Kxtia liilMntr, liiirvi-Ht iiiid tlirr«liiii'^ ;{(', o
'J(M) 1)ii.h1r'Ih wlicat for Htvil ;j'J
Seed, «)ats and lecd ;{<)
lii»y ir>
Mailiteiiaiice ]00
Olio Kulky iilou);li !">
IN'pairs aiul coiitiii>;i'iicu;H ;{0
'I'wine 7
Tiireshins 40
iay5
SkcOND YkAK — HkTI IINS.
1 40 acreH wheat, .'{'lOO biislu'U ofiO
10 acres uatH, fiOO bushels 40
KoutH L'O
£020
•• In th<' third year, and each year thereafter, the system of summer fallow
is adojited, ami tlie land crnpiied is 140 acres, leaviiii,' a dill'erent one-third
thereof at rest each year. The cruj) will consist of 110 acres of wheat and liO
t>f ^rain and roots for feed ; and the expenditure is about the same iw that of
the second year, savin<; that tliecost of hay is dropjRil out, it beiiij,' needless
to carry it forward year by year.
*' This will <;ive ex|H'nditnre S,'M\'i
And crop returns— wheat, other <;rain, and roots, m 5(18
Or a net profit of JCliOil
"The estimates for A oOO-acre farm may l>e approximately arrived at bv
multiplying the capital account of the 2i;{-acre farm by 2, the current
acc«iunt by L'i, a>'d the income by 3, producing the following results : —
"Capital account .. ZVim £ «.
Current account JIS7 \Q
income I0O4 Q
^'L't profit £r)l(J 10
Or a net profit of 23 per cent, on the whole exj^nditure.
" I'ur a farm of 1(»(X) acres, by adtling one-third to the eajiital accoimt of a
SOO-acre farm, one-half to the current account, and two-thirds to income as
follows :
" (.'apitttl account .. X1GH8 £ ,.
Current acctmnt 1481 5
income l.'f,06 8
£1U25 3
Or a net profit of .^2 i»er cent.
" Cost of stock : working o.xen, .'{.')/. jxT yoke ; milch cows, 12/, to 14/. for
SO-jd yradc ; youn'4 pigs, H\>i. to 2/. each ; .s1k.i.|,, 1/. i.^, t,. 2/. each."
\
II
(t
ifii
.1- ■ ' a
■ m
I
Ctttuiiliiin Aiirintlfiirr.
In (Titl(lsinu[ the ton'i^curij; statement, it is im|><).ssil)Ie to
ignore tlw |)riee ot wheat, whieh is estimated to he worth ehjse
upon 'lis. per (|uarter, fn'e on rail, at Indian Head. I'his
estimate seems to \\\v too hij^h, and certainly unndiahh' lor a term
ol' vears. A(hlin<; lis. per ipiarter lor Ireiijht to I.iverj)ool, the
price at that port wonhl recjuire to l)e ."JS.v. r\ ship, a riy:ure
(|iiite unohtainal)h' <hirin^ the |)ast winter. Still, il a pri< c at
all approachini; 'lis, per <|uart<'r tin he obtained at Indian
I lead, and wheat can at the sanu* time he raised tor less than
\'ls. pel- (piarti-r, there is ample mar;;in lor prolit.
The llell I'arm allords an e\ imjileol larminir r<'duced as nearly
as j>ossihle to the lact(»ry svstt'in. The diyision ol lahonr is
necessarily carried to an extreme, and the mana;j:ement ol so
hiiije an undertakin;; inxoUes an almost military discij)line
ainonj; the woikers, and the j)roj>ri<'tors are lortiniatj* in hayiny;
so <v\perienc«'(! and capahle a manau'er as Major Ih'll. It is an
interestinir pliase ot piairie larniin^', hut it is larmini; with
much ol the poetry taken out oi if.
'/'//'■ Alloili /.'J////.V. — Ih'lore descrihini,' the I'.xjjerimental
I'arms ol the ('.-nadian Pacific Ha'way it seems desirahle to
place hetore tin' reader some accoiih ol the alkali lands ol" the
North American plateaux, and thoiiy^h 1 haye not been ahle
to (ind a record ut a t!iorou<rh examination ol any ol those
within tin* Canadian territory, yet as they are presiimalily nuich
tin' same in charatter wherever they occur on the prairies, the
lollou in;; tlescription ttl tlie alkali lands met with in the super-
ficial .lej;osits (tl Nebraska, written liy Dr. S. ,\ui;he\, will
convey a y«'ry lair idea resjx'ctinj; them : -
•' WlifH' tlicy have ]•• > ii clns. Iv rsiuiiiinMl ihcv are liuinii to vary a yrcat
(leal in rlicnucal ctnistitufnts. (icticrally, liewcviT, tlx; alkali i'. larjicly eoiit-
jHiscil ul'siKJa cotiiiiininis, uifti .an nccasittnal <•>,<:( ssi,f lime ami iiia'.MU'sia, or
jMitasli. 'Ilif tujliiwin;: analyscH of tltosc simIh sIk-vv Imw viiri.ildr tlii-y an-.
Till' lust i.s tal;<n Iroiii l!i'' IMatf^ buti.iiii, soinh nf .Nurili I'latic; tli« .sci-dihI
I'lt'iii !i.'ar ' tl
V r\ I
\>';ir:,
■III'', tiic
lliir
.i f
iiiil<
\S( St
i,lll.-,,ll
Ilisollllili' (siliciull.s' Illuttrr
INroxidc of iron
.MiiiniTm
('iir)H'iiati' of litiio
IM
ioH|ili;iti' of linii
( arlM.niiti' <u ma .'iK-sm
I'nll.Hh
J'lirlx'im*' ami lii-ciirlioiiutf nf .-4111111
Siiliiliiil)' ()' Hiiila
M.ii^lnri-
« •r;.':iiiir lUiittir
l.nsri in uiinlvni.t
74 00
;;s(»
•J -OS
tinl
1-70
1 • Hi*
I • f.K
:.i7
070
'I'.*
I'JO
0-7S
rnio
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J 'J'.J
l(U
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■ K!»
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2- 10
(ISO
:mio
I 17
:i •«!'.»
\ \\\
0K1»
(C!(S
'Mtt
(IHK
10000 1 00 '00 lOO(M)
C<niaili(tn Atfrinilfiirr.
<.)
''Tlio s|icciin<!is for analysis wtic net iak<ii iViini soils oriistt-d (»vor with
alkaliho niattrr, l»nt fnini sj^its wlaru tlu- i^rniiinl was cuviicil with a sjiarso
vc^i taiiun.
"Many <if tlu' alkali ianils soom to liavc oriiiiiiatcil from nn acotinni'ation
of watiT in low liiccs, win r<' tluTc is an cxcc-s nf alr.inina in tlif soil or snli-
Kojl. 'Ihi! csciiiM! of the wilier l)V evaporation le»'» tlic siilirie maiter IhIiui'I,
un<l, in the c;is»' of salt (^so<hiiiu clil«.ri<le), which ail waters are known to con-
tain in at least niiniitei|ii.uiiities, the chloriiie, hy clieniieal n actions, mm aratetl
from the soijinrn, whiih l.itiei', iiniiinL^ iinnieilialrly witli oxy.'en ainl carlx'iiic
nc'<\, 'orn\eci the soiia (•om|ioiiiiils,
"These alkali «|tnts are ojten HUcces^fiiUy riillivatnl. The first stejw
towards their renovaiion nir.st ho ilraina^e and (le>|i cultiv.ition. 'I'he next
ste|> is the eoii->nni|ition ol' the excess ol" alkali, which can 1m' c fVected hv croj h
of the cfp al ' rain-5 in wi-t scaMHis. In such seasons t!if>s)' alkali lands, if
decj.ly cnltivated, oi'ten jiriMJuco spletidid crops of <:rain. Wheat is csiKcially
a preat coiisMiner of the alkalies; and these iM'in'^ jiartlv renioveil in ihis wav,
and tlie reinainin;; excess ininuleil with the deeply-ciltivated soil, renders it,
in niaiiv instancc-s, in ii few years ca|ial>lo of beiiin used fir tlie other oniinaiy
crop> of N't liiaska. 'I'lcated in this way, these alkali lands Mrieii U'come the most
valualile port oiis of tin' tariii. Tin re are comparatively few alkali laniis in
the Stati' that caniioi he rtrlaiimd in this way."*
'riioiii;li ill tlic iorco^oinu;' ;iiial vscs the pni cntaifcs ol phos-
pliHtc ol liin<> ami of potash an> liii;li, the most rcmai kablc fcaturr
iii tlir cxtraordinarv ;inioiiiit of ciirhoiiatc ot soda tlicv hIiow
tli(>s(> lands to po>s('ss, wlitcli Is inor(> than sulluiciit to luilv
arcoiiDt tor their alkalim' character.
