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LP ^ #' .*<. X. put "V and frar witi nior tren Ir purs with and -.>j live i / ness, of er tive new ,^ .'««*«&l«Ste^ .^m, m^ f # PRE FACE. THE new work I here sub^iit to the public is the fruit of three years travels and residence in the United States, in a trame of mind very dissimilar from that with which I visited the Ottoman domi- nions, and when the face of affairs was ex- tremely different. In 1783 I set sail from Marseilles on a pursuit agreeable to my inclinations ; and with that alacrity, that confidence in others and in myself, which youth inspires. I gayly left a country of peace and plenty, to live in a land of barbarism and wretched- ness, without any other motive than that of employing the time of a restlcs and ac- tive youth in procuring knowledge of a new kind, and through it's means of em- A 2 .« m ai V9, / bellishing the remainder of my life with si radiant circle of reputation and esteem. In the year 3 on the contrary (1795), I embarked at Havre with that disgust and indifference, which the sight and experi- ence * of injustice and persecution impart. Sorrowful at the past, anxious for the fu- ture, I was going with distrust to a free people, to try whether a sincere friend of that Liberty, whose name had been so pro- faned, could find for his declining years a peaceful asylum, of which Europe no longer afforded him any hope. In this disposition I visited successively al- most all parts of the United States, studying the climate, laws, inhabitants, and their man- ners, chiefly with regard to social life and domestic happiness. And such was the re- sult of my observations and reflections, that, considering on one hand the gloomy and boisterous state of France and all * I had been in different prisons ten months, till after the 9th of thermidor. L SO pro- ; years a o longer jivelyal- tudying eir man- life and s the re- lections, gloomy and all J, till after Europe j the probability of long and ob. stmate wars from the contest arisen between prejudices on the decline and knowledge mcreasmg, between despotisms grown old and young liberties arising: on the other the peaceful end smiling aspect of the United States, in consequence of the im- mense extent of territory to be oeopled, the facility of acquiring landed property, the necessity and profits of labour, personal freedom and the liberty of a man's em- ploying his indqstry in any way he might think proper, and the mildness of the go- vernment, founded on it's v^ry weakness: after weighing all these motives, I had formed a resolution, to remain in the United States; when, in the spring of 1798, an epidemic animosity against the French break- ing out, and the threat of an imediate rup- ture, compelled me to withdraw. Perhaps this would be a proper place for me to complain of the violent public at- tacks levelled at me during the latter part of my stay, under the influence of a per- ^3 r ■■ J s 'S r ) VI son, who was then all-powerful j but the election of 1801, making amends for that °^ '797> S^ve me sufficient reparation*. * I shall point out to the Americans however the ab- surdity of the principal grievance, by which I was rendered a suspected person : (toi at that jieriod the language and system were truly those of terrorism). I was supposed to be the secret agent of a government, vvliosc axe had not ceased to fall on those like me. A conspiraaj was fabricated, which I (a single Frenchman) hud plotted in Kentuckey, to deliver up Louisiana to the directory (which had but just risen into existence) ; and this when numerous and respectable testimonies in that very Ken- tuckey, as well as in Virginia and Pennsylvania, could attest it to be my opinion, declared on occasion of tiie conduct of the minister G****, that the invasion of Louisiana would be false policy ; that it would involve us in a quarrel with the Americans, and strengthen their inclination toward the English : that Louisiana suited France in no point of view : that colonizing It would be too expensive and pre- carious ; and to maintnin possession of it too difficult, for want of a navy, and of stability in our government, which ■was distant, changeable, embarrassed, Sec. : and that in short, from the nature qf things, it only suited, and must Sltimately belong to the neighbouring power, which pos- sessed every means of occupying, defending, and retain- ing it. This opinion, contrary to that of most of our ministers, pxposed me to their disapprobation, nay almost K4 vii On my return to France (prairial an 6), it appeared to me, that I should render a service to my countrymen, by composing a work, the want of which 1 had felt my- their reprimands, both, in America and in France. I have notwithstanding continued to maintain it, in times wJicn it required any degree of courage to avow it. The World would be astonished were it known, that the animosity of Mr. John A»», at the very time when the great Washington bestowed on me public testimonies of esteem and confidence, had no otlier motive than the rancour of an autJwr, on account of my opinions con- cerning his book in Defence of the Constitution of the United States., As a man of letters, and as a foreigner, frequently interrogated in a country of perfect freedom, I had had occasion to give my opinion, at a time when their author did not yet occupy the first post in the state. Unfortunately I had adhered to the opinion of one of the best English reviewers, who, treating the book as a com pilation without method, and void of accuracy either in facts or in ideas, added, that he should even believe it to be destitute of an object, if he did not suspect a secret one, relating to the country for which it was an apology, and which 'I'ime alouc woujd unveil. Now as I inter- preted my author, I advanced, that this object was, to court popular favour, and the sufFrages of the electors, by a national flattery. When the prophecy was verified by the event, the prophet was not forgotten. A 4 • •• vni • t iclf. Accordingly I formed the design of coIJecting into a narrow compass not only my own ideas, but those that were scat- tered about in difFererc works, at the same time correcting prejudices formed during a period of enthusiasm. In the plan I traced I first laid down as a basis the soil and climate : then, following the method which I conceive to aflford the most co- pious information, a systematic arrange- ment, I considered the quantity of popu- lation, it's distribution over the territory, it*s division into different kinds of labour and employment, the habits, that is the manners, resulting from these occupations, and the combination of these habits with the ideas and prejudices derived from the parent stock. Tracing this stock through history, language, laws, and customs, I showed the romantic errour of writers, who give the name of a new and virgin people to a combination of the inhabitants of old Europe, Germans, Dutch, and par- ticularly English from the three kingdoms. esign of lot only ;re scat- he same during plan I the soil method ROSt CO- arrange- f popu- erritory, labour t is the pations, its with om the :hrough toms, I Nvriters, ■ virgin ibitants id par- gdoms. ^•m IX The organization of these ancient and va- rious elements into political bodies led mc to recapitulate succinctly the formation of each colony : to show in the characters of it's first authors that mental leaven, which has served as a prime mover to almost the whole system of conduct of their successors, according to a moral truth too little ob- served, that, in * political bodies, as in indi- viduals, first habits exercise a predominant influence over all the rest of their existence.' In this leaven would have been seen one of the principal causes of the difference of character and inclination, that appears more and more obvious in the different parts of the Union. The crisis of independence, obliging mc to take a brief view of it's causes and in- cidents, would have furnished me with new remarks on it's less known and less observed consequences. A number of facts, omitted or misrepresented, would have established a much greater resemblance than is com- monly imagined between the American and '■^i French revolutions, both in the motives, the means of execution, the conduct of parties, and the fluctuations, even retro- grade, of the public mind ; and finally even to the character of the three principal as- semblies, the first of which in both coun- tries was equally reputed to have advanced a whole generation in knowledge before it's contemporaries, and the last not to have kept pace with the knowledge acquired: so that t'.ose great political movements called revolutions seem to have in them something automatic, depending less on the calculations of prudence, than on a mecha- nical series and progress of the pasiions. In treating of the period between the peace that established the independence of America and the formation of the federal government, a period but little known to the public, I should have shown the in- fluence of that time of anarchy on the national character; the alteration of the pubhc mind and it's principles by the re- turn of the discontented loyalists, and the ■.^0km XI immigration of a number of tory mer- chants from England ; and the change that took place in the primitive honesty and simplicity of the people, occasioned at first by the paper money, and the want of laws and justice, and afterward by the tempo- rary wealth and permanent luxury, that the war of Europe introduced into this neutral country. I should have pointed out the advantages, that every European war procures tlie United States ; the sen- sible increase they derived from the last, notwithstanding the weak and wavering politics of their government ; the national and progressive direction of their ambition toward the West India islands and the con- tinent surrounding them ; and the proba- bility of their enlargement, in spite of party divisions and the germes of an in- ternal schism. I should have unfolded the differences of opinion, and even of interest, that divide the Union into eastern states (New England) and southern states, and into an Atlantic country and Missisippi ' I f «-j xu i§ country; the preponderance of the agri- cultural interest in these, and of the com^ mercial interest in those j and the weakness of one part, occasioned by their slaves, with the strength of the other originating from a free and industrious population. I should have pointed out a still more active source of schism in the collision of two op- posite opinions, styled republicanism and federalism : this maintaining the preemi, nence of the monarchical or rather despotic form of government over every other j the necessity of absolute and arbitrary power in every system, founded on the ignorance, passions, and indocility of the multitude, and the example of most governments and people, ancient and modern j in short all the old politico-religious doctrine of the royal prerogative held by the Stuarts and tramontanes : the other on the contrary ar- guing, that arbitrary power is a radical principle of disorder and destruction, since it does not exempt rulers from the passions, errours, or ignorance common to other men, but even tends to produce and heighten them; that the faculty of being able to do every thing, as it leads to desiring every thing, has a direct and immediate tendency to extravagance and tyranny j that, if the multitude be ignorant and wicked, it is be- cause it receives such an education from such governments j that, supposing men to be bom vicious, they can be corrected only by the sway of reason and equity ; that this reason and equity cannot be obtained without knowledge, requiring study, la- bour, and the collision of argument, all which presume an independence of mind, a freedom of opinion, the right to which men derive from Nature herself, &c.i in short, all the modern doctrine of the de- clarrtion of rights, on which the inde- pendence of the United States was erected. I would have discussed, from what I have heard from the most impartial persons, the consequences these dissensions may have. Whether it be true, that a division into .,™.^ii-**»itai«n»»4i ' I Ir ^ XIV two or three powerful bodies, at a period more or less remote, would be as stormy and disastrous, as is commonly supposed. Whether, on the contrary, too much unity and concentration in the government would not be of fatal consequence to liberty, left destitute of asylum and of choice; and whether too great a degree of security and prosperity would not radically corrupt a young people"^ ^ who, while they affect to give themselves this name, do not so much con- fess their present weakness, as disclose their schemes of future grandeur; a people par- ticulariy deserving this name oi young iox the inexperience and eagerness, with which they give themselves up to the enjoyments of fortune and seductions of flattery. I should then have considered in a moral view the conduct of this people and it's *WJiene\w you point out to the Americans any ^^•eakness or imperfection in tlieir social state, arts, or go- vernment, tlieir answer is : ' We are but a voung peo- ple ;' tacitly implying, ' let us grow.' ■ l i.' ■•*«:■ -:'^^^ mk XV a period s stormy apposed. :h unity- It would rty, left e ; and ity and rrupt a to give ch con- se their »le par- ung for which )^ments » moral nd it's ins any !, or go- ng peo- government, from the period of 1783 to 1798 : and I would have proved by incon- testible facts, that neither more economy in the finances*, more good faith in pub- lic transactions f , more decency in public morals J, more moderation of party-spirit, nor more care in education and instruc- tion ||, prevailed in the United States, in proportion to their population, the mass of affairs, and the multiplicity of interests, than in most of the old states of Europe : that whatever has been done there of good and useful, and whatever of civil liberty, and security of person and property, exists among them, is owing rather to popular and personal habits, the necessity of labour, and the high price of all kinds of work, * The affair of Algiers, and construction of frigates at 1 700000 francs [70833I.] a piece. t Jay's treaty compared with that of Paris. X The affair of Mr. Lyons in full congress. II Scandalous disorders in th- college of Princetown, and nullirv of others. :. s.. H u w xvi than any able measures or sage policy of government: that on almost all these heads the principles of the nation has been re- trograde since it's establishment : that in the year 1798 different circumstances only were wanting to one party, to have displayed a usurpation of power, and a violence of character, altogether counterrevolutionary : in a word, that the United States have been much more indebted to their insulated situation, their distance from every pow- erful neighbour and the theatre of war, and the general easiness of their circum- stances, than to the essential goodness of their laws, or the wisdom of their admini- stration, for their public prosperity, and civil and individual wealth. No doubt after all the eulogiums lavished on them by European writers, and am- plified by their own ; after the proposition made in congress, to declare themselves the most enlightened and wisest nation on the globe 5 these would have been audacious censures. But since a censure is no certain 4 jtk.itfgt^*- — ■^-., '» XVll indication of ill-will j since a censure even that is unjust has less inconvenience than flattery; and since at present I could not be suspected of resentment; I should have indulged myself in observations, the truth of which, though severe, would have been useful, and confessed by intelligent men : and in thus rendering the services of a disinterested friend, I should have thought myself paying a homage of admiration to that institution, which at present does more honour than any thing else to the United States, the liberty of the press and of opinion *. In fine, considering this country with respect to the French emigrants, I would have examined, from my own sensations and the experience of many of my coun- * Since Mr JeiFerson's advancement to the presidency, the federalists have incessantly loaded him with invectives n^ the public papers : yet such is the Solidity of the prin- aples on wh.ch he acts, that he has suffered then, to say what they pleased, without his character being at all sha en ,n the public opinion : perhaps it is even confirnx. T I Ml /f!l XVIU trymen, what kind of resources and social pleasures our men of property or merchants could find in it's cities, and what kind of happiness they might enjoy in the country. My conclusions in this respect, I confess, might have appeared strange : for, after having been on the point of settling in the United States myself, I would not have advised many Frenchmen, to follow my example. My reason is, that as many ad- vantages, as the English, Scots, Germans, and even Dutch, would enjoy from the ana- logy of their civil and moral system, so many obstacles would present themselves to the French ; who would meet with dif- ference of language, laws, customs, man- ners, and even inclinations. I say it with regret, but my researches have not led me to 'find in the Americans those fraternal and benevolent dispositions, with which some writers have flattered us : on the con- trary I have thought, that they retain a strong tinge of the national prejudices of their mother country against us j preju- dices fomented by the wars of Canada j -- 'X ,,*£.. XIX n feebly altered by our alliance in their ;V- surreaion , very powerfully revived of late by declamations in congress, and by the addresses of the towns and corporations to the president Mr. J. A*** in consequence of the depredations of our privateers ; and lastly encouraged even in the colleges by prizes for orations and defamatory theses * against the French. It cannot be denied too, that a contrast of habits, and forms of society, exists between the two people by no means calculated to promote their mtimate union. The Americans charo-e the French with levity, indiscretion, and talkativeness: and the French reproach them with a dryness of manner, a stiffness and a taciturnity, that carry the appearance of pride and haughtiness ; and such a ne- ghgence of those attentions, those civi- litips, on which they set a value, liiat they contmually imagine they see in them a design to affront, or rudeness of charac^ ter. In fact these complaints cannot be * See the prizes at Prlncetown in 1797 and ]7as b2 VLi J. n XX m Entirely unfounded, for I have equally heard them from Englishmen and Germans. As for me, whom the Turks taught at an early age to be little nice with respect to forms, I have rather sought to investigate the causes of these, than felt their effects ; and it has appeared to me, that their national incivi- lity arose less from systematic design, than from the mutual independence, singleness, and absence of reciprocal wants, in which general circumstances have placed almost all the inhabitants of the United States. Such is the plan of which I had drawn the sketch, and in some parts of which I had made considerable progress : but occupied by affairs both of a public and private na- ture, and delayed, particularly within this twelvemonth, by serious illness, I felt, that I wanted both time and strength, to bring my work to a conclusion j and I deter- mined to publish only the view of the cli- mate and soil, which might be detached from the rest without injury to it. In publishing this new essay, I am far from possessing that confidence, which more #„.#^,. iimm -K "*im m XXI than one reader might suppose: for the splendid success of my travels in Egypt, far from affording me a certainty of obliin- ingthelike, gives me rather an apprehen- sion of criticism j both because the sub- ject of the present work has in fact less variety, and is more grave and scientific j aud because too much praise bestowed on one book ultimately tires out the general good will toward the author, and in all ages there will be found some of those Athenians, who throw in a shell solely be- cause they are tired of hearing men always speak well of the poor Aristides. I have even thought sometimes, that it would have been more prudent, and more ad- vantageous to my thirst of fame as an author, to write no more : but it docs not appear to me, that having done well once is a sufficient reason for doing nothing more during our lives ; and as I am in- debted for most of my consolations in ad- versity to labour and study; as I owe the advantages of my present situation to li- terature and the esteem of intelligent ^p XXll men j I was desirous of paying them a last tribute of gratitude, a last testimony of zeal. On the other hand I must expect to un- dergo a rigid scrutiny from those who arc im- mediately interested in the work, the Ame- ricans ; most of whose writers seem to make a point of confuting the Europeans, as if from a whimsical fiction they took upon themselves to be the representatives and avengers of the Indians their predecessors j without reckoning the almost lunatic zeal, with which the loyal Antigallicans decry every thing, that comes from a nation of atheists and jacobins : but Time, that levels all things, v^ill do justice on detraction as well as flattery j and as I have not the va- nity to pretend exemption from errours, I shall at least retain the merit of having drawn attention, and excited new informa- tion, on various subjects, which might not perhaps have been thought of so soon. The table of contents will point out the order I have followed, and the subjects on which I have treated. -^^--"m xxiu em a last mony of ct to un- 10 arc im- he Ame- [ to make ns, as if ak upon ves and icessors j itic zeal, IS decry ation of at levels ction as the va- rours, I having nforma- ght not oon. out the jects on In the orthography of English names I have not adopted the method of the gene- rality of translators, who content them- selves with writing the words as they Hud them. The English do not affix the same powers to the letters as we do, whence there is a great difference in our pj-onun-- ciation ut a word written in the same man- ner. Thus the respectable name of Wash- ington is pronounced by them nearly as if written Oua-chmn-to?w • and they do not understand us, when we distort it into Fazingueton. I deemed it convenient for the reader therefore, to give him the true pronunciation frenchified, subjoining the English mode of spelling in a note : thus I have written Soskoudna, instead of Sus- quehannah ; Grhe, instead of Green -, strU, instead of street; Ouait, instead of White;' &c. This was the practice of our writers' in the beginning of the last century; and i have no aversion to ancient ivays, when diey happen to be rational* * This paragraph may seem superfluous to the En^lisli reader, as the FrencJ, orthography has of course been (1 il XXIV The maps I have annexed are not very minute in a political view, because this was not my object ; but they are carefully executed, and for the most part new with regard to the physical information they convey, which was the particular design of my work. % i ! ;/! i)( omitted in the translation ; hut I liave thought proper to insert it, as it condemns a practice that appears to me highly reprehensible, and perhaps still more common inthiscoun-, try than it is in France. Not only the generality of trans- lators, but men of rank, of eminence, and even of literary reputation, when not translating fror.i the French, give many proper names, and appellations likewise, as they have seen them spelt by French writers, though neither French, nor of French extraction, but belonging to the countries around the Nile or the Ganges, the Euxinc or the Baltic. Hence they become very different words from what they ought to be in the mouth of a mere English reader, are pronounced iir.properly by the smatterer in French, and arc rightly sounded only by the few, to whom an accurate pronunciation of the French is familiar. Every foreign word ought to be spelt either as it is by the natives them- selves, or so as to represent to the reader it's proper pro- nunciation : surely therefore, it is very ridiculous for an Englishman, ^to borrow from the French a Russian or a Turkish, a Coptic or a Sanscrit word. T. ,^!SiWL' "Ife^sW- ^,^m^,:m TABf.E OF CONTENTS. 1 7 13 IS .ussian or a Page, Chap. 1. Geographical situation of the United States, and superficies of their terri- tory/ , . . . . If. Aspect of the CourAry , III. General configuration . § I . The Atlantic coast § 2. Tlie fVestern country, or basin of the Missisippi , . . . 20 § 3. The Mountain country , , 30 IV. Internal structure of the soil , . 42 § 1. Granitic region , . . 43 § 2. Region of sandstone . . ,52 § 3. Calcareous region . , 55 § 4. Region of sea-sand . . 67 § 5. — — ,., river alluvions . . 70 V. Of the ancient lakes that have disappeared 74 VI. Of the fall of Niagara, mans, entitled a Concise Natural and Mo- ral History of East and JVest Florida II. On the History of New Hampshire, by Je- remiah Belknap, member of the phiioso^ phical society of Philadelphia ; and ths History of Vermont, by S. Williams, member of the Meteorological society of 333 33» / VI P«ge. Germ mi/, and the Philosophical society of Philadelphia . . . 349 III. Gallipolis, or the French colony on the Ohio 355 IV. Of the colony at Fort Vincents on the Wa- bash, and of the French colonies on the Missisippi and Lake Erie . .367 V. General Ohsey^ations on the Indians or sa- vages of North Aynerica . . 393 yi. Vocabulary of the language 0/ the Miamis, a tribe settled on the Wabash . . 495 I ) f •^^SH^ ■^^aiWif^ P«S«. society {»i . 349 eOhio 355 m \e Wa- H on the 1 . 367 ■ or sa- , ■ . 393 I ta7nis, I . 493 I y I E W OP THE CLIMATE AND SOIL OF THE UNITED STATES OF A3IERICA. CHAP. I. (Geographical Situation of the United States, and Su^ perficies of their Territory. To give the most simple idea of the geogra- phical situation of the United States, I would de- fine their territory to be that part of North Ame- rica, which is bounded, on the east, by the oceart that washes the shores of Europe and Africa i on the south, by the West Indian sea, and the gulf of Mexico i on the west, by the great river*' of * The Missisippi, a name derived from the words vietchm api, which signify rrrcat river, in the language of the Mia. mis, a tribe of savages still inhabiting the country near the sources of the Miann and ^yabash. It is remarkable, that the first Ideas formed of the Missisippi in Canada came from tlm quarter, and iVom these savages, who annually make a 'j!^^'.'^:^'^-!, Louisiana ; on the north, by that of Canada, and the five great lakes, from which it's waters are de- rived. In an age when the advantage of natural boundaries are so well known, we can scarcely question, that these will sooner or later form the limits of the country, as they are so distinctly marked : but a strict regard to the present state of things obliges us, to retrench from these the peninsula and coasts of the Floridas on the south, and the lower part of the course of the St. Lawrence, from lake St. Francis, as well as Nova Scotia and New Brunswic, constituting almost the whole of the country formerly possessed by the French in Lower Canada *. This vast territory, measuring from north to south, comprises more than sixteen degrees of la- titude, namely from 31" north to about 47 ^f. warlike excursion, founded on an ancient grudge, against the Chactaws and Chicassaws, who dwell toward the lower part of the ri r. * Louisiana, however, extending west as fei' as Ne# Mexico, has lately been annexed to the United States. T. f ' Jusques vers Ic 47° ;' this seems scarcely consistent with * plus de 10 dcgres.' Morse gives iat. 46** for the northern boundary : but a map I have before me, by S. Dunn, cor- rected from the surveys of Captain Carver, places the line that divi which established tlie independence of the States, estimated it at a million of English miles square, or about 1 1 2000 old French leagues j which would make the territory of the United States nearly four times as much as that of France in 1789, or that of Spain and Portugal together, and almost seven times as much as that of Great Brita . including Ireland. The Americans quote the:- ^comparisons with self satisfaction; and their vanity, which is fond of anticipating the fu- ture, already measures foreigners by this scale of proportion : but if we reflect, that throughout this vast country there existed in 1801 * only five mil- lions two hundred and fourteen thousand eight hundred and one inhabitants, of whom about * Census published at Philadelphia the 21st of Septem- ber, 1801.— (■ American General Advertiser.) B Z !w. eight hundred and eighty thousand, of a sixteenth of the whole, were black slaves, and that the in- habitants are for the most part dispersed throughout the country, it will be obvious, that this extensivc- ness of territory is in reality a cause of weakness at present, and does not promise to be a source of union in future. Besides, the territory has been tonsiderably amplified by Hutchins, who was un- acquainted with the sources of the Missisippi, and knew but little of the north of the Ohio*^ and the calculations of this geographer, though he was a very worthy man, and they were sufficient for my purpose, have not that incontestible authority, which have been allowed them by his successors, echoing the opinions of one another. Now if we compare the United States with the countries in similar latitudes of our hemisphere, we shall find, that their southern parts, as Geor- gia and Carolina, correspond to Morocco and the coast of Barbary, almost to the shores of Egypt j and it is remarkable, that the mouths of the Mis- fcisippi coincide with those of the Nile, but in an opposite direction J these in the latitude of 31°, those of 29 ^ the Nile flowing from the south, * I have seen in the hands of Mr. Jefierson a letter writ- ten to him by llutcliins, dated February the 1 1th, 1784, iu TVhich he ackiiowled-res having committed very great mis. taltcB ju his calculations ol' the Northwestern Territory. irf'.*iK wmm% 5 the Missislppi from the north, both with nearly the same phenomena of inundation, wealth, and excellence. The analogy of the country of Ame • rica may be continued through Syria, the centre of Persia, Tibet, and the centre of China. Savan- nah, Tripoli, Alexandria, Gaza, Bussorah, Ispa- han, Lahor, Nankin, are, within a degree, under the same parallel. The northern parts, on the other hand, as Massachusetts and New Hamp- shire, answer to the south of France, the centre of Italy, Turkey in Europe, the Black Sea, the Caspian, the deserts of Tatary, and the north of China : Boston and Barcelona, Ajaccio, and Rome, to which we might almost add Constanti- nople and Derbcnd, are likewise within a degree under the same latitude. From these compa- risons we may infer great diversity of climate , and in fact the United States include the extremes of all the countries I have mentioned, though we observe in them a gradation with respect to their latitudes, and stiH more with respect to the level of the surface, in which certain peculiar charac- teristics lead me to distinguish four principal diw visions. The first, that of the coldest climate, includes the north-eastern states, as they are called, or New England, the natural boundary of which is fraced by the southern side of Rhode-Island ^r4 1; e Connecticut on the ocean, and interiorly by the chain of hills, that furnishes the waters of the Delaware and Susquehannah. The second, which I call the middle climate, applies to the central states, that is the south of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, as far as the river Potowmack, or, to speak more pre- cisely, to the Patapsco. The third, that of the hot climate, comprises the southern states, or the flat country of Vir- ginia, the two Carolinas, and Georgia, ':s far as Florida, where frost ceases to be known in the la- titude of 29°. The fourth is the climate of the western states, Tenessee, Kentucky, and the Territory north- west of the Ohio, or North-western Territory, lying behind the Alleghany chain, and on the west of the preceding states. The distinguishing cha- racteristic of this climate is, that it is hotter, by nearly three degrees of latitude, than the corres- ponding country toward the Atlantic, though se- parated from it solely by the Alleghany moun- tains, as I shall mention hereafter. -^'^.. .~5SB«I«- *. '«*^, "^m y by the rs of the e climate, : south of id, as far lore prc- :oniprise8 r of Vir- is far as in the la- :rn states, y north- ferritory, the west ling cha- otter, by e corres- Dugh se- ly moun- CIIAPTER U. Aspect of the Country. TO a European traveller, and more especially to one accustomed like me to the naked lands of Egypt, of Asia, and on the borders of the Mediter- ranesi;., the prominent feature of the American soil is a wild appearance of almost uninterrupted forest, which displays itself on the shores of thp sea, and continues growing thicker and thicker a^ you proceed into the interior of the country. During the long journey I made in 1796, from % the mouth of the Delaware through Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky, to the river Wabash -, thence to the north, through the Northii. western Territory, as far as Fort Detroit j dien by the way of Lake Erie to Nigara and Albany j and the year following from Boston to Richmond in Virginia ; I scarce travelled three miles together on open and cleared land. Every where I foun^ the roads, or rather paths, bordered and over- shadowed with coppices or tall trees 5 the silence and sameness of which, the soil in some places parched up, in others marshy, trees fallen through age, or blown down by storms, and rotting on B 4 '"^.i '•iTJUr "*'-'^' I the ground, witluhc tormenting swarms of breeze- flics, mosciiettocs, and gnais*, do not possess all the charms, that our romance-writers dream of amid the smoke of a city in Europe. It is true, on the shores of the Atlantic this continental forest displays some openings, formed by the brackish marshes, and the cultivated fields that are continually extending round the absorbing fo- cus of the cities. It has also considerable vacan- cies in the western countries, particularly from the Wabash to the Missisippi, toward the borders of Lake Erie and the river St. Lawrence, in Ken- tucky, and in Tenessee j where the nature of the soil, and still more the ancient and annual con- flagrations of the savages, have produced spacious deserts, called savannahs by the Spaniards, and prairies by the Canadians, as also by the Ame- ricans, who have adopted this word. These de- serts I cannot compare with those I have seen in Syria and Arabia, but rather with what are called the steps or deserts of Tatary ; the savannahs, like the sups, being covered with thick shrubby plants, three or four feet high, exhibiting during summer and autumn a rich tapestry of verdure and flowers, very seldom to be seen m the bare and naked de- serts of Arabia. Throughout the rest of the * A small black fly, worse than the gnat of Europe. 1 9 Uniffd States, particularly in the mountainous parts of the interior country, from which the ri- vers Row in o})posite directions, some to the At- lantic, others to the Missisippi, the realms of fo- rest have experienced but slight infringements on their domain -, and compared vvith France we may say, that the entire country is one vase wood. If the whole of the country could be taken in at one view, we should perceive this forest to be divided into three grand districts, distinguished from each other by the kind, species, and aspect of the trees that compose it. The species of these trees, according to the remark of the Americans, ' indicate the nature and qualities of the soil, on which they grow. The first of these districts, which I call the southern forest, includes the maritime parts of Virginia, of the two Carolinas, of (Georgia, .id of the Floridas, and extends, generally speaking, from Chesapeak Bay to the river St. Mary, on a soil of gravel and saiid, occupying in breatlth from eighty to a hundred and thirty miles. The wliole of this space, covered with pines, firs, larches, cypres- ses, and other resinous trees, displays a perpetual ver, dure to the eye, but would not be on tiiis account the less barren, if the sides of the rivers, land depo- sited by the waters, and marshes, did not intennin-Ie \t I It Ik- I, '^V< h ft h 1 1 'J I a ft I TO with it veins rendered highly productive by culti- vation. The second district, or middle forest, com- prises the hilly part of the Carolinas and Virginia, all Pennsylvania, the south of New York, all Kentucky and the North-western Territory, as far as the river Wabash. The whole of this ex- tent is filled with different species of the oak, beech, maple, walnut, sycamore, acacia, mul- berry, plum, ash, birch, sassafras, and poplar, on the coasts of the Atlantic j and, in addition to these, on the west, the cherry-tree, horse-ches- nut, papaw, magnolia, sumac, &c. j all of which indicate a producdve soil, the true basis of the present and future wealth of this part of the United States. These kinds of forest trees, however, do not any where entirely exclude the resinous, which appear scattered throughout all die plains, and col- lected in clumps on the mountains, even of the lower order, as the chain in Virginia called the South-west : and it is a singular circumstance, that here they deviate from their customary de- signation of sterility, for the fat and deep red soil of this chain is extremely fertile. The third district, or nordiern forest, likewise Composed of pines, firs, larches, cedars, cypresses, ^c, begins from the confines of the former, co- vers 1 necti( state ( rest ti vions, north, the m serts ( Sue of th( ed CO north ; centre in a ( tance c miles, of lon^ into th Europe falls fr height, I souther ■4S i -^gfe*- ,* • lt'^»»j,».r<'»-' ■ i ,.««=; ve by culti- arest, com- nd Virginia, York, all 'erritory, as of this ex- of the oak, icacia, mul- i poplar, on addition to horse-ches- ill of which basis of the if the United however, do inous, which ins, and col- even of the a called the xcumstance, istomary dc<» leep red soil 11 vers tf- north of New York, the interior of Con. necticut and the Massachusetts gives it's name to the state of Vermont*, and leaving to the deciduous fo- rest trees only the banks of the rivers and their allu- vions, extends by the way of Canada toward the north, where it soon gives way to the juniper, and the meagre shrubs thinly scattered among the de* serts of the polar circle. Such is the general aspect of the territory of the United States: an almost uninterrupt- ed continental forest : five great lakes on the north : on the west extensive savannahs : in the centre a chain of mountains, their ridges runnino; in a direction parallel to the seacoast, the dis- tance of which is from fifty to a hundred and thirty miles, and sending ofF to the east and west rivers ^ of longer course, of greater width, and pouring ' into the sea larger bodies of water, than ours in V Europe ; most of these rivers having cascades or ' falls from twenty to a hundred and forty feet in I height, mouths spacious as gulfs, and on the southern coasts marshes extending above two hun- •» Formed from the French Verd-Mont, M-hich the people have adopted from partiality to the Fr.nch of Canada, and wh.cli ,s the translation of the English name, areai-MnoUam .(A writer m tiie American Museum more naturally sup. poses Green-Mountain to have been changed to Vermont for the sake of euphony. T.) \ ■•/ 1 ■'] fa ' ;il 13 -€ I dred and fifty miles In length : on the north, snows remaining four or five months of the year : on a coast of three hundred leagues extent, ten or twelve cities, all built of brick, or of wood painted of different colours, and containing from ten to sixty thousand inhabitants : round these ci- ties farm-houses, built of trunks of trees, which they call log-houses^ in the centre of a few fields of wheat, tobacco, or Indian corn ; these fields separated by a kind of fence made with branches of trees instead of hedges, for the most part full of stumps of trees half burnt, or stripped of their bark, and still standing; while both houses iuid fields are enchased as it were in masses of forest, in which they are swallowed up, and diminish both in number and extent the farther you advance into the woods, till at length from the summits of the hills you perceive only here and there a few litde brown or yellow squares on a ground of green. Add to this a fickle and variable sky, an atmo- sphere alternately very moist and very dry, very misty and very clear, very hot and very cold, and a temperature so changeable, that in the same day you will have spring, summer, autumn, and win- ter, Norwegian frost and an African sun. Figure to yourself these, and you will have a concise physical sketch of the United States. TO of this ticular forms ii in Low Lawren are call Magdah dually d: of it's b New Bri Maine * the Unit shire. 1 penetratif the name basin of t Champlai branches - * Mainp it cannot be »^. I«f% '*« % %;'vijwi.- 13 rth, snows ear : on a :, ten or of wood ling from I these ci- ;s, which few fields ese fields branches t pait full ;d of their nises and of forest, inish both ance into its of the few little of green, an atmo- :lry, very :old, and same day and win- . Figure . concise CHAPTER HI. Ge7ienil Configuration. TO conceive properly the general construction of this vast country, we must acquire a more par- icular knowledge of the chain of mountains, Lt forms ,t s predominant feature. This chain begins in Lower Canada, at the mouth of the river St Lawrence, on it's southern bank, where it's capes are ca led by seamen Mounts Notre-Dame and Magdalen. As it proceeds up the river it gra^ dually diverges from it, and separating the wafrs of Its basm toward the north-west from those of New Brunswic, Nova Scotia, and the district of Maine * to the south-east, it traces the frontier of the United States on this side as far as New Hamp- shire. There it takes a nearly southern direction, penetrating into tlie interior of Vermont under he name of the Green Mountains, dividing the basm of the river Connecticut from that of lakes Champlam and George, and after having sent off b-nches on that .ide, which repel the sources of 'oi.f, u,.lor.. n I. iunned into a separate state. I •^isjjgi. ■ 14 Hudson's river on the west and north-west, it' crosses this river at West Point by a very rugged chain, vi'hich has acquired the name of the High- lands. At this place the chain may be said to ex- perience a double interruption : in the first place being intersected by the waters j in the next be- cause it has hitherto consisted of granite, while it's continuation is of sandstone. The head of this continuation proceed:* higher up the western bank of Hudson's River to the group of the Kaats Kill Mountains, and a mass which furnishes the sources of the Delaware. From this place branches off a band of mountainous ridges, which, after having incorporated themselves with the preceding chain, extend from north-east to south-west across the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, and Virginia, increasing their distance from the sea as they proceed southward. It is a singu- lar fact in geography, that several of these ridges intersect at right angles the course of the largest rivers of the United States that run into the At- lantic, leaving a passage for them only through breaches, which attest, that the force of the wa- ters alone has overcome the obstacle opposed to their passage. These ridges, having continued parallel to each other till they arrive at the fron- tiers of Virginia and North Carolina, unite there into a knot, which I call the Alleghany Arch, be- H^ cause the principal chain embraces there in a curv<^ all it's collaterals from the east. A little fiirthcr south, but still in North Carolina, a second knot unites to the Alleghany all It's collaterals from the west*, and forms a culminating point of heads of rivers ; the great Kanhaway issuing from it toward the north, the Holston, or northern branch of the Tenessee, toward the west, and the Pedee, the Santee, and all the other rivers of the two Caro- linas, toward the east. From this knot likewise runs off to the west a ridge of mountains, which by one bifurcation to the north-west furnishes tlie numerous branches of the Kentucky j and by a se- cond, directly west, stretches under the name of the Cumberland mountains across the state of Tenessee i where it divides north and south the ba- sin of the rivers Tenessee and Cumberland, till they open into the Ohio : while the proper Alleg- hany chain, left almost alone, continues it's course to the south-west, and completes the boundary of the two Carolinas and Georgia, where it receives the various names of White Oak, Great Iron, Bald, and Blue Mountains. When it leaches the angle of Georgia, it changes both it's direction and name, and proceeding due west to the Missisippi, under the names of Apalachian and Cherokee * The ridges of Kentucky. iiH ilivm w^St=- ' 'I I- I id Mountains, it becomes the line of divlj-ion between the bibin of the Tencssee on the north, and the numerous rivers that run south tlirough the Flori- das into the Gulf of Mexico. The long conti- nuity of this chain has obtained it the name of the Endless Mountains from the northern ;-,avages : th? French and Spaniards, who first beci uainted with it in Florida, applied to it ti. ^nout it's whole extent the name of Apalachian, which was that of a tribe of savages, and is still retained by a considerable river of the country * : but the English and American geographers, who knew Ik in the north, have constantly given it the name of Alleghany, which I conceive to be the Indian word for Endless, as it is rendered by Evans, who appears consider these terms as sy- nonimous. I shall not attempt to dispute the pre- ference, which the less sonorous name of Alleg- hany has obtained over that of Apalachian j but, for greater clearness, I iihall di-tinguioh by the name of Apalachian that branch, which, as I ^ave observed, turns off at the angle of Georgia, and which, less steep and lofty, is divided into a number of hills and ridges, that cover the coun- try as far as the Misj'i ippi, terminating abruptly there in rugged precipices, called cliffs, which I % * Apalathicola, a coirpoiind word, cola Leing the term for river in tJie Creek language. h 17 continue fron, the Natchez nearly to the mouth of the Ohio. These hills do not cross the Missisippi, theoppcvite bank of which is low and flat, beinc. a marsh of fifty miles breath on a medium, from k's mouth to that of the Ohio, which is seven decrees or 480 miles distant. There the continental forest terminates, and those steps or savannahs begin, which extend westward to the mountains on the north of Mexico and the Stony Mountains, which, in the course of this work, I shall call the Chipiwan chain, from the name of those savages, by whom it is inhabited. From this arrangement of the land, which I have just described, arises a sort of natural division of the United States into three long parallel coun- tries in the direction of the coast, or from north- cast to south-west. The first of these is the eastern, lying between the ocean and the mountains, commonly called the Adantic coast. Another is the western, situate between the mountains and the Missisippi, and named the western or back country. A third is that of the mountains themselves, being kntcrmediate to the other two. All of these countries having their climate, soil, conhguration, and interiour btructure, marked by c ■}■:* a Ifi peculiar characteristics, it appears to me proper, to enter into a few particulars respecting each. § I. 77ie Atlantic Coast. The Atlantic coast, so called from the ocean that washes it's shores, and into which all it's rivers flow, extends from Canada to Florida -, it's breadth, which varies from fifty to a hundred and eighty miles, increasing as it advances to the southward. It is the original and principal part of the states that compose the Union, which are arranged in It in the following order: Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Vir- ginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampsh'-e, Vermont, and Maine This country has but litde elevation throughout it's whole extent, being flattest in the southern itates, as far as Maryland, and even New Jersey, and more unequal, approaching to the mountainous in the northern states, particularly in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Long Island may be considered as a tolerably precise point of divi- sion between these two different kinds of land j for, from this island to the north, as far as the rivej: ..*r" St. Croixn and even to the mouth of the St Law rence, the shore is high, rocky, and interspersed with reefs, which are connected with the nucleus ofthc adjoining continent: on the contrary, pro- ceeding from Long Island toward the south, the coast IS uniformly a low shore, nearly level with the water, and entirely of sand. This sand, which announces it.elf a deposit of the sea, is found to n considerable distance inland, where it serves as a bed to that forest ofpines, fir, and other resinous trees, of which I have spoken. As it approaches the mountains, it is mingled with a pordon of day and gravel, washed down from the neighbourino- heights ; and hence results a yellowish, poor, loose soil, which predominates in the middle stripe of the southern states, in Maryland, Pennsvlvania, and the upper part of New Jersey, to such a degree that these three states may be considered as vast alluvions of the rivers Potowmack, Susquehannah Delaware, and Hudson. Farther north, pardcularly m Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts the country is furrowed with little mountains and chams, which roughen the surface of all New En^ land properly so called. We should be almost tempted to suppose this country a prolongation of the mountainous band, did not the granitic nature * The frontier between the Uuitcd Stales and the lin-. iisti (Jossesiiions in Canada. *" C '1 .^^tM... Of of it's stones, and the confusion of it's ridges, dis- tinguish it from the Allcghanics, which are formed of sandstone, and which run in a line farther wes& and inland. § II, 77it' Western Country, or basin of the 3/issisippL The country to the west of the Alleghany mountains may be termed with propriety the basin of the Missisippi, as almost all the streams that irrigate it pour their waters directly or indirectly into this river. This basin is bounded on the east by the Alleghanies j on the west by the Missi- tsippi i on the north by lakes Mithigan, Erie, and Ontario ; and lastly on the south by the Floridas.- It is to be obstvved, that toward the south, in western Georgia, most of the rivers run into the Gulf of Mexico, and seem to form a listincc <;ountry j but the little extent this division would have, compared with the otlicrs, and the analogy of it's climate, it's produce, and even it's future rela- tions, induce me to include in the western or Mis- jisippi division all the country west of the Apala- chicola, which I consider as the natural boundary of the Atlantic coast inland and to the south-west. The states contained in the basin of the Missi- sippi are western Gcor ia, Tcnessec, XcntiKky, il # 21 the great district north of the Ohio, called the North-western Tcrritory,and some of the westparts of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York The inhabitants of the Atlantic coast call the whole of this the Back Country, thus denoting th.ir moral aspect, constandy turned toward Europe, the cra- dle and the focus of their thoughts and interests, t was a singular, though natural circumstance, that I had scarcely crossed the Alleghanies, before I heard the borderers of the great Kanhaway* and the Ohiog,ve in their turn the name of Back Country to the Adantic Coasts which shows, that dieir geographical situation has given their views and interests a new direction, conformable to that of the waters, which afford them means of convey ance toward the Gulf of Mexico, the chief focus of the speculadve ambition of all the Americans If this great country be examined more mi- nutely, we shall find, diat the nature of the soil and certain natural limits of rivers and mountains/sub- divide It into three large districts, which are very distinct from each other. The first is the country south of the Tcnessee and of the Apalachian chain, which surrounds it' from which the rivers flow into the Gulf of Mexico' ^d tne lower part of the Missisippi. In it's ma^ ^^* A considerable river of West Virginia flowin, into the C3 ''.?' :'fl' ft ritime part, which is Florida, the land is pcrftctTy flat, sandy, and barren on the seashore ; marshy, forming natural meadows, as it advances inland ; and thence rich and fertile, particularly on the banks of the rivers, where rice and Indian corn grow to the largest size. You will scarcely find a stone that weip.hs two or three pounds within thirty or forty miles of the shore. Pro- ceeding into the country, the surface becomes more hilly, and the soil more stony : it is also less fertile, as appears by it's forest trees, the holly, pine, fir, scarlet and black oak, magnolia, red and white cedar, cypress, and a number of shrubs, indi- genous to hot countries. A botanical English traveller* has made an absolute terrestrial Para- dise of it ; but dismissing his poetical descriptions to the shelf of sentimental romance, it would be treating this country rationally to compare it with Portugal or the coast ofBarbary, and assuredly this is praising it enough. The second district is bounded on the south by the Tencssee, on the north by the Ohio, on the cast by the AUeghanies, and on the west by the Missisippi. It comprises the state of Kentucky, and that of Tenessee, which I saw established in 1756. All this space is extremely broken with * Bartrani. 23 little mountains, and steep ridges, mo.t of them however covered with woods. From ea t to west in particular it is traversed by the chain tiiat bears the name of Cumberland, which is thirty miles in breadth, and runs between the -river of the same name and the Tenessec. In the valleys, and in what few plains there are, the soil is generally of an excellent quality, being a kind of black, rich, friable mould, from three to fifteen feet deep, and consequently of extreme fertility. The forest trees it produces, far superiour in the size of their trunks and fullness of their branches to the thin and slen- der trees of the Atlantic coast, are the scarlet, black, and white oak, four or five species of hic- kory, the tulip tree, the wild vine climbing twenty or thirty feet high, the ash, sugar- maple, acacia, sycamore, horsc-chesnut, gum-tree, pine, cedar, sumach, bullace tree, persimon plum, and wild cherry, some of which are five feet and i half in diameter. The loose and permeable nature of this soil occasions a peculiarity in the brooks and rivers, which I have seen in some part of Syria, and even in France, but no where so frequently -, for throughout all Kentucky and Tenessec we are in- cessantly meeting with tunnels from fifty to five hundred paces in diameter, and from fifteen to fifty deep, at the bottom of which are one or more C4 m 24 holes or crannies, which swallow up not only the water that falls in rain in their neighbourhood, but even brooks and rivers of some magnitude. These suddenly disappear from the view of the astonished traveller, sinking into the ground amid the thickets, to finish their course in subterranean channels. The brooks and rivers in their visible course generally break away and hollow out the earth perpendicu- larly, till they come to a bed of calcareous stone, which serves it as a nucleus, or rather as a nearly horizontal floor. From this circumstance it follows : 1st. That almost all the streams and rivers of Kentucky and Tencssee are as it were enclosed in grooves between two perpendicular banks, from fifty feet high, like those of the Ohio, to four hun- dred, as the precipice of the river Kentucky at Dixon's Point: 2dly, That the country is rugged, and furrow- ed with deep gullies ; beside being traversed with lateral branches of the Alleghany mountains, no less steep in their declivities than narrow in their summits* : *■ It is on these summits, however, that the Savages, nnci in this they have been imitated by the Americans, formed their paths or roads. The most picturesque instance I Ijave seen is the road traced on Gauloy liidgc, in the Kanhaw^ 2i 3dly, That as the land cannot be watered by art the people of Kentucky, and in snm. those of Tenessee alreadv 7 , "''"'"''^ xcncssee, already complain of drouahr winch ,„„ea«s in proportion a. the cou2° i' clearea of wood, and dissipate, the illusion! of .peculators .n land, and the promises of travelling histo"""'r.'^"' ""''" ' ""S"'^'- <■«' in natural h^^tory, wh,eh ,,, well established in Kentucky, thu -any of the streams have become more abuld „ ..nee the woods in this neighbourhood have beel cut down. I have discussed the causes of t,u" phenomenon on the spot with witnesses deservi ' the leaves of the forest trees, accumulating on the ground, formed there a thick compact bed 1!! st,n be seen where the forest sub.is'ts^and'thtt^ bed, retammg the rain-water on ifs surface, gav «me to evaporate, particularly in summer lefore ofleavernr"" ''' '"'""'■ ^' P^-' ""« ^ of leaves not existmg, and the bosom of the earth being opened by the dIoikt), ,i • '^^™ - ui I . , P'ough, the ram, which i= enabled to smk into it esrihllcl,. • ■ "ICO It, LStaWishes m it more dur- ""'"""'''"• Tl"' --Mgo i» »«. fifteen fro. I,r„ad .■ r.,.!.. ...d .h„ left .„„,.„ 1., a ,„o„p ci;.;f .'""'■ "" "'» (.»udrcd paces or wore. ^ ""= "^ *"''° 'ii EZi -^- '^ able and abundant reservoirs. TJiis particular case, however, does not overturn the more general and more important doctrine, that cutting down woods, more especially on heights, in general di- minishes the quantity of rain, and the springs re- sulting from it, by preventing the clouds from stopping and discharging their waters on the fo- rests. Kentucky itself affords a proof of this, as well as all the other States of America ; for a num- ber of brooks are pointed out, which were never dried up fifteen years ago, and now fail every summer. Others have totally disappeared, and in New Jersey several mills have been relinquished on this account*. Another phenomenon observed in America may perhaps be explained by means of the fact I have just mentioned. You cannot cross any forest in this continent without meeting with fallen trees j and it is remarkable, that the root is only a super- ficial tuft, in the shape of a mushroon, and scarcely eighteen inches deep for a tree seventy feet high. If the trees put out no tap-root, was it not that they rnight avail themselves of the superficial humidity * It must be observed too, tliut formerly the beds cf the fivers, being encumbered with trees bio\vn down and reeds, detained their -waters niore, wlii^h, now tliey are tlcuiicd^ tht'V builer to run oll'too fuhl. 27 that covered them, and the rich mould arising from the decayed leaves, in which they found a substance much preferable to the interiour strata, that remained dry, and consequently more hard to penetrate ? And now, as they have contracted this habit through a lapse of ages, ages are re- quisite to change it. The third district is bounded on the south by theOhioi on the north by the lakes of the St. Law- rence ; and, as the former, on the east and weot by the Alleghany mountains and the Missisippi. Thh tpace, called by the Americans the North-western Territory, does not yet reckon any established state, for want of a sufficient population*. It'^ surface is nearly plain, or commodiously undu- lated ; scarcely can a mountain or a ridge two hundred yards high be pointed out in tt, ami througout it's west part, from the Wabash to the Missisippi, we find nothing but vast kvd mea- dows. Yet from this land flow in opposite direc- tions a number of considerable rivers, some of which empty themselves into the Gulf of Mexico by means of the IWissi.-Jppi , others into the Northern Ocean through the St. Lawrence, and others into the Atlantic by the Mohawk, Hud son, and Su.quehannah. Hence it follow., thac >ixty thousand persons are the ror mn >. 23 the Alleghany mountains, from wliich the latter derive their sources, are in some respect only the breastwork of this flat, which almost equals them in height. The opposite declivities of this vast space are so gentle, that the rivers, dubious of their course, wander in sinuosities and marshes ,: and that in the floods of winter streams navigable by boats form a junction between the sources of the Wa- bash, which joins the Ohio, the Miami, which runs into Lake Erie, the Huron, which falls into the entrance of the same lake, Grand River, which flows into Lake Michigan, and several others. Contrary to those of Kentucky, the rivers of the North-wef^tern Territory run even with the surface, not only on account of the flatness of the level, but in consequence of the clayey nature of the soil, which prevents the water from penetrating into it. This is a happy circumstance both for the agricul- ture ?nd trade of this country: accordingly it begins to be preferred to Kentucky ; and at some future period I conceive it will be the Flanders of the United States for corn and cattle. In 1796 I saw on the bank of the great Sciota a field of maize, the first year of it's being broken up it is true, where the plants were in general upwards of four yards high, with ears proportionably large. At the same period, a few scattered dwellings excepted, all below the Muskingum was a desert, in which 29 nothing was to be found but woods, marches, and fevers. I crossed a hundred miles of this fore.t, from Louisville, near the rapids of the Ohio, to Fort Vincents on th€ Wabash, without seeing'onc hut, and, which surprised me much, without hear- ing the ^ong of a single bird, though it was in the month of July. It terminates a little way before you reach the Wabash, whence to the Missisippi, a space of eighty miles, there are nothing but sa- vannahs, which I have already described as Tata- rian deserts. And in reality here commences an American Tatary, which has all the characters of that of Asia : hot in it's southern part, it becomes gradually cold and sterile toward the north j and in the latitude of 48" it is frozen ten months in the year, destitute of high trees, inundated with marshes, and intersected with rivers, which, in a space ofnear three thousand miles, have noi fifty of interruptions, or carrying places. In all these respects it resembles Tatary, only wanting it's in- habitants to become horsemen ; and this in fact has begun to take place within the.e five and twenty or thirty years, the Nihicawa or Nadowessee savages*, till that period accustomed solely to tra- * These Niliicawas lorm ten or twelve tribes, sfttlcdbe, tween the Cdar Lick, aiwl thcMis.uuri, wheuc. ihev ^•fcaiorij.'