CIHM Microfiche Series (IMonographs) ICIMH Collection de microfiches (monographies) Canadian Institute for Historical IMicroraproductions / Institut Canadian da microreproductions historiquas Technical and Bibliographic Notes / Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the isest originai copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images In the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming are checked below. [71 D D n D D D D D Coloured covers / Couverture de couleur Covers damaged / Couverture endommagte Covers restored and/or laminated / Couverture restaurte et/ou peilicuite Cover title missing / Le titre dp couverture manque Coloured maps / Cartes g^raphiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black) / Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bieue ou noire) Coloured plates and/or illustrations / Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material / Relid avec d'autres documents Only editk)n available / Seule Mition disponible Tight binding may cause shadows or distortkin along interior margin / La reiiure serrte peut causer de i'ombre ou de la distorsion ie long de la marge int^rieure. Blank leaves added during restorations may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming / 11 se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es iors d'une restauration apparaissent dans ie texte, mais, torsque ceia 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6\6 film^s. Additional comments / Commentaires suppi^mentaires: L'Institut a microfilm^ ie meilleur exemplaire qu'll lui a 6\6 possible de se procurer. Les d^ils de cet exem- plaire qui sont peut-dtre unk^ues du point de vue bibll- ographique, qui peuvent modifier une Image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modlfk»tk>n dans la m6tho- de nomiale de filmage sont indkiute ci-dessous. I I Cotoured pages / Pages de couleur I I Pages damagsjd / Pages endommagtes D Pages restored and/or laminated / Pages restaurtes et/ou pellicultes Pages discotoured, stained or foxed / Pages dteolor^es, tachettes ou pkiutes I I Pages detached / Pages ddtach^es \\/\ Showthrough / Transparence I I Quality of print varies / D D n Quality inhale de I'impression includes supplementary material / Comprend du materiel suppi^mentaire Pages wholly or partially obscured by enBta slips, tissues, etc., have been refiimed to ensure the best possible image / Les pages totaiement ou partietlement obscurcies par un feuiiiet d'errata, une peiure, etc., ont 6\6 film^s h nouveau de fagon k obtenir la meilleure image possible. Opposing pages with varying colouration or discoiourations are filmed twice to ensure the best possible image / Les pages s'opposant ayant des colorations variables ou des decolorations sont film^s deux fois afin d'obtenir la meilleure image possible. This Ham it filmad at th* raduetion ratio dMClnd below / C« docuiDMit ost fllm* au taux da rMuetlon indiqui cl daaaoMa. lOx 14x 18x 22v 26x 30x / 12x 16x 20x 24x 28x 32x Tha eopy filmed hurm has b««n rapreduead thanka f9 ttia ganaroaity of: Ubrary Agrieutaira CMMRia L'axamplaira nimt fut raproduit griea A la g«n4roait* da: BibUotMqiM Agrieultur* Canada Tha imagaa ep p aari n g hara ara tha poaaibia eonaidaring tha eondiden of tha oHginal eopy and in kaapin« eonfraot ipaciHcadona. duaflty iaglbUity Laa imagaa auivantaa ont ttt raproduitaa avae la plua grand coin, eompta tanu da la condition at da la nattat* da l'axamplaira film*, at •» confo r ml td avac laa eondMona du eontrat da flimaga. Original eopiao in printad beginning with tha front esvar and anding on tha laat paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa- tlon, or tha bacit eovar whan apprepriata. All othar original eopiaa ara fiimad beginning on the first paga with a printad or illuatratad impraa- aion, and anding en the laat paga with a printad or illuatratad Imp r aaalon. Laa aiiemplairaa origlnaux dont la eouvarture an papier aet imprimde sont film4a an eommen^ant par la p r emier plat at an tarminant soit par la damiAre paga qui comporta une amprainta dimpraeaion ou dllluatradon. aoit par la second plet. aalon la cas. Tous Ice autraa axampiairaa