CiUitit/iiin I'lici/lc liiiihtuni /'.r/u rinit'tidi/ /•'iiriiis.— \n eonse-
(|Uomf? ol' rumours rind reports to the ellect that inueh ol the
rountrv ahuiu' the line ol th(> Canadian i'aciiie K.-iilivay in itsi
roursi* across the third prairie steppe, which extends Iroin .M«»oso
.law to Cali^arv, a distance of jnore than !(>•' mih-s. w is larjxelv
made up ol desert and alkali lands, and was « oiisetjUenth (|uite
unfit lor cultivation, thi* railway authorities <letermiiie<l to resort
to the plu( k V expedient ol est aid! shin*; a numiier ol experiiiwnlal
larms at various points on their line west ot Moose .law, where
they would he easy (»i acicss and examinitioii In all travt ijers
.ilo!j<r the railway. Acc(M(linji;l y, on Oitoher 12th, l.S.s^l, a
special train, ionsistiii;; ol Itturteen < irsj and !i locomotive, left
VVinnipi'if lor the west, carryinj; teams, men, and iIh' ecjuip-
nu'nt necessary lor the est.dilishinent ol the larins. >«» late in
the seasitn there was hut little time m whi» h to perlonn ili«'
necessary o|)eiat ions. As soon as the hxality ol a larrfi had
l>eeii s«de< ted, the thirty tr- ims were unload«'d in the morning,
and put to Work under the direction of (Uie of the ( ompanv's
field inspectors, and continued to hreak the prairie-sot] tlirotig^h-
out the il,i\. Tho f'ofnpany's Land ' otninissioiier, alter sf^e'tng
* ' Cnilofl State* (oolotjieiil nn<l (t*»(>jrraphie,d Hurvf>y of r'oik>r»r|o »pfi
.^djaef•llt Trrrilory. IHTt. By I''. V. Havden, f :< t;fo!o|jfi>f W^shinTt'* :
(•ovi-rnnient IriittmL' Olllee, lsl*'<. p. 'IfW.
f H.
m
76
Cnmulian At/ricnltun:
the (lav's work faiilv stiutc«l, took tlir locomotive and liis rar,
nn<l went on in .ulvaiuc until he lonnd a suitable |)la(e lor tlie
site ot the next larin, ^\hen he would return and ^et the men,
teams, and outfit to<retlier, and transport them during the ni^ht
to the next field ot oprraiioiis. In all, t<-n ex;>erimental stations
We're established : the l)reakinsif thrctuirhout was found t<; he
easy, and the soil in «"very rase ^ood. It was j)roj)os<'d to
rultivate the ground thornu<;h1v, in aeeordanee with the most
approved methods ot hrrakin^ and l)a( ksettin^^, so as to have
a seed-hed rea<lv h>- the sprini; ol IS.S.'> ; those in rhar«;e of the
work wen-, however, h<l to helii-vi' that a f;ood crop niiirht he
obtained, e\en oil the sod, and it was resolved to niake the
attempt. A<iordintj;ly, on March 27th, iHS-t, anotlu'r novel
train left W inni|)e^r, taking hoarding cars, men, teams, impl<>-
ments, and seed-jirain to commetnc the sprinj; sowinffs. At
Winnipeg th<-r<> was still mu« h snow on the ground; hut on
jjoi II ;r westward the w<atliri- h<'cain(* milder and th«' snow dis-
appeari.'d, s<» that when Diinmore was reache<l, on the 'JiMh,
the snow was entirely ^on«', wlule the ^^roiuwl was dry and
alreadv thawed to a dej)th ol se\('ral inclu-s. TliJ' train
arrived at (Jh-ithen, the most westeiK ol the farms, on the
• iOth, and plon<,diint; -xi'' seeding; commenced on March ."dst.
Hearini: in mind (liat the sod was not broken till ()( t<d)er, and
that the soil had since then be(>n continnousiv Iro/en, it is
evident that the sod had no opportunitN to rot, and the land,
when sj)rin^ se<'dini; be^^aii, was practicalU in the s.inu- condition
as when lelt in the tail, so that a proper seed-bed could not he
prepared, conscipient I \ much ot the seed remained on the sur-
face tt» he withered bv the sun or eaten bv Itirds and f^opln-rs.
To save space, 1 have ((indensed tlu' particulars relatiny^ t » the
several farms int<» the Talde on the oj)posite patje, the \i<'lds
jfiven in which were as«ertaine<l l>y ac<urat«'lv ihainin',' tin"
ground an<i weiyhiu}; the produce, this vvt)rk having been
entrusted to a (juaiitied Dominion Laml Sur\e\or.
1 have ixiven the viclds in the nearest whole nundx-r, and tin*
nvernj^e \ ield truin ;dl the laims was, in buslu'ls per acr«' : of
wheat, Jl.^; «.l oals, II J ; of barlev, -Jo}: and of peas, 12\.
The W( iyhts per bushel \aried at the dillcrent hums, in tlu-
casi' of wheat ii<un ;M' to t»,'i lbs. ; oats, ,'il'i| to 4o} lbs. : barh*y,
4H to r)2 lbs. ; and peas, in the onlv instance in whi( h thev
were weighed, sr aled (il lbs.
\\ ith two rxceptioiiH, the hat vest was c«»mpleted bel(»re the
end of .\ugust, while in no case was sowing (ommenced before
the end of .Mairh. i he short time iIm- cr
th
o
ps
oecupuM
d tl
»e
ground i!> worthy ol not«', particularl .' in the innv of Dunrnore,
where M'uinu tnnk piaic on the -llh and .^th wf Apii't, .and
Cannilian A(/ririi/tu/r.
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78
Caiunliau /it/ririiltuir.
Imrlcv was liurvcstcd (»m Jiilv 'J.'jnl ; oats on Aiijjust Htli ; and
uhrat on Aiijjust Ttli. Hailcy thus occiipiiMl tlnrc months
«'i;;htcj'n days for its frrouth ; oafs, lour months onr day ; and
wheat, four months two davs. In some <"asrs j;o(nl v<'<;ctal»I<'s
were i^rown : and at ( ilcichcn, in particular. I had an opportunity
<tl itispcctinLT so!n«' r<'all\ cxcrlh'nt j;.ir(h'n produci'. I'hc larin
at Srcrctan, wliich <i:av(' an avj'ra^c \ irhl in wheat an«l «>ats, is
interest iuj;, !ie( ause it is situated at th<> summit of the (irand
( otrau of the Missouri, a description of which is ;^iv«'n in an
earlier part of this paper.
At eacli farm an a( re «)f land was set apart to determim* the
results of autumn sowinir, sprinir-whrat and oats heini; sown
an<l harrowed in at the time of hreakinj; the so<l in October.
Much o| it u'erminatcd in \ovendier and I)«'cend)er and showed
l^reen al)()\e j;round, Imt it was suhsecpu-ntl v killed by frost
during; tiie winter. A few patil'.es of wheat which managed to
survive the winter, ripened very irreijularlv .and mnih later
thr»n the sprini;-sown tjrain. I'all-sov uij; of sprinj;-wheat, which
has priivcd successful in Manit(d)a, is tlierelore not likelv to
be a success in the western c«)untr\, where the winter is more
mild and open and tlie y'rain liable to i^erminate :ind perish.
I all wheat h is not \<'t been tried on the wcstein praiiles.
The results obtained from these <'\pcrlmental faims ( ainiot l)e
rcirarth-d as other than satisfattorv, esjx'cl.all v w Ih'U the rouy;h
methods of cult ivatioii, which perforce had to be adopted, are
taken Into consideration. The matter was. ol conrs*-, ol very
( onsidcrable impoltance to the (anadlan PacHic Kailway
authorities, who b.ise the follow itij; < onclusicuis on the lesults
arrived at : — I. Ihat. for f;rain-j;row in«r. the land of the third
prairie-steppe is cipable of irivlnji; as lai'/<' a \ieldasthc heavier
lands of Manitoba. 2. That a fair \ icid can be obtained tin*
first \ear of s«'ttlement on lireaklmr. •>• That Irom l.dl seedinij
with spring ;;raln on tlu- western j)ialns a satisfactory result
cannot l»e looked lor. t. That cereals, roots, aiui jxarfh-n pro-
duce cm be sujcesslullv raised at eh'\ations of Irom 2<K'()feet
to ;»000 fret abo\e the sea-h'vel. .">. That seedln<; can be done
su(1l( icntiv earlv to allow «)f all the crop beln;; harvested beiorc
Septemlxr 1st. With rej;ai(l to this last point it mij^ht be
thou;>:ht that the summer of iS^t was abiiormallv earlv on the
])rairi<>, but I know that the contrary was the cuKe ; it. had been
an nnusuallv w«t ba«kwar«l summer just tin- reverse of what
we ex|)i'rienced in Iln^dand -and, at the Hell r'nrm, l.'iO miles
•■ast ol Secretan, the most easterly of the experlnu'ntal farms,
hary('stii\|r was, as I have already stated, in lull o|M>ration on
the 1 1th of Scpfcndter, a nun h lat<r tiate tlian usual.