-iiially to liuve com that this circumstance must have considerable influence on the meteorology of the United States and the whole of their continent, as 1 shall show more particularly hereafter. All European travellers remark with surprise, that the American mountains have more regula- rity in their direction, greater continuity in their ridges, and less inequality in the line of their summits, than the mountains of our continent. These characteristics are particularly striking in Virginia and Maryland in the chain called Blue Ridge. This chain, which I have traversed or pursued the direction of from the frontier of Pennsylvania to James River, always exhibited to me the appearance of a terrace elevated ten or twelve hundred feec above the plain, witii a very steep ascent, and a summit so even, that w« I |- i ^5 scarcely perceive ,Vs undulations, or the few gaps that serve for passages across it. The base of this mass is only from four to six miles broad. Approaching the north the height of this chain, as well as of those that are parallel to it, decreases ; and as some of it's ramifications have occasioned m Pennsylvania a confusion of names, by which even geographers are perplexed, I will endeavour in the fir.t place to elucidate them. In Virginia three principal well-marked rid^^es are clearly to be distinguished. "^ I St, Blue Ridge, situate most easterly, which derives it's name from it's blueish appearance at a distance to those who come from the flat mari- time country. It bears the name of South Moun- tain in the maps of Fvans and other geographers, without any good reason being assignable for the term. Indeed he mountains of the United States in general, named at hap hazard by the colonists of each di.trict, have but unmeaning and fre- quently whimsical names. However this may be With respect to Bliie Ridge, it branches off from the grand arch or knot of the Alleghanies, and is even the most direct prolongation of th.t chain, as you come from the south: it crosses James Kivcr below the junction of it's two sup.riour branches, the Potowmack below the' Shenando, the Susquehannah below Harrisburg, and travel^ D 2 36 Icrs observe, that the bed of this river, navigable so far on a calcareous bottom, becomes impassable in consequence of the rocks and sandstone of Blue Ridge. In Pennsylvania this ridge, less continu- ous and of infcriour elevation, assumes in different districts the various names of Trent, Flying, and Olcy Hills i but it is nevertheless the same branch, which crosses the Scliuylkill below Reading, the Delaware below it's western branch and the town of Easton, and proceeds to lose itself in the Kaats Kill group towards the banks of Hudson's River. The second chain, called North Mountain with as little reason as the preceding is named South, branches off likewise from the grand arch of the Alleghanies, and running parallel with Blue Ridge, but west of it, crosses the upper branches of James River twelve or fourteen miles above their junc- tion, and the Potowmack four and twenty miles above the Shenando ; but when it reaches the west branches of Conegocheague Creek, it divides into several ramifications, which render it's remaining part doubtful. Some geographers look on the Tuscarora chain, thourli divergent, as it's conti- nuation; which, after having crossed the river Ju- niata, loses itself in tlic rocky and marshy deserts north-east of the Susouehannah. Others follow North Mountain in the chain of Kittatinny, which, continuing in a more direct line, runs parallel with ii X 37 Blue Ridge as far as the Delaware, which it passes above it's west branch and the town of Nazareth, then proceeding along the east bank of that river, and terminating with the branches of Blue Ridge in the Kaats Kill group and the mountains that r.fparate the sources of the Delaware from the course of Hudson's River. In Pennsylvania Blue Ridge and North Moun- tain are pretty commonly confounded together, because, as the characteristics of the two are not ytry distinctly marked, each district applies the epithet of Blue to it's most elevated chain, and a particular name to each different ramification : but the geographical continuity of North Mountain in the Kittatinny, and of Blue Ridge in the Flying and Oley Hills, as I have traced them, appear*^ to me best established by the general direction of tiiese chains, by the nature of their stones, and by their concurrence in forming a calcareous val- ley, which is prolonged unintenuptedly between them from the Delaware and the townships of Eas- ton and Nazareth to the sources of the Shenando beyond Staunton*. ■■' r 'tl; * It is not without a careful examination of tliis question, tJuit J .lifH.r from tin; |..ojection of Mr. Arrowsmith, u|,o' totally n.-lcTtii.g the li.lgc of Uley Hills and Flyin.r Hjn,' turns off the chain of Blue Ki.lge into the Kitlatinnv^)elow' J Iarrisbur^^ 'J'Jiis geographer may have had notes made :,y The third principal chain, that of the Allcg- hanies properly so called, is the highest ridge to the west, which, separating all the rivers, without being cut by any one, has properly received the Jiarnc of Fndless. This chain, taking it at it's southern extremity, comes from the angle of Georgia and Carolina, where it receives the vari- ous names of White Oak, Great Iron, Bald, and even Blue Mountains. There it sends off to the west some branches of the river Tenessee, and to the ea.it the rivers of the two Carolinas, of which it forms the western frontier. On reaching Vir- ginia it forms the arch I have mentioned, by bend- ing toward tiie north-west, and enveloping the preceding ridges : it then resumes it's course north- tniveilors, w ho, influoncc'd by the vulgar opinion of the settlers in Pennsylvania, and by the name of EIne Ridgo, which they gise in some districts to the Kittatinny, had adopted this system. Fait in addition to the authorities of Jivans, l'"ry,and.IelU'rson, which 1 decni of superiour weight, I have myself seen, when crossing the Susquehainiah on the road froiii York to Lancaster, a chaiy a mile abo\ e the ferry at Columbia, that is evidently a i)re great current of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bahamas*, which I shall have occasion to meniion hereafter. The granite ex- tends likewise along the coast of New Hampshire and Maine, where it is mixed with some sand- stone, and likewise with limestone, with which Boston is supplied from Maine. It composes the numerous shoals on the coast of Nova Scotia, and the nucleus of the mountains called Notre Dame and Magdalen, on the right of the mouth of the St. Lawrence. The banks of this river are in ge- neral schistous, but this does not prevent the gra- nite from showing itself frequently in detached masses, and in shoals fixed in the bed of the rivei. It is found again throughout the environs of Que- bec ; in the mass of rock, that supports it's cita-. Called by the tnglish tHic Gulf Stream. to cleJ, ,n the to erably lofty mountains north-west of thecty, and lastly under the Falls of Montmo- renci, a small river, which comes from the north and precipitates itselfinto the St. Lawrence down a precipice of a hundred and eighty feet. The immediate bed of this cascade is a horizontal calca- reous shelf, of a black gray colour, and of the icmd termed primitive or crystallizes . but t is supported by strata of brown gray granite, of a very close grain, and nearly perpendicular to the i^orizon Wherever these strata show .emselves along the St. Lawrence, they are more or less in- clined to the horizon, never parallel with it A granite of a red, black, and gray colour abound, on the right bank of the river, opposite Quebec, resembling that of the State-house at Boston^^ .ich was drawn from the neighbourhood of the city • both being similar to the block that was brouaht' from Lake Ladoga to Petersburg, to serve a! a pedestal for the statue of Peter I. The isle in which stands the city of Montreal is calcareous- but all the shore about it exhibits stones of rounded granite, brought down, no doubt, from the ad- jacent heights. The summit of Mount Bel-ceil is of granite, as is the chain of the White Moun- tains in New Hampshire, to which it may be said to belong The branches in New England are likewise of granite, except tlie environs of Mid- J? m 46 lOl dieton and Worcester, wh' "h are of sandstone* 1 am informed, that the west branch of the Green Mountains, and the greater part of Lake Cham- plain, which it skirts, are calcareous, though the rocks of Ticonderoga are of sandstone ; and the east branch, which traverses the state of Ver- mont, is of granite. It nppears then, that the granite traverses Lake George, or the isthmus that separates it from Hudson's River, to ascend to the sources of this and Black River : thence it proceeds as far as the St. Lawrence at Thousand Isles and Kingston, where it is always found of a reddish hue, formed in large crystals, and sur- charged with feldt-spar. Mr. Alexander Mac- kenzie, in his Travels lately published*, furnishes the means of tracing it's continuations much farther in the north part of this continent. This respect- able traveller, with whose merits I had an oppor- tunity of being personally acquainted at Philadel- phia, observes, vol. iii, p. 335' ^^^^ ' ^ ^"^^ gray granite is found throughout all the country from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay; and that he has even been i'lformed, it extends in like manner from Hudson's Bay to the coast of La- brador.' * Travels iu the iiiturioiir of North America, by Alcxaiw der ]VIuclnA.s;„W :" by^H to U,e All.,,Knuc. .lu..e .a.d.u,ne p..do.„„.atc: le.e arc also von.s of Ua.alt.., ,1h- produce and pn.ois of "«tH nt volcano... The tre-s are universally .stun ed and -o-tato weakly .-(Aote by Mr. Guillcnu.rJ J ' ^ E 3 1(1^' .. ).' r tesville to the river Gauley, I myself found it in abiindarce on the ten or twelve chains I crossed successively, excepting likewise the calcareous valleys of Staunton and Green Briar. Sometimes the sandstone admits the mixture of a milky white (quartz, called arrowstone, much of which I found ton Blue Ridge going from Frederick Town to Harper's Ferry j and sometimes also with gray quartz, which is the nucleu, of Blue Ridge, at the gap made in it by the Potowmack below Flar- per's Ferry. Some of the rocks of this gap are of granite, but these are few in number. These mountains of sandstone are not so bare, as the nature of this stone might lead us to sup- pose. I found their loftiest summits in Virginia between the rivers of Green B<-iar and Gauley co- vered with fine trees, and tall perennial plants, growing in the excellent black Kentucky mouW, which is the distinguishing character! ^tic of the Western country. The lofty region, that extends above Fort Cumberland beyond the sources of the Potownvfi, Ih^.e are their most extenMve known domains; el ewhere they are seen only in small patches. Beside this vat region of >ancl-,tone, which I have just described, some di-tricts of the same nature maybe mentioned di,persed through the granitic and calcareous regions -, but there in turn f 4 14 '# 56 they form exceptions. Such is that of the county of Worcebter in Massachusetts, the most extensive of the kind known. This cannot be referred to the AUeghanies, unless it's continuity across the rivers and country of Connecticut and the Hud- son coukl be shown. '5' § HI. Calcareous Bcgion. The third region, that of calcareous earth, in- cludes all the Western or Back Country, lying be- hind the Alleghany mountains, and extends north- west, according to the information of Mr. Mac- kenzie, across the rivers and lakes to the sources of the Sakatchie, and the chain of the Chipewan mountains. All of this country that I am ac- quainted with from the Tcnessee to the St. Law- rence, between the mountains and the Missisippi, has for it's nucleus an immense stratum of lime- stone, disposed nearly in a horizontal direction, in laminae of one or more inches thick, of a close smooth grain, and generally of a gray colour. In the north the limestone is of the crystallized kind, called primitive. This stratum has immediately under it in some places a bed of clay, in others of gravel, and above it, on the surface of the ground, a stratum of excellent black mould, deepest in the k i sources Ihipewan am ac- k. Law- issisippi, of lime- ction, in r a close our. In ed kind, lediately Dthers of ground, :st ill the 51 bottoms, where it is sometimes found fifteen f -et thick, and shallowest on the risings and h.idus where it occasionally does not exceed six or ei-ht inches. This circumstance, as well as the lami mted structure of the stone, evidently indicate an anteriour operation of the waters of the ocean. In the country about Pittsburg on the Ohio, in the county of Green Briar on the Kanhaway, and throughout Kentucky, this fundamental stratum is found on boring ; and I have seen it bare in the beds of all the rivers and brooks of Kentucky, from the Kanhaway to the falls or rapids of the Ohio near Louisville. On the road from Cincin- nati to Lake Erie, I found it serving as a fioor to all the bed of the river aux Glaises and the Miamr of the Lakes ; ,t appears, that the lake itself Jus a bottom of blackish schist, but among it's specimens we find a great deal of limestone, and it is like- wise a stratum of limestone that runs under the St. Lawrence at the Fall of Niagara, and ex- tending thence into the Genessee country, appears to accompany the bed of the St. Lawrence as far as Ql.ebec. It is true, however, that throughout this part of the north the limestone is of the kind called primitive and crystallized, as I have found by the specimens brought up by the settlers ia Ge' nessce when sinking wells. The rupture and displacement of th.^e srrata o-. ^asion the gulfs and cavities, of which j have spo^ ^ 5% I! ken in the first section of the third chapter, where the torrents occasioned by rain, and even the rivers themselves, are swallowed up. I have seen curi- ous instances of this at GreenBriarin Virginia, and at Sinking Spring in Genessee, where a spring rises to the bottom of a cavity, and at the distance of six feet again sinks into the earth. These sub- terranean currents of water likewise produce the winds in some caverns, as diat mentioned by Mr. Jefferson in the chainof Calf Pasture*. From Louisville to White River, where it abruptly terminates, I have likewise found ail the rivers and brooks flowing over the bare limestone stratum of Kentucky Some American travellers, on seeing my specimens, have assured me, that the Holston, or north branch of the Tenessee, had a similar bed. Respecting the soil that extends beyond it into Georgia and Florida, to my great regret I have been unabL to obtain any authentic information. At Louisville the first superficial stratum on the high bank of the river is a black mould three feet thick. Under this mould is a stratum of poor sand, without shells, fourteen or fifteen feet in thickness ; then another stratum of sand with shells, from six to ten inches ; and lastly a pretty coarse gravel, down to the bottom of the river, which is twenty five feet deep, * Sec Jcfterson's notes gn Virginia, p. 63. 4 Foi the CO is not four m fifteeei a strati which clay is forated and cla) nish the At tl stratum never di feet frori ness oft form th isville bt the surfa( collected ther, anc fossils en terranean astonishe( Francfort chain abo A9 Four miles east of Louisville*, advancing into the coLJntry, the first superficial stratum of mould IS not above twenty inches thick i and farther on four miles from Francfortf, it is not more than fifteeen. In both these places there is beneath it a stratum of clay, from two to three feet thick, which is not found near the river. Under this clay is the calcareous stratum, which must be per- forated with much labour to reach a bed of gravel and clay, in whicii are found the springs that fur- nish the wells with a constant supply of water. At the place I mentioned near Louisville, the stratum is three feet thick, and the springs that never dry up are found at the depth of eighteen feet from the surface. In other places the thick- ness of the stratum appears greater. The rocks that form the falls or rapids of the Ohio below [ ou isville belong to this great limestone stratum, on the surface of which many petrifactions have been collected at low water, but they were brought thi ther, and not imbedded in it. I never saw any fossils encrusted in the substance of the great sub terranean stratum, a fact at which I was the more astomshed, as, when at the seat of judge Innes near trancfort, walking with him on the summit of a ■ Cham about a hundred feet above the level of the * At the seat of Mr. Thompson. t At the seat oJjudge Inncs, >t i I ,'i ti ) 6') little river Elkhoin, which pierces it, wc found in the wood a number of large stones, entirely made up of fossil shells. At Cincinnati, on the >econd bank of the Ohio, I found more such stones full of shells : and doctor Barton collected similar stones on the heights of Onondago, in the state of New York, at the distance of near six hundred miles, with this difference only, that his are of a blue slate colour, mine a violet red*. * On my return to Paris, I submitted these sJipIIs to tlie examination o; one of our most skilful naturalists in this branch of science, Mr. Lamarck, and I cannot better satisfy the curiosity of my readers, than by communicatlni; to fheni his sentiments on the subject : ' SiK, * I have examined with the'utmost rare the three speci- mens of fossils, that you have transmitted to me, and uhicfi you collected in North America. ' In each of them I vny clearly perceive fossil tore- bratuhe * heaped together without any order. These tere- bratuke are almost all of the division of i hose tliatare sfriateri .'ongitudinally above and b^U^^^■, as the terebratula describeij l)y Linneus under toe name of anomia dorsata. ' Of these fossil sh,il!,s we see only tlie inner mould, fh,,' is the stony matter, with which Iheinsidc of these shells \v:h filled during their long abode in the earth. On several of Uiem, however, the whitish portions: of the shellit.self still femain. ^^ • A new genu, Introduced in my Symme des A,nmau^ sar,, Vemirr, System of Animals without Backbonds,- p. ,38, being separaud f.on; i.inneuj's genus anomia. i-:zm-:.£S:i CI Beside the Western Territory, and the region 1 have just described, there exist only two calca- reous districts, that are of sufficient extent to be worth mentioning as exceptions : one in the long valley formed by the chains of Blue Ridge and North Mountain, from the Delaware above Easton and Bethlehem to the sources of the river She- nando, and even beyond James River, to the ' III tJu; spv>(:in)on from Ciriciniiati three sons of n« «il shells are distinciy ...n : a species of terebratula ^\^tl, huge stnue, approacliino to that figured ia the n.nv Vn cyclopedic, pi. 2,1, iol. 3; auother specle.s ..ot stnate.l but punctated, pearly, and eared; and a bivahx- shell thinly furnished with .spines, the -enus of vvhieh 1 cauj.ot ascertain, as I am unable to e.xaniine the hinge. 'In the specimen found inKentueky,a hundred feetabovr the bedot the waters, I observed striated (erebratulu3 of dif tc-ent ages, of a species that appears to cmc near that figured m the new Encyclopedic, pi. 212, (i,.l. i, if.s stri;o being finer and more numerous than in the ti^rebratula ol'the preceding specimen, and it's upper or snu.ller vah .> is fl,* teaed. Tins specimen likewi.. contains a fragment of a belemnite. ' In the third specimen, that from the heights we-t of Unondago,! perceive various fragments uf two ^striated ter,-- bratuhe still diilerent from those of the precedu.g s,.e,.. mens. One of them, inclined to the triangular figure has a channel on the back of the large valve, and approaches very nearthat represented in pi. 2U, fol. 7, of the now Kn • cycloped.e. The other tercLratula is large, almost as flat a. apectca or scallop; but it's IVagmwats are so iacompl.t. W I m' 62 great archof the Alleghinlcd; forthe county of Bo- tetourt, which occupies the part last mentioned, is called the Lime County, in consequence of it's sup- plying with lime all the country east of Blue Ridge> where there is none. Rockbridge too is in great part calcareous, as well as all the country from tiic Shenr.ndo to the Potowmack. that it is impossible toniaik it'., chnract; r=;, and ascertain the rtilatioii it bears to other species. • * Nolc. From u cuiisideraticm of ih'^.-ie three spocimcns, it appears evident. to me, that the regions of North America, where they were collected, once formed a part of (he bot- tom of the sea*, or at least that they at present display to view tiiat portion of their soil, which ancienily formed a part of the bed of the ocean, and not of the shores : forthe fossils now found there are ocean shells (see my IJydmgco- logic, pp. 64", 70, and 71), which, as the gryphytc5, ammo- nites (cornua anmionis), orthoreralites, beleninites, en- crinites, &c., live uniformly in the great depths of the ocean, and never on it's shores. Accordingly most of these shells and polypi are known only in the fossil state, ' Your observations, sir, decide the nature of the fossils, which the interiour part of North America now displays to view, and apparently we should search in vuiu among them for littoral shells. ' Lamarck.* * This opinion is strengthened by the numerous brine-springs, witfi vrhich the whole W'cjtern Territory abounds. They are there called by the name of licks, as may be seen on all the maps of Kentucky, The lichest is near lake Oneida, and contains an eighteenth part of it's weight ol salt. The northern seas con'ain only a thirty-second, and those of the tropics about a twelfth. It is remarkable, that these salt springs are rare •n the Atlantic Coast.— /Vart of the Autbtr, " 'wHw-t-^. r.*^,,^p(^»aM■■■ •m»*ie£S> Another part of -^ ,jey, that wMch extend. from the Potowma. .u die Susquelunnah, om- prises the basin of he rivers Gn • C ' m,- cheague and C( ledogwinc-, in whicn m ritories of Chamuer ^urg, Shippensburg. ana Cur- hsle celebrated for their fertility ^ third portion, reaching from the Susque!, .nnal, o the Delaware, occupies the basin of the river Swatara; traverses with some interruptions, the branches of the I^chuylkill ; and terminates near Easton and Na- zareth, the land about which is likewise in ite It's mountainous boundary to the north-east is the ridge of Kittatinny, a continuation of North Mountain , and to the south-east the ridge known m that country by the several names of South Mountain, Flying Hills, and Oley Hills, bu which as I have observed, is a direct continua- ■on of Blue Ridge. This circumstance of their bounding one and the same calcareous valley from the Alleghany arch to Easton, by two Lteral chains, IS Itself a proof of the identity, which I ascribe to their continuations. The other calcareous district, which is conti- guous to this, extends along the back of Blue Kidgeonthe east, from the gap made by tlie Po- towmack to the neighbourhood of the S.huyl- i^ill in the county of Lancaster, h is Ih^^ited precisely on the south-we«t and south by the To' tf \1 I m Ai ^1 %. '^T^, ^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) # k^O V /C?^ ;^ y. &^, C/j 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■ 3 ™'^^ IS I4£ 12.0 2.2 — 6" 1.8 1:4. 11.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 m \ ^qV :\ \ % V 6^ .<*• y ^ >/ • ^v. ^° % i/.A (/. 6% towmack and the bed of the great Monocacy, wliich it does not cross to the east : comprises the territory of Frederick stown, the greater part of the course of the PatapL-co, and the counties of York and Lancaster, which are justly considered as the granaries of Pennsylvania : and lastly ap- pears to lose itself betwec^n Norristown and Rocks- bury on the Schuylkill. The remainder of it's boundary, from the Monocacy to the Schuylkill, is not marked by heights, though it is a point of division of several waters, and does not give this district the appearance of a valley, which is ob- served ill the other calcareous regions. There are two striking differences between the limestone of the west and that of these two dis- tricts to the east : the first is, that the substance of the calcareous strata in the east is generally of a pretty deep blue colour, interspersed with numerous white veins of quartz ; while the sub- stance of the great calcareous stratum in the west, particularly in Kentucky, is of a gray colour, and a homogeneous and foliated texture. The second difference is, that the stratum In the west is nearly horizontal, forming a kind of general table underneath the whole country : on the contrary in the east, that is in the counties of Botetourt, Rockbridge, Staunton, Frederick, York, Lancaster, and as fiir as Nazareth, the 6i limestone generally lies in a state of confoion. ,nd a. K „„, j„,yed together by violence : when these strata are regularly inclined to the honzon, .t .s commonly at an angle of 40^ or jo". w,A thts s,ngular trait, that in the valle, between North Mountain and Blue Ridge the angle is al- ways less, that IS below 45^ while in the coun- .es of Lancaster, York, and Frederil<, the moun- tains excepted, it is more habitually above 45 » • and th,s ,s true with regard to all the other strata." wh her of granite or sandstone, which are les nclined m the mountains, more as they approach he sea At the cascade of the Schuylkill, near Phi- ladelphia. the inclination of the strata of talcky .ra "-te IS yo? on the Hudson it reaches as far aJ ."o" from these last-mentioned facts we are autho- rised to conclude, that the whole of the Atlantic coas has been deranged by eartiiquakes, to whi h we shall find hereafter it is very subject, while e c^nitrywestoftheAlleghanieslJnotbeenJi rWn'Jl f .■ "'"" '°° '"^°"™^ "^- 'h^' the abo- r.ginals of the west have no words in their Ian Suages to express earthquakes and volcanoes hile equivalent terms are common and familS .n the dialects of the east. With earthquakes volcanoes are commonly connected, and in fac abundance of basaltes is found in the Alle»h,nt mountains and their valleys, but particula'J re- F I \'m 66 >rarches would be requisite, to point out the an- cient craters with accuracy. I cannot say whether there be any fossil shells or not in the strata to the cast, of which I have just been speaking ; but I know, that some have been observed in the primitive limestone in the environs of lake Onta- rio and Niagara *. Veins and ramifications of limestone might be mentioned also out of these principal regions. There are some in the district of Maine, which supply Boston with lime. Rocky Point, in lake Champlain, is of limestone, as arc no doubt other parts in that lake : so are several districts in the neighbourhood of New York : but the most sin- gular instance 1 am acquainted v. tth in the southern states is that of a ridge, the breadth of which is not above fifteen yards at a medium, and some- times does not exceed tliree, though it extendi above two hundred miles, from the Potowmack to the Roanoke. As this vein is commonly on the surface, it may be traced with the more cer- tainty, because it is the only one that supplies .-ill the flat country with lime. It's distance from Red Ridge or South-west Mountain, to which it runs parallel, does not exceed from three to live snlles« * Liancourt's Travels, Vol. 11. 67 § IV. Jiegion of Sta-sand. The fourth regior, formed of sea- vukI, com- prises a I d.e shore, from Sandy Hook, facing- Long Island, as far as Florida. It's inland bount dary IS a stratum or ridge of talcky granite, called fohated stone or Muscovy glass *, which runs constantly in the direction of the coast, that is to say north-east and south-west. This rid-e or stratum commences from the extremity of the granitic chains on the right bank of the Hudson perhaps even from the shore facing Long Island! whence I presume the rocks are continued un- aerneaththesea, and it extends as far as North Carohna beyond the Roanoke, in the form of a slender ridge, from, two to six miles broad, and nearly five hundred long. This ridge, as Evan. " rery justly observed, every where marks it's course by the fdls, which it occasions in the river, before they reach the sea , and these falls are the extreme limits of the tide. Thus this talcky ndge cuts tl,e Delaware at Trenton, the Schuyl- ^»il two miles above Philadelphia, the Susquc- hannah above Octarora Creek, the Gunpowder ''bove Joppa, the Patapsco above Iilk Rid^e ^ The S^vedi^h uavdJ.r. Pe.or Kulm. caHs it 5f;..,„er. F 2 vn I 'I .! 4 \ :'-3m0m'. the Potowmack af George Town) the Rapaharl- nock above Fredericsburg, the Pamunky below it's two branches, fifty miles above Hanover, the James at Richmond, the Appamatox above Pe- tersburg, and the Roanoke above Halifax. No fossils have been observed throughout this stratum. The land between it and the sea, varying in breadth from thirty to a hundred miles, is evidently sand brought by the ocean, v;hich formerly had for it's shore this ridge itself. At the moutlis of the rivers, and on their banks, some argillaceous earths, brought down from the mountains by their inundations, form with this sand a fertile mixture. Evans the geographer has even discovered a sub- terranean stratum of yellow clay, three or four miles broad, placed longitudinally between the ridge and the shore, which, giving firmness to the adjacent sands, renders them fit for making good bricks, as we see at Philadelphia. These two cases excepted, the sand is the same as that of the neighbouring sea, that is to say white, fine, and in depth reaching as far as twenty feet. Peter Kalm, who travelled through this country in 1742, observes, that in Pennsylvania and New Jersey the strata are as follows : I St, Vegetable mould, ten or twelve inches : 2d, Sand mixed with clay, six or seven feet : ^d, Gravel and smootii pebbles, among which 69 are oysters and clams, such as still exist on the coasts, from three to five feet : 4th, A stratum of black stinking mud, full of osiers and trunks of trees, the thickness of which he does not mention. This stratum, which spoils all the well-water, is found at Philadelphia be- tween lourteen and eighteen feet deep, at Rac- coon in New Jersey between thirty or forty feec • at the city of Washington I saw it myself eighteen feet deep at the house of Mr. Law, whose well it spoilt. 5th, Under all these strata is a bed of clay, by which the waters are retained. Perhaps I may be asked on what this bed of clay rests, but I am ac- quainted with no deeper borings, and after all we must stop somewhere, or like the Indians arrive at the tortoise, that supports the World. When we consider, that the core of Long Island is a talcky granite -, that the reefs and points of rock, which show themselves from space to space as far as Chesapeak bay, and even beyond Nor- folk, are of the same granite ; and that all the rocks of cape Hatteras are the same; we shall be tempted to consider this as the fundamental nucleus of the coast : but the inclination of the strata in the line of the falls, which is 70° at that of the Schuyl- kill, and never less than fifty from east to west, displaying a contrary direction, tends rather tj VH , j' II •70 prove, ihat these strata serve as a support to the interiour country under which they dip*". § V. Region of rkcr AlJiwitms. The fifth and last region is the country that rises in undulations from the ridge of the falls to the feet of the mountains of sandstone or granite. It's limit is less easily traced in Georgia, where the talcky ridge does not appear. This region is marked by it's undulations, consisting in some places of isolated risings, in others of ridges of lit- tle hills ; and by it's soil being composed of dif- ferent kinds of earth and stones, in some places jumbled together, in others arranged in strata, which arc interrupted or succeed each other seve- ral times from the mountains to the coast, but con- stantly exhibiting the marks of matters rolled down by the waters from the declivities above : and this is in fact the origin of all this country. When we calculate the bulk, rapidity, and number of all it's rivers j the Delaware, the Schuylkill, the Sus- quehannah, the Potowmack, the Rapahannock, the York, the James, &c. : when we observe, that the * It is remarked, that ihla talcky graailc contains more mica in the soutiiern parts, and more lichorl in the northern parts of this coast. 71 swams of most of them are from 1200 to 4000 yards broad, and from twenty to fifty feet deep, long before they reach their mouths -, and that in their annual inuncations they sometimes overHow the flat country to the depth of twenty feet: it is easy to conceive, that such bodies of water must have occasioned prodigious changes in the soil, parti- cularly when in remote ages loftier mountains, gave more impetuosity to their course i when the trees of the forests, swept away by thousands, added force and materials to their ravages; and when ice, accumulated during winters of six or seven months continuance, produced enormous floating masses on it's breaking up, such as those of which the Susquehannah afl^orded an alarming spectacle in 1784, in which year a mound of ice more than thirty feet higli was heaped up at Maccall's Ferry, below Columbia, and was on the point of drown- ing the whole valley. At the period when the xvavesof the sea washed the fl^etof the mountains; as it's residua, which are found there universally* prove beyond doubt it once did; these mountains! being loftier, because they had yet lost no part of what the lapse of ages and the repeated fall of waters has taken from them, rendered the action of these waters much more forcible by their height and steepness : their colder summits were covered for a longer time with more copious snows, and ,i -4 72 larger fields of ice : nnd when the heat of summer, of less duration certainly, yet not less intense, melted this ice and snow, the torrents thus pro- duced tore up the declivities best furnished with earth, hollowed out deeper gullies, and carried along with them ample spoils, which accumulated on the lowest steps of the mountains. Every suc- ceeding year fresh fragments came to choke up the tracks of former years; and the torrents, stopped by mounds of their own raising, acquired fresli strength as they increased in volume, and, attacking them in several poincs, forced their way through them in the most feeble. The waters then opened for themselves new and varying tracks through the softest mud, for the heaviest substances would alv/ays remain behind for want of slope and impulsive force; and by these pro- cesses, repeated for ages, the ancient beds of tor- rents became valleys ; the former shores and allu- vions became coasts and plairs ; and the rivers, de- scending from level to level, leaving their heaviest burdens on slope after slope, depositing in succes- sion the lighter and more soluble, incessantly en- croached on the domains of the ocean by accumu- lations of sand, mud, pebbles, and trees, which served to connect the other materials together. Even in the present day the Missisippi exhibits to us_an instructive spectacle of all these grand ope- "■««***!SR»**.-: 13 rations Ic is calculated by I,la„court. that in ,|,e ^pace of fourscore years, from 1720 to ,3oo it has encroached upon the sea about fifteen miles • thus unc!er the eyes of three generations it has created at Its mouth a new country, which it in- creases every day, and in which it h.ys up beds of coal (or f„tt,re ages. Such is the celerity of it's accumulufve process, that at New Orleans, a hun- dred m.les' above it's present mouth, a canal lately cut by the governor, baron Carondelet, from the r.ver to lake Pont-Chartrain, has brought to view nn mteriour bed of earth formed entirely of black mud and trtinks of trees heaped together seve- ral feet deep, which have not yet had time either to rot or to be converted into coal. Both banks of the nver wholly consist of trunks of trees thus agglutmated by mud for a space of n.ore than three hun ed m.lcs; and the waters have heaped them <;p to such a height, that theyform a mound on each s.defro,„ twelve to sixteen feet higher than the .ad- jacent land, which is generally lower; and at the ■■mnm r.seofthe river, which is about twenty-four eet, the exuberant water, being unable to reenter the channel, forms vast and n»n,erous marshes, which wdl some day become the source of wealth, mIvmI!" 7'"'"''' r "'•«"• '■"' ">""'« I'.- »».i„:,k.. If 7» but are at prcsciu an obbtacle tp a^^ncukurc and population. (IIAPTiai V. 0/ the anciml Lakes that have disappeared. IN the structure of the mountains of the United States, another drcumstance exists, more striking than in any other part of the World, \\hich .iiist singularly have increased the action and varied the movements of tiie waters. iC we attentively ex- amine the land, or even the maps of the country, we must perceive, that the principal chains or ^-idges of the Alleghanies, Blue Ridge, &c., all run in a transverse direction to the course of the great rivers j and th.it these rivers have been forced to rupture tlieir mounds, and break through tliL'se ridges, in order to make tlieir way to the sea from tlie bosom of the valleys. This is evident iji the rivers James, Potowmack, Susquehannah, Delaware, fee, when thry issue from the confines of die mountains to enter into the lower country. But the example that struck me uiost on the spot was that of the Potowmack, three miles below the I moutl. of Che Shennndo. I wa, coming fro,„ F,e.Ic- rictown about twenty ,„iles di.stant, and travelling rom ,l.e .outh-ea.t toward ti.e „„r.h...^ iTougl, a woody country with gentle accents and Je.cents. After I had crossed one ridge, pretty ^'^'-^'*e^" of which .t washes .„it>s course. I conceive it's breadth at tins place to be about a third of that of he Potowmack, which appeared to me to be two hundred yards. A little higher up we cross the Potowmack at Harper's Ferry, and ascend a steep h II, to reach the inn of the place. From thi. projectmgpomt the defile appears like a large tun- nel, where tl,e eye, confined in it's view, s^esno- thmg but rocks and verdure, without being able to penetrate to the e.uremity of the gap? On commg from Frederictown we equally .e'e noth.n" o he , , ^ ^^^^.^^^. .^ ^^^ . ^^^^„ notes. On my mak.ng this remari. to that gen- tleman a (ew div^; ifr^.- i, • r . ° h,^ k- , ■" "*'^'' '"^ informed me, that he hadh,sdescr,pt,onfror a Frruch en.<.ircer who rfunng tl,e war had a.ce„dcd tl. sumCof t : -untam; and I can easily conceive, that from »"ch an ekvat,on the prospect must be noble in a «-.ld country, the view of which is uninterrupted. The more I considered this spot and it's cir- cumstances, the more I confirmed myself in th. op.n>on, that formerly the chains of Blue Rid.e m "' '"'"'^ ««' con,pktcly denied .the Poto«- I I ■mack an exit ; and that then all the waters of the upper part of that river, having no issue, formed several considerable lakes. The numerous trans- verse chains, that succeed each other beyond Fort Cumberland, could not fail to occasion several more west of North Mountain. On the other hand all the valley of Shenando and Conigo- cheague must have been the basin of a single lake from Staunton to Chambersburg; and as the level of the hills, even those from which these two ri- vers derive their source, is much below the chains of Blue Ridge and North Mountain, it is evident, that this lake must have been bounded at first only by the general line of the summit of these two great chains, so that in the earliest ages it must have spread like tliem toward the south as far as the great arch of the Alleghanies. At tliat period the two upper branches of James River, equally barred by Blue Ridge, would have swelled it witli all their waters -, while toward the north the ge- neral level of the lake, finding no obstacles, must have spread itself between Blue Ridge and the chain of Kittatinny, not only to the Susquehannah and Schuylkill, but beyond die Schuylkill and even the Delaware. Then all the lower country, that which separates Blue Ridge from the sea, had only smaller streams furnished by the eastern declivities of Blue Ridge, and the overflowing of the Jake lit Vj poured from it's Lummifq in rivers there bein. less a ihe, '""'^l"^"^^ *= v-imq icbs, and the land seneralhr r^ at, the ridge of taick, g™ite must^ha" ~ t a waters, and fo^ed marshy lakes. ThT'^^:, m St have con,e up to the vicinity of this rd^ and there occasioned other .narshes, of e ame k^l as Dtsmal Swamp near Norfolk and it™ Reader recollect the stratum of black mud minted w.th os,ers and trees, which is found every where ■n bonng on the coast, he will see in it a oroof If tl.e truth of this hypothesis. Wit the'dd o earthquakes, which are very frequent th o^o he Atlanuc coast, as I shall hereafter have occas o„ to observe more at large, the wat^r, ■ '""' attacking and undermining he "li '7"™'' stituted their mounds, formed ^^^ 3""": them: the moment that larger L= of™! could escape, the breirhp^ .r ^^ r i <-iic urencnes were ex'(-pnf1*.ri . • i ™re rapidity, and the powerful a"™' ^If^^: falls demolishing the ridge from top to bol " ::S;tr"t:n:k:'-:r---^ ^ave been so much the^.sie'rasr KreT: general ,s not a homogeneous ma,s crvstallizL „ vast strata, but a heap of detached block of di frrent magnitudes, mixed with veoenble „ ', -0-3 of Which are embedded in clay, and as £ I i\ '«! il (]f^ If r / • i ri: 1 ti 80 declivities are very steep, it frequently happens, that thaws and heavy rains, by carrying away the earth, deprive the masses of stone of their sup- port, and then the fall of one or more of these oc- casions very considerable stone-slips or avalanches*, which continue for several hours. From this cir- cumstance the falls from the lake must have acted with more efficacy and rapidity. Their first at- tempts have left traces in those gaps, with which the line of summits is indented from space to space. It may be clearly perceived on the spot, that these places were the first drains of the sur- plus water, subsequently abandoned for others, where the work of demolition was more easy. It is obvious, that the lakes flowing off must change the whole face of the lower country. By this were brought down all those earths of secondary forma- tion, that compose the present plain. The ridge of talcky granite, pressed by more frequent and voluminous inundations, gave way in several points, and it's rr hes added their mud to the black mud of the shore, which at present we find buried under the alluvial earthy afterward brought down by the enlarged rivers. In the valley between Blue Ridge and North * Az'alunc/ic, siiu* -.-'ip, the fall of a large mass of frozen snow, breukiiiy from liio ^-/acjcj-.v, or icy hUinmil.s of moun- taiiKS uol uufroijuciit in tla Alps, here Mjijilmd to tlic >twue. T. ^•^,p*«JSS'Ji4i^- 81 Mountain the change, that took place were con- formable to the n,ode in which the water flowed off. Several breaches havingat once or in succef s,o„ g,ven a passage to the streams of wat" „ ^ called the rivers James, Potowmack q„. u ommon reservo.r was divided into a. many dis- nt lakes separated by the risings of the ground hat exceeed their level. Each of these lakes had "sparfcular drain, and this drain being at lengh worn down to the lowest level, the land waTfeft completely uncovered. This must have occur Id earher w,th the James. Susquehannah, a, d D f ware, because their basins are more el vated and ■t must have happened more recently .^h 1' Po towmack for the opposite reason, it's basin L .he deepest of all. Ins much to' be w'd, If the government of the United States, or som. highly conducive to our kno v e 'e Tf thT' "■'" ^"'io„. that our globe >:^t^X ^ How far the Delaware then extended the reflux of US waters tow. d the cast I cannot ascertTn " appears, that it's basin was bounded by 2 G >•.-■ -itti^i^ii^^--^. S2 itii I iidge that accompanies it's left bank, and which is the apparent continuation of Blue Ridge and North Mountain. It is probable, that it's basin has always been separate from that of the Hudson; as it is certain, that the Hudson has always had a distinct basin, the limit and mound of which were above West Point, at the place called the High- lands. To every one who views this spot it seems incontestihle, that the transverse chain bearing this name was formerly a bar to the course of the river, and kept it's waters at a considerable height: and when I observe, that tlie tide flows as far as ten miles above Albany, this low level in so great an extent, compared with the elevation of the moun- tuns that surround this basin, induces mc to ima- gine, that the lake must have reached as far a^^ the rapids at Fort Edward, or perhaps even communi- cated with lakes George and Champlain, and in this state rendered imperceptible the Cohoez or falls of the Mohawk, the level of which it sur- passed. These falls could not be formed, till the lake had drained off through the gap at Wes[ Point J and the existence of this lake explaining the trices of alluvions, petrified shells, and strata of :>chist and clay, mentioned by Dr. Mitchill, proves the justice of the inductions of this judici- ous observer respecting the stationary presence of waters in times past. 8.1 Tl,ese ancient lakes too, now dry by the n„«„r. one or two stages observed on the binK f or the rivers of Atnerica. and whict;,;:.r the Kanhaw: :r 'L' o;:'^^\r;rT• this facr K„ , ) I- ■ '" elucidate '»« by a dclmeaMon of the bed of this last nver, at the place called Cincinnati, or For Wa h ;ngton th, ,„, ^^,,^„^^^ ^^ ^,^^ ^^^^^__ Wash. f " "■' ''^'l o'' the river at it's lowest ebb such as I saw .t ,n the month of August ,796 ' ^ oflavel "r'; "";" '"'"'• '■"""^'f °'"«^^t.^ theZs h« ' """'''' '■•"'' '""'""'ined by uic noods, that occur everv soriiur 'ri • i , • nearfifty feet high. "^ "^ ° ^'^'^ "^^k ,,s "the first banquette, four hundred paces or n.ne hundred feet, broad, likewise formed ofgra ve and rounded stones. The high floods reach th,s banquette, and wash the gravel and stones sti more and more *'. ...,.,.,„„„,, „,,;'' '"■''•■"•"•■'-'^' "-"".PW... .1,™,,.. -*'.-"y i:^:: ::r:t" r'^"'- a 'i<-S>ee that i n. ■ '''"'"' ''^ •^"^■'' D Foi^Oijcd hv It s n;iu,eo,Ks- nurcotic Mridl. O 2 ■ ; 1 W\} o 84 iid IS a talus or slope of gentle ascent, abouC thirty feet high, composed of various strata of gravel and mould, full of fos>il shells and sub- stances of river growth, which are equally to be observed in the bank itself. The floods never pass this talus. ee z. second banquette, which extends to the foot of the neighbouring hills, and on which is built the new town of Cincinnati*. Such is the right bank of the river. The left bank has similar flats and slopes oppo- site to these at corresponding heights. In other places the banquettes appear only on one side ; but then the opposite bank is either a steep cliff, on which the river was incapable of leaving any per- manent traces, or such a broad plain, that the eye cannot follow them to the distant hills. When we examine the arrangement of these banquettes, their strata, and taluses, with the nature of their substances, we remain convinced, that even the most elevated part of the plain, that which extends from the city to the hills, has been the seat of waters, and even the primitive bed of * It consists of about 400 wooden housi.'s, some coastructoJ of planks, others of lo^'s, vhitii were begun to be built ♦luring tliP Indian war, about J7i)I. It was at first only ♦ •-UMip of reserve and I'urk of artiUiry. i 11 «6 .'.^ river, which appears to have ha,! three at so many Afferent periods. The first of these periods was the time when the transverse ridges of the hills, yet entire as I have descnbed them above, barred up tlje course of the nver, and acting as mounds to it, kept the water eve w,th their summits. All the country within this level was then one large lake or marsh ofstae- nant water. In lapse of time, and from the pe- nodical action of the floods occasioned by the an. nual melting of the snows, some feeble parts of the mound were worn away by the waters. One of the gaps having given way to the current, the whole effort of the waters was collected in that point, hollowed it out to a greater depth, and th sunk the level of the lake several yards. T|,is fir operation u.ncovered the upper banquette ee; and f7,'\^-^°^*-i-^. yet a lake, had for their bed the banquette .., and for their shore the talus The time that the waters remained in this bed was the second period. The third commenced, when, the fall of water having been still fir.her lowered in the centre, from he force of the current being more concentrated. and thus rendered more active, the river scooped Itwit out a narrower and deeper channel, which is ° 3 86 that in which it flows at present, and left the lower banquette cc habitually dry. It is probable, that tlie Ohio has been obstructed in more thaw one place, from Pittsburg to the ra- pids of Louisville. When I went down this river from the Kanhaway, not having those ideas which my subsequent observations of facts suggested, I did not pay particular attention to the transverse chains I met with ; but I recollect, that I remark- ed several of considerable size, particularly toward Galliopolis and as far as the Sciota, very capable oi answering this purpose. It was not till my return from Fort Vincents on the Wabash, that I was struck uith the disposition of a chain below Silver Creek, about five miles from the rapids of the Ohio. This ridge, which Canadian travellers have vaguely mentioned by the name of Cotes (Ribs), crosses the basin of the Ohio from north to south : it has obliged the river to change it's direction from the east toward the west, to seek an issue, which in fact it finds at the confluence of Salt River ; and it may even be said, that it required the copious and rapid waters of this river, and it's numerous branciies, to force the mound, that opposed it's way. The pretty steep declivity of these Ribs re- quires about a quarter of an hour to descend it^ though the road is commodious i and by compa • 87 nson wi,h other hill.s, I conceived the perpendl- cular „e,ght to be about four hun.Ired ,"rL M,n,m,t,s too thickly cove,-..d*i,h wood („,,h! at...nlcour.eofthecl,„int„bese.n.bu „; and closes the basm „, the Ohio throu-.hout if whole breadth. Thi.s ba.in. viewed "ro^ te -n,,tex^^.bit, .so .nuch of the appearances or ake, that the ulea of the ancient existence of one the fac . I have mentioned, had t„ me every n,.-!, conC ' ■'; "/'■" --— «» tended t confirm tins ulea; for I have observed, that fron. t...s Cham to White Kiver, and beyond it . I mdes from Fort Vincents, the country i'l: sected by a number of ridges, many of them ep and lofty, wh.ch render the road rug.ed and toiU some : they are so particularly beyonl. U. Tlie^e two books may be considered as a travelliiiL; library of the United States. 99 (that i», .bo.,t the length of the canal in St Jaa,.s . I'^rk'.) and of the n,e.n depth of fif teen feet, the ground of the plain through which .twnds suddenly failing, precipitate itself in one vast sheet a hundred and fifty feet perpendicu- larly to a lower plain, where it continues ifs course, without the eye of the spectator being able to perceive any mountain, by which ifs current has been checlced or obstructed. By what singu- larity of local circumstances Nature has prepared and produced this prodigious scene does not pre- sent Itself to the imagination -. and when we liave discovered it, we are almost as much surprised at the^simpli^ty of the means, as at the grandeur That the reader may conceive an idea of the picture without difficulty, he must at first recoK lect, that all the country included between Lake Ene and the Ohio is a vast plain of a higher kvd than almost the whole of the continent, as i. proved by the source, of the different rivers that flow from ,t, some running into the Gulf of Mexico, others into die Northern Ocean, and others into the Atlantic. On the west and north- J^ In ih, onYnnal, < tl.. length of ,|.o .garden of thr ivnovvn to the roadwrs of this translation. 'J'. H 2 iFi t if J "' i h( iOO west this plain stretches without interruption from the Savannahs beyond Missisippi and the lakes to which it affords a bed ; on the south and east it extends to the ridges of the Alleghanies ; but on the north, when it has passed Lake Erie, about six or seven miles before it reaches Lake Ontario, the ground suddenly sinks, and by an abrupt descent runs into another plain, the level of which is two hundred and seventy feet lower, and in which is Lake Ontario. On coming from the neighbourhood of this lake * the disposition of the ground is easily perceived : from a great distance on the sheet of tranquil water you see before you as it were a lofty rampart (a), the slope of which, covered with wood, seems to for- bid all passage farther: you enter the Niagara, up which you proceed as far as Queenstown (b), and you soon discover on the left a narrow and deep valley (c), whence the river issues with some rapidity, but tranquil : the cascade still remains a mystery : the slope abovcmentioned comes from Toronto, or even farther, and running along the north shore of Lake Ontario, at the variable dis- tance of a mile or two, turns easterly by a curve to the south shore of the lake, crosses tiie Nia- gara seven miles from it's mouth, the Genessee b'oe on plafc HI, fig. 2. th« U-ttcr* ofrofcreuce, a, a, a 101 eight miles, then bends again toward the south, and in a Jine five or six miles west of Lake Se- neca, where I observed it's declivity*, it proceeds to join the ramifications of the AlJeghanies, fron, which this Jake derives the pnncipal part of ic^ waters, and ,s nearly on a kvd with them ^ Indeed it may be said, that, almost on a level in this part with these mountains, the plain is con- tinued with t]:em to Hudson River, where it ter- minates by a slope as high and steep as at Nia- gara; which presents another incident equally re- markable in geography, that of a country into which the tide penetrates upward of a hundred and sixty six miles, precisely at the foot of an- other, in which rise such rivers as the Delaware that runs a course of more than four hundred. The local circumstances of the Niagara are far less obvious to those, who come from the neigh- bourhood of Lake Erie, as was my ca.e on the A m,le and half fVo.n New (ienova, coming fro„. Ca- na.ula.jua, 1 found n.y.seJf ... th. brink of an anM^imluatre oi a larycrand n.orc yentle decJivity than on. of which I «hall have to spealc presently • hut n's prospect i.s stilJ nu.re grand, lor at one view, uninterrupted hyanv obstaeh-. you «ee a vast basin, perfectly level, con.si.stin.^.f Lake Onta- no on the nor'h-ea.t. ui.d on the east of a sea of forests, in- terspersed with a few laru.s and vdJa^c., and wuh the mu- feis oi the Iroquois lakes. If! 102 24th of October, 1796. From this lake, and even sailing on it's waters, there is no mountain m view, except over Prcsqii'i,le, where some low and distant summits may be discovered in the north-west part of Pennsylvania. The coun- try through which the Niagara pursues it's course exhibits nothing but a vast plain covered with wood ; and the current ot* the river, which scarcely runs three miles an hour, gives no indica- tion of the circumstance that awaits it lower down. It is not till you come near the mouth of the little river Chipaway, eighteen miles below Lake Eric, tliat the current growing more rapid warns the boatmen to keep close to the shore, and land at the village built at that place. Here the river expands a sheet of water about 750 yards broad, skirted on all sides with high trees. You are only two miles and half from the cascade (e) ; you hear a distant murmuring noise, like that of the waves of the sea, and more or less loud, according to the direction of the wind j but the eye yet per- ceives nothing. On the left bank of the river, which is concealed from your view by trees, you pursue on foot a rude path ( f ) traced by carts. After proceeding a mile you perceive the river turning to the left, and a mile lower down rush- ing among shoals, which it covers with foam (g). Beyond these breakers a cloud of vapour is seen # 103 to ascend from an opening in the forest, and no fmhcr trace of the river appears. The din grovs .ouder, but no fall is yet to be perceived. You continue your way along the shore, which at first IS not more than ten or twelve feet higher than the surface of the water, but soon rises to twenty, thirty, fifty, and by this declivity indicates the acceleration of the current*. Some gullies then oblige you, to quit the side of the river, leaving 't on your right; to return to it, you cross the grounds belonging to a farm-house; and at len-th, emergHig from amidst the trees and underwo'od you reach the side of the cataract f- Here yoj see the whole river rush into a chasm or channel hollowed out by itself, about .00 feet deep, and 1 200 broad. In this it is encased as between two wa.o of rock, the sides of which are covered wit/ cedars, firs, beech, oaks, birch, &c. Travellers commonly view the fall from this spot, where a juttmg rock (i) overhangs the abvss : some of our party gave it the preference , but th. rest of whom I was one, being informed, that we' could descend to the bottom tei, or twelve hun- dred yards lower down, by Mrs. Simcoe's ladder * The settlors J.ave already availed themselves of this slope, to eoi.struct saw and flow,,- ,„i|j,^ ,, j,^ t Vi'^. 1. IS :i section taken at tjiu jj line X y of iiij'. 2. H ill 1 04 •r ^/ imagined we should enjoy the grandeur of the spectacle to more advantage there, as objects of this kind produce a greater effect, when we look up to them from below. Accordingly we went down this ladder, thoup-h not without difficultv, as the ladders are nothing but trunks of treifs with notches cut in them and fixed against the side of the precipice *. On reaching the bottom we could proceed upward toward the fall by a shore consisting of fragments of rock and sand, where we found the carcasses of some deer and wild boars, which the current had hurried down the cataract on their attempting to swim across the river above it. Near us the stream ran very ra- pidly over a bed of rocks, but without being at all dangerous. On our left, in front, was a part of the fall about 200 feet wide, separated from the grand cataract by a small island. Beyond it, and facing us, the great cataract appeared in form of a horseshoe about 1200 feet broad, concealed on the right by the projecting rocks of the side of the chasm. At more than six hundred yards distance the spray of the water fell so as to wet us like rain. As I was but just recovering from * According to this description, it must have been the IikIkiii ladder, not Mrs. Simcoe's, that the autlior descended, t^cc Weld's Travels, Vol. II, p. 122, 3. T. 105 a malignant fever, with which I had been attacked at Fort D troit, I had neither strength nor inch- nation to proceed farther: some of my compa- nions, however, attempted to reach the cascade; but they were soon forced to return by obstacles,' not §9 easy to surmount as they had imagined! An English traveller, with whom I crossed Lake Erie, had been more fortunate than we two months before. Led by good guides, and having both time and means that were not in our power, he penetrated as far as it is possible without loss of life; and to satisfy the just curiosity of the reader, I will copy the description given by him in his work entitled Travels in Canada, which has been translated into French by Mr. Caste ra. ' On arriving at the bottom of the cliff, you find yourself in the midst ofhuge piles ofmishapen rocks, with great masses of earth and rocks pro- jecting from the side of the cliff, and overgrown with pines and cedars hanging over your head, ap- parently ready to tumble down and crush you to atoms. Many of the large trees growing with their heads downwards, being suspended by their roots, which had taken such a firm hold in the ground at the top of the clifi; that when part of it gave way the trees did not fall altogether. The river before you here is somewhat more than a til-.'i ^ ''iJMi' P? 106 quarter of a mile wide -, and on the opposite side of it, a little to the right, the Fort Schloper Fall is seen to great advantage ; what you see of the Horseshoe Fall also appears in a very favourable point of view; the projecting cliff conceals nearly one half of it. The Fort Schloper Fall is skirted at bottom by milk-white foam, which ascends in thick volumes from the rocks ; but it is not seen to rise above the fall like a cloud of smoke, as is the case at the Horse-shoe Fall ; nevertheless the spray is so considerable, that it descends on the opposite side of the river, at the foot of Simcoe's ladder, like rain. * Having reached the margin of the river, we proceeded towards the Great Fall, along the strand, wliich for a considerable part of the way thither consists of horizontal beds of limestone rock, co- vered with gravel, except, indeed, where great piles of stones have fallen from the sides of the cliff. These horizontal beds of rock, in some places, extend very far into the river, forming points which break the force of the current, and occasion strong eddies along particular parts of the shore. Here great numbers of the bodies of fishes, that, unable to stem the current of the river above the falls, have been carried down them, and con- sequently killed, are washed up. The shore is likewise found strewed with trees, and large pieces 3 in some 107 of timber, that have been swept away from the saw mills above the falls, and carried down the precipice. The timber is generally terribly shat- tered, and the carcasses of all the large animals, particularly of the large fishes, are found very much bruised. A dreadful stench arises from the quantity of putrid matter lying on the shore, and numberless birds of prey, attracted by it, are al- ways seen hovering about the place. ' From the foot of SImcoe's ladder you may walk along the strand for some distance without in- convenience ; but as you approach the Horseshoe Fall, the way becomes more and more ruo-t^ed in some places, where the cliff has crumbled down, huge mounds of earth, rocks, and trees reachmg to the water's edge, oppose your course i It seems impossible to pass them ; and indeed, without a guide, a stranger would never find his way to the opposite side ; for to get there it is ne cessary to mount nearly to their top, and then to crawl on your hands and knees through long dark holes, where passages are left open between the torn up rocks and trees. After passing these mounds, you have to climb from rock to rock close under the cliff, for there is but little space here between the cliff and die river, and these rocks are so slippery, owing to the continual mois- ture from the spray, which descends very heavily. i^ \ I] ^ m (i. JUS fhat without the utmost precaution it is scarcely possible to escape a fall. At the distance of a quarter of a mile from the Great Fall we were as wet, owing to the spray, as if each of us had been thrown into the river. * There is nothing whatsoever to prevent you from passing to the very foot of the great fall ; and you might even proceed behind the prodigious sheet of water that comes pouring down from the top of the precipice, for the water falls from the edge of a projecting rock j and moreover, caverns of a very considerable size have been hollowed out of the rocks at the bottom, of the precipice, owing to the violent ebullition of the water, which ex- tend some way underneath the bed of the upper part of the river. I advanced within about six yards of the edge of the sheet of water, just far enough to peep into the caverns behind it^ but Jiere my breath was nearly taken away by the vio- lent whirlwind that ahvays rages at the bottom of the cataract, loccasioned by the concussion of such a vast body of water against the rocks. I confess I had no inclination at the time to go farther ; nor, indeed, any of us afterwards attempted to explore the dreary confines of these caverns, where death seemed to await him that should be daring enou^^h to enter their threatening jaws. No word-, can con- vey an adequate idea of this awful grandeur of die I 109 scene at this place. Your senses are appalled by the sight oi the immense body of water that comes pourmgdown so closely to you from the top of the stupendous precipice, and by the thundering sound of the b,dows dashing against the rocky sides of the caverns below; you tremble with reverential fear when you consider that a blast of the whirlwind m>ght sweep you from ofT the slippery rocks on wh,ch you stand, and precipitate you into the dreadful gulf beneath, from whence all the power of man could not extricate you , you feel what an .ns.gn,ficant being you are in the creation, an 1.30, .'id, till; slope oftln- iliasni (iiiwii to tin; riati), a distance of 7 miles 0.', Total 213 feet. I - 115 Lawrence, a rivpf nf n,; i ii- ■•'bout fifty b^cl ; an,, ,v, ,„. „ jf '; '"f- •■'"J •■s'uncs in tl.is cnonnou- (M ■'>'i""^"'='- « Above the same city. „„ ^e s„„th Ivnk i, ,h. o:;7e7'r%i'"''''^^"'''^''''--!"'