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12 3

nppi

"II .'

CENTS ^

A WEEK

A MINING
EDUCATION

COMPLETE \

The Correspondence School of Mines

is making .in of[i;r unheard of in the history of education. For fs down and
$2 a month, we give an education in mining not to be had in any other school
in the world. You study at home, and earn a living at the same time. Hun-
dreds of miners and prospectors have been helped to better things by our courses.

SIX MINING COURSES

J. THE METAL PROSPECTORS' SCHOLARSHIP x—

is intended for metal prospectors, resi- ^ (|iialiii(.s to prospect economically
dents of metal-mining districts, and \ ) and successfully, do assaying and
all others interested in metal miniiiK \ > blow-piping, ind open and work
or prospecting. ^ pl.tcer mines.

2. THE METAL-MINING SCHOLARSHIP:—

is intended for metal miners, mine
managerT', foremen, mill ^ fr.reincn,
officers nf milling companies, mine
owners, metallurgists, quarrymen,
etc.

i> a complete education in metal mi-
nine and the related sciences ; and
qualifies to successfully manage
ore and placer mines. Gives all up-
to-date methods.

3. THE FULL MINING SCHOLARSHIP:

is intended for mining engineers,
mine officials, miners, and dll persons
interested in any branch of mining
whatever.

includes both coal and metal mining,
and is the most complete, comprehen-
sive, and thorough mining coursein the
world. It includes all other courses.

4. THE MINE MECHANICAL SCHOLARSHIP :

is intended for stationary engineers, %
pump runners, mine carpenters, black- %
smiths, weighmasters, firemen, and %
others in charge of mine machinery. ^

qualifies to operate, set up, and repair
boilers, engines, mine machinery in-
side and out, and dynamos, motors,
and other electrical appliances.

5. THE COMPLETE COAL-MINING SCHOLARSHIP:—

is intended for ambitious miners, mine
officials, surveyors, clerks, etc., who
wish to rise in the cual-mining business.

quajifics to fill any position about a
colliery, or to pass examinations for
any license up to State inspector's.

6. THE SHORT COAL-MINING SCHOLARSHIP:—

is intended for miners and ofTicials
who have little time to study

(qualifies to pass examinations for
licenses, and to manage coal mines.

FREE ASSAY COUPONS

Don't spend your hard-earned money in assay offices. Each Metal-Pros-
pecting, Metal-Mining, and Full Mining student receives Twenty Free Assay
Coupons. Each coupon entitles him to a P'ree Assay. Write for particulars.

InvMtinte Our Methods. Send for the name of a student in your
vicinity. VVe have students in all parts of the world. Call on him and find
out more about us. Send for Circular of Information describing the Mining
Courses. We also have 39 other cour es which may interest you. Address

Tbe Correspondence School of Mines

Scranton, Pa,

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Placer Mining

A HAND-BOOK FOR KLONDIKE AND OTHER
MINERS AND PROSPECTORS ; _

" WITH

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS REGARDING THE RECENT
GOLD DISCOVERIES IN THE YUKON VALLEY, THE
ROUTES TO THE GOLD FIELDS. OUTFIT RE-
QUIRED. AND MINING REGULATIONS OF
ALASKA AND THE CANADIAN YUKON.

ALSO

A Map of the Yukon Valley, Embracing all the Information

Obtainable from Reliable Sources up to

December ist. 1897.

scranton, pa.
THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY

'897 / .: . _

•:i:,

KluJ

I l

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1807, by The Coli.iery
Engineer Company, in the office of the Librarian of Congress,

at Washington.

PREFACE.

The demand for this book is the excuse for its appearance.
Tho usands have rushed off to the Klondike, not only ignorant
of the first principles of placer mining, the only occupation
at which any one can make a living in that region, but also
almost entirely ignorant of the nature of the country into
which they went. It is said that not more than 5 out of
100 of those who started for the Klondike in the fall of 1897
had any better information as to how to reach the diggings
or what to do after they reached them than to "follow the
crowd." It is needless to say that those who expected to
find the journey to Dawson City a pleasure trip, or who
threw away their outfits in the scramble to be first at the
mines, or who expected to dig gold from the ground as
the farmer digs potatoes, have long since found their mis-
take. Fortunately, several thousands of those who started
for the mines were obliged to turn back and wait till
spring. From these and from thousands of others who
expect to be in the rush to Alaska in the spring and summer
of 1898 has come a demand for such information as this book
contains. It is believed that in this little volume is sum-
marized all the most important and reliable information
obtainable regarding the Yukon gold fields, or which can be
obtained before the summer of 1808; that it contains the
best map of these regions yet published, and the most prac-
tical, and, hence, the most valuable treatise on placer and
hydraulic mining in print. We recommend this book to the
mining public, confident that it will make friends wherever
it goes.

The Colliery Enchneer Co.,

Scranton, Pa.

December, 1897. *

1580sU)

■MMinaiHi

CONTENTS.

Chapter
I.

11.
III.
IV.

VI.
VII.

VIII.
IX.

XI.

XII.
XIII.
XIV.

The Yukon Gold Fields -
How TO Take Care op Yourselk -
Yukon Miners' Outfit
Routes to the Yukon Gold Fields
Routes to the Yukon Gold Fields —
Continued - - - . .

Mining Regulations of Alaska

Mining Regulations of Northwest
Canada ----..

The Origin of Gold Placers -

Or. (UN AND Development of Placer
Mining - - ...

Methods of Working— Surface Minin<;;
Working Frozen Ground: Drifting;
Hydraulicking ....

Water Supply— Reservoirs, Dams, and
Measurement of Water

Water Supply— Ditches and Flumes
Water Supply— Pipes and Nozzles
Placer Mining Practice — Development
op Gol Washing Apparatus

page

40
40

CONTENTS.

XV. Placer Mining Practice— Blasting and
Tunneling; Sluices, Undercurrents,
ETC.; Tailings and Dump
XVI. Placer Mining Practice— Washing or

Hydraulicking

XVII. Examples of Placers — The Alma Placer
XVIII. Examples of Placers— The Roscoe
Placer

105

115
124

134

105

115
124

134

PLACER MINING.

CHAPTER 1.

THE YUKON GOLD FIELDS.

In July, 1897, one of the greatest and richest gold fields
ever opened was brought to the notice of the civilized world.
In this case, it did not require months of time and labor to
verify the stories of wealth brought over by a hundred
miners from the Klondike district, situated just across the
A'askan border in the Northwest Territory, These miners
had ample evidence that gold existed in plenty where they
came from, for the steamers Excelsior and Portland, on
which they came, brought down $1,100,000, or more than
$10,000 for each miner. This was just the beginning.
During August, September, and October, steamer after
steamer b . ght down men with sacks or valises full of the
precious metal, until $2,500,000 in gold has been brought
out and put into circulation. Within a year after gold was
discovered on the Klondike in August, 18<)G, $5,500,000 had
been taken out on Eldorado and Bonanza Creeks. Over
half of the output was kept at the mines for use in business
operations, gold dust being the only circulating medium in
use there. At least $1,000,000 more would have been
brought out in the fall had not the Yukon River become
lower than ever before known in August, preventing the
river boats from making their final trips to the diggings.
As the gold is too heavy to bring out overland, it was kept
at the diggings until spring.

PLACER MINING.

For richness of the ground the Klondike has seldom been
equaled in the history of gold mining. Single claims pro-
duced 1150,000 and 1200,000 during the winter of 1896, and
in the spring the owners declared they had worked only
small corners of their mines. Single pans of dirt (2 shovel-
fuls) yie'-^ed $800 and $1,000, and pans containing $800 to
$500 were not uncommon.

The most authentic news obtainable places the prospec-
tive output of gold between December, 1807, and July, 1898,

DAWSON CITY. ^ .

at $20,000,000. It is predicted by conservative men who
returned from the Klondike in October, 1897, that the steam-
ers which reach Puget Sound next July will bring down
$15,000,000 to $17,000,000, or about 40 tons of gold dust and
nuggets.

Dr. Dawson, of the Canadian Government, after whom

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and

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PLACER MINING. m 8

Dawson City, the center of the recent gold discoveries, is
named, states that he considers the Yukon destined to be
the greatest mining country the world ever saw. He antici-
pates that the recent discoveries will lead to the develop-
ment of quartz mining, in which is the staple wealth of any
mining country. Experienced prospectors have already
made a number of valuable gold quartz discoveries in the
Yukon district, and many more are sure to follow.

Inspector Strickland, of the Yukon mounted police, in
speaking of the Klondike discoveries, says :

*' There has been no exaggeration. I have seen nothing
in newspapers in regard to the richness of the field that is
not true. Great strikes have been made, but the amount
of gold is unlimited. There are hundreds of creeks rich in
gold-bearing placers, never yet entered by prospectors. Of
course, all the claims in the creeks now opened are taken
up, but those are only beginnings, I believe, of much great-
er finds."

The most conservative and accurate statement of what
has been accomplished on the Klondike is that made by
William Ogilvie, the official Surveyor for the Dominion of
Canada, who returned in September, 1807, from a two years'
stay on the Yukon, this being his second trip to that coun-
try. Mr. Ogilvie has had unusual facilities for observation,
having surveyed the claims on the Klondike. He says:

"When we consider the unseasonable weather, ihe un-
favorable conditions for mining, and the still more unfavor-
able conditions regarding food, utensils, and labor, what has
been accomplished on the Klondike may, without hazard,
be asserted to be unique in the history of mining. I will do
no more than say generally that we have a region which
will yet be the scene of numerous mining enterpri<5es, both
placer and quartz, the latter practically inexhaustible.

4 PLACER MINING.

This country under more favorable conditions would be
the richest and most extensive mining area in the world to-
day. Notwithstanding the disadvantages of long, cold win-
ters and lack of roads, we have here a wide field for profitable
investment and room for thousands of happy, contented,
cultivated homes. "

OTHBR YUKON DISTRICTS.

The Klondike is but one of several valuable placer deposits
in the Yukon Valley, among which are the Hootalinqua,
Stewart, MacMillan, Forty-Mile, Sixty-Mile, Birch Creek,
Munook Creek, Tanana, and Koyukuk districts.

These rich gold fields extend along the Yukon Valley for
upwards of 1,200 miles, and lie on both sides of the boundary
between Alaska and Canada. Some of the richest placer
deposits in the world lie in the neighborhood of Circle City,
Alaska, and were abandoned in the rush to the Klondike last
winter. Valuable placer deposits have recently been found
on Munook Creek, 450 miles west of Circle City, and there-
cent discovery of gold mines in Siberia shows that they are
in the same belt. These mines are in the same chain of
mount- 'ns that supplied California's gold, and in the same
general line with the Peru fields. Running up the coast,
this gold vein traverses Alaska and, crossing Bering Strait,
crops out again in Siberia. The whole Alaskan region is,
therefore, within the gold belt, and there is scarcely a place
within its confines where gold has been diligently sought in
which it has not been found in greater or less quantity.
A merican miners and prospectors are advised to expend their
energies in discovering the deposits which exist on the
American side of the line, as they will then be free from any
exactions and restrictions imposed by the Canadian Govern-
ment.

nSHIBB!

PLACER MINING.

In the summer of 181)0, the United States Government had
a geological survey expert make a thorough investigation of
the Alaskan gold fields. The result of the exploration is
stated by the director of the survey in these words:

'* Sufficient data were secured to establish the presence of
a gold belt 300 miles in length in Alaska, which enters Alaska
near the mouth of Forty-Mile Creek, and extends westward
across the Yukon Vallev at the lower ramparts. Its further
extent is unknown. There is plenty of room for many more
prospectors and miners in Alaska, for the gulches and creeks
which have shown good prospects are spread over an areaol'
seven hundred square miles. It is the opinion of the geolo-
gist in charge of the expedition that it is entirely practicable
to prosecute quartz mining throughout the year in this
region. "

As far as any thorough prospecting is concerned, the basin
of the Yukon has hardly been entered. The main river
winds through a distance of more than 2,000 miles, and its
tributaries vary in length from GO to 300 miles, and, until
the present season, not more than 5,000 miners had entered
the basin. Hundreds and hundreds of square miles are ab-
solutely unknown. The Yukon Basin contains an extent of
territory fully equal to all the mining districts of the Paci-
fic Coast and the Rocky Mountains put together. Accord-
ingly, there are unbounded possibilities of further rich dis-
coveries, because the conditions and the character of the
entire basin are similar to the Klondike. No hardy, ener-
getic man, who has the courage and determination to face
the particular hardships and privations of prospecting and
mining in Alaska's interior, need hesitate for fear that the
field will all be taken.

There is very little opening in the Yukon mining fields
for professional men, clerks, mechanics, etc., unless, of

PLACER MINING.

course, they have a good practical or theoretical knowledge
of prospecting or mining.

Nor should a man start for the Yukon with less than
!i<l,000 capital. Those who go should be prepared to stay
a couple of years, as the average prospector has to sink a
great many shafts through the frozen ground before he
reaches anything worth his while. Ordinarily, during that
time he has excellent chances of making money, with the
possibilities of a fortune.

CLIMATK.

The climate of the Yukon Valley is one of extreme
rigor in winter, with a brief but relatively hot summer, es-
pecially when the sky is free from clouds. The rainfall is
small, averaging 10 inches, or about one-fourth that of
Pennsylvania or other similar parts of this country. Win-
ter sets in early in »September and lasts until May. The
lowest temperatures during the vv^inter of 1889-90 were 32°,
47°, 50°, 55°, 45°, and 20° below zero in the months from
November to April, and the highest summer temperatures
are about 95°. The change from winter to summer is quick,
on account of the rapid change in the length of the day,
about seven minutes per day. The shortest days are about
four, and the longest about twenty hours long. In the short
winter days, the sun is so little above the horizon and so apt
to be covered with clouds that, but for the bracing air, that
season would be very depressing.

TIMBER.

A gr'^at part of the Yukon Valley is clothed with forests
of spruce, cottonwood, and birch timber, all of which is good
for building purposes. The hills are thickly covered with
large trees, but the valleys have the best timber. A saw-
mill at Dawson City supplies that region with sawn timber

PLACER MINING.

at a cost of sIlJJO per thousand feet, and next summer will
see several others established where they will be needed..

The country contains comparatively little game. Moose,
caribou, and black, brown, grizzly, and white bears are oc-
casionally seen. Swallows are quite thick in summer, and
geese and wild ducks breed in large numbers on the rocks
and rivers. The fishing is good, particularly for the king
salmon, which weighs 80 to 100 pounds; grayling, white fish,
lake trout, and eels also run up to large sizes. Swarms of
mosquitoes and, later, of black gnats, are the pests of the
Yukon lowlands in summer, and have even been known to
drive the miner from his work.

AGKICUI.TURAI. POSSIBILITIES.

There is a considerable area of land in the Yukon country
with low valleys and good soil, which, with the influx of
mining population, will be extensively cultivated. It is not
a farming country, but can be successfully tilled for local
supplies. Barley and oats mature, but potatoes have barely
time to ripen. There are gardens at Forty-Mile and Fort
Selkirk in which are raised potatoes, barley and oats, turnips,
lettuce, radi.shes, and cabbages. The United States Govern-
ment has appropriated ^15,000 for an experimental farm
next summer at the junction of the Yukon and Tanana
Rivers. '

COST OF LIVING.

The cost of living in the Yukon Valley is at present very
high, as will be seen from the following recent quotaticms:
Flour, %l'i per hundred weight (following are the prices per
pound); moose ham, ill; caribou meat, 65 cents; beans, 10;
rice, 25; sugar, 25; bacon, 40; potatoes, 25; turnips, 15;
coffee, 50; dried fruits, 35; tea, fl; tobacco, 11.50; butter,
a roll, $1.50; eggs, a dozen, $1.50; salmon, each, $1 to 11.50;

wmm

PLACER MINING.

canned fruits. 50 cents; canned meats, 75; shovels, $2.50;
picks, ijJo; coal oil, per gallon, ♦! ; overalls, 11.50; under-
wear, per suit, ijso to !i57.50; shoes, $5; rubber boots, $10 to
$15.

All miners unite in saying that the only fear for the com-
ing winter is the lack of supplies. It is entirely probable
that there will be so little supplies in the mining region this
winter, in proportion to the number of men there, that
prices will run much higher, and that great suffering and
hardship will result temporarily, as it is impossible to get in
fresh supplies after the winter has set in, and provisions are
sold only for cash. But by next summer it is likely that
ample means will be taken to ward off any such danger
thereafter, and prospectors and miners can enter the gold
region next spring without the fear of starvation or any
greater hardships than naturally belong to a frontier region,
even in such a comparatively inaccessible part of the globe as
the Yukon Valley.

$2.50;
under-

s, $10 to

the com-
probable
;gion this
ere, that
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to get in
isions are
kely that
h danger
• the gold
»ii or any
ier region,
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CHAPTER II.

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF YOURSELF.

MKUICIIVB CHEST.

We would advise all persons who contemplate going to
the Klondike region to include in their outfits a me(?:inc
cheGt composed of the following drugs, which should be
obtained at a drug st^re for about %b\

ACETANELID CoMWOUND TABLETS (gr. V.), To leSSCn

fever, to relieve pain of neuralgic or rheumatic nature, for
toothache or headache. Dose: Two tablets. May repeat
in 4 or 5 hours. If 'i tablets do not relieve, 3 or 4 will not.
Will usually relieve pain in chest — pleurisy pain.

Morphine (gr. ^). — To relieve extreme pain of any sort;
for instance, pain of broken limb or injury when it is un-
bearable, severe colic or pain in bowels — in fact, unbearable
pain anywhere. Dose: One tablet. May repeat every 45
minutes until pain is relieved or person becomes drowsy.
When it makes the person sleepy or drowsy, stop it.

Dover's Powder Tablets (gr. v.). — To produce sweat,
break up a cold: Take two at bedtime with hot drink and
wrap up warm. To check a bad diarrhoea: Take one every
hour until diarrhoea is checked, or u ^til drowsy.

Aloin Strych. Bellad. and Casc ra Pills. — Laxative.
Two or three at bedtime for several nights.

Compound Cathartic Pills. — Physic, stronger than
laxative. One or two at bedtime. A good plan is to take
these one night, and then every night for a week take the
laxative.

PLACER MINING.

V!^>-- 'V

Bismuth Pkpsin and Nux Vomica. — For indigestion or
dyspepsia. One or two before each meal.

Bichloride Tablets, Compressed Antiseptic Tablets
(Poison). — (These are poisonous if swallowed; the solution
made from them is poisonous if swallowed). One dissolved
in 1 pint of water to wash out any wound or sore that has
pus or matter in it. Bathe for 5 minutes.

One dissolved in 1 quart of water for any fresh cut or
sore. Bathe for 5 minutes.

After washing with this solution a sore, wound, or any
place where the skin is broken, cover the place with five or
six layers of iodoform gauze, right next the sore, and out-
side this plenty of cotton, and bandage or plaster to hold it
in place.

Wounds or sores that are festering (forming pus or mat-
ter) should be dressed once or twice daily, according to the
amount of discharge; those that are not forming matter
or pus need not be dressed oftener than every three days.

Carbolic Salve. — A good dressing for burns, chafes, and
small cuts and frost-bites.

The Best Liniment for Bruises. — Very hot water con-
stantly applied, kept very hot, for 3 or 4- hours at a time

Citric Acid. — Dissolve in water to make lemonade in
case of scurvy. A pinch to glass of water.

Lead Acetate, 12-Grain Opium Powders. — For lead
and opium wash or liniment. It is made by boiling for 10
minutes 1 pint of water containing 1 heaping teaspoonful of
lead acetate and 1 (12-grain) opium powder. Apply cot-
ton saturated with this — hot, and change it as often as it
cools; keep it hot (paper over dressing helps this). An
excellent dressing or liniment for painful bruises or swell-
ings, sprained joint, swollen testicle, painful bruise from fall,

PLACER MINTNCt.

iigestion or

ic Tablets
the solution
le dissolved
re that has

resh cut or

md, or any
with five or
'e, and out-
;r to hold it

>us or mat-
ding to the
ling matter
ree days.

chafes, and

water con-
t a time

;monade in

— For lead
iling for 10
spoonful of
Apply cot-
often as it
this). An
i or swell-
;e from fall,

kick, or blow. It is not good for extensive raw surface as
large cut or burn.

Monsell's Salts for Hemorrhacies. — In quantities in
accordance with the person's liability to attacks of the
trouble.

Two drams iodoform, 50 quinine pills, ^ dozen assorted
bandages, 1 pound of listerine (for cuts, burns, colds, sore
throat, etc.), 1 small roll of surgeon's plaster, and some
antiseptic gauze dressing for wounds.

Surgeons' Lint. — One yard.

Absorbent Cotton. — Four ounces.

Mustard Plasters. — One-half dozen.

Minnie AI. SUGGESTIONS.

For many constitutions, the bracing effect of a trip to
northern latitudes is positively beneficial. Snow and ice
are not in themselves by any means injurious to the physi-
cal health of the average native of the temperate zone.
They may be disagreeable, but they are not unhealthful,
unless the soil of the district where they occur is of a nature
to retain dampness. Clays are bad in this respect; gravelly
soils are safe.

Scientific records have well established that the average
duration of human life is greater in proportion as the resi-
dence is advanced from the equator towards the poles.
There are exceptions, of course, but only such as prove the
general rule. There is more risk of disease by far in a voy-
age to India or Panama than in one to Bering Straits.

Climate, however, is not the only thing to be considered,
when there is question, in a medical sense, of the risks of a
distant and laborious expedition undertaken by a multitude
of persons, widely differing, as all multitudes must, in the
capacity of individuals for standing hardship and privations.

PLACER MINING.

To the weak, or those disposed to special ailments, condi-
tions which are only invigorating to the man in average
health are often absolutely fatal. Weak hearts and weak
lungs can not face northern blasts or temperatures below
zero. Rheumatism and its kindred affections are equally
ill fitted for such tests! Nor are such persons, whether
young or old, as have been long accustomed to purely sed-
entary occupations, or of lives of ease and luxury, physi-
cally fitted for the hardships of the Klondike. In the form-
er, the vital and resistive powers have never been developed ;
in the latter they have been sapped. Weak eyes would be se-
verely tested by the glare of a snow-covered land, and blind-
ness is but one of the dangers to be feared by Arctic explo' rs.

In brief, we would say that persons subject to troubles
of the heart, throat, or lungs should stay away from the
Klondike. Physical exhaustion, colds, scurvy, rheumatism,
and snow blindness are the chief dangers to be apprehended
on the trip from a medical standpoint. For the healthy in
other respects than those mentioned, there is no more
danger to be dreaded than in any ordinary change of resi-
dence. Alaska is not in itself more unhealthy than Illinois,
Norway, or the northern part of Scotland. Only those
that are able to bear hardships should face them, but as far
as hygienic conditions go, there need be no special appre-
hension on the score of Alaska. In conclusion, those of
weak lungs and weak hearts, and sedentary people generally,
are advised to stay at home. The others may balance
their chances without need of doctor's advice.

CAMPING ANI> TRAVELIl^G.

Establish camp rules, especially regarding the food. Al-
lot rations, those while idle to be less than when at work,
and also pro rata during heat and cold. Pitch the tent on
top of the snow, pushing the poles and pegs down into it.

PLACER MINING.

While some are busily engaged in building a fire and making
a bed, let the best cook of the party prepare the supper. If
you have no stove, build a camp-fire, either on an exposed
point of rock or in a hole dug in the snow ; if you have a
stove, arrange it on a " gridiron " inside the tent, the grid-
iron consisting of three poles some six or eight feet long,
and laid on the snow, on which the stove is placed. The
heat from the snow will soon melt a hole underneath, but
there will be enough firm snow under the ends of the poles
to hold it up. For the bed, cut hemlock brush and lay it
on the snow to the depth of a foot or more, and cover this
with a large square ^i canvas, on which blankets and robes
are put. When finished, it forms a natural spring bed,
which will offer grateful rest after hauling a sled all day.
In all except the most sheltered locations, the tent is neces-
sary for comfort, and the stove gives better satisfaction
than the cam.p-fire, and as it needs but little wood, is easier
to cook over, and does not poison the eyes with smoke.
There are fewer cases of snow blindness among those who
use stoves than among those who crowd around a smoking
camp-fire for cooking or warmth. Comfort in making a
trip of this kind will depend, in a great measure, upon the
conveniences of camping, suitable clothing, and light, warm
bedding. Choose your bunk as far from the tent door as
possible, and keep a fire hole open near your camp. If by
any chance you are traveling across a plain (no trail) and a
fog comes up, or a blinding snowstorm, either of which will
prevent you taking your bearings, camp, and don't move
for anything until all is clear again. Travel as much on
clear ice as possible. Don't try to pull sledges over snow,
especially if soft or crusty. White snow over a crevasse, if
hard, is safe; yellow, or dirty color, never. Press the trig-
ger of your rifle. Don't pull it. Don't catch hold of the

PLACER MINING.

barrel when 'M) degrees below zero is registered. Watch
out for getting snow in the barrel. If you do, don't shoot
it out. Shoot a dog, if you have to, behind the base of the
skull; a horse, between the ears, ranging downwards; a
deer behind the left shoulder or in the head. If you can not
finish your rations for one day, don't put back any part, but
put it into vour personal canvas outfit bag. You will need
it later, no doubt. Don't waste a single ounce of anything,
even if you don't like it. Put it away, and it will come
handy when you will like it. If it is ever necessary to cache
a load of provisions, put all articles next to the ground
which will be most affected by heat, providing, at the same
time, that dampness will not affect their food properties to
any great extent. After piling your stuff, load it over care-
fully with heavy rocks. Take your compass-bearings, and
also note in your memoranda some landmarks near by, and
also the direction in which they lie from your cache; i. e.,
make your cache, if possible, come between exactly north and
south of two given prominent marks, so that you can find it.
From the close of navigation by the freezing up of the
lakes and rivers, the only means of travel is by dog trains.
The dog used for this work is large, gaunt, long-haired, and
wolfish, and will make 50 to 70 miles a day with a load that
a man could scarcely haul at a walk. Six dogs make a
good team, though a man and a dog or two dogs are often
seen. The native packers often have as many as a dozen in
a pack. The regular rule of the Hudson Bay packers is
about 100 pounds Lo the dog, and six dogs in a team. The
dogs weigh from -lO to 70 pounds. They are well trained
and do not get sore feet, as do " tenderfoot " dogs taken into
the country. They are fed on cheap bacon, horse meat,
corn meal, or anything that is cheap and eatable. Dogs
taken in from > irmer climates are apt to get footsore, and

PLACER MINING.

tire out and be of no use. It requires an expert dog hand-
ler to get along with a dog team, and unless conditions are
favorable, it is hardly worth while for a novice to make the
experiment.