I ma\ at\f\ that samples ol m heat front the e\ jx^rimcntul
Canadian At/riniltiur.
79
farms woro subinlttrd for tlio oflicial inspection of tiic examiners
of the VViniiipe}; Hoard of Tnule, with the result that the
wheat from four of the farms eame within the \o. I Hani (irade,
which ne((>ssitat(>s its heiny; of th<' KjmI I'vfc? variety, containing
not nuire than 10 per <ent. admixture of st)fter varieties, and
hein^ sound, well (leaned, and wei};hin<; not less than »)() lbs.
to the measured imperial hushel. The wheat from l)unnu)re
was <»l s|>ecial merit, an<l was i:raded " <'xtra."
Cdftlr HninlK's (tf Allrrtii.- 'V\un\\i\\ cattle are to he found in
some numhers in the rich pastures around Turtle Mountain,
Moose Mountain, tin* Wood Mountains, the Cypress I fills, and
in the valley (»f the South Saskat«hewan, it is in the How Kiver
district, S(»uth of ( alir-irv, that the best jfra/ini; lands occur,
'l'h(> rollin<^ lands, the <-oulees, the foot hills of the Kockies
ilankin^ the lofty summits that loom <:ran(lly a<>:ainst the
westJMii sky, aHord j)lenty of i;roun«l shelter to cattle in this
well-watered re;;i(m ; and the warm (liiuook winds from the
Pacific coast on the south-west rush thi(>Ui;h the Kootenav,
(row s \est, How Kiyer, and num<Tous other passes. luiscious
herbage, abundant and nutritious, ^rows in this favoured re<;ion,
and it is here, in the south of the district of AllxMta, that the
Canadian ranches are to be seen. Stock-raisitij; on an <'xt»'n-
sive scale is, however, a much youuu'er industry in Alberta than
in man\ of (he \\ <'stcrii States of th«' I'nion. Cp to the spriiiy;
ot l-'^M, the tuimbcr of ( ittle in the How luver district did not
exceed ."iOOO : a year afterwards the nuud»j'r had, by in»j)orta-
tion of fr(>sh cattle and tlie esrablishment of new ranches, risen
to ir»,0(l(); .Mid the increas<' has since been, and still is, pro-
gressive. 'Ilu' l)on)inioM (iovernnu'Ut <;rants lea.s«'S ot sections
of thes<» ifra/inj; lands at the nominal rent of 1 cent(.V/.) per
acre, an<l the less<'«' binds himsell, within three years, to place
upon the land one head of live cattle for every ten acres of land
embrac<>d in the at,"e<'n'»-nt, the t<'rm " cattle " impl\ in^ bulls,
oxen, cows, or horses at least oni' year old. The contract is lor
twenty-one years, (Iminy: wiiich pcrio«l the lessee ajjrees not to
a|)plv any prrt of the land to otiier than ^ra/in^ purposes, nor
to ^ra/e shet'p upon the land without the consent in writinjj of
the M inisttT ol the Interior. Should the (iovermtrin ('outi'-il
at any time durin;^ the twenty-one years think it to be in \\\c.
public interest to open f«)i' settlement the lands <levoted to
ram'hinjj, or ti» terminate the aurreemtMit for any reason, the
Minister of the Interior may, on ^rivinj; the iess<'«' two years'
notice. « «iir('l the airrefint nt at any time. Tiie leases are
litniti'ii t«» t lie area ot l(M),(i()() acre*, the lull extent tif which,
hoHcver, is jxeneralh taken up.
Asajjcneral lu! <i tin Hrrsi»crn districts, a mild winter and
«0
Catiadian Af/ricultiirv.
dcvp snow are unfavourable, while a seven- winter an<l li^lit
snow are favourable, to live-stock ; but it is not often that a
mild winter with deep snow is experienced near the Kocky
Mountains. Hie Chinook winds are so lre(|uent and the snows
so li^ht, that wheels are in use all the year round, sleighs being
verv little in re(|uest. Cattle and horses can graze all through
the year, almost any where south of lat. 1)2 , anil west of long. llO^,
so that this would indicate the northern limit of the ranclung
districts to be about in tin* latitude of Calgary, although ranching
is not so certain here as it is iarther south towards iMcLeod.
Indeed, it is maintained that though in the winter cattle and
horses may die through unsuitable food, tlu'y will not perish from
cold. The snow in tlu' West does not lie to a greater d«'pth than
a foot or eighteen inches, and is often less, while near the Kocky
.Mountains the Chinook wiiuls may, as has been noted above,
mor(> than ont-e in a winter, lit k up the snow atui lay bare
the pastures. A good cattle ranch should cover an area of at
least from ^(^(Hin jures Ut .'{(),()()() acres. I am indebted to
Mr. J. (i. Col mer, Secretary of the Canadian OHice, in London,
for the following summary (p. 81) of the leading ran»:hes and
their e(|uipineMt, as existing last summer in the district between
Calgary and lort Mrl.eoil on the <ast, aii<l tlu' Itocky Moun-
tains on the west. The numbers wouhl have been largely
in< reased at the fall " rountl-up," but the ai tual figures aw n«>t
obtainable yet.
Ordinarily all that is to be sei'n at a ranch is the open
prairie, with the catth' grazing la-re and tlieri-. and the best
time to see the cattl<> is at the " round-up,' whiili, however,
only takes place twice a vear in the spring and in the fall.
Although each ran( h companv leases a certain definite area of
land, its limits are not adhered to, because this would involve
too great an out! tor h-ncing. 'riirrejore ail the <'attle are
branded w itit the mai ks of their respective owners, and thev roam
at will over the (ountrv. At the half-vearlv *' ronnd-up " the
tattle are all ctdlectetl, anti the various brands M'p.trated antl
t ounted, the calves being constdt>red as the jinijiertv of the ranch
wht)8e cows thev follow. Alter the " nmntl-up." anv crittle not
brantled are sohl, and the proceeds go to tlie Sto khtihlers'
Association to provitle the funtls with which their work is
tarried on.
J he ( ochrane Ranch is one of the }>est kntiwn. It occupies
some splendid grass-land, and the tatth at three \ears old will
weigh 12(»() to \'MH) lbs., and be worth I'M. (m the ranch.
Messrs. (ochrane, however, had an unpleasant e.xjM'rience three
years agti. They purchased upwards of 4<H)() head of tattle
Irom a r-^nch in .Montana, to be tirli\eicrt on the Cothiane Kamh
Cnund'mn At/ricnl/nre,
81
Ifniiclit'H.
(iilllc.
Noilh-Wr.'-t Cam.' (''J. (Sir llii-li Allan, Ili-li Kiv.i)
Kllicl'.snii lUnl l.yiK'll
l-<'ii\»'iis, Mniiiit ili'iid liiiiicli (I.onI ('ii.-itl(tf)wti), Mi^'li
IJivtT .,
OxI.'v lliiihli (Willuw Cnck)
('M|ittiiii Wiiid.r ami Co
>VHlruii.l Kiuirh Co. (N'nilli F.,il<, <)M Miiii'h Hivcr,
riinlicr (If. k)
.I.iiicM aii.l liiil.rwick (North Fork. <U.l Man's Jhvcr,
I'iii.'li.'r Cn .k)
l-i'<MCro\\s Ni>t I'aHH, I*. C. District)
(iarn.t HrotlitTs (S.iiith F.irk, I'. C. Dintrict) .. ..