^^^ Molt?Se""„::::;'T^".''---'-°^'''c Hudson. T e „™ „f C ? "' ""•™"''' "■"> "" imitative wo":^^"'"'^^^''''-'—- - countrv of "'' ''"^ '"■'"«= »"''' in t'i= country of L.ege applied to a little e«r- • • , miles .'rom Spa. The Cohoez of he l^'', ? estimated by some at si.ty-l e fe ^^ h' " '"8'i, anu 8 or qoo n-mf? ti • / / "-^i ^''is Place How. H ' ' '""'' ^^'''^'^^ '« r '' HA I:' oner, like tlif Ningarn, into iulccp chasm of soliil rorlv, consistinj; ot a niit aicoiis j^ranuc, rat h side ot whii h is pcrp< lulimlai. It rscaprs hoin this w[\\c niilrs liuihcr down by a wiilt-ninj^, of ilic val- ley in the iown loiintiy. Several other falls hesidr thrsc arc inentioiied, which are remarkable rather (iir their heipjit than for tJK'ir hoily of water : such as that of l'"allinj\ Sprinj!;, on one of the upper Inanchcs of James River, t ominj^ Iroin Wartn Sprinjv Mi- JclVer- son, who mentions it in his notes in Virginia, esii- mates it at two hiinihcil feet high ; but it is only filteen broail. Such too is fiiar of Passaik*, in New Jersey, which is Mpwaril of 70 feet high, and about 1^0 broad. As to tiiat called St. Anthony, in the Mis- sisippi, above the river St. Peter's, I shall only say after Mr. Arrowsmith, ih.it it is twenty -nine feet in height. I'lirope afVonls notiiing that can be compared wiili these grand plicnomcna of nature, except tlir I atanut of Tcrni, in Italy, and that ot Laulicn, below Schal hausen, where, acconling to Mr. Coxc, "• I.iiiiicourl innilmiis it li\ llu' iiiitiii- < ill.- iiiiiMc <>(' .1 m.mul'ai inmi:; luun l.ilcly lillilt ;\[ llic I'til , 'l'(iln\\.i u.is a \ill.lHi' iic.ir iIh' auK! '" ■ . \'"Y""'""'"' -V.-S, .hat ,1,0 si.,. ; If .1 m-)iivr in additi.in r<, itN i,,;,,,,, r a.lc of I n„, ,t K „„ ,,i,,|„,,, „, , . ^^^ near scvrnh„„,l,o.la„.Ui„y ,,,,,,„„„„.,, «■.. or ,s „,„ „ry c„„M,i,.a„l,.. The „.h, r L- -"l'-.f.h,. Alps an.llVen.... „„,„,,,,,,; n.™ „.„.„, art., such «..„., „,,,„,, ,„„,„ J';: - ..ccu,a..-ly a.,, „, „„, „,^. ,,,,^,^^__,^^ __,. Nlr„n,es„va„„„..i, a,„l lu,„w them .„ be i„ .ty ,„...,, ,„„ , ,„, . ,^ ^,„.,,^^^ ^, _;^ ... .gKcra,„,Bsphit„f,,ec,..,,J,„,, ,,,,.'•; "^ .•.c.,ua„,.a„.cvv,.h„a,g,.aphya,„.„a.„n,M,is.„ry *nAm;K MI. I'.iilirson, ami Tljough the north part „f A„,..rica has been known to us two crnturies, tl,is intervl ^'.o« ... .i.c anna,, of Nature, has ::XtZ ^ 3 not so mi lis sufficient, to convince us by numerous examples, that earthquakes must have been frequent and vio- lent there in times past; and that they have been the principal cause of the derangements, of which the Atlantic Coast presents such general and strik- ing marks. To go back no farther than the year 1628, the time of the arrival of the first English settlers, and end with 1782, Mr. Williams, to whom we are indebted for some curious researches into this subject, has found authentic records of more than forty-five earthquakes in this period of 154 years i and the particulars, which he has given in several papers*, establish the following general facts. * That the earthquakes were preceded by a noise resembling that of a violent wind, or of a chimney on fire : that they threw down chimneys, some- times even houses, and burst open doors and win- dows: that they dried up wells, and even several rivers : that thty imparted to the waters a turbid colour, and the fetid nnell of liver of sulphur, and threw up out of great chinks sand with a similar smell : that their shocks seemed to proceed from an internal focus, which raised the earth up from below, and the principal line of which, running north-east and south-west, followed the course of * See the American Museum, Vols. Ill and V. 119 the river Merrimack, extending southward to the Potowmack, and northward beyond the St Law rcnce, particularly affecting the direction of' Lake Ontario.' Some of the phrases here employed are re- markable for the analogy they bear to local facts, that I have mentioned. Did not that smell of liver of sulphur, imparted to the water and sand vomit- ed up from the bowels of the earth through great clunks, originate from the stratum of schist, vJiiich we found at Niagara beneath the limestone, and which, when subjected to the action of fire, emits a strong smell of sulphur ? It is true, this is but one of the elements of the substance mentioned, but an accurate analysis might detect the other. This stratum of schist is found under the bed of the Hudson, and reappears in many places in the States of New York and Pennsylvania among the sand- stones and granites ; and we have reason to pre- sume, that it exists round Lake Ontario and be- neath Lake Erie, and consequently that it forms one of the floors of the country, in which is the principal focus of the earthquakes. Theline of this focus, running north-west and south-east, particularly affects the direction of the Atlantic to Lake Ontario. This predilection is remai-ly the calcareou -i even gran.tic strata there are inclined toT '7,7;" ^"8'" •'^45" and upward as far as 8* as the,r fragments must have remaine.l in the va cu,t,es formed by the vast explosions. To this fracture of the stratum of talcky granite are owing Kit cascades : and this fact indicates, that for! merly the focus extended south beyond the Po- towmack as this stratum does. No doubt it com- m.m,cated w.th chat of the West India islands. I have sa,d .n another place, that there are no traces of these earthquakes in the Western Country and that^the .vages ., ere have not even a „::;•: them According to doctor Barton, they are equally .gnorant of volcanoes, of which i„ ,4 ° vest,ges are to be seen south of the lakes, though many occur ,n the Alleghanies. I was told at F^rt speak of a volcano m the interiour part of the country, which still at times emits smoke b this fact requires confirmation. It is to be wi:J,ed, and we have reason to hope hat m course of time learned societies, formed i„ J>e Un,ted Stares, will apply ,„ g,„„gi,,, ^^" -searches of ,h,s kind both .tiemion and f^nds be yondtheabiluiesof individual foreign travellers' Wemayaffirm beforehantl, that ,hey wouldobiain' h I m ten ,< \v 122 the knowledge of facts altogether new to us, and highly valuable with regard to the history of the Globe ; and that they would prove to demonstra- tion a conjecture already formed by several na- tural philosophers, of the truth of which I am per- fectly convinced, that the continent of North America was not disengaged till alter South Ame- rica and the greater part of our hemisphere from the water, either fresh river or oceanic, by which the whole of our planet was once covered to a height above the summits of the tallest mountains, and this for such a length of time, as was sufficient for the solution of those substances, that crystallized after the waters had evaporated or retired. But I have said enough of the nature of the soil : it is time to speak of tliat of the climate. CHAPTER Will. Of the Climate. BY climate*, if we adhere to the literal signi- fication of the word, we should understand only * The greek worrl klima, signiiics notliiug more tluin a degree or step. [The author here appears to cont'oiiini K>iiJ.if, to lie in an iiieiiiied position, \\ith x^iu«^, T.j 123 thedegree of latitude of a country: but since ~ nerally speaking, countries are iiot orrlw ^T ing to tl,eir latitude, the secondary deah' T so .ntimateiy associated with the prim ive h"? term.W. is „o,v synonymous wittia „ t «/««/ imperatun of the air J, ;, . ' -rinfact, that the te.;er^e^:erSi;r erm,ned by the latitude : on the contrary, nume- rous .nstances prove it to be modified, nay even an::::;,;f^^'■^"°"!''•''>'''-^iffere'ntcfrcu^ stances of the sod; such as it's surface bein^ drv ^ct to ,t s eleva„on above the level of the sea ■ >t s aspect i and more particularlv h„ ,!, , . ' quality of ifs currents of " T 1'"^'^ f ' sweep it. surface. Hence itVoCrt"t:1 becomes an essential constituent of t e temn ture a, eonsequently of the climate. rr nwh,chweundersta„dtheword.andtha-ci . We togtveof the phenomena of t'nt If , UnuedStateswinaffordrreshproofsof;;::!;^^ Natural philosiphers, as well as the historian. »^Amer.a, have long ago remarked !r::: ■m m\ * r M I2i y li |M'isc, that the climate of the Atlantic Coast was several degrees colder in winter than that of the same parallels in Europe, or even of Asia and Africa on the basin of the Mediterranean sea: but they appear to me, not to have paid attention to a second circumstance equally remarkable, which is, that the temperature in summer is generally se- veral degrees hotter there. I will give examples of both cases at length. In the northern parts of New England, in the mean latitude of between 42^ and 43^, observa- tions made at Salem near Boston during the space pf seven years by Mr. Edward Holyhoke*, and compared with twenty years observations collect- ed at Mannheimt, show the climate of Salem tq be both colder in winter and hotter in summer than that of several cities \vi Europe, as may be jeen in the following table ; Latiiudc. fu.niP 41«' 53' JNIarsoillps 4.i* 17' P.idua 15" 22' biiUm 42° 35' Maximum Maximum Scale of va- of co'..]. ol heat. riation. 21- 24** 4 25 211" ]0 29 •.in" J"i 311 31» By this table it appears, that at Salem the dif- * Ste Transacfions of (iio Philusopliical Society oll'liila- dflphia, vol. i, Ito. I See J:;phemcri(Ic.s Meteorologirjr Paiatinir, Mannheim. 1 2.5 rcrcncc between .he extremes of heat and cold (s »' 1 1 ?P r' "'' ™'^ ^*°' =« Marseilles 29", and at Padua 39°. In general in the states of Maine, Vermont. New Hampshire, and even Massachusetts, all situ- ate between the latitude of 4.0 „„j „ ^^ cor-ponchng to the south of France, and th, north of Spa.n, the ground is sufficiently covered w.th snow for three or four months in winter, to render the use of sledges general and habitual. The thermometer, which varies at that season from the freezmg poi„, „ ,0 „, ,^, ^^,^^^ ^ fal to ,.", ,4S and even ,8» below o. Mr Belknap, the historian of New Hampshire, has seen , „, ,3 , „ p,„,„^^,^^,^ ^^ ^^^ P^^^^^ » of Salem: and the historian of Vermont, Mr S Whams, has seen it .60 below o at RuthndS at the foot of the Green Mountains A little farth,^„„„h, that is to say in Canada, n he latitude of 46- and 47", which correspond to he m,ddle of France, the snow commence w.th te month of November, and continues till oward the end of April, or about si. months o t .e year, from (our to six feet deep, with a very clear sky. and a very dry air. It is so particularly '" the neighbourhood of Quebec, where the ther- * Lat. 4:jT 39' 30". T. <»«liall iicrcaftcr ol)scrvc th■^t o^ ^^ "(-..ve y,,ebec. .he snow ";.,,; ^.""'-■^'■ "'>scjt with pointing out r]uK c;« i • In the« very state, of Maine, Vermont M 1 ran,psl,ire, &c., the intensity of the i™"'.,'"' ■ngfron, the summer solstice is It' {•'or forrv „,. , that is from 15" or 16" to 22' or aj". But what renders the heat most insupf ort- able is the almost total want of wind, particularly from three o'clock in the afternoon, and the moisture with which the air is loaded on all tliis coast. From these extremes we have a scale of varia- tion for the Middle States of 46" or 48". Dr. Rush was one of the first who observed, that the climate of Pekin was most analogous to it ; and on pursuing the comparison we find, that North America has striking resemblances, not only in climate but in soil, with the north of China, and die adjoining country of Tatary. In the southern states, as Virginia, the CaroHnas, and Georgia, the duration and intensity of the cold <3imini.sh in pretty regular proporcion to the latitude. The course of the Potowmack, or more pre- cisely that of the Patapsco, forms a striking line of demarcation in this respect. Here the domain of snow terminates, and the traveller coniing from the north, who had hitherto seen sledges at the door or in the court of every farm, perceives not another after he has descended the steep hill, at the foot of which the Patapsco flows ; but inland, toward Blue Kidge, the snow prolongs it's Umit a little ; in consequence of the elevation of the ground. Tliis coast however has pretty sharp at- 1! 131 tick, of frost in the forty day. succeeding the wnter solst.ce. At Norfolk, o„ the ,,th of F ! bmary -798. a snow four feet deep fell in „„e 7 : Z "" "' C''"'«'«w". in the latitude o. ,11, that ,s ,n the parallel of Morocco, the qmcksdver fills to .- below o, according to ..ia„! court, and the grot.nd freezes hard to the depth Of two inches iji a single night*. On the contrary on all the coast beyond the Potowmack, the heat, from a month before the summer solstice, is so great, that during the space of four months the quicksilver commonlv rises ia the afternoon to .,' or .4", notwithstandin-. a I ntle Seabreeze, /t rises even to 3 z» and 33 ° a Savannah, wluch is much higher than in hL/ where .5^ is the comn,on term in the shade! not to mention, that a constant brisk wind and very dry air contribute to render this degree of ;.,J.I!r,' ":'""•'"'""' '""""" ""■ "'■■•">"= "■" ^'■"<' grow. va.,o„ or,„e„,ive. a valuaU. pro,™. .CMr^ZT^ K 2 J I ; ) i 'H M 132. heat supportable there. On the 17th of July 1758, Mr. Henry Ellis observed the quicksilver at 31° at Savannah; and he complaireci, that for several nights it did not sink below 29". In his cellar it stood at 21°*, and under his armpit at 29". Dr. Ramsay, who made a series of observations at Charlestown, saw it rise to 28^ only once in five years : but Charlestown, built at the mouth of a little river agitated by the tide, enjoys the sea- breezes, nnd has so much the reputation of a cool place, compared with the rest of the country, that all the planters in easy circumstances repair thither in summer, leaving only the negroes on iheir estates. From these facts we have for the Southern States a scale of variation of 32" or 34"; and no doubt the reader has observed, that this scale is in a decreasino; ratio from north to south. It was 66'' at Hudson's Bay -, 5r in Mas:jachu>etts ; 48° in Pennsylvania; i.> reduced to 35" or ,r^6° in Ca- rolina; and, if we were to proceed farther toward the tropics, we should find in many places only 18?, or 20° of annual variation. At Martinico, for instance, Porto Rico, and others of the Wind- ward Islands, die thermometer, owing to the pre- vailing breezes, docs not rise higher than 28°, U * .Sv-c the American Mumjuiii, Wl. V, {>. \ol. J'.tl or fall lower than lo" above o. On the chain of mountams in the province of Caraccas, i„ the actude of ,o» north, at an elevation of more than a m,le and half above the level of the ocean, tlie quicksilver fluctuates between ,o» and 21 « above o, at Surinam, near the seacoast, it's ranJ IS from IS" to 27". Accordingly travellers com- ing from these latitudes in summer find the heat grows more insupportable as they proceed north- ward j and for my parti would prefer the heat of Cairo to that of Pliiladelphia. beyond all compa- rison. It ,s true, that on approaching the Alle- ghames and still more on ascending their sum- mits, the air, being brisker and more elastic, ren- ders the heat more agreeable, though there it is frequently scorching. But in general in what are cal ed the temperate zones, particularly in low and damp places, it is more disagreeable than in what are termed hot countries: and it is also a. fact, that the climate is more equal in the torrid zone, than in the temperate zones; and would be more favourable to health, and to the vital power' were not the air frequently corrupted by the ex- halations from stagnant waters, and from sub- stances in a state of putrefacrion > and did not foreigners, ,n particular Europeans, carry with them that greediness of animal food, and abuse of M I ■ll»*'l>*ll ^ ll »»^ ,»„ 135 plication of arithmetic is a little less erroneous when they sum up the number of hours or days that a given wind prevails ; but when such tables are -not accompanied with the state of the ther mometer corresponding to the prevailing wind, the greater part of the instru..ion we should reap from them is lost, because we are leff unacquaint- ed with the nature and effects of each wind, and of the causes, of the variations of temperature, m which we shall soon see they are the princi- pal, it not the sole agents. A -better mode of estimating the fundamental temperature of a country would be that proposed by Mr. Williams, who takes as the basis of this temperature the natural and permanent warmth of the earth, the measure of which he seeks in the air and water, either of wells or of the deepest caverns, and on this occasion he mentions facts, that deserve to be noticed *. At Rutland in Vermont he found the tempera- ture of wells, at the depth of 45 f,,,^ ^ [o ^^ iveaumur . m m different places m Massachusetts 7 f^-.n" At Philadelphia - . „ 9!-^^ In Virginia, according to Mr. Jef- ferson t, it is II * Ili.sfory of Vfrmniif, p. .|2. t Set- Aofesou Vii-oiuia, p. .-j^'. K 4 ST li 1 1 136 At Charlestown, according to Dr. Ramsay, it is i4'^-6j' In this table we see a gradation proportionate to the parallels of latitude, which agrees with the ex- periments of Mr. de Saussure, to refute the old doctrine of a mean temperature of lo' throughout the globe, and to prove, that the heat of every place is in the ratio of the latitude, or more pre- cisely of tiie action of the Sun on the ground, to which lieat is imparted by it's rays.' § IF. The dai'ij Fni lotions arc greater and more abrupt on the Atlantic Coast than in Europe. The excessive variations on the Atlantic Coast, of which I have been speaking, are not confined to the seasons ; they take place likewise from one day to another, nay very frequently in the course of the same day. This is observed particularly in the Middle States, as Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the south part of New York ; and more in the flat country than on the mountains : no doubt be- cause these Middle States, placed between two op- posite atmospheres, that of the pole and tliat of the tropics, are the theatre of the perpetual con- * IlainhoJdt found the same dcyrco in South Amfiicu, 137 test between the large masses of cold air and hot. * It appears that the climate of Pennsylvania/ says Dr. Rush, ' is a compound of most of the climates m the world. Here we have the moisture of Bntam m the spring, the heat of Africa in summer, the temperature of Italy in June, the sky of Egypt in the autumn, the cold and snows of Norway, and the ice of Holland in the winter, the tempests (in a certain degree) of the West In- dies in every season, and th^ variable winds and weather of Great Britain in every month of tlie ^t^ix-: —American Museum, Vol. VII, p. 337. * \n the course of our winters,' the doctor far- ther observes, ' particularly in January and Fe- bruary, there frequently happen variations of 14^ i8°, and even 28° of Fahrenheit, from cold to hot, or from hot to cold, \n less than eighteen hours, by whicJi the health is considerably af- fected. In four and twenty hours between the 4th and 5th of February 17S8 the mercury fell from 37° to 41° below o, a difference of 4, r. ^t other times the south and south-east winds," bring- ing on a heat of 54' or 58°, occasion a sudden thaw; and this temi^erature, continuing for some days, has been known to induce premature vegeta- tion, and occasion peachtrecs to blossom in'' the month of February ; but as the cold does not really finish before April, frosts never fail to come on IH m\ I m lis •with north-east and north-west v\inds, reproducing the alterations I have already mentioned. « Sinriilar variations take place in summer, and piercing cold succeeds almost every night the vio- lent heats of the day. It is even observed, that the higher the mtrcury ri-^es in the afternoon, the more it falls in the morning at daybreak, for these are the two extremes of heat and cold. After a day in whi. h the mercury has stood at 86% and even at 90*, it sometimes falls in the course of a single night to 6^°, or even 60''. The mercury from 80° generally falls to 6^^ ; while it descends, when at 60", only to 56''. These falls of the quicksilver occur particularly after storms of rain and thunder : in the HimmiCr of 1775, on such an occasion, it fell 20° in the space of an hour and half. In general there are few evenings on which a fire would not be agreeable, except during the months of July and august. These variations are not so striking in Upper Pennsylvania, toward the sources of the Susquehannah, and on the plains of the Alleghanies. There the cold in winter is more settled, the heat in summer is less intense, and no doubt the quality of the air renders it more supportable than in our lower country, where the atmosphere is moist and dense.' — lb. Vols VI and VII*. * Li Ihese two jiaragr;ij)lis I Dave been obliged «»dsof theonginal. wherever I could. T t Lianccurfs Travels, Vol. IV\ M \i \Mi I \^ 140 The countries to tlie north are nc- less exposed to these vicissitudes, but there is this diflerence, in the Southern States the sudden variations arc chiefly from liot to cold, while in the Northern they are more frequently from cold to hot ; so that in the latter the effects produced on bodies gene- rally arise from dilatation, in the former they are commonly owing to constriction. In Bougain- ville's manuscript journal I find facts of this kind, that deserve to be mentioned. * December the nth, 1756, Quebec. Widiln these three days the thermometer has risen from 19" below o to the freezing point. To day it rains and thaws, with a southerly wind, and the weather is as sultry as in spring. * December the 14th, afternoon. The wind has just changed to the north-west : it begins to freeze hard : the diermometer is 3 '/ below the freezing point. The next day, the 15th, the quicksilver is at 21°, the wind has changed from north-west to south-west, the sky is beautifully clear. 'January the i8th. The wind is north-west, the thermometer 27'^ below die freezing point : the weather clear, and prodigiously cold: trav?dlers arrive with tlicir nose, fingers, and toes frost bitten : the cold is less intense in the lower town than in the fort, the elevation on whirli this is built cx- 3 141 posing it to the north-west wind, from which the town is sheltered.' At Hud.on's Bay similar fhcts are mentioned by Umfrev.lle and Robson, observers eqt.allvaccuratr and judicious. They remark, that for the twenty or thirty days which the summer iieats continue, the nights frequently remain pretty hot : but durini; wmter the southerly winds bring those transitions from 180 and 20^ below the freezing point to o, which occasion that sensation of sultriness com- plained of by i3ougainville : a sensation that ap- pears strange to us, who when the thermometer i. at o shiver with cold, but which is in fact the same tJnng, as when with us the quicksilver ri^es from o to 150, or when an African experiences a transition from 20- to 30^ it being in each case the cilcct of comparison. It is likewise in conse qucncc of dns habit of the organs of sense, that at Charlestown people complain of the cold, when •I'e thermometer is but 10^' or 1 2° above the freez- >"g point; and that as much wood is burnt there according to tlie remark of Liancourt, as at Phi- ladelphia, where the quicksilver fdls 15" lower. On comparing the thermometrical tables of the different places of which 1 have just been speak- ing, and in making daily observations myself on the variadons of the atmosphere, I could not avoid perceiving a constant harmony between these va- ^ ^M ^ h W '*'-*' IM: y . i i43 l-iations and certain winds, whiVh nre uniformly* connected with them. The tmm\thr\s from cold to heat I always found took place witii changes of the wind from north-cast or north-west to south- east or south : and on the contrary the transitions from heat to cold always occurred with chanpjrs of the wind from ^outh or south-east to north-east or north-west : and this was the case from Florida to Canada and Hudson's Bay. Hence vvt; have one clement ot* a theory applicable to all the problems (A this climate ; but as good tlieories are nothing but a systematic arrangement and combination of all the facts of one kind, I shall not be in haste to bolve these problems by isolated facts but shall proceed to bring forward many singulasities, which at first sight would appear to be exceptional^ § III. T/}c Climalc of the Basin of the Ohio and of the Misyisip/,i is less cold h/ three Digrces of Latitude than that of the Atlantic Coast. This is one of those singularities, that deserves ^o much the more attention, as l do not know that it has ever yet been described with all it's circuni- !»tances. For the principal fact I shall borrow the words of Mr. Jefterson, in his Notes on Virginia, p. 125. * It is remarkable, that, proceeding on the same I I') 143 parallel of latitude vvestwardly, the c Km... u norilnv, rJly. I h,s connnue. to be the case. tiU ouatta,„thesumn,itort.„AlleJ,a„ey,w h! :>"'':'^'^" ^«--' ''-ocean and^Mit u*totheM,„.,,,pi, the change reverses. Jd [ '" 7'' "f'-''"'^ "•--"'--, .t beco:„es warmer i e..... an, c,si„ the same latitude on the sea- =.Wc. Their test, mony is strengthened by the ve- gmbles and anin,Hls which subsi, and 'nuLpy there naturally, and do not on our sea coast. , C catalpas grows spo„,,„,e„,:,,y on the Missisippi. a 6rasthelat,tude.,f37V..dreedsasfaras,8» Perroquets even winder on the Scioto, in the ,«th" rfegree of Jat.tude. In the snnm,er of . ,, ' whe! .ther.o.ete,^ 96 « W.ilmmsburg, ,t was , ,0- at K.slcask.a ' As a traveller I en, confir.n and enlarge po„ md ,"T°'"^--'^''™"- '-'"-AnT maue m the ;.umncr of i-n6 fmm w i • on the Porowmacl' r - R \ '^^^^'"-'°'» bash J 7 ' ^"^"^ ^ '"^-enns on the Wu- b-h I codectal note, of which the following are the principal re,',ults. ^ ^79(^3 May the cth, the fw r • A^ 1. -^ ' ^ '^''^^^ awbern<»' af A-Pohs. on the sho,-, and at the lev:™;,: - tfr>r. L- , "" "-'^^^ -fT-tiantic Coast : thus cotton, which succeeds a^ r;«.- • , cpn^e • L , ^^"'^ ^"^ Cincinnati and Fort Vin- cents, in the lattudeof ooo hoo . f^, J . * 39 > has not vet he^n uicr north than ?c^ or -jfio T^ .-, .u the cataJnn c. r ^ * '^ ^'^ ^^"^ ^^"^^ ^^ith "deration of "ZTZt! ■ ' P"'™'^'^ ^""■ i'roofs of this kind, which ar^ irrCr . , son. Throughout my travels on the Ohio 7 A 'ny various stations in Kentucky arrn," Limestone, Washington in KemlcL r'""'''"'"' ^""i-iUe, Cincinnati, and For V.^l'T^"' ^-™ I coiiecte. uniform, agrX'tS: A nut of a nuts ui'the Atlantic Coa.st. '"^k..r,t.s. or woody t Dr. Barton has fnfonned m. ,u.. ,, paper on thi. .abject, .to Jn""'' j'li-'pnrin"' a csting lot faii ,0 l,e Jii.hi,. i„t^^ L 2 n ■,.'* •■— - ** .♦■■ ww' ftim^^^jig^ , :'\i^*fcx" --^. MS m M ■'■i.? ' The winter does not commence till the ap- proach ofthf solstice, and the cold weather is felt only in tbi; forty or fifty days succeeding it. Even then it is not fixed and constant, but there are in-' tervals of temperate and warm days. The ther- momete'- does not fall in general lower than 5" or 6^ below o : [21° or 19"] the frosts, which at first sjiow themselves a few days in October, dis- appear, return again toward the end of november, cease again, and do not become settled till toward January : the brooks, little rivers, and standing waters, then freeze, but seldom continue frozen over more than from three to fifteen days. The winter of 1796, when the quicksilver fell to 15^' below o, and the rivers Alleghany, Monon- gahela, and Ohio, were frozen over from the 28th of november to the 30th of January, a space of sixty-five days, was considered as an instance without example. The Wabash is frozen almost every winter, but a^ntlnucs so only from three to fifteen days. Throughout Kentucky and the ba- sin of the Ohio the snow commonly remains only from three to eight or ten days ; and even in the month of January there are days really hot, the thermometer being at 13° or iS", [66^ or 72°] with a south or south-west wind, and a clear bright sky. Spring brings on rain and showers, with north-east and north-west winds ; but wirhin forty I »mW»*" - zen over I 149 days after the equino. the heats begin to set in. They are mall their intensity during the six=. or seventy days that succeed the summer solstice. J he thermometer- then keeps between .6» and V [90 and 93. F.) In ,797 it was observed at tmcmnat, and Lexington at 29° r<„o p ■, r, nng the whole of this time storms occur almos; daily on the Ohio, producing an oppressive heat, wh,d, IS not tempered by the rain : sometimes they are brought by the south and south-west winds, at others they are produced by the evaporation from the r,«.r and the vast forest, with which the country « covered. The rain, which falls in torrents, cools 6« tor a ma-nene the burning soil ; and the heat of th. next da^ „i,i„g j, ;„ ,,p„„^^ ^^^^^^ . ^ the mornmg th.ck mists, which are afterward con- verted .„to clouds, to renew the electric process of tlie preced,nf, day. J,^ ,«„ of the Hver is at 14 cr .5- above o [6f o, $«. p.]. The nights are ca.m, and it is not till between eight and ten .nthe mormng, that a slight breeze comes on from the west or south-west, which ceases about (our in the afternoon.' Throughout d>e year the prev,.iling wind ,s the south-west;, being the current that ascends the course of the Ohio, and comes by the w^ of the M.ss,s,pp, where it's prevailing direction is south from the Gulf of Mexico. I found this v.n.d hoi ' i if ^: \m If 150 and stormy the moment I entered the valley of the Kanhaway, the temperature of which no doubt it increases, as it is checked there at the foot of the mountains : it clianges it's direction according to the windings of the Ohio, and sometimes it would be considered as west, or soudi ; but always preserving it's identity it prevails ten portions of time out of twelve, leaving only two for ail the other winds to- gether. It is equally prevalent throughout Ken- tucky, but does not there produce the same effects j for while the valley of Ohio, to the breadth of twelve or fifteen miles, Jias abundant rain and moisture, the rest of the country is parched witii droughts, which continue sometimes for three months i and the farmers have the vexation of seeing from their hills an aerial river of fogs, rains, and thunder-storms, winding like tiiat on the Earth, the basin of which tliey never quit. At the autumnal equinox rains come on with winds from the north-east, south-east, and ez'en northwest. Tlie coolness these occasion prepares the way for frosts : the whole of the autumn is se- rene, temperate, and the most pleasant of the three seasons of the year -, for throughout the continent cf North /Imerica there is no spring. Such is the climate of Kentucky and all the basin of the Ohio. You must go very far north to perceive any considerable diflerence in it, and 151 V^nlcMy to find it in harmony wi.h the sa.;c parallels onthe Atlantic Coast. Even as high up as Niagara ,t is srill so temperate, that the cold does not continue with any seven-ty more than two months, though this is the most elevated point of the great platform, a circumstance totally incon- sistent with the law of elevation^. The descriptions that have been given me of the winter throughout Genessee do not correspond with the coldness of thi. sea-on in the pnJallel of Vermont, or of New Hampshire, but rather with the chmate of Philadelphia / f.^her sourh. In the latter city it has been remarked as singular, that frosts occur there in every month of the ye-^r except July, and to meet with a place similarlJ circumstanced in Genessee, we must go as f^r as the village of Oneida, in the hnlw.dc of 4,' . while on the east of the mountains, at Albany, no' montli of the year is exempt from frost, and neither peaches nor cherries will ripen. Lastly at Montreal, in the latitude of ^r° 20° the cold IS less severe, a,.d of shorter continuance,' than in that part of Maine and Nova Scotia, which IS east of the mountains; and the snow does not remain on the ground at Montreal so long by two months as at Quebec, though it is hign.; .,' die fn^era which al.o is contradictory to the law of L 4 152 I .y elevations, and indicates some other cause, that remains to be discovered. Before I proceed to this I shall add a few more observations, and some facts, which will serye to prepare the way for it's better explanation. 1st, It follows from the comparisons I have given, that, to measure the diflertn: degrees of tem- perature of the United States, two grand thermo- mecrical scales, crossing each other in opposite di- rections, must be applied to the whole country ; one, placed in the natural direction of the latitudes, having it's maximum of cold toward the pole, for in.-tance, at the river St. Lawrence, and it's maxi- mum of heat toward the tropics, as in Fiorina: be- tween these two extremes, under equal circum- stances of elevation and aspect, the heat increases or decreases regularly according to the latitude. The other scale, placed transversely from east to west, in the direction of the longitude, is a ther- mometer with two inverted stems, having a com- mon bulb, or maximum of cold, resting on the Al- leghany mountains, while the extremities of it's two stems proceed one east the other west, to find their maximum of heat on the Missisippi and the shore of the Atlantic ; and on each the degrees of hectare measured by the combined ratio of the elevation and aspect. Without attention to these 153 conplex rules. ,t ,s .^possible to frame a good ge„». 1 table of temperature and vegetatfon for he Un,ted .states : the sketch we find of one n on' the paper, of the society at New York Ts ingenT ous,andmaybeofuse.but,torumiit.sp4ose ..th accuracy. ,t requires the adoption and ap'pl! canon ofthepnnciples I have jus, laid down. 2d. The difference of climate on the eist and westoftheAlleghanies is accompanied :i:ht: circumstances of great importance, which I believe have not been remarke «.0DS, Mr. Shaw, whom likewise I was so fortu- mte as to meet with in ,797. and wl.o returned from a re.dence of thirteen years at the remo e't posts, where he had been engaged in the for trade was equaljy obliging in answering ,,y ^^estio,. and from their united information it appears- ' • That setting out from Lake Superior, pro- ceedmg west to the Stony or Chipewan moun- tains, and traveling north as far as 72°, the coun try, now weil known to the Canadian traders, dis- plays a chmate, that for severity of cold can be compared only to Siberia. That the ground, ge- nerally flat, bare of trees, or exhibiting oj a few here and there of stunted growth, int^rsperled WK iakes, marshes and a prodigious number of streams IS tncessantly swept by violent icv winds comtngfrom the northward, and particolarly ft,™ he north-west. That from the latitude of 4" at several tra,h„g posts, between 50- and 56", ;, was found mipracticable on this account to h;v= h t'lf ''"° ""'^ "'"""^- ■^''■^' Mf. Shaw hmselfhaa attempted t, dig one at the post of St. Augustm, about forty miles from the moun- ...ns ; but though it was i„ the month of jt,Iy, .e ground was frozen at the depth of three fee '•""' '^' '"'^"=''-- ™d as it grew harder and ty 156 harder, tvhcn he had penetrated to the depth of twenty feet he was obhged to give up the dttcmpt.* These facts cannot be questioned, both from the character of the narrators, and the suppori: they receive from other similar accounts. Robson, an EngUsh engineer, who in 1745 constructed Prince of Wales's Fort at Hudson's Buy, in the latitude of 59*^, ingenuously and with surprise re- lates : that, having attempted to sink a well in the month of September, lie first found thirty-six inches of earth thawed by the preceding warm weather, then a stratum of eight inches frozen as hard as a stone ; and under this stratum a sandy friable earth, frosty and very dry, in which his borers could not find water, because he observes the continual cold, freezing the superficial waters, prevents them trom penetrating below the point, v;here the heat of summer is capable of thawing them*. Edward Umfrevillc, v;ho v/a'^; a factor of the Hudson's Bay company from 1771 to 1782, anci a very sensible and accurate observer, equally attests, that the ground in those countries, even in the midst of summer, when the heat is in- * An account of oix years residence in Hudson's Bay, 1753. M \ tense for four or fi vvrdcs, thaws only iboP four feer, where .> is (:ieare<' of wood, and face exposed to t. r softiKsun, and not mor-- than two feet where it is sha.led f-- the sorry juni- per trees and pines, that co stitu .he whole ve- getation of the country*. IL * Present State oniud.on'. Bay. I7')0. The same ^,rt, occur on the conti.u.nl of Asia, and conf.rm the ana, of ciin.ateand soil I have pouaed oui. (.'molin, Pallas, and txeorg. attest, that beyond the iathudc of fi:,-, and cve« oi 00°. ... s.berla, nmrshes are found oternallv frozen at Lotton. : ,n. ieeof .vhieh has preserved from a.-es unknown ti^e bones and even skins of ele.Jv.nts. rhinn,....rosse.s. and i^umn^oths. See La Nord Lucraar, No. 1, p. 380. The celebrated Anurican traveller I.edyard also aflirnis, thatat\akouuk, nut so high a. the hu.tude of 02" ^veH M^ater cannot be obtained ; ' fbr it is found by experiment, hat the nater freezes at the depth of si.xtv feet.' S«e a letter from L. ,|yard in the American Muscuni. Vol VJII Captain Ph.pps too says, that on the 2Uth of June 1778 .ntheatUudeof0.0 3V,thesea.ateratthe\,ep; of fTrp l"Vr "' "^'' •' '"'""'^ ''■'' '' 'r^ l^^-'-v 1^0 t.J Oneot our own conntrynion. Mr. Patrin. askil- u uaturahst, who travelled several years ,n Siberia, re- lates tlKU even in the latitude of ;5f^ having, descended a uew shaft of the nunc of Ildikan in Daonrie.' in the month of juue f 785. he observed at the he,,ht of forty fe.. ,i. su,es filled vvuh ice (yet this was a mine of metallic ore) • wh,ch proves, adds he, ' that the central fire cannot havj aucli energy in Duourie.' Journal dc Phj^sique, n.arch -— ^ ..*sjdi***T V..T^ /. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. O M. «' fc 5r «:/. A. 1.0 I.I 11.25 |50 '""= •^ IIIIM t 1^ 1.4 M 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation ^^ V ^^^ :\ \ ^\^ A <^» 4> .^x XV ' S % ^1> € V- 23 WEST M« IN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 C/j y. It is evident then, that beyond a certain lati- tude the climate west of the Alieghanies is not less cold than it's parallels on the east; and this latitude, the mean term of which appears to be about 44^^ or 45", taidng for it's limits the great lakes, and more particularly the chain of the Canadian or Algonquin mountains, from this very circumstance conlines the hot climate of the wes- i'')U p. 2,5(3. But as aound ph.iosnphy, assisted by al{ these facts and the ing^^nious experiments of Mr. de Saus- •sure, has bani,shed to the realms of old mythological fable tins ancent dream of a central fire; and even the theory of a mean temperature of 10^ [.H° P,] advanced without suf- Xic.ent proof; we have reason to conclude in contradiction to the hypothesis of BulFon and various other natural phi losophers, that the globe is a crystallised mass, essentiall-v- cold, the surface alone of which is heated bv the rays of tlie Sun, m proportion to the force and continuance of their action. Hence it is, that under the torrid zone we find for a mean term die ground impregnated with heat to about 14 of Reaumur, at a depth which p,.rhaps does not ex- ceed SIX or eight thousand yards; and in proportion as we proceed from this grand and principal focus toward the "orth, the heat diminishes in the inverse ratio of the lati- - riJ!" ^r "^-^ ''^ ""''''''''' '"^ f'^^"^ ^' Philadelphia, ; L4.8 J in Massachusetts, 5° [43°j in Vermont, ^o r^jo-, ni Canada, and finally [32°J and below 0, [32°] under the pole: so that if ever the Sun should desert our poor P anet, .t would ultimately become a mass of .ce, and white bcais and Esquimaux be it's last inhabitants. WAtMttiAiviW^al 159 butes ,n wmc measure to this d\ff or ses th,3 truly singular pheno,n„on in ..oJ^'Zl Th,s . the problcn to be resolved : and as th com Panson of many facts and circumstances hZ CIIAPTEIi J\. '■ ' ''" ''^""-^ ~ affirm, that during „ ^/ ICO .1 residence of near three years *, I never saw the same wind blow thirty-hours together, or the thermometer continue at the same point f^r len : the currents of air are perpetually vary- ing, not one or two points merely, but from one quarter of the compass to it's opposite j ^rom north-west to south and south-east, from south and south-west to north-cnsc ; and tiiese changes at- tract notice so much the more, because the altera- tions in the temperature a^e as great as they are sudden. On the same day, in winter, there will be snow in the morning, and the thermometer at the freezing point, with an east or north-east wind; toward noon, the thermometer will rise to 6° or T [45° or 48° F], with the wind at south or south- cast ; and in the evening it will be 1° or 2° below o [30'' or 28°] with a north-west wind : in sum- mer, about two o'clock in the afternoon there may be a calm, with the thermometer at 24° or ^25*^ [86° or 88°] i a storm will come on with a south-west wind; about four or five it will rain; by six or seven the wind will get round to the nordi- xvest, blowing violently and cold, as it usually does ; and before midnight the quicksilver will be down to 16° or i7°[68^or7o''.] Autumn alone,from the mid- dle of October till near the middle of decembcr,ex- ■^ From October 179fi to June 1798, V-*^ -'jssr: (61 !.ibits a few days in succession with a westerlv Wind and a clear serene sky, a kind of wea2 tl.e more remarkabh from the unfrequency rft occurrence This changeableness of Jar increased by it's taking njace n„ , countrv ,h, , ^ " ^'"^ ^''Wnt of count y the .same w.nds displaying themselves al- most at the same time throughout the whole ex 'Z ''" ^*""= ^°-'' '•™- Charlestown o Newport or even Halifax, and from the sea hore to te Alleghany Mountains. Not but there Z ^"'"' '"""' ">- ='ff-t certain situation and certain positions of the Sun above the or ' zon, .n all the maritime parts of the country I Sr::ror?rrt"""^'"*' -;;e much more «7r;ry-:- Such is in particular the character of the thre* Pnncpal wmds, the north-west, south-wertand north east, which in the United States apltir o have shared the empire of the aerial regLns be have til r ' ^ "''y '^y- '''^t "i^-^e three -'^eastard^ire^ir/tr^t^^^^^^ -^-d between the south-L. .tt'i ' n7w t l^"e north may be reckoned almost as nothing; M \:^ p , i ill mm "I »i i ■ si' ) I 162 Each of these wine's being accompanied with par- ticular circumstances, and becoming successively the cause and effect of considerable and different phenomena, I shall proceed to the particulars necessary, to make known their respective course. ^ 1. Of the Northy North-east, and East Winds. Of all the winds that occur in the United States none is so rare as due north. From the meteoro- logical tables, which I have had an opportunity of consulting at Boston, Philadelphia, and Monti- cello, it does not blow eight days throughout the year in these latitudes. To the southward it seems to be more frequent, from the observations made at Williamsburg, and quoted by Mr. Jefferson* : but beside that these too summary observations may be considered as vague, it is probable, that this northern direction at Williamsburg is local, and occasioned by the situation of this city on a stream of water running due south into James River. Many of these cases occur, where a wind blowing generally over the country is turn- ed from 30° to 80" out of it's course by the basin of a river, a ridge of mountains, a forest, * See Notes on Virginia, p. 127. asi Winds, I«3 &c. Thus much at least however is ccmm from all the information , could collect S on the east and on the west of the Allelhanies a due north wind is of all fh. i ';"^°"3"'«» the United States ^''"^''^^^"^'«'" When it does occur, k is rather moist than dry, rather cloudy than clear, and always cold. Th,s unfrequency of the north wind seems at fit v,ew ,0 contradict the general theory of w.ndswh,ch explams their whole mechanii by the acnon of the Sun on the Earth's atmosphere sion .n different parts of it; and the conflict that ;if 2 trmt!' :f" "-" °-- ^i.-^hthate,ui!.ri:m"r::'::~'a::r -nt and imperious laws of th'e stat' o^flu l" •ity: whence it follows th^^t w.« ' continually agitated .y;u:™t:'::rt di^^ ferent directions, and that the cold dense atmo sp ere of the north must exert an habitua pre Lr- ndnave a constant tendency to expand it!e H d be earned toward the hot dilated air of the tropics * The tables of Dr. RamsT v nf ri i ■1- a,se„io„ ; lor clur' .T / e^ f r""" ''""^- ='>""™ I6i But, beside that this general mechanism is sub- jected to certain geographical circumstances, wc shall have an opportunity of seeing in the course of this chapter, that the present case does not even constitute an exception to the principle, and that the debt of the north wind is fully paid by two of it's collaterals, the north-west and north-east, which draw their stores from the same source*. * The reader lias perhaps ah-eady seen, or may consurt a sketch of this theory, in the 20th chapter of my Travels in Syria, published in 1787. A novice at that time in this branch of science, I was ignorant tiiat it had occupied the attention of , is a complete treatise on the subject, and 1 cannot do better than recommend the perusal of it to those, who would wish to have a concise idea of the formation of currents in the at- mosphere. Kot but much remains to be said on the general .system of winds throus^iiout the globe, and many CAperi- Jiicnts and crileuhitious on the ibcus, stratum, and velocity of each current of air; on the different and frequently contrary directions they purnie in ilie aerial ocean ; on the thickness (A tiieir strata ; on tiie tii»rmation, composition, and dissolu- tion of clouds; on tiie causes and efi'ects of the moreor less 1C5 ■A'otm-«k/ riiuci. The north-eaa wind, like most others as it / ''"■''""• '" Egypt, where it bears the name he head w,t,fs heaviness: in the Meditlneant ■ wasra>ny, lourmg, and squally: in l-rance oar t.a an, north of the Cevennes/we comp aT^ In, - the dryct of all winds: in the United States,™ the contrary, ,t is held in aversion as the wettest and one ol the eoldest. The problem of 20 d Terences or contrasts is resolvable with 6cim; by an .nspection of ,he map of the World I„ Egypt the north-east wind comes from the nor h of Syna and the chain of Monnt Taurus, whiJh runs through Armenia to join that of C ucas and ,s covered with snow for sever,! monrl, l vi-ii- Tk. , i>everai months in the year. The current of air proceeding tl>ence has «ud(lc„ ooad.nsati.ns that arc.ou.panv stonns • &. V , -iences of tk- navi.?. 1 ^ """'^"^"t"^" of the united --"cxxtuiaaiKlanportant. '^ ''^'^""^'^ ^" "'^ L Vi^i n II mUii \i I lA no time to take up moisture dupng it's short pfts^ sage over the extremity of the iMeditcrranean j and retains it's origiual coldness, and for tiie greater part it's drought. As we sail westward, triis sarne current of air, which from Asia Minor declines gradually to the Archipelago and the peninsula of Greece, becomes more temperate ; and as it alter, ward traverses the Mediterranean obliquely, and in a broader part, it there acquires more moisture and humidity, ultimately becoming rainy, as on the coast of Spain. Jn France, south of the Cevennes, the north- east wind, blowing over the Alps, must be dry and cold ; but it rarely occurs, because a collateral "wind, th'.' mistral of the Proven(,als, u.^urps it's place. North of the Cevennes this wind does not reach us till ic has traversed one of the longest lines of continent, crossing Russia, Poland, and the north of Germany ; and evidently in tiiis long pas- sage there are sufficient reasons for it s being dry, cold, and of long duration, as we experience it. If we deviate from this line a little to the north, it assumes a different character for the coast of Swe- den, where it becomes very rainy, not only be- cause it crosses the slope of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia; but because it comes from the sea of Archangel, and the marshy soil of Finland imparts to it moisture instead of drying it. By a 167 fresh corurast the coast of Norway, immediately at the back oF that of Sweden, while it still finds It cold, has It no longer wet; and for this reason, because the chain of the Dofrine Hills, running almost north and south between the two countries stops tlie clouds, and robs of their rain the current of air that brings them*. In the United States the north-east wind comes over a great extent of sea, the surface of which, reaching to the pole, is uninterruptedly saturating It with cold and moisture. Accordingly it displays these two qualities in an eminent degree on all the Atlantic Coast: you need not consult the clouds to see whether it be blowing; before it arrives you may foretel it's coming within doors by the deli- quescent state of your salt, soap, sugar, &c. The sky IS soon overcast; and the clouds, if there were any, presently form but one, dark and extending as far as the eye can reach. In the winter, or even if the season be approaching to cold, this vast cloud falls in snow; and if the air be hot, it des- cends in unceasing rain. From Cape Cod to the banks of Newfoundland the north-east wind drives on the coast the coldest and most benumbing fogs I ever felt. It is for the physiologist to explam ; See ia the appendix a leUer on the .sptom of the wind. jPf these l',i-o countries. ^ "mu. M 4 f! ■», •■ 16S why at Philadelphia, as at Cairo, tliis ^vind affects the head witJi a painKil sensation of heaviness and compression : this at least is certain, in both these cities I could tell as soon as I awoke whethei the north-east wind blew, equally well before I saw the sky. Now if such a disposition of body, or any other of this kind, be the necessary consequence of a given state of the atmosphere, does it not fol- low, tliac the air exercises a great influence on our physical and moral faculties, as the greatest of pl-y- Mcians has so well observed in his treatise on Airs, Waters, and Situations ? and is it not to causes of this kind we must ascribe the striking difference, that exists between certain nations i some havingge- neraliy a lively wit, with a quickness and facility of conception; while of others the understanding is heavy, and the perception dull and slow * ? The qualities of the north-east wind cjn the At- lantic Coast naturally diminish in intensity as we proceed southward, but they are nerceptible even in Georgia i and from Qiiebec to Savannah the name of this wind excites the ideas of cold, wet, and disagreeable. But on crossing to the west of the Alleghanie? this language is changed : there, to the great asto- +■■ ' J>n Basotiuui crasso jurams acre iiatum.'said a philosopher s»n(J poet. :%■ IC9 nishment of t/iose who emigrate fmm r arc n,t,,.r dry than w„. „,,er .gl,'. 1 " l*'"''^ X.mes three day. togecher. beca ^a c„ rj" ■v-cuum .n the air of the basin of the Mk -q...M.e to dctern,i„e the irruption of^rAT" " .-.tmosphere, and the «m must return „n " -ore above the horizon, for Ih a t^, r.! " "°^ restore the level of the.e two 1 '■'■'^' "^ These ruptures of e<;,iU:: ?:":-;' '^'-• during winter, on account- of he tl ' ^'''""' of *e atmosphere both on hi LaT';""," """ tinent, at wh,ch time it is- „„ '""''"'*"" *"»"- ri.e north-easta-d Ts wi d t "" ""'"'"" '"■■ nies, and pour on th w "stl" T '" '"'^^"'^- of-ors„ow:butXe«n:'''"°" --.a„ddHves:c:.rtrm:::i::: ^ 11 II M I I -I im 4' 170 It by chance they counterbalance each other, their Rouble current Hnds no issue, but by ascenning vertically to the upper regions of the atmosphere, where they reciprocally turn back, and glide off horizontally, or descend again into the lower strata j but sometimes the south-west is victorious, and purs jcs it's way as far as the ocean j at other times the north-east is superiour, and proceeds in triumph to the Missisippi and the Gult of Mexico. It is at the equinoxes In particular, that the conflict is violent, and the irruption impetuous. The Sun then passing the equator, by cooling one of the poles which it quits, and warming the othef which it illumines, occasions a general movement of counterpoise in the aerial ocean -, and ruptures of equilibriura take place between opposite masses, and antagonist currents, the consequences of which are most violent and most extensive. Hence it is chiefly at this period, and in the months of april and October, that these hurricanes arise, which in the United States are most commonly produced by the north-east wind. These hurricanes have this peculiarity, their fury is commonly displayed in a narrow space, little more than half a mile broad, sometimes less, and only four or five miles in length. In this space ••hey tear up by the root the trees of the forest, and make openings through ?he woods, as the sickle of a reaper would in pass^ 171 ing over a few furrows in a corn-field A , „M pes bh^se are rare, they .rave't ,H;;i I shall have occas.on to explain, when X col o the article of the south-west wind The frequency of north-east winds on the At antic Coast jnay be ascribed in part to the dirt tion of the shore and the mountains of that coun Zl ''"'' f"°- *« "«seot the aerial cu rent an b":;' r"''' ^^ ^™"""°' P-^ericktowT; andBehlehem. prove, that frequently some other wind blows ,nland, when it appears to have been north-east at Newport, New York Phi J , , ^..; Noi.01., by Observations 2 fnTstj aay. Sometimes this wind Jr^^if • . rcns, with a north-east wind • whil/fi, . K!, airection, it is commonly to j?et m fl,« which may be consider.,-! . ^ '^ ^^'^* natural alternative Tr '' ' ''""^''^'^^ ^nd d ternative. Less frequent than the nnvrh ■< I / 172 Jarly north of 400 or 41'': on proceeding sourh- ward it becomes more temperate, witliout ceasing to be wet, whicli circumstance explains itself, from the temperature of tlie sta and those latitudes. It is not to be confounded widi the trade-wind of tlie tropics. This never readies fartlier north tlian 30'' or 32"; and so far only when the Sun, at the summer solstivc. draws on this side the zone of air it go- verns, by ])roduring a focus of attraction in the northern parts of that continent. In winter the easterly trade-wind retreats to the latitude of 22" or 23*^, being repelled on the one hand by tlie cold atmosphere of Nortli America, and attracted on the other by a new focus establislied in South Ame- rica by the sun, at that time vertical In Paraguay. In either case, even when the irregular north-east and east winds })rev.ul in the Atlantic, they are al- most always separated from the trade-wind by a boundary either of calm, or of counter-currents, which occasions their inequality of temperature, density, and velocity. 'I'here is likewise this mark of distinction between them : the continental north-cast and east winds, in spite of the irregu- larity of the whole system oF tiieir zone, have a tendency to appear at each equinox during the forty or fifty days that follow the Sun's passing the equa- tor. Accordingly this season is tlie most favour- able for sailing from Europe to America; and J 7:; mc,d,ant.,l,ips.vail tl,en,sclvcs of it, as Mrllcr or later they wouM be expo.snl to . ,„ng ,oy J ""^ account of tl,e so„th-wc..t and „o,.th.„e "winds I>rcv.., ,ng ,.