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 ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
 .AND. 
 
 ARCHyCOLOGY 
 
 BY 
 
 DANIEL WILSON and E. B. TYLOR 
 
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 ^luidiJal Record, 
 
It. 
 
 9ttA> 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 :eats 
 :ents 
 
 V.:i 
 
 BY 
 
 DANIEL WILSON, LL.D., 
 
 AVI HOR OF " PREHISl'ORIC MAN," ETC., 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX ON ARCHEOLOGY, BY E. B. TYLOR, F.R.S. 
 
 AUTHOR OF " PRIMITIVE CULTURE," ETC. 
 
 -Sunday 
 
 , study.— 
 
 lations.— 
 
 npathetic 
 
 3 with the 
 
 int state of 
 / Journal 
 
 ed subject 
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 vard march 
 Wical Free 
 
 on, are here 
 dge of psy- 
 
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 some of the 
 itsideofany 
 ^edical Jour- 
 
 .lopuient. and 
 
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 whatitt»;Or 
 
 i entire subject- 
 
 ,1. SCOPE OF THE SCIENCE. 
 
 Anthropology {\.\i& science of man, 
 vdpunoc, /lo}'Of^ denotes the natural 
 history of mankind. In the general 
 classification of knowledge it stands 
 as the highest section of zoology or 
 the science of animals, itself the high- 
 est section of biology or the science 
 of living beings. To anthropology 
 mtribute various sciences, which 
 Id their own independent places in 
 field of knowledge. Thus anat- 
 |iy and physiology display the struct- 
 and functions of the human body, 
 lile psychology investigates the 
 derations of the human mind. Phi- 
 |logy deals with the general princi- 
 ;s of language, as well as with the 
 blations between the languages of 
 irticular races and nations. Ethics 
 moral science treats of man's duty 
 rules of conduct toward his fellow- 
 len. Lastly, under the names of 
 [ociology and the science of culture, 
 considered the origin and devel- 
 >ment of arts and sciences, opin- 
 5, beliefs, customs, laws, and insti- 
 itions generally among mankind, 
 "tir course in time being partly 
 irked out by the direct record of 
 tory, while beyond the historical 
 it uur infonnation is contiqwed by 
 
 inferences from relics of early ages 
 and remote districts, to inf^rpret 
 which is the task of prae-historic 
 archgeology and geoloo:y. Not only 
 are these ,arious sciences concerned 
 largely with man, but sevc'al among 
 them have in fact suffered by the 
 almost entire exclusion of other ani- 
 mals from their scheme. It is un- 
 doubted that comparative anatomy 
 and physiology, by treating the hu- 
 man species as one member of a long 
 series of related organisms, have 
 gained a higher and more perfect 
 und'^rstanding of man himself and his 
 place in the universe than could have 
 been gained by the narrower investiga- 
 tion of his species by and for itself. 
 It is to be regretted that hitherto 
 certain other sciences — psychology, 
 ethics, and even philology and sociol- 
 ogy — have so little followed so profit- 
 able an example. No doubt the phe- 
 nomena of intellect appear in vastly 
 higher and more complete organiza- 
 tion in man than in beings below him 
 in the scale of nature, that beasts and 
 birds only attain to language in its 
 lower rudiments, and that only the 
 germs of moral tendency and social 
 law are discernible among the lower 
 animals. Yet though the lAental and 
 moral interval between man and the 
 
r 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 nearest animals may be vast, the 
 break is not absolute, and the investi- 
 gation of the laws of reason and in- 
 stinct throughout the zoological sys- 
 tem, which is already casting some 
 scattered rays of light on the study of 
 miin's highest organization, may be j 
 destii.ed henceforth to throw brighter 
 illumination into its very recesses. 
 Now this condition of things, as well 
 as the accepted order in which the 
 sciences have arranged themselves by 
 * their mode of growth, make it desir- 
 able that anthropology should not too 
 ambitiously strive to include within 
 itself the sciences which provide so 
 much of its wealth, but that each 
 science should pursue its own sub- 
 ject through the whole range of living 
 beings, rendering to anthropology an 
 account of so much of its results as 
 concerns man. Such results it is the 
 office of anthropology to collect and 
 co-ordinate, so as to elaborate as 
 completely as may be the synopsis of 
 man's bodily and mental nature, and 
 the theory of his whole course of life 
 and action from his first appearance 
 on earth. As will be seen from the 
 following summary, the information to 
 be thus brought together from con- 
 tributing sciences is widely different 
 both in accuracy and in soundnei;s. 
 While much of the descriptive detail 
 is already clear and well filled in, the 
 general principles 6f its order are still 
 but vaguely to be discerned, and as 
 our view quits the comparatively dis- 
 tinct region near ourselves, the pros- 
 pect fades more and more into the 
 dimness of conjecture. - 
 
 II. MAN'S PLACE IN NATURE. 
 
 It is now more than thirty years 
 since Dr. Prichard, who perhaps of 
 all others merits the .title of founder 
 of modern anthropology, stated in the 
 following forcible passage, which 
 opens his Natural History of Man, 
 the closeness of man's physical rela- 
 tion to the lower animals :— ■ 
 
 "The organizsd world presents no con- 
 Masts and reseml)lanccs more remarkahle 
 ihan thcjse which we discover on ci>in|)aring 
 mankintl with the inferior tribes. 'I'hat crea- 
 tures should exist so nearly approaching to 
 each other in all the particulars of their phys- 
 ical structure, and yet differing so immeasur- 
 ably in their endowments and capabilities, 
 would be a fact hard to believe, if 't were not 
 manifest to our observati-in. The differ- 
 ences are everywhere strikii'g : the resem- 
 blances are less obvious in the fullness of tlieir 
 extent, and th'^y are never contemplated 
 without wonder by those who, in the study 
 of anatomy and physiology, are first made 
 aware ho,v near is man in his jihysical con- 
 stitution lo the brutes. In all the princi])les 
 of his internal structure, in the com|)03ition 
 and functions of his j^arts, man is but an an- 
 imal. The lord of the earth, who contem- 
 plates the eternal order of tho universe, and 
 aspires to conuiiunion with its invisible 
 Maker, is a being composed of t.ie same ma- i 
 terials, and framed on the same principles, as 
 the creatures which he has tamed to be the 
 servile instruments of his will, or slays for 
 his daily food. The points of resemblance 
 are innumerable ; they extend to the most 
 recondite arrangements of that mechanism 
 which maintains instrumentally the physical 
 life of the body, which brings forward its . 
 early development and admits, after a given 
 period, its decay, and bv means of which is 
 prepared a succession o\ similar beings des- 
 tined to perpetuate the race." 
 
 It is admitted that the higher apes 
 come nearest to man in bodily forma- 
 tion, and that it is essential to deter- 
 mine their zoological resemblances 
 and differences as a step toward as- * 
 certaining their absolute relation in 
 nature. "At this point," writes Pro- 
 fessor Owen in a paper on the " Oste- 
 ology of the Apes," " every deviation 
 from the human structure indicates 
 with precision its real peculiarities, 
 and we then possess the true means 
 of appreciating those modifications 
 by which a material organism is es- \ 
 peciaily adapted to become the seat ! 
 and instrument of a rational and re- 
 sponsible soul." (On the " Osteology 
 of the Chimpanzee and Orang Utan," , . 
 in Proc. Zool. Soc, vol. i.) Professor 
 Huxley, in his Man's Place in Nature, 
 comparing man with order after order 
 of the mammalia, decides "There 
 would remain then but one order for 
 comparison, that- of the Apes (using 
 that word in its broadest sense), and 
 the question for discussion would nar- 
 
 r 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 » 
 
 row Itself to this — is Man so different 
 from any of these Apes that he must 
 form an order by himself ? Or does 
 he differ less from them than they 
 differ from one another, and hence 
 must take his place in the same order 
 with them?" This anatomist states 
 the anatomical relations between man 
 and ape in untechnical terms suited 
 to the present purpose, and which 
 would be in great measure accepted 
 by zoologists and anthropologists, 
 whether agreeing or not with his ulte- 
 rior views. The relations are most 
 readily stated in comparison with the 
 gorilla, as on the whole the most 
 anthropomorphous ape. In the gen- 
 eral proportions of the body and 
 limbs there is a marked difference 
 between the gorilla and man, which 
 at once strikes the eye. The gorilla's 
 brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, 
 its lower limbs sliorter, its upper limbs 
 longer in proportion than those of 
 man. The differences between a 
 gorilla's skull and a man's are truly 
 immense. In the gorilla, the face, 
 formed largely by the massive jaw- 
 bones, predominates over the brain- 
 case or cranium ; in the man these 
 proportions are reversed. In man the 
 occipital foramen, through which pass- 
 es the spinal cord, is placed just be- 
 hind the center of the base of the 
 skull, which is thus evenly balanced 
 in the erect posture, whereas the go- 
 rilla, which goes habitually on all 
 fours, and whose skull is inclined for- 
 ward, in accordance with this posture 
 has the foramen further back. In 
 man the surface of the skull is com- 
 paratively smooth, and the brow- 
 ridges project but little, while in the 
 gorilla these ridges overhang the 
 cavernous orbits like penthouse roofs. 
 The absolute capacity of the cranium 
 of the gorilla is far less than that of 
 . m?n; the smallest adult human cranium 
 hardly measuring less than 63 cubic 
 inches, while the largest gorilla cra- 
 nium measured had a content of only 
 $4.% cubic inches. The large propor- 
 ' tional size of the facial bones, and the 
 great projection of the jaws, confer on 
 the gorilla's skull its small facial angle 
 
 and brutal character, while its teeth 
 differ from man's in relative size and 
 number of fangs. Comparing the 
 lengths of the extremities, it is seen 
 that the gorilla's arm is of enormous 
 j length, in fact about one-sixth longer 
 than the spine, whereas a man's arm 
 ' is one-fifth shorter than the spine ; 
 both hand and foot are proportionally 
 much longer in ti^ gorilla tl an in 
 man ; the leg does not so much differ, 
 1 The vertebral column of the gorillsi 
 j differs from that of man in its curva- 
 , ture and other characters, as also 
 : does the conformation of its narrow 
 pelvis. The hand of the gorilla cor- 
 [responds esseniially as to bones and 
 muscles with that of man, but is clum- 
 sier and heavier ; its thumb is " op- 
 ! posable " like a human thumb, that is, 
 I it can easily meet with its extremity 
 I the extremities of the other fingers, 
 I thus possessing a character which 
 I does much to make the human hand 
 so admirable an instrument ; but the 
 gorilla's thumb is proportionately 
 shorter than man's. The foot of the 
 higher apes, though often spoken of 
 as a hand, is anatomically not such, 
 but a prehensile foot. It is argued 
 by Professor Owen and others that 
 the position of the great toe converts 
 the foot of the higher apes into a 
 hand, an extremely important distinc- 
 tion from man ; but against this Pro- 
 fessor Huxley maintains that it has 
 the characteristic structure of a foot, 
 with a very movable great toe. The 
 external unlikeness of the apes to man 
 depends much on their hairiness, but 
 this and some other characteristics 
 have no great zoological value. No 
 doubt the difference between man 
 and the apes depends, of all things, on 
 the relative size and organization of 
 the brain. While similar as to their 
 general arrangement to the human 
 brain, those of the higher apes, such 
 as th'" chimpanzee, are much less 
 complex in their convolutions, as well 
 as much less both in absolute and rel- 
 ative weight— rthe weight of a gorilla's 
 brain hardly exceeding 20 ounces 
 and a man's brain hardly weighing 
 less than 32 ounces, although the go- 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 rilla is considerably the larger animal 
 of the two. 
 
 These anatomical distinctions are 
 undoubtedly of great moment, and it 
 is an interesting question whether 
 they suffice to place man in a zoolog- 
 ical order by himself. It is plain that 
 some eminent zoologists, regarding 
 man as absolutely differing as to mind 
 and spirit from any other animal, have 
 had their discrimination of mere bod- 
 ily differences unconsciously sharp- 
 ened, and have been led to give dif- 
 ferences, such as in the brain or even 
 the foot of the apes and man, some- 
 what more importance than if they 
 had merely distinguished two species 
 of apes. Among the present genera- 
 tion of rtaturalists, however, there is 
 an evident tendency to fall in with the 
 opinion, that the anatomical differ- 
 ences which separate the gorilla or 
 chimpanzee from man are in some re- 
 spects less than those which separate 
 these man-like apes from apes lower 
 in the scale. Yet naturalists agree to 
 class both the hi_gher and lower apes 
 in the same order. This is Professor 
 Huxley's argument, some prominenc 
 points of which a'-e the following :■ — 
 As regards the proportion of limbs, 
 the hylobates or gibbon is as much 
 longer in the arms than the gorilla as 
 the gorilla is than the man, while on 
 the other hand, it is as much longer 
 in the legs than the man as the man 
 is than the gorilla. As to the verte- 
 bral column and pelvis, the lower 
 apes differ from the gorilla a'^ much 
 as or more than, it differs from man. 
 As to the capacity of the cranium, 
 men differ from one another so ex- 
 tremely that the largest known human 
 skull holds nearly twice the measure 
 of the smallest, a larger proportion 
 than that in which man surpasses the 
 gorilla ; while, with proper allowance 
 for difference of size of the various 
 species, it appears that some of the 
 lower apes fall nearly as much below 
 the higher apes. The projection of 
 the muzzle, which gives the character 
 of brutality to the gorilla as distin- 
 guished from the man, is yet further 
 exaggerated in the lemurs, as is also 
 
 the backward position of the occipital 
 foramen. In characters of such im- 
 portance as the structure of the hand 
 and foot, the lower apes diverge ex- 
 tremely from the gorilla ; thus the 
 thumb ceases to be opposable in the 
 American monkeys, and in the mar- 
 mosets is directed forward, and 
 armed with a curved claw like the 
 other digits, the great toe in these 
 latter being insignificant in propor- 
 tion. The same argument can be ex- 
 tended to other points of anatomical 
 structure, and, what is of more conse-^ 
 quence, it appears true of the brain. 
 A series of the apes, arranged from 
 lower to higher orders, shows grada- 
 tions from a brain little higher than 
 that of a rat, to a brain like a small 
 and imperfect imitation of a man's; 
 and the greatest structural break in 
 the series lies not between man and 
 the man-like apes, but between the 
 apes and monkeys on one side, and 
 the lemurs on the other. On these 
 grounds Professor Huxley, restoring 
 in principle the Linnean classification, 
 desires to include man in the order of 
 Primates. This order he divides into 
 seven families : first, the Anthropini, 
 consisting of man only ; second, the 
 Catarhini, or Old World apes ; third, 
 the Flatyrhini, all New World apes, 
 cxcej)t the marmosets ; forth, the 
 Arctopithecini, or marmosets ; fifth, 
 the Lemurini, or lemurs ; sixth and 
 seventh, the Cheiromyini and Galeo- 
 pithecini. It seems likely that, so far 
 as naturalists are disposed to class 
 man with other animals on purely 
 zoological grounds, some such class- 
 ification as this may, in the present 
 state of comparative anatomy, be gen- 
 erally adopted. 
 
 It is in assigning to man his place 
 in nature on psychological grounds 
 that the greater difficulty comes into 
 view. The same naturalist, whose 
 argument has jusc been summarized 
 against an absolute structural line of 
 demarkation between man and the 
 creatures next in the scale, readily 
 acknowledges an immeasurable and 
 practically infinite divergence, ending 
 in the present enormous gulf between 
 
! occipital 
 such im- 
 the hand 
 verge ex- 
 thus the 
 le in the 
 the mar- 
 ird, and 
 like the 
 in these 
 n propor- 
 an be ex- 
 natomical 
 >re conse-^ 
 he brain, 
 ^ed from 
 ivs grada- 
 jher than 
 e a small 
 a man's; 
 break in 
 man and 
 ween the 
 side-, and 
 On these 
 restoring 
 sification, 
 ; order of 
 [ides into 
 'ithropiniy 
 cond, the 
 s ; third, 
 rid apes, 
 •rth, the 
 s ; fifth, 
 ixth and 
 d Galeo- 
 it, so far 
 to class 
 1 purely 
 :h class- 
 present 
 , be gen- 
 
 lis place 
 grounds 
 nes into 
 whose 
 marized 
 
 line of 
 and the 
 
 readily 
 ble and 
 , ending 
 between 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 the family of apes and the family of 
 man. To account for this intellectual 
 chasm as possibly due to some minor 
 structural difference, is, however, a 
 view strongly opposed to the prevail- 
 ing judgment. The opinion is deeply 
 rooted in modern as in ancient 
 thought, that only a distinctively hu- 
 man element of the highest import 
 can account for the severance between 
 man and the highest animal below 
 him. Differences in the mechanical 
 organs, such as the perfection of the 
 human hand as an instrument, or the 
 adaptability of the human voice to the 
 expression of human thought, are in- 
 deed of great value. But they have 
 not of themselves such value, that to 
 endow an ape with the hand and 
 vocal organs of a man would be likely 
 to raise it through any large part of 
 the interval that now separates it from 
 humanity. Much more is to be said 
 for the view that man's larger and 
 more highly organized brain accounts 
 for those mental powers in which he 
 so absolutely surpasses the brutes. 
 
 The distinction do :s not seem to 
 lie principally in the range and deli- 
 cacy of direct sensation, as may be 
 judged from such well-known facts as 
 man's inferiority to the eagle in sight, 
 or to the dog in scent. At the same 
 time, it seems that the human sensory 
 organs may have in various respects 
 acuteness beyond those of other crea- 
 tures. But, beyond a doubt, man 
 possesses, and in some way possesses 
 by virtue of his superior brain, a 
 power of co-ordinating the impressions 
 of his senses, which enables him to 
 understand the world he lives in, and 
 by understanding to use, resist, and 
 even in a measure rule it. No human 
 art shows the nature of this; human 
 attribute mpre clearly than does lan- 
 guage. Man shares with the mamma- 
 lia and birds the direct expression of 
 the feelings by emotional tones and 
 interjectional cries; the parrot's 
 power of articulate utterance almost 
 equals his own ; and, by association 
 of ideas in some measure, some of the 
 lower animals have even learnt to 
 recognize words he utters. But, to 
 
 use words in themselves unmeaning, 
 as symbols by which to conduct and 
 convey the complex intellectual proc- 
 esst s in which mental conceptions 
 are suggested, compared, combined, 
 and even analyzed, and new oneo cre- 
 ated — this is a faculty which is 
 scarcely to be traced in any lower 
 animal. The view that this, with 
 other mental processes, is a function 
 of the brain, is remarkably corrobo- 
 rated by modern investigation of the 
 disease of aphasia, where the power 
 of thinking remains, but the power is 
 lost of recalling the word correspond* 
 ing to the thought, and this mental 
 defect is found to accompany a dis- 
 eased state of a particular locality of 
 the brain.* This may stand among 
 the most perfect of the many evidences 
 that, in Professor Bain's words, "the 
 brain is the principal, though not the 
 sole organ of mind." As the brains 
 of vertebrate animals form an ascend- 
 ing scale, more and more approaching 
 man's in their arrangement, the fact 
 here finds its explanation, that lower 
 animals perform mental processes cor- 
 responding in their nature to our own, 
 though of generally lass power and 
 complexity. The full evidence of 
 this correspondence will be found in 
 such works as Brehm's Thierleben; 
 and some of the salient points are set 
 forth by Mr. Darwin, in the chapter 
 on " Mental Powers," in his Descent 
 of Man. Such are the similar effects 
 of terror on man and the lower ani- 
 mals, causing the muscles to tremble, 
 the heart to palpitate, the sphincters 
 to be relaxed, ?» d the hair to stand 
 on end. The phenomena of memory, 
 both as to persons and places, is 
 strong in animals, as is manifest by 
 their recognition of their masters, and 
 their returning at once to habits dis- 
 used for many years, but of which 
 their brain has not lost the stored-up 
 impressions. Such facts as that dogs 
 " hunt in dreams," make it likely that 
 their minds are not only sensible to 
 actual events, present and past, but 
 
 « See " Diseases of Memory," by Th. 
 bot, No. 46 Humboldt Library. 
 
 Rt. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 can, like our minds, combine revived 
 sensations into ideal scenes in which 
 they are actors, — that is to say, they 
 have the faculty of imagination. As 
 for the reasoning powers in animals, 
 the accounts of monkeys learning by 
 experience to break eggs carefully, 
 and pick oflf bits of shell, so as not to 
 lose the contents, or of the way in 
 which rats or martens after awhile 
 can no longer be caught by the same 
 kind of trap, with innumerable similar 
 facts show in the plainest way that 
 the reason of animals goes so far as 
 to form by new experience a new hy- 
 pothesis of cause and effect which will 
 Henceforth guide their actions. The 
 ^employment of mechanical instru- 
 mentSt of whii h instances of monkeys 
 using sticks and stones, and some 
 other similar cases, furnish the only 
 rudimentary traces mong the lower 
 animals, is one of the often quoted 
 distinctive powers of man. With this 
 .comes the whole vast and ever-widen- 
 ing range of inventive and adaptive 
 art, where the uniform hereditary 
 instinct of the cell-forming bee and 
 the nest-building bird are supplanted 
 by multiform processes and construc- 
 tions, often at first rude and clumsy 
 in comparison to those of the lower 
 instinct, but carried on by the faculty 
 of improvement and new invention 
 into ever higher stages. ** From the 
 moment," writes Mr. Wallace {Nat- 
 ural Selection, p. 325), "when the first 
 skin was used as a covering, when the 
 first rude spear was formed to assist 
 in the chase, when fire was first used 
 to cook his food, when the first-^ seed 
 was sown xix shoot planted, a grand 
 revolution was effected in nature, a 
 revolution which in all the previous 
 ages of the earth's history had had no' 
 parallel ; for a being had arisen who 
 was no longer necessarily subject to 
 change with the changing universe, — 
 a being who was in some degree 
 superior to nature, inasmuch as he 
 knew how to control and regulate her 
 action, and could keep himself in har> 
 mony with her, not by a change in 
 body, but by an advance of mind." 
 As to tlie lower instincts wtitlliig 
 
 dit-'ctly to self-preservation, It Is ao 
 ivnowledged on all hands that man 
 has them in a less developed state 
 than other animals ; in fact, the nat- 
 ural defenselessness of the human 
 being, and the long-continued care 
 and teaching of the young by the 
 elders, are among the commonest 
 themes of moral discourse. Parental 
 tenderness and care for the young are 
 strongly marked among the lower 
 animals, though so inferior in scope 
 and duration to the human qualities ; 
 and the same may be said of the mu- 
 tual forbearance and defense which 
 bind logether in a rudimentary social 
 bond the families and herds of an- 
 in-als. Philosophy seeking knowl- 
 edge for its own sake ; morality, 
 manifested in the sense of trufh, right, 
 and V rtue ; and religion, the belief in 
 and communion with superhuman 
 powers ruling and pervading the uni- 
 verse, are human characters, of which 
 it is instructive to trace, if possible, 
 the earliest symptoms in the lower 
 animals, but which can there show at 
 most only faint and rudimentary signs 
 of their wondrous development in 
 mankind. That the tracing of physi- 
 cal and even intellectual continuity 
 between the lower animals and our 
 own race, does not necessarily lead 
 the anthropologist to lower the rank 
 of man in the scale of nature, cannot 
 be better shown than by citing one of 
 the authors of the development theory, 
 Mr. A. R. Wallace {op. cit., p. 324). 
 Man, he considers, is to be placed 
 " apart, as not only the head and cul- 
 minating point of tJie grand series of 
 organic nature, but as fn some degree 
 a new and distinct order of being." 
 
 To regard the intellectual functions 
 of the brain and nervous system as 
 alone to be considered in the psycho- 
 logical comparison of man with the 
 lower animals, is a view satisfactory 
 to those thinkers who hold material- 
 istic views. According to tliis school, 
 man is a machine, no doubt the most 
 complex and wonderfully adapted of 
 all known machines, but still neither 
 more nor ' less than an instrument 
 ^hose energy is provided by force 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 n, It Is ao 
 i that man 
 oped state 
 t, the nat- 
 he human 
 nued care 
 ig by the 
 commonest 
 
 Parental 
 : young are 
 the lower 
 r in scope 
 
 qualities; 
 oi the mu- 
 nse which 
 tary social 
 rds of an- 
 ng knowl- 
 
 morality, 
 rurh, right, 
 le belief in 
 iperhuman 
 g the uni- 
 3, of which 
 f possible, 
 the lower 
 e show at 
 1 tary signs 
 pment in 
 ; of physi- 
 continuity 
 i and our 
 larily lead 
 • the rank 
 re, cannot 
 ing one of 
 int theory, 
 
 . P- 324). 
 be placed 
 i and cul- 
 I series of 
 Tie degree 
 being." 
 
 functions 
 system as 
 e psycho- 
 
 with the 
 itisfactory 
 
 material- 
 iis school, 
 
 the most 
 dapted of 
 U. neither 
 istrument 
 
 by force 
 
 / 
 
 from without, and which, when set in 
 action, performs the various opera- 
 tions for which its structure fits it, 
 namely, to live, move, feel, and think. 
 This doctrine, which may be followed 
 up from Descartes's theory of animal 
 life into the systems of modern writers 
 of the school of Moleschott and Biich- 
 ner, underlies the Lectures on Man of 
 Professor Carl Vogt, one of the ablest 
 of modern anthropologists (English 
 translation published by Anthropo- 
 logical Society, London, 1864). Such 
 views, however, always have been and 
 are strongly opposed by those who 
 accept on theological grounds a 
 spiritualistic doctrine, or what is, per- 
 haps, more usual, a theory which 
 combines spiritualism and materialism 
 in the doctrine of a composite nature 
 in man, animal as to the body and in 
 some measure as to the mind, spiritual 
 as to the soul. It may be useful, as 
 an illustration of one opinion on this 
 subject, to continue here from an 
 earlier page the citation of Dr. Prich- 
 ard's comparison between man and 
 the lower animals :— 
 
 " If it be inquired in what the still more 
 remarkable difference consists, it is by no 
 means easy to reply. .By some it will be said 
 that man while similar in the organization 
 of his body to the lower tribes, is distin- 
 guished from them by the possession of an 
 immaterial soul, a prmciple capable of con- 
 scious feeling, of intellect and thought. To 
 many persons it will appear paradoxical to 
 ascribe the endowment of a soul to the in 
 ferior tribes in the creation, yet it is difficult 
 to discover a valid argument that limits the 
 possession of an immaterial principle to man. 
 The phenomena of feeling, of desire and 
 aversion, of love and -hatred, of fear and 
 revenge, and the perception of external rela- 
 tions manifested in the life of brutes, imply, 
 not only through the analogy which they 
 display to the human faculties, but likewise 
 from all that we can learn or conjecture of 
 their particular nature, the superadded exist- 
 ence of a principle distinct from the mere 
 mechanism of material bodies. That such a 
 principle must exist in all beings capable of 
 sensation, or of anything analogous to hu- 
 man passions and feelings, will hardly be 
 denied by those who perceive the force of 
 arguments which metaphysically demonstrate 
 the immaterial nature of thf; mind. There 
 may be no rational grounds for the ancient 
 dogma that the souls of the lower animals 
 were imperishable, like the soul of man ; this 
 is, however, a problem which we are not 
 
 called upon to discu&s; and we ma^ venture 
 to conjecture that there may ht immaterial 
 essences of divers kinds, and endowed with 
 various attributes and capabilities. Hut the 
 real nature of these unseen principles eludes 
 oui research : they are only known to us by 
 their external manii'estations. T'ese mani- 
 festations are the various powers and capa- 
 bilities, or rather the habitudes of action, 
 which characterize the different orders of 
 beinp, diversified according to their several 
 destinations." 
 
 Dr. Prichard here puts forward 
 distinctly the time-honored doctrine 
 which refers the mental faculties to 
 the operation of the soul. The view 
 maintained by a distinguished com- 
 parative anaiOTiist, Professor Miv^art, 
 in his Genesis of Species^ ch. xii., may 
 fairly follow. " Man, according to 
 the old scholastic definition, is *a 
 rational animal ' {animal rationale), 
 and his animality is distinct in nature 
 from his rationality, though insepara- 
 bly jo.ned, during life, in one common 
 personality. Man's animal body must 
 have had a different source from that 
 of the spiritual soul which informs it, 
 owing to the distinctness cf the two 
 orders to which those two exi^itences 
 severally belong." Not to pursue into 
 its detaiii, a doctrine which has its 
 place Kii.ier in a theological than an 
 anthropological article, it remains to 
 be remark-^d that the two extracts 
 just given, however significant in 
 themselves, fail to render an account 
 of the view of the human constitution 
 which would probably, among the 
 theological and scholastic leaders of 
 public opinion, count the largest 
 weight of adherence. According to 
 this view, not only life but thought 
 are functions of the animal system, in 
 which man excels all other animals as 
 to height of organization ; but beyond 
 this, man embodies an immaterial and 
 immortal spiritual principle which no 
 lower creature possesses, and which 
 makes the resemblance of the apes to 
 him but a mocking simulance. To 
 pronounce any absolute decision on 
 these conflicting doctrines is foreign to 
 our present purpose, which is to show 
 that all of them count among their 
 adherents men of high rank in sci- 
 ence. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 
 III. ORIGIN OF MAN. 
 