originaux sont filmAa on eommen^ant par la premiere paga qui comporta une amprainte dimpraeaion ou dllluatration at on tarminant par la damiire paga qui comporta une teile empreinte* The laat recorded frame on eech microflehe shaH contain the symbol ^^ (meening "CON- TINUfO"). or the symbol ▼ (meening "INO"). wliichever appiiaa. Un dee symbolee suivents apperaltra sur la demMre image do cheque microfiche, seion le caa: la symbole — » signifie "A SUIVRE ". le symbole ▼ signifie "RN". Mapa. plataa. clians. etc.. mey be filmed at different reduction ratioa. Theae too large to be e n t ir ely included in one expoeure ara filmed beginning in the upper left hend comer, left to right and top to bottom, aa many framae aa required. The following dfagrama llluaama the metfiod: I. planchea. tableeux. etc.. peuvent itre filmde i dee taux do rMuetion diff Arents. Loraque le document eat trap grand pour itre reproduit en un soul dichd. il sat filmd A partir da i'angia supdrieur gauche, do gauclw A droite. et do haut an baa. an prenent le nombre dlmegea ndeaeseire. Lea diagrammes suivants IHuatrant la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 « life's work U involved in their manufacture. He will th<.n find great nterest in everv operation and will be better able to conduct his work t>> i nay yield maxi- mumproflts. The ultimate object of farming is to prepare su.iances whicli will Seld these products in maximum quantitica and of tlic best quality, a* ^.' "^ can be encouraged to add to these substances attractive colours, odours ami lavours. Food materials can be produced in digestible forms; clothing materials (fibres) of good texture: oils of good quality for paints, lubricants, etc.; barley can be grown specially valuable for brewing and malting; com for starch industries; sugar cane anH beets for sugar; wheat to yield flours for special purposes, etc., etc., etc. In foods we always And one or more of the constituents, Protein, Fat and Car- bohydrates. This is true of everything we eat. whether it be fish, oysters, meat, potatoes, apples, ke cream, celery or candy and even beer. The chief difTerraees in foods lie in the amounts (rf water and protein they possess— strawberries noay be 96% water and flour only 8%. Nature dees things up in neat pac'cages of fibres and by introducing colours, odours and flavours we Set apparently an endless variety. Illustrations of this are everywhere abun- ■uit, as witness the m the air and supply it to the roots of their host. By the decay of the roots the soil is enriched in nitrogen. The logic may thus be set forth: A man's body contains 26 lbs of protein, hence a man must eat protein: Protein exists in plants and animals: Animals eat plants: Therefore, a plant must make protein: But every 100 lbs. of protein contains 16 lbs of nitrogen: Therefore a plant must eat nitrogen: But all plants take in nitrogen though the roots only: Therefore, nitrogen must be fixed in the soil: But nitrogen is a gas in the air and no plants can take it from the air directly But certain soil bacteria absorb this gas into their bodies and the roots of legumes offer places for them to live. Therefore: — Grow legumes to take the nitrogen from the air; to enrich the soil; to feed other crops; to make vegetable protein; to sell as food for man; or to feed the animals; to make animal protein; to sell as food for man; The Israelites could not make bricks without straw: The farmer cannot make protein without nitrogen. (| Resume. Thus we see that all human food originates in air and rain, except 5 odd pounds in every 100 lbs of food which comes from the soil. The supplies of air and, usually, rain are unlimited— that of the soil only may fail. Without any one ingredient, no matter if all else be present in abundance, no plant can mature. The soil may be regarded as the table at which the plants feed, though in addition to the food there provided they also eat a very small bit of the table. Man must prepare the table properly and carefully attend to the guests — his crops — and see that each gets enough to eat and drink and not too much nor too little. Further, he must look after their health and keep them clean and free from pests and parasites and weeds — the uninvited guests. 