„ the Atlantic, „,e one in winter ,1 «''- ,n M,n,„H-t, and in al, .eason,, aIWi g'o 1 hott and .ntenuptcd appearances of the soud. and •■.outli-eait winds, to which r J.ali „ , ) «■>' wiiiLn 1 MiaJl now proceed. § ir. S,mll,.E„H .wd Smtlh ll'mh. The south-east wind In the United States rc- embles n, many respects the sirocco of the Med terranean which also flows from the south^ " '«« the head w,th a painful sensation of heaviness nnd compression, though in a degree i, & "e'^ more supportable than the sirocco. ""'"'"'''' If it be considered, th;,t the &„„/„, or south w.nd produces the sa„,esen.a.ion in fWtt™ .n other countries, as at Bagdad and Ba.:' a,;' -th-westw.UKl..andti,ati„a,n-tisu„ifo,:; tk effect of a current of air, which has swept the -riologicaI effects of certain winds, that they render the body sluggish, the head iieavy, and the mind unapt for the exercise of thought*, is it to be wondered at, that in certain parts of Africa, where such a wind is habitual, the aboriginals have really contracted that indolent habit of body and mind, which is observed in some of the negro nations ; and that in a succession of generations this habit is converted into nature, which for this very reason may in it's turn be changed by a different habit, arising from opposite circumstances ? To return i> the United States. When the south-east wind makes it's appearance in winter on the Atlantic Coast, which happens particularly at the approach of the equinox, it sometimes pro- duces temporary thaws, even as far as Canada, that have the unpleasant effect of spoiling the meat, ^tores of w hich are provided for five or six months * The Italians say of a dull book, 'it is a sirocco per* fyrmaiice,' i a sirocco per- 17.1 m cold counrncs as early as October. F-.rAe.' south the,c thaws treacherously deceive the vet. t,ve foculty, calling forth in January or ft bit, those flowers wn.ch should not appear till afte™ hi inevitably destroys. Toward the equinoxes, more particularly the vernal, the south-east wind produces short but vo! knt tempest, especially at the mouths of the Hud- son anu Delaware, and in the Bay of Chesapeak. The duration of these Is very commonly twelve lou.. and they have this singularity, d,atth "" '7 '^^'^''•'■^'^^'"---^ on a limited space of ten or twenty leagues l„„g and fouror five broad, without the least commotion bein. percep- tible ou. of tins space. I have known two nstanc , of .his phenomenon at New York, and one at P ladelpia where such a violent storm was expe nencedfortwelve hours, that it was supposed all he ships „e.ar the coast must be lost: yctwelv hours after many vessels cim^ ;„ ■ , handedasinglesai o I ""''"'"S wind. , ' ''" '"y "tiaordinary e;cplicable by the commoH theory of specific ..r, vines, since every other ^inA ■ ^ --anthesou^-it^rmixr::' «0 repelhng and driving away the colder air that f surrounds if. The bays and mouths of rivers, where this phenomenon most frequently occurs, being conical or resembling a funnel, accords per. fectly with this explanation ; for a large body of air, impelled into these funnels, is forced to escape by a cliannel more and more confined. In these it acts nearly as the waters of a pond circumscribed by high banks, in vvhicli narrow outlets are made: . where the resistance keeps it in equilibrium, the fluid remains tranquil ; but it rushes with impetuo- sity to the point where a deficiency is produced i and this imjx^tuosity is occasioned by two causes, t!ic pressure it experiences on the one hand, and the greater space into which it expands itself on the other, as it issues from it's narrow channel. In the case in question tliis void space is necessarily in the middle region of the air, at an elevation of less pcriiapsthan a thousand yards, and the tor- rent from the south-east pours into it by ascendino-, like all masses of heated air : there it is either condensed by the stratum above, which is at the freezing point ; or gliding underneath it escapes horizontally, and jierhaps is bent back on itself, forming an eddy, the centre or axis of which is in the air, at the height of five or six hundred yards, while it's circumference sweeps the earth. But what is the primary cause of this vacuum, produced without thunder or any otiicr preceding meteor, at least without any having been perceived .? To re- lis rtf river3, ;ntly occurs, accords per- irge body of ;ed to escape In these it rcumscribed :s are made: librium, the ch impel 110- ; produced -, two causes, ind, and the itseif on the hannel In necessarily in elevation nd the tor- • ascending, t is either :h is at the it escapes k on itself, which is in Ired yards, arth. But , produced meteor, ac ? To re- 177 solve this problem, all „,e circumstances of the phenome„o„m.,st be collected . the manner in „h d^ .tacts, at east in.lifferen. points of it's s ej action and circumference, must he l,„ . the state of ,,e air, with t;ed;::t-:,ofr;i::' botbeforeandafter, must be ascertained: butt Idonotpossessthesedata, I shall not attempt to supply their place by mere hypothesis. ^ Of the South IViml. weTouI]*' "'"'"^'"--«-«'y f^m the south, we should suppose ,t would be hotter than from the •south-east, yet in the United States it is mo e temperate. During the summer, when it mo frequently occurs, it is considered as n.i agreeable brece, and almost cooling, i„ consequence of the moist vapour with which it impregnates the air r IS y,apour I found both at New York and PhU iadelphia as well as at Washington, had in a oys er. have, which indicates it's source in a man- ner less agreeable than could be wished. It cannot iiovvever be denied the merit of tempering the ex cessive ardour of the Sun, and the still more scorch- ■ng reverberation from d.e earth, in the months of J"n=. ,l"ly, and august. It is for the sak-e of en- N 179 joying this breeze, that a south aspect is preferrecJ for a house throughout the American conti- nent, as in France we have a preference for the cast and south-east. In the United States it has this advantage, that in summer the Sun is so high above the horizon, as not to enter apartments shaded by porticoes or piazzas, the use of which is general. In winter, being lower, it's desirable rays enter the houses, and cheer them with their warmth, in spite of the north-west wind, that too frequently accompanies it's shining. In this sea- son, if the south wind be sometimes a little cold, it is in consequence of having passed over the snow, which occasionally covers the ground for a short time, even in Carolina. And if at other times it bring snow itself instead of rain, it is be- cause in it's aerial course it meets with clouds from the north-east or east, which had not had time to turn back. But such snowb melt immediately, or are changed into rain as they fall. Six hours continuance are sufficient to give the south wind that character of heat and moisture, which it derives from the tropical seas, whence it origi- nates: at Philadelphia, on the loth of march 1798, I found it impart the temperature of Flo- rida. In summer, when it has more velocity than usual, it presently brings on a storm j and it has been remarked at Louisville, as well as other if places situate on the Ohio fivif if w * 1 , v-'ino, in.it , It It continue for wdve hours together, thunder will inf.,,,;:: .ue. Nowreckomng ifs progress at a mean ferm Which the experiments made on the velocity of w.n., der plausible, this is just the time requ- s«e ,0 bnng clouds from the centre of the Gulf of Mex.co ,o or , ."distant. The frequency of the south w,nd a. .hi. season proves, that a locus of .uclton then ex,sts in the north of the continent : but tt remains to be known, whether this focus lie beyond or on th,s side of the Algonquin chain be dec ded but by s.muitaneous observations on a h e extendtngfrom the shore of Florida, through Kentucky, Lakes Erie and Huron, and the Algol qum Mountains, to the borders of Hudson's Bay and these would throw great light on the correl' pondent actions of the polar and tropical regions eon ibr -^'r r' " *'" ^'°" *^ ^on^ict and equiLbnum of the north-west and south-west cur- ren s, wh,ch are the principal winds of the United § HI. 0/ il,e ioMh-mst iriiul. The south-wcs: wind, one of the three most pre- valent ,n the United States, is more frequent thcTe N 1 ISO during summer than winter, and more habitual in the Western Country than on the Adantic Coast, In wintei it seems as if it were unable to passi the barrier of the AUeghanies : and indeed k ap- pears, that the north-west, nortli-east, and east winds, being at that season more powerful, prevent it's passing the mountains. Sometimes, however, it avails itself of their deviations, or surmounts their resistance, and shows itself on the Atlantic Coast with more impetuosity, and particularly with greater coldness, than are consistent with it's habit and origin. But the reason of this is easily per- ceived, when it is considered, that it has crossed the lofty region of the AUeghanies, frequently co- vered with snow during winter, and in the west has found the earth drenched with rain, the evapo- ration of which could not fail to cool it. In the spring, become more frequent, it brings itself temporary snows, deluges of rain, and even hail : these however seem rather to belong to the north-east and north-west winds, the clouds of which heaped up on the AUeghanies It turns back, and drives before it. This chain indeed forms the lists, in which these opjx)site currents of air vi ibly contend for the mastery. F'requently the observer stationed on the plain may see the clouds marching toward Blue Ridge with an east or north-east wind, perfectly stopping there, and \-' -'^>^^ ISl remiinine stationary, then dissolving into rain or turning back again, driven by the,«»th.„„t wind, which m it's turn prevails for a few hours. I was a^witnessofthis spectacle the evening I ,,pent at Kockfish-Gap on Blue Ridge, and my host, though he was no natural philosopher, accounted tor It very satisfactorily. It is only about the summer solstice, that the south-west wind prevails on the Atlantic Coast in a manner more constant than any other. There "becomes the principal agent in tho.e storms, which are frequent in the months of July and au- gust, and infinitely more violent than ours in 1' ranee. The south breeze, cust,>marily settin.- .n about ten or eleven o'clock, gives way to th^ south-west, which, after the Sun has p/,sed the meridian, covers the sky with thunder-clouds. For two or three hours flashes of li<;htning of enor- mous ,r,.agnitude are followed by prodigioti.ly io„d claps of thunder; but before sunset the storm sub- sides with heavy falls of rain, more or less abun- The autumnal equino. brings on a change in the direction of the current of air. and then it's opposite, the north-east, is predominant forty or ^fV days, though it does not exclusively prevail A cer tnis period the south-west wind, whL, ha "ot been completely extinguished, revives, and "3 1 sharrs the re inaintler of tlir season with i!if north- wfst, t'har now roiisos itall, aiul with the west, >vhi( h is the most ct|iiabli*, xciTiu', and pleasant, of nil rliat blow on this continent. The propjivss of ilii: suiitli-wi'kt in the basin of the Mi.s.i.'-.ipMi and Ohio as f>r as the river St, Lawrence is inmc rc^i.i.r, and more binipic j in few words wc may say, that tins wind prevails from Florida ro the lakes of Montreal during; ten months ontortsvclve. 'lUv two months of it's be- ing mo t rate are those of the winter sol,,tice, diirinf^ whirl: the north-west and M«irth-cast rule the sky. From this period it r vivcs in prop')r- tion as tlic Sun atlvancei toward the zenitii, and ac- quires such power, that in July and aiu,Misr it is nearly as eor,;,tant in Louisiana, Kentucky, and even as far as Lake Cnamplain, ibr foity or fifty days, as the tratlc-wind is at the equator. It pre- vails almost equally on the St. Lawrence, and to sail ii]> this river a ship is sometimes obli-.^ed to wait a whole month for ju; e isl ir north-east wind, which alter .ill is of short con;inuance. It is the south-west wind too, that thaws the St. Lawrence about the 20th ofapril, as it is lUr nonh-wcst that freezes it at the end of licccmber. 'J"he south- west, as well as the soutli, is the hot wind of Ca- nada, Vermont, ami Gencxsec i but it is very de- ciiledly so on'v in summer: in other seasons it is I S3 4:ooIcr in proportion ac the Sim k nearer ihc hori- zon, anil as the land is Icvs distant ln„n the pole • heinj? hottest as you advance toward Kentucky' 'IVnessee, and the Giilfof Mexico, which i. it'J original focus. h'ram the vicinity ofthi. it raises the tempera- turc o[ Lower Louisiana so hif^h during the lour wuitcr raoriths. that notwithstanding the pretty /rcquent occurrence "f north-north-west and east winds, the sugarcane, larticularly that ofOtahrite may be cultivated there. But this Tcvour is dearly I>urchased by oppressive heat during the four Minmicr months, accompanied with extremely vio- icnt and almost d.ily srorm.s, of the same kind as those that are called white pq-nlk in the West In- ^cs. The monsoon of diese storms com mnues after the solstice, and it's progress deserves atten- tion. At first it is about five in the afternoon, when tne suffocating and hunnd heat has attained "s height, that the stormy clouds arise, and speed their way from the mouth of the river and the south-west part of the gulf, i^very day the ap- pearance of these clouds takes phce some mmutes -^rher so rlvu by the middle of august the thun- ucr ,s heard about two o'clock in the afternoon ; iieavy falls of rain precede and f;>llow the tremen- c ous claps , and at sunset all is quiet, the calm re- tu^ns aud the sky is sometimes clear, at others ob- scured by mist, which the fervid sunbeams raise from Pi 4 i. n •' i ii li- 184 the vast marshes. The night passes quietly, but fa- tiguing from it's heat untempered by the least air, and still more from the moschettoes. Next morn- ing the heat increases in proportion to the height of the Sun above the horizon, and the stillness of the air : in th*: afternoon the crisis of the preceding day commences anew"*" ; the south- west wind drives these stormy clouds up the country to Te- nessee and Kentucky, where they meet with others furnished by the rivers, swamps, and lakes j and thus the chain of storms is extended, and pro- longed with fresh accumulations of strength as far as Canada. Now to estimate properly the effects and action of this great current of air on the surface of the soil it traverse--, and which serves it in some measure as a bed ; to calculate justly the character and strength of the focus whence it emanates, the at- mosphere of the Gulf of Mexico j many geogra- phical and nautical circumstances of these latitudes must be recollected. It is to be observed, that the centre of the gulf is immediately under the tropic : that during the six summer months the whole surface of it's waters is exposed to the ac- * I was favonicil with f Iiis account by Mr. Power of New Bladrid, a naturalized subject of .Spain, but an American by birth, who has observed the country like ajj intelligent mau. 185 <;on of a vertical and fervid Sun, exciting an im- mense evaporat.on: that during tl,e si! win«r mont s,hepo„eroftl,islumi„aryi,, so great s completely to prevent frost from approach: th.s sea : tha .ne shores of Yucatan. Campeachv° Vera Cruz, the Floridas. and Cuba, are W to ee,nst,pporUbly hot: that in fact the heat, he c mus be so much the more intense, because the nearly c.rcular basin of the gt,lf. being enclosed by land and ,s,a„ds, does not admit a free ventilation .ndlastly. that seamenspeakof this sea as more abounding m storms, thunder, waterspouts, torn does or whtrlwinds, suffocating calmsf and hu"' canes, all of thetn the natural concomitants of a fiery yet mo,st air, than any other in the torrid These circumstances of themselves are suffici.n, toap,tforthet,ualitieswehave„bse e^^^^^^^ south-west wmd to display on the conti nt of Amenca: but the observer ought not to stop 1 ere. he should stdlmciuire. from what primary Lc" hausfble source this daily and immense con mp .on of the aerial rc.ervoir is supplied. Now f £ examme the map with an attentive eye*, he S Percetve, that the only two mot.ths of ot t ets o tJ>e gulf are situate between the island of Cubland * See the generaJ map. No. 2. ^ M ■fi f0;jfm^ 1«C I'll the peninsulas of Yucatan and Florida : that by tlic opening on the side of Yucatan, which is the- larger of the two, the gulf receives currents of water and air from the Sea of Honduras, which in it's turn receives them from the Caribbean Sea, opening into the Atlantic: that through the channel between Florida and the Bahama islands, the gulf is conti- nually discharging it's waters into the same ocean, and that the access of air into it there is obstructed by a triple chaiii of islands : he will remark, that both these openings are between the latitudes of 20** and 24" north, and that of Yucatan, by it's direct communication with the Caribbean Sea, in fact opens and extends it's mouth as far as 10*': but he knows, that precisely from the latitudes of 10*^ to 24° the trade-wind of the tropic blows from the east throughout the year on the Atlantic : he learns from the navigator, that this trade -wind arises eighty or a hundred leagues from the coast of Atrica, and traverses the ocean at the rate of about 32400 metres [35474 yards] nearly eight leagues [20 miles], an liour'f : that it reaches the chain of theCaribbee Islands in a breadth of about 10°, or two hundred nautical leagues : he conceives, that this enormous flood of air must surmount these islands, as a river does the rocks that lie scattered ft; * «te Anntmirc ik la llpubUqiie. year 0, p. 5! HI in it's bed; that it enters the Caribbean Sea and there, ,mpr,soned between the land of St n„ n"ngo and Ja.naica „n the riM,t and Z , condne„t„,u,.e,eft, it is c„; :;,;;/, ;::;^'- course through the Sea of Honduras Z7 enter the Gulf of Mexico • ,ZT , '"'' - elucidated and resoled; '^"""" tic'"hat",""r"' *' trade-wind of the Atlan- «c, that, by the course I have described, feeds n stTZ T '" '"' '"''■ '"' p^-"'- '' most of tl e phenomena, of which it is the theatre pase thecl,a,nofti,cCaribbeeI,,lands, it's «re,,n, ,-, „,ore and more contracted an I J -ength accumulated within a narrow roa". no doubt th.s chain at first breaks and ., WJef " ^u" rent, as rocks and reef, diWde a torrent o Cat "" as, of a bridge d,vide the stream of"' -dinit;scourse.andis:^;rS;^^^^^^^^^ to make it's way between them Thi. ' «» increases it's velocity a„d a- it '""'?"" between the,, it cxpands'^^tXt:. rit^ and forms eddies in their rear ..nU ' -in..or the vacuum t:er'.ltisT;e:r: evident m coasting the islands, by the la " s di -'»- which the wind assumes neLr Z, or 188 fiirtlicr ofF, and above or below their emergent masses : it is precisely the same as takes place in a current of water, the levity of the fluid excepted ; and an attentive study of all die eddies, that take place under a bridge, or among the rocks of a tor- rent, gives in miniature an accurate idea of what happens in the present case, and to all acial cur- rents in general. It might be supposed, that the trade-wind of the Atlantic, when it reaches the Moschetto Shore, would or might cross the isthmus : but, notwith- standing the levity of air, it acts more like water than we should imagine, and does not easily pass out of the channels through which it flows, or the beds in which it merely reposes. Many facts {^hovv, that the mountains of the Moschetto Isth- mus, which are a continuation of tlie chain of the Andes, oppose an eftectual obstacle to it's passage into the Pacific Ocean. To estimate justly the distribution of air, that is made at this place, two data would be requisite, the precise heigiit of these mountains, and the tluckness of the stratum or current of air. Possibly this stratum may be thin- ner dian we slioulu be inclined to conceive, for aerostats have informed us, that the strata of the atmosphere frequently do not exceed two hundred yards, and that they glide one over another some- times in directions diametrically opposite, so that i\r emergent es place in a id excepted ; es, that take cks of a tor- idea of what 11 ae'ial cur- •wind of the hetto Shore, lilt, notwith- ; like water t easily pass flows, or the Many facts schetto Isth- chain of the I it's passage ite justly the s place, two igiit of these stratum or may be thin- onceive, for strata of the two hundred lother some- site, so that 189 in an ascent of lo or 12 hundred yards two or three different winds may be found. New obser vations of this kind, in the case of which I am speaking and others similar to it, might render science real services, wJiich aerostats have hitherto promised to little purpose. As to the transverse chain of the Moschetto Country, let us suppose it's height to be only three hundred toises, or 640 yards, this would stop the current of the trade-wind to an extent more than sufficient for leaving it in all it's vi^^our • the upper portion, that would escape ove"? the summit of the chain, would be a useless overplus; and there is reason to presume, that this overplus does not exist, for no trace of it is found on the coast of the Pacific Ocean behind these mountains tothe west. On this coast the winds pursue a very diff-erent course : there are local sea and land breezes extending several leagues from the shore, indepen-* dant of every other system than their own: and you must get an offing of near forty leagues before you fall m with the general winds, which often, in summer particularly, blow from the west, and con- sequently m direct opposition to the trade-wind 1 hese winds prevail from the latitude of 10° to 21 ^ or quite along the coast of Mexico from Cape Corientcs to Cape Bianco on the Costa Rica It cannot be said, that the trade-wind escapes la* iii 1^0 >h\ '1% :fl terally over the isthmus of Panama ; since there the winds blow in summer from the south and south-south-wesSt, coming from the Pacific Ocean. Thus it is indisputable, that the Moschetto Isth- mus and it's chain, whatever it's height may be, form a line of separation between two different sys- tems of winds. The trade-wind from the Atlanticj thits obstruct-* cd, must however find an issue. That between Jamaica and the Moschetto Shore, being large and open, ©fibers itself in preference to any other. Into this therefore it turns it's current, and enters the Sea of Honduras. Some lateral portions of this ^vind, skimming the land, appear to detach them- selves from the stream : for it is observed by sea- men, that from Cape Vela, one point of the Gulf of Maracaibo, the winds vary, and turn off in a line parallel to the principal current, shutting up to the south the gulfs of St. Martha, Carthagena, Darien, and Porio Pello : some are drawn in by the basins of the large rivers, and by the high mountains of Terra Firma, and blow from south- cast to north-west : others, blowing west, are real countercurrents, similar to those observed in all rapid streams, and of which the Missisippi affords such strong instances, that they assist in part those who sail up the river : while on the right of the grand aerial current, another detached portion i9t rormuhe south wind,, that blow i„ summer from June to august or the south consts of Cuba d Ta maica. Thus the aerial current resemM •* in this .spectaiso, does not :LTwhIr:r except .n the free and direct line of it-schlr- At .t s entrance .nto the Bay of Honduras it de- 2>t s a httle, and becomes south-east . and asit meets «,th no farther obstacle, it enters the Gul ther?bT, '" "'■ "■""'""• ' '-^y "-- - - f- an s att T ''""" ''' P^"'"-'* °f Yuca- tan .s a bank of sand, too low to act as one ■ ac r la V "1'"^ "'"'^^ dissertationonthe wind! hZ "\^"'" ' observes, that the south-east » the prevailing wind in all these parts Mow let us imagine a volume of air oo or r^ fcagues broad i-v two nr ,>,-. l j' ° high, flowin/ ke 11 ""'*'■"'' '°'^« ? "t Ke a torrent at the rar,. r>f toises, or 8jo yards, at least i„T *'° conceive what can b come o 't " "'^ """ « .s evident, that from the con,pound effect of 72:rf • "^ '"" '"■^' ^-^ '''^ "-and "^ graaual diminution of Jf'c ;,>,^ ji- " 01 It i impelJjng power. i^ m ' * ii feta '(I »•■♦ 102 this aerial torrent, considered in tli6 first place as one body, must acquire a rotatory motion, tiic axis or vortex of which, varying according to cer- tain circumstances, fixes chiefly toward the north of the gulf, whence tlie surplus flows over the ad- jacent land : and here is one fundamental cause of all the phenomena exhibited by the air of this spot, and that of the south-west continent, which is de- rived from it. Analysing it afterward in detail, this vast cur- rent subdivides itself into several branches, which obey the laws of the original stream, combined with the directions local circumstances impose on them. The first and most lateral of these branches ; that which, after having crossed the peninsula of Yucatan, coasts the shore of la Vera Cruz and Panuco ; obeying it's primary direction and that given it by the mountains of Thiscala, proceeds to- ward the interiour of Mexico, and ajicends the ba- sins of the rivers Panuco, IfesNacas, del Ncr'-e or Bravo, and all their branches, as far as the mountains of New Biscay, New Mexico, and Santa Fe. I would venture to say, without know- ing the winds of the interiour of those countries, that the most prevalent there are from south to cast in all the parts watered by the rivers I have mentioned. 'r. '«kK, 193 tc must be this same branch of the wfn-} fj . when t has rcacheH ^^ ^' "^^^» reached the mountains of Npw Mexico, assumes another character and n. ^^o.n on the north-west coast, so bVexpiore"' ' V„er, prevails dU^^^^^ nny of Nootka. Cmmm tut . -nyeoodobservirZetr"'"''™''^ ■vind in the northern hem X"e bur irT "" this quality bypassing over nlTcl Z '^'T rnvpi. fj,» . '^ "^ '^^ 3"" snow, that cover the mountams of New Mexico, and are To conspicuous, as to have obtained them "any other names, those of iTand ShT ' ? wears, that these mountains have " !, ^-^^ ^' unworthy the chain of the a:;;'~:; are a prolongation, and that the Nootk. , ^ ^ windowes it's strength to thei aWtude 'r ."" tain Meares also observes ,h./f u '"P" prevailing wind on th ol'l ""* ""= adds, < the zone of rh. ' ' ^'--'"'>' ^^ zone of the eastern trade-wind*': so ^^-^ toward .m a ci 1: .'^ ^r' ""^ ^^'"' ^•-•-■'-' >" '-t itaat. ^^ - '' ^'^^"^^ s^'oni^er a„d more con. aSJ 194 that the parallel of 30" forms the boundary line between two winds directly opposite ; a case ap- parently singular, yet natural and common. This gentle, serene, clear, and fine westerly wind, be- ing the count^rcurrent of the easterly trade, vhich is the principal stream, rapid, and almost impe- tuous, from their friction arise those whirlwinds, variable gales, and calms, which proved so fatal to the ships ihat first attempted to reach Europe by the way of China, pursuing their course in this latitude. To return to the Gulf of Mexicoi A second branch of the Atlantic trade-wind, within the pre- ceding, and forming the greater part of the cur- rent, takes it's course toward the shores of Lou- isiana and the Floridas. It's direction, as we see, becomes south-west : yet on the Missisippi itself it is rather due south, for those who navigate that river observe, that on it only two winds can pro- perly be said to blow, the south and the north j the reason of which is the same as on all rivers, the direction' of the wind being governed by that of it's bed and it's valley. It is natural too, that, before it becomes fully south-west, a portion should turn off to the south, and this portion should prevail in the neighbourhood of Bernard's Bay. A third brand), turning toward the peninsula of J 95 FJorlda, endeavours to nass ovpf ,v j .mo the gulf, because k n,ee,s .iS, „c t al-w 5 from the east, particularly i„ ,,„,„„, ™ ^^^'^^ extends to the latitude of jo" or i, " tI o^hisW., and it's ak-o„^;he;t:r that ,s m July and august, ,he south-wes winj kepUn a' ^L'T "''"'"" °' ""= «-« vortex., n "^ "'^ "'"'l'"'*'-- "^V °Pi'"=.ite motions c«u,g calms storms that are the consequen.es of th.se. and all the phenomena peculiar to the gulf corded by navigators confirm. Don Bc-.^ard I- Orta, captam of the port of la Vera Cruras -res us., chat in the sotd. pan of the g^M: sou,h.east and east are .he prevailing winds! pa cularly m summer, that in winter ,hey ge ou j as fo as north-easr, with squalls from Ae Zh wd'r:"™'™''"'""^'^'-'--^'^ • work on the florKlasf, observes, that, in the curve * I,, the- ,li,,,ortaH„„ already q„„,„j. t Na>„ra/ a,,,! d,il l,i,,„, „,■ ,;,„ .^ ''""" '"■'""='' »' '^'" v„,k, „,., „„„, ,„, ;:;:^';-' ■ ♦"'■• O 2 ij .iin l\ % 196 Connecting the peninsula of Florida to the con- tinent, tlie prevailing winds, particularly in autumn, are the north-west and west ; and these two points are precisely the direction of the current of air as it returns to it's vortex. Lastly both these writers affirm, as every na- vigator does, the frequency of waterspouts, whirl- winds, tempestuous squalls, calms, and hurricanes, in this sea. It has been already observed by ^ome natural philosophers, that a singular correspoiidence of .ime and action existed between the hurricanes of the Gulf of Mexico, and those of the continent, even in places far to the north. Dr. Franklin, comparing tlie times of day at which a hurricane, that traversed the continent from Boston to West Florida in October 1757, was felt at different places, found that the disturbance of the air did not commence at Boston till several hours aft'T the time of it's beginning on the coast of the Gulf, and that from place to place it was ear- lier or later in proportion to the distance. Thus the hurricane was first felt at the point to which the air was rushing, and terminated at the place whence it proceeded j which at that time, when the subject was novel, appeared only a fortuitous coincidence : but Franklin with his usual sagacity inferred, that the focus of the movement existed 197 in the gulf, and .hat k was the effect of a sucMcn vacuum produced in .he atmosphere .her 1 w.chtheairof.heco„,i„e„.l,hedto;"; eficencK. first that nearest to it, a„d i„ Lc! cesMon from remoter distances. Subsequent facts have confirmed this first idea, .from ., me to time fresh proofs of ifs .ruth DC ur Ahnost every year between the ,oth and' .oth of October a hurricane of twelve or fifteen hou,s contmuance is feit in the north of .he Uni.ed Mates, and particularly on Lake Erie, with the wmd from north-east to north-west, and jl a! the same t,me we always read in the news of some hurricane on the coasts of Louisiana and the Flo- ndas, w. „onMy ™.^,. The attraction, or niore properly speaking suction, is piainlv -.i^ed out : but, t remains to be explained how the t- o?r Alf™. '• '"' """^ '" "" "''-ghbourhood of he A eghantes .t ,s the current from the north- e St th... ,s particularly attra.ted; for this is the most constant agent in the inland hurricanes, whe! ther general or local On considering the istoy of winds, and combining the various ideas respect '"f . ""=, ■""'--»- of storms, with which th I subject has furnished me, I have conceived tha this curious problem in natural philosophy ws no "Wy beyond my power to solve. '^ ^ ' "" °3 N Chemistry, it is true, has not yet made an ana- lysis of sto, my clouds, or their manner of acting on each other : it has not decomposed their con-- sntuent parts, so as to make known all the agents and all the effects of their detonations, of the sud- den solutions con.^cquent to these, and of the con- densations equally sudden by which a very consi- derable volume of aqueous vapour is reduced to a small volume of water and cold air; but the material facts, and many subsequent to them, are known, and from induction to induction they lead to satisfactory results. It is known, that there are no clouds without inoist surfaces: that clouds are the products of the evaporation of water and the volatile princj, pies contained in it: that this evaporation is co- pi'His in proportion to the heat, dryness, and re- nevvai of the air : that consequently cloudy va- pours are a combination of the particles of water wirh those of caloric, or the igneous or electric fii'id ; for in my conception these three terms ex- press but one principle, either pure or modified This principle, light and centrifugal by nature, takes up the water, which is essentially heavy, and forms of it, if I may venture to use the term, little balloons, capable of floating or being wafted through the air, and equally electric in greater or I ;■ J VS9 fcss proportion: thus it may be said, that clouds arc a kind of volatile neutral salt, composed of calo- nc, air. and water, the constituent principles of which become again perceptible by the senses, at the moment of their reduction or detonation, namely, the water in the rain that falls, th- calo- nc in the lightning that flashes and flies ofi^, and the air in some other way less sensible to the eyes. All clouds however are not stormy or thun- der clouds : to be such, it appears, they require a stronger dose of caloric, which they are capable of taking up in different proportions : and it seems, likewise, on the sea, the abundance of aqueous fluid, and the temperalure, which is there always more moderate than on land in similar states of the atmosphere, do not allow them to saturate themselves so highly with caloric, or to be so stormy or detonant. In fact it is observed by seamen, that in the open sea storms are more rare, and less violent, but occur more frequently and w,th greater fury on approaching the land. Consequently the intensity of heat, or abundance ot caloric, occasioned by the reverberation of the earth, is one determining cause, one consti- tuent principle of storm : to which must be added a number of other matters abounding on land, and rare, ,f they exist at all, on the sea, as volatile fnineral substances, sulphur, and gasses of dif- o 4 m i. ' 200 ferent kinds, evolved in very considerable quan- thy from animal or vegetable substances, in a state either of putrefaction or simple maceration. This- state particularly occurs in marshy or muddy places, the substance of which is susceptible of a much higher degree of heat than simple water: and this circumstance combines in the most remarkable manner with all the rest in the spot of which we are speaking; for all the Delta of the Missisippi is a land half submerged by water, pardy fresh, and partly brackish. All the right or west bank of this river, for four hundred miles in length and fifty in breadth, is drowned every year by inun- dations: all the north shore of the gulf, from Mobile Bay to St. Bernard's, and even to the river del Norte, an extent of five hundred miles, consists wholly of marshes, Finally the shores of Yucatan, Cuba, Campeachy, and Florida, abound with them j and it is easy to conceive, that all these surfaces, containing many hundreds of square miles, must furnish an enormous quantity of inflammable gas, and other materials of storms. It is fully demonstrated likewise, that, when clouds differently charged approach each other, and come into contact, an action takes place be- tween them, tending to produce an equilibrium of the electric or igneous fluid and every other gas; -y\ ^\ .J*>f»> 201 tte in this action the electric fluid displays c-eater velocty than a.r or water, that fron, '^t's e^ "I nu,ty all .t's parts mi„g,e together at one I^d that ,he,r d,se„gage,.ent from every other co" b..nat,on ,s. sudden and simultaneous. In co^" quence o this disengagement, the water, that w ; comb.ned w,th it, is left to ifs natura gravi^" whence the drops of rain, more or less large, to d; plays the pure .gneous fluid at the moment of "» disengagement, and the clap of thunder the soundofwhich is produced by'theconcusL 5 h cond"*'"" r ''' ™^""'" -"-ned by intowaterr ;''\™''™'-' "'• "■""ductio' water Now ,f u be considered, that water converted ,nto steam by ebullition is alcuhtl to occupy cghteen hundred tin.es ifs forme spc and that at a less degree of heat it stiil o ct "s' more than a thousand : that consequently a X .>K:ed o the space of one, or, to take th/very «ec„nd: we shall no longer be astonished at the pr,g,o.. force of those gusts of wind, whic er the name of squalls, waterspouts and hur. f'canes. tear up trees by the roots, overturn S02 ; i fiouses, raise up water, and tlirow over tlieir ram- parts four and twenty pounders with their carriages, many instances of which have been seen in the West Indies ; and we may conceive, that the sud- den formation of vacuums in the air are in reality the common and powerful cause of all the violent commotions in the atmosphere. These vacuums very well explain the particu- lar case of the hurricanes that occur in the United States with a north-east or north-west wind. For if we suppose, as the fact is, that the same body of air extends from the AUeghanies and Lake Erie to the chain of the Mexican isthqius, it is evident, that, when a considerable portion of air in the gulf is suddenly condensed by a thunder storm, that in the basis of the Missisippi is im- mcdiately set in motion, rushing on to fill the vacuum. If in these cases the north-east column is most frequently affected and moved, it is be- cause it's direct opposite, tlie south-west, is that which becomes deficient and retires, so that under these circumstances the north-east may be said to be the return of the south-west. Indeed all the space I have just mentioned ought to be consi- dered as one and the same lake or ocean of air, having for it's shores and boundaries the chains of mountains and West India islands. The Al- leghany chain, forming one of these boundaries a T 203 .long the whole of the eastern side of this aerial lake, ,s at the same time the boundary „f another ^.. a.r on the Atlantic Coast. Now the la„ ' wh:d. ,s contiguous to the atmosphere of the north and narth-east, whence it derives it's implies U co„,p„sed of a cold and dense air, while that' of the Western country is hot and more expanded - consequent y the Atlantic lake presses incessanti; on the Western at their mutual boundary, and from the laws of ecjuilibrium has a' constan ten- dency to flow into it. Tl-,e moment therefore the hab,tu:,l effort of the hot and dilated air ceases " upport and repel the weight it had to sustain th.s weight ,s set loose, spreads itself by an effor as powertu, as natural, and a north-east wind IZ I admit however, that the constant recurrence of one of these hurricanes about the middle of October depends on some particuhr and determi nate crcumstance. This I imagine I perceive' m t e general change produced "through™,: wole atmosphere by the Sun. passing the eq! of the Ime, and particularly while it was in the v.c.n,ty of the tropic of Cancer, it's rays, dartin ' n the northern continent, occasioned there gr "° heat; and thus produced a focus of suction to ward which oil the aerial currents direct 'thdr' N If! / 'r M J ii' ' ' ■il 2u4 course ; so that c^en the atmosphere of the torrid zone was carried toward the polar circle, there checking and contracting the limits of the cold •winds of the north. On the contrary, when the Sun has recrossed the line, about twenty or five and twenty days after, that is in .• . ddle of October, it is perpendicular to the • iJest part of South America. In this situation, heating the amplest surface of that vast continent, it esta- blishes there another focus of suction, which at- tracts toward it an immense body of air, and thus to a great distance turns from their former direction the currents of air, or winds. The nor- thern atmosphere is then enabled to spread itself again as far as the tropic of Cancer: hence the limits of the trade wind are repelled to the Jatitude of 20' or even 18": hence these perio- dical north-east winds, that blow upon Gui. ana from the Atlantic, continuing from decem- ber to march or april, when the Sun is over Pa- raguay, and which, after they have discharged their extreme humidity on Guyana, pursue their course over the continent toward the Andes: and hence those winds from the northward, which from the month of October become more frequent in the Gulf of Mexico, and reach the Isthmus of Darien. The Sun's passage to the south of the equator, therefore, is a moment of concussion, 205 that agitates the atmosphere of both polar circles at once The first instant one of these chan^^es takes place, the air of the Gulf of Mexico, turn- ing on a sudden toward the south, produces an im- mense vacuum, into which the air of the basin of the Miss!sippi pours itself in it's turn; and if we consider, that the term of twelve hours, which is commonly the duration of the hurricanes of Lake Erie, and of these countries in general, is nearly proportioned to tlie space that requires to be tra versed and filled up, the cause to which I ascribe babTe ""'" ^' '^''"''"^ '"^ "'"'^ '^' "^"'^ P'^~ Vacuums produced by detonation appear to me likewise the only means of explaining those in- comprehensible hailstorms, in which, contrary to allthe laws of gravitation, we see pieces of ice weighing several pounds coming from the hir^her regions of the atmosphere*. The electric explo- * Iim,nonsn3fl.socltoa-o.litth. exlsivncoahose hafl. stones .ud tc. ungh ounce, u.d evcu pounds, of u^ h newspapers and t.aveile.s too lV..,u..tly .p..,, J'^^ Ve..ulkvs and, gon.g to see a sheep-u alk at six o'clock in tl.. "'-'"-SS I f..und the rays oftl.e Sua iutoleraMy scorching • tl- an- was caln. and suilbcating, that .s, u .a. ext.vuj; r-iched: tiic .ky ,vas witiiout a cJoud, ncL I hvuvd {our or f 4' I U: n 20G sion having suddenly divested of caloric and con-. denscd an ituincnse body of vapours, tlie icy air of the higher regions ruhe.-. at once into the va- cuum, compresses the w.^.ter, wliich at the same time it freezes i and by the same sudden exertion of force, that roots up trees and beats down houses, it seizes and transports the frozen masses into the aerial regions. Accordingly we never see a hailstorm without more or less wintl, and wc may even assert, that the violence of die wind is always proportionate to the magnitude of the hailstones. I ? I tl a fiveclapHof tliuinler. About, v f]n!>rfcr after seven a cldiul appeared in the south-west, ami then a veiv l)iisk wind aidsr. In a few minutes the cloud filled the hori/on, and specdpd toward the zenith with an increase of the wind, and a hail, storm suddenly cameon,tlie stones not fal ling perpendiculuriy, but obiicjuel}', as at an angle of 4.3 '\ and so large, that you would have taken them for pieces of mortar from a roof pul- ling down. I could not believe my own eyes : many of the «tones were larger than a man's fist, and I observed too, that several of these were only fragments of larger j)ieces. When I could safely venture ray hand out of the door of the house to which I had very opportunely retired for shelter, I took up one, and found it to weigh more than five ounces by a common pair of scales. It's shape was very irregular, and it had three principal horns, as big as the thumb, and ainio.st as long, projecting from the nucleus on wiiich they were col- lected, [ liave been credibly informed, that a hailstone :.t St, Germain weighed more than three pounds, and after this Jknovr not what weight ^iurpasses belit;f. Vpw(#*j^^. ^-ii,*^***.-^ r-tei^,.>. So1 A Similar mechanism uill explain waterspouts, which are a kind of vortices of air and water commonly seen when the weather is thundery and calm, but never unless it is cloudy. These move or rather run over the sea, and sometimes over the fend, m the sliape of an inverted cone, the base of which IS in the clouds, wliiJc it's spiral point pours down a torrent of water, that has sometimes been sufficient to sink a ship. It was once supposed from their resemblance to fountains, that water' spouts wcix^ the effect of submarine volcanoes throwing up the water as whales do from their spout-holes It is possible, no doubt, that such cases may have happened; and then the water spout must have been stationary, and very consi derable : but those of which we are speakin. bd mg movable, wandering, and even rapid in their course as in their gyration, they must be ascribed to a very different cause. It appears, that, in con- sequence of the stormy state of the air, and some Hiiperfect detonations, vacuums of less extent or not so instantaneous, are produced in the middle region of the atmosphere, into which however the clouds are drawn by the influent air : some stratum. of the air, being colder than the rest, condense. «hese clouds, acting as a drop of cold water in the steam-engine, and a process of soiurion and re.o- kition into rain takes place : but, whether because fWi^ ' m li-S much far- jntains: an oportion as : the course is cause has ice the pc- ce is near a : colonized ; ion of their )cr, as used to he speciHed in the beginning of the last ccnturv the dause m the policies is now extended to Ch^l grea e hopes m this respect are powerfully op. posed by the north-west wind, the history of whic^i reman, for me to give. But before I examine cargun^cnts for and against this melioration of chmate, I cannot dispense with a few words re- specting a phenomenon intimately connected with the subject I am about to quit, which in our ordl mry geographical studies does not occupy the place u merits. I mean the current in the Mexi can gulf, well known to the English and Ameri- cans under the name of the ^«//,/^,^;;,. § IV. Of the Current cf the Gulf of Mexico, The effects of the tropical trade-wind are not Mexico. By blowmg from the coast of Africa oward that of America, and driving the waves be ore It m one direction for the space^f twdve In ;relea^^^^ Meca^^^^^ we have nor T ' '' '° ^' ''^'^'"'^^ ^^at we have not ,n this respect precise data of the ^e.ght, and that ti. Spanish government, l^ f 2 'f m 1 1 1 \ ..»^-.3Kgg||l fi t\ ■/?/l wmm m J it{ ; liC! V: < n \ W ^ 212 has sometimes thought of forming a communica- tion between the two seas through the Isthmus of Darien, has not caused their respective levels to be taken : but I can assert with nevertheless confi- dence, that the waters of the Mexican Gulf are actually several feet higher than the space they leave behind them, even setting out from the West Indies, and still more than the Pacific Ocean, which is on the other side. I found this assertion on the analogy of what happens in the Mediterranean, and in lakes and ponds of a certain magnitude, where the winds blowing two or three days from the same point occasion a kind of flood at the op- posite extremity two or three feet in height. TUi effect is very perceptible in the harbour of Mar- seilles, where I have seen the water raised thirty inches by easterly winds j and the same takes place in an opposite direction with westerly winds, the French engineers having found a variation of 23 inches on the coasts of Syria and Egypt. I will venture to say, that in the present case their rise is much more considerable, in consequence of the force and continuance of the efficient cause ; and when I consider that the same French engi- neers have proved the Red Sea at Suez to be near thirty feet higher than the Mediterranean at Da- mietta*, I am led to believe something similar * See my Travels in Syria, 2d edit. [French] Vol. I, p. ■ wa iww^i w o -. 2J3 take., pla« in the Gulf of Mexico, with respect to hecoa.t of the Pacific Ocean and that of ,e Un„ed States But. it will be .aid, aclmittin, 1 excess of he.ght you please, the fluid n,us, neC t eless retutn ,o ,fs level somewhere, Uudou . edyt™.: but this it cannot by the channel be. ween Yucatan and Cuba, because the doubl current of a.r and water sets into this with a., it.: f bu by the channel of the Bahan^as: and in fact ., ,s on this side, that ,he water, after havin<. coasted the shores of Mexico T „, • ■ ^ •J Mexico, Louisiana, and Flo- rida, escapes round the point of tl,, „. • , ^'ba and the numerous shoals of the Bahama ■slands, which on this side break the eff ctfc^X ocean, and the current of the trade-wind. The rapidity of the stream in the Gulf of Florida, while ..a fact too well known to be disputed, is poof of the height of it's source in the Gulf o Mex co On entenng into the ocean it still preserves s"f very distinc, not only by the velocity of i-s cn,whic isfourorfivemilesanhour,o,'lea:; '■'- that of the Seine, but also by ifs 'cole" '. and the course oCtlie 'ivr, iiud (i'oni tlw uni, opinion. '''t-f J»i^cjnlii„H.,j my ' 3 -,.: !l iV' * ,i 'Ij 'i ' lu- 214 it's temperature, which is from 5" to 10' of Reau- mur [11^' to 22° F.] hotter than that of the ocean it traverses. This singular kind of river coasts the whole of the United States, varying in it's breadth, which is estimated at fifteen or sixteen leagues at a medium*, and does not lose it's strength and dis- tinguishing characters till it nearly reaches the great bank of Newfoundland, where it spreads as at it's mouth, it's direction there being north-east. That skilful navigator sir Francis Drake first re- marked it's effects, and conjectured their cause, toward the end of the sixteenth century ; but one of the most curious circumstances, that of the tem- perature, escaped his notice. It was not till 1776, that Dr. Blagden, making experiments on the tem- perature of the ocean at different depths, found the thermometer plunged into the sea off Cape Fear, about the latitude of 31" north, alter having given 72*^ of Fahrenheit, on a sudden rose to 78^ coiiti nued so for many miles, and afterwards sunk gra- dually to 69°, and then to 67% when on approach- ing the coast they got soundings, and the water be- came greenish. This phenomenon, at that time ;i novelty, excited much attention in England, anJ Dr. Franklin, who made similar observations oa his passage to Europe the same year, gave it still more celebrity. His nephew, Mr. Jonathan * A litllf farther oil it is one il;'yree or twenty uauticil Irngut's. T. 215 Williams, who accompanied him on that voyage has pursued the inquiry, and made repeated expe' nments on the subject ^ and the following facts may now be advanced as a complete theory I St, The gulf-stream pursues a marked course from the Gulf of Florida to the banks of New. foundland. 2dly, It coasts the shore of the United States at a distance rendered variable by the wind, but which may be estimated on a medium at one de- gree, or twenty leagues. 3dly, In proportion to it's distance from it's source it increases in breadth, and diminishes in velocity. fhly. It appears to have hollowed itself out a Astmct and very deep channel at the bottom of the ocean , for in it you suddenly lose sound- .ngs, or can get no bottom without a very lon» line. ^ ** 5tWy, It wears the south coast of the United States. notwitl,standing the resistance of the shoals of Cape Hatteras which turn it toward the east a pom= -J half of the compass*, and which it threatens sooner or later to destroy. The sandy * Tl,e sailors, ay , • „.|,e„ yo„ .,„„ff„ ^ ,^ '"■I "ill ,mmc■,Iii,u^li■ '■-."I- »m„,din.,«" " '■ 4 ^ eani^ n^ 1 *-yfl*W*(ig^ 2 lb jslands of the liahamas, tlic additions of a similaj- nature to the land on tlie continent side, ;ind the hhoals of Nanti ticket, appear to be nothing but depositions ironiit: antl lam tempted to advance, tiiat the banks of Newfoiimlland are nothing but the bar at the mouth of this vast marine river. 6dily, On eacliof it's bortlers, it forms an eddy or counter current, wliicJi, assisted on the side of ;he niain ianti by die rivers of the continent, stops the muddy deposit tern.eil the soiouiings. 7thly, Long continued soutli-west winds render it less perceptible, because they impel the waves in the same direction ; but the north-east winds, as they directly meet it, render it more conspicu- ous, and cause the sea to run so hollow, as the sailors term it, that a single decked vessel \\ ith a deep waist runs the risk of being foundered, by shipping such heavy seas. 8thly, When the colour of the water becomes an indigo blue, instead of the sky blue it has in the ocean, or the greenish or olive hue it has within soundings on the coast, you are in the gulf-stream. This water, seen in a glavs, is colourless like that of the sea between the tropics, and more salt than that of the Atlantic, which it traverses. 9thly, Abundance of weeds on the water is not a proor you arc in the stream, it is only an indica- tion of it. f^i^ 217 'otWy, The air is warmer „„ k than on ri,c ocean : u, w.ntc-r ,ce on the deck of a vessel en termg .r melts, you find yourself drowsy, and be- tween decks arc .suffocated with he it Some e.periu,ents will give deu'rminate ideas or tins dilfercnce of tempn-ature. In the month ofdeccmber /yS^ Mr, Jonathan W l,ams, sa,l,ng from Chesapcak bay, observed. , ."" "'' """ °^ ""= "'-'"' 'he quicksilver in the t/iermometer marked 1 jr, , ,. I'arcniicit Reaumur. 1.. In .soundings, or f l„- .sl.oal waf..,- 0.\ tliccijust - . - . '-', A little before entfrin- into iho stream - _ _ . _ 3, In the .strcarri - . _ . 4, Jiffbrerea. lun^^r Ne vvfounJIand," ill tlic strcaiij - . . _ •5, At NewlbumlJai,,!, out of t|,o Ntrtaiu - - . . f . ii<-yonU the bank, i„ the open" sau - . . _ _ 7, Then on a,,pruaLhin- tl,,, toast ♦^I'lMiglan.l it gra.lnally .sm.k •17" V'O (Hi it 00 to ^n June I V:H captain Biilin.r. ma- lo'.g a voya^^e to Portugal, observe,! ^'ius departure, on the coast of Ame- ■'C". and in the uat<^r within sound- •;8 Jligs - Afterxvard. in the water of 'the stream - . . _ _ 61 77 f>o J2J 17i i.U 11 30 I1 218 Now this makes a difference of 7° of Reaumur, or 16° of Fahrenheit ; but in winter, Mr. Willi- ams found the variation 23° of Fahrenheit, or from 47° to 70' : the difference therefore is less in sum- mer than in winter, as might be expected. These inquiries have led to another discovery, from which navigators may derive some advantage : by examining the temperature of the ocean in dif- ferent places, it has been found, that, the shallower the water, the colder it is -, and hence has been deri- ved an indication of an approach to the land, or of the vicinity of a shoal. In July 1791 the same capt. Billing observed, that three days before he came in sight of the coast of Portugal, the thermometer sunk in a few hours from 65*^ to 6o", and this dif- ference occurred precisely on the boundary be- tween the depths of the unfathomable ocean and the soundings that skirt our continent. Mr. Wil- liams likewise observed in the month of novem- ber on another voyage, that on approaching the coast of England die thermometer fell from 5;° to 48°; and he remarked, as well as captain Billing, that, if the thermometer sink suddenly at sea, it indicates a shoal underneath the water, either because the earth beneath the sea is colder than the water itself*, or because the cooling tfTcct of * The learncil (r;iv( ilcr Ilti ;il;nl.l(. to wlioiii wo rirf ii;- debtee! for so ni.'uiy rifw jtnd inip'Ttarit oij';crv;uiou.s, ii^jc- ■.~,-«M»>rti*jBai.'. 219 evaporation is more perceptible in shallow than in deep waters. Wha: I have said of the course of the gulf stream affonis a satisfictory explanation of two -nadents ■„ natural history worthy of remark „„ the coast of the United States. 1st, Admitting what 1 have asserted to be true that the stream is the cause of the alluvions bor- dermg it's bed. from it's still water depositing the matters that floated in it, we find a very simple and natural reason for the presence of tropical productions in a fossil state in latitudes very far north, (t is highly probable, that the beds of pe- tr, ed snellfish, discovered in sinl: ».as do „ot f„,-,„ a digression foreign to those of Che a,r, wind, a,-e their habitual impelling cause on the ocean*. ° §V. Of ilic Xoril,-:mi n-:,ul. The north-west wind, the third, and almost the principal, of those that i>revail in the United States, differs from (he south-west in two respects- .t .s essentially cold, dry, elastic, violent, and even tempestuous; it is more fre.juent in winter than •"•"«'-■" "--'- ■£^:::.::zL^^ "" -p„,,,,, ,,, .,,,l,,.,,,„„ ,,f ,,,, ,,,.,,. 'I >n ,Ta,l,l., ,!,„, |„, p,,,,,|,.,,,,. |„,„,„.,, . ""• -van™ »f tropical p„,J,„,,„„ .„ ,„^ ,, '^^. "^ ' "• •■7- 7""." "■" ■^™ -■^™, ,w,;d,. , ';' : »T^ j i i f Ml" rtrtrt in summer, and more habitual on the Atlantic Coast than west of the Alleghany mountains, that is in the basins of the St. Lawrence, Ohio, and Missibippi. I know nothing to which I can better compare it than the mistral of Provence, which is Himg of tins suddenness; and I shall have occa- sion to show, that in many instances it likewise proceeds from the upper regions of Ae atmos- phere: but commonly, and when it continues Ion., t comes as far as from the frozen seas of the pole and the equally frozen deserts north-west of thU la JTndTh f ^"^ '■°™"'^ ^'Wo-''. "'°' this lake and the four contiguous to it were the ch,ef and even primary cause of the cold brought by the north-west wind to the Atlantic Coa" t Now, when the whole continent is better known! th.sop,n,on ,s retamed only by the vulgar: accu- rate observers had already remarked, that in the countnes of Vermont and New York the cold was as intense as in those that lie to leeward of Ikes, and te accounts of the Canadians in be fur trade, who travel far U-yond the lakes have removed all doubt of this. These trade"' 3 "i m [If Ks'ii i Alii Hi I 2'J4 unanimously affirm, that the farther they advance in the Great North (Crnnd nonlj*, the more vio- lent and icy is the north-wtst wind ; and that it is their chit I torment in thr treeless and marshy plains of that Siberia, and even in ascending tlie Missouri as far as file Chippewan Mountains. It must be admiLteil,thcrt:.,ie,that theamericai; north- west wind derives it's primary source both from these deserts, which fioin the latitude of 48" and 50° are frozen nine or ttn months of the year, from the Frozen Ocean, which bef;ins about the lati- tude of 72", and from the north part of the Stony or Chippewan mountains, which appears to be covered witli snow throughout the year. It is to be observed, that beyond these mountains, on Vancouver's Coast, the north-west wind comin'^ from the ocean and Bcliring's Bay is more moist and less cold, and as it blows with much less constancy it belongs to anotlier system f. * TIm! Ca1i;i(liriti (,enii for iIk; \vl>i>It>, c "intry. t According to captain Mcaics tlie nortli is the provailiu • wind ia these latitfudes. To give an idea ol" the cold nivss produced in (In. air hy icy .suriacfs, I n.-cd only mention an observation of Char- l«'voi\. 'J'his missionary relates, that crossinij the hank ol' Newfoundland, durin- mild weather, the vessel was sud-* denly assailtsd by such a freezing wind, that all the passen- gu»; were obliged to take shelter between decks. Presently If i" ^..'^S 235 On the Atlnntle coast, the north-west wind Mv,ng trnver,.cl the continent, ,so„,eti,Jertoo bnngs w„ n storms of rain or snow, or even ,f M. but these douci, belong ratlK-r to other c.,: -.ofa,ra,t,.enort,,.eastandsouth.west, beat back, an,i robs as it drives them beCre "• ^' "'''" """=» 'l"^Y are the product of the gi-eat lakes, that coni.nunicate with the r.ver St ^".ence, the ™ar,shcs, and even the rivers :,ken ^"e of he M,ss,s,ppi and Ohio, the n,.rth..«e« :' ;' '^ ''"-^'"i-d - wet in winter, and storn^y from Charlestown to Ilalift, ,,, ;,',,, ,„„^^^,j to he nort -west is that of a violent, cold, unplea- n w,nd but healthy, elastic, and reinvigor tin^ e languKl powers. It has tlu-s degree of trt-acherP S™!'",7r"; "■^'^' -'"'-■> c'-r sky and bright ■Sun dchght the eye and invite you to enjoy d.c .1,,: J'': " '7"'l'— 1-... .A,la„„V,™;, •i":~;:L;:::::;!,,:,^::'^ '— '■■™- [•'%Wi\ -j * ''■"■^ ^/r^r |.' i Open air, if you venture out of doors you arc assailed by a cutting wind, that makes the flicc sore and draws tears from the eyes, and the broad impetuous gusts of which render your steps insecure over the icy surface of the ground. Less rude in summer, it is longed for to mode- rate the violence of the heat ; and indeed it pretty frequently shows itself at that season after a heavy storm of rain and thunder. But as it is impos- sible, that the lapse of half an hour is sufficient for it to have come from any distance, it is evi- dent on such occasions it must descend from the vsuperiour region of the atmosphere, which in these latitudes is not more than 3000 or 3200 yards dis- tant :, the vacuum being formed near the ground by the condensation of the clouds into rain, the upper stratum sinks down to fill it; and the direc- tion it acquires is from north-west to south-east, because the atmosphere toward the ocean, as far as the tropic, consists of a light warm air, inca- pable of maintaining an equilibrium against this cold and heavy current; while the reflux of the j>outh-west and of the trade wind of the tropics, the countercurrcnt of whicii comes to fill these middle latitudes^ prevents it from taking it's course due south. All these currents appear to unite to- gether, to form on the Atlantic Ocean, from the \\\ 227 jh..s attraction <>■• ,st,cti,,n of t),e Atlantic at mosp ere . confir.ned by the foliowi,,. ob r4 farthest o.,t at .sea feel, the wind first, and .1 in'st ce.ss.on to that nearest the shn,-, \ l la^t > ?7- . , "^' *^'"<:'i 't reaches test. — //„,<,;.j, „y /^,„,„,„_ p ^g ""'« - breeze, beginning a'l:- ::':;'■"' '''^ "^'ts of the mountains and /n1i wh,v, , ' '"■"- become the focus of heat , "^"' "°"" cbin,neyofthedran;;Lt;;r"f^^ t''ercac,uarterorha,°anC:j:,.r;''^f ;'-Y" P-Ponion to t,,e distance b:::\t t™ places, as I have frecjuendy remarl e i and Corsici ■ and rl,„ i . , "='""fved m Syria the same s,ni"' ''■,"" *«"''"'"S-''0 on takes pi c, 1 ""',"■ *.""= '■'■'"^"■•"i™ first f'^t, ana the air by it'; u'rl .|,r ,t , the mountains toward the Llil^:" '"^-^ / ^^''^chmrrenconthcnodcoiact.ncorr.- ----m.b:-::^;!;::-;:::;;:::;::- ( I •> 22S feet of comparative voids and alternations of den- sity occasioned by the presence or absence of the Sun, now on the sea and anon on the land ; the ef- fect of which is a kind of systole and diastole ex- perienced by the air alternately heated, dilated, and ascending, and cooled, condensed, and descend- ing * * These descents of tiie cold air of ilic middle or upper region are attested by Uelknap, who mentions a place in New Hampshire where the wind seems always to I'ali IVom above like the water of a mill ; and I mi^lit mention a re. markable instance in France, on the mountains of I'oroz which separate tiie basin of the Rhone from that of the Loire. In several parts of this chain, but particnlarlv a' Inirge, a country seat between Iklleville and Rouane, sixteen or seventeen miles beyoiul Tarare, it is constantly found, that on ascentling the stucp acclivity oi' this chain on the side of the Rhone you feel no wind, !)ut just as you reach tlie .summit of the ridge, and still more as you begin to descend it toward the Loire, you jierceive an extremely brisk wind, blowing from the east to the v. est, or from the basin ol' tlm. Rhone to that of the Loire : and if \on then return, and de- scend the east side of the mountains toward the Rhone, \nn no longer feel the wind. The reason of this is, the baMii of the Rhone is a ,s|Kicious lake of cidd densd air, conimunicalii;'' Avith the atmosphere of ihf Alps; while (he basin of (lie Lol ,' IS a lake of lighter and warmer air, brought from fjio ocean by the prevailing westerly winds ; ttie chain of lore/. is a mound s([iarating ti'iese two lakes, and keepin:^- lunh tranquil as high as it reaclie.',; but above this mound tlicsur- ^dus air of the basin of the Rlioiie ovciflous like water, and asrs. tions of den* )sence of the land i the ef~ 1 diastole ex- I, dilated, and nd descend- I id die or upper tions a place in ys to I'all IVoin t mention a re- tains of I'oroz, am that of tlin particularly ;i? lloiiane, sixteen nstantly fouiuJ, s chain on I lie ■s you reach tlie L'gin to descend ■ly brisk uind, ic basin of tlin return, and ile- lie Khone, yon s, the ba.^iii of :oniniiiiiicalii;g e basin of (iii! ought from tjio cliuiia of I'mc/. -1 keeping lioili iiound the sin- kc Witter, and 229 It remins for me to remove one objection reader. I ]^ve sa.d, that the north-west wind is n-ch more frequent on the east of the Aiwle ^'\7^^^:--^='^"ti^n^aybesaid,how^^^^ possible, that it should reach the f. -ay.As.heficcisaverred,.,:e,.enn, ome reason to be assigned for it, and it is ana ogous to thati ,,ave given in ,he p;eceding no e " rtt't'nnttrrs^Ln''''"'^'"*^'-^" -bent's pro;::i::;iXrd;nToTrrT' ~ie.orKe„tX:ro,trrr the basin of the Q^ t ' ^^ '"^^ as or tnebt, Lawrence, by which h fl. -rdt,fes::;!;::3,'''^^''"'™<'-''>-ceanto. 2?