 Available information on this great 
 problem has been multiphed tenfold 
 during the present generation, and 
 the positive dicta oC the older author- 
 ities are now more and more sup- 
 planted by hypotheses based on bio- 
 logical evidence. Opinion as to the 
 genesis of man is divided between 
 the theories of the two great schools 
 of biology, that of creation and that 
 of evolution. In both schools the an- 
 cient doctrine of the contemporaneous 
 appearance on earth of all species of 
 animals having been abandotied under 
 the positive evidence of geology, it is 
 admitted that the animal kingdom, 
 past and present, includes a vast 
 series of successive forms, whose 
 appearances and disappearances have 
 taken place at intervals during an im- 
 mense lapse of ages. The line of 
 inquiry has thus been directed to as- 
 certaining what formative relation 
 subsists among these species and gen- 
 era, the last link of the argument 
 reaching to the relation between man 
 and the lower atures preceding 
 him in tune. Oi» both the theories 
 here concerned it would be admitted, 
 in the words of Agassiz {Principles of 
 Zoology, pp. 205-6), that "ihere is a 
 manifest progress in the succession of 
 beings on thf» surface of the earth. 
 This progress consists in an increasing 
 similarity of the living fauna, and, 
 among the vertebrates especially, in 
 their increasing resemblance to man." 
 Agassiz continues, however, in terms 
 characteristic of the creationist 
 school : " But this connection is not 
 the consequence of a direct lineage 
 between the faunas of different ages. 
 There is nothing like parenial descent 
 connecting them. The fishes of the 
 Palaeozoic age are in no respect the 
 ancestors of the reptiles of the Secon- 
 dary age, nor does man descend from 
 the mammals which preceded him in 
 the Tertiary age. The link by which 
 they are connectftrf is of a higher and 
 immaterial nature ; and their connec- 
 tion is to be sought in the view of the 
 Creator himself, whose aim in forming 
 
 the earth, in allowing it to undergo 
 the successive changes which geology 
 has pointed out, and in creating suc- 
 cessively all the di^erent types of 
 animals which have passed away, was 
 to introduce man upon the surface of 
 our globe. Man is the end toward 
 which r'l the animal creation has 
 tended from the first appearance of 
 the first Palaeozoic fishes." The evo- 
 lutionist school, on the contrai/, 
 maintains that different successive 
 species of animals are in fact con- 
 nected by parental descent, having 
 become modified in the course o£ 
 successive generations. Mr. Darwin, 
 with whose name and that of Mr. 
 Wallace the modern development 
 theory is especially associated, in the 
 preface to his Descent of Man (1S71), 
 gives precedence among naturalists to 
 Lamarck, as having long ago come to 
 the conclusion "that man is the cO' 
 descendant with other species of some 
 ancient, lower, and extinct form." 
 Professor Huxley, remarking (Man'. 
 Place in Nature) on the crudeness ana 
 even absurdity of rome of Lamarck'a 
 views, dates from Darwin the scien- 
 tific existence of the development 
 theory. The result of Darwin's appli- 
 cation of this theory to man may be 
 given in his own words (Descent of 
 Man, part i. ch. 6) : — 
 
 "The Catarbine and Platyrhine monkeys 
 sigree in a n'ultitude of characlers, as is 
 shown by their unqu3stiorjably belonging to 
 one and the same Order. The many charac- 
 ters which they possess in common can 
 hardly have been mdepcndently acquired by 
 so many distinct species ; so that these char- 
 acters must have been inherited. But an 
 ancient form which possessed many charac- 
 ters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhins 
 monkeys, and others in an intermediate con- 
 dition, and some few perhaps distinct from 
 those now present in either group, would 
 undoubtedly have been ranked, if seen by a 
 naturalist, as an ape or a monkey. And as 
 roan under a genealogical point of view be- 
 longs to the Caiarhine or Old Wo'ld stock, 
 we must conclude, however much the conclu- 
 sion may revolt our pride, that our early 
 progenitors would have been properly thu? 
 designated. But we must not fall into the 
 error of supposing thai tfce early progenitor 
 of th" whole Simian stock, including man, 
 was identical with, or even ciosely resem- 
 bled, any existing ape or monkey." 
 
•T'-.^H"- 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 9 
 
 be 
 
 mns 
 
 clu- 
 
 hU5> 
 
 the 
 itor 
 an, 
 :in- 
 
 The problem of the origin of man 
 cannot be properly discussed apart 
 from the full problem of the origin of 
 species. The homologies between, 
 man and other animals which both 
 schools try to account for ; the expla- 
 nation of the iiitervals, with appaiont 
 v/ant of intermediate forms, which 
 seem to the creationists so absolute a 
 separation between species ; the evi- 
 dence of useless " rudimentary or- 
 gans," such as in man the external 
 shell of the ear, and the muscle which 
 enables some individuals to twitch 
 their ears, which mdimeiitary parts 
 the evolutionists claim to be only 
 explicable as relics of an earlfer 
 specific condition, — these, which are 
 the main points of the argument on 
 the origin of man, belong to general 
 biology. The philosophical princi- 
 ples which underlie the two theories 
 stand for the mo^t part in strong con- 
 trast, the theory of evolution tending 
 toward th; supposition of ordinary 
 causes, such as " natural selection," 
 producing modifications in species, 
 whether by gradual accur .ulation or 
 more sudden leaps, while the theory 
 of creation is prone to have recourse 
 to acts of supernatural intervention 
 (see the Duke of Argyll, JSeign of Law, 
 ch. v.). A theory has- been pro- 
 pounded by Mr. Mivart {Genesis of 
 Species, 187 1) of a natural evolution 
 of man as to his body, combined with 
 a supernatural creation as to his soul ; 
 but this attempt to meet the difficul- 
 ties on both sides seems at present 
 not to have satisfied either. Anthro- 
 pology waits to see whether the dis- 
 covery of intermediate forms, which 
 has of late years reduced so many 
 asserted sptcies to mere varieties, 
 will go on till it produces a disbelief 
 in any real jeparatiop between neigh- 
 boring species, and especially whether 
 geology can furnish traces of the 
 hypothetical animal, man's near an- 
 cestor, but not as yet man. In the 
 S resent istate of the argument it may 
 ere suffice to have bnsfi, in'iicated 
 the positions held on either side. 
 (Among' other works relating to the 
 development theory as applied to 
 
 man, see Vogt, Lectures on Man; 
 Haeckel, NatUrliche Schopfungsges- 
 chichte, 2d ed., 18*/ 1. 
 
 IV. RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 The classification of mankind into 
 a number of permanent varieties or 
 races, rests on grounds which are 
 within limits not only obvious but 
 definite. Whether from a popular or 
 a scientific point of view, it would be 
 admitted that a Negro, a Chinese, 
 and an Australian, belong to three 
 such permanent varieties of men, all 
 plainly distinguishable from one an- 
 other and from any European. More- 
 over, such a division takes for granted 
 the idea which is involved in the word 
 race, that each of these varieties is 
 due to special ancestry, each race 
 thus representing an ancient breed or 
 stock, however tliese breeds or stocks 
 may have had theiv origin. The 
 anthropological classification of man- 
 kind is thus zoological in its nature, 
 like that of the varieties or species of 
 any other animal group, and the char- 
 acters on which it is based are in 
 great measure physical, though intel- 
 lectual and traditional peculiarities, 
 such as moral habit and language, 
 furnish important aid. Among the 
 best-marked race-characters are the 
 following: — 
 
 The color of the skin has always 
 been held as specially distinctive. 
 The colored race-portraits of ancient 
 Egypt remain to prove the perma- 
 nence of complexion during a larse 
 of a hundred generations, distingu.ih- 
 ing coarsely but clearly the types of 
 the red-brown Egyptian, the yellow- 
 brown Canaanite, the comparatively 
 fair Libyan, and the Negro (see 
 Wilkinson; Ancient Eg.; Brugsch, 
 Geogr. Inschr. Altdgypt. Denim., vol. 
 ii.) These broad distinctions have 
 the same kind of value as the popu- 
 lar terms describing white, yellow, 
 brown, and black races, which often 
 occur in ancient writings, and are 
 still use'\ But for scientific purposes 
 
10 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 greater accuracy is required, and this 
 is now satisfactorily attained by the 
 use of Dr. Broca's graduated series 
 of colors as a standard {Mimoires de 
 la Socidt^ (V Anthropohgie de Paris, ii.). 
 By this table the varieties of the 
 humart skin may be followed from 
 the fairest hue of the Swede and the 
 darker tint of the Provencal, to the 
 withered-leaf brown of the Hottentot, 
 the chocolate brown of the Mexican, 
 and the brown-black of the West- 
 African. The color of the eyes and 
 hair is also to be defined accurately 
 by Broca's table. This affords, liow- 
 ever, less means of distinction, from 
 the extent in which dark tints of hair 
 and iris are common to races whose 
 skins are more perceptibly different ; 
 yet some varieties are characteristic, 
 such as the blue eyes and flaxen hair 
 of the fair race of Northern Europe. 
 
 As to the hair, its structure and 
 arrangement is a better indication of 
 race than its tint. The hair differs .in 
 quantity between scantiness on the 
 body of the Mongul and profusion on 
 the body of the Aino ; while as to the 
 arrangement on the scalp, the tufts 
 of the Bushman contrast with the 
 more equal distribution on the Euro- 
 pean head. The straight hair of the 
 North American or Malay is recog- 
 niz3ble at once as different from the 
 waving or curling I^air of the European 
 and both 'rom the naturally frizzed 
 hair of the Negro. These marked 
 differences are due to the structure 
 of the hair, which, examined in sec- 
 tions under the microscope, varies 
 from the circular section proper to 
 the straight-haired races, to the more 
 or less symmetrically oval or reniform 
 sections belonging to races with curled 
 and twisted hair (see Pruner-Bey in 
 Mdm, de la Soc. Anthrop., vol. ii.). 
 
 Stature is by no. means a general 
 criterion of race, and it would noi, 
 for inst.nce, be difficult to choose 
 groups of Englishmen, Kafirs, and 
 North American Indians, whose mean 
 height should hardly differ. Yet in 
 many cases it is a valuable means of 
 distinction, as between the tall Pata- 
 gonians and the stunted Fuegians, 
 
 and even as a help in minuter prob- 
 lems, such as separating the Teutonic 
 and Keltic ancestry in the population 
 of England (see Beddoe, " Stature and 
 Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in 
 Mem. Anthrop. Soc. London, vol. iii.). 
 Proportions of the limbs, compared 
 in length with the trunk, have been 
 claimed as constituting peculiarities 
 of African and American races ; and 
 other anatomical points, such as the 
 conformation of the pelvis, have 
 speciality. But inferences of this 
 class have hardly attained to sufficient 
 certainty and generality to be set 
 down in the form of rules. 
 
 The conformation of the skull is 
 second only to the color of the skin as 
 a criterion for the distinction of race. 
 The principal modes of estimating 
 the differences of skulls are the follow- 
 ing : — The skull being seen from 
 above, the proportions of the two 
 diameters are estimated on the princi- 
 ple employed by Retzius : taking the 
 longer diameter from front to back as 
 loo, if the shorter or cross diameter 
 falls below 80, the skull may be 
 classed as long (dolichocephalic) ; 
 while if it exceeds 80, the skull may 
 be classed as broad (brachycephalic) ; 
 or a third division may be introduced 
 between these as intermediate (Meso- 
 cephalic), comprehending skulls with 
 a proportionate breadth of 75 to 80, 
 or thereabout. The percentage of 
 breadth to length measured in this 
 manner is known as the cephalic in- 
 dex; thus, the cephalic index of a 
 Negro or Australian may be as low as 
 72, and that of a Tatar as high as 88, 
 while the majority of Europeans have 
 an index not departing in either di- 
 rection .very far from 78. The cepha- 
 lic height is measured in the same 
 way as a percentage of the length. 
 The back view (norma occipitalis) of 
 the skull is distinguished as rounded, 
 pentagonic, etc., and the base view 
 of the skull shows the position of the 
 occipital foramen and the zygomatic 
 arches. The position of the jaws is 
 recognized as important, races being 
 described as prognathous when the 
 jaws project far, as in the Australian 
 
ANTHR0P01.0GY. 
 
 11 
 
 or Negro, in contradistinction ta the 
 orthognathous type, which is that of 
 the ordinary well-shaped European 
 skull. On this distinction in great 
 measure depends the celebrated 
 '* facial angle," measured by Camper 
 as a test of low and high races ; but 
 this angle is objectionable as result- 
 ing partly from the development of 
 the forehead and partly from the posi- 
 tion of the jaws. The capacity of the 
 cranium is estimated in cubic meas- 
 ure by filling it with sand, etc., with 
 the general result that the civilized 
 white man is found to have a larger 
 brain than the barbarian or savage. 
 
 Classification of races on cranial 
 measurements has long been attempt- 
 ed by eminent anatomists, such as 
 Blumenbach and Retziur, while the 
 later labors of Von Baer, Welcker, 
 Davis, Broca, Busk, Lucae, and many 
 others, have brought the distinctions 
 to extreme minuteness. In certain 
 cases great reliance may be placed on 
 such measurements. Thus the skulls 
 of an Australian and a Negro would 
 be generally distinguished by their 
 narrowness and the projection of the 
 jaw from that of any Englishman ; 
 while, although both the Australian 
 and Negro are thus dolichocephalic 
 and prognathous, the first would usu- 
 ally differ perceptibly from the second 
 in its upright sides and strong orbital 
 ridges. The relation of height to 
 breadth may furnish a valuable test ; 
 thus both the Kafir and the Bushman 
 are dolichocephalic, with an index of 
 about 72, but they differ in the index 
 of height, which may be 73 and 71 
 respectively, in the one "ase more 
 than the width and in the other less. 
 It is, however, acknowledged by all 
 experienced craniologists, that the 
 shape of the skull may vary so much 
 within the same tribe, and even the 
 same family, that it must be ur ed with 
 extreme caution, and if- possible only 
 in conjunction with other ciiteria of 
 race. 
 
 The general contour of the face, in 
 part dependent on the form of the 
 skull, varies much in different races, 
 among whom it is loosely defined as 
 
 oval, lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, etc. 
 Of particular features, some of the 
 most marked contrasts to European 
 types are seen in the oblique Chinese 
 eyes, the broad-set Kamchadal 
 cheeks, the pomted Arab chin, the 
 snub Kirghis nose, the fleshy pro- 
 tuberant Negro lips, and the broad 
 Kalmuk ear. Taken altogether, the 
 features have a typical character which 
 popular observation seizes with some 
 degree of correctness, as in the recog- 
 nition of the Jewish countenance in a 
 European city. 
 
 The state of adaptation in which 
 each people stands to its native cli- 
 mate forms a definite race-character. 
 In its extreme form this is instanced 
 in the harmful effect of the climate of 
 India on children of European par- 
 ents, and the corresponding danger 
 in transporting natives of tropical cli- 
 mates to England. Typical instances, 
 of the trelation of race-constitutions 
 to particubr diseases are seen in the 
 liability of Europeans in the West 
 Indies to yellow fever, from which 
 Negroes are exempt, and in the habi- 
 tation by tribes in India of so-called 
 " unhealthy districts," whose climate 
 is deadly to Europeans, and even to 
 natives of neighboring regions. Even 
 the vermin infesting different races of 
 men are classified by Mr. A. Murray 
 {Trans. jR. Soc. Edin., vol. xxii.) as 
 distinct. 
 
 The physical capabilities of differ- 
 ent races are known to differ widely, 
 but it is not easy to discriminate here 
 between hereditarj' race-differences 
 and those due to particular food and 
 habit of life. A similar difficulty has 
 hitherto stood in the way of any defi- 
 nite classificatiun of the emotional, 
 moral, and intellectual charav-^ters of 
 races. Some of the most confident 
 judgments which have been delivered 
 0:\ this subject have been dictated by 
 prejudice or wilful slander, as in the 
 many lamentable cases in which slave- 
 holders and conquerors have excused 
 their ill-treatment of subject and in- 
 vaded races on the ground of their 
 being creatures of bestial nature in 
 mind and morals. Two of the best- 
 
12 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 marked contrasts of mental type re- 
 corded among races are Mr. A. R. 
 Wallace's distinction between the shy, 
 reserved, and impassive Malay and 
 the sociable and demonstrative Pap- 
 uan {Tr. Eth, Soc, vol iii. p. 200), and 
 the very similar difference pointed 
 out by Spix and Martius between the 
 dull and morose natives of the Brazil- 
 ian forests, and the lively sensuous 
 African Negroes brought into contact 
 witH them (Reise in Brasilien, vol. i.) 
 In general, however, descriptions of 
 national or racial character are so 
 vitiated by the confusion of peculiarity 
 of natural character with stage of 
 civilization, that they can only be 
 made use of with the greatest reserve. 
 
 The 1 elation of language to race is 
 discussed below. (Section VI.) 
 
 Were the race-characters indicated 
 in tlie foregoing paragraphs constant 
 in degree or even in kind, the classifi- 
 cation of races would be an easy task. 
 In fact it is not so, for every division 
 of mankind presents in every charac- 
 ter wide deviations from a standard. 
 Thus the Negro race, well marked as 
 it may seem at the first glance, proves 
 on closer examination to include 
 several shades of complexion and 
 features, in some districts varying far 
 from, the accepted Negro type ; while 
 the examination of a series of native 
 American tribes shows that, notwith- 
 standing their asserted uniformity of 
 type, they differ in stature, color, 
 features, and proportions of skull. 
 (See Prichard, Nat. Hist, of Man; 
 Waitz, Anthropology, part i. sec. 5.). 
 Detailed anthropological research, 
 indeed, more and more justifies Blu- 
 menbach's words, that " innumerable 
 varieties of mankind run into one an- 
 other by insensible degrees." This 
 state of things, due partly to mixture 
 ftnd crossing of races, and partly to 
 independent variation of types, makes 
 the attempt to arrange the whole hu- 
 man species within exactly bounded 
 divisions an apparently hopeless task. 
 It does not follow, however, that the 
 attempt to distinguish special races 
 9hould be given up, for there at least 
 exist several definable types, each of 
 
 which so far prevails in a certain pop. 
 ulation as to be taken as its standard. 
 M. Quetelet's plan of defining such 
 types will probably meet with gen- 
 eral acceptance as the scientific method 
 proper to this branch of anthropology. 
 It consists in the determination of the 
 standard, or typical " mean man " 
 (homme moyeti) of a population, with 
 reference to any particular quality, 
 such as stature, weight, complexion, 
 etc. In the case of stature, this would 
 be done by measuring a sufficient 
 number of men, and counting how 
 many of them belong to each height 
 on the scale. If it be thus ascer- 
 tained, as it might be in an English 
 district, that the 5 ft. 7 in. men form 
 the most numerous group, while the 
 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in. men are less 
 in number, and the 5 ft. 5 in. and 5 
 ft. 9 in. still fewer, and so on until the 
 extremely small number of extremely 
 short or tall individuals of 5 ft. or 7 
 ft. is reached, i; will thus be ascer- 
 tained that the stature of the mean or 
 typical man is to be taken as 5 ft. ; in. 
 The method is thus that of selecting 
 as the standard the most numerous 
 group, on both sides of which ' the 
 groups decrease in number as they 
 vary in type. Such classification may 
 show the existence of two or more 
 types in a community, as, fo 'instance, 
 the population of a Californian settle- 
 ment niiade up of Whites and Chinese 
 might show two predominant groups 
 (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of 5 ft. 
 4 in.) corresponding to these two 
 racial types. It need hardly be said 
 that this method of determining the 
 mean type of a race, as being that of 
 its really existing and most numerous 
 class, is altogether superior to the 
 mere calculation of an average, which 
 may actually be represented by com- 
 paratively few individuals, and those 
 the exceptional ones. For instance, 
 the average stature of the mixed 
 European and Chinese population just 
 referred to might be 5 ft. 6 in. — a 
 worthless and, indeed, misleading re- 
 sult. (For particulars of Quetelet's 
 method, see his Physique Sociale, 1869, 
 and AnthroponUtrie, 1870.) The 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 18 
 
 :h 
 
 measurement and description of the 
 various races of men are now carried 
 to great minuteness (the tables in 
 Scherzer and Schwarz, Reise der No- 
 vara, and those of Fritscn, Die Einge- 
 bormen Siiti-A/rika's, 1872, may be 
 cited as examples of modern method), 
 so that race-classification is rapidly 
 improving as to both scope and accu- 
 racy. Even where comparatively 
 loose observations have been made, 
 it is possible, by inspection of consid- 
 erable numbers of individuals, to de- 
 fine the prevalent type of a race with 
 tolerable approximation to the real 
 mean or standard man. It is in this 
 way that the subdivision of mankind 
 into races, so far as it has been done 
 to any purpose, has been carried out 
 by anthropologists. 
 
 These classifications have been 
 numerous, and though, regarded as 
 systems, most of them are now seen 
 at the first glance to be unsatisfactory, 
 yet they have been of great value in 
 systematizing knowledge, and are all 
 more or less based on indisputable 
 distinctions. Blumenbach's division, 
 though published nearly a century 
 ago (1781), has had the greatest influ- 
 ence. He reckons five races, viz., 
 Caucasian, Mongolian,' Ethiopian, 
 American, Malay (see the collected 
 edition of his Treatises, p. 264, pub- 
 lished by the Anthropological Society). 
 The ill-chosen name of Caucasian, 
 used by Blumenbach to denote what 
 may be called white men, is still 
 current ; it brings into one rac^ peo- 
 ples such as the Arabs and Swedes, 
 although these are scarcely less differ- 
 ent than the Americans and Malays, 
 who are set down as two distinct 
 races. Again, two of the best-marked 
 varieties of mankind are the Austra- 
 lians and the Bushmen, neither of 
 whom, however, seem to have a nat- 
 ural place in Blumenbach's series. 
 The yet simpler classification by 
 Cuvier into Caucasian^ Mongol, and 
 Negro, corresponds in some measure 
 with a division by mere complexion 
 into white, yellow, and black races ; 
 but neither this threefold division, nor 
 the ancient classification into Semitic, 
 
 Hamitic, and Japhetic nations can be 
 regarded as separating the human 
 types either justly or sufficiently (see 
 Prichard, Natural History of Many 
 sec. 15 ; Waitz, Anthropology, vol. i. 
 part i. sec. 5). Schemes which set 
 up a larger number of distinct races, 
 such as the eleven of Pickering, the 
 fifteen of Bory de St. Vincent, and the 
 sixteen of Desmoulins, have the ad- 
 vantage of finding niches for most 
 well-defined human varieties ; but no 
 modern naturalist would be likely to 
 adopt any one of these as it stands. 
 In criticism of Pickering's system, it 
 is sufficient to point out that he di- 
 vides the white nations into two races, 
 entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian 
 (Pickering, Races of Man, chap. 1.) 
 Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd, and others 
 who have ass^mied a much larger num- 
 ber of races or species of man, are 
 not considered to have satisfactorily 
 defined a corresponding number of 
 distinguishable types. On the whole. 
 Professor Huxley's recent scheme 
 {Journal of the Ethnological Society, 
 vol. ii. p. 404, 1870) probably ap- 
 proaches more nearly than any other 
 to such a tentative classification as 
 may be accepted in definition of the 
 principal varieties of mankind, regard- 
 ed from a zoological point of view, 
 though anthropologists may be dis- 
 posed to erect into separate races 
 several of his widely-differing sub- 
 races. He distinguishes four princi- 
 pal types of mankind, the Australioid, 
 Negroid, Mongoloid, and Xantho- 
 chroic, adding a fifth variety, the 
 Melanochroic. 
 
 The special points of the Austra- 
 lioid are a chocolate-brown skin, dark 
 brown or black eyes, black hair (usu- 
 ally wavy), narrow (dolichocephalic) 
 skull, brow-ridges strongly developed, 
 projecting jaw, coarse lips, and broad 
 nose. This type is best represented 
 by the natives of Australia, and next 
 to them, by the indigenous tribes of 
 Southern India, the so-called coolies» 
 The Egyptians to some degree ap- 
 proach this type; they are, however, 
 held by |;ood authorities to be a mod> 
 ified African race. 
 
14 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY'. 
 
 The Negroid type is primarily rep- 
 resented by the Negro of Africa, be- 
 tween the Sahara and the Cape dis- 
 trict, including Madagascar. The skin 
 varies from dark brown to brown- 
 black, with eyes of similar dark hue, 
 and hair usually black, and always 
 crisp or woolly. The skull is narrow 
 Cdolichocephalic), with orbital ridges 
 not prominent, prognathous, with de- 
 pressed nasal bones. Causing the nose 
 to be flat as well as broad ; and the 
 lips are coarse and projecting. Two 
 important families are classed in this 
 system as special modifications of the 
 Negroid type. First, the Bushman of 
 South Africa is diminutive in stature, 
 and of yellowish-brown complexion ; 
 the Hottentot is supposed to be the 
 result of crossing between the Bush- 
 man and ordinary Negroid. Sec- 
 ond, the Negritos of the Andaman 
 Islands, the peninsula of Malacca, 
 the Philippines and other islands, 
 to New Caledonia and Tasmania, 
 arc mostly dolichocephalic, with dark 
 skins and woolly hair. In various 
 districts they tend toward other 
 types, and show traces of mixture. 
 
 The Mongoloid type prevails over 
 the vast arei lying east of a lins 
 drawn from Lapland to Siam. Its 
 definition includes a short, squat build, 
 a yellowish brown complexion, with 
 black eyes and black straight hair, a 
 broad (brachycephalic) skull, usually 
 without prominent brow-ridges, flat 
 small nose, and oblique eyes. The 
 dolichocephalic Chinese and Japanese 
 in other respects correspond. Vari - 
 ous other important branches of the 
 human species are brought into connec- 
 tion with the Mongoloid type, though 
 on this view the differences they pre- 
 sent raise difficult problems of grad- 
 ual variation, as well as of mixture of 
 race ; these are the Dyak-Ma!ys, the 
 Polynesians, and the Americans. 
 
 The Xanthochroi, or fair whites — 
 tall, with almost colorless skin, blue 
 or gray eyes, hair from straw c.-^1or to 
 chestnut, and skulls varying as to pi^^- 
 portionate width — are the prevalent 
 inhabitants of Northern Europe, and 
 the type may be traced into North 
 
 Africa, and eastward as far as Hindo- 
 stan. On the south and west ii mixes 
 with that of the Melanochroi, or dark 
 whites, and on the north and east with 
 that of the Mongoloids. 
 
 The Melanochroi, or dark whites, 
 differ from the fair whites in the dark- 
 ening of the complexion to brownish 
 and olive, and of the eyes and hair to 
 black, while the stature is somewhat 
 lower and the frame lighter. To this 
 class belong a large part of those 
 classed as Kelts, and of the popula- 
 tions of Southern Europe, such as 
 Spaniards, Greeks, and Arabs, ex^end- 
 ing as far as India; while endless in- 
 termediate grades between the two 
 white types testify to ages of inter- 
 mingling. Professor Huxley is dis- 
 posed to account for the Melanochroi 
 as themselves the result of crossing 
 between the Xanthochroi and the 
 Australioids. Whatever ground there 
 may be for his view, it is obviously 
 desirable to place them in a class by 
 themselves, distinguishing them by an 
 appropriate name. 
 
 In .determining whether the races 
 of mankind are to be classed as varie- 
 ties of one species, it is important to 
 decide whether every two races can 
 unite to produce fertile offspring. It 
 is settled by experience that the most 
 numerous and well-known crossed 
 races, such as the Mulattos, descended 
 from Europeans and Negroes — the 
 Mestizos, from Europeans and Amer- 
 ican indigenes — the Zambos, from 
 these American indigenes, and Ne- 
 groes, etc., ate permanently fertile. 
 They practically constitute sub-races, 
 with a general blending of the charac- 
 ters of the two parents, and only dif- 
 fering from fully established races in 
 more or less tendency to revert to 
 one or other of the original types. It 
 has been argued, on the other hand, 
 that not all such mixed breeds are 
 permanent, and especially that the 
 cross between Europeans and Austra- 
 lian indigenes is almost sterile ; but 
 this assertion, when examined with 
 the care demat>ded by its bearing on 
 the general question of hybridity, has 
 distinctly broken down. On the 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 13 
 
 whole, the general e/idence favors the 
 opiryon that any two races may coni 
 bine to produce a new sub-race, which 
 again may combine with any other 
 variety. (See Waitz, Anthropology^ 
 vol. i. part i. sec. 3 ; Darwin, Descent 
 of Man, part i. ch. 7 ; Prichard, Nat. 
 Hist, of Man, sect. 5 ; on the other 
 hand, Broca, Phenomena of Hybridity 
 in the Genus Homo, 1864.) Thus, if 
 the existence of a small number of 
 distinct races of mankind be taken as 
 a starting-point, it is obvious that their 
 crossing would produce an indefinite 
 number of secondary varieties, such 
 as the population of the world actually 
 presents. The working out in detail 
 of the problem, how far the dififerences 
 among complex nations, such as those 
 of Europft, may have been brought 
 about by hybridity, is still, however, 
 a task of almost hopeless intricacy. 
 Among the boldest attempts to ac- 
 count for distinctly-marked popu- 
 lations as resulting from the inter- 
 mixture of two races, are Professor 
 Huxley's view that the Hottentots are 
 hybrid between the Bushmen and the 
 Negroes, and his more important sug- 
 gestion, that the Melanochroic peoples 
 of Southern Europe are of mixed Xan- 
 thochroic and Australioid stock. 
 
