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Mapa. piataa. cliarta. ate., may ba filmed at diffaraAt reduction ratioe. Thoee too large to be entireiy included in one expoeure ara filmed beginning in the upper left hand comer, left to rigm and top to bottom, aa many framee aa required. The follo«ving diagrama iiluatrata the method: Lee cartaa. planchea. tabieeux. etc.. pauvent itra fllm4a i dee taux do rMuction diffirwnta. Loraque le document aat trop grand pour %trm reproduit en un soul clichA. ii aat fllmA i partir do I'angla supMeur gauche, do gauciw k droite. et do heut en baa, an pranent la nombra dimagee niceesaire. Laa diagrammea suivams iliuatrent la mAthoda. 1 3 3 f '■■ t'^ , 2 f 3 1 i 3 4 e 6 sir — r^m^^B^Mi^^^^^a^ W' ^,i^% l! -^ THE OEIGINS OF Organization and Government IN THK EARLY CHURCH, BEIKQ THE Sixth Annual Lecture before the Theological Union op Mount Allison Wesleyan College. ^^- BY REV. E. EVANS. '11 ? '. \m: Delivered June, 1884. SAINT JOHN, N. B. .1. & A. McMiLLAK, 98 Prince William Stbeei'. 1884. THE ORIGINS OF Organization and Government IN THE EARLY CHURCH, BEING THE Sixth Annual Lecture before the Theological Union of Mount Allison Wesleyan College, BY REV„ E. EVANS. Delivered Tune, 1884. SAINT JOHN, N. B. J. & A. McMillan, 98 Pi;tnce William Street. 1884. >? 1- ■k h 1r#f THE ORIGINS OF ORGANIZATION AND GOVERN- MENT IN THE EARLY CHURCH. IN selecting the subject of this lecture I have been directed to the one announced bv the advance made in its methods of discussion in late years, and also by the additional evidence brought to light by the indefatigable researches everywhere so successfully prosecuted. It may perhaps be thought it is not fully in accord with the name of the Society under whose aus- pices it is delivered, or the subjects heretofore discussed. But, though the topic be not theological in the narrower and popu- lar sense, yet it belongs to a very prominent branch of scientific Theology, and bearing most intimate relations to its sister branches in that Queen of the Sciences. The position here claimed for Church History is acknowledged by all writers, and drawn out at length in all treatises of Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology.^ Now especially, when all ancient and venerable documents and traditions are unscrupulously handled by a daring and irre- verent criticism, it is not inopportune to restate the facts and principles of church organization and government, and also the character of the documentary evidence upon which they rest. During a part of our labours we shall be able to appeal to the inspired records, and thus exegesis will be combined with history, and here indeed will be found our surest ground. The outward form and organization of the Christian Church may seem so small a matter compared wiih the great truths which should be her life and inspiration, that it may be thought ^ Pope ; Compendium of Theology, Vol. I. p. 27, and Vol. II. p. 335, sqq. " Church History is the most extensive, and including the sacred history of the Old and New Testaments, the most important branch of Theology."— Schaff : xlist. Chris. Church, Vol. I. p. 15. " The backbone of Theology." Stanley : Eastern Church, p. 65. (3) Organization in lost labour to spend much time, if any, in researches eitlicr about the original forms, or the subsequent adaptations of these to the ever varying wants of the church. But a careful observer will have noticed that independent as we might suppose the doc- trines of the faith to be, of the peculiar organization in which they may be set, yet the fact is indisputable that there is a close connection. How could the doctrine of justification by faith flourish under the shadow of a sacerdotal order? Or the precious truth of *he universal priesthood of God's people under the par- alyzing influence of an iron bound system of priestly rule and authority, allied with a ritual at once minute and extensive ? Could the free and unfettered work of the Spirit of God be exhibited under the restraints of an hierarchy ; and christian charity be developed, where it is a prime article of faith, that only those who acknowledge the divine right of the episcopacy constitute the true church ? It is purposed to institute an inquiry into the facts pertaining to or'^auization and government as they are found in the inspired writings, and in the subsequent documents which we shall find ought to be used for this purpose ; using for the interpretation of these the ligiit thrown by the recovered inscriptions upon the contemi)oraneous institutions and usages prevalent among the people where Ciiristianity was adopted. Also, to prosecute this research without regard to any of the theories which may have been entertained upon these questions ; and from the evidence obtained, present an impartial description of this organization and government in the different stages of its history, and rigor- ously to abstain from ail the cognate questions which all through the investigation will press themselves upon our attention. To follow the plan marked out will need severe restraint, for })lea- sant fields will continually open out in every direction, inviting our attention ; and visions of grandeur and beauty will ever present themselves. But from all these we must turn aside. " We shall be like a student who makes it his temporary task to explore some great historic cathedral with a view only to its architecture. At every step, he treads on hallowed ground. On i)t t 'A( The Early Church. 6 every side are the memorials of saintly lives, heroic deeds, and immortal genius. From their silent tombs there seem to rise up the shadows of the holy dead, gazing at him with their beatified faces, and stretching out hands of ghostly fellowship. He is temi)ted at every moment to throw aside his study, and to yield ^•Z: » ^ to the fascination of the place, and to gain some new hope for his own sad life from the weird and whispered tale, of what they did and suffered for Christ, and for the world. But his present concern is with the architecture, and the soft solemn voices that bid him linger in sympathy or in dream, fall upon deafened ears." ^ In the development of this subject, the important errors which are frequently committed in its treatment are to be assidu- ously guarded against. The most glaring are included in the following classification : 1 . Geographical erroi's. In similar enquiries, local usages have been elevated into universal rules. A custom of the church in Greece* has been supposed, without any evidence, to have been the usage at once, upon the Rhine, or in Carthage. And a prac- tice in Egypt has been held to determine the custom in Gaul. But we shall find that Presbyters ruled the churches of one province or city, while in another, at the same time, a Bishop presided. 2. Chronological errors. In these investigations, two or three centuries have been thrown together in one sentence, forgetting the vast interval between them, and the great changes which took place in that early period of the church's history in a very short time. A quotation from a Christian writer is supposed to end the controversy, and yet he may have lived two, three, or four hundred years after the event or usage he is quoted to prove. The early centuries are so remote from our own that they indefi- nitely blentl togotiier in our vision. 3. Lexical. Words have remained in use, but their meanings have changed, and the same word, during the centuries, does not always denote the same idea. Tiie word was the same, but its ^ Hatch : Bampton Lecture, 1880, p. 24. 6 Organization in connotation different. Owing to si forgetfulncss of this fact writers have involved tljcni.sclves in perplexities, and adopte*! theories which have been wholly unsupported by the very evi- dence they hrmight forward to sustain them. 4. Documentary errors. In su|)p()rt of a fa(^t, writings of a later age are quoted as contemporaneous, and spurious writing as au- thentic. And comj)ilations of different j)eriods are used in every part as of equal age and authorit , and interpolations as genuine. 5. Eridentiarii errors. To reach a correct judgment it is neces- sary to consult all conteinpoianeous evidence that can he ol)lained ; and if any portion of it be slighted, undervalued, or misunder- stood, or entirely ignored, our conclusions must be incomplete and often erroneous.' In the consideration of a subject where time is such an i>n- portant element, it will be wise to mark out definite |)eriods. There are four of these naturally defined in the time included within the scope of this lecture. I. The Petrine and Pauline Age. The period from the founding of the church to the date of the Pastoral Epistles, A. D. 67. II. The Johamiine Age. To the close of the first century. III. The Sub-Apostolic Age. Reaching to A. D. 160. IV. The Transitional Age. Carrying us down to A. D. 250. Though the names aj)propriated to these several periods may not be absolutely correct, they are sufiiciently so for all the pur- poses required.^ I. The Petrine and Pauline Age. The influence of education and custom upon men is very powerful, and exerts itself in a thousand ways, and shapes our conduct, and colours our judgment, unknown to ourselves. National and religious predilections, having their foundations in the very core of our mental and sj)iritual constitution, always act. * Hatch : Bamp. Lecture, 1880, p. 3, sqq. Dr. G. A. Jacob : The Ecclesi- astical Polity of the New Testanient, p. 68. ^ Bunsen : Hippolytus and his Age, Vol. I. p. 235. 1 '.■to./* • i « ; ', ■I ■ •>• 'I- ii ni The Early Church. 7 The la|)se of cuntiiries, the divergence of customs, and the pecu- liarities of race, may modify, but leave unrepressed their great motive force. Tiiey ai'ted as poweri'ully in the first as in the nineteenth century, |)erhiips from the limited range of activity permitted to the average citizen, more energetically in the earlier periotl than in the later. Tiierefore, for a full understanding of the beginning of organ- ization in the Christian church we must place ourselves in the position of the first converts, who were Jews, and consequently both the national and the traditional religious j)repossessions were called into play. They were accustomed to the Synagogue, its form of worship and government. What more natural that when the need of organization was felt in the new society its form would be a -similated to that of the synagogue, if not identical with it. Tills principle has been generally acknowledged, though some- times pushed too far.' The Synagogue was not of divine au- thority, as the Temple and its service were, a copy of the pattern shown on the Mount. It was the outgrowth of the circumstances of the people, simple in its government and mode of worship, and the great instructor of the nation for centuries, easy of trans- port and adaptation to every land where the Jew found a home ; and sanctioned by the presence of the Saviour af its worship during the whole of His earthly life, it possessed those very qualities needed for a universal religion. Let us endeavor briefly to enumerate and describe the Syna- gogue officers and their duties. The number of Jews required by their authorities to form a synagogue was at least ten. The most important officers were the Zekanin — the rulers of the syna- gogue — the Presbyters, or Elders. They formed a judiciary, or bench of magistrates. In the New Testament they are called " the elders of the Jews." As where a certain centurion sent the elders of the Jews, that is, the presbyters of the synagogue where the centurion lived, unto Jesus asking Him to come and save his servant.^ There were generally three in each synagogue. * As by Lightfoot, Vitringa, and Mosheini. ^ Luke vii. 3. 8 Organization in One of these officiated as the president/ who, in the New Testa- ment, is the Archisynagof/us — the rnler of the synajj^ogue. ^ But the title rulers is given to the whole presbytery.^ They were also called parnassin, poimenes, ])astors, and })residents. Their jurisdiction was very extensive. They judged concerning money matters, thefts, losses, admission <»f ))roselytes, laying on of hands ; also directed the services hi the synjigogue through their presi- dent, who should read proj)hets, who should recite the phylac- teries or prayers, and who should })ass before the ark, that is, conduct the divine service; and genendly one or more of them gave an address or exhortation. The president was elected by the votes of the congregation, and all the members of the pres- bytery were set aj>art for their office by the laying on of hands. The three Almoners, parnasmn, diakonoi, shepherds, or dea- cons, are the next in order. Two of them collected alms, one distributed them, but all must b* present. These were a stand- ing jioor committee, possessed of large powers, and composed of the most esteemed men in the congregation, men of honour, wisdom, justice, and such as had the confidence of the people, and required their unanimous vote for their election.* The Legate of the congregation, or Leader of divine service, the Apostle or Messenger of the Synagogue was an official who read the prayers ; this was his chief duty. Any one at first was called forward, afterwards, about five hundred yeai\s after Christ, it became an established office, and its duties were prescribed as follows :"^ He is to be one apt to officiate, who has children, whose family is free from vice, who has a proper beard, whose gar- ments are decent, who is acceptable to the people, who has a good and amiable voice, who understands how to read the law, the prophets, and the Hagiographa, who is versed in homiletic, legal, ' Lightfoot : ITorae. Hob., Matt. iv. 23, ix. 23 ; Smitli's Diet. Bible, Vol. III. p. i309; McClintock & Strong's Cycloiwdia, Vol. X. p. 75. '^ Luke viii. 41, 49 ; xiii. 14 ; Acts xviii. 8, 17. '' Acts xiii. 15. * From Lightfoot it would appear that the title pnnidKHin, pastors, belongs peculiarly to these. See supra 1. c. and Works, Vol. III. p. 257, sij. '" McClintock & Strong's Cyclop,, Vol. X. p. 70. i ; 1 ^h Thp: Early Church. 9 i and traditional exegesis, and who knows all the benedictions of the service.^ The Chazzan was the lowest servant; like a sexton or beadle, he had the care of the fnrnitnre, opened the doors, and lighted the lamps, called ont the names of the persons selected by the ruler of the Synagogue, or if he were not present, by the presbyters, for readers, handed them the manuscript rolls and took them back again. There were said to be ten officers in each Synagogue, who were also called the ten Batlanin, or men of leisure, who had time and ability to attend to its aifairs. The other officers, besides those already enumerated, being the interpreter, divinity school teacher and his interpreter.^ Bearino; in mind the intense love of the Hebrew for the customs of his ancestors, wo expect to find that when the occa- sion arose he instinctively turned to the Synagogue organization as a precedent for him in his new relations. For a short time the Apostles were the only rulers, they possessed sole power, they were the fountains of power and office, and concentrated in themselves all the offices needed for the development and government of the Church. The Apostolate, as a mighty tree, w^as to send foitli its branches in the offices; which they, under the guidance of the Holy Sjjirit, instituted, suitable for the time and circumstances of the Church.^ 1 Pluiuptre, in Smifli's Diet. Bible, eonfuses the qualifications and duties of tiiis office in the days of the Apostles with those belonging to it at a later date. - Dr. Geikie in his Life of Christ, Vol. II. P- 623, accuses Dr. Farrar, in his Life of CMirist, of confounding t!io Batkudn with the presbytery, but Dr. Farrar is sustained in his view by Lightfoot, Vitringa, Benjamin of Tudela, Ilertzfeld, c^c. He himself makes a mistake in enumerating among the duties of the elders the care of the alms, for, as shown above, there was a Committee of Almoners distinct from tlie elders. But lie commits a glaring anachronism in Vol. 1. PI). 174-18lt, and 0(15, In representing th'^ Chazzan as the reader, teacher of liie school, messenger of the Synagogue, and stating that he pre- sided over the reading of the law, and directed the service; he only entered ujion these duties several cent\iri('s after, but in the fiist century he was a sexton, and no more. ■■'See Lechler: Com. ActsG, 1-7 ; Schatt"s History Apostolic Churcli, pp. 500, .")ll ; t*(.pL''s Comp. Tlu'ology. Vol. HI. p. ooO ; Ncander's Planting and Train- ing, \\A. I. p. 37 ; Fressense's Apostolic; Era, p. 49. * 10 Organization in As witnesses of Christ's life and words, and inspired in their words and writings, the founders and pillars of the Church, their office was intransmissible. But the ministry of the Church, which was needed for all time, they provided, having themselves also performed the same duties and then appointed others to these offices. Hence Peter styles himself a fellow-prcshyter ; ^ John also calls hiniself a presbyter.^ But while they performed the work of presbyters and deacons, yet their position was higher than any of these, they were the fountain of church order and economy. The Apostolate at first united in one all the variou,- offices which were by degrees to become detached.^ In them were concentrated all the gifts bestowed on the arly disciples of the Lord. Their number, twelve, pointed th n out as the representatives and founders of the spiritual Israe-, as the twelve sons of Jacob had been the founders of Israel according to the flesh. No priestly character did they fill or assume, except as all Israel is a royal priesthood. It was some time after the Pentecostal ingathering before it was apparent that the infant Church had need of ^'.ny special officers. The constant presence in Jerusalem of the Apostles, the mar- vellous gifts imparted to the disciples, the harmony and love which prevailed, and the constant attendance upon daily worship, exalted the piety of the whole Christian community to super- natural heights. It was the glorious Sabbath whidi preceded the long week of toil and struggle in which the Church still finds herself. During the three years which had elapsed since Pentecost the inveterate prejudices between the two parties, which had been overcome and repressed by divine grace but were not extinct, began to show themselves.^ Perhaps the miraculous and wonderful enlargement of the Cliurch was the cause of the oversight which led to the murmurings recorded.'^ It is now my j)urpose to follow the indications of tiie appoint- ment of additional officers in chronological order. ^ 1 Peter v. 1. ^2 John 1 : 3 John 1. ^ Pressense : supra. 1. c. ^ This seems to be the period according to Eichorn, Winer, Wiesler, P3waUl and others. See Chart Meyer's Com. Acts. Lechler, Schafl' and Canon Cook agree about this time. * Acts vi. 1. 1' '\^^ », • 111 U i» The Early Church. 11 ^y** The first of these is the appointment of Deacons. Hitherto the Apostles had not only been the inspired leaders of the Church in spiritual things, but the pecuniary interests had also been at tlieir disposal ; moneys were committed to them, and they distribut- ed these among the poor of the community, especially the widows; but the foreign-born Jews and widows were unintentionally over- looked in this distribution. To remove the cause of complaint and to relieve themselves of duties, which with the enlarged number of converts it became impossible for them to perform, they called up- on the congregation of believers to choose seven of their number for the distribution of alms, and yet in describing them evidently looking forward to their engagement in more directly spiritual work. It has been supposed by a few eminent commentators and historians that the office of Deacon already existed in the Church. Believing that from the first the Apostles designed to fornj a society exactly upon the model of the Synagogue, and in pursuance of that plan had already instituted particular offices for the government of the believers in agreement with that design. They look upon the young men previously mentioned in Acts ^ as filling the office of Deacon.