8 Chapter II. SOILS. How Soils are Formed. The earliest surface of the world was composed of solid rock, like granite, which had cooled down from a molten state. Nfow, these rocks are nothing more than innumerable small pieces of mineral cemented together. The other type of rock (marble, limestone, sandstone etc.,) were formed later. Soils are formed by IJie decay and crumbling of these rocks. The small pieces of mineral became separate and covered the surface. Then plant life besnn to develop. The vegetable organic matter (humus) resulting from the gradual decay of plants together with the small pieces of minerals gave us our soils of to-day. Minerals in Soils. If a soil be sorted out and the humus separated we can actually see, by means of the miscroscope, the great variety of small pieces of minerals. It is upon these minerals the plants must ultimately depend for their supply of nuneral matter. The plant requires a considerable variety of mineral matter, but luckily in farming it is found that of this only Phosphoric acid. Potash and Lime run short. Of course, in addition to this we must consider the supply of nitrc^n in the soil, as described before. The Physics op Soils. In general the constituents of soils are: 1 . Clay, the particles of which are extremely small ; they measure ^^ inch. Its plasticity and adhesiveness hold the particles of sand and these help to form soils oi good tilth. ' The extreme fineness serves to hold moisture and gases and solutions of plant food. 2. Sand, Slit and Dust, or ground-up rock form the greater part of soil. These particles, varyuig greatly in size, are much larger than those of clay. They help to make a soil porous and mellow. 3. Humus, vegetable matter from the decay of plants. These particles can be sorted out, counted and measured. In size they vary from ^to ^^ of an inch, and the number in 1 gram of soil (an amount which may be held on the point of a pen-knife) may vary from 1,000,000 to 100,000,000,000,000. If the surfaces of these small particles be added together they will measure from 20 square feet to 3 acres f o each pound of soil. This may seem unnecessary detail, but it must be realized that upon these conditions depend the whole possibilities of agriculture. In a soil suitably moist for crop growth each particle is closely surrounded by a thin film of water from which the plant must take its living. The larger particles here and there keep open the soil passages so that air, water and roots can pass ^ong. It is the variations m kinds and amounts of these particles that make all the different kinds of soil. Weights may thus vary from 30 to 110 lbs. per cubic foot and the air spaces from an extremely small amount to 25 or 50% of the total, as in well tilled soils where large crumbs are formed (good tilth). \ 9 The Life of the Soil. The differences between soil and subsoil lie in the predominance of roots and decayed residues of plants and animal matter near the surface. Here also is more exposure to air, heat and cold, light and life. living with and upon the decayed vegetation are myriad forms of bacteria. Their number may run to 15,000,000 in one gram of soil. Then there are moulds and fungus growths and ferments; many of these minute forms. of life do a most valuable work in preparing food for farm crops. Of the utmost importance among all these low orders of vegetable or animal life is the fact that certain bacteria oi-e active in absorbing nitrogen from the air. These live chiefly on the roots of leguminous crops (clover, alfalfa, peas, beans, etc.) and the good farmer takes advantage of them to enrich the soil. There are many other beneficial agents at work amongst which are the earth worms. When all is added together this work greatly exceeds the sum total of all human endeavour. Movebient of Soil Water. There are two main movements of water, up and down. After a rain there is a great rush of water downwards, with which are carried the finer particles of clay and plant food in solution. On the other hand, in dry weather, water has a tendency to climb up through