<0 The same c.T^e occurs with respect to the St. Lawrence and Lower Canada, where travellers agree in sr.ying, that the most hibitiial wi- d is the south-v/est, and next to ir the north-cast. Very freqiiv^nily the norrh-west is not felt at f^tebec, while it blows in Maine and in Nova Scotia: it is evident, therefore, tint it must have glided over t;ie c( nc.'ivc bed of the St. Lnwrence, without dis- placing the air stationary in it, and if we consider, that through a room where two opposi'"e windows are set open a very brisk wind passes, without ex- tinguishing or even ".giiating a candle placed in the corners or at the siilf-s, out of the current, v/e mav c>nci.;ive, that the air has something tenacious and oi'y in it's nature, which renders it more diffi- cult to displace than is consistent with the ideas commonly entertinned of it. One curious fact respecting the north-west wind still remains to be mentioned, it is, that in the United S'ates the mortar and plaister of walls ex- posed to it's direct action are always harder, and more difiicult to demolish, than those with any other exposure, no doubt on account of it's ex- treme diyness. In ihe forests too the bark of the trees is thicker and harder on the side exposed to it tiian on any other; and this observation is one among others, by which the savages are guided in their travels through the woods, even In the fog- ^*S^ to the St. travellers wi' d is the ast. Very at f^icbec, cotia : it is glided over vithout dis- /e consider, ''c vsindows without ex- laced in the :urrent, v/e g tenacious more diffi- th the ideas i-west wind that in the )f walls ex- barder, and se with any t of it's ex- bark of the exposed to ition is one •c guided in in the fog- 231 giest weather. To facts and observations simple and natural like these are they indebted for that sa- gacity, which we admire in them ; and wlien ro- mancing travellers, or writers who have never quitted their own fireside, speak in raptures of the address of savages, and thence take occasion to ascribe to their man of nature an absolute superio- rity over civilized man, they only show us how ig- norant they are of the huntsman's art, and the im- provement of the senses of smelling and sight by the habit and practice of any exercise. At pre- sent, when there are in America innumerable in- stances of settlers on the frontiers, natives of Ire- land, Scotland, and Kentucky, who in the course of a few years have become as able and adroit woodsmen, and more vigorous and indefatigable warriors, than the red men*, credit is no longer given to the pretended excellence of the corporal and mental faculties of savages, or to the superio- rity of their way of life ; and what I shall have oc- casion to say elsewhere on this subject more at large, and with imj^artiality, will assuredly tend much less to excite sentiments of envy or admira- tion, than of pity and horrour. * Til name hy whicii the suvu^e.s (listiM-ui,ii ft, oni- "v>4 >^« I ,* 233 CHAPTER X. t' i^ it s * il. I The Climate of the United States compared idth that of Europe in respect to the Winds, the Snantitj/ of Jfain, Evaporation, and Electricity. • After all I have said of the winds, their beds, their course, and their qualities in common, as well as local to the United States, it becomes easier to form a clear and general idea of the cli> mate of that exteivsive country. Since we know, that the predominant winds there come almost di- rectly from the torrid zone or the frigid, we con- ceive why they have such striking contrasts of heat and cold, and why the climate is so variable and capricious : as we understand, that one of the prevailing winds, the south-west, blows from a warm sea, another, the north-east, from a very cold ocean, and the third, the north-west, from frozen deserts, we perceive the reason why these are clear and dry, wet, or foggy. We even di- vine the exceptions, that certain local circum- stances can and must occasion to these general rules ; and we naturally infer, that a dry wind may become rainy, if in it's course it meet with watery surfaces, as those of lakes, marshes, and the ex- m ^ iikti^ii^ .^ '2& '"1 nmon, as 233 temled lines of river.; as occurs in the co„nt,Tot Genessee, where it rains with a north-we.riri on account of the lakes Ontario and Huron, fl With a south-west wind in nr.^ t: • , •■ ' " consequence of T ql ,. Ene, while the north-east and eL ' '. ^''^^ the coast, are there dry* On rU. . rainy Win, „ay.eco.e 4; ,°:,tir ::;,,: -u„ta,n. the humidity it brings: «„„„,,;,.,; lent agitations of the atmosuhere •,. m -ingle. *eir,ua,ities„,a, It;,:, ;~ and confounded together. ^'■'ngi.d On the other hatid, when we consider M,,r,I -rntory of t,,e United States is tra::t;'^ ~.ns of an inferiour order, which do not'op' pose to the currents of air an obstacle suff ient to the.e are and must be ahnost always peneral ri, .t ■^■; to use an English expression,' nn.t .'Itie breadth. In fact there is no strill.tn(c.-: ol' in' niounlaiiis tVuni ilic coast, ;uitl vou will iniincliatilv p natural ramparts toward the polar sea ,t^ con.«ry,asweilasPo:..„da„d.heiighbuW, of Ma.cow, would not ha.e been bolder ha„ Denmark and Saxony. " This dift'erence between 'he topography of Eu rope and Noiti, America appears to 'to be^|!; c:e,. ..the. le cause of several meteotlo ri ■ »o • ' ' '"■'"^'^ '" "'^- --o^Pl-es of P nal '"'"""■ "^^ ''"" ■" '^ ^ -''^f-tory cxpjanation of two nr th^^^ • , ■'^ - p-.e™. as JLtre.:?!': :~ mean quantity of rai., i, greater i ■ rhT . States thnn in France, En»l nd or r "'' why the fall of this rain is : e"l mo ™:7 ' in America than in Europ^e L™? '" evaporation more speedy •hst"""''"-'" ^.rc habituallyp.oreviol.nl , ^ """^"''^' -anes.nore^re;e1:;::,'7r-^"'''"^- P-i. a,., .Heir solution .ore p. , able a„ar„! I^v i' i il ^ )] 23S ' ^-s ^ I. 0/ f/i. ^uuiulhj of lltiin that falls in the riiiird Stilt( .s'. Numerous and accurate observations, made by various intelligent Americans on different jxirts oF the Atlantic coast, have ascertained, that tlic an- nual and mean quantity of rain fallin-^ in the United States is much greater than in most countries of Europe, excepting certain mountainous regions*, or heads of gulf^^. The following table affords a proof of this. No place in the vvestern country is included in it, because observations of this kind have not been made there, at least that I know of. iiiclics JillL'. At Charlestowji, according to Ram- say, in 1795 - - -71^ At a medium from 1750 to 1759 f 4' ' AtWilliamsburg:j: - - 47 At Cambridge, near Boston^ - 47;. At Andover, in Massachusetts - 51 ,/ I * Tor instance, I'diiia, w licic (lie animal (|iiatili(y i> w, inches, and (Jarsacnana, w ia re it is!)S. In die West liKlirs it excpL'd.s K)() iiulies. -(■ Aecordini,'- i(, (lialniers, quoted h\ 1,'anisnv. J .letierson, ji. iJi, § S. WilJuuns, llistuiydf Vormout, p. ji. ^t■ r 1. 33. 9 At Salem* At RutlantI, in Vermont* At Philadclpliia f . [ In Europe, o/, the contrary, the quan- tities arc only as 'bJJows. At Petersburg At Upsal - . " At Abo At London At Paris At Utrecht At Brest, no observation t At Marseilles At Rome At Naples At Algiers At Padua At Bologna At Vienna 3S 30 12* 22| ill 28*. - - 21:, 30]. 37 T 3Sr ^51 Hence it follows, that in Europe " at a nietji!rn one third less rain fall. tlKm in Norti; America ;. ^n h.s memoir already quoted Mr. Holyoke men- * «. Williams, Hi.tonofVninun., ,,. i| g' I JuunKtl ,n m:.,uK,x.ript, ^Ua.,x ti.e number of nunv d u- • Ml ^^ '■ ^ I I*. 1 2tO tions twenty cities in Europe, which, at a mean of twenty years have had 122 days of rain, while Cambridge has had but - 88 And Salem - ~ 9S Thus a greater quantity of rain in fewer days evidently indicates, that in America it falls in heavier storms, in Europe in gentler showers j and we have seen, that facts accord with this reason- ing. § ir. Of Era par at ion and the Drjjncss of the Air. On the other hand, observations equally accu- rate and numerous testify, that the evaporation of these rains proceeds much more quickly in the United States than in Europe, and that conse- quently the air there is habitually drier and less- calm. ■ Franklin had already made and published this observation, so contrary to the assertions of Fauw*, mentioning the circumstance of a maho- * Pamv's Inquiries conconiirii,' tlic 7\nu'ri('ans is a stiim^r louk. When I rctiinicd iVom Aincrica, 1 \\ as dcsiioiis ot' readiiiiT it, to profit by tlio groat iuiid of iuibrmalion, wliich it Avas io|)iit('d to contain : Lnt ■\\hci\ I saA\ MJtii wiiat ooiili- deiif.'c lie adopts false facts, \\ifli what boldness Jio (Ic:!nrcs fronitlieni chimerical consequences, and advanc(;s and inaiii- tums incongruous paradoxes, and with v. hat acrimony ho at- tacks otiicr writers, the book dropped frou) ni\ hauds. i ^ \\ 1^^ ■-m. a mean of while 83 9S ewer days it falls in >wers i and •is reason- ■ t/w Air. lally accu- oration of dy in the lat conse- :r and less- published sertions of f a maho- : is a .sti;ini;T desirous iit' alion, wliicli ^vll;lt ('01111- lu> (l(':!u''('« 'S and riiain- iiiony Iif at- , liuud'-. I 241 gany box with drawers, executed with the .reatesf care by the celebrated Nairne. Thedrat^Tf his box, wh,ch fitted exactly, and even dg , London, were found to be too loose at Philde Ph.a. and when it was sent back to LondoX agam became as close and tight as before. kZ7. Frankhn justly inferred, that the air at Philadelphi was dner than at London : but the case of these established it by the following facts*. He has that the mean quantity of evaporation, at Cam- ^^reater nicety, than to observe objects ,r.,"''"^""'" ones, in their proper pou. of vi ^ i ^ i"'"'^ '^'^'"P'^ --ions : tlK. ius aI.o. in.possH>^' :t 'r'"'": ;-- tl>e gx.n.ral systcnn of a country or f' f '''"''''''^^y ^f .^rdtotin.;p!:;:: ::-;;::: -;--vit.r: ^- hitherto ibrn::i^:;t;Vr'-""^ -•'"'->•' ^ ^ Transactions of U.0 American P,,i,o..„,,,,,,^.^,^._ 'a fl ^t^n --^ 242 HI bridge, near Boston, for a term of seven years was - - - . 56 inchea while in seven German and Italian cities, on a mean of twenty years, it was only 49 which makes a difference of - 7 yet the cities of Italy arc in a latitude much more favourable to evaporation than the vicinity of Bos- ton, adjacent to the Atlantic ocean. In one year there were at Salem At twenty cities in Europe At these same twenty cities there were in 1785 - - , At Cambridge, near Boston At Salem, taking a medium of 7 years Fair days, J 73 64 Cloudy days. - 69 90* inc'ios 'l\ * Jf was observed, tliat water in vessels renenod oiice a montli, evaporafi d Keriewed once a week No douli)f *M'caiise in the former ease tlie wind did not feacfe the l)ott()in ot tJie vessel, ^dly. On a river, a vessel evaporated In a dry place it lost 3dly, Four pKmts, weij.diing- 118 grains, placed in a box of pure sand, and well watered, evaporated IQCM. J. grains, wlii( b are more than would iiav( been atlorded by a surface of ten s(|uare inches in the same space ot tune. l-to MA ] • JO J 1 J Thus generally speaking, more rain falls in the United States in fewer days than in Kurope ; and there are fewer cloudy days, more fair days, and more evaporation. Now the cause of these dif ferent facts appears to me perfectly simple and unequivocal: it exists in the peculiar state of the atmosphere in each of the two continents, ps It is modified by their respective topographical circumstances. Thus, if in the United States it rain more than in Europe, ,t is because all the winds there, ex- cept the north-west, and particularly those that are most prevalent, come fiom some sea, and consequently arrive loaded with moisture. If th€ rain there be more heavy and sudden. It Ks becauw? th€ winds diflcr widely in the degrees u |i I iipl^/ 214 winds find no obstacle to stop them t thus it's to- jx)graj)hy has a fundamental influence on the abun- dance and heaviness of the rain. In Euroj^e, on the contrary, lofty mountains break the currents of air; the atmosphere is more calm, more stationary ; the mixtures of cold and hot winds are less easy, and less frecjuent; con- sequently dissolution takes place with less rapidity, the rains are more slow and gentle, the air remains more loaded with vapours and humidity, there are more fogs and cloudy days, &c., and evapo- ration is more tardy. If evaporation be more rapid in the United States, it is because the winds arc free, in conse- quence of the general plainness of surface, and because one of these, the north-west, which is cxrremcly dry, prevails for two fifths of the year. In F.urope, on the contrary, the grand pre- railino; wind is the we>r, which is also the nioit wet. 1^'inally, it is tliis powerful evaporation in the United States likewKse, that causes those immense dews, unknown in our temperate climates. These are so copious in summer, that the first nights of my sleeping in the desert forests of the Ohio and Wabash, I thought, when I awoke, it was raining heavily : yet on looking at the sky it was clear and serene ; and 1 presently perceived, that the 215 Jarge drops, falling witfi such a noise from leaf to Jcaf, were notliing but the morning dew, that is to say, tlie evaporation of the preceding day precipitated by the coolness of the dawn. Lasdy, if the winds there be more rapid, and hurricanes more frequent than in Europe, It is not only because the tropic is less remote, but because the currents of air find no bar to check and fix them -, and if the Apalachian chain were .sixteen or eighteen hnndred yards iugh, the atmo- spheric system of ali the western basin would be diflcrent. § III. 0/ ihc Klfctvidhj of the Air. The last meteorological circumstance, in v/hich the air of the American continent differs from that of Europe, is the quantity of electric fluid, with wliich the former i; much more highly charged. There is no occasion for any philoso- phical apparatus, to render this fact evident to the senses : it is sufficient to draw a silk riband briskly over a piece of woollen cloth, to see it contract widi a promptitude I never observed in France. Storms too afford terrifying proofs of it in the loudness of the claps of thunder, and the {)rodi- gious vividness of the flashes of lightning. When 1^3 m It r y •J )•») I first saw thunderstorms at Philadelphia, I re- marked, that the electric fluid was so copious, as to make all the air appear on fire by the ccatinued succession of rhe flashes ; their arrowy and zig- 'zag lilies were of a breadth and length of which I had no idea -, and the pulsations of the electric fluid were so strong, that they seemed to my ear and to my face to be the light wind produced by the flight of some nocturnal bird. These efi^ects are not confined to the eye and ear ; for they fre- quently occasion melancholy accidents. In the summer of 1797, from die month of June to the 28th of august, I counted in the newspapers se- venteen persons killed by lightning : and the late Mr. Bache, Dr. Franklin's grandson, editor of the paper entitled the Aurora, to whom I com- municated my remark, told me, that he had reckoned eighty severe accidents. They are fre- quent in the country, particularly underneath trees; and the people are not sufficiently acquainted with the efficacy of oiled or varnished silk or cloth, which are the best preservatives on such occasions, while at the same time they are a defence against the rain. This abundance of the electric fluid is an ad- ditional proof of the dryness of the air, as it's inferiour quantity in France and in pAirope is a proof of humidity. Jt appears certain, that caio- 247 ric is absorbed and neutralized by water in a state of vapour, and that then it no longer di.plays it's natural properties : on the contrary, when the air is very dry, even if it be cold, the igneous matter, finding nothing to combine widi, is super- abundant, and manifests it's presence, wherever the laws to which it is obedient permit. This must be one of the reasons, why vegetation, when once it takes place, is much more active in the United States than in France : and it cannot be said, that the heat of the season or of the tro- pics is a necessary cause or' the abundance of tlie electric or igneous fluid, for it is never more co- pious than with the cold north-west wind; and ac- cording to the observations of the learned in Rus- sia, as Gmelin, Pallas, MuUer, Georgi, &:c., electricity is excessively abundant in the dry and frosty air of Siberia *. Thus the level surface- of America, promoting the rapidity of the aerial currents, the speedy evaporation of water, and the dryness of the atmosphere, becomes a primary cause of the abundance of electricity. I shall add one remark, which may be of im- portance in physiology. It is known, that fogs and dampness arc constant and prolific causes of dis- * They riMiiaik ;it (lit' same time, that tlie inliabitants, particularly thr uoimn, aro ol' .■xcv.sivrly irritable ha, bits. R4 '^ >M 248 ease } that they particularly occasion colds, ca- tarrhs, rheumatisms, in other words, obstruction and atony of the whole vascular system ; and that they produce fevers of various kinds, but all with the common symptom of shivering, succeeded by great heat. Now if the effect of moisture, either m mist or in vapour, be to attract and appro- priate to itself the electric or igneous fluid, tak- ing it from those bodies in which it exists; if this electric or igneous fluid in our organs be one of the principles of life, one of the causes of the circulation of the blood and other fluids ; in par- ticular if it be one of the constituent principles, perhaps even the radical principle, of the nervous fluid ; may we not conclude, that water in mist or m vapour is so injurious to us by abstracting from our bodies this vital principle; and that by absorbing this from our cellular membrane and nerves it renders them paralytic, and reduces them to a state of atony, and temporary or perma- nent obstruction, according to the force and continuance of it's action ? And in this case, be- side the preventive indication, would not the remedial be, to find means of restoring this fire by an inverse process of the same kind ? The efi'cct of fomentations, and fricdons with warm substances, as even with a tailor's goose, confirms this opinion ; but a more radical opera- I 249 tion, and more conformabk to the principles of chemmry remains to be discovered, and calk niAPTEl! .\I. Hitherto I have made no mention of the influ- ence over the atmosphere and course of the wmds wh>ch some natural philosophers ascribe to the Moon. This opinion, formerly so current' * I„ several ho, countries, a„,o„, „,|,„s i„ ,„„ ,-.|a„,| „f Like 0(1 (liiii- ilolhes, place lluin unci,., .|„.i,.„ P"t .l,e,„ „„ a,,i„ ,„ li, bodies ,W, „ 'T :: ::.vr: :'"""' '- ^"' "«■ -^ ■"> „p„„ , ;,„■ ;: nf^verfailtobcsmednithone. ' P,ir S I $! f H #:/'?^^ ^ m « but wliich among thr ancien':r. belonged rather to astrology than to astronomy and physics, has been revived of late years with means more ca- pable of gaining ir partisans. Reasoning from the analogy of the tides, it has been said, that, since the Moon is the cause of the ebbing and flowing of the ocean, since it exerts a pressure on the liquid surface of the Globe so as to repel iti this pressure cannot take place without the inter- vention of the atmosphere, whicli consequently must also have it's flux and reflux, and hence a complete theory of the winds. But as the whole of this theory, however plausible, must be a mere romance unless established by facts, it wfis requisite to adduce ficts in it's supjiort } and tliis task has been undertaken by Mr. Lamarck, one of our ablest naturalists. What , i I be the issue of his inquiries I pretend iiot to s: y ; but I ihall observe, that the me ac J adoj^ted by Jiim cbims our esteem: by publishing a meteorological dlay, and predicting a year beforehand the winds and temperature, which the northern or southern aspects of the Moon should produce, Mr. La- marck lias subjected his system to the most legi- timate and delicate test: every month, every quar- ter of the Moon, any person may compare the prognostic with the event i and this comparison IS even a necessary supplement to the labours of \ tM 2b \ Mr, Lamar-' ,.,.<,„,„, have a right to expect , ha. ,isV,ry of ,h, year ,,.t will be inserted in th, -alfndar of th:- to r'>T,e '••|,„ ever be the issue of his labours, 1 '' ^1' merit of , cmonstratin/r a trufi,: u, , s,o„ld'it come out contrary to his or^nion, that the general ■system, or certain p.-ticu systems of the wind, are mdependent of the Moon, this negative truth wll be a valuable result, and produce all the uti- i'ty consistent with the subject. How great a num- ber of errours would be removed, if acquired many negative truths, in the various b,.„ches of knowledge, or rather of our opinions, th,- reader hmiself IS sufficiently aware. In the present case my own opinion was founded on too many previous facts, to remain undecided but had It been to be formed from the results of the expenment I have mentioned, it would be im possible for me to perceive any immediate or sen sible action of the Moon on the .,ener,l of the winds. I c^, not pretenVrji:::; this satellite is the cause of the ebbino .n^ a _r .,„ , , ^ cooing and flowino- orhe ocean; but admitting any hypothesis of Ks pressure as proved, still this demonstrates no thing with respect to the winds, for the e i^l ocean may experience a pressure affecting it as a body without it's internal movements bdn. ,e -"gcd or modified by it, in , he same tnanner s WW IP" •II 4Ji. ■3i£r ^^ ."iu % '^"V, ^ \. %^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I 1.25 !r ilia !r ■■10 M IIIIIM ^ <9: # c» - ks -J -W' s> Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 iV «■ c1>^ ^ \ 6"^ % <^. V MP . fe f/j ':*■ 253 the sea experiences a movement of libration, with- out it's interiour currents being changed or dis- turbed. The effect of the tides is noticeable or plainly observed only on the shores, that is by the interruption of the homogeneal fluid, and it's shock, against extraneous masses and levels: but the aerial ocean, spherical as the Globe itself, has nothing like this ; it's undulation, if it havje any, rolls over it's surface, and the vast atmospheric wave, meeting neither shore nor shoal, flows smoothly on without any breakers. If the winds, chose currents of air, so variable, so different, depended on the Moon, they must be correlative to it's phases, like the tides j they must have a periodical course, subject to the regularity or ano- malies of that satellite, nothing like which is seen. Of the changes of weather prognosticated every year in the almanacs, and expected by rhc com- mon people every quarter of the Moon, fifteen out of twenty are wrong ; and it would not be surprising, considering the small number of changes, if they succeeded more frequently, without pro- ducing any thing conclusive. Even on the sea, where it is pretended the rules are more certain, impartial mariners agree, that the changes of wea- ther have nothing certain, nothing regular in themj but that their causes must be referred rather to the approach of land, the vicinity of capes, and 3 .V'^^ 253 the entrance on certain latitudes, or departure from them. Lastly astronomers acknowledo-e that even the period of nineteen years, which brings back the same positions of rhe Moon, does not bnng with it the least resemblance in the course or succession of winds; so that nothing establishes or proves an immediate and sensible action of the Moon on rhe currents of air. It is different with respect to the action of the Sun, which displays itself both in their first for- mation, and in their general or partial movements; as well as even in their irregularities, which are always occasioned by the difrerent and variable degrees of hear, chat it's presence or absence ex- ctes on the land and sea; and by the topographical circumstances of mountains more or less elevated and a land more or less naked or woody, that obstruct or permit the course of the winds. It is the Sun that, placed in the equator, establishes there in the* first instance the grand current of the trade-wind which influences all the rest, and which, like the' course o^ that luminary, is directed from east to west, not by the mechanical effect of the rotation of the Globe leaving behind it's aerial envelope but because rhe Sun produces immediately beneath It a focus of heat, which, like itself, is continu- ally progressing from east to west, and immedi- ately replaced by the column of cold air left be. as no lofty mountains unde! dLtuator th ;"" P"iouslycallagreatct,rrentofai::rnS:urr: «o correspond, .h.Mve cannot admi, 1,^ ^'"'"" -»r»c „f ,|,e ,iv.r »!,„„., ,„ b. 1 . ''""; "''"■'' ""■ .^-ie.e„„i„e. ,,e a,.c,.a.,„„ of,;: :"';■ »;•;--. '" ™"^=.l«="ce of this i„d,„a,ion ,|,a, ,|,/o '" 'l'"'"'"" »'ope before it Jea,., „„. (,,,, of,,'; ,,'""' ''™""« ""' a"terio„rly a „,„,emeu,. by «l,i. ., ' r""""' """= «-".«,ed.a,..„f,„;jj;;:::-iv^;,,x:'''''-^''^'""-^ \ m >1l- 2.)C» xt*s shores attract only from the diKtancc of eighty or a hundred leagues the air necessary to the focus of which Jhey arc the scat, and the trade-wind does not begin it's course till beyond the sphere of this littoral attraction. America, on the contrary, experiences and occa- sions various different incidents; I St, by the singular configuration of it's two continents, which form as it were two large islands ; 2dly, by the great void, or cul-de-sac, which these two continental islands leave between them ; ^dly, by the mountainous isthmus of Darien, that forms the bottom of this cul-de-sac, and con- nects the two parts of America ; 4dily, and lastly, by the chain of it's mountains, the highest upon the Earth ; which, running along the bonier of the Pacific Ocean through Chili, Peru, the Isthmus of Darlcn, Mexico, &c., leave on the cast an immense flat country, while on the west they have no shore but an acclivity as high as it is steep. From this topographical conformation it follows with respect to South America, that the Sun, dart- ing vertically on this continent in it's broadest piut for six months of the year*, establishes over all the country east of the Andes, namely Brasil, Ama- * From the aulnniii;il «'(ii!iit<)X to the vernal, vhitli period is tUe summer season in tlie southern l)(ini>i|>licre. ^ ,1 257 «.„ia .^c n f„c„, of ,„„,•„„_ „,,,^,_ ^ redoubles the a. tiv ly of the rra,l, • , fr"n,t,.o„.,. TiX roc,:fe:::' r:;;;: -™;^ tion beyoiKl the equator to the nc^nh criy direction, and carry to Gunn. -.11 ^k T o. .He Ac^ic. T Je,,.,;:7:,; 'r:, :: : common ,,„„„ wlH.,.e all t,K.e wind. ce. a e ^■nc; as u>s excrcne elevation totally stop h •; oi i_uya, 1 ucuman, and Ari-niii,,., renowned for bcin-. the sew J ^ ' ' *'" excessive heat. v;\r:r;'rrr' Andes, the country of Chili. e~ 01 ::"'? tetnperate father, under the i,le„! ■ f 7 winds that we call south-west. Jw .C ; ^ true north-west of the countries lyi„„ „„ ,, , -le of the e,uator.. These ^dt w ", "" sage of those irorn the easr • -„. • r , ^ historian of Chiiif observes th.^ . . r , , I ^'trvt.s, tiic easterly winds so I -^i-'-'i^', Cii Julia,., author oC a. r,„.,„„., , I- I .<',.■ It. 258 seldom reach that country, that there is no hurrU cane from that quarter of the compass on record, except in 1 6j3. Consequently the two opposite currents of air, clashing against each other, rise together into the higher regions, where they are condensed, and no doubt bent into other currents, wiiich slide off or descend again into the middle and lower regions : On the other hand, when the Sun repasses the equator, and advances to the north of it as far as the zenith of the Havannah and the centre of the Gulf of Mexico, it's proximity produces a focus of heat and suction on the northern continent of America, which turns and attracts to that side the trade-wind, and this the more forcibly, because the focus in South America is extinguished or enfee- bled by the withdrawing of that luminary. Hence after the solstice the easterly winds gain footing as far as jo° or 3 2" north, in the parallels of Geor- gia, and almost of South Carolina : and hence, after their predominant current, that afflux of the winds of the temperate zone, tending toward the frigid with the circumstances mentioned above. Thus the Sun incessantly shows itself the chief if not the only regulator of the whole system of the and civil History of Chili, fraiishitej into Spanislj hy Mcu- tlo;ia^ ami elegantly printed at Madnd in Svo, in 1788. ^^^my 1 2i9 winds, either in tl,elr creation or in tlicir move- mcntsi and if,, power is manifested or indicated even m the true and apparent irregularity of their annual rotafon. and in the singular course of the seasons m the United States, a course entirely de- rived from that of the winds. In fact it is a remarkable circumstance, that in a country, where the cold is so severe, the winter should „otw.shstanding be more tardy, and set in a er, than m Europe. With us, in the latitude of 4j , nay even in 40.0, „„ „y^,^ .orcelyarnves. before we have fogs, rain, or frost almost every day, to the exclusion of fine weathe^ for four or five months. In America, on the con- trary the winter season does not really commence and bad weather become permanent,' evenTn the northern states, till the middle of december, or a .tde before the solstice, and there areaiway^th e or four attempts three or four grand criseJ in the a mosphere, before ,he northerly winds accom! pl.sh a general change of temperature, by driving back the winds of the south, which protect If maintain it. l""«ct ano The first of these crises regularly happens about the autumnal equL,ox, in the course of the ten days ,>tece.h„go.fo,Wi„g,heSun.s passing the e<,u:: tor At this period there is always a general Lie ofwuid, from some point betwee/„orfh-w«t fnd S 2 2G0 north-east ; and this, as I have already advanced, because the northern atmosphere rushes into the space, wliich the IS'un quits and ceases to dilate. This gale we may call the first wave of the grand half-yearly tide of the aerial ocean; and it is ac- companied with rain, brought by the waves of that ocean, which in their eddies and undulations have swept the surface of the sea. These rains produce by their evaporation the first coolness, that begins to temper the heat of summer, and that occasions the first frosts of the season, setting off from the Jine of the Patapsco on the Atlantic coast and of the Ohio in the western country. These frosts are not perceived in the flat country to the south, beyond the lines of the Potowmack. and Ohio : in the north and in the mountains they accelerate the ripening of the Indian corn, by divesting it's ears of the thick husk*, which are thus exposed to the whole power of the Sun. The equilibrium of the air is soon restored, the west and south-west winds resume their course, and sometimes the heat be- comes again as powerful as in summer, to which must be ascribed the periodical appearance and oc- casional violence of autumnal fevers. A second crisis occurs about the 15th or 20th of * ' En di'ijcuillant de lours graincs t-paisses scs cpis.' Original. 2CI October, that is. when thr Sun has advanced -^o^ or 25" to the south of the equator. At this period another gale arises from the same quarter , as if the Sun, by some particular position, occasioned a fresh disturbance of the equilibrium of the at- mosphere j and as if, becoming vertical to the great eastern cape of South America, included be- tween St. Roque and St. Augusdn, it suddenly determined the current of the trade-wind to dou- ble this cape, and spread along the coast of Brasil, the slope of which favours a brisker diffusion. With this gale come on fresh rains, fresh evapo- ration, farther cooling, and a new period of frosts, which now extend as far as Georgia and Carolina , and winter announces itself over the whole conti- nent. These frosts wither the leaves of the forests and from this moment their verdure assumes tint^ of violet dull red, pale yellow, and mortdore brown, that ,n the decline of autumn imparts to American landscapes a charm and splendour un- known to those of Europe. The north-east and north-west winds become more frequent : the south-west loses ic's power, and declines toward the west: the air becomes colder, but the sky conti- nues clear : the Sun is always hot in the middle of the day; and towards november a succession of hne days appears, which are stvled the I.durt summn Thh is what is called in France a St. S3 ^^ ■■i r«t do not include the ideas of rising and setting, as the French words here Used, orient and coitchant. T. t iliiit. of Vermont, p. (Jl- and follow inj^. 267 ' came to New England, the seasons and the wea- ther were uniform and regular : the winter set in about the end of november. and continued till the middle of fcbruary. During this period a cold, dry, and clear atmosphere prevailed, with little variation. Winter ended with the month of fe- bruary: and when spring came, it came at once, without our sudden and repeated variations from cold to heat, and from heat to cold. The summer was suffocatingly hot; but it was confined to the space of six weeks. Autumn began with Septem- ber, and the whole of the harvest was got in by the end of that month. The state of things is now very different in the part of New England inha- bited since that time: the seasons are totally altered -, the weather is infinitely more change- able ; the winter is grown shorter, and interrupted by great and sudden thaws. Spring now offers us a perpetual fluctuation from cold to hot, and from hot to cold, extremely injurious to all vegetation • the heat of summer is less intense, but of loncrer continuance :, autumn begins and ends later, and die harvest is not finished before the first week in no- vember: in fine, winter does not display it's seve- rity before the end of decern ber.' Such is the curious picture of the northern parts. With regard to the middle states. Dr. Rush ad- m. ' il 1 ■ iwi II ^11 Bl S'/. , m 268 vances facts perfectly similar in Pennsylvania*. * From the accounts which have been handed down to us by our ancestors,' says the doctor, * there is reason to believe, that the climate of Pennsylvania has undergone a material change The springs are much colder, and the autumns more temperate than formerly, insomuch that cattle are not housed so soon by one month, as they were in former years Rivers freeze later, and do not remain so long covered with ice, &c.' In Virginia, Mr. Jefferson likewise says : ' A cliange in our climate however is taking place very sensibly. Both heats and colds are become much more moderate within the memory even of the middle-aged. . Snows are less frequent and less deep.' p. 134. Lastly, 1 myself have collected similar testimo- nies, throughout the whole course of my journey, as well on the Atlantic coast as in the western coun- try. On the Ohio, at Gallipolis, at Washington in Kentucky, at Frankfort, at Lexington, at Cin- cinnati, at Louisville, at Niagara, at Albany, every where the same circumstances have been repeated to me: 'longer summers, later autumns, and also later harvests i shorter winters, snows less deep and * Si!o several papers by this physician in the American Museum, vols. VI and VII. A i)aj)er on tiie climate of New York, iu vol. VII, cuntirms the same results. 11 269 of shorter dnratlon, but cold not Je.s intense. And in all the new settlements these changes have been represented to me not as gradual and progressive but as rapid and almost sudden, in propo'rtion tJ the extent to which the land is cleared A sensible alteration in the climate of the United States therefore is an incontestable fact, and when i^r. Rush, after having adduced the proofs of it struck with the severity of several winters within these eignt years, starts doubts respecting the pre cis.on of observations formerly ;nade, in which thermometers were wanting, these doubts vanish be ore the muliitude of witnesses and positive facts The cause oi this change, though it does not pos- sess an equal share of evidence and certainty, has at least a degree of probability, capable of obtain- ing our assent. I'he opinion of Mr. Williams who ascribes it to the clearing of the land, and the extensive openings ,nade through the woods b^ cutting down the trees, appears to me the more sohd, because he explains the fact by an analysis ot the circumstances. 'In every district where wood is cut down to cultivate te lund, „,e air and the earth undergo considerable alterations of temperature in the cour e of two or three years. The settler has scarcely cleared a few acres of the forest, before the ground, exposed to all ,he heat of the Sun's rays f) ii 270 '\H lii acquires to the depth of near a foot a heat of 1 o* or 1 1 " beyond that of the land still covered with wood.' — Hisi. of Vermont, p. 61, 62, 63. Mr. Williams has deduced this estimation from some experiiTients, which he made for the purpose. Two thermometers, each put into the ground twelve inches deep, one in a cultivated and bare field, the other in the forest, or surrounding wood, even before the leaves were out, gave him the fol- lowing results. Date oftlu ' obsor- Ilcaf. ill the Heat in the DiniTCiicc vatioii. fie III. forest. May 23 Fahr. 52^ 46- 6' 28 57 48 9 June '5 64 51 «3 27 62 51 II July 16 62 51 II 30 65 Si 10 Aug. 15 68 58 10 31 59l- ss 4'- Sept. 15 59: 55 4^ Oct. I S9'. SS 4t '5 49 49 Nov, I 43 43 16 43 ^ 43i- Hence It fiollows, that in winter the temperature ol the sjil, whether covered or uncovered, is the 2^1 same; but in summer the dlfTerence is greater, in proportion as the temperature of the air Is higher: which agrees very well with the remark of Umfre'-^ ville, who says, that at Hudson's Bay the ground in open places thaws to the depth of four feet, and in the woods only to the depth of two: as it does with that of Belknap, who relates, that in New Hampshire the snow disappears from the cultivated land as early as the month of april, because the Sun has then acquired sufficient power about noon to melt it J but that it remains till may in woody places, though the trees are without leaves, beino- preserved from meliing by the shade of the trunk*^ and branches, and the general coolness of the air Thus also very well accounts for the ancient state of things, as given by Mr. WilJiams; namely the duration of the winters, formerly longer and more uniform, with more abundant and dreper snows. *Now,' continues this observer, 'the lo'^'of heat added to the open ground are communicated to the air, that is in contact with it.' And I will add, for this very reason the air, being heated, will ascend, and make room for a side wind from the woods, which considerably increases the body of warm air. ♦ * 2. Clearing away the wood causes the waters to evaporate, and the ground to become dry, as is daily remarked in all parts of the United States, 3 't / WwL. Mwm m..Jm m Mi 112 where brooks cease to flow, and marshes and swamps are converted into dry ground.' A farther reason for the diminution of cold and increase of heat in the atmosphere. * 3. Clearing the ground occasions a very sensi- ble diminution of the quantity and tluration of the snows, that less than a century ago covered the whole of New England for three months without interruption, that is to say, from the bpginnin'r of december to the beginning of march ; antl they are still the same in the uncleared land ; while in the cultivated parts they are neither so lasting, nor so deep, nor so uninterrupted. • 4. Lastly, there is a very striking change iij the winds : tiie ancient prevalence of those from the western quarter appears to diminish every day, and the easterly winds gain in frequency as well as in the extent of their domains. Fifty year? ago diey scarcely reached thirty or forty miles from the seashore, and now in the spring they are frequently felt sixty miles, nay even as far as the mountains, which are seventy or eighty miles from the ocean. It is very evident, that they advance exactly in proportion as the country is cleared, and divested of wood.' The reason of this too is, the open ground being more heated, attracts more powerfully, or admits more easily^ the ai|' from the Adantic coast. S7 lo in v[;if "rTT"''""^ ' P"f""y -•n'ii" fact m V.rg,„,a. The eastern and .outh-eastem breezes come on generally in the afternoon. They luye advanced .nto the country very sensibly „iZ '" *^ ";™°0' of people now living. They fo merly d,d not penetrate far above WilliamsLrg They are now frequent at Richmond, and every now and then reach the mountains. They dcpo- get that far As the lands become more cleared. «^.s_probab. they will e«e„d still further west- The change, effected in the climat; of the Un.ted States, therefore, must be ascribed to two prmcpal causes: .st, the clearing of the ground! and the openmgs made in the continentalforest wh,ch produce a body of warm air, that is dai y creas,ng : .dly, the introduction of warm wi I through these openings, which dries the col^v -ore rapKlly, and heats the atmosphere me ' Consequently the same thing passes in Arae- nca, as d,d formerly in Europe, and no doubt I Asia, and over the whole ofthe old world, whee ^.story represents the climate as much coldert! ■nerly, than ,t ,s at present. Horace and luvenal ™ent,on the annual freezing of the Tiber whic IS now a stranf^er to \r^ n -^ • 1 hracian Bosphorus, which is no longer a T II hit / ml I l'«^;^ll 214 li ' :i \ likeness : Dacia, Pannonia, the Crimea, and even Macedonia are represented to us as countries of frost equal to ihat of Moscow ; yet at present the olive flourishes in them, and they produce excel- lent wines. Lastly our own Gaul in the days of Caesar and of the emperor Julian had it's rivers frozen every winter, so as tc serve for bridges md highways for several months; buc such occurrences are now rare, and of very short duration*. I cannot agree with Mr. Williams, however, in his opinion of the diminution, which he sup- pos.;s to have taken place in the intensity of the cold since the 17th century. However plausible his reasoning may be, to prove, that the cold of 1633 was more powerful than that of 1782, at- tended with similar circumstances, and that both were the greatest ever known, it is merely hypo- thetical, and cannot supply the want of thermo- metrical observations in 1633 f. We have par- i "i i* • If a fresh alteration in tlio temperature of the ^oainnv, and in the nature of the wind that produces them, hare biicn experienced in iMiince within these ten years, 1 will venture to say, it is because the extensive cutling down ot' ^vood and destruction of forests, occasioned hv the aiiarcliy of the times during the ruvoiiitiun, has disturbed tiie cqui- hbrinni of the air, and tiie direction of the currents. f Thermometers were not used in America till the year 1740, or thereabout. :^^;J 275 dcularly reason to dispute his hypothesis if „,(,- u think .have ptovcd. the noT„t; wind 1 analogy c( a direct experiment made by Dr. Ramsay This physician, having compared ^e observations of Dr. Chalmers, continued fZ „i f '"»• *'"' his own made from .790 to '794, found but half a degree of difference in the ntensityoftheheat: now this quantity is o tnfl.ng, that we must ascribe it to the difference of the instruments , and if the heat, which ou"h! to .ncease, have not varied, it is datura to ^ pose, that the cold remains the same. It IZ] me then that the only circumstances h'he"o demonstrated are, that the winters are shorter the summers longer, and the autumns la r without the cold having abated any thing of f; ■ntensity: and this the last ten years have sum .ently proved. Mr. Mackenzie*, who confi m," the changes I have mentioned, searches for a sT because he has seen these changes display them .«lvcs ,„ places where the land has not yet been ' Vol. Ill, p. 239, T 2 «^^ Mi tnL: 276 cleared : but if these places, which he docs not point out, be in Canada, they serve to support the theory I have advanced ; because, the cuttinp; down of certain screens of wood, on the crests of mountains or ridges in some districts of Kentucky and Genessee, would be sufficient to introduce considerable currents of wind from the south- west into the intcriour of both Upper and Lower Canada. Sufficient attention has never yet been paid to this progress of the aerial currents, that skim the surface of the Earth, or to the effects they produce : but experience and observation will ultimately prove, that they have far greater influence over both local and general temperature than has been su]>posed *. I do not however lij-. pute the possibility of any other cause, equally unknown to Mr. Mackenzie and myself. Whether the climate of the United States be improved by these changes, is another question of much greater importance; and it is nearly an- swered by the comparison Mr. Williams has drawn between it's ancient and present state, which is not very favourable to the latter. Unfortunately * For instance, it is owing to tlieic, that certain disfrif'ts an; continually liable to storms of hail or thunder, wlilk- tlii; country a niile or two ofF is habitually exeinrt iVuia then). 277 h-^ concision h confirmccf by the observations of physicians. Dr. Kibh, wiiose if, n.ir.-^ i"« ^-.e c,i™.e or .•e;„s,vr„i:r:Herir:; an n, „,v, corr«|«ndenco >vith hi, br.tl.rrn canm-t .,v„id .Lclaring. ■ ehat biliom fevers have -•■ry where f„ll„wed tho cutting down of woods, .e cle,r,ng of h„,|., ,„,,,,, ,,^,,.,. 'l>at severa, years culcivation are required, to mi- fR'.'-r them, or make them disappear: tl,at l*uns,e.s and other purely inflammatory diseases, formerly a most the only disorders l woods, an.l from ground newly "■rned up, tliat tt ts unnecessary, ,o enlarge upon • Tl,„ ,1,0 senoral ,y|.« nf ,||,.,,„ ,, h„ „„,,, „ '^""ly ,.ot pcclia, „, A„„.ri,a- l„r i, I,.,. ,. ' "' ""^"- -"ul in ,1,1., „ „. a,„l h [ I "'"'""^ "''- ;™.-».wy ,,,,,, ,,,,:r;:'>:-:;7,xr::-r ■I""" "<'<"IS, ll,a„ ,|,..y „.„r i;„„H., v ''' to the lungs exhalations of this kind, is in reality the primary and radical cause of caries j and that too hot liquors, while they directly dispose the teeth to it, both in themselves and by the subsequent contrast of the cold air, concur still farther by the property they have of debilitating the stomach, and vitiating the digestion. The t'*. ^~V 285 '.ame cannot be laid to the charge of fresh meat Mnce the Tar.r, the savages of North America! he 1 atngon,ans, and all carnivorous animals, as 1.0ns. wolves, dogs, &c., have the tcdh perfectly wh.te and sound. Neither cm we lay the blame on sugar, or sweet things, since the Africans. Hindoos, and all other people, who use or abuse the sugarcane and saccharine fruits, have beautiful teeth .md that even the acid liquors generated by heat [sues acid's d.s di^esuons], an habitual case in hot countries, serve only ,0 clean them. Accord- ing to these remarks, it would be worthy the af- fection of parents, and the wisdom of physicians in every country, to discountenance the use of hot i.quors and salt meats, and in particular to pro- scribe the.r u.e to children anci young persons. Were this done, defluxions arising from changes •n the air, which are but secondary causes of The Jccay of the teeth, would exert but a very slight influe,;c. ° 3. ^.utumnal intermittent fevers, or quotidian ^^gues, tertians, quartans, &c., constitute another class of diseases, that prevail in the United States to ^ degree, of which no idea could be conceived 1 hey are particularly endemic in places recently cleared, m valleys, on the border of waters, either running or stagnant, near ponds, lakes, mill-dams, -arshes, &c. in the antumn of 1796, in a jour- *.;. k >86 I < ncy of more than seven hundred miles, I will ven- ture to say I did not find twenty houses perfectly free from them : the whole course of the Ohio, a great part of Kentucky, all the environs of Lake Eric, and particularly the Gencssee, and it's five or six lakes, the course of the Mohawk, &c., are annu- ally visited by them. Setting off from Fort Cin- cir.niti ( n the 8th of September with the convoy of the paymaster general of the army, major Swan, to go to fort Detroit, about two hundred and fi[fty miles distant, we did not encamp a single night without at least one of the twenty-five of us in company being seized with an intermittent fever. At Grenville, the magazine and head quar- tcrsof the army that had just conquered the coun- try, of three hundred and seventy persons, or thereabout, three hundred had the fever. When we arrived at Detroit, there were but three of our company in health; and the day following both major Swan and I were taken dangerously ill with a malignant fever. This malignant fever an- nually visits the garrison of fort Miami, where it has already more than once assumed the charac- ter of the yellow fever. These autumnal fevers are not directly fatal, but they gradually undermine the constitution, and very sensibly shorten life. Other travellers have observed before me, that in South Carolina, for tww^^^i 2S7 instance, a person i,, as old at fifty, as in Europe at s,xty.five or seventy ; and I have l,eard all the Enghs .men, wuh whom I was acquainted in ,he United States, say, that their friends, who had been settled a few years in the southern ,„• even central states, appeared to them to have er<.wn as old aga,n, as they would have done in England or Scotland. If these (cvers once fix on a person at the end of October, they will not quit him the whole winter, but reduce him to a state of de- p orable weakness and languor. Lower Canada and the cold countries adjacent are scarcely at all subject to them. They are more common in the temperate and flat country, and particularly on the seashore more than on the mountains. I'or tins reason ,t might be supposed, that farmers would coose lands m a high situation , but as the soil is poor and less productive, they prefer the plain. Taught by the Americans to reduce everv thine- to calculation, I have sometimes reasoned with Aem thus < The plain, you say, and the low lands, yield you forty bushels of Indian corn, or twenty of wheat, in a year: the land on the sides of mountains, either in Kentucky or Virginia, produces but half this quantity. Very |ood But in the plain you are ill six months, and on the mountains you are able to work twelve : this ren- 'lers both situations equal, except that on t>,e 28,"^ m ' ^ m mountains you are cheerful and alert, and " health is better than wealth," as poor Richard says j while in tlie plain you are ill and low spirited one hair of the year, and spend the other half in re- covering your strengtli and preparing to go through another six months illness.' * That is true, sir/ said a country clergyman to me f ^e day, ' but in your equation you omit a very important term, a term more weigiity here than perhaps in Europe, the advantage of being six months without having any thing to do.' The clergyman was certainly in the right, for I have frequentlv heard in Vir- ginia, that tiie inhabitants of the coast of Norfolk prefer their aguish situation, abounding in fish and oysters, that cost litde or nothing, to the healthy life of mountainous countries, where a table cannot be supplied without labour. By a similar way of reasoning the favourite re- medy of these patients is what they call bitters, of which brandy, rum, or Madeira wine is the basis : and perhaps the reader will be astonished to learn, that in reality this remedy is one of the most efficacious. 1 have met with several instances in Virginia and Pennsylvania of farmer's families, every person in which, who drank beer or water, was subject to agues, while the master of the house, who used spirituous liquors, and this even to excess, was constantly exempt from them. This t-^ 'm^.-K'^ S89 opinion appears to be generally adopted in Hoi. land likew.se, where smoking tohacco and drink- ing strong l.quors are considered as preservatives ngamst the ague and the elFccts of dampness. I have likewise known two instances, where drying up a small pond and a mill-strean. radically delivered two farn.hes from the annual visitation of autumnal Some observations I made in Corsica, during my residence there in 179a, are so closely con ^^ected with this important subject, that I cannot pass them over in silence. Fevers of th. same kind regularly annoy several military posts in that island every year, and among others the little harbour of San Fiorcnzo, bordering on a pesti- lential marsh of forty five acres. Toward the end of summer, and in the first six weeks of autumn they assume a putrid and malignant character, in' consequence of the intensity of the heat and the exhalations ; and it is necessary to relieve the Trench garrisons every fifteen or twenty days, eiiher wholly or in part, otherwise the soldiers would sink under their serious and ultimately mortal cf- /ects. Our physicians, after trying many reme- dies, remarked, that two posts alone in the whole •sland were absolutely exempt, and that no fever *TlWs unci. ,0 .iHiKovc. ra.hu- thuu coMfim. ,h. ob.tr. '•illOllS llj J), 07/ -j- V ^$ vH m ifm ^'*- r'^f iJl 'J '10 'HI? i rvcr approached forts Vivario and Vit7.ivona on Hogogu.Mio. ChaiKT, as (rc{|urntly happens, rcn- licrcil the sahibrious :ind cvtii curative quality of these two situations more striking. A Swiss ofncei* from the Grisons fell dangrrously ill of the fever at San Kioienzo, and having recpicsted to be re- moved to fort Vivario, the garrison of wliich be- longed to his own regiment, he was restored to life and health in less than a fortnight, 'I'he phy- sician having repeatcil the experiment on some french soldiers in the hospital, it succcetlcd so well, that it is become tiie established practice, to send thither all the desperate cases of fever, which appear to be jiast the power of medicine ; and it is observeil, that the fever has never held out there beyond the eleventh i\.\y. Now these two posts ilifler from all tiic rest, not only in being remote from any marsh or stag- nant: water, but in being placed like two eagle's nests on the chain of mountains, that divides the idand in the midst throughout it's whole length. The elevation of the forts above the sea is about 2300 yards. Their temperature resembles (hat of Norway, or the middle Alps, much more than that <;f the island in general. The greatest heats there never exceed 16" or 17° [68" or 70" F.Jj antl they do not reach this, except in the three .summer inontiis. Tiiey are surrounded by snow a»i for ,/.r« or four month,, and som«i„„ ,„ ,„,h a.<-grc.. as ,„ ,,ave all communication with ,h"m cut OIF ,„r ..,ghe „r ton ..ck,. The ven S .1."^ -s constant. an\|)erim(>ii(s at IMurfinico 111 17!)(), ill I 111- presence of four l',rijj;lisli physicians, from which Jie concluded, that (lie atinosphcric air in that i-shuul contained sixty seven pi.rls of oxyj^en in the hundred. I informed cit. Fourcroy of thi.s rxpcriinent, who supposes, that Konie mistake crept into it. and that life could not loiit^ ho sustained with such a proportion. The ex|)eriinents of liiiiiiboldt iu South America < t)nlirm those of liuropi?. 295 ofEgypt ami Arabia; and likewise to compare the strata of air near the J.'.arth with those of the "'Kklie anc upper regions , for which purpose bal- Oons may he of use. At ,.esent it appears cer- tain, that u, our te.nperarc zones (he air is more pure on heights only because it contains ,norc oxy- gen and a smaller quantity of exhalations ; and in the mstances already mentioned of Vit.avona and Vivano, the speciHc gravity of the oxygen rns -lucU a little exceeds that of the atmos^trict^:! «s not a contradictory circumstance, since the cool- nessof the place must retain and fix it there in pre- ference to the burning coast, from which it would be expelled. Onthc other l,a,ul, r^-ce-nt cKpenments l,av,- provecl. that oxyfj.natccl n.uriatic add gas possesses ■n an en„„e„tcleg,■a.thc■c,„ality„ffreei„gat„,„snh,.. ^c a,r,rom .nfcctious m,asmata, that i,, „f „,'„„. femgaru destroying , he morbiKcgas,es contained ■n .t. Were th,s a mean of preserving from dis- «sc alone, ,t would be a valuable benefit for if, -mphcty and efficacy .• but much remains for .„ CO learn respecting the various species of pernio ™usgasses that float in the air, and their ,n«le of attachng health and life , | say the various sfuus >r,n fact there are some of such a subtile, Ire tl.at no mstrument has hitherto been able ,o detect V 4 Ki' Hf in ki n f m 5 iil^ '•in 29G them. To judge of these gasses by their effects, tliey may be considered as poisons, the particles of which act on the fluids sometimes of the sangui- neous, at other times of the nervous system, in the mode of fermenting leavens, whicli, when applied to a mass, j^roduce in it an intestine motion, the progress of which increases rapidly. 'I he action of difierent gasses, and particularly of the oxyge- nated muriatic, which annihilates life without any shock, and without any warning, not by respiration alone, but even by cutaneous absorption, affords an example of activity, that may not be confined to these. To such causes must be ascribed tliose epidemics, the attack of which is so sudden in cer- tain constitutions of the atmosphere, and in certain countries : and as to febrile diseases, particularly those accompanied with shivering fits and periodi- cal accessions, if we recollect, that in their regular returns of twelve, twenty four, thirty six hours, &c., they pursue a course similar to that of several es- sential functions of life, as sleep, hunger, &c., we shall be led to believe, that the focus of perturba- tion is neirJk r in the first passages, nor in the blood, but in the immediate organ of vitality, the nervous system. It is by some unknown action on the fluid by which the medullary part of the nerves is moistened, tliat fever in general displays itself so IW iiiL 297 MidcJenly, requiring only an exposure to die fervent rays of the Sun, a current of cold air, a shower of rain, or a sudden transition from heat to col 1, or the contrary. If we add, that it maiiifcsts Vtself particularly in seasons and in places subject to vi- cissitudes of heat and cold ; tJiat itself is nothing but a sensation of alternate cold and heiti that the sweat following the paroxysm is a particular symp- tom of every contraction of the nerves ; the focus I have pointed out will acquire an additional de- gree of probability : and then the mechanism of contagions will become evident and simple, since the lungs and interiour part of the nose bring an immense body of nerves into immediate contact with the miasmata, that float in the air inhaled in respiration ; and we shall understand why drugs and remedies, swallowed in a liquid or a soltd form, are less efficacious in curing fevers, particu- larly of the autumnal kind, than change of air and the respiration of the oxygenated atmosphere of Vitzavona and Vivario. §IV. OfihcridloxvFeicr. The disease too well known by the name of yel- low fever grows more and more common in the *ia* \ 2.0 S United States ; and I shall speak of it at some length on account of the importance of the sub- ject. Besides, as I was originally intended for the practice of physic, the studies of my younger days enabled me to reason upon this disorder with pro . fessional men, and discuss »■''? »'ario'j'} opinions en- tcrtaincd concerning it, th. ih the diffidence becoming one who has only :.ud a glimpse of tiic extensive career. Had I not been thus far quali- fied, I should have refrained from meddling with the subject : for to talk of physic without having studied the art, is like discoursing of astronomy, mechanics, or military skill, without any prelimi- nary information. Nay, it would be possible to reason better on these sciences, as their principles are fixed a. .a simple j while those of physic, though they possess a certain degree of regularity, are subject to complex and variable circumstances, that require a delicacy of tact, an accuracy of com- prehension, a promptitude of application, the diffi- culty of which constitutes their merit. To say, as we hear people daily, that every thing in physic is chance and conjecture, is an absurdity the more glaring, because these very persons begin with a confession, that they know nothing of the matter: but how can a man form any judgment on a sub- ject, of which he is wholly ignorant ? Accordingly 4 of it at some cc of the sub- itended for the r younger days )rder with pro • vi". opinions en- ! the diffidence glimpse oftiic thus far quail- meddling with /ithout having of astronomy, c any prclimi- be possible to ieir principles se of physic, of regularity, :ircumstances, iracy of com- tion, the diffi- . To say, as g in physic is lity the more begin with a f the matter: nt on a sub- Accordingly i'99 at iht least scratch these Galens born send for the physician, happy while waidn- his arrival if they can procure a nurse, who is herself an oucliiie of medical science, in consequence of the facts and observations she has collected by practice. Luc to return to the yellow fever. The name of this disease is derived from one of It's characteristic symptoms, a deep lemon colour which, m the di.solved state of the humours, the eyes first acquire, and then the skin all over the body. It is called by the French/rz;r. or mal d, ^tam, th^ Siam feva- or sickness, either because it hrst came from that country, or because the co- lour of ,t\s ii)habitants much resembles ih?t of people who labour under it. The Spaniards call It zomtio preto, the Mack vom,t, from another severe symptom by which it is distinguished. The most common and general symptoms are the following which succeed each other rapidly in the short space before the disease decides itself for life or death (commonly three days). Some days preceding the attack there is a Ge- neral sense of lassitude, pains in the limbs, droV siness, and sometimes stupor. The fever declares Itself by a violent fieadach, particularly over the eyesandbehindtheirorbits:thepatientcomplainsof pains along the spine of the back, in the arms, and in thclegs: great heat and shivering alternately succeed i^ »'a Soo !dl i * I j(/ <'iich other. Tlie skin is dry, burning hot, aial frequently marked with spots, first reddish, then violet coloured : the white of the eyes is blood- shotten, and moistened with a shinino; dew: respi- ration is oppressetl, with freciucnt sigiis, and die air emitted fi-om the lungs is burning hot: the pulse is various, according to tiie constitution of the patient and different circumstances : in general it is hard, frequent, irregular, and even intermit- tent ; if it resemble the natural state, the danger is greater : faintings and deafness at the com- mencement of the disorder are likewise a threat- ening symptom : tlie thirst is great ; the tongue, at first red, becomes covered with a blackish fur, M-hich grows fetid. The patient complains of a violent heat at the stomach : the vomitings change from slimy to the most corrosive acici, sometime. without bili», more Tcquently with green and yel- low bile, and tlien a blackish matter like the dregs of ink or grounds of coffee, with a smell of rotten eggs, and so acrid, that the throat is excoriated by- it : frequently constipation takes place, at other times there is a blackish diarrhoea. TIic disorder has now run through the inflam- matory stage, in consequence of which the fluids are decomposed : the fever seems to abate, but it is in consequence of the decline of the vital powers themselves : the puLe becomes small, convulsive, h? =1 m sot depressed : the pat.ent is restless, uneasy, some- times delirious : the colliquative and fetid stools, and the black vomit like coflee-grounds, weaken the patient more and more by their copiousness ml abundance : he affects the ominous p(,sitioti of lywg on the back, rntstng up the biees, and sliding down toward the foot of the bed : the eyes become yellow, and then the skin of the whole body : at this period the dissolution of the fluids is com- l)Iete. If ihc patient were bled at the beginning of the disorder, the cicatrices grow soft and open again : gangrene and sj^hacelus attack the solids, and display themselves every where with that noi- some smell, which announces the approach of death. The yellow fever has been long known in the hot and marshy parts of South America, and in the archipelago of the West India islands. In- stances of it were frequent at Carthagena, Porta Hello, la Vera Cruz, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Do- mingo, and Martinico. Even Louisiana, and the coasts of the Floridas, of Georgia, oftheCaroli- nas, and of Virginia, came in for their share, ow- ing to the same causes, heat and moisture. Kew Orleans, Pensacoln, Savannah, Charlestown, and Norfolk, w(>rc seldom fcnir or five years without some attack from it. It seems as if the Potow- niack were it's boundary, since toward the conclii- I li I ?..