^ But the most judicious historians are averse to this interpreta- tion, which seems to have little to commend it except the exigencies of a preconceived theory.^ In considering this first outgrowth iVom the Apostolical authority and division of their work we will enquire — 1. How they were appointed. 2. The duties and extent of their office. 3. Its resemblance to any preceding office in the Synagogue. ' Acts V. 6-10. '^Mosheim: Eccl. Hist., p. 29; Neander: PI. and Tr., Vol. I, p. 35; Plumptre, Smith's Diet. Bib., art. Deacon ; Conybeare & Howson : St. Paul, Vol. I. p. 435 ; also Corns, of Olsliausen, Meyer, and Jacobson, in loco. ^ Neander : P. & T., Vol. 1., p. 37 ; Pressense : Apostol. Era, p 56 ; Plumptre, art. Deacon, Smith's Diet. Bib. ; McCliutock & Strong's Cyclop. Deacon, Vol. II. p. 705; Hooker: Ecc. Polity, Bk. xv., sec. 78 ; Bishop Lightfoot: Com. Phil., p. 189 ; Kaye : Gov. & Discip. Church, p. 13. 12 Organization in 1. How they were appointed. The Apostles phiced a proposition before the Church. The words used forbid us to think that only a part of the whole Church were present. But as women were excluded from participation in the elections of the synagogue, we may assume that they also took no part in this. As there were about five thousand believers/ and to tiiese were added afterwards multitudes of both men and women,^ the conjecture of Bcngel that there were now seven thousand, and therefore a Deacon was required for each thousand believers, is not unworthy of notice,' nor that of Dr. Clarke, one for eacii day in the week.^ In consequence of so large a number, and owing to the pres- sure of ecclesiastical systems, it lias been thought that by " the multitude of disciples" is meant only the whole number of the presbytery, or the one hundred and eight, who had been already appointed and had previously assembled and acted in that capacity.'^ But there is a general assent to the opinion that all the dis- ciples were called together to make the selection;^ and this ap- pears to be the only construction the text will bear. The multitude of believers selected the men by an election, the Apostles appointed them to their office. 2. The duties and extent of their office. The duties were chiefly pecuniary — the distribution of alms, but not confined solely to this, for their i i The Early Church. 15 \^* lected daily, and to which every one must contribute who resided thirty days in one place; these were distributed every evening." This at least seems singularly like un office which is described in this Essay as 'superintending the public messes, and providing in other ways for the wants of the helpless poor.' "Then there were also 'the alms of the box,' being the money collected every Friday, and distributed weekly, and to this every one contributed who had lived ninety days in a place. They had full power of exempting from these contributions any whom they believed unable to pay, and to enforce contributions on those who might pretend they were too poor."* And while some dispute over serving tables, as to whether it meant dining tables or money tables, we see that in these offices of the syna- gogue both were combined, and most probably were in the duties of the diaconate. Moreover, the prominence of the alms box in every synagogue might have suggested that the argument was not as complete as it appeared. ^ But while the synagogue may have suggested the idea and office, it partook of the enlarged and spiritual nature of Christi- anity, and soon burst the narrow bounds of a simple Judaistic institution. A period of perhaps hardly a year had passed after the insti- tution of deacons before one of them became the proto-martyr of the Church. Then they "that were scattered abroad" upon the tribulations which arose about Stephen, "went about speaking the word" and "preaching the Lord Jesus." ^ Some of these early evangelists founded a church at Antioch. We have now to leap over an interval of seven years, when we find the Antiochian church sending relief by the hands of Barnabas and Saul to the elders in Judea. ^ This is the first mention of the officers who were to become ^ Kitto's Cyclopsedia, Vol. III., article Synagogue. '^ Lightfoot in iiis Excerls. reiterates this transference, "This office of the deacon, to whom tLo charge of the poor was entrusted, was translated from the Jewish to the C'liristian Church, for there helonged to every synagogue three deacons, with w'lom that care was deposited." Heb. and Tal. Excer., Acts vi. 3. =»Acts viii. 1-4, and xi. 19-21. *Acts xi. 30. 16 Organization in so imi)ortant in the Christian Church. Now, the question arises, Wiien had these presbyters been appointed? Tiie office appears to have been adopted with the growth of the churcli : the need was felt when the details of its management became too numer- ous, and the guidance of its affairs could no longer be combined with the general oversight appertaining to the Apostolic office. The examj)le was before them in the synagogue, and so undoubt- edly the office was borrowed, and it formed so little break in the onward flow of Christian life, that its introduction is not recorded. It was so in accord with Jewish practice that its ab- sence, rather than its presence, would have required noti(re. The Jews carried with them in their dispersions the laws of their courts and synagogues, and these were confirmed by successive decrees of the Roman Emperors. At Alexandria and at Rome we have the most unimpeachable evidence of this; in the latter city, in the inscriptions found in the Jewish cemeteries. Conse- quently, when the majority of the members of a Jewish commu- nity were converted, there was nothing to interrui)t the current of their former life, there was no need for a change of organiza- tion. Tiie old forms of worship and the old mode of government would still go on. The weekly commemoration of the I^ord's supper and worship supplemented, but did not suj)ersede the ancient Sabbath. The reading of the life of Jesus and the letters of the Apostles su{)plemented, but did not supersede the ancient lessons from the Prophets and the ancient singing of the Psalms. The connnunity^ as a whole, was known by the same name whicli had designated the purely Jewish community. It was a paroikia. — a parish — a colony of sojourners. The officers would continue to bear the same name, and to a large extent perform the same duties. ^ The meetings of the disciples of Jesus would bear the same designation — a synagogue, and were known by that name in Palestine and Asia Minor long afterwards. James writes, " For if there come in your synagogue a man with a gold ring."^ The "Testament of the twelve Patriarchs," the production of a ^ Hatch: Baiupton Leot,, 1880, p. 59. Arclibisliop Whately: Kingdom of Christ Delineated, p. 108. Bis. Liglitibot : Com. Phil., p. 192. '^ James ii. 2. ■• m^*^* T ■•^ I h " v^* ■k* TuR Earfa' Church. 17 Jewish Christian, written ahont A. D. 135, and reflecting the lan- guage of that time, in describing Paul, says, "One siiall rise up from my seed in the hitter times, beloved of tiie Lord, liearing upon earth his voiee, enlightening with new knowledge all the Gentiles, bursting in upon Israel, for salvation with the light of know- ledge, and tearing it away from it like a wolf, and giving it to the synagogue of the Gentiles, and until the consummation of the ages, shall he be in the synagogues of the Gentiles, and among their rulers, "s a strain of music in the mouth of all."' The whole analogy leads us to the assurance that a body of elders had been chosen at an early period to direct the religious worship of tlie so(nety, and also to oversee its temporal wellbeing. '^ And while therefore we would not i)ut its formation back to that re- markable Pentecost, as Ijightfoot, Mosheim and others, yet it is most likely that it was adoj)ted when the persecution took place after the death of Stephen, and this seems to be the opinion of Neander. ^ It must have been in existence some time, the office well known in its Christian api)lication, and the name one which conveved a certain idea to all. Some have aryrued that the presbyters were introduced into the church at the time of the martyrdom of James by Herod, and that this event was the signal for the dispersion of the Apostles on a wider mission. Since Jerusalem could no longer be their honie, as hitherto, it became necessary to provide for the permanent organization of the church.' But a i)eriod of intense missionary activity had begun seven years before; and can we think that the infant churches formed had been left so long vvithout any organization or rulers, when immediately upon the departure of the Apostles 'Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs: Benj. II. Synagogue is used in the same sense l»y the writer of the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, c. 4. "Bis. Lightfool: supra. 1. c, and Dr. Alexander: Com. Acts xiv. 23; Lechler: Com. Acts xi. -SO. •'Tlie formation of ChurcJK's in South and West Palestine, at Lydda, Sharon, .lojipa, and Ciiesarea, and also in Samaria and Phoenicia, would seem to neces- sitate their apjiointment at this time. *Bis. Lightfoot Es. Ministry, Com. Phil. p. 102, sq., and Com. Gal. pp. 298-303. C 18 Organization in from the clnircli wliicli had been privileged vvitli their presence and ovcrsif^ht for eleven years, it is found necessary immediately to establish the presbytery. Moreover, the course adopted by the Apostles soon afterwards is against such a delay as this theory supposes. For we have the fullest evidence that in the societies of Asia Minor and Macedonia tl.jy had a fully organized church and presbytery within a few months of their foundation, as will appear further on. Having described the presbytery of the synagogue, its chief functions need now only be recalled. It regulated all matters of worship, directed the reading and explanation of the sacred books, the offering of prayers, and the chanting of the Psalms; and also in the Apostle's days one or more of its members gave an address. It had a president; i)erhaj)s this office was held in rotation, at least he was but the first among his peers. There was nothing priestly about it; not the least breath of sacerdotal- ism clung to it.^ It was very democratic in its formation and constitution, and undoubtedly was adopted as making provision for the government of the church in the first instance, rather than for its instruction. This seems to have been chieflv in the hands of the Apostles and those under the special influence of the Spirit, called prophets or preachers ; and those who having the charism of teaching, were by their mental development, under the guidance of the Spirit eminently qualified foi the impartation of knowledge and the edification of the people. It is likely, how- ever, that these presbyters were selected not only on account of their governing capacity, wisdom, age, and experience, but also where possible, because they had in addiiion, those charisms of the Spirit especially required for the discharge of the teaching function, and which immediately after formed one of the chief duties of their office. That they did perform these didactic functions at an early period is certain, if we look at the evidence afforded by the * According to the views of Lange and Pressense, the diaconnte and pres- byterate both were developed out of the ofHce of the Seven. Pressense: Apos. Age, p. 85, sq. '•#• if^ a -«if' The Pearly ('hurcii. 19 Epistle to the Hebrews, addressed to these very Palestinian Jewish Christians about twenty yeans after this mention of elders in the Acts : ^ " Obey them that have the rule over you and submit yourselves, for they wateli over your souls as they that must give account, that they may do it with joy and not with grief, for that is unprofitable for you." ^ In addition to ruling and watching over their souls, the delivery of the divine truth must have been part of their duty in the fulfilment of this onerous care. This is put beyond doubt by the seventh verse, " Who have spoken unto you the word cr God." Moreover, these leaders and s|)eakers were dead, so tliat this may take us back to the |)eriod of their ruling and preaching, to the time under consideration.^ This view of the union of the two func- tions in this oflice is confirmed by the description given by St. Luke of some of the eminent men in the churcii at Jerusalem a few years hence, Judas Barsabas, and Hilas or Silvanus, who were sent as a deputation to the Antiochian churches. They are represented as "chief men among the brethren,"^ men of in- fluence, leatlers or rulers, hegouraenoi, the title used in Hebrews,'^ and as those, spake unto them the word, as well as watched over their souls ; so these delegates from the society at Jerusalem are not only called rulers, but also prophets, that is, preachers who "exhorted the brethren with many discourses and strengthened thern."^ It appears, therefore, that these eminent men were selected for the presbytery because of their superior qualifications as public teachers. Notwithstanding the plain correspondence between the Jewish and Christian presbyteries, it has been sought to identify the })resbyter of the latter with the Messenger of the synagogue and and the Chazzan, as by Lightfoot, who speaks with great dog- * According to the chronology of tlie Acts this was A. D.. 44, and the Epistle to the Hebrews was written about A. D. 65. See Drs. Kaye, Moll, and Whedon in their Tatroductions to their Commentaries of this Epistle. '^ Heb. xiii. 17. =* Moll. Com., Heb. xiii. 17. * Acts xv. 22. 6 Hob. xiii. 7, 17, 24. « Acts xv, 32. il 20 Okganization in matisrn on this j)«>int,' ami vvlio Iuih liad Ji nuiltitiidc! of followors both in tl)o asHcrtiou, and also in the spirit in wliicli it is made. ]5iit, as shown above, these were but sui)(>rdinate olliccs in the Apostles times.'' This view arises tVoni contusing the difU'rent duties attached to tiiese olliees, and the inerj^ini; to a large degree the two into one several centuries aCterwanls. Jkit of this eon- fusion a larg(! nuinl)er of writers are guilty; but if there is a fact upon which we can rest with certainty pertaining to this age it is this, that the presbyter was not ev(»lved out of the parish clerk and the sexton. Neither can the view of Baur be entertained, that there was one presbyter for each congregation, introducing a monarchical element into the constitution of the church. Tliat the church at Jerusalem and elsewhere was at this period divided into distinct societies, each with its own presbyter and separate gt)vernment, is devoid of a tittle of evidence, and bcsiiles, the plain facts of the history as recorded in Acts, and the correspondence in form with the synagogue })r(!sbytery are against it.'^ Concerning the mode of appointing these officers there can be little uncertainty. In filling the place of the traitor there was a nomination and an election, by the whole body of disciples assend)led.' When the deaitons were to be ap[)ointed, the whole multitude of disciples were called to make the choice and present the elected to the Apostles, not for their confirmation but for appointment, and we cannot think that any other mode was adopted in this case. This does not invalidate the fiu^t that all these received the inward call of the Holy 8[)irit moving them to this holy and onerous office. What particular rites were used in inducting them into this office are not recoi'ded, but the imposition of hands was used in the corresponding offi(!e of the synagogue. An event which took place a short time after the period allotted for ' Homo liub. Malt. p. 89. '-'Bishop Liglifool: Pliil. [). lUO, note. ■' Neander: P. & T., p. 42, s^., and note. In liis (luiifral History lie well terms it an atomic theory, Vol. 1., p. 185. * Acts i. 15-20. h i The Early Church. 21 the formation of tliiH office leaves little tloubt on the •subject ; this important event we now proceed to consider — tl>e separa- tion and appointment of Barnabas and Haul for the work of the evan}:;elization of the iieathen world. The sac'red nar- rative is a^ follows: "Now there were at Antioch, in the church that was there, prophets and teachers. — And, as they ministered to the Lord and fasted, the Holy Ghost said, ' Separate me iJarnabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them.' Then when they had fasted and prayed and laid their hands on thorn they sent them away." ' T'he intimation of the divine will came through one of these prophets and teachers while they were engaged in public worhliip.^ Tiiere might have been a seeking of the divine direction in this matter, for Paul's soul, we learn from his writings, was impressed with a strong conviction that he was called to this special work, and the men- tion of fasting renders it probable. The important word in the message is, separate, that is, from other work — ministering to ami building up churches already founded; for the spread of the Gospel among other races and in other lands, strictly evangelistic work. They were not only appointed to a new office, but their duties were defined. This separation, like the teciinical Hebrew work Kodeshy included a sanctification and pre})aration f(;r the work to which the person was appointed ; this preparation in the Apostles had been recognized by the public call. They were divinely called because divinely qualified. This setting apart was composed of the following particu- lars : fasting, prayer and laying on of hands. Fasting that their minds might be withdrawn from the earthly, and fitted for be- lieving prayer. Intercessory prayer for the graces of the Spirit yet further to qualify and succour these messengers, and "to open a door of faith unto the Gentiles."^ Laying on of hands for the transmission of office and authority was the outward sign of this J^ separation. This very ancient and Jewish right was familiar to ^ Acts xiii. 1-3. '^ Tl>e word employed refers to public duties in worship. Meyer, Alford, Bloomtield, Corns. ; Acts xiii. 2. ^ Acts xiv. 28. 22 Organization in all, and no mystical import could be attached to it. From ear- liest times this form had been used in the co'.iferring of office, as in the case of Joshua.^ The man was selected, "for in him was the spirit," but this was his public apj)ointment. For forty years he had been the military leader, yet he must be publicly consecrated to his high office.^ The spiritual gifts he possessed did not dis- pense with this external aj)j)ointment, nor would this ordination have been of any avail without the gifts;^ In accord with ancient usage, the Saviour himself in blessing his disciples and sending them forth on their mission at llisdepiirture lifted up His hands and blessed them.^ In the circumstantial account given by Luke we are able to scan the exact imjmrt of this rite, which has been so sadly abused by all Judaizing Christians by attaching to it a magic potency, and m-dving it the motioj)oly of a certain class of jninisters. What was the virtue of the ordination here described ? Did it furnish Saul and Barnabas with a title to the ministry ? No, for Go;' himself had called them, and a higher authorization they could not receive. Did it necessarily add anything to the eloquence, or the prudence, or the know- ledge, or the piety of the missionaries? No results of the kind were to li?e produced by any such ceremony. VV^hat, then, was its meaning ? The Holy Spirit required their se})aration for a specific work, and the laying on of hands was the mode or form in which they were designated to their new office. To Hebrews the rite was very suggestive and full of hallowed associations. When a Jewish father invoked a benediction on any of his family he laid his hands upon the head of his; child ; when a Jewish priest devoted an animal in sacrifice he laid his hands upon the head of the victiu* ; when a Jewish ruler invested another with office he laid his hands ui)on the head of the uaw finictionary, and when a new candidate was received into the synagogue presbytery it was by imposition of the hands of the presbytery. By this act the [)resbytery of Antioch intimated their investiture with ecclesiastical authority.' ' Numb, xxvii. '2. - Lange in loco, ' Dr. Gosnian : Lange's Com. m loco. * Luke xxiv. 50. " Killen : Ancient Church, p. 64, sq. ^ niF 1^^ " ^^^ ■» %v ^ Ai The Early Church. 