Sniitli (I'iiii'licr Cr.. k)
All.<rtii Kiincli (Sir F. il<' Wiiit.m; Ilnji. U. JJnylo,
i'indi.r Cit «'k)
Halifax Kaiich (I'iiicli.'r Cr.ik)
( Jc.lil.H ami K. ftl.- ( riiichi r Cnck)
Ca|.taiii Sc liii ( riiiflii-r Cifi k)
Hill Hr.'tli.rs (IMmluT Crifk)
Sicwarl Kam-li Co. (I'iiiclii r Cr. n\)
Ci.Lsall ( I'liH-iifr Cr.ck)
( oiliratic Uiiii.'li Ci«. ( riiK'li.r Cr. ck)
Hill a;i.i I'atiT^nii (IJ, liv Kiv. r)
McFarlaiic ((U.l Mans liiv.-r. Fort M.I.tn.l)
.!.<;. IJiikcr ami Co (C..utrai-tor»' niilllirl)
<ialla^'li<T( Fnit M'l,.-...i)
'In r..il Itinicii C.I (Old Man's Kiv. r, n« ar F.>rt M.l.co.l)
I»r.\anl (W illow Citik)
Mdilary Col.ii.isati.'n ( o, (miu rai Stranj^c (Ilow Kiv.r)
I''. Siiiiiwon (llit-di liiv.T)
N ii'inity of Caiguiy aial .Morl.y
'I'.ital
4,r.o()
I,2U0
I.TiuO
T.IIUO
I.TOU
s.ooo
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250
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250
150
400
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100
1.200
150
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220
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(HI a spcciCMMl (lav in ()ct(»l)<'r. liiit tlicv omitted to settle the
time ;it \\lii(li the cut h' were to eoinineiue their jouruev, jitid as
they haj>|iene«l to start hvte, thev were so ov«'r-(lriven in onU'r to
ifet to their joornev's end at the appointed time, th.at thev
arrived in a verv exhausted condition, ("attle ran travel at tho
rate ol ten to filteen miles a dav across the prairie, a?id thrive
on the |o(irnev ; hut much more than this was attempted in tho
case in point. There was a heavy' i<dl ot snow soon alter their
arrival, and the mana^fcr relied on the Chinook wind to remove?
it and leave the f;r(Mind drv ; but the Chinook wind was con-
trary the sn(»w remained, and in a tew wei'ks several thousand
« attic perished, the new arrivals heint; the first to succumi).
If is possible th.it had tlu'se weak, enleehled cattle not been
min:iled with the others, there would have been little or no nior-
falilv amoi!^:st the latter. At the time ol this disaster, however,
the site ot Messrs. ( 'ochrane's ranch was in the neiirhlxMuhood
ol (tliriM, and catth- on <»i!ier ranches in Allterta did not sudi-r
s$
( \inaiUan Ai/ri'rulfutr.
to aintliint; approni'liiiii; tin* same cxtnit. It is liut fiiir to ndd
that the winter was a particularly scvcri' one, ainl that a much
larger |)«'rc«'iitaf;c ol cattle was l(>>t in thu Western States than
north ot the 'itlth parallel. The ( 'ochraiie ranch has since ln>en
ren)ove<l farther south towards the Kootenav I'ass, and last
winter it was very successlul, th<' niortality not exci-edinj; I
per cent , n^rainst tl per cent, in Montana, and inor(> still in
Cidorado. Many ol tin' ran( h cattle are ol the old Spanish
breed, but on tlw (\)clirane ranch tliorouy:hl)red bulls — Short-
horns, I lerelonls. aiul particulaih Pulled ;\ii«:us are beinjf
used. These bulls were imported trom the Cochrane herds in
Lower Canada: a journeN ot .'1000 miles by rail and boat lan<led
them at Init Hei;ton, on the Missouri, wiien<e they yv«'re driy<'n
400 miles to th** raiuh. On arriyal, the Shorthorns were in
extrenu'h low « oudition, the I lerelords were not much better,
but tlu' Polled Anvils were in extcllent onh'r, and showed no
sifjns of f^iyinj": way durinjj the seyer«' winters ot 1<SS2 and l^^^.'i.
()?ie bull is allowed to each hundred coyvs, and always runs with
tin- herd, thoufjh on soiiu' ramln's the practice is to keep the
l)ulls sej)arate trom April to Au;,'ust. 'J'horouy;hbre<l l)ulls ar«'
also in use on tiic W alnuul, Oxley, and other ranches. The
demand for beef in the North-W est is in excess of the supply.
'I'he (ioyernment an* larjje l)u>ers tor the \orth-\\'est<'rn Mounted
Polici', and tor tlu' Indians, ey«'ry one of the latter beinj; allowed
1 lb. ot tlour and 1 lb. of beef per day ; tlu'se rations, yyith a
certain area ot land in the Indian res(>r\('s tor each Indian tamily,
bein^ in accordamc with the sti|)ulations made with the abo-
rifjines \yhen the pale-lai<(l settlers depiiycd them ot tln'ir land,
and brou^dit about the now almost coinplet<- extinction of the
butialo. The sj-tthrs, too, are considerable bu><'rs, and there is
a pros|)ectiye marlv<-t at (liica^o, tor the Montana ran( limen do
a considerable trade \yith this cit\, their cattle iK-in^; dri\en
northwards across the international boundary to Maple (reek on
the Cana<liaii Pacitic Railway, whence they are i"ony<'>cd in
bond to (liicajfo, ?"/(i Winnipeg:; this su;rj;ests an outlet tor
their jiroducj- whi( h the ranchmen ol Alberta are not likely to
iffiiore. 'i'he price of steers last season was trom 12/. to 14/.,
and of dry cows trom 10/. to 1*2/. 'i he natural annual increase
on the ranches is estimated at about It') ])er cent., tr«)m animals
two years old and U|)uards. Amoiiij; the leadin<r owners ot
Canadian ran< hes are the .M«'ssrs. Cochrane, Mr. Slayeley ilill,
(,^.C., MP. (who is inten>sted in the Oxley ranch), (ieneral
StranfJf, Sir J*', de VV'irjton, l<ord i^»yle. Lord Castletown, I'^arl
of Lathom, atul Sir .John V\'alrond. The lite of the " cow-boy,"
as the ratu'her is c.illed, is necessarily rouph and arduous, and
f»ttrn iu\oJses the sprndinp ot many hourb in the saddle. I'hc
( \tn(i(liitu A'/rirulturr
83
sprciiil nrticics in n <-(i\v-lM>y*s uiiifit arc: a Caliroriiia saddle
witli tapadcros ((ittin^rs) coinplcti*, a riile on saddle, a pair of
s<-liap|>s (Icatlicr le^^in^s), a pair oi Mcxicati spurs, an overcoat,
and a cow-lxiv liat or sott s'inihrero. 'J'lie (oll<t\vin<; extract is
from an articU' on Stoc k-raisinfi: in the North-West, which
appefired in the I'oronlo ' \\ Cek ' last October: —
'* 'I'lic iiicIIhmI nf wiirkiii;^ till' cittlc-niiii'lics is siinil.ir tn lliat in V();,'U(' in
till! \\ r-.trni Siiitis aini Icnitorics. Aliliniiuli cacli (iwiicr lia.s his own lease,
liy jnutnal ciinM-nt ' l'nt'-raii;:iii;; ' jir.iciicaliv iirevails ; and it hy n.i Tncans
ftillows llial till' U'ssd! lias all cr even ilic iiiajnnly ot' IiIh c.ittlc mi liis own
Ifjisi'. 'i In- (iiillt'. nrioiir-c all hidmlol, loan Irctly alKint tlic muntiy. Tlio
lapjc cattle companit'S I iii|iliiy eon.^tanily Imin six to ten 'lowlioys,' with an
I \|irn('ni'('<l ("Diiiaii, and u loi'al niaiuiucr, licsides aiidilional h.tiidt diirini;
hay-makiii;.', ' idinid-u|i ' iVc. A lar^i' hiiid tit" horses is also nccessiry — .siy
an iiveniie of live or six head to each (ouhoy, besides horses lor team work
and -jt neral |iiir|Hisis. ^lnalle|• owmr- wiih herds nmier loiio hemi -
natni.'dly inana-e with niiirh unater icunomy. Two or thiei' Liood praclical
men, wilh lioni tvsenty to thirty horse.-., cm do all the woik ahoiit the raiicli
and mana.:enit nt of tl.' <.iitle, with the occasional nshistance ol an extra hand
or two.
'* 'I he stockmen of All eila liavc formed a lowerfnl association, kin \vn as
the 'South W'e.-tern Slock A«*sociat'on,' lor liie protection and advancement of
their intciots. 'I'nis association has the manaui ment of the annniil ' ^encr:d
round iii>,' which usually Itciiins in May and lasts for ahoiit six s\e< ks. All
the stockmen in the country send repre-enfatives in proportion to the numlier
of their Inni, and each 'cowl oy ' hriiij^s wiih him lioiii lnur to six horMs. k
can Im* imaixiiied that, wiih tio men in camp, and a hand ol over •'{()(> horses,
the scenes that occur are often livdy and soinetiints excitiiiu'. In ihe autumn,
local ' roundups' in the ditVcreiit stock di>iricts are held lor the piirpo>e of
hraiidiiiL' the summer calves, which liy lln' tnljowim; sjinni: v\oiild prohaMy
have left tla'ir mothers, hecoinin^ ' no man"> laitle,' or as they are tei huically
ti'inied, Diiin ti'/:s.