%. 303 sion of the last cfntiiry only the years' 1740 and 1762 were mentioned, in which it had appeared to the north of that river, first at New York, then at PliiladcJphia : but subsequently to the year 1790 it's visits have been so otten repeated, and so fatal, that it stems to have naturalized itself tlicre as well as in the south. Some single cases occurred at New York in 1790: in 1791 it be- came an epidemical scourge of that city, and left traces of irstlf there in 1792. The following year, 179?, it ravaged Philadelphia as a pcsti- lence i and it's germes, there deposited or revived, displayed themselves ag;iin in the summer of 1794 and 1795. It attacked New York afresh in 1794 and 179';, Philadelpliia in 1^97, and at the same period it laid v;asre Baltimore, Norfolk, Charles- town, and Newbury-Port. It's harbingers had sliown themselves at ShefHeld, and even at Bos- ton. Otiier instances besides ar'^ mentioned i one at Ilarrisburg in 17 93, another a. Baltimore, and one at Oneida in Genesee j to whicn I might add several cases at the English fort on the Miami of lake Erie. The Amci lean physicians, to whom this disease was new, had to invent a method of cure adapted to their climate and the constitutions of the people. Unfortunately, I will venture to say, most of them were too ready to suppose, that they had found it i^^iS3S^ilefr<: im^mim^ li: K 303 '•n the thcol-etlcal principles of Brown, whose doc irines were embraced by many in the United States with the cnthuMa ,m of disciples. This system which accounts for every thing by two simple states of direct and indirect debility, and the sub- traction or application of stimuli likewise direct and indirect, made so many the more proselytes, because it possessed that pereniptory and decisive character, of which youth are enamoured, and dis- penses with the slowness of experience, so dreaded by idleness at all ages. Reasoning then with this dangerous confidence of certainty, which excludes doubt and observation, they have commonly admi- nistered the most active tonics and cordials at the commencement of the disorder; pretending, that it was necessary to rouse the sinking powers, when the object should have been, m relax the overtense hbres : to these they added the most stimulant drastic purgatives, to expel the morbific humours when these humours were not yet in a state of con- coction. This treatment was particularly employed at Philadelphia in the fatal year of 179.. The most general practice of the physicians of that city was, to administer twenty or five and twentv grains of jalap ; ten or fifteen grains of calomel ; or even gamboge ; and all of these in repeated doses. For drink, they ordered camomile, mint, or cinnamon 304 tea, and Madeira wine to the quantity of more than a pint * a day. Now it is well kno'.vp, that a portion of brandy enters into tlic original fabrica- tion of the best Madeira. Besides, in the months of aiigu-.t and seprember, and in a climate where Reaumur's thermomerer is at 25" [38° F.] with calm and suffocating weatiur, the sick were kept closely shut up in their chambers j two or three blankets were laid on \\\i:\v feather-beds ; and some- times a fire was kept in their rooms : the v">bjectof which was peremptorily to force a sweat, siill more obstinately refused by the inflammatory and parched state of the whole system. The consequences of this treatment were such as might have been expected ; a mortality alarming by die numbers it destroyed, and the celerity with which they were carried off: few survived the third day, and not two out of fifty recovered. All had symptoms of gangrenous sufrocation, the natu- ral consequence of an inflammation cherished : ter- rour seized every mind : the disease was looked upon as contagious and pestilential, and it's attack as incurable. Some physicians, who had obtained considerable weight through their wit and acti- vity, confirmed this pernicious rumour even in the *Jfthe French j)int ho here meant, it should pruhalily have been translated bottle, as the French piul is ec|ual to our quart. T. 305 public papers. Every sick person was deserted, the husband by his wife, parents by their children, and even children by their parents. The houses for- ^aken j^mained noisome with the stench of the dead. Government interposed, first to 'compel the removal of every corpse, and then to oblir^e th, sick to be conveyed to the hospital. Hous°es were marked with chalk, as in a time of proscrip- tion, and the distracted inhabitants fied to the neigh- bouring villages ; or encamped in the open coun- tryy as if their city had been taken by an enemy. In this stare of affairs, Chance ordained thar some French physicians and surgeons, fleeing from Cape Fran?ai.-, then laid waste by fire should seek an asylum on the continent : one of them, guided to Philadelphia *, happened to be called to a patient; and applying to the disorder similar cases to which he had seen in St. Domingo* the treatment of the French school, he obtained such success as attracted the notice of the govern- ment, and occasioned him to be placed at the hc-id of the hospital at Bush Hill. The account of hi, method of curef, published by him the year fol- lowing, does equal honour to his heart and head ^1 » l« * i^^' Mf » / , ^ ■ 1* 1 k ' =i "- i m f>\ * Mr. Jo/h. dt Ve/.o, fbrmerlv a distingui.hnl sur great reputation at Cape J-raii(jai.s. surgeon o| ' See Inquiries and Observe ttiioiis cniuTiniii!^ the cpidu- X 306 since it spread new and salutary ideas throughout the country. It appears by this tract, that he con- tiidcrs the disorder as divided into three stages, which ought not to be confounded with each other, but which sometimes proceed with such rapidity, that the physician has scarcely time to distinguish them. The first is a state of violent inflammation, complicated with turgidity of the brain, and ner- vous spasm, requiring sedatives and relaxants, not tonics. The second is a state of dissolution and separation of the fluids, the combination of which has been broken by the inflammatory heat. This can be terminated only by the evacuation of the fluids, that are become unfit for vital circulation, and injurious to it : and in this stage art should be contented to assist the crisis, by following nature rather, than stepping before her. Lastly, the third is a state of recornposition and recombination, in which the physician has only to superintend the re- gimen of the convalescent. In consequence, at the commencement of the diijorder, he took away small quantities of blood, if the patient were plethoric : he administered di- luents, acidulous aromatic drinks, and obtained happy effects from liquors impregnated with car- mic Disorder, that lias ravaged Philaddpliia from ;iugii,st to dec-ember !703; 8vo, 11-j pages, iit Ircuch aud Euiilisli. Pliilad.'lpliia, 1704. I from .'lUffiist to 307 borne acid. He tried what kind of drink was most agreeable to that capricious organ the stomach • he fomfied the mind against the idea of contagion, the existence of which he positively denied through- out the whole of the epidemic. Me admitted fresh air, and did not provoke sweating, which, he ob- serves. Nature scarcely ever employs as the me- dium of a crisis. When this preliminary treatment had moderated the fever, he made it his. business in the second stage to watch Nature's attempts for effeetino a crisis, and choosing some organ for it's seat. Com- rnonly ,, was by extensive suppurations: these he favoured, and endeavoured to guide by the exter- nal application of vesicatories and cataplasms while mternally he aide F.] excite an evident fermentation in these heaps of animal and vegetable matter, and disengage from them miasmata, which every thing indicates to be the destroyers of health. These physicians have remarked, that the epidemic redoubled it's fury if the weather were damp, or the wind south-east or even north-east j that it was diminished by the cold and dryness of the north-west wind, and even by the copious rains of the south-west : that in the difference of years the fever selected those, in which the heats of summer were accompanied with most dryne s and calm in the air; no doubt because then the accumulated miasmata exercised .Taarj:* :;i^^ r^' 312 a more powerful action on the lujigs, and by their means on the whole circulation. Lastly, they have demonstrated, that in the choice of subjects it attacks in preference the badly fed and dirty inhabitants of the suburbs and quarters abounding in filth and marshes ; workmen exposed to the heat of fires, as smiths and jewellers ; and those who were addicted to spirituous liquors : ob- serving, that frequently the yellow fever has im- mediately succeeded a fit of drunkenness ; that it attacks also more particularly people of full, san- guine, robust habits, adults of warm constitutions, foreigners from northern climates, blacks, and men debilitated by libertinism : that it spares fo- reigners from hot countries, people temperate in drinking and more particularly in eating i they who are in easy circumstances, cleanly in their persons, living more on vegetable than animal food, and residing in paved, airy streets, and high situ- ations. Farther, following the malady even to the places pointed oMt as the cradle and focus of it's origin, they have demonstrated, that even in the West Indies, in the islands of Grenada, Martinico, St. Domingo, and Jamaica, the yellow fever arose only where the same circumstances were combined i that it shows itself only in certain places and par- ticular years, exactly similar to the cases men- m ■M tioned in the United States; tliat places where there is neither marsh nor filth, as St. Kit's, St. Vfncent's, Tobago, and Barbadoes, are consL^ndy healthy : that, if the iever have appeared at Sr. George's, in Grenada, and at Fort Royal, in Mar- tinico, it was at the careenage, near noisome marshes, and at a time when a superabundance of vessels, and the excessive dryness of- the season, had contributed to the developement of ferments: that, if it's appearance in the cities of New York, Baltimore, and Philadelphia, had been owing only to importation, it must have been brought to them habitually from Norfolk and Charlestown, with which they had an extensive intercourse, and where the combination of all the causes above-mentioned rendered it almost endemic every summer. The facts, on which these conclusions are found- ed, are dispersed through different tracts, publish- e(< from 1794 to 1798, the time when I left the United States*. * See the Report of the physicians of Philadelphia to th R-overnor of Peansylvauia: tliat of Mr. Rich. Ijayiey to tl le ic governor of New York : ,he Inquiry into the Cause of ti. Prevalence of the Yellow Fever in New York, by Dr Va- leuUue Seaman : Dr. Rush's Medical Inquiries and Obser- servat.on.s : a lctt«r from Dr. C. David.on. on the Keappear- :inceof the Yellow Fever at Martiuico in 1796: Ori-in of t'ic Pestilential Fever that prevailed in the Wand of Grenada 314 i4l la' •! Pj ■ I • , ' % It is impossible to read them attentively, and not be struck with the constant harmony and cor- respondence, that every where exist between the primary and secondary causes, mediate or imme- diate, the concomitant circumstances, and the effects, either isolated, or combined into a series. Every where we find the fever originating and in- creasing in the compound ratio of the heat of the atmosphere, of it's continued dryness or tempo- rary humidity, of it's calmness, of the vicinity and extent of marshes, and especially of the accumu- lated heaps of animal matter, forming a focus of putrefaction and deleterious effluvia. We even see the fevers are more or less violent according to t]\t intensity of all these causes : if there be only excess of heat, without masses of putrefaction, and without marshes, they are simply of the inflamma- tory kind, that is scarlatina and bilious fever, with- out any complication of malignity : if there be muddy marshes, unimpregnated with animal mat- ter, the miasmata occasion putrid sore-throat, the severe bilious vomitings caWtd cholera morbus, and in 1793 and 1794., by Dr. E. II. Smith : an Inaugural Dis- sertation on the. BiJious Malignant Fever, by S. Browu : Ac- count of the Bilious Fever and Dysentery tliat prevailed at Shellieid, in Massachusetts, by Dr. ^V. Bud : and lastly tlio very interesting Collection of Letters on the Fevens ot'viiri- OU.S Places, ()ubli>li.'d by Noah Webster of Xcw \\>vk. k.iiiv 3li destructive dysenteries : if ,o these be added accu- mulations ot putrefyinganimal matter, the disorder becomes complicated with symptoms, that always uenote the nervous system to be affected by a kind of poison : when the evil is at ifs m.,:i„um, all the other degrees have a tendency ,r> assimilate with it Whence it follows, that fevers may be graduated and measured by the degrees of the thermometer and intensity of putrid miasmata ; and that in the course of the same summer and autumn we ma, follow their progress and affinity from simple syno- cha to the plague, which is but the last degree in the scale, and the »«/„,»» of these causes united. In such a state of things it is evident, that every country, where heat and centres of putrefac- tion are united to a sufficient degree, will be capa- ble of engendering all i hese diseases. I had already ..nagmed, that I had observed in Egypt and Syria a heat of 24" of Reaumur [86° F.] to be the point « which a febrile disposition and commotion of a destructive kind, denoted by the term o(,nalig„a., fevers, took place in the blood : and it was with surprise and pleasure I saw the same opinion had been suggested to Dr. G. Davidson, at Martinico. by similar facts ; and that he thought with me, that e ting out from this degree, equal to 86" of fahrenheit, the characters of malignity and conu- 3 -A-'iJr ■ sib gion arc exalted as the heat rises, till at length they form the plague. Through the means of the writings and facts I have quoted, these principles have acquired such a degree of evidence in the United States, that a very great majority of the physicians of New York, Boston, Baltimore, Norfolk, and Charlestown have joined in declaring, that the yellow fever might and actually did arise in the United States. The college of Philadelphia alone has persisted in af- firming it's iniportai ion j and this opinion, v/hicli has in it's favour the advantage of precedence in the minds of the common people, will long have parrisafjs in every class Irom several very potent motives : as ist. Because it flatters national vanicy, and many persons want only a pretext, to authorize their own. idly. Because it fav(nirs the interest of jobbers in the sale of lands, and the emigracion of foreign- ers to a country, which enjoys the privilege of not engendering fever. It is true, that, if it be so apt to receive it by inoculation, the case is almost as bad 5 but the partisans of it's importation cannot take a joke, and I have found many Americans, who were seriously put out of temper by contra- diction on this subject. 3dly, Because those physicians, who first f st?,- i ) "Wi blished this belic>f, are so engaged by self-love or supposed conviction*, that they have almost prohi- bited tothemselves tht least modification ofitiand because they ..uve made tlie government take mea- sures so decisive, and so burdensome to commerce, thati^ they were now found to have been adopted * Tlu' reader may judge of this by the doctrine of one of. »he professor* oi' lJ,e greatest sway in Philadelpl.in, Avhich he pixrnulgufed i„ a iortur(. tliat closed his course, and which "as reLtcd to nu: immediately by some of his auditors. After ha\ing recapitulated the methods taugiit during the uintrrof 17!}7, and among o.licrs that of bleeding as far as a hundred ounces in various cases of yellow fever, he said to h.s pupils : • gentlemen, we are now about to separate, and you are going to be dispersed over the vast surface of the Lnited States : spread every where the truths you have luard in this jilaco. Vou n ill meet with contradictors, with '■iiemios ! resist them courageously, and be persuaded, that '>y firnjncss and constancx you will render th.; true doctrine ' fiiumphant.' Ite et evangelizato. Assuredly if th. 're be n dangerous doctrine, imrtlcularly ill the art of physic, it is that whuh exrludes philosophic doubt, without which the miud remains closed against M instruction, all correction of crnmr: and this doctrine ii i'cirticulariy pernicious to young persons, iu whom the desire of knowing and the want of believing are associated with rlie uaiit of loving, and who attach thunselvcs to opinions in conseipience of their attad.iiucnfs to masters. Accordingly one of the most fertile sources of errour, fanuticism. and misery, has been, and still is, i .at fatal musulman principle of education, adopted in every species of tuition. . m \k SIS without reason, tlic authors would infhilibly incur ill-will. Ycc I consider those offices of health or lazarcttoes in the ports of the United States as a wise institution, particularly if the Americans trade up the Mediterranean and in the Levant. 4thly, and lastly, because the contagious and almost pestilential character, which is joined with the prejudice of importatfon, very happily excuses the want of success of those, whose patients ve^ seldom recover. While I adopt the opinion of those physicians, who consider the yellow fever as an indigenous product of the United States, I am far from incul- pating the intention of those, who support the op- poslte side of the question : but I consider the doctrine of importation as dangerous and Impru- dent i both on account of the dogmatic and intole- rant tone It has assumed, so far as to attack do- mestic liberty and security, and to compromise the government ; and because, in urging extrava- gant external measures, it has rendered men Indif- ferent to iiiternal steps of far greater necessity, that flow directly from the opposite opinion. As to the question of it's contagious character,! can neither admit the absolute negative mentioned by some physicians, nor the general and con- stant case supposed by several others. The latter is controverted by too many incontestible facts: 319 and the former, that is the negative, seems to me inconMstent with the very origin of the disonier; for ,f marsh miasmata and putrid matters possess the property of exciting it, surely a fortiori the miasmata of an infected human body must have this quahty. their affinity with the living fluids be- •'ig much greater. Accordingly It was remarked .itlhiladdphiaini797, that several families, on returning from the country to their houses in town, wi which some persons had been sick or died, without taking care to purify it from infection, were immediately seized with the disorder, not- withstanding the weather was cold, and it had dis, '-appeared. At Norfolk it was a still more general remark, that they who had removed from the city were more exposed to catch tJ,e disorder, than uicy who remained constantly in it's atmosphere • and this case corresponds with that of stran-ers' particularly from the north, who were observc'd at hdadelphia, New York, &c., to be particularly liable to attack. The men of theory endeavour to explain thi. singularity by saying, that strangers are more sus- ceptible of th, fever in consequence of a super- abundance of oxygen being infused into the blood hy the purer air of Europe or the country. But not to mention that this superabundance of oxygen 1^ merely hypothetical, the ideas we have of oxv-en If i>i I, J., r \ , -Hi; ,it u 320 gas, essentially conducive to health, are so contrary toit, thatwe have aright to demand stronger proofs j and to assert, as they do, that oxygen is more abun- dant in low situations than in high, is a new suppo- sition in chymistry, so much the less admissible, as the most learned chymists in Europe consider the contrary as proved. It is not oxygen, that their ex- periments have shown them to be disengaged from marshes and putrid matters, but carbon, hydrogen, andazot: it even appears, that the combination of the first two of these gasses has the specific pro- j'erty of generating intermitting and remitting fe- vers, and that these do not become putrid but by the addition of azot to the compound. Farther study no doubt will unfold the action of all these morbific gasses : at present, the best indi- cations of cure appear to be : i, to counteract the inflammation, which is the first stage of the disor- der, by diluents and refrigerants : perhaps baths at such a temperature as to excite a slight shivering* would be among the most efficacious, employed on the first suspicion of the disorder, and continued for eight or ten hours. I leave it to the masters of the art, to decide on very cold baths, even near the freezing point, from which some American * Of 10- or 150 ^550 ^,. Q^,j according to the feehngsof tue patient. 321 physicians assert they have obtained £.ood effects • It IS certain, that in cases of phren:sy they have sometimes effected astonishing cures , but the period of their application lias a decisive influence since their effect in the inflammatory staae is very different from what it would be in the succeeding I'Jie remedies employed against asphixy too may be of use, since deleterious gasses appear to act a part in the disease. The essential object is, to prevent inflammation from increasing to such a degree, as to decompose the fluids; for in this case nothing can prevent the disorder from runnin- through all it's three stages. Accordingly the first few hours are decisive, and require all the celeritv possible, and in rhem taking away blood in small quantities may be of great utility. An all-powerful preservative is the most rigid abstinence*, with aqueous drinks, as soon as a sensation of heaviness ;s felt, with lassitude, and loss of appe.ite : and it must be continued strictly two or tiiree days till the calls of hunger return, and both mind and body resume their wonted alacrity. With regard to general preservatives, applica- ble to the cities of the United States, these depend on the central government, and consist : "e Approach of A.-.te Disoases, I,y i;,,. :m;„,, ,j "' ^ow York Medical i^po.ituo^ .d, E^,., V,/;,;,'' ''•' ,r /-n ; }\ y< A'H 333 1. In regulating the strictness of quarantine, as well authenticated cases of disorders imported in ships may require. Vessels from the Mediterra* ncan demand most attention. 2. In prohibiting the abuse of the pretended right of property, and of the liberty of individuals, who in the vicinity, nay evtn in the heart of great cities, fill up low grounds with filth, and even car- rion. The Americans boast of their cleanliness J but I can assert, that the quays of New York and Philadelphia, with certain parts of the suburbs, ex- ceed in public and private nastiness any thing I ever beheld in Turkey, where the air has the ad- vantage of salubrious dryness. 3- In establishing regulations of police, hitherto unadopted or neglected, for the paving of the streets, suburbs, and even hearts of cities. It has been observed in Europe, that the great epidemics of Paris, Lyon, London, and other very populous cities, have ceased since the establishment of a ge- neral and regular pavement. 4. In preventing any stagnant water, accumula- tion of putrid matters j in removifig from the heart of cities extensive burying-grounds, the pestilential use of which is generally retained with superstitious respect. Philadelphia has four vast cemeteries in the handsomest quarter of the city, of the smell of which I was very sensible in summer. > M^ and ft has not one walk planted with salutary verdure. 5. In obliging the cities to wall and pave their privies, which in their present state communicate so directly through a sandy soil with the wells, tqually left destitute of walls, tliat on the mehing of the snow in winter, and during the droughts of sum- mer, the water in both may be seen to assume the same kvd. It is so true, that the water drunk in the lower parts of the city receives filtrations from the cemeteries and privies, that in Front street I found the water in my decanters become ro^^, if kept three days in the month of may, and at length acquire a cadaverous stench*. Lastly, the government, while It directs the at- tention of the inhabitants of the United States to these objects of domestic concern, should promote their being properly instructed with respect to one of the most essential and most radical causes of all their diseases, I mean their dietetic regimen which in consequence of their origin they have de- rived from the English and Germans. I will ven^ * Sinro my departure, Philadelpl.in is indebted to the ta- Icnts of the engineer Mr. Latrobe- Bonnevai (..r a steam-en- ffiiK", which supplies it vvitli tiio waters oftlie .Schuylivih' \ siuular unprovenient has taken place at New Yor.. ; and it i^ to be wished, that the inhabitants of other parts would naitat<' such a salutary example. V 2 J 'J .tJ 324 tiirc to say, that, if a prize were proposed for the scheme of a regimen most calculated to injure the stomach, the teeth, and the health in genera], no better could be invented than thai of the Ameri- cans. In the morning at breakfast, they deluge their stomach with a quart of hot water, impreg- nated with tea, or so slightly with coffee, that it is mere coloured water: and they swallow, al- most without chewing, hot bread, half baked, loast soaked in butter, cheese of the fattest kind, slices of salt or hung beef, ham, &c., all which are nearly insoluble. At dinner they have boiled pastes under the name of puddings, and the fattest are esteemed the most delicious : all their sauces, even for roast beef, are melted butter: their turnips and potatoes swim in hog's lard, butter, or fat : under the name t)fpie, orpumkin, their pastry is nothing but a greasy paste, never sufficiendy baked : to digest these viscous substances, they take tea almost in- stantly after dinner, making it so strong, that it is absolutely bitter to the taste j in which state it af- fects the nerves so powerfully, that even the En- glish find it brings on a more obstinate restlessness than coffee. Supper again introduces salt meats, or oysters : as Chatelux says, the whole day passes in heaping indigestions on one another : and to give tone to the poor relaxed and wearied sto- mach, they drink Madeira, rum, French brandy, 3 325 gin, or malt spirits, which complete the ruin of the nervous system. Such a regimen might agree with the Tatars, the primitive stock of the Germans and Anglo- saxons, who used none of these dangerous stimuh'. Their equestrian and erratic life rendered and still renders them capable of digesting any thing : but when nations change their climate, or by the pro- gress of civiHzation become wealthy and idle, they experience as a whole the changes that take place m individuals. The ploughmen or mechanics of England and Germany may live on the diet of their ancestors without inconvenience : but it is not the same with the inhabitants of cities; still less with those, who, emigrating from their cold and damp climate, settle in hot countries like Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, &c. Even the power of na- tive habit is incapable of naturalizing a system es- sentially repugnant to a climate. Accordingly, of all the people of Europe we see the Englith are least able to resist the effects of tropical climes : and if their descendants the Americans do not alter their old habits in this respect, they will experi- ence the same inconveniencies. It is so true, that their regimen is one of the grand predisposing causes of disease, and of the yellow fever, that in the height of the epidemics a 5.ingle case never appeared within the confines of Y3 (k a f^ ll I the prison at Philadelphia : and this evidently be- cause the system of diet there is regulated by a scale of temperature, affording no opportunity for overloading the stomach, and consequently for a depravation of the fluids. The abuse of spirituous liquors in particular is totally banished from this admirable establishment j an abuse so general in the United States, that drunkenness is a vice as prevalent in diem as among the savages. To suppose, that the manners and tastes of a nation in all these particulars may be speedily and easily changed, is a mistake, into which I shall not fall : I have too well learned to know the automa- tism of mankind, and the mechanical force of what is called habit : but 1 think, that a government, were it to take half the pains to enlighten the peo- ple, and guide their understanding, that are so fre- quently employed to mislead them, would obtain a degree of success, of which those who despise them have no conception. If the people be ignorant and foolish, it is because tlieir ignorance and folly are so studiously cherished : and even supposing, that a generation grown old in bad habits would not have sufficient energy to correct ihem, it would nevertheless be capable, out of affection for it's children, to establish a system of education, calcu- lated to procure them a happiness, of which it felt itself deprived. |.\ I V 327 I shall conclude this article, which such a wish has tempted me to prolong, by a remark on the cause that excited the yellow fever preci ly ^uice the period of 1790. This cause appears to me to be the sudden increase of the maritime cities of the United States, and New York among the rest, owing to the effects of the French war, and the disturbances in the West Indi;i islands. The sudden influx of transferable property, monied capitals, and fugitive emigrants, into the - cities, gave rise to a number of hasty buildings, and the employ- ment of ground unprepareu, which have occa- sioned a kind of revolution. Trade has diffused among the people wealth before unknown : and the workman, who has gained a dollar and half or two dollars a day ; the farmer, who has sold his flower at eight, twelve, or fourteen dollars a barrel, instead of four or five ; have indulged themselves in gratifications," of which the favourite and most coveted has been the use of wine and brandy. Thus at the period when the ferments of putridity and inflammation occurred, men's bodies were more disposed to receive the impression, and intempe- rance, incaution, and dirtiness, produced their con- stant and customary effects. Such are the chief characters of the soil and cli- mate of the United States, of which I have traced as accurate a picture, as a model so various in it's Y 4 ■ Till ilfTHIM,., ? i i/i i » t •#'(1 328 extent, and so subject to local exceptions, will ad- mit. It remains now with the reader, to form his own judgment respecting the advantages and in- convenlencies of a country become so celebrated, and destined by it's geographical situarion, as well as it's political genius, to act so important a part on the stage of the World. I so mucJi the less l^retend to influence tlie opinion of otiicrs in this respect by giving my own, because I have fre- quently experienced, that on this subject more than any other the tastes of people diflcr accoruing to the feelings anil prejudices of iiabit. Frequently Iiave I heard opinions totally oj)positc advanced in companies of travellers in the United States from the various parts of Europe. I'he Dane and the Knglishman lind fault with the heat of a climate, that appears moderate to the Spaniard and Vene- tian : the Polander and the native ol" Provence complain of humidity, where the Dutchman finds both tlie air and the soil a little too dry : opinions obviously arising from comparison with the native antl accustomed climate of the individual. Still ii is true, tliat all Europeans agree in condemning the extreme variableness of the weather from cold to hot, and from hot to cold : but the Americans, who consider this reproach aimost as a personal offence, already defend their climate as their pro- perty, and liave three powerful motives of partiality to it. ^ ^'' ;;-_';) 'I'liese are individual sell-Jove, common to all men, a/id national vanity, which is every day irnmincr greater : a Juibit contracted from the cra- dle, and become a second nature : and a pecuniary interest as dear to the state as to individuals, that of selling land, and attracting toreign purchasers ajid foreign capitals. With such motives it would be difficult to per- suade them, that the United States are not the best country in the World : yet if the emi-rant who wishes to settle, collect opinions from state to' ^tate, the inhabitant of the southern will deter iiim from fixing in those of the north by the Jen-th of the winters the hardships of the severe cold" the expenses thence arising for his dwelling, clothes hring, cS^c; the necessity of keeping his cattle in a stable half the year, and consequently of culti- vating and laying in a stock of fodder, buiklin- barns, &c. ; and lastly by the moderate {produce o7 the soil. The inhabitant of the north on the con- trary, boasting his health and activity, the effects of the coldness of his climate, the poorness of his l^md, and the necessity of labour, will decry the southern states for the insalubrity of their marshes ami nce-grounds; the torment of their insects, llKs and moschettoes ; the frequency of their fe- vers; the intensity of their heat, the indolence and feebleness of constitution tnence arising, nnd producing idle habits, a di.sinated life, abu-c of t I ^fi >i S30 li luors, love of gambling, &c., all of them pro- moted likewise by the very richness of the soil and abundance of it's (vi oducc. At the same time the inhabitant of Carolina will agree with him of Maine in decrying the central states, as liable to the inconveniences of both extremes without en- joying their advantages. Accordingly at Phila delphia I have heard Catoiinians complain of heat, and Canadians of cold, because the people there know not how to takr proper precautions against either. Lastly, if in a district of acknowledged unhealthiness the emigrant is desirous of precise information, every inhabitant assures him, that the focus of insalubrity is not on his farm, but a neigh- bour's, and that the fever comes to him from a fo- reign soil. The fact is, every individual, every nation, while they complain of thc^r "^oil and situation, not- withstanding prefer their country, their city, their farm, from self-love, from interest, and above all from a motive less felt, though far more potent, that of habit. The Egyptian prefers his Nile, the Arab his scorching sands, the Tatar his open wilds, the Huron his immense forests, the Hindoo his fertile plains, the Samoiede and Eskimo the bar- ren and frozen shores of their northern seas : nei- ther of them would forsake would change his na- tive soil, and this solely from the force of that ha- ^#.^!feS-^, >j.t 1 bit, or which so much is said, but all the magic power of which is never known, till we quit our own circle, to experience the cflccts of fore m i.a- bits. ^ Habit is a physi'nl and moral atmosphere, which we breathe without perceiving it, and the peculiar and distin;ruis|,ing (juuiiiics of which we cannot know, but by breathing a di/ll-rent air Accordingly they vvho possess the greatef^t under- ^'^and.ng, if they would talk of the habits of others without ever having stepped out of their own, that IS in fact of sensations th< y have never experienced are in reality no more than blind men discoursing of colcurs. And as backwardness in passing such judgments con ,tituccs that rational ^,pirit, so mud decried by the blind and hypocritical under the name of the spirit of philosophy, I shall content myself u'ith saying, that in comparison with the countries 1 have seen, and without renouncing the prejudices of my own feeliiigs, and native constitution, the- climate of Egypt, S>ria. France, and all the coun- tries bordering on the Mediterranean, api,ears to me fur superiour in goodness healthiness, and pleasantnr-.s, to that of the United States- that Within the circuh of the United States them'^lves' had I to make a d. .> on the Atlantic coast ■' would be the point of R' -.de Island or 'the South-west chain in Virginia between the Rappa I ri i» * H 3 Ji i \ ' w. 332 hannock and ilie Roanoak j in the western coun- try, it vvoukl be the borders of Lake Erie, a hun- dred years hence, when they will have ceased to be annoyed with fever ; but at present, on the faith of travellers, it would be those hills of Georgia and Florida, that arc not to leeward of any mar>Iu H' ^Sl k1^.4^^- APPENDIX*. ': n The excessive inundations that took place in Swe- den in the summer of 1800, without the rain falling in that country being sufficient to account for thenC having led me to suspect, that these floods were owing to the clouds accui. ulated on the moun- tains of the frontiers by a prevailing wind, or cur- rent of air, I addressed myself for an elucidation of the fact to a zealors friend of the arts and sci- ences, cit. Bourgoing, the French ambassador at Copenhagen ; and I requested him, to procure me exact answers to various questions, which I sent him. He communicated these questions to seve- ral learned men, as messrs. Melanderhielm, Swan- berg, Loevener, Schoenheuter, Wibbe, Grove, and Bugge; and the separate notes, widi wiiich * iSce pagro 167, , } . ^.i 11 3.34 i.hcy had the politeness to furnish him, h:iving af- forded me, by comparing them together, a mass of correktive facts, I deemed it incumbent on me to send an abstract of them to the minister, byway ot thanks. As this abstract is connected with the subject, on which I have been treating in this work, I insert it here with the additional view of drawing the attention of meteorologists to the complete system of the winds of the polar circle, and to attain a knowledge of the corresponding action of the north-west and north-east winds of America with the winds of Russia and Sweden. Lcifcr to Cithni Bourgoing, Minister of the French licpuhlic to the King of Denmark. \M\\ Paris, I ventose, 9 (lo feb. igoi), YOUR obliging notes citizen minister came to me pre- cisely in the inverse order of their dates, and on this account I liad to \vait for the last, before I could send you all iny jlianks. I had likewise a wish, to transmit you a suniniary o/" the whole, that might exculpate me to you, and to some of those whom you consulted, of having employed your time in systems and theories without foundation, and destitute of utility. 335 Whatever may be the result of my labours, they will not be useless, if they prove that the currents of air have or even that they have not, an established course; and whe- tiier we can or cannot judge of the wind that prevails in ono place, by the wind that prevails or has prevailed in another. Not only the art of navigation, but even agriculture, is ini terested in the solution of this problem, since it would have consid-'rable elFect on the speculations of commerce, and oa the purchase or sale of corn. As to the reproach of a spirit of system, I am little affected by it, for I do not feel myself ni the least seized with that infatuation, which renders it faulty and ridiculous. At twenty yearsof age Ihad systems, of tiie truth of which I was firmly persuaded. Our masters. you know, citizen minister, taught us not to doubt, to prove every thing with an alqui and an ergo, and to cxplai.i every thing without stopping at a ijuia : but in proportion as expe. rience corrected my education, I saw, tliat I nPist renounce the dogmatic spirit ; and if I have a single doctrine to follow and mculcate, it is that of doubting nmch, never being too hasty to assert, and being always ready t. reexamine a ques- tion and listen to other facts. With this I .:ave not the folly of allowing my adversaries to be more infallible than mysell- and whatever their merit may be, if they have not particul larly studied the question in debate, if they pretend to de, cide upon it by reasoning and analo-y, I retort upon them in my turn the charge of a spirit of system, and I appeal to a jury of tacts; for, tou.se the expression ofS* *, '1 am of the party of facts.' Kow w hat 1 have to say in the present case is as follows. From the different notes you have sent me, and among the rest from the short, clear, and methodical statement of Mr. Schoenheuter, bishop of Drontheim, it follows : 1. That IS'orway is traversed from east (o west by a M !hf^-^^:0 >.J{t thaiu called the Dofrcfulilt, or DotViiicliills wiiidi diviilosit, into noitli ami south. 2. That this chiiin, oiio of the inftipst in the kingdom, is about .'3000 Hliinland feet hie;!) [.'5100 English]. .3. Tliat in tho systoin of tiit^ air it forms such a positivi-^ line of demarcation, that the north and .sonth have .s(;arci'ly ever the same winds at llie same time. Ji" it rain in the rotmtry of Aggerims, Christiansand, &c., it is dry weather in Drontheim, Nordiand, kr. Mr. lingge says the same. 4. The hitter rase was j)arti( idarly remarkable in the sum- mer of ISOO, when tiie province of J)iontheim north of tin; Dofrines was dihig< d \\ itii continual rain, so that the harvest vas entirely sj)oilcd ; while the governments of Aggcrliiis and B(!r<(iien, south of tliose hills, experienced an excessive drought. In Drontheim from the moiilli of june to ih, twentieth of august tin; nind was so perijanently nortli- west, there were scarce tw« uty days on whi^'b it deviated from this point ; and the tiiffmomeU'r v aryiwa tVom ti" to h® of Reaumur [16" to 50° i".J, never exct cded 1 1° [.•;7'' !•'.]. In Aggerims and Berghon tlu- wind was habitually soutit, south-east, or even soutii-wesf, ilic (piicksilver viiryiiig from I I" to JS'' [0:,° to 7l"^ 1'.] : and tlio tluit two winds directly oj)posilc prevaih (! at tin anie time. Mr, Schoenheuter observes, (hat .lemteland in Sweden, which i.s to the east of Drontheim, ex|)erienc(d the same rains, but he does not know wiiefher tlie wind were the same or not. In concert witii .Momn. M'ibbe, fi'rove, and Bugge, lie •says, that the prevailing ;\inds on the coast of iSorwav are niiicli divides it 337 '.eni.rly; ,™d .!,« they an, ,„e rainy ,vi,.d,,„,„e (o,i„, » ,ho ocean , whdo ,l,e „„r,l,.oa«, ,„„„..„«. a„d ..,, a™ Ihc dry n inds : that ,„. tla- norll, <,f ,h„ i)„,vi, ., ' "" w... and .„t„.v.„ prevail, and .In v" 'I'f """ "" J.r,. ..a. on the coa,. of Ber«he„ and ^^ I rt ": Lonken he prevading „ind» are the „„.h.„.« an/wl,' bo I, of them ranty.- and that in the ba,in of the GllT' r;'':"7"'f"f^8S"'--"-«y-the:i.t,r :;• he ch,ef nnny .v,nd, and the „,„h.ea.t, which i, ^le. ..n^s we,, »n,e.,„.e» dry. Thus far ,v,th rcspcc, ,„ Z. At Stockhota Mr. S>vanberg and Mr. Melanderhieta .say lr.v , and that the ra.ny w.nd.s, which are le., common are heea,,t, the north-east, and in summer the sonth-e but that Smaland and the pemn.,ula„f Scania participate n the chmate of the gulf „f Aggeri.ns. They obLvc h he -ummer of ,«00 ,n„e and j„,y were , Jy wc. at S to "„ '' ^.- .h.y have not added any table of the winds (which Zl; a~ blown from the east,. A. this time the north.we t pre It """'""J""- "-« -""> "-I «°..tl,.east a. Ag,J,\ and the e- ,. ,*, g.|f „f Bothnia ; so that the Dofrin , il ; -•re the p«„t where ,W,.« .pp„,i„g ,„„„,^ ^^, '>'"' JZt" ' -;''"'*-'-• "-»Pl-ewon.d carry ;"f : ' : '•''■'° '••""=»' ™y«cirwi,h observin/ . Ihat the n,un,.. ,,. ,n Swede,, could no, have ar"en /rom hen.eltmgof^w, a. M". ,hinks, for in June .and July the w.nterV snow is all melted : 'J. It is eviden t, . .1.0 Dofrine hi,, though not forming a , hain .rcorpa X' «l a,r J, M««. deny tins, it will be a theory „„ hi, part something n,„re than bold. Though clusters of mou,.,' ,.. ..ay not be d.rectly joined to each other, thev neverthele. m] 339 il y form an obstacle, particularly if the valleys between them run in different directions, capable of checking the aerial etream, in the same manner as ledges of rocks in the beds of rivers oppose and check the current of the water. But I shall find an opportunity of displaying my theory on this subject more at large. Accept my thanks for the copy of la Coudraye's Theory of the Winds, which I find to be just what I expected frofl) &n intelligent and observing seaman. yrs between them !cking the aerial ks in the beds of he water. But I Y theory on this ELUCIDATIONS OF DIFFERENT ARTICLES MENTIONED IN THE PRECEDING WORK. I. On Florida, and the Work of Bernard Romans entitled a Concise Natural and Moral History of East and West Florida, I'lnio, Aitken, New Tor k, me. THE author, who spent several years in the country as an enlightened observer and physician, distinguishes two climates in Florida ; one, which he calls the northern, extending from the latiLude of 31? to 27 40/ J the other, the southern, from 270 40' to 25^ This distinction he grounds on the circumstance, that in one of them, frosts are common during the winter, while in the other they are extremely rare : but it would have beca more clear and simple to have said, that it freezes li A A •E' M i'l. -f )\ ■/I Vf V 340 throughout the parallel of the continent, and docs not freeze in the peninsula properly so called*. In this country the air is pure and clear. No fogs are seen except on St. John's River, but the dews are excessive. The spring and autumn are extraordinarily dry; the autumn very variable from hot to cold. The beginning of winter, that IS the month of January, is wet and tempestuous: february and march are dry and clear: from the end of September to the end of June there is not perhaps a finer cHn?.ate in the World : but July, august, and September are excessively hot j though the variations from cold to hot are much less than in Carolina, and frost far more rare. In all seasons the Sun at noon is scorching and the cold never affects even the china orange tree, the fruit of which is here delicious. St. Augustin is on the frontier of the two climates f . * But thig would have been saying something very dif- ferent : ior the latitude of 27" 40' is about the middle of the peninsula, Nvhich extends very nearly to 30° north. T. t If Romans say this, he contradicts himself, for St. Au- gustin is in lat. 302 10', near the beginning of the peninsula; unless he can be supposed to have made a mistiike of two degrees and a half in the latitude, and then Mr. Volncy's observation above would be right. I have endeavoured to procure the work of Romans, but without success, therefore caijjiot clear up this point. T. i-^mti ^41 On the cast or Atlantic side the eastern trade- wind prevails. On the west, or toward the Gulf of Mexico, the seabreezes coming from the w^st or north-west cool the whole peninsula in summer All kinds of fruit prosper there, without being dried up by heat or cold. Throughout the whole peninsula the rain announces it's approach four and twenty or eight and forty hours beforehand by an excess or total want of dew. The winds too are less variable, than a little farther north, proceeding toward the continent. During a great part of spring, as well as through the summe?and beginning of autumn, and the early part of win- ter, they are north-easterly; at the close of win- ter and beginning of spring, they are west and north-west. The fifteen or twenty days preceding the au- tumnal equinox, and the two or three months following it, are dreaded in Florida and the ad- jacent seasi as from the beginning of September to the time of the winter solstice violent storms frequently occur. B. Romans never heard of any serious calamity at the vernal equinox. The dreadful hurricanes of 1769 occurred on the 29th of October and following days : that of 1772 took place on the 30th and jist of august, and ist, 2d, and jd of September. It blew first south' cast and cast at Mobile ; farther west it was 23 \^ / ['Ill •J«Wf III'' •I' A S42 north-north-east. Observe that beyond Pensa- cola it was not sensible in the cast. The wind swelled all the rivers ; and, what was very extra- ordinary, caused the mulberry trees to put out a second crop of leaves and fruit. The south and south-west winds occasion a thick atmosphere, troublesome to the lungs. They also bring that suffocating air, so much complained of in July and august. The winds from south-east to north-east are wet and cool, and cause frequent showers, that render even the sand fertile. From the east to the north the winds are cooJ and plea- sant J from the north to the north-west they are almost cold. The thermometer is hahitualh' oe- tween 84' and 88" of Fahrenheit in tjie shade, where there is a free circulation of air. During July and august it is at 94° j but in the Sun it quickly rises to 114O. It never falls more than 2° below the freezing point. No one can possibly conceive how delighful the air is from the end of September to the end of June. The cas: side of the peninsula is hotter than the west, and than all the north climate, the shore of which is ex- posed to the piercing winds of winter. The point of Florida, in it's western part, is very subject to squalls and tornadoes from may to august; they come every day from the south- south-west and sout-h-west, but they are quickly J ■*. 1' U' t 343 ovel". (See the map of the winds, where the theory of the aerial currents agrees in placing the eddies precisely at this spot.) Dr. Mackenzie (not the traveller) has said much of mouldiness, rust, and the deliquescence of salt, sugar, &c. All these, it is true, are seen more at St. Augustin than any where else ; yet th^re is not a healthier place throughout these la- titudes. People there enjoy good health, and live to a great age. Persons frdm the Havannah re- pair thither as to a Montpellier. The north climate, that is the west and conti- nental part of Florida, has the same characters as the north part of the peninsula j but it is visited by colder winds. Much has been said of the epi- demic of Mobile in 1765 : the true cause of it was the excessive intemperance of the soldiers. The English are recommended, even by their physiciarts, to drink a glass of wine now and then in all these climates : but the misfortune is, they make the glass too large, and the now and then too frequent. The most dangerous of all the inconveniences, to which America is subject, is neither the heat, not the wet, nor the cold, it is the terrible and sudden change from one extreme to another, that will make a difference of 30''. of the thermometer in twelve hours ; and this is worse in the north than in the z 4 344 ' wi U I ' « M If J«. ■?, ■ ' } south. The wil of Florida is in general a white sand, lying on a bed of whifc clay. The seacoast is without trees : the intcriour is fuJl of firs. OJdmixon, in his worlc on the British Empire, is the only person, who has spoken reasonably of the character of the savages. All the Europeans, witli their dreams of the loveliness of nature, have said nothing but what is foolish and absurd. Bernard Romans depicts the savages, p. 38 and following, such as they appeared to me : dirty, drunken, idle, thievish, proud to excess, of a vanity easily wounded, and then cruel, blood- thirsty, implacable in their animosity, barbarous in their vengeance, &c. He represents tiie Chi- casaws as worse than the rest. < The Chactaws are better; they are honest, and have some idea of private and personal property. They arc more laborious than any of the rest. They sell every thing to the traveller; but they are addicted to gaming.' Hence the author infers, that they have a notion of property. * Suicide is not rare among them, or among the rest. They are as much given to sodomy as the Chicasaws, and the Chicasaws as the Greeks. These honest people would have great need of the missionary Attaila. * The Chicasaws reckoned in 177, 25owarriorsi ' The Chactaws - . 2600; ' The confederate Creeks . 3500,' \'M S45 ' All these n-agf ; root out the beard with little pine r with shells. • The . idrcn kill birds and sq arrcls at the distanced venty or thirt> yar w' ulear, rows a oot long, wrapped rounu m . otton for about tour inches at one end, which they blow through a tube eigiit fe n length. ' The country .f the Creeks is the best land, the most pleasing to the eye, and capable of pro- ducing any thing. * That of the Chactaws is ver- good also i but that of the Chicasaws is a h.^^ dry plain, having little water, and of bad quality. It's northern part, as far as the Ohio, is very hilly.' The author has added three cuts, representing the characteristic features of these three nations ; and though they appear to have been executed' in wood or pewter, the physiognomy is not badly preserved. The whole of the book of Bernard Romans is m mteresting account of their manners, their customs, and the productions of the soil. He treats on the diseases of the country Intel- ligently ; refutes the assertions of Dr. Lind, as far a» they are exaggerated ; agrees with respect to the excessive dampness of St. John's and St. Augustin, occasioning mouklincss and rust; yet I i / Mi R" IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .// (o :/, (A ^ .(5 ■^ 1.0 I.I |iO ""'^=' iL25 i 1.4 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 U6 Ifk ^irm\ %. observes, that St. Augustin is very healthy, be-* cause it has not the marshes of St. John's. Great and sudden variations from heat to cold, with heavy dews, soon after sunset, occur at St. John's, Nassau river, Mobile, and Campbeltown; but at Pensacola and east of that place, at New Orleans, and on the Micsisippi, he did not see or hear any complaint of such. These variations, however, and this dampness, are not comparable to those of Georgia, still less to those of the Ca- rolinas. People guard against them by a fire within doors, and a flannel waistcoat, in the even- ing. There are no brackish marshes except at St. John's, while Georgia and the Carolinas are infested with them, as well as with moschettocs and stinking exhalations. Flies and moschettoes abound only in the rice and indigo plantations. It must be confessed, that the Missisippi is covered with them beyond all conception. There is no living without the pro- tection of moschetto curtains. In proportion as the land is cultivated they disappear. In conclu- sion B. Romans advises persons of full habitSj the hard drinkers and gormandizers of Europe> and the plethoric, not to come hither, without chaining their regimen entirely. Fevers are very common from the end of June 347 to tht middle of October, that is precisely after the heavy rains combined with violent heats. They are more obstinate near the rice and indigo plantations. On this subject he enters into very useful details in pages 131 and following. The fresh and brackish marshes are unhealthy, but those of salt water are not. For the rest, the looks and complexion of the inhabitants are suf- ficient to denote their diseases. ' The moschettoes are not so abundant on the fresh water, and in the stream of the Missisippi, as lower down the river, and particularly on the seacoast where they are intolerable.' But they are so numerous in the woods along this river from the Ohio, that in the evening, when a fire is kindled, they must be driven away from the man who lights it, or they would make him blind. The tetanos is a terrible disease in Florida, and it is common to people who drink hard and sleep in the open air. Lastly the author speaks of the shipwreck of Mr. Viaud and madaaie Lacouture as a real and absolute fact, which took place on the shore of Apalachicola ; but they converted it into a romance. The eggs they found were not tur- key's eggs, but those of the tortoise. He men- m 'V.?i 348 tions persons who assisted these two people after their shipwreck. It is much to be regretted for the sake of science, that this book has not been translated into French. 345 two people after II. On the Hxstorrj of Yew Hampshire, hy Jeremiah Belkm:^, Member of the Philosophical Soeiety of Philadelphia ; and the History of Vermont, hy Sa- muel mihams, Member of the Meteorological Society of Germany, and the Philosophical Society of P/ii, ludelphia. §1. MR. BELKNAP'S History of New Ha-n- shire, which I have often quoted, and which nas not been translated into French, consists of three volumes octavo, printed at Boston. The first and second are occupied with the history of that colony, from it's first settlement : and the pic- ture they exhibit of it is so much the more cu- rious, because we find in it the origin of a num- ber of customs, which, formerly established by coercive laws very strictly executed, have grown into habits, and now compose many parts of the character of the Americans. We there see the intolerant spirit of the first settlers prescribe rigorous rules to be observed in if i< »^'>l)iia(ili"'i>ir \ I. ^!| ;i,' h k" 350 the intercourse between persons of the same or of different sexes j the mode of courtship before marriage j the mien and looks to be worn at home and abroad ; how to carry the head, the arms, the eyes, to speak, to walk, &c. : whence have arisen that ceremonious tone, that grave and silent air, and ail that starched behaviour, which still prevail among the females of the United States. Women were forbidden to expose their arms or neck ; the sleeves were to be close down to the wrists, and the gown up to the chin. The men were to cut their hair short, that they might not resemble women : they were not to drink healths, as being an act of pagan libation : and they must not even brew on a Saturday, for fear the liquor shoild work on the sunday. Disobedience of any of these injunctions rendered the delinquent liable to have an information laid against him, and the consequence of an information was punishment : thus a real terrorist inquisition prevailed, and men's minds could not but contract all the habits im- planted by persecution ; habits of silence, of re- serve in discourse, of dissimulation, of combi- nation of ideas and plans, of energy ir villino-, and of resistance when at length patience is ex- Jiausted. As a moral work these two volumes are in- teresting to cojisult, from the care taken by the 35t author to collect authenticated facts; but the number of other particulars would perhaps render a translation tedious to us, who have no concern in them. It is very different with regard to the third volume, which is a methodical description of die climate, the soil, it's natural and artificial pro- ductions, the navigation, trade, agriculture, and state of the country in every respect. This vo- lume may be compared to that of Mr. Jefferson on Virginia: both are as accurate and instructive statistical accounts, as the powers and means of a simple individual are capable of producing. Mr, Jefferson, who published his work in 1782, has the merit of having surmounted the principal dif- ficulties, by tracing the first plan of a performance at that time new. Mr. Belknap, by publishing his in 179?., after twenty-two years of observa- tion, has that of having profited of the facts and method acquired by the progress of the science. His third volume, containing 480 pages in a large type, including the appendix, would be ca- pable of some abridgment, as various particulars are superfluous to us : and though the author pays m It a double tribute to his character as an Ame- rican and a minister of the Gospel, by declaim- ing sometimes against philosophers and european ■I \ \m 8.52 travellers, his work is notwithstanding one of the most philosophically instructive, with which the United States are capable of enriching our language. §11. I shall say the same of the History of Vermont by Mr. S. Williams, which is a single volume 8vo, of about 400 pages, in a smaller type, in- cluding also an appendix on different subjects. The work is methodically divided into seventeen chapters. The situation, boundaries, superficies, soil, aspect of the country, mountains, with their heights and direction, caverns, spring'^, fire, rivers and lakes, climate and seasons, vegetable and animal productions, form the subjects of the first six chapters. The seventh and eighth treat of the savages, of their character, education, and moral and political state. The ninth, tenth, and eleventh contain all the incidents attending the formation of the State of Vermont, and the ori- gin of it's first settlers. The other six, under the title of State of Society, make known, i, the employment of timq in arts and in commerce i :-at's*^_u;^ 363 2, manners and customs, comprising education, marriage, civil life, &c. j 3, religion, and the im- portance of the principle of the perfect equality of modes of worship (the author is a minister of the Gospel) ; 4, the government of the country i 5, the population -, 6, liberty, which he says is much less owing to the American Government, than the condition and situation of the people. The author may sometimes be thought to en- ter too much into particulars, explanations, and digressions ; but so many useful and instructive facts and observations result from this, that I con- sider his book as one of those, that have contri- buted most to diffuse natural knowledge among the people of the United States. I had procured a literal translation of it, as well as of the third volume of Belknap, with an intention to turn it into French * as soon as I had leisure, and pub- * I make this remark, because the only good method I know consists in translating at first as literally and close to the sense and value of the words as possible. But as it com- monly ^.appens in this process, that the expressions and construction of the foreign language supplant those that aie proper to our own, this first sketch should be set by, and not taken up again, till you have nearly forgotten the original. Then, ou reading over this bad French, the natural forms of style will recur of themselves, and you A A "•"tmiMiiipir'r ■■ -3 4 ■..