23 In some few instances, when used by the Saviour and His disciples in answer to their prayers, the rite had been accom- panied with the impartation of the Holy Ghost.^ In this instance the grace had been in tiie possession of the ordained for years.^ Those who ordained or imposed their hands upon them in the name of the church, thus giving them this visible au- thority, were prophets and teachers, Symeon, Lucius and Manaen, two Cyrenicians and a Romanized Jew ; no apostle, no delegate from Jerusalem, but the members of the presbytery of the church at Antioch, scriptural exhorters, preacher's and expositors. The full purpose of this solemn consecration is obvious. E^fore, they taught as Christ's disciples, using their gifts and graces for the diffusion of the Gospel, as all talented Christians did, and were called to do, and as the founders of the Antiochian (thurch had done. Barnabas had been a presbyter of the church at Jerusalem for several years, and Paul had laboured in that capacity for a year at least in Antioch, but they were now to go forth as the appointed ministers of the church and messengers of the Lord Jesus unto the Gentiles, to preach the word, gain con- verts, organize their new churches; and to confront all opposing Judaizers, they were solemnly and publicly invested with this authority.^ The difficulty sugj^^ested by some that they could not re- ceive this appointment to a higher office from those ecclesiasti- cally beneath them, is to throw back the ideas of the nineteenth century into the first, and to overlook the divine c(>mmand. Xeither are we to entertain the view that by this act, Paul and Barnabas were set aj)art to fill up the original number of the Apostles, one being killed by Herod and the other made Bishop of Jerusalem.^ These vacancies were not filled, and the sup- posi;(l Bislio]) of Jerusalem was not an A^wstle. * Acts viil. 17 ; ix. 17. ^ Acts ix. 18 ; xi. 24. ^ Bishop Kaye: (Jov. and Disc. Church First three Centuries, p. 22. * Bloomtield : Greek Test., in loco. 24 Organization in That this ordination was not lightly valued by Paul apiK'ars from his distinct refcronce to it in describing himself to the Roman church — "Called to be an Apostle, separated unto the gospel of God." ^ It was not until five years after, that the apos- tleship of Paul was acknowledged by the other Apostles and the church at Jerusalem.^ Though some commentators understand the reference in Romans to be to his call on the wav to Damascus, it may more j)r.>perly be understood as above, of his formal ac- knowledgment and appointment before the world/^ When the twelve had been sent in their oftici:d capacity, Jesus had stretched out his hands over them, an outward sign visible to those present; so these Apostles and Evangelists receive an outward indication of their official relations to the church, Fully commissioned and endowed, they set forth on their missionary journey, which likely occupied about nine months, from March to November of the vear A. D. 45.^ This i)eriod is verv iioteworthv in its bearin()nsible position of elders, though their know- ledge of tiie gospel must, from their previous training, and the bre\ itv of their Christian life, have been of the most meaiire and limited character. Yet, Christian ])rude!ice and care for their welfare, prompted this course; and we must not forget that the A))osties were under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, which, in relation to these ecclesiastical arrangements, was the Spirit of wisdom. There are several facts which will lessen the astonish- ment of some at this rapid advance of young and inexperienced 'Rotn. i. 1: Olshausen, Lochler and Wordsworth, in loco. -Gal. ii. 0. •' Lecliler : Acts xiii. 1 -o. 'Opinions vary; tliat ^ivon, is sustained witli al)ility by Conyhoaro t*v: Ifow- s(in : St. I'aul,\'ol. I. p. I(i4, sq., and by Farrar : Life St. Paul, p. 295. Lcohler : Acts xiv. 2(i ; and Canon Cook: lutrod. Acts, p. 816, think two years. Hut tlie climax is n-achcd by Killcu and Kenan, who think four, five, or six years. Anc. Church, p. 08 ; Si. Paul, p. 70. '■•Acts xiv. 23. ^ The Early Church. 25 -^ converts to this position of trust and responsibility. There were several of these officers in each church, most probably three. ^ The teach iuij function of the presbyter did not at that time assume in all the churches that leading position among the other duties assigned them which it did afterwards, and the charisms of the Spirit were more striking and manifold than in a later age; prophets and teachers might arise in each infant congrega- tion, and no doubt upon fitting occasions these were made pres- byters. The method of tiieir appointment is indicated — " When they had chosen them by vote." ^ It is conceded by a large number of able exi)ositors that this is the meaning of the word employed.^ Even if we take the word to denote simply appoint, as the Re- vised Aversion reads, yet nevertheless the preceding iiistory would decide that the selection was made by voting, as in the apostle- ship, deacons, and in tlie synagogue. With tiiese precedents, the word would be misleading if any c>ther mode of election had been adopted.'' 1 The force of a favourite theory is seen in Bishop Jacobson's note in the Speaker's Coimnentary, in loco. "One elder in each where there were several churches in the same city." Tlie most microscopic criticism fails to discover the least intimation of more than one church in each place. It stands in marked contrast to tiie frank a(hnission that there were several in each church by Conybeare and Howson : St. Paul, Vol. I. p. 199; and Dr. Jacob : Ecc. Polity oV N. Test., p. 78, sq. 2 Acts iv. 23. ^ CheirotoneinSee Eobinson's Lex. sub. voce., and compare its use in 2 Cor. viii., 19. Compare Meyer, Alford, and Lechler, in loco; Schaff: Apos. Church, pp. 244, 501 : Killen: Ancient Churcli, p. 07 ; Pressense: Apos. Age, p. 122 ; Kaye: Gov. Discip. Cli., p. 23, note ; iloihe and Baumgarten, &c., advocate the same view ; and even Bish. Jacobson seems to admit that there may be a re- ference tc an election, supra 1. c. * Hammond, Whitby, Bloomfield and others, contend that the Apostles appointed then) witliout any election, which is a simple ignoring of the record. T!>e ci.uimout of Bloomiield seems to confound the meaning of the word in the Apostlos days with the ecclesiastical use of it in the twelfth century, when it was used of the stretching out of tlie Bishop's hands in the rite of the imposi- tion of hands. Dr. Wiiedon enforces tlie meaning election, but says that Harnal)iis and Paul elected, which at least would save trouble in counting D 26 Organization in The persons aj)pointe(l were such as enjoyed the confidence of these youthful Christian communities. Separated from the synuj^oguc, liable to persecution, it became imperative that they should form a society of their own with pro[)er officers. An interval of a few years brin*^s us to a remarkable epoch in the history of church organization — the meeting of the Apostles and P]ldcrs described in the fifteenth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles. There are a number of questions to be examined before it is possible to arrive at a proper view of its constituents, authority, procedure, and action. And her^ we shall find the necessity of keeping close to the inspired records, and divesting ourselves of our ecclesiastical opinions as to what ought to 6e, and confining ourselves rigorously to what is, as exhibited in this history. There is a sufficient preponderance of opinion among emin- ent critics to sustain the date of this gathering as about A. D. 50. There is also a wide-spread agreement that the account in Acts XV. must be supplemented by that given by Paul in Gal. chaps, i. and ii. This opinion is ancient, as well as extensively supported by modern critics. Irenaeus, after stating that at this time Paul went up to Jerusalem, and quoting from Galatians, proceeds : " If, then, any one shall from the Acts of the Apostles, votes. In the ehibonite and very valuable article in Smith and Cheethani's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, Vol. II. p. 1501, by Hatch, he considers the word equivalent to ap[)oint, without defining the method, while admitting the original use was restricted to an election. Nevertheless, one of the refer- ences given — Ignatius Ep. Philadelphians, c. 10 — certainly means elect, and so Dr. Donaldson translates it, the church is to "elect a deacon as an ambas- sador," and two passages not referred to confirm this definition ; the Smyr- neans are instructed, o. 1 1, " Your church should elect some worthy delegate," and Polycarp, c 7, is told " to assemble a very solemn council, and to elect one whom you greatly love, and know to be a man of activity." The wiiole argument of his celebrated Bampton Lecture sustains the meaning here given. A conqi.irisou of its use in (Jlem. Alex. Strom. VI., 13, Kusebius E. H. vi.29, Teaching of Apostles, c. 15, with what we assuredly know of the mode of appointment at these periods, removes all doubt. In (Joleiuan's Apostoli- cal ami Primitive Church, i)p. 61-G4, may be found a full discussion of the mcanhig of this word. Dr. Clarke, ui loco, has a clear, judicious note contain- ing a ipiolulion from Zonaras, which g"ves the gist of the whole matter. ' ^^ ,. Thp: Early Church. 27 '1*^ ; li carefully scrutinize the time concerning which it is written, that he went up to Jerusalem on account of the forementioned ques- tion, he will find those years mentioned by Paul coinciding with it. Thus the statement of Paul harmonizes with, and is, as it were, identical with, the testimony of Luke regarding the Apos- tles."^ Hug, in an elaborate and comprehensive inquiry, arrives at the same conclusion ;^ which may now, supported as it is by the greatest authorities, be considered beyond question.'^ The account in Acts gives the more public; details, that in Epistle to Galatians the more private and inner movements which took place. Its immediate cause was the desire for the judgment of the Mother Church at Jerusalem on a momentous question which involved the very foundations of doctrine, and in a large measure the extension of the gospel among the heathen. ' This action was taken by the church at Antioch and its officers, after a consulta- tion, in obedience to a divine intimation given through Paul. It has been called " The Apostolic Council," " The Conven- tion of the Apostles."^ But it was not apostolical, if by that is understood that all the Ai)ostles, or even a majority of the twelve were present. In both accounts there is only reference to two, of the twelve. Most likely the others were far away in their evan- gelistic travels. While the traditions preserved, regarding their travels, may not be entirely trustworthy, there is undoubtedly a large degree of fact at their base.*' However, the history refers only to the apostles Peter and John ; and John appears to have taken little part in the public proceedings. The question as to whether James, who spoke in the confer- ence, was one of the Apostles, though a difficult one, is not quite an insoluble one, and there is every probability that he was not 1 Heresies : Bk. III. c. 13, 3. '' Introd. N. T.,Vol. II. p. 316, sqq. •'The following have been examined: Bengel, Neander, Schafi; Lechler, Jacobson, Killen, Ellicott, Meyer, Lightfoot, Wordsworth, and Alford. *Renaji, notwithstanding his strange critical notions, perceived and stated this point with great clearness and force in his St. Paul, p. 76, sqq. ^ Hefele : Hist. Christian Councils, p. 77. " Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles. / 28 Organization in i^ one of the twelve, but was the brother of our Lord, and the evid- ence is so conclusive tliat only dogmatic reasons have prevented their force being felt. ^ Neither can this meeting be called a synod, for there is nothing in the narrative w'nch even siiggests that there were any present from any church but that at Jerusalem. The imagina- tion, trained under strong preposso.'^sions, ha^ seen delegates from the Phoenician and Palestinian churches, and those of the Syrian in the persons of Paul and his companions. But where is the evidence of this? Paul and his coadjutors were present to seek the judgment of the assembly, and to state their case before it, but were not members of it in the sense of voting, or adjudicating upon the question, on which they asked the decision of the church at Jerusalem. When we examine both accounts, instead of an " Ecumenical or Universal Council,"^ as it has been called, we find it com- posed of two Apostles, the brother of the Lord, the presbyters, prophets, teachers, and members, of the Christian societies at Jerusalem.'^ The only point in which other famous councils resemble it is in the fornmla which they adopted, but which indicates that in which they were the least like it — "It seemeth good to the Holy Ghost and to us."^ It is needful to give attention to the statement that the disciples generally were present. It is difficult to suppress amazement at the pertinacity with which some of the plainest statements of Luke are ignored. The reception of the delegates is a public one, " they were received of the church and the apostles and elders," v. 4. In the sixth verse the apostles and elders are gathered together, but it is added, " that all the nniltitude ke[)t silence and listened to Paul and Barnabas," v. 12, and ^ Pressense, Schall', and VViesler, powerl'iiUy reenforced recently by Iloltz- niann of .Stnisbiirg. Methodist Quarterly Keview, 1880, p. 370, sq. M<:illen: An. (jli., p)). 72-77. ^Soliatf: Ap. ell., 245; A. VV. Iladdan : art. Con ■ ;11 ; Stnilli and Clieetlnun : Diet. Christ. Anticjnities, Vol. 1. p. 474; also McCIlintoek & .Stron}';'s (;yelo[»., Vol. 11. p. 5o7 ; Kaye : (iov. and l)is. Cluireh, i). 24. 'llelele: Hist. Councils, Vol. 1. p. 1, sq. I r mUr T .^'^^^- I The Early Church. 29 '•i' T "then the apostles and elders with the whole church resolved," V. 22/ and in v. 23, "The apostles and the elders and the brethren."^ It appears therefore from the text that the whole membership of the church at Jerusalem was present and took a part in the deliberations.^ This is in accordance with the statements of Irenaeus, who live'^1 but one generation after one of the niembers of this council, the apostle John, and whose sayings he lovingly cherished. In writing of this convention, he says, " T'he whole church had convened together, Peter thus addressed the members, brethren," etc. : "And when all these things had been said, and all had given their consent."* A survey of the whole evidence leads to the conclusion that it was no mere apostolical, nor even clerical council. Not only the apostles, but the presbyters; not only the presbyters, but the whole multitude of believers take part in the proceedings of the conference. This council was essentially democratic, and we need . not be astonished, for all these were disciples, ready to die for the faith ; the sword of persecution was unsheathed, and they lived as those whose days are few, in the fear of the Lord."^ There is a dispute as to whether Peter or James was the presid- ent ; from the evidence to be hereafter adduced it appears that 1 The word ecioxe, rendered " it pleased," often occurs in classic Greek in the formal resolution of a senate, a popular assembly, or any body vested with authority. Lechler : Com. Acts xv. 22 ; Robinson's Lex. sub voce, 2, c. ^Though the words "and the" have been left out by Westcott & Hort, and also out of the Rev. Ver.,on MSS. authority there is reason to think that they were cancelled as the result of the strong hierarchical feeling prevalent when our oldest Uncials were written. DeWette, Tischendorf, and Meyer consider the words are genuine ; Dr. Shaefler's critical note in loco, Lange's Coin. But oniittiug the words, the translation proposed by the American revisors, is preferable: " The apostles and the elders, brethren,'" Appendix R. V. •' And this is in full accord with their i)revious practice, for several years before, wlien the news of the good work at Antioch readied the ears of the clnirch at Jerusalem ''thei; sent forth Barnabas as far as Antioch," Acts xi. 22. Uleresies: Bk. III. c. xii. 14. See also Neander: P. & T., Vol. I. p. 13G, and p. 144, note. spressense: Ap. Ch.,Vol.I. p. 131, scj. Conybeare and Ilowson: St. Paul, Vol. [. p. 214. Bish. Jacobson Com. Acts xv. Also Schaff, Neander, Baum- garten, Lange, Lechler, and Rothe on this event. ./ f 30 Organization in ii.> |i:. Ill James oceiipied a coiiimanding position in the chnrcli, so that prob- ably he presided ; and the so called "Apostolic Council" had not even an apostle for a president. This position of James was one arisinj^ from his reiationshij) to the liord, his personal character, and his austere virtue and strict piety, wiiich commanded the res- pect of the most ultra Judaiiwrs, as well as the more liberal Gentile Christians. But the statement that he was invested with chief authority is mere supposition.^ It is urged by some tiiat Peter ojjened the conference, and gave the first sj)eech, but a careful reading will show that there had been a long debate, "And when there had been much dis- cussicm, Peter rose up and said." "^ To sum uj) our findings, this so called "Council of Jerusalem" in no wav resembled the General Councils of the Church, either in its history, its constitution, or its object. It was not a convention of ordained delegates, but a meeting of the entire church of Jerusalem to receive a deputation from the church at Antioch. Even Paul and Barnabas seemed to have had no vote in the decision, though the vote of a promiscuous body could certainly not be more enlightened than theirs, nor w^as their allegiance due in any way to James. The church at Jerusalem aiight, out of respect, be consulted, but it had no claim to superiority, no abstract prerogative to bind its decision on the free churcii of God. The " de(!ree of the Council" was little more than the wise recommendation of a single synod addressed to a particular district, and possessing only a temporary validity. It was, in fact, a local concordat. Little or no attention has been paid by the universal church to two of its restrictions; a third, not many years after, was twice discussed and settled by Paul on the same general principles, but with by no means identical conclusions. The concession which it made to the Gentiles in not insisting on the necessity of cir(!umcision was equally treated as a dead letter by the Judaizing party, and cost Paul the severest battle of his lifetime to maintain. If this circular letter is to be regarded as a binding and final decree^ and the meeting of a single church, * Jacobson in loco. ^ Acts xv. 7. 'tr* *■ • Ji , 'Ti^ The Early Church. 31 '•r* ♦^ • « » M >.«'.»q:v not by delegates, but in the person of all its members, is to be regarded as a "Council," never was the decision of u Council less appealed to, and never was a decree regarded as so entirely inoperative alike by those who repudiated the validity of its con- cessions and by those who discussed, as though they were still an open question, no less tlian three of its four restrictions."