" 'I'he hie ol the rancher and cow hoy is at limes a hard oie -but withal,
pictur(S(|Uf and soi <e\vh.it romaniic. It is true he almost lives in thu saddle,
init he rides over a splendid coimlrv, and enjoys (if lie has the faculty) ma^'-
niticeiit scenery. The numerous stn ams and liveis ahound in trout, and
prairie-cliicken, '^rou»e, ducks, and ueesc, allonl ahundaiiceof i^ame for (he i;un.
ilis life has plenty of exci!in;.r vari(!ty and some dandier, 'J'here are few more
interestiiiLT sii^lits than the cowhoys at work on their well-trained, .s.i-acioiis
|Kinies, *cultiii;4 out ' c.iitle lii'm an immetisc herd, fiijliteiied and Ullowiii;.',
and only kept trom a general Htampede hy the mciu contitiimlly ridin:; rotind
them. 7\j,'aiii, a heid cro.s.Mii_' one of our lar<.^e rapid rivers is a L'rand sprclacle.
Om- or l\\i< old steers, peiiiaps, wade in up to their knees, and tnen h<romiii;^
suHpiciiaiH, attempt to break back. Hut tlio main l>ody of the herd presses on
them, diiveii by a do/en cowboys, ytlliii;.; and cracking tlieir wldps, in a
cloud of dii.^l lirhiiid and at their sides. The leaders are forced into deep
water, and soon have to HW'ni, Htrikin^ out boldly for Ihe farther siiore ; (he
others lollow, while the cowbi.ys ride into the ciirient (o ' keep them a'f»oin'.'
Last ol ad collie the calves, wuh the rest of the cowboys riding behind. Hut
by this time the leaihrs itru climbing out on the op|iosite bank, and the main
Innly is drifting' down St reftiii in a confiistid mass. A couple of men gallop
d«iwn the bank, plun.;e into the river, and head ilniu u|i stream a.raiii, and in
a lew iniiiiitis the wh<dc band, calvc;- and ad, arc cros.-cd m ;.afcty."
r ^
84
CtDhiilhiN Aijn'riilturr.
The provisions ina«l<' l)v the (\in.'i<li:ii) fiufliorlfios to prosrrvn
tlir liv('-st(H-k ot till' Dotiiinion trc(> I'roin disease, r.'iiinot t.iil to
enlist the 8Vinp;itlietie !itteMtioii ol' I'liJirlisli lanners ; an<l as the
siiliject is, tor various reasons, ot sjiecial interest jnst at prt>sent,
I proce<'(l to f;ive the siilistance ol the regulations ol" an Order
in ('oinicil which ap|>eared in the otiit'ial 'Canada (ia/ette' so
recent! V as Septend)er i^, 1SS|. |t reti-rs to Manitoba and the
\orth-\V«'st :
Wlicrca^ till' (lisi-aso .-if iili'uro-piu'umnnia |irt vails aiuoti.; no it (Mltlf in
till' Wi'stt'iii St.ito III' liliimii, as udl a-< in utlnT mnri' iistmi nl' tlic Tiiiti'il
Sta'i's, ftiul tliitro is ri'iismi to iK'licVt' that ticul cattle I'ur l>n<iliiiu imri'iisi's
liavt! U't'n sent tVum \\^<• Staff of' llliiini>; to iimri' Wcshtii States ami 'I'erri-
forics, it is .iriii're<l that tlie iin|»piiati(iii <<( neat catilc now |>iTiiiitieil Inini
till! rnile.l Slates ainl 'I'errit.u'ies iulo the I'luvinee ft' Maiiiinlia ami tluJ
North- Wr.st Territory nl" ("anaila \>e ]iniliil>ite<1, e\rf;it on the InllnwitiL; d'ti-
<litioiis : —
1. At Knieison, in Maniinli*, or the I'n'iits nf l''ort Walsh an.l l''ort
iMcI.eoil, in the tiisirii'ts n|" Allieria an<i A.-^MnilHua, or siicii oilirr pomis as
may 1h' lureatur imliraU'd hy tlie Miiiister ol' A^rienltiiie.
L.'. Fur stork or hilt i/iiii) flit r/iofiis, i\r.\.t eatilc wlm li have heeii Imiujlif to
the ("anailian frontier I'or iniiiorlati'iti may he allowe'l to cross, siilijcii to
re'^ulations liereatter state<l.
.'{. /'or tndisi'f, Uiiwi Wisl to I'.ast, tlirmiu'li Allterta, Assinihuia, an'l
M.mi'oita vi'i i!merMin orilretna, to the State "!' .Miiinesnta, neat tattle may
U' allowni to (Ti'ss the ('anailian hinifier at I'oit Walhh and Kori Mihi'd,
snl'jeet to re.;ulaiions hcreal'ier stated.
I. At I'linersiMi, f>neh cattle Irniii tlie I'last sliall not 1m» iillowed to cross
th« Canadian Iroiitier, indess at'ter nisiK-ctinii \>y a iiulv-aiitlii>risid veitrinary
Mirijeoii, ai'iiointed l)y the M^li^ter ol A^riruiiure, they shall Ite deelarid lice
from cniiiaL^ nus ili>e.isi', and alsn t'oitn well-iniindi d siis|iicion tliern't'; and
hiriher, Hiich cattlo shall ho siiliji-ct to a (|uariMitinc' of t!0 days, nr siuh oilur
jt-riod as may ai i>ear to the Minister i>l' A.'ricultnrc advisalile.
o. At l''<irt Mel.e'xl and l'"ort WaNli, cattle, win tiicr tor >t'Ml< or Kreediii'.^
I in r| loses, or for transit, shall iml he allowed to cross the Canadiati frontier
unless tliey arc declared hy the duly antlioriM'd vi teiinary snr'ieoii to he free
from cont i^^ioiis <lis« ase, and also |'r<>m wed-loimded sii^picinn tlieriof.
fi. 'I'he owner niii>t iirixhice a duly attested certitieate, statin.; the Statu
or 'I'errilory and iiarticiilar locality whence the cattle have Iteen hrou'^^ht.
7. The nniKirter ol such cattli- shall pay a h-«' : for ttiie arrival, -hs. ; for
nut cxceeiiiiu' live, "J.s. each ; not, cxceedin.; ten, Is. .'!«/. each ; not oxceidinj^
twenty, loi/. eacli ; not exct!idin'.i hl'ty, iul, each; over Iift\, "w/. each.
H. No car which Inis heeti loaded with cattle in th(! I'liitcd States, and
crosses the Canadian froiitirr, shall he allowed alterwards to carry ('anadiaii
cattle.
\K No car or cars carrying; sncli I'nited States cattle in transit from West
tn Kast, Ititwreii the piiints ahove named, shall lie allowed to lie shunted in
close proximity to any (.'aiiadian cattle.
|o. Kvery such car »hall 1m' kept as far apart as possiMe from cars <<r
trains carrsiii;.; Canadian cattle or Canadian jiooiis.
I I. .\o such car >iiall Inrm any [nut of a train carrying; (.!anadian cattle.
I'J. Kvery car or ttain carrying; cattle in transit from West to j-last he-
twien the iKidits In lure named, shall stop at such fixed places as shall he
named l-y liie Minister of Aj^riculliii)! for the puriwise of rest, jvetliie.; and
Canuilidn Aijricullurc.
»5
\vtitfriii'4; mi'l hik'Ii plact's hIikII Im ili-cliire-l ' iiifcctctl ' within the terms of
* 'I'lit! Aiiiiiiiil (".•uiii;;i->us nisciiHcs Act, IH7',»,' hciti^' strictly iM.btrd, ami nil
(•'MiiiiiMiiic iticiii with tli>'iii proliilnti'd, cxcciil liy tin; uliict'r.i aiil imii m
cliiir^c 111" lilt' truiiis, nr »•!' sudi inlcctcil placi's.
!.'{. Mvcry <'ir wliich h.is liccii used tur (Mrryiir^ animals frnm tlic rnit(!(l
Suites i>r '!'( rntoncs, ill tr.iiisit tliruii,'li tlic. I>istiicts.>i AiinTta ami Assiiiil».)ia,
or tlio I'i-ttviiicc III M;tiiilnl)a, t'iu JliinTsoii iiml (irclna, shall In; thnruiii^hly
clcaiictl and disiniii ted Itclore ri'-i-nfi'i iii^ the I'mviiun nf Manituba, in such
maninr as sliall lie onlered hy the Minister nl A^rieiiltnre.