the small spaces and evaporate at the sur- face. In so doing it carries up much material soluble ip water which sometimes deposits at the surface. This explains why, in drj' regions, (as in parts of Western Canada) alkali lands are formed. In such plwes there is not enough rain to wash the alkali down and away into the rivers and oceans where all such material collects to form the salt sea. In wder to grow, plants require from 200 to 1000 times their dried weight of water. This very large amount is taken up by the roots and evaporates from leaves and totals hundreds of tons per acre each year. In the soil, water may be classified as follows: 1. That which is absorber, om air. 2. That which is suspended between particles (film water). 3. That which sinks down and runs away. Upon No. 2, the plants depend for supplies. \ Regulating and Conserving Film Water. 1. Loosening the surface allows rain to soak in. 2. Under-drains help to increase the water-holding capacity of so:', by keep- ing clay loose and porous, likewise they carry off excess of free water which drowns the roots of crops. 3. Irrigation. 4. Loose surface tilth with close texture below allows water to climb up to roots but not to the surface to evaporate. 5. Weeds are a heavy drain on soil water supply. Plant Food in Soils. A moment's reflection will convince one that the roots of plants cannot assimilate a solid piece of soil. The root hairs, which take in the food sup- plies, are like smdl paper bags. Everything entering the roots must pass through these cell walls so that it is clear that plants can only drink in their food, which must be absorbed from its solution in water. 10 I'xxi ^" *^* "?''' R^,* '°°** ™*y ^ ""<* *<* «™*^ in three conditions. A very little IS already dissolved in water, some of it can be fairly easily dissolved and naay be called available and lastly there is the big reserve, practically msoluble, in the form of particles of rock and minerals and decayed plants Nature thus holds large stores, but doles out gradually the requirements. If the available forms of plant food be drawn upon too fast we see crops becoming Ic88 miu 1688* CHAPTER III. Maintaining Fertility. It is evident that the farmer must exercise extreme care if he would keep his soil in the highest condition of productiveness. The soil is the real guard- ian of the farmer's capital and the security is absolute. Try as he may he can- 5?*.j "^^^ the bank '. He may bring about temporary derangement and dividends may for a while be suspended, but invariably, under better manage- ment, prosperity can be restored and perhaps even larger profits than ever secured. However, if the farmer is a good banker he will not draw upon his accounts faster than he makes deposits, but will gradually build up wealth upon which he may draw more and more interest. He is at once the proprietor and patron of Nature's Bank. •rhe ledger account he keeps may be headed "Fertility". His deposits (the Dr. side) consist of what fertility he adds to the land— by raising clover and other legumes and in the return of all manure. His withdrawals (the Cr. side) consist in what he removes from the land and sells off the farm,— butter, cattle, grain, or occurs through loss in handling manure, etc. The net loss, may be kept very low, even nil, by selling small bulk (concentrated) products at high pnces, e.g., butter, milk, eggs, poultry, wool, pork, beef, mutton, fruits, v^tebles, as against selling bulky products at low prices (hay and grain). The figures are startling: a 160 acre farm in one case may lose no fertility or even gain a considerable amount, while in the other the annual loss of plant food may reach 15,000 lbs. per year of Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Potash. Fertilizers. It is often profitable and sometimes very profitable to apply also forms of platit food other than those produced on the farm. These may be used with- out disturbing the ordinary methods. The use of fertilizers calls for consider- able care and it is just as easy to contract large losses from their misuse as it is to obtain large profits from then- right use. However, the fact that fre- quently