® We enter now upon what is strictly the Pauline era of the Christian Church. This Apostle becomes the central figure : ins history in the Acts, and his writings, will be almost the only sources of information. Heretofore, the chronological order has been followed, but this period of seventeen years, during which the chief Gentile churches were founded and fostered by the labours and writings of this zealous Apostle, it will be advisable to treat as a whole. During the seventeen years past the in- terest has centered chiefly in Judaic churches ; now thev become subordinate to the marvellous growth of the Gentile churches, and instead of Peter and James, the chiefs of the Palestinian Jews, we have Paul the apostle of the Gentiles. Now, the gos})el is about to be preached chiefly to the Greeks, who were pagans; consequently the social and national influences and examples, which had exhibited such a marked power in shaping the constitution and government of the infant churches among the Jews, are now to (Msplay a corresponding force among these new converts. In the vision which he had, Peter was taught that everything that is not in its nature sinful may be used in the service of God : so the usages in the public and social in- stitutions of even pagan Greeks and Romans, not in themselves sinful, are adopted and purified for the service of the youthful church in their midst. Unlike Judaism, it had no temple of a peculiar pattern, or priesthood with an ai)pointed ritual ; but the spirit of the (.'hristian life was free to manifest itself in a form, and assume a garb and organization favourable to the genius of the many nations who were about to be subdued under its saving power. '•'Farrar : Life and Work of St. Paul, Vol. 1. \^. 301. f 32 Organization in Thcro was a ^ront siinilarity in Greek und Roman life of this period to our own times, in the tendency to form assoei'i- tiona. We have tliese for almost every purpose — social, scien- tific, relitrions and commercial ; trades unions, relief clubs, friendly societies, ])olitical chd)s, etc., etc. ^.t this time, in all parts of the Pjinpire, were to he found eluhs and associa- tions. Then! were trade "uilds and (h'amatic jjjuilds, friendly societies and Hnancial societies, literary societies and reli<;ious societies, burial (dubs and dinino' clubs. These orjjanizations honey<'ombed the Empire. In Geneva and P^phesus, Laodieea and Turin, Philip|)i and Alexandria, Spain and Wallachia, France and Numidia, Italy and Proconsular Asia, — everywhere, in- scriptions have been found commemorating the existence, describ- ing the officers, n)eetings, and rules of these oninij)resent societies. They were open to all, for even slaves had their organizations for protection and mutual help. What is more im))ortant for our pur|)ose, all these guilds had a strong religious element ; they were placed under the protection of some divinity. The trade clubs of Rome were under the patronage al manajj^cment of the business was in the hands of a committee of more aged and experienced men, who bore the name of presbyters. This system was wide si)read at thi3 age; in Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt, the inscriptions lately re- covered give many details before unknown.'^ This title was also apj)ropriated by certain officers of temples, and by pro- fessors in some schools of philosophy. Now, two consequences flow from these facts : 1. That to the pagans, Christians would be looked U])on as members of a similar association ; this was not only most likely, but we know it actually to be the case. Let us recite the evi- dence : The researches reccfitlv made show that the Roman government seemed at an early date to recognize the Christians as a confraternity, or corporate body;^ The existence of certain inscriptions in the catacombs place it beyond doubt. The ordi- nary laws respecting burial fraternities' governed those of the Christians, and afforded them protection during the first two cen- turies, and under this semi-legal protection they held their assera- 1 Hatcli : Biuiipton Lecture, 1S80, pj). 27, 28, 31, and notes, where all the original authorities are given. Renan : St. Paul, pp. 173, 217, 255, where also i the authorities are quoted, art. Collegium ; Sinitii and Cheetham's Dictionary of Ciiristian Antiquities, Vol. I. i>. 405. A brief but excellent account may be ' found of these collegia in Witlirow's Catacombs, p. 66, sqq. '■'.Joseph us states that at (iaza there were 500, and at Tiberias 600, Antiq. .* xiii. 13, 3., B. .J. ii. 29, 1 ; Wood's Discoveries at E[)hesus, App. ii., p. 29; ^ ^P^ *- Hatch, Smitli and Cheetham's Diet. Christ. Antiq., Vol. IT. p. 1699. ■■' Lightfoot : Phil., p. 194. *The rules of one of these burial societies, or collegia, may be foun*' in Witlirow's Catacombs, p. 'oQ, sq. E " 34 OlMiANIZATION IN blit's and admiiiistcrcd tlioir afl'airs, aH dcHcrilu'd l)v TcrtnlHan in his AjK)l()^y.' As these principles wen; in active operation duriiiix tlie whole of tlie time ()V(!r whicii this iiKpiiry extends, the evidence will also i)e collected fVotu the same area. IMiny, in his letter to Trajan, e. 100 A. 1)., (classes Christians as one of thesr associations.- (.V'lsns, e. 160 A. I)., considers them sneh, and in Tertnllian's Apolojry we have direct references to this view, and thonu'h this treatise was written more than a century after the time under consideration, and when these Christian gather- ings hegan to he classed as illegal, it refers to a judgment whiiih was universal in earlier times. Tertullian writes with great fervour: "Ought not Christians therefore to receive, not merely a somewhat milder treatment, hut to have a place among the law tolerated societies, seeing they are not chargeable with any such crimes as are commoidy dreaded from societies of the illicit (^lass. I shall at once go on then to exhibit the ]>eeuliarities of the Church Society. Wo arc a body knit together as such, by a common religious profession, by unity of discipline, and by a bond of common hope. The tried men of our conmiunity ]>re- side over us ; though we have our treasure chest, it is not made up of purchase money, as of a religion that has its price. On the monthly collection day, if he likes, eacfi one puts in a small donation. These gifts are, as it were piety's deposit fund. For they are not taken thence and spent on feasts and drinking bouts and cjiting houses, Init to support and bury poor people, to sup- ply the wants of boys and girls destitute of means and parents, and of old people now confined to the house; such too as have sutf'ered shipwreck, and if there happen to be any in mines, or banished to islands, or shut up in prisons, for nothing but their fidelity to the cause of God's church, they beccme the nurslings ' De Rossi, Nortlicote ; also Withrovv's Catacombs, excellent, as avoiding the onesldeil interi)retations adopted by Nortlicote. Moinmsen has clearly shown the bearing of the Imperial law upon (.'hristian brotherhoods in his work l)e (Jollef;iis, etc. Article, Catacombs, Smith and Cheetham's Dictionary Christ. Anti(j.,Vi)l. I. p. 301. Pressense: Christ. Life and Practice, p. 502, S(i<|. -On the bearing- of Pliny's decree on Christian assemblies, see Pressense: (Jli, Life ;ind Practice, p. 218, and note A, p. 523. * •%" m^^ m. Ill The Kauly Ouukcii. 36 * •%" WP*- u4l.^ of their confession. But it is mainly the deeds of ii love so noble that lead many to put a brand u[)()n us. See, tliey say, how tiiey love one another." ' The close correspondence between the two classes of asso- ciations is here forcibly brought out, and the [joints of con- tact exhibited in every sentence. He then [)roceeds to defend the love-feasts, comparing them with the feasts of the |)agan associations, and concludes : " Give the meeting of the Christians its due, and hold it unlawful if it is like the asseml 'ti<- of the illicit sort." Th^. whole of this part of the Apology consists in parallels between Christian and j)agan brotherhoods, and show- ing the immense diiference and superiority of the former. Origen, in defending the love-feasts against Celsus, writes: *' The first point that Celsus brings forward is that the Chris- tians entered into secret associations with each other contrary to law, saying that ' of associations, some are public, and that these are according to law ; others again secret, and maintained in viola- tion of the laws.' And his wish is to bring into disrepute what are termed the love-feasts of Christians. Since, then, he babbles about public law, alleging that the associations of the Christians are in violation of it, we have to reply : It is not irrational then to form associations in opposition to existing laws, if done for the sake of truth." ^ These quotations are but exam})les of many that might be brought, and show that Christian writers met the alle- gations of the pagans, not by a denial of their relationsliip to the law, but by showing the vast moral superiority of their institu- tions to the corresponding institutions of their pagan neighbours. 2. Another consequence is, that as soon as a number of Gen- tiles were brought to the acceptance of Christ, and felt the divine power of His love, they would unite together ; but mere feeling, or belief in a common creed, would not be the only bonds, but of necessity, for purposes of worship and mutual help — for a Christian church was also a charitable association — they would form an organization like the numerous associations around them, 'TertiiUian: Apology, cc. 38, 39. '^ Origen, Against Celsus, Bk. I. c. 1. 36 Organization in for in these there was ver}? much suitable for them, and possess- ing also the sanction of custom, and the facility which habitual usage affords. That this occurred, will be seen as we proceed. That there was nothing re})ugnant to the Christian judgment at that time in such adaptation, appears from the testimony of their writings, some jiroof has been given, and further quotations will show that they appealed to this conformity to usage, except in sinful idolatrous practices. In that golden relic of antiquity, the Epistle to Diognetus, the author writes : " The Christians are not distinguished from other men by country, by language, nor by civil institutions, for they neither dwell in cities by them- selves, nor use a peculiar tongue, nor lead a singular mode of life. They follow the usage of the country in dress, food, and the other affairs of life. They obey existing laws, and excel the laws by their lives." ^ Tertullian also, in the same strain, urges : " So we sojourn with you in the world, abjuring neither forum, nor shambles, nor bath, nor booth, nor workshoj), nor inn, nor weekly market, nor any other ])lace of commerce. But if I do not frequent your religious ceremonies, I am still, on the sacred day, a man."^ The reverence and affection for national and ancient usage which entered so largely in the shaping of Jewish Christian com- munities, played quite as important a part in the formation of Gentile Chrisiian societies. As the words selected to convey the mind of the Spirit in the sacred writings of the New Testament had been used hitherto with pagan connotations, but now were taken, and purified, and spiritual and Christian meanings at- tached to them,'^ so these customs and laws were adopted, but purified and elevated for the spiritual uses of the Church of Christ.* Then also the additional advantage it gave of securing ^ Epistle Diognetus, c. 5. ^ Apology, c. 42. ^ Such as gospel, love, fuith, humility, holy, holiness, church, apostle, bishop, presbyter : Trench : Syn^njynis, N. S. Scluiff": Companion Greek Testament, p. 40, sq. *In further [troof of this principle, compare '^ertul. De Pallio; Justin, Dialogue Trypho, c. 1 ; Eusebius, II. E., Bk. IV. 11 ; Origon, c. ('elsus, lik. III. c. 31 ; Bunsen's Ilippolytus and his Age, Vol. I. p. 313. The Early Church. 37 I f- .JF*/ to some extent the protection afforded by the civil law, would be a strong inducement for them to copy the existing legal associa- tions in their useful and permissible forms. In the early ages, the Christians always used their privileges and rights as citizens for their protection from their innumerable foes. As Paul at Philippi, and in his appeal to Caesar ; also tlie many instances when persecution decimated the Church in the mode of death to which citizens were adjudged, and in the Apologies addressed to the Emperors by Christian teachers. The first two churches formed on European soil were in Philippi and Thessalonica in 51 A. D. The letters addressed to the latter were written a few months after the founding of the church there.^ Upon examination, we find a full church organ- ization established, though the time which had elapsed was so brief. We may view it from two aspects, the ancient pagan one, and the Christian. The congregation at Thessalonica, to the eye of the heaihen outside observer, would present the very appearance of the associations with which he was familiar. There was the same name for their meeting, the church or synagogue, it had its presidents or episcopoi as they had. They met in tlie house of Jason or Aristarchus, like the domestic colleges with which they were familiar.^ The basis of association was the same, the pro- fession of a common religion. The members in the one case, as in the other, contributed to a common fund, or if needy, received from it; they, like them, partook of a common meal, the love- feast. As in the pagan societies, so in this, admission was open to all, bond or free, male or female, Jew, Greek or barbarian. They were the worship[)ers of ('hrist, as the others were the wor- shippers of Jupiter or Mercury. Those who a short time before had been officers, episcofoi of their confraternities, were now epis- copoi of this, presided at the weekly gatherings, and exhorted to the service of Christ as before to that of Jupiter. The solemn vow of the one reappears in the promises of obedience, or what 1 Conybeare and Howson. Alford, and Ellicott think, 52 A. D. ''■ Withrow's Catacombs, p. 69, gives a description of such a domestic college. 38 Organization in I ' ^!^ i| seemed to them the oath administered in tlie Lord's Supper. As the church appeared to the Jew a rival synagogue, to the iieathen it was a rival confraternity, with a new deity, — a third tribe, neither Jew nor Gentile. According to the Christian view, here was a church ^ com- posed of baptized believers, having a stated ministry,^ a superin- tendency, or episcopacy, that was a labour and a wo"k, one of the duties of which was to admonish ; the administration of the communion,^ reading of the Scriptures and of this Epistle; mu- tual edification and consolation in their assemblies;^ teaching by those having the gift of prophesying, a clear insight into the meaning of the Scriptures, accompanied with a fitting power of expression. So speedily, in ancient days, were pagans trms- formed into a church of Christ, and artisans, even slaves, made ^iscopoi under the wonderful and gracious power of the Holy Ghost; and others, by the charisra of the same Spirit, qualified for the office of instructors to the youthful society. Let us now take a comprehensive view of the organization of the church during this period. We find several enumerations of church officers : two appear to be very full — those given in Ephesiansand Corinthians — "He gave some, apostles ; and some, prophets ; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; for the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ." ^ "And God hath set some in the church, first apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, after that miracleis, then gifts of healings, helps, governments, diversities of tongues. Are all apostles? are all prophets? are all teachers? are all workers of miracles? Have all the gifts of healing? do all speak with tongues? do all interpret?'"' In the first passage the persons are brought before us promi- nently as the gifts of Christ unto His church ; in the second, we have, as the chief feature, those charisms of the Spirit which ' 1 Thess. i. 1. M Thess. v. 12, 13. »1 Tliess. V. 27; ^ verse 11. ^ Eph. iv. 11, 12. « 1 Cor. xii. 28-30. .1 «^ ^ vl ji^^-*" The Early Church. 39 j seen Christ; so therefore admits tlie cessation of the otlice. ' Eph. ii. 20. The absence ot the article before the seciMid substantive, showing the same i)er8ons are meant, the apostles, who were at the same time prophets. '' 1 Cor. xi-. 1, 3, 24, 25, 31 ; Acts xv. 32. j>' The Early Church. 41 le y i. e e y The next class were evaii^:clists, or itinerant missionaries. In the Acts and Epistles, their names occnr again and again : Philip, Timothy, Titus, Silvaniis or Silas, Luke, John Mark,^ etc. Several of them were in attendance upon Paul, and the life of one was typical of all. The travels of Timothy will therefore be an illustration of the variety of their duties, and extent of their itinerancy. Soon after his conversion, he was engaged in missionary service f then sent to Ephesus to complete the organ- ization of the (church, in the absence of the apostle Paul.^ After the fulfilment of this duty, he is sent by Paul to Corinth ; from thence to Macedonia.'* Then he accompanied the Apostle on his last journey to Jerusalem, and also to Rome.' From thence he is sent as a delegate to the church at Philippi, to enquire into their state, also bearing a letter to them from Paul.^ Afterwards he proceeded to Ephesus, where Paul sent his second Epistle to him, and called him again to Rome.^ When he arrived in this city he was imprisoned, but afterwards, being released, he pro- posed to visit Palestine.^ Similar labours and duties seem to have engaged die talents and time of the others, who were the chosen helpers and delegates of the Apostle.^ We now come to the presbytf -bishops, and having pre- viously considered the origin and duties of these officers, only a few points of interest, and frequently of much discussion, remain to be noticed. There appears to be no change in the duties of the office, as compared with the earlier period, at this time. The first question in importance is the equivalence of these two offices. The evidence in the New Testament is as follows : 1. In no instance are presbyters and bishops mentioned to- gether, as we find " bishops and deacons " in Philippians. ^ Acts viii. 5-13, 26-40 ; xxi. 8 ; Gal. ii. 1 ; Titus i. 5, etc., etc. 2 Acts XVI. 3. ■'' 1 Tim. i. 3 ; iii. 14, 15 ; iv. 13. * Acts xix. 22 ; 1 Cor. iv. 17, sqq. ; xvi. 10 ; 2 Cor. i. 1. 6 Acts XX. 4 ; Col. i. 1 ; Phil. i. 1. « Phil. ii. 19-23. T 2 Tim. iv. 9, 21. «HeI). xiii. 2.3. '■' As, Titus, whom we can trace in Jerusalem, Ephesus, Corinth, Crete, Nico- polis, and Dalmatia. F I 42 Organization in 2. In the directions which are given to Timothy touching the officers of the ciiurch, mention is made only of bishops and deacons ; no alkision being made to presbyters, because the l)ish- ops and presbyters were the same. 3. In Paul's Ej)istle to Titus, whom he had left in Crete to set in order the things that were wanting, and constitute or ap- point presbyters in every city, the qualifications for the presbyters are substantially identical with those which he had specified to Timothy as the qualifications for a bishop ; and he adds, "For the superintendent or bishop must be blameless," etc. Com- paring the directions given to Timothy and to Titus, as to the characteristics which are to distinguish presbyters or bishops, nothing but the straits of a controversial exigency could blind any reader to the fact of their absolute identity. 4. In Acts XX. 17, Paul is introduced to us as summoning to Miletus, the "elders," or "presbyters" of the church at Ephesus. And in his farewell address to them he distinctly designates them " bishops " (y. 28). 5. In the opening verse of the Epistle to the Philippians the Apostle salutes " the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons ; " and it is inconceivable, that if there had been another order of officers in that church between bishops and deacons, they would have been omitted. 6. The same identity of the two officers is clearly recognized by Peter when he exhorts the "presbyters" to "feed the flo(;k of God which is among them, taking the episcopacy or superintend- ency thereof, not by constraint, but willingly." 