CARB OF FURS AND CLOTHING.

Keep your furs in good repair. One little slit may cause
you untold agony during a march in a heavy storm.
You can not tell when such will be the case. If your furs
get wet, dry them in a medium temperature. Don't hold
them near a fire. Keep your sleeping bag clean. If it be-
comes inhabited, freeze the inhabitants out. Keep all your
draw-strings on clothing in good repair. Don't forget to
use your goggles when the sun is bright on snow. A fellow
is often tempted to leave them off. Don't you do it. A
little dry grass or hay in the inside of your mitts, next your
hands, will promote great heat, especially when it gets damp
from the moisture of your hands. After the mitts are re-
moved from the hands, remove the hay from the mitts and
dry it. Failing that, throw it away. Be sure, during the
winter, to watch your footgear carefully. Change wet
stockings before they freeze, or you may lose a toe or foot.

When your nose is bitterly cold, stuff both nostrils with
fur, cotton, wool, or anything to prevent the inside of your
nose and throat from becoming frostbitten. The cold will
cease. Don't eat snow or ice. Go thirsty until you can
melt it. No man can continuously drag more than his own
weight. In cases of extreme cold at toes and heel, wrap a
piece of fur over each extremity. Remember success fol-
lows economy and persistency on an expedition like ^'ours.
And take warning — let no man go into the Yukon who can
not endure hardship, who can not work with pick and shovel
for ten hours, who can not carry a pack, and who can not
take a full outfit with him.

•m^

CHAPTER III.

YUKON MINERS' OUTFIT.

PRELIMINARY SUGGBSTIONS.

In addition to the medicine chest described in the prece-
ding chapter, the following is a list of supplies necessary for
one man for one year in the Klondike mining region. All
authorities are agreed that those who go with less will be
tempting fate. The requirements in clothing, food, and
miners' outfitting in general are peculiar, and differ
for the Yukon district from all other mining countries.
The extreme long, cold winters, short, hot summers, and
other points have to be considered. Outfits should be pur-
chased in Tacoma, or Seattle, or other Puget Sound ports.
The markets there offer everything mentioned below, in
good quality and at reasonable prices. The merchants
understand the trade and will select and put up an outfit,
large or small, and unless a man knows what he wants, the
best thing he can do is to name the price he can afford to
pay and leave the selection to the merchant. This is pos-
sible, because there are manufactured the flour, bacon,
evap ited fruits and vegetables, blankets, special Alaska
clotb ,>^% boots, shoes, sleds, stoves, tents, boats, and, in
fact, nixie-tenths of the staples used in Alaska. Large
stocks of goods are also carried at Juneau.

PROVISIONS.

One hundred and fifty pounds entire wheat flour; 50
pounds corn meal; 100 pounds hardtack; 50 pounds germea;
25 pounds rice; 75 pounds Bayo beans; 50 pounds peeled and
evaporated potatoes ; 10 pounds evaporated onions ; 50 pounds

PLACER MINING.

he prece-
essary for
fion. All
ss will be
Food, and
nd differ
[countries,
ners, and
d be pur-
nd ports,
below, in
nerchants
an outfit,
.^ants, the
afford to
is is pos-
r, bacon,
il Alaska
, and, in
Large

flour; 50

germea;

eeled and

>0 pounds

dried soup vegetables; 5 pounds split peas; 50 pounds of
stoned and dried fruit (apples, peaches, plums, prunes,
apricots, and raisins) ; one hundred pounds boneless bacon ;
50 pounds chipped beef; 5 pounds compressed soup and beef
extract ; 30 pounds canned lard ; 30 pounds canned butter ;
5 pounds coffee extract ; 20 pounds compressed tea ; 40 pounds
loaf sugar; 15 pounds salt; 1 pound white pepper, ground;
7 pounds baking powder; 2 pounds soda; G packages yeast
cakes; 1 pound mustard; ^ pound ginger; 20 pounds con-
densed milk; 2 pounds evaporated vinegar or citric acid;
40 pounds candles; 7 pounds laundry soap; 5 cakes tar toilet
soap; 1 pound of matches. In making purchases, it is well
to observe the suggestion that the very best articles that
can be purchased are none too good, and will more than
repay the purchaser in the long run. Germea is selected in
preference to oatmeal, because containing nutriment in a
more condensed form, and because it is a very quickly pre-
pared dish. Tea is far preferable in the winter cold than coffee.

SHBI.TER.

One 10 ft. X 12 ft. wall tent, made of 8-ounce duck or heavy
drill, will make very satisfactory temporary quarters for four
men. In lieu of a tent, a remarkably ingenious affair called
a *' Klondike Home " has been devised by Arthur F. Howes,
of Seattle, Wash. These "homes," which cost $200, and
weigh about 130 pounds, are built of aluminum. They are
intended for two people, but, it is claimed, will house four and
even six. It is said that the homes can be put up in an
hour or less, and taken down and put in bundles in the same
time. The frame is made of steel tubing, "telescoping"
into the posts, which in turn are packed into the stove
funnel, and this is put into a canvas cover for protection in
transit. The material which forms the walls and roof is
aluminum. The stove is of sheet steel, packed in a canvas

1 1

I I

PLACER MINING.

bag to allow easy handling, and there are no sharp corners
to cut into the carrier. It has two six-inch rounds on the
top, and an oven of sufficient size, around which all the heat
must pass. A copper-bottom boiler and a tea kettle are
packed inside the fire-box, and there is room in this and in
the oven to pack food and cooking utensils. The roof and
walls of the " home" are packed into the bed, a sort of flat
hammock, which when in use as a bed supports two people
three feet above the floor. The frame is held together by
connections resembling pipe fittings. This is covered with
sheet aluminum, so lapped and fitted together that it is
water and weather proof. It is guyed from the upper
corners, like a tent. Hooks are provided on which to hang
clothing, etc. A shelf along the side serves as a table.
The bed is folded and used as a bench seat during the day.
The windows are of transparent celluloid and are practically
indestructible. The "homes" are ft. in. long X 5 ft.
G in. wide X G ft. 6 in. high.

CLOTHING.

Those who have never wintered in the Arctic regions have
no conception of the intense cold it is necessary to protect
against. This lack of realization is doubtless responsible
for the absolute insufficiency and uselessness of what is
offered as a Klondike clothing outfit by some clothiers. It
is winter that one must think of in preparing, not sum-
mer. For clothing, then, take the following: 3 suits heavy
woolen underwear; pairs heavy double-foot wool socks;

1 pair double-foot German woolen socks; 1 pair Cana-
dian laragans or shoe-packs; 3 pairs seamless felt ankle
moccasins; 2 pairs heavy snag-proof, leather soled, nail-
protected, hip rubber boots, for summer work in water;

2 pairs specially made prospector's shoes; 2 heavy flannel
shirts ; 2 suits corduroy ; 2 pairs pantaloons (one of stout,

PLACER MINING.

moderately heavy cloth for summer wear, the other of a
lighter, close-woven cloth, which should be quilted with
cotton batting a half-inch thick in the seat and over the
thighs and knees, for winter use) ; 2 pairs stout riveted over-
alls, one felt-lined; 1 pair heavy Giant Buckle suspenders;
2 vests; 1 cloth sack coat; 2 heavy overall jumpers; 1 coat
of wool cloth; 1 coat made of skin dressed with the hair on.
The last named should be turned inside. For material,
short hair, coarse wool, or sheepskin is excellent, and should
not be expensive. For those who desire it, this coat can be
made of deerskin with the hair outside and lining of squirrel
or cat skins; 1 wool neck-scarf; 1 scarf or belt to draw coat
tight around waist in cold weather ; 2 pairs boots made of
deerskin, hair outside, ' reenforced leather sole, sewed or
pegged on, not nailed. The tops should extend above the
knee and be laced tight there. They should be large
enough to take in the foot covered with two pairs of socks,
or with one pair and felt moccasins, and to take in the legs
of the quilted pantaloons. The top of the boot need not be
lined with fur. One heavy rubber- lined coat or mackintosh ;
2 heavy woolen sweaters: 1 suit oil clothing; 2 fur caps,
with fur-lined ear-laps; 1 wide-brimmed felt hat; 3 pairs
heavy wool caribou mitts; I pair unlined leather work
gloves; 1 pair snow-shoes; 1 pair snow-glasses; G towels;
2 dozen best quality bandana handkerchiefs; 10 yards
mosquito netting, or 1 bee hat; 1 pair heaviest woolen
blankets; 1 fur robe for sled travel and sleeping outdoors.
This should be 4 ft. X G ft. , with the outside covered with heavy
woolen cloth and arranged like a bag by being made from a
piece G f t. X 8 ft. , doubled and sewed at each edge, except one.
The end which is left open should be sewed about G inches
toward the c^^nter from each side, and puckering strings
arranged to draw the hole up close; 1 sheet light-weight

PLACER MINING.

ill

f i

rubber waterproof cloth 12 feet square; several rubber bags
or packing cases should be purchased in which to carry per-
ishable goods; compass, pocket comb, mirror, toothbrush,
toilet paper, etc. In addition, there should be a small lot of
repair materials — needles, thread, buttons, buckskin, shoe-
maker's awl and wax, boot-sole nails, rubber cement, rubber
patching, etc.

HARDWARE, I2TC.

One sheet-iron stove, folding, if possible, and pipe, the
latter in flat sheets, with seam edge crimped for joining, or
in three lengths, telescoping; 1 fry pan, with folding handle;

2 pots, 8-quart and G-quart, with cover and bail; 1 kettle;
1 galvanized water bucket; 1 small riveted teapot; Ji pans
for bread baking, sizes to nest together; 3 soup-plates, blue
or granite ware; 2 cups, blue or granite ware, sizes to nest;
1 can opener; table-knife; fork; tea and soup spoons; 1
large mixing spoon; 1 bread or butcher knife. To save
weight and for ease in cleaning, aluminum ware is very
much to be preferred for the cooking utensils. A combined
rifle and shotgun and ammunition ; 1 large two-blade hunt-
ing knife ; fishing tackle and hooks ; 1 oO-ft. tape ; 1 gold pan ;
1 gold scales; 2 3^-pound picks, with large eye; 3 handles
for same; 1 drifting pick and handle; 1 long handle miner's
shovel (spring point) ; 1 short handle miner's shovel (spring
point); 1 scythe stone; 1 pack strap; 1 American ax; 1
hatchet, hammer head, claw; 1 blacksmith hammer; 8-inch
files and 2 taper files; 1 5^-ft. whipsaw, for getting out
lumber ; 1 26-in. Disston cross-cut handsaw ; 1 rip handsaw ;

3 chisels, including 1 calking chisel; 1 brace and bits; 1
folding draw-knife; 1 saw set and file; 1 square; 1 jack-
plane; 20 pounds spikes; 2 pairs 8-inch strap-butts; 200 feet
^-inch manilla waterproof rope ; 8 pounds of pitch ; 5 pounds
of oakum; nails, five pounds each of 0, 8, 10, and 12 penny;

PLACER MINING.

bags
per-
"ush,
ot of
ihoe-
ibber

plumb, level, chalk lines. In addition, each man in the
party will require a Yukon sleigh, a skeleton affair made
from the best hard wood and shod with ground brass run-
ners. It is 7 feet 3 inches long and 10 inches wide, just the
proper width to track behind snowshoes, and its cost is from
17 to $14. Brass is preferable to iron for the shoes, as it
slides more easily through the fine, dry snow one finds in
the early spring.

The list looks long and the bulk very considerable, yet
there is not an unnecessary article in it. If, however, sev-
eral men propose to travel together and work in partnership,
only a small portion of the kitchen outfit and tools require
duplication. Some game and fish may be taken, so that the
use of the full quantity of subsistence suggested may not be
required ; but it is far safer to provide the full amount than
to risk the success of getting game.

The total weight of the outfit is about 1,500 pounds, and
the cost about $350. After purchasing his outfit and paying
for his ticket to Dyea or Skagway, the would-be gold miner
should have from 1200 to $500 to pay incidental expenses
during his first year in the Yukon Valley. One thousand
dollars would be a far safer figure.

DUTIES OIV OUTFITS.

Many different reports having gone out concerning the
amount of exemption to miners which has been granted by
the Canadian Government, it may be well to state that in-
structions have been issued by the Canadian Government
exempting from all duty miners' blankets, personal clothing
in use, and broken packages of provisions being used, also
cooking utensils in use, and 100 pounds of food for the jour-
ney, charging ordinary customs duty on everything in ex-
cess of this amount. The duty on a $350 outfit will amount
to from $50 to $70.

1,s

''I

i it

•in

CHAPTER IV.

ROUTES TO THE YUKON GOLD FIELDS.

RKCIilVT UI2VI:L0PMKNT».

Gold, and the search for gold, ofttimes make a wonder-
ful change in the face of nature. Before the rich discov-
eries on the Klondike, Alaska was a land of slow-going old
settlements, typical of all that was leisurely and ancient.
A few steamers starting from Tacoma, the head of naviga-
tion on Puget Sound, and stopping at Seattle, Victoria,
Vancouver, and other Puget Sound ports, sufficed to take
care of the trade in supplies, furs, fish, and occasional pros-
pecting parties, and made up the life of the community at
the extreme southerly edge and only inhabited portion of
that vast territory.

With the spreading of the news of the disct)very of gold
on the Klondike River began to come the crowdii of eager
gold seekers, by hundreds and then by thousands, f roui every
quarter of the world, and at the principal Puget Sound
ports, instead of the comparatively uneventful sailing of a
steamer about once a week to care for the traffic in supplies,
ores, fish, furs, and the few travelers back and forth, with
the added interest in the summer months of the tourist ex
cursions, now the docks present a scene of bustle and excite-
ment. The crowds of gold seekers, with their outfits, their
pack ponies, or dogs, the friends who go down to bid them
good-by, and the rush and hurry in getting aboard the ves-
sel's freight, make quite a different picture from the sailing
of an Alaskan steamer a year ago. Along the streets of the
cities are displayed " Klondike" outfits, Alaska clothing,
sleds, sleeping bags, miners' tools, condensed foods for the

PLACER MININCi.

Arctic rejjfions, j^okl pans, rifles and revolvers, dust belts,
and the many other articles that ^o to make up a prospec-
tor's outfit, all looked upon with interest by the passing
crowds in the streets. In the shops, workmen are busy build-
ing Yukon sleds, camp stoves, and other equipment for the
prospector, and the stamp of '* Klondike" is seen upon every
line of industry. Parties are flocking into the cities by every
train, to await the time to start for the north in February
or March, and groups of them may be seen talking over the
various fields, the prospects and chances, a'nd the expe-
rienced miner giving the tenderfoot points on outdoor life.
At Juneau, many of those who failed to get over the pass in
the fall are waiting for the spring, and at Dyea, Skagway,
Fort Wrangel, and Sitka, others are awaiting the lengthen-
ing days of February to be off to the Klondike, the Copper
River, the Pelly, the Tanana, the MacMillan, the Munook,
and the dozen other fields where rich finds are reported,
and the first of March will see a rush of gold hunters into
the country such as has seldom been seen in any former
gold-mining excitement in the history of the world.

THE FIRST OBJECTIVE POINT.

As nearly all Alaskan steamers sail from Puget Sound
ports (Tacoma, Seattle, Victoria, Vancouver, etc.), one of
these cities will be the first objective point. If the would-
be prospector is a citizen of the United States, he will
probably go to either Tacoma or Seattle, which are near
neighbors, both in the State of Washington ; if he be a
Canadian citizen, he will naturally go to Victoria or Van-
couver.

Rates from New York City to Puget Sound points vary
from ^02.75, the lowest second-class rate, to $81.25 for first-
class. Meals and berths are not included in these figures.
Berths from New York to Puget Sound points are $9. The

m I

PLACER MINING.

Union Pacific, Northern Pacific, Great Northern, and Cana-
dian i'acific lines are the principal competing roads. All of
these lines have offices in New York. The cheapest way of
getting from New York to the Pacific Coast is by steamer
from New York to New Orleans, thence by the Southern
Pacific to San Francisco. The cost of a ticket by this route,
including steerage berth and meals on steamer and second-
class passage by rail, is $54.50,

From Puget Sound points there are at present nine known
routes to the Yukon gold fields.

As the Chilkoot Pass route is the most important and the
most generally traveled of these routes, we will describe that
first, reserving the description of the other routes for a sub-
sequent chapter.

THE CHILKOOT PASS ROUTE.

The shortest route to the basin of the Yukon, and the one
which has been taken by nearly nine-tenths of all the gold
seekers who have thus far gone to the interior, is that via
the Chilkoot Pass (see map). The details of this route
are as follows:

From Puget Sound ports to Juneau, 900 miles. — This
portion of the journey can be taken at any time of the year.
There are usually several steamers each way every week
i)etween Puget Sound ports and Juneau. The trip usually
takes five or six days. Rates at hotels and restaurants in
Juneau are about the same as in any city. The fare from
Puget Sound ports to Juneau, including berth and meals, is,
first-class, $32; steerage, $17. One hundred and fifty pounds
of baggage are allowed each passenger, and excess baggage
is carried at $9 per ton. In the summer season, passage can
be obtained direct from Puget Sound ports to Dyea, with-
out changing at Juneau.

From Juneau to Dyea (or Taiya), 101 miles. — Ordinarily,

PLACER MINING.

passage over this portion of the route can be obtained
within a day or so after arrival in Juneau; but as the small
boats run irregularly, quick connections can not always be
depended upon. The fare from Juneau to Dyea is $8 to $10,
and if the weather is fair and the load light, the trip is made
in twelve hours. The landing process at Dyea is long and
tedious. There is no deep water near shore. The tide at
the head of the long and narrow estuary rises and falls
twenty-three feet, and the beach is long and flat. Hence,
everything must be taken ashore in lighters and surf-boats,
which make long trips with each load. Horses are dumped
into the water to wade ashore. The responsibility of the
steamship company ends at the anchorage, but it uses its
boats and crews to help get passengers and freight ashore.
As soon as possible after landing, the freight is sorted and
carried out of reach of tidewater. Most miners camp near
by in the edge of the woods, perhaps taking one or two
meals at a restaurant ; others find both board and lodging
until they are ready to push on. Now, for the first time,
the miner begins to size up his belongings, and begins to
realize that a proper outfit for a trip of this kind is the
result of experience, and the longer he has been in this coun-
try and the more thoroughly he knows it, just so much more
care is used in the selection and packing of his outfit. A
careful and thorough examination should be made to see
that nothing has been lost or forgotten. Towns of five
thousand inhabitants have grown up be th at Dyea rid at
Skagway, five miles below.

OVKR THIC CHILKOOT PASS THI2 IVKW W VY.

The pioblemof how to rapidly and cheaply transport pas-
sengers and freight over the Chilkoot Pass to the headwaters
of the Yukon has been solved in an unexpected but entirely

I >

PLACER MINING.

practical manner. Heretofore, getting over this pass has
been the most dangerous and difficult part of the Yukon
journey. Men have had to either carry their heavy outfits
a distance of twenty-five miles over the i)ass, involving lug-
ging them up steep hills with an aggregate elevation of
3,500 feet, or pay large sums to the Indians for taking them
over. This has required a great deal of hard work when
the miner's time was most valuable, or necessitated the ex-
penditure of such large sums in getting over that few
men could afford it. Men who have done their own
packing have been tired* and worn out on caching the
lakes, and some have given up on reaching Lake Linde-
man.

This situation will be quite changed by the C^ilkoot Rail-
road and Transport Company, which expects to have its
transportation system in operation by February, 1898, in
time for the early spring rush over the pass. Miners and
prospectors can then disembark from the steamers at Dyea,
and in twenty-four hours find themselves with their outfits
at Lake Lindeman. Boats, sleds, and dogs can be taken
over as readily as flour and beans, so that on reaching Lake
Lindeman the miner has only to pack his sled, launch his
boat, or harness his dog team, and be ready to start down
the lakes. The great majority of miners will have neither
dogs nor boats, but on reaching Lake Lindeman will proceed
to haul their sleds over the ice to the foot of Lake Lebarge,
where they will build boats and be ready to start down the
river as soon as the ice ]:)reaks.

The Chilkoot Railroad and Transport Company is now
(December, 18'.>7) comi)leting a railroad cigiit mile, ii'
length from Dyea to the mouth of Dyea Canyon. Betwee'i
the mouth oi the c myon and Crater Lake, on the other side
of the summit, two aerial tramways, each four miles in

PLACER MINING.

'Z7

,.-

length, will be operated. The contract for these aerial tram-
ways has been let to the Trenton (New Jersey) Iron Works,
which has built over a hundred of them now in successful
operation in the United States, Mexico, Central and vSouth
America. The longest one in the w^r'd, twelve miles in
]'"n[;*h, was recently built by the same company in the
if'vji.. Hayti.

One tramway on Chilkoot Pass will reach through Uyea
Canyon to Sheep Camp, with a rise of 1,000 feet in four
miles. The other will extend from Sheep Camp to Crater
Lake, with a rise of 2,500 feet to the summit of the pass, and
a decline of 500 feet between the summit and Crater Lake
Over V) miles of the best steel-wire cable will be used in the
construction of these tramways, which will be supported by
solid iron supports placed every 100 feet. The power station,
to develop 50 horsepower, will be located at vSheep Camp.
This power v ']] operate the tramways rapidly, giving them
a daily ca" .city n 120 tons, or outfits for 200 men. Special
carnage;: ?,' i ■; provided for carrying passengers. The
Trenton Iron 'orks is under contract to have this system
of tramways :i o') nation by January 15, and beginning then
the Chilkoot Railroad and Transport C<Jinpany wi'l be able
to transport 200 mhiers and their outfits ov^r the pass daily.
From Crater Lake to Lake Lindeman Landing the trail runs
down hill, with an easy grade, making it possible for the
miners l V)ad thei'* sleds and slide down over the crusted
snow auci I.':

A telepiv>, le line connecting Dyea and Lake Lindeman is
being constructed, ensuring the operation of the transpor-
tation system to the best advantage. It will also enable
men crossing the pass to communicate with either end or
intermediate stations.

^:f

PLACER MINING.

OVER THE CHII^KOUT I»ASS- THE OLO WAY.

From Dyea to the Sheep Camp, Vi miles. — Two days are
generally consumed in making this part of the journey,
although it is possible to make '" one. The first five
miles of the journey, from Dyea to mouth of the can-

yon, can be made by canoe during pai ts of April and Sep-
tember and all of May, June, July, and August, or on the
ice at other seasons of the year. Dyea Canyon is about two
miles long, and can be traversed on the ice in winter by
bridging the dangerous holes with poles. In summer it is
necessary to go around the canyon by a trail which has been
built on the east side. The balance of the journey is easy.
There is now a considerable settlement at the Sheep Camp.

From the Sheep Camp to Lake Lindeman, 15 miles. —
This portion of the route, containing the Chilkoot Pass, can
be traversed in summer by any able-bodied man or vroman
with very little difficulty or danger, but the conditions in
winter, spring, or fall are such that great caution must be
observed. This is due to the terrible severity of the Arctic
storms, which come up suddenly and rage with fury through
this narrow defile at certain seasons of the year. During
the month of October, 1807, nor. less than 20 persons are
reported to have perished in such storms. None except
those who are familiar with the pass should ever attempt it
alone. Four or five men should compose each party starting
for the gold fields, as one tent, stove, set of tools, etc., will
suffice, and the hardships can in many respects be lightened
by cooperation on the part of all. The Sheep Camp is
near the summit, and no wood for a fire can be gotten until
timber is reached on the other side of the pass, about three
or four miles from the head of Lake Lindeman. For this
reason, the Sheep Camp is not usually left until all of the
outiit has been placed on the summit. When the weather is

PLACER MINING.

are

favorable, everything except what is necessary for camp is
pushed a mile and a half to Stone House, a clump of big
rocks, and then to what is called the Second Bench, From
this point, for about 000 feet, the trail is very difficult, but
Indians may be hired to carry packages up it for about !l?5
per hundred pounds. At most seasons of the year, horses
can be used for the purpose, if sharply shod and accustomed
to mountain trails. A good horse will carry 150 to 200
pounds over the summit, while for the average man 50 pounds
is quite sufficient. The descent for the first half mile is
steep, then a gradual slope to Lake Lindeman, some ten
miles away. But there is but little time for resting and
none for dreaming, as the edge of the timber where the
camp must be made is seven miles from the summit. Taking
the camping outfit and sufficient provisions for four or five
days, the sleigh is loaded, the rest of the outfit is packed up,
or buried in the snow, shovels being stuck up to mark the
spot. This precaution is necessary, for storms come sud-
denly and rage with fury along these mountain crests. The
first half mile or more is made in quick time; then, over six
or seven feet of snow, the prospector drags his sleigh to
where there is wood for his camp-fire. At times this is no
easy task, especially if the weather be stormy, for the winds
blow the new-fallen snow about so as to completely cover the
track made by che man but little ahead; at other times,
during fine weather, and with a hard crust on the snow, it
is only a pleasant run from the pass down to the first camp
in the Yukon Basin.

