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Las diagrammes suivants illustrant la mithode. \ % 2 3 4 5 6 EXISTENCE AND DEITY Illustrated and Explained BY ROBERT SHAW, M.A., *0B MAMY YEARS A DILIOKKT AND UNBIABKU STl'DCNT OF TUB SUBJECT OF DEITY AITD OF CHEATED KXISTBNC/;. in Two Parts, FA-RT FIRST. PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR. 1872. C 5,2. ^^5 20;^;) [ Entered according to Act of the ParlKment of Canada in the j-ear one thousand eicht hundred and seventy- two, by Robkut Bhaw, in the Oftice of the Minister of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION. THE principal object of this book, — although this is not the only- purpose it answers, for it conveys to the reader a vast amount of information the most interesting and important, — is to simplify matters with respect to the subject of Deity. This being the chief end in view in its production this book is different from any that has preceded it, and, therefore, fills a place not supplied by any other. There is no substitute for this book in any language spoken on the earth. The subject of the Creator and that of Creation are intimately connected, and in this book the one is made to illustrate the other. The works already in print upon the subject of Deity or Theology are for the most part merely systems of ideas elaborated from the mind or imagination of the authors, and popu- larly called systems of Theology, or Bodies of Divinity, doubtless consisting of some truth, but mixed with much that is erroneous ; considered in the light of works of fiction some of them speak well indeed for the inventive genius of their authors. This book deals with the subject of an omni- present Deity, his character being illustrated by his works of creation and by the various objects and scenes of existence ; but though omnipresent yet he is shown to be infinite as existence, and being infinite not concei- vable by the mind of man, much less to be seen by his eye. This is especially the case in Part First of the work, which treats of exis- tence in its various conditions, phases, and aspects, — Physical, Spiritual and Moral, — and illustrates variously the subject of creation and the cha- racter of the omnipresent and infinite Deity. In using the sciences for illustration of existence in Part First of the work, more especially the science of Astronomy, we found it both neces- sary and most to the purpose to set forth the science itself with its deduc- tions and discoveries hitherto, which will bo much more beneficial, and sa- tisfactory to the readers than the statement of isolated facts and ideas derived from that science, its deductions and discoveries. Besides, wo have treated of the Scenery of the heavens as viewed from the Planets and their Satellites which makes the subject of Astronomy, as hero pre- sented, far more interesting than as set forth in the common treatises on that science ; and exhibits the power, wisdom, and glory of the Deity, as set forth in the scenes of existence, in a peculiarly interesting light. INTRODUCTION. The especial object kept in view in Part Second of the work is to- remove erroneous opinions which have hitherto prevailed with respect to Creation, Redemption, and the subject of Deity generally, as derived from a partial misunderstanding of the Old and the New Testaments of our Bible, or from other sources ; to remove error superstition and idolatry from the universal Christian Church ; to disenthral the minds of mankind from the bondage of superstition and ignorance, to liberalise and enlighten them ; and to teach human beings, as they are also taught in Part First, that thoy arc really free and responsible agents, who may,if they will, be and do good rather than evil ; and that their duty is, with respect to adoration, to worship the invisible and omnipresent Deity alone, with the pecch and with the understanding, in spirit and in truth. The subject of Deity, infinite existence and of Creation, is variously illusiratcd in Part First; Mystery, the prolific mother of superstition, is removed in Part Second ; tho true light now shines, and men to whom this book may conio shall no longer have any excuse for their errors of superstition and idolatry and for their evil practices, all which we trust the'' will fo; the honor of their righteous and holy God hence- forth discar " , .d eschew. We ha.' • bservcd throughout in its preparation tho strictest impar- tiality ; regard to religions, especially when treating of the Christian religion as tc ' - "igin, and in the application of tho civil and religioua history of the c'lmstian nations to tho fulfilment of the Scriptual prophecies in Part Second of the work. Our whole aim was to set forth tho truth in plain and moderate language with respect to the Christian establish- ments and their history, or the establishments of Church and State of the Christian nations, there being no deviation from the line of truth on any consideration of sect. When, therefore, the Catholic of the Greek or Roman Church reads concerning the fulfilment of the prophecy in the history of the Church and State establishments of Constantinople and Rome, or of the East and West, let him remember that he has before him only a fair and impartial representation of the subject, — a subject which, it is very plain, we could have no object to misrepresent, — and let such read on carefully and patiently, and before he has got through reading the history of the Protestant branch of the Catholic Christian Church, as applied to the fulfilment of prophecy, lie may perhaps conclude that the scale is pretty etiually balanced and that there h »s been no impartiality used, and no misrepresentation made by the author. On the other hand, when the Protestant reads the history of the Greek and Roman Churches as applied to tho fulfilment of prophecy, let him not be disposed to be cap- tious or to glory in the failings of men, but bethink himself that he is read- ing the history of his own ancestors in common with those of his brethren of the Greek and Roman Churches, and keep in mind that in reading the INTKODUCTION. history of hid own branch of the Clmrch ho will obacrvo that like failings characterised its foimilcrs of the Reformation and onwards, as ho has seen to have characterised the old heads and leaders of the Greek and Roman branchea of the Catholic Church, though in the main not to so great an extent. lie will observe that this varied display of human character in every age and nation is simply the outworking of tho princi- ples inherent in human nature ; that each human being in any or in every ago or nation may, if he will, be and do good rather than evil, that when one thinketh he standeth he should take heed lest he fall, and should always be a living, active power for godliness in the world, which is tho only safeguard against bouig and doing evil. To such as might be disposed to look upon this work witli an eye of criticism, as only the learned and competent could be supposed to do, wo may remark that the work, consisting of Two Parts, is one of design, neither part being complete without the other, and that the whole needs to bo read through carefully in order for the idea and design to be completely understood. It is better, however, for all to read it with a sober and a prayerful spirit than with an eye of criticism and captiousness, and thu3 to profit by the information and experience which it affords. The authors we have consulted and from whom we have quoted in the the preparation of this work, both in its First and Second Parts, are, in their several departments, regarded by the learned as the highest standards for veracity and style. Wo have also added to the Second Part of the work several brief dis- courses explanatory of the prominent doctrines of Christianity, which will not only bo useful and interestin'^ to Christian ministers in the future prose- cution of tiieir work, but also to the general readers. And, thus, we submit our work to a public, which we trust will appreciate it (as we believe they will,) in firm and humble reliance on God who has suggested and assisted its production, that it may result in the enlightenment and happiness of all, and so answer the purpose for which it is designed. The Author. KUHATA. On pngp 3.'