 The problem of ascertaining how 
 the snail number of races, distinct 
 enough to be called primary, can have 
 assumed their different types, has been 
 for years the most disputed field of 
 anthropology, the battle-ground of the 
 rival schools of monogenists and poly- 
 genists. The one has claimed all 
 mankind to be descended from one 
 original stock, and generally from a 
 single pair; the other has contended 
 for the several primary races being 
 separate species of independent ori- 
 gin. It is not merely as a question 
 of natural history that the matter has 
 been argued. Biblical authority has 
 been appealed to, mostly on the side 
 of the monogenists, as recording the 
 descent of mankind from a single pair. 
 (See, for example. Home's Introduc- 
 tion to the Scriptures; the Speaker's 
 Commentary, Gen. i.) On the other 
 hand, however, the polygenists not 
 
 less confidently claim passages from 
 which they infer the existence of non- 
 Adamite, as well as Adamite races of 
 man. (See, for example, R. S, Poole, 
 Genesis of the Earth and Man.) Nor 
 have political considerations been 
 without influence, as where, for in- 
 stance, one American school of ethnol- 
 ogists have been thought to have 
 formed, under the bias of a social sys- 
 tem recognizing slavery, their opinion 
 that the Negro and the white man are 
 of different species. (See Morton, 
 Crania Americana ; Nott and Gliddon, 
 Types of Mankind.) Of the older 
 school of scientific monogenists, Blum- 
 enbach and Prichard are eminent rep- 
 resentatives, as is Quatrefages of the 
 more modern. The great problem of 
 the monogenist theory is to explain by 
 what course of variation the so differ- 
 ent races of man have arisen from a 
 single stock. In ancient times little 
 difficulty was felt in this, authorities 
 such as Aristotle and Vitruvius seeing 
 in climate an 1 circumstance the nat- 
 ural cause of racial differences, the 
 Ethiopian having been blackened by 
 the tropical sun, etc. Later and clos- 
 er observations, however, have shown 
 such influences to be, at any rate, far 
 slighter in amount and slower in oper- 
 ation than was once supposed. M. 
 de Quatrefages brings forward {Unitd- 
 ds rEsphe JIumaine, Paris, 186 1, ch, 
 13) his strongest arguments for the 
 variability of races under change of 
 climate, etc., (action du milieu^ in- 
 stancing the asserted alteration in 
 complexion, constitution, and charac- 
 ter of Negroes in America, and Eng- 
 lishmen in America and Australia. 
 But although the reality of some such 
 modification is not disputed, especially 
 as to stature and constitution, its 
 amount is not enough to upset the 
 counter-proposition of the remarkable 
 permanence of type displayed by 
 races ages after they have been trans- 
 ported to climates extremely different 
 from that of their former home. 
 Moreover, physically different races, 
 such as the Bushmen and Negroids 
 in Africa, show no signs of approxi- 
 mation under the influence of the 
 
16 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 same climate ; while, on the other 
 hand, the coast tribes of Tierra del 
 Fuego and forest tribes of tropical 
 Brazil continue to resemble one 
 another, in spite of extreme differ- 
 ence:-, cf climate and food. Mr. 
 Darwin, than whom no naturalist 
 could be more competent to appraise 
 the variation of a species, is moderate 
 in hi'j estimation of the changes pro- 
 duced on races of man by climate and 
 mode of life within the range of his- 
 tory {Descent of Man, part i. ch. 4 and 
 7). The slightness and slowness of 
 Vfiiation in human races having be- 
 come known, a great difficulty of the 
 monogenist theory was seen to lie in 
 the shortness of the chronology with 
 which it was formerly associated. In- 
 asmuch as several well-marked races 
 of mankind, such as the Egyptian, 
 Phoenician, Ethiopian, etc., were 
 much the same three or four thou- 
 sand years ago as now, their variation 
 from a single stock in the course of 
 any like period could hardly be ac- 
 counted for without a miracle. This 
 difficulty was escaped by the polyge- 
 nist theory, which, till a few years since, 
 was gaining ground. (See Pouchet, 
 Plurality of the Human Race, 2d ed., 
 1864, Introd.) Two modern views 
 have, however, intervened which have 
 tended to restore, though under a 
 new aspect, the doctrine of a single 
 human stock. One has been the rec- 
 ognition of man having existed during 
 a vast period of time (see sec. IV., 
 Antiquity of Man), which made it 
 more easy to assume the continuance 
 of very slow natural variation as hav- 
 ing differenced even the white man 
 and the Negro among the decendants 
 of a common progenitor. The other 
 view is that of the evolution or develop- 
 ment of species, at the present day so 
 strongly upheld among naturalists. 
 It does not follow necessarily from a 
 theory of evolution of species that 
 mankind must have descended from 
 a single stock, for the hypothesis of 
 development admits of the argument, 
 that several simious species may have 
 culminated in several races of man 
 (Vogt, Lectures on Man, London, 1864, 
 
 p. 463). The general tendency of 
 the development theory, however, is 
 against constituting separate species 
 where the differences are moderate 
 enough to be accounted for as due to 
 variation from a single type. Mr. 
 Darwin's summing up of the evidence 
 as to unity of type throughout the 
 races of mankind is as distinctly a 
 monogenist argument as those of 
 Blumenbach, Prichard, or Quatre- 
 fages — 
 
 " Although the existing races of man differ 
 in many respects, as in color, hair, shape of 
 skull, proportions of the body, etc., yet, if 
 their whole organization be taken in consider- 
 ation they are found to resemble each other 
 closely in a multitude of points. Many of 
 these points are of so unimportant, or of so sin- 
 gular a nature, that it is extremelyJmprobable 
 that they should have been independently 
 acquired by aboriginally distinct species or 
 races. The ."ame remark holds good with 
 equal or greater force with respect to the 
 numerous points of mental similarity between 
 the most distinct races of man. . . . Now, 
 when naturalists observe a close agreement in 
 numerous small details of hab'.ts, tastes, and 
 dispositions between two or more domestic 
 races, or between nearly allied natural forms, 
 they use this fact as an argument that all are 
 descended from a common progenitor, who 
 was thus endowed ; and, consequently, that 
 all should be classed under the same species. 
 Thesame argument may be applied with much 
 force to the races of man."— '(Darwin, Z>e- 
 scent of Man, part i. ch. 7.) 
 
 A. suggestion by Mr. A. R. Wallace 
 has great importance in the applica- 
 tioa of the development thecrj' to the 
 origin of the various races of man ; it 
 is aimed to meet the main difficulty 
 of the monogenist school, how races 
 which have remained comparatively 
 fixed in type during the long period 
 of history, such as the white man and 
 the Negro, should have, in even a far 
 longer period, passed by variation 
 from a common original. Mr. Wal- 
 lace's view is substantially that the re- 
 motely ancient representatives of the 
 human species, being as yet animals 
 too low in mind to have developed 
 those arts of maintenance and social 
 ordinances by which man holds his 
 own against mfluences from climate 
 and circumstance, were in their then 
 wild state much more plastic than 
 
ANTHKOl'OLOGY, 
 
 17 
 
 iency of 
 wever, is 
 i Species 
 moderate 
 IS due to 
 )e. Mr. 
 evidence 
 hout the 
 itinctly a 
 those of 
 Qu at re- 
 
 man differ 
 r, shape of 
 ;tc., yet, if 
 n consider- 
 each other 
 Many of 
 3r of so sin- 
 mprobable 
 ependently 
 species or 
 good with 
 lect to the 
 ity between 
 . . . Now, 
 [reempnt in 
 tastes, and 
 e domestic 
 ,ural forms, 
 Ihat all are 
 nitor, who 
 
 ntly, that 
 ne species. 
 
 with much 
 irwin, De- 
 
 Wallace 
 
 applica- 
 
 y to the 
 
 man ; it 
 
 ifficulty 
 
 )w races 
 
 aratively 
 
 period 
 
 man and 
 
 ren a far 
 
 /ariatjon 
 
 r. Wal- 
 
 t the re- 
 
 s of the 
 
 animals 
 
 veloped 
 
 social 
 
 olds his 
 
 climate 
 
 iir then 
 
 ic than 
 
 now to external nature ; so that " nat- 
 u?ar selection" and other ,c{iuses 
 met with but feeble resistance in form- 
 ing the permanent varieties or races 
 of man, whose complexion and struct- 
 ure still remain fixed in their descend- 
 ants. (See Wallace, Conlnhutions to 
 the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 
 319.) On the whole, it may be as- 
 serted that the doctrine of the unity 
 of mankind now stands on a firmer 
 basis than in previous ages. It would 
 be prema re to judge how far the 
 problem of the origin of races may be 
 capable of exact solution ; but the ex- 
 perience of the last few years count- 
 enances Mr. Darwin's prophecy, that 
 before long the dispute between the 
 monogenists and the polygenists will 
 die a silent and unobserved death. 
 
 V. ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 
 
 It was until of late years commonly 
 held among the educated classes, 
 that man's first appearance on earth 
 might be treated on a historical basis 
 as matter of record. It is true that 
 the schemes drawn up by chronolo- 
 gists differed widely, as was naturally 
 the case, considering the variety and 
 inconsistenty of their documentary 
 data. On the whole, the scheme of 
 Archbishop Usher, who computed 
 that the earth and man were created 
 in 4004 B.C., was the most popular. 
 It is no longer necessary, however, 
 to discuss these chronologies, inas- 
 much as new evidence has so changed 
 the aspect of the subject, that the 
 quasi-historical schemes of the last 
 century would now hardly be main- 
 tained by any competent authority of 
 any school. Geology, notwithstand- 
 ing the imperfection of its results, has 
 made it manifest that our earth must 
 have been the seat of vegetable and 
 animal life for an immense period of 
 time; while the first appearance of 
 man, though comparatively recent, is 
 positively so remote, that an estimate 
 between twenty and a hundred thou- 
 sand years may fairly be taken as a 
 
 minimum. This geological claim for 
 a vast antiquity of the human race is 
 supported by the similar claims of 
 prehistoric archteology and the science 
 of culture, the evidence of all three 
 de|)artments of inquiry being inti- 
 mately connected, and iu perfect har- 
 mony. 
 
 During the last half century, the 
 fact has been established that human 
 bones and objects of human manu- 
 facture occur in such geological rela- 
 tion to the remains of fossil species of 
 elephant, rhinoceros, hyaena, bear, 
 etc., as to lead to the distinct infer- 
 ence that man already existed during 
 the ancient period of these now ex- 
 tinct mammalia. The not quite con- 
 clusive researches of MM. Tournal 
 and Christol in limestone caverns of 
 the south of France date back to 1828. 
 About the same time Dr. Schmerling 
 of Lidge was exploring the ossiferous 
 caverns of the valley of the Meuse, 
 and satisfied himself that the men 
 whose bones he found beneath the 
 stalagmite floors, together with bones 
 cut and flints shaped by human work- 
 manship, had inhabited this Belgian 
 district at the same time with the 
 cave-bear and several other extinct 
 animals whose bones were imbedded 
 with them {Recherches sur les Osse- 
 ments fossiles d^couverts dans les Ca- 
 vernes de la Province de Litfge, Lidge, 
 1833-34). This evidence, however, 
 met with little acceptance among sci- 
 entific men. Nor, at first, was more 
 credit given to the discovery by M. 
 Boucher de Perthes, about 1841, of 
 rude flint hatchets in a sand-bed con- 
 taining remains of mammoth and rhi- 
 noceros at Menchecourt near Abbe- 
 ville, which first find was followed by 
 others in the same district (see Bou- 
 cher de Perthes, De F Industrie Prim- 
 itive, ou les Arts d leur Origine, 1846 ; 
 Antiqtiith Celtiques et Ant/diluviennes, ' 
 Paris, 1847, ^tC') '■> between 1850 and 
 i860 competent French and English 
 geologists, among them Pugollot, Fal- 
 coner, Prestwich, and Evans, were in- 
 duced to examine into the facts, and 
 found the evidence irresistible that 
 man existed and used rude imple- 
 
18 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 iii 
 
 i it 
 
 ments of chipped flint during the 
 Quaternary or I)rift period. Further 
 investigations were now made, and 
 overlooked results of older ones re- 
 viewed. In describing Kent's Hole, 
 near Torquay, Mr. Godwin-Austen 
 had maintained, as early as 1840 
 (Froc. Geo. Soc. London, vol. iii. p. 
 286), that the human bones and 
 worked Hints had been deposited in- 
 discriminately together with the re- 
 mains of fossil elephant, rhinoceros, 
 etc.; a minute exploration of this cav- 
 ern has since been carried on under 
 the superintendence of Messrs. Vivi- 
 an, Pengelly, and others, fully justi- 
 fying Mr. Godwin-Austen's early re- 
 mark, that 'there is no a priori rea- 
 son why man and the several animals 
 whose remains occur in caves and in 
 gravel should not have lived here at 
 some remote time " (see Pengelly, 
 "Literature of Kent's Cavern," in 
 Trans. Dti>onshire Association^ 1868). 
 Especially certain caves and rock- 
 shelters in the province of Dordogne, 
 in central France, were examined by 
 a French and an English archaeolo- 
 gist, Mons, Edouard Lartet and Mr. 
 Henry Christy, the remains discov- 
 ered showing the former prevalence 
 of the rein-deer in this region, at that 
 time inhabited by savages, whose 
 bone and stone implements indicate a 
 habit of life similar to that of the 
 Esquimaux. Moreover, the co-exist- 
 ence of man with a fauna now ex- 
 tinct or confined to other districts was 
 brought to yet clearer demonstration, 
 by the discovery in these caves of 
 certain drawings and carvings of the 
 animals done by the ancient inhrb- 
 itants themselves, such as a group of 
 rein-deer on a piece of rem-deer horn, 
 and a sketch of a mammoth, showing 
 this elephant's long hair, on a piece 
 of a mammoth's tusk from La Made- 
 leine (Lartet and Christy, Reliquice 
 Aquitanicce, ed. by T. R. Jones, Lon- 
 don, 1865, etc.). These are among 
 the earliest and principal of a series 
 of discoveries of human relics belong- 
 ing to what may he termed geological 
 antiquity, with which should be men- 
 dopi^d Mr. Boy4 DawHins's examina- 
 
 tion of the hyaena den of Wokey 
 Hole, Dr. Lund's researches in the 
 caves of Brazil, those in the south of 
 France by the Marquis de Vibraye 
 and MM. Garrigou and Filhol, those 
 in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, and Mr. 
 Bruce Foote's discovery of rude 
 quartzite implements in the la;erite of 
 India. Fuller details of the general 
 subject will be found in Sir C. Lyell's 
 Antiquity of Man, 4th ed., London, 
 1873 ; Sir John LublDock's Prehistoric 
 Times, 3d ed., London, 1873; Dr. H. 
 Falconer's Tahcontological Memoirs, 
 London, 1868 ; the volumes of Proceed- 
 ings of the International Congress of 
 Prehistoric Archceology ; and the peri- 
 odical Matt'riaux pour l Histoire 
 Primitive et Nattirelle de V Homme, 
 edited at first by De Mortillet, and 
 since by Trulat and Cartailhac. 
 
 This evidence is now generally 
 accepted by geologists as carrying 
 back the existence of man into the 
 period of the post-glacial drift, in 
 what is now called the Quaternary 
 period. That this indicates an antiq- 
 uity at least of tens of thousands of 
 years may be judged in several ways. 
 The very position in which these rude 
 instruments were found showed that 
 they belonged to a time quite separate 
 froiTi that of history. Thus, at St. 
 Acheul flint hatchets occur in a . 
 gravel-bed immediately overlying the 
 chalk, which bed is covered by some 
 12 feet of sand and marl, capped by a 
 layer of soil, which is shown by graves 
 of the Gallo-Roman period to have 
 been hardly altered during the last 
 1500 years. This distinction between 
 the drift deposits and those contain- 
 ing relics of historic ages is, as a gen- 
 eral rule evident at a glance. Next, 
 the succession of ages to which differ- 
 ent classes of remains belong is well 
 marked ; the drift implements belong 
 to the palaeolithic or old stone age, 
 when as yet the implements were ex- 
 tremely rude, and not ground or pol- 
 ished ; above these in deposit, and 
 therefore later in time, come the 
 artistically shaped and polished celts 
 of the neolithic or new stone age ; 
 above these, again, relics of the 
 
 I 
 
ANTllROi'OLOGy. 
 
 ments, comprise 
 mammalia which 
 extinct, such as 
 hairy rhinoceros, 
 
 brQnze and early iron ages, mlh 
 which historical antiquity in Kurope 
 begins. Again, the animals of the 
 Quaternary period, whose bonts are 
 found with the rude stone imple- 
 several species of 
 have since become 
 the mammoth, the 
 and the Irish elk, 
 while others, such as the rein-deer 
 and musk-ox, now only inhabit remote 
 districts. It is generally considered 
 that such a fauna indicates, at any 
 rate during part of the Quaternary 
 period, a severer climate than now 
 prevails in France and England. 
 This difference from the present con- 
 ditions seems to confirm the view, 
 that the twenty centuries of French 
 and English history form but a frac- 
 tion of the time which has elapsed 
 since the stone implements of prehis- 
 toric tribes were first buried under 
 beds of gravel and sand by the rivers 
 now represented by the Thames or 
 the Somme. Still vaster, however, is 
 the idea of antiquity suggested by the 
 geographical conformation of such 
 valleys as those in which these rivers 
 flow. The drift-beds lie on their 
 sides often loo to 200 feet, and even 
 more, above the present flood-levels. 
 As such highest deposits seem to 
 mark the time when the rivers flowed 
 at heights so far above the present 
 channels, it follows that the drift-beds, 
 and the men whose works they en- 
 close, must have existed during a 
 great part of the time occupied by the 
 rivers in excavating their valleys 
 down to their present beds. Grant- 
 ing it as possible that the rivers by 
 which this enormous operation was 
 performed were of greater volume 
 and proportionately still greater 
 power in flood-time than the present 
 streams, which seem so utterly inad- 
 equate to their valleys, and granting 
 also, that under different conditions of 
 climate the causing of debacles by 
 ground-ice may have been a po'' .rful 
 excavating agent, nevertheless, with 
 all such allowances the reckoning of 
 ages seems vastly out of proportion to 
 ljistorica,l chronology. It is «ot con- 
 
 venient to discuss here Mr. Trest- 
 wich's division of the drift gravels 
 into high and low level beds, nor Mr. 
 A. Tylor's argument against this divi- 
 sion, nor the latter's theory of a Plu- 
 vial period succeeding the Glacial pe- 
 riod (see Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc.^ 
 vol. xxiv. part 2, vol. xxv. part i). 
 The geology of the Quaternary or 
 Post-tertiary gravels, on which the 
 geological argument for the high 
 antiquity of man mainly rests, has 
 been especially treated by Prestwich 
 in the Fhilos. Trans., i860, p. 277, 
 and 1864, p. 247 ; see also J. Evans, 
 Ancient Stone Impis., ch. 25 ; refer- 
 ences to the writings of other geolo- 
 gists will be found in the already 
 mentioned works of Lyell and Lub- 
 bock. 
 
 Beside these arguments, which sug- 
 gest high antiquity rather than offer 
 means of calculation, certain infer- 
 ences (accounts of which are also 
 given in the last-named works) have 
 been tentatively made from the depth 
 of mud, earth, peat, etc., which has 
 accumulated above relics of human 
 art imbedded in ancient times. 
 Among these is Mr. Horner's argu- 
 ment from the numerous borings 
 made in the alluvium of the Nile val- 
 ley to a depth of 60 feet, where down 
 to the lowest level fragments of burnt 
 brick and pottery were always found, 
 showing that people advanced enough 
 in the arts to bake brick and pottery 
 have inhabited the valley during the 
 long period requi -ed for the Nile in- 
 undations to deposit 60 feet of mud, 
 at a rate probably not averaging more 
 than a few inches in a cejitury. 
 Another argument is that of Professor 
 von Morlot, based on a railway sec- 
 tion through a conical accumulation 
 of gravel and alluvium, which the tor- 
 rent of the Tiniibre has gradually 
 built up where it enters the Lake of 
 Geneva near Villeneuve. Here three 
 layers of vegetable soil appear, proved 
 by the objects imbedded in them to 
 have been the successive surface-soils 
 in two prehistoric periods and in tl^ 
 Roman peripd, and which now lie 4, 
 iQ, and ip f^et undergiound; ontitiis 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 h'4 
 
 m 
 
 li- 
 
 m 
 
 it is computed that if 4 feet of soil 
 were formed in the 1500 years since 
 the Roman period, we must go 5000 
 years farther back for the date of the 
 earliest human inhabitants. Calcula- 
 tions of this kind, loose as they are, 
 deserve attention. 
 
 The interval between the Quater- 
 nary or Drift period and the period 
 of historical antiquity is to some ex- 
 tent bridged over by relics of various 
 intermediate civilizations, mostly of 
 the lower grades, and in some cases 
 reaching back to remote dates. The 
 lake dwellings of Switzerland are 
 perhaps among the more recent of 
 these. They were villages of huts 
 built on piles in the water at some 
 distance from the shore, for security 
 from attack — in fact, fortified water 
 settlements of the same nature as 
 those of Lake Prasias in the time of 
 Herodotus, and as those still inhab- 
 ited in New Guinea and West Africa. 
 The remains of these Swiss villages 
 are found with the stumps of the piles 
 still standing, often imbedded in an 
 accumulation of mud or growth of 
 peat which has preserved a kind of 
 illustrative museum of the arts and 
 habits pf the lake men. From exam- 
 ination of the sites, it appears that 
 the settlements are of various dates, 
 from the neolithic or polished stone 
 period, when instruments of metal 
 were still unknown, to the time when 
 bronze was introduced, and beyond 
 this into the later age marked by the 
 use of iron. A few of the lake vil- 
 lages lasted on till the Roman domin- 
 ion, as is proved by the presence of Ro- 
 man coins and pottery, but they were 
 soon afterward abandoned, so that 
 their very existence was forgotten, 
 and their rediscovery only uatf's from 
 i8i;3, when the workmen excavating 
 a oed of mud on the shore of the 
 Lake of Zurich found themselves 
 standing among the piles of a lake 
 settlement. In Germany, Italy, and 
 other countries, similar remains of a 
 long pre-Roman civilization have been 
 found. (The special works on lake 
 habitations are Dr. Keller's Lake 
 Dwellings, translated by J. E. Lee, 
 
 London, 1866; and Troyon's Habita- 
 tions Lacustres.) Indications of man's 
 antiquity, extending farther back into 
 prehistoric times, are furnished by the 
 Danish shell-heaps or "kjokkenmod- 
 ding," which term, meaning " kitchen 
 refuse-heap," has been Anglicized in 
 "kitchen midden " (the word "mid- 
 den," a dung-heap, being still current 
 in the north of England). Along the 
 shores of nearly all the Danish islands 
 extensive beds or low mounds, like 
 raised beaches, may be seen, consist- 
 ing chiefly of innumerable cast-away 
 shells, intermingled with bones, etc. 
 Such shell-heaps are found in all quar- 
 ters of the globe by the sea-shore, 
 and may be sometimes seen in proc- 
 ess of formation • they are simply the 
 accumulations of shells and refuse 
 thrown away near the huts of rude 
 tribes subsisting principally on shell- 
 fish. The Danish kitchen middens, 
 however, are proved to belong to a 
 very ancient time, by the remains of 
 the quadrupeds, birds, and fish, which 
 served as the food of these rude 
 hunters and fishers ; among these are 
 bones of the wild bull, beaver, seal, 
 and great auk, all now extinct or rare 
 in this region. Moreover, a striking 
 proof of the antiquity of these shell- 
 heaps is, that the shells of the com- 
 mon oyster are found of full size, 
 whereas it cannot live at present in 
 the brackish waters of the Baltic ex- 
 cept near its entrance, so that it is in- 
 ferred that the shores where the oys- 
 ter at that time flourished were open 
 to the salt sea. Thus, also, the eata- 
 ble cockle, mussel, and periwinkle 
 abounding in the kitchen middens 
 are of full ocean size, whereas those 
 now living in the adjoining waters 
 are dwarfed to a third of their natural 
 size by the want of saltness. It thus 
 appears that the connection between 
 the ocean and the Baltic has notably 
 changed since the time of these rude 
 stone-age people. (See the reports by 
 Forchhammer, Steenstrup, and Wor- 
 saae on the kjokkenmoddings, made 
 to the Copenhagen Academy of Sci- 
 ences.) Various other evidence is 
 adduced in this part of the argument, 
 
.ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 such as that from the Danish peat- 
 mosses, which show the existence of 
 man at a time when the Scotch fir was 
 abundant ; at a later period the firs 
 were succeeded by oaks, which have 
 again been almost superseded by 
 beeches, a succession of changes 
 which Indicate a considerable lapse 
 of time. For further references to 
 special accounts, the reader may con- 
 sult the already mentioned general 
 works on the antiquity of prehistoric 
 man. 
 
 Lastly, ch'onicles and documentary 
 records, t.iken in connection with 
 archaeological relics .of the historical 
 period, carry back into distant iges 
 the starting-point of actual history, 
 behind which lies the evidently vast 
 period only known by inferences from 
 the relations ol languages and the 
 stages of development of civilization. 
 Thus, Egypt affords some basis for 
 estimating a minimum date for its 
 ancient population. The hieroglyphic 
 inscriptions, the most ancient witten 
 records of the world, preserve direct 
 memorials of a time v/hich can hardly 
 be less, and may be much more, than 
 3000 years before the Christian era. 
 With all the doubt which besets the 
 attempt to extract a definite chronol- 
 ogy from the Egyptian names of kings 
 and lists of dynasties (see Egypt), 
 their salient points fit with the histor- 
 ical records of other nations. Thus, 
 the great Ramesside dynasty, known 
 among Egyptologists as the 19th dy- 
 nasty, corresponds with the mention 
 of the building of the city of Raamses 
 in Exod. i. 11; Amenophis III., 
 called by the Greeks Memnon, be- 
 longs to the previous i8th dynasty ; 
 while the three pyramid kings, whom 
 Herodotus mentions as Cheops, 
 Chephren, and Mykerinos, and whose 
 actual Egyptian names are read in 
 the hieroglyphic lists as Chufu, Chaf- 
 ra, and Menkaura, are set down in 
 the 4th dynasty. Lepsius may not be 
 over-estimating when he dates this 
 dynasty back as far as 3124 B.C., and 
 Carries the more dubious previous 
 dynasue$ back to 3892 bc. before 
 reaching what are known as the myth- 
 
 ical dynasties, which probably have 
 their bases ratht-r in astronomical 
 calculations than in history (I^psius, 
 Konigsbuch (^:r alien /Egypter^ iJerlin, 
 1858 ; compare th** computations of 
 tirugsch, Bunsen, Hincks, Wilkinson, 
 etc.). 
 
 The Greeks of the classic period 
 could discuss the Egyptian chronol 
 ogies with priests and scribes who 
 perpetuated the languages and rec- 
 ords of the'»- earliest dynasties; and 
 as the Septuagint translation cf the 
 Bible was made at Alexandria, it is 
 not impossible that its giving to man 
 a considerably greater antiquity than 
 that of the Hebrew text may have been 
 due to the influence of the Egyptian 
 chronology. Even if the lowest ad' 
 missible calculations be taken, this 
 will not invalidate the main fact, that 
 above 4000 years ago the Egyptian 
 nation already stood nt a high level 
 of industrial and social culture. The 
 records of several other nations show 
 that as early or not much later than 
 this they had attained to a national 
 civilization. The Bible, whose earli- 
 est books are among the earliest ex- 
 isting chronicles, shows an Israelite 
 nation existing in a stafJ of patri- 
 archal civilization previous co tiiC al- 
 ready mentioned time of contact wiiS 
 Egypt. In ancient Chaldaea, the in- 
 scribed bricks of Urukh's temples 
 probably belong i:o a date beyond 
 2000 years B.C. (G. Rawlinson, Five 
 Great Monarchies of the Ancient East' 
 em Worlds London, 1862, etc.. vol. i. 
 ch. 8). 
 