profits may be doubled by their employment shows their possibilities. The nature and composition of fertilizers is a subject well worthy of the far- mer s careful study. No farmer should employ fertilizers unless he has proven by experiment that by them he makes a profit. It is usually much cheaper to buy the materials and mix them at home than to purchase a ready made fertilizer. A summary of the results of some 10,000 fertilizer experiments in the United States has been made and it seems pos- sible to draw a few general conclusions therefrom which might be of value. Of course it must be remarked that these conclusions do not apply in each and every individual case. 1. That is is generally much more profitable to use complete fertilizers, I.e., those containing all three elements— Nitrogen, Phosphoric acid and Po'^"*:*'. 11 2. That moderate applications only are advisable— say from 300 to 500 lbs. per acre. 3. That increased yields may follow the use of fertilizers on many classes of soils, even those considered rich. It is usuallv easy to obtain considerable profits on such crops as potatoes, while fertilizers for such crops as grain, hay and com require very careful study. The safest practice seems to be to fertilize the money crops in the rotation, allowing other crops to benefit by the residues. Sources op Plant Food. Nitrogen— Manure, Clover, Tankage, Nitrate of Soda, Sulphate of am- monia. Phosphoric Acid. — Manure, acid phosphate, basic slag, bone. Potash. — Manure, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash and wood ashes. The importance of manure in farm economy is now realized. It is the inevitable by-product of the properly conducted farm, just as bran and shorts and tankage are the by-products of manufacture. It is a surety that the maniifacturer exacts full value f»-om his by-products. Why not the farmer, the manufacturer of protein, fat and carbohydrates ? In order to establish a proper treatment and care of the land the crops are "rotated." In this way all parts of the farm get an equal chance. This also serves to produce the different kinds and amounts of crops as required for feeding, allows for proper manuring and cultivation, for alternation of crop with deep and shallow root systems, for using preceding crop residues, gathering nitrogen from air, distributing farm labour, controlling weeds, etc., etc., etc. CHAPTER IV. The Processes of Life. It Is in the little cells, of which all plants and animals are con- structed, that the manufacture of protein, fat and carbohydrates and fibre as well as colours, odours and flavours takes place. Each cell is a wonderful chemical factory. Under the microscope all plants and animals are found to be made up of little cells or pouches. Some consist of only one or few cells, such as brewers' yeast, while others, as for instance, a tree or a cow, are made up of thou- sands upon thousands. The cells of the orange and lemon are so large that they can be readily seen, when cut. If we closely examine a cell we shall gain some id? that grows — both plants and animals. As an example salem artichoke seen under the microscope which wii. It resembles a little bag filled with water. Within round body, "the nucleus." A viscous, tiu-bid fluid, protoplasm, lines the inside of the cell wall and is connected with the nucleus. This liquid plays a very important part in all processes of life, and from it everything else is manufactured. We thus have: 1. The wall — fibre or tissue. 2. The contents lining the wall — protoplasm. 3. Little body in centre — nucleus. 4. Clear liquid — sap. of the structure of all ; a cell of the Jeru- gnify it 280 times. .le cell is a little 12 Cotte food^en y»MthroS Sl.'tfi^^^^e ^S^^ StSg^Sr ^ *" *•• paTTthTW protS^S^S-CyS.SS^aSSi^^bSS:*"'^ °' "^ '""'"^^ ^"^"- '"™» »' CHAPTER V. THE PRODUCTS OF THE FARM. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates and Fibres". The products of the farm are thus classified: (a> Plant products. (b) Animal products. 1. For human food, direct. 2. For stock food, direct 3. For manufacturers of food, clothing and shelter. 1. Human food direct. 