DOWN THE LAKES TO THE HOOTALI\QUA.

From Lake Lindeman to Lake Bennet, 5 miles. — The
trip through Lake Lindeman is short, the lake being only
^^ miles long. Boats may be hired to carry goods across.
It is necessary to portage from Lake Lindeman to Lake

,'(!

lil

PLACER MINING.

Bennet, the portage, however, being less than a mile.
The best time to reach Lake Bennet is early in the
spring, say about April 15th, before the ice begins to melt.
Persons who time their trip so as to reach there about that
date can make the trip across the lakes on the ice, and need
not build rafts until they reach open water on the Yukon or
Lewis River. Those who reach Lake Bennet after the ice
has melted will need to build or purchase a boat or scow at
this point before proceeding further. It is necessary that
one of the pi rty should have a knowledge of boat building,
for it is absoh;tely essential that the craft shall be stanch
and substantial. The double-ended batteau is the pattern
ordinarily preferred, though the plain avow of good depth is
more easily built and can be depended upon. The boats are
usua.^y *.-;2 to 24 feet long and 4^ to 5 feet wide, and, if pur-
chased at the local sawmill, cost about ^(10.

From Lake Bennet to Lake Takou (or Tagish), 20 miles.
— Lake Bennet is 'iC) miles long. Upon this lake the British
boundary is crossed. Between Lake Bennet and Lake Takou
is the Caribou Crossing, which is about 3 miles long and
quite difficult.

From Lake Takou to Miles Canyon, (!(j miles. — Seventeen
miles of this distance is spent in crossing Lake Takou (or
Tagish, or Takish, as it is variously spelled), 5 miles in de-
scending the Six-Mile River, 19 miles in crossing Mud Lake
and Marsh Lake, and the balance in descending the Fifty-
Mile River. About half way down the Fifty-Mile River is
Miles- Canyon. Before reaching the canyon, a high cut bank
of sand on the right-hand side will give warning that it is close
at hand. Good rivermen have run the canyon safely, even
with loaded rafts, but it is much safer to make a landing on
the right side and portage the outfit around the canyon, three-
quarters of a mile, and run the raft through empty. The

PLACER MINING.

sameness of the scenery on approachinji; the canyon is so
marked that many parties have gotten into the canyon
before they were aware of it.

From Miles Canyon to Lake Lebarge, ol miles. — From
Miles Canyon to White Horse Rapids, 2 miles, the boat or
raft can be towed with safety down the stream, when a large
sign will be seen on the left bank, with the words "Look

■ M

M
I

MILES CANYON.

Out " in letters a foot square. The White Horse is the most
dangerous portion of the trip. It is a box canyon about a
hundred yards long and fifty in width, a chute through
which the water of the river, which is (100 feet wide just
above, rushes with maddening force. But few have ever
attempted to run these rapids, and fourteen of them are

PLACER MINING.

known to have been drowned. It is much safer to portage
the outfit around these rapids and send the boat through
empty. Even then the boat is Hkely to be lost or damaged.
Every man's life should be worth more to him than all the
gold in the Klondike region. The balance of the trip from
White Horse Rapids to Lake Lebarge is via the Fifty-Mile
River. It may be necessary, below the White Horse Rapids,

WHITE HORSE RAFIDS,

to build a nev7 boat before the journey can be continued.
It is probable that ere long a railroad Avill be constructed
around Miles Canyon and White Horse Rapids, to facilitate
the transportation of freight and passengers at this point.
At present there is a portage road on the west side, and
rollways in some places on which to shove the boats over.

PLACER MINING.

•>•>
•>•>

From Lake Lt'har^e to HootaliiKiiui Rivc;r, (II miles.—
There are no rapids or other (huij^ers in this part of the
journey. In the middle of Lake Lebarge (which is 151 miles
in length) there is an island where parties bound for the
gold fields usually camp. Ice on Lake Lebarge is usually
good until about the last of April. From Lake Lebarge to
the Hootalinqua, the course is down Thirty-Mile River.

UOWIV THIS YUKON VALLKY.

From Hootalinqua River to McCormick Trading Post,
111 miles. — This section of the journey is always made in
summer, as the river never freezes over smooth. The ice
freezes in great rough masses, which makes traveling well-
nigh impossible. If a person should have the misfortune to get
frozen in, the best thing he can do is to go into winter quarters
and commence prospecting at once on the little streams in
his immediate neighborhood ; the entire region is known to
be gold-bearing, and a lucky strike is almost as likely to be
made in one place as another. From Hootalinqua River to
the Big Salmon River is 27 miles; from the Big Salmon
River to the Little Salmon River is 01} miles, and from there
to McCormick Trading Post is 21 miles. The Hootalinqua
River, after its junction with the Big Salmon River, is
known as Lewis River.

From McCormick Trading Post to Fort Selkirk, 79 miles,
— Twenty miles below McCormick Trading Post are the Five
Finger Rapids. Here four large buttes divide the water in
five passages; the right-hand passage is the only one which
is practicable, and, though the water is swift, it is safe if the
boat be kept in the center. A few moments of strong
pulling and careful management, and the boat is rapidly ap-
proaching Rink Rapids, three miles below. Here again the
right-hand side ensures safety, and having gone through

:)4

PLACER MINTNa

them the last danp^erous water is passed. Next comes the
Pelly River, upon which, and especially upon its chief
branch, the MacMillan, valuable, discoveries were made
late in 1807. The junction of the Pelly and Lewis forms
the Yukon proper. Fort Selkirk, or Harper's (as it is
sometimes called), is located at this point.

From Fort Selkirk to Stewart River, lOO miles. — Ninety-six
miles below Fort Selkirk the White River is passed, 1() miles
beyond which is the Stewart River, where some of the latest
discoveries have been reported. There is little doubt but that
the newcomer stands as good or better opportunity in pros-
pecting along the creeks entering this river as anywhere in
the Yukon district. All of the streams thus far referred to
enter the Yukon from the right, with the exception of the
White River. Below the Stewart River, the various mining
districts are reached in the following order: Sixty-Mile Creek,
Klondike River, Forty-Mile Creek, and Birch Creek. Gold
has also been discovered on Porcupine River, Munook Creek,
Tanana River, and Koyukuk River. An examination of
the map will show that these districts cover practically the
whole known interior of Alaska, and large deposits have
been found on the Kenai peninsula and other places along
the southern coast. Just at present the Copper River
district (see map) is attracting much attention.

CHAPTFR V.

WOUTHS TO THK YUKON CJOI.I) rii:iJ>S.

{Coiitiiiiii(L)

THIi AM.-WATKW WOl'Tli.

One of the best, because safest, most natural, most com-
fortable, and cheapest routes to the gold fields is the all-
water route (see map). From Puget Sound the ste:iuiers
sail out through the Straits of San Juan del Fuc\'i north-
westerly across the Pacific ( )i"ean "^,(100 miles to Dutch
Harbor, on Unalaska Island, which is the first stop; thence
750 miles north through Bering Sea and Norton Sound to St.
Michael Island, (10 miles above the mouth of the Yukon,
where transfer is made to the smaller craft which ply uji and
down the Yukon. The Yidcon is navigable the entire dis-
tance from its mouth to Fort Selkirk, in Canadian territory,
2,300 miles, without a break, and all of the gold fields thus far
discovered are reached direct by the river steamers. The
fare from Puget Sound to the gold fields, meals and berth
included, is only $200 first-class. Competition may reduce
this to 1150, or even llOO, for ordinary second-class accommo-
dations. Steerage passengers must furnish their own bed-
ding. As all the streams in the immediate neighborhf)od of
the Klondike have already been taken up (see map for par-
ticulars), persons of limited means are advised to wait until
spring and go by this route. In doing so, they will pass both
Circle City and Forty-Mile, near which some of the best
placer mines on the American continent have been discovered,
and were being worked at great profit before they were
abandoned in the great rush for the Klondike. These districts

PLAC'ER MTNTNCt.

f i

' I

are lot-aLcd entirely \vithi)i American I'-rrilory. Millions of
dollars' worth of jvold will undoubtedly be taken from these
at present abandoned mininj>' districts within the next few
years. Navigation on the Yukon closes in September and
opens in June, As the head waters are much farther south
lhan the mouth, the break-up begins in the upper river and
tributaries, and the ice, which freezes A feet thick in winter,
packs and crushes its way towards the deltas. Navigation
between Circle City and Daws )n is possible sometimes a
month before steamers can cntei the mouth of the Yukon
from St. Michael's on the upward trip.

One great disadvantage of going by the all-water route is
that the best part of the season is gone before one can reach
the mining fields.

The boats which ply up and down the Yukon calculate on
making only two round trips during the season, and some-
times make but one. Two hundred passengers who left
Pugcit Sound as early as July 22, 181)7, for Dawson, via St.
Michael's, were stranded on the Yukon flats, five hundred
miles below Dawson, and had to turn back. The lightest
draft boats carrying provisions could not get up the river
in August and September because of the low water. Several
thousand men who started in July and August via St.
Michael's were stranded for the winter on that cold and deso-
late island or a short distance up the Yukon. Several hundred,
however, were fortunate enough to reach Rampart City, at
the mouth of Munook Creek, halfway up the Yukon, and as
rich strikes have been made in that neighborhood they are
perhaps as Avell off as though they had reached Dawson,
The gold here is heavy and coarse, running 1^1 S and
$19 to the ounce. The mines begin twenty-four miles up
Munook Creek from Rampart City. In September, Munook
claims were selling for Id, 500 each. Gold was plentiful, and

PLACER :^IININ(i.

lions of
n these
cxt few
ber and
r south
ver and
winter,
ngation
times a
Yukon

route is
n reach

Lilate on
d some-
v'ho left
, via St.
tiundred
lightest
he river
Several
via vSt.
id deso-
undred,
City, at
I, and as
:hey are
Dawson.
i^LS and
niles up
Munook
ful, and

it was believed that winter work would prove them very rich.
Ciold has also been found on the Tanana River, a short dis-
tance below the Munook. The Tanana is a large river with
many tributaries, offering a large district in which to
prospect. It is !MM) miles from St. ^lichael's to the
mouth of the Tanana, SO miles from there to the Munook,
450 miles from Munook to Circle City, •i40 miles from
Circle City to Forty-Mile, and 52 miles from Forty-Mile to
Dawso

Th( ' vessel sailing in the spring from Puget Sound for
St. Michael's leaves in April or May. The steamers start in
May and June, as the Yukon River does not ()i)en at its
mouth until the latter month.

Several parties have formed to take flat-bottom river boats
to the Yukon in the knock down, and set them up there. A
flat-bottom river steamer can be built for !i«l,000 to carry a
party of ten with their provisions and supplies. Boats to
carry parties of 100 to 200 cost $8,000 to $14,000.

THI-: WHITK PASS HOUTIC.

The White Pass route starts from Skagway City, which is
five miles below Dyea. From the harbor, where there is a
long wharf to deep water, the trail follows the Skagway River
to its head, which is near the summit of the pass, a distance
of 10 miles. The first four miles are in the bed of the river,
and the ascent is gradual. At four miles the canyon is
reached, and here the route becomes more difficult. For
seven miles the trail works its way along the mountain side,
rising steadily for almost the entire distance. This is the
only hard part of the route. The next three miles is a gentle
rise, and they carry the trail to the summit, an elevation of
2,000 feet above the sea-level. This is 1,000 feet lower than
the summitof the Chilkoot Pass, but, because of the impassable

<l!|

;J8

PLACER MINING.

•''

condition of the trail, has been quite disappointing to those
who have tried to go over it. Surveys are being made for a
railroad across White Pass, which will undoubtedly be built
next year.

Tin: COPPBR UIVKR RDUTE.

The Cop])er River route is by steamer from Juneau to
Valdes Inlet on Prince William Sound. From Valdes the
passage to the Copper River is in a northeasterly direction
over a dead glacier, which may be readily traversed during
most of the year. The Indians living on the upper wtters
of the Copper River come out by that route on their semi-
annual trading trips. The trail strikes Copper River about
100 miles north of its mouth, thereby avoiding the rapids,
canyons, and glaciers that have prevented the successful
passage of the river. It then proceeds up the Chittyna, the
main branch of the Copper River, crosses the divide nt
Scoloi Pass, and goes down the White River to the Yukon,
Some claim that the building of a railroad to the Yukon is
entirely feasible by the Valdes route from Prince William
Sound, and surveys are to l)e made in 1898.

One advantage of going by the Copper Rive: route is that
very good diggings are reported to have been found along
the stream, some prospectors going no far as to state that
the placers of Copper River are as rich if not richer than
Klondike. Some of the Copper River Indians, however, are
savage and ^vell armed. They resent the coming of whites
to take their gold. Precjuently white miners are driven out
of the country by the Indians, some of whom, particularly
the Stik tribe, are mixed with Russian Finns and are vicious
and aggressive. They are good shots, ai.d, besi'ies, frc^m
their places of vantage in the canyons t^ey can resist a
large body of white men. Several parties are «»iganizing to
explore the Coppei" River in the spring of 181)8. The mem-

PLACER :\ITNING.

bers of these parties areull well armed. One of their nirnber
saw, while i)assing- throii^^h the Copper River country,
squaws with bracelets of virgin gold which had been oeaten
out of nuggets.

THli DALTOIV WODTIi.

The Dalton trail leaves tid ;water at Chilkat, a landing
to the west and north of Dyea, and runs over a comparatively
easy pass to tlie north of Chilkoot Pass, continuing to the
westward of the lake country and striking the Yukon above
Fort Selkirk, a distance from Chilkat of abouf. 400 miles.
This is the usual route for driving in beef cattle, as the
pasturage. May to September, is good all the way over to
the river. In taking in beef cattle over the Dalton trail,
some prospectors b^vc placed light packs on the cattle and
succeeded in that way in getting their supplies in. Beef
cattle costing 820 at Tacoma have been sold at Dawson City
at from $700 to 1^900, where beef was worth 75c. to !|1 per
pound.

It is believed by many that this will ultimately be a popu-
lar route to the mines. It will be made passable for wtigons
as early as practicable in the summer of 189S, and it has even
been proposed to construct a railf' >ad along this entire route.
Gold has been discovered on this route, about iUidway
between Chilkat Pass and Fort Selkirk.

THK CHILKAT ROUTI2.

This "oute is up the Chilkat Inlet, which enters the
Lynn Canal a few miles below Dyea, thence up the Chilkat
River and over Chilkat Pass (which is said to be abcuit 1,000
feet lower than the Chilkoot Pass) and down the Tahkeena
River to its junction with the Fifty-Mile River below White
Horse. Rapids. As the Chilkat Pass is 25 miles longer than
the Chilkoot l^ass. it is not much used at the present time.

*'s

■M

PLACER MINING.

!l ■

THK STICKEEN ROUTE.

Goods and passengers intended for this route have to be
transshipped from ocean-going steamers to river steamers at
Fort Wrangel. The Stickeen, under favorable circum-
stances, i.-» navigable for stern-wheel steamers of light draft
and good power to Telegraph Creek, 140 miles from its
mouth. The river usually opens for navigation between
April 20th and May 1st. On the lowlands there is good
grazing for horses and cattle from April 20th to about
December 1st. The distance from the Stickeen at Tele-
graph Creek to Teslin Lake, the source of the Hootalinqua
River, is about 120 miles. The portage is through a partly
open and partly wooded country, somewhat rolling but not
rough. A pack trail runs from Telegraph Creek to the head
of the lake. At the head of Teslin Lake there is plenty of
timber for whipsawing lumber to build boats for the voyage
down the river to Dawson, or lumber may be purchased at
the small sawmill now in operation there. From the
Hootalinqua, the balance of ths journey to the gold fields is
by the same route as that described under the head of
Chilkoot Pass route. From the head of Teslin Lake to the
Klondike is 584 miles.

THE OVERLAND ROUTE.

This route starts from Ashcroft, B. C. The distance to
Stuart Lake can be traveled with ease by pack train. No
feed need be carried for horses, as there is an abundance of
grass the entire distance. From Fort James (on Stuart
Lake), the route is to Telegraph Creek, over prairie country.
From this point the balance of the journey is the same as
via the Stickeen route. If desired, the journey from Tele-
graph Creek to the Yukon may be made by the somewhat
lengthy route via Dease Lake, Frances River, and Pelly
River, which is said to be very easy.

PLACER MINING.

THE TAKOU ROUTE.

This route is from the head cf T^kou Inlet, a little south of
Juneau, overland by the valley of the Takou River to Lake
Teslin. from which the balance of the journey is th^ same as
via the Stickeen route. The gold fields can also be reached
by the way of Edmonton, on the Canadian Pacific Railway,
thence via the McKenzie, Frances, and Pelly Rivers.

i4ll

i I

■i| J

;. .ill

CHAPTER VI.

MINING REGULATIONS OF ALASKA.

The misunderstanding and contentions regarding the
.^aws that are applicable to Alaska, so far as the lands and
claims are concerned, have been set at rest by a statement
made by Commissioner Hermann, of the General Land Office.
Many inquiries on this question have come to the Interior
Department, and numerous applications have been made for
copies of the Public Land Laws, which, however, do not apply
to Alaska. All this is due to the gold boom. The General
Land Office officials have taken much interest in the reports
that come from the gold belt, and have investigated the
laws that govern them.

Commissioner Hermann says these laws are applicable :

VARIOUS LAWS.

L The Mineral Land Laws of the United States.

2. Town site laws which provide for the incorporation of
town sites and acquirement of title thereto from the United
States Government to the town site trustees. ^

3, The law providing for trade and manufactures, giving
each qualified person 100 acres of land in a square and com-
pact form.

The coal land regulations are distinct from the mineral
regulations or laws, and the jurisdiction of neither coal laws
nor public land laws extends to Alaska, the Territory being
expressly excluded by the laws themselves from their oper-
ation. The Act approved May 17, 1884, providing for civil
government of Alaska, has this language as to mines and
mining privileges:

PLACER MINING.

MINIIVO CL.AIMS.

"The laws of tVie United States relating to mining claims
and rights incidental thereto shall, on and after the passage
of this act, be in full force and effect in said district of
Alaska, subject to such regulations as may be made by the
Secretary of the Interior and approved by the President, and
parties who have located mines or mining privileges thereon
und'^r the United States laws applicable to the public
domain, or have occupied or improved or exercised acts of
ownership over such claims, shall not be disturbed therein,
but shall be allowed to perfect title by payments provided
for."

There is still more general authority. The Act of July -I,
18()(;, says:

"All valuable mineral deposits in lands belonging to the
United States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are hereby
declared to be free and open to exploration and purchase,
and lands in which these are found to occupation and pur-
chase by citizens of the United States, and by those who
have declared an intention to become such u.''der the rules
prescribed by law, and according to local customs or rules
of miners in the several mining districts, so far as the same
are applicable and not inconsistent with *;he laws of the
United States."

The patenting of mineral lands in Alaska is not a new
thing, for that work has been going on as the cases have
come in from time to time since 1884.

AI.,ASKA MIXIIVG CODE.

The United States mining code applies in the Territory of
Alaska, but miners' law, which agrees with the Federal law,
has prevailed, pending the appointment of the proper
officials to carry out the full provisions of the statutes. The

PLACER MINING.

general law, covering quartz and placer claims, condensed
into brief space, is as follows:

QUARTZ DEPOSITS.

Quartz Land. — Mining claims upon ledges or lodes of
precious metals can be taken up along the vein to the length
of 1,500 feet and 300 feet each side of the middle of the vein.
To secure patent, $500 worth of work must be performed
and $5 an acre paid for the land — twenty acres. Six months'
failure to do woik forfeits the claim.

PLACER CLAIMS.

Placer Land. — Claims usually called ''placers," including
all forms of deposit, excepting veins of quartz or other
rock in place, are subject to entry and patent. No single
individual can locate more than twenty acres of placer
land, and no location can be made by any company com-
posed of no less than eight bona-fide locators, exceeding 160
acres. The price per acre of placer claims is 12.50. Where
placers contain veins or lodes, the cost per acre is $5.

It is important that locators accurately mark and describe
their claims. In marking, the locator may do so in any
direction that will not interfere with the rights or claims
existing prior to his discovery. Litigation, expense, and
delay may be avoided by being particular in the matter of
boundaries. The essentials are :

First — That the corners should be marked on the ground
by stakes in mounds of earth or rock, or by marked trees
or other natural objects.

Second — The notice of location should describe these
corners so that they can be identified on the ground by the
description, and, in addition, the direction and distance of
one of the corners from a Government corner (if surveyed)
or well-known object, such as a junction of roads, trails, or

PLACER MINING.

ravines, a bridge, building of any kind, or natural feature,
as rock, etc.

PENALTIES.

It is a felony to sell a salted mine ; to fraudulently ciiange
samples or assays with intent to defraud; to make or give
false assay or sample with intent to defraud; to rob vem,
sluice-box, quartz mill, etc., or trespassing upon mmm^
claim with intent to commit a felony.

It is a misdemeanor to deface, tear down, or destroy a
post, monument, boundary mark, or location notice ; or with-
out authority to take water from any ditch, pipe, reservoir,
etc., or to unlawfully interfere with the same.

CHAPTER VII.

MINING REGULATIONS OF N. W. CANADA.

The following is a summary of the principal regulations
made by the Canadian Government regarding placer mining
along the Yukon River and its tributaries in the Northwest
Territories, corrected to August 21, 181)7:

In these regulations, "bar diggings" mean parts of a
river which are flooded at high water but are not covered at
low water. Mines on benches are called '* bench diggings."
"Dry diggings" mean mines over which a river never ex-
tends. "Claim " means the right to a diggings during the
time for which the grant is made. A claim does not include
any special surface rights. " Legal post " means a stake or
stump standing four feet above the ground, and squared on
four sides for at least one foot from the top. Both sides so
squared must measure at least four inches across the face.
"Close season" means the period during which placer
mining is generally suspended, and is fixed by the Gold
Commissioner in whose district the claim is situated.
" Locality " means the territory along a river (tributary of
the Yukon River) and its affluents. " Mineral ' includes all
minerals other than coal. Claims are measured horizontally,
irrespective of the surface of the ground. Miners must be
over 18 years of age.

BAR, DRV, AND BENCH DIGGINGS.

Bar diggings are strips of land 100 feet wide at high-
water mark, and thence extending into the river to its lowest
water-level. Their sides are formed by two parallel lines run
as nearly as possible at right angles to the stream, and must

PLACER MINING.

»g

be marked by tour legal posts, one at each end of the claim at
or about high-water mark, also one at each end of the cki'm
at or about the edge of the water. One of the posts at higl-
water mark must be legibly marked with the name of the
miner and the date upon which the claim was staked. Dry
diggings and bench diggings are 100 feet square and are
staked in the same way.

CRCKK AIVD RIVCR CLAIMS.

Creek and riv^er claims are 100 feet long (discoverers of
new mines or of new auriferous strata, in a locality where
the claims are abandoned, are entitled to claims of double
this length) measured in the direction of the general course
of the stream, extending in width from base to base of the
hill or bench on each side, but when the hills or benches are
less than 100 feet apart, the claim may be 100 feet in depth.
The sides consist of two parallel lines run as nearly as pos-
sible at right angles to the stream, and must be marked with
legal posts at the edge of the water and at the rear bound-
aries of the claim. One of the posts at the stream must be
marked as above.

Entry is granted only for alternate claims, the other
alternate claims being reserved for the Government, to be
disposed of at public auction. The penalty for trespassing
upon a claim reserved for the Government is the forfeiture
of all mining rights.

UCCOKUIIVG CLAIMS.

A claim must be staked out as soon as located, and must
then be recorded with the Gold Commissioner in whose dis-
trict it is situated, within three days, if it is within ten miles
of the Commissioner's office. One extra day is allowed for
making such record for every additional ten miles. An
entry fee of $15 is charged the first year, and an annual fee

:| I

3 I

PLACER MINING.

of $15 for each of the following years. In addition, a
royalty of ten per cent, on the gold mined is collected, and
in case the amount taken from any single claim exceeds five
hundred dollars per week, there is collected upon the excess
a royalty of twenty per cent. Default or fraud in payment
of the royalty is punished by cancelation of the claim.

After the recording of a claim, the removal of any post
for the purpose of changing the boundaries of the claim acts
as a forfeiture of the claim.

The entry of every holder of a grant must be renewed
and his receipt relinquished and replaced every year, the
entry fee being paid each time.

No miner can receive a grant of more than one mining
claim in the same locality, but the same miner may hold
any number of claims by purchase, and any number of
miners may unite to work their claims in common upon such
terms as they may arrange, provided such agreement be
registered with the Gold Commissioner and a fee of $5 paid
for each registration.

Any miner may sell, mortgage, or dispose of his claim,
provided such disposal be registered with, and a fee of ^'i
paid to, the Gold Commissioner. The Gold Commissioner
may grant to holders such right of entry upon adjacent
claims as may be necessary for the working of their claims,
upon such terms as may to him seem reasonable. Every
miner is entitled to the use of a share of the water naturally
flowing through or past his claim.

A claim is deemed to be abandoned and open to occu-
pation and entry by any person when it has remained r*^.-
worked on working days for the space of seventy-two hours,
imless sickness or other reasonable cause be shown to the
satisfaction of the Gold Commissioner, or unless the grantee
is absent on leave given by the Commissioner.

