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Lee diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithodo. 1 2 3 1 ; , ;2.; ,,:,, 3 4 8 6 1 1 ■*> luff I- .^.i^^i'^iOf— 'J* * -v< '■^^K;m^- ^ /* { * ' ' ■■ ';"T 4;t\ *' »v ■ ■■:• r^ . .'id 11 ^IIN10N OK € AH AID) A 'if- FOR inu)WN's (;[^iiir /■he i:nllit Liiiilt .ilioKii llili^ \ I J liiilitli Slalulr. MilM. HU III I llniirr I' MO *o «ti HO •ficli^fc .:':;^f;',2J' in ^ •t* -K) /«r>n tlO (l(t V,* N 1) ■"'^^^^V"' ■n> '* ft ', 44 ■''" yiitii»Tti««<^ NEWlWTJWLAfri) If Uu n tviW«*d Sralf | I Mantiiehrt' ( T L J N T I C O C E N .^^V-^,'" y^* +- IST.IOHIIS Kuci M 78 7« (t» a* .riTftriTicTrr7ii'w r.ilin •'".t % ■m^:. f <^ m i U J •'i.'^.'),,, -i VL«'-'"..^iiW' J^ M -^ ^ f } t' '^ '^. #.-V,5;:.:.;V;:-.>^- ■099>393; mangolds, 754,227; carrots, 2,198,665; beans, 70,527; clover and Timothy seeds, 95,772; hay, £4jj . Natural Products. 21 1,551,821 tons; hops, 300,439 tons; maple sugar, 16,295,752 lbs. ; cider, 1,588,842 gal. ; wool, 5,627,154 lbs.; butter, 42,735»2i3; cheese, 3>373»469 lbs. ; flax and hemp, 2,201,761; and tobacco, 777,496 lbs. The value of these products was estimated at nearly ;^20,000,000. Of stock, we find that in 1861 there were in all Canada — of milch cows, 781,010 head; of oxen and steers, 300,596; of young cattle, 751,694; of horses of all kinds, 626,196; of sheep, 1,853,054; and of pigs, 1,062,401. These were valued at ;£'2o,ooo,ooo. "^. 2,136,000. Quebec, 134,000,000. 1,422,000. Of this, fully 25,000,000 acres have been disposed of, an area considerably larger than Scotland; but, of course, only about one-half of this is as yet under cultivation. Irrespective, then, of the many opportunities the new emigrant has of purchasing half-cleared land, there is yet open to him the great field of 187,000,000 acres of wild lands in these two provinces alone. As regards population there is, as a whole, about the like number of inhabitants of Scotland or London, in possession of this scattered area, or one to every thirty acres of the cultivated lands. 2. The General and Local Governments of Canada. — Within the last few years Canada has been created a Dominion, being a confederation of the different pro- I I 2S Some General Statistics, vinces comprising its extent. These provinces consist of Ontario (formerly called Upper Canada), Quebec (for- merly called Lower Canada), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, so that, after the Hudson's Bay Territory has been transferred to the dominion, and Vancouver's Island and British Columbia on the west, and Newfound- land and Prince Edward's Island on the east, joined to the general confederation, the whole extent of the British North American possessions will then be under one legislative government. Each of the above-named pro- vinces has a separate local government and legislature, for the administration of local affairs. Being a colony of Great Britain, the general government is made to assimi- late itself with that of our own Government, and is made up of a governor-general, who is appointed by the Crown of Great Britain, and a Cabinet as the executive. Parliament consists of two branches ; one, the Senate, containing 72 members, which is intended to represent the House of Lords ; and the other, the House of Com- mons, containing i8i members, analagous to our House of Commons. The members of the House of Commons are appointed to each province according to population, so that the greater the population of any province, the greater num- ber of members will it be allowed to return to represent itself in Parliament. At present they stand as follows : — Quebec, 65; Ontario, 82; New Brunswick, 15 ; and Nova Scotia, 19. Of the Senate, there are from Quebec, 24; from Ontario, 24; from New Brunswick, 12; and from Nova Scotia, 12 members. Each local government has its lieutenant-governor, ^\^ Some General Statistics, 29 sist of : (for- Nova y has )uver's found- ned to British one d pro- jlature, lony of assimi- s made Crown cutive. Senate, present f Corn- House pointed hat the er num- ipresent iows : — id Nova ; from [n Nova Dvernor, 4* executive council, and legislative council and assembly, except in the case of Ontario, which has but one cham- ber — the legislative assembly. The franchise is limited to British subjects, over twenty- one years of age, and being the owner, occupier, or tenant of real property of the value, in cities, equal to £^0 ; in towns, £60; in villages and country, £^0. Person^, not British subjects, can, after a residence of three years in the country, and subscribing to certain formalities, become entitled to the rights and privileges of British subjects. The municipal system of Canada is a great success, being admirably adapted to the wants, intelligence, and characteristics of her people. If any person feels dis- posed to take part in public affairs, all the municipal honours of the country are open to him. There the people make their own laws and govern themselves, and no system has ever yet been found to do so well as this. The following is an epitome of the different corpora- tions of this comprehensive municipal system : — Each province is divided into a certain number of counties. These counties are presided over by what is denomi- nated the county council. Each county is again sub- divided into townships, the affairs of which are repre- sented by township councils. The county council is represented in the persons of the town-reeves and deputy- reeves of th^ several townships, villages, and towns. These reeves are those at the heads of the different township councils, whose qualifications must be ;£^ioo interest in real property, and residenters in the munici- pality. The local affairs of each township are managed by a council of five, elected by the ratepayers of the ^'■^ I 1 ! I 30 Some General Statistics. \ 1 I i'' township. To elect a reeve, every township must have 100 resident ratepayers, but when possessed of 500 it has the privilege of electing a deputy-reeve, who is entitled to a seat in the county council. The elections are held annually. The township councils have the power to levy, by direct taxation, rates and tolls, for the purpose of local improvements^ such as rivers, bridges, harbours, drainage, water-courses^ and the providing of schools, &c. The county councils are presided over by a warden elected annually, and have charge of the court-house, gaol, and shire-hall, with power to raise the necessary funds in the county to uphold the same. Their power also extends to the purchasing of land and property for county purposes, &c. Villages, when they have acquired a population of 3000, can be made into towns, with a mayor and town council, and, as well as the incorporated villages, are represented by a reeve and deputy-reeve in the county council. Towns are erected into cities on numbering 10,000 inhabitants, being governed by a mayor and alderman. 3. The Educatioftal Institutions of Canada. — No country in the world is better provided than Canada with the means of affording every one a good liberal education. There is here a grand national system, whereby all can acquire schooling, combined with good moral training, equal, if not superior, to what exists in Great Britain. There are universities, colleges, normal and model schools, grammar schools, and common schools, so that all may have a sound ordinary education, or a more classical and enlarged scien- ^. Some General Statistics. 3t tific training. It will be sufficient for our purpose, how- ever, if we briefly notice the system upon which the common schools of Ontario are managed, as this will bear more on the opportunities of the agricultural classes for educating their children. The system is a combina- tion of the excellencies of various systems, — ist. The machinery of the system is adopted from that of the State of New York. 2d, The principle of the support of the schools 1^ derived from that of Massachusetts, support- ing them all according to property, and opening them to all without distinction ; but that the application of this principle should be at the discretion and by the action, from year to year, of the inhabitants in each school municipality. 3d, The series of elementary text-books in use are those recently revised under the authority of the Council of Public Instruction for the Province, so that there is now a Canadian National Series of School Books. 4th, The system of normal school training of teachers is adopted from that of Germany, which, in the language of the superintendent, "makes school teaching a profession, which, at every stage and in every branch of knowledge, teaches things and not merely words." Each township is divided into blocks averaging five square miles. These are called " school sections," and each has an elective corporation of trustees for its management. These trustees are three in number, hold- ing office by election of the freeholders and householders of each section. The inhabitants of each school section are allowed to decide as to the manner in which they will support their school — whether by voluntary subscription I 32 Some General Statistics. or by a tuition fee of one shilling sterling per child per month, which is the highest amount allowed. The great majority of the schools are open to children between the ages of five and sixteen without charge. The children receive a sound English education in all the schools, and in some the higher branches are taught. The teachers require to undergo a normal school edu- cation, or pass an examination before the County Board of Public Education before being eligible for appointment. Their salaries are paid partly by the government grant for education, and partly by local assessment on the in- habitants in each secaon. In 1868 there were 4480 schools under this system in Upper Canada. Attending these were 419,899 scholars. Of the above number of schools, 3986 were on the free system. The colleges, universities, and grammar and normal schools of Upper Canada are equally as successful in their management as the common schools are shown to be. They are conducted on the English principle, and the chairs of the various departments of the colleges and universities are filled by professors selected from Cam- bridge, Oxford, Trinity College, Dublin, and the Conti- nent. 4 % !l 4. J^eligiotis Census. — A settler will find, generally, within easy reach in any of the provinces, the same classes of religionists as he was accustomed to in his native country. There is now no Established Church in the country, — having been disestablished some years ago, — so that there 1 i Some General Statistics. 33 exists no particular church recognised by law — all being equal. According to the census of 1861, the following are the different denominations of religion then existing in the country: — Wesleyans and Methodists. Church of England. Church of Rome. Presbyterians. Baptists. Lutherans. Quakers. Congregationalists. Bible Christians. Mormons. Unitarians. Universalists. Memorists and Junkers. Jews. Disciples. Second Advents. il! CHAPTER V. EMIGRATIONAL ADVANTAGES OF CANADA. I. Canada as a Field for the Small Capitalist. — Canada holds out a highly profitable field of labour for British far- mers having a limited capital. In Britain, where land has become very valuable, and commands high rents, small farmers have become little better than mere labourers, and in many instances they are not nearly so independent nor so well off. In fact, I do not know of any class of men who would be more benefited by emigration to Canada than our small farmers. Here, generally speaking, *h'^" " whole capital and energies, both of body and mind, are spent and often exhausted, in little more than producing the landlord's rent, making for their families often only a scanty living, and seldom enjoying the comforts of life. This class of our farmers have, generally speaking, capi- tals varying from jQS'^o to jj^'iooo, and are the very men who would best succeed in Canada, because with such sums in their possession, and with their hardy and indus- trious habits, they would be enabled to purchase suitable farms, and to vvork them to such an advantage to them- selves and families as they can never hope to attain to by labouring as tenant-farmers in Britain. No one of this class need be deterred from going to Canada on the score of his not being likely to fall in with a subject suitable to I 4 X Emigrational A dvantages of Canada. 3 5 his means, for this he is certain to procure in almost any part of the country. He may have farms to buy of sizes varying from 50 to 200 acres, and larger if he wishes, and he may have them with only a few acres cleared and under cultivation, or with nearly all the subject arable, and at prices, varying from j[,2i ^o ;£^8 per acre, accord- ing to its character and distance from a town. There is no rent to pay ; all the produce is their own, and all done in the way of improvements comes to the owner's advantage, sooner or later. In short, in Canada, the small proprietor, say of 100 acres, who is skilful and in- dustrious, and who takes care to keep his subject in good heart, is generally able to live more comfortably than the tenant who farms from 200 to 300 acres in Britain. I state this from my own observations in regard to both classes, for I have seen and experienced both conditions, and if it were put in my option to become a proprietor of 100 acres of good land in Canada, or the tenant of 250 equally good acres in Britain, I should, without any hesita- tion, choose the former, simply because I would be my own master, owner of my own farm, and could, by my own management, make my condition as to living equally as good, if not better, than in the other. Let the farmer of moderate means, therefore, steer his bark to Canada's welcome shores, and enjoy those social advantages which he can never realise under the shadow and will of a British landlord. 2. Canada as a Field for the Labourer. — Looking at the ratpc at which common labour is paid in Britain, whether in the towns or country, and comparing them with the same kinds in Canada, there is no doubt that the working- 36 Emigrational Advantages of Canada, classes in the latter are in much better circumstances than their fellows in Britain. Taking agricultural labourers, and unskilled labourers in the towns, I doubt if, in Britain, they realise, on the average, taking broken time into account, more than ;^35 a year. Out of this they have, in most cases, to pay rents for cottages, and, it may be, gardens \ high prices for most kinds of food, irrespective of the fact, that this class seldom enjoy butcher-meat. Now let us compare this with the condition of the same class in Canada. There, men able to work, can make, on an average, at least £^<^2 a year, and often much more ; while lodgings and food are much cheaper than in the old country. I saw young men living in towns of Canada West, who had their bed and board for 9s. 6d. per week, in respectable lodging-houses. The food consisted of tea, with beef or steak, bread and potatoes, for breakfast ; soup, boiled beef or mutton, with bread and vegetables, for dinner ; and for the even- ing meal, bacon, with tea and bread. The meals, in short, were substantial and good, and the lodgings excellent. Now, where can these labourers enjoy such wages and such living in Britain ? To those labourers, then, in this country, I would say, if you do not find yourselves comfortably situated, go to Canada, where there is a large and wide field of profitable labour for you ; where exertion will procure early plenty, and ultimate independence. There you may live in the most substantial way for about the half of your present incomes, and consequently save nearly the other half; whereas here it takes almost all your earnings to pro- cure but a measure of the ordinary comforts. . Einigrational Advantages of Canada. 