 The Chinese dynasties, like those 
 of Egypt, begin with an obviously 
 mythical portion, and continue into 
 actual history; the difficulty is to 
 draw the line where genuine record 
 begins. Those who reckon authentic 
 history only from the dynasty of 
 Chow, beginning about iioo B.C., 
 during which Confucius lived, will at 
 any rate hardly deny the existence of 
 the earlier dynasty of Shang, previ- 
 ous to which the yet earlier dynasty of 
 Hea is recorded ; so that, though 
 much that is related of these periods 
 may be fabulous, it seems certain th^ 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 
 there was a Chines'^ Aatiott and' a 
 Chinese civilisation reaching back 
 beyond 2000 b.C. (iee Sir John Davis, 
 Tne ChiHeie; i^aiithi^r^ Liiires Sd£r/s 
 derQrient: Sfto- King, etc.) 
 
 Tfri 6f late it was a commonly re- 
 ceived opinion that the early state of 
 society was orie of comparatively high 
 culture, arid those who held this opin- 
 ion telt lio difi^Culty in a!ssigning the 
 origin of man to a time btit little be- 
 yond the range of historical recbrds 
 arid rii6riuri:ier«t6. At present, how- 
 ever, tihe view has become paramount 
 that the civilization of the world has 
 been giadualUy developed *rom an 
 original st6rie-age culture,, such as 
 characte'rij^es moderh savage life. 
 To hold this 6piriion necessiiatcs the 
 adding to the 4000 ti 5000 years to 
 which the aricient civiliza:tions of 
 Egypt, Babylon, arid China date back, 
 a pi-obably rtiuch greater length of 
 tiriie, duviri;^ \<>hich the knoiVledge, 
 arts, arid iristitutions of these coun- 
 tries attained fp their remalrkably high 
 level. The eviderice of comparative 
 philology CorrobWatei^ this judgment. 
 Thus, Hebrew and Arabic are closely 
 related languages, neither of them the 
 origin at of the other, but bbth sprung 
 from soriie parerit language riibre an- 
 cient thari either. When, therefore, 
 the flebrew records have carried back 
 to the iriost aricient idriii^ible dite 
 the existerite 6f the Hebre\V language, 
 thi^ dfates iriii^t have been long pre- 
 ceded* by that of the extinct parerit 
 language of the whole Semitfc family ; 
 while this again was no doubt the de- 
 scendant of languages slowly shading 
 theriiselves '^hrprigh kges into this pfe- 
 
 . ciiliar type'. Yet hibt^' sftrikirig ?s the 
 evidence 6i the Aryan 6i Indo-Euro- 
 peari familfy of liri^Uages. The Hin- 
 dus, Kfede^, Pe'fsidnS, Greeks, Ro- 
 mans, (Gfermiris, Kelts, dnd Slavils 
 riiake t^eir a[f>^e^atanee at riiore 6f le^s 
 remote' dates ag ftdtions Separate in 
 larigu^fe As fri hfetdry. Nevertheless, 
 it is n6Vi^ dcj^'n6\!vl6%ed thact iA sdfm: 
 ixt f€iiit>iet tiiViiei, belOf^ the^e riatioWs 
 ilftt^dimkd iiom tfee p^ttit stotk, 
 
 ,ijid cRsfriBtited over Asia and Etifope 
 % tb% Ai^tm dispe»16n, a sitigte b a- 
 
 baric people stood as physical and 
 political representative of the nascent 
 Aryan ra;ce, speaking a now extinct 
 Aryat. language, from which, by a 
 series of modifications not to be esti- 
 mated as possible within many thou- 
 sands of years, there arose languages 
 which have been mutually unintelli- 
 gible since the dawn Of history, and 
 between which it was only possible 
 for an age of advanced philology to 
 trace the fundamental relationship. 
 
 From the combination of these con- 
 siderations, it will be seen hat the 
 farthest date to which documentary 
 record extends, is now generally re- 
 garded by anthropologist^ a;s but the 
 earliest distinctly visible point of the 
 historic period, beyond w^ich stretches 
 back a vast indefinite series of prehis- 
 toric ages. 
 
 VI. LANGUAGE. 
 
 In e:tAmining how the science of 
 language bears ori the general prob- 
 lems of anthropology, it Is ri'ot neces- 
 sary to discuss at length the cntical 
 question's ^hich arise. Philology is 
 especially appealed to by arithrOpolO- 
 
 f fists as contributing to the following 
 ines of argument. A pririiaty mental 
 similarity of aill branches of the human 
 race is evidenced by their common 
 faculty of speech, while at the .^ame 
 time secOridary diversities of race- 
 character and historj' are marked by 
 difference of gYariimatical structure 
 arid of vocabularies. The existence 
 cf j^f6'tir>s Or fari^ilies of allied lan- 
 guage^, eacii group beiryg evidently 
 descended froWi a single latrignage, 
 aiffOrds onf' of the principal aids in 
 classifying nations and races. The 
 Adoption by one larigufige of words 
 originally belonging to another, prov- 
 ing as it does the f&tt of intercourse 
 betV7^eri tW6 tticti, arid ei'eri to some 
 eitent ii^dicdting the ^e^lfs of such 
 iritercoti^ste, affords 4 valuable clue 
 thi^ough obscure regidnsT ti the his- 
 tory of civiltzatton. 
 Conimdriicatidn b^ |^sfwr&-signs» 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 23 
 
 b6tV7eeh persohs uhable to converse 
 iti vocal language, is ah effective syis- 
 tem of expression common ;o all man- 
 kind. Thus, the signs used to ask a 
 deaf and dumb child about his meals 
 and lessons, or to communicate with 
 a savage met in th6 idesert about game 
 or enemies, belong to c6des 6f gest- 
 ure-signa s identical in principle, and 
 to d great ext6nt independent both of 
 nationality and education ; there is 
 even a natural syntax, or order of suc- 
 cession, in such gesture-signs. To 
 these gestures let there be added the 
 use of the intierjectional cries, such as 
 oA I ugh I hey ! and imitative sounds 
 to represent the cat's mew, the click of 
 a trigger, the clap or thud of a blow, 
 etc. The total result of this combina- 
 tion of gesture and significant sound 
 will be a general system of expression, 
 imperfect but serviceable, and hatur- 
 ally intelligible to all rnankind without 
 diStinctioti of rac6. Nor is Such a 
 system of cortimunication only theo- 
 rttically conceivable ; it is, and al\lvays 
 has been, in practical operation be- 
 tween people ignorant of 6he another's 
 language, and as such is largely used 
 in the intercourse of savage tribes. 
 It is true that t6 some extent these 
 means of utterance ar^ common to 
 the lower animals, the power of ex- 
 pressing emotion by cries arid tdries 
 extending far down in the scale of 
 animal life, while rudimentary gest- 
 ure-sighs are mado by various mahi- 
 mals and birds. Still, the lower an- 
 imals make no appi'oach to the hu- 
 man system of natural utterance by 
 gesture-Signs and 6m'otional-imitative 
 souhds, whil'6 the practical identity of 
 this human System ihibng raees phys- 
 ically sO uhlike as the Englishman ahd 
 the native of the Australiah bush, 
 indicates extreme closeness of mental 
 Similarity tfiroughbut the huh^ah spe- 
 cies. 
 
 When, hoW^fer, the Entflistirtiaih 
 and the Australian sp'iak each in his 
 hitive tohghe, only shch ^di'rfi *5 be- 
 |6hg to the ?ii'terjectio'nal ^^d inVft'at- 
 ive tlisi^s ^m bfe hafttrally ipfenim 
 bfe, arid as it w6Ve ih^tiRctiv^ t both. 
 TlbuS the SaV^ge, uttet%g th& liouhd 
 
 waow ! as an explanation of surprise 
 and warning, might be answered by 
 the white man with the not less evi- 
 dently significant sh ! of silence, and 
 the two speakers would be on com- 
 mon ground when the native indicated 
 by the name bwirri his cudgel, flung 
 whirring throu^'h the air at a flock oi 
 birds. Or when ihe native described 
 as Si jahkal-yahhat the bird called by 
 the foreigner a cockatoo. With these, 
 ahd otiier very lirriifed classes of nat- 
 ural words, however, resemblance in 
 vocabulary practically ceases. The 
 Australian and English languages 
 each consist riiainly of a series of 
 words having no apparent connetfion 
 with the ideas they signify, and dif- 
 fering utterly; of course, accidental 
 coincidehces and borrowed words 
 must be excluded from such cortipar- 
 isons. It would be easy to enumerate 
 other languages of the world. Such as 
 Basque, Turkish, Hebrew, Malay, 
 Mexican, all devoid of traceable re- 
 semblanfie to Australian and English, 
 ahd to one another. There is, more- 
 over, extreme difference in the gram- 
 matical Structure both of words and 
 sentences in various languages. The 
 question fhon arises, how far the em- 
 ploymeht of different vocabularies, 
 and that to a great extent on different 
 gi'ammatical principles, is compatible 
 with similarity of the speaker's minds, 
 or how far does diversity of speech 
 indicate diversity of mental nature? 
 The obvious answer is, that the 
 power of using words as signs t6 
 express thoughts with which their 
 sound does not directly connect them, 
 ih fact as arbitrary Symbols, is th^ 
 highest gride of the special huhiah 
 faculty ih lariguage, the presence of 
 which binds together all races of 
 ihankihd m Substantidil mental uhity. 
 The iheasure of tifiis unity is, that ahy 
 child of any race can be- b/ought up 
 to spe'a^ the language of ahy oth^r 
 
 T(l>" as(iertain ttie causes to which 
 iWhguages 6"^^ tKeii unlikehess ih 
 hiaterial and strhc^ure, how lar to e'^ 
 sential difTet'ehces of mental type 
 among ik^ ^ades 61 ihatikmd, ahd 
 
24 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 
 how far to minor causes of variation, 
 which may be calbd secondary, is a 
 problem of extreme difficulty, toward 
 the precise solution of which little 
 has yet been done. One of the most 
 remarkable of linguistic differences is 
 thf^ tendency of some languages to is- 
 olate their words, and of others to 
 form elaborate inflections. The ex- 
 tremes may be seen, on the one 
 hand, in an ordinary Chinese sentence 
 of isolated monosyllables, such as 
 "^« tsze nien chiu tsin, tungchu" etc., 
 i.e.y " in this year autumn ended, win- 
 ter begun," etc.; and, on the other 
 hand, in one of the monstrous poly- 
 syllables into which tne Greenlanders 
 will agglutinate a whole phrase, inil- 
 ertomiarpatdlAsarqbrpd,^ i.e., "he will 
 probably try too much to get it done 
 soon." Among languages which form 
 grammatical combinations or inflex- 
 ion <«, the modes of so doing are as 
 various as possible. Thus, in Africa, 
 the Hottentot noun forms its plural 
 by a suffix, as khoi, " man ; " khoin, 
 "men ; " while the Zulu employs pre- 
 fixes to distinguish its numbers, as 
 umu-ntu, "a man;" aba-ntu, "men." 
 The Dinka may supply examples of 
 forming the plural by internal change, 
 ran, " man , " ror, *' men." Nor are 
 the differences of syntax in different 
 tongues less absolute. In non-inflect- 
 ing languages one of the most vital 
 points is the relative position of two 
 nouns, of which the one stands as 
 substantive, and the other as defining 
 it by an attribute. This may be illus- 
 trated by English compounds, such as 
 work-house and house-work. Here our 
 rule is to place the attribute-noun 
 first, while, of two neighboring lan- 
 guages of Asia, the Burmese and the 
 Siamese, the one settles this question 
 in our way, the other in exactly the 
 opposite. The Siamese expression 
 for sailors, luk rua, means " sons of 
 the ship," just as the Burmese expres- 
 sion for villaj^ers, rwa tha, meaiis 
 " children of the village , " but in the 
 first case the construction is " sons 
 ship," whereas in the second it iu 
 *• village ( hildren." Again, for rea- 
 sons not yet fully explained, some 
 
 languages place the adjective before 
 the substantive, as Chinese pe ma, 
 " white horse ; " while other lan- 
 guages reverse this construction, as 
 Maori, rakau roa, " tree long " {i.e., 
 tall tree). These are but examples 
 of possible divergences in linguistic 
 structure, and no prudent ethnologist 
 would assert that racirl peculiarities 
 have nothing to do with such various 
 tendencies. At the same time, there 
 is no proof but that they may have 
 resulted from historical circumstances 
 mr ^ or less independently cf race. 
 Our own Aryan family of nations and 
 languages affords what must always 
 be prominent evidence in this argu- 
 ment. It is acknovvledged ihat Sans- 
 krit, Russian, Greek, Latin, V/elsh, 
 English, etc., are, philologically speak- 
 ing, dialects of a single Aryan speech, 
 which no doubt at some ancient period 
 was spoken by a single tribe or nation. 
 Yet the languages sprung from this 
 original Aryan tongue, by various 
 courses of development and accretion, 
 are mutually unintelligible. If a 
 Greek sentence be taken at random, 
 
 SL'Ch as this, " Oi) xf^ wawvxiov evSEii! 
 
 ^m'Kriipdpov avdpa" and it be translated 
 even too verbally into English, "A 
 counsel-bearing man ought not to 
 sleep all night," the traces of linguistic 
 connection between uie Greek and 
 English words (phoros, bear; nux, 
 night) are hardly perceptible except 
 to philologists. Even the essential 
 character of the two languages is 
 seen io be different, for the construc- 
 tion of the Greel; sentence depends 
 mainly on the inflections of the words, 
 while in English such inflections are 
 almost discarded, ?nd their effect is 
 produced by the syntax and th^ auxil- 
 iary particles. Moreover, as to some 
 most important points of syntax, 
 Aryan languages differ widely from 
 one another, thus, to use a familiai: 
 instance, French and English take 
 contradictory lines as to the relative 
 position of the adjective and substan- 
 tive, as also of the object-pronouR 
 and verb, — " c'est un chn)al blanc, je le 
 vois," " it is a white horse, I see him." 
 So Hindustani and English, though 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 8S 
 
 >» 
 
 both Aryan tongues, reverse the posi- 
 tions of the verb and object, as "ghord 
 lao " (*' horse bring "), i.e., ** bring the 
 horse ! " Thus on the whole, the end- 
 less variety in vocabulary and struct- 
 ure among the languages of the 
 world affords important evidence as 
 to the mental diversities of the na- 
 tions speaking those languages. But 
 the unity of the faculty of speech in 
 man stands as the primary fact, while 
 the character of the grammar and 
 dictionary belonging to any one na- 
 tion represents only a secondary fact, 
 such as might be fairly set down as 
 resulting from their particular stage 
 and circumstances of linguistic devel- 
 opment. 
 
 The principles of the development 
 of a family of languages from a single 
 parent tongue are laid down in special 
 treatises on Language. It has here to 
 be noticed that the evidence on which 
 such linguistic groups may be treated 
 as allied by descent is of various de- 
 grees of fullness and strength. The 
 most perfect available case is that of 
 the Romance languages, comprising 
 Italian, Spanish, French, etc. ; inas- 
 much as not only does tlse classic 
 Latin remain substantially the repre- 
 sentative of their common original, 
 but the very stages of their develop- 
 ment from it are preserved in docu- 
 ments of successive ages. Thus, in 
 comparing the vocabularies of Italian 
 and French, it is, in the first place, 
 seen that they to a great extent corre- 
 spond, — this correspondence extend- 
 ing to words which one language is 
 least likely to borrow from another, 
 viz., pronouns, the lower numerals, 
 and names of the most universal and fa- 
 miliar objects. It is only, however, by 
 etymological analysis that their depth 
 of correspondence comes fully into 
 viev/, it being seen that the ultimate 
 elements or roots are largely common 
 to the two languages, as are also the 
 grammatical affixes by which words 
 are formed from these roots, while 
 general similarity of lingi'.istic struct- 
 ure pervades both tongues. Such 
 intimate correspondence could only 
 result from derivation from a common 
 
 parent language, which in this case 
 exists in Latin. In other groups of 
 languages the existence of the com- 
 mon parent may be inferred from cor- 
 respondence of this highest order. 
 Thus there must have existed, at some 
 period, what may be called the parent 
 Slavonic, whence descend the Russian, 
 Polish, Bohemian, etc. ; and the par- 
 ent Keltic, whence descend Welsh, 
 Gaelic, Breton, etc., while behind the 
 various branches of the whole Aryan 
 family are dimiy to be discerned the 
 outlines of a primitive Aryan speech. 
 In like manner, a comparison of the 
 Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, etc., shows 
 that these must be all derived from a 
 primitive Semitic speech, containing 
 mp.ny of the simple root forms, which 
 still exist in its modern descendants, 
 and being already characterized by the 
 principle of internal inflection. Be- 
 yond the limits of these two, the most 
 important linguistic families, various 
 others have been satisfactorily made 
 out, though hardly with the same 
 completeness of proof. In the Tura- 
 nian or Tatar family are included the 
 Turkish, Mongol, Hungarian, Fin- 
 nish, Ostyak, etc. ; the Dravidian 
 family cakes in the Tamil, Telugu, 
 and various other South Indian dia- 
 lects; the Polynesian family com- 
 orises the languages of the higher 
 race of the South Sea Islands; the 
 Negro-Kafir family consists of the 
 prefixing languages spoken by most 
 African tribes from the equatorial re- 
 gions southward; the Guarani family 
 in South America, the Algonquin and 
 Athapascan families in North Amer- 
 ica, and the Australian *amily, each 
 includes a number of tribes ranging 
 over a vast extent of territory, and so 
 on. As to smaller divisions, it is 
 common for languages to occur in 
 groups of several connected dialects, 
 though not forming part of one of the 
 wider linguistic families; thus the 
 Aztec and Nicaraguan are closely re- 
 lated dialects, as are the Quichua and 
 Aymara, while what philologists de- 
 scribe as isolated languages, as the 
 Basque appears to be, are rather iso- 
 lated groups of dialects, with no 
 
26 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 \ 
 
 known analogues beyortd a limited 
 district. 
 
 If the present state of the philolog- 
 ical classification of mankind be com- 
 piared with that of half a century ago, 
 it' will be seen that much progi'ess 
 has been made in referring groups of 
 languages each to a common ances- 
 tral tongue. At the same time, great- 
 er cogency of proof is now demanded 
 in such classification. The metaod 
 of comparing a short vocabulary of 
 twenty words or so in two languages is 
 now abandoned, for where an exten- 
 sive connection really exists, this is 
 much better proved by a systematic 
 comparison, while a few imperfect re- 
 semblances in the two lists might be 
 due to accident, or the adoption of 
 words. Nothing short of a Similarity 
 in the roofs or elements of two lan- 
 guages, as well as in their grammat- 
 ical structure, too strong to be ex- 
 plained by any independent causes, is 
 how admitted as valid proof of com- 
 mon descent. This I'mitation, how- 
 ever, by no means amounts to a de- 
 nial of the possibility of such descent. 
 Thus it is often argued, on the 
 strength of some similarities between 
 Hebrew and Indo-European roots, 
 that the two so distinct Semitic and 
 Aryan fariiilics of language are them- 
 selves sprung from some yet more re- 
 motely ancient tongue. Thus also it 
 has been attempted to connect the 
 Malay and T.^tar groups of languages. 
 Either or both of these opinions 
 may be true ; but the general verdict 
 of philologists is, that they are not 
 satisfactCTily made out, and therefore 
 cannot be recognized. 
 
 Under the present standard of 
 evidence in comparing languages and 
 tracing allied groups to a common 
 origin, the crude speculations as to a 
 Single primeval language of mankind, 
 whic^ formerly occupied so niuch af- 
 tentiori, are acknowledged to be worth- 
 less. Increased knowledge and ac- 
 curacy of nrethod Iiave as yet only left 
 the way open to the most widely diver- 
 gent sujppositibns. For all that known 
 dialects prove to the contrary, on the 
 other hand, there may have bieen one 
 
 p'rimttiv^ rahguage, from which the 
 descendant languages have varied so 
 widely, that neither their words nor 
 their formation now indicate their unity 
 in l6ng past ages, while, on the other 
 hand, the primitive tongues of man- 
 kind may have been numerous, and 
 the extreme unlikeness of such lan- 
 guages as Basque, Chinese, Peruvian, 
 Hottentot, and Sanskrit, may arise 
 from absolute independence of origin. 
 The language spoken by any tribe 
 or nation is not of itself absolute evi- 
 de.xe as to its race-afKnities, This 
 is clearly shown in extreme cases. 
 Thus the Jews in Europe have almost 
 lOsf the us6 of Hebrew, but speak as 
 their vernacular the language of their 
 adopted nation, whatever it may be ; 
 even the Jewish-German dialect, 
 though consisting so largely of He- 
 brew words, is philologically German, 
 as any sentence Shows : " Ich hab ncch 
 hojotn lo geachelt" " I have not yet 
 eaten to-day." The mixture of the 
 Israelites in Europe by marriage with 
 other nations is probably much great- 
 er than is Acknowledged by them ; 
 yet, on the whole, the face has been 
 preserved with extraordinary strict- 
 ness, as its physical chafacteiistics 
 Sufficiently show. Language thus 
 here fails conspicuously as a test of 
 race, and even of national history. 
 Not much less conclusive is the case 
 of the predominantly Negro popula- 
 tions of the West India Islands, who, 
 nevertheless, speak as their native 
 tongues dialects of English or French, 
 in which the number of intermingled 
 native African words is very scanty : 
 " Dem httti miti na ini watra bikasi 
 dem de fisimah^^ ** "Irhey cast a net 
 into the water, because they were 
 fishermen." (Surinam Negro-Eng.) 
 " Bef pas ca jamain lasse poter cbnes 
 It" " Le bcer'f ri'c st jalfnais las de 
 porter ses corh^s." (Haytian Negro- 
 Ff.) If it I?e objected fhaf the lin- 
 guistic conditions oi these two race$ 
 are mdre artificial than has been usual 
 ini the Kistbry of the world, less tit- 
 ixeme cjfises i)iiay be seen in coiihtnes 
 where tlfie ordinary results of cohquie^f- 
 colohizatioh have taken ptace. The 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 S^6stizos, w^6 forth sb Targe a fraction 
 of the p6pulation of rtt'oderh Mexico, 
 numbering several millions, afford a 
 convenient test Iii this respect, inas- 
 much as their intermediate complex- 
 i6n se^iarafes them frorh both their 
 ancestral races, the Spaniard, and 
 the chocolate- b^ovfn indigenous 
 Aztec or other Mexican. The 
 mother-tongue of this mixed race 
 is Spanish, with an infusion of Mexi- 
 can words ; and a large proportion 
 cannot sfpeak any native dialect. In 
 most or all nations of mankind, cross- 
 ing or intermarriage of races has thus 
 taken place between the v-onquering 
 invader and the Conquered native, so 
 that t^e lairguage spoken by the na- 
 tion may represent the results of con- 
 quest as rtiuch or rrtbte than of imces- 
 tiy. The supersession of the Keltic 
 Cornish, by English, and of the Sla- 
 ybrfic Old-Prussian by German, are 
 b'tat ekarhples of a process vl'hich lias 
 iof untold ages been supplanting na- 
 tive dialects, #Ko'se very hanris have 
 mostly disappeared. On the other 
 hand, the language of the vi^arlike in- 
 vader or peaceful immigrant may 
 yield, in a few generations, to the 
 tohgiie of the mass Cf the population, 
 as tnie Ndrthm'an's Was I'eplaced by 
 i^ii-ertch, arid mOvdern German gives 
 way to English In the United States. 
 Judging, thert, fey the extirpation arid 
 adojition of iarigua'ges \*ithin the 
 rarge of history, it iS obvious that to 
 classify marikiri'd intd races, Aryan, 
 Semttic, Turariian, Pofyriesiari, ^afir, 
 etc., ori the mete evidence of lan- 
 guage, is an iritrifl^ic'ally nrisound 
 method. From the earliest tiriies in 
 which nations have been classified by 
 larigtiaores, its unrestricted use has 
 vitiated Sound ethnology. 
 
 Nevertheless, under prcper restric- 
 tioris, Speech affords information as 
 i6 the aflSriities of races 6rily second 
 in vfiue to that derived f?oni physical 
 cHaraCtefisfticS. A* a rrife, language 
 at li^ast ptoves ^bme ^rbpbftiori 6f 
 a:ti6estry. it cduld Hardly l?iapj(eri 
 IffeWt tftfe ^oblte ^Kdtrfd Cbtrie ihto io 
 cfeSft a refitibn fo atibfher : : fb sxip- 
 ^itht ft§ fahgtitge, mmm tittoii^ in- 
 
 termixture of race in the next genera- 
 tion. This is true in the extreme case 
 of the West Indian colored popula- 
 tion, among whom the majority are 
 now crossed with European blood, s6 
 that in each succeeding generation 
 the proportion of absolutely p"re Ne- 
 gro families becomes less. Still mbre 
 fully is ' it true of colored races irt 
 Mexico or Brazil, whose Spanish of 
 Portuguese language represents at 
 least a large European element of 
 ancestry. Thus in India many mil- 
 lions of people, Vi^hose blood is pre- 
 dominantly that of the darker indige- 
 nous race, nevertheless speak dia- 
 lects of the languages bf the fairer 
 Aryans ; but "^hen they are for the 
 most part distinctly mixed races of 
 partly Aryari ancestry. With these 
 facts before us, if is not difficult to 
 determine the principles on whieh the 
 ethnologist may use language as par- 
 tial evidence of race. In the nrSt 
 place, it strengthens the evidence bf 
 bodily characters. Thus in South 
 Africa the Zulu ^eemS by color, feat- 
 ures, shape of skull, etc., to be, if 
 not an absblute Negro of a m.ixed and 
 modified Negro type. This view of 
 his origin is strengthened by the fact 
 that the Zulu langtrage belongs to the 
 peculiar prefixing fariiily which ex- 
 tends so widely among the Negro na- 
 tions farther north. Sb the Hotten- 
 tot language, in its evident connection 
 with that of the Bushmen, adds iii 
 weight to the physical arguriient, that 
 these iwf < are decendants mbre or leis 
 mixed and varied frorii a single race, 
 small, yellow, crlsp-fraired, and speak- 
 ing ari inflectibrial moriosyllabic lan- 
 guage, articulated with clicks. In the 
 second place, lartgoage may prbve 
 race-con riectibn wheffe bodily charac- 
 teristics, thorigh they do riot contradict, 
 do not suffice. Thu^, comparing the 
 dairk Aridalui^iari with tile fair Swede 
 ^e ask the qiie^tfori, whether there is 
 distingulshabfe cbmhibri parentage 
 betv^-ei^ri tKissfe fwb varieties of the 
 ifrhite tHUtif Th'e ariafomi^t might 
 Hfeitfet^ herfe. not, irideetf, i^ tKfe 
 ph^tfc^ pfbbiehi ft^^lfh iblv'td, M 
 at least k jiartial sbliiticm {i ittirClvM 
 
28 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 in the philologist's proof that the two 
 peoples speak languages inherited at 
 some remote period from a common 
 Aryan tongue, and must therefore 
 have had a common element in their 
 ancestry of at least sufficient strength 
 to carry language with it. Thus each 
 linguistic family affords at least par- 
 tial evidence of race, proving, for in- 
 stance, the existence of a common 
 »,.»cestry of the Irishman and the Rus- 
 sian, of the Jew and the Maltese, of 
 the Tahitian and the Malagasy, 
 though in such pairs of races the 
 actual amount of common ancestry 
 may be less than that of the different 
 race-elements with which it has com- 
 bined. 
 
 As regards political nationality and 
 the history of civilization, the evi- 
 dence of speech is of still greater 
 weight. In many cases of the mixt- 
 ure of nations the language of the 
 dominart civilization prevails, as 
 where Latin dialects superseded the 
 native tongues in Western Europe, 
 and Germanic languages encroached 
 on Turanian in Finland, on Slavonic 
 in Russia, and on Keltic in the Scotch 
 Highlands. In other cases, where 
 one nation has received elements of 
 civilization frcui another, language is 
 apt to keep record of the process by 
 adopting foreign words and ideas to- 
 cether. Thus the language of the bar- 
 barian Turks has absorbed masses of 
 Arabic, which itself had in like manner 
 absorbed Persian, when Persia was the 
 fountain-head of early Moslem culture. 
 In the same manner Dravidian lan- 
 guages of South Irdia have been 
 saturated with words and phrases 
 from Sanskrit and its related dialects, 
 so that a page of Tamil literature is 
 of itself the proof of a non-Ayran race 
 having received from <tn Aryan race 
 a whole system of religion, philosophy 
 and social order. The most extreme 
 cases of such verbal indication of 
 foreign influence are to be found in 
 languages of low races of America and 
 the Pacific, which have adopted from 
 European langviages not only terms 
 for imported arts and ideas, but names 
 of such numerals as 6 and 7, pre- 
 
 viously expressed by more clumsy na- 
 tive combinations. Thus the language 
 of any people, though less effect- 
 ive than was once believed as a means 
 of determining its place in the class- 
 ified order of mankind, does, to some 
 extent, indicate its physical, and, to 
 a still greater extent, its intellectual 
 ancestry. 
 