CHAPTER Vlll.

THE ORIGm OF GOLD PLACERS.

For those fragmentary deposits carrying gold known as
"placers," we are indebted primarily to the great glaciers of
the Ice Age, and after them, to the rivers of both past and
present, and, in a more local and restricted sense, to the
waves of the sea.

We might imagine what the mountains of the world would
have been without these active agents of erosion. We may
conceive of them as vast, smooth, rolling billows of strata,
occasionally broken by stupendous cliffs, the result of pro-
found faulting. As mineral veins are mainly due to the
action of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles, etc., we might
have noticed here and there along such lines of fault-fissure,
mounds of tufa, of calcareous or siliceous matter, like those
around the geysers of the Yellowstone, marking the position
of the veins below in process of filling and formation.

THE WOUK OF GLACIERS.

On such an uneroded country, let the glaciers be set to
work, filling every fold and undulation of the surface. The
ice sheets would plane off the tops of the mountains, expo-
sing the rings of strata composing them, and the ice tongues,
or glaciers, descending from the sheet, would cut deep,
broad, U-shaped swathes down the sides of the hills, as
shown in Fig. 1, and by mighty canyons expose the anatomy
of the mountains and the veins in them. The debris from
this planing would be distributed in windrows on the sides
of the canyons and in moraines along ravines, to be win-
nowed and assorted by subsequent streams and rivers, and

'I liSl

« tw

m
m

PT.Acn':R MINING.

the finer material carriiMl out oiUo and distril)nte{l ovi-r the
phuns, forming; soil tor the aj^rieultiirist, aiul a part to the
ocean to form sea-bottoms.

s
8

OMI(;i\ OF I>RIFT (;<>l.l).

If all the gold that has thus l)een spread far and wide in
minute grains by these agencies could be collected, it would

far exceed all that
has been, is, or ever
will be, obtained by
man in his puny
:> efforts at vein and
placer mining and
sand washing. We
! c a n n o t sup p o s e
that all this gold, so
widely distributed
Fig. 1. over the earth's sur-

face, found more or less in every stream, and even among
the waves of the seashore, and in regions far remote from any
known gold veins or ore deposits, could all have come from
well-defined, gold-bearing, quartz-fissure veins, but rather
from the general breaking up of vast bodies and even moun-
tains of crystalline rocks, such as granites, porphyries, lavas,
and other igneous rocks containing more or less gold dis-
seminated in minute particles throughout their masses.

ANCIKIVT PI.ACKR FOKM A'l 1<).\S.

Though modern placer deposits are generally conceded to
have been laid down by the action of comparatively recent
glaciers, streams, and other bodies of water, in more or less
loose, incoherent banks, yet there are other, far older for-
mations, firmly consolidated into rock, which may be con-

PLACER MINTXr,.

T)!

thr
the

sidered as ancient placers, havin<>- liad the same alluvial ori-
gin as modern plac-ers, and withal j^old-bearini;-, such, tor
instance, as the uptilted g()ld-l)carin;jf coui-joinerates of the
Transvaal (Fig. !),and the gold-bearing Cambrian (piartzites

BUtek Reef

Coal »'««'^«*/

Main Gold
Hearittg Series

Fig. 2.

of the Black Hills of Dakota. These are but ancient placers,
river beds, or sea beaches containing gold, consolidated by
time into hard gold-bearing rock, and tilted up by the up-
heaval of the mountains.

I r!

f !>

t.\

REQIOIVS OF GI.ACIATION ANR PI.ACKR FC)RM.\TIOX.

Since glaciers are the parents of most of our large placer
deposits, we must look for such deposits principally in those
northern and mountainous regions which have been most sub-
ject to the reign of glaciers. Such, for instance, is Alaska,
with its coast line torn to tatters by long glacial fiords, and
its mountain ranges cloven through and through by the
passage of ancient and modern glaciers, and the Avhole
region, as well as that of the adjacent British. Columbia,
traversed by a network of streams and narrcAV lakes derived
directly c;r indirectly from the glaciers. The same phenom-
ena exist all through the Sierra region, down the Pacific
coast to Southern California, and also in Idaho, Washington,
and other northern regions. In all these, the placer depos-
its, both by glacier and stream, are often to be estimated by
the hundreds of feet in thickness, while as we retreat inland

IBOOHO

Mil

«i

PLACER MINING.

towards the Rocky Mountain region, where precipitation was

"•••c,,

;ik/MOfcDURAt

cwMnn Atrfuffi ir<M( wtMp

Pir,. ;}.

less, the deposits decrease in size and thickness. The placer
areas arc represented b} the shad '.id portions of Fig. '.\.

\ J

m
'11

was

If?

) CJ

'~^^-

lacer

CHAPTER IX.

THE ORIGIN AND DEVfciLOPMENT OF PLACER

MINING.

Gold washing of alluvial deposits, both in ancient and
modern times, preceded '\^-^-j^ "^

vein, or lode, mining. In '

ancient times, vein mining
seems to have been almost
unknown; the gold of the
ancients was entirely de-
rived from the sands of
streams. In modern times,
while placer mining pre-
ceded, it often led to the
discovery of veins and the
developing of ore deposits
in place. The discovery of
gold at Coloma, near Sutter's
Mill, California, in 1848. by James Marshall, is a well-known
story. Marshall, while digging a race for a sawmill, found
some pieces of yellow metal which he thought might be gold,
a suspicion confirmed by one of his workmen, who had worked
gold in Georgia. By the help of a "rocker," Marshall
gleaned about an ounce of gold dust. (See Fig. 4.) This
discovery led to examination of other California rivers
having their sources in the Sierras, and soon every stream
along the western slope of the Sierras was being worked
for gold.

Fig. 4.

'Pi

■I'

iU\

PLACER MINING.

Di:vi:i.oi»Mi:-xT of pi.Aciiw mining appliance;*.

At tirst only the crudest appliances were used, such as
pick, shovel, pan, and rocker. Later the " Long Tom"

sluice was introc.uced.
Work on dry bars led to
mining river bottoms by
wing dams; then streams
were turned from their
natural courses by big
flumes and ditches.
From the shallow placers,
the miners pushed back
to the deep deposits, and
worked them by Long
Tom sluices. As the
dee[) deposits of gravel
were often poorer than
the shallow placi^/s, oj)en
cuts were necessary, and
long sluices were found
to run dirt faster than
^i^- 5. shovelers could supply it,

Edward Mattison, of Connecticut, thought he co.uld dispense
with the pick and shovel by using a stream of water unde'r
pressure to break down the banks of loose debris, and he
conveyed a stream through a rawhide liose with a wooden
nozzle, and discharged it against the bank, as shown in Fig.
5. The earth was torn from the bank and carried into
sluices, dispensing with the labor of shoveling. This was
the beginning of hydraulic mining.

gi:m:wai. dicscmiption of pi. accr mining.
The phicer miner takes advantage of the natural forces
that have been acting for ages. Frost, ice, mountain
torrents, and the decay of rocks have broken down veins,

PLACER MINING.

as
m"
ed.

to
by

liberated gold, and distributed it under gravel and sand in
beds of both ancient and existing streams. These forces
having done their work, the miner clears up and harvests
what nature has mined for him. The operations of nature
have been so vast, and so gigantic are the deposits, that
pick, shovel, and pan are frequently inadequate, and more
powerful appliances are required ; thus, powder blows up the

Fir;. 0.

deep, -solid de[)()sits, water under pressure undermines and
washes away high banks of gravel, cranes and hoisting-
apparatus carry off the huge boulders, while for harder
deposits stam[) mills are requisite. Water is directed against
a gold-bearing bank with the momentun acquired by falling
from an elevation, or with the gentler force of a shorter fall
if it runs down a sloping channel. The first is the hydraulic

ill

PLACER MINING.

process; the second is sluicing. The first breaks up and
disintegrates; the second assorts and concentrates. In
hydraulic mining, the two are combined into one operation.
Water, falling through pipes from a height of one hundred
or two hundred feet, is delivered through nozzles in contin-
uous streams against a bank of earth, undermining it. (See
Fig. G.) The overhanging masses fall to the base, and are
loosened and broken apart; the water penetrates every
crack and pore ; large boulders are thrown aside like pebbles ;
the whole mass is stirred and mingled, wLile the accumulated
waters, thick with sand and earth, flow away down the
slope, leaving the larger boulders and gold resting, clean
washed, on the surface of the bed-rock. This process is
applicable where the deposits above the lower gold-bearing
stratum are so thick that they cannot be removed by dig-
ging. To do this there are required : First, a sufficient head
or height and quantity of water; second, a rapid fall or slope
from the base of the bank, so that water will flow swiftly
away and carry the loosened gravel, sand, and earth with it.

ORIGIN OF FLUMES AND DITCHES.

In California and other gold-mining districts, high moun-
tains give rise to numerous streams flowing towards and
across the gold region, and the deep valleys and ravines per-
mit of ample fall and drainage. These streams have to be
diverted from their course and carried in ditches and flumes
many miles, along easy grades. The best gold deposits are
in trough-like basins, hemmed in by rocky walls, through
which artificial outlets must be cut to get drainage. When
the position, depth, and richness of a deposit are adapted to
hydraulic mining, an outlet must be provided for the water.
It may be there by nature, or it may involve the cutting of
a tunnel through the "rim-rock" from an adjoining ravine
to tap the lowest part of the basin and secure a vertical

PLACER MINING.

fall of from 50 to 100 feet to the base of the deposit.
Many years and great sums of money have been spent
on these undertakings. These tunnels may vary from a
few hundred feet to a mile or more in length; their average
dimensions are from six to eight feet wide by seven feet high.
In 1807, in California, there were 5,328 miles of artificial
ditches, according to Blake, and 800 miles more of subsidiary
ones, cut into the earth of the hillsides and crossing rocky
points and deep valleys by flumes and pipes.

EXAMPLES OF DITCHES AND FLUMES.

There were ditches eight feet wide at the top, six feet
wide at the bottom, and three feet deep, with a grade of
from twelve feet to eighteen feet per mile. Large sheet-iron
pipes were found better. than wooden flumes and were gen-
erally adopted. One flume was 1,300 feet long, 200 feet
above the surface, and supported on wooden towers. On
the Truckee (or U) ditch there were thirteen miles of flume,
eight feet wide and four feet deep, hung on the side of a
deep canyon.

ORIGIN OF THE USE OF PIPES.

Flumes are difficult to keep in repair and are liable to be
broken or blown down, and if left dry the boards warp and
split, and the repairs of a flume cost 90 per cent, more than
those of a ditch ; hence, the substitution of wooden and iron
pipes. Pipes, moreover, prevent loss of water by evapora-
tion. Wooden pipes are made up of wooden staves bound
together by round iron bands. Iron pipes are of stout sheet
iron or boiler iron, and are made either in short joints,
several of which are riveted together, forming sections about
20 feet long, or of continuous helical strips (the so-called
"spiral-riveted " pipe) running the full length of a section.
The thickness of the iron and the number and size of the
rivets depend upon the pressure of the water; the smaller

PLACER MINING

4.40

4.S9

4.M

4.BO

e.ag

of bee

pipes are from 7 to 11 inches in diameter and are usually
made of No. 20 iron. The sections are united on the ground
and secured by wire wound around pi ojecting eaves or hooks
of iron upon each end of each section. The whole pipe is
firmly fastened to the surface by posts set in the ground, to
prevent it from rolling down slopes or being carried away
by freshets or snowslides. In El Dorado County, California,
a pipe is used to carry 50 inches of water across a valley
1,000 feet wide and 90 feet deep. The pipe is 10 inches i i
diameter, of iron ^V inch thick ; the supply is 90 feet higher
than the delivery. Ditches are often built by companies, and
the water sold to the miner at so much per miner's inch per
day of 10 hours.

l>ISTRIBUTIO]V OF OOLI) IN OEPOSITS.

In a few cases, gold is rich in thin streaks of cemented
gravel and alluvions on the top gravel. Even in high banks,

the upper " top gravel," if of a fine,
light, quartz wash, without boulders,
has been washed at a profit ; hence,
the miner tests the whole deposit. A
fine lamina is sometimes found at
grass roots. Pay gravel may oc-
cur high above bed-rock, but gener-
ally the top gravel is not rich enough
to pay, the gold concentrating in
those strata within a few feet of bed-
rock and on and in bed-rock itself,
A section of a placer bed from sur-
face to bed-rock is shown in Fig. 7.
Sand is generally poorer than
gravel or boulders. Rich pay may
occur in undulations and depressions
of bed-rock; on the other hand, deep holes caused by water-

iwdUJiL^i,

Valv«
ptrOuXd

to Bto

».W

a.7B

8.14
4.00

FIG.

PLACER MTNTNr7.

■■}.■

falls are often, contrary to expectations, unproductive.
Accumulations may assume the form of recliring cones, the
apex resting on the top of the hillock, the gold being
concentrated in the lower end of tlie deposit.

Placers in place, that is, lying in a gold vein, may contain
deposits similar in quantity and distribution to those of the
original vein on which they lie.

• Placers of accumulation are the richest where the current
of the stream was interrupted by diminution in its fall, by
sudden change of direction, entrance of tributaries, or by
reefs, bars, and eddies, (See (a), Fig. 8). Small depres-

FlG. 8.

sions, creases, holes, and fissures {A, ^-i) in bed-rock over
which the current passes are likely to be rich. (See (d) and
{c), Fig. S.) As there are at times, in some placers, different
periods of deposition, the lowest layers of each period are
apt to be the richest. Several periods of deposition may
have succeeded one another, and several rich strata occur on
the same ground. Not only the courses of present streams,
but also the channels of ancient rivers, are localities of

PLACER MINING.

placers; the latter are the so-called "deep leads." (See (d).
Fig. 8.)

Alluvial layers may, at intervals, by a cementing process,
form a seeming bed-rock, called a false bottom. There may
be one or more such false bottoms before the true bed-rock
is reached, and gold may occur on each of these.

Placers have generally been formed of material transport-
ed some distance by glaciers and drifts, but placer diggings
sometimes occur on the very outcrop of decomposed gold
veins, and are called "placers in loco," or in place. The
deep leads were the work of a river system quite distinct
from that now existing. Modern rivers, cutting across these
old river courses, have redistributed their golden sands.
Placers, as a rule, are much richer than the veins from which
they have been derived.

Gold dust, under certain favorable chemical conditions,
may amalgamate into masses, forming nuggets, such as are
rarely found in veins. Shallow placers are often iue entire-
ly to the disintegration of quartz veins near by ; in such
cases, the drift will be barren above the point where the reef
or vein crosses it. Plain diggings present a great variety,
both in character and material of deposits.

Gold alluvions occur in river channels, in basins, and on
flats, as surface deposits of sand and gravel, and as accumu-
lations of clay, sand, gravel, pebbles, and boulders of all
sizes, with, in some cases, caps of lava. Shallow placers are
those whose deposits vary from a few inches to several feet,
as distinct from deep placers, which cover large areas and
are frequently several hundred feet in depth.

" Hill claims " are deposits of gravel on hills.

" Bench claims " are deposits occurring in bench-like forms
on declivities above the line of existing rivers.

"Gulch diggings " are found in gulches and ravines.

;S!

PLACER MINING.

" Flat deposits" occur in small plains, or "flats."

" Bar claims " are bars of sand and gravel on the sides of
streams above water-level.

'* Black sands " are the gold-bearing sands of the seashore.

" Surface mining " and "deep mining " are the two main
divisions of placer mining. "Sluice," "drift," and "hy-
draulic digging " are local names.

EXAMPLES OF PLACER BANKS.

In the Ballarat gold fields of Victoria, the wash dirt is in
a series of leads of varying widths, starting from the same
point and trending in different directions towards the deep
leads. In one placer, the width of the gutter and reef wash
was 100 feet, and the depth of pay dirt 5 feet. The barren
drifts overlying the pay dirt were of black clay, the reef of
green slate, and the bottom of sandstone. At another place,
wash dirt feet thick was of a dark blue granite or green
slate. At Melbourne, the formation is Upper Silurian schist,
traversed by a metalliferous eruption of dikes. The gold
lies in crevices in the rotten bed-rock, and in "potholes" in
the ancient river bottoms. Nuggets have been found in
soft clay and in the face of bed-rock.

CHAPTER X.

METHODS OF VVOHKII^JG— SURFACE MINING;
WORKING FROZEN GROUND : DRIFTING ;
HYDRAULICKING.

Surface mining is applit d to operations in shallow placers,
and in new districts frequently gives very large returns.
These deposits are, however, limited in extent and soon
worked out. In localities where water was scarce, dry wash-
ing was formerly resorted to. Selected rich dirt was pul-
verized and worked in a batca, or wooden dish, the earthy
portions being separated by a circular motion given the dish.
Gold was also extracted by winnowing.

Along the Pacific Coast, "beach mining" was practised.
The gold occurs in the sands of the beaches in a very finely
divided state, in layers of magnetic iron, or "black sand,"
where it has been concentrated by the action of wave and
tide. By the wash of the waves, the lighter quartz sand is
carried away, leaving the gold-bearing black sand behind,
and this is then covered by barren material. When the tide
ebbs, the miners scrape up the thin gold-bearing layers and
transport the material to the washing places, where it is
washed in sluices. These black sands assay from $10 to $30
per ton, only a part of which, however, can be recovered.
Platinum occurs with the gold, in less flattened grains.

BAR ANI> RIVBR MINING.

In the early days, river mining was extensively carried on.
When the portion of the bars above water-level was ex-
hausted, the miners extended their operations to those parts
under water. This necessitated the streams being dammed

PLACER MTNINr..

or diverted into a new channel (see Fi^\ !)). Beds of rivers
for lon^ distanees were laid hare, and much expense and
risk were incurred from Hoods and breaking of dams ; yet,
though the losses were
often great, the profits
obtained in a short time
were sometimes enor-
mous. In some cases,
instead of turning a
river from its course,
dredging machines have
been used for the pur-
pose of raising the mate- .^
rial to the surf ace, where
it is washed in the usual
manner for its gold
contents. The Santa Fe Placer Mining Company is mining
the beds of the Galisteo River and the Rio Grande by
dredging. For this purpose, the Nettleton placer machine
was designed. This machine is simply a powerful steam
bucket dredge, with a capacity of one cubic yard of material
per minute, having as an auxiliary a 0-inch centrifugal
pump, whose .suction pipe will extend down the dredge ladder
to within 12 inches of the lowest point reached by the
buckets. It is claimed that this pump will not only bring
up the necessary water for sluicing, but also such loose ma-
terial as may be left by the buckets, and will in a great
measure cle^r the bed-rock of gold. The product of the
dredge and pump is deposited in a sluice-box 25 feet above
the deck of the barge, from which elevation the work is
done b^ gravity until the material and water are disposed of.
Passing down the first sluice of 80 feet, a grizzly or grating
is reached, removing all stones over 3 inches in diametet,

PLACER MTNTNG.

the finer material passinji; through screens which further re-
duce it to one-half inch and smaller. So the non-productive
material is removed at once and deposited behind the barge.
The percentage of fine flour gold being very large, the ma-
terial is passed over a burlap sluice, the fibers of which ar-
rest and hold the gold. The usual accompanying "black"
or magnetic sand carries a great deal of gold, as much, at
times, so it is reported, as ^2,000 per ton. To save this,
after passing the burlap the matter comes in contact with
strong magnets placed in the circumference of a cylinder,
the iron adhering to the magnets, from which it is removed
by a revolving brush, the non-magnetic matter passing on
to a revolving screen, where it is reduced to -fY'"^h> prepara-
tory to being run over amalgamated plates, such as are used
in stamp mills, or into a series of boxes containing quick-
silver. By this time all collectible gold will have been
caught, and after being run out through traps to save any
stray amalgam or quicksilver, the now barren material will
pass into a tailings well, to be taken up by an 8-inch centrif-
ugal pump and deposited far behind the boat. Fine sand
settling in the riffles of the sluices or burlap may be treated
with cyanide. Depressions in bed-rock which the dredge
can not reach may be reached by an air caisson, and the
bed-rock thoroughly cleaned.

Another plan suggested is to raise the material and water
for sluicing, with a centrifugal pump, to the amalgamating
plant placed on the bank. Large .stones and gravel from
the screens will be deposited in the excavation back of the
workings; the fine tailings, and the sluice and surplus
water will be conducted down the river by flume a sufficient
distance to prevent their return. This plan will enable the
bed-rock depressions and crevices to be cleaned by hand at
less expense than by dredge or caissons. The water flow of

PLACER MTNTNO.

(;:>

the river will not exceed 1(>,()(»(> gallons per minute durinjj
ten months in the year, so no }^reat capacity of i)umps will
be needed. The natural conditions have made the (ialisteo
River a promising proposition. The extent of its gold de-
posits can only be conjectured.

Ground sluicing consists in treating gold-bearing gravel,
dug out by pick and shovel, by washing it in trenches cut
in bed-rock. It is like hydraulicking, except that the water
is not used under pressure, and often wooden sluices are dis-
pensed with entirely, the rough rock serving for riffles.
The lighter material is carried away by the water, and
the heavier dirt remaining behind is oUected and worked
by rockers. Ground sluicing is often adopted where there is
not a sufficient amount of water for the constant use of a
box sluice, and a head can only be gotten for a short period
after heavy rains. A ground sluice is then used, if there is
abundant fall and outlet for the tailings. It is a gutter
worn by the water in its flow, the miner assisting the
operation by loosening the
earth with a pick. The
pay dirt is washed in by the
stream or conveyed thither
by manual labor. If the ^^S^
bottom be a hard, uneven
rock, its inequalities will
suffice to arrest the gold ; if ^^^
not, a number of boulders, d
too heavy to be moved by
the stream, are thrown
carelessly*, into the sluice. This process saves only the
coarse gold. To clean up, the water is diverted from
the channel and the auriferous matter collected, to be panned
out or cradled. -

PLACER .MTNINCr.

ill I

¥ i

Booming; is ground sluicing on a large scalr, hy means of
an intermitlcnt supply of water. The water is collected
behMid a dam with an automatic gate (Fig. 10), which,
when the dam is full, opens, and the entire contents of the
reservoir go down with a r!^sh carrying into the sluices all
the material collected below. The rush of waters carries
off boulders and dirt, leaving '.he heavier particles of gold
and xiiagnetic iron, or black sand, collected behind on the
bed-rock floor.

WOKKING FROZEr* GROUND.

In the placer mines of Siberia and Alaska, the ground is
frozen to a conside'/able depth. Frozen gravel will success-
TuUy resist all attacks of pick and shovel, and its extreme

•ghness renders even drilling and blasting very tedious
and ineffective, so the miner thaws the ground before at-
tempting to dig it. This he accomplishes by building a fire
against the ground to be removed. In sinking his shaft, if
the surface is frozen, he builds a fire of wood where he
desires to sink, ard the heat from this thaws out tlie ground
for some little distance. The fire it, rendered more effective
by covering it vvith charcoal, thus confining the heat.
When the fire dies dcnvn, the miner scrapes aside the .mbers
and shovels away the loosened ground beneath, until he
comes once more to the frozen portion, where another fire
is built and the whole operation repeated; and thus down
to bed-rock. The sides of the shaft are given what little
Biipport is necessary by a light cribbed timbering or a rough
square set with lagging.

From the bottom of the shaft the miner starts 'his drift.
He is obliged to thaw every foot of this, also. A strong
wood fire is built against the face of the drift, covered with
charcoal as before, and allowed to burn out; in other

PLACER MTNING.

respects, the work is the sanie as in ordinary driflini;. All
workinj^s must be tightly, thouj;h not hervily, timi)ere(l.
This feature is frequently nejLjlected, with inany sad acci-
dents as a result. Match-boards (tongued and grooved) are
frequently used on the sides, though either round or spht
lagging will answer if closely set. Tn cross-cuts and cham-
bers, the roof timbering should be entirely independent of
that of the sides, as in Fig. 11. Large deposits are divided

Ilia [I

! ■*;

^^•^— ■••■^^■••■.•■■•ayi

-^ '»

^^!^

IJ | I» M W

Fk;. 11.

into blocks, on the familiar pillar and stall system of coal
mining. (See {(r), Fig. 11.)

VENTILATION.

Any of the simple mine ventilation methods may be em-
ployed to clear the drifts of the noxious gases generated by
the fire, and to keep the air in the workings pure. Warm air
and gas naturally rise to the roof of the drift and (nit of
the shaft on the side nearest the drift, the cool air from the

iSf|

PLACER MTNINO.

surface cominsjf down the* other side of the shaft and along
the floor of the drift to the face. As the drifts get longer,
particularly in small and low workings, the air from the
face has more time to cool and diffuse with the fresh air,
and the current gets weaker and weaker, so that it finally
becomes necessary to use artificial aids to the ventilation.
The simplest of these is by furnishing an artificial separa-
tion for the outgoing and incoming air-currents. A brattice
is made by fastening canvas from top to bottom along the
middle row of posts shown in Fig. 11, or boarding up be-
tween the posts with light plank. This is continued nearly
to the face and usually up to the surface, dividing the work-
ings into two passages, the cool, fresh air from above pass-
ing down one and forcing the warm air and gas out through
the other to the surface. If the heat of the mine does not
create sufficient draft, a fire can be built at the uptake side of
the shaft, the draft created by the fire assisting the natural
draft of the mine. Ventilation may also be facilitated by
the use of a fan, either forcing fresh air down the shaft
or exhausting the vitiated air; the latter form is better when
the scale of the w^ork is large enough to warrant the use of
power-driven fans. For small workings, too narrow to per-
mit division by brattices, a small hand fan may be used at
the surface or at some poini along the workings where the
air is good, the air being carried to the face in tin or sheet-
iron pipes or wooden boxes, and delivered towards one side
and at the bottom of the face, this scheme giving the quick-
est and best ventilation. For long tunnels, a furnace sys-
tem of ventilation is frequently used, the tunnel being con-
nected with the surface by shafts, which are sunk or upraised
at intervals as the work progresses. The hot air and gas
from the fire at the face rise through the nearest shaft, and
cool, fresh air replaces them, coming down the shafts further

PLACER MININr..