37 3. Canada as a Field for the Mechanic. — To tradesmen in general, Canada presents inducements as a profitable field which are not to be found in any over-populated country like ours. In my rambles through Canada I often had opportunities of conversing with men en- gaged in the different trades, who had but recently come from Scotlan^^., England, and Ireland, and all said they were much better off, in most respects, than they ever were in the old country. In Lower Canada the average wages for carpenters, cabinetmakers, brickmakers, plas- terers, stone-masons, painters, plumbers, and blacksmiths, have been from 6s. to los. a day. Tailors and shoe- makers can earn from 6s. to 8s. all over Canada. In Upper Canada the mechanics are generally lodged and boarded with their employers, and the table of a Canadian farmer is sumptuousness itself, compared with the fare generally attainable by mechanics in this country. There is in- variably plenty of work all over the dominion, for skilled as well as ordinary labour. I knew the case of a man who found it to his pecuniary advantage to go to Canada every spring, work at his trade (a mason) all summer, and return and spend the winter in Scotland with his wife and family. To most mechanics, therefore, I would also say, " Go to Canada." CHAPTER VI. LIFE AMONG THE LUMBERERS ON THE OTTAWA. U As some of my readers may be professionally interested, and others have in view to try their fortunes in the "far-back" grounds of Canada, I will describe what I learned among the lumberers on the Ottawa. While in the valley of the Ottawa, I spent from time to time a day antong the lumberers, who had just come down the different rivers with their timber, and were collecting and arranging it into rafts, with a view to its being taken down to market on the St Lawrence. These lur berers, I need scarcely explain, are the men who go up into the forests and fell, square, and bring down the timber by the various rivers into the Ottawa, and thence to the St Lawrence, for export. They are an independent, robust, healthy, and happy race, and withal, civil and obliging to strangers. Their love of liberty is proverbial even in Canada, where " independent as a woodman " is a common saying. Many of them are above six feet in height, — I saw several nearly seven feet, — and all are well built and strong in proportion. Their enjoyment of life is as nearly perfect as that can be — a result, no doubt, brought about by their robust health, which again is greatly due to being almost con- stantly in full exercise in the open air. Tssmm Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa. 39 The first time I saw a squad of these men was at Arnprior, while walking along the Madawaska. Here I met some ten or twelve of them proceeding in Indian file, each with his long iron-shod pike over his shoulder, on their way up the river to their work of collecting the timber, then coming down. I was quite prepared to fall in with these men ; but this sudden rencontre with a dozen such giants at once, took me quite by surprise. I had time to examine the first in the line as he ap- proached, looming larger and taller every step ; he could not be less than six feet nine inches in height, with great breadth of chest and shoulders ; and as he replied with the utmost civility to my good-morning, the voice was as if from a speaking-trumpet. As each passed me with a nod, — there was not one under six feet, — I could not help looking back to admire such perfect specimens of physical manhood. As I did so, I overheard one of them remark, " That gentleman is newly out from the old country, I guess." — " You are right," was my mental reply ; *' and the old country, with all her wealth, has no men to show like you." Within an hour of this rencontre, I was in the midst of an establishment of these men, in their encampment at the mouth of the Madawaska, and before the day closed, was on the best terms with them all. I made myself as much as possible at home with them, entering into the different employments of each, and by this means acquired a good deal of information regarding their craft I spent other three days in the same way with other establishments, getting all the intelligence I could on the subject of trees and timber. Most of the men with whom I conversed were very intelligent on 40 Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa, all matters connected with their vocation, and frankly answered whatever questions 1 put to them. Among the hundreds I saw, I did not observe one weakly or sickly individual. Nearly all were very powerful men, — many, as I have already said, perfect giants. I learned from them that they were scarcely ever in a house, except the open shanty in which they sleep, from April till November ; and that during the winter, when up in the forests, they are out all day in the open air, and in their shanties only vvhi^^ >eping. This life, un- doubtedly, conduces to >,u ur development of the frame, and also to full health while youth lasts ; but it is ruinous to a constitution .;, a^^ we.'^'''v, and destructive to life after the vigour of manhood I .glu to fail. In fact, they all admitted that few of them expect to see old age, unless they retire from the trade soon after forty. While watching their operations, I witnessed one of the commoner and minor dangers to which they are constantly exposed. One of a party, engaged forming a raft on the river, was standing on a separate log working it into its place. In consequence of the log falling to one side, he slipped into the river : to avoid coming in contact with another log being brought up, he was obliged to dive under it, coming up on the other side. After recovering his iron-shod pole, which he had thrown from him as he fell, he swam back to his log, and re- sumed his work as if nothing had happened. That this was quite a common casualty, was shown by the fact that it attracted no attention whatever, and none of his fellows thought it necessary to proffer the slightest assist- ance. All the attention his drenched clothes received from himself, was a shake such as a dog gives itself on I -| IT II" "-' Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa, 41 leaving the water. One of the men, to whom I spoke on the subject, said that such immersions were far too common to be heeded ; though he admitted that in spring and autumn colds and other diseases might follow them. In summer, however, the air was so dry and warm, that such a ducking was regarded rather as a refreshment than otherwise. I shall now endeavour to condense the information acquired, partly from the lumberers, and partly from observation, as to their various operations. In autumn, after the timber brought down in spring and summer has been disposed of, the lumbering estab- lishments go up to the forests, each to its own locality, to prepare for their work before the snows set in. Of course, all provisions, im.plements, and other necessaries such as they are likely to require, are takei with them, to a region where the only additions they can hope for to these is the occasional carcase of a wild animal. All they use must be conveyed with them, or sent up from time to time during the winter, as the case may be ; the head of each establishment providing all necessaries for the men employed. On reaching their destination, they at once proceed to construct shanties — a temporary de- scription of wooden houses — for themselves, their stores, and their horses. For these a central spot is selected, on a dry site, and as far from a swamp as possible. These completed, the forest is examined as regards ways by which to remove the timber, when felled and prepared, to the river. The making of these ways is often very laborious ; if there is much undergrowth on the part of the forest where they are operating, the clearing of it is troublesome and expensive. They are, 42 Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa. however, indispensable ; and have often to be carried a distance of several miles, according to the distance of the field of operations selected from the stream. A sufficiency of these provided, and laid off so as to lead into main or tnmk ones leading direct to the river, the felling of the trees is next proceeded with. The selec- tion of these is intrusted to the most experienced men, who can tell almost certainly whether the subject is sound and fit for use or not. Those marked are at once felled and pruned of their branches. Despite all care in selection, however, some will be found decayed in their heartwood. Very often the decay may extend only a short way up; in such cases the faulty part is cut off, and the remainder made use of; if otherwise, the tree is left as it was felled, to rot. The trees chiefly selected are white and red pine, as these are most in demand in the market. A few good larch, however, are also taken, and a small proportion of oak, birch, and maple. They are for the most part felled by the axe, in the use of which the Canadian woodman is most expert, being able with it to bring down the largest tree in a wonderfully short space of time. The trees are cut over about two and a half or three feet from the ground, the stumps being of course left ; and from the farmers adopting the same plan when clearing their ground, these stumps appear in their fields for many years after, until they rot and are easily removed. As the trees are felled, a party follows cross-cutting them at the lengths most suitable to produce a proper log of each subject. Considerable judgment is neces- sary here; for if a tree be cut across at too great a distance up, serious loss is sustained by having to square le I I Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa. 43 down the lower portion to the size of the upper ; and if cut too short, the value per cubic foot is diminished ; for, as a general rule, the larger a log is, consistent with its depth on the side of the square, the greater is its value. Following this party come the squarers, whose office is to reduce the logs from the round to the square form, as we find them when they reach us here. This is done by an axe of peculiar construction. All the trees felled are not, however, squared, A considerable proportion of the shorter ones are left in the round state, and so con- veyed down to the different saw-mills on the Ottawa, where they are cut up into planks, and in this state dis- posed of. These operations concluded, the whole logs are col- lected into convenient spots over the ground operated on, accessible to the cleared ways. On these they are piled into heaps in a regular manner, so as to become as well seasoned and as light as possible before they are dragged to the river. As soon as the snow has fallen, and the frost hardened the surface sufficiently for the transit, the prepared timber is dragged along the ways, and laid down by the river-side, to wait the breaking-up of the ice, which generally takes place early in April. Such is the winter's work. With the breaking-up of the ice comes the great and final stroke of the season, the floating down. On the tributary stream, the timber is generally thrown in in the detatched state, and not formed into rafts till it reaches the Ottawa ; on that river itself, it is formed into rafts at once. On the tributaries it is followed down by parties of men till it is safely col- lected at its mouth. Here there is a barrier formed of 44 Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa, a half-circular shape, and taking a wide bend into the Ottawa, consisting of logs secured to each other by their ends; the object of this being to prevent the timber getting out into the Ottawa. Within this the whole timber sent down is collected and formed into rafts; and as the pieces are counted when launched, and again on their arrival at the main stream, it can be at once ascertained whether, as occasionally happens from various causes, any have gone amissing on their way down. As the timber arrives within the basin formed by the barrier, it is at once made into rafts, each consisting of a certain number of sticks placed alongside of each other, and end to end, and of such a size as to admit, of their being passed down the slides at the successive falls and rapids on the river. These rafts are then passed through the barrier into the Ottawa, where a number of them are fastened together into a larger one, in which state they are floated down. On arrival at the rapids, these larger rafts are again disjoined, and the smaller ones composing them passed down the slides, to be then again united, till another rapid occurs, and so the work proceeds till the St Lawrence is reached. Such is the general routine of lumbering, from the felling of the trees in the forest, till their arrival in the St Lawrence, where they are brought to market. The work goes on during the whole year ; the winter being occupied with felling and preparing the trees in the forest, and the summer in floating them down the rivers. Among other inquiries I made while with the lumberers, I was anxious, if possible, to ascertain the Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa, 45 the the extent of their business in the valley. These inquiries were made chiefly at the heads of the different estabHsh- ments, and I have every reason to rely on the statements thus elicited as at least pretty near the truth. They will, perhaps, give the reader some i<^ea of the extent of the business done in the valley of the Ottawa in connexion with its timber. One firm engaged in the trade is said to do business to the extent of ;£'20o,ooo annually. The annual con- sumption of this firm in produce is reported as from 8000 to 12,000 barrels of pork, from 10,000 to 15,000 barrels of flour, and from 75,000 to 90,000 bushels of oats and provender \ besides tea, tobacco, salt fish, molasses, potatoes, blankets, coarse clothing, hats, boots, &c., for the men, all in proportion. This firm gives employment to about 2000 men, whose wages vary, according to their capabilities, and to the demand, from 14 to 26 dollars a month; and even more, exclusive of their provisions ; and it is said to employ 1500 horses and oxen in connexion with the hauling of their timber. These statements as regards one firm are quite enough to show the importance of the trade. Few, if any, of the other establishments engaged deal so extensively as this one. The greater number of them do business on a much smaller scale ; but still, even in the case of the smallest, to an extent, and involving an amount of capital, sufficient to give their heads an important standing in the country. One fact which I learned in Ottawa shows the great extent of the timber trade there. For a considerable time in winter, after sufficient snow has fallen to make 46 Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa. the roads passable, four or five hundred teams of horses are daily on the road, passing and repassing, on their way to the many lumbering parties up the rivers. From all I could gather with regard to the trade, I may state generally, that in the valley of the Ottawa 25,000 men are engaged in it, their wages amounting to about ;£■!, 250,000 sterling per annum, exclusive of pro- visions. I was anxious, if possible, to ascertain the quantity of timber annually produced, but on this point I could obtain no accurate or definite information from the lumberers. Had my time allowed, I might indeed have learned this from the authorities in charge of this depart- ment, who keep an account of all the timber sent down. I was not, however, aware of this till too late, and I shall not hazard any general statement on the point. I was also anxious to ascertain the probable amount of timber still available in the valley of the Ottawa, but it is evident that any statement on this head can be little more than conjectural. The entire area of the river basin may be roughly estimated at 80,000 square miles, and if we assume that the river for 350 miles up has already been lumbered, this will leave about half its extent, or 40,000 square miles, still to be operated on. I ascertained from such of the lumberers as seemed best able to give an opinion that, on a general average of all the forests, fifteen trees of sound quality, and size avail- able for the market, can be had from the acre, independent of unsound ones, and of those which, though too small for the foreign market, can be made use of for home purposes. These fifteen trees, I learned from the same sources, may be averaged as giving 60 cubic feet of Life among the Lumberers on the Ottawa, 47 available timber each. Admitting these figures to be correct, we have on each acre 900, or on each square mile 576,000, cubic feet of available timber, giving, at ^d. per foot, ;^72oo as the value of the available crop each square mile of the Ottawa forests ; or on the 40,000 square miles assumed as the extent still un- lumbered, a total of considerably above ;£"25o,ooo,ooo sterling. After the largest reasonable deductions from this amount, there will still remain enough to constitute this district one of the greatest importance for many years to come. It is also evident that the district will ultimately be- come one of the most valuable, as an agricultural one, in the province. The timber trade draws a large number of •tive and energetic labourers to the district, the greater ^ oportion of whom ultimately settle down in it, and devote themselves to the cultivation of land for their own support and that of their families, and also for supplying the requirements of those who continue en- gaged in the trade. In examining the system under which these forests are dealt with, it seems surprising that so little attention is paid to conducting operations in such a way as would secure the largest possible return from them. So far as I could learn from the parties engaged, they pay the Canadian Government only a small sum per square mile for the right to thin the crop on it, and on payment of this are entitled to remove what quantity of timber they please, without any regard either to the welfare of the crop left, or to the ultimate reclamation and cultivation of the ground. These are certainly matters of great im- portance to the future prosperity of the country, yet I 48 Life among the Ltnnherers on the Ottawa, could not learn that any principle was laid down as regards lumbering operations, in the slightest degree bearing upon them. Most landed proprietors in this country have their woods managed in such a way as not only to secure the largest present return from them, but also to place them on an improving