 VII. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF CIV- 
 ILIZATION. 
 
 The conditions of man at the low- 
 est and highest known levels of cult- 
 ure are separated by a vast interval ; 
 but this interval is so nearly filled by 
 known intermediate stages, that the 
 line of continuity between the lowest 
 savager) and the highest civilization 
 is unbroken at any critical point. The 
 Australians and forest Indians of 
 Brazil may be taken a the lowest 
 modern savages whose thought and 
 life have been investigiited with any 
 thoroughness ; while other less ac- 
 curately-studied tribes are in some 
 respects inferior even to these. An 
 examination of the details of savage 
 life shows not only that there is an 
 immeasurable difference between the 
 rudest man and* the highest lower an- 
 imal, but also that the lea t cultured 
 savages have themselves advanced far 
 beyond the lowest intellectual and 
 moral state at which human tribesj 
 can be conceived as capable of exist- 
 ing, when placed under favorable cir- 
 cumstances of warm climate, abund- 
 ant food, and security from too se- 
 vere destructive induences. In fact, 
 the Australian or Brazilian savage 
 has already attained to rudimentary 
 stages in many of the characteristic 
 functions of civilized life. His lan- 
 guage, expressing thoughts by con- 
 ventional articulate sounds, is the; 
 same in essential principle as the 
 most cultivated philosophic dialect, 
 only less exact and copious. His 
 weapons, tools, and other appliances, 
 such as the hammer, hatchet, spear, 
 knife, awl, thread, net, canoe, etc.^ 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 29 
 
 are the evident rudimentary analogues 
 of what still remains in use among 
 Europeans. His structures, such as 
 the hut, fence, stockade, earthwork, 
 etc., may be poor and clumsy, but 
 they are of the same nature as our own. 
 In the simple arts of broiling and 
 roasting meat, the use of hides and 
 furs for covering, the plaiting of mats 
 and baskets, the devices of hunting, 
 trapping, and fishing, the pleasure 
 taken in personal ornament, the 
 touches of artistic decoration on ob- 
 jects of daily use, the savage differs 
 m degree but not in kind from the 
 civilized man. The domestic and so- 
 cial affections, the kindly care of the 
 young and the old, some acknowledg- 
 ment of marital and parental obliga- 
 tion, the duty of mutual defense in the 
 tribe, the authority of the elders, and 
 general respect to traditional custom 
 as the regulator of life and duty, are 
 more or less well marked in every 
 savage tribe which is not disorganized 
 and falling to pieces. Lastly, there 
 is usually to be discerned among 
 such lower races a belief in unseen 
 powers pervading the universe, this 
 belief shaping itself into an animistic 
 or spiritualistic theology, mostly re- 
 sulting in some kind of worship. If, 
 again, high savage or low barbaric 
 types be selected, as among the North 
 American Indians, Polynesians, and 
 Kafirs of South Africa, the same ele- 
 ments of culture appear, but at a more 
 advanced stage, namely, a more full 
 and accurate language, more knowl- 
 edge of the laws of nature, more 
 serviceable implements, more perfe t 
 industrial processes, more definite apd 
 fiAcd social order and frame of gov- 
 ernment, more systematic and phil- 
 osophic schemes of religion, and a 
 more elaborate and ceremonial wor- 
 ship. At intervals new arts and ideas 
 appear, such as agriculture and pas- 
 turage, the manufacture of pottery, 
 the use of metal implements, and the 
 device of record and communication 
 by picture-writing. Along such 
 stages of improvement and invention 
 the bridge is fairly made between 
 savage and barbaric culture ; and this 
 
 once attained to, the remainder of the 
 series of stages of civilization lies 
 within the range of common knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 The teaching of hi-Aorj', during the 
 three to four thousand /r.ars of which 
 contemporary chronicles nave been 
 preserved, is that civilization is grad- 
 ually developed in the course of ages 
 by enlargement and increased precis- 
 ion of knowledge, invention and im- 
 provement of arts, and the progres- 
 sion of social and political habits and 
 institutions toward general well-be- 
 ing. The conditions of such races 
 as the older Jews, Greeks, and Ger- 
 mans, are known to us by ancient 
 chronicles, and by poetry and myth 
 even more valuable than chronicle in 
 the details they unconsciously pre- 
 serve of the state of society at the 
 time whence they have been handed 
 down. Starting from the recorded 
 condition of such barbaric nations, 
 and following the general course of 
 culture into the modern world, all 
 the great processes of mental and 
 social development may be seen at 
 work. Falling back or decay also 
 takes place, but only to a limited ex- 
 tent destroys the results of growth in 
 culture. It is thus matter of actual 
 record, that the ancestovii of civilized 
 nations were barbaric tribes, and the 
 inference seems reasonable that the 
 same process of development had 
 gone on during previous ages outside 
 the domain of direct history, so that 
 barbaric culture itself arose out of 
 an earlier and ruder condition of 
 primitive culture, more or less cor- 
 responding with the state of modern 
 savage tribes. The failure of direct 
 record of this passage from savagery 
 upward to barbarism was to be ex- 
 pected from the circumstances of the 
 case. No people civilized enough to 
 preserve history could have watched 
 the age-long process of a savage tribe 
 developing its culture ; indeed, expe- 
 rience shows that independent prog- 
 ress could hardly have taken place 
 among an uncivilized in contact with 
 a civilized race, Nor could a bar- 
 baric nation, though it had really and 
 
30 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 I i 
 
 ^' I 
 
 H. 
 
 hi 
 
 independently risen from savagery 
 within some few thousand years, give 
 any valid account of this gradual ad- 
 vancement, for the very reason of its 
 having taken place while the nation 
 was yet in, or but little removed from, 
 the savage state, one part of the very 
 definition of which is that it has no 
 trustworthy means of preserving the 
 history of events even for a single 
 century, much less for the long pe- 
 riod required for so vast a develop- 
 ment. This view of the low origin 
 and progressive development of civ- 
 ilization was already held in ancient 
 times, as in the well-known specula- 
 tions of the Epicurean school on the 
 condition of the earliest men, who 
 roved like wild animals, seeking their 
 food from the uncultured earth, till 
 arts and social laws arose among 
 them (Lucret., £>e Rerum Nat., v. 
 923 ; Horat., Sat., i. 3) ; or where 
 the like idea has taken in China the 
 form of ancient legend, recording the 
 time when their nation was taught 
 to use skins for clothing, to make 
 fire, and to dwell in houses (Pauthier, 
 Livres Sacris de r Orient, p. 26.) In 
 opposition to such views of primeval 
 rudeness, traditions of a pristine 
 state of human excellence have long 
 been cherished, such as the " golden 
 age " (Hesiod., Op. et Dies, 108). 
 Till of late wide acceptance has been 
 given to ai^juments, partly based on 
 theological and partly on anthropo- 
 logical grounds, as to man's incapa- 
 bility of rising from a savage state, 
 and the consequent necessity of a 
 supernatural bestowal of culture on 
 the first men, from whose high level 
 savages are supposed by advocates 
 of this theory to have degenerated. 
 The anthropological evidence ad- 
 duced in support of this doctrine is, 
 hQwever, too weak for citation, and 
 even obviously erroneous arguments 
 have been relied on (see, for exam- 
 ple, Archbishop Whately, Essay on 
 the Origin of Civilization, and remarks 
 on its evidence in Tylor, Early Hist, 
 of Man, p. 163). It has been espe- 
 cially the evidence of prehistoric 
 ^chaeology >vhich, within the last 
 
 few years, has given to the natural 
 development-theory of civilization a 
 predominance hardly disputed on 
 anthropological grounds. The stone 
 implements, which form the staple 
 proof of man's existence at the period 
 of the river-drift, are of extreme rude- 
 ness as compared even with ordinary 
 savage types, so that it is obvious 
 that the most ancient known tribes 
 were, as to the industrial arts, at a 
 low savage level. The remains in 
 the caverns justify this opinion, espe- 
 cially where in central France more 
 precision is given to the idea ci pre- 
 historic life by the discovery of bone 
 weapons for hunting and fishing, 
 which suggest a rude condition re- 
 sembling that of the Esquimaux (see 
 the preceding section V,, Antiquity of 
 Man). The finding of ancient stone 
 implements buried in the ground in 
 almost every habitable district ol the 
 world, including the seats of the 
 great ancient civilizations, such as 
 Egypt, Assyria, India, China, Greece, 
 etc., may be adduced to show that 
 the inhabitants of these regions had 
 at some time belonged to the stone 
 age. This argument goes far to 
 prove that the ancestors of all na- 
 tions, high and low, were once in that 
 uncultured condition as to knowledge, 
 arts, and manners generally, which 
 within our experience accompanies 
 the Hse of stone implements and the 
 want of metals. No valid refutation 
 of this reasoning has been offered, 
 and it is corroborated by. arguments 
 to be drawn from study of the facts 
 of civilization, of which some will be 
 here mentioned for their bearing on 
 the theory of development. 
 
 History shows how development of 
 the arts takes place by efforts of skill 
 and insight, as where Phidias rose 
 above the clumsier sculptors of the 
 time before him, or where the earliest 
 gnomon — a mere st?.ff set up in order 
 to have its shadow measured — passed 
 into the graduated sun-dial ; or adap- 
 tations of old contrivances produce 
 new results, as when the ancient 
 Pan's pipes, blown by a bellows, be- 
 came the organ, when tjhe earlier 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 81 
 
 block-printing led up to the use of 
 movable types, and when the mag- 
 netic-needle was taken out of the 
 mariner's compass to find a new office 
 on the telegraph-dial ; or lastly, more 
 absolutely original inventions arise, 
 the triumphs of the scientific imagina- 
 tion, such as the pendulum and the 
 steam-engine. In the evolution of 
 science the new knowledge ever 
 starts from the old, whether its re- 
 sults be >o improve, to shift, or to 
 supersede it. The history of astron- 
 omy extends far enough back to show 
 its barbaric stages, when the earth 
 was regarded as a flat surface, over- 
 arched by a solid dome or firmament ; 
 and when not only was the sun con- 
 sidered to move round the earth, but 
 its motions, as well as the moon's, 
 were referred to the guidance and 
 even the impulse of personal deities. 
 Beginning with this first stage of the 
 science, there lies before us the whole 
 record of the exacter observation 
 and closer reasoning which have 
 gradually replaced these childlike 
 savage conceptions by the most per- 
 fect of physical theories. Thus, 
 again, the history of medicine shows 
 improvement after improvement on 
 the rude surgical appliances and the 
 meager list of efficient drugs which 
 the barbaric leech had at his disposal, 
 while its theory has changed even 
 more absolutely than its practice ; for 
 medical history begins with the an- 
 cient world holding fast to the savage 
 doctrine that madness, epilepsy, fever, 
 and other diseases, are caused by 
 demons possessing the patient — a 
 belief which is still that of half the 
 human race, but which it has been 
 the slow but successful task of scien- 
 tific pathology to supercede in the 
 civilized world. In like manner, the 
 history of judicial and administrative 
 institutions may be appealed to for 
 illustrations of the modes in which 
 old social formations are reshaped to 
 nieet new requirements, new regula- 
 tions are made, and new officers are 
 constituted to perform the more com- 
 plete duties of modern society, while 
 Icom time tp time institutions of past 
 
 a^«s, which have lost their original 
 purpose, and become obsolete or 
 hurtful, are swept away. 
 
 That processes of development 
 similar to these had already been 
 effective to raise culture from the 
 savage to the barbaric level, two con- 
 siderations especially tend to prove. 
 First, there are numerous points in 
 the culture even of rude races which 
 are not explicable otherwise thp»; on 
 the theory of development. Thus, 
 though difficult or superfluous arts 
 may easily be lost, it is hard to imag- 
 ine the abandonment of contrivances 
 of practical daily utility, where little 
 skill is required, and materials are 
 easily accessible. Had the Austra- 
 lians or New Zealanders, for instance, 
 ever possessed the potter's art, they 
 could 'lardly have forgotten it. The 
 inference that these tribes represent 
 the stage of culture before the in- 
 vention of pottery is confirmed by the 
 absence of buried fragments of pot- 
 tery m the districts tney inhablc 
 (Lubbock, in Report of British Asso- 
 ciation^ r)undee, 1867, p. 121). The 
 same races who were found making 
 thread by the laborious process of 
 twisting with the hand, would hardly 
 have disused if they had ever pos- 
 sessed it, so simple a labor-saving de- 
 vice as the spindle, which consists 
 merely of a small stick weighted at 
 one end; the spindle may, accord- 
 ingly, be regarded as an instrument 
 invented somewhere between the 
 lowest and i.ighest savage levels 
 (Tylor, Early Hist, of Mankind, p. 
 193). Again, many devices of civili- 
 zation bear unmistakable marks of 
 derivation from a lower source ; thus 
 the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian 
 harps, which differ from ours in hav- 
 ing no front pillar, appear certainly 
 to owe this lemarkable defect to hav- 
 ing grown up through intermediate 
 forms from the simple strung bow, 
 the still used type of the most prim- 
 itive stringed instrument (Engel, 
 Music of the most Ancient Nations, pp. 
 17, 30.) In this way the history of 
 numeral words furnishes actual prc^f 
 of that independent intellectual prog- 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
39 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. 
 
 H 
 
 ress among savag*^ tribes which sdme 
 writers have rashly denied. Such 
 words as hand, hands ^ foot, man, etc., 
 are used as numerals signifying 5, 
 10, 15, 20, etc., among many savage 
 and barbaric peoples; thus Polyne- 
 sian lima, i.e., " hand," means 5 ; 
 Zulu, taiisitupa, i.e., "taking the 
 thumb," means 6 ; Greenlandish, ar- 
 fersanek-pingasut, i.e., "on the other 
 foot three," means 18 ; Tamanac, 
 te-vin itoto, i.e., "one man," means 
 20, etc., etc. The existence of such 
 expressions demonstrates that the 
 people who use them had originally 
 r.c dpoken names for these numbers, 
 but once merely counted them by 
 gesture on their fingers and toes in 
 low savage fashion, till they ob- 
 tained higher numerals by the in- 
 ventive process of describing -n 
 words these counting-gestures (Tylor, 
 in Journal Royal Inst., March 15, 
 1867 ; Primitive Culture, chap. vii.). 
 Second, the process of " survival in 
 culture " has caused the preservation 
 in each stage of society of phenom- 
 ena belonging to an earlier period, 
 but kept up by force of custom into 
 the later, thus supplying evidence' of 
 the modern condition being derived 
 from the ancient. Thus the mitie 
 over an English bishop's coat-of-arms 
 is a survival which indicates him as 
 the successor of bishops who actually 
 wore mitres, while armorial bearings 
 themselves, and the whole craft of 
 heraldry, are survivals bearing record 
 of a state of warfare and social or- 
 der whence our present state was by 
 vast modification evolved. Evidence 
 of this class, proving the derivation 
 of modern civilization, not only 
 from ancient barbarism, but beyond 
 this, from primeval savagery, is im- 
 mensely plentiful, especially in rites 
 and ceremonies, where the survival 
 of ancient habits is peculiarly fa- 
 vored. Thus the modern Hindu, 
 though using civilized means for 
 lighting his household fire, retains 
 the savage " fire-drill " for obtaining 
 fire by friction of wood when what he 
 considers pure or sacred fire has to 
 be produced for sacrificial purposes ; 
 
 while in Europe into modern times 
 the same primitive process has been 
 kept up in producing the sacred and 
 magical "need-fire," which was light- 
 ed to deliver cattle from a murrain. 
 Again, the funera' offerings of food, 
 clothing, weapons, etc., to the dead 
 are absolutely intelligible and pur- 
 poseful among savage races, who be- 
 lieve that the souls of the departed 
 are ethereal beings, capable of con- 
 suming food, and of receiving and 
 using the '.ouls or phmtoms of any 
 objects s'icrificed for their use. The 
 primitive philosophy to which these 
 conceptions belong has to a great de- 
 gree been discredited by modern 
 science ; yet the clear survivals of 
 such ancient and savage rites may 
 still be seen in Europe, where the 
 Bretons leave the remains of the All 
 Souls' supper on the table for the 
 ghosts of the dead kinsfolk to par- 
 take of, and Russian peasants set out 
 cakes for the ancestral manes on the 
 ledge which supports the holy pict- 
 ures, and make dough ladders to as- 
 sist the ghosts of the dead to ascend 
 out of their graves and start on their 
 journey for the future world ; while 
 other provision for the same spiritual 
 journey is made when the coin is still 
 put in the hand of the corpse at an 
 Irish wake. In like manner magic 
 still exists in the civilized world as a 
 survival from the savage and barbaric 
 times to which it originally belongs, 
 and in which is found the natural 
 source and proper home of utterly 
 savage practices still carried on by 
 ignorant peasants in our own coun- 
 try, such as taking omens from the 
 cries of animals, or bewitching an 
 enemy by sticking full of pins and 
 hanging up to shrivel in the smoke 
 an image or other object, that similar 
 destruction may fall on the hated per- 
 son represented by the symbol (Tylor, 
 Primitive Culture, chap, i., iii., iv., xi., 
 xii.; Early Hist, of Man, chap. vi.). 
 
 To conclude, the comparative sci- 
 ence of civilization thus not only gen- 
 eralizes the data of history, but sup- 
 plements its information by laying 
 down the lines of development along 
 
ANTHROl'OLUGY. 
 
 sa 
 
 which the lowest prehistoric culture 
 has gradually risen to the highest 
 modern level. Among the most 
 clearly marked of these lines is that 
 which follows the succession . of the 
 stone, bronze, and iron ages. The 
 stone age represents the early condi- 
 tion of mankind in general, and has 
 remained in savage districts up to 
 modern times, while the introduction 
 of metals need not at once supersede 
 the use of the old stone hatchets and 
 arrows, which have often long con- 
 tinued in dwindling survival by the 
 side of the new bronze and even iron 
 ones. The bronze age had its most 
 import-^nt place among ancient na- 
 tions of Asia and Euiope, and among 
 them was only succeeded after many 
 centuries by the iron age ; while in 
 other districts, such as Polynesia and 
 Jentral and South Africa, and Anier- 
 ica (except Mexico and Peru), the 
 native tribes were moved directly 
 from the stone to the iron age with- 
 out passing through the bronze age 
 at all. Although the three divisions 
 of savage, barbaric, and civilized man 
 do not correspond at all perfectly 
 with the stone, bronze, and iron ages, 
 the classification of civilization thus 
 introduced by Nilsson and Thomsen 
 has proved* a guide of extraordinary 
 value in arranging in their proper 
 order of culture he nations of the 
 Old World. Anoiher great line of 
 progress has been followed by tribes 
 passing from the primitive state of the 
 wild hunter, fisher, and fruit-gatherer, 
 to that of the settled tiller of tb° soil, 
 for to this change of habit may be 
 plainly in g^'eat part traced che ex- 
 pansion of industrial arts and the 
 creation of higher social and political 
 institutions. These, again, have fol- 
 lowed their proper lines along the 
 course of time. Among such are the 
 immense legal development by which 
 
 the primitive law of personal venge- 
 ance passed gradually away, leav- 
 ing but a few surviving relics in the 
 modern civilized world, and being re- 
 placed by the higher doctrine that 
 crime is an offense against society, 
 to be repressed for the public good. 
 Another vast social change has been 
 that from the patriarchal condition, 
 in which the unit is the family under 
 the despotic rule of its head, to the 
 systems in which individuals make 
 up a society whose government i* 
 centralized in a chief or king. In 
 the growth of systematic civilization, 
 the art of writing has had an influence 
 so intense, that of all tests to distin- 
 guish the barbaric from the civilized 
 state, none is so generally effective 
 as this, whether they h.*ve but the 
 failing link with the past which mere 
 memory furnishes, or can have re- 
 course to written records of past his- 
 tory and written constitutions of pres-. 
 ent order.. Lastly, still following 
 the main lines of human culture, the 
 primitive germs of religious institu- 
 tions have to be traced in the childish 
 faith and rude rites of savage life, 
 and thence followed in their expan- 
 eion into the vast systems adminis- 
 tered by patriarchs and priests, hence- 
 forth taking unaer their charge the 
 precepts of morality and enforcing 
 them under divine sanction, while 
 also exercising in political life, an 
 authority beside or above the civil 
 law. These illustrations may suffice 
 to make it clear that although the 
 science of culture is still but rudi- 
 mentary and imperfect, it indicates 
 the one sound and indispensable 
 method for the study of human arts 
 and institutions, that of placing each 
 at its proper r>tage in a line of evolu- 
 tion, and explaining it by the action 
 of new conditions upon the previous 
 stage whence it was derived. 
 
ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 Bv E. B. TYLOR, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE BARLV HISTORY OP MANKIND," BTCt 
 
 The term Archaeology, like that of 
 Antiquities, has been employed, until 
 a very recent period, in a sense so 
 restricted and arbitrary as strikingly 
 to contrast with the latitude admissi- 
 ble according to the original deriva- 
 tion of the word. Literally it signi- 
 fies the, study of antiquity or ancient 
 things ; but its precise significance 
 has been determined from time to 
 time by the range of study and re- 
 search most in favor. To some ex- 
 tent it has always been recognized as 
 embracing whatever pei ained to the 
 early history of .uiy nation, but in its 
 details it was applied almost exclu- 
 sively to the study of Greek and Ro- 
 man art, or of classical antiquities 
 generally. The progress of geology, 
 and the application of sound princi- 
 ples of induction to the study of prim- 
 itive antiquities, have wrought a great 
 revolution, and few studies now rival 
 arf,it.2ology in comprehensive interest. 
 
 Li looking at the succession of 
 stata of the earth's crust it was as- 
 sumed till recently that the student 
 of man and his remains is limited to 
 the latest superficial formation of 
 post-tertiary strata. To the palaeon- 
 tologist was assigned all ancient ani- 
 mal life of the fossiliferous strata, 
 while the archaeologist treated of man 
 and his works as things essentially 
 distinct. The diverse functions of the 
 two sciences are still clearly recog- 
 nized; but the archaeologist^ is no 
 longer supposed to be excluded either 
 from quaternary or tertiary strata -in 
 his search not onlv for the remains of 
 human art, but for the osteological 
 
 evidences of man's presence contem- 
 poraneous h the fauna of such 
 geological periods. One class of ar- 
 chaeologists, accordingly, confidently 
 anticipate the recovery not only of 
 works of art, but of the fossil remains 
 of man himself, in the pliocene, or 
 even the miocene strata. So far, 
 however, as anj reliable evidence can 
 guide opinion, it scarcely admits of 
 question that neither has hitherto 
 been found in older deposits than the 
 later tertiary, or quaternary. 
 
 The actual remains of man, the 
 specific form of his osseous structure, 
 and above all of his skull, now re- 
 ceive the minutest attention ; and the 
 department of anthropology to which 
 such investigations are specially as- 
 signed has latterly acquired a fresh , 
 interest from the inquiries suggested 
 by iiovel theories as to the possible 
 evolutior, of man from lower animal 
 organizations. Nevertheless, the re- 
 searches of the paleontologist and of 
 the archaeologist are bas^d on essen- 
 tially distinct evidence. The life of 
 geological periods is investigated by 
 means of the fossil bones and teeth 
 which alone survive. Or if to these 
 have to be added such illustrations of 
 habits, food, and structure as are fur- 
 nished by means of footprints, copro- 
 lites, and the like subsidiary evidence, 
 still all are traceable, directly or indi- 
 rectly, to the living organism. Man, 
 on the contrary, in times altogether 
 preceding history, is chiefly studied 
 by means of his works. Archaeology 
 thus forms the intermediate link 1^ 
 tween geology and history, though the 
 
ARCli/tOLOUY. 
 
 an 
 
 reaction, at the revival of learning in ! 
 the i6th century, which tended for a 
 tithe to subordinate arts and science 
 alike to classical authority, reduced it 
 within greatly narro*ver liiriits. Nev- 
 ertheless, the fitness of the term for 
 the most comprehensive definition in 
 relation to all which pertains to the 
 past could not be entirely overlooked, 
 and it is even employed repeatedly by 
 Dr. Prichard as nearly synonymous 
 with palaeontology. In this, however, 
 he has not been followed, and the 
 name is now universally adopted to 
 designate the science which deduces 
 the history of man tronv the relics of 
 the past. 
 
 The innate cravings of the human 
 mind for an insight into the future 
 have shaped themselves into many 
 forms of divination and astrology. 
 But this desire is not more universal 
 than that which prompts man to aim 
 at a recovery of the secrets of the 
 past. The question Whence? even 
 more than that of Whither 1 is found 
 to give shape to the mythic legends of 
 the rude barbarian, and to constitute 
 an important element in the poetry 
 and mythology of efvery nation's oral 
 and written history. With the prog- 
 ress of society such indices of the 
 past are subjected anew to critical an- 
 alyses ; and we accordingly find abund- 
 ant Uaces of an archaeological spirit 
 in the literature of every civilized na- 
 tion. The influence of the same crav- 
 ing for a master^ of the past is seen 
 adapting itself to the spirit of the age 
 at every epoch of great progress. 
 The revival of art and letters in the 
 14th and 15th centuries was signalized 
 by a renewed appreciation of Greek 
 and Roman models; and while the 
 progress of opinion in the i6th cent- 
 ury was accompanied by an abandon- 
 ment of mediaeval for classic art, the 
 tendency of Europe in our own day, 
 amid many elements of progress, has 
 been singularly corsentaneous in the 
 return not merely to mediaeval art, 
 but to mediaeval modes and standards 
 of thought, and in the attempt to at- 
 tain to higher excellence than has 
 been yet achieved by a more perfect 
 
 development of the ideal of the mid- 
 dle ages. 
 
 The alliance of archaeology with 
 geology, and the direction of geolog- 
 ical research to the evidences of the 
 antiquity of man, have largely contrib- 
 uted to its expansion, until in its 
 comprehensive i nity it embraces the 
 entire range of human progress froTn 
 the infantile stage of primeval arts to 
 the earliest periods of written recoi Js. 
 It has thus been developed into a sys- 
 *2matic science, by ut; h the intelli- 
 gent investigator is e».i.!'' .d to pursue 
 his researches with the aid cf evidence 
 older than all written chronicles, and 
 to recover chapters of national in- 
 fancy and youth heretofore deemed 
 beyond recall. The geologist, with 
 no aid from written records, follows 
 out his inquiries through successive 
 periods of the earth's history, and re- 
 veals the changes it has undergone, 
 and the character of the living beings 
 which animated epochs of the globe 
 ages befol-e man was called into be- 
 ing. Beginning with the traces of 
 life in the primary fossiliferous strata, 
 he passes on from system to system, 
 disclosing a vast succession of long 
 extinct life, until in the latest diluvial 
 formations he points to the remains 
 of animals identical with existing 
 species, and even to traces of human 
 art — the evidence of the close of geo- 
 l0j;;ical and the beginning of archaeo- 
 logical periods. Here archaelogical 
 science ought to be ready to take up 
 the narrative, and with a more com- 
 prehensive minuteness of detail and 
 greater certainty as to the conclusions 
 arrived at. Such, however, until very 
 recently, has not been the case. The 
 geologist himself long confused the 
 records of the transitional period by • 
 his mistaken reference of all diluvial 
 traces to the Noachian deluge ; and 
 when, pausing, as he thus believed, at 
 the dawn of the historic period, he 
 turned to the archaeologist for the sub- 
 sequent chapters of the history of iiffc 
 on our globe, it was only to receive a 
 record of Roman traces at best but 
 meagerly supplementing the minuter 
 details of the historian. Nearly the 
 
m 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 same wrs tiie case with all historic 
 antiquity, with the single exception 
 of the wonderful monuments oi Egypt, 
 which preserve to us the records of a 
 civilization in which we can recognize 
 the origin of arts, letters, and all else 
 to which the culture of the oluest his- 
 torical nations may be traced. 
 
 Nevertheless, ihe evidences of the 
 primitive arts, and the traces of a na- 
 tive civilization originating among the 
 prehistoric races of Europe, had been 
 long familiar to the antiquary, though 
 he failed to form any intelligent con- 
 ception of their significance as his- 
 torical records. Their interpretation 
 on an intelligent and systematic prin- 
 ciple is mainly due to the archaeolo- 
 gists and ethnologists of Denmark 
 and Sweden, who from their very geo- 
 graphical positioi) were happily freed 
 from the confusing element of classi- 
 cal prejudices, and were compelled to 
 seek in other than Roman sources an 
 origin for the abundant traces of met- 
 allurgic art. Zealous British coad 
 jutors speedily caught the hint, and 
 freed themselves from the trammels 
 which had so long narrowed their 
 aim ; the remains of primitive art 
 were referred to true sources, or at 
 least arranged under an intelligent 
 system of chronological sequence ; 
 and thus the desultory and' ofted mis- 
 directed labors of the antiquary have 
 given place to researches character- 
 ized by scientific accuracy. 
 