2. For manufacturers of food, clothing and shelter. Stock Foods. ^f *J^^ following tables are of considerable interest as showing that the nature of the ai>parently great vanety of materials is comparatively simple and can be easily underetood By reading the figures one ^1 be able to diiSish between good and valuable products and inferior ones. »"«KuiBn CoMPomnoN or Imfoktant PBErw/- Stuffs Wmm Wawr. Cam pn4mcu CinkvBd C«m4k«baMl ... OtamBMi OwaBMl atmtumt WlMatpf^aeti WhMt JMW gnMlt flour WJMMknui WkMttharti WkwlmMdUnv ... Wbnt •cmaingi . . RMpradocM. Ry* Rjnbraa I^ikacte -•^JX"•^ Ualtiproata BrcmnpmlM, wat. " drM Oat praducls. om« Om mMl '' (Mdarihorta . " duat " hulb ■•KkwlMat OllbMriafl Flaxi UoMd mmt (oM proet^)'. '.'.'.[" " " ■• hulk. . _ auBflomrMad !■••■ Gim leddar eorn.'.'.'. . ! ! ! Fodte earn (Arid ennd) ....:::;::; i Thy GrsMM: Fulur* » loUlafl. ?SX*~'.'-'~'' ; lUy Tlnwtliy RMltop MIxtd ITHMIl Straw Wbaat I Oat '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..': Grcaa forafl* OaguiBw) Rwldow Alfalfa Cow paa Soyalmii '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ] Har and Straw (kgiiaMa) i Red clover Alfalfa Cow pea Soya bean (itraw) Roota and tubara. . . Poutoai Sucar beata Maniala i Tundpa Rape Manufactured praducta. Dried blood Meat aerap Beet pulp molaaaaa i II 16 • 10 7 10 IS II u 12 IS IS IS II 10 76 • It * 8 « » 12 9 9 10 8 11 7 10 80 62 65 13 9 13 10 9 70 70 8S 75 IS 9 II 11 80 87 90 90 W 9 11 90 20 DiCMUbla PialalB kydralaa Fat It. a. 4. IS. Si. 14. 9. IS. 19. 9. 10. 10. a. S4 IS. IS IS. 18 It. 2S 10. 9 10. S4 11. t as IS. IS 9. SS 19. 10 4. s« 16. SO 9. 2S 11.5 80 IS. 5 42 9. to 1. 29 8. 24 21. 22 29. 19 28. 26 37. M 31 12. 20 17. 6 5 1. 3.5 2 5 7. 2 5 17 12 11 2.1 15.5 2 6 40. 2.8 38 4 8 39 6. 51 .4 SO > 2 1 3. U 4. 4 2 10 ( 3.2 40 7. S9 11 3S 11 46 SS 3. 1. S. 1 1.1 ».B 1 1.1 l.S 1 1.1 5.5 1 IS 36 5 52. 9. 66. 2.5 .6 11 9 67. 60. 48. 61. 5S. 69. u 39 SO. 58. SI. 68. to. 66. 87. 9. S6. 47. tt. 47. sa. 49 17. 33. 40. 17 33. 21. ts. IS. 35. 10 19 21 19 43 47 41 36 39 15 13 9 11 86 40 39 40 16 10 5.4 7.2 8. 7 60 4.S 3. II. «. 9. S. I. a. 4. 8 5 S. 1. s. 1.6 l.S 1.6 1.6 6. 4. 6. 8. a. a.a S9. 7. a. IS. 1.6 S9. I. .4 I. .5 .a .a 1.4 IS .7 .5 .S .5 l.T IS 1.1 1. .1 .2 .2 SS 14. 14 The food raquiranenti of an animal, both a« to quantity and quafity, art determined by its age and functi 1760 1620 116 190 295 190 2M 60 Ittt 1776 6815 TmCwmmwuLrumMum u mml,mtmmmn |M0 Mmam^tum IN ilwMpwk,Mi IMS Fwk. bt nit KM HaUbitt. (Nik tW I T«B IN * bmI MM OstiBMl I6M Mm zoiS WhMt bnad 2400 Bwna, wfc.ta, dry mm Ctlmy ISO (Poutas Me. bia.). itTO Tumlpr 1200 Appl« 1270 Bwiaiuii 270 S"!" tno SM dlwtai (BMBROY.'JUUT RC). tiMI tiM :fead in liM. Factory Products. The fanner manufactures from air, water and soil all the varieties of food and clothing— protein, fat, carbohydrates, tissues and fibres, colours, odours, flavours, digestives, piiisons, alkaloids, etc., etc. The so-called manufacturer merely sorts these out by machinery and chemical processes and sells or uses them for various purposes. Who is the real manufacturer? In the first column of the following table we hive the constituents of plants and animals produced on the farm; in the second column there is the deposi- tion of those from plant sources, in the third that of the products from animals. Farm Products PAcmnT Pboouctk (a) Plant (b) Animal I. Protein Ucata, eaicio, glu*. iriatint, (tc. tl. Fata Oik Unaaad oil, com oil, oottouMd oil. •te, for painu, aoap, lubrlomta. oIm oil, lard oil, etc, for loaiM, lubricant!, etc. fata wax gums atMvln camauba rubber, ebewinc (um lard, tallow, greaaea, etc beeswax • III. Carbohydntei autar, candy, atarcb, beer, whUkey, paataa, etc. none IV. Mineral bone proQueta. v. Tianca and Flbra* Cotton, linm, wood and |>aper. wool, bair, leather, sUk. VI, Colour^ odoura, flavoura, diiMtive^ alkaloida, poisona and all plant extraeta. It Tm N i cM M T iM or Lira. TIm relative unounts of the ncccnitiM of life produced on farme com- pared with thoee produced by ail otlier natural reeourcee combined, aa approii- niatdy true for Canada: Nkhmtim. FMMfClB Bt An Mkar natiml nwurrri!. (MlitM, rgrau « rhim. Im) FMi Cwb«h]r4ntM CtatmiM. TliMai ud Flbm M