7. Of bishops, James makes no mention, but speaks of the " presbyters of the church." The lines of evidence accordingly which are found in the Acts of the Apostles, and in those Epistles of the New Testament which treat directly or indirectly of this subject, all (!(»n verge to the establishment of this conclusion : that no distinction was J V .§ • ,/f 1 The Early Church. 43 !l J <* « known or recognized by the apostles between presbyters and bishops, but that tiiey were different names for tiie same office.' That to such a conclusion an impartial criticism must lead is apparent from the almost universal admission of it by the critics of all schools. As Ritschl declares, " It does not admit even of a doubt that within the New Testament, bishop and presbyter are the titles of the same office, and that accordingly more bishops than one, in the first age, belonged to the church ; that this fact was not only acknowledged by the interpreters of the ancient church, but by many of the Catholic authorities of the middle ages." ^ Rothe also savs that " the identity of the New Testa- ment bishops and })resbyters is even now acknowlcged by unpre- judiced Catholic theologians,"^ Lightfoot asserts : " It is a fact now generally recognized by theologians of all shades of opinions that in the language of the New Testament the same officer in the church is called indiffiirently bishop, elder, or presbyter."* Pressense : " The identity of the office of bishop with that of the elder is so very apparent in the New Testament, that it was admitted by the whole ancient church, even at tlie time of the rise of the episcopacy, properly so called."^ Stanley : " It is certain that throughout the first century, and for the first years of the second, that is, through the later chapters of the Acts, Epistles, and the writings of Clement and Hernias, bishop and presbyter were convertible terms, and that the body of men so called were the rulers, so far as any permanent rulers existed, of the early church."^ Hatch : " Now in the Christian communities there appears to have been from very early times a body of officers known individually and collectively as j)resbyters, and also — for I shall here assume what the weight of evidence has rendered indisput- ' Dr. Mellor : Priesthood in the Light of the New Testament, p. 88, sq. Bishop Lightfoot : Com. Phil. p. 96, sq. ^Origin of the Old Catholic Church. "^The Beginnings of the Christian Church. *Coni. Philippians. ° Apostolic Era. ^ Christian Institutions. 44 Organization in able — by the name of bishops. The admission of both mediseval and modern writers of almost all schools of theological opinion have practically removed this from the list of disputed ques- tions."^ These are but a few examples representing different schools of thought in the Christian church, and also different countries. Such a consensus could never have been reached without the weight of evidence had been over[)owering. The next important point for consideration is, whether there is any ground for the assertion that the ruling and teaching functions were separate during this period; that they were not, in the former period of seventeen years, has already been con- clusively shown. This subject has two branches : 1. Were there two classes of elders, — ruling elders and preaching elders?^ 2. Were all the elders simply appointed for the purpose of government, and was the instruction of the congregations left solely to those who were possessors of the charisms of teaching and prophecy, many of whom occupied no official position, as seen in Corinthians ? 1. In Ephesians, that the two functions were closely connected, is seen in the juxtaposition of tiic two, " pastors and teachers," where the two terms must be referred to the same persons.^ In Hebrews the same association of ruling and teaching is seen, not only at the time of writing, but going back to a former genera- tion.^ In the Pastoral Epistles a talent for teaching is especially required, — " a bishop then must be apt to teach." ^ In Titus the teaching qualifications are more emphasized ; the whole context shows the vast importance of teaching ability in the judgment of the Apostle, and its urgent necessity for the right discharge ' Biunpton Lecture, 1880. ^ Hatch, in h\? Banipton Lecture, recurs to this view again an*! again with approval. So also Bunsen in his writings ; and Killen thinks nny other view wholly inadmissible; l)ut upon what slight grounds will be seen. =» Eph. iv. 11. *Heb. xiii. 7 ; conip. verse 17. "1 Tim. iii. 2. k * ^ t • t iL The Early Church. 46 » • of the duties of the presbyter-bishop. " For the bishop must be blameless — holding lo the faithful word which is according to the teaching, that he may be able both to exhor*^ in the sound doc- trine, and to convict the gainsayers. For there are many iniruly men, vain talkers and deceivers, specially they of the circum- cision, whose mouths must be stopped."^ The only passage appealed to, to support the position is, "Let the elders that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, especially those who labour in the word and in teaching."* But the grammatictil construction would put the emphasis on the laborious diligence in teaching, so that the antithesis is not be- tween teaching and non-teaching elders, but between a ruling well and teaching zealously, and those who do both, but not with this supreme earnestness and zeal.^ Its very setting is enough to suggest its true import; it forms part of an Epistle, treating especially of false doctrines, and designed to set forth the great importance of teaching the truth. Our jud'^ment must be, that it contains no allusion to two orders of elders. ^ 2. Neither can we receive the opinion that these presbyters were mere presidents of congregations, and that teaching was attached to no particular office, but was undertaken by any one who had the qualification.^ That there was a general liberty of prophesying and teaching cannot be questioned, but that did not provide for the regular instruction of the church everywhere, and at all times. Moreover, the quotations given above from the apostolical writings show that such a provision was raade.^ The diaconate appears to have retained the same functions. It is probable however that owing to the personal character of the holder, at one time including the higher function of teaching, 'Titus i. 7-11. Comp. Origen's interpretation, c. Celsiis, Bk. III. e. 48. 2 1 Tim. V. 17. '^Sohafl': Apos. Ch. p. 630 ; compare Huther and Oosterzee in loco. Kothe adopts this interpretation. * Pressense : A p. Era, p. 351 ; and Origen, supra I.e. 5 Neander : P. and T., Vol. I. pp. 174-8. Gen. Cii. Hist., Vol. I. p. 184. ^ Neander admits this at the date of the Pas. Ep. Gen. Cli. Hist., Vol. I. p. 187, sq. . 4 46 Organization in and at another, only the lower services in the public vvorsiiip, in conjunction with the eleemosynary duties of the office. Deacon- esses were also found in this era, as Phoebe and others.' The mode of election and a))pointment continues the same. The injunctions of Paul to Timothy and Titus are in full accord with the principles before laid down. These officers formed no priestly caste, for all believers were priests, "an holy priesthood to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God by Jesus Christ."^ They were a "royal priesthood, an holy nation,"' — all the j)eople were clergy.^ Because of this universal priesthood, they had the liberty of teaching, and that particsipation in the •government of the church characteristic; of the apostolic age. This freedom is very prominently seen in the Corinthian church.'* In matters of dispute it was customary to form a small committee of the members of the church to arbitrate.^ Where the apostles act themselves, it is in harmony with the general body of believers forming the church.^ These united testimonies carry down the organization of the church thirty-four years, when it had acquired stability with its growth.^ II. The Johannine Age. From 67 A. D. to 100 A. D. The evidence to be gathered during this period is small in amount, and the chronology subject to peculiar difficulty. After *Rora. xvi. 1. 2 1 Peter ii. 4, 5 ; ^ ver. ; • v. 3. n Cor. xiv. 23-36. « 1 Cor. vi. 5. ^ 1 Cor. V. 4. * This statement depends on the belief in the second imprisonment of Paul. After much discussion, this view is gaining ground, and in the words of Ooster- zee in his Introduction to the Pastoral Epistles, " We must range ourselves in the last result with Giesler, Lange, and Neander, notwithstanding the learned pages of Reus, Wiesler, and Pressense." The proofs of the second imprison- ment are admirably stated by Prof. Wace in his Introduction to Past. Epistles. These proofs receive additional force from attributing Hebrews to Paul, who wrote it c!uilng the last days of his first imprisonment. This much contro- verted question, dui'ing the last ten years has changed its position entirely, so that in the more conservative circles it is considered a settled fact. A critical journal states that during this period, in Germany alone, seven able scholars have commented on this Epistle, and all have declared themselves in favour of its Pauline authorship. The Early Church. 47 » -» a full consideration of the subject, we take the following to he the order and dates of these writings of the a|)ostle John : The Apocalypse, in the reign of Dotnitian, near the close of his life, 96 A. I). ;' the Gospel, 98 or 99 ;2 and the Epistles, at the close of the centurv.^ The most prominent feature in these writings hearing upon our subject, is the use of the title " angel of the church," in the Epistles to the seven churches of Asia, which has been taken to mark a new epoch in ecclesiastical government, and these angels have been taken to be the bishops of the respec- . tive churches, that is, the presiding presbyter invested with additional powers, or as Bunsen expresses it, a " monarchical bishop." This opinion might be followed out in detail, but to give the most meagre outline of the many theories propounded, with the evidence needed, ere a judgment could be formed, would require more space than can be allotted. That which ap|)ears most in accord with the book, as a whole, and least encumbered with difficulties, is that advocated by Lange and Lightfoot. The angel is the heavenly representative of the church, whether con- ceived of, as an actual person; the celestial guardian; or only, as a personification ; the idea, or spirit of the church. This angel is identified with tlie church, punished with it, rewarded with it, and responsible for it as no human officer, or a body of ihem, could be. This interpretation is in keeping with the symbolical character of the whole book ; and such an employment of a heavenly representative is also in accord with the earliest Apoca- lyptic book, the Prophecy of Daniel.^ Here then we find no change, no evidence of a nascent episcopacy, or for a monarchical bishop. A theory which has been received with favour by some ^ Dr. Lee's Introduction to the Apocalypse contains a clear statement of the whole case, and for ample learning, and impartial judgment, has not been sur- passed, and upon this much controverted question is well worth careful perusal by any in doubt as to the date of the Apocalypse. '^ Wescott's Introduction Com. Gospel of St. John. •' Dr. Alexander's Introducticm Com, Epistles. ■* Lange: Com. Rev. p. 197, sq. Lightfoot: Chris. Min. Phil. p. 199. See Dr. Lee'.s note Com. Rev. on the whole subject, and Schafi": Ap. Ch. p. 537, sq. KiJlen : Anc. Ch. pp. 237-245. 48 Oroanfzation tn ini ([uito recently, that episcopacv ori<^inated vvitli James the JuHt at Jerusalem, aixl was perjM'tiiated and further developed during John's residence in Kphesus, receiving his sanction, is built en- tirely on a few mystical epithets and allnsicms of early writers, and deserves no attempt at a refutation. The only evidence which cannot he disputed g(K!S to show that the tith; and office of presbyter were still held in great esteem, and that the apostle John iiimself used it in the sec^ond and third Epistles, where he styles himself " the presbyter." While there were in Asia Minor hundreds of Christians bearing this title and holding this office, there was but one to whom the appellation could be given so preeminently, that it once described him who was the great light of Asia. ^ In reading these letters, we see that the days of the s|)ecial and striking charisms of the church are near their close, we are no longer in the region of miracle and prophecy, the supernatural character of the first ages has faded away. Christianity begins to assume that every day life, with its regular paths and quiet appearance it presented afterward. And now closes <^he apostolii; era with that one who, as the son of Salome and Zebedee, began his life on the sea of Galilee, and became the discij)le of the Baptist, then the apostle of Jesus, the h(;rald of the Word, the Plato of the Evangelists, the prophet of Patmos, the inheritor of the work of Paul and Timothy at Ejihesus, the missionary of Ionia, and the last great Seer of the long roll which has made the history of his race and country famous forever.'^ From the few disciples, of whom he was among the first, he had seen the church grow till its numbers were counted by hun- dreds of thousands,^ the marvellous endowments and rich gifts of its youth had been changed for the more lasting graces which remain in her to-day ; but the simple polity of the missionary 1 Polycrates : apud Eiisebius H. E., Bk. III. c. 31. '^ Dr. Alexander: Com. John's Epis. Introduction. ^ Dorchester : Religious Progress, p. 515, gives tlie number generally re- ceived, 500,000. f- The Early Church. 49 apostles still remained intaot and nseful, a pattern to whihets found an entrance into the sacred enclosure, and some of them used their gifts for the purpose of unholy gain.^ In these early days, these local exhorters must have occupied a leading position, and accom- plished a very good and necessary work in building up the church. ^ Hennas: Siinil. ix. 27, in tiie Vatican MS. Cornp. Vis. ii. 4. '^ Teach. Apostles, c. xi. '^Sehaff': A pos. Church, p. 578. Teach. Apost. c. 10. Locke: Paraphrase 1 Cor. xii. 10. Conyheare & Howson, Vol. I. p. 430. * Vis, ii. 4 ; iii. 10 ; Com. xi. 12, 3 ; Simil. viii. 11. '^ Teach. Apos. c. 11. " Justin : Dial. c. Trypho, c. 82. ' Her. Com. 11 ; Teach. A.pos. c. 11. « Ensebius E. H. v. 18 ; Her. Com. 11 ; Teach. Apos. c. 11 ; Justin, Dial, c. Trypho, c. 82. 54 Organization in li i ! ii Another class who filled a foremost rank at this time were the teachers. Those who were endowed with a strong and cultivated understanding, a power of clear discriminating thought, and a gift of communicating instruction to others.^ Among such teachers we find Justin Martyr still retaining the philosopher's cloak, and discoursing with those who visited him in the Christian meeting house in the abode of Martinus, or in the colonnade at Ephesus;^ or ready to give an exposition of Scripture to the only congregation with which he worshipped in Rome, which met near the Timiotinian Bath, some of which no doubt are preserved to us in his Dialogue with the Jew, Trypho. Another, whose personality has been long overshadowed by Jus- tin, Ambrosius of Athens, who styles himself " a teacher of the Gentiles and disciple of the Apostles," and though neither bishop nor deacon, yet a gifted and eloquent teacher, who gave a remark- able and powerful address to the congregation, still extant, and declares that " he ministers the things delivered to me to those that are disciples worthy of the truth. "^ Many of these gifted nien visited tiie churches, staying but a short time. According to the ancient rule, each was treated as he deserved. " If he teaches so that he increases righteousness and knowledge of the Lord, then receive him as of the Lord;" "and a true teacher as a workman is worthy of his support."* They constituted no order, but, like the prophets of that day, as they were moved by the Spirit and were acceptable to the churches, fulfilled each one his own office of ministration for the welfare of all. A few of the most eminent men of the church added this to their other func- tions. Polycarp was an " apostolic and {)rophetic teacher," and the church loved to revere his memory as " the illustrious teacher."^ The names of many of the ancient worthies, still pre- served, were those eminent for this, among their other duties. Bishops, presidents or presbyters, come next in order. The » Neander : Gen. Hist., Vol. I. p. 187. ''' Acts. Martyrd. c. 2 ; Dial. c. Trypho, c. 1. ^Ep. Diognetus, cc. 11, 12. * Teach. Apos. cc. 11, 13. * Polycarp : Acts. Martyrd. cc. 16, 19. i» ^ r* The Early Church. 55 <» ■'ii equivalence of these titles and offices is fully established by the witnesses of this age, whose testimony we will present. The evidence of Clement of Rome is indubitable that at Cor- inth there are presbyters only. It is sought to evacuate his testimony with regard to Rome, but the tenor of his Epistle shows that what was the usage of Corinth, was. that of Rome.* The statement that " We cannot but accept the universal testi- mony of antiquity that it was written by Clement, the reputed bishop of Rome," is somewhat evasive in its tone.^ Truly Clem- ent was a bishop, and the nature of his episcopacy is fully set forth by himself. When speaking of the apostles, he writes, " And thus preaching through all countries and cities, they ap- pointed the first fruits, having tested them in the spirit, to be bishops and deacons, of those who should afterwards believe. Nor was this any new thing, since indeed many ages before it was written concerning bishops and deacons; for thus saith the Scripture in a certain place, * I will appoint their bishops in righteousness and their deacons in faith.' "^ He was a bishop, of whom there were several in one city, as at Philippi and Ephesus, in apostolical times — a presbyter holding an episcopate.* The testimony of Hermas tends in the same direction ; an identification of the two is found, the government of the church is in the hands of the presbyters;' and the character of its con- stitution is that with which the preceding years have made us familiar. That there was a turmoil in Rome about this time, we may justly infer from his warning those who " rule over the church, and those who love the chief seats," exhorting them to live in peace." ^ The supposition that in the above classification — bishops and teachers — bishop is used in a later sense, and that the teacher is the presbyter,^ springs from a forgetfulness that such a class of 1 Clement: Ep. Cor. cc. 1. 21, 42, 44, 47, 54, 57, and perhaps 65, (59). '^ Bishop Lightfoot: Phil. p. 218. •'' Clem. : ibid, c. 42. * Ibid, c. 44. ° Her. Vis. 2, 2, 4 ; 3, 5, 9. Dr. Salmon, Art. Hernias, Smith and Waoe's Diet. Chris. Biog., Vol. H. p. 919. ® Vis. iii. 9 ; not " the chief seat," as given by Bish. Lightfoot, Phil. p. 219, ^ Bishop Lightfoot, 1. c. 56 Organization in W officers was well established in the church of this period, and also from a latent desire to })ress the evidence further than it war- rants. Of a similar nature is the remark that were it not known that the writer's own brother was a bishop of Rome, we should be at a loss what to say about the constitution of the Roman church in his day.* Pius, the Roman bishop, was such a bishop as is descril)cd by his brother Hermas, — one of the rulers of the church, and sat on one of the chief seats — a presbyter, and the underlying supposition of Llghtfoot is a mere begging of the question at issue. Looking calmly at the hints given, we arrive at the solution which has met with so many advocates:^ that at this time there was beginning at Rome a desire for a change, and ambitions men were seeking to establish a bishop of the Ignatian stamp. The lists of Roman bishops paraded, teach us that some of these were chief among the presbyters, not chief over the ])reHbyters, and the title is not given to any of them whose epi- taphs have been found in the catacombs till the third century.