The suitability <>l Soiitln'iii AlluTta to |)ui-|)i>s(>s of rnnchinpf
is now n'jfanliMl as rstahlislu'd. It is Ktatrd that the poorriit
pastuH's ill All)(>rta surpass tlu> ^[rcatcr |)art of the area of the
State of Montana in stock-iaisiiij; capahilitirs, and soini* of the
lea<lin^ ranchers in Montana are directing their attention to
Alberta. It is belii ved that in a few }<'ars Alberta, whieh is
already arranj,Mnf; to supply tin* NVinnipejif market with eattle,
will furnish beef and tnutton, not oidy to the eastern provinees
of the Dominion, but to the Knjjlish market as well. In the
Caljjary distriet, the cattle are beinj; translerred farther south,
and th(> old ranches ar(> bein<; stock(*<l with sheep and with
other cattle more particularly suited to the lands in that settion ;
sheep bein<j[ at present excluded from tlx; district which lies
south of a liiu> drawn from the lli^h Kiver to the How Kiver,
and thenc(* alonj; the South S;iskatchewan. Last summer over
12,000 sheep were driven from Miuitana into Alberta, ont;
company alone importing a ilock of 8000 head, and in the
season of 1885 the drive of slu-ep is expected to far I'xceiul that
of last season. The upwards of (»0()0 horses in Alberta are
estimated to be worth 80,(*00/., and the leading; ranclu's are
doin^ th(>ir best to improve the breed, havinu; imported from
across the Atlantic a number of first-class sires, includinjf I*er-
tdierons and Clydesdah's. i'he estimated value of the cattle of
Alberta last summer was .17'), 000/. Hovine epidemics are
entirely unknown in this n*|;ion, and thoujfh it is customary for
the catth; on these ranches to be neitln'r sheltered nor in any
other way rare<l for during the winter, yet the projected
North Western Live Stock Conjpany proposes to ere(;t build-
injjs for the housing of cattle during the winter, and to propi'rly
furnish, e({uip, and j^radually enclose the lands. liut the
opinion of most of the ranchmen is that no dan^^er need b(>
apprehended from pndonged falls of snow, even if such should
occur, providetl there are abundant stocks of hay with which
to U'i'\\ the latth? ; indeed, prairie hay is now largely gathered
in summer for this pur])ose.
It is worth noticing that the amount of butter made in Alberta
does not nearly supply the hual demand, and last summer farmers
found a icady sale for ail the\ lould make al from Ln. ',)(L to
• 1
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IMAGE EVALUATION
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Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
(716) 872-4503
■X"
1
Ci^
86
Canadian Agriculture.
2.V. per lb. This is partly attributed to the high price of dairy
cattle ; the number of these was, however, largely increased
during the season. The manufacture of cheese has not yet
commenced in Alberta, but several enterprising farmers intend
to embark in this industry next summer. Indeed, with its
rich, sweet, and luxuriant grasses, and its innumerable streams
of pure cold water, 1 can see no reason why Alberta should not
develop into a first class dairy farming country, nor why
Calgary should not become one of the great cities of the
Dominion. I must thank Mr. F. Cochrane for considerable
information, which he was kind enough to give me when I
was at Calgary.
Life on tlic Prairies of the North- West. — The prairie, whether
flat or rolling, is less uninteresting than might be imagined. On
the level prairie it is possible to get a conception of the immensity
of the blue vault overhead, such as can be obtained nowhere else,
not even on the sea, for the contrast between earth and sky is more
marked on the prairie than on the ocean. But one duty seems
imperative on the prairie farmer, at least it should be — and that
is the planting of trees. They can be obtained cheaply enough,
and a few put in every year would, even in half a dozen years,
immensely improve the appearance of the now treeless plain.
They would also act as conservators of moisture, and, besides
breaking the force of the wind, would afford grateful shade in
the summer and shelter in the winter to both man and beast.
Although various species of clematis, buckthorn, maple, black-
thorn, bramble, rose-briar, and white-thorn grow in one part
or another of the prairie, and might no doubt be combined into
hedge rows, yet these latter are undesirable, as they would
afford facilities for the accumulation of snow-drifts. Hence, as
a lover of the picturesque in agriculture, I advocate the practice
of tree culture on the Canadian prairies ; every tree that is
planted will constitute a potential source of wealth, and ere
long it might be said of the North-West prairies as it is of
Nebraska: " Tiie bleak naked surface of this prairie State has
become diversified with myriad groves which relieve the
mr)notony of the landscape and refresh the eye with the beauties
of woodland growth, while they form a barrier against the
winds, and are developing into valuable preserves of timber."
Indeed, Professor Brown, of the Ontario Agricultural College,
looks forward to the time when the North-West will be in a
position to constitute, l)y annual wood-thinnings, a source of
revenue, and, with this object in view, he advocates —
•' I. The pstalilislirnent of two or more stations as nurseries throujihout
the North-Wost, with houses for labourers and foremen, and enclosures suitable
lor iiroiiuction ol' tree;?, both from seed and Vty purchase.
Canadian Agriculture.
87
J
le
I
"2. Tlie careful tcstin? of varieties of trees native and foreic;n to Canada.
"3. The gradual and systematic choice of positions for pkntatioiis, their
fenciu<T, and such cultivatiuu jireparatory to tree-phmting, as may be
necessary.
"4. The immediate rocordin;!, by Statnte of the Dominion, of power by
Cioxernnient to resume any part of land leased or sold, or to be leased and
sold, for ]mr])oses of tree-])lantinfr.
"5. The gifts of trees to settlers, npon conditions.
" 6. 'i'he annual ]ilanting and care of the trees npon the best known prin-
ciples of science and ])ractice.
" 7. Tiie appointment of a Forest Conservator — directly responsible to
Government."
The healthiness of the prairie as a place of abode hardly admits
of a doubt. There is certainly the long; period of five months
of winter to strugjnfle through, but the dwellers on the prairie
are a cheerful people ; they work through the summer and
have time to spare for festivities in the winter. Besides, there
is no problematic t lement about the winter on the prairie as
there is in England. The settlers know perfectly well that at
some date in November everything will get frozen up, and
will remain so till March or April. They expect it, and they
are prepared for it. Their clothing is suited to such a winter ;
their houses are admirably arranged for the utilisation of stove-
heat, and the people are quite ready to use melted snow in
their tea-kettles. The children, born and bred on the prairie,
cannot fail to be hardy and healthy, and this vast territory seems
destined to become the cradle of a fine race of men. I saw
cliildren it was a pleasure to look at, and one day when a halt was
called for half an hour, I was wandering alone across the prairie,
when a lovely child, the picture of health and beauty, .ipproached
me, and in the frankest, most winsome manner possible, gave
me a bunch of the sweet-smelling holy grass, Ilicrochloe horealis.
Of course, 1 thanked the donor — she was quite a little girl —
for her graceful welcome to the stranger from the East, and
gratefully accepted the gift. I have it now, and mean to keep
it, but my recollection of the charming little " prairie flower"
by whom it was given to me will remain long after the fragrance
of the holy grass has passed away.
Though many of the prairie towns are barely a year old,
there is far less roughness, and much more evidence not only of
civilised, but of polite life, than might be looked for. This is,
no doubt, greatly due to the fact that not a few gently nurtured
women have bravely determined to face the hardships of a pioneer
life in order that they may soften the struggle for brothers, or
fathers, or husbands. And some of the ladies of the North-
West are as witty as they are accomplished. Last autumn
two or three I'^nglish ladies somewhat given to severe forms of
88
Canadian Atjrinihurc.
study, called on the wife of a well-known prairie farmer, and
happened to mention that one of their chief objects in visiting
the North-West was to discover all they could about primeval
man. " Yes," sweetly rejoined their hostess, " but don't you
think it would be far more interesting if you turned your atten-
tion to modern man ? "
The Marquis of Lorno gives a graphic description of the
prairie : * —
" For my part I nevir tire of the smiinier aspect of tlie plains. In tlie
■winter they are often dosolatc-lookiai:; enough ; and what landscape is not ?
Tliere is at all events tliis to be said lor tiie winter prairie, namely, that the
sky is seldom only of a dnll grey above it, and is oftener than in Kurope of a
bright blue, tilled with the cheerfulness of sunlight.
"There is one drawback in summer, and this is the universal ])resence of
the mosquito; but lake a day in autumn, and then see if you do not enjoy
the prairie. If you are in the easti-rn parts, the long grass is nearly up to
your hips as you stand in it, and its green blades are varied with purple
vetches and tall asters. Your horizon is circumscribed, for ^xtjilar clumps,
with their white stems trembling in the noonday ndrage, are not far oil", in
whatever direction you lotdv. Out of tlic netting of the poplar you emerge
into a more open world, with hardly a tree. The grasses are not so long, but
still the lily or the sunflower is present in mass( s <if blossom. There are marshes
tiiick with tall sedge, and long tawny grass around the margin. There are
clear pools and lakelets fringed with reed ; and in Se])tember what numbers of
wild fowl ! — swans, diflieult to ajiproach, and tall white cranes, and the sn)all
sand-crane in tlocks. We hear cries in the air abuve us, and, looking up, we
see against a grey cloud great wiiite birds flap])ing lieavily along. They arc
j^'licans, white exce|)t the quill-feathers; and behind them now, but raindly
overtaking them, is a long string of other birds, also white, excejit the wing-
feathers. These tiy in waving (nirves, looking in the distance like rows of
jx'arls waved in the air. They are snow-geese, coming, like the pelicans, from
the far northern breeding-grounds, and they alight on a lake near at band,
making a long white band on its blue water. They are worth stalking, and
an attempt is made, but only one is killed, and the rest take the wing and
are no more seen that day. Hut the ducks are tamer, and come circling back,
and afl'ord excellent sport. What a variety ! The most common are blue-wing
teal, shoveller, dusky duck, and mallard. Certainly there is no easier and
better way of having wild-fowl shooting than by a visit to the North-West.