., in line ITitli from the lop, for ff/nifm rcml nj>lcm>. On \m^ii (i<», in line lltli from tin- liottom, (or Mardonun rend Manloniut, On \nigv 7.1, in liuu lUlh from llif bottom, for Vfnwirk tvm\ Vermiik. (»n |iagu !»7, in lint- 17tl) from liic iiotiom, for li<<-i) 14th »ro!n the top, for rounin;/ rend rotiriny. On page JJii, in line Utii from tlie lop, tiio proper order of the colors is «'/, orany*, yel- low. .(■(•., na M'vw in the ligiire on tlie .-iame i>ai,'f. On pnjfc •.!4i!, in line 10th from tlie top. for lh>ir rend Ihin. On jiage 2il7, in line Hlli from the lop, f'T inrnniiiiu/i/f read infon'ili'rnlilf, Tl.e annexed liguie reiaesenis ii laigi' spot on the Snn to which -\o. 103 ou page i!84 n'fera. On jiRge 'iHi, in 1 no \'.i\\\ from llio lop, for /ni-nllir n>ail ,t'iriil:r. On page 287, in line iilili f.om tlic lioiloiii. for /> /'c/iv / read resolfcd. On I'aire .'iOn. in lliu" l.Mh from the biillnni, for •'•)';-■ J " read " 0(3*^,32 "; and in lino Uili from the bottom, for "dt;"" rcutl '''HW aj . ' On page:;;!!, in llie lioilom line, for •' i.i.lli " read ",'„lli" On jiage lili'), in ine '.'Jiid from the bottom, for /■/'(" read i>liine. On page 340, in line 1 1th from the bottom, for •' :,Vh" read "^th." On page MVl. in line Tlh tiom Ihc top, for " 1774 " read ■' 1744." On page 4oo, in line .'!nl from the lop, after the word /-/('(."e." supjily the words itsthi m>on ; and in line 10th froir, the toj), for Copeniiciis read CD/iernirnii. On page 4.'.''., in line Jnd from the bottom, for " Foo " read " Foe," On jiage 4.!7, in line loth frt)m I lie bottom, for rtee/'l(il,le read ncf^/itaele. On page 4:;s, in line 131 h from the bottom, (or HH/K'is'iliim.i read .iii/>eratilioii.^. On page AW, tliu phrase Remark^ on the }ircreiliiiii placed nearest the bottom is merely a repetition and means nothing. On ]iage "ilo, in line ."^th from the top, after the word iici'imi/'Ufhinent supply o/tlie iiur/iosra. On page 5,17, in the lllh lino from the boltom, for Ri murks on the iVecci/jHy^subslituto On the Tninnjiijuration. On Jingo (Ml, in the bottom line, for Jc^itx read .L'vu. On page tii;*, at the bottom, for ■yiyiivaKu) read yiyvuxTKu. On j)age 731, in the \i{\\ line from the top, for nileit read rulers. On page 7(i4, in the 2nd line from the bottom, for eri; read were. On i)age 79i!, for Dutrnl roud Dacvnl. and for Aiin/xi/'lisls read Anahaplislat. On page 801, in the 7tli line from the bottom, for in'lituiiiii retid, iuHli/i/iny. On page .SOU at the boltom, for FJee/ei^. N>wno- incna of tlie Puttllites as viewed from tlie Hurface of Saturn. iK'Hcription of the Kings, and Pcenory of tlic IleuvenH as viewed from Saturn, his Satellites and Kinj^s 330-312 The Planet Urani's and his Satellites; the Heavens uh they appear from Tranus 342-341) The Plankt NKi'Tf.NK 34t»-34t) The Attraction ok (ikavitation explained 349-350 Kepler, the discoverer of the proper motions of Existence, and iii.^ haws 350-353 Sir Isaac Newton, tiie discoverer of the modes of Existence, and his Deductions 3.'»3-35(J The Tides explained 35t)-350 On Comets 359-3(50 Shooting Stars ; Meteorites 3GG-372 The AiRoRA Borealis or Northern liioiiTs 372-373 The Mariner's Lkihts 373 The Fixed Stars ; double Stjirs; colored and variable Stars — as to the mode of classification of the Stars into magnitudes, &s., lis to the motions and position in space of the Sun and the Solar System — temporary Stars 373-385 Cli sters and Neiul.k, VariabL- Nebulas 385-393 The Neiular IIvpotiiesis .... 393 SKETni OF the History ok Astronomy 393-405 Conclusion ok Part First 405-408 I- VISTi:\( I:: AiM) DEITY. PART I, I XlSTKNCi:. I'llYSICAL, Sl'IUITl AL AND MORAL, ILHSTKATED. WIIKX WO i*|ii'ak t»t' the CiiKATon wo moftii that T'n-\U'^ whoso l>rc'st'iioc is ovorywhoro, who has croatcil all things that havo hoon orontotl in tho physioal univorso, aiul in whom we live ami inuve. When we sjieak of the Creator beinj^ everywhere iirescnt, whieh means in every conceivahle or iiieonceiva)>le )»laco in the iiniverdo, wo lU) not mean to say that He is visihle t') tho eyo or can Ix' conceivoil* by the miml of man. The Creator is intinite, ami an Infinite Bein;^ eannot be conceived by tho n)inil, much le«spliero which surrounds thi* earth is denser than the ether which lion in the spaces intermediate of the heavenly liodies. The <,'lohe of the earth tlierelore, land and water, in the ;^iven spjicc; which it occupios, comprises much more matter than the atmosphere does in the space which it oecu- pic3 as compared with that occupied by the earth ; and the earth's ahnos- phcre may he said to c■ ', i HI t ;*i 26 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 1 {!<] v] air traverses the whole length and breadth of the mine, penetrating all its departments and recesses, and enabling the men and animals there to prosecute their employments. At the bottom of the other shaft a fire is kept burning, which rarifies the air now vitiated and impregnated with noxious gases after traversing the mine, and causes it continually to ascend through this shaft. It will be remembered that air rarified by heat always ascends. In some of the coal mines of Pennsylvania, in which such appalling accidents have happened of late, we have learned, whether it be true or not, there are some thn*^ know, that there was only one shaft used for the access and escape of air to and from the mine. Experience will teach men, if they will but observe, that the air in deep wells in cellars, in close rooms, in caverns, in marshes and low places, as well as in the upper regions of our atmosphere, is unfit to breathe and detrimental to health ; and how bracing and Avholesome is the air upon the elevated surface of the earth, and in all places to which it has free access, or which are kept well ventilated ; how the air inside a building which has become vitiate ^ by the breathing for a long time of a large assembly of people is not by any means as wholesome to breathe as the pure out-of-door air ; how that the water contained in marshes and stag- nant pools is not fit to drink, and how that contained in the running brook or springing well is wholesome and refreshing ; how that the piece of flesh or other article of food which when fresh would be wholesome and nutri- tious, when undergoing decay would be a rank poison. The hungry mi\n does not stop to enquire whether the loaf of bread he receives is a compound of a number of simple substances, or whether ;t is but one substance. lie takes it for granted thiit it is wholesome, and does not suspect that it contains any noxious properties. The use of a similar substance before has given him experience to know that it is just what he wants to satisfy his appetite. He knows, very probably, that it is made up of flc'iv, water, yeast and salt ; and it may not interest him to learn that the component "•'\lt is itself a compound of chlorine and hydrogen ; tbat the yeast is composed of oarbon. oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen ; that the wator is composed of oxyen and hydrogen ; and that the flour is the product of the albumen of the wheat or other grain, which is itself made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., and that the whole loaf, if he can spare it, may be reduced to the state of a gas or air by the application to it of sufficient heat. He, probably, in his hungry state is not interested to know whether the egg he receives is but one simple substance, or that science has determined it to be made up of 55 parts carbon, 16 parts nitrogen, 7 parts hydrogen, and the remaining 22 parts, out of a hundred into which the egg is supposed to be divided chemically, are made up of oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, &c., and that . it, as the loaf, can be reduced to the form of an invisible gas by heat. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 27 But if he "oceived that loaf or egg in a mouldy or decayed state, his reason or common sense would at once suggest to him that it would be injurious to his system if he ate it. lie probably does not know, nor is interested to learn, Avhether the piece of flesh he receives is one simple substance, or whether it mr.y be compounded of many simple substances, as carbon, hydrogen, nitro- gen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, (fee, which chemical science determines it to be. He takes and uses these without hesitation, knowing from past expe- rience and daily observation, that they are just such food as he needs. But if he receives these in a decayed state he would not use them, experience also telling him that in such u state they would do him hurt. Good com- mon sense, therefore, accurate observation of the operations of nature, and the experience which is derived from the varied scenes and associa- tions of life, seem most of the knowledge that is necessary for men to be possessed of, provided they use them rationally, in order to their well-being. It is, however, desirable that men sliould become possessed of all the know- ledge they can, whether in relation to science, or art, or the affairs of life or any other branch of knowledge which may administer to their happi- n'^ss and well-being. But even here common sense and reason should guide them in the selection of the branches of knowledge which they should pursue ; those should be selected which are most necessary, and undertaken and pursued with a good and useful end and object in view. Time, for example, spent in the study of some of the dead languages and of some other branches which are never reduced to practical use, if these studies be not pursued merely as a discipline for the mind whereby some good may be derived from them in that sense, is time lost. That time might be well and usefully spent in a practical Avay, or in the study of those branches which could be reduced to a practical use for the benefit and well-being of the person's self and of mankind. And not only the person's own benefit but that? of mankind also should be kept in view, in the selection and pursuit of any branch of study. The knowledge of chem- istry, we allow, may be made of great use to mankind, if employed by those who become possessed of it for the benefit and highest good of man- kind, and not, as in many cases it is, for their detriment. What shall we say of all these poisonous luxuries that adorn the tables of the rich, and ivhich owe their existence to chemistry ? Or of gunpowder, which chem- istry informs us is made up of nitrate of potassa, carbon and sulphur, in specific quantities ? That that which we denominate matter has always existed is certain, and is not doubted by any of the learned that we are aware of. That change has always taken place in matter, that the earth and the heavenly bodies have always been as to their substance and motion the same as they art now, that mankind has always existed as to g<.neral form and appearance much as he in general exists now, that the universe has always SI! t n '\i 28 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. ni I ^ presented to the eye of man, in general, the same phenomena as it does now, that it has always been to him a present thing,— a thing, wo say, so far as it came within his view or could be conceived by iiis mind ; but as to its being wholly conceived by his mind, nothing ; of all this, although we do not necessarily assert the positive, preferring to leave people to iudt^e for themselves concerning these matters from the arguments which we shall afterwards adduce, we may assert that there is no valid evidence to the contrary. (*) The only conceptions which the mind of man can form are of objects or things. Objects or things arc limited or bounded, they all have a begin- ning and an end, a limit in every direction. But the universe being infinite that is, without beginning or end, or any conceivable possible limit in any diroctiop whate^^er, is no thing, no object; it is nothing. This may bo better understood from an illustration. Take a lino, (which is necessarily an imaginary one,) and beginning at any given point, say the centre of the table before you, conceive of it as extended upward toward the zenith, or straight above your head ; or right downwards toAvard the Nadir, straight beneath your feet ; or towards the East, West, North or South, or in any other direction whatever, toward any point of the celestial sphere ; conceive of this line as extended for any length of time, say for a thousand millions of centuries, and at any rate of rapidity of extens'on, say icu thousand millions of miles per second; let it be con- ceived of as extended f<>'' nny length of time, and at any rate of rapidity whatever, and it can never be conceived of as coming to a termination in any one direction, so that it cannot be conceived of as being capable of being extended further. It is as near such a termination in any direction where it ceases to be extended, as it is at the central point of the table from whence it began to be extended. And that central point, too, of the table, A\hich we have used for convenience of illustration, we do not con- ceive of as having cither beginning or end ; it is infinite and nothing. Here then is the idea or the no idea ; the universe infinite and nothing ; a point infinite and nothing. The human mind, as we have stated, can conceive oi;ly of objects or things. A man is an object, a tree is an object, the earth is an object, the moon is an object, 'ihe sun is an object, the planets and stars are objects ; and everything that has or can be conceived of as having a begin- ning and an end, a bound in every direction in space, and everything that has or can be conceived of as having a beginning and an end in time, is an object or thing. In fact the universe, so far as it can be conceived by the mind,is an object or thing ; but considered as infinite it is nothing. (*) See examinfttion and comparison of the accounts of the ^Creation in the book of Genesis in the beginning of Part Second of this book. ! .! EXISTENCE AND DEITY. S0 so Tliia illustration of infiuiu^de and finitudo will throw some light upon the statements we have made 'n\ the opening page of this book, as to the Creator and Creation. Is it not very plain that our omnipotent and glorious Creator, that is infinite, cannot be conceived by the mind, much less seen by the eye ? And yet men are so unreasonable, so presumptuous as to set up material objects as representations of Ilim, and worship them ; and invent systems of ideas which they cull systems, or " bodies " of divinity, and set them up and worship them instead of Him. For how is it possible to conceive of an Infinite Being ? The mind can form no idea of Ilim, and how absurd and blasphemous that men should worship objects and things such as the sun, moon and stars, idols of wood and of stone, and men living and dead of their own race ! It appears so absurd and blasphemous as scarcely to be tolerable. And yet we are sensible of the presence of our great Creator, and can see His character reflected in every natural object- How important it is that men should be good and do good, and maintain an humble and devout spirit in His presence ? It is plain that the distinction between objects and things and nothing or, in other words, becween the finite and the infinite, arises from the different states and conditions of matter as to density and rarity, — an idea which, perhaps, will be understood from the explanation we have already given of it, and may be more clearly understood from what follows : If all the matter in our globe and in all the other bodies in space were reduced to a gaseous or aeriform state, all of the same density, which reduction we have shown to be theoretically possible, there could be no object or thing in the universe ; nothing but space which we can now conceive of would