^ Hogesippus, near the close of this age^ published his succt\ssion of the heads of the Roman church, but gives them no distinguish- ing title/ and it is as applicable to a succession of New Testament presbyters or bishops, as to the off-'^ers of a later generation.* In the Western chureh, including Italy and Greece, we find no proof of any organic change; the duties of the officers, their classes, and relations to each other and the church, remain the same. I'l J? . * Bishop Lightfoot, 1. c. ^ Pressense, Killen, Ritschl, etc. •^ Withrow's Catacombs, p. 81 ; Anteros, with he contraction E P I. in Greek characters is the lirst. Conip. Art. Catacombs, Smith and Cheethara's Diet. Christian Antiquities, Vol. I. p. 303. * HegesippuK : Ap. Eiisebius E. H. iv. 22 ; Hatch's Bamp. Lee. p. 87, note. ° The unconscious influence of theory may be seen in Bis. Lightfoot calling this a list of Roman bishops. Phil. p. 220. 1 insert the paragraph for com- parison : " On my arrival in Rome, I drew n\i a list of the succession down to Auicetus. But in the case of every succession, and in every city, the state of afl'airs is in accordance with the teaching of the law, and of the prophets, and of the Lord." It appears that Hegesippus was more concerned about tlie faith, and its preservation, than a mere list of names. The views of good men were not quite so mechanical yet. The men were only the channels through whom the doctrines were traced. ♦* The Early Church. 57 The powers, rights and privileges of the body of the church, are unaltered, and the primitive simplicity in a great measure retains its supremacy in the Western churches. Those of Asia Minor come next in order. Polycarp is the first in rank, as a disciple of the apostles, and one whose testimony reached down through the major part of this age to 155 A. D. In the interpretation of his evidence, we shall endeavour to keep to contemporaneous usages and connota- tions, and avoid the rock on which many theories continuously are wrecked. As in the case of Clemens, and hundreds of others throughout the Christian church, he was a bishop in the New Testament sense, and in the Clementine use of the word, and also according to the earliest collection of church rules extant.^ But a bishop, as distinguished from a presbyter, there is no evidence to prove. It is argued that he styles himself such. It is nothing to the ])urpose if he did, for a presbyter at Ephesus could have done the same. But in fact he did not ; thougli a later writer did it for him. Though some of the MSS. give this title in their heading, it is the work of a copyist of a later date. The address is " Polycarp and those with him who are presbyters."^ In the Epistle he treats of an erring presbyter, Valens, but he is amen- able, not to a bishop, but to the whole church.^ Two chapters treat of the duties of the several classes of members and officers of the church ; and here the duties of presbyters and deacons are set forth, but no other officers.^ How unlike the forgeries circu- lated in the name of Ignatius his contemporary. This evidence is invaluable as covering a period — the time of the apostle John's residence in Ephesus and half a century after — concerning which our knowledge is so scant ; and especially about the country, where, it is advocated, episcopacy of a later type arose. But this aged Christian Fatlier, who had been eighty-six years a disciple ^ Teach. Apos. c. 15. '^Polycarp: Phil. Superscription. Tbid c. 11. * Ibid, CO. 5 6. Bish. Lightfoot acknowledges this, " Tliough two or three chapters are devoted to injunctions respecting the ministry of the church, there is not an allusion to episcopacy from beginning to end." Contemporary Review, 1875, p. 839. H 58 Organization in B: if f when he suffered martyrdom in 155 A. D., has no hint of any such order; the constitution of the church appears unchanged in Asia Minor. The title of Presbyter applied to the apostle John by Pa|)ias, combines with the above to prove the certainty of this conclusion. This writer, born in 60 A. D., and for forty years a contemporary of the Apostle, his life reaching to 160, by the use of this designation shows that the change soon to take place had not yet begun. ^ The churches of Syria and Egypt offer their testimony in the valuable documents of this age and these lands, eminently the first Apology of Justin, and The Teaching of the Apostles. We are able without doubt to trace its organization. The presidents of Justin are th? bishops of the latter, according to the very an- cient MS. gloss before quoted, and the internal testimony of these writings ; and both titles have apostolical sanction. No other intermediate order is known ; they and the deacons are the offi- cers of each church. Their duties are alike in both ; the presi- dent administers the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and after the reading of the inspired Word, verbally instructs and exhorts to the imitation of these good things,^ and offers prayers and thanksgivings to the best of his ability.^ ' Westoott: Introd. Com. John; and Hist. Is ew T. Canon, Eusebius, E. H. iii. 39. As to the nebulous John the Presbyter evoked by the Tubingen school, " we may relegate tliis Doppelgiinger of the apostle to the region of ghostland." Dr. Salmon : Smith and Wace's Diet. Chris. Biog., Vol. III. p. 401. Farrar : Early Days of Christianity, p. 618, sqq. ^ So simple and yet so solemn were these exhortations, that Pliny, having never heard ought like theiu in lieathen worship, mistook the confessions he obtained from apostate Christians, and the testimony of the two Deaconesses he tortured, to mean that, they took an oath to abstain from every evil act. The pagan knew nothing of the impressive exhortations of Christian teachers or bisiiops. and hence his mistake. There is no reference to the Eucharist, as some suppose, which is clearly distinguishable in the following clause. Pliny's Ep. 97. Pressense : Christian Life and Practice, Appendix, p. 523. ■^Justin: Apology, 1. c. 67. The supposition of Bingham: Antiquities Chr. C'h. Bk. xiii. c. 5, that hose dumanis means with a loud voice, is not only ctmtrary to the siinplo meaning of the Greek, but also singularly inaccordant with the simple worship there described, held in private houses. Moreover, the directions given in the Coptic Constitutions settle tlie point. "But every « •SOL The Early Church. 69 V J n n is a 3e The provisions found in the Teaching of the Apostles are similar. "Choose for yourselves besides, bishops and deacons who are worthy of the Lord, gentle and not miserly, and upright and proven men ; for they also render unto you the service of prophets and teachers. Despise them not therefore, for they are your honoured men, with the prophets and teachers."^ The same beautiful simplicity of worship is portrayed, but if any dif- ference, it is m the freedom whereby apostle, prophet or teacher may address the congregation, or offer prayers. But quite in unison with what is found in Hermas as the practice in Rome. This unity is further assured by the position held by Justin as a teacher of the church, and whose extensive travels made him acquainted with the usages of the church in his native Palestine, Asia Minor, and Rome. We conclude the review by tlie testi- mony of the ancient Syriac version belonging to the close of this age, as embodying the thought and uaa^e of the Syrian church at the time of its translation, for we find this venerable version translating episcopos by kashisha, that is, presbyter.^ The East unites vvitli the West in corroboration of our con- clusions : the religion of the meek and lowly Jesus has not yet put on worldly attractions, or sought to enmlate its pomp; rank and office are subordinate to the spirit of devotion and evangeli- zation, and all Christians still feel it their duty, according to their ability, to "be seen as lights in the world, holding forth the word of life,"^ as they were favoured with opportunity. The distinc- tion between the clergy and the laity was not yet established, for "they shall all be taught of God " was the current maxim.* The one shall pray according to his ability ; but if he be able to pray suitably, and the prayer is acceptable, it is good." Coptic Const. Bk. II. Can. 34. ^ Teach, of the Apostles, c. 15. Notwithstanding the rendering of eminent translators, and their notes, I cannot but consider "choose" a closer rendering of cheirolonein, than appoint. Compare the directions given in Coptic Const. Bk. II. Can. 31, and Ethiopic Col. Can. 2, and note 4 on p. 25. '^ Peshito: Ed. Gutbier, Hamburg, 1664. Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1 ; Titus i. 7, etc. Compare Ethridge : Syrian Churches and Gospels, p. 102, sq. Bish. Lightfoot acknowledges this, and refers to it, but evades its true bearing. Phil. p. 97, note. =» Phil. ii. 16. * Apost Const, viii. 31. Coptic Const. Bk. II. Can. 41, 60 Organization in i; ii i t !; liberty of prophesying which prevailed in the apostolic age, still exists;' the evidence in proof of this has already been given in- cidentally, so that there is no need of its repetition.^ That, in cases of necessity, laymen administered baptism, appears not only from the words of Justin,^ but by express declaration, long after this time. For, when neither presbyters nor deacons are present, laymen have the right, " for what is equally received can b' equally given." ^ It seems also that in the absence of the proper officer, the Eucharist might be celebrated by the assembled worshipj)ers, though this j)oint is not so clear.'* That discipline was exercised by the whole community is seen l)y :he Epistles of Clement and Polycarp ; both place the right of restoring and removing officers in the church itself, — the whole community of Christians in the city.** In all these functions, the members might share, in case of need, with their officers. No mystical power was in the hands of the one which the other did not possess. The gifts of the Spirit wore freely bestowed, and as freely used, and no strained idea of church order prevented the s})ontaneous outflow of Chris- tian thought and emotion by those who had been divinely taught. Each church had an express voice in the selection and appoint- ment of its own bishops and deacons. They were elected by the body of believers, thus following the apostolical precedent.^ The unity of tlie church universal was secured by a unity of personal experience, and all were bound together by the ties of Christian love, not by church order or outward bonds; the cement of their unity was the one Spirit, the one Lord, the one faith, the one bap- tism, and the one God and Father of all.^ And now, like the ^ Acts viii. 4 ; xi. 9-21 ; xiii. I ; 1 Cor. xiv., and implied in Jas. iii. 1, etc. '^Clem. Cor. c. 56; Teach. Apos. c. 11. ''Justin: Apol. 1. cc. 61, 65. *Tertullian on Baptism, c. 17. ^The reasoning of Tertnllian belongs to an earlier date, and reflects the nsage of an age anterior to his own. Comp. The Crown, c. 3, with Ex. Chast. c. 7. ^Clem. Cor. cc. 44, 54. Polycarp: Phii. c. 11. '' Clement: Cor. c. 42. Teach. Apost. c. 15. "The attempt to represent some clauses of tiie lately recovered lost portion of the Epistle of Clement, as speaking in a tcme of authority used by the Ro- The Early Church. 61 traveller who takes a long lingering look on a beautiful scene he never expects to behold again, his joy tinged with sadness, — so we leave this pristine age of spiritual power and simple government, with sond)re emotions, knowing that never again will our Ije- loved Christianity present to the world such a spectaclf ui' simple forms, unrestrained by the shackles of excessive and burdensome ordinances, and the incubus of a priestly despotism. The com- bined influence of which were soon to make the church in her organization and doctrine a Judaistic and Gnostic petrifaction of that living truth Christ had committed to the care and keeping of His disciples. IV. The Transitional Age. From 160 to 250 A. D. So called, because now began to work the principles which paved the way for the establishment of the episcopate, as distin- guished from the presbyterate ; the loss of power and privilege by the presbyters; and with the growing formalism, the spiritual life, and church rights of ^ the laity ; bringing the churcii finally to the character she attained in the Nicene period. Regarding the great writers of this period, whose remains we possess, little need be said; their works are well known, and tlieir character understood. We are more assured to-day than ever before, of the trustworthiness of these writei'S in matters of fact coming under their own observation, and of tiie quotations they make from preceding or contemporaneous documents. It is especially interesting, as well as important, to observe liow the historical accuracy of Eusebius has been sustained by the inscriptions lately man churcli in making an unsolicited interference witli the affairs of another church, as is done by Dr. Salmon, will not convince a careful reader. For, while the translation : " Owing, dear brethren, to the sudden and successive calamities which have come upon us, we feel that we have been somewhat tardy in turning our attention to the points respecting which you consulted us" — c. 1 — may not be exactly accurate, yet the tenor of the wiiole clause implies such a reference, and the presence of a Corinthian in Rome shows that such an ap- peal had been made. Dr. Salmon : (Jlemens Romanus ; Smith and Wace's Diet. Christ. Biog. Vol. I. p. 558 ; Bish. Lightfoot : Clement of Rome, App. pp. 263, 399. 62 Organization in m V I (liscjovered, in those very events and narratives, aj^ainst which the iteenest shafts of an envenonietl (jriticisin have been hitherto discharged. Also the Syrian MSS. contained in the Nitrian collections gained for the British Museum, within the last forty years, have triumphantly upheld this historian in controverted points; as well as brought to light some of his works heretofore lost.' While we give due praise to the accuracy of this author, yet his opinions, deductions, and judgments are open to our criti- cism, as in the case of every historian.^ The works of Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, Origen, Clemens Alexandrinus, Cyprian and Eusebius, are all important authorities for this age. Some attention must however be given to certain writings which have been used as evidence proper to be quoted for this period without due warrant. A Commentary on the Gospels, by Theophilus of Antioch, c. 170 A. D., has been used to prove hierarchical views. Its importance has lately been revived by the efforts of Zahn to establish its genuineness; but these liave been triumphantly overthrown by Harnack, who proves it to be a compilation of the fifth century, and tliat it does not even claim Theophilus as its author. The Apostolical Constitutions have been upheld as present- ing a true picture of the church of this age. But only by those whose faith in the productions of antiquity borders upon credu- lity. Like a cave deposit, where floods have swept in from surrounding localities, and oftentimes from great distances, debris of every age, and buried them promiscuously in its muddy sedi- ment, which some explorer turning over, finds a fragment of the most ancient rock in close proximity with a specimen of a modern formation ; or a flint weapon of the palaeolithic man, and a bronze sword of the Saxon period in close contact. So these * Tlie long recension of the Martyrs of Palestine. ■^ See the exhaustive monograph of Bishop Lightfoot, containing also notes of Prof. Westcott, in Smith and Wace's Diet. Christ. Biog. Vol. III. p. 308, sqq. Also his articles in fhe ("onten.jiorary Review, 1875 ; and two articles on Greek and Latin Christian Inscriptions in the same Review, 1880 and 1881, by Rev. J. Stokes. The Early Church. 63 wonderful forgeries, professing: to come from the Apostles them- selves, hilt which contain a large arnonnt of the thonght and practice of the fonrth and even fifth centnries, contain a few remains of an earlier and purer age, which seem the more pretiious for the setting in which they are found. These purer materials are so perspicuous tliat we can make little mistake in their selection. The Constitutions, are most probably of Ebionitic compilation and editorship, and were intended to advance the hierarchical views of this sect. They formed a part of the vast system of forgeries produced in this age, but chiefly, it must be acknowledged, by the heretics who sought to establish their claims therebv. An early collection of church rules we have in the Coptic Constitutions, and whatever theory may be entertained respecting them, there can be little doubt concerning their date, which is the most important point in connection with our present use of them, and this must be placed within the compass of the era under discussion. Another important collection which has received great atten- tion of late, and will re(!eive more o!i account of its close connec- tion with the Teaciiing of the Apostles is, " The Epitome of the Regulations of the Holy Apostles." It has been termed " The Apostolical Church Directory," and, till the publication recently of the "Teaching of the Apostles," was assumed to be the "Teaching of the Apostles" mentioned by Eusebius, Clement, and Atlianasius. Its probable date is within the latter half of this period.^ The Apostolic Canons, in their present shape, cannot be earlier than the fourth century, though a few of earlier date may be interspersed among them. The Clementine Recognitions and Homilies are fictions of this age, and are the work of the Elchasaite branch of the ^ The novel supposition of Bryennios, that "The Epitome" was formed after tiie "Constitutions," as we now have them, by tlieir redactenr, as a piece of pastime, is heyond credence. Redacteurs of enlarged fictitious compilations wouM neither have the taste nor the judgni^nt needed for the production of a tract, having all the simplicity, and undoubted atmosphere and flavour of an earlier antiquity belonging to the " Epitome." } i ,' I 64 Organization in 'V < Ebionite school ; but to quote them as evidence of what the con- stitution of the chnr(;h was, would be a singular misapplication of iheir true imi)ort.^ What could be expected from a document emanating from such a school, which professed that its doctrines were received from an angel ninety-six miles high and sixteen miles in breadth, tlie width of whose shoulders was twentv-four miles, and wliose feet left trades which were fourteen miles long; and this stu).:;ndous being was accompanied by a female com- panion of the same astounding proportions.^ Confessing such a source, we are not surprised to find that it taught the practice of incantations and repeated baptisms, enforced the requirements of the Mosaic law, and above all, expressed the most determined hostility to Paul. The Clementines owed their celebrity at Rome mainly to the 8up})ort which they incidentally gave to the unhis- torical claims of the Roman bishop.' The Ignatian Epistles belong to this age, and this tendency ; and it has been shown that the long form of these epistles ex- hibits evident connection with the interpolated long form of the first six books of the Constitutions; and the shorter form of these epistles coincides very strikingly with the shorter form of these six books, known to us in the Didascalia.* All these productions were written for the same purpose, and soon impressed their ideas on the church, which became moulded under their influence. They were the dreams of fanatical men, which, alas, soon be- came realities in the Catholic Church itself. The second Epistle of Clement, recently given to us in a per- fect form, is a homily given by one occupying a prominent posi- tion in the church at Rome, and is of this period, probably about 1 60 A . D. The long-lost work of Hippolytus, " The Refutation of all Heresies," has been the subject of prolonged controversy ; ^ One cannot but feel surprised that so able a scholar as Bishop Liglvtfoot should have used these wild romances as supporting the early establishment of the episcopacy. Phil. pp. 209, 210, 224. In a later work, however, he more justly says: "This romance, therefore, is valueless as evidence." Clem. Kom. A pp. p. 202. Mlippolytus : Refut. Heresies ix. S. 