 The system of primitive archfeology 
 thus introduced has since been mod- 
 ified and carried out into ampler de- 
 tails, as the fruit of more extended 
 discoveries, chiefly effected in France 
 and England ; but the three primary 
 divisions, the Stone, the Bronze, and 
 the Iron! Periods, are still retained. 
 The arrangement is warranted alike 
 by evidence and by its practical con- 
 venience, though later research has 
 given to the stone period a compre- 
 hensiveness undreamt of before, and 
 so led to its subdivision into two ages 
 of prolonged duration, with distinct- 
 ive characteristics of primitive art. 
 (i.) The Stone Period, as the nanie 
 implies, It that in which the rude ab- 
 
 original arts, which the commonest 
 necessities of man call into operation, 
 are assumed to have been employed 
 entirely on such available materials 
 as stone, horn, bone, etc. (2.) The 
 Bronze Period may in like manner 
 admit of subdivision, though the term 
 is conveniently employed, in its most 
 comprehensive sense, for that era of 
 progress in which the metallurgic arts 
 appear to have been introduced and 
 slowly developed — first, by the simple 
 use of native copper, followed by the 
 application of fire, the construction of 
 molds, and the discovery of such 
 chemical processes as the alloying of 
 copper and tin, and the consequent 
 production of the beautiful and useful 
 alloy which gives name to this the 
 earlier ^metallurgic era. (3.) The 
 Iron Period marks the era of matured 
 metallurgic arts, and the accompany- 
 ing progress consequent on the degree 
 of civilization which is the inevitable 
 concomitant of such a state of things. 
 While, however, those divisions hold 
 good in their general application, they 
 must not in every case be applied too 
 rigidly. The archaologist is con- 
 stantly recalled to the distinction be- 
 tween the researches of the palaeon- 
 tologist, as dealing with the traces of 
 organic life, anS his own study of the 
 works of a rational being marked by 
 all the diversities traceable to the 
 reasoning and volition of the individ- 
 ual workman. Local facilities have 
 also modified the arts of primitive 
 man in various ways. In some local- 
 ities, as in North America, pure na- 
 tive copper abounds; while on tne 
 other hand, in certain districts of Af- 
 rica iron occurs in such a condition 
 that it appears to have been wrought 
 by the primitive metallurgist from 
 very remote times. 
 
 AH those periods embrace eras con- 
 cerning which no contemporary writ- 
 ten records exist ; and in relation to 
 most of them nearly as little is known 
 directly as of the older periods with 
 which the geologist exclusively deals. 
 It need not therefore excite surprise 
 that the process of induction estab- 
 lished on this basis iias been chal- 
 
ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 87 
 
 term 
 
 lenged by historical writers of high 
 standing, but whose exclusive labors, 
 on the records of periods admitting 
 of documentary evidence and charter 
 proof render them little disposed to 
 sympathize with a course of reasoning 
 relative to the hi itory of man, such as 
 has, in the hands of the geologist, re- 
 vealed so much in relation to more 
 ancient life. The further, however, 
 that research is pursued, alike into 
 the habits of living races of savages, 
 and into the characteristics of the 
 oldest traces of primitive art, the more 
 clearly does such a process of devel- 
 opment, from the first rude working 
 in stone to the highest arts of the 
 skilled metallurgist, become mani- 
 fest. 
 
 The Australians, the Maories of 
 New Zealand, and the whole widely- 
 scattered races of the Polynesian Isl- 
 ands, the Caribs and other natives of 
 the American archipelago, with all the 
 nomade tribes of the New World, 
 from Patagonia to the Arctic circle, 
 were, when first discovered, without 
 any knowledge of the metals as such, 
 and supplied their wants by means of 
 implements and weapons of stone, 
 shell, bon», or wood. The civilized 
 Mexicans and Peruvians, on the con- 
 trary, when first visited by the Span- 
 iards in the i6th century, were famil- 
 iar with ine working of copper as well 
 as gold, — though totally ignorant of 
 iron, and also retaining ior common 
 purposes many of the primitive stone 
 weapons and implements, only sub- 
 stituting the abundant obsidian of 
 their volcanic region for flint. Greece 
 passed from its bronze to its iron age 
 within the period embraced in its lit- 
 erary history ; and the mastery of the 
 art of working the intractable iron 
 ore is traceable with tolerable clear- 
 ness in the early history of Rome, not 
 very long before it came in contact 
 with the trans-Alpine barbarians. 
 Among most of the Germanic and 
 Celtic tribes iron appears to have been 
 already known when they first came 
 in contact with the aggressive civili- 
 zation of the south ; and from one of 
 them, the Norici (in whose country. 
 
 in the Austrian valleys of the Danube, 
 this metal is still wrought with the 
 highest skill,) there is reason to be- 
 lieve that the Romans acquired the 
 art of making steel. 
 
 If history is only to begin, as that 
 of Britain has been made to do, with 
 the date of the first collision with in- 
 vading Rome, then, no doubt, stone 
 and bronze periods are as meaning- 
 less as are eocene and miocene peri- 
 ods to the geologist who assigns the 
 Mosaic deluge as the source of the 
 earliest phenomena of hia science. 
 To those, however, who are willing to 
 follow inducti'/C reasoning to its legiti- 
 mate conclusions it must be apparent 
 that it is no visionary theory, but a 
 system founded in well-established 
 truth, which ananges the archaeolog- 
 ical records of primitive history and 
 the remains oi human art into stone, 
 bronze, and iron periods. Even here, 
 however, an important distinction in 
 the employment of such materials as 
 a basis of inductive reasoning indi- 
 cates the greatness of the revolution 
 involved iu the introduction among 
 the living creatures inhabiting this 
 earth of a being endowed with intelli- 
 gence, and supplementing the natural 
 resources of animal life by arts even 
 of the most primitive kind. It must 
 indeed be born in remembrance that 
 geological and historical chronology 
 are v!*ry different things, and that the 
 idea implied in the contemporaneous- 
 ness of strata bears a very slight ap- 
 proximation to the coincidence o' con- 
 temporaneous events and productions 
 of an historical era. The doctrine of 
 geological continuity is indeed chal- 
 lenged in certain respects ; but on the 
 whole, the geological formations, with 
 their included organic remains, may 
 be assumed to obey a natural and un- 
 varying order ; and so, within the 
 compass of geological periods, to be 
 of contemporaneous origin. But, 
 notwithstanding certain extreme as- 
 sumptions, based on the theory of ev- 
 olution, and involving the consequent 
 existence of man in remote geolc^cal 
 eras, so far as all actual evidence can 
 yet guide us, it is correct to say that, 
 
83 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 M 
 
 geologically speaking, the entire his- 
 tory of man is embraced in one peri- 
 od. But in the works of art, which 
 form the bases of archaeological in- 
 duction, a new element — that of mind, 
 or the reasoning faculty, along with 
 the imitative and social arts — is intro- 
 duced, and greatly complicates its 
 subdivisions. The stone period of 
 Britain or Denmark is analogous to 
 that of the Polynesian Islands. So 
 closely do their tools and weapons re- 
 semble each other that it requires a 
 practiced eye tojdistinguish the stone 
 axe or flint lance-head found in an 
 ancient British barrow from imple- 
 ments brought by some recent voy- 
 ager from the islands of the Southern 
 Ocean. Nor could the most experi- 
 enced archaeologist undertake in 
 every case to discriminate between 
 the flint arrow-head dug from some 
 primitive barrow of undated centuries 
 before the Christian era, and the cor- 
 responding weapon brought by some 
 recent traveler from Tierra del Fuego 
 or regions beyond the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. The inference is therefore 
 legitimate, that in those Polynesians, 
 Fuegians, or Indians of the North- 
 West, we have examples of tribes in 
 the same primitive stage as were the 
 aborigines of Europe durinc: its stone 
 period. Chronologically, however, 
 the stone period of Europe and that 
 of the Pacific islands or the American 
 continent are separated by thousands 
 of years. In like manner, the bronze 
 age of Mexico was undisturbed by all 
 later elements when first brought into 
 contact with the matured civilization 
 of Europe in the i6th century, while 
 the close of that of Britain preceded 
 the ist century of our era. The same 
 rule is applicable to the primitive 
 archaeol(^ of all countries; and a 
 fertile source of error and misconcep- 
 tion has already had its rise in the as- 
 sumption that because Greece and 
 Italy, Germany, Gaul, Scandinavia, 
 and Britain, have all had their primi- 
 tive stone and bronze periods, there- 
 fore the whole must have been con- 
 temporaneous. It cannot therefore 
 be too strongly enforced as one of the 
 
 most essential points of variance in 
 the reasoning of the geologist and the 
 archaeologist, that the periods of the 
 latter, 'tiough synonymous, are not 
 necessarily synchronous ; but that, on 
 the contrary, nearly all the phenom- 
 ena which pertain to the natural his- 
 tory of man, and to the historic devel- 
 opment of the race, may be witn'^ssed 
 in their various stages in contempo- 
 rary races of our own day — from ru- 
 dimentary barbarism, and the absence 
 of all arts essential to the first dawn 
 of civilization to a state of greatest 
 advancement in the knowledge and 
 employn.cnt of such arts. 
 
 Some progress has already been 
 made in an approximation to certain 
 chronological data of much import- 
 a vce >. 'tive to such primitive peri- 
 o > t uie history of nations. But 
 the archaeologist, as well as the geolo- 
 gist, is learning to deal with periods 
 of time which cannot always be 
 measured either by years or centuries, 
 but rather must be gauged by those 
 chronological stages in the history of 
 our planet in which epochs and peri- 
 ods take the place of definite subdi- 
 visions of solar time. Nevertheless, 
 geological evidence of changes which 
 are known to have occurred- within 
 the historic period supplies an im- 
 portant key to the approximate dura- 
 tion of certair .'? characterized by 
 traces of hu t; and while by 
 
 the intelligeni i ration of such re- 
 
 mains in the sl.^ '■' al strata, ming- 
 ling with the foss.li .evidences of ex- 
 tinct and familiar species of animal 
 life, the link is supplied by which 
 man takes his place in an unbroken 
 chain of creative existence, sweeping 
 back into so re lote a past, the evi- 
 dences of matured art pertaining to 
 periods unrecorded by history supply 
 later links of the same chain, and 
 reunite the present with all former 
 ages. 
 
 The system of primitive archaeology 
 which is found applicable to British 
 antiquities so closely corresponds in 
 all its essential features to that of 
 Europe prior to the era of authentic 
 history, that the purpose of such an 
 
ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 abstract as this will be most conven- 
 iently accomplished by presenting its 
 leading points as examples of the 
 whole, illustrating these in passing 
 by the analogous remains discovered 
 in other countries. The apparent 
 simplicity of a primitive stone period 
 has been considerably ;nodified by 
 recent research; and the careful 
 study of the remains of ancient art, 
 in their relation to accompanying 
 geological phenomena, or of the evi- 
 dences of artificial deposition in caves, 
 barrows, chambered cromlechs, cairns, 
 or other sepulchral structures, sug- 
 gests the subdivision of prehistoric 
 archaeology into a succession of 
 epochs included within the period of 
 nonmetallurgic arts. 
 
 But before defining the archaeolog- 
 ical rubdivisibns of time it is indis- 
 pensable to glance at the palaeonto- 
 logical elements of the question, and 
 the evidences they supply in relation 
 to comparative chronology. One of 
 the most remarkable phenomena af- 
 fecting the conditions of life in Eu- 
 rope in recent geological epochs is 
 the existence of a period, of long 
 duration throughout the northern 
 hemisphere, of a temperature resem- 
 bling that of the Arctic regions at the 
 present time. After a: period more 
 nearly approximating in its conditions 
 the heat of the tropics at the present 
 day, though otherwise under varying 
 states toward the end of the tertiary 
 epoch the temperature of the whole 
 northern hemisphere gradually dimin- 
 ished, until the mountainous regions 
 of Scotland and Wales — then prob- 
 ably of a much higher elevation — 
 resembled Greenland at the present 
 time ; and this Arctic temperature 
 gradually extended southward to the 
 Alps and the Pyrenees. The glaciers 
 formed under the influence of perpet- 
 ual frost and snow descended from 
 those and other mountains into the 
 valleys and plains over the greater 
 portion of central Europe and north- 
 em Asia ; and this condition of things, 
 pertaining to what is known as the 
 glacial period^ was one of greatly pro- 
 longed duration. 
 
 After some partial modifications of 
 this low temperature, and a conse- 
 quent advance and retrocession of the 
 glacial influences in France and else- 
 where, along what was then the bor- 
 der lines of a north temperate zone, 
 the glacial period drew to a close ; a 
 gradual but persistent rise of temper- 
 ature carried the lines of ice and per- 
 petual snow further and further north- 
 ward, excepting in regions of great 
 elevation, as in the Swiss Alps. This 
 was necessarily accompanied by the 
 melting of the vast glaciers accumu- 
 lated in the mountain valleys through- 
 out the protracted period of cold. 
 The broken rocks and soil of the 
 highlands were swept into the valleys 
 by torrents of melted ice and snow ; 
 the lower v ;lleys were hollowed out 
 and re-formed under this novel agent ; 
 and the landscape received its present 
 outlines of valley, estuary, and river- 
 beds from the changes wrought in 
 this diliivian epoch. The enormous 
 power of the torrents thus acting con- 
 tinuously throughout a period of pro- 
 longed duration, and the vast deposits 
 of sand, gravel, and clay, with the 
 embedded remains of contempora- 
 neous animal and vegetable life with 
 which they every>vhere covered the 
 plains, were viewed till recently solely 
 in relation to the Mosaic narrative of 
 a universal deluge, and were referred 
 implicitly to that source. But recent 
 though the epoch is when compared 
 with older geological periods, its an- 
 tiquity is enormous in relation to his- 
 toric chronology ; and instead of be- 
 ing the product of a sudden cataclysm 
 of brief duration, it represents phe- 
 nomena which required a period of 
 long protracted 'centuries for their 
 evolution. 
 
 Within this late tertiary, or quater- 
 nary, period are found the remains of 
 animal life contemporary with prime- 
 val man and his earliest arts. The 
 very characteristics of some of the 
 fossil mammals of the period, so di- 
 verse from all that ^e have been &c- 
 customod to associate with man, help 
 to suggest ideas of even an exagger- 
 ated antiquity for the era to which 
 
40 
 
 ARCHi«:OLOGY. 
 
 they are assignable, and to relegate 
 it to the remotest conceivable antiq- 
 uity consistent with all other evidence 
 of the oldest traces of man or his 
 arts seemingly contemporaneous with 
 them. Of those now wholly extinct, 
 the mammoth or Elephas ptimigenius, 
 the Elephas antiq'ms, the Rhinoceros 
 tichorinus^ the Hippopotamus major, 
 and such great cave carnivora as the 
 Ursus spelcEus and the Felis spelaa, are 
 most noticeable for their great size, 
 and in some cases for their enormous 
 destructive powers, in striking con- 
 trast to the seemingly helpless condi- 
 tion of prirriitive man. Yet even 
 some of those formidable mammalia 
 probably owed their extinction fully 
 as much to the } resence of man as to 
 any change in temperature and con- 
 sequent alteration in the required 
 conditions of climate and habitat. 
 We are accustomed to regard the 
 lion, tiger, leopard, panther, and 
 others of the great Felidcs as pertain- 
 ing exclusively to tropical countries. 
 They are in reality^Iimited to tropical 
 jungles and uncultivated regions of 
 great extent, where the abundance of 
 wild vegetable-feeding animals sup- 
 plies their food. The existence of 
 neither is compatible with the pres- 
 ence of man in any great numbers ; 
 but in his absence those beasts of 
 prey greatly extend their range. The 
 Indian tiger not only follows the ante- 
 lope and deer in the Himalayan chain 
 to t*^*^ verge of perpetual snow, but 
 the tiger, leopard, panther, and chee- 
 tah hunt their prey beyond that 
 mountain range, even into Siberia, 
 
 The influence of man in the extir- 
 pation of the wild fauna is illustrated 
 by another class of extinct animals of 
 many historical regions, which yet 
 survive in more favorable localities. 
 The discovery of abundant evidence 
 of a period in the history of central 
 and southern France when the rein- 
 deer {Cervus tarandus) formed one of 
 the chief sources both for the food of 
 man and fot the materials from which 
 his weapons and implements were 
 made, seems to carry us back to an 
 era inconceivably remote, when cen- 
 
 tral France was in the condition of 
 Lapland in medieval or still earlier 
 centuries. But the climate of North 
 Britain is not even now incompatible 
 with the existence of the reindeer, 
 and iti, favorite moss abounds in 
 many parts of the Highlands. It 
 need not therefore surprise us to learn 
 that traces of the reindeer are by no 
 means rare in Scotland ; and numer- 
 ous examples of its horns have re- 
 cently been recovered in more than 
 one Caithness locality, with the marks 
 of sawing and cutting for artificial 
 use, and lying among other remains 
 in stone-built structures of a primitive 
 population of North Britain. How 
 old they are may not be strictly de- 
 terminable, but they help us to the 
 acceptance of a very modern date for 
 the presence of the reindeer there ; 
 for Torfseus states that so recently as 
 the twelfth century the Jarls of Ork- 
 ney were wont to cross the Pentland 
 Firth to chase the roe and the rein- 
 deer in the wilds of Caithness. At 
 the same date also we find the skin 
 of the beaver .ated for customs duties 
 amongst articles of Scottish export 
 specified in an Act of the reign of 
 David I. 
 
 Another very characteristic animal 
 pertaining to the prehistoric era of 
 European man is the Megaceros Hiber- 
 nicus, or gigantic Irish elk. Its bones 
 occurred with those of the Elephas 
 primigenius, the Rhinoceros tichorinus, 
 the Ursus spelaus, and other extinct 
 mammals, alongside of human re- 
 mains and works of art, in the famous 
 Aurignac cave of the Pyrenees ; and 
 in the recently-explored Brixham cave, 
 on the Devonshire coast, similar re- 
 mains of the fossil rhinoceros, horse, 
 and reindeer, as well as of several ex- 
 tinct carnivora, lay embedded in the 
 same breccia with flint knives. And 
 not only have the horns and bones of 
 the Megaceros Hibernicus been recov- 
 ered from Irish bogs and marl-pits, 
 with marks of artificial cutting, but a 
 rude Irish lyre, found in the moat of 
 Desmond Ca.stle, Adare, has been pro- 
 nounced by Professor Owen to be made 
 from the bone of this extinct deer. 
 
ARCHiEOLOGY. 
 
 . So is it with the ancient Bovidce^ 
 not only adapted for the chase, but 
 suitable for domestication ; such as 
 the Bos primigenius, the Bos longi- 
 /rons, and the Bison prisms. Their 
 remains have been found in submarine 
 forests, or mingling in the drift or 
 cave deposits with the Elephas prim- 
 igenius, the Felis spelaa, and others of 
 the most gigantic fossil mammals ; 
 while abundant traces reveal their 
 existence not merely contemporaneous 
 with man, but within definite histori- 
 cal periods. 
 
 The great alluvial valley of the 
 river Forth has yielded another class 
 of relics connecting the gigantic fossil 
 mammalia of a prehistoric epoch with 
 man. The disclosures of the Carse 
 of Falkirk have repeatedly included 
 remains of the Elephas primigenius : 
 and in at least one case its tusks 
 were found in such perfect condition 
 as to be available for the ivory-turner, 
 though lying embedded at a depth of 
 20 feet in the boulder clay. But in 
 the neighboring valley of the Forth 
 the tussil whale {Balanopterd) has net 
 only beeti repeatedly found far in- 
 land, buried in the alln lal soil, at 
 levels varying from 20 to 25 feet above 
 high-water mark, but in at least two 
 instances the rude lance or harpoon 
 of deer's horn lay alongside of the 
 skeletons ; and near another of them 
 were found pieces of stag's horn, 
 artificially cut, and one of them per- 
 forated with a hole about an inch in 
 diameter. Flint implements, an oak- 
 en quern, and other ingenious traces 
 of primitive art, recovered from the 
 same alluvial soil, all tell of a time 
 when the British savage hunted the 
 whale in the shallows of a tide at the 
 base of the Ochil hills, now between 
 20 and 30 feet above the highest tides 
 and 7 miles distant from the sea. 
 
 There is no doubt that the disap- 
 pearance of the whale from the British 
 shores, like the reindeer from its 
 northern valleys, is due far more to 
 the presence of man than to any 
 change of temperature so greatly 
 affecting the conditions of life as to 
 involve their extinction. Neverthe- 
 
 less it is convenient to recognize in 
 the disappearance of such emigrant 
 species fr.om the historic areas the 
 close of the palaeontological age. 
 The Urus, the Aurochs, the Bos 
 longi/rons, or native ox of the Roman 
 period, and others of that important 
 class of animals which man first be- 
 gan to turn to account for domestica- 
 tion, have also ceased to exist among 
 European fauna ; but- this is cl'^arly 
 traceable to the destructive presence 
 of man. Within three or four cent- 
 uries the Urus {Bos primigenius) was 
 still known in Germany ; the Aurochs 
 {Bos priscus) is even now preserved 
 under special protection in Lithuania ; 
 and herds of British wild cattle in 
 Cadzow forest, Lanarkshire, and at 
 Chillingham Park, Northumberland, 
 perpetuate varieties otherwise extinct. 
 
 Reverting, then, to the classifica- 
 tion which prehistoric archaeology ad- 
 mits of, in the ligiit of its most recent 
 disclosures, it app'^ars to be divisible 
 into four distinct epochs, of which the 
 first two embrace successive stages of 
 ^h'^ age of stone implements. 
 
 I. The Paleolithic Period is that 
 which has also been designated the 
 Drift Period. The troglodytes, or 
 cave-dwellers, of this primitive era 
 were to all appearance contempora- 
 neous with the mammoth, the woolly- 
 haired rhinoceros, and the great cave 
 carnivora already named. In Eng- 
 land, France, Belgium, and other 
 countries of Euro^^e, numerous caves 
 have been explored which were un- 
 doubtedly the habitations and work- 
 shops of the men of this jieriod. 
 These caverns vary in character and 
 dimensions according to the geolog- 
 ical features of the localities where 
 they occur ; but all alike involve the 
 simple feature of recesses, more or 
 less ample, affording comparatively 
 dry and commodious shelter, and so 
 being resorted to as places of habita- 
 tion alike by wild animals and by man 
 himself. But the most valuable for 
 the purposes of the archaeologist are 
 a class of caverns which occur in 
 limestone districts, and which, from 
 the combined mechanical action of 
 
48 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 f" ■ 
 
 J;, t 
 
 the water operating on a rock easily 
 eroded, and its chemical action when 
 charged with a certain amount of 
 carbonic acid in dissolving the cal- 
 careous rock, are found expanded 
 into long galleries and chambers ot 
 large dimensions There the same 
 chemical agents, acting under other 
 circumstances, have dissolved the 
 limestone rock, and sealed up the 
 ancient flooring at successive .inter- 
 vals, thereby furnishing a test of the 
 duration of long periods of alternate 
 action and repose, and yielding evi- 
 dence of the most indisputable kind 
 as to the order of succession of the 
 various deposits and their included 
 bones and implements. 
 
 In Belgii m, at Dordogne, and in 
 some parts of the south of France, 
 the caves and rock-recesses are of a 
 much simpler character. Yet there 
 also favoring circumstances have pre- 
 served contemporary deposits of the 
 ancient cave-dwellers, their works of 
 art, the remains of their food, and 
 even their cooking hearths. 
 
 The caves of the drift period ac- 
 cordingly present peculiarly favorable 
 conditions for the study of the. post- 
 pliocene period. Some of these cav- 
 erns were evidently first occupied by 
 the extinct carnivora of that period, 
 as in the case of the famous Kent's 
 Hole Cave of Devonshire, of which 
 the lowest deposit is a breccia of 
 water-worn rock and red clay, inter- 
 spersed with numerous bones of the 
 Ursus speiaus, or great cave-bear. 
 Over this a stalagmitic flooring had 
 been formed, in some places to a 
 depth of several feet, by the long- 
 protracted deposition of carbonate of 
 lime held in solution in the drippings 
 from the roof. Above this ancient 
 flooring,' itself a work of centuries, 
 later floods had superimposed a thick 
 layer of "cave-earth," in some cases 
 even entirely filling up extensive gal- 
 leries with a deposit of drift-mud and 
 stones, within which are embedded 
 the evidences of contemporaneous 
 life — ^bones and teeth of the fossil 
 elejAant, rhinoce ros, horse, cave-bear, 
 byiena, reindeer, and Irish eik ; and 
 
 along with these, numerous weapons 
 and implements of chipped flint, horn, 
 and bone — the unmistakable proofs 
 of the presence of man. These, 
 again, have been sealed down, in 
 another prolonged period of rest, by 
 a new flooring of stalagmite ; and 
 thus the peculiar circumstances of 
 those cave deposits render them spe- 
 cially favorable for the preservation 
 of a coherent record of the period. 
 Here are the evidences of the animal 
 life contemporaneous with the mert 
 of the caves during the drift period ; 
 here also are many of their smaller 
 flint implements — the flint-cores and 
 the chips and flint-flakes, showing 
 where their actual manufacture was 
 carried on ; and the lances, bodkins, 
 and needles of bone, which could 
 only have been preserved under tuch. 
 favoring circumstances. 
 
 But besides the actual deposits in 
 the caves, the river gravels of the 
 same period have their distinct dis-* 
 closures. The spear-heads, discs,, 
 scrapers, and other large implements 
 of chipped flint are of rare occurrence 
 in the cave breccia. Their ' size was 
 sufficient to prevent their being 
 readily dro^t and buried beyond 
 reach of recovery i the muddy floor- 
 ing of the o d cave dwelling ; and the 
 same cause preserved them from de- 
 struction when exposed to the violence 
 involved in the accumulation of the 
 old river drifts. In the north oi: 
 France, and in England from Bed- 
 fordshire southward to the English 
 Channel, in beds of ancient gravel, 
 sand, and clay of the river valleys, 
 numerous discoveries of large flmt 
 implements have been m^de — ^from 
 the year 1797, when the fin^^t noted 
 flint implements of the drivt were 
 discovered in the same stratified 
 gravel of Hoxne, in Suffolk, in which 
 lay bones of the fossil elephants and 
 other extinct mammalia. The char* 
 acteristics of the river-drift imple- 
 ments, as well as of the whole art 
 of the stone age, have been minutely 
 described and illustrated in various> 
 works, but especially in Evans's Art" 
 cwtf St(»u Implements^ Weapons, and 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 4d 
 
 and 
 
 Ornaments of Great Britain. It is 
 sufficient, therefore, to refer to luch 
 authorities for details. 
 
 But besides the numerous speci- 
 mens of the manufactures in flint, 
 horn, and bone, illustrative of the 
 mechanical ingenuity of this primitive 
 era, special attention is due to the 
 actual evidences of imitative and 
 artistic skill of the sculptors and 
 draughtsmen of the same period. 
 
 Different attempts have been made, 
 especially by Freuch savam, to sub- 
 divide the palaeontologic age of man 
 into a succession * of periods, based 
 chiefly on the character of the mamma- 
 lian remains accompanying primitive 
 works of art ; and the two great sub- 
 divisions of the elephantine or mam- 
 moth age and the reindeer age have 
 been specially favored. Among the 
 works of art of the cave-men of Peri- 
 gord, in central France, contempo- 
 rary with the reindeer, various draw- 
 ings of animals, including the rein- 
 deer itself, have been found incised 
 on bone and stone, apparently with a 
 pointed implement of flint. But the 
 most remarkable of all is the portrait 
 of a mammoth, seemingly executed 
 from the life, outlined on a plate of 
 ivory found in the Madelaine Cave, 
 on the viver Vezfere, by M. Lartet, 
 when in company with M. Verneuil 
 and Dr. Falconer. If genuiner-and 
 the circumstances of the discovery, 
 no less than the character of the 
 •explorers, seem to place it above sus- 
 picion — this most ancient work of art 
 is of extreme value. The skulls and 
 other remains of five individuals have 
 been found to illustrate the men of 
 this period. The cerebral develop- 
 ment is good, and alike in features 
 and form of head they compare favor- 
 ably with later savage races. Their 
 drawings embrace animals, single and 
 in groups, including the mammoth, 
 reindeer, horse, ox, fish of different 
 kinds, flowers, ornamental patterns, 
 and also ruder attempts at the human 
 form. They also carved in bone and 
 ivory. Some of the delineations are 
 as rude as any recent specimens of 
 savage art, others exhibit consider- 
 
 able skill; but the most remarkable 
 of all is the representation of the 
 mammoth. It has been repeatedly 
 engraved, and as, to all appearance, 
 a genuine contemporary effort at the 
 portraiture of that remarkable animal, 
 its worth is considerable. But this 
 sinks into insignificance in compari- 
 son with its value as a gauge of the 
 intellectual capacity of the men of 
 that remote age. It represents the 
 extinct elephant, sketched with great 
 freedom of hand, and with an artistic 
 boldness in striking contrast to the 
 labored efforts of an untutored 
 draughtsman. Whatever other infer- 
 ence be deduced from it, this is 
 obvii^''j, that in intellectual aptitude 
 the palaeolithic men of the reindeer 
 period of central France were in no 
 degree inferior to the average French- 
 man of the igth century. 
 