(_)nce out of Manitoba the latid swells info waves, and from each ridge a
marvellous extent of country is seen. The lakes are fewer, and a long march
is sometimes necessary before a good cam] ing-ground is found. The herbage,
excejjt in such spots, is piMirer, and the general tflect given by it is a dull grey-
green, shading in the middle distance to grey and ochre, and then far away
these tints become mixed with delicate pinks and cobalt blue. 'Far away?'
Yes, indeed, the distance seems infinite. You gaze, and the intense clearness
of the air is such that you think you have never seen so distinctly or so far
over such wide horizons before. Plateaux, hollows, ridges and plains lie
beneath you, on and on, and there is nothing to keep the eye and mind from
the sense of an indefinite vastiiess. There is no special mark to arrest the
gaze, and it wanders and wnndf-rs on to those pink and blue shades, where the
skies, light and beautiful in tint, are joined in hainiony of colour to the end-
less swell and roll of the uniidiabited W(trl«l beneath them. A wonderful
'Canadian Pictures,' p. 178,
Canadian A/picidture.
89
sense of fiecdoni, ami yet of loveliness, is borne in upon you ; and you feel
perhaps tliiit vou wouM like to kce|) the liberty and yii'ld some of the loneli-
ness, and pitch your tent and live, if live in the wilderness you must, away to
the north, where the streams chime in swifter currents through the more
varied lands, and l'i)rest succeeds meadow, and fertile dale and prairie have
near them the whisperinjj; shelter of the firs, and morning and eveninj:; li;iht8
above these the llaming colours of rose and of crimson on the snow-fields of
the Western Alps.
' We will hurry on to Eibnonton, and hear tlie reports there. Many men
from Ontario have got ])r(>]ierty here, and there is abundance of coal as well
as of timber in the vieinity. Horses do well when left out in winter. This
is now comparatively well-known gmund, but there may be some interest in
endeavouring to see what lies beyond the ])aths whicli are already more or less
beaten tracks. There is uo stranger sensation than that of camping night
alter night in meadows which are lull of such good grass that you feel inclined
to look nnnul for their owner and to ask his leave. But there have been none
from the beginning of time to say you ' nay.' Even the savage has here
never molested the pioneer. No one having a taste for exploration, for sport,
or for settlement in some far-away but fair region, where he may live as the
)ioneer of a community on land certain to rise in value, need fear to ])ursne
)is object on account of any native's hostility. There is no one to hinder
lim, if he wishes to break the soil where the great Peace IJiver forces its way
thiough the grand masses of the mountains, or settle near the Hudson's Bay
Comi)any'8 posts farther down along the banks of the deeply-wooded stream.
There is a singular charm in thus being amongst the first in a new land, but
by-and-by more companionship is desired : and it is not to be doubted that
each wave of emigration as it is poured westward will send many a stout
fellow onward until he rests satisfied with his farm, from which he may see
the giant and serrated ridges and peaks of the Rocky Mountains far away, cut
clear and distinct, dark blue, against the western sunset light."
As the traveller by the Canadian Pacific Railway speeds
onward across the prairie, he will not fail to notice every now
and ag^ain, the bulFalo skulls which lie bleaching in the sun.
Last autumn these were quite familiar objects, but the utilitarian
spirit of the age will allow them to rest there no longer.
They are being collected and sent in truck-loads eastward, to be
worked up at St. Paul or Chicago into artificial fertilisers.
Intoxicating liquors are entirely prohibited from the whole of
the North-West, and it is illegal either to make or to possess any
of these fluids. This prohibitive law is not in force, however,
in Manitoba, and as a train leaves this Province and enters
Assiniboia, members of the North-Western Mounted Police
may come " aboard " and search the cars for contraband liquor,
as indeed they may do anywhere else between Manitoba and
British Columbia. The law was made for the sake of the Red
Indians, who do not understand the intelligent use of " fire-
water," but who will speedily drink themselves into a state of
frenzy, provided they get an opportunity to quaff ad lib. It is
an offence under any circumstances to supply an Indian with
alcoholic drink. The " free and happy barley," which flourishes
m
MT
't J
M
i
'■'I
90
Canadian Agriculture.
so well in the iVorth-West, and the mag^nificent hops which grow
wild, cannot there mina^le their infusions as they do in many
lands where Red Indians are not. However, the prohibitive
law is not irrevocable, but it will probably remain in force just
so lonjij' as the weakness of the Indians for alcoiiolic li(juors
may appear to render it expedient. The prohibition is said
to have had a very beneficial eflect durinjj^ the time that the
larjje body of workmen en«;agcd in layinuf the Canadian Pacific
Railway passed throu<rh the land. I'^nthusiastic dwellers on
the prairie say that the very air is intoxicating', and though it
did not produce this elFect on me, I am quite prepared to admit
that it is invigorating.
The Scttlnufiiits. — A brief reference to a few of the settle-
ments in Manitoba and the North-West may prove interesting
to readers who have given attention to the subject of emigra-
tion. The Selkirk settlement, which has already been men-
tioned, i)egan with a grant of land near Fort Garry, made by the
Hudson's Hay Company to Lord Selkirk in 1811. The follow-
ing vearthe (irst immigrants arrived from Scotland, and landing
at York I'actory on Hudson's Ray, proceeded southwards to the
Red River. Four years later another body of settlers arrived,
and one or two of these are still living, notably, Mr. R. McReth,
Kildonan, on whose land wheat has been grown continuously for
fifty years, and the ^ield remains as good as ever. Many of the
descendants of these old settlers are now among the wealthiest
farmers of Manitoba and the North- West.
The crofters in the Ciordon-Cathcart settlement, who went out
in 1883, under the scheme of emigration elaborated by Lady
Gordon-Cathcart, have, so far, made excellent progress, and were
joined by other crofters last year, so that there are now located
on the settlement, which extends over about 250 square miles,
some ()0 families. They have mostly settled on a very moderate
expenditure, the means for which were advanced to them on
easy terms ; but although thev appear to have succeeded ad-
mirably hitherto, and to be well pleased with their prospects,
sufficient time has net elapsed to permit me to speak very
definitely. They are located at Wapella, Assiniboia.
The same reservation applies to the East London settlement
at Moosomin, in the extreme east of Assiniboia. This was a
more hazardous experiment than in the case of the crofters, for
most of the settlers from London were quite unacquainted not
only with farm-life, but even with country-life, and a more
marked contrast than that which exists between the prairie and
the East-end of London can hardly be conceived. The settlement
at present consists of about 20 families, and from the reports of
^
Caiuuliiui Atjn'culiiirc.
1)1
several philanthropic <;onthMnen who visited it last autumn, the
proifress hitherto made, as well as the outlook, are of an encou-
raj^ing and gratifying character.
One of the most interesting settlements is that of the Mennon-
ites. They were (ierman-speakirig Russian subjects, followers
of Simon Menno, who preacihed that war is a crime, and rather
than undergo military service, they — or at least such of them as
could get permission fr')m the Russian Cjovcrnment — left their
homes and emigrated to Canada, where the Dominion CJovern-
ment, in 187(i, made them a grant of (140 square miles of some of
the best land in the R(m1 River Valley, in Southern Manitoba.
The soil is a good loam, 3 feet deep, and as the s(?ttlement has
been established eight years, the iVh^nnonite farmers may fairly
be expe(;ted to have a(;(juired some exact knowledge of the capa-
bilities of the land which they till, and they find it lesirable to
allow a bare fallow every fourth or fifth y(Nir, this buing about
the only case of fallowing in Manitoba. They have some such
" rotation " as, — wheat, wheat, oats, wheat, fallow; the season
of fallow being known as the " black year." Wheat is most
largely grown, then oats ; barley is only sparingly cultivated. I
believe th(;y have not yet tried a cropped fallow, but this would
seem desirable, particularly as they fallow the land because they
find it has become too weedy and dirty alter the fourth succes-
sive corn crop. The cultivation is prosecuted on a kind of coin-
nmnal system, there being a huge field of wheat belonging to a
number of families, anotluT of oats, and so on. Their cattle are
herded in one huge pasture, and the manure from the cow-
houses is cut into oblong pieces, dried in the sun, and stacked in
the same way as "turf" in Ireland, and, like peat, it is used
in winter for fuel. The Mennoni "S now number some 8000
people, and their settlement comprises a number of villages.