'Bryennios: Epistle of Clement, * Smith & Wace: Diet. Ch. Biog., Vol. III. p. 210. The Early Church. 65 'g; a \ w bill its genuineness and integrity have been placed beyond doubt.^ We now proceed to the use of the witnesses we have men- tioned or described. The tei lency to elevate one of the presbyters as a moderator, and also gradually as a superior officer, as a matter of order and usefulness, was now nearly everywhere prevalent. Still, there are many instances showing that the primitive views remained; and there is direct — and oftener indirect — acknow- ledgment of their former su))remacy. Between 170 and 200, certain conferences were held in Asia between several orthodox bishops and the Montanists ; and in a fragment preserved in Eusebius,* and attributed either to Appollinaris or Asterius Ur- banus, we find, " The presbytery of the place desired us to leave behind some memoranda, there being present also our fellow presbyter Zoticus Otrenus;" and a little further on, "Those men so highly reputed as men and bishops, namely, Zoticus of Comana, and Julia of Apamea." Here the presbyter is a bishop, and the bishop a presbyter.^ About this time, Irenaeus in his let- ter to Florinus, styles Polycarp indifferently bishop or presbyter.* About 200 A. D. the plainest evidence that presby terial gov- ernment existed in Smyrna is found in a fragment of a homily delivered by Hippolytus, and still preserved, wherein he describes the heresy of Noetus : " He said that Christ is himself the Fa- ttier, and that the Father himself had been born, and suffered and died. When the blessed presbyters heard these things, they summoned him, and examined him before the church. Again, the blessed presbyters summoned him, and administered a re- buke." After hearing his defence, which they showed him was ^ For the statements made respecting the writing of this age, reliance has been placed upon Neander, Schaff, Pressense, Kaye, Westcott, Lightfoot, Stanley, Farrar, Cook, Bunsen, Hefele, Bryennios, and the articles in Smith and Cheetham's Dir*'*onary of Christian Antiquities, Smith and Wace's Dic- tionary Christian Biography, McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia. '^ Eusebius, v. 16. ^ Yet this is one of the facts adduced by Bishop Lightfoot to prove the ex- istence of the later episcopacy in this region at this time. Phil. p. 214. * Eusebius v. 20. 66 Organizatiox in i'- : I i i I 1 ! i i I f insufficient, Hippolytus i)roceecls: "Tlien they rebuked him and cast him out of the church."^ Clement of Alexandria, near the beginning of the century, when he writes about the Passover, commits to writing 'Hhose traditions he had heard from the oldest presbyters," When he would show how Paul, though the writer of the Ej)istle to the Hebrews did not mention his own name, he (juotes, " what a blessed presbyter said." So, when speaking of the order of the Gospels, he gives the authority of " the oldest presbyters."^ In stating briefly the duties of the church officers, he has two classes, '' the elders who attend the department which has instruction for its object, and the deacons to the ministerial." But he also recognizes the election of one of them as a bishop ; and yet, his tone shows that he is not distinct from the presby- ters but as a matter of convenience, and the Avell known Alexan- drian practice confirms this.^ The so-called second Epistle of Clement is uninistakable in its recognition of a church order, such as found under Hermas at Rome, and contains proofs of the identity before exhibited. " The foremost place in ruling and teaching the church is attributed by him to the body of presbyters."^ The writings of Irenaeus show the same equivalence, though episcopacy was becoming- established, and he was the ablest propounder and defender of its necessity and privileges. He writes : " But again, when we refer them to that tradition which originates from tlie Apostles, and which is preserved by means of successions of presbyters in the church, they object to tradition, saying they are wiser, not merely than the presbyters, but even than the a[)ostles,, because ' Hippol. : Her. Noetus, c. 1 . Bnnwen : llippol. and Age,V(i!. I. )). 114, sq. Killen : Anc. Church, p. 470, sq. Tliis iieresy was ti(lo{)ted by Pope Callistus. "^ Eusebius vi. 13, 14. ^ Strom, vii. 1 ; vi. 13, The assertion of Bishop Lightfoot, that in the In- structor, iii. 12, Clement betrays his ignorance of tlie N. T. equivalence of the two terms, is not sustained by the passages quoted, winch simply speak of the commands given to these, as found in the New Testament, and that these are given to bishops and elders, a novice can read, * Dr. Salmon : Smith and Wace's Diet. Ch. Biog.,Vol. I. p. 558, sq. Ep. c, 17. t' » n > \m "tmm The Early Church. 87 }j rt > they have discoursed the unadulterated truth." ^ Within a few lines he writes: " It is within the power of all therefore in every church, who may wish to see the truth, to contemplate clearly the tradition of the apostles manifested throughout the whole world, and we are in a position to reckon up those who by the apostles were instituted bishops in these churches, and the successions of these men to our own times." ^ In the succeeding book we find — " Wlierefore it is incumbent to obey tlie presby- ters who are in the church, those who, as I have shown, possess the succession from the apostles ; those who, together with the succession of the episcopacy."^ Also, "Such presbyters does the church nourish of whom the prophet says, 'I will give thy rulers in peace, and thy bishops in righteousness.'"* Again, in his lormal letter to Victor, where, from the circumstances, it is not likely he would omit any form of right or courtesy: "And <^hose presbyters who governed the church before Soter, and over which you now preside, I mean Anicetus, Pius, Hyginus, with Telesphorus and Xystus. But those very presbyters before thee, who did not observe, sent the Eucharist to those churches who did."« Though we find episcopacy beginning to prevail, yet, as Prof. Lipsius of Jena acknowledges: " Its origination out of simpler constitutional forms betrays itself in a mode of expression derived indeed from earlier times, but still common to Irenaeus, with Tertullian, Clement Alexandrinus, liippolytus, and others, the use namely of official titles '' presbuteroi" and "episcopoi" to de- signate alternately the saine persons."*^ Wluit were the causes which led to the placing of the authority, hitherto held by a number, in the hands of one officer? There were several. The great Gnostic systems ad- vocated with ability, and gaining many adherents, imperilled the existence of the church. If the writings of the Es'^an- gelists or the Apostles were used against them, they boasted ^ Her., Bk. III. c. 2, 2. ^ Bk. III. c. 31. •' Bk. IV. 26. 2. * Bk. IV. 20, 5. ^ Eusebiiis v. 24. « Irenaeus: Smith and Wace's Diet. Cliris. Biog., Vol. III. p. 272, ; i ', !■ |i ' i'' 68 Organization in U 1 that tliey had gospels of their own, which were genuine. Or, if the writing was acknowledged, they rejected the interpre- tation, and professed to have an esoteric doctrine handed down from the Apostles. The crisis was one of a gravity difficult to overestimate. Irenaeus stood forth, and maintained with great force and subtlety, that the standard of Christian doctrine was the teaching of the churches which the Apostles had founded ; that this doctrine had been preserved by the officers of these churches in uninterrupted succession. From this view arose the necessity of unity in each church, for among many presbyters there might be divers views on some doctrines; and therefore the chairman became the bishop, the depositary and conservator of the true doctrine ; and the supremacy of the bishop and unity of doctrine were supposed to go hand in hand.^ Early in the third century important questions of discipline arose : hence again in the same church the views of the })res- byteis diifcred, and some made a capricious use of their power : the situation was difficult and perplexing. But in the end, at Rome, and at Carthage, the bishops were victorious, and held the discipline of the church, as well as its doctrines, in their hands. In this age, unity, as then conceived, was everything, and everything was sacrificed that stood in its way.^ Another important feature of the times which enhanced their power was the state of poverty from which the Christian church, in common with the whole world, was suffering. This called for the fullest display of that Christian charity urgently pressed upon boliovers in the Xcw Testament, and the writings of the early Fathers.'^ The general poverty was intensified by the peculiar condition of the Christian community. Some were outcast from their homes, some had been compelled to leave sinful occupa- ^ Hatcli : Bampton Lecture, p. 94, sqq. ^ This \yi\z not the way Paul conducted the defence of the church against these dangers, for they existed in his day, but by a clear and forcible exposi- tion of the true Gospel. Comp. Neander : Gen. Hist., Vol. I. p. 193. ^ How these teachings were received, and how private charity expressed itself, see Tertullian to his Wife, c. 4. I The Early Church. r hi lit h tions.* In times of persecution, confessors in })rison had to be fed. Tiiose who had lost their property through confiscation, must be supported, and those sold into captivity to be ransomed.^ The widows and orphans, ^hose lot was deplorable in^ieed in these ages, must be cared for, and the number rapidly increased during the periods of persecution.^ They were always one of the first charges on what Tertullian calls " piety's deposit fund." Besides, there was a constant stream of strangers passing through the commercial centres, and these, as well as the other classes, were entitled to a share in the distribution of the church funds.^ To prevent imposition, such Christians were provided with tickets or certificates of membership, and it became a rule to relieve no one not having such a certificate.' The management of these funds was first lodged in the colleges of the presbyters, and then in the bishop and presbyters.^ But as the bishop kept the roll of membership, and therefore issued the certificates and received them, the administration of the funds fell more and more i' to his power, till, in the succeeding century the presbyters had lost all control of them, with their other privileges. Toward the end of this age, we find the churches having, each one of them, a bishop and a body of presbyters, and one or more deacons, the theory then prevalent being that the bishop repre- ^ Cyprian : Ep. 61. Tertullian : Idohtry, cc. 10, 11, 12. ■■^ Dionysius of Corinth, ap. Eusebius, iv. 23. Tertullian: Martyrdom, 1. Cyprian : Ep. 36, 60, especially 77. The first paragraph of Ap. Constitutions, Bk: V. c. 1, contains a beautiful description of the feelings c/ the early Chris- tians toward Confessors, and is a fragment of this age. •' Cyprian : Ep. 36. Tertul. Wife, I. 8. Ap. Const. 11. 26 ; III. 4, 6, 7, 14 ; IV. 2, 3, 8. These quotations belong to an early date. In Rome at this time there were more than 1500 widows, afllicted and needy, depending upon the cliurch funds. Cornelius: Ep. Fabius, ap. Eusebius, 6,43. If, with soine, we suppose that in the persecution under Gallus, Cornelius, followed by nearly the whole church, took refuge at Centumcv"' 'e in Etruria, we have a glimpse of the fearful sufferings entailed on the Christians. * Apost. : Canon 41. ^ Apostol. Canon 34. Neander : G. Hist., Vol. I. p. 205. ^ Cyprian : Ep. 37. Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 46. Neander : G. H., Vol. I. p. 233. t ;t • 1 ;i;i m 70 Organizatiox in sentcd the Lord Jesus in the church, and the presbyters tlic apostles. Some transformed the church below into an exact transcript of the church above. The bishop was like the Eternal Father uj)on His throne, the presbyters were like the four and twenty elders, and the deacons were transformed into angels passing to and fro on the ministry of God.^ This was the theory we find developed in the Ignatian ICpistles, the Clementines, the Apostolical Constitutions, and generally accepted in tlie church of the third century.^ But during the episcopate of the weak and illiterate Zej)hyri- nus, and that of the ambitious and unscrupulous Callixtus, who sought to aggrandize their position by a new and hitherto unh<'ard of power, that of forgiving sins; and casting about for some au- thority for such a t.crange and novel procedure, after comparing the church to Noah's ark, into which all things went, clean and unclean, — claimed that the power of the keys conferred upon Peter, to bind or loose, descended upon them. But this, the first mention of a second theory regarding the prerogatives of bishops, aroused such a storm, and was rebuked so sternly by Hippolytus and TertuUian, that it was not mooted again till after the conclu- sion of this period.'^ That dream of visionaries who dislike histori- cal research, called the apostolical succession, was esteemed by these early Fathers a fearful heresy, and its progenitors were the two greatest foes of true religion, and of the worst character personally that sat in the episcopal chair in that age. The bishop was always to act in unison with the presbyters, they formed a council of which the united action was the action of the church. The action of the bishop without his presbytery was invalid. But though the functions and privileges of this officer were so considerably enlarged, they were not possessed of the power which has been ascribed to them by those who have formed their opinions from what is known about the most emi- ^ Clem. Alex. Stromata, c. 13. '' Ignatius ; Mag. G. Clem. Kecog. HI. 66, Horn. HI. 60 ; III. 70. Ap. Constitutions, II. 26. Cyprian : Ep. 65, 5. ^ Hippolytus : Ref. Her. 9. TertuUian : Modesty, 21. i The Eauly Church. 71 I nont who filled this office in the chief cities. Tlieir preeminence in the chnrch was owing more to their snperior talents and char- acter, and to the comnmnding influence which their city position gave tliem, than to their office simply. Bishop Lightfoot asserts that in the Isjnatian writinjjs the term is used in the more mod- ern sense, but even one hundred and fifty years after the time he supposes they came into existence, this assertion is not true.^ According to an ancient rule, where there were but twelve faith- ful men willing to sustain u bishop, they could have one, so that a congregation whicii could assemble in a small room, could have such an officer, three presbyters, and p. deacon.^ The church over which Gregory Thaumaturgus was appointed bishop con- sisted of seventeen persons.^ About the same time a synod was held in Africa — a small province — to condemn Privatus, and ninety bishops were present, the greater number of them mere village pastors.^ After this, from Proconsular Asia, a province much smaller than the County of York in New Brunswick, forty- two bishops were present in a council. And in the half converted province of North Africa there were four hundred and seventy episcopal towns, a great number of which could have been no more than small villages.^ It appears that every congregation had a bishop, even in very small towns and villages,^ and it was only in large cities that the office assumed larger proportions, owing to there being several congregations. At this time occurs the singular anomaly that there were some who were both bishops and presbyters, holding 1 Com. Phil. p. 98. '^ Coptic Const. I. 15. Pressense: Life and Practice, p. 58. Bunsen : Hip- poly tns, etc., Vol. ir. p. 305. ^Neo Cnesarea in Pontus, 240 A. D. Smith and Wace's Diet. Chris. Biog., Vol. II. p. 730. * Cyprian : Ep. 54. Hefele : History Councils, Vol. I. p. 90, sq. ° Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 78. Bingham, Bk. II. c. 12, 2. ^ " The Ante-Nicene law exhibits every town, that is to say, every place which is not a mere villa, as a church presided over by a bishop and a board of presbyters. It is fundamentally congregational, and its bishop, as such, re- presents the independence, and, as it were, the sovereignty of the congrega- tion." Bunsen : Hippolytus and his Age, Vol. II. p. 258, sq. ■Kfl^ i |.« 1^ 1 ' f; , 72 Organization in these distinct relations to different churches at the same time. Hippolytus was bishop of Portus, and yet a presbyter of Rome, of which Portus was a suburb.* * The duties of the presbyters of this period were to teach the people chiefly the moral duties of their profession, to admonish the erring, and enforce the discipline in the appointed way upon all offenders f and the bishop could not judge offenders without them.^ They also administered the sacraments of the Lord's Supper and Baptism, and took a part in ordinations, sometimes ordaining without the presence of the bishop, even after his office liad become so important as we find it in the hands of Cyprian.® The deacons were mainly engaged in the distribution of alms, seeking out cases of indigence, collecting alms, enforcing order in the assemblies, and the distribution of tlie elements in the Euch- arist; they were considered as the attendants and helpers of the bishop chiefly.* Deaconesses were also appointed, with appro- priate functions for their own sex.* Headers became officers first about the middle of this period ; their duties were to read the lessons out of the Scriptures.** Now the question occurs: Had there been any change in the mode of appointing these officers, as compared with the earlier periods ? From the evidence we possess the method of election and appointment appears to retain still its early (character, and the following points may be considered as fairly proven ; 1. All the words now in use denote simply election, appoint- ' Milman: Latin Christianity, Vol. 1. p. 44, sq, note. Biinaen, 8upra, Vol. I. pp. 207, 308, sq. ; Vo). II. pp. 156, 258. The objections of DoUinger are the result of his very pecUiiar theory. Dr. Salmon : Diet. Christian Biography, Vol, III. p. 89, sq. Both Wordsworth and Killen, representatives of opposite tendencies, agree with the view given in the text. "^ Coptic Const. I, cc. 17, 18 ; IV. c. 73; Epitome also ; Tertullian, Ap. 39. Origen : c. Celsus, 3, 51. '^ Cyprian : Ep. 33, 2. * Cyprian : Ep. 49 ; for constituere, see Ordination, names of, 1, 6 ; Hatch : Smith and Cheetham's Diet. Christian Antiquities, Vol. II. p. 1502. 5 Coptic Constit. I. 20, 22 ; IV. 73 '^ Ibid I. 21, 26, 27, 28 ; II. 37 ; IV. 73. ** Coptic Const. II. 35. Tertullian : Prescript. Heretics, c. 41. and Epitome. > ";' The Early Church. 73 f nient, or accession to rank, and all tliesc words were used toex- jn'ess appointment to civil office.' 2. All the elements of appointment to ecclesiastical office were, with one exception, common to appointments lo civil offices. These were nomination, election, approval and declaration by a competent officer. 3. The earliest mode in the state and in the church, was a free election by the people, subject only to the veto of the presid- ing officer. Afterwards, the presiding officer nominated, and the people approved. 4. There was no formal act of admission; the person duly elected simply entered upon his office, and was in full possession of it as soon as he had discharged without let or hindrance one of its ordinary duties. Thcvse facts show that ordination was still simply appoint- ment and admission to office in the church, and was the act of the whole church, conducted in a regular way, sanctioned by the usages of two centuries.