 2. This first, or palaeolithic period, 
 with its characteristic implements of 
 chipped flint, belonging to an epoch 
 in which man occup-ed central Eu- 
 rope contemporaneously with the 
 mammoth, the cave-bear, and other 
 long-extinct mammals, was followed 
 by the second or Neolithic Period, or, 
 as it has been sometimes called, the 
 Surface-Stone Period, in contradic- 
 tion to the Drift Period, character- 
 ized by weapons of polished flint and 
 stone. The discovery and explora- 
 tion of the ancient Pfahlbauten or 
 lake villages of Switzerland ;-nd other 
 countries, including the crapnoges of 
 Ireland and Scotland, and of the 
 kjokken-moddings or refuse-heaps of 
 Denmark, Scotland, and elsewhere, 
 have greatly extended the illustra- 
 tions of this period, and given defi- 
 niteness to the evidences of its an- 
 tiquity. But while it thus includes 
 works of a very remote epoch, it also 
 embraces those of later regular sepul- 
 ture, with the sepulchral pottery of 
 rudest type, the personal ornaments 
 and other remains of the prehistoric 
 races of Europe, onward to the da\/n 
 of history. It even includes the first 
 traces of the use of the metals, in the 
 employment of gold for personal 
 adornment, though with no intelligeot 
 
ARCHiEOLOGY. 
 
 recognition of its distinction frr m the 
 flint and stone in which the work- 
 men ot this neolithic period chiefly 
 wrought. 
 
 The nearly indestructible n„ture of 
 the materials in which the manufact- 
 urers alike of the palaeolithic and the 
 neolithic period chiefly wrought, helps 
 to account for the immense number 
 of weapons and implements of the 
 two prolonged ages of stone-working 
 which have been recovered. The 
 specimens now accumulated in the 
 famous collection of the Christians- 
 borg Palace at Copenhagen amount 
 to several thousands. The Royal 
 Irish Academy, the Society of Anti- 
 quaries of Scotland, the British Mu- 
 seum, and other collection&, in like 
 manner include many hundreds of 
 specimens, ranging from the remotest 
 periods of the cave and drift men of 
 western Europe to the dawn of defi- 
 nite history within the same Euro- 
 pean area. They include hatchets, 
 adzes, gouges, chisels, scrapers, disks, 
 and other tools in considerable va- 
 riety ; axes, lances, spear and arrow 
 heads, mauls, hammers, and other 
 weapons and implements of war and 
 the chase ; besides a variety of uten- 
 sils, implements, and ornaments, with 
 regard to which we can but vaguely 
 guess the design of their construc- 
 tion. Many of these are merely chip- 
 ped into shape, sometimes with much 
 ingenuity, in other cases as rudely as 
 the most ^barbarous and massive im- 
 plements of the palaeolithic period. 
 But from their association, in graves 
 or otlier clearly-recognized deposits 
 of the later period, with ground and 
 polished implements, and even occa- 
 sionally with the first traces of a time 
 when the metals were coming into 
 use, there is no room to question 
 their later origin. In part they may 
 be legitimately recognized, like the 
 whole elements of archaeological clas- 
 sification, to mark different degrees 
 of rudeness in successive steps to- 
 ward civilization; in part they indi- 
 cate, as in manufactures of our own 
 day, the economy of labor in roughly- 
 fashioned implements designed only 
 
 for the rudest work, or for missiles 
 the use of which involved their loss. 
 
 To the same primitive period of 
 rude savage life must be assigned the 
 rudiments of architectural skill per- 
 taining to the Megalithic Age. Every- 
 where we find traces, alike through- 
 out the seats of oldest civilization 
 and in earliest written records, in- 
 cluding the historical books of the 
 Old Testament Scriptures, of the 
 erection of the simple monolith, or 
 unhewn pillar of stone, as a record 
 of events, a monumental memorial, 
 or a landmark. There is the Tanist 
 Stone, or kingly memorial, like that 
 set up in Shechem when Abimelech 
 was made king ; the Hoar Stone, or 
 boundary-stone, like " the stone of 
 Bohan, the son of Reuben," and 
 other ancient landmarks of Bible 
 story ; the Cat Stone, v/x battle-stone, 
 a memorial of some great victory; 
 and the stone set up as the evidence 
 of some special treaty or agreement, 
 like Laban and Jacob's pillar of wit- 
 ness at Galeed. To the same primi- 
 tive stage of architecture belong the 
 cromlech, the cairn, the chambered 
 barrow, and other sepulchral struct- 
 ures of unhewn stone ; as well as the 
 weams, or megalithic subterranean 
 dwellings common in Scotland and 
 elsewhere, until, with the introduction 
 of metals and the gradual mastery 
 of metal lurgic art, we reach the 
 period of partially hewn and sym- 
 metrical structures, of which the great 
 temple of Stonehenge is the most 
 remarkable example. But it is in 
 Egypt that megalithic architecture is 
 seen in its most matured stage, with 
 all the massiveness which so aptly 
 symbolizes barbarian power, but also 
 with a grandeur, due to artistic taste 
 and refinement, in which the pon- 
 derous solidity of vast megalithic 
 structures is relieved by the graces of 
 colossal sculpture and of an inex- 
 haustible variety of architectural de- 
 rail. There appears to be a stage in 
 the development of the human mind 
 in its progress toward civilization 
 when an unconscious aim at the ex- 
 pression of abstract power tends to 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 45 
 
 beget an era of megalithic art. The 
 huge cromlechs, monoliths, and cir- 
 cles still abounding in many centers 
 of European civilization perpetuate 
 the evidence of such a transitional 
 stage among its prehistoric races. 
 But it was in Egypt that an isolation, 
 begot by the peculiar conditions of its 
 unique physical geography, though 
 also perhaps ascribable in part to cer- 
 tain ethnical characteristics of its 
 people, permitted this megalithic art 
 to mature into the highest perfection 
 of which it is capable. There the 
 rude unhewn monol'th became the 
 graceful obelisk, the cairn was trans- 
 formed into the symmetrical pyramid, 
 and the stone circles of Avebury and 
 Stonehenge, or the megalithic laby- 
 rinths of Carnac in Brittany, de- 
 veloped into colonnaded avenues and 
 temples, like those of Denderah and 
 Edfu, or the colossal sphinx avenue 
 of Luxor. 
 
 Elaborately-finished axes, hammer- 
 heads, cups, and vases of the h te 
 neolithic era serve to illustrate the 
 high stage to which the arts of 
 purely stone period could be ad 
 vanced, in the absence of any process 
 of arrestment or change. But long 
 before such a tendency to develop- 
 ment into ornamental detail and sym- 
 metrical regularity of construction 
 could be brought to bear on the 
 megalithic architecture of the same 
 era, the metallurgic sources of all 
 later civilization had begun to super- 
 sede its rude arts. To such remote 
 eras we strive in vain to apply any 
 definite chronology. At best we 
 work our way backward from the 
 modem or known into the mysterious 
 darkness of remotest antiquity, where 
 it links itself to u ^measured ages of 
 geological time. But by such means 
 science has been able to add a 
 curious chapter to the beginnings of 
 British and of European story, involv- 
 ing questions of mysterious interest 
 in relation to the earliest stages in 
 the history of man. The very char- 
 acteristics which distinguish him in 
 his rudest stage from all other ani- 
 mals have helped from remotest times 
 
 to perpetuate the record of his prog- 
 ress. 
 
 The evidences of the various ac- 
 quirements and degrees of civiliz^;- 
 tion of the prehistoric races of Britain 
 are derived not only from weapons, 
 implements, pottery, and personal 
 ornaments found deposited in ancient 
 dwellings and sepulchres ; but from 
 still older traces supplied by chance 
 discoveries of the agriculturist, miner,' 
 and builder, such as the implements 
 of the ancient whalers of the Forth, 
 or the monoxylous oaken canoes dug 
 up from time to time in the valley of 
 the Clyde, or even beneath some of 
 the most ancient civic foundations of 
 Glasgow. Both alike pertain to areas 
 of well-defined historical antiquity, 
 from the very dawn of written history, 
 or of literate chronicles in any form ; 
 and both also have their geological 
 records, preserving the evidence of 
 changes of level in unrecorded cent- 
 uries subsequent to the advent of 
 man, when the whales of the Forth 
 and the canoes of the Clyde were 
 embedded in the ahuvium of those 
 iver-valleys, and elevated above the 
 ancient tide-marks of their estuaries. 
 Another change of level, possibly in 
 uninterrupted continuance of the an- 
 cient upheaval, has been in progress 
 since the Roman invaders constructed 
 their military roads, and built their 
 wall between the Forth and the 
 Clyde, in the ist and 2d centuries 
 of the Christian era. 
 
 By evidence such as this a starting- 
 point is gained whence we may con- 
 fidently deduce the colonization of 
 the British Islands, and of the north 
 of Europe, at periods separated by 
 many centuries from that^ in which 
 our island first figures in history. 
 The researches of the ethnologist add 
 to our knowledge of this unrecorded 
 era, by disclosing some of the phys- 
 ical characteristics of the aboriginal 
 races, derived from human remains 
 recovered in cave-drifts, ancient min- 
 ing shafts, bogs, and marl-pits, or 
 found in the most ancient sepulchres, 
 accompanied by rudest evidences of 
 art; and the researches oi Nilsson, 
 
46 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 Ii5 
 
 Eschricht, Gosse, Rathke, Broca, and 
 other Continental ethnologists, along 
 with those which have been carried 
 on with minute care in the British 
 Islands, disclose characteristic cra- 
 nial types indicating a succession of 
 prehistoric races different from the 
 predominant types belonging to the 
 historical period of Europe ; and 
 some of them probably contempora- 
 neous with the changes indicated in 
 the periods of archaeological lime. 
 
 The very latest stage of archaeolog- 
 ical antiquity, when it seems to come 
 in contact with the dawn of historic 
 time, was unquestionably one of com- 
 plete barbarism, as is sufficiently ap- 
 parent from its correspondence to that 
 which the intercourse with European 
 voyagers :s bringing to a close among 
 the islands of the Pacific. The an- 
 cient Scottish subterranean dwellings 
 termed weems (Gaelic uamhah^ a 
 cave), or " Picts' houses," have been 
 frequently found, apparently in the 
 state in which they must have been 
 abandoned by their original occu- 
 pants ; and from those we learn that 
 their principal aliment must have 
 been shell-f^sh and Crustacea, derived 
 from the neighboring sea-beach, along 
 with the chance products of the chase. 
 The large accumulations of the com- 
 mon shell-fish of our coasts found 
 in some of those subterranean dwell- 
 ings is remarkable ; though along 
 with such remains the stone quern or 
 hand-mill, as well as the ruder corn- 
 crusher or pestle and mortar, repeat- 
 edly occur; supplying the important 
 evidence that the primitive nomade 
 had not been altogether ignorant of 
 the value of the cereal grains. 
 
 The source of change in Britain, 
 and throughout Europe, from this 
 rude state of barbarism, is clearly 
 traceable to the introduction of metals 
 and the discovery of the art of smelt- 
 ing ores. Gold was probably the 
 earliest metal wrought both from its 
 attractive appearance, and from its 
 superficial deposits, and the condition 
 in which it is frequently found, rend- 
 ering its -working an easy process. 
 Tin also, in the sotith of Britain, was 
 
 wrought at the very dawn of history : 
 and, with the copper v/hich abounds 
 in the same district of country, sup- 
 plied the elements of the new and im- 
 portant compound metal, bronze. 
 
 3 This accordingly indicates the 
 transition from the later stone age to 
 the third or Bronze Period, which, be- 
 ginning apparently with the recogni- 
 tion of the native copper as a mallea- 
 ble metal, and then as a material 
 capable of being melted and molded 
 into form by the application of heat, 
 was followed up by the art of smelt- 
 ing the crude ores so as to extract the 
 metal, and that of mixing metals in 
 diverse proportions so as to prepare 
 an alloy of requisite ductility or hard- 
 ness, according to the special aims of 
 the artificer. 
 
 Along with the full mastery of the 
 working in copper and bronze the 
 skill of the goldsmith was correspond- 
 ingly developed; and the ornaments 
 of this period, including to'-q-'es, arm- 
 lets, beads, and other personal deco- 
 rations ai<d insignia of office, wrought 
 in gold, are numerous, and often of 
 great beauty. The pottery of the 
 same period exhibits corresponding 
 improvement in material, form, and 
 ornamentation ; though considering 
 the minetic and artistic skill shown 
 in the drawings and carvings of the 
 remotest periods, it is remarkable 
 that the primitive pottery of Europe is 
 limited, alike in shape and decoration, 
 to purely arbitrary forms. This in its 
 crudest con'^ntionalisni consists al- 
 most exclusively of varieties of zigzag 
 patte ns scratched or indented on 
 the soft clay. This primitive or- 
 namentation seems so natural, as the 
 first aesthetic promptings of the hu- 
 man mind, that it is difTiCult, if not in 
 some cases impossible, to distinguish 
 between the simple pottery of com- 
 paratively recent origin, recovered on 
 the sites of old American Indian vil- 
 lages, and primitive pottery obtained 
 from British barrows pertaining to 
 centuries long prior to the Christian 
 era. But the fictile ware exhibits an 
 improvement in some degree corre- 
 sponding to that of the metallurgic art, 
 
ARCHiEOLOGV. 
 
 47 
 
 which ever)'where throughout Europe 
 furnishes weapons, implements, and 
 personal ornaments of the bronze pe- 
 riod, characterized by much grace and 
 delicacy in form, and by an ornamen- 
 tation peculiar in style, but not un- 
 worthy of the novel forms and mate- 
 rial. 
 
 It was long assumed, alike by histo- 
 rians and antiquaries, that the beauti- 
 ful bronze swords, spear-heads, shields, 
 torques, armillae, etc., so frequently 
 discovered, were mere relics of for- 
 eign conquest or barter, and they were 
 variously assigned to Egyptian, Phoe- 
 nician, Roman, or Danish origin. 
 But this gratuitous assumption has 
 been disproved by the repeated dis- 
 covery of the molds for making them, 
 as well as of the refuse castings, and 
 even of beds of charcoal, scoriae, and 
 other indications of metallurgy, on the 
 sites where they have been found. It 
 has not escaped notice, however, that 
 the transition appears to be an abrupt 
 one from stone to bronze, an alloy re- 
 quiring skill and experience for its 
 use ; and that few examples are re- 
 corded of the discovery of copper 
 tools or weapons, though copper is a 
 metal so easily wrought as to have 
 been in use among the Red Indians of 
 America. The inference from this 
 fact is one which all elements of 
 probability tend to confirm, viz., that 
 the metallurgic arts of the north of 
 Europe are derived from a foreign 
 source, whether by conquest or traffic ; 
 and that in the beautiful bronze relics 
 so abundant, especially in the British 
 Islands and in Denmark, we see the 
 fruits of that experience which the 
 more ancient civilization of Egypt and 
 Phoenicia had diffused. The direct 
 intercourse between the countries on 
 the Mediterranean and the Cassiter- 
 ides, or Tin Islands, — as the only 
 known parts of the British Islands are 
 called in the earliest allusions which 
 are made to them by Herodotus, Aris- 
 totle, and Polybius, — abundantly ac- 
 counts tor the introduction of such 
 knowledge to the native Biitons at a 
 very remote period. Phoenician and 
 Carthaginian merchant ships traded 
 
 to Cornwall centuries before the white 
 cliffs of Albion were first seen from 
 the Roman war-galleys. Greece also, 
 not improbably, proved a mediator in 
 this all-important transfer. It is at 
 least to be noted that the forms of 
 weapons, and especially of the beauti- 
 ful *' leaf-shaped sword," as figured 
 on the most ancient painted Greek 
 vases, closely correspond to the most 
 characteristic relics of the bronze pe- 
 riod in the north of Europe and the 
 British Isles. 
 
 In reviewing the characteristics of 
 this bronze period, the disclosures of 
 native art on the American continent 
 supply some singularly interesting 
 and suggestive illustrations. There, 
 throughout the whole northern re- 
 gions of the North American conti- 
 nent and in the ruder a)eas of South 
 America, as well as in the West In- 
 dian archipelago, a population was 
 found consisting exclusively of rude 
 nomad hunters, in a pure stone period 
 of primitive savage art. Nor does it 
 at all conflict with this that they were 
 to a certain extent familiar with the 
 resources of the rich copper regions of 
 Lake Superior, where that metal is 
 found in enormous masses in a malle- 
 able state. This they procured, and 
 not only themselves employed it in 
 the manufacture of weapons, imple- 
 ments, and personal ornaments, but 
 distributed it by barter far down the 
 Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and 
 eastward to the great lakes, to the St. 
 Lawrence valley, and to the Hudson 
 river. Silver and lead are also found 
 the same rich mineral region in 
 
 in 
 
 un- 
 
 metallic crystals, and were not 
 known to the native tribes. But every- 
 where those metals were cold-wrought, 
 as a mere malleable stone capable of 
 being hammered into any desired 
 shape, but in total ignorance of the 
 influence of fire or the use of alloys. 
 
 But wholly distinct from its rude 
 Indian tribes. North America had its 
 semi-civilized Mexicans and South 
 America its more highly civilized Peru- 
 vians, who had learned to mine and 
 smelt the ores of the Andes, and make 
 metallic alloys wherewith to fashion for 
 
4$ 
 
 ARCHiEOLOGY. 
 
 I 
 
 'ft 
 
 ,1 
 
 ther.iselves bronze tools of requisite 
 hardntss for quarrying and hewing the 
 solid rock. VVith these they sculptured 
 the statues of their gods, and reared 
 palaces, temples, and pyramids, graven 
 with elaborate sculptures and hiero- 
 glyphics by a people wholly ignorant of 
 iron, which have not unjustly suggested 
 many striking analogies with the nieg- 
 alithic art of ancient Egypt. The Aua- 
 COS, or tombs of the Incas of Peru, and 
 also their royal depositories of treas- 
 ure, have disclosed many remarkable 
 specimens of elaborate metallurgic 
 skill, — brictlets, collars, and other 
 personal ornaments of gold ; vases of 
 the same abundant precious metal, 
 and also of silver; mirrors of bur- 
 nished silver, as well as of obsidian ; 
 finely-adjusted silver balances ; bells 
 both of silver and bronze; and nu- 
 merous common articles and tools of 
 copper, or of the more efficient alloy 
 of copper and tin, — all illustrative of j 
 the arts and civilization of a purely! 
 bronze age. 
 
 4. The fourth or Iron Period is that 
 in which the art of smelting the ores 
 of the most abundant metal had at 
 length been mastered; and so iron 
 superseded bronze for arms, sword- 
 blades, spear-heads, axes, daggers, 
 knives, etc. Bronze, however, con- 
 tinued to be applied to many purposes 
 of personal ornament, horse furniture, 
 thfc handles of swords and other 
 weapons; nor must it be overlooked 
 that flint and stone were still em- 
 ployed for lance and arrow-heads, 
 sling-stones, and other common pur- 
 poses of warfare or the chase, not 
 only throughout the whole bronze pe- 
 riod, but far into the age of iron. 
 The discovery of numerous arrow- 
 heads, or fiakes of black flint, on the 
 plain of Marathon, has been assumed 
 with good reason to point to the use 
 of such rude weapons by the barbarian 
 host of Danus ; and the inference is 
 confirmed by the facts which Herodo- 
 tus records, that Ethiopian auxiliaries 
 of the army of Xerxes, ten ytixs later, 
 were armed with arrows tipped with 
 stone. 
 
 The essential change resulting from 
 
 the maturing of the iron period lies in 
 the unlimited supply of the new metal. 
 Had bronze been obtainable in suffi- 
 cient quantity to admit of its applica- 
 tion to the endless purposes for which 
 iron has since been employed, the 
 mere change of metal would have 
 been of slight significance. But the 
 opposite was the case. The beauti- 
 ful alloy was sca.ce and costly ; and 
 hence the arts of the neolithic period 
 continued to be practiced throughout 
 the whole duration of the age of 
 bronze. But iron, though so abund- 
 ant in its ores, requires great labor 
 and intense heat to fuse it; and it 
 needed the prolonged schooling of 
 the previous metallurgic era to pre- 
 pare the way for the discovery of the 
 properties of the ironstone, and the 
 processes requisite to turn it to ac- 
 count. Iron, moreover, though so 
 abundant, and relatively of compara- 
 tively recent introduction, is at the 
 
 ie time the most perishable of met- 
 It rapidly oxidizes unless pro- 
 ..wd from air and moisture, and 
 hence few relics of this metal belong- 
 ing to the prehistoric period have 
 been preserved in such a state as to 
 illustrate the skill and artistic taste of 
 the fabricators of that last pagan era, 
 in the way that the implements of the 
 three previous periods reveal to us 
 the habits and intellectual status of 
 those older times. 
 
 But the iron is the symbol of a pe- 
 riod in which pottery, personal orna- 
 ments of the precious metals, works 
 in bronze, in stone, and other durable 
 materials, supply ample means of 
 gauging the civilization of the era, and 
 recognizing the progress of man in 
 the arts, until we come at length to 
 connect their practice with definite 
 historical localities and nations, and 
 the names of Egypt and Phoenicia, 
 of Gadir, Massilia, the Cassiterides, 
 and Noricum, illuminate the old dark- 
 ness, and we catch the first streak of 
 dawn on a definite historical horizon. 
 Thus, with the mastery of the metal- 
 lurgic arts is seen the gradual devel- 
 opment of those elements of progress 
 whereby the triumphs of civilization 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 have been finally achieved, and man 
 has advanced toward that stage in 
 which the inductive reasonings of the 
 archaeologist are displaced by records 
 more definite, though not always more 
 trustworthy, as the historian begins his 
 researches with the aid of monu- 
 mental records, inscriptions, poems, 
 and national chronicles. 
 
 Within the later iron period, ac- 
 cordingly, we reach the era of authen- 
 tic history. There is no room for 
 doubt that, whatever impetus the 
 Roman invasion may have given to 
 the working of the metals in Britain, 
 iron was known there prior to the 
 landing of Julius Caesar. Within this 
 archaeological period, however the ex- 
 amples of Roman art and the influences 
 of Roman civilization begin to play a 
 prominent part. To this period suc- 
 ceed the Saxon and Scandinavian eras 
 of invasion, vith no less characteristic 
 peculiarit , of art workmanship, as 
 well as (M sepulchral rites and social 
 usages. In these later periods definite 
 history comes to the aid of archaeolog- 
 ical induction, while those intermediate 
 elements of historical re-edification, 
 the inscriptions on stone and metal, 
 and the numismatic series of chrono- 
 logical records, all unite to complete 
 a picture of the past replete with im- 
 portant elements for the historian. 
 
 The connection between archaeol- 
 ogy and geology has been indicated, 
 but that between archaeology and eth- 
 nology is of much more essential sig- 
 nificance, and is every day being 
 brought into clearer view. By the in- 
 vestigation of the tombs of ancient 
 races, and the elucidation of their 
 sepulchral rites, remarkable traces of 
 unsuspected national affinities are 
 brought to light; while a still more 
 obvious correspondence of arts in cer- 
 tain stages of society, among races 
 separated alike by time and by space, 
 reveals a uniformity in the operation 
 of certain human instincts, when de- 
 veloped under nearly similar circum- 
 stances, such , as goes far to supply a 
 new argument in proof of the unity of 
 the human race. 
 
 The self-evident truths confirmatory 
 
 of the principles upon which this sys- 
 tem of primitive archaeology is based, 
 may be thus briefly summed up : — 
 Man, in a savage state, is to a great 
 extent an isolated being ; co-operation 
 for mutual and remote advantage, ex- 
 cept in war and the chase, is scarcely 
 possible ; and hence experience at 
 best but slowly adds to the common 
 stock of knowledge. In this primi- 
 tive stage of society the implements 
 and weapons which necessity renders 
 indispensable are invariably supplied 
 from the sources at hand; and the 
 element of time being of little mo- 
 ment, the rude workman fashions his 
 stone axe or hammer, or his lance of 
 flint, with an expenditure of labor 
 such as, with the appliances of civili- 
 zation, would suffice for the manufact- 
 ure of hundreds of such implements. 
 
 The discovery of the metallurgic 
 arts, by diminishing labor and supply- 
 ing a material more susceptible of 
 varied form" as well as of ornamenta- 
 tion, and also one originating co- 
 operation by means of the new wants 
 it calls into being, inevitably begets 
 social progress. The new material, 
 moreover, being limited in supply, and 
 found only in a few localities, soon 
 leads to barter, and thence to regular 
 trade ; and thus the first steps toward 
 a division of labor and mutual co- 
 operation are made. So long, how- 
 ever, as the metal is copper or bronze, 
 the limited supply must greatly re* 
 strict this social progress, while the 
 facilities for working it admit of that 
 isolation so natural to man in a rude 
 state ; and these, added to the fre- 
 quent discovery of copper, in its nat- 
 ural condition much more nearly 
 resembling a ductile metal than the 
 ironstone, abundantly account for its 
 use having preceded that of the more 
 abundant metal. 
 
 Great experience must have been 
 acquired in earlier metallurgy be- 
 fore the iron ore was attempted to 
 be wrought. In this, co-operation 
 was indispensable ; but that once 
 secured, and the first difficulties 
 overcome, the other results appear 
 inevitable. The supply is inexhayst* 
 

 60 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 
 l-ir 
 
 ^1: 
 
 ible, widely diflFused, and procurable 
 without excessive labor. The mate- 
 rial elemeits of civilization were 
 thereby rendered available, and all 
 succeeding progress might be said 
 to depend on the capacity of the race. 
 The simplicity which characterizes 
 the archaeological disclosuies ot 
 Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, and 
 other regions of trans-Alpine Europe 
 lying outside of the range of an- 
 cient Greek or Roman influences, has 
 contributed some important aids to 
 the study of prehistoric arts ; but 
 the full significance of their teachings 
 has yet to be tested by comparison 
 with the primitive arts pertaining to 
 Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, and 
 other aiicient centers of earliest 
 civilization. To this certain singu- 
 larly irteresting disclosures of very 
 recent date, which some have regard- 
 ed as at variance with the foregoing 
 classification of archaeological epochs, 
 help to furnish the desired materials. 
 The researches of Dr. Heinrich Schlie- 
 mann on one of the most memorable 
 sites which epic poetry has selected 
 ior the mythic beginnings of history, 
 have brought to light what he believes 
 to be actual remains of the Troy of 
 the //ia/i. Dr. Schliemann began his 
 systematic explorations in 187 1; and 
 pursued them, during the available 
 seasons, till the month of June, 1873. 
 With patient assiduity the accumulat- 
 ed debris on the scene of ancient 
 civic settlement was sifted and opened 
 up by regular excavations, till the nat- 
 ural rock was exposed at a depth of up- 
 ward of 50 feet. Throughout the whole 
 of this, abundant traces o:' former 
 occupation were brought to light ; 
 and so great an accumulation of de- 
 bris and rubbish upon an elevated 
 site affords undoubted evidence of 
 the vicissitudes of a long-settled cen- 
 ter of population. To this specific 
 evidence lent additional confirmation. 
 The foundations of a temple, sup- 
 posed to be that of the Ilian Athena 
 of the time of Alexander, along with 
 coins, inscriptions, an<^ numerous 
 remains of architecture and sculpt- 
 ure, combined to fix the era of an 
 
 ancient, but strictly historical, period. 
 At a further dej. ih of upward of 6 
 feet, broken pottery, implements of 
 bronze, and charred wood and ashes, 
 shov/ed the traces of an older settle- 
 ment which had perished by fire. 
 But the artificial character of the 
 debris encouraged further research ; 
 and when the excavations had been 
 carried to about double the depth, 
 Dr. Schliemann came upon a deposit 
 rich in what may be styled neclithic 
 remains : axes, hammers, spear-heads, 
 and other implements of polished 
 diorite or other stone, weights of 
 granite, querns of lava, and knives 
 and saws of flint abounded, associat- 
 ed with plain, well-executed pot- 
 tery, bui v/ith only two pins of cop- 
 per or bronze to indicate any 
 knowledge of metal. Continued ex- 
 cavations brought to light additional 
 stone implements and weapons ; un- 
 til at a depth of some 33 feet, well- 
 wrought implements and weapons of 
 bronze, and pottery of fine quality 
 and execution, revealed the traces of 
 an earlier civilization on the same 
 ancient site. 
 