and ultimately valu- , able condition, and make them a permanent source of f income to their properties. And though it is of course f impossible to apply or enforce these principles strictly over such vast extents of woodland as these Canadian forests, some mode of dealing with them might be ar- ranged, so as to obtain at once a large present return, and to secure, to a great degree, their ultimate and prospective value. Were regulations to this effect put in force, there can . be no doubt that they might be made to yield even a larger present return than they now do. In order, how- ever, to make the most of them, it would be necessary to have proper ways made to and in them to facilitate lumbering operations, and secure the bringing down of the produce in the easiest, safest, and cheapest ways. i The importance of good roads is well understood by most proprietors of woods in Britain ; and, in fact, they know that the value of their timber is to a great degree regulated by the ease of access to them. Were the «| forests in the valley of the Ottawa managed, so far as practical, on the principles on which woods are managed in Britain, there can be no doubt that they would be a source of far greater wealth to the country, at once in the higher value of their present produce, and the higher price afterwards obtained for the land for settle- 4 ment. T t f CHAPTER VII. PRICE OF LAND CLEARED AND UNCLEARED. On this subject I shall give the prices which were asked from myself for lands in the several districts, and shall begin with that I. In the valley of the River Ottawa. — Here, uncleared land can be had for about los. an acre ; some parts a little higher, and others less in price, according to quality and locality, but, on an average, los. may be taken as the price for uncultivated woodland. In the neighbour- hood of Arnprior I had the offer of several farms, one half cultivated, but partly under stumps, and the other half under wood, for ;^5 per acre over all, including the value of houses in each case, which were of wood and frame construction. I saw two farmers, from the district of Pembroke, about forty miles up the river from the town of Arnprior, who offered me their farms, which I learned from others were in fair condition, but with part of the arable under stumps, at 30 dollars per acre over all, or ;^6 per acre, including the houses. These farms were under cultivation oiily to about one-half the extent embraced, and I had no doubt, from the manner of the men, that had I wished to buy, I could have done so for p£"5 per acre, which would be a fair price, consider- 50 Price of Land Cleared and Uncleared. ing the position of the district. In the parts lying on the river above Pembroke, and also some miles back from the river, wild land, I was informed, could be had for 7s. an acre ; but where farms are partly cleared, say from one-third to one-half, the price was from ;^4 to ;£6 sterling per acre, over all, including dwelling-houses and out-buildings. Farther down the valley, in the district between Perth and Smith's Falls, and around both these towns, land, partly cultivated, can be had at rates from £i^ to £fi per acre. 2. In the valley of the St Lawrence^ betwee?i Quebec and Monteral. — Here, as in Britain, the value of land, in whatever condition, is regulated by quality and its dis- tance from markets. I did not see any considerable track of land entirely uncultivated and for sale, but only farms which were occupied, partly cleared, and under the plough, and partly under wood ; and let it be remembered that here wood is of considerable value, and its quality and quantity on a farm very much affects the value of the whole. From the farmers to whom I spoke in regard to the price of uncleared land on this part of the country, I learned that from 10$. to £^^ per acre was the range according to character of land, timber, and as influenced by locality, or proximity to towns. As regards the value of farms partly cleared, and partly under wood, I had no difficulty in arriving at their price, as I had several in my offer in different parts of this dis- trict. In one case I was offered 100 acres, 60 cleared and 40 uncleared, for the average figure of £,(i per acre, including a good dwelling-house, and a fairish steading of offices, all constructed of wood. For this, then, I 1 ^ Price of Land Cleared and Uncleared. 5 1 would have had to give ;£^6oo ; but on looking it over, I considered this much too dear, as to have put it into a proper condition, such as I should have wished it to be, would have required an additional outlay of nearly ;£ 1000. Another farm which I was offered, and examined, ex- tended to about 100 acres under cultivation, and 50 under wood, and on this also there was a frame house, with barn and cattle houses. The land consisted of a somewhat sandy clay, generally wet and cold in the bottom, and over some of the cleared ground the stumps were left standing. For this farm the proprietor asked 35 dollars an acre, or £,*] nearly. The first cost in this case, then, would have been ^^1050, or, as the proprietor seemed anxious to sell, it might have been got for ;;^9oo. The land being, however, in bad condition, would have required at least ;!£^i5oo for improvements. As a rule, I found no farm in high condition offered for sale. Those I did see or hear of for sale were mostly exhausted by cultivation. I learned that first-class farms, in high cultivation, with good houses, were valued at rates varying from ;£^2o to ;£'4o per acre, according to the district, and of this class I saw several well worth the value put on them. ' i 3. In the Lake district. — The value of land, partly cleared, varies very much in this extensive district, in which are large towns now in a highly prosperous con- dition, and neighbouring highly cultivated farms rapidly rising in value; together with villages of recent date, where the bush is being gradually reclaimed. Keeping out of view altogether the land lying in the neighbour- hood of the large towns, which is nearly as high priced 52 Price of Land Cleared and Uncleared. as that in like circumstances in Britain, I may state generally, that in the country around the prosperous towns of Gait and Guelph, and within a radius of six miles of them, farms from loo to 300 acres, partly cleared and partly under wood, can be had readily for from ;^4 to ;^8 per acre, according to circumstances. Within three miles of Goderich, again, farms can be had for about £,Z per acre, and farther back, even for ;^4, ^£"5, and ;£6 per acre ; and in all these cases there are houses and steadings on the properties, with less or more of the land in cultivation. Away back in the Lucknow district, about twenty miles to the north of Goderich, farms in the condition stated can be had at rates from £3^ to £,% per acre. There I was offered a farm of 100 acres, half cultivated, for JP^^ per acre, or, £,^00 in all. In short, in the lake country there is a choice of farms for sale, for, into whatever part of it one goes, he will meet with people anxious to sell, with the view to mak- ing more money. In buying, therefore, new incomers require to be very guarded in all points, and before pur- chasing, should first see the crops on the land ; as then they can best judge as to natural fertility and state of cultivation, and how far the investment is likely to be good. The price of wild land varies much in this district. In Algomer it is sold as low as tenpefice per acre. This is a very remote and out-of-the-way place, however. The usual price for the more accessible tracts is 3s. per acre. This is, of course, for the Government lands. % 4 i CHAPTER VIII. DIRECTIONS AS TO THE PURCHASING OF LAND. I. How to proceed in Buying a mixed Farm of Cleared and Uncleared Land. — In this section I shall address myself exclusively to small farmers in Britain, who may decide on going to Canada as farming proprietors, and have made up their minds as to the particular district of settlement. Arrived at the chief town of the neighbour- hood, lodgings should be taken for a time in order to concentrate arrangements. Then call on the resident Government Emigration Agent, who will be able to give the best leading points of advice as to the L 'ying of a farm, whether cleared or otherwise. So soon as inter- ested people are aware of what you are after, you will soon have offers of several farms, and if you are desirous to settle near the town, you should at once make an inspection, in order to judge for yourself as to the suitability of the locality. Having found one thus far satisfactory, next make yourself thoroughly satisfied as to the nature of the soil, and in order to do this best, make it a point in your first arrangements to arrive in the country in the early part of summer, when the crops have generally attained a stage from which you are enabled to form a sound judgment. By experience ana common sense you will be able to know, from the condi- 54 Directions as to the Purchasing of Land, tions of the crops, what state the land is in, — whether it is naturally poor, " ru7i out" wet, and requiring drainage, or generally good. These points ascertained, the con- dition of all the houses should also come under review, as also that of the roads and fences. Having examined three or four farms in the same careful way, in different parts of the country, and learned the extent and price of each, it remains to make a choice and valuation, which having done, you should again call on the Government Agent, and submit the whole matter to him. He will be glad to advise you soundly how to proceed in making a bargain with the party in possession. On no account attempt to do this without his advice, or that of one who is able to give it without prejudice. Indeed, the whole process of bargain -making and transference should only be done through a properly-qualified law agent, regarding whom the Government Agent will give you the best advice. One particular caution is necessary to most emigrants : in buying a farm never accept the first offer, though apparently cheap, as generally the seller asks at least twenty jjer cent, more than he will take. Your law agent will, of course, see that there are no unredeemed burdens on the property ; and it is necessary to employ a lawyer not recommended by the owner of the farm, but only the one named by the Government Agent. I cannot recommend the British farmer, who has some capital, to buy land in the back, uncultivated parts of the country. Clearing in the backwoods should be left to those accustomed to extreme toil, and not undertaken by those who have tasted a greater measure of civilisa- tion. It is always easy to get farms with houses on . Directions as to the Purchasing of Land, 5 5 them, and less or more cleared land, near the towns, at moderate prices, in all parts of the country, and on which you will find yourself as much at home as you did in the old country. 2. Capital necessary for Buying and Working a mixed Farm of Cleared and Uticleared La7id. — With regard to the money capital necessary for profitable farming in Canada, I may state generally that, on an average of cases, a sum equal to about ;^io to every acre is required ; that is, to purchase the land, stock it, and put the subject into fair working, profitable, and comfortable condition. This estimate, however, applies for the most part to arable with houses situated near towns, and would,- of course, vary according to the character of the subject. For example, in the lake district, I had the offer of a farm of 200 acres for the sum of ;£^8oo, with a very good store, and built houses on it, but only 18 acres of arable land. This is equal to J[,^ per acre, but there being so little arable land, the purchaser would require to have had some ;^6oo at command afterwards, in order to clear and improve more, and stock it ; so that, on the whole, to have purchased this farm, and secured a comfortable portion of arable land, ;^i4oo, or ^^7 per acre, was necessary. On the other hand, I had the offer of a like extent in the same locality for ;^iooo, 150 acres of which were cleared and under cultivation ; but as a large part was run out, and requiring improve- ment, and much wet and undrained, 1 calculated that £^\<^ an acre was required to purchase and improve it, thus representing a capital of ;£^3ooo. From these examples, it will be observed that the cost of farms 56 Directions as to the Purchasing of Land, depends on the proportions cultivated, and their rela- tive condition as regards natural fertility, improvement, and system of cropping. i^ 3. Buying the Bush Lands. — Those having a little money, but not sufficient to purchase and stock farms in the more settled and cultivated parts of the country, can, at any time, and at very little expense, buy for them- selves farms of 100 acres or more, in the district where the Government lands are situated. These lie chiefly in the vast track of country between the River Ottawa on the east, the Georgian Bay on the west, and the front settlements on the south. There are some fifty millions of acres to dispose of here. The greater part of this district is covered with a crop of the white pine and hard- wooded trees ; and the soil, in numerous instances, is of a deep rich character, similar to that on the St Lawrence River, and is capable of growing the most of the kinds of agricultural crops at present raised in Canada. The most of this land can be bought from Government at prices ranging from is. to 6s. per acre, according to situation ; some of it even as low as lod. per acre, but the average price is about 3s. At this rate, a farm of 200 acres can be purchased for the small sum of ;!^30 sterling, which is within the means of all who ought to emigrate unaided. The usual conditions upon which these lands are sold vary considerably, and according as they are of ordi- nary character, or particularly cropped with valuable timber. The usual settlement duties, however, before getting possession by a deed, are, — the building of a habii- able house, and 10 per cent., or 20 acres, on a 200 acre . Directions as to the Purchasing of Land. 57 farm, cleared and under crop, within the term of years. These conditions are easily fulfilled. Parties wishing to purchase from these lands should, on their arrival, immediately proceed to the nearest Government Emigration Agent, — and there is one in every principal town, — who will give full directions as to how they must proceed in the negotiations. Uncleared lands can also be bought from the " Canada Company," the office of which is in Toronto ; and " The Canadian Land and Emigration Company," whose office is at Peterborough, at prices ranging from 4s. to los. per acre. These companies have bought large tracts of country from the Government to be sold to settlers. The lands of the former company are those known as the ** Huron Tract," lying between the Ottawa and St Clair ; and those of the latter are several townships in the counties of Peterborough and Victoria. The condi- tions upon which these companies give off their lands are very liberal and fair, and they often sustain consider- able losses in speculations for the good and convenience of the settlers. CHAPTER IX. THE LABOURING CLASSES. This chapter is devoted to some general information for the labouring classes, meaning farm-servants, day- labourers, and domestic female servants, and bears principally on the present rate of wages to be got in the different districts of Canada. i I. Wages in the valley of the Ottawa. — In Canada, the most of labourers are much better paid, and better pro- vided for in the way of board and lodging, than they are in Britain. On the Ottawa, the men employed in the lumber trade receive, on an average, wages varying from 15 to 25 dollars per month, or £1 per week, and provisions. This is higher than what is earned by the greater number of masons and carpenters in Britain ; for, on an average, they do not clear more than 25s. per week, out of which, of course, they have to provide the necessaries of life. The lumberer, then, has the advan- tage of the British tradesman in point of income by jQi^ a year. As to the wages of farm-servants in this district, I learned, from personal inquiry, that these range from £z ^o £^ P^^ month, exclusive of bed and board. An able-bodied man may get more than this in the summer 1 The Labouring Classes. 59 ! 11 season, but the average is from 17s. to 20s. per week, with provisions. This class of servants is, however, seldom engaged for more than a month at a time, although they are invariably kept for the greater part of the year. The rates quoted refer to the summer months only. In winter these servants are not in such demand, and different arrangements are, therefore, generally en- tered into for this season's work, according to the views of the parties concerned ; some farmers retaining their summer hands to clear and prepare more land, while others, having no need of them, pay off in the fall. The wages of common day labourers vary according to the nature of the work. Those employed in the country at farms receive, in most cases, equal to the regular farm-servants, or ploughmen, and sometimes they are boarded, as may be arranged. Generally, how- ever, farm labourers in summer have from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per day, without provisions. In town, where labour is of the usual variety, 4s. and 5s. without provisions can be had. Female house-servants are well paid here, and while I was in the country, were in considerable demand in the different towns. Their wages vary much, however, being regulated by the nature of the work and the ability of the parties. 