Many of their kinsmen in Russia would no <loubt like to
join them, but the Russian Government has not allowed any
of them to emigrate since 187(>.
There are also a. Jewish settlement, made up of Jews of various
nationalities, and an Icelandic settlement.
»
FuTUUE OF Pkauue Fauming
Most of the farming in Manitoba and the North-VV'est must
be describetl as pioneer farming. 'J'here is very little s(!ttled
or approved practice, and rotations are almost uidcnown. Rut
Manitoba has taken a great step in advance in the atablish-
ment of her Roard of Agriculture, probably the most efficient
in the Dominion, and the influence of which is bound to make
its mark upon the development of agriculture in the Province.
!*
;iil
y2
Canadian Af/ricuUure.
The de.irnoss of hired l;ibour, and the necessity, especially
at harvest-time, of g^ettinp; throuji;h much work in a short
period, lead to a great demand for labour-saving appliances,
many of which are of American make. Current prices last
summer were about as follows: — Hreaking plough, Al. 7s.;
stubble plough, ol. lO.s-. ; sulky plough, 13/. lO.s". ; sulky gang
plough, 20/. ll.s". ; set of iron harrows, 8/. lO.v. ; broadcast seeder,
12 hoe, 1-1/. Ki.s". ; horse hay-rake, 7/. lO.v. ; twine-binder,
5 feet cut, 48/. ; ditto, 7 feet cut, 52/. ; Brant ford mower,
1<)/. ; reaper, 2 J/. ; waggon, 4 wheels, 1,')/. lO.v. ; set of Manitoba
bobsleighs, 6/. bs. A yoke of oxen would cost about 32/ ; and
<v set of ox-harness, 2/. lO.v. ; a 12-h()rse-p()wer threshing-machine,
240/. to 280/. A smooth wire-fence with wooden uprights,
which offers no facilities for snow-drifts, costs, including fixing,
from 20/. to 30/. per mile ; two men can fix a mile in four days.
At the leading stations along the ('anadian Pacific Railway
implements and machines are exposed for sale.
Undoubtedly one of the great dangers this new field of agri-
cultural enterprise has to face is that which arises from careless
an<l slovenly cultivation ; and of this, even now, plenty of
examples may be seen. It may arise either from ignorance on
the part of the cultivator, which to some extent is pardonable, or
from the conduct of a mere speculator, who, having taken up a
section in a locality where he thinks land may, for various reasons,
rise in value, gets all he can out of the soil, and then tries to dis-
pose of his holding at a jjrofit. It must, however, be admitted
that the very ease with which the prairie soil is brought under
cultivation constitutes in itself some sort of temptation. It is
so unlike Eastern Canada in this respect, — there is no laborious
and protracted labour with the axe to fell timber and make a
" clearing," nor is there a patient waiting for years in order that
charred root-stumps may rot and get torn up, and the space they
cover become occupied by crops. The pioneer in the l''ar VV^est
can commence his tillage operations at once, and can even take a
crop of oats " off the sod " if he pleases. Consi<lerations such as
these cannot but afford some cause for anxiety to those who have
thought upon the j)roblem of the agricultural development of this
vast region of th(> l^ritish possessions; and 1 may be permitted
to reproduce here opinions which 1 have not hesitated to express
elsewhere : * —
" It is niudi to be hojied tlmt tlio ])rairie Ainncrs will not abuse tlic privi-
\c'^e tiiey have of working:; a virgin soil of givat fertility by imiult^iu^ in reck-
less or slovenly fannin;^'. No duubt the temptation is <ireat to take out of the
soil all that it will yield, and to care little or nothing about its future. But
♦ ' The Cauudiau Gazette,* January 22, 1S85, p. 301.
■ft!**
Canadian Af/riculture.
93
it sIkuiM not 1)0 forL^otteii that the fertility of a soil, which may be very
greatly rctluccd by sh)veiily larining, may be undoubtedly conserved by
I)rudent methods. The wise farmer ii4 lu; who takes up only a certain amount
of land, and farms it well, rather ttian he who undertakes the manaj^ement of
an area altoLretlier beyond liis capital and his proper supervision. Slovenly
farming must tend sooner or later to deteriorate tlie value of the holdings.
The prudent settler will no doubt think o[ the time when he will wish to
hand over his property to his sons, or possibly to realise upon it, and thus it
is that good and careful farming will be bound to tell. Even in the course of
a few years a slovenly farmer with a large holding will find himself in a worse
|X)sition than a carelul farmer with a considerably smaller holding. Hence,
the most ])rud(Ut course to pursue is for the settler to commence with a
small area and farm it well, and to gradually extend his holding as he tinds
he has more means at his disposal."
The g^reat majority of prairio farmers have necessarily gone
to the greatest outlay which their capital will warrant ; and
though the prairie is not without its wealthy farmers, a larger
influx of men with fair means would be of great service, for they
could show a superior style of farming, and by their example
stimulate their brother farmers to achieve better results on their
own holdings. As to the direction which prairie farming is
likely to take : —
" There can be no doubt that the natural herbage of the prairie (aTul it
must be remembered that on the typical prairie no phints attain higher stature
than we ordinarily associate with the idea of herbage) atlbrds at present un-
limited capacity for the production of beef and mutton. Hitherto prairie
farnung seems to have been directed rather to the productiim of grain. The
results that have been attained, it is true, undoubtedly justify the general im-
jiression as to tlie tirst-elass wheat-producing power of the prairie. But, from
what I saw, I am led to infer that very nmch of the prairie laud is capable of
yielding better results than those which may be derived by the growth of
cereals alone. It would be a most ilesirable thing, every one will admit,
for the prairie farmer to be able to render himself to a great extent iufle-
]X!ndent of lluctuatious in the price of wheat, and i believe that, if his o)jera-
tions were directeil in the proper groove, he should be able to supply himself
and his family wiih all the necessaries of life except groceries. Mixed farm-
ing, anil mixed farming alone, can elVect this end. 1"he question which
])resented itself to my mind, therefore, was whether the prairie soil and its
surroundings were adapted to mixed farming, and 1 have not the least hesita-
tion in answering in the ailirmative. 'J"o make the prairie a mere wheat-
producing area app'/ars to me a mistake. 1 hohl that every prairie farmer,
though dependent jierhaps in the nuiin on the growth of cereals, should
by no means neglect the nuviutenance of live stock."*
The splendid soil of the Red River Valley only occupies the
eastern border of the prairie, and though soil of a similar rich
character extends along the valleys of the Saskatchewan and
the Peace Rivers, the time will come when manuring will be
necessary over much of the area of the prairie. The main-
: s
^•i:
• Ibid, 1). 3G3.
94
Cauddian Ajricullure.
trn.incc of live-stock, too, will cn.iblo the straw of the cereal
rrops to be put to more econoinie use than that of fuel.
There is a prevalent idea that, because the farminn^ on the
prairie is, much of it, primitive in st} le, it is immaterial whether
an intendiu}!; settler knows little or much of the practices of
modern aj;;riculture. 8uch a notion is delusive and mis-
chievous, and there can be no doubt that a knowledji^e, and a
good knowledge, of English farming would prove extremely
valuable on the prairie. Ivjuipped with such knowledge, the
prairie farmer is possessed of an ideal to which he can alwr.js
be getting nearer and nearer in the management of his holding.
Hut if he commences operations with no agricultural knowledge
at all, or only with that which he may have ac(]uired on the
prairie itself, he is f;ir less advantageously circumstanced, and
must be dependent on external inlluences for any improve-
ments in his practice ; whereas the farmer who has taken with
him the etlects of a good training, will find his own mind con-
tinually suggesting to him desirable modifications based on the
recollections of past experience. The marked contrast of the
seasons, and the unovc-n distribution of labour throughout the
year, may no doubt be cited as points in which the prairie must
ever differ from the old country ; but, independently of these,
the farming of the prairie must continue, it may be slowly, but
none the less surely, to apj)roximate in its character to the best
types of Knglish practice, — even as the farming of Ontario is
obviously doing to-day. The general maintenance of stock, for
example, will go a long way towards affording occupation for
the winter months, over and above that which is contierned with
the hauling of wood and corn, threshing, fence-making, black-
smith's work, repairing iiouses and buildings, shooting and
fishing, as at present, and may even create for winter labour a
demand which does not now exist.
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