(1!)

back along the drift. As soon as the face gets so far beyond
the shaft that its ventilation becomes very sh)w and poor, a
new connection is made with the surface; the use of a hand
fan at the foot of the shaft or a light brattice carried along
the side of the drift from the last shaft to the face, with a
curtain behind the shaft to prevent a direct current of air
between it and the previous shafts, and thus force the fres-h
air to follow the brattice, will allow the drift to be carried
forwas ur onsiderably farther before again connecting with
the surface.

The effect of the fires in the drifts is to raise the tempera-
ture to an oppressive point, so that, as in some of the large
Siberian mines, the miners work stripped to the skin, though
the temperature outside is many degrees below zero. An
amount of wood equivalent to a thickness of one foot across
the face will thaw out about the same depth of gravel.
Fourteen inches, however, is about the maximum depth to
which the thawing will extend.

;i"

DHIFTING.

Gold is mined in deep deposits by tunnels and drifts,
notably in those districts where the deposits are covered by
an overflow of lava, as in {(/), Fig. 8. Drifting presupposes
the concentration ot the metal in a well-defined stratum or
channel. When the existence of a pay channel is deter-
mined, it is opened up and developed by a tunnel run in
such a manner as to drain all parts of the mine. The loca-
tic.'. of this tunnel is a matter of great importance. If thi
channel is discovered on the hillside, and rises as it enters
the hiil, the tunnel is run along its bed, following the bed-
rock ; otherwise, the tunnel is driven below the channel, or
through the " rim-rock," in suc^h a, ])osition that the lowest
point of the deposit will be above it. Sometimes shafts are

I'H

PLACER MINING.

sunk and the gravel drifted out and raised through them to
the surface. The tunnel 01. ce driven and the channel
opened, drifts are run through the |)ay ground on both sides,
and the material is breasted out, timi)ering being used as
required, (travel is removed from the tunnel in mine cars,
to the mouth, where it is dumped on floors and v/ashed in
sluices. When too lirmly cemented for simple washing, it
is first crushed under stamps. In some mines, steam loco-
motives are used for transporting men and material through
the tunnel, which may be more than a mile in length. In

Vertical Section

Exptanation»
f^lClianiiel of
y^ Fay Oruvel

Lava Overflow
Covering tlie
Aurtferotu Gravel

J^rn Stole Bedroek
S§<5; Under the Oravet

v^<§^f

j^jf^ifii:^

Auriferous ifravel

'expU>red
Qround

^%^^l«>^.

Fk;. 1-^.

the " Sunny vSouth "' mine, Placer County, California, the
main tunnel is below the channel, as shown in Fig. I'l, thus
allowing the mine to be worked conveniently.

HYDUAL'I.IC MIXI]VG.

Hydraulic mining is that method in which the ground is
excavated by water discharged against it under pressure.
Deep placers, if sufficiently rich, may be worked by drifting,
but hydraulicking is far the more economical. For hydrau-

PLACER MINING.

licking there should be ample facilities for (hunt) aiul grade,
a:id a sufficient head and supply of cheap water. When the
banks are too firmly cemented or are cov'^ered with lava, blast-
ing becomes necessary to shatter them before water can be
advantageously employed.

PKI<:LIMI!«AUV mVESTIGATIOX OF PLACERS.

The value of the gravel deposits is the first consideration.
Its determination involves ascertaining the course of the
channel, the depth and position of bed-rock, which may be
under hundreds of feet of detritus, the size of the deposit,
and an estunate of the yield of the ground and the cost of
the work. The geology and topography of the deposit and
its surroundings must be considered, to assist in determining
the course of the channel, the depth of bed-rock, and the
facilities for dump. The value of the gravel may be approxi-
mated by makiii;:; shallow pits and washing the material
obtained from them and from other available placers, as
where the bank has been exposed in section by the cutting
of a stream. A large enterprise requires preliminary pros-
pecting by shafts down to bed-rock and by drifts. The
water supply and facilities for dump should be carefully
considered, and also the length of the working season.

Different cr/lored gravels, red, rusty, and blue, are some-
times considered as good signs, but are not reliable. Black
sand is often accompanied by gold, but may be barren.

EXAMPLES OF PROSPECTING.

The example of the Malakoff property illustrates the pre-
liminary work which is necessary on large deep-placer enter-
prises. To determine the value of the claims and the
feasibility of working them, four shafts were sunk to ascer-
tain the position of the channel, the value of gravel, and
the depth of bed-rock. The first shaft struck the bed-rock

PLACER MINING.

of the main tunnel at a depth of 207 feet; 135 feet of this
was in blue gravel averaging 41 cents per cubic yard. From
the bottom of this shaft, drifts Av^re run on the cour.se of
the channel for a distance of 1,200 feet. The width of the
channel was estimated. at 500 feet. The total length of the
explorations was over 2,000 feet. The average assay of the
samples from the various drifts was ^2.01 per cubic yard;
the actual yield of over 21,000 tons was at the rate of 12.75
per cubic yard. The gross cose of the preliminary work,
including the four shafts, was $60,950.20.

ri. ■

CHAPTER ::i.

WATER SUPPLY— RHSKR vol RS, DAMS, AND

measuri:mi:\t of water.

RESKKVOIRS SOUWCKS OF WATIiR.

The water supply for placer operations is obtained from
running streams, melting snows, and rains. The snow
accumulates on the mountains during the winter, and the
heavy rauis and warm weather of the spring season cause
rapid thawing of these snowbanks, and enormous volumes
of water rush down the gullies and ravines. The placer
miner impounds this surplus water in large storage reser-
voirs, for use during the dry season. In selecting a reser-
voir site the following points should be observed (Bowie):

1. A proper elevation*

2. The water supply from all creeks and springs and the
catchment area.*

3. The amount of rain and snowfall.

4. The formation and character of the ground with
reference to the amount of absorption and evaporation.

The elevatiop of a reservoir depends upon the location of
the mines and the extent of the country which it is proposed
to cover with a ditch. The reservoir should be located
below the snow belt, if possible, and at the lowest point of
the catchment area, in order to obtain the maximum supply
of wate'" therefrom. The average and minimum supply ot
water from al! streams should be carefully determined.
Rainfall is greater in mountain districts than in lower
countries, and greatest on the slopes facing the direction

*Area draining into reservoir.

•41-1

pla(m^:r mining.

from which the moist winds blow. Snowfall measurements
are taken on a level, and a ^iven amount of snow is reduced
to water, and the fall calculated as rain.

ABSOWPTION AM> HVAPOKATIOIV.

The most desirable formation of ground for a reservoir
site is one of compact rock, like granite, gneiss, or slate.
Porous rocks, like sandstone and limestone, are not so desir-
able, on account of their absorptive qu/^lities. Steep, de-
nuded slopes are best, as but little water escapes. The
greatest slope gives the largest available quantity of water.
Vegetati(m causes absorption. At the Bowman reservoir,
in California, 75 per cent, of the total rainfall and snowfall
(reduced to rain) is stored (Bowie).

A reservoir must be made large enough to hold a supply
capable of meeting the maximum demands. The area of
the reservoir should be determined, and a table made show-
ing its contents for every foot of (Jepth, so that the amount
of water avaihible can always be known. A longitudinal
section through the center of the reservoir, with cross-
sections and contour lines five feet above each other, virtu-
ally determines the height of the dam and the contents of
the reservoir with the water at any depth. The Bowman
reservoir contains ab(Hit l,05(),()0(),()()() cubic feet of water.
The catchment area is 28.94 square miles. The cost of the
reservoir and dams was st>24r>, 707.51. Besides the main res-
ervoir, all mines have distributing reservoirs which receive
the water from the main ditch for delivery to the under-
ground claims. These are small and adapted only for a
short run.

HAMS.

Dams are used for retaining the water in reservoirs, for
diverting streams, and for storing in canyons debris coming
from the mines.

PLACER .MlNlNCi.

FOUNDATIONS.

Foundations must be solid and water-tight, to prevent
the settling of the dam, leakage under its base, and wear in
front by water running over the top. Whenever possible,
the foundation sho^^ld be on solid rock. Gravel is better
than earth, but requires sheet piling. Vegetable soil is un-
reliable; all porous matter, sand, and gravel must be stripped
off until the solid ground is reached.

WOOnEN DAMS.

Wooden dams are constructed of round or hewn logs one
to two feet in diameter, laid in a series of cribs 8 to 10 feet
square and pinned together by tree-nails. These cribs are
filled in with loose rock. A layer of planking on the face of
the dam makes it water-tight. Abutments may be con-
structed of stone, cement, or wooden cribs.

■: Kl
it I

MASONRY' DAMS.

The masonry of dams must be well laid in hydraulic
cement, so that the stones cannot slide upon one another,
and the dam as a whcle so set that it cannot slide upon its
base. Neither the material nor the foundation must be re-
quired to bear too great a pressure. The stones must not
be laid in horizontal courses extending from front to rear.
Binders should be used; there should be no continuous
joints.

EARTHEN DAMS.

Earthen dams are used for reservoirs of moderate depth.
They should be at least 10 feet wide on top; a height of
over GO feet is unusual. Fig. 13 shows a section of the
Bowman dam in California, which is 100 feet high and
425 feet long.

ill

PLACER MININC.

WAsri-: i>AMS.

A waste dani is a cril) of round timbers hi to :»() inches in
diameter, notched and bolted together, and the whole fast-

Sirdiner.

BEDROCK.

Fig. 13.

ened to bed-rock. The cribs are filled solid with rocks.
The dam is provided with a number of waste-gates, each 40
to 50 square feet in area. These waste-ways are ordinarily
kept closed, but are opened in times of freshets. The struc-
ture should be able to withstand any flood to which it is apt
to be subjected, the waste water passing through the wastes
and over the crest. Water passing over the dam falls onto
bed-rock or onto a wooden apron.

DCHRIS 13 A MS.

Debris dams are obstructions across the beds of streams
to hold back tailings from the mines and prevent damage in
valleys below. They may be stone, debris, wood, or brush.

MKASURKMKIVT OF FI.OAVi:VG WATFK.

Various forms of water meters are used for this purpose.
Gauging by weirs of certain dimensions gives very close re-
sults. In this method the height of the surface of still water
above the crest and some little distance back from the weir
must be measured. There should be no considerable current

PLACER ^[TNIX^,.

'S 111

ast-

t(^ the water at the place "f ineasiireineiit. I'lowiiii;' wali-r
is also iMcasiired hy ils dischar^H', under pressuri', lliioiijj,!!
()rifi(X'S ().' re<;ular section. The diseliarj^e of llunies of reg-
ular secli( n may be calculaled rouj^hly from the mean sur-
face velocity. An accurate calculation of the discharj^e of
any stream may be made by multiplyinj^ theavx'rage velocity
of the water at any point by the sectional area at that point.
The discharjj^e of small streams may be estimated by filling-
vessels of known capacity.

A ri^ht-angled V notch of thin sheet iron is a convenient
form of aperture for measuring the discharge of water.

Fig. 14

The discharge in cubic feet per second equals 0.0051 times
the square root of the fifth power of the head, expressed in
inches. The notch is fitted in one end of the weir box (see
Fig. 14). The edge of th : otch must be sharp and beveled
off, and the inside face i !.;>! je at right angles to the surface
of the water. To keep </.;iei the surface of the water in the
b()x, above the weir, baffle-boards are placed in the upper
end of the box. The distance a of the surface of the water
below the top of the Weir is taken at a point some distance
back from the notch (18 to 24 inches), where the water is
level. This distance, subtracted from the total depth H of
the weir, gives the head h of the water passing over the weir.
The head is obtained as follows:

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

J50 "^K

?.5

'- i™ 112.2

■AO

1.8

U 11.6

Hiotographic

Sdences

Corporation

23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580

(716) 872-4503

^^" ^^3>

<if

./"^^

«>

PLACER MINING.

A straight-edge or level is placed on the weir plate P,
extending back over the surface of the water in the box,
and the distance a between its lower edge and the surface
of the water measured. This distance subtracted from H
(Fig. 14) leaves h. In gauging the quantity of water
passing over a weir, the formula is

i2=3.31 L ^' + 0.007 Z.

Q is the quantity, or the discha-ge, in cubic feet per second;
L the length of the weir; // the depth on the weir, corrected
for velocity of approach; for this formula // must not be less
than 0.07 feet.

In the accompanying table, opposite //, in the column Q,
will be found the number of cubic feet of water flowing :>ver
the notch in one minute.

THK MINER'S INCH.

The "miner's inch " varies in every district, and is by no
means a definite quantity, as the methods of delivering it
differ in different places. It varies according to the head
and the height of aperture. Usually, the head is inches
above the center of the aperture. The latter is a horizontal
slit 1 inch high and 24 inches long, which can be closed so
as to leave an opening of any desired length — 1 inch long
giving 1 inch of water, 10 or VI inches long giving a cor-
responding amount of water; thus, in most districts, a
miner's inch is considered as that quantity of water which
will pass through an opening of 1 square inch area under ?
mean pressure, or head, of (5 inches. The quantity discharged
from such an opening in 24 hours is equal to 2,274 cubic
feet. A cubic foot is equal to 7.4S U. S. gallons, or 38
miner's inches. In some counties in California there are
10, 11, 12, and even 24-hour inches. Discharge apertures
are rectangular, varying in width from 1 to 17 inches, and

PLACER MINING.

niMCHAM(;i-: or watkw thuoltkh

V XOTCH.

A kight-a:v<;lhd

yuant.

Ouant.

/, '

Quant.

Q
Quant.

Head,

Per

Head,

Per

Head,

Per

Head,

Per

Head,

Per

Inches.

Min.,

Incht:s.

Min.,

Inches.

Min.,

Inches.

Min.,

Inches.

Min.,

Cu. Ft.

1.05

0.3457

3.25

5.827

5.45

21.22

7.65

49.53

9.85

93.18

1.10

0.:W84

3.30

6.054

5.50

21.71

7.70

50.34

9.90

94.37

1.15

0.4340

3.35

6.285

5.55

22.20

7.75

51.16

9.95

95.56

1.20

0.4827

3 40

6.523

5.60 :

22.70

7.80

51.99!

10.00

96.77

1.25

0.5345

3.45

6.765

5.65 ;

23.22

7.85

52.83

10.05

97.98

1.30

0.5896

3.50

7.012

5.70

23.74

7.90

53.67

10.10

99.20

1.35

0.6480

3.55

7.266

5.75

24.26

7.95

54.53

10.15

100.43

1.40

0.7096

3.60

7.524

5.80

24.79

8.00

55.39

10.20

101.67

1.45

0.7747

3.65

7.788

5.85

25.33

8.05

56.26

10.25

102.92

1.50

0.8432

3.70

8.058

5.90

25.87

810

57.14

10.30

104.18

1.55

0.9153

3.75

8.332

5.95

26.42

8.15

58.03

10.35

105.45

1.60

0.9909

3.80

8.613

6.00

26.98

8.20

58.92

10.40

106.73

1.65

1.0700

3.85

8.899

6.05

27.55

8.25

59.82

10.45

108.02

1.70

1.1530

3.90

9.191

6.10

28.12

8.30

60.73

10.50

109.31

1.75

1.2400

3.95

9.489

6.15

28.70

8.35

61.65

10.55

110.62

1.80

1.3300 1

4.00

9.792

6.20

29.28

8.40

62.58

10.60

111.94

1.85

1.424(>

4.05

10.100

6.25

29.88

8.45

63.51

10.65

113.26

1.90

1.5220

4.10

10.410

6.30

30.48

8.50

64.45 1

10.70

114.60

1.95

1.6250

4.15

10.730

6.35

31.09

8.55

65.41 1

10.75

115.94

2.00

1.7310

4.20

11.060

6.40

31.71

8.60

66.37

10.80

117.29

2.05

1.8410

4.25

11.390

6.45

32.33

: 8.65

67.34

10.85

118.65

2.10

1.9550

4.30

11.730

6.50

32.96

8.70

68.32

10.90

120.02

2.15

2.0740

4.35

12.070

6.55

33.60

8.75

69.30

10.95

121.41

2.20

2.1960

4.40

12.420

6.60

34.24

8.80

70.30

11.00

122.81

2.25

2.3230

4.45

12.780

6.65

34.89

8.85

71.30

11.05

124.21

2.30

2.4550

4.50

13.140

6.70

35.56

8.90

72.31

11.10

125.61

2.35

2.5900

4.55

13.510

6.75

36.23

8.95

73.33

11.15

127.03

2.40

2.7300

4.60

13.890

6.80

36.89

9.00

74.36

11.20

128.45

2.45

2.8750

4.65

14.270

6.85

37.58

9.05

75.40

11.25

129.90

2.50

3.0240

4.70

14.650-

6.90

38.27

9.10

76.44

11.30

131.35

2.55

3.1770

4.75

15.040

6.95

38.96

9.15

77.49

11.35

132.81

2.00

3.3350

4.80

15.440

7.00

39.67

1 9.20

78.55

11.40

134.27

2.65

3.4980

4.85

15.850

7.05

40.38

1 9'?5

79.63

11.45

135.75

2.70

3.6660

4.9"

16.260

7.10

41.10

9.30

80.71

11.50

137.23

2.75

3.H380

4.95

16.680

7.15

41.83

9.35

81.80

11.55

138.73

2.80

4.0140

5.00

17.110

7.20

i 42.56

9.40

82.90

11.60

140.23

2.85

4.1960

5.05

17.540

7.25

43.30

9.45

84.01

11.65

141.75

2.90

4.3820

5.10

17.970

7.30

44.06

9.50

8.''vl2

11.70

143.28

2.95

4.5740

5.15

18.420

7.35

44.82

9.55

86.24

11 75

144.82

3.(H)

4.7700

5.20

18.870

7.40

45.58

9.60

87.37

11.80

146.36

3.05

4.9710

5.25

19.320

7.45

46.36

9.65

88.52

11.85

147.91

3.10

5.1780

5.30

19.790

7.50

47.14

9.70

89.67

11.90

149.48

3.15

5.3880

5.35

20.260

1 7.55

1 47.92

9.75

90.83

11.95

151.05

3.20

5.6050

5.40

20.730

} 7.60

48.72

9.80

92. (M)

12.00

152.64

1 cubic foot contains T. 18 U. S. gallons ; 1 U. S. gdllon weighs 8.34 pounds.

PLACER MINING.

in length from a

few inches to several feet. The dis-
charjjfe may be through I -inch, I^-
inch, 2-inch, or J5-inch planks with
square edges. The bottom of the
opening may be either flush with the
bottom of the box or raised above it.
The head may denote the distance
above the center of the aperture or
above its top, and varies from 4^ inches
to 12 inches above the center of the
aperture (see Fig. 15). An aperture
12 inches high by 12|^ inches wide,
through a 1^-inch plank, with a head of (I inches above the
top of the opening, gives a discharge of 200 miner's inches.

CHAPTER XII.

WATER SUPPLY— DITCHES AND FLUMES.

Thousands of miles of ditches have been made in the
placer-mining districts of this country. On account of the
rocky character of the country in such districts, steep grades
are necessary, and high trestles with flumes, and wrought-
iron and wooden pipes were built for carrying water across
canyons and ravines. In constructing ditches, the following
rules should be observed (Bowie):

1. The source of supply should be at sufficient elevation
to cover the greatest range of mining ground at the smallest
expense, great hydrostatic pressure being desirable.

2. An abundant and permanent supply of water should
be assured during the summer months.

3. The snow-line should be avoided, and the ditch in
snow regions located so as to have a southern exposure.

4. All the watercourses on the line of ditch should be
secured, their supply counteracting the loss by evaporation,
leakage, and absorption.

5. At proper intervals waste-gates should be arranged to
discharge the water without danger to the ditch.

0. Ditches are preferable to flumes.

DITCHES.
SURVEYING A DITCH LINB.

Careful barometrical observations should be made to
approximately determine the elevations, not only of the
termini, but of intermediate points, from which surveying
parties can start on the subsequent location of the line.

PLACER MINING.

These poinls estal)lished, the line is surveyed and started.
In leveling, turning points should be made on grade, the
stations numbered and staked, and the pegs driven to grade.
Every lour or five stations the rodman calls off the reading,
which is checked <^iom . the notes of the instrument man.
Stations may be from 50 to 100 feet apart. Bench-marks
should be placed every half mile. All details of tunnels,
cuts, and depressions requiring fluming or piping should be
worked out in full ; a hand-level can be used for this purpose.
Complete notes should be made regarding the ground along
the center line.

The size of a ditch is regulated by its requirements. The
smallest section for any given discharge is when the "hy-
draulic depth " is one-half of the actual depth. The
hydraulic depth is the quotient obtained by dividing the
area of the cross-section of the stream at any point by the
wetted perimeter at that point. Trapezoidal and rectan-
gular forms are adopted for ditches and flumes, respectively.
The resistance due to friction in the latter form is smallest
when the width is twice the height. Half a regular hexagon
is a common form for ditches. In a mountainous country,
with rocky soil, narrow and deep ditches with steep grades
are adopted in preference to wider ditches with gentler

slopes, as they are cheaper
to excavate and repair.
Ditches with grades of 1(1
to 20 feet per mile are

-se r ■fMMMMM^A quite common. Before

commencing work, the line
must be cleared of trees
wi^^f,^m,m^^mmmm^ ^^^^^ brush; on the flume
Fio. 16. line, the brush for at least

10 feet on each side is burned off. On a hillside, the lines

PLACER MTNING.

should be graded off so that the ditch may have walls of
solid, untouched ground, and not made banks. Banks
should be at least 15 feet wide on top. The SDpe of large
ditches for mountain regions is usually (JO degrees for the
upper and 50 degrees for the lower bank, but varies with the
nature of the ground. The cost of digging is estimated at
so much per cubic yard. The annual expense of running
and maintaining large ditchci averages about l?400 per mile.
The North Bloomfield ditch, shown in section in Fig. 1(J, is
55 miles long, 8.(55 feet^ wide on top, 5 feet wide at the
bottom, and 3^ feet deep; cost, l<4()(5,7()7. Its grade is
10 feet per mile; discharge, 3,200 miner's inches.

FLUMBS.

Flumes are to be avoided if possible, being liable to decay
and a continual source of expense. Instances occur, how-
ever, necessitating them, as where water must be carried
along the face of vertical cliffs. Flumes usually have a
slope of from 25 to 35 feet per mile,
and are consequently proportion-
ately smaller than ditches. They
are usually made of seasoned pine
planks 1^ to 2 inches thick, 12 to 24
inches wide, and 12 to KJ feet long.
The edge joints are battened on
the inside with pine strips 3 to 4
inches wide and ^ inch thick. The
structure is reenforced every 4 feet
by a framing consisting of a sill, cap,
and two posts. A flume 4 feet wide
by ? feet high requires 4-in. X 5-in.
posts and caps and 4-in. X O-in. sills,
with 8-in. X 10 in. stringers. The posts are set into the sills
with a gain of 1^ inches and not mortised. Sills should

Kic. 17.

PLACER MINING.

ii I

extend Pi to 'io inclu'S boyutid the posts, which sboiihl be
braced. Fhimes sliould be built on solid beds or rigid
trestles, as in Fig, 17. In carrying a Hume around a hillside,
the bed should be graded out and the ilume placed close
into the bank, to avoid danger from snov/slides, etc.
Curves should be laid with care, to ensure the maximum
flow of water. The boxes must be cut in two, three, or
four parts, necessitating more sills, posts, and caps. For
good curving, the side planks are sawed partially through
in places, so as to bend easily. To distribute water equally
over an entire flume and prevent slack water, irregular
curves, and splashing, the outer side of the flume is raised
in accordance with the degree of curve and grade. Waste-
gates should be placed every half mile. In the snow belt,
flumes are covered with sheds in places exposed to snow-
slides. Placing the flume close into the bank lessens the
danger of freezing. If anchor ice forms on the bottom, the
water should be turned out. Snow can be gotten rid of in
the same way.

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.

The bed being prepared, the stringers are laid and the
sills placed upon them 4 feet apart. Bottom planks are
nailed to the sills, the end joints being carefully fitted. The
side planks are nailed to the bottom planks and posts, which
are set in gains in the sills, an occasional cap being placed
on the posts to hold the flume in shape. Sixteen and twenty-
penny nails are used. The joints are then battened. Each
box, when completed, is set on grade and wedged.

Where a flume connects Avith a ditch, the posts, for a
distance of several boxes bick, are lengthened, to permit
the introduction of an additional plank on each side. The
end boxes of the flume are flared, to permit a free entrance
and discharge of water. At the junction with the ditch or

PLACER MTNTNCt.

1 l)e
igid
lide,
lose
etc.
mm
or
For
ugh
ally
ular
lised
iste-
belt,
low-
the
the
)f in

in passing through a bank of earth, an outer siding is nailed
to the posts to protect the flume. Exact sizes of lumber
should be prepared at the mills, so that the flume ("an be
rapidly constructed. Enough water is turned into the flume
as the work i)rogresses to float down the timber. The flume
may in place, be trestled with supports every H to \'l feet.
The life of a flume will not exceed '^0 years at most, and
generally 10 years. •

BUACKKT FLUMCS.