2. Wages in the Lake district. — From all I could gather on this subject, from labourers and employers, I found that, as a whole, the wages of the labouring classes are a shade lower here than in the Ottawa district. In conversation with labourers in various parts, I gathered that the average wage, without food, was 3 s. 6o The Labouring Classes. to 4S. per day. One day, while walking out from Gait, I came on a man removing stones from a newly-trenched piece of land. On asking him about wages generally in that district, he said, " I have been fifteen years in Canada. Before I came out I worked in Ireland for IS. a day; here I have 3s., and can, with my wife and family, live comfortably on two of them, so that I save IS. a day. Two of my sons are labourers in the country, and get an average of 30s. a week. I have made some money here, but I do not care for farming. I think I am better this way, because I will soon have enough to keep the wife and myself in our ' ould days.' This is a good country for a poor man, for besides plenty of well-paid labour, food is much cheaper than in the old country. I have a daughter out at service in the neighbourhood, and she has £14 a year. On the whole, men can get 20s. a week, more or less, all depending on the man and the kind of work. I some- times make 4s. 6d. a day by piece work, but not often." 3. Masters and Servants. — Travellers from the old country are at first not a little surprised to see the respect which is paid by employers to their servants in America generally. In no country in the world are servants so well treated as in America. Indeed, they are not called servants, but ^^ hups ;^' and in all the houses in which I lived, I found them treated more like members of the family than as dependents. This is particularly the case with females. In Britain, many mistresses think little of annoying their servants and hurting their feelings, for very trifling causes, and some- The Labouring Classes, 6l times it may be without any real cause whatever. This kind of treatment is never tried by Canadian ladies, who have a higher estimation of themselves, and respect for the comfort of their fellow-creatures, than to condescend to such contemptuous conduct. They leave this kind of rudeness to the ladies of the old country. In short, in Canada, were the ladies to treat their female servants in any way like that which \i often done in Britain, they would very soon find themselves help-ltss. In proof of this, I may mention one instance which occurred in my presence, in a house where I lodged. The mistress — but lately from Britain — one day, whether from some real or imaginary cause I cannot say, checked one of her servants — an English girl of some twenty-three years of age. On seeing her mistress in bad humour, and probably having previously experienced incivility, the girl asked if she knew to whom she spoke in such an unusual way. At this, the mistress became still more displeased, and called the servant a '"'• piece of imperti- nence.^^ Now also roused, the young woman coolly laid down the dish which was in her hand, and said she was going up-stairs to dress, and that she would expect her wages ready when she came down, as she could not 1 lin with one who did not know how to treat her assistants. Well, in half an hour the girl was "dressed, ant ready for the road ; but the good lady of the house, not being prepared for this change in her establishment, found it her policy to make up matters, which she did at once, anu the machinery went on in a much better way. This circumstance shows the necessity there is for treating se ants well in Canada \ for if one party is not 62 The Labouring Classes. inclined to do so, another will, and knowing this, the servant is more independent of the employer than vice versa. In most cases, even in the best farm-houcies, the servants generally dine at the same table with their masters. This is somewhat similar to the old Scotch practice, when, at table, the servants were known, by strangers, by being seated ''''below the salt" — i.e.^ about the centre of the table were two or three dishes contain- ing salt, laid across so as to make it into two divisions — the top end being set apart for the family of the house and visitors, and the lower one to the dependents. In this vf2cj grade was known by the person being seated above or below the salt. Servants in Canada are sometimes very particular as to what kind of work they will perform in a house. This is, however, J must admit, sometimes carried too far, and causes much inconvenience to their employers. For example, when on a visit to an old reverend mend in Upper Canada, I observed that every morning, after breakfast, he retired into some hole beyond the kitchen for about a quarter of an hour, and that when he re- appeared, his face gave signs of some physical or mental labour. Being curious to ascertain the cause of my friend's stated sufferings, I followed him, one morning, without being seen, and was really ashamed to find this fine old minister of the gospel brushing hard at a pair of my boofs^ which, being new, were difficult to polish well. There was a female servant in the house, but she would not condescend to brush the boots, and thus he had no alternative but assist his wife. Advice to the Labouring Classes. — I am quite aware t t The Labouring Classes. 63 that advice in this shape is seldom, if ever, attended to ; but when I reflect that there are many who, if they had had a few words of caution from a friend at the right time, would probably have been relieved from long pri- vations, and also that there are always some who will listen to friendly counsel, I an encouraged to devote a short section to the subject. Well, when people leave their native country, to which the heart will cling with fond remembrance, and settle in a foreign one, it is assumed, of course, that their object is to try to better their circumstances. How often do we find, however, that instead of doing well they get worse, and return home much lighter in pocket than when they left ! The natural question then is, what is the reason of this, when such bright prospects are held out to all who emigrate to Canada? In answer it might be said that there are black sheep in every flock, people who will not do well anywhere, but I am not to use this argument, as I know cases of falling away by young men who did well in this country. The reason lies mainly in the fact, that some people have an over-liking for anything strange, and an inordinate desire or rather infatuation for anything ex- citing, by which they are ultimately led astray. These excitable and no-mind-of-their-own people are drawn, gradually but surely, into a state of things which at one time they would never have thought of. I will instance the case of a young man, whom I saw when staying a few months near Durham in Upper Canada. " Tom," of industrious and temperate habits, had but lately arrived from Devonshire, England, and was engaged at sawmill work. His companion in labour was a free- and-easy, hard-drinking fellow, who took delight in 64 The Labouring Classes. inducing others to join his reckless ways. Tom was asked by this man one night just to have a walk to Chisick's at Cedar Creek, ''Uicker up^^ and return. This was a public-house at the nearest village, where jovial fellows met every night. They went, joined in the ordinary excesses of the place, and then was the begin- ning of a nightly expenditure and unfitting for work, which soon ended in Tom's dismissal [from £^^0 a year, with board and lodgings. I last saw him on his way to Quebec, with just enough money left to take him to England, which he had quitted just eighteen months before. He had not courage left to look out for other work, and on his arrival home, would, no doubt, in order to shield his own weaknesses, raise the story that there was little or no work to be got in Canada. Let me now give a few words of general advice to future emigrants. In the first place, take warning from the case just instanced, as " Tavern " pleasures invari- ably end in misery. Alcoholic drinks of most kinds are cheap in Canada, by being ** got up " from bad materials, and are invariably dangerous to health. Be cautious in making companions, as there are always lots of designing characters, who, by pretending to be interested in your circumstances, give advice, which, if accepted, will be found to add more to their pockets than your own. It is not a bad plan to look on every man as a rogue until you have really found him to be otherwise. If you have any spare cash, do not keep it lying about you, but lodge it in a safe bank. Take great care as to investing your money in some company speculation. Do not be deceived by the inducements held out by a ^«V." 'M vi ( 4 CHAPTER X. PRESENT GENERAL CONDITION OF FARMS IN CANADA. It may be useful to intending emigrants with capital, who may think of buying farms in the more settled and cultivated parts, to know the present general condition of the farms there, in order to guide them in the selec- tion of a district. With this view, I will devote a section to each of the following districts, descriptive of the con- dition and general peculiarities of their farms. (i.) Between Quebec and Montreal. (2.) In the valley of the Ottawa. (3.) From the mouth of the Ottawa to Kingston. (4.) Kingston to Hamilton. (5.) In the Lake district. 1. Between Quebec and Montreal. — In this part of the country, which is now a comparatively long settled one, there are farms, and districts of farms, in all imagin- able conditions ; some in a high state of cultivation, bearing good and remunerative crops ; others — and of this class there seems to be a considerable proportion — in a poor condition of land, from over-cropping, and these are therefore " run out" as the Canadians express it. Interspersed with these two classes are found farms in a half-cultivated state, neither in high-keeping nor Present General Condition of Farms in Canada, 6^ \ run-out as to the condition of their land; and occa- sionally are to be found spots being reclaimed from the woods. These four classes embrace, I think, the leading features of the farms in this part of the country ; and in order to explain the general condition of the whole, I shall make a few remarks on each. With regard to the class of farms first designated, — those, namely, in a high state of cultivation, bearing good crops, — I must state that, so far as I had an opportunity of examining the country, it seemed to me that of this class there are comparatively fewer farms than of the two classes next mentioned. It was only here and there that I saw a really well-cultivated farm or district of farms, as the case might be ; and on in- quiry into these special and exceptional cases, I generally learned that they belonged to old settlers, or to those who had other professions in the neighbouring towns, as merchants and lawyers. These farms have generally well-built and commodious houses of stone or brick, and seldom of wood ; with a tastefully laid out piece of young plantation on the back-ground, producing shelter to large orchards of apple and pear trees, together with shrubbery, and kitchen and flower gardens. Surrounding the house the fields are arranged in regular order, but sometimes they are all in front of it. These are laid out, for the most part, in a square form, and generally pretty nearly of an equal extent, and clear of tree stumps, and gener- ally they are enclosed with post and rail fences. The farm steadings are usually constructed of wood, but as the Canadians are well up to making this kind of erec tion, they are, for the greater part, of a comfortable and substantial character. I 6S Present General Conditmi of As regards the condition of the land on these first- class farms, it is well-laboured and manured, and also fairly dealt with in regard to rotation of cropping ; but, at the same time, it is not easy to avoid being disap- pointed on seeing the almost entire absence of drainage. So far as the naturally dry land is concerned, these farms are in a high state of cultivation, bearing good crops, but where wet portions exist, there is only partial culti- vation with scanty crops. The second class of farms, those in a poor condition, from being much over-cropped, seemed to me to form a considerable proportion of those in Lower Canada. They are at once distinguishable, even to a person but little acquainted with the subject, by the appearance of the fields. On looking over the grass, weeds of many kinds, and especially thistles, sorrel, and white chrisan- themum, are found plentiful, as well as many other common weeds, according to the nature of the land. These weeds stare-up in the fields, and seem to take possession of them, while the grass is thin, poor, and of the most scanty innutritious character. The cereal crops also are thin on the land. In short, on the farms of this class, all the crops are of such an inferior character that one cannot but remark and wonder how the proprietors manage to make ends meet. As may be expected from this state of things, the dwelling-house, the farm-steading, and the fences are much out of order, and the stock lean. As to the next class of farms, or those in a half- cultivated state, and neither in high keeping nor ex- hausted, these are pretty numerous in Lower Canada. They occupy the greater proportion of the land here, ., Farms in Canada, 69 and are characterised by irregularly laid off fields, zig-zag fences, full of weeds and dirt. The crops are moderate, from wetness on a considerable extent, and also unsys- tematic cropping. The last class of farms und'^r this division are those in course of extension from the woods ; but as there are only a scattered few here, and do not bear on the in- terests of the capitalist, to whom this chapter is specially addressed, I will defer their consideration. 2. In the valley of the Ottawa. — On that part of the val- ley, extending from the mouth of the river up to the city of Ottawa, generally called the Lower Ottawa district, and embracing about one hundred miles in length, there are, on both sides of the river, extensive tracts of well-farmed land, growing as good crops as are to be found in Canada. This indeed might have been anticipated ; for this lower part of the valley has now been a comparatively long time settled, and cultivation has of course made greater progress than in the district farther up, which has been more recently brought in from the bush. In the neighbourhood of the city of Ottawa are some excellent farms, under good cultivation and bearing good crops. No doubt, even in the neighbourhood of the capital, there is still much to be accomplished; but, when we consider that it has only been about sixty years permanently settled, it is a matter of wonder to visitors, and of congratulation to the inhabitants, that so much has been done, and that this has been done so well. From the city of Ottawa upwards, for some fifteen miles, the country is well settled, embracing some as fine farms, and, I should say, as good land, as there is any- 70 Present General Condition of where in the valley. Here the appearance of the country is more like a part of an old European state than that of a new one in the heart of Canada; the land is so well cleared and farmed, the crops so abundant, and the houses are generally so substantially got up, the gardens and orch.crds in such good keeping, and the enclosures so well arranged. Here, in short, the farms are, generally speaking, good, and present little to com- plain of, even to a " Lothian farmer," although, I have no doubt, much might still be done by drainage, and a larger supply of farm-yard manure than is usually allowed. When I passed through this neighbourhood, in the month of June, I saw, generally, excellent crops, for the most part clean and well attended to. I may add, that the general appearance of the farms is much improved by the lines of trees which run along the field divisions. This is no doubt due to the position of the district to the city of Ottawa. Proceeding upwards, the farms on both sides of the river gradually thin off, and the forest becomes more and more predominant. As far up as Amprior, however, the land may be called pretty well settled, not regularly and continually, it is true, but in positions here and there of varying extents, with districts of wood intervening ; of course, proportionate to the cleared lands. In the immediate neighbourhood of the towns and villages, the settlements are most plentiful, and the land generally well cleared and in fair cultivation ; while on the parts lying out from these centres of business, the farms become fewer, and the uncleared bush the rule. Generally the condition of a farm is regulated by its distance from a town or