-^■k 3it lish it : but, not to mention that this labour would be too great for my present state of health, 1 am informed it is undertaken by a person, who will very soon give it to the World. may produci! an excellent porforiiiaiitt'. IiirJofd it ^wnilj be no little matter to niako n i;oo(i ouc, for very lew trauslu. tioii duserTc ihis epithet. ( m. Callipolis. „, M, F„,cn «„„_j, „, „„ Ohio. A CERTAIN company called the Scioto can- not yet be forgotten at Paris, that in ,790 opened w.th g,eat parade a sale of land, in the finest dis- trict of the United States at five shillings an acre. Its proposals, distributed with profusion, promised every thmg that people are accustomed to pro- nv,« m such cases : ■ a climate h^My and delight- ful, scarcely such a thing as frost in winter: a nver called by way of eminence the Beautiful Ri. vcr , abounding in excellent fish of enormous Mze: magnificent forests of a tree from which su- gar flows (the sugar maple), and a shrub that yields candles (myrica cerifera) : venison in abun- dance, without wolves, foxes, lions, or tigers- a single boar and sow in the course of three years will produce three hundred pigs without the least care being taken of them: and in a country like this, there are no taxes to pay, no military enrol- F „ h ge„„,aph„r,. A,„ong other ,i,l, .atfi,l. arc caujh. "' " «ci6h„.g cshty or ninety p„„„j, ^ A A 2 I im^ w f 356 ments, no quarters to find for soldiers, &:c.* It is true, the offerers of so many benefits did not say, that these fine forests were a preliminary obstacle to every sort of cultivation ; that the trees must be cut down one by one and burned, and the land cleared with considerable labour and cost; that for a twelvemonth at least tvtry kind of provision must be procured from a distance ; that hunting and fishing, which arc amusements after a good breakfast, arc very severe toils in a savage and de- sert country. Arnl above all they did not say, that these excellent lands were in the neighbourhood of a species of ferocious animals, worse than wolves or tigers, the men called savages, then at war with the United States. In short, according to the state of the market in America, these lands were not really worth more than three pence or three pence halfpenny an acre; and no purchaser in the country would have offered more. But in France, but at Paris, then particu- larly when a kind of contagious enthusiasm and credulity had seized men's minds, the picture was too brilliai;!:, and the inconveniencies too remote, for the bait not to take effect : the counsels and even the example of people possessing wealth, and supposed to be intelligent, added to the persua- sion : nothing was talked of in the Parisian circles but i\\ Thence to the Yoke - - - . To the Brincspring - - . _ To the Slave's Gibbet . To Great Point - - . . To the Coffeepot - - . . To the Yellow Bark . . _ . To Walnut Point (a pretty rivulet) Beyond this rivulet is a beavers dam that has been destroyed : at a cross way you take the left hand road, which is the shortest, but you get no water for five leagues, and rejoin the great road "t Pointe aux Fcsses. From Walnut Point to the Dam To the triplc-thorned acacia To Pointe aux Fesses .... To the Meadow of the IIc»lc To the Great Rib .... To TEpronier _ . _ . . To Kas ... ~ - ™ 4i 5 o 5 5 4 5 5 2 3 3 3 ll 3 21 2 3 2i H 1 4. 5 3 5 3 5 3 4 2 6 4 73i 43i 379 the rider's legs in the narrow path, through hich he must travel, that the journey out and home will wear out a pair of boots. Water is very scarce • and you are liable to lose your way, as one of my com- panions did three years before, when with two others he wandered about for seventeen days. Thun- derstorms, rain, flies, and horseflies, are extremely troublesome in summer. Five years ago you could not cross these meadows without seeing herds of four or five hundred bufl^aloes ; but now there are none. Annoyed by the hunters, and stiJl more by the bells of the American cows, they have gone to the other side of the Missisippi, swimming across the river. At the farther end of these savannahs, near the Missisippi, is the village of Kas, built in a very hot valley. It is so much gone to decay, that not a dozen Can ;ian families are left; yet in 1764 co- lonel Boi.^ jt reckoned four hundred inhabitants" Opposite to it on the other side of the river was formerly St. Genevieve, a pretty large village noted for it's brinespring : but the inundations^'of the Missisippi have completely swept it away, and the inhabitants have retired to the high grounds two miles ofl^, where they live in boarded houses each on his own land. Twelve or thirteen miles above Kas, on the same side of the river, was fort Chartres, buUc of masonry witli extraordinary 3«!0 IH i IV HI magnificence. The formidable livcr has destroyed this also, and has already attacked one bastion of New Madrid, a settlement formed in 1791 oppo- site the mouth of the Ohio, and two hundred yards from the Missisippi, which undermines the foot of It in such a manner, that a great part of it will tumble down with the first rains. This great, this magnificcntMisRisippi,heldoutas aLand of Promise by Mr. B***, is a very bad neigh- bour. Stronginabodyofyellowish muddy water, two or three thousand yards in breadth, which itannu, ally rolls over it's banks to the height of five and twenty feet, it urges this mass over a loose earth of 5and and clay; forms islands and destroys them,- floats along trees, which it afterward overturns i va-' ries it's course through the obstructions it creates for itself J and at length reaches you at distances, where you would have supposed yourself perfectly secure : similar in this to most of the grand agents of Nature, volcanoes, hurricanes, &c. 3 which are no doubt sublime, but which Prudence counsels us to admire at a distance. Add to this that it's hot, damp banks are ve^ apt to engender fevers in summer and autumn. Such IS the case uith the village of Rocky Mea- dows, where they reckon ten families : and that of Cahokia, or Caho, which has not above forty, instead of fourscore that dwelt there in 1790. Op- x^A: 381 posiie Caho, on the right hank, is Tt. Lewis or Pancore, a compact city or town of seventy hoLs having a handsome but useless stone fort standin-r on two acres of ground ; with only five or mx rich fam.hes, and five hmdred poor, indolent, and aguish white people. The few black slaves there are belong to those five or six families, who u^c them kindly, the Spanish laws respecting the blacks in Louisiana being the mildest of all Furo- Fan codes This however did not prevent a rising of the blacks in Lower Louisiana in 1791 • and in consequence of this insurrection all the whites m Upper Louisiana being armed and registered dieir number was found to be exactly five hun! dred Colonel Sargent, secretary general of the North-western Territory, a man of distinguished talents, who ,n 1790 inspected the settlements on te le t bank called the Illinois, assured n,e, that he whole of the French families did not exceed a hundred and fifty. The population of all what was called Upper Louisiana, therefore, cannot be estimated at more than seven hundred men capa- ble of bearing arms, or about two thousand five hundred f^rsons. These accounts, I confess, are very different /^^•om what have been lately given at Paris, where this country was represented as one ihat would speedily become a flourishing empire. But I re w^ i "., ^.. ^^%K* t '4h J82 ccived them from several eyewitnesses, who had neither places nor interest in speculations in land, and I publish them impartially, as I have done with "respect to Egypt and Syria, without the leas' de- sire to hinder any one from going to verify them. I am too well satisfied with my system to change it. The general decay of the French settlements on the frontiers of Louisiana, and even of Canada *, compared with the equally general increase of the American, was to me a subject of fr.quent medita- tion, while I sought to discover the causes of such different events in the same soil and climate. To imagine, as some do, that the French cannot bear this climate well, is a mode of accounting for it I cannot admit: for experience convinced all the of- ficers and physicians of Rochambeau's army, that the constitution of the French could better endure cold, heat, vicissitudes, and fatigue, than those of the Americans. It appears, that our fibre has more elasticity and life than theirs : and the ba- lance is still more inclined in our favour, by the « . if' * At Fort Detroit, for instance, tlieir character is the same as I have just given: and when I was there the sep- tenihtM- foilowinj,', most of the French people talked of with- drawing to the teriitorif's of king G'eorgc, rather than mould tliciiisulves to the municipal huv and laborious plan of thft AmerivaMs. %Mm: 3SS faults of their diet, which I have enumerated above, and the abuse of spirituous liquors, to which they are little less addicted than the savag.s It was remarked in general Wayne's expedition, and m others, that water-drinkers hold out better than brandy-drinkers : and as to the savages, it is well known that spirits have a more active effect «n the extirpation of their race, than war and the smallpox. On analysing this interesting subject, it has ap- peared to me, that the true reasons for the differ- ence of the event rest on the difference of the means pursued, and of the employment of time : m other words, on what we call habit and national character. But the principal causes of this habic and this character are the system of education, and the nature of the government, each more powerful even than physical constitution. A com- parison of a few features in the daily life of the settlers of both nations will render the truth of this opinion evident. The American settler of English or German descent, naturally cold and phlegmatic, sedately forms a plan of managing a farm. He turns his mind, not ardently, but without ceasing, to every thing conducive to it's formation or improvement, if, as some travellers have laid to- his charge, he become idle, it is not till he has obtained the ob- W' •*^' I ij ■n I :;84 kct of his pursuit, winit he considers as a compc* lency. The Frenchman on the contrary, with his trou- blesome and restless activity, is led by enthusiasm or some sudden tit, to undertake a project, of which he has calculated neither the expense nor the difliculties. More inj;enious perhaps, he ral- lies the slowness of his German or English rival, which he compares to that of an ox : but the German or the Englishman will answer with his cool good sense, that the patience of the ox is better adapted to the plough than die fire of the mettlesome racer. And in fact it often happens, that the Frenchman, after having undone, cor-' reeled, and altered what he had begun, and harrassed his mind with desires and fears, is at length disgusted, and relinquishes the whol^. ^ The American settler, slow and silent, docs not rise very early ; but when he has once risen, he sj^cnds the whole of the day in an uninterrupted iSeries of useful labours. At breakfast he coldly gives his orders to his wife, who receives them with coldnesss and timidity, and obeys them with- out contradiction. If the weather be fair, he goes out, ploughs, fells trees, makes fences, or the like: if It be wet, he takes an inventory of the contents of his house, barn, and stables, repairs the doors, windows, or locks, drives nails, makes chairs or .»^>?-\ X' %^... >%; ?*®A. ?rs as a compc- rabies, and ,s constantly employed in rendering his habitation secure, convenient, and neat. With these dispositions, sufficient to himself, ne will sell his farm, .f an opportunity offer, and retire into the woods thirty or forty miles from the frontier, to fomi a new settlement. There he will spend years m felling trees, making for himself first a 'uit, then a stable, then a barn , clearing the ground> and sowing it ^ &c. His wife, patient and serious as himself, will second his endeavours on her part, and they will remain sometimes six months without seeing the face of a stranger : but at the expiration of four or five years they will have acquired an estate, that ensures a subsistence to their family. . The French settler, on tlie contrar)r, rises earlf ,n the morning, if it be only to talk of It. He consults his wife on what he .nail do and listens to her advice. It would be a mi-' racle if they were always of the same opinion • ihe wife argues, opposes, disputes : the husband insists upon or yields the point, is irritated or dis- heartened. Sometimes his house is irksome to him, and he takes his gun, goes a shooting or a journey, or to chat with his neighbours. At other times he stays at home, and spends the time in •aik.ng with good humour, or in quarrelling and scokiing. Neighbours pay and return visits: for c c I "^ !1 386 visiting and talking are so indisnensably necessary to a Frenchman from habit, that throughout the whole frontier of Canada and Louisiana there is not one settler of that nation to be found, whose house is not widiin reach or within sight of some other. In several places, on asking how far off the remotest settler was, I have been answered : « he is in the desert, with the bears, a league from any house, without having any person with whom he can converse.' This alone is one of the most distinguishing and characteristic features of the two nations : accord- ingly the more I have reflected on the subject, the more am I persuaded, that the domestic silence of the Americans is one of the most radical causes of their industry, activity, and success in agriculture, commerce, and the arts; and the same applies to the English, Dutch, and other people of" the north, from whom they are descended. In silence they concentrate tiieir ideas,, and have leisure to combine them and make accurate calculations of their expenses and returns: they acquire more clearness in their thoughts, and consequently in their expressions : hence there is more decision in their conduct, both public and private, and it is more to the point. On the contrary, the Frenchman, with his per- petual domestic chattering, evaporates his ideas, . \ snemably necessary hat throughout the Louisiana there is to be found, whose ithin sight of some :ing how far off the een answered : « he , a league from any rson with whom lie t distinguishing and 'o nations : accord- on the subject, the tloine.stic silence of ►St radical causes of :cess in agriculture, the same applies ther people oF the cended. In silence nd have leisure to *atc calculations of ley acquire more id consequendy in IS more decision in 1 private, and it is "nan, with his per- aporatcs his ideas, 387 ^.ubmlts them to contradiction, excites around him die tattling of women, backbiting, and quarrels with his neighbours, and finds at length he has squandered away his time, without any benefit to himself or his family. These particulars may be thought of trifiing moment, but they constitute the employment of time; and time, as Franklin says, is the material, from which the thread of life is spun This moral and physical dissipation must have a particular efficacy in rendering the mind superfi- cial i for having several times questioned the fron- tier Canadians respecting the distances of times and places, or measures of magnitude or capacity I have found, that in general they had no clear and precise ideas ; that they received sensations with- out reflecting on them ; in short, that they knew not how to make any calculation that was ever so httle complicated. They would say to me, from this place to that is one or two pipes of tobacco ; you can, or you cannot, reach it between sunrise and sunset ; or the like. But there is not a single American settler, who does not give with precision the number of miles, or hours, and weights and measures in feet or yards, pounds or gallons ; and who does not very readily make a calculation con- sisting of several actual or contingent elements. Now this kind of practical science has very im- portant and extensive consequences in all the opc- C C 2 a Hi 3»» rations of life j and It may surprise my reader to be informed, that it is much less common among the French, even in Europe, than he would be dis- posed to imagine. It may be said, as I have often heard advanced, that the indispensable necessity of conversation or gossipping is an effect of the vivacity of the blood, and an expansive gayety of mind and constitution : but if I may judge from my own experience, it is much rather a factitious product of habit and opi- nion; for going to Turkey as talkative as a French- man, after residing there three years I returned as silent as a mohammedan; and during my (ay in France I readily resumed by native habits, but I had scarcely lived a few months in the United States, before I acquired anew that American taci- turnity, which has again disappeared since my re- turn to Paris. And I have remarked, that the empire of these national habits is so much the more potent, and masters us the more, because it is founded on the prejudices of self love and fashion. Among the Turks and Americans, to t.alk much is characteristic of the inferiour classes, and a mark of low bi-eeding; while in France, to be silent is an affectation of state and haughdness j to talk is a mark of wit or politeness j and to let the conversation drop is a sign, that you are defi- cient in one or the other. m »» 589 It is owing to a prejudice of this kind likewise .pnnging^ from education or opinion, that the French often blame as immoral the readiness, with -hich an American sells and quits the estate on which he was born, or which he has purchased and improved by his own labours, to go and fix himself in another: for it is not easy to see, what morality there can be in remaining in a place, which you do not find to your wish j but if we trace this idea to it s source, we shall discover, that it has been in- vented by the rulers, and kept up by the laws, of a people originally in a state of slavery. To bind men to the soil by the prejudices of afi^ection, was at all times the secret or avowed object of an op- pressive poHcy, afraid of losing it's prey. Now as It was for the purpose of breaking their chains both civil and rehgious, that the Americans emigrated in the first instance, it is not at all surprising, that emigration is become to them an'habitual want and still has in their eyes the ciiarrn of bein- an exertion of their liberty. Be this however as it may, it's effects are and will be much more con ducive to the civilization of the World, than the vegetating spirit of sedentary people, who had rather spend their lives at home in idleness and wars, than go and form useful and splendid settle, jpents abroad. c C J • iiiin»iw .d might have formed a rallying point for otht. : ovident French, men, desirous of transmitting to their posterity an inheritance of liberty and peace. - ■ «' »<' * _ ^— Hxatef?!-.* 393 either hy the sa- V. General Ohenatiom on the Indians* or Sava^rcs of North America, to which is added a Vpcahular,j of the Language of the Miamis, a tribe settled on the Wabash. MY stay at Fort Vincents gave me an opportu- nity of observing the savages -, whom I found as- sembled to sell the produce of their red hunt f. There were reckoned to be four or five hundred jnen, women, and children, of various nations or * The Americans, copying tiie English, coll the savages by the name of Indians, which they pronounce nearly like our indigenes; and they had better have kept to this word, for it is absurd to have given the name of the people on the Hindus first to those of Amazonia, and then to those of ail America; and this owing to the mistake of one of the earliest Portuguese navigators, who in his voyage to India got so far to the west, that he landed on the coast of Brasil, and to console himself gave it the name of the West In- dies. t The savages give the name of red skins to those of the deer, the season for hunting which is in jnly and august. Ill I '\^ ' gi lWP ' J d U r a tribes, as the Wecuvi, Piiyourie,., Saiikics, Pyan- kishaws, Miarnis, &:c., all living toward the head of the Wabnjh. It was the rtrst time of my ob- •serving at leisure these people, already become rare on the east of the Allcghanies. Their ap- pearance was to me a new and whimsical sight. Conceive bodies almost naked, embrowned '^by exposure to the Sun and air, shining with grease and soot; a head uncovered ; hair coarse, black, sleek, struight, and smooth, a face disguised with black, blue, and red painr, in round, square, and rhombodial patches ; one nostril bored to admit a large ring of silver or copper; earrings with three rows of drops reaciiing down lo the shoulders, and passing through holes that would admit a finger; u little square apron before, and another behind both fastened by one string or riband ; the legs nnd thighs sometimes naked, at others coverc^d with long clorh spatterdashes * , socks of leather dried in the smoke ; on some occasions a shirt with short, uide sleeves, variegated or striped with blue and white, and flowing loose down the thighs; and over this a blanket, or a square piece of cloth, thrown over one shoulder, and tied un- der the opposite arm, or under the chin. On par- ticular occasions, when they dress for war or for a *In English %i'/«-.s . ,:tJiJ-«^ '■"'**ii 395 to. the hair is braided nnd interwoven with feathers, plants, fiowers, and even bones- the warriors wear round their wrists broad rin^s of copper or silver, resembhng our dogs collars," and round the head a diadem formed of silver bucMes and trinkets of glass : in their hand they have the.r pipe, or their knife, or their tomahawk, and the little looking-glass, which every savage uses with more coquetry, to admire so many charms, than the most coquettish bclJe of Paris The women, who are a little more covered about the hips, diifcr from the men likewise in carrying almost continually one or two children on their back in a kind of bag, the ends of which are tied on their forehead. Whoever has ,ctn gypsies may form a very good idea of this luggage Such is the outline of the picture, and I exhibit It in the most favourable point of view For if I were to display the whole, I must add, that from early in the morning both men and women roam about the streets, for no other purpose but to procure themselves rum : and for this they first dispose of the produce of their chase, then of their toys, next of their clothes, and at last they go begging for it, never ceasing to drink, till they are absolutely senseless. Sometimes thi. gives occasion to ridiculous scenes ; they will hold the cup to drink with both hands like apes, then , H f 4 raise up their heads with bursts of laughter, and gaigle themselves with their beloved but fatal liquor, to enjoy the pleasure of tasting it the longer ; hand the cup from one to another with noisy invitations -, call to one only three steps off as loud as they can bawl j take hold of their wives by the head and pour tlie rum down their throats with coarse caresses, and all the ridiculous gestures of our vulgar alehouse sots. Sometimes distress- ing scenes ensue, as the loss of all sense and rea- son, becoming mad or stupid, or falling down dead drunk in the dust or mud, there to sleep till the next day. I could not go out in a morning without finding them by dozens in the streets or paths about the village, literally wallowing in the dirt with the pigs. It was a very fortunate cir- cumstance if a day passed without a quarrel, or a battle with knives or tomahawks, by which ten men on an average lose their lives yearly. On the 9th of august, at four o'clock in the after- noon, a savage was killed witiiin twenty steps of me, having received four stabs with a knife. A fortnight before a similar circumstance took place, and five such the year preceding. For this ven, geance is immediately taken, or dissembled rill a proper opportunity offers, by the relations, which produces fresh causes for waylaying and assassina> tion. I at first entertained the design of going ci^^Fm — ■f^*^ •■■i^ .^-■ifw *i ii iin , i l'Vench,andpnl)h,slic.l n-irnuvii, that Cw translator has t t-ars ill the fur trade in C'anad; laled rans- pressiugthevocahularie.s. t Tl ''< Work deserves to I 'xhihit ^ flic most Ihithlul picture I k 7.'M, and they were t '" '^vo, ii, |7u,i. I, is(„)„. akeii tin; lihiirfy of .siiji- i'''^'''ntations or ral,sehood> '(••■•(•l-.s and ('hero '■■|>< iiiteriiiixed a nuni- !""vc, that th< Willi iav <\'ruvagaiit idea, which I I sevoral /.lissionarics I as«-s are descended from the ,J I design (< < vv; Tl nitl lowcver he entcrlai U'i br\ '"ngiiif,' to the sav lasonly led him t liuiisoftlu; nat :'o'es in a false li.d,. _. „j,| lis in common f> sei; every thinv itli iiri' of (he li loiit soaud III iimaii intellect (' piiiu-iples thai '))|' hi,storv of ■■*way and iiioditV || II, il s pro'^M-,:ss, and "Dillons caiinot he u,.|| siud i) I.> 2 it; mail o(' nadi "l.'cd and |,tj| -iird. r; 40i northern branches of the Wabash : that it's Uri^ guage is spoken among all the tribes along the river nearly to lake Michigan, as the Weeaws, Payouries, Pyankishaws, Putewoatamies, Kaskas- kias, and Long L;ie Indians : that it has a great af- finity with the languages of the Chipeways, Otta- was, and Shawanese, which differ only as dialects, but it is altogether distinct from that of the Dela- wares : the nasal sound is frequent in the Miami, and I imagined at first I was hearing the Turkish. Mr. Wells added, that their country was part woodland, part savannahs, and sensibly colder than Fort Vincents. Having quitted this place after a complete thaw, he had found again the same snow a hundred and thirty miles farther north, without having observed any mountainous eleva- tion of the ground. The air at Philadelphia seemed to him less piercing. The predominant winds in the Miami country are nearly the same as on the Atlantic coast ; in winter the north-west, strong and cutting, with clear weadier ; in summer, this wind is rare and m.ild, and the south-west pre- vails, hot, cloudy, and sometimes itormy. The «outh is the grand rainy wind j the north is the chief snowy wind in winter, but in summer fair and mild. The south-east is rare ; the north still more so. The soil is fertile ; the indian corn finer, and game more abundant, than in any part of 3^^^.. : that it's ^.ri- 405 t!i€ Atlantic coasj. In consequence the natives, particularly the Putewoatamies, are a fine stout race of people. (I can say the same of the Sha- wanese of fort Miami, at the stature of whose wo- men I was astonished, though by no means at their beauty. ) During the time I was making my observations on the Little Tortoise, who, not understanding English, cook no part in the conversation. He walked about, plucking out the hairs of his beard, and even of his eyebrows. His dress was in the American fashion, a blue suit, with pantaloons, and a round hat. I desired Mr. Wells to ask him how he felt in garments so ciKFerent from his own. * At first,' said he, ' they seemed to confine my limbs ; then I got used to them ; and as they are a defence against the heat and the cold, I now like them.' He had tucked up hi^ sleeves, and J was struck with the wiiiteness of his skin between the wrist and the elbow. I compared ic with my own, and found no difference. The Sun had tanned the Lack of my hands as much as that of his, and each of us appeared to have on a pair of gloves. I found his skin very soft to the touch, and in all respects like that of a Parisian. We had then a bng conversation respecting the colour ot the sa- vages ; that which is called a copper colour, as- serted to be innate like the black of the Africans ^ o 3 / 406 and held to constitute the natives of America a distinct race. The facts resulting from this discussion were, ' that the savages distinguish themselves by the jiame of red men : that they prize their own colour, with reason, above white : that however they are born as white as we*, and in their infancy conti- nue sof, lill their skin is changed by the Sun, and by the grease and juices of herbs, with which tliey besmear it : that in the women those parts of the waist, hips,' and thighs, which are constantly covered, always remain white : in short, it is fun- damentally false, that this copper colour, as it is called, is innate, or the same in all the natives of North America ; on the contrary it varies in differ- ent nations, and is one of their means of distin- guishing each other.' I observed, that Ivlr. Wells, who had lived fif- teen years among them, and in their manner, had thelt- complexion, not that of an American : and as to the leal shade of the colour, it appeared to me that of soot, or of a ham, smoke dried, cleaned, and shining, exactly resembling that of our pea- sants on the Loire, or Lower Poitou, who live like the savages in a hot climate and a little marshy, * So is the negro, but lie grows black within fo;ir an4 tvventy hours. - ' t Oldniixoii says the same, vol. i, p. 280. ^^BR^mUlfli. ; ~- "" ' «« ' H . . .i-.jgfm- es of America a 407 or that of the Spaniards of Andalusia. On this remark, which I communicated to him, the Little I'ortoise said : ' I have seen Spaniards in Louisi- a;ia, and found no difference of colour between them and me. Afid why should there be any ? in them, as in us, it is the work of the father of co- lours, the Sun, that burns us. You whites your- selves compare the skin of your faces with that of your bodies.' This brought to my remembrance, that on my return from Turkey, when I quitted the turban, half my forehead above the eyebrows was almost like bronze, while the other half next the hair was as white as paper. If, as natural phi- losop':y demonstrates, there be no colour but what originates from light, it is evident, that the dif- ferent complexions of people are owing entirely to tJie various modifications of this fluid with othe elements, that act on our skin, and even compose it's substance. Soon or late it will be proved, that the blackness of the Africans has no other source*. * Every clay fiesh facts, in appearance fantastic, occur to fi'i-iiLsli new iielps towards .solving the problem. One of the most remarkable is the case of Henry iMoss, a neyro in Vir- giniu, a descendant in the third generation from ancestors lorn in Congo, who in tla; conrse of six or se\en years lias Ucoine.n nhite, uitJi lung, sleek, brown hair, like a I'u- D D 4 ■'»»ifmK)i**'ff—^ 'StWr- 0um ■J ' "1 i'\ mi m 408, The features of the Little Tortoise struck me by tlieir resemblance to those of five Chinese Ta tars who had come to Philadelphia in the suite of the Dutch ambassador van Braam. This likeness o! the Tatars to the savages of North America has struck all those, who have seen both ; but per haps they have been too hasty in their inference that the North Americans came originally from' Asia. As the savages have some ideas of gee graphy, I communicated to the Little Tortoise our hypothesis on tjus subject, and that he migh, understand them the better, I laid before him a map comprising the eastern part of Asia and the north-west of America. He very readily recog. n ed the lakes of Canada, Michegan, Superio; e nvers Oh,o Wabash, Missisippi, /c. , t^e rest he examu,ed with a curiosity, that convinced me n was new to him : but it is the art of a sav.<,e never to display any marks of surprise. Whe^ I explatned to him the means of communication by Behrings Stra.t and the Aleutian isles :< why ' ^a.a ,.e, < should not these Tatars, who resembi; u. have ccme from America? are there any proofs to the contrary I or rather, why should w; 409 not both have been born iii our own country ?' In fact they give themselves an epithet, that si<>nifies born of the soil (Metoktheniake). c j .^.^ ^^ ^^_ jection/ answered I, < but our black gowns* will not allow it. There is only the difficulty of cqn- ceivlng, how an/ particular races originated/ * Ir .eems to me,' replied he, < that this is as diffi- cult to the black gowns as to ourselves.' I h.ive said, that the savages of America resem- ble the Tatars ; but accuracy requires us, to make some exceptions : for the Eskimoes, who dwell in the north, on the borders of tlie Frozen Ocean, . are not Tatars ; and the gray eyed men, who peo- ple the archipelago of Nootka Sound and all the adjacent siiores, are equally a distinct race. The Tatar character belongs to those who inhabit the rest of the continent, and who constitute the vast majority ; and iiere too I set aside the Calmucks, for the savages have not their flat face and de- pressed nose. In general the lower part of their face is triangular, the upper nearly square -, the forehead well shaped i the eyes very black, deep set, hvely, and rather small than large j the cheeks a httle prominent : the nose straight -, the lips ra- ther thm than thick ; the hair jet black, smooth, flat, without any instance of a light colour i their * Thi.s is tlie name thc-y give the missionaries. i I m 410 \V; 11 i ^^^K-i 1 if -i . ^* ' , look suspicious, and disclosing ferocity at t' j tottom of the heart. Such is their general phy~ siognomy, but modified according to the tribe or tiic individual. At Fori: Vincents and at Detroit I noticed many 'of their countenances, which re- minded me of those of Egyptian fellaJis, and even cf several Bedowecns : beside the colour of the skin, tlie quality of the hair, and many other re- semblance, they have this in common, the mouth is formed like a shark's, that is, the sides are lower than tiic front, and the teeth, small, white, and re- gular, are slurp and cutting like those of the cat or the tiger*. May not tliis form be naturally accounted for from their biting from a large piece when they eat, without ever using a knife ? This habit evidently gives the muscles a position, wliich at length they retain, and this position ultimately modifies the solid parts likewise. Taking up thjs idea, the resemblance of features between very re- mote people, particularly savages, is uot so certain a proof of parentage or relationship, as it is made -, for analogous influences of climate, soil, food, ha- bits, and in short way of life in general, may ver) well be the cause of a resemblacc in shape and fea- •* Cfiildren in conscciiicuce cut them cnnW, and upVL^ EuiHr from deiuithii. ^SSUte 5'ily, anc! ii,:\Lif 411 tare. I say nothing of their women, b^-cause their katures diJ not appear to me at ail different. Nei- ther do I pretend to deny, that there may [)c pretty ones among them, as some travellers assert. A dish, that would appear insipid at another time, may be thought very palatable after a long jour- ney. I shall likewise say very iittle of the custom the Chactaws have of giving the sculls of their newborn infants the figure of a truncated pyramid, by compressing their heads, while yet soft, in a mould made of little boards. This whimsical practice is so effectual, that the whole nation is known by the shape of the head, and has received the name ot Fiat Heads. Some writers, even of merit, have asserted, that all the savages resemble each other so strongly, that they arc scarcely to be distinguished from one ano- ther. Surely these writers would say too, that every Negro, and every sheep, is alike : but this would only prove, that ihey had not examined them so closely as the shepherd and the slave-dealer. ' We can distinguish every nation,' said the Little Tortoise to me, * at first sight : tiie face, the complexion, tlie shape, the knees, the legs, the feet, are to us certain marks of distinction : by the print of the foot we can distinguish not only men, women, and children, but also tribes. You whites are conspicuous by turning out your tees: we carry ->->«, 4)2 them straight before us, that they may encounter fewer obstacles among the buihts. Some people turn them a little inwanl, have the foot broader or shorter, tread more on the heel or on the toe, &cc.' I'he mistaken notion, that the savages have no beard, has undoubtedly been rendered current in the World by the same writers, or others like them : but it's absence arises from the particular, constant, and almost superstitious care, with which they eradicate it, and depilate the whole body. This is testified unanimously by all who have clo.sely observed them, as Bernard Romans, Car- ver, John Long, Umfievilk-, &c. Oldmixon, the author of the British Empire, who wrote in 1707 from the best authorities, says, Mhe Indians have' no beard, because they use certain receipts to extir- pate it, which they will not communicate.' Vol. J, p. 286. Experience has made known, that these receiins we-c little shells, which they used as tweezers: since they have become acquainted with metals, they have invented an instrument, consisting of a piece of brass wire 'rolled on a round piece of wood the size of the finger, so as to form a spiral spring; this grasps the hairs with- in It's turns, and pulls out several at once. It is inconceivable how baron Lahontan among "«, and lord Kames among the English, could have denied or been ignorant of such a fact : but .^1^-; 413 it is very natural, that tlie paradoxical Dr. Paiiw should have laid hold of tliis anomaly, to support the edifice of his reveries. The Little Tortoise and Mr. Well, left me no doubt on this subject; the former was incessantly amusing himself with pulling out the hairs even of his eyebrows, as the Turks are with curling their whiskers. No won- der if this practice, continued for several genera- tions, should enfeeble the roots of the beard. As to hair on the body, I myself have seen several savages with it surprisingly long and straight un- der the armpits. Is this because it grows more freely from being exposed to the air ? and did the practice of eradicating the beard originate from the design of depriving the enemy of such a dangerous hold on the face ? This seems to me probable. The figure of the savages is justly spoken of with praise : in general they are plump and well made ; they who live in a fertile and well watered country, like that near the Wabash, are taller and stouter than those, whose lands are of a bad quality, as all who dwell beyond the latitude of 45° nortli \ these being more slender, and of shorter stature.' But if we never see among them a person lame in hand or foot, humpbacked, or blind, we should consider, before we thence draw an inference too much in favour of their way of life, that every weakly child must necessarily die of fatigue at an I 11 !i 111 4t4 "rly age. Inileed it sometimes happens, tlm- parents expose or destroy a deformed cliild, ,I,af niust become a burden to tliem. Tl,„,, we find the savages practising a law, wliich r,yct,rg„s .,ave the Spartans ; not that it has descended or been communicated to them, but similarity of circum- stances gave rise to it in both instances i for in a nanon that is poor, weak, and always at war, there « no superfluity to support useless mouths. It i, in consequence of this poverty, that among many savages particularly on the north of Lake Supe- nor, when old people become a burden to the communuy. < they are sent to live in the other chmate;' in plain terms they are killed, as was the practice among the savages of Scythia and near the Caspian Sea, according to the account of Herodotus. And, as a proof of the wretchedness of the savage life, it is commonly the aged person hrmself who desires an end to be put to his exist- ence. If a savage lose a limb in war or by di.sea.e he IS undone. How could a cri,,ple resist an enemy' « h all h,s limb,, perfect ? how could he hunt foh, or procure any kind of subsistence, with which haToTc ;""'"' '™ • ''°'- ^"""e them no one ha. or can have .any store in reserve, and every one IS reduced to his own casual and variable ac. qmsitions. For the same reason we see noit/.er rui^tures nor chronic diseases among ,hem. Wild I 415 Nature, that surrounds them, seems to say < be ^^trongordie;'yct m her severity she does not even leave them a free choice, for she frequently renders their difficulties greater than their strength The robust health of the savages has likewise bee : vaunted . No doubt their habitual exposure to all weathers imparts a vigour to their constitutions that cannot be expected in the effeminacy of a city life : but to estimate justly their advantages in this respect, it must be observed, that their way of life subjects theiii to irregularities and excesses incom- patible With constant health, and with a truly ro- bust constitution. Rating the sedentary and con- hned occupation of a farmer ; preferring the wan- dering and casual life of a hunter and fisherman; they can have no stores, or durable provision, and are consequently exposed to severe alternatives of famine and satiety. When game abounds, and they can hunt without fear of surprise, it is a time of enioymcnt and gluttony : hut when game fails -several days following, as is the case everv winter, or they dare not roam about fn- fear of ak enemy' they are frequently reduced like the wolves to live on the bark of trees or bulbou,, roots. They have bethought themselve., though I believe but lately oi drying flesh, and reducing it to a very finJ powder; but their provision of this kind is never capable of lasting through a.wholc season. If after *k- «». , lfi\ long fasting they meet with any prey, as a deer, d bear, a wild ox, they full on it lii<:e vultures, and do not leave pTilling the carcase to pieces and de- vouring it, till they drop down gorged to the throat. This practice renders them intractable guides on any r.gular journey. The quantity swallowed by them on such occasions would be in- credible, were it not placed beyond the shadow of a doubt by numerous authentic witnesses. It is notorious on all the frontiers, that two famished savages Will easily pick the bones of a deer at one meal, without being satisfied. This reminds us of the heroes of the Trojan war, who would eat up a whole lamb or half a calf j and this demonstrates, that those heroes were no more than savages livlnc^ in similar circumstances. But such excesses cannot fail of disordering the health : und it is now confirmed, that the savages are liable to complaints of the stomach, bilious and intermitting fevers, consumption, and pleurisy. Fractures and dislocations are not uncommon among them, but they reduce them tolerably well. From rheumatism they would suffer more, did they not practice fumigation by means of red hot pebbles. Tiie ravages made among them by the smallpox are well known -, and no doubt they are occasioned by the obstacle, that a hardened skin opposes CO the eruption. Mr. Jefierson will bestow 417 on them an immense benefit, by teaching them the practise of vaccination, as wc learn from the news- papers. Within these few years the quaker and moravian missionaries, who have succeeded the Jesuits inform us, that the tribes converted bv thern have become more robust, carry heavie'r burdens, and are Jess liable to diseases ; and they have very justly observed, that this is owing to a more regular regimen, and less inequality in the quantity of food, to which they have brought them. Another feet equally notorious is, that every European, who has embraced the sava<.e life has become stronger, and better endured'every excess, than the savages themselves. The supe nority of the people of Virginia and Kentucky over them has been confirmed, not only in troop opposed to troop, but man to man, in all thei^r wars. I shall not adduce in proof of their weak ness the beating of their pulse, which Dr. Rush as" serts to be slower : for at the same time, and in the same individuals. Dr. Barton could perceive nothing like it, and the pulse of the Little Tor toise appeared to me altogether like mv own Neither shall I mention the feebleness of their pas- sion for the sex, as it is owing to a very different cause. The savage is continent, and almost chaste trom principle and the necessity of self prese, va-' tion: the Jeajit diminution of hij strengtii by de- E £ < 9 I 418 bauchery might cost him his \ifc the next day by rendering him less able to resist an attack. from his fellow men, or from the hand of Na- ture. When talking of the inconveniences of the sa- vage life, I asked Mr. Wells whether it were true, that many whites adopted it from choice, and why they preferred it to what we call civilized life. His answer, which was long and minute, agreed •with all I had heard from men of sense and expe- rience in Kentucky, at Fort St. Vincents, and at Detroit. The unanimous result of the facts is, * that the Canadians, that is to say men of French dcxent, furnish more of these than the Americans, or men of English and German blood. The latter have a natural antipathy to the savages, which is increased by their cruelty toward their prisoners. The Americans have a repugnance to the savage women, the Canadians the contrary. Yet an in^ clination for the savage life is less common among men grown, than among youths under eighteen. or the Americans those only become attached to it, who have been carried off prisoners at an early age ; because the excessive liberty it allows chil- dren in running, playing, and amusing themselves, is much more pleasing to them than the confine- ment of schools, and the punishment there in- flicted on their idleness. To have nothing to do 419 but pJay, is the delight of an infant : it required years, to make him contract habits of labour and study ; a few days are sufficient, to give him those of Idleness and independance. These are incli- nations natural to man, and to which he mechani- cally reverts. As to adults, particularly Ameri- cans, taken and adopted by the savages, scarcely any one can accustom himself to their way of life • I myself,' said Mr. Wells> ' though carried ofF at the age of thirteen,' (he appeared to w'^ to be about two and thirty), < then adopted, and well treated, was never able to forget the social pleasures I had already tasted. ' As to those who voluntarily join the savages, and for the most part are Canadians, they are gene- rally men of bad charac'^r, libeftines, idle, of pas- sionate tempers, or of little understanding. The kind of influence they acquire a.^aong the savages flatters their vanity, while the licentious life they lead with the squaws indulges the prevailing pas- sion of their headstrong youth ; but when they grow old, being reduced to extreme wretchedness they scarcely ever fail to return to their country! regretting rhc'r rambles when too late. ' Among us,' says Mr. Wells, < a man who has ever so \h.k industry, may procure himself z ^omfortable subsistence for the present ; and pro- vide for the future those conveniences, the value . 'W 420 of which is felt in old age. You establish a farm, you bring up children, Avho, when you are worn out with old a^e, will gently close your eyes. In the savage state, on the contrary, your enjoyments are confined to drinking, eating, which is not aU ways in your power, and hunting. The whole ca- reer of ambition is reduced to that oi' being a great ■ warrior, celebrated among five or six hundred men. Old age comes on, your strength fails, your consfquence declines, and your days close with in- firmity, contempt, extreme misery, and the nece-;^ sity or rhe want of some hand to put an end to your existence. The Indian can never employ another in his service : with him, to serve and obey, even voluntarily, is a kind of disgrace re- served for the women, A great warrior must do nothing but hunt and fight. Women have all the burden of household afl^iirs, of husbandry, if any be practised, and on a journey of carrying the chil- dren and utensils. They are literally beasts of burden. They do not even inherit the property of their husbands. Were the IJttle Tortoise to return home to morrow and die, all the presents he has received, clothes, hats, trinkets, would be distributed, nay almost plundered, and nothing go to his children. It is the custom of his tribe, which is common to many others : while living they enjoy the property of their movables, arms. ivables, arms. 421 and trinkets ; but as at their death not so much as their knives, or even pipes, descend to their chil- dren, they may be said to be only usufructuaries. Still less have they any idea of immovable pro- perty in lands or houses. Accordingly all the am- bition of a savage is confined within a small circle of wants, calculated rather to support than enlarge his existence. ' This existence, incessantly in danger, itself centres in the present moment The possibility of perishing every instant is the most constant and radical thought, that occupies the mind of a savac>e. He uses life as a vessel hourly liable to be brok'^en by the number of accidents to which it is exposed. 1 his Idea, having become familiar to him from in- fancy, IS not affected : it is necessity, to which he resigns himself, or which he braves. But a natu- ral consequence of this is, that he is attached to nothing in the World but his arms, or perhaps a companion and friend, who is to him an additional aiean of defence and preservation. He caresses IS chi dren, as any animal caresses it's young. When he has dandled them and kissed them, he leaves them, to go to war or the chace, without thinking of them any more; he exposes himself to danger, without caring what becomes of them • ti^ey will struggle against fate, against nature; they v-'ill die young or old, no matter, since death must EE3 ^W M m iti i'25 •i f:' .' n ■m be their lot. Thus too suicide is not unfrcqucnt among them : they Kill themselves through disgust of life, through disappointment sometimes in love, through rage at some great affrpnt, which they arc unable to revenge. They live wholly in their feel- ings, little in remembrance, not at all in hope. If they be in health, they gambol, dance, and sing: if they be ill, or weary, they lie down, smoke, and sleep i but as frequently neither rest nor food is at their own disposal, it is difficult to perceive in this cither liberty or happiness.' Such was the substance of our conversation thi^ day, which struck me the more, as it was the result of twelve or fifteen years experience. I was desi- rous on the other side of learning the motives, by which the savages are prevented from setding among the whites, and which on several occasions had induced those, who had been educated among them, to prefer resuming their native habits. Oa this occasion time and opportunity were wanting; but a few days afterward I was more fortunate, 2. d It was the Little Tortoise himself, who explained to me the reasons. Some quakers had come to pay him a visit, and, among various offers of service, they had proposed to him, to remain as hnfr as he chose, even his whole life, with an assurance, that he should want for nothing. When they were gone, I said to the .>*«sj 423 Little Tortoise by our common interpreter : ' You know the manners of those people, they are back- ward and moderate in making offers, but when they do make any, you may safely depend on them. What prevents you from remaining among the whites ? Are you not more comfortable here, than on the banks of the Wabash ?' He was slow in giving me an answer, agreeably to the cold and reserved manner of the savigfs : but when h. had meditated a liitle, walking about in the mean time, and plucking out his hairs, he replied : ' Yes, I have pretty well accustomed my- self to all I find here. These clothes are warm and good in my opinion : these houses are excellent de- fenses against the rain, wind, and Sun -, and in them we find at hand every thing that is convenient : this market' (that of Second street was under the win- dows) ' furnishes every thing that can be desired, so that there is no occasion to hunt for venison in the woods. Taking all things together you have the advantage over us ; but here 1 am deaf and dumb. I do not talk your language j I can nei- ther hear, nor make myself heard.— When [ walk through the streets, I see every person in his shop employed about something: one makes shoes, another hats, a third sells cloth, and every one lives by his labour. I say to myself, which of all these things can you do ? Not one. I can make a bow or E E 4 yj. 1 ^■_=«- 424 an arrow, catch fish, kiil game, and go to war: hut none of the«>f is of any use here. To learn what is done her • oukl require a long time, be difficult and the success uncertain. Old age comes on : if I were to remaiii with the whites, I should be a piece of furniture useless to my own nation, use. ss to the whites, and usele^^, to myself. What is to ^ ,e done with a useless piece of furniture ? I must re- turn to my own country.' These few words, properly considered, contain the solution of the problem. To every removal to a foreign country the language is a primary obstacle ; for a residence in a country where you cannot converse with the people is insupportable and to learn their la guagc is a long and laborious' exertion of the mind. A considerable time after you can speak it, to express yourself correctly and at will ,s another difficulty felt every moment, and every moment disheartening you. This ob stacle surmounted, and it never is well excep: by young persons, three other powerful ones remain- 1st, the impression of the early habits of infancy the ea-ct of which is such, as after many observa- tions to render it to me indubitable, that the moral system of a man has assumed at the age of five years that bent and direction, which it will retain throughout his whole life. It is unfolded according to circumstances, but nothing new in 425 the character is produced, every thing proceedi from the same source. 2dly, the al -ence of friends and relations, an intercourse wit.i whom is a physical and moral tie. jdly, that scaffolding of pains .md labours, which our social state would require from a savage, withf)nt reckoning upon the physical difficulty of submitting to the confined and fettered life of our cities, renouncing his care- less and wandering habits. These men are actually in the state of wiU animals and birds, rhat are never tamed when caught after they are at years of maturity. The mibfionarics have been fuily sciiiiblc of this truth, and they all agree, that these savages can neves civu:/,ed but by be-inning their education with infancy, even from their birth, and taking them as it were O-oiii the nest, like tlic little birds we term unfledged. This passim for independence, that is for idlenc-^s an, : doing nothing, is ro na- tural, that the following observation has been made in the Uni:ed States. Among the media- nics who emigrate from Europe, all who have not sufficient capacity to acquire comfortable :c flements in the towns, hasten, as soon as they have gained a little mo- , to buy land up the co- Ty, where it may be had fur h ilf a dollar, or a quar- ter of a dollar an acre, to settle as prop ietors and be their own masters: and as they scon .nd 4i:o U a toilsome life to be felliiio the trees, tliey inter- mingle with it the occupations of shooting and fishing, in other words they become half sauagcs. But what is the price they pay for this savage li'- berty ? We have had a few specimens, let us proceed to examine the particulars more at large. * The Little Tortoise, said Mr. Wells to me, * has every reason to think as he does : if he delayed returning home, he would lose his credit among hi, countrymen. Already it requires great management for him to preserve it. When he gets home, he must at once resume the Indian dress and habits, and not speak too favourably of ours, lest he should wound their pride, which is extreme, fn those viJages the jealou.y of every warrior, of every savage, renders the situation of the ciiiefs as delicate as that o,' the head of a party in the most democratic state : theirs in fact is an extreme and terrible democracy. This man has at home good clothes, tea, and coffee : he has even a cow, and his wife makes butter: yet he is careful not to indulge himself in the use of these, but to reserve them for white strangers. When he first had a cow, she was maliciously kilkd by night; and he was obliged to pretend ig- norance of die person wlio did it, and a belief of It's dying of disease.' ' What,' said I, with an air of surprise, * are , *«. f-'^^^m^-^ 4^7 these men of nature acquainted with envy, hatred, and mean revenge ? Among us there are first- rate wits, who maintain, that these passions arise only in civilized society.' « Ah,' replied Mr. Wells, * let them spend three months among the savages, and they will return converts.' He then confirmed all I had heard at Fort Vincents and in Kentucky of the anarchy and private malice prevailing among these tribes, whether wandering or settled. He told me, that the assemblies of old men had no coercive power over the young: that the first mutinous or superstitious young warrior might in one morning excite a rising of young men, always turbulent because idle, a^^d stir up a war, that would involve the whole tribe: and that such events Were not occasioned by intoxication alone, and consequently u/ising fiom their intercourse with the whites, but by superstitious notions com- . rpon to all the savages, and a certain restlessness of mind and body, a peculiar thirst of blood allied to the nature of tigers and wild beasts. He related to me very curious particulars of all the petty tricks of villages or neighbouring places, the great and violent animosities thence arising, the impla- cable hatreds for the slightest afi'iont, and the ven- geances of retaliation for every death or mutila- *>'( 428 Nation. T had a striking example of this before niy own eyes at Fort Miami, in the person of tae Ekie Joclcey, a celebrated chief. This sa- vage, bcng drunk, met another, to whom he had owed n grudge two and twenty years. Being alone, he took advantage of the opportunity, and killed l^»m The next day all the family was in arms, to derrand his death. He came to Fort Miami, to capcam Marshal, the commanding officer, who told me the story, and said to him : < Let them kih me. It ,s but equitable : my heart has betrayed It's secret J the liquor robbed me of my senses- but to kill my son, as they threaten, that is not jusc. Father, see if it cannot be made uo. I ^vill give them all I have in the World • two norses, my trinkets of gold and silver, my finest weapons, one set excepted. If they will not ac- cept these, let them appoint a time and place, I will meet them alone, and they shall kill me ' This law of retaliation is found among all bar- barous nations, that is to say, among those who h^ve no regular government, because, from wa,r of public authority, it is the only protector of in- divduals and of- families. To suppose, that has it descended or b.en borrowed from the Hebrews or Arabs, ,s a rcvery to be left to those virion- an«, who build t!ie history of all nations on an S^Piii •■■**>•■■%**-**•-■■ 429 embryo. It may indeed have been the Arabs, who established it in Italy, in Spain, in Corsica*, &c.; but it is very possible, that barbarism intro- duced it there before them, and without their as- sistance. * Yet,' added Mr. Wells, < the Indians of the Wabash, the Miamis, Putewoatamies, Sec, are bet- ter than they were three or four score years ago. The peace they have enjoyed in consequence^of the decline of the Six Nations has enabled them to cultivate with the hoe Indian corn, potatoes, and even our cabbages and turnips : our prisoners have planted peach and apple trees, and taught them to breed poultry, pigs, and lately cows: m short, the Chactaws and Creeks of Florida are rot farther advanced.' Now when I consider, that th^ first travellers and historians of Virginia and New England de- scribe these savages in a state of still greater ad- vancement : that they tell us each tribe, on the arrival of the first settlers, had a sachem, or sagemore, exercising a sort of monarchical au- thority : that there were privileged and almost * During three mouths that I ,pent in Corsica, I had uutht'iitic inll.nnatioii of ., huiKJrod and cleveu private a.'- sassiudtiuiH, from these veii-caucos of rctalialioji. Lud.^r the CJeiioL'io govcrmiient thore ^scro as many a< nine huJi- 'iicd yearly. What a -overnnant ' auj what a peopl- ' PSfeiSl^SJi,: 1 li^ 1 430 noble flimllies, as among the Arabs : and that these tribes, tolerablv populous, were confined within limits of moderate extent : I consider my- self authorised to conclude, that they were then in a higher state of civilization ; that they them- selvds would ultimately have raised it to the same pitch as it has reached in the other continent: and that their wars witli Europeans have plunged them into anarchy, by destroying their govern- ments : so that ainong the savages, as in civilized nations, different epochs of their history are to be distinguished ; and their states also have their revolutions, so much the more easily effcfted, as they are smaller and more feeble. The Weeaw chief, who harangued me at Fort Vincents, said to me : < before this war/ (die war from 1788 to 1794) ' we were united and tran- quil : we began to cultivate Indian corn like the whites. Now we resemble a herd of deer chased by the hunters: we have no longer house or home, we are all of us scattered abroad, and soon no traces of us will remain, unless some one come to our as- sistance.' During these explanations the Little Tortoise appeared to me very attentively observing from the window what passed in the market in Second street. To engage him again in the conversation, I informed him, that I had travelled among a people strangdy differing from his : that there a handful of men, perhaps five or six thousand horse- men, had mconceivably found out the means of imprisonmg as it were in an extent of country al- most equal to the Ohio a whole nation of two millions and half of people ^ so that about three hundred and seventy individuals suffered them- selves to be plundered, imprisoned, beaten, and harassed m all manners, by one single man, who was no stronger than either of them. Knowing the proud and independent notions of the savac.es, I expected, that he would have exclaimed agatnst this warmly ; but, stroking his chin with a thought- ful air, he answered : ' with all this, no doubt, rhcy too have enjoyments after their fashion.' I confe>* it was I who was astonished at this an- swer, which displays a mind emancipated from the prejudices of .c's country and education, and capable of estimating the prodigious power of habit. To termin'^t« our discourse, I inquired what so much engaged his attention in the street and the market, and what surprised him most in the city of Philadelplii,!. * In observing all these people,' replied he, (ft was on a market-day, < two things ever astonish me : the extreme difference of the countemnces and the numerous population of the whites. We' w" m 4-32 r-iji 1 f red men do not resemble one another, each has a particular face, but still there is a family like- ness. Here I perceive a confu.ion that puzzles me. There are ten different shades between black and white ; i:nd the features, the forehead, nose, mouth, chin, black, brown, light hair, blue, gray, and chesnut eyes, exhibit such a diversity, as I cannot explain.' I then acquainted him, that Philadelphia being the resort of people from all parts of the globe"^ and these people afterward intermarrying, it fol- lowed, that the varieties of climates must pro- duce subvarieties and combinations to infinity by mixture of blood. But, I added, if you were to visit the inland parts of our countries, as France, or England, you would see, that the inhabitants of villages, who intermarry with one another for several generations, have a general resemblance in their physiognomies. In fact this is what I have often observed in parishes far in the country, particularly in the woodlands of Rennes, Laval, Chateau-Briant, &c. Posting myself at the door of the church as the people were coming out. I remarked general characters striking for their re- semblance in each place, and their peculiaridcs in different places. ' As to the population,' said the Little Tor- toise to me, ' ijie increase of the whites is incon- I er, each has family like- that puzzles ies between he forehead. It hair, blue, a diversity, elphia being " the globe, ying, it fol- ' must pro- • infinity by you were to > as France, inhabitants another for "esemblance is what I he country, ties, Laval, at the door ling out, I or their re- »ecu]iaritics Jttle Tor- is is incon- e„b . More man the lives of nvo men luv. ""' ^'^P''"''' ™PP°^'"g "ch to have lived four- core years, Mnce they first set foot in this co.I T; and they already cover it ,,ke swarms (s ' r'' \ "'f ^"' "^° f--^ -''^bited no on l!.