Flumes are frequently carried along precipitous canycjns
and cliffs on brackets fastened to the face of the cliff. In

Fig. 18.

Butte County, California, a line of ditch is run 200 yards
up the canyon along a perpendicular wall of basalt. For a
distance of nearly 500 feet the flume is carried on brackets
along the face of the cliff, 118 feet above the bed of the
ravine at its deepest point, and 2:Vi feet below the top. The
method of hanging is shown in Fig. IH. The brackets are
made of :K)-pound T rails bent into the form of an L; the
longer arm-^10 feet long — on which the bed of the flume

PLACER MINING.

rests, is placed horizontally, having its end supported in a
hole drilled in the rock. The short arm — 2 feet li)ng — stands
vertically, and has in its upper end an eye into which is
hooked one end of a ^-inch round iron rod, connecting to a
ring bolt soldered into a hole drilled in the face of the cliff.
Brackets are set 8 feet apart and tested to stand a weight of
14^ tons. The flume is 4 feet wide and '.i feet deep, with a
capacity of 3,000 miner's inches. The figure shows a
trestle 8(J feet high. Along the line of the ditch is a
trestle 1,080 feet long and 80 feet high. Another has been
built luO feet high. The total length of ditch and flume is
33^ miles.

•

CHAPTER XIII.

WATER SUPPLY— PIPKS AND NOZZLES.

WOOnKN PIPES. »

For moderate heads, wooden-stave pipes are coming into
use. They are practicable for any desired head, but are only
economical to the point where the pressure necessitates such
close banding that the cost exceeds that of iron or steel pipes
of the same length. If kept full of water, the staves will last
indefinitely, and the bands may be protected from rust by a
coating of asphalt or other mineral paint. The amount of
iron in the bands for each foot of pipe is the same as that in
a foot of sheet-iron pipe of the same diameter, calculated to
withstand the same head of pressure, with a considerable
margin of safety.

IRON PIPES.

Wrought-iron or steel pipes are used exclusively for very
high heads. For lower heads, either wood or iron may be
used, the selection between them being a matter of location
and cost. Pipes are used as water conduits, replacing ditches
and flumes; as supply or feed pipes, conveying water from
the pressure boxes to the claim ; and as distributing pipes,
taking water from the distributors or gates at the end of the
supply pipe and delivering it to the discharge pipe or nozzle,
which is usually made of sheet iron. Pipes used for convey-
ing wate.r across depressions are called inverted siphons. The
thickness of metal for iron pipes is determined by the pres-
sure of the water and the diameter of the pipe. Pipe once
put together soon becomes water-tight from the foreign
matter in the water. This result may be hastened by throw-
ing in a few bags of sawdust. Pipes thus prepared will

PLACER MINING.

remain tipfht when siihjcctcd to a pressure <>f over 200
pounds per scpiare inch. The Texas pipe, Nevaihi County,
California, is an inverted siphon, 4,4;J.S.T feet UiU^r and 17
inches in diameter, of riveted sheet iron. Its inlet is ;{04
feet above the outlet, and with full head its discharge is
1,5i<»() miner's inches. The maximum Iiead is 770 feet,
equivalent to a pressi^re of :V.U pounds per square inch.

JOIISTS.

Pipes in general are 11, 15, 2tJ, .'JO, and 40 inches in diam-
eter, of riveted sheet iron or steel, Nos. H, 10, 12, 14, or Hi

(Birmingham gauge),
made in sections of 30
to 30 inches, and riveted
into lengths of 20 to 30
feet. The latter are put
together stove-pipe
fashion, neither rivets,
wire, nor other contri-
vances being necessary.
Where there is great
pressure, iron collars or
lead joints are used.

Fig. 19 (a) shows a
style of joint which is
frequently used. /" is a
wrought-iron collar 5 inches wide, '^^f inch thicker than the
pipe-iron and with a play of f inch between the inside
of the collar and the outside of the pipe; / is the
lead, which is run in and calked tight from both sid >;
;/ is a nipple of No. iron, (I inches in width, rivclnl
in one end of each section by f -inch rivets. Fig. h) (/')
shows the method of tightening leaky joints, a sIi'/Wn
the clamp and its method of application for forcing back the

PLACER MINING.

8!»

■r 200
unity,
nd 17
is ;{04
rjre is
feet,

lead which has worked out by the expansion and contraction
of the pipe. This is shown l)oth in perspective and cross-
section. The chimp /; is used to keep tbt* lead in phice after
it has been forced back by the clamp « The two lower
views of this clamp show the side and end elevations. Fijj.
20 shows the elbow
use(' !n making
short curves, a, a
are angle irons
riveted to the elbow ^'^ '"*"•

on the outside of the curve and connected by iron :3tiaps
with the corresponding angle irons in the pipe, as shown.

AIR VAI.VKS; BLOU^-OFFS.

To allow the escape of air from the pipe while filling, and

also, in case of a break, to
prevent the formation of
a vacuum and the collapse
ofthepipe,blow-offsorair
valves are provided. The
simplest form is a loaded
flap valve of leather on
the inside of the pipe,
arranged to cover an
opening 1 inch to 4
ir.-^hes in diameter.
Another simple auto-
matic valve is shown in
Fig. 21. This sinks and
opens when the water
leaves it, and shuts
F,G. 21. when the water rises

to it. Fig. 22 shows a form of blow-off valve used in

I i

PLACER MINING.

low places along the pipe line.

Fig. 23 shows another auto-
matic water-tight
vacuum valve which
is used at the high
points on the line.
The valve on the
right is kept closed
while the pipe is
' • full, being opened
occasionally to blow

ij<,,»ij,„ij,»„„rm7m

1 off air which may
w'^'mm/tm/J accumulate. The

^^^- '^^- main valve is opened

and the pressure of the water keeps the automatic
valve closed. In event of a
break in the pipe at a point
beyond this valve, the pres-
sure on the inside of the pipe
is released, the automatic
valve falls and admits the air,
preventing a vacuum. On
refilling the pipe, this valve
being open, allows the air to
escape, closing only when the
water reaches it.

LAYING PIPES.

To preserve the pipe, it
should be laid in a trench and
covered with earth to a depth
of at least a foot. Wooden pipes Fiu. 23.

should be painted on the outside with the same mixture that
is used for covering the bands. Iron pipes should be coated
inside and out with asphalt or coal tar. Such pipes, well

PLACER MININCi.

coated, are still in good condition after 15 years of service.
The following mixtures are found to give the best results:

Crude asphalt 28 per cent.

Coal tar (free from oily matter)... 72 percent.

Or, Refined asphalt 10.5 per cent.

Coal tar (free from oily matter)... 83. 5 per cent.

To prepare these, asphalt in small pieces and coal tar are
heated to about 400° F. and well stirred. The pipe is dried
and immersed in the mixture, where it remains until it
acquires the same temperature as the bath. When coated
it is removed and placed on trestles, to drip and dry in the
sun and air. For convenience of immersion, wrought-iron
troughs 30 feet long by 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep are used.
No. 14 iron requires 7 minutes' immersion; No. 6, 12 to 15
minutes',

FILLING PIPES.

Pipes should be filled in such a manner as to prevent, as
far as possible, the admission of air, which will be drawn
into the pipes along with the water in surprising quantities,
unless considerable care is taken. The best plan is to put a
gate in the pipe be-
low the intake, and
thus regulate the
flow, maintaining a
steady pressure. A
common form of pen-
stock or sand box for
intakes is shown in fig. s4.

Fig. 24. A grating of bars should be provided to catch all
drift. The water at the intake of the pipe should be kept
quiet and sufficiently dee[) to prevent any air from being
carried into the pipe. For this purpose the box is some-
times divided into compartments, one of which receives the

PLACER MINING.

water and discharges it quietly into the second through
lateral openings. There should be no difference between
the water supply and the discharge. Some pressure boxes
are arranged for two pipes.

;

SUPPLY OR FEED PIPES.

The water is conveyed in iron feed-pipes from the pres-
sure boxes to the claim, and distributed to the discharge
pipes by means of iron gates. The supply pipe is funnel

shaped where it connects
with the pressure box, and
from there on it is usually
of uniform diameter to the
gate or discharge nozzle.
Where 2'Z to 30-inch pipes
are used, lighter iron than
No. 14 B. G. is not advi-
sable. The main supply
pipe should descend in the
most convenient and direct
line into the diggings,
avoiding angles, rises, and
depressions. Air va'ves
should be arranged at
Fig. 26. proper distances to allow

the escape of air when filling the pipe, and prevent collapse.
The pipe Is braced and weighted at all angles. In filling the
supply pipe, the water should be turned on gradually. Leak-
age in slip joints can be stopped with sawdust. Wherever
a junction is to be made with another line, or the stream
divided, the present practice is to fork the main pipe, cast-
iron gates being placed in each branch. Fig. 25 shows the
form of gate generally used.

PLACER MINING.

EVOLUTION OF THK GIANT.

We have mentioned how hydraulicking began with the use
of a rude hose to break down the banks of debris, and so dis-
pense with pick and shovel.

GOOSB-NECK.

The first improvement on this primitive device was a
flexible iron joint formed by two elbows, one above the
other, with a coupling joint between them, shown in («),
Fig. 20. These elbows were called "goose-necks." They
were defective in design. The pressure of water caused the
joints to move hard, and when the pipe was turned it would
"buck" or fly back, endangering the life and limbs of the
operator.

GLOBE MONITOR.

The goose-neck was succeeded by the "Craig Globe
Monitor," which is shown in (^), Fig. 2G. This was a simple
ball-and-socket arrangement, but was very difficult of
manipulation. ,

HYDRAULIC CHIEF.

The invention of the " Hydraulic Chief," by F. H. Fisher,
was the next step. The machine is shown in (r). Fig. 20.
The main improvements consisted of two elbows, placed in
reversed position when in right line, connected by a ring in
which there were anti-friction rolls. The ring was bolted
to a flange in the lower elbow, but allowed the upper a free
horizontal movement, while the vertical motion was obtained
by means of a ball-and-socket joint in the outlet of the top
elbow. The interior was unobstructed by bolt or fasten-
ings, and the man at the pipe could operate it by means of
a lever, without personal danger. Vanes, or rifles, were
insi. Led in the discharge pipe to prevent the rotary move-
ment of the water caused by the elbows, and to force it to

M 1

PLACER MINING.

issue in a solid stream. These machines soon became
leaky,

niCTATOR.

The '* Hoskins Dictator," the next step of the series, was
a one-jointed machine with an elastic packing in the joint,
instead of two metal faces. The joint worked up and down
on pivots, and in rotating it the wheels ran around against
the flange.

LITTLE GIANT.

The "Little Giant." a subsequent invention of Mr.
Hoskins, on account of its simplicity and durability, super-

Fici. a«.

seded all previous machines. (See (^/), Fig. 20.) It is a two-

PLACER MINING.

1)5

jointed machine, portable and easily handled, havinj;- a
knuckle joint and lateral movement. The (iiants have
rifles, and nozzles from 4 to inches in diameter, 5^ to 7-inch
nozzles being commonly used. To keep Giants from buck-
ing, they must be firmly bolted to a heavy piece of timber
securely braced against gravel or rock. The machine and
adjacent length of pipe must also be weighted to the
ground. The bearings should be lubricated with tallow or
axle grease.

HYDRAULIC GIANT.

The "Hydraulic Giant" (see(r), Fig. 26) is a modification of
the Little Giant. The " Monitor," with a deflecting nozzle,
invented by H, C. Perkins, is shown in (/), Fig. 26. The
deflecting nozzle /; permits the direction of the stream at any
desired angle. When the lever c is in the rest d^ the
deflecting nozzle b^ being of larger diameter than the nozzle,
allows the stream of water from the nozzle to pass
through without obstruction. To move the pipe, the lever r
is taken from the rest and thrust in the direction in which
it is desired to throw the stream. Any movement of the
lever l\, either to the right or left or up or down, throws the
end of the nozzle /; into the stream of water. The force of
the water striking b causes the entire machine to swing
around in the desired direction. Hoskins' deflecting nozzle
Is of cast iron, the same size as the main nozzle, to which
it is attached by a packed universal joint. The operation
is similar to that of the Monitor deflector. There is
the disadvantage of a constant interference with the
stream of water, and this nozzle is, therefore, somewhat
dangerous.

r :}3

'■ \

lillliMlilHBl

i I

CHAPTER XIV.

PLACER MINING PRACTICE— DEVELOPMENT
OF GOLD-WASHING APPARATUS.

THE PAX.

The gold miner's pan, shown in Fig. 27, is pressed from a
single sheet of Russia iron. It is usually about 12 inches

in diameter at the bottom and 3 to 4
inches deep, the sides being inclined at
an angle of 30 degrees from the hori-
zontal and turned over a wire around
Fig. SJ7. the edge to strengthen the rim. It is

used in prospecting, cleaning gold-bearing sand, collecting
amalgam in the sluices, and throughout the business gener-
ally. Its manipulation requires skill and practice. A
quantity of the dirt to
be washed is placed in .^
the pan, occupying about
two-thirds of its capa-'^
city; the pan with its
contents is immersed -
in water and the mass
stirred, so that every
particle may becomr
soaked. When the dirt
is soaked, the pan is
taken in both hands, one
on each side, and with-
out allowing it to entire- F'g- 28.
ly emerge from the water it is suspended in the hands, not

PLACER MINING.

quite level, but tippingslightly away from the operator. In
this position it is shaken so as to allow the water to disen-
gage all the light, earthy particles and carry them away.
(See Fig. 28.) This done, there will remain varying pro-
portions of gold dust, heavy sand, lumps of clay, and
gravel stones; these last are thrown out. A turn of
the wrist allows the muddy water to escape in driblets
over the depressed edge of the pan, without exercising
so much force as to send the lighter portions of the
gold after it. At last nothing remains in the pan but
gold dust and heavy black sand and earthy matter.
By the final careful working, with plenty of clear water,
the earthy matter can be completely removed, but the
heavy iron sand can not be gotten rid of by any method
based upon its specific gravity as related to that of gold.
If this iron sand be magnetic, the grains can be removed
by a magnet. If there are fine particles of pyrites in
the pan, they can generally be distinguished from gold by
their lighter color, the gold being commonly a rich orange
color.

THE BATEA.

The batea is a modification of the pan, used principally in
parts of Mexico and South America where water is scarce.
It is a shallow, conical bowl, turned out of a single piece of
hard wood, and is about 20 inches ir diameter by 2| inches
deep in the center. It is, on the whole, a better instrument
than the pan for gold washing, the wood surface iacilitating
the concentration of the gold.

i ;i -

:-8* .

PUDDLING BOX.

The puddling box is a wooden box about 6 feet square by
18 inches deep, arranged with plugs for disch^^rging the
contents. The box is filled with water and gold-bearing

PLACER MINING.

Fig. 29.

clay. By continuous stirring with a rake, the clay is
broken up in the water and run off. The concentrated
material in the bottom is subsequently washed in a pan or
rocker.

THE ROCKER.

The rocker is a box about 40 inches long by IG inches
wide and 1 foot high, with one or two riffles across the

bottom, and set on rockers, as
shown in Fig. 29. On the upper
end is a removable hopper 18 to
20 inches square and 4 inches
deep, with an iron bottom per-
forated with one-half-inch holes.
Beneath the hopper, below the perforated plate, there is a
light frame placed on an incline from front to back, upon
which a canvas or carpet apron is stretched. To use the
rocker, material is thrown into the hopper and water is
poured on with a dipper held in one hand, while with the
other hand the cradle is kept rocking. The water washes
the finer stuff through the bottom of the hopper, and the
gold or amalgam is either caught on the apron or collects in
the bottom of the rocker, while the sand or lighter material
in the hopper is thrown aside. Rockers were extensively
used in placer mining before the introduction of sluicing.
Now they are employed in cleaning up placer claims and
quartz mills and for collecting finely divided particles of
amalgam and quicksilver.

THC TOM.

The "Tom " is a rough trough about 12 feet long, 15 to
20 inches wide at the upper end and 30 inches wide at the
lower, and 8 inches deep. It is set on timbers or stones, with
an incline of about 1 inch per foot. A sheet-iron plate or
riddle, perforated with one-half-inch holes, fills the lower

PLACER MINING.

end of the trough, which is beveled on the lower side, as
shown in Fig. 30. The material coming from the sluice, on
striking the riddle, is sorted, the fine dirt and water passing
through the holes, and the coarse stuff being shoveled off.
Under the riddle is a shallow trough with riffles, set on an
incline, into which the finer gravel passes. The discharge
of the water through the plate, with the occasional aid of
the shovel, keeps the sand from packing and allows the gold
to settle.

The Tom succeeded the cradle rocker. The old-fashioned
" Long Tom" was 14 feet long; it was followed by the "Vic-
toria," "Jenny Lind," or
"Broad Tom," 6 or 7 feet ^
long, 12 inches wide at the
upper end and 3 feet at the
lower. The Tom consists
of two distinct troughs or
boxes placed one above the
other. (See Fig. 30.) A fig. so.

stream of water flows in through the spout </, just over the
place where the dirt is introduced into the upper box, or
Tom proper, a. The dirt is thrown in by one man, while
the second constantly stirs it about with a square-mouthed
shovel or a fork with blunt tines, pitching out the heavy
boulders and tossing back undecomposed lumps of clay
against the current. To save wear and tear, the floor of the
Tom is lined with |-inch sheet iron. The lower part of the
Tom is cut off obliquely, so that the mouth may be stopped
by a sheet of perforated iron, such as forms the bottom of
the cradle riddle already described. The apparatus being
placed on an incline, material gravitates with the water
toward the sloping grating at the mouth, through which
everything passes save the large stones, which gather on the

TOO

PLACER MINING.

grating and are removed as often as necessary. Beneath
this grating stands the riffle box /;, into which fine material,
including gold, descends. The riffle boxes, of rough plank,
are also placed on an incline, just enough so that the water
passing over them will allow of the bottom becoming and
remaining covered with a thin coating of fine mud. In this
way the gold and a few of the heavier materials find their
way to the bottonl and rest there by aid of the riffle bars.
Sometimes a little mercury is put behind the riffles to assist
in retaining the gold, and the riffle box is supplemented by
a series of blankets for catching verv fine gold. Toms are

Fig. 81.

cleaned up periodically, and the gold and amalgam washed
out with cradles. They are applicable only to workings
where the gold is coarse, as they lose considerable of the fine
gold. Two to four men work at one Tom. Fig. 31 shows
a Broad Tom in operation.

PLACER MINING.

J(U

SLUICES.

Sluices were introduced soon after the Tom. A sluice
consists of an inclined channel, through which flows a stream
of water, breaking up the earth which is thrown into it,
carrying away the light barren matter, and leaving the gold
and heavy minerals. There are box sluices and ground
sluices, the former being raised above the surface, necessi-
tating the lifting of the pay dirt into them ; the latter are sunk
below the surface. Box sluices, or board sluicing, are long
wooden troughs or series of troughs. They vary in length
from fifty to several hundred feet, and are never less than 1
foot, and seldom more than 5 feet, wide. The usual width
is 16 to 18 inches, and the height of the sides 8 inches to 2
feet. The sluice is made in sections from 13 to 14 feet long,
of 1^-inch rough plank, the bottom boards sawed tapering,
so that the narrow end of one box telescopes into the broad
end of the next throughout the whole series, ^ud beyond this
no nailing or fixing is required. This line of trough rests on
trestles, with usually a uniform grade throughout the whole
series. The amount of descent, or grade, is from 8 inches
to 18 inches in 12 feet. A fall of 8 inches in 12 feet is an
*' 8-inch grade," etc. It is important that the sluice should
be 'conveniently near the level of the ground at the point
where the pay dirt is introduced ; this has an influence on
the grade, as has also the character of the pay dirt and the
length of the sluice. The steeper the grade, the quicker the
dirt is washed away by the force of the water; the tougher
the dirt, the steeper must be the grade, as tough clay natu-
rally does not break up so quickly in a slow current as in a
rapid one. In short sluices the grade should be relatively
light, as there is more danger of the fine gold being lost in a
short sluice than in a long one. The steeper the grade, the
more work the sluice can do. As ordinary pay dirt is gen-
erally completely disintegrated in the first 200 feet of a

■■!•

lOti

PLACER MINING.

moderately low-grade sluice, the extra length is useful only for

catching the gold. Sometimes, therefore, the grade of the

last part of the sluice is reduced. When the grade of a

sluice is very low, say 1 in 40 or 50, the gold is easily caught,

and much of it would rest even upon the smooth floor of the

sluice; but additional means are, nevertheless, always

adopted. .

When stones are plentiful in the wash dirt, a small bar

may be placed across the
lower end of each trough,
to prevent the bottom from
being run bare. It is usual
to throw out stones as large
^'o. 82.' as the two fists by a fork

with several prongs (sluice fork). The boxes must be

watched, that they do

not choke up and send

the contents over the

sides. A false bottom

is used in the sluice to

catch the gold and save

wear and tear on the

floor proper. Fr'.se bot-
toms are frequently

made of longitudinal

riffle bars feet long, 3

to 7 inches wide, and 2

to 4 inches thick, two

sets for each length of

trough or sluice. Fig.

32 shows the arrangement

of the riffle bars in the

sluice. They are kept

in place by cross-wedges,

C 2

n '

. I Hiffl !i.

Fig. 33.

II
i

PLACER MININd.

103

at a distance of 1 to 2 inches apart, and are not nailed, as
they have to be removed at each cleaning up. Into the
spaces thus formed, the gold and other heavy bodies will
fall, always sinking through the lighter particles to the
bottom. Where there is a great quantity of pebbles and
boulders, and the pay dirt riffles describeJ are worn away
rapidly, block riffles are used, which last much longer. In-
stead of being iawed with the grain of the wood, they are
cut across the grain, so that the fibers stand upright in the
si nice-box as in the live tree. They are fixed transversely
two inches apart, as shown in Fig. 33. Cobblestone and
squared-stone riffles are also commonly used in such cases.

^ DERRICKS.

Strong derricks are used in hydraulic mining to remove
heavy boulders. The style most in use at present is a mast
100 feet high set in a cast-iron box placed on sills, and hav-

FIG. M.

ing a boom 92 feet long. The mast is held in position by

; i

I p-

104

PLACER MINING.

galvanized-iron wire-rope guys one inch in diameter. A
whip-block with f-inch steel rope is used for hoisting tackle.
A 12-foot diameter hurdy-gurdy wheel furnishes the power.
Stones weighing 10 and 11 tons are handled. The guys are
held by double capstans, allowing the derrick to be moved
without dismantling,

WATER-W^HEELS.

" Hurdy-gurdy," or some other form of ''impact" wheels
moved by a stream or jet of water issuing under pressure
from a concealed nozzle, and striking open buckets on the
circumference of the wheel, furnish the power used in oper-
ating derricks and dynamos about placer mines. The Pel-
ton wheel, Fig. 34, is the form most commonly used at pres-
ent. These wheels are always housed. . v - j-

r. A

acklc.
)ower.
ys are
noved

wheels
essure
jn the
1 oper-
le Pel-
t pres-

• CHAPTER XV.

PLACER MINING PRACTICE— BLASTING AND

TUNNELING; SLUICES, UNDERCURRENTS,

ETC.; TAILINGS AND DUMP.

BLASTIIVG GRAVEL BANKS.

Where the deposits are very strongly cemented, blasting is
necessary before the material can be treated. Blasting in
placer mining is done on a very large scale. The usual
method is as follows : The drift is run in from the bottom
of the deposit a distance proportionate to the height of the
bank (as a general rule not over three-fourths of the height
fo: high banks), and the character of the ground to be moved.
From the end of this main drift, the cross drift is carried each
way, forming a T. The cross drifts are charged with kegs
of powder, the main drift tamped by filling it up solid with
dirt and rock, and the powder is exploded by a time fuse, or
an electric battery. When the ground is very heavy, several
cross drifts may be used. Just sufficient powder is used to
thoroughly shatter the ground.

METHOI3 OF BLASTING.

After the loose top gravel has been washed off, the bot-
tom cement is blasted, the object of blasting being to com-
pletely loosen the material. Hard cement requires quick
powder, like Judson powder. In softer cement, black pow-
der, as a lifter, is all that is required. In very high banks,
it is best to blow out the bottom rather than to attempt to
raise the superincumbent mass. The charge should then be
placed so that the line of least resistance is horizontal.

In banks 50 to 150 feet high, of ordinary cement gravel,

^^1:

iii>

lOG

PLACER MINING.

the following method is recommended by Bowie: The
main drift should be run in a distance of two-thirds the
height of the bank to be blasted. The cross drifts from the
end of the main drift should be run parallel with the face of
the bank, and their lengths determined by the extent of the
ground to be moved. A single T is usually all that is neces-
sary. The powder required is from 10 to 20 pounds to 1,000
cubic feet of ground to be loosened.

In firing by electricity great care should be taken of
wires while tamping, and where dynamite-exploders with

platinum wires are used

tl^^€*3^

to<%j < K><to<t o<^

KiG. 35.

the f^ompound circuit is
desiidble. In charging
the drifts, the powder, in
boxes or kegs, is piled in
rows. Two wires a a and
d d (Fig. 35) run along
the middle row, the tops
of the boxes on which the
wires rest being removed. The exploders b, b, b are inserted
in giant cartridges and placed on top of the paper covering
the powder.

• TAMPING.

Great care should be used to prevent the blowing out of
the tamping. It is advisable when firing blasts by fuse to
tamp nearly the entire main drift. The gravel extracted
from the drifts is used for this purpose, and should be fairly
dry and free from large stones. The tamping should
be firmly rammed with wooden mauls, so that it will not
settle. In order to prevent misfires, it is customary to
lay two or three lines of fuse, which are simultaneously
ignited.