village. In the immediate neighbourhood of : i Farms in Canada, 71 4 these, good houses, well-kept fences, well-cultivated fields, and, as a consequence, fair crops of all the kinds usually grown, are found. In such situations, the supply of labour is more abundant, larger quantities of manure are obtain- able, and, at the same time, a ready market for produce. On proceeding a few miles from a town, the difference is at once apparent. The houses of the proprietors are generally frame ones, of inferior construction, the fences indifferent, and the fields badly cultivated, with quantities of stumps still standing ; occasional swamps also present themselves, and the crops, as a matter of course, are much inferior. The farther we proceed from the towns, the more marked are all these characteristics. To this there are occasional exceptions. At considerable dis- tances from towns I have found farms well cared for and cultivated, surrounded by very inferior ones; but these cases are few. In a new and partially settled country like the Ottawa, labour is scarce and high, and the more so the farther the farm may be from the centres of population. Without some amount of capital, it cannot be procured j improvement is thus arrested, or proceeds very slowly. Gradually, however, as the towns increase in size and population, labour becomes more abundant and cheaper, while the demand for farm pro- duce increases, and improvement progresses steadily from these centres. This gradual progress of a new country is one of the aspects most interesting and instructive to a stranger, and strikingly shows the influence that large communities exert on the country around them. Here, as well as over all Canada, the first necessary step is the formation of a town as a centre of society, from which strength and 72 Present General Condition of ameliorating influences are radiated in all directions. Gradually as the town enlarges, country improvements extend, and each conduce to mutual strength and influ- ence. Other settlements are made in the surrounding country ; at first mere villages with small farms, but ere long the villages become towns, new centres of popula- tion and influence, bringing about the extension of culti- vation. Such are the general causes of the different condition of farms in the valley of the Ottawa. Of course, other influences come into operation, and give rise to excep- tional cases. Within easy reach of towns may be found farms in possession of men unable or unwilling to improve them; and at considerable distances again, others occu- pied by energetic and improving owners. Still these are, on both sides of the question, the rare and excep- tional cases. 3. From the mouth of the Ottawa to Kingston. — All along the north side of the St Lawrence the country is well settled, and to a large extent cultivated. I should say that this state of things extends to a distance of some seventy or eighty miles back from the river. In the neighbourhood of Kingston the land is generally of a poor and stony character, and much of it wet, while the farms are generally inferiorly cultivated, and large portions of them lying under stumps. The farm-houses are constructed chiefly of wood, and are of the descrip- tion called frafne. They are comfortable, however, and are generally of a stronger and more permanent character than one would at first sight imagine. Here the most of the fences are the zig-zag ones, although in many places .■ t( Farms in Canada, 71 f s I saw good stone-dykes. On several of the earlier-settled farms are extensive orchards, chiefly of apple-trees, which produce great crops, and add much to the income of the farmer ; for being within a short distance of the town of Kingston, they meet with a ready market for such pro- duce. Notwithstanding that the land is generally of a poor character compared with that in most other parts of Canada, I was surprised to observe the crops of wheat, grass, and turnip, that are grown on it. The climate is very favourable here, however, which will partly account for this. Although, in the generality of cases, the farms in the neighbourhood of Kingston are badly managed, still here and there we meet with one under very fair cultivation, and growing very abundant crops — such a farm, in short, as would do credit to many parts of our own old country, with all its boasted cultivation. Of this class there are not many, however ; but I saw sufficient to indicate that, even in the naturally poor soil of the district, highly remunerative crops can be raised if good cultivation is attended to. The climate here is all that can be desired, — the soil being in the hands of the owner for good or bad. Even with the generally inferior system of cultivation pursued in this part of the country, the farmers all seem to be in a thriving condition. They live well, and drive their waggon-and-pair. This being the case under the present system of cultivation, what could it not be by a superior state of things ? In the neighbourhood of Brockville and Prescott, and to the north-west of these towns, the land is of a much richer character than aLout Kingston. Indeed, exclud- ing the land a few miles round Kingston, which is gene- E 74 Present General Condition of ifii rally inferior and rocky, all that part of the country downwards is of excellent quality, and a large extent of it is under good cultivation, affording good crops. In walking over this part of the country, I found, however, that, although good crops are raised, I saw undeniable proofs that the greater part of the land is indifferently managed, much of it exhausted by over-cropping, and on the whole producing inferior crops compared with what the land and climate are capable of yielding, were culti- vation pursued as it ought to be, and as exemplified in other cases. ill! V\ I 4. Kingston to Hamilton. — There is a large extent of this part of the country now cleared and under cultiva- tion, besides large clearances in progress here and there, some seemingly as new farms, but chiefly as additional land to already settled and partly improved ones. The land, so far as I had opportunity of judging, is naturally good, and chiefly a strong loam, well adapted to the growth of wheat, which is here grown very extensively. But, as is generally the case all over Canada, a large pro- portion of the land has been over-cropped, and is now exhausted. Be this as it may, however, good crops are generally got on almost all the farms here, and if a proper system of management were instituted, the returns would be considerably augmented. The soil is good, and the climate is unsurpassed for farming purposes almost any- where. The country has a rich and clothed appearance, reminding a Scotchman of the Lothians between Linlith- gow and Ratho. 5. In the Lake district, — This may be said to be the i Farms in Canada, 75 : garden of Canada, so far as its agricultural capabilities are concerned. It is here where the fine crops of wheat are raised for which Canada has now become famous. The soil is generally of a strong, clayey nature, thus capable of producing fine crops of wheat, barley, peas, beans, mangold-wurzell, &c. Generally speaking, I should say that about one-half of the land here is under cultivation. As is to be ex- pected, however, the farms are in various stages of im- provement, and in different conditions of agricultural productiveness. In the districts lying between Paris and Gait, and between the latter town and Guelph, I found many excellent farms, well cultivated, and highly produc- tive, as the crops indicated. I visited these parts just when the wheat crop was coming into ear, and had there- fore a good opportunity of judging as to the comparative weight of crops on the various farms. Interspersed with the good-farmed portions, I found, however, several very indifferently-managed farms, producing very ordin- ary crops ; indeed, what I call light, and under an aver- age compared with the same kinds grown in Scotland. There are not many farms run out here, however — at least not so many as in Lower Canada. The settlers are chiefly Scots and English. The crops generally grown are wheat, barley, oats, peas, Indian corn, turnips, mangold-wurzell, potatoes, and sometimes buck -wheat and filex. In the rearing of potatoes, neither Scotland nor England can compete with the Canadians. In this district I observed some crops of this kind which seemed to me, for health and strength, to be very extraordinary. The grass lands are of very good quality, and, in some cases, even surpass those in the south of Scotland. 1 » i|! I CHAPTER XI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARMING IN CANADA. Generally speaking, the holders of land in Canada farm it without system, each growing his crops as may suit his views at the time, not taking into account whether the land is to be made better or worse by his operations. This is the case with the greater number of farmers both in Ontario and Quebec provinces, but still there is a large proportion of them, especially in Ontario, who cultivate on a defined plan — keeping the land in the highest possible condition of fertility, and, of course, reaping the benefit in larger returns. In conversing with farmers in Canada, I found them, without exception, sensible to the great advantages aris- ing from a proper system of cultivation, and as to the loss at all times attending an opposite course ; while at the same time I found that ' .early all who were in good circumstances did farm wtl. and profitably, and those who were in poor circumstances, and unable to deal properly with their lands, farmed badly, and conse- quently unprofitably. By this I do not mean to infer that all the farmers in Canada are either of the one class or the odier — that is, either wealthy, and therefore good farmers, or poor, and therefore bad ones. What I mean Suggestions for the Improvement of Farming. 77 is, that I generally found skill and money to be the cause of good farming, while from the want of these sprung bad farming. As in all other countries of the world, we find farms here in all conditions of cultivation — some in a highly produ^.tive state, some less so, but still good farms ; others indifferently dealt with, but yet giving sufficient returns to enable families to live ; others nearly run out and exhausted, and the proprietors gradually becoming poorer and poorer ; while there are other lands so exhausted that they are for the most part abandoned, and again left to nature. There are six points which I noted as characteristic of bad farming in Canada, namely : — Firsts Tn clearing the bush, many of the larger tree stumps are left for a considerable number of years, and until the roots become so much decayed that they can be easily removed. The bad effects of this are, that a great deal of ground in a field so circumstanced is left uncropped ; that a great amount of valuable labour is lost every year by turning round these stumps while ploughing ; and that the presence of the decaying roots in the land induce*? diseases in the crops. Second, The proper and periodical manuring of the land is seldom ittended to in Canadian farming ; hence we find so much of it in a run-out and exhausted con- dition, and unfit to grow any crop profitably. Thirds No rotation of cropping. This is seldom attended to, except in some of the best-managed parts of the country, and the result is that the land very soon becomes exhausted from the repeated sowing and plant- ing of the same kinds of crops, without any change, and generally without the application of any manure. tl! i ! ^S Stiggestions for the Improvement of Fourth^ Another fault I have to find, is that of neglecting to keep the land clear of -weQ^s^— foulness, — as from this we find a large extent of the crops in dis- pute with weeds of all kinds natural to the soil, rendering them comparatively poor and unprofitable. Fifth, Want of drainage. This, although one of the first points in agriculture, is seldom attended to. Indeed, in examining Canadian farms, one is surprised to see so much wet land, and more so to find that so little has been done to dry it. The neglect of drainage is, I am sure, the cause of many farms in Canada being so un- profitable, and considered as run out, while, in reality, they are only unproductive from the effects of the exces- sive wetness of the subsoil. I often remarked this state of things when examining different parts of the country. The farmers told me that they never had got good crops from such and such fields, and attributed the cause to natural poverty. On examination, I invariably found that the subsoil was cold, and stood simply in need of drain- age ; and on explaining this to the proprietors, they con- fessed there might be truth in what I stated, " because," said they, " the frost and snow does lie longer on these parts than on others of the farm." In short, until drain- age is systematically attended to by the Canadians, the most profitable farming is out of the question. It is encouraging to learn that Government, last session, voted ;!^4o,ooo to aid in drainage purposes — pending a drainage Act. Sixth Zig-zag fences are prejudicial to good farming, inasmuch as they occupy large tracts of the land unneces sarily, and render it difticult to keep the land clean in their neighbourhood. Farming in Canada. 79 Having thus adverted to the points which I consider constitute the characteristics of bad farming in Canada, 1 now come to give some suggestions for the improve- ment of the same. What I have stated prepares the reader on the necessity there is for an improved state of things in regard to general cultivation. Firsty then, I have to suggest that, in clearing the irees from the land, they should be rooted out and en- tirely cleared off at once, and so make the fields in all rasper's available for immediate and profitable farming. I know that this is objected to on the score of expense ; but to those who do .' o I have only to state, that it is better to spend ;^io on an acre to clear it thoroughly (securing profitable labour and good crops), than to spend only j£^, and afterwards waste labour and seed among the stumps, and for many years reaping only half crops. Second^ A rotation of cropping, embracing, of course, the periodical manuring of the land, should be attended to regularly and systematically. I do not pretend here to lay down any particular course of cropping which should be adopted in the Canadian system of agriculture, as in different districts of the country different systems will be found necessary, according to the nature of soil and peculiarities of climate. But, at all events, each farmer should adopt a scheme of cropping whereby the whole of the arable land shall have been put under green crop, and properly manured, once in every six years at least. In order to do this, it is only necessary to divide each farm into six equal portions, and to crop one of these with green crop each year, and to follow it up with the other crops, as may be adapted for the par- IV 80 Suggestions for the Improvement of ticular rotation, till it again falls to be dealt with for green crop at the end of another period of six years. In this way every one of the six compartments on the farm would be manured, and cropped with all the different kinds of crops grown on it, once in each period of six years, and so would be kept in a high bearing condition, giving the proprietor valuable returns. Thirds In order to ensure a satisfactory rotation, it is absolutely necessary that all the wet parts should be made dry by drainage ; as unless this is attended to, the wet parts will remain unproductive, whatever scheme is adopted. Drainage is the pioneer, so to speak, of the improvements suggested, and ought always to be the first improvement after clearing. This properly done, all the others become easy, and are sure to be attended with success. Were drainage well attended to, we would hear no more of the disease called rust in the wheat crop, nor would the farmers have any cause to dread the ravages of the midge. The wetness of the land is, I have no doubt, the cause of both these evils to the wheat crop, and this alone should go far with the advo- cacy of thorough drainage. Fourth^ As already inferred, the cleaning of the land from weeds should be strictly seen to. This can be best accomplished while under green crop ; but even with other crops, all weeds should be removed, as, where neglected, much of the nutritive qualities of the soil are extracted by the weeds. Lastly, The zig-zag fences ought to be done away with from every farm having any pretensions to good management ; for a deal of land is unprofitably occupied by them, and quantities of weeds accumulate in their 'I I Farming in Canada. Zi lines, which spread their seeds all over the farm unless destroyed in time, and this is seldom done. The best fence for a Canadian farmer is the common horizontal paling such as is usually found in the best kept farms m the country. This occupies little space, while it is airy and strong, and, at the same time, lasting and good- looking. Were the farms in Canada dealt with in some such way as I have suggested, the produce would be more than doubled. CHAPTER XII. A FEW HINTS TO INTENDING