 In all this, while there is much to 
 interest, there is nothing to surprise 
 us. Here, near the shores of the 
 Hellespont, at a point accessible to 
 the oldest known centers of civiliza- 
 tion, — to Egypt, Phtenicia, Assyria, 
 Greece, * Carthage, and Rome, — a 
 civilized community, familiar with the 
 arts of the bronze period of the 
 Mediterranean shores, appears to 
 have yielded to vicissitudes familiar 
 enough to the student of ancient 
 history. After a time the desolated 
 locality tempted the settlement of 
 some barbarian Asiatic horde, such 
 as the steppes of that continent 
 could furnish even now. They were 
 ignorant of metallurgic arts ; thougn 
 probably, like the savage tribes of 
 the New World at the present time, 
 not wholly unaware of the manufact- 
 ure of implements and weapons of 
 bronze or other met-'"'' Such a local 
 alternation of bronze and stone pe- 
 riods in a region lying in close prox- 
 imity alike to vast areas of Asiatic 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 61 
 
 barbarism, and to the most important 
 centers of ancient civilization, in no 
 degree conflicts with a general system 
 of succession of archaeological periods. 
 Mexico and Peru, while in a purely 
 bronze age, were overthrown by 
 Spanish invaders. Large portions of 
 their ancient territories were aban- 
 doned to utter barbarism, and even 
 now are in the occupation of savage 
 tribes. But the ancient city of Monte- 
 zuma has been made the capital of a 
 civilized state ; the beds of its canals 
 have been filled up, burying therein 
 obsidian, stone, and bronze imple- 
 ments, pottery, sculptures, and much 
 else pertaining to its ante-Columbian 
 era ; and it only requires such a fate 
 as its modcn history renders conceiv- 
 able enough, to leave for future ages 
 the buried strata of a civic site re- 
 vealing similar evidences of the 
 alternation of semi-civilized, barba- 
 rian, and civilized ages, on the same 
 lonp: inhabited site of Toltecans and 
 Aztecs, Indian savages, and modern 
 Mexicans and Spaniards. 
 
 That man has everywhere preceded 
 history is a self*evident truth. So 
 long as no scientific evidence seemed 
 to conflict with a long-accepted 
 chronology in reference to the antiq- 
 uity assif;ned to the human race, 
 it remained unchallenged, though the 
 like computation had been universally 
 rejected in reference to the earth as 
 the theater of his history, and we 
 were content to regard the prehistoric 
 era of man as no more than a brief 
 infancy of the race. But the inves- 
 tigations and disclosures of recent 
 years in reference to the whole prehis- 
 torr period have involved of neces- 
 sity a reconsideration of the grounds 
 on which a definite antiquity of com- 
 paratively brief duration has been as- 
 signed to man ; and the tendency at 
 present is rather to exaggerate than 
 to diminish the apparent antiquity 
 of the race. The nature and extent 
 of the evidence which has thus far re- 
 warded intelHgent research have been 
 sufficiently indic^ited above ; nnd as 
 it is still far from complete, the stu- 
 
 dent of archaeology will act wisely in 
 pushing forward his researches, and 
 accumulating and comparing all avail- 
 able evidence, without hastily pro- 
 nouncing any absolute verdict on this 
 question. But. without attempting 
 to connect with any historic chro- 
 nology the men of the English 
 drift, or the troglodytes of the 
 mammoth or reindeer periods of 
 France, it may be useful, in con- 
 cluding this summary of primitive 
 archaiology, to glance at the origin 
 of civilization, and the evidences 
 of the antiquity of what appear to 
 constUute its essential elements. 
 
 Everywhere man seems to have 
 passed through the same progressive 
 stages : First, that of the savage or 
 purely hunter state; a condition oi 
 precarious instability, in which man 
 is mdst nearly in the state of a 
 mere animal subsisting on its prey. 
 It is the condition of nomad life, in- 
 compatible with a numerous or settled 
 population ; exhausting the resources 
 of national being in the mere strug- 
 gle for existence, and therefore inim- 
 ical to all accumulation of the knowl- 
 edge and experience on which hu- 
 man progress depends. In this primi- 
 tive state, man is disclosed to us by 
 the evidence with which the archaeol- 
 ogist new deals. He appears every- 
 where in this first stage as the 
 savage occupant of a thinly-peopled 
 continent, warring with seemingly 
 inadequate means against gigantic 
 carnivora, the contemporary existence 
 c' which is known to us only by the 
 disclosures of geological strata or 
 ossiferous caves, where also the re- 
 mains of still more gigantic herbivora 
 confirm the idea of man's exhaustive 
 struggle for existence. The nearest 
 analogy to such a state of life is 
 that of the modern Esquimaux, war- 
 ring with the monstrous polar bear, 
 and making a prey of the gigantic 
 cetaceae of Arctic seas. Through how 
 many ages this unhistoric night of 
 European man may have preceded 
 the dawn of civilization it is at pres- 
 ent vain to speculate. But this is 
 noticeable, that there is no inherent 
 
 A 
 
f 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 f i 
 
 i< i 
 
 Iff: 
 
 k 
 
 IIP 
 
 
 element of progress in a people in 
 the condition of the Esquimaux, 
 o all appearance, if uninfluenced by 
 external impulse, or unaffected by 
 any great amelioration of climate, 
 they are likely to prolong the mere 
 struggle for existence through unnum- 
 bered centuries, armed, as now, 
 with weapons and implements ingen- 
 iously wrought of bone, ivory,, and 
 stone, the product of the neolithic 
 arts of this 19th century. 
 
 To this succeeds the second or 
 
 pastoral state, with its flocks and 
 herds, its domesticated animals, and 
 its ideas of personal property, includ- 
 ing in its earlier stages that of prop- 
 erty in man himself. It pertains to 
 the open regions and warmer cli- 
 mates of the temperate zone, and to 
 the elevated steppes and valleys of 
 semi-tropical countries, where the 
 changing .seasons involve of neces- 
 sity the wandering life of the shep- 
 herd. This accordingly prevents the 
 development of the arts of settled life, 
 
 • especially those of architecture ; and 
 precludes all idea of personal prop- 
 erty in the s'^il. But t-':e conditions 
 of pastoral life are by no means in- 
 compatible with frequent leisure, re- 
 flection, and consequent intellectual 
 progress. Astronomy has its origin 
 assigned to the ancient shepherds of 
 Asia ; and the contemplative pastoral 
 life of the patriarchs Job and Abra- 
 ham has had its counterpart in many 
 an Arab chief of later times. 
 
 The third or agricultural stage is 
 that of the tillers of the soil, the 
 Aryans, the ploughers and lords of 
 the f.arth, among whom are developed 
 the elements of settled social life in- 
 volved in the personal homestead and 
 all the ideas of individual property 
 in land. The process was gradual. 
 The ancient Germans, according to 
 the description of Tacitus, led the life 
 of agricultural nomads ; and such was 
 the state of the Visigoths and Ostro- 
 goths of later centuries. But this was 
 
 , in p^rt due to the physical conditions 
 of t.'ans*Alpine Europe in those ear- 
 
 <, Uer centuries. Long ages before that, 
 as the ancient Sanscrit language 
 
 proves, the great Aryan family, of 
 which those are offshoots, had passed 
 from the condition of agricultural 
 nomads to that of lords of the soil 
 among a settled agricultural people. 
 They had followed up the art of 
 plowing the soil with that of ship- 
 building and " plowing " the waves. 
 They were skilled iu sewing, in weav- 
 ing, in the potter's art, and in ma- 
 sonry. Their use of numbers was 
 carried as high at least as a hundred 
 before they settled down from their 
 nomad life. They had domesticated 
 the cow, the sheep, the horse, and 
 the dog ; and their p(tsu or feeders 
 already constituted their pecus, their 
 wealth, before the pecunia assumed 
 its later forms of currency. They 
 had also passed through their bronze 
 and into their iron period ; for their 
 language shows that they were al- 
 ready acquainted with the most use- 
 ful metals as well as with the most 
 valuable grains. 
 
 The whole evidence of history 
 points to the seats of earliest civiliza- 
 tion in warm climates, on the banks of 
 the Nile, the il jphrates, the Tigris, the 
 Indus, and the Ganges. The shores of 
 the Mediterranean succeeded in later 
 centuries to their inheritance, and 
 were the seats of long-enduring em- 
 pires, whose intellectual bequests 
 are the life of all later civilization. 
 But trans-Alpine Europe, which is 
 now yielding up to us the records of 
 its prehistoric ages, is entirely of 
 modern growth so far as it? historic 
 civilization is concerned, and wher- 
 ever it extends toward the northern 
 verge of the temperate zone it is 
 even now in its infancy. Here, then, 
 we trace our way back to the first 
 progressive efforts of reason, and 
 find man primeval, in a state of nat- 
 ure, in the midst of the abundance 
 pertaining to a genial and fertile 
 climate, which rather stimulates his 
 aesthetic faculty than enforces him 
 by any rigorous necessity to cultivate 
 the arts for the purposes of clothing 
 and building. Thus employing his 
 intellectual leisure, he begins that 
 progressive elevation which is as 
 
ARCHiEOLCGY. 
 
 58 
 
 consistent with his natural endow- 
 ments as a rational being as it is 
 foreign to the instincts of all other 
 animals. He increases and multi- 
 plies, spreads abroad over the face 
 of the earth, clears its forests, drains 
 its swamps, makes its rivers and seas 
 his highways, and its valleys and 
 plains his fertile fields and pasture- 
 grounds. Cities rise, with all the 
 fostering influences" of accumulated 
 wealth and settled leisure, and with 
 all the stimulating influences of ac- 
 quired tastes and luxurious desires. 
 The rude pictorial art — not ruder on 
 the graven ivory of the troglodytes 
 of the Madelaine cave than on many 
 a hieroglyphic drawing of the cata- 
 combs and temples of Egypt— em- 
 ployed in picture-writing, passes by 
 a natural and inevitable transition 
 from the literal representations of 
 objects to the symbolic suggestion of 
 ideas, to a word-alphabet, and then 
 to pure phonetic signs. The whole 
 process is manifest from the very in- 
 fancy of Egyptian picture-writing, as 
 crude as that with which the Indian 
 savage still records his deeds of arms 
 on his buffalo-robe, or carves the 
 honors of the buried warrior on 
 his grave-post. Letters lie at the 
 foundation of all high and enduring 
 civilization, yet we can thus trace 
 them back to their infantile origin ; 
 and so onward in their slow trans- 
 formations, as in the mingled pic- 
 torial and phonetic writing of the 
 Rosetta stone hieroglyphics of the 
 age of the Ptolemies. Through 
 Phoenician, Greek, and Roman mod- 
 ifications, they have come down to 
 us as the arbitrary symbols of sounds 
 which the voice combines into articu- 
 late speech. 
 
 And as it is with letters so it is 
 with man's arts, — his drawing, carv- 
 ing, sculpture, architecture, weaving, 
 pottery, metallurgy ; and so with his 
 scimcf, — his astrology, astronomy, 
 geometry, alchemy, and all else. 
 The beginnings of all of them lie 
 within our reach. We can trace 
 back the measurements of solar time 
 to the crudest beginnings of more 
 
 than one ancient nation, with a year 
 of 360 days. This, corrected to the 
 definite approximation to the true 
 solar year of a period of 365 days, 
 became the vague year of the Egyp- 
 tians, with the great Sothiac cycle of 
 1460 years, clearly pointing to a sys- 
 tem of chronology which could not 
 have been perpetuated through many 
 centuries without conflicting with the 
 most obvious astronomical phenomena 
 as well as with the recurring seasons 
 of the year. 
 
 • Man is, after all, according to the 
 boldest speculations of the geologist, 
 among the most modern of living 
 creatures. If indeed the theory of 
 evolution from lower forms of animal 
 life is accepted as the true history of 
 his origin, time may well be prolonged 
 through unnumbered ages to admit cf 
 the process which is to develop the 
 irrational brute into man. But re- 
 garding him still as a being called 
 into existence as the lord of creation 
 endowed with reason, the demonstra- 
 tion of a prolonged existence of the 
 race, with all its known varieties, its 
 diversities of language, and its wide 
 geographical distribution under con- 
 ditions so diverse, tends to remove 
 greater difficulties than it creates. 
 No essenticl doctrine, or principle in 
 morals, is involved in the acceptance 
 or rejection of any term of duration 
 for the human race ; and the idea 
 of its unity, which for a time was 
 scornfully rejected from the creed of 
 the ethnologist, is now advocated by 
 the evolutionist as alone consistent 
 with the physical, mental, and moral 
 characteristics common to savage 
 and civilized man, whether we study 
 him amid the traces of palaeolithic 
 osteology and arts or among the 
 most diverse races of living men. 
 
 The process of research and induc- 
 tive reasoning thus applied by the 
 archaeologist to the traces of primitive 
 art and the dawn of civilization, is no 
 less applicable to all periods. The 
 songs and legends of the peasantry, 
 the half-oblitej-ated traces of ancient 
 manners, the fragments of older lan- 
 guages, the relics of obsolete art, are 
 
64 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 all parts of what has been fitly styled 
 " unwritten history," and furnish the 
 means of recovering many records of 
 past periods which must remain for- 
 ever a blank to those who will recog- 
 nize none but written or monumental 
 evidence. 
 
 Proceeding to the investigation of 
 this later, and in most of the higher 
 requirements of history, this more im- 
 portant branch of historical evidence, 
 the archaeologist has still his own 
 special departments of investigation. 
 Tracing the various alphabets in their 
 gradual development through Phoeni- 
 cian, Greek, Roman and other sources, 
 and the changing forms which fol- 
 lowed under the influences of Byzan- 
 tine and mediaeval art, a complete 
 system of palaeography has been de- 
 duced, calculated to prove an impor- 
 tant auxiliary in the investigation of 
 monumental and written records. 
 Palaeography has its own rules of 
 criticism, supplying an element of 
 chronological classification altogether 
 independent of style in works of art, 
 or of internal evidence in graven or 
 written inscriptions, and a test of 
 genuineness often invaluable to the 
 ^^storian. 
 
 Architecture, sculpture, and pottery 
 have each their historical value, their 
 periods of pure and mixed art, their 
 successions of style, and their traces 
 of borrowed forms and ornamentation, 
 suggestive of Indian, Assyrian, Egyp- 
 tian, Phoenician, Punic, Greek, Etrus- 
 can, Roman, Arabian, Byzantine, Nor- 
 man or Renaissance influences. Sub- 
 ordinate to those are the pictorial arts 
 combined with sculpture and potteiy, 
 from earliest Egyptian, Greek, or 
 Etruscan art to the frescoes and paint- 
 ings of mediaeval centuries; and the 
 rise of the art of the engraver, trace- 
 able through ancient chasing on 
 metals, mediaeval niello-work, graven 
 sepulchral brasses, and so on to the 
 wood blocks, whence at length the 
 art of printing with movable types 
 originated. And as in the Old World, 
 so m the New, the progress of man is 
 traceable from rudest arts of stone 
 and copper to the bronze period of 
 
 Mexico and Peru, where also archi- 
 tecture, sculpture, and pottery pre- 
 serve for us invaluable materials for 
 the elucidation of that prehistoric 
 time which only came to an end there 
 in the year 1492 a.d. 
 
 Heraldry is another element by 
 means of which archaeology provides 
 trustworthy canons of criticism in re- 
 lation to written and unwritten medi- 
 aeval records. The seals and ma- 
 trices, sepulchral sculptures, and en- 
 graved brasses, along with an exten- 
 sive class of the decorations of 
 ecclesiastical and domestic architect- 
 ure, all supply evidence whereby 
 names and dates, with confirmatory 
 collateral evidence of various kinds, 
 are frequently recoverable. From the 
 same sources also the changing cos- 
 tume of successive periods can be 
 traced, and thus a new light be thrown 
 on the manners and customs of past 
 ages. The enthusiastic devotee is in- 
 deed apt at times to attach an undue 
 importance to such auxiliary branches 
 of study ; but it is a still greater ex- 
 cess to pronounce them valueless, 
 and to reject the useful aids they are 
 capable of affording. 
 
 No less important are the illustra- 
 tions of history, and the guides in the 
 right course of research, which numis- 
 matics supplies, both in relation to 
 early and mediaeval times. Oa many 
 of those points the historian and the 
 archaeologist necessarily occupy the 
 same field; and indeed, when that 
 primitive period wherein archaeology 
 deals with the whole elements of our 
 knowledge regarding it as a branch 
 of inductive science, and not of criti- 
 cal history, is past, the student of an- 
 tiquities becomes to a great extent 
 the pioneer of the historian He 
 deals with the raw materials: the 
 charters, deeds, wills, grants of land, 
 of privileges or immunities, the royal, 
 monastic and baronial accounts of ex- 
 penditure, and like trustworthy docu- 
 ments ; by means of their palaeogra- 
 phy, seals, illuminations, and other 
 evidence, he fixes their dates, traces 
 out the genealogical relationships of 
 their authors, and in various ways 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY. 
 
 fi6 
 
 prepares rnd sifts the evidence which 
 IS to be employed anew by the histo- 
 rian in revivifying the past. Arch- 
 itectu.e and all departments of the 
 fine arts, in like manner, supply much 
 evidence which, when investigated 
 and systematized by a similar process, 
 adds valuable materials to the stock 
 of the historian, and furnishes new 
 sources for the illumination of past 
 
 ages. Such is a sketch of the com- 
 prehensive investigations embraced 
 under the name of archaeology, which, 
 carried on by many independent la- 
 borers, and in widely varied fields of 
 research have contributed important 
 chapters of human history, and revivi- 
 fied ages long buried in oblivion, or 
 at best but dimly seen through dis- 
 torting media of myth and fable. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. **•'■• 
 
 I. SCoPK OF THE Science i 
 
 II. Man's Place in Nature...- * 
 
 III. Origin of Man 8 
 
 IV. Races OF Mankind > 9 
 
 V. Antiquity of Man i • *7 
 
 VI. Language • ■ ...••• 22 
 
 VII. Development of Civilization , 28 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 34 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
4WlWipi 
 
 El S 
 
 11 
 
 /^ 
 
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 Walter Bagehot author of "The 
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 By R. Kalley Miller, M.A. 
 
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 other essays. By Thomas H.Huxl')r, 
 F.R.S. 
 
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 Kingdon Chuord, P.R.S. 
 
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 Apes and Men. By Samuel Wain>* 
 Wright, D.D. 
 
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 Ceo. Rawlinson, Oxford Universit}r4 
 
 No. 36. Tbe Evolutionist at I<arge« Bf< 
 
 Grant Allen. 
 
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 trated in the customs of Barbarous- 
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 trations). By William Henry Flower, 
 F.R.S. 
 
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 {numerous illustratioHs). ^ AndreW< 
 WUson, Ph. D. I 
 
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 Richard Chenevix Trench. , 
 
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 Pres. Univ. Glasgow, and Others. 
 
 Iieetarea on KTolntlon. {lUu*' 
 fraud ) By Prof. T. H. Huxley. 
 
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 / 
 
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 Ko. 47. 
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 No, 51. 
 No. 53. 
 
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 No. 54. 
 Ho-ss- 
 
 Ho. 56. 
 Sla 57. 
 Ho. 58. 
 
 The Dawn of Hlatosry. Tz^tn. 
 
 The IHeeaeee of nientory. By 
 
 Th. Ribot. Translated from the 
 French 1^ J. Fitzgerald, M.A. 
 
 The Childhood of Rellclon. By 
 
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 I<1'> In Nature. {IllustraUd). By 
 james Hinton. 
 
 The Snn t its Constitution, its Fhe- 
 nomena, its Condition. By Judge 
 Nathan T. Carr. 
 
 money and the Rlechanleni 
 Bxcnanfce 
 
 By Prof. 
 Parti, 
 
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 of 
 
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 the 
 
 Bua 
 
 Jevons, F,R.S, 
 
 ISoney an 
 
 Excnance. Part II, 
 
 The IHeeaM* of the Will. 
 
 Th, Ribot. Translated from 
 French t^ J. Fitzgerald, M.A, 
 
 Animal Antomatlun* and other 
 Essays. By Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. 
 
 The Birth and Growth of RIyth. 
 
 By Edward Clodd, F.R,A,8. 
 
 The Selentlfle Basis of morals* 
 
 and other Essays. "By WiULim King* 
 don Clifford. F.R.8. 
 
 ninslons* 
 ninslons. 
 
 By James SuUy. 
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 Parti. 
 
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 (Doable Number). 
 
 She Childhood of the 'World. 
 
 By Edward Clodd, V.VLK.S. 
 
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 ▲.Proctor. 
 
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 UTorld. By Prof. Geo. Rawlinson, 
 Univ. of Oxford. (Double number). 
 
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 Fowler, I,L.D., President f * CorouS 
 Christi Coll., Oxi'ord. 
 
 No. 64. The DIstrlbntlon of AattlmalM 
 and Plants. By A, Russell Wal* 
 lace and W, T. Thlstleton Dyer. 
 
 Ha<9. Conditions of mental DevelnM 
 Btent* and other Essays. Bv Wll 
 liam Kingdon Clifford. 
 
 No. 66. Technical Edacatlon. and other 
 Essays ^ Thomas H. Huxley, F,R.S 
 
 HOk 67. She BlacV !;::eath. An account of 
 the Great Pestilence of the 14th Ce»' 
 tury. By J. P. C. Hecker, M.D. 
 
 Na68. 
 Na69. 
 
 No. 70. 
 NaTt. 
 
 Ka73. 
 No. 71. 
 
 Three Bssays. By Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Fetlchlsmi A Contribution to An* 
 thropology and the Histoiy of Reli> 
 
 Son. By Fritz Schultze, 7^. U. 
 touble number). 
 
 isays Specolatlve and Practl> 
 cal. By Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Anthropoloay* By Daniel Wilson, 
 Ph. D With Appendix on Archsi> 
 ology. By E, B, Tylor, P,%.S. 
 
 The Danclns mania of 'the l^^idp 
 die Aces. By J. F, C, B ecker, ii.Tk 
 
 Bvolatlon In History* I<|in< 
 y^ase and JSclence " 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 No, 
 No. 
 
 74. 
 
 77. 
 
 { 
 
 Na78. 
 
 X,ife and 
 fnouble 
 
 Four adr 
 dresses delivered at the London 
 Crystal Palace School of Art Scienc« 
 asd Literature. 
 
 The Descent of man* and Seleo 
 tion in Relation to Sex, (Numerout 
 Illustrations). By Charles Darwin. 
 Nos. 74, 75, 76 are single JVos.; No. 77 it 
 a double No. 
 
 Historical Sketch of the Dl» 
 tribntlon of I^and In Kny' 
 land. By William Uoyd Birbeck, 
 M.A. 
 
 No. 99. Scientific Aspect of iwme Fanatfl' 
 lar Thincs. By W. M. Williams. 
 
 No. 8ok Charles Damrln. His 
 
 Work, By Grant Allen, 
 Number). 
 
 Na 81. The mystery of matter, and th* 
 Philosophy o f Ignorance. 
 
 Two Essays by J. Allanson Picton, 
 
 No. 83. ninslons of the Senses, and other 
 Essays. By Richard A. Proctor. 
 
 No. 83. Proflt-Sharlns Bet^reen Capl« 
 tal and I<abor. Six E"sava. Bf 
 
 Sedley Taylor, M A. 
 
 No. 84. Studies of Anlm«S«a Natnre. 
 
 Four Essays on Natural History. "Bg 
 W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., and Others. 
 
 Ne.8s> Vhe Bssentlal Nature of Bellsi^ 
 ion. ^ J. Allanson Picton. 
 
 Na.y* The Unseen ITnlrerse, sm. m 
 
 Philosophy of the Pure Sdeoces. B* 
 Prof. W^. Kingdon Clifford, F.K.& 
 
 HObtr. The morphine HaUt. BySr. & 
 ' the Paris Faculty of Medldna 
 
 Ball, of t£ 
 
IP 
 
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 Saaays. By Andrew Wilson, P.R.S.S. 
 
 Ko, 89. The Geneala of Science* By Her- 
 bert Spencer. 
 
 ,11a gv Hotea on Barthqnakeat wltb 
 Fourteen Miscellaneous Sssays. By 
 Richard A. Proctor. 
 
 K0.91. The Blae of VnlTeniltlea. Bir 
 
 8. S. lAorie, I<I,.D. (Double number). 
 
 Ha at. The Formation of Vegetable 
 Moald throuBh the Action of 
 Barth 'Worma. By Charles Dar> 
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 Punlahment. ByJ.MountBleyer, 
 M.D. 
 
 Ila9|. The Faciora of Organic EtoIo" 
 tlon* By Xlerbert Spencer. 
 
 K0.QS. ThelMaeaaeaofPeraonallty. By 
 
 Th. Ribot. Tt^nslated from the 
 French by J. Fitzgerald, MA. 
 
 Kb. 96. A Half-€entnrT of Science. By 
 
 Thomas H. Huxley, and Grant Allen. 
 
 By Sir 
 
 the 
 
 Teachlnaa of Science* By wil- 
 
 ;aon ~"'~ 
 
 Kaog. Natnre Stndlew. By Prof. P. R. 
 Eaton I^owej Dr. Robert Brown, 
 P :c.S ; Geo. G. Chisholm, P.R.G.S,; 
 and James Dallas, P.I,.S. 
 
 Nawa Science and Poetry, ivlth 
 other Eaaaya* By Andrew '^Vilson, 
 F.RS.H. 
 
 yam. JBathetleaj Dreama and Jlaao> 
 elation of Ideaa. By Jamea 
 Sully and Geo. Croom Robertson. 
 
 Va SM. . Ultimate Finance; A True 
 Theory of Co-operation, By 
 
 William Nelson Black. 
 
 Utah MS. The Oomlnc Slavery t The SIna 
 of IieKlaiatora; The Great 
 Political Superatltlon. By 
 
 Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Ha 97. The Pleaanrea of I<UiB. 
 
 John I,ubbock. 
 
 Emotion t Alao 
 
 KaslB. 
 
 Coamlo 
 
 TeacI „ 
 
 liam Kingdbn Clifford. 
 
 Ha KM. 
 
 Ha soft. 
 Kaio;. 
 
 VaM9^ 
 
 Tropical Afkrica. 
 
 mond, F.R.S. 
 
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 atory Note by Prof. Huxley. 
 
 Force and Energy. A Theory 
 of Dynamica* By Grant Allen. 
 
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 Bncllah, Paat and Preaent< 
 
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 Bncllah, PiMt and Freaent* 
 
 Part 11. 
 The Story of Creation. A Plain 
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 Hdward Clodd. (Doable number). 
 
 The Pleaanrea of liMs* Partn. 
 ^f fits Joba Lubbock. 
 
 Ko. iia. Paychology of Attention. B} 
 
 Th. Ribot. Translated froirt th« 
 French by J. Fitzgerald, M.A. 
 
 Nati3. Hypnotlam. Its History and l>evel> 
 opnient. By Fredrik Bjomstrdm, 
 M.D., Head Physician of the Stoctoi 
 holm Hospital, Professor of Psychiap 
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 Councillor. Authorized Translation 
 from the Second Swedish Edition by 
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 *he Boston School of Gymnastics. 
 (DouLle number). 
 
 Ndb 114. C^hrlatlanlty and Agnoatlclam. 
 A Coi.>troTerav. Consisting of 
 papers contritmted to The NineUentH 
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 Gerald Molloy, D.D., D.Sc. 
 
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 Ener^. Illustrated. Gerald Molloy, 
 D.D., D.Sc. 
 Utilitarlanlam. By John Stuart 
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 Kaisu 
 Kaiaa. 
 
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 David G. Ritchie, MA. 
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 Thomas Huxley, P.R.S. 
 
 B> 
 
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 - ■■ - . . .^jjj, ^ gijQrt mem* 
 
 Part I. (Doublt 
 
 College, Oxford, 
 oir by B. Jowett. 
 number). 
 
 KaSMb The Indnatrlal BeTOlntloB»} 
 
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 Dr. Isaac Taylor. lUuatiatcd. Su* 
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T 
 
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 Ko. 141. Are the BOfecta of I7se aiML IMif 
 
 n«e inhertted f By William Piatt 
 
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 F.R.S. 
 ^o. 147. The Soul of Man under Social- 
 
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 Caillard. (Illustrated) Parti. (Dou- 
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 I»o. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 Na 
 
 149' 
 150, 
 
 rji. 
 
 «53- 
 
 »54- 
 
 159. 
 
 No. 160. 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 161, 
 163, 
 
 163. 
 164. 
 
 167, 
 
 x68, 
 
 169, 
 
 170, 
 
 I7« 
 
 172 
 173 
 '74. 
 »75. 
 176, 
 
 BlMtrtcltr. Part'l. 
 Deceeeratlon; A Chapter l« 
 
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 Ray Dankester, M.A., I,L.D., P.R.S. 
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 mental Sncfcstlon^ PartU. 
 
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 mental SuKcestlon* FartlU, 
 
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 mental Sncicestlon* Part TV. 
 
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 modern Science; The Selene* 
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 fFlowrersf Fruits and LearesJ 
 
 < Illustrated. By Sir John Lubbock, 
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