PLACER MINING.

107

TUNNELS.

Tunnels are run to open gra\el claims and also to pro-
vide proper facilities for removing wash material. A tun-
nel should be driven well into the channel before connecting
with the surface.

SHAFTS.

Shafts connecting with tunnels are usually vertical, and
3 feet by 3 feet to 4^ by 9 feet in the clear. It is sometimes
convenient to have the shaft located at one side and con-
nected with the tunnel by a short drift. Where the shaft is
in bard rock no timbering is necessary, but in loose soil the
shaft should be closely lagged and lined on the inside with
blocks 6 to 10 inches thick, to within 10 to 30 feet of the
surface. In long tunnels, a second shaft is advisable as a
measure of safety.

LOCATION.

In locating the mouth of a tunnel, a point should be se-
lected from which the sluices running in the most practic-
able line with a given grade can bottom the maximum ex-
tent of the pay channel at the least expense.

SLUICES.

The name "sluice" was originally applied to the miner's
sluice-box. Subsequently several sluice-boxes were joined
together for permanent use, and "sluice" and " flume" be-
came synonymous. For the purpose oi" distinction, the
name "sluice" is here applied to drifts, cuts, or boxes through
which the gravel is washed, while "flume" is used solely in
reference to open wooden water conduits.

Sluices should be set in straight lines, and when curves
occur the outer side of the box should be slightly raised, to
cause a more even distribution of the material over the
riffles. Sluices with drops are effective for saving gold.

i I
^1

108

PLACER MINING.

II i

As the facility with which gravel can be moved depends
upon the inclination given to the sluice, grade is very im-
portant. Where the washis coarse and cemented and there
is much pipe-clay, a heavy grade is necessary ; strongly
cemented gravel needs drops to break it up. A common
grade is G inches to a box 12 feet long, approximately a
4 per cent, grade. If too much water is used, the sand
packs the riffles. The best results are obtained on light
grades, with shallow streams. Coarse gravei demands 4 to
7 per cent, grade and an increase of water. The water in
the sluice should be 10 to 12 inches deep, covering the
largest boulders. The size of the sluice depends upon the
grade, character of gravel, and quantity of water. A sluice
6 feet wide, 36 inches deep, on a 4 or 5 per cent, grade,
suffices for running 2,000 to 3,000 inches of water. One
4 feet wide and 30 inches deep, on a grade of 4 inches to
16 feet, suffices for 800 to 1,500 inches of water, and on a
4 per cent, grade it is large enough for 2,000 inches. As to
length, the line should be sufficiently long to ensure com-
plete disintegration of the material and allow all the gold
practicable to settle in the riffles. The longer the sluice the
greater the amount of gold saved; hence, the sluice is
indefinitely extended so long as increased yield exceeds the
additional expense.

Sluices 4 feet wide are made of 1^-inch plank, with sills
and posts of 4 by 6 inch scantling. The bottom should be
tight to avoid losing quicksilver, of half-seasoned lumber,
free from knots, with the joints carefully sawed and grooved
for the reception of a soft-pine tongue, which is inserted
between the ends of the planks. Bottom and sides are
spiked together, with nails 4 inches apart. Sills are placed
3 to 4 inches apart, a 4-foot sluice requiring a sill 7 feet long
of 4 by 6 inch stuff. Posts are halved into the sills and

PLACER MINING.

100

firmly .spiked, and every second or third post is supported by
an angle brace. Bottom planks are secured to the sills
by heavy spikes. Sluices should be weighted down heavily
by loading the ends of the sills with stones. Fig. 33 illus-
trates a good construction. Each box is feet wide, 1'^ feet
long, and 32 inches deep over all. To each box are used :

8 posts, 4 in. X in. X 3 ft. 2 in.

4 sills, 4 in. X G in. x 8 ft.

3 bottom planks, 2 in. X 24 in. x 12 ft.

4 side planks, 1^ in. x 16 in. X 12 ft.
2 top rails, 2 in. X 8 in. X 12 ft.

IG braces, 2 in. X 4 in. X 2 ft.

This is on the inside of the tunnel. On the outside of the
tunnel, sills and braces are longer. The nails for the bottom
are 30 penny, and for the sides 20 penny. The side lining,
of worn blocks, is 3 inches thick, 18 to 20 inches deep,
and is set 2\ to 3| inches above the bottom. The riffle
strips between blocks are 1^ inches thick by 3 inches wide
and 5 feet 11 inches long. The blocks are 13 inches deep
and 20|- inches square. Where stone riffles are used, the
bottom of the sluice is lined with rough plank. The top
sluice on one side is for carrying surface water when the
blocks are being set. It is 13 inches wide and 4 inches deep,
made of 1^-inch plank.

:i;

RIFFLKS.

Riffles are of various forms. In primitive mining, blankets,
sods, hides with the hair side up, and niches cut in the bed-
rock were used. Then came longitudinal strips, and finally
block and rock; riffles, which are no,, universally used. The
character of the riffle used depends upon the length of the
sluice, which in turn depends upon the tenacity of the ma-
terial and the character of the gold, scale gold with large

I ■

110

PLACER MINING.

amounts of black sand and fine pyrites escaping all riffles
for long distances.

BLOCK RIFFLES.

Block riffles are wooden blocks 8 to 13 inches deep, set on
end, in rows across the sluice, each row separated by a space
of 1 to 1^ inches. They are kept in position by riffle strips
1 to 1^ inches thick by 2 to 3 inches wide, held between the
rows by the side lining and secured to the blocks by headless
nails. Block riffles are also set and held firmly in position
by soft-pine wedges driven between the blocks and the sides
of the sluice, the sides or the adjacent faces of the blocks
being squared. Side lining is necessary in all sluices. For
handling cemented gravel the sides of the sluice should be
lined with blocks 3 inches thick to a depth of 18 or 20 inches.
Square block riffles are the best for saving gold, though sec-
tions of wood are frequently used just as they are sawn from
the log. Rocks are the next most economical substitute, but
sluices set with them require steeper grades and more water.

The life of a block depends upon the quality of the wood,
the grade, the character, and quantity of the gravel, and
the amount of v/ater. The larger the amount of water on
the same grade in proportion to that of gravel, the less the
wear and tear on the block. Soft, long-grained wood which
"brooms up" makes the best riffles. Pitch pine answers
well. After each run the blocks are turned and replaced in
the sluice, if not worn down too much. In repaving with
old blocks, the edge worn down the most is placed up-stream.
As the blocks do not fill the whole width of the sluice, the
alternate rows are fitted so as to break joints.

ROCK RIFFLES.

Where heavy, strong cement is washed, stone riffles are
advantageous. As quarried, the rocks are of irregular
shape and size, and are set in the sluice with a slight tilt

PLACER MINING.

Ill

down stream. They are cheap and wear well, but have the
disadvantage of being more awkward and costly to handle,
requiring a longer time to clean up and repave the sluice.

A system of riffles, consisting of a row of blocks alter-
nating with an equal section of rocks, works well, reducing
the wear on the blocks, but it is not desirable for riffles
which have to be frequently cleaned up. Longitudinal
riffles, made of scantling placed lengthwise in the sluices,
are sometimes used. Again, in some mines a portion of the
line may be without a box sluice, the bed-rock being used.

BRANCH SI.UICBS.

Branch sluices may be necessary where a light dump
requires frequent changes of the tailings discharge, or the
topography of the claim is such that a single sluice can not
reach all the pay dirt.

Care is necessary in turning into or turning out from
a sluice, lest a gravel bar form either above or below the
junction. The turn-out sluice is used when the dump room
is limited; the turn-in sluice, when branch sluices are neces-
sary to cover the whole pay area, two or more branch
sluiv^es emptying into one main sluice.

UNDERCURREIVTS.

Undercurrents are introduced into a sluice line for the
purpose of saving fine gold. They are broad sluices set on
a heavy grade below and to one side of the main sluice.
Where a drop-off can be made in the sluice, a "grizzly,"
made up of 1-in. X 4-in. iron bars, 10 to 20 in number, set
edgewise, 1 inch apart, is let into the bottom of the sluice.
It is set 1 inch below the sluice pavement, which is raised
as it wears down. If too low, the grizzly is apt to clog.
Coarse material passes over the grizzly, and, if the topog-
raphy permits, is dropped and picked up again in sluices at

'1:

ii'

312

PLACER MINING.

a lower level. The finer stuff passes through the bars into
a box about 20 inches deep, set at right angles to the main
line and lined with blocks or stones. From here the material
passes into the distributing box or chute of the undercurrent,
as shown in Fig. 30. This chute is lined with cobbles, and
provided with dividers of wood to evenly distribute the mate-

Plan

FlO. 30.

rial over the surface of the undercurrent. It has a light grade
and narrows slightly towards the lower end. The undercur-
rent proper is a shallow wooden box 20 to 50 feet wide and 40
to 50 feet long, with sides about l(i inches high. It should be
about eight to ten times the width of the main sluice. The
bottom is made of 1^-inch plank, tongued and grooved and

PLACER MINING.

113

aterial
rrent,

!S, and
mate-

set on a grade of 8 to 10 per cent., according to the smooth-
ness of the riffles employed. It may be paved with cobbles,
wooden rails shod with strap iron, or small wooden blocks.
With the smooth riffles a grade of I'i inches in 12 feet is
plenty, but with blocks the grade should be increased to
14 inches in 12 feet, and with cobbles to Ki inches. The
tailings from the undercurrent are led back into the main
sluice. At French Corrall, with a tailing sluice 5 feet wide,
the yield of the first undercurrent, which was 20 feet in
width, was 20 per cent, of the total yield of the undercur-
rents; an addition of 10 feet to the width increased its yield
27 per cent, of the total, without changing the grizzly in
the main sluice.

TAILINGS.

The refuse from any form of mining, after the extraction
of the gold, is called "tailings." Placer refuse is also known
as debris. Tailings from mills consist of pulverized quartz
or other gangue matter. Refuse from gravel workings is of
all sorts and sizes of material. The light particles of soil,
loam, and sand are easily carried forwards by running water,
while the rocks and boulders, though readily transported
through the sluices, lodge and distribute themselves when
discharged therefrom into the creeks and streams, in accord-
ance with their size, shape, and specific gravity, and for
their removal time and flood are necessary.

THE DUMP.

One of the requisites for a large placer enterprise is a
good dumping ground. As thousands of tons of material
are being treated daily, and only a very small portion of this
is saved, some place must be provided at a lower level for
the storage of the waste material. A much larger space is

114

PLACER MINING.

necessary for this purpose than was originally occupied by
the excavated material. The lack of dump room is remedied
only in exceptional cases by discharging the waste into a
current or torrent. This may occur where the gold placers
are on the borders of large, rapid, well-confined streams,
but in the mountains, where the majority of gold deposits
occur, the rivers are narrow and shallow.

CHAPTKR XVI.

PLACER MI\I\G PR ACTICi:— WASHING OR

HYDRAH.ICKING.

CHAUGING THK SI.V1ICKS.

The tunnel and sluices being finished and everything in
readiness, water is turned into the pipes. The sluices are
run for a day in order to pack them ; the water is then shut
off and a charge of quicksilver is put into the upper 200 or
300 feet of the sluices and a small quantity distributed along
the entire line with the exception of the last 400 feet. In a
6-foot sluice the first charge should be about 3 flasks. The
undercurrents are charged at the same time, and a little
quicksilver put into the tail sluice. Quicksilver is added
daily during the run, in gradually lessening quantities, the
object being to keep the mercury uncovered and clean at
the top of the riffles; therefore, the charge is regulated by
the amount exposed to view. A 24-foot undercurrent re-
quires 80 to 88 pounds of quicksilver.

In charging the riffles, the quicksilver should not be
sprinkled or splashed, as particles of mercury are readily
carried off by the swift stream, while the very fine portions
will even float in still water. Top water from mining sluices
often yields minute particles of quicksilver.

CAVIXG BANKS.

The first work is started near the head of the sluice. As
the bank recedes, the bed-rock cuts are carried along with
it and the sluice advanced. In order to cave a bank, two
streams of water are usually delivered against its base at an

110

PLACER MlXIN(r.

allele with each other, as in Fi}^. ;!7. This great mass of
water, discharged against the bank with a force of 150 to
200 pounds per square inch, rajjidly undermines it, the bank
crumbles away, and the rush of water carries the debris into

Fin. 37.

the sluices. If the dirt caves rapidly, one pipe may be used
for cutting, while with the stream from the other, the fall-
ing gravel is washed into the ground sluices. The face of
the bank should be kept square; advantage should be taken
of such corners as are left, and under all circumstances a
"horseshoe" form should be avoided. When the cut is
rapidly pushed ahead and the work not squared, the men at
the pipes are encircled by high walls, and their lives are in

ass of

I oO to

bank

IS into

PLACER MINTNCi.

117

danger. Where banks exeeed 150 feet in height, the deposit
should be worked in two benches. When the men at the
pipe see the bank is about to cave, the water should be im-
mediately turned away, for if the cave falls on the water in
the ground cut, a rush of debris follows, and the men at the
pipe have to run for their lives. Caves are usually made
towards evening. Locomotive reflectors or bonfires illumi-
nate the banks at night; electric lights are also largely used
around the larger placer mines. The washing should be
continuous, and no water allowed to run to waste; therefore,
it is desirable to have .several faces or openings, so that the
stream may be diverted from one to the other while cuts are
being advanced and sluices lengthened. These cuts, or
ground sluices, are trenches made in bed-jock near the face
of the bank to collect the water and material and convey
them to the sluices. Sometimes they are 00 to 70 feet deep.
As a precaution against theft, where claims are worked
intermittently, sluices are run full of gravel before closing

down,

CLCAXiivG ur».

The length of a run depends largely upon the wear of the
pavement. Some claims are cleaned up every 20 days, others
every two or three months, and a few only once a season.
All pavements should be cleaned up as soon as they begin
to wear in grooves. Where a large quantity of gravel is
washed, it is advisable to clean up the first 1,000 or 2,000
feet of the sluice about every two weeks. The tail sluicts
are cleaned up only once a year. Undercurrents should be
cleaned up whenever quicksilver is found spread over their
lower riffles, with a tendency to discharge over thetr ends.

When it is decided to clean up, the bed-rock and ground
sluices are washed clean. No material is turned into the
sluices, clear water alone being run in until the sluices are

118

PLACER MINING.

free from dirt. A small quantity of water, in which a man
can conveniently work, is then turned through the sluice,
and the blocks are taken out by crowbars, washed clean of
amalgam, and laid alongside the sluice. This is done in
sections of 100 feet. One row of blocks is left in the sluice
between each section ; these rows serve as riffles to prevent
the gold and quicksilver passing down the sluice. After the
first section of blocks is taken up, the men follow the gravel
and dirt as it is slowly washed down the sluices and pick up
the quicksilver and amalgam with iron scoops and deposit it
in sheet-iron buckets. As each riffle is reached, the amalgam
and quicksilver are collected, the block riffles removed and
the residue washed down to the next riffle, and so on down
the entire line of sluice. When this operation is finished,
the water is turned off entirely, and workmen go over the
sluices with small silver spoons, digging the amalgam out of
nail holes and cracks. After this, the side lagging is over-
hauled, and the blocks are then replaced. Very long sluices
are usually lined in the lower portion with heavy rock riffles,
which can be used for longer periods without cleaning up.
It is customary, where mines are run night and day, to clean
up as long a section as possible during the day, and to replace
the lining and resume washing at night, proceeding thus till
the whole is cleaned up.

AMALGAMATION.

Though heavy gold may be arrested by the various con-
trivances described, much fine gold would escape in the
absence of mercury or quicksilver. If this is present, how-
ever, it instantly seizes and amalgamates any gold coming
in contact with it. When using zigzag riffles, a vessel con-
taining quicksilver and pierced by a small hole which allows
the metal to escape drop by drop is placed near the head of
the sluice. Trickling down from riffle to riffle, it over-

PLACER MINING.

1 1 i)

takes the gold, absorbs, and retains it, the amalgam thus
formed being caught in the longitudinal or block riffles
farther down. In longitudinal riffle sluices, after starting
the washing, some of the mercury poured in at the head of
the sluice finds its way down with the current, but the larger
portion remains in the upper boxes. Smaller quantities are
introduced at intervals lower down, the quantity being
increased in direct proportion to the amount of fine gold
present. Another plan is to impregnate with mercury the
pores of the wood forming the riffle bars by driving a piece
of gas pipe, ground thin at one end, into the wood and fill-
ing it up with quicksilver. The pressure of the column
forces a certain amount into the fibers of the wood. This
catches the gold, and the resulting amalgam needs only to
be scraped off the surface of the wood.

A fourth device, for use where there is very much fine
gold, is the amalgamated copper plate. This usually meas-
ures 3 feet wide by 6 feet long. Sometimes the stream is
split and carried over two or three separate plates. The
plate is placed nearly level and at a considerable distance from
the head of the sluice, as it is intended to catch only the fine
float gold, and for this reason, also, a sheet-iron screen, per-
forated with holes ^ inch by -^ inch, is placed in front of it,
so that only the finest particles pass over it. It is amalga-
mated by first cleaning its upper surface with weak nitric
acid and then applying some mercury, which has been treated
with dilute nitric acid to form a little nitrate of mercury.
The current must be slow and shallow, so t! t every particle
of gold may come in contact with the face of the plate. A
freshly amalgamated plate may become coated with a green
slime of subsalts of copper; this must be carefully scraped
off and the plate rubbed with fresh mercury. To remove the
amalgam, the plate is taken up and gently heated, and it

. Is

■:

120

PLACER MINING.

I I

may then be easily scraped off. The plate is allowed to cool
and again rubbed with a little mercury. The plate shojild
not be less than -^ inch thick.

AMALGAM KETTLES.

Amalgam kettles are ordinary sheet-iron buckets or p "c
lain kettles. In cleaning up they are used as receptacle., loi
floating the gold amalgam, which is floated in quicksilver
to free it from barren substances before straining and
retorting.

CLEANING TilE AMALGAM.

The quicksilver and amalgam obtained in cleaning up are
well stirred in buckets, and the coarse sand, nails, and other
foreign substances which floL > to the surface are skimmed
off. This residue, which retains considerable amalgam, is
concentrated by working in pans or rockers, and the con-
centrates are ground in iron mortars with some clean quick-
silver. Any base material floating to the surface of the bath
is melted separately to a base bullion ; the remainder is added
to the fine amalgam. The quicksilver is strained from the
amalgam through carivas or drilling, and the dry amalgam
is treated in iron retorts.

RETORTING.

When the amount of amalgam to be treated is small, the
hand retort answers all requirements; but at large gravel
mines, stationary cast-iron retorts are used. When large
quantities of amalgam are retorted and the furnaC' s eft un-
attended, a retort which is set immediately above the fire is
apt to become overheated. The weight of the luetal inside
of the retort then causes it to '* belly, "ruii ing it ctrpletely.
To prevent this, the retort should be supported at several
points and arranged with the fire to one side, so that the
heat may be evenly distributed over it. (See Fig. 38.)

PLACER MINING.

121

cool
1041 Id

Before putting the amalgam into the retort, the latter
should be coated on the inside with a thin sheet of clay,
which prevents the amalgam from adhering to the iron.
The amalgam should then be carefully introduced and
spread evenly. The pipe connecting the back of the retort
with the condenser must be cleared of all obstructions, and
the amalgam should be so spread that by no possible mis-
chance can this pipe become choked, as an explosion would
probably result, filling the retorting room with the poisonous

FIG. 38.

tumes of mercury and greatly 'endangering its occupants
To avoid danger, the heating should be very slow at first.
After the cover has been put on with a luting of clay or a
mixture of clay and wood ashes and securely clamped, the
li'e is lighted and the heat gradually raised, a dark red heat
being all that is necessary to volatilize the quicksilver.
Towards the end of the operation, the heat is raised to a
cheny red, until distillation ceases. The retort is then
allowed to cool, and, when cold, is opened. During the
operation, the condensing coil at the back of the retort
should be kept cool by a continuous supply of fresh water
entering from the lower end of the box which contains it,
while the discharge of warm water is effected above The

122

PLACER MINING.

retort bullion is cut or broken into pieces and melted in a
well-annealed black lead crucible, and the gold cast into
bars.

Dl.- ?UTION OF GOLD IN SLUICES.

In sluicing, tj.> reater part (usually about 80 per cent.)
of the gold caught is found in the first 200 feet. For ex-
ample, of a claim yielding 1(53,000 on a hundred days' run,
$54,000 was obtained in the first 150 feet, and $3,000 from
the undercurrents. The first undercurrent, 790 feet from
the head of the sluice, yielded 50 per cent, of the total
amount taken from the undercurrents. The second under-
current, 78 feet distant below the fir.st, with a drop of 40
feet between them, contained 33 per cent, of the gross
undercurrent yield. The last undercurrent was 08 feet from
the second, with a drop of 50 feet between them; its yield
was about $500. Sometimes about a hundred feet at the
head of the sluice is covered with gravel during the greater
part of a run ; in such cases, the gold is found farther down.

LOSS OF MERCURY.

A certain loss of quicksilver is unavoidable in placer
mining, the ianount depending on the grade, length, and
condition of the sluices, the character of the material washed,
the amount of water used, and the length of the run. The
loss may be reduced by lengthening the sluice line, keeping
joints tight, and careful cleaning and chinking. On large
enterprises it is usually in the vicinity of one pound of
mercury for every $100 worth of gold recovered.

! LOSS OF GOLD.

The loss of gold is inversely proportionate to the size of
the grains, the length and grade of sluices and undercur-
rents, the depth of the water, and the completeness of the
breaking up of the pay dirt. Frequent drops in a line assist

PLACER MININH.

in disintegrating the gravel and allow of shorter sluices. In
washing hard cement banks, it is advisable to use plenty of
powder to thoroughly shatter the bank, and large lumps of
cement should be broken up before being introduced into
the sluice. However carefully the operation be conducted,
there is invariably some loss of fine gold ; the last under-
current will always catch some gold, and the tailings will
show a trace.

CHAPTER XVII.

EXAMPLES OF PLACERS— THE ALMA

PLACER.

As an example of an ordinary hydraulic placer mine, we
may take that of the Green Mountain Company, at Alma,
South Park, Colorado. In South Park, at an altitude of
10,000 feet above the sea-level, is an extensive area of placer
ground, located along the banks of the South Platte River,
and extending from the base of Mount Lincoln to Fairplay,
a distance of over 'JO miles. This area consists of rolling
banks of pebbles, boulders, gravel, and sand on both sides
of the stream, covered with grass and a few spare trees, and
sloping up gently towards the mountain sides for an average
width of about half a mile. Portions of these placer banks
have long been worked, both at Alma and Fairplay, but the
banks are far from exhausted. The principal hy *"aulic
workings are at Alma, where also the banks are thickest,
owing to the confluence of tributary canyons and streams
at that point. A powerful body of water is at hand during
the summer months, and the beds are worked continuously,
night and day, during the season.

The main source whence the gold originated was doubt-
less in numerous lai*ge, partially developed quartz veins in
granite, at the head of the ravine above Montgomery, at
the foot of Mount Lincoln, where are the headwaters and
main sources of the South Platte River. Besides these
gold-bearing veins, the quartzites and porphyries of the
adjacent region may have contributed a certain amcnrnt of
gold to the placer from gold disseminated generally through-
out their mass. The head of the canyon below Mount

PLACER MINING.

125

Lincoln was the starting point of the ghioier that carved out
the valley upon which the Alma placers lie, the line of which
is now occupied by the Platte River.

The character of the predominant pebbles in the placers
— quartzites, granite, and })orphyry — suggests the rocks at
the head of the canyon as the principal source of the gold.
The summit of Mount Lincoln is 14,400 feet above the sea-
level, and about 4,000 feet above the valley of the Platte.
The east face of the peak descends in a steep cliflf of massive
granite, capped by quartzites and limestones carrying inter-
bedded sheets of porphyry. The face of the granite cliff is
traversed by a great number of wide, parallel fissure-veins
of quartz and feldspar, carrying more or less gold and
pyrites. The valley below is U shaped, betokening the path-
way of an ancient glacier, and scooped out of granite by
the ice. The rocks over which the glacier passed in its
downwards course are rounded, polished, and grooved, form-
ing what are called '* glacial sheepbacks." These form the
pavement of the upper part of the ravine. Near the head,
a violent stream, whose source is in a small lake in a glacial
amphitheater still higher up, descends in bounding water-
falls — the source of the Platte. Below where the falls
plunge into the valley is a small, shallow lake, half filled
with gravel, supposed to contain much gold scooped out
from the veins in the upper part of the canyon, and a scheme
is projected to drain the lake and work the gravel by a cof-
fer-dam and underground sluice tunnel, the water and
debris from the washing passing through the coffer-dam
and out through the sluices in the tunnel. The hollows at
the base of the waterfall, contrary to what might be sup-
posed, are not found to be very productive. From the lake,
we look down on numerous traces of the work and pathway
of the ancient glacier. Vast bodies of huge boulders rise

12()

PLACER MINING.