EMIGRANTS AS TO OUTFIT, ETC. Having decided on going to Canada, the first thing to consider is what things we should take with us, and what we should not. Now, as this is a matter in which many err, — some taking too much, and others not enough, — I will endeavour to give a few hints, being guided by the experience of many with whom I have conversed on the subject when in Canada; and in doing this I shall address myself exclusively to the working-class of emigrants going by " steerage." I. Outfit. — By ^^ outfit ^^ I mean those articles belonging to the wardrobe, which, to the greater number of emi- grants, constitutes the whole " effects." A good supply of clothing should be the first consideration, and those having a few extra pounds should decidedly invest them in this. I give this advice for two reasons, — first, because clothing of all kinds can be got much cheaper in Britain than in America ; and, secondly, because that cloth is much superior in the one country than in the other. To labourers, mechanics, and others, therefore, whose occupations entail much tear and wear, I strongly advise to take out a good supply of lasting clothing. J A Few Hints to intending Emigrants, etc. 83 - I need not specify articles, except to recommend a good supply oi flaufiel underclothing^ so necessary for the sake of health in America. This is particularly required in summer to absorb perspiration, and yet preserve the natural heat of the body. Boots are also valuable ; and if you arrive in Canada in the spring-time, get a large white " wide-awake " hat, well lined with fine silk inside. This very much lessens the force of the sun's rays. ng to , and kvhich 5 not being have id in the Qgmg emi- jpply those them cause ritain ^th is )ther. ^hose dvise 2. Packing. — By all means economise your packing space, both for convenience and expense ; and do not forget that two small boxes are much easier managed than one large one. It is a great mistake, and should be carefully avoided, the taking of unwieldy boxes, as they are frequently too bulky for inland conveyance, and necessarily must either be left behind, or a special conveyance engaged at greater expense. A box three feet long, two feet wide, and about eighteen inches in depth, is about the maximum size. 3. Mofiey. — The best form of money to take is gold sovereigns and British shillings. The sovereign will take anywhere over the world ; and in Canada our shilling is equal to is. 3d. For instance, I have gone into a shop and bought goods to the value of one shillings and on producing a British shilling, I received threepence as change. Therefore, if only a few pounds, take them in shillings, and large sums in sovereigns. Those emigrants who, after having paid their passage- money, have say from ^15 to ;£'20 left, should, for safety, hand it over to the captain until arrival out. iSBHT" 84 A Fezv Hmis to intending Emigrants^ etc. This is the best way for small sums, but those having over ;£'ioo should take circular notes or letters of credit, which are granted by most of the banks in this country on the more respectable ones in America. Never take large sums on your person. 4. Letters of Introduction. — If you can obtain good letters of introduction to people in different parts of Canada, I strongly advise their acceptance. They may be of use in one way or another of which you have no idea. Many people in this country have either relatives or acquaintances out, and there is therefore generally little difficulty in getting a few letters of this kind. The greater the position of the Canadian friend, the greater your chance of a lift in the world ; and at least you can rely on experienced advice. f m^ K CHAPTER XIII. .SHIPS AND PASSAGE MATTERS. The emigrant has at the present moment the choice of the following lines : — 1. The "Allan Line," or Montreal Ocean Steam- ship Company, from Glasgow and Liverpool, via Londonderry, to Quebec. 2. The "Anchor Line," or Transatlantic Steam Packet ships, between Glasgow and New York. 3. The "Inman Line," or the Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia Company's steamers, from Liverpool, via Queenstown, to Halifax, Boston, and New York. 4. The "Cunard Line," between Liverpool, via Queenstown and Boston, to New York. I shall briefly paragraph each. I. T/ie " Al/an Line:' — This is the most direct passage from Great Britain to Canada, sailing from Glasgow every Saturday, and from Liverpool every Thursday, of each week, to Quebec, calling at Londonderry. Pas- sengers are also booked through from Glasgow and S6 Ships and Passage Matters. Liverpool to all the principal towns in Canada and the United States at very moderate rates. This season the rates to Quebec are — Cabin ^ Ji'^Zi 13s., intennediate^ ^9, and steerage^ ^6, 6s. for each adult. Children under twelve years of age are charged at the rate of 2?s. 6d. per year in the cabin, 15s. per year in the intermediate, and half-fare in the steerage. Infants, ^ly IS. in each class. The agents for this company are James & Alexander Allan, 70 Great Clyde Street, Glasgow. 2. T/ie ^''Anchor Line," — The steamers of this com- pany sail only from Glasgow every Tuesday and Friday (calling at Londonderry) direct to New York. Passen- gers can also be booked through to all the principal towns in Canada and the United States, including Cali- fornia and British Columbia. The passage rates this season are — In the cabiti^ from twelve to fourteen guineas, according to accommodation and situation of berths ; children under twelve years of age, from 21s. to 24s. 6d. per year ; infants, one guinea : in the i?itcrm€diate^ ;^8, 8s.; children under eight years, half-fare; under one year, one guinea : in the steerage^ ;£6, 6s. ; children under eight years, half-fare ; under one year, one guinea. The agents for this company are, in Liverpool, Hender- son Brothers, 17 Water Street; in Glasgow, Handyside & Henderson, 51 Union Street; and in Londonderry, 96J Foyle Street. * 3. T/ie " Inman Zine.^* — These steamers carry the mails, and sail direct from Liverpool, calling at Queens- town, to New York every Thursday, and to Boston, via Ships and Passage Matters. 87 Halifax, every alternate Saturday. Passengers are booked to all parts of Canada and the United States west of Chicago, at the same rates as the other companies, but at lower rates east of Chicago. The passage-money by this line is as follows — Cabin^ inside room, ;^i5, 15s.; outside room, J[^2\ ; children under twelve years, half- fare, and infants free: steera^e^ ^£6, 6s. ; children under eight years, half-price, and infants, ;^i, is. This com- pany was the first to carry emigrants by steam across the Atlantic, and their vessels have made the fastest passages to America on record. The agents are, in Queenstown, C. & H. Seymore & Co. ; London, Eines & Allen, 61 King William Street; Liverpool, William Inman, 62 and 63 Lower Buildings South, 22 Water Street. 4. The " Cunard Line!''' — The steamers of this com- pany carry the mails to New York, and sail from Liver- pool regularly three times a week. 5. Choice of Ship. — The elements of safety and com- fort are now of equal value with all the companies named, and the only subjects of choice are direct route and shortness of passage — two points affecting cost as well as comfort. Of the four lines there is but one, " The Allan," or, as it is sometimes called, ** The Canadian Company," which sails direct to Canada. The steamers of this company land passengers on the wharf at Quebec, or right in the heart of the country, from which there is communication in all directions. Besides, it appears that the " Allan Line " is the cheaper of the four. On reference to the particulars given, we find that IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) fe A l/x i/.. 1.0 I.I ito 12.0 12.2 1.8 1-25 1.4 III 1.6 ■* 6" ► V] <^ /a ^^M ^' c? / M Photographic Sciences Corporation ^^ i\ <^ \\ *» O- % s^\ ^>. 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 c.^ 1 88 Ships and Passage Mattel's. all charge the same for steerage passengers — namely, jQ6y 6s., but the last three sail direct to New York, while the first, or the *' Allan Line," go direct to Quebec. Now, in the one case, the emigrant is brought in for fully twenty shillings more to get to his destination, — Ontario'or Quebec, — and in the other, as already said, he is put in the centre of the country. Again, emigrants for Canada, landing in New York, are much more liable to be relieved of their money, — the sharpness of" Brother Jonathan " being proverbial. 6. Securing Passage. — Emigrants should always secure their berths at least one week before the day of sailing, as, if this is not attended to, they may not be able to get in that particular ship, and thus, of course, cause annoy- ance and inconvenience. Berths can be secured at any time, even months before the day of sailing, by deposit- ing a certain proportion of the passage-money with the agent for the ship, who will, immediately on receipt of this, give in return a ticket by which the holder is certain that a berth is reserved for him. These deposits are generally £$ for cabin, £7^ for intermediate, and jQ2 for a steerage passage. In remitting the deposit-money, parties are requested to forward, at the same time, par- ticulars as to name, age, occupation, country of birth, of each person — children included. The remainder of the passage-money must be paid by four o'clock p.m. of the day previous to sailing. Attention to these matters will prevent confusion and misunderstanding. ■ 7. Things required on the Voyage. — In the cabin and intermediate, everything requisite is provided for the pas- Ships and Passage Matters. 89 ■k, or senger, but in the steerage compartment it is not so. Though having a separate sleeping berth, he must furnish himself with bedding and towels, also a tin plate, quart mug, knife, fork, spoon, and water-basin. These can be bought for a small sum near the quays. Passengers should also have in readiness a supply of clean underclothing, as nothing is so essential to health in a crowded ship as cleanliness. Each steamer is pro- vided with an experienced surgeon, whose attendance on the passengers is gratuitous. 8. Baggage. — All heavy luggage should be alongside the vessel not later than two days before sailing. That, however, of an ordinary size, and not numerous, may be taken on board the day of sailing. The freight- room allowed passengers is as follows : — Cabin, 20 cubic feet; intermediate, 15 cubic feet; and steerage, 10 cubic feet. Any excess of this is usually charged for at the rate of is. per cubic foot. The owners of the vessel are not responsible for any damage done to luggage, so that passengers should be careful in seeing after it themselves. 9. Bill of Fare. — The food given to passengers on all the steamers plying betwixt th b country and America is always abundant and of good quality ; and each com- pany or vessel is as well provided in this respect as another. This is the result of competition. In the cabin a very liberal table is provided — indeed as good as can be got in a first-class hotel in Britain. The intermediate mess is good and substantial, as also that of the steerage^ of which the following is the bill of fare : — r 90 Ships and Passage Mattel's. Breakfast^ at 8 o'clock. — Tea, coffee, fresh bread and butter, or biscuit and butter. To those who wish it, oatmeal porridge and molasses will be substi- tuted for tea and bread. Dinner, at i o^ clock. — Soup, beef or pork or fish, and potatoes ; and on Sundays the addition of plum- pudding. Supper, at 6 o'clock. — Tea, bread or biscuit, and butter. The provisions are all cooked and served out by the company's servants, and there is no stint. lo. Through Tickets. — By special arrangements with the different railway companies both in Canada and the United States, passengers can be booked and forwarded by the different steamship companies, direct from this country to any of the principal towns in North America. In this way, passengers can procure tickets in this country which will take them, say f'-om Glasgow or Liverpool, right on to Toronto in Canada. To emigrants, this ar- rangement is of very great value, as it allows them to be sent on to their destination immediately on arrival, without any of the inconvenience usually attendant on a first arrival in a strange country. The extra charge made is as low as possibly can be — about the usual railway fares in the country. Suppose an emigrant wants to take his ticket from Glasgow to Montreal in Canada, and that he will go by steerage to Quebec. First, there is x^6, 6s. for his passage across the Atlantic, and the usual rate of third-clasr by rail in America, being fully three farthings per mile; thus, Quebec being 170 miles from Montreal, we have jQd, los. as the price of a ticket from Glasgow to Montreal. Passengers, however, il Ships and Passage Matters. 91 must remember that this does not include provisions after leaving the vessel ; so that, if detained in any way, their board and lodging must be at their own risk. II. Time of Year to Sail. — This is no unimportant matter. It is well known that the Atlantic has its moods, and the time to cross should be when danger is least expected. Let me advise, therefore, not to do so in winter, early spring, or late autumn, as then sailing is always disagreeable and sometimes dangerous. The best time of the year for going to Canada is late in spring — in April and May. Besides this being the time for the agriculturist, it is also the best for all to get a gradual introduction to the summer heat. From July to October is also a good time for crossing the Atlantic, as being more free from violent storms. Later than this, however, and more into winter, the weather be- comes rough ; and emigrants should always avoid arriv- ing late in autumn or in winter, as the frost-fast state of the country makes work scarce, and consequently they might have considerable difficulties to contend with. 12. Sea-sicJzncss. — This general bugbear is worse on some persons than on others, and is caused more by a deranged system at the time, than, I think, by any other physical weakness. As a rule, most people who go for the first time to sea are subject to this sickness; but some get over it in a few hours, and others are subject to it for days. Once over the attack, increased health is certain to follow. My advice to those who feel themselves about to have sea-sickness is, on no account try to prevent its coinings 92 Ships and Passage Matters, but rather help it; as while it may be kept off for a time, it will ere long conquer, and therefore the sooner over the better. I have always followed the advice given me by an old friend, who has sailed in all weathers and seas : " Whenever you feel the tendency, take a good drink of sea-water. ^^ It is better to be very very sick for two hours, than slightly so for as many days. 13. Advice to Emigrants on Landing. — The following extract from the excellent instructions issued by the Emigrant Agent at Quebec some years ago, will suffice under this head : — " There is nothing of more import- ance to emigrants, on arrival at Quebec, than correct information on the leading points connected with their future pursuits. Many, especially single females, and unprotected persons in general, have suffered much from a want of caution, and from listening to the opinions of interested and designing characters who frequently offer their advice unsolicited. To guard emigrants from falling into such error, they should, immediately on their arrival at Quebec, proceed to the Office of the Chief Agent for Emigrants, where persons desirous of pro- ceeding to any part of Canada will receive every infor- mation relative to the lands open for settlement, routes, distances, and expenses of conveyance; where also labourers, artisans, or mechanics will be furnished, on application, with the best directions in respect to em- ployment, the places at which it is to be had, and the rates of wages. " Emigrants should avoid as much as possible drinking the water of the River St Lawrence, which has a strong tendency to produce bowel complaints in strangers. ^ i Ships and Passage Matters. 