>tcs, tiiat their civil and religions institutions should be l-rought back to their origin. The paradox is palpable in (he F'sent case. On reading the works ofthis writer over again, i'""l. "'at a thorough analysis of most of his principles «ouhI reduce his reputation for ki,u^^ ledge and abilitv tu a I ink far below what he rnjoys. t See his Discourse on the Origin of the Inrcjualitv of 'widilions. F F 2 111 \A 116 1 / - 'A I and guiding turbulent and jealous minds, with a success that lias earned him an undisputed repu- tation of prudence and ability ; or a private indivi- dual, who, like Rousseau, never had the manage- mcnt of the least public business, or even knew how to conduct his own ; who, having created to himself a World of abstract ideas, lived almost as much a stranger to the society in which he was born, as to that of the savages, of whom he knew nothing but by comparisons drawn from the forest of Montmorenci -, who even did not treat this question at first in a paradoxical light but as an exercise of wit and eloquence ; and supported it as a truth solely from despite at having nis humour thwarted, and his vanity stung *. * Wliat I hore advance is founded on some of those littlo tacts, tliat an; very interesting in the Jiistory of <'io;ii tilings; and wliich I liad from two autliorities worthy of credit, the late l)aron von lloll)acli, and Mr. Naigeoii, now member of llu; Institute. At llic time whtn the academy ol Dijon proposed it's too C( lel)raled j)rize question, Didrroi, Avus confined in the castle of Vinecinies for his Lvltvr o/i tk Jiliitd. Rouiseau sometimes went to sec him. On on p of these vjsiis he showed him the cjuestion propysed, and said, It is a striking suhject, J have a mind to ent«r thu list;,.' Very well,' answered Diderot, ' but in what sense do yoj* take up the iiuestion r' ' In it's natural sense; can it Iiii\f. twor can the arts and sciences have an\ other elK'cl, than to in-uinote the prosperity of a slater' ' Wei! then,' n irr *^l-l-*%i«=* t urn t' - t.37 It is SO much the more to be regretted, that this writer embraced such a bad cause, as the question seen m it's true light would have afforded him still ampler scope for displaying his talents, and de- claiming against the vices and corruption of so- ciety. For if he had first established or admitted joined Diderot, ' you will 1„. a (,uri..r of «,(,al,s to X.nvrastle [m nifonccur clr partes ouvcrtrs]. (Tfu-so ^^ ere his very vords.) It wonid hv far more strikin-, to uiuinfain the re- verse.' Ko.issea.i ueutuway slruclc with (his idea ; urol.; an essay on Ihcse prineiples; and the roiaitn/acaclcmj/ awarded it the priice.— Sonu- time alU-v, Il.,ll,aeh and Diderot, Maik- inginthe Conrs-Ia-Keine, met Rousseau, joined him, com- plimented iiin. on /lis disphnj of strew^th [tour deforce], and Uonsseau joke.J with them on the success of his paradox, and the Simplicity [honhomwu], of the academicians. Criticisms ami contradictions arose: Rousseau was irritated: IIoll.a and his prophecy wa^ l)iit too true. ^ Here then we have the point, from which tlie system of i nun, ^vhose motto was Vitam mpruchrc vera, [k, spend his lit'' .1, the pursuit of truth], took it's departure: and thi. in:u, has in the present day seetari.'s, who approach so near 1'; tunat.c.sm, that they w,juld willingly send everyone to Vmcennes, who docs not admire the Confessions. F F3 () 11 H 438 m ,|i the facts as they are j if, drawing a true picture of savage life, he had shown, that it is a state o^ non- compact and anarchy, in which wandering uncon- nected men are moved by violent necessities, by passions analogous to these necessities, and act in- cessantly on each other with strength abused, the inequality of which prevents that equilibrium, that is tiirmtd justice-, if then, defining civilization, he had traced it's meaning to that of it's root, (clvitas, a city), he would have shown, that by civilization ought to be understood tlie union of these men into a city, in other words a number of habitations en- closed and provided with a common defence, to protect them against plunderers from without and disorder within ; and that this union carries with it the ideas of the voluntary consent of it's members, the preservation of their natural right to security of person and property, and the supposition or exist- ence of a mutual compact, regulating the employ of strength, circumscribing liberty of action, and in short establishing a system of equity. Thus he would have demonstrated, that civilization is no- thing but a social state preserving and protecting persons and property : that no people arc truly ci- vilized, but they who have equitable laws and re- gular governments : and on the contrary that they, among whom such an order of things does not ex- ist, are in a barbarous and savage state, and do nor •I .'» clcscr\ name of a civilized people: he would have c aonsirared with the ivantage derived fromtr , that, if these i;eor' be- as and de- pn ed, it is not because th. uiuung in society Jias given birrh to vicious inclinations, but because these have been tra nitted from the savage state, the original stock o, .very nation, of every forma- tion of a government i and this in the same way, in which an individual educated in bad habits re- tains the impression of them throughout his life. On the other hand, examining the part that the sciences and fine arts act in the system of b, lies politic, he might have maintained, that the arts in particular, poetry, painting, and architecture, are integral parts of civilization, and certain character- istics of the happiness and prosperity of a people. He might have proved by examples drawn from Italy and Greece, that they may flourish in coun- tries subjected to military despotism, or a licentious democracy, both equally of a savage nature : that to render them flourishing it is sufficient for a go- vernment tcmj^orarily strong, whatever it may be, to encourage and reward them -, but that the com- mon consequence of such encoura^ement carried beyond due bounds is the ruin of these govern- ments themselves, in the same way as private ama- teurs are daily dissipating ample fortunes by an ini- F F 4 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V NS> // {./ ''*' ^ //,. ^ ^J^ y 5r /^/^ 1.0 !fi i.l 11.25 M 111125 Iff *- IIM |« llll 2.0 1.4 1.8 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ :\ \ .-'*- ^\^ ,' the savages are so thinly scattered, and the land so stenl, that we can scarcely admit a higher cal- culation than for the Nadowessees : but since the soil improves as we proceed southward, and the borders of the Pacific ocean appear more popu- lous, let us admit one person to eighteen square miles throughout the whole of North America : :IP "*■' -J i4 * Ir- t i 142 ■ the superficies of that continent, excluding Mexico and the United States, may be estimated at six times that of the United States, or six millions of square miles. This would give about 334000 sa- vages * : but let us admit, though it is beyond all * This leads us to estimate in a probable manner tlie po- pulation of the whole of this continent. The United States are known to contain . 521M00 The Spaniards achiiit the population of Mexico to amount to . . „^^„ „ ^ , . - 3000000 Canada in 1798 reckoned 197000 : say - 20OOOO Upper and Lower Louisiana cannot be set don n at more than - . _ The two Floridas about the same number - The Creeks, Chactaws, and Chicasaws, who have SOOO warriors All the savages on the Wabash and Michigan, at most . _ The rest of the sava-es throughout the oontniont taken together, as far as the Frozen Ocean and the sea of Nootka Sound 40000 40000 2 tono 15000 600000 -ri .. . T»lat.on of all .heir po.sscssions in this part of the ^Void, r>g Mexico ited at six millions of 134000 sa- beyond all iner the po- Persons. 5215000 CO in i-f; T, 3000000 20000U 40000 40000 2 tono 15000 It (1 600000 9i.S1000 y 1 little c.\- mt article. d: lUj c(]iial Itt ' the |)(»- lie ^V.)l■l(I, 443 possibility 670000, it will nevertheless follow, that it is only the population of a middling province o^ six or seven thousand square miles in a civilized natic.\ And this fact alone determines which namely Peru, Chili, Paraguay. la Plata, and even Caraccas. not including the unsubjectcd Indians, at - 4000000 In Brazil are reckoned 500000 Portuguese and n 00000 000000 Negroes Total The Indians not subjugated can scarcely he. es- timated with precision, but, considering the. territory they occupy, tl.cy cannot equal in number half the whites. I reckon them there- fore only at ... _ Tiie colonics in tha West India islands and Isth- mus of Darien do not exceed Butch and French O'uiuna cannot be more than 5 J 00000 1000000 IS 00000 7jOOO _,, , Tot;il 707.5000 llius we have about eight millions: but let us suppose ffn, still the population of North and South America taken together cannot exceed twenty million,^. This calculation dilfers widely from those of my honour- able colleague in the Institute, Mr. Lalande th« astronomer, who in the Yearbooks of the years S and 9 reckoned a Imn' .Ired and eighty millionsof inhabitants in the new world. It is true in (he years !) and 10 he suddenly fell to sixty mil- lions, that is to say to the half*: and aJlen-fh in the pro- * If botli the numbers here given be right, it should be to onc-th-; utes to Asia. i\o doubt he reci name nil/ oauv,, in history. G G 4 Ikv 456 founded on this, that every individual of the tribe from the land bein^. in comn.on, considers the game in general as the hindamental means of his own subsistence, ^nd consrquencly deems every t "ng that tends to destroy this as attacking or threatening his own life. Among polished nations rich in private pro- perty, war is an evil that directly affects only a portion of the wiiole people, and frequently a very small portion : the majority suffers only a depri- vation, through the medium of taxes, of part of their wealth and enjoyments, with which in strict- ness they can dispense. It is natural then, that such a war should excite only slight passions in it's movers and instruments, who fight and are killed less through necessit>r than from vanity, and in the way of a kind of trade, by which they gain money and honour. On the contrary among savage na- tions, poor and few in number, war directly en- dangers the existence of the whole society, and of each of it's members. It's first effect is to tarnish, It's next to exterminate the tribe : it is equally natural therefore, that every member should Identify himself intimately with the whole, and display an energy carried to the utmost, since It IS stimulated by the extreme necessity of defence and seJl-i)reservation. 2. A second reason of the animosity of these ■*y -in wars is the violence of passions, such as the point of honour, rescntmenr, .and vengeance, with which every warrior is inspired. The number of combatants being small, every one is exposed to the eyes both of his friends and enemies : every act of cowardice is punished with infamy, the near consequence of which is death : and courage is stimulated by the rivalry of cc^mpanions in arm;-, the desire of revenging the death of some friend or relation, and every personal motive of hatred and pride, often more powerful tlian those of self- preservation. 3. The nature of these wars, in which quarter is neither given, received, nor expected. The least danger is the loss of life, for if the savage be only wounded or made prisoner, the sole pros- pect before him is that of being scalped immedi- ately, or burned alive and eaten in a few days. If the reader wish to know wiiac scalping means, I will give him a description of it in the words of an eye-witness, John I.ong, an English trader, who was fond of the savage life, and resided twenty years among the Indians. * When an Indian strikes a per-on on the tem- ple with a tomahawk, the victim instantly drops j he then seizes his hair with one hand, twisting it very tight together, to separate the skin from die head, and placing his knee on the breast, with the" 1 * 458 Other he draws the scalping knife from the sheath, and cuts the skin round the forehead, pulling it off with his teeth. As he is very dextrous, °he operation is generally performed in two minutes. The scalp is then extended on three hoops, dried in the sun, and rubbed over with vermillion.' Long's Travels, p. 22. The operation is not always fatal. < There are instances of persons of both sexes, now living in America, who, after having been scalped^ by wearing a plate of silver or tin on the crown of the head, to keep it from cold, enjoy a good state of health, and are seldom afflicted with pains.' lb. I may add, that the colony of Gallipolis has furnished another instance in the person of a German. ^ Scalps are trophies of -lory, and honour con- sists in having a great number. As to being burned alive and eaten, it is suf- ficient to look into any relation of a war with the savages, to be informed, that the common fate of prisoners of war is to be fastened to a stake near a pile of burning wood, there to be tortured for several hours with every refinement of barba- rity that rage can invent. What is related of these terrible scenes by travellers, who have wit- nessed the cannibal joy of the actors in them, and particularly the fury of the women and children, 3 4jd and with what atrocious, delight they emulate each other in acts of cruelty * : what they add of the heroic firmness, and unalterable cool- ness of the sufferers, who not only express no sen- sation of pain, but brave and defy their tormen- tors with the haughtiest pride, bitterest irony, and most insulting sarcasms j chaunting their own ex- ploits j enumerating the friends and relations of the spectators, whom they have slain i particular- izing the tortures they infiicted on them ; and ac- cusing them all of cowardice, pusillanimity, and ignorance in the art of tormenting; till dropping piecemeal, and devoured alive before their own eyes by their enemies drunk with rage, they lose their last breath with their last words : all this would be incredible to civilized nations, were not the truth established by incontrovertible testimony, and will some day be treated as fabulous by poste- rity, when savages no longer exist. Examples of it still occur daily in America beyond the Missi- sippi, take place every year among the savages on the Wabash, and sometimes may be seen among t.hose of Florida. After this let sentimental dreamers come for- ward, and boast the goodness of the man of na- * See Carver, chap. 9 ; John Long, end of chap. S and chap. 9; Lahontan, Adair, &(•. I > 4 m)- tare. An almost equal erroiir is that of writers, who, like Pauw, suppose it may be owing to a want of feeling, that savages endure so pati- ticnrly such horrible tortures. Were this the case, assuredly th(7 must be more insensible than an oyster or a tree. The truth is, this phenome- non in physiology depends on a peculiar state of mind, violently exalted by the passions : a state of which we sec numerous examples in the martyrs to reli-ion or politics of all nations, and in all coun- tries. The savage, as well as these martyrs, is in that frame of mind called fanaticism, which is a violent persuasion, a blind certainty, of all right, all truth, being concentred in his cause ; seeing on the side of his enemies all errour, and all ma- lice; admitting neither doubt nor reasoning ; and on these accounts being profoundly penetrated, like martyrs, with a sentiment of pride, which exalts !)Im in his own eyes far above his tormentor^ and establi.','ies between him alone and them all a contest of self-love, a strife of vanity who shall hold cut longest : and wc see in society, that this l.ind of strife daily produces the most extravagant cfrccts, -as those of the rage of gambling, the madness or war, duels, conquests, &c. The fa- naticism of martyrs to religion is commonly found- ed on the hoj^c of another life : that of the savage wants tr.is support, and for this reason his courage 461 is the more astonishing, and has in some respect more merit : but it i^^ stimulated by despair, and the impossibility of saving himself by retractation or weakness; he resembles those animals, that, attacked in their last retreat, defend themselves without any hope of escape ; and wr know what prodigious efforts nature will then display in the weakest and most timid. In the savage it is the accumulated action of flmaticism and necessity i and on this double basis the Tatar Odin was able to build his insane religion : but a very interesting physiological problem nevertheless remains still to be rer.olved, namely : what is that singular state of the nerves, what that movement of the electric fluid, by which sensibility is dead- ened or exalted to such a pitch, as to annihilate pain ? This question well deserves to be the sub- ject for a prize in medical schools* j as it would }b * Pliysicians and surgeons of military lio.sjutals have frc- quciit opportunities of observing, that palicnts, who in a calm state of the mind and senses would have uttered cries of pain during amputations or other oprrutions, on ihe roij. trary display firmness, if ihey he prepiucd in a certain manner. This consists in piquing their vanity and sense of iionour; m pretending, at first artfully, and then with irri- tating contradiction, that they are incapable of going through the operation without crying out. It almost always hajjpens, that this moral and jihysical excitement produces a state of tension, by which they are enabled to sup;-ort pain with a 462 be another worthy of those learned societies that turn their attention to morals, to inquire in what that state of mind called fanaticism consists; what are it's predisposing and preparatory caij;;fs both in education and disposition; and what are the means of remedying it ; and farther ta examine, whether the effects of fanaticism, applied to no matter what opinion, be more pernicious to the individual and to society, than the spirit of scep- ticism, uncertainty, aui incredulity. 4. The last motive to ferocity in the wars of the savages, and in their entire character, is the whole system of their education, and the direction that parents endeavour to give to their inclinations from the earliest age. * From their infint state,' says Long, p. 60, ' they endeavour to promote an independent spirit ; they are never known to bear or scold them, lest the martial disposition, which is to adorn their future life and character, should be weakened : on all occasions they avoid every thiiT^ compulsive, that the freedom with which they wish them to think and act may not be controlled.' I add, that here, as throughout the whole sys- dcgrec of firmness, of Mhich flicy would otherwise Iiave failed. To suy what passes on this occasion in the nervous and sanguineous systems, is one of the eienK-nts of tiic prob- lem. 463 tern of savage life, self-preservation is still the act- ing motive ; for it is to procure themselves more intrepid defenders, that these mothers thus spoil their children, who, at some future day, accord- ing to the general practice of these people, will despise, domineer over, and even beat the. Sometimes they spend thtir evenings in relating the noble deeds and courageous acts of their rela- tions, or of the heroes of the tribe : how during their lives they killed, scalped, and burned such a mimber of their enemies ; or how, having had the misfortune to be taken prisoners, they endured the most horrible torments with the proudest bravery. At other times they entertain them with the do- mestic quarrels of the tribe, their causes of com- plaint against some of tiicir neighbours, and the precautions to be taken in order to revenge them opportunely : dius they give them at once lessons cf dissimulation, cruelty, hatred, discretion, ven- geance, and bloodthirstyncss. They never fail of seizing the first opportunity of a prisoner of war, to have their children present at the punishment, to tutor them in the art of tormenting, and to make them partakers of the cannibal h^ast, with vhich these scenes terminate. It is obvious, that such lessons must make a profound impression on a young mind. Accordingly their constant e/fcct Js to give the young savages an intractable, impr- n I 'I . I ■] i;- 464 rious, rebellious disposition, averse to all contra- diction and restraint, yet dissenibiinfr, knavish, and even polite : for the suvagts have a code of polite- ness, not less established than that of a court : in short, they contrive to make them unite all the qualities, necessary to attain the object of their prevailing pa sion, the thirst of revenge and blood- shed. '1 jieir frenzy in the last point is a subject of astonishment and affright to all the whites who have lived with them. * An impartial mind,' says Long, p, 27, r ^in require but little to be persuaded, that the Indians are supcriour to us in the woods : it is their na- tural element (if I may be allowed the expres- sion), and a tree or river, of which their recol- lection never fails, guides them to the secret re- cesses of a deep wood, either for safety, or the purposes of ambush. As they pay little attention to the rising or setting Sun, it at first surprised me, by what method they travel from place to place, without any material aberration ; but this they soon explained, by assuring me, that they • had not the least difficulty in going from one spot to another, being governed by the noss on the trees, which always remains on the no". , side but on the south it wastes and decays . ihcy remark also, that the branches are larger, and the leaves more luxuriant on the south than on the north side 4fi,5 Of the tree. The most enlightened part of man- kind, I am persuaded, cannot be more exact in the.r mode of judging, or more attentive to the works of nature p. 29. The disposition of the Indians >s naturally proud and sellsufficicp^ • they think themselves the wisest of the sons of men, and arc extremely offended when their ad- vice is rejected. The feats of valour of their an- cestors, continually repeated and impressed upon their minds, inspire them with the most exalted notions of their own prowess and bravery; hence arises the firmest reliance on their own courage and power ; and though but a handful of men, com- parativcly speaking, they are vain enough to think they can overthrow both French and En-Hsh whenever they please. They say, the latter are fools, for they hold their guns half man hi^h • and let them snap; but that they themselves take siglit, and seldom fail of doing execution, which, they add, is the true intention of going to war p. 27. Even the great Washington incurred their censure by his conduct, and gave occasion to an In- dian chief, of the name of Thanachrishon, of the Se- neka tribes, judging him by their own rules, to say, that he was a good natured man, but had no ex- P"'!""^^ P- 37- However, with regard to bodily strength, they are excc.:ed by many • and even in hunting, the Virginians equal theni H H ■( ! '»>m^ 466 Fi' in every part of the chace, though all the world allow them the merit of beinf^ good marksmen. .... p. 30. The Iroquois laugh when you ralk to them of obedience to kings j for they cannot re- concile the idea of submission wuh the dignity of man. Each individual is a sovereign in his own mind ; and as he conceives he derives his freedom from the ?;reat Spirit alone, he cannot be induced to acknowledge any other puwer. They are ex- tremely jealous, and easily offended, and when they have been once induced to suspect, it is very difficult to remove the impression. They carry their resentments with them to the grave, and bequeath them to the rising generation. Those who have associated with them, though they may admire their heroism in war, their resolution in supporting the most excruciadng tortures, and the stability of their friendships, cannot but lament the dreadful effects of their displeasure, which has no bounds. It is this violence of temper, which is generally in the extreme, that makes them so difficult to subdue, and so dangerous to encou- rage i too much indulgence they attribute to fear, and too much severity brings on resentment p. 76. It is very strange, that tht thirst of blood should stimulate the human mind to traverse such an amazing extent of country, suffering inexpres- sible hardships, and uncertain of success, lO gratify 467 a passion, which none but an infernal spirit could suggest* i and when success has crowned his la- bours, that he should return with inconceivable sa- tisfaction, and relate the transactions of his journey, with the greatest exultation, smiling at the relation oi agonies which he alone occasioned. The most dreadful acts of a maniac cannot exceed such cruelty.' Thus on the whole it may be said, that the vir- tues of the savages are reducible to intrepid courage in danger, unshaken firmness amid .or- tures, contempt of pain and death, and patience under all the anxieties and distresses of life. No doubt these are useful qualities, but thev are all confined to the individual, all selfish, and' without any benefit to the society. Farther they are proofs of a life truly wretched, and a social state so de- praved or null, that a man, neither finding nor hoping any succour or assistance from it, is obliged to wrap himself up in despair, and endeavour to harden himself against the strokes of fate. Still it may be urged, these men in their leisure hours, laugh, sing, play, and live without care for the ^ast as well as for the future : will you then deny, that they are happier than we ? To this I will answer in the words of the Little Toriois. • 'iV ( ' * See Carver, chap. 9 and 16, and Hearne'. Journey. H H 2 SL '( ■ M ill iOP, f no doubt they too have enjoyments nltci- thciv fashion.' Man is. such a pliable and varying creature, and habits have sucli a potent sway over him, that in the most disastrous situations he always finds some posture that gives him case, something that consoles jiim, and by comparison with past sufler- ings appears to him well-being and happiness : but if to laugh, sing, and play constitute bliss, it must likewise be granted, that sokhers are j)ertectly liappy beings, since tjicrc are no men more care- Jess or more gay in dangers, or on the eve of bat- tle : it must be granted too, that during the revo- lution^ in tiie most fatal of our jails, tiic Concier- gerie, the prisoners were very haj)py, since they were in general more careless ami gay than their keepers, or than those who only feared the same late. The anxieties of those, who were at large, were as numerous as the enjoyments they wished to preserve ; they who were in the other prisons felt bur one, that of preserving their lives. In the Conciergerie, where a man was contlemneil inex- pectation or in reality, he had no longer any care : on tlic (ontiary, every moment of life was an ac- quisition, the gain of a good that was considered as lost. kSik h is nearly the situation of a soKlier in >var, and sucii is really that of the savage through- out the whole course of his life. If this be happi- ness, wretched indeed must be the country, where it is an object of envv. 'i<^^wW'%L': 4fi;) In pursuinrr my investigation r do not find, tlmC I am led to more advantageous ideas of tiic libertv oi the savage : on the contrary, [ see in him only the slave of his wants, and of the freaks of a ste- rile ami parsimonious nature. ]r(,od he has not at hand, rest is not at his command : he must run, weary himself, and endure hunger and diirst, heat and cold, and all the inclemency of the elements and seasons -, and as the ignorance in which he was born and bred gives him or leaves him a multitude of false and irrational ideas, and superstitious pre- judices, he is likewise the slave of a number of er- rours and passions, from which civilized man is <^xempted, by the science and knowledge of every kind, that an improved state of society has pro. ducetl. The limits of my work do not allow me to enter into all the minuti.x- of this interesting subject, and therefore I shall content myself with saying, that the more dee{)ly we examine the history and way of life of savages the more ideas we acquire, that illustrate the nature of man in general, the gradual iormation of societies, and the character and man- ners of the nations of antiquity. I am particularly struck with the analogy, that [ daily remark be- tween the savages of North America and the so much vaunted ancient nations of Greece and Italy In the Greeks of IJomcr, particularly in those of H II 3 f 4 i 1 'J- 4-0 his Iliad I find the customs, discourse, and man- ners of the Iroquois, Delawares, and Miamis. The tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides paint to me almost l.terally the sentiments of the r,dmn re- specting necessity, fatality, the miseries of human Jite, and the rigour of blind destiny. But the piece most remarkable for the variety and combi- mt on of features of resemblance is the beginning of the history of Thucydides, in which he sum- manly retraces the habits and way of life of the Greeks, be,ore and after the Trojan war, up to the age m wh.ch he wrote. This fragme^ \^r. to me so well adapted to my subject, that I am persuaded the reader will be pleased at my laying « before him, so that he may make the compari! son for himself E.-ifiacl from SiniUi's tranJalion of Thucydides ' Jt is certain, that the region now known by the name of Greece was not formerly possessed by any fixed mhab.tants, but was subject to frequent migrations, as constantly every distinct people easily yielded up their seats to the violence of a larger supervening number. For, as commerce there was none, and mutual fear prevented inter, course both by sea and land, as then the only view of culture was to earn a penurious subsistence , Snd superBuoHs wealth was a thing unknown, as plant- 471 ing was not their employment, it being uncertain how soon an invader might come and dislodge them from their unfortified habitations: and at, they thought they might every where find their daily necessary support, they hesitated but little about shifting their seats. And for this reason they never flourished in the greatness of their cities or any other circumstance of power. But the richest tracts of country ever were more particularly liable to this frequent change of inhabitants, such as that which is now called Thessaly, and Bceotia, and Peloponnesus mostly except Arcadia, and in gene- ral every the most fertile part of Greece. For, the natural wealth of their soil increasing the power of some amongst them, that power raised civil dis- sensions, which ended in their ruin, and at the same time exposed them more to foreign attacks. It was only the barrenness of the soil, that preserv- ed Attica through the longest space of time, quiet and undisturbed, in one uninterrupted series of pos- sessors. One, and not the least convincing, proof of this is, that other parts of Greece, because of the fluctuating condition of the inhabitants, could by no means in their growth keep pace with At- tica. The most powerful of those, who were dri- ven from the other parts of Greece by war or sedition, betook themselves lo the Athenians for secure refuge, and as they obtained the privi- H H 4 iU p) m ¥\ » 47 J<-ges of citizens have constantly from remotest time continue.! to enlarge that city with fresh ac^ cessions of inhabitants, insomuch that at last Attica being insufficient to support the numbers! they sent over colonics into Ionia.' Vol. i, p. 4. * The custom of wearing weapons once prevail- ed all over Greec, as their houses had no manner of defence, as travelling was full of hazard, and their whole lives were passed in armour, like barbarians. A proof of this IS the ccmtinuance still in some parts of Greece of those manners, which were once wit/i uniformity general to all. The Athenians were the first, w/10 discontinued the custom of wearing their swords, and who passed from the dissolute life into more polite and elegant man- ners.' p. 7. * Sparta is not closely built, the temples and pub- lic edifices by no means sumptuous, and tlic iiouses dctacJied from one another, after the old mode of Greece.' p. 10. ' Such are the discoveries [ have made concern- '.'g tlie ancient state of Greece : which thouoh drawn from a regular series of proofs, will not easily be credited : I- or it is the custom of man- ivind, nay < • c r. where their own country is con- cerned, to acquiesce with ready credulity in tlie tnu itions of former a^^^es, without subjecting them to the test of sedate examination, l^hus lor in- • I stance ;: Is yet a received opinir i, that the Lace- daemonian kings had each of them a double and not a single vote in public questions ; and that, amongst them, the Pittanate was a military band which never yet existed. So easy a task to num- bers IS the search of truth, so eager are they to catch at whatever lies at hand !' p. 17, 18. 'And as for the actions performed in the" course of this war, I have not presumed to describe them from casual narratives or niy own conjectures, but either from certainty, where I myself' wa. a s.,ec- tator, or from the most exact informarions I have been able to collect from others. This indeed was a work of no little difficulty, because even such as were present at those actions disagreed in their ac- counts about them, according as affection to either side or memory prevailed. My relation, because quite clear of fable, may prove less delightful to the cars. But it will afford sufficient scope to those who love a sincere account of past transactions, of such as ,n the ordinary vicissitude of human af- fairs may fully occur, at lea.t be resembled a-.tin ' p. 19. 'After the engagement at sea, the Corcyreans having erected a trophy upon Leucimna a pro- montory of Corcyra, put to death all the prisoners i^ey had taken, except the Conndnan, whom they kept in chains.' p. 2^. ,;i M 474 In reading through tlie.sc articles there is not A J-ingle line that is inapplicable to the savages of America, if wc except what concerns Attica, the occasional causes of tiic civilization of which were too remarkable for n.c to omit them. A comparison of the history of ancient Greece ami ancient Italy, considered and exhibited in this point of view, would form a work highly instruc- tive. From it we mio|,t learn j.ictly to appreciate a number of prejudices and ilhisions, by which our jmlgment is ^^•arped in infancy, and during the course of our education. We should there sec what opinion we ought to form of that pretended golden age, when men wandered naked in the fo- rests of Mellas and Thessaly, living on herbs and acorns: we should perceive, that the ancient Greeks were truly savages of the same kind as those in America, and placed in nearly similar cir- cumstances of climate and soil, since Greece, co- vered with forests, was then much colder than at present, llence we should infer, that tlie name of Pelasgians, believed to belong toonc ;uid the same people, wand.'ring or d;.>persjd about from the Crimea to the Alps, w.. only the generic appel- lation vt the savagi^ hordes of the first inhabitant?, roaming in the same manner as the Hurons and Algonqiuns, or the old Germans and Celts: and ve sliould presume witli reason, that colonics of Hi foreigners farther advanced in civilization, coming from the coasts ofAsia, Pha-nicia, and even I-'.^ypt, and settling on those of Greece and Latium, had nearly the same kind of intercourse with these abo- rigines, sometimes friendly, sometimes hostile, as the first English settlers in Virginia and NcwEng- land had with the American savages. By these comparisons we should explain both the intermix- ture and disappearance of some of these people : the manners and customs of those inhospitable times, when every stranger was an enemy, and cv^ry robber a hero ; when there was no law but force, no virtue but bravery in war : when every tribe was a nation, every assemblage of huts a me- tropohs. In this- period of anarchy and disorder of a savage life we should see the origin of that cha- racter of pride and boasting, perfidiousness and cruelty, dissimulation and injustice, sedition and tyranny, that the Greeks display throughout the whole course of their history : we should perceive the source of those false ideas of virtue and glory sanctioned by the poets and orators of those feroci- ous days, who have made war and it's melancholy trophies the loftiest aim of man's ambition, the most shining road to renown, and the most dazzling ob- ject of admiration to the ignorantand cheated mul- titude: and since, particularly of late, wc have made a point of imitating these people, and comider 476 their politics and morals, like their poetry and arts-, the types of all perfection, it follows at length, that our homage and our worship are addressed to the manners and spirit of barbarous and avage times! Tl;e grounds of comparison I Jay down are so true, that the analogy reaches even to their philoso- phical and icligious opinions J for all the principles of the stoic school of the Greeks are found in the practice of the American savages : and if any should lay hold of this argument, to impute to the savages the merit of being philosophers, I would retort the reasoning and say, we ought on the contrary to conclude, that a state of society, in which precepts so repugnant to human nature were invented for thepurpose of rendering life supportable, must have been an order of things and oF government not less miserable than the savage state. And my opinion would be supported by the whole history of these Grecian tribes, even in their most brilliant periods, and by the uninterrupted sent, of their wars, sedi- tions, democratic massacres, oligarchist and ty- rannical proscriptions, &c, up to the time of their subjugation by those other savages of Italy, called the Romans, who in their character, politics, and aggrandizement, have a striking resemblance to the Six Nations. With regard to religious notions, these do not form a regular system among the savages, because 477 every individual, in his independent state, makes himself a creed after his own manner. It seems too, that the introduction of European missionaries among them has modified their ancient and proper opinions : yet, to judge from the accounts of the historians of the first settlers, and those of late tra- vellers in the nortii-west, it appears to me that the savages pretty generally compose their mytho- logy in the following manner: First a great manitouy or superiour genius, who governs the Earth and the aerial meteors, the visi- ble whole of which constitutes the Universeof a sa- vage. This great manitou, residing on high, with- out his having any clear idea where, rules the World, without giving himself much ^roublej sends rain, wind, or fair weather, according to his fancy; sometimes makes a noise (thunder) to amuse himself : concerns himself as little about the affairs of men, as about those of other living beino-s that people the Earth ; does good, without taking any thought about it; suffers ill to be perpetrared, without it's disturbing his repose ; and in the mean time leaves the World to a destiny or fat li;y, the laws of which are anteriour and paramount to all things. Most of these people give him the name or epithet o( Master of Life, or He who maJe us : but this title may have been derived from the n.ission4ries. Under his command are subordi- 478 nace «,.,;./.«; or genii innumerable, who people Karth and a.r, preside over every thing that hap- pens, and have each a separate employrr .nt. 0( these genu some are good, and these do all the good that takes place in nature : others are bad, and these occasion all the evil that happens to liv- 'ng beings. It is to the latter chiefly, and almost exclusively, that the savages address their prayers their propitiatory offerings, and what religious wor- ship they have, the object of which is to appease the malice of these manitous, as men appease the Ill-humour of morose and envious men. They offer htile or nothing to the good genii, because they would do neither more nor less good on this accounts which proves with how much reason 4-ucretius said. ' Primus in Orbe deos fecit timor ;' The fears of man first to the World gavo gods. This fear of evil genii is one of their most habi, tual thought, and that by which they are most tor- rented. Their most intrepid warriors are in this respect no better than the women and children- a dream, a phantom seen at night in the woods, or a sinister cry, equally alarms their credulous and su- perstitious minds, but as wherever there are dupes knaves will start up, we find in every savage tribe 479 Bomc jugglfr, or pretended magician, who makes a trade of expounding dreams, and negotiating with the majiitous tijc business and desires of every be- liever. Hr acts precisely the parts of valets in old comedies, who c.irry messages between lovers thai: cannot t,cc one another; aiid it may be well sup- pO'..'J, ihat this kind of courtship is not without profit to him by whose intervention it is carried on. The ini!;si;>naries have a particular aversion to these jugglers, whom they style quacks, impostors, and knaves: while the jugglers, who term them envious supplanfers, bestow on them in turn the same titles. Notwithstanding their intercourse with the genii, they are greatly puzzled to explain their nature, form, and aspect. Not having our ideas of pure spirit, they suppose them to be corporeal substances, yet light, volatile, true sha- dows and manes after the manner of the ancients. Sometimes they and the savages select some par- ticular one, whom they suppose to reside in a tree, a serpent, a rock, or a cataract, and him they make their fetish like tlie negroes of Africa. The notion of another life is a pretty general belief too among the savages. They imagine, that after death they shall go into another climate and country, where game and fish abound, where they can hunt without being fatigued, walk about 480 without fear of an enemy, eat very fat meat *, live without care or trouble, in short be happy in evtry thing that constitutes their happiness in this life. Those of the north place this climate toward the south-west, because the summer winds, and the most pleasing and genial temperature come from that quarter. The missionaries add, that to this picture they annex the idea of reward and pu- nishment, a sort of Elysium and of Tartarus ; but this requires to be confirmed by impartial ob- servers. The sketch I have just traced, however, is suf- ficient to prove, that there is a real analogy be- tween the mythological ideas of the savages of North America and those of the Asiatic Tatars, as they have been described to us by the learned Russians, who have visited them within these thirty years. The analogy between them and the no- tions of the Greeks is equally evident. We dis- cern the great manitou in the Jupiter of the heroic ages, or of the savage times j with this difference, * All nho live ill the woods come at length to love only the Cut of meat. The lean passes through the stomach too, quickly ; on which account the Canadian traders call it vil ande.pain, meat-bread. I have experienced this taste in Miyself; and Fke them went so far as to prefer a piece of bear's flesh to the wing of a turkev. ■■-yw n '■■ > ■■ y"***'' 481 that the n,a„itou of the American, leads a melan- choy, poor, and wearisome Ii(e, like tl,emselve, ■ wh.ie te Jupiter of Homer and of He.iod d I fhaTisl;r'"'""""°''''--"°fE'''i°P-> secrets of which have been disclosed to ns in the present age •. the!!"'!-"'^'.""™""^ '" ^ more nobly styled verses, either spoken or sung : and in fact by the measure of these verses, and their rhymes, words and ideas are fixed in a pre- cise and c(fi-tain manner in the speech and the me- niory, and we may be always assured, that the piece is entire and not mutilated. Accordingly it IS in fact to this simple and rustic idea, that the divine art of poetry owes it's origin : and for this reason it's first essays, it's most ancient remains, arc extravagant tales of mythology, of gods, of genii, of ghosts, of spectres, or gloomy and fa- natic pictures of battles, animosities, and revenge; as the songs of tlic bards of Ossian and Odin, and 1 will even venture to say the recorder of the wrath of Achilles, though he possessed more knowledge and supcriour talents 3 all of them tales and representations according with the igno- rant minds, disordered imaginations, and ferocious manners of the peoj^le, among whom they were produced. 1 may be told, that the savages have a kind of hieroglyphics, by means of which they communi- cate ideas to one another; as drawing a man with one arm akimbo to signify a Frenchman, another -4,1 ll. --— V*»NB». ■•mUm.imttt-.'mmmv.^umM 48 J ^^Ith his arms bound to represent a prisoner: but how uiiperfect, equivocal, and confined .uch a method must be, i. obvious. The result in truth i-S that they have neither means of transmission, nor monuments, nor even vestiges of any thing Jike antiquity. To the present day, throughout all North America, Mexico excepted, we have no mention of a building, or even a wall of hewn or sculptured stone, as a proof of ancient arts. All that exists IS confined to a few barrows of earih, or tu- muli, serving as tombs to the slain , and lines of circumvallation, including from one to thirtv acres. I have seen three of these Hnes , one at Cindnnati, a«d two in Kentuckey, on the road from that place through Georgetown to Lexington. They are all simply mounds of ditches, at most four or five feet high, and eight or ten broad at the base The figure of their circumference is irregular, in some mstances oval, in others round, &c., and gives no idea of skill in the military or any other art. The largest of these works, that at Muskingum, is in- deed square, and of greater dimensions: but from the representation and description of it given by Dr. Barton in his Observations on Natural His- tory *, it appears to have neither bastions nor Iv ,. " Purl 1, 8vo, 70 pages. Philadelphia, 17 s7. 4«6 towers, as had been said ; and must have been a simple intrenchment thrown up for defence, such as Oldmixon and his authorities affirm the savages practised at the arrival of the Europeans, when they had more fixed habitations, and a greater equahty of strength. ' " b^-.e intrenchments have been produced by tr.: . ,e cause, and all may have been made with no other tools than hoes and baskets. As to the tumuli, I have seen that at Cincinnati about six or seven hundred paces west from the fort. It is a heap of earth, resembling a sugarloaf, and raised perhaps forty feet above the ground. It is covered with trees, that have grown Sjionta- ncously It recalled to my mind the barrows in the desert of Syria and it's frontier 5 though tliese are infinitely stronger, their purpose being to sup- port towers. It appears, that many are met with in Russia and Chinese Tatary much more resem- bling them in figure *. Some of the American tumuli have been opened, and nothing found in them but bones, and the bows, arrows, and hatch- ets of savage warriors. General Sinclair, having cut down one of the largest trees growing on them, counted upwards of 432 ciixles of growth in itj * They are .aid aLo to bo very like tho.c comn.on in i'i"!t:i:;i. 'J' 487 and as one of these circles appear to be formed annually, this would refer the date of the tomb to the year 1300 or 1350. Ampler researches, however, and more solid conjectures, must be left to the learned of Ame- rica, who are on the spot, and who may every day make new discoveries. I repeat, that the most certain and instnicuvc of all the monuments the savages exhibit is their language. Dr. Barton has published a curious essay on this suHject*, in which lie compares several words of their languages and dialects : he has even extended his compari- sons to the languages of some Tatar tribes, by the help of the collection that Dr. Pallas made and published of near three hundred Asiatic nation^ by order of the empress Catharine II f. The * See New Views on th« Origin of the Tribes and Ka. lions of America, one vol. 8vo. Pliiladelpliia, 1798. tTliis work, the truly philosophic idea of which had for It's object to eluci.hUe and diminish the IJahehsh confusion ol' tongues, Jias been printed in Russian characters. May I be permitted to observe, that this mode of execution is re- pugnant to the design : the Russian characters arc confined l I 488 comparisons of Dr. Barton have Jed him to seve- ral conclusions interesting to the man of science- but, notwithstanding my wishes for his successi proceeding from esteem and friendship, I do not hnd all h,s conclusions equally well founded. For jnstance, I cannot admit the affinity he would esta- b ish between the dialects of the Caribbees, Bra- sihans Peruvians, &c., and the languages ordia- ^cts of the Purewoatamies, Delawares, and Six Nations, founded on the. resemblance of two or ^hree words. He appears to me more happy in some affinities he discovers between them and the languages in the north-east of Asia. We cannot however but pay our acknowledgments to him for having opened a curious mine rich in novelties • but this mine requires to be explored to the bot* torn, and on a large scale, a labour that would require tne united effi^rts of many learned men It IS much to be wished, that congress, feeling the importance of the subject, would establish, were i but temporarily, a school of five or six inter preters, employed solely to collect vocabularies" <'nd grammars of the savages. In one or two centuries periiaps not one of these people wil| peculiar to tlipmsp'.ro- ., j ■ ■, r o ti.cmscto a mode similar to that whfrh tU equally pcpu,, ,. ; ;^,:'''""'";r'"^ "■ """■ """'• 489 »y longer exist. Within the last two hun^te.l years a great number has already . iUrton. the.c app.a,ed such a difTcence, .3 gave h.m . .-on ,0 apprehend, that there was more d.,n,e, of mislead.ng the reader by .Ik. attempt, ,h.-,„,uo.Mb,i;,y of wmruc,in,hu„; accord.ngly it was though: niorea,tv,s.fclc,;o;.nc!-,m,o rri.kc out the pronurcation for himself. T. 494. P J- ,. , Miami after the Miami after the ±.ngltiih. French Ortho. English, graphj/. Remarks. I Nclah . . . Thou and you The you is used for both. He, she . . , See they . . We . . . . Kclonah . You .... Kelah . . . They .... Aoueloua (oiia shori:) . . . Miir; . . Nelah-neneh . Thy .. . . Ki. See Tour . His, Hers . . Aouela-neneii . Naiaiigh Our Your Their . Father (my) Fathers (the) Mother (your) Mothers (tjie) Son His son . , His d;>ughrer . My brother Our brother My siiter . Their sister My iuisbj/i! . Ktlonah . Kelcla-nench . See His . . . Noxsahe . Oxocina , . . Kekiah . . Akenitmah Akouissinia . AkuuissAlLh , Atun;ilch. Or.cdsu mil.ine Avvaleaugh. Calonaugh. Calawgh. . Awalewaugb. . Nalaugh-nenigh. . Awalelah-neji- negh. . Calonaugh. . Kalelaugh- nennagh. J Nosh saugh. I Noch sau. B. . Kakecaug^. . Aukeem'jcmauh. B. Augwiisaulay. Sheemah, taken for sister, b . e is equivalent to the French ee, that is to the longe. Oupflsa-mon- koua Ningo chema. Agoz-chiinouale Aiic?^o;!iini\vanlcv Nina jK-ma. Li- terally ?nasier of tveab.w^^. w English, My wife A woman A man , A Jittle boy An olj man One Two Three f our Five Six , Seven . Eight . Nine Tea Head £ye Nose My nose Your nose I^nr Forehead Hair (of the hend or body) Mouth . Tongue . Tooth t 495 Miami, after the Miami after the French Ortho- English, grap/i!/. . Ninoueouah . Metamsuh Remarks, . Nceweewah. b. Helaniah • Hellaniarc. ■ Apeelotsaugh. Kaowshaw. Ingotay. Neshsway. Nessweh. Neeway. Yallawnwee. Cau cutsweh. Swattetssweh. Puliawneh. . Apilossah . Keocha , ' . Ingote . . Nichoue , I Nexsoue . Nioue . Yalanoue . . Kakotsoue . Souaxtetsoue . Pollane Ingote-meneke . Ingotlmmaneeka. • Matatsouc . Mnutotssweh. . Indepckune . Kechiikoue. • Kiouane. . Nin-kiou,lne. . Ki-kioi'.anc. • Taouake. . Marpaouinscuiic Nelissah. Tonenc'h. Ouelfuu'. Ouipitah. * Niiinec, Lonj, p. joi. T. In Delaware, Lenno, Chipe- way, Lennis *, Shawnese, Lin- J ni. Why were "• the ancient Greeks called Hellenes ? And a Tatar uibe \^ Alain? ill ) '3 400 Unglish. Beard Hand Foot Skin Flesh Blood (Sec Reti) Heart Belly , . Mi'im: after the French Ortho- graphy. Mcssetoningiie. OnexkH. Katah. Lokaic. Ouioxsc. NixpekL-noui'. T.^he. MoVgue or MoVt- Rtftiarh. Life Death Sleep To kill . Day Tlic Sun Night Tlic Moon Morning Kvening . A Stir . The Firmament Wind . Thunder Rain . Snow . Ice Hot Cold , Pronounced in the Russian manner. Mahtsaneoaingud Nahpingue . NiponCff. !sJea.i) It belongs to the NipangvK- . Anguecht'ouingue ■ Isprtr. i Ii'ptt^-killxsoua (Li<:ht ofJny.) . Pekontcoue. Pekonteout' kilix- sona (Light of Night.) CheVpaoiK', Elakoiiikex. Ahngouu. Kechekoue. Alamthenoiu'. Tchingouia. Petilenoiic. Mone toua (a ge- nius or spirit.) Achonkoneh. Cliiliti'oin- Nipahanoue. Nipahanoue (Coldnesi.) inhabitants of the north only to class the ideas of sleep death, and cold, in one family. :^^ 497 Miami nftcrth': Ungli.'ifi. I'irnch Ortho- }^vaphi/. Summer . Nihpenoue . Winter . . Piponouc. The Er.ith . Akinkeoue. An island . Menahanoue. Water . . Nepc. Fire . Koiiteoue. Flame . Paukoualeoue. A river . . Sipioue. A lake . • NipiHsi. A rivulet . Maxtchekomckc. The sea . . Kitchi-kame. -A mountain . Atchioue. A hill . . Ispotchkike. A tree . . Mctelikoiie. Trees . Metehkonah. Wood . . Taouane . A forest . . MteHkoke. A track[of game). Pamchkaouangue To hunt . DonamaHoua. The chace . Nantonama- ouingue. A bow . Mtti hkoiiapiw An arrow . . Taouanthaloua. The leaves . Mechipakoua. (that) f:ill . I'apintiiig.e. (A man) iails . Mejeclu'nou.l. Game . Aouassaii. Fish . Kikonassah. A warrior . Aathia. War . . Mtjtkatoiic, To go to war . Dopaleoi'ali. A Tomahawk . Taka-kane. Remarkx. I suspect a mis- take here. Winter in the Chipeway is bebone, in the Al- gonquin pepoon ; summer or spring, in the former, me- ,?okemeg, inthelat- ter; mcrockamink. Between the Mi- ami and the Chi- peway languages there is sometimes a striking resem- blance, at others not the least. See Long's Voyages and Travels, at the end of which is a pretty copious vocabulary of dif- ferent Indian Ian. guages, particu- larly the Chije- way. T. If lu m To paint the face Ouechihouingui'. Kk ifi 498 im f* £nghsh.. A knife. Knives To scalp . -A prisoner A path . A tobacco-pipe (calumet) Smolie , A house . A boat . M/atni (^fter the French (\tho~ graph}/. Malsc. Malsa. Laniok-koue. Kikiouna, Mioue. A net . Dried meat . , Smoked meat . A tomb , Peace . Good (the subs.) Bad (the subs.) (a) Good (man) Wicked . Sweet + . Bitter . Long . Short . (a) High (hill) , High(ijithesky) Low . Po.ikAne. . Axkoleoue. . Ouikame. . Missole, in the plur. Missola, ■ Sapa, plural Sa. pake. Pohtekia. Oxkole Samin- guia. Eouissi-kane. Pphkokia (good^ abundance.) Pthkokc. Meltoxkc. Tiptoua. (Forte) Matchi*. Outkapankc. Oucssakangue'. Kenouake. Ixkouake, Ifpatingue. Ifpatingut. Mataxke. Remarks. Koue (the hair of tlje head,) • In general all words implying beautifu. and good bcg.n ^^.ith a «• ,„. on the contrary .hose that signify bad or ugiv with an m ^' .L^:::;::r;:,r::;::::::::;:;--7>-.-=........ 499 Miami qfler the English. French Orlho- gniphy. Slow, easy . Quehkeoiie. Ready . . Kinsehkaou^. A cloud (rapid) Kintche seoue. (a) deep (river) Kenoiiouc. iieniarks. Smooth Great , little Broad Narrow Heavy Light , Jron Copper Gold Silver . Lead A stone White , Black . Red . , Blue . Yellow . Green A wild ox,or buf- falo . . Alanantsoua. A beaver, or lit- tle deer . Tttipaxkeoue. MaHchoke, kit- chi. Apilike. Metchahkecue. Apassiaoue. KtchokouAnc'. Nnnguetcheoue. Kepikatoue, Naxpekacheke. Honzaouechoule Choule or Tsoult',-, Lonts'ih. Sane. Ouapekingue. MaHkateouekin- gue. NeHpekeklngue. Ixkepakingue. Honzaouekingue. Anzanzekinguc. A bear . A dog Indian corn MoHsoki-. Moxkoua, Max- koke in theplur. Alamo, plur, AlamokS, Mintchepe. Kk? ] i \ ii i>oa W- A bird . A fi icild . All enemy , Love , Laughter . To laiigii . To weep . A fear . To sjitak . A discourse To walk To run 'J\) breathe 'Yo blow . To sigh , y To fear . The iiiiiiil, spirit or soul . God . Miami ((fur tlw I''mir/i Orilnt- • Aliouthsensa. . AouiHkanemah. • Kitaukianiouna. • Tt'palttiiigiic. . Keoiii'liiigue. . Kcoueleoii.'ili. . Sc likouingue. . Stli]iingot!.ih. Kilakilaxkouingue. ■ Atchimouna. Painpclingue, Mahinikouinguf. Ni's'iingue. Alnmsei;oue. Kcouencoua. Koualuainingue, ■ AtchlpaiV.. Thnth, a JIji»[;f,f:anfom. ■ Kitehi Manetoua (Uc great sfint) or Kajelalan- gou;\ (^he ivho made us.) Cicnii or spirits. Mauuou.^ .malogous to the .^^«... manl-um oU\^. Komaiis. MaKhi inanitou. PeHkciina. Moic'Vousina. 'F^ijieoua-iu'lcniah. A good woman, 'i'ipi'oua-metamsa. The savages . Mctoxth, niake (born of the soil.) The Europeans . Ou.ibkilokrta (white skin.) The Freneh . Mc htikoelu. (Oucmtstergoch \ a builder of ahips. ia the Chipeway.) *m>y,nls„rg,ad,. Long. But accordwg to that expcricced interpret.,, -h.p or great canoe i, kUcU. nal..r,u.ln ; to build, g.-.^u.eaj.r^, ; ,„d t. make, o/eytoon, or tojtytoon. T. The devil , Beautiful A go^d man ;(n Midiiii afliT the MngUiih. i'vLiwIi Oit/io- griij)/ii/. An F.nglishman . Axilacliiina. All American . Mitchi-Malsi (great knife.) Yes . . l-yc. No . . Moxtchu. Wit'> • . M;\maou(;, in Arabic ma. They Iiavc not the verb to be. Their adjectives arc of the common gender, as in English. Sec the cxamph', a good man, a good woman. In general the plural of substantives is formed by adding to the singular the final syllabic ke. Metavisa, a woman ; Me- famsukc, the women. riw Verb To Eat. I cat . T'lioii eatest . lie or bill; cats . \Vc tat Yt> car , 'J^hcy eat I liavc eaten , Tliou liast eaten He or she lias eaten We have eaten Ye have eaten They have eaten \ shall or will eat , Thou shall or wilt eat He or she shall or will cat We shall or will eat . Yc shall or will cat . They shall or will eat. . . Niouissini. . Kiuuissini. . Ouissinioiia. . Niouissini mina. . Kiouissini moua. . Ouissiniouake. . ChaVani ouissiiic. . Cha'iaki ouissinc, . ChaVau ouissinoua. . ChaVac kiouissini-mina. CliaVae kiouissini-moua, . Chaiac oussiniouake. I Nouissini kate. Kiouissini kite. Ouissinioua kate. Kiouissini- mina -kati', Kioui.^ini-nv) kittc. Ouissiniouake kate. 1 m i S 502 Eating Hunger I am hungry I drink Thou drinkest He or she drinks We drink , Ye drink They drink Drink I beat Thou beatest He or she beats We beat Ye beat They beat I am beaten Thou art beaten He or she is beaten We are beaten Ye are beaten They are beaten Miami nftcr the French Oriho-^ thnt^ruphj/. • • Outssininguf, • Ai'xouingue. • • Indiiicxkoui. The Verb To Drink. • . Ni'mGnc. t KimenS. . Mt'noua. • . Kim^nc mena. • • Kimc'ne mou.i, • . Meno-ke. • . Mcningue. The Verb To Beat. • • Indane ehoue. • . Kidane eiioue, • . Ant ehoue, . Kidanii (•houemena. • . Kidane kioue (or hioue,) • . Anehe ehouake. The Passive Voice. '* • Indane ekoua. . Kidane ekoua. . AniJ haoui'i, . Kidane ekoua. . Kidane ekoha. . Ant; liaouakc. W T li Tl H( W Y( Tl I have been beaten . Thou hast been beaten He or she has been beaten . Inilanc nehtkoua. . Kidane nehckoua, . Anenc haoua. We have been beaten Ye have been beaten They have been beaten 503 . Kid:\n£ nehekomena. . Kidane nehekoua. . Ancnc haouak6. I shall or will be beaten Thou shall or wilt be beaten He or she shall or will be beaten Wf shall or will be beaten Ye shall or will be beaten They shall or will be beaten Indand heko-kftte. Kid;\ii(! heko-kate. Ane haoua-kAte. Kid^n6 hekoinena-kit((. Kidane hckouakate. Ane haouak^-kat^. I IIIE END. n Mcicicr and C). Pi^'n'crs, Nortttu^-ihcvlavd-conrt, Stvavif . ■«raar^arfaa, Plate I, fig. 3. 83 84 304 18 1 7 c c dd e e be cd de 2 from bottom, >r wit r^arf parts. 3^* Note, .....He socks, or shoes, ate called mocassins. '■m ^■BR ^ jVtfrt Mdwitfi Slack Si AUor-, trunkt Xed ;;.>2.3a-y ftm I. P^fSff. -W;. 3. Set f„ufr as. Ftp. 2. r. 09. Suriket ofirwuld ; with Oaj, Y t'fi>hU.t,mttTj-pfr Jdl MdwithShtUi *' BlaeJt stiiihing nuid AU ot'i'^rirt:, ami ^^B ;- bimkt ft'tivtj =^ Jled t't'ivtiwaet S Tht level cfthe tidt f below tiUe JHfi^k nwuid 20. ituhtkr 4m.Uet.om.0Hi^. ^ULoui;^iUs,j^eheh„,U,^^eOMu, MouU Stiet Bervuitm •'iirimun I liiaeetviu 3 TTtt Orwel mingletl with O^^' Pffennial SprifUft .SedofOny^^ PoorBivHru'-ffi .f)Uul tSt>ef Siia ; n« r^ „ Section of the Fall in the middle of the <" , jto ^ ^ 3^ ^ «• J The Fulls of Ningara.with the itcljarcnt ( t^iiiUm hMLihnl April 1'^ 1H04 hy J.ti'hnAim .iViuil' C'hunit iiini -z.-::::jsmmf^ f the Fan in the middle of the River FLnt tofaci'V'W.W- Fit-M. goo freitL-k Fftt Niagara, with tlie adjarcnt roiintrv. .IBye-reulp-tit. ?'!""-\TMa '/././ >///»'■ f'lJ /v. //. . f / Nt^J^ /b Sirtui^ . I -m^-'Wrn X- ■J «.j»fe--- u.*i4.*. %. J ./„, .itrtu ./«/ fill N fl 1-:n STATKS l.outi'iliiili' WVst H 11 tiouv I'aiis /W./1./1. ./<".*/./!/ ^.^.'**•■'•'>■'"■■■'n•■'■?/'.'l*'■'l LouKilliilr Wrst it 11 fiiiuv I'ai-lR. •^ MAI' oj't/n UNITED STATES ?/* NOK ril AMKUICA I'l'i \',iliir\' I//11 I'l ill, ililiiiil, X \,iil I'l llii- I lllll-ll Sl;lll«, 'A.I ■s" (■).') j'..1.r ™//., l-iMuU, ,1 i^.ti^nl //■.■**. ■/./. */,... yi..ir/',lufi-(ili». 4 i:«i/.