I !ES '

on the slopes at the base of the mountain to a height of
nearly 1,000 feet above the stream, with here and there an
exceptionally large block dropped by the melting ice on the
top of the moraines on either side of the stream. Between
the moraines, the river runs through a long meadow, witli con-
tinuous banks of placer material on either side from 50 to
200 feet in height. The surface of these morainal banks is
undulated, rising and falling in smooth, grassy swells, like the
waves of mid-ocean. These banks are composed of * ' modified
drift "; that is, the rough, angular blocks left by the glacier

have been worked over by
the stream, pounded and
broken up, and in part re-
duced to gravel. When
exposed in section, as at
Alma, they exhibit the
structure from surface
grass roots down to bed-
rock shown in Fig. 39.
The structure in detail
FIG. 39. is as follows: First, a foot

or two of black turf, in which there is little gold; below
that, a foot or two of clay with pebbles in it, and then a few
feet of sandy layers, irregularly bedded, in dovetailing
streaks, as if formed by eddies and currents, and, likewise,
comparatively poor; the remainder, to bed-rock, 30 to 50
feet, is composed of subangular and rounded pebbles and
boulders of all sizes, from a fraction of an inch to a yard in
diameter, cemented together by gravel, sand, clay, and, in
places, by iron oxide, into a tolerably fine conglomerate,
which can only be successfully attacked by the point of the
pick or the all-destroying Giant nozzle. Thes banks are
continuous down both sides of the creek for several miles,

PLACER MTNTNO.

127

and are thickest at Alma, opposite the outlet of the tribu-
tary canyons, Buckskin and Mosquito. Here is the site of
one of the oldest working placers in Colorado. The banks
have been cut back for a long distance from the river, pre-
senting a face of vertical cliff 70 feet in height and about a
mile in length, channeled by narrow ravines and gashes,
from the inroads of the Giants and the cutting back of
ditch and flume waterfalls. Some of these cuts are short,
narrow gashes, not penetrating far into the hills; others
lead, through long, narrow, ravines into wide, open amphi-
theaters surrounded by channeled cliffs, while the center is
occupied by piles of large boulders thrown out from the
sluices and stacked up in the course of the work. Winding
through these paths of debris may be seen the remains of
the old, abandoned gravel sluices, telling of work done
long ago.

To enter one of these amphitheaters, where the work is still
actively progressing, we approach by way of one of the ravines
penetrating the hill. From this ravine issue two long,

Fui. 40.

snake-like gravel sluices, shown in Fig. 40, debouching on
to the open river bottom and natural dumping ground by
many radiating, short-curved tributary sluices. The water

138

PLACER MINING.

rushes with j^reat speed and force along the wooden bottom
of the sluices, and the bigger boulders can be heard rolling
and bumping over the wooden riffle blocks which pave the
bottom. We follow up these sluices through the ravine for
over a thousand feet, till it opens in a broad amphitheater
200 feet wide by 70 feet deep. Here operations are in full
blast. Several flume waterfalls, shown in Fig. 41, descend
the steep bank at the head of the amphitheater, at varying
distances apart, each one cutting back rapidly a sharp, nar-
row ravine or channel for itself from grass roots nearly to

Fig. 41.

bed-rock. These waterfalls, each fed by its own branch
from the main ditch on the bank above, cut the bank into a
series of parallel blocks of ground. Against the sides and
faces of these insulated blocks, two Giant nozzles direct
their powerful columns of water with crumbling effect, and
the partially cemented material fades rapidly before them
as mass after mass is undermined and topples into the ref-
use stream, and thence is hurried into the gaping mouths
of the gravel sluices. Giants also speed the boulders and
gravel on their way by occasionally lending their force to
that of the refuse stream which flows from beneath the

PLACER MTNTNG.

VZO

waterfalls. Thus sand, y^ravel, and boiddtn's arc washed
into the gravel sluices, the bottoms of which are lined with
riffles of short cross-sectif>ns of the trunks of pitch-pine
trees, placed close together, like rows of lozenges, or like a
Nicholson block pavement. Both big and little boulders
and gravel roll rapidly over this block pavement, and the
gold, by its gravity, drops to the bottom and is caught be-
tween the interstices of the blocks and retained there. Its
retention and deposition are further aided by throwing in
quicksilver, which, by its affinity for gold, collects the tiner
particles in its soft, heavy, silvery mass. While the boulders
and gravel soon find their way to the natural dumping
ground on the open river bottom, the gold in its travel stops
long before that point is reached.

In the center of the amphitheater, a tall derrick, driven by
a lO-foot Pelton wheel with an undershot nozzle, moves a
long arm slowly around over the area. The use of this der-
rick will pres-^ntly be apparent. One of the flumes having
been stopped and its attendant waterfall having ceased,
and the Giant nozzle being directed elsewhere, the pathway
of the refuse stream becomes comparatively drv Then men
climb into it and pick out the larger boulders. Loo large to
pass through the gravel sluices — some of them being so
large as to require blasting. Then the long arm of the der-
rick swings around, and the boulders are piled into a large
stone-boat and carried around to a convenient dumping
ground on either side of the gravel sluices. The largest
boulders being thus removed, the gravel and small pebbles
become more exposed, and the Giants are again brought to
bear on these, till at last bed-rock sandstone appears, full
of cracks and crevices, forming by its gentle dip and in-
equalities natural riffles and lodging places for a portion of
the gold. The bed-rock cleaners now dig up and shovel

130

PLACER MINING.

into the sluirc the rotten surface of the sandstone to a
depth of a foot or so, or to such a depth as experience has
proved that j^old occurs They probe the cracks in bed-
rock with their '<nivesand brush the rocks with small brushes
and pick out any stray nuggets that may be concealed. In
the bed of the stream descending from the fiume, men are
also at work with long-handled shovels, ground sluicing, or
helping along and removing out of the way some of the
boulders, so t-s to keep the water in as definite a channel r
possible and prevent it from spreading. The ravine, whi(
is 1,000 feet long, and the amphitheater, 200 feet wide by
70 feet deep, were both excavated within six months.

PRBLIMIIVARY WORK AIVI) PROSPECTING OF THI-: PLACBR.

Before undertaking this enterprise, the ground was well
prospected and the presence of gold in paying quantities
assured. Shafts and prospecting holes were dug down to
bed-rock to ascertain the depth of the formation. Prospect-
ing by panning was also carried on along the exposed sides
of the gulches. The water supply was considered, and the
ditch and flume planned with a view to its power over the
underlying bed-rock. The grade of the ditch was also
considered, for if the grade is too great the water cuts and
breaks its banks. Three-eighths of an inch to a rod was
found to be a good grade. Penstocks and boxes were made,
and pipes 14 inches in diameter attached. The Giant noz-
zles, having been attached to the pipes and firmly braced
to strong wooden platforms on the ground, began to play on
some natural exposure of the bank, while the ditch flumes
commenced their work of cutting back ravines and blocking
off the ground to be later broken down by the Giants. The
gravel sluices were constructed for carrying the pebbles,
gravel, and gold, with a general grade or inclination towards

PLACER MTNINa

131

the natural dumi)inj^ ground on llic river l)e(l, and the rest
is as aheady deserihed.

RKI.ATIVK KICHNI^SS OF IJIFFKKKIVT ZOIVKS OF THU IIAIVK.

The richness of the bank appears to depend upon various
conditions. The fine, eddy, top sand is seldom rich, the
best gold being in the coarser material or on and in bed-
rock. The gravel is sometimes cemented by iron rust to the
consistency of rock. Black sand occurs here and there,
richest where rusty. There are often peculiar courses in the
sand currents, and turnings and windings as in river courses.
As many as three different periods of deposition of gravel
may be observed.

RBSKRVOIR, DITCH, FLUMBS, KTC.

The reservoir up the river, supplying the ditch, covers
about 5 acres and is 10 feet deep. The dam is made of
gravel and brush, cribbed with timber and having a gate.
The ditch that leads to the highest gravel banks is two
miles long and carries about 2,000 miner's inches of water.
It is 12 feet wide and 3 feet deep, and flumed on trestles,
at one place, for 240 feet. The flume is of boards 12 feet
in length, of sawed pine timber, forming boxes, built with
frames 4 in. x 4 in. ; the floor boards are 1^-inch material,
sides 1^ inches ; the flume is (J feet wide and .'J feet deep.

At the end of the wooden flume, on solid rock, is a flume
50 feet long, at right angles to the main flume. From this
there are four openings to smaller ditch flumes, which dis-
tribute the water to the general workings. The grade of
the ditch is three-eighths of an inch to the rod. From the
main ditch, a branch ditch leads to the penstock or sand box.
From that, two pipes are laid, which, at the penstock, are 22
inches in diameter, but taper gradually toward the Giants
to 10 inches in diameter. These pipes are each 500 feet

132

PLACER MINING.

long. There are two Giants, of the size known as
No. 2. The discharge pipe of these is feet long. The de-
flector, by which the man in charge directs the nozzle in
any direction he pleases, is screwed on the end. The de-
flector works on the principle of a bal' and socket; where
the discharge pipe connects with the main casting there is
also a ball and socket, so that it, too, can be moved to right
or left, and up or down. Leather is used to prevent leak-
age at the joints, and sawdust is thrown into the sand box
to stop leaks in the pipes. Giants, Chiefs, or Monitors, as
they are variously called, are used for cutting down the
banks. The water that is not used by the pipes is allowed

to run over the highest part of the
gravel bank to cut down and carry
away gravel to the sluxes. The pipes
use 200 inches ot water to each Giant.
The ditches carry 2,000. The volume
carries the gravel into the sluices.
The sluices are o feet wide by 4
feet high, or deep, paved with round
block riffles 8 inches thick and of vary-
ing widths, packed on the bottom of
the sluices with small pieces of rock.
(Fig. 42.) So great is the force cf
the water in these sluices, that bould-
FiG. 43. ers 100 pounds in weight are some-

times carried from end to end. The velocity is about 25
miles per hour. The dip, slope, or grade is 4 inches to
every 12 feet, or 33^ inches to every 100 feet. The sluice is
laid on bed-rock, which Is sometimes cut down to admit it.
The curves of the gravel sluices are made like those of a
railroad, raising the outer side of the curve. There are two
parallel sluices 30 feet apart. When these two main arteries

PLACER MINING.

133

reach the bed of the river, which is their natural dumping
ground, branches are formed so as to spread out the material
in a fan shape, and these branches are extended as the ma-
terial accumulates. (Fig. 40.)

The sluices are 4, 000 feet each in length. The riffles
protect the boards in the bottom from wear and tear of the
gravel and boulders. Old riffles are left in the bottom of
the branches where no gold is collected, for this purpose.
The gold is mostly found deposited in the first 400 feet of
each sluice. The derrick or hoisting gear is run by water,
hoisting big rocks in a stone-boat by a gin block and chains
Water is led by an S-inch pipe from the sand boxes to an
undershot Pelton wheel with If -inch nozzle. The wheel is
10 feet in diameter, and the drum works on the V principle.

CLBANING UP.

About 2 ounces of quicksilver to each ounce of gold in
the riffles is thrown into the flume. In a clean-up, which
occurs at regular intervals, the riffles are first taken out and
then water is let on to wash everything clear. The packing
of small rocks is taken out with twelve-tined forks. The
floor is then cleaned, the gold usu.^lly being all collected by
the quicksilver at about 200 feet from the entrance of the
flume. The quicksilver is shoveled out, separated from
black sand, and carried in kettles to the retorting office;
there it is retorted and prepared for the mint.

CHAPTER XVIII.

EXAMPLES OF PLACERS— THE ROSCOE

PLACER.

As an example of placer mining by turning the course of
a river by means of wide flumes, and leaving the river bed
dry and bare for a space, for operations down to bed-
rock, we may cite that of the Roscoe placer in Clear Creek
Canyon, Colorado. Clear Creek Canyon is one of the
steepest and grandest of the Frost Range. It is cut through
granite rocks for a linear distance of some 40 miles, to an
average depth of 1,000 feet. About 13 miles from its out-
let on the plain, the creek forks, one branch leading up
towards the gold-mining region of Central, the other to the
gold and silver region of Idaho Springs. The main creek
receives the drainage of two gold-bearing districts. At
Central, in addition to gold from the mines, veins, and rocks
direct, the creek brings down a great deal of flour gold, the
refuse of old stamp mills, which by their crude methods lost
in the past upwards of 40 per cent, of gold, together with a
great deal of amalgam. This refuse matter has been
accumulating from the mills alone for the past thirty years,
not to mention what has been derived from the rocks them,
selves by the ordinary process of nature. Miners and
prospectors in past times obtained a great deal of gold from
shallow surface washings, without attempting to reach the
deep-lying but coveted bed-rock, where the most of the gold
was reasonably expected to lie.

Near the location of the placer, the canyon is at its deepest
and narrowest. Several huge veins of quartz and feldspar,

PLACER MINING.

135

]

doubtless carrying more or less gold, cross the canyon from
side to side It is by the erosion and breaking down of
these great veins, which originally stretched across the
canyon like a dyke, that we enter the grand portal leading to
the Roscoe placer. Originally, the great feldspar vein stood
as a natural dam across the waters of the creek, until tiiey
undermined and broke through it, and the vein collapsed
into the creek in huge boulders, over which the waters now
dash in foaming waterfalls, with a sudden drop of 30 feet.

This natural dam was selected as an excellent point for
dumping the material to be dug out immediately above it.
The debris thrown over this fall would be rapidly disinte-
grated and carried down stream by the torrents; so nature
supplied one of the first reqr les for enterprises of this
sort — a good dumping ground. Above the stone dam is a
stretch of a couple of miles of com[)ar.'ii ively slow-moving
and shallow water in a natural widening of the creek bottom,
underlaid by deep gravel. The railroad runs on the bank,
convenient to the placer, and the grade was also convei ent
for laying alongside of it the pipe lines to run the ' Hants, etc.
The opposite bank was low, and the slope gentle and well
adapted for constructing the great flume and ditch to carry
ofif the waters of the creek.

PRELIMINARY PLAN AND l^ORK.

Before commencing operations, the ground was pros-
pected by shafts do'vn to bed-rock, and the presence of gold
assured. The general plan of the work to be done was as
follows;

First, a wide and long flume was to be constructed on the
south bank, capable of carrying off all the water of the creek,
which was to be turned into it by means of a dam, laying
Jiare a mile or more of the river bottom, At the lower end

1)30

VLACER MINING;

of the property, just above the stone dam, a pit was to be
dug to bed-rock. In this a Liidhim gravel lifter was to be
placed— a large funnel-shaped pipe, up which water, gold,
gravel, and stones would be carried by the force of a Giant
nozzle below it into an elevated gravel flume on the surface
above — to which would also be attached several undercurrent
sluices for catching the finest gold. A pipe line, some two
or three miles long, with a head of over l^'O feet and carrying
l.OOO inches of water, would give the needed power to the
Giants in the pit. As the workings would advance up the
creek, the abandoned pit would receive the dump of the work
in progress.

BUILDINCJ DITCH AND FLUME.

Two things had to be done simultaneously: one, to build
the big ditch and flume to carry off the water of the river
and leave the bed dry; the other to build a pipe line to get
suflficient head of water to work the nozzles and sand pumps
at the places chosen for excavation. By a natural widening
of the river bank and its encroachment on the stream at one
place, the channel of the stream is locally contracted.
Starting with this natural advantage, a temporary dam

and flume was built of
sacks filled with sand, to
keep back the water till a
more substantial "triangu-
lar " d; m, of timber par-
titions filled with stones,
could be built. Thus a
ground flume was construct-

|. ^f^ ^ ed, as shown in Fig. 4;{.

Fig. 44. First, a pile or wall of sand-

bags next to the water of the ditch, and then behind that a
framework of timber with triangular partitions filled with

PLACER MINING.

137

FIG. 44.

138

PLACER MINING.

stones and pebbles, faced, or " rip-rapped," on the outer side
with heavier stones, until the nature of the ground should
require a flume of sawed timber to be constructed,

This flume that carries off the river water is 10 feet wide,
6^ feet high, and 2,000 feet long, with a capacity of about
32,000 gallons per minute. The bents are 4 in. X 8 in. and lO
feet long, with braces on the outer side at an angle of 11^°.
The braces are 2-in. X 8-in. plank, 5 feet long, bolted to the
4-in. X 8-in. sill and upright post. The flooring is 4 inches
thick, the boards 12 inches wide and 10 feet long. The flume
is not straight, but follows the course of thestream, the floor
being elevated on the outside of the curves an amount cor-
responding to the degree of curvature, as on a railroad track,
making the water run level. The grade on the curve is 1^
inches to 10 feet. When the flume is straight^ the grade is
f inch to 10 feet. The angle at which the floor is cut for
joining is not over 30 degrees. The sides are made of 2-inch
boards 10 inches wide.

WATER-POWER AIXI> PIPE LINE.

The next matter to be attended to was to get sufficient
head of water for the Giants. To effect this, they had to go
three miles up the river to a point where the descent of the
stream was somewhat steep and rapid. There they built an
intake flume of wood, feet wide, 4 feet deep, and 800 feet
long, to a penstock or sand box connecting with a wooden-
stave pipe 48 inches in diameter at its widest point. To enter
the penstock the water passes through a screen or iron
grating, which catches the coarse rubbish, such as leaves,
sticks, etc., floating in the water, and the overflow passes
through gates on the south side. The main current passes
into the penstock, which is 8 feet square and 10 feet deep.
At the bottom is a well which collects any debris, so the

PLACER MINING.

139

140

PLACER MINING.

water passes clean and pure
through the penstock into the
48-inch pipe. This pipe is made
of staves or boards of pine, band-
ed with round steel hoops. (See
Fig. 44.) After leaving the pen-
stock, the pipe is buried for a
distance of about 100 yards un-
der a stone embankment, and
passes by an arch under the rail-
road track to its junction with
the metal pipe. Where it has to
withstand the greatest pressure,
it is closely banded. The pipe
diminishes gradually in diam-
.- eter, till, from 48 inches at the
o penstock, it becomes 22 inches
^ at its junction with the metal
pipe, which also, in its course,
diminishes to 1(3 inches. The
steel pipe is three-eighths of a
mile long. A still smaller pipe,
12 inches in diameter, connects
with this and runs parallel with
the main pipe, forming two pipes,
for one-eighth of a mile. One
of these pipes is for the Giant
nozzle, the other to supply the
sand pump for elevating the
gravel from the bottom of
the excavation into the gold
gravel sluices. The pressure on
these pipes at the nozzle is 87

■

PLACER MINING.

141

pounds per square inch, and they will throw a column of
water 1G5 feet from a nozzle 4 inches' in diameter. With a
closed pipe the pressure would be ItS'j pounds.

Fig. 45 gives a general idea of the lower end of the works,
and Fig. 46 shows a panoramic view of the whole plant,
from the intake flume, far up the canyon, to the penstock,
and from the penstock along the line of big pipes to their
final connection, at the lower end of the placer, with the
Giant nozzles, and on the opposite side of the river the big
flume carrying the water of the river out of its natural
course and leaving the bed dry for operations.

The pit, above the stone dam, is also shown, as completed,
in Fig. 47. Giant nozzles play against the sides and into
the bottom of this pit, washing down the debris of the banks

Pig. 47.

and excavating the bottom, while gravel elevators and
water-lifters force up the material excavated to an elevated
sluice, to be winnowed of its coarse gold ; and thence the
gravel passes over a finer-gathering, broad undercurrent

142

PLACER MINING.

sluice; then, again, by a narrow flume, winding among the
big boulders and through narrow crevices in the rocks, to
a final undercurrent, where the finest material of all is
collected on burlap, or sacking material.

DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK.

It is necessary to explain the details of the work which
the accompanying sketches represent, as it is more or less
complicated. After all the machinery, flumes, sluices,
pipes, and Giants were in place, the excavation of the pit
was commenced and carried on down to bed-rock, with the
aid of the Giants and elevators. When the Giant nozzles
had been brought to play, the material, as the pit deepened,
was forced up through the gravel elevators into the gravel
sluice.

THE LUDL.UM ELEVATOR.

The Ludlum gravel elevator, shown in Fig. 48, is a big
steel pipe somewhat funnel shaped towards the lower portion,

Fig. 48.

the broad end of which descends into the bottom of the pit,
where both water and gravel accumulate from the work of
the Giants. Directly underneath the end of the elevator,
at a distance below it of 10 inches, is embedded a Giant

PLACER MINING.

143

nozzle, together with a portion of its pipe, receiviny^ a
powerful pressure from one of the main pipes on the bank.
As the gravel and stones roll down they are directed by a
box in upon this nozzle, the lower portion of which is en-
closed in bed-rock when bed-rock is attained. The stream
carries the smaller boulders and dei)ris up the funnel of the
elevator and into the flume above, where a pipe communi-
cating with the main flume sends a flood of water into the
gravel sluice to help push along the boulders and gravel that
have thus come up. The other pipe that is also seen enter-
ing the end of the box of the sluice and passing down in a
steep, slanting direction into the pit is a Ludlum water-
lifter, sometimes called an "elevator pump." It works
somewhat like the gravel elevator, a vacuum being formed
in the lower portion of the pipe, drawing the water of the pit
up into it. The power-pressure nozzle runs about a foot up
into the pipe. The purpose of this pump is to drain the pit
of the water accumulating from the (xiants and in other
ways. So, while the (iiants tear down the banks, the eleva-
tors carry the water, gravel, and gold up into the gravel
sluices. The main gravel sluice is a narrow trough or box,
208 feet long by 48 inches wide and ;j feet deep, laid down at
a gentle inclination on the top of the surface of the creek
bed from the lower end of the excavation. It is made of
strong, inch boards and paved on the bottom with square,
8-inch blocks of pine wood set on end, so that the grain is
uppermost. These block riffles are laid in rows quite close
together across the bottom of the sluice, from side to side.
Between each set or row of blocks is laid a narrow strip of
wood, 3 inches high by ^ inch thick.

In laying block riffles, the blocks in the first row are
placed closely side by side. Then the strip of wood is nailed
along the lowest part of them with headless nails, not driven

144

PLACER MINING.

home, but protruding a little, so that when the next row of
riffles is laid down and driven up, the protruding nails sink
into the blocks and hold them fast while the strip is being
laid against the lower side. The gravel, as it is being borne
along in the sluice, drops its gold, which is collected in
these cracks or gaps between the riffles, prepared to re-
ceive it.

On the side of this main sluice, and connected with it at
the head, are two smaller side sluices, a little below it and
running parallel to it. These are lined with Brussels carpet
instead of riffle blocks. This carpet collects the finer gold,
while the main flume usually collects the coarser material,
boulders, gravel, and gold.

Towards the end of the main sluice a few of the block
riffles are omitted and a grating substituted, made the full
width of the sluice, with bars spaced J inch apart and
beveled on the bottom. This grating allows only loose
stones or gravel below a certain size to pass, together with
finer material, into the next sluice, called an "undercur-
rent." This is a broad, shallow box, similar to that shown
in Fig. 3G, tipped at an inclination of 6 inches in 24 feet,
the latter being the length of the undercurrent, which is 12
feet wide. The bottom of this box is lined with a peculiar
kind of riffle. These riffles consist of narrow slats or strips
of wood, laid doAvn on the bottom, across the width of the
box, and on top of each slat is a piece of strap iron, nailed
flat, whose edge overlaps the slat on both sides, but only
slightly on the lower side. The water passing through
these moves to and fro, like an endless pulley, from riffle to
rilfle, dropping its gold among them by the eddies so caused.
There still remains a certain amount of very fine material,
carrying even finer gold, which escapes this first undercur-
rent and must not be lost. So from this a narrow flume,

PLACER MININCr.

Ur)

winding? through a passage in the rock, leads into a still
larger, longer, and wider undercurrent, which catches the
finest material of all — in this case composed largely of finely
comminuted pyrites, the tailings from the mills. This long,
wide undercurrent, 45 feet long by 24 feet wide, is divided
into a series of compartments or boxes, set longitudinally.
The divisions are formed by long boards a foot deep. At
the bottom of these boards a narrow strip of wood is laid
and battened down on the burlap, or sacking material, which
lines the bottom of the box and receives the gold. The
burlap carpets are drawn off by rollers on swivels and trans-
ported to a wooden tank, where they pass over a series of
rollers, laying them conveniently open for inspection and
cleaning. Every visible particle of gold is collected, and
the rest drops into the water in the tank. Through the
middle of this undercurrent sluice passes a small flume with
perforated plates at the upper end. This flume is intended
to catch and dispose of some of the coarser material that
may have passed through the upper undercurrent, and what
finer gold there may be in it drops through the perforated
plates into the general undercurrent, the coarser rubbish
being carried out to the river. On cleaning-up days, which
occur at intervals, the block riffles are taken up and care-
fully inspected for gold. This leaves the bottom of the
sluice uncovered, and on this a good deal of gravel, gold,
and quicksilver has collected. This is carefully shoveled
into buckets and examined, the gold laid aside, and the
quicksilver amalgam containing gold placed in retorts;
so also in the other undercurrents, together with the
Brussels carpet and burlaps in both sluices and under-
currents.

The bed of the stream, as at present excavated by the

146

PLACER MINING.

pit, shows a section of the placer. (Fig. 40.) The great
loose rocks, by foi-niiig the so-calied stone dam across the
stream, produced a natural gathering place and stoppage for

all the boulders and rub-

bish brought down by
floods from above. Some
of the boulders are several
feet in diameter and have
to be blasted before they
can be removed. Mixed
Fxrj. 49. with these boulders are

many stumps and logs of driftwood, some of which show
the marks of beavers. Half way down the section is a dark
line, formed by a thin bed of peat, marking the origin of an
old surface soil. Above this are belts of irregularly bedded
gravel and sand, showing the action of shifting currents.
Gold has been found all the way down from surface to bed-
rock, the coarsest and most abundant gold bting on bed-
rock itself. They are obliged "o wall up portions of the
loose sides of the pit Avith cobblestones, as the jarring of
passing trains is likely to shake down boulders, endangering
the lives of the workmen and gradually undermining the
adjacent railroad tracks.

" THE END.

n i

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