93 They should also be careful to avoid exposure to the intense heat of the sun by day, and the dews and noxious vapours of night. And when in want of any advice or direction, they should apply at once to the Government Emigration Agents, who will give every information required, gratis, " Emigrants are entitled by law to remain on board the shio forty-eight hours after arrival; nor can they be deprived of any of their usual accommodations and berthing during that period, and the iiiaster of the ship is bound to disembark them and their luggage free of expense at the usual landing-place, and at reasonable hours." m CHAPTER XIV. THE FREE GRANT LANDS. In order the more to encourage emigration into the country, the Provincial Government of the province of Ontario have thrown open a number of townships, in the uncleared districts, where parties may choose for themselves a future home. These grants are given off on the most liberal terms, and thousands have, as might have been expected, taken advantage of them. This is a grand and rare opportunity for those with limited means becoming proprietors Oi" freehold estates, in a liberal country; and I would advise all who in this country sigh for even a leased farm, to step across the Atlantic and accept of one in perpetuity, gratis. Re- member you do not always find such a chance of becoming your oivn landlord, with no rent to pay, and no one to interfere with you in any way. Let me also impress on my readers the truth of the saying, that " first come are first served." For the information of intending emigrants, I will give some general particulars as to these free grant lands, beginning first with — I. Where they arc Situated. — All the present free grant lands of Canada are embraced in the upper portion of The Free Grant Lands, 95 the country, or in what is now denominated the province of Ontario, and are situated in two separate parts of this province : the one lies in what is known as the Muskoka district, and the other in that immediately to the north of the county of Peterborough. The lands embraced in the former district comprise no less than eleven town- ships, namely, those of Humphrey, Cardwell, Watt, Stephenson, Brunell, Macaulay, M'Lean, Muskoka, Draper, M'Dougall, and P'oley; while those situated in the latter district take up the townships of Cardiff, Chandos, Monmouth, and Anstruther. On reference to the map accompanying this work, it will be observed that the Muskoka district is traversed by the Parry Sound Road, and lies immediately along the east shore of the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron \ and that the county of Peterborough is situated to the north-east of Port Hope- town, on the north shore of Lake Ontario. Besides these are others recently allotted, as shown in the map. f J 2. How to get to than. — Assuming that the emigrant has landed at Quebec, and wishes to proceed to the free grant lands, the point is, what are the most direct, most expeditious, and least expensive routes to the two dis- tricts. For that north of Peterborough county, take the Grand Trunk Railway right through to Port Hopetown ; thence by rail to the town of Peterborough, from which there is a good colonisation road to the northern portion of the free grant townships. From Peterborough to the southern extremity of the free grant lands is a distance of not more than thirty miles. This the settler can easily overtake either by conveyance or walking. Of course, if merely on a visit of inspection, either course can be 96 The Free Grant Lands. adopted, but with a family and effects, the former mode is necessary. To the Muskoka free grant lands two routes are avail- able. First, From Quebec to Toronto by the Grand Trunk Railway ; from thence to Barrie or Bell Ewart by the Northern Railway ; from Barrie to the River Severn by steamer ; from the River Severn to Graven- hurst on Lake Muskoka by stage ; from Gravenhurst to Bracebridge by steamer or by the Muskoka Road, and from Bracebridge to the respective townships by the Muskoka, Paterson, and Parry Sound Roads. In winter, the communication with Bracebridge and Parry- Sound is by stage from Barrie. The second route is from Quebec to Toronto, as in the other; from Toronto to Collingwood by the Northern Railway ; from thence to Parry Sound by steamer, every Saturday morning ; and from Parry Sound to the respec- tive townships by the Great Northern, Parry Sound, and Nipissing Colonisation Roads. A stage runs from Parry Sound to Lake Rosseau, in connexion with the steamer. Of the two routes given to the Muskoka district, the one going by Collingwood and Parry Sound leads more conveniently to the more northern townships of the free grant lands ; while the one by Barrie, the River Severn, and Gravenhurst, is the most direct to the southern part of these lands. Accordingly, the intending settler must be guided in this by his choice of locality. 4 4 3. To whom given. — In almost all colonies where land is given free, we find that the offer is restricted to the lords of the creation. The Provincial Government of \ » I ] '.-* T/ic Free Grant Lands. (^j Ontario are, however, an exception to this rule. Their free grants are open to settlers without distinction of sex or class of persons. The primary condition is, that the recipient must be eighteen years of age, but no other restriction is mentioned. Each individual grant em- braces an extent of loo acres, which the intending settler is allowed to select in any of the free grant townships. Thus, a family of, say five persons, at or above the age of eighteen years, may take up a tract of 500 acres of land, and become, in a few years, by in- dustry and good management, proprietors of a valuable estate. Of course the individual grants of one family may be secured in one block. 4. Conditions upon which given. — These are simple, and easily fulfilled by any one of ordinary muscular ability. They are, — that a habitable house of at least 16 by 20 feet be erected, that 15 acres on each grant of 100 acres be cleared and under crop, of which at least two acres are to be cleared and cultivated annually for five years ; and that the settler must reside on his land at least six months in each year. In all cases, failure to perform these settlement duties forfeits the location. The mines and minerals found on any lot revert to the Crown. The settler may not cut any pine timber, except for fencing, building, and other farm pur- poses, and in clearing, until the issue of the patent ; or, if it be cut, the settler must pay timber dues to the Crown. The land, on the death of the settler, vests in his widow, and cannot be sold or mortgaged until the patent issues, — that is, until all the conditions are ful- filled, — nor within twenty years of the location, without 98 The Free Grant Lands. the consent of the wife, if living. Nor shall it be liable (luring that twenty years to be sold under execution for any debt, except a mortgage or pledge after the patent issues. It may, however, be sold to pay taxes. k 5. How to proceed to get Possession of the Grant. — There are three Crown land agents appointed to give off these grants. Two reside in the Muskoka district, and one in the lands to the north of the county of Peter- borough. Parties wishing to settle in either of the town- ships of Watt, Stephenson, Brunell, Macaulay, M'Lean, Muskoka, and Draper, all situated in the Muskoka dis- trict, must make application at the office of C. W. Lount, Esq., Crown lands agent, Bracebridge, township of Mac- aulay. The route to Bracebridge is by way of Bell Ewart, River Severn, and Graverhurst. Those, again, who may prefer the more northern townships of this district for settlement, or those of M'Dougall, Foley, Humphrey, and Cardwell, will proceed to the office of N. P. Wakefield, Esq., Crown lands agent, at Parry Sound. The route to Parry Sound, as already explained, is by way of Collingwood, thence by steamer to Parry Sound. Applicants for grants in the townships of Cardiff, Chandos, Monmouth, and Anstruther, will be attended to on application to W. Armstrong, Esq., Crown lands agent, Cardiff, in the township of Cardiff. 6. Who shoidd take the Grants and who should not. — This, no doubt, may be a matter of opinion, so far as the individual inclinations of the parties concerned may lead them to decide. There is a great range, from those possessing a thousand pounds to others with as many / The Free Grant Lands. 99 cents, and it were idle to imagine for a moment that a man accustomed to many comforts in this country could accustom himself to the hardships and dreariness of bush life. Picture him in that small clearing, with the little log-house, surrounded on all sides by a dense forest of gigantic trees, his axe his only friend. The clearing is as yet too small to admit the life-giving sun, and in this sort of pit he looks like a caged rat struggling to escape ; and so he really is. But day by day the forest walls crumble down before the small piece of steel, — a few weeks bring black soil, another month blades of corn, and even with the first summer he granaries a kind of plenty. All this, however, is for the previous hard worker, and not him accustomed to keep his coat always on his back. The bush clearer must have health, strength, perseverance, and a little money. Do not go alone, as there is work to be performed which always requires two to accomplish properly. A family of several persons always does best in the bush. Let us now see — 7. Hoiu much Money is required to take Possession. — We will take for our basis the case of a man with a wife and three sons above the age of eighteen years. In do- ing this we shall assume that they have already landed in the district in which they purpose locating. The family has, of course, to be lodged in the nearest village or farmer's house during negotiations and the building of a log-house. With this, the following items of expense would be unavoidable before the whole family were settled down in the new home, and resident in it for eighteen months, or until the farm might be said to keep them : — 100 The Free Grant Lands. Board and Lodging for a Fortnight while Selecting r Grants and Building IJouse, .^4 10 Expenses in Getting Possession from Crown Lands Agent, ..... I Materials for Building House, 5 Furniture for House, . 8 Tools for Clearing Bush, I 10 House Keep for Eighteen Months, 30 Price of a Cow, 5 Materials for Byre, &c., I Seed for Ten Acres, . 8 Sundries, . . 2 ;^66 Here then we have a sum of £66 as required by a family of five persons to enter comfortably on a free estate in Canada. Of course it is obvious that the greater the number of persons who go together, the less per head will the cost be. Indeed, I believe that the expenses of a single person would be more than ;£5o, as against £1^ each, in our example. I have supposed ten acres to be cleared and under wheat crop the first year ; and presuming that each acre yielded thirty bushels, this would give us 300 bushels of wheat, the value of which at present prices, or four shillings per bushel, is ;£^6o, or about as much as was expended in entering and clearing the farm. -> 8. How to Choose a Good Grant. — This is, as every one will admit, a matter of great importance. Some lots, when under the pleasing shade of a crop of fine trees, give the idea of fine future grassy fields and yellow corn, but, when cleared and the soil turned up, the settler may find, when too late, that as an agricultural I . . The Free Grant Lands, lOI subject it is most inferior. This is often the case after months of hard toil, and therefore the experience of others shows the importance of being cautious in the selection of a grant. The intending settler, therefore, would do well, in choosing his lot amongst the many, to bear in mind the following points which I will now lay down as a guide for him in the selection of bush land. If possible endeavour to get alongside a river or stream ; if a river of large size, and not easily forded, see that the location is not divided by it, as is often the case. Try and avoid large swamps, though a small one is of less con- sequence, and if easily drained, makes very valuable land. Do not choose land where nothing but pine-trees grow, as they invariably prefer a poor soil. Where oak and elm are found, the land may be considered good. Have both rising and low-lying ground on your farm, and see first if there is a good site for a house. The intending settler should have a spade with him, and examine care- fully the character of the soil in difterent parts of each lot, judging for himself as to its agricultural capabilities. Go over it several times before finally settling. Another point which he should look forward to in his selection, is whether or not any part of the lot is at some future time likely to become a good site for a village. In judging as to this, there must be water ^ cross-roads^ and general prospective desirability of residence. CHAPTER XV. i TOUCHING SEVERAL MATTERS IN CONNEXION WITH BUSH- FARMING. In this chapter I have a few remarks to make on several matters of daily occurrence in the life of a bush-farmer. I. Cost of Clearing Land. — Of course, every one knows that in taking up bush-farming, a man has immediately to set to and clear a part of the ground to the music of his own axe. After the first two or three years, however, when the already cleared land, which has been keeping the settler and his family in the necessaries of life, begins to give fair returns, and the farmer finds a good nest-egg of dollars at the end of each year, he begins to pay more attention to its cultivation, and wishes much for an in- crease of arable. Now he finds it more to his interest to get extra help, as besides a growing charge of crop and stock, he is looking forward to build a more com- modious and comfortable house. These things con- sidered, therefore, he decides on having another portion of his bush cleared by men who are always found willing for such a job. This should be always done by contract, both for cheapness and saving of time. Of course, the cost per acre of this kind of work depends much on the locality, and, more particularly, on the kinds and size of Toiichmg Several Matters, etc. 103 trees to be removed. If the crop is thick and composed of heavy-timbered trees, it is to be expected that a higher sum per acre will be charged for the clearing of it than if the crop had been thinner and lighter. However, as an average, about 10 dollars, or £^2 per acre, will clear the most oi^ the wild lands of Canada. If the district in which the settler locates is pretty well taken up, he may, at any time in the winter season, invite his neighbours on a certain day, who will very quickly fell a few acres for him. This is often done, and is called a " chopping bee." I have been present at such a scene, and remember one in particular where about 50 men felled seven acres in one day. 2. System of Bush-Fanning. — It is invariably the case, and I suppose will remain so to the end, that the bush- clearer is a bad cultivator of the soil, and very seldom remains a long possessor of his own work. This is the result of bad management, and the want of a system of farming operations. It is generally the third occupant of the land who makes the final settler and most success- ful farmer, the others having either been obliged to sell out or continue their pioneering. There is a lesson to be learned here. How often do we find farms in the bush taken up by those who have no acquaint..nce with such work, and who fail by error, in principles at least, to exhibit the latent capabilities of the soil ! They do, no doubt, manage, by hard labour, even to show good returns and maintain their families, but it is a mis- directed success, which soon exhausts itself, and issues in a mortgage, in order to extend their occupancy a little longer. One mortgage follows upon another, until 104 Touching Several Matters they are obliged to sell out. The second owner is gene- rally one who tries to get out of the soil as much as possible without being at the trouble and expense of adding anything to it. In a few years it drifts, at a low price, into the hands of the third, — a practical husband- man with energy and small capital, — who, by judicious management, soon resuscitates, and makes a good bar- gain. The great mistake made by most farmers in the bush is, that they imagine the land is so rich naturally, that to manure it would only be a waste. I have myself seen land which had been cropped for twelve years without any application of manures, and, of course, it was yield- ing very scanty crops, all the while that their courts and their accesses were full of the twelve years' accumulation of good farm-yard dung. 3. Building a House. — On getting possession, the first thing the settler has to do is to fix on the most suitable spot for the erection of a house. In doing this, he ought to keep in view a good supply of water, a healthy position, and convenience in management. This done, proceed in making a level and solid foundation of at least 36 by 16 feet. Then prepare the logs ; those for the foundation to be much larger than the successive layers ; as to a certain extent each layer ought to be smaller than the one under it. These logs must be dovetailed into each other at the corners, leaving about 6 inches projecting at each end ; the walls to be about 10 feet high. The strength of the building lies in having every log at the ends solid upon its neighbours. The dovetailing is consequently a particular job in the creCi- in Connexion with Canada. 