exist. We might conceive of space to no end, but there would be no proper object to be conceived by the mind. Matter cordidered in the form of our earth or of any other globe, or even of Saturn's ring or of any other form, is an object or thing, and the condi- tion o' its being a definite object depends upon its existing in that condensed form to distinguish it from other forms of matter. Hence partly arises the numberless objects which are in and on the earth, — partly we say, for some objects are distinguishable from others by their difference of density, some by their difference in form, and some by their difference of color, etc. ; for there is such a diversity in all these, and in other respects, that scarcely any two objects in all nature are exactly alike in every respect. This will be better understood from illustrations which we design to give further on. Hence It may truly be said that the earth exists out of nothing, also the sun, moon and stars, and each of the other heavenly bodies which do exist in the universe ; each of these bodies, however large, is a definite object or thing, and each of them may be said to exist out of nothing ; and, if al' were reduced to an aeriform state of the same density throughout, they would cease to be definite objects or things, R -J H -! 80 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. V ' il and would vanish into nothing. Hence, too, may have arisen the notion entertained by the ancients, of the earth and the heavens having been created or caused to exist out of notliing in six days — a notion which has descended to our time, which has been stoutly and confidently declared from the pulpits, but which, of late, since the researches of geologists have shed a glimmer of light upon the Hebrew writings, has begun to be under- stood differently by many, understood in such a way that the six days are made to represent six long periods of time. And what do we guess the next step Avill be which theologians will take in respect to this subject ? Why they will fully understand, and be happy to confess, that the earth in its essence and present general form has never not existed. And, if the earth, so the heavenly bodies in their present general form and aspect in relation to the earth; even thus they generally believe now. There arc some men who require considerable time to come to a full knowledge of any particular truth, but the truth once arrived at mankind is not benefited by having it concealed from them. The doctrine of the creation of the earth out of nothing, as it has been taught and beheved,has becu the cause of a great deal of superstition, and indcid a particular inconvenience, and impediment to progress in the right direction. Not the old creation of Genesis, but the new creation of John, should be held forth as of any impor- tance for men to believe in ; not a creed of miracles which were never per- formed, or of tradition, which to every candid reader are self-contradictory, should be held forth as of importance for men to accept by the teachers of mankind. They should teach men to be good and to do good individually ; to live lives of self-denial, of holiness and righteousness, of charity and of honest industry ; they should teach men to depend for happiness and peace upon their own godly living, and not to depend for immunity for their own misspent lives, their lives of impurity, of vice and of wickedness, upon the virtues of any other which will not avail them. They should practise this doctrine of the regeneration themselves, and let their lives of humility, of industry and of godliness be conspicuous examples for those they teach to imitate. They should not teach men to expect themillenium, except men themselves, by their godly living, bring it in ; and they should do all in their power in the state, in their own narrower sphere, and in the improvement of individual life, to introduce and perpetuate that glorious era. That the earth has always existed as to matter and motion much as it now exists, there is, as we have stated, no valid evidence to the contrary. There are abundant illustrations that tend to prove that it did so exist, and, if our readers have patience, Ave shall present to their view some of these illustrations in this place and, further on, some more. One of the simplest and most striking of these is its uniform daily and annual orbitual motion, a motion which it has performed with such regularity and precision during the last three thousand years, or within the records of Astronomy, as not EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 81 to deviate in time or space a single second or iucii. Although Astronomy was cultivated by the ancient Eastern nations, especially the Babylonians and Egyptians, for thousands of years before the Christian era, yet Thales, a Miles an, whose date is 610 B.C. was the first we know of to have record- ed an eclipse ; and astronomers of the present day, tracing backward the eclipses to his time, have determined his record to be correct. And, if the earth has been so regular and precise in the performance of its motions for such a long period of time, it is fair to conclude that it performed them with the same regularity and precision during the three thousand years preced- ing these, and then during the three thousand years preceding them, and so, backwards, until there can be no time found for the begiuuing of its exist- ence and motion, for it has moved as long as it has existed. And, not only the earth, but the moon and planets, and all the heavenly bodies with which the telescope has made us acquainted, have performed their motions with a like undeviating regularity and precision, during the period of wh'ch we have astronomical records. Therefore, tracing backwards in the same manner, we may fairly infer that they have always performed their motions with the same regularity and exactness as they now do. The compound ring of the planet Saturn is a body of such immense dimensions that it is computed to contain an area of more than one hundred times that of our globe, and to revolve around that planet at an exceedingly rapid rate of motion, namely, 900 miles a minute. It is found to be not exactly concentric with the body of Saturn, and, therefore, must subsist about that planet in a state of unstable equilibrium. '• The observed oscillation, " says Sir J. Ilerschell, an eminent astronomer, lately deceased, " of the centres of the rings about that of the planet is, in itself, the evidence of a perpetual contest between conservative and destructive powers, both extremely feeble, but so anta/ronistic to one another as to prevent the latter from ever acquiring an uncontrollable ascendancy and rushing to a catastrophe. The smallest difference of velocity bet veen the body of the planet and the rings must infallibly precipitate the latter on the former, never more to separate ; consequently their motion in their common orbit round the sun must have been adjusted to each other by an external power with the minutest precision, or the rings must have been formed about the planet, while subject to their common orbitual motion, and under the full free influence of all the acting powers." Such is the complexity of the system of Saturn : the immense globe of the planet, itself a thousand times larger than the earth, in rapid motion, and surrounded with a compound ring of 8uch immense dimensions, as we have mentioned above, and with eight moons, all in rapid motion around the body of the planet, and with the planet in space around the sun, as well as the doctrine of gravitation, — as all forbid the idea of these bodies having been formed at all or their motions adjusted to each other when in rapid motion in space, and subject to all the acting forces. li '4^ ^ fill 82 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. But the main question which will suggest itself in the case before ur doubtless is : If the earth as to its substance and motion has not always existed as it docs now, how has it come to exist thus ? One of the first ideas that strike the mind when investigating this subject is that of the gradual condensation of matter from all sides towards a common centre. This probably led some to suppose that the earth and all the celestial bodies are the results of a gradual condensation or closing in of the matter of which they are composed towards their several common centres. But such a thought, or theory, is inconsistent with the regularity and precision of the motions of these spheres, as well as with the character and constitution of the earth as to solid, liquid and gaseous. All things on the earth's sur- face, and for a certain distance in a perpendicular direction fiom its surface, tend or are attracted toward its centre. If an earthly body, solid or liquid, is rarified sufficiently by heat, it ascends from its surface, but, becoming condensed again in the atmosphere it returns to the earth's surface again. You can reduce water to the form of a gas as steam, but it becomes vapor in tlic atmosjihere, accumulates into clouds and descends to the earth again in the form of water or rain. Also, if any earthly sub- stance, or mineral or metal be reduced to a gas, every particle of it will soon find its way to the earth again in some form or in different forms, for the atmosphere is so constituted as to be sufficient in itself to answer the purpose which it is adapted to fulfil. Water is also so constituted as to be a stable element, sufficient in itself to fulfil the purpose for which it is adapted ; there is always exactly the same quantity of it in the earth, and belonging to the earth, in the atmosphere, in the form of vapor. The solid parts of the earth also are so constituted as to be a stable element, sufficient in itself to fulfil the purpose for which it is adapted ; for, as we have stated, if an earthy substance or mineral be reduced to an aeriform state, every particle of it will find its way to the earth again : the atmosphere does not want it, having enough of its own, and whilst it remains there it is a foreign in the midst of a native element. Also, if any part of the dry land by earthquakes, the action of the waves on ''oasts, or any ocuurrenco in nature, be submerged, an equal extent will be freed from the dominion of the waters in some other place ; and men bringing their land plants and animals with them, they will all be propa- gated upon this new land to supply the place of those vegetables and animals which were lost by submergence. Thei*e is no sufficient reason to believe that more than small portions of land are lost at any time by the water, or that more than small portions are set free when compared with the whole extent of the dry land. The solids of the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere always retain their natural or nominal bulk, if not expanded by the admission to them of an excess of heat, or contracted by the abstraction of some of the EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 88 heat that naturally belongs to them. A certain quantity of heat, as wo have before said, belongs to all bodies, and so long as they possess just that amount and no more, or no less, they are said tc be in their natural or normal state. And the doctrines of natural science prove as clearly as anything can bo proved, the stability of fluids if allowed to remain in their natural state. It ia proved by hydrostatics and pneumatics that fluids press equally in all directions. For example : fill a square measure full of water, and put on the lid air-tight, the pres3i:re upwards against the lid of the vessel will be the same as that dc^nwurds against its bottom, and the pressure against either of its sides will be equal to the upward or downward pressure ; there is, in short, an 0(iual pressure upon each of the six sides of the vessel outwards. Let the same wiuare vessel be filled with atmospheric air, and exactly the same results will follow, the upward, downward, and lateral pi'csaure upon the inside of the vessel will be equal. This is seen more clearly in the case of a globe-shaped vessel filled with water or air ; the pressure outwards upon every point of the inside of the sphere will be equal ; and the fluid is said to be in stable equilibrium. Let it be remembered that the fluid in both of those cases needs to be in its natural state ; for if either water or atmospheric air be possessed of more than its natural amount of heat its tendency is to ascend, and, therefore, the pressure upwards against the lid of the vessel would be greater than that downward or in any other direction. Heated water is seen to ascend in the shape of steam, and the air heated in the fire place makes its way up the chimney, carrying with it the unconsumed particles "*f charcoal, in which condition it is called smoke. The fact of air and water or any other body, expanded by heat, ascending perpendicularly rather than going in any other direction from the earth's surface, needs explanation. Thus it will be remembered that the earth is round like a ball, and is continually revolving round an imaginary line, passing from its north to its south poles or points, and called the earth's axis. It revolves round its circumference in the space of about twenty-four hours, producing in that length of time the succession of day and night. When it is noonday with us in the northern hemis- phere, it is midnight with those residing in the souLliern hemisphere, and during the interval of twelve hours, between twelve o'clock night and twelve o'clock noon, the earth has travelled round half her circumfer'^nce, or over 12,000 miles ; and during the interval of twelve hours more, between twelve o'clock noon and twelve o'clock night, the earth has travelled over 12,000 miles more, or the other half of her circumference ; for the whole circumference of the earth is nearly 25,000 miles. It will be readily understood, therefore, that the inhabitants of the southern hemisphere have the soles of their feet directly opposite to those of ours, and their heads pointing in contrary directions to our heads. Hence in the day-time, when we consic' r ourselves looking up into th& ). -13 I 84 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. in i! heavens and contemplating the sun, thoy must necessarily be looking downwards, or in tlie contrary direction, when viewing the stars ; and in tho night-time, when we consider ourselves looking up into tho heavens and contemplating the moon, the stars and the milky way, it being their day- time, they must be looking downwards, or in the contrary direction, when viewing the sun. And, conversely, during their day-time, which is our night, when they imngine themselves looking up toward the sun and tho shining heavens, we must necessarily be looking downwards, or in tho contrary direction, while gazing on tho moon, the stars and tho milky way ; and during their night-time, which is our day, when they imagine themselves looking up toward the heavens at the stars, tho moon and tho milky way, wo must necessarily be looking downwards, or in the contrary direction, while contemplating the sun in his brightness passing tho meridian. Hence, as in natural science it is proved that equal and opposite forces acting on the same plane produce a negative result, so It is here as evidently proved that there is neither up nor down as regards the universe, or, speaking otherwit'c, as regards infinite, spiritual or material existence. This subject may be more clearly illustrated by the use of an artificial globe, such as are used in schools. Thus, the earth being round like a ball, when a body is expanded by heat into a gas at any point of its surface it will take a direct; n perpendicular to the place where it begins to be expanded in separating itself from the earth's surface. Hence, if the whole earth underwent a gradual expansion at the same time, the expanding matter going in directions perpendicular to every point of tho earth's surface, we may conceive that the earth, provided it became reduced into fluid all of the same density, would be expanded into an immense gaseous globe, perhaps fifty or one hundred thousand times its present dimensions, though still retaining its globular form. This we have shown before to be theoretically probable,* though it is not practically so, for as long as the material elements, solid, li<[uid, and gaseous, of ■which our earth and atmosphere are composed have neither more nor less heat than Avhat naturally belongs to them, they will remain in their natural state. Also, the uniform globular figure of the earth and of all other heavenly bodies is proof of their eternity. To this spherical form of tho heavenly bodies there is no exception but one, namely, Saturn's compound ring, among the tens of thousands of those bodies -which the telescope has enabled us to explore. And if all these bodies were formed by the gradual settling in of their matter toward their centres, how does it happen that none of them except Saturn's ring is of any other than a globular form ? why are not some of them in the form of squares, or pentagons, or hexagons, or in some other polyhedral form? or why did Saturn's compound ring * See pngo 21. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 85 assninc tlic form it has ? The evidences that the earth i-i n globe are com- plete and iiToaistiblo ; and every one who Iia^ the use of hi.s eyes knows by observation that the sun and moon are round. The telescope enables us to contemplate the planets of the solar system from a nearer standpoint than that at which we survey the moon without its aid. All these planets aro of globular shape, each performing its motions in space as the earth ia. Telescopes of high magnifying power, such as that of llerschell and Earl Rosse, also virtually transport ns to the regions of the fixed stars, regions so immensely distant that any conceivable agent, travellii>g at the rate of twelve millions of miles a minute, would take scores, yea hundreds, and from some of them thousands of years, to reach our earth. Although tho distances of those stars aro so immensely great that none of them have yet been closely contemplated, still there is evidence, judging from tho coiies of light which they send forth, to show them to be of glul)ular figure. The great nebular system, so many of which have been brought into view by the telescope, are found when closely scrutinized by telescopes of great si)ace-penetratiiig power to consist of systems of stars, each star of ^vhich it is reasonably conjectured is the centre sun of a planetary system, and each star and planet of which is most probably of the globular form. Over 3000 of these systems of nebulaj have been discovered in tho northern and southern hemispheres. Tho nebuhc whicli were known to astronomers before the great telescopes were invented had given rise to various theories, and, among them, this, to which the assent of many minds was given, that tho formation of the celestial spheres took place from tho gradual condensation of celestial vapor, such as these nebuloe appeared to them then to be. Sir Wm. Ilerschell's great telescope first dispelled this idea by showing that many of the nebulie, so regarded as vapor, were really clusters of stars ; but at the same time by its space-penetrating power it revealed new nebuUe before unknown and beyond its resolving power. Tho construction of Earl Rosse's great telescope next contributed a new and vastly increased resolving power, and again showed that nebula} unresolved before consisted of star-clusters only still more remote, but at the same time it added to our knowledge the existence of other nebula; before unknown, and, in turn, beyond its power of resolution. " Thus," says Humboldt, " by increasing optical power, resolution of old and discovery of new would follow each other in endless succession ; so that it may be fairly asked whether wo can with probability assume both such a state of the universe and such a degree of improvement in optical instruments that in the whole firmament there shall not remain one unresolved nebula." When the phenomena which gave rise to the theory of gradual condensation had vanished one would think that the false impression to which the theory gave rise should vanish also. It is not, however, necessary for any one to conclude that all the bodies existing in m Ti i'H 86 BXI8TENCE AND DEITV. space, ns our earth ia, arc of globular form, for, althou^jh all those wo can see witli our eyes ami all the telescope has brought within our view are of that form, yet, the universe heing infinite, there may still remain bodies existing in it of j^roat diversity of form. Also, the laws of gravitation, by whicli all things on or near the earth's surface are drawn towards its centre with a force proi^rtional to their weight, are further proof of the earth's eternal existence. Although the laws of gravitation act universally, yet that which wo have to speak of con- cerning them here relates to the earth and its neighbor globes of the solar system. We have before endeavoured to illustrate that the earth is roujid like a ball ; and as we know by observation and experience that all things on the side of the earth on which we are tend towards its ceiitro, even so all things on the side of the earth opposite to us are attracted toward tho the same centre, but in a contrary direction. Every point on the earth's surface has a point situated directly opposite to it in another hemisphere of the earth : thus, wo and all araun.l us are attractoil toward the earth's centre, while those in Australia, directly opposite to us, are attracted toward the same centre in a contrary direction. Those also in Central Asia are attracted toward the earth's centre in a direction contrary to that in which the people of Brazil are attracted toward the same coiitro ; and those living in Northern Afrioaand Europe are attracted in a direction contrary to that in which the New Zealanders arc attracted. Thus wo see all bodies, wherever they are sitiiated on the earth's surface, aro attracted towards its centre. The force of this attraction is found to be tho sr no at all points on tiie earth's surface, with the exception of an oxcecaiiigly slight variation at the North and South Poles. This being so there aro equal and opposite forces in operation at all points on tho earth's surface, which produces a negation ; for equal and opposite forces acting on the same piano, produce a negative result. Now, as every point on the earth's surface has a corresponding point directly opposite to it on the other side of the earth, and as there are two forces connecting theso two points respectively with the earth's centre which are equal and acting directly opposite to each other, these forces may be conceived to meet on opposite sides of a plane, situated at right angles to their direc- tion, and to produce a negative result, that is, no result. These two forces represent any two oiiual and opposite forces, or any number of ecjual and opposite forces acting toward the earth's centre. It may, therefore, truly be said that there are no forces of attraction connecting tho surface of tho earth with its centre except that by which lighter bodies have to yield to heavier ones. This, however, is a definite force, well-known, and acting uniformly and universally. The earth's elements, and consequently itself, are so constituted as to be in equilibrium ; and the reason why bodies in its atmosphere tend toward its surface, and those on its surface toward ita i! EXISTENCE AND DRITY. 