^ But there is one part of the ordination, the laying on of hands, which has iu later ages been considered the most import- ant of the whole, and the absence or uncauonical performance of which has been supposed to invalidate the whole procedure, how- ever correct in other particulars. Now of this rite ,ve have [)roof that in ancient times it w^as not universal. In the contested ai)pointment of Cornelius, Cyprian, in enumerating all the ele- ments which con bined to make it a valid ordination, does not name imposition of hands.^ In the Apostolical Constitutions, where there is a minute account of the elaborate ceremonial observance which took place in the appointment of a bishop, this * Cheirotoneiti, Kathistanein, Klerousthai, constituere, ordinare. ^ Hippolytus : Eef. Heresies, 6, 9. Eusebius 5, 10 ; 6, 29. Coptic Consti- tution I. 16, 20 ; II. 31, 33 ; IV. 65. Cyprian : Epistles, 54, 6 ; 68, 3, 4 ; 39, 3; 61, 8 ; 33, 1, Apostol. Constit. Bk. VIII. 4. Neander : G. Hist. Vol. I. p. 199. Smith & Clieetham : Diet. Antiq. Bishops, Vol. I. p. 213 ; Election, p. 599 ; Ordination, Vol. II. p. 1501, sqq. Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 126, sqq, wi Ji the original authorities cited therein. ^ Cyprian : Ep. 51, 8, 74 Organization in i;i^ I'M ' H ' is entirely omitted.* Its .significance remained the same as before, where it was adopted, retaining the simplicity of tiie ancient Jewish rite, and was used in the church not only in the appoint- ment of bishops, presbyters, and deacons, hut also in the admis- sion of ordinary members into the church, and in the readmission of penitents.^ There is nothing to lead us to conceive that the church of this age supposed that imposition of hands conveyed any special and exclusive spiritual powers. Corroborative of this judgment is the fact that no writer of the first two centuries either states or implies that ordination conferred such exceptional spiritual powers. Long after this time, so far from any mystical import being attached to it, Jerome supposed that it was adopted to pre- vent a man being ordained without his knowledge. During this age, as in the former periods, most of the church officers were obliged to supplement the free-will offerings of the people by the result of their own labours to obtain adequate support. This fact gave rise to the taunt of Celsus, which is amply discussed by Origen in his treatise. Celsus des^^iribed the Christian ministers, or " teachers of the Word," as " workers in wool and leather, and fullers, and persons of the most unin- structed character." ^ There was truth in the taunt, for the min- istry of that and the succeeding age were farmers and traders, tended sheep, kept banks, practiced medicine, wrought as smiths, were weavers, ship-builders, and traders in the open markets. Many of the ancient laws were for the regulation of these trading clergy.* The pernicious results of this system, after the first ^ Apost. Constitutions, Bk. VIII. 4, sqq. Coptic Const. Bk. IV. 65 ; where, instead of imposition of hands, "Tiie deacons also holding the holy Gospels, spread open upon the head of him who is to be ordained, the bishop praying to God over him." ^ Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 132, sq., and article Ordination, supra. ' Origen : c. Celsus, Bk. III. c. 56 ; and c. 55. * Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 147 ; the epigraphical evidence is cited in the notes. Withrow's Catacombs, p. 513, shows the continuance of this usage in times posterior to this. Greek and Latin Christian Inscriptions, Contem- porary Keview, June 1880, Jan. 1881, Kev. G. Stokes. Council Elvira, Can. 19. Hefele: History Councils, p. 145. The Early Church. 75 supernatural glow of holy Christian fervour had been subdued, is graphically describe. 1:1 , ! :; III' ■' 'I f ii lb OnOAXIZATION IX correlative idea of .snl)jection and ohedienee to (H)n.stitnt(?(l author- ity.' So, ii) the concrete, pastor and Hock, bi.shop and people, presi(h'nt and con titles appropriated to the officers, members, and meetings, and have shown that the officers in tiie latter iiad a priority of order only; and have seen the same features in the C'hristian church. But did these officers possess, in addition to this relation, something [)cculiar to thenjselves as such officers, which those to whom they ministered could not possibly ])ossess? The answer has been partially given already, in showing that their appoint- ment was like that of civil oflicers, and therefore could not cou)- municate any new^ powers. That the im|)osition of hands was not essential — for it was sometimes omitted — and where used, was looked upon as a simi)le form, conferring no spiritual gr?»ce. It follows therefore that the rlivine illumination and support needed for the discharge of their ap[)ropriatc functions nuist be sou Eusebius, 5, 1. Pressense : Life and P., p. 53. "■ Cc, 19, 20, 17. 3 Eusebius, 6, 19. Smith and Wace's Diet. Ciiris. Biography, Vol. 1, p. 80. Bingham: Antiquities, Bk. XIV. 4. Pressense: Life and P., p. 118. ■X'Wi?-'JL*a3i-J 4 • 'fii'i 78 Organization in The Coptic Constitutions also recognize and teach the great prerogative of a believer : " Be ye lawgivers to your own selves, be ye teachers to yourselves alone, as God hath taught you."* " But if we have omitted anything, the things will teach you, for we have all the Spirit of God."^ " When the teacher hath ended the sermon, let the catechumens pray by themselves apart, and the faithful apart. When the teacher, after the prayer, shall lay his hands on the catechumens, let him pray, dismissing them, whether he be an ecclesiastic or lavman who delivers it, let him do thus." ^ In the Greek Constitutions, still later, amid their sacerdotal- ism, the preaching of laymen is admitted : " Even if a teacher be a layman, still if he be skilled in the Word, and reverend in habit, let him teach, for the Scripture saith, * They shall be taught of God.'"^ Thus the right of preaching and praying is f jUy established by usage and express declaration of the most an- cient church canons. That laymen could baptize in case of emerg- ency was admitted also. Tertuliian writes, " Besides these, even laymen have the right, for what is equally received can be equally given, unless bishops, priests or deacons be on the spot, disciples are called to the work. The W^ord of God ought not to be hid- den by any : in like manner too, baptism, which is equally God's property, can be administered by all."^ Laymen might also celebrate the Lord's Supper. " We take also from the hands of none but the presidents the sacrament of the Eucharist."^ This was the rule of order, having apostolic sanction, but in emergency a layman could officiate as well as a bishop. " It is the authority of the church which has established the difference between the order and the laity ; accordingly, where there is no joint session of the ecclesiastical order, you offer, and baptize, and are priest, alone foi yourself. But where three are, there is a church, although they be laymen."' ^ Bk. I. c. 14, Here and in the Epitome, these remarkable words are spoken by Bartholomew. •' Bk. II. c. 41. 3 CO. 43, 44. * Bk. VIII. 32. ^ Baptism, 17. " The Crown, 3. ' Exhortation Chastity, 7. ■'; J 1 ■ ■ 1 i :M :;;:!! .,,, ' ' ,' ' IM ^ The Early Church 79 The congregation selected its bishop and examined him ; he was elected by all the people.^ They are asked if they choose him; only then is he ordained.^ The presbyter and deacon likewise must have the sanction of the church congregation; and three laymen, at least, must give their testimony to his fitness.^ It is the boast of Cyprian that he was elected by all tl.e people, and ho expounds the scriptural authority for this rule and prac- tice : "And this was subsequently observed, according to divine instruction, in the Acts of the Apostles, when Peter speaks to the people of ordaining an apostle in the place of Judas. ' Peti'i',' it says, 'stood up in the midst of the disciples, and the multitude were in one place.' " Neither do we observe that this was regarded by the apostles only in the ordinations of bishops and priests, but also in those of deacons, of which matter itself also it is written in their Acts : " And they twelve called to- gether," it says, " the whole congregation of the disciples and saith to them ;" which was done so diligently and carefully, with the calling together of the whole of the people, surely for this reason, that no unworthy person might creep into the ministry of the altar, or to the office of a priest."* In the administration of discipline, the members share with their bishops and other ministers. Tertullian, when speaking of the Christian assembly, proceeds, after describing the acts of worship : " In the same place also exhortations are made, rebukes and sacred censures are administered. For with great gravity is the work of judging carried on among us, as befits those who feel assured that they are in the sight of God ; and you have the most notable example of the judgment to come, when any one has sinned so grievously as to require his severance from us in prayer, and the meetings, and all sacred intercourse."'* When one of the questions which agitated the church was to be considered, the council called, even by the sacerdotal Cyprian, was to be composed of the laity with tlie ministers. "An assem- * Coptic Constit., I. cc. 16, 17. Cyprian : Ep. 67, 4, 5. ^ Coptic Const., II. c. 31. Etliiopic Canon 1. =* Coj^tic Const., II. 20, 22. * Cyprian : Ep. 67, 4. ''Tertullian : Apology, c. 39. 80 Organization in I ■ i IT m l)ly for ooiinsol boiiig called together, with hishoj).?, preshyters, and deacons and confessors, as well as the laity who stand fast, we should deal with the case of the lapsed." Again, addressing the people, he says, " with your opinion ;" and in another place: " The case of each one must be considered separately, and fully investigated, not only with my colleagues, but also with the whole of the people themselves."^ These quotations amply prove the concurrent jurisdiction of the clergy and the laity in all matters of importance.^ During this age, those conventions of Christians for delibera- tion and counsel which afterward played such an important part in the organization and history of the Christian church, began to be held. Under the Imperial administration, provinci il assem- blies still met annually, a'Kj deputies from the chief towns came together for the transaction of their appropriate business. Pn - vincial councils were as important and necessary a j)art of j)roviri- cial life then as county councils are to-day with us. These were to be found in full activity in all the provinces wherj Christianity Was prevalent, and where Christian councils came to exist ; and they generally followed the existing political divisions.^ They seem to liave been first held in Greece, and were somewhat of a novelty in Tertullian's days; for he writes: " Throughout the provinces of Greece, councils or synods are held in the name of all the churches. In these councils the gravest subjects are dis- cussed foi the common benefit. These assemblies, representative of the Christian name, are regarded witii great respect."* Called at first, as the occasion arose, they were a conference of the re])re- sentatives of neiffhbouring churches, convoked bv some leadino; mind, and generally at tiie request of a church needing advice. 1 Cyprian : Ep. 31, 5 ; 11 ; 26, 6; 28, 3. Pressense : Life and P., pp. 189- 193. Neander: G. H., Vol. I. p. 197. ■^ Yet Dr. Piisey aflirmed in "Councils of the Church," p. 34, "That hish- ops alone had a definite voice in synods." ' Hatch : Bampton Lecture, p. 165, sqq, and notes. * TertuUian : Fast. c. 13. Killen : Ancient Church, p. 559, sqq, entertains an opposite view, but one not well sustained. Neander: G. IL, Vol. I. p. 200, sq. The Early Church. 81 IS, St, "8" [•e : lly [he hly in As for instance, those held for the decipion of the Easter question, and concerning Mo'ntanisrn, held in Asia Minor, c. 160-180, A. D. : of the latter, we have a full account in Eusebius, already referred to. ^ Beside these questions, they very early took under consideration the canonicity of the books of the Scripture. Tertullian speaks of the "judgment of the council of the churches," on the Shepherd of Hernias.^ It was the practice to send the result of the deliberations in a letter to other churches, and generally these missives were received with respect. But they had no binding force on other churches, nor even on a dis- sident minority of the council itself. The absolute independence of each community found no stronger advocate than Cyprian, who was also foremost in calling councils, and in whose days they first became of great importance. " To each shepherd, a i^ortion of the Lord's flock has been assigned, and his account must be rendered to his own master."^ Councils might admit the lapsed, but each bishop must decide for himself: " he dis- poses and directs his own acts."* The council utters no decree, but gives its judgment, which carries with it a moral force, but no other. " We neither do violence to, nor impose a law upon any one, since each i)relate has in the administration of the church the exercise of his will free, as he shall give an account of his conduct to the Lord," is the language of one of the councils of Carthage."^ All ranks in the church attended these councils : the presence and participation of the laity has been conclusively proved by the quotations already given. The influence exerted by these conferences was very beneficial, and tended to preserve the unity of tile church against the numerous and powerful attacks of its external and internal foes. The conception of the nature of that unity which is predicated of the church, had varied with the changing times. The first idea of this unity, was that of a common life in Christ, — a unity wrought, by being under the dominion of the one Spirit, and ^Eusebius: 5,16. Pressense: L. and P., p. 93. '^ Tertul. : Modesty, c. 10. 3Ep. 55, 14. ■'52,21. -72,3. K 82 Organization in I'! r having a common hope, tlierefore being membere of the body of Christ, — it was based on a common experience of tlie practical effects of Christianity.* This view prevailed till about 160 A. D. The socond idea of this unity arose under the pressure of heretical opposition, and the necessities of tlie controversies which took place, and it was now made to consist in a reception of the true tradition of Christian teaching: it was the unity based on a common creed. This prevailed till nearly the close of this age. The third notion of this unitv was, that it consisted in a com- mon organization. A good and holy life was not sufficient, but to this must be added a common belief. But these were not enough ; the possessor of these must also belong to a church which was united with all other churches, thus forming the one Catholic church.^ The germ of this idea of Christian unity began with Cyprian, and developed till in the fourth century it was perfected, and has remained the dominating, mistaken, and misleading idea till to- day. But the true unity was tliat which Tertullian describes : " They are all proved to be one in unbroken unity by their peace- ful communion, title of brotherhood, and bond of hospitality."'' "The true communion of saints, upon which all churches are built, is not the common performance of external acts, but a communion of soul with soul, and of the soul with Christ. It is a consequence of the nature which God has given us, that an external organization should help our communion with one an- other: it is a consequence l)()th of our two-fold nature, and of Christ's appointment, that external acts should help our commu- nion w". ilm. But subtler, deeper, diviner, than anything of which external things can be either the symbol or the bond, is that inner reality and essence of union, — that interpenetrating community of thought and character which St. Paul speaks of as the "unity of the Spirit," and which, in the sublimest of sublime books, in the most sacred of sacred words, is likened to the one- ' 2 Clem. Kom. 14. Hernias : Vis., 2, 4. ^ Neander : G. H., Vol. I. p. 207, sqq. » Prescript : Heret. 20. n^t. The Early Church. 83 r noss of the Son witli the Fatlier, and v)f the Father with the Son."^ I have accomplished, very imperfectly, the task I aimed to perform ; and now, the question may be asked, Were all the primitive institutions intended to be permanent ? In light of all the evidencOj the query must be answered in the negative. The great princi[)les of church government set fo»'th in the inspired Word are unchanging; the method of their development into practice is changeable; as the having "all things in common," soon passed away. But the sublime principle of brotherly charity survived, and the widows, orphans, and poor, were ever the first care of the church. To the pure all things are pure, and the early church took up the then existing elements of social and public life, and transformed them, and purified them for her own purposes. It is ours to watch the process, rejoice in and copy the successes, but avoid the failures. The government of the church in Cyprian's time is no more binding upon us than the doctrines and practices of that period ; and a greater calamity could scarcely befall the church of Christ, than the universal ad- option of some of these. Its history is helpful in the direction of our own efforts in organization and government. No church tc -day re[)rescnts in all features the early church, and none need do. But in the simplicity, brother! iness, and elasticity of its government, we all may study its records with advantage. An earnest Christian layman, an erudite scholar, and an accom})lished diplomatist, the late Baron Bunsen, after an elabo- rate review of modern church governments, as compared with that of this period, gives the following axioms as necessary to restore a suitable government to the churches of to-dav : " Bish- ops and elders are essentially rulers. Rulers must have power. Power must have law. Law must have people. The church- people, to make laws, aiust have organized congregations. Con- gregations must form synods, which are representative congrega- tions. Synods must represent organically the lay and clerical elements. The clerical element is either a parochial or -n eccle- ^ Hatch : Banipton Lecture, p. 187, sq. '*|!S^^ 84 Organization in the Early Church. siastical one. The coni[)]ete synod, therefore, will in general have three orders; first, the bishops or superintendents, person- ally ; secondly, the deputies of the parochial clergy; and thirdly, the representatives of the laymen, elected either by the comnumi- cants of the congregations, or by the lay elders foriniiig the church coinicil or presbytery. These last must have the right to demand the vote by order, and thus exercise their legislative veto by themselves. Bishops elected or nominated without the coopera- tion of the synod, have no natural ecclesiastical basis." ^ Putting aside the technical i)hraseology, the analogy between the sufftjested ideal and the actual realization among; ourselves is apparent. And in so far as it takes up the great elements of the social and political life of our day and purifies them for the service of Christ, it is apostolical. As all political power tends towards the people, and all the ancient Christian organizations — the product of mediajvalibm — are losing their hold upon the masses, so, the tendency of all Christian societies is, and must be, towards c return to the primitive democratic organization which reco(j:;nizes more fullv the absolute brotherhood of all Christian believers. One of the great evils of the present age is a degener- ate and fun";ous socialism. This will be overcome only by a Christian society imbued with the feeling of the early Christian church ; exhibiting in her government, and expressing in her formularies and practice, the great principle — "Sirs, ye are brethren, one body in Christ, and every one members one of another."^ ^ Hippolytus and liis Age, Vol. III. p. 245. ^ Acts vii. 26. Romans xii. 5. ^1 Ij