105 tion of a log-house. When the walls are up to within three layers of the top, other logs of less size are placed horizontally across the building, so as to form the joists ; and the last of the wall layers should be square on the top to form the wall plates, and to be sunk to receive the rafters. These latter are made of small logs, and put up in the usual way \ but about three feet apart. Scantling or boards are then nailed on them. These boards must be procured from the nearest saw-mill. I have seen log-houses slated with bark, but wherever taste is shown this is done with ^^ shingles ^^ or pine wood sawn out to twelve-inch blocks, then split with the axe to form boards twelve inches square by a quarter of an inch thick. Sawn ones are sometimes used, but these are not so durable as the split, nor so easily procured. The floor of the house is laid with sleepers, and boarded in the usual way. If the seltler can turn his hand to carpentry, he may make the door and windows, and save the expense of purchasing them. The rough first log-house, thus finished, divisions and trimming-up can be overtaken to suit requirements and taste ; i*nd a really comfortable and substantial home is the result of sometimes less than ten days' work. 4. Injudicious Clearing of the Bush, — In some of the older settled districts of America, where indiscriminate clearing was the rule, the effects thereof are now being felt and lamented. This is particularly the case in some parts of the United States, where wood of all kinds has become scarce and dear, and the supply in the surround- ing country is quite inadequate to the demand. Where, therefore, some landowner happens to have retained a few G io6 Touching Several Matters acres under trees, a nice rent is being realised by judicious thinning. Not only, however, is this state of things injurious commercially to the many, but it is particularly so in regard to the climate^ as, where the forest has been thus cleared, the want of moisture in the summer season is being much felt. The fall o^ rain is plentiful but not regular ; and, from the want of trees, evaporation is so accelerated as to greatly lessen the good effects on soil and vegetation. So much is this the case in all countries, that it ought to become a national question with the Provincial Government of Canada, where and how much of the bush ought settlers be bound to leave for the general good; or what is probably better, government should retain large belts unsold^ on parts of least agri- cultural value, and at the same time having positions likely to secure the best possible equable temperature and rainfall. But besides this national view of the subject, 1 think that each farm should have judiciously-arranged spots of woodland for the sake of more immediate shelter and ornamentation. This, though subtracting from the arable surface, would actually enhance the value of the farm in a case of sale. There are few men who do not appreciate amenity value now-a-days. Before commencing clearing operations, the settler should have a comprehensive knowledge of the lie of his location, and chart it on a piece of paper, marking, as near as possible, the various rises and hollows of the ground. Keeping in mind the direction of north, south, east, and west, he should endeavour to leave the clumps so as to secure the various ends in view, — shelter, orna- mentation, convenience for fuel supply, least hindrance \ [ in Connexion with Canada. 107 to farming, and the taking up of the poorer soil by the standard trees. T I As to Leaving the Stumps on the Ground. — The house erected, the settler at once proceeds with the clearing of the trees and underwood. In doing this, the underwood is entirely rooted out, but the trees are only cut over about three feet from the ground. Burning all the rubbishy part of the wood, using the smaller trees for his fences and firewood, and the larger for building pur- poses, he sells the more valuable trees. Cultivation proceeds, but for many years the stumps remain in the ground, preventing economical working, causing much loss in crops by occupying a considerable proportion of the surface, and causing disease. I believe it is the general belief that much useless expense would be incurred in having the stumps re- moved at once. This is quite a mistake, however, as the experienced farmer knows; and I have calculated that it is much better, in a pecuniary point of view alone, to have say ten acres of land cleared, in all respects, of the crops of trees, than fifteen acres with the stumps. There is actually more land to crop in the one case than in the other. I am aware that it is rather formidable work to trench out great masses of stumps and roots ; so, without preaching " how to labour and wait " to the industrious emigrant, I have here to suggest the use of a cheap and apparently useful assistant in such work. It is generally well known, but is more apparent in a climate with extremes, that, during severe frost, some of the trees in the forests are rent and split up to a con- siderable extent. This is caused by the expansion of lo8 Touching Several Matters, etc. frozen water, which has found its way into the many holes and fissures in the timber of the trees. Where the hole in the tree is larger than ordinary, and filled with water, the report, when the sides of the tree give way, is like that of a small cannon, and the splinters of wood are driven to considerable distances. Now, why do not the bush farmers take advantage of this agency, and have their stumps disposed of in the same way — it looks quite practicable — thus : Bore a hole in each stump with a common inch auger, or a larger one if thought necessary ; this hole to be made vertically, and not less than one foot in depth. The holes would not answer if put diagonally or horizontally, as this would be against the grain of th^^ wood, and consequently the swelling of the water would have little or no effect ; it would be necessary to bore before frost sets in. At a time of very severe frost, let each hole be filled with water, and the result ought to be such a split- ting up of the stumps as will facilitate extraction and removal; it is the great size of these stumps which makes clearing expensive. But powder is always ready, and altogether it is the willy and not so much the means, that is awanting with the American reclaimer in this matter. Let me impress upon them the fact that one stump taken out now and again, gives them at least two square yards more of available soil. \ ■ !*■' ivi,i>ip"iii^ II iivia < i CHAPTER XVI. GARDENING IN CANADA. f/ :: In a new country like Canada, it is not to be expected that gardening should have made greater progress than merely to supply the settlers with such fruits, flowers, and vegetables, as are found to succeed in the country without much trouble or expense. In no part of Canada have I seen anything approaching to what, in Britain, would be called a second-rate garden ; an establishment embracing the usual kitchen, fruit, flower, and forcing departments, on such a scale as is common in the places of British landed proprietors. In their kitchen gardens the Canadians raise all the common kinds of vegetables grown in Britain. Even in the commonest gardens of the people, I have seen spinach, cauliflower, turnips, carrots, common and kid- ney beans, peas, parsnips, radishes, lettuce, and cucum- bers, tomatoes, pumpkins, and other edible goods grown, of admirable strength and quality. In short, in regard to vegetables, I think the Canadians are better gardeners than the British. The rich soil and favourable climate, of course, help them much ; I used to admire the vegetables in some of the gardens of the labouring classes. With regard to the hardy fruit garden of the Cana- I lO Gardening m Canada. dians, it embraces a wider range of variety than with us ; for, even in the neighbourhood of Montreal, I have seen the melon growing in the open ground as well as the grape, with peaches as standards, all bearing excellent crops, without any protection whatever. As to apples, pears, cherries, plums, and similar orchard fruits, I need not say more than that they are plentiful in most of the older districts. The Canadians are great apple-growers, and use them all the year round. The flower-gardens do not, so far as I have seen, embrace a wide range of species. They have, however, the greater part of the commoner herbaceous plants which are to be found in British gardens, and also the annuals in general cultivation with us. For many of the plants which scand the winter in Britain uninjured, they have, however, to .provide greenhouses, from the severity of the winter. For example, the common whin or furze, and the ivy, are both too tender to stand the American winter ; and going into an American house, one is some- times surprised to find the ivy trained on the inside walls of a room, instead of on the outer walls of the house, as we are accustomed to see it. When treated in this way, the plant gives a good effect to the lobby of a house, as in this position it receives sufficient light to keep it healthy, and warmth to preserve its vitality all winter. i 4 1^ * i CHAPTER XVII. THE SPORTING FIELDS OF CANADA. To the sportsman, Canada presents inducements which are difficult to be met with in any other country. Almost every country, through some physical peculiarities, or otherwise, has a name for some one particular branch of amusement, but in Canada we have variety combined with magnitude of field of operations, — there are exten- sive forests and boundless prairies, containing thousands of different kinds of animals. The rivers, streams, and inland fresh-water lakes are almost endless, and abound with excellent fish in great variety. In this unlimited sporting field it is rather remarkable that few take advan- tage of its inducements. In Canada, both rich and poor have equal privileges to the forests and rivers. The requisites for hunting there are a strong constitution, a share of manly bravery, and a good rifle. The chief kinds of animals to be found in British North America are, — the moose-deer, the wapiti (re- sembhng our red deer), and the common Virginian deer ; reindeer, buffalo, wolf, black bear, grizzly bear, the Canadian partridge and ptarmigan, and several kinds of ducks. The moose-deer is not now so plentiful, but is still to be met with in considerable numbers in the province of Quebec, or in that part of the country be- 112 The Sporting Fields of Canada. twixt the River St Lawrence and Hudson's Bay. From the town of Quebec they can be got at in one day's journey. This animal is as large as a horse, and is adorned with large horns of great weight. To secure it requires all the craft of an experienced hunter. The other kinds of deer named afford excellent sport. Nothing can, however, exceed the pleasure of duck and other wild-fowl shooting in Canada ; and an idea may be formed of this from the following extract on " Duck- Shooting in Canada," which appeared in The Farmer newspaper of the 19th August 1868 : — " Perhaps more pleasant and not less novel would be found the wild-turkey shooting on the prairies. The wild turkey is one of the most beautiful and noble birds that can anywhere be seen ; and any one who wishes to get a dash of new blood into his domestic broods, or restore something of the beauti- ful copper tinge, could easily secure one of the wild birds from Western Canadian prairies. I might allude also to the woodcock, snipe, and other kinds of game, which in certain parts of Canada are very plentiful ; but, as might naturally be expected from her immense lakes and rivers, waterfowl is even more abundant at certain seasons than any other kind of game. The swan, goose, and duck are very abundant. For the most part, they breed further north, and winter further south, thus passing through Canada twice a year, and afford- ing magnificent sport, especially in the months of October and November, when the weather is almost perfect. Duck- shooting may, perhaps, be regarded as very much the same all the world over ; yet in Canada it has its own peculiarities. In some of her rivers there are immense flats or swamps, which are overgrown with reeds and rushes, and thus afford beautiful ground, much of which is covered with duck-weed. On some island or dry spot in the neighbourhood of this ground a small wooden hut or shanty is erected, in which the sportsman makes himself as much at home as the pests of I 1 % }. «! The Sporting Fields of Canada, 1 1 3 a swamp will permit. Before daybreak he may find himself in some favourable position, in which he can command the birds in their passage, and may bag his twenty, thirty, or even fifty birds before breakfast. Or desiring even a more pleasant kind of sport, he may get into a canoe and paddle quietly through the rushes, and mark his bird as he disturbs it at its morning repast, and turn it over beautifully as it rises in the air. In such swamps it is sometimes necessary for the canoe-man to get out, and either pull or push the canoe over almost dry ground ; but no shooting can be more pleasant than sitting quietly in your canoe, and every few minutes having your shot at duck, snipe, bittern, or some other Cana- dian bird. Very frequently a man well acquainted with the waters can mark to a nicety the spot where a flock — and sometimes a flock of thousands may be seen — alights ; and paddling quietly and noiselessly through the reeds, a raking shot may be had, when half-a-dozen, in a not over-sportsman- like manner, will be tumbled over with the first barrel, and one or two with the second. Duck stalking is very interest- ing. Towards the close of the year a very ingenious mode of getting within reach of ducks is sometimes adopted. A scow painted white is quietly paddled in their direction, and it so resembles a floating sheet of ice, that frequently they can be approached within twenty or thirty yards. It is of course in the large swamps that the best duck-shooting is to be had, and the numbers and variety are something almost incon- ceivable. The common wild duck, or mallard, is of course very abundant ; so also are the teal, pintail, canvas back, widgeon, shoveller, wood duck, and many others. I do not seek to allude just now to the characteristics or peculiarities of any other except those of the wood duck. This is one of the most beautiful birds that can anywhere be seen. It is called the wood duck from the peculiarity of its habits in lighting and building upon trees. When first seen darting through the air, almost like a hawk, and suddenly perching upon a tree, one unaccustomed to the bird can scarcely con- ceive what it is. When the young are hatched, the mother 114 The Sportmg Fields of Canada. duck carries them io the water, and they are at once in their clement. Duck-shooting is one of the most difficult, but one of the most interesting kinds of sport. It is of course easy enough to blaze away at coveys, or aim somewhere in the direction of a single bird ; but, to judge the distance, the angle of flight, the rapidity of motion, and almost instan- taneously to cover the head, and not merely wound the bird, requires a nicety of mathematical calculation, giving a train- ing both to eye and hand." The chief fishing rivers of Canada run into the River and Gulf of St Lawrence. These abound with salmon and trout of large size and fine quality. In one of these rivers — the Chuter-en-haut — a gentleman, some years ago, killed no less than 500 salmon in one week with the rod. Salmon ascend the St Lawrence as far up as Lake Ontario, but although good fishing can be obtained in different parts of the river and its many tributaries from this to Quebec, it cannot be compared with the lower portions. For trout, white fish, sturgeon, bass, and the great maskinonge, the rivers, streams, and lakes of the upper province afford excellent sport. Indeed, as a rule, all the waters of Canada are teemir.g with fish of one kind or another. Although I have on several occasions caught numbers of fish of different kinds simply with a piece of white cloth fixed to a common hook, it is not to be inferred that they are always to be hauled out by so simple a plan as this. I found scientific fishing there as necessary as in this country. The most iak'uig flies are those with variety of colours in the wings, such as a mixture of the feather'^ of the golden pheasant^ blue viacaw^ green parrot ^ I k I I ''^mimmmmmmmmi i The Sporting Fields of Canada. 1 1 5 and other birds having briHiant colours, with the body of the fly tending to a brownish hue. Though essentially a free country, Canada, like all well-constituted societies, has its game laws, but only for the preservation of the animals when they are out of season. The following table shows the present close times : — Table of Close Seasons. Elk, Moose, Cariboo, Deer, and Fawn, Hare, Wild Turkey, Grouse, Pheasant, "J and Partridge, • . . J Quail, Woodcock and Snipe, Wild Swan, Wild Goose, and Wild ) Duck, ]■ Wild Duck— East of Three Rivers, Beaver, Otter, Mink, Marten Muskrat, Salmon, Do. by fly — surface— fishing, Trout (or lunge). Speckled Trout, White Fish, in any manner what-) soever \ Do. by seines or nets, . Bass, Pickerel, or Dore, Maski- ) nonge, &c j" Insectivorous birds, . Ontario. I Dec. I Mar. I Jan. I Jan. I Mar. 15 Apr. to I Sept. to I Sept. to I Sept. to \ Sept. to 12 Aug. to 15 Aug. I May to 15 Oct. n I Aug. 31 Aug. I Oct. I Oct. 19 Nov. 30 May 15 Apr. I Mar. to to ; to* to to to to to >> I May. 31 May. I I Jan. May. Dec. Aug. May. Aug. Quebec. I Feb. to I Sept. I Feb. to I Sept. 1 Mar. to I Sept. I Feb. I May 15 May I May I May 15 Apr. 15 Apr. I May I Aug. 31 Ang. I Oct. I Oct to I to 1 to to to Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Nov. to 15 Oct. to I Nov. to 21 Oct. to I May. to 31 May. to I Jan. to I Jan. to 1 Dec. 19 Nov. 31 July to I Dec 5 Apr. I Mar. to 24 May. to z Aug. THE END. PRINTED BY BALLANTVNE AND COMPANY EOINBURUH AND LONDON