87 Ml "giy hich is intended to be breathed. Each of the three constituent elements of our system has its own purjiose to fulfil, and yet they are all three mutually helpful to each other. The atmosphere and water may be called the servants of the solid earth. The earth needs air and water as well as the solar light in order to the production and support of vegetables and animals. The earth also supplies oxygen to the atmosphere, and absorbs the impu- rities with which that clement becomes impregnated. This operation is performed by the leaves or lungs of vegetables, which absorb the carbonic acid, (*) from the air, retain its carbon to increase the solid tis«uc of their plants, and expire or reject its oxygen, which is the vital principC of the air we breathe. The atmosphere, as a sponge, sucks up the water from the surface of the ocean of lakes and rivers and lets it down upon the thirsty earth again in the form ( 'rain. This process of imbibing water by the atmos- phere is called evaporatiou. These three elements are, as avc have before remarked, modifications of the same general substance, each so constituted that nothing can be added to or taken from it ; but they are all three mutually dependent on each other, as the parts of the human or other animal body are dependent on each other. When water is evaporated from the surface of th j ocean, of lakes, and of rivers, it is not lost, — not a particle of it goes beyond the sphere of the earth's attraction ; but, having descended to the earth again as rain, snow, etc., it in due time finds its way into the rivers again, and thence to the ocean. When a tree decays part of it becomes water, part carbonic acid, and part humus or clay. When any vegetable or animal body goes to decay its component parts return eventually to their original elements, earth, water, and air. These three elements in the constitution of the terrestrial system form an indi- vidual or unit, just as the parts and members of the human body form an individual or unit. Matter is defined in general terms to be everything which is an object of our senses, and includes the ideas of extension, solidity, inactivity, and mobility. The theory with respect to the constitution of matter hitherto i'l in 1 ., (•) Carbonic acid is composed of Cnrbon and Oxygen. D 42 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. is : that all matter is made up of infinitely small particles, called atoms, that is, parts so minute as to be incapable of further division ; and that these atoms or ultimate particles are unchangeable and indestructible, unless the power which gave them existence so effects it. The most minute particles, which even the microscope can only just discern, may contain millions of these atoms, so that they must be infinitely beyond the reach of the reco'mition of our senses. A molecule (a little mass), which may be called the secondary atom, is the smallest particle capable of existing "bv itself. This, though it may contain millions of atoms, and bo undiscorn- ible by the naked eye, is considered the ultimate particle of a compound body. For a long lime the theory supposed those molecules to be round solid particles, buc the expansion and contraction of bodies under the influence of li'^'ht, heat and electricity had never been satisfactorily accounted for on this hypothesis, nor how solid bodies become liquid, and solid and liquid bodies become gasiform. The theory, therefore, has for some time supposed that the molecules of raatcer are not solid, but are filled with electricity, as the soap bubble is with air, and are, like it, capable of creat elastic expansion and contraction, and that they are only round like the soap bubble when taken singly, but are polyhedral or manysided over all their surfoccs of contact, when like the soap bubbles in connection with each otlior, or in clusters. This theory shows how electricity, which undoubtedly pervades all bodies, may bo contained within the molecules ; and also how electricity, which is undoubtedly capable of expanding all bodies, can expand them ; and, further, how molecules, which, from extreme .contraction are hard, and solid, and opaque, may, by extreme expansion and rarefaction, become fluid, gaseous, diajihanous, and transparent. It also satisfies the chemical requirement of definite atoms for proportional admixtures of diftbrent elements and their concurrent expansion and con- traction within definite limits in the compounds they form. But let us see from the following illustrations what these molecules are -which are conceived to be filled Avith electricity, by this also seeing the extent to which matter is capable of being subdivided. One hundred cubic inches of a solution of common salt will be ren- dered milky, by adding to it a cube of silver, each side of which measures the TTrJn of an inch, dissolved in nitric acid. The atoms of silver have found their way into every particle of water, and there with the salt formed the white chloride of silver, which rendered the solution milky ; that is, the small cube of silver has divided itseir into at least one hundred millions of parts, a number which the seconds pendulum of a clock would beat in 31,688 years ; and even yet we are not sure that we have approached the measure of an atom of silver; we have only reached the limits of our power of subdivision. A single grain of gold x;an be spread into a leaf containing 50 f quare inches, and this leaf aay be EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 43 readily divided into 500,000 parts, each of wliicli is visible to the naked eye ; and, by the help of a microscope which magnifies the area of a surface 100 times, the 100th pare of each of these becomes visible ; that is the 50 millionth part of a grain of gold will be visible, or a single grain of that metal may be divided into fifty millions of visible parts. But the gold which covers the silver wire used in making gold lace is spread over a much larger surface, yet it preserves, if examined by a microscope, a uni- form appearance. It has been calculated that a single grain of gold under these circumstances would cover a surface < " nearly thirty square yards. If a bar of silver be gilded and then drawn out into a wire, the thread may be so fine that the gold covering one foot weighs less than the k./uu of a grain ; an inch of this wire will contain the Tj.Unth of a grain ; this may jc divided into 100 parts, each visible to the eye, and being covered by the -r^isUwB or the one 7 million 2 hundred thousandth part of a grain of gold. Under a microscope magnifying 500 times each of these pieces may be subdivided by the eye into 500 parts, the gold retaining its original appear- ance, and showing no signs of dividing into its separate atoms ; and yet the particle visible to the eye, that which covers the upper part of tha wire , is TrironoTj^u or the one seven thousand two hundred millionth of a grain. If a pound of silver wire.which contains 5,700 grains, and a single grain of gold be melted together, the gold will be equally diffused through the whole silver, insomuch that if one grain of the mass be dissolved in acjua- fortis, the gold will full to the bottom. By this experiment it is evident that a grain of gold may be divided into 5,701 visible parts, for only the 5,7 Gist part of the gold is contained in a single grain of the mass. The difFusibility of parts of natural bodies is still more surprising. Odoriferous bodies, such as camphor, musk, and asafoctida are perceived to have a wonderful subtilty of parts ; for though they are perpetually filling a considerable space with odoriferous particles, yet these bodies are found not to lose any sensible part of their weight in a great length of time. Again, it is said by those who have examined the subject with the best glasses, and ..hose accuracy of observation is not questioned, that there are mere animals in the milt of a single codfish, than there are men on the whole earth, and that a single grain of sand is larger than four milhons of those animals. Now if it be admitted that these little animals are possessed of organised parts, such as a heart, stomach, muscles, veins, arteries, etc., and that they are possessed of a complete system of circulating fluids, similar to what is found in larger animals, we evidently approach the idea of the infinite reducibility of matter. It has indeed been calculated that a particle of the blood of one of these aniraalculoe is as much smaller than a globe one tenth of an inch in diameter as that globe is smaller than the whole earth. ■ X I ( ■ 'I ■■ \\ Jr. , I 1^ i^ \ 'j-i 44 EXISTENCE AyB DEITY. Captain Scorc3by,in his acco-ont of the Greenland Seas, states that, in July, 1818, his vessel sailed for several leagues in water of a very uncommon appearance. The surface was variegated with large patches of a yellowish-green color. It was found to be produced by animalculae, and microscopes were applied to examine them. In a single d—.p of the Avatcr examined by a power of 28, '224 (magnified superficies) there were fifty in number on an average in each square of the micrometer glass of uintli of an inch in diamerer ; and as the drop occupied a circle on a plate of glass containing o29 of these squares there must have been in this single drop of water taken at random out of the 3ea, and in a place not the most discolored, about 20,450 animalcul;TC. How inconceivably minute must the vessels, organs, and fluids of these animals be ! A whale requires a sea to sport in ; a hundred and fifty millions of these would have ample scope for their evolutions in a cup of water ! AVe might adduce many more instances of a like kind, but these we doubt not will be sufficient to illustrate into what exceedingly minute j.aits matter is capable of being subdivided ; parts so infinitely minute that they are evidently a rare iluid or g;i3, re(iucible doubtless to as rare a gas as the air wc breathe. And since that all existing things are of a substance reducible to a fluid of the same density throughout, it remains to give a name to that existence. Vie have be,!i;un tliis illustration with the proposition that there is nothing existing ^n th.> universe but spirit, in different states of density and rai'ity. This, according to the literal meaning of the word spirit, and the consideration tliat all existing things are of a substance reducible to a state of air, seems an appropriate term. Otliors, however, may conceive of a more appropriate term to be applied to universal existence, and the more appropriate the term the more worthy of being applied and univer- sally adopted. Nor do we think it proper or just to deprive scientific men of their atomic theory, provided it holds these uH'mate particles to have never not existed, since they regard it as expedient for their purposes. Allinity, in the language of chemistry, is tliat force in virtue of which two or more substances combine to form a compound body. This body exhi- bits properties different from those of the combining elements, and is called a chemical compound. Some substances display a greater affinity for each other than others do. For example, if wc take a piece of chalk, and put it in a glass of water, in due time it will become softened, and if the water be stirred, the chalk will render it milky, but no change has taken place, for if it bo let stand the chalk will sink to the bottom, or, if the water be evaporated, the chalk may be recovered unaltered. But had a little nitric acid been added to the water, bubbles of gas would have arisen to the surface, and the water would have become clear. The chalk was composed of lime and carbonic acid. The nitric acid having been added. EXISTENCE AN'D DEITY. 45 a comVmation of it takes place Avith the clmlk, by whieli carbonic acid gas 13 set free, and escapes in bubbles from the surface of the water. If now the water be evaporated, chalk will no longer be found, but a transparent crystallised substance, called the nitrate of lime, very different from the lime or tlie nitric acid of which it is composed. Here then is an illustration of ciiemical affinity, and of chemical combination. Cliemical action always evolves heat. The action which took place when the nitric acid came into contact with the chalk was analogous to that which takes place when a stick of wood is thrown on the fire, in which case boat and flame result, and the component parts of the wood enter into new combinations. This phenomenon of chemical affinity very plainly depends ujion the prihwiple of electrical attraction. We have before cx}ilainod that electricity, light, and heat, arc the same substance under different modes of action and manifestation ; or rather that electricity might be regarded as the element of which light and heat arc peculiar manifestations. This element per- vades all bodies, which only rotpuro to bo properly acted upon in order that it be made apparent in heat, or light, or both. Before the invention of lucifer matches the blacksn'rith,in order to kindle hi-> fire, battered a nail on his anvil until it became red hot. Also, the savage who has no access to the means employed by civilized people for making a fire, educes that clement by rubbing together two sticks of wood. Even water is pervaded by the active principle of combustion, and if thrown on a blazing fire in insufficient quantity tends not to quench but to strengthen the flame. All bodies in their natural condition are supposed to contain a certain amount of this electric fluid, and if they possess no more and no less than this natural amount they tend to remain in the same electric state. But if a body contains more than its natural amo\uit it is said to be positively electrified, if less it is said to be negatively electrified. When a positively electrified body is brought near or in contact with a negatively electrified one, attraction ti'kcs place between them, aid the former discharges its surplus fluid :nto the la*-ter to make up foi its deficiency. Thus thunder is caused by a positively electrified cloud coming near a negatively elec- trified one, which it attracts, and disc'iarging into it its sur[lu3 electricity; and the lightning is merely a manifestation of the electric fluid itself. But what causes the noise, it will be asketl, which scares the children ? The noise is caused by the electric discharge rushing through the air, and in its course dlsj)lacing its own volume of the latter, thus causing a vacuum which the air from all sides rushes in to fill up. Tills combination of causes produces the thunder, but principally the air in rushing in to fill up the vacuum. When two bodies having more than their natural share of electricity come near or in contact with each other they tend to repel each other. This principle of electrical attraction and repulsion satisfac- torily explains why some substances have a strong inclination to combine i 1 1- i 46 EXISTENCE AND DEITY with each other chemically, while others exhibit little or no desire? to do so. Now, in the example before us, the nitric acid and the chalk attract each other, one of the two containing a loss amount of electricity than the other ; and thus combining with each other heat is evolved, and consequently gas is set free, and a chemical compound results. But tho whole process of chemical combination is explainable on the principles of equilibrial diffusion of electricity, and tho change and recombination of matter. We have already endeavoured to illustrate how that not only life but intelligence* is inherent in all matter. Now that wo have resolved all matter into spirit it will not be difficult to understand that proposition. The mind readily conceives of the principle of life as existing in all spirit, thou"h it may not conceive of it so readily as existing in all matter. This, we think, arises in the main from tho mind being habituated to think in a certain way concerning matter and spirit, and from a certain meaning which has been given to the word spirit in the ancient world, and especially in the Christian world, a meaning not original or literal, but collateral ; not essential, but only attributive. For instance the word spirit is commonly used to express the disposition, inclinations, state of heart or temper of a human being although it is not often thought that the air the individual breathes is the literal spirit, or that the human being himself is a real, though not in his present state a literal, spirit. Also, the Deity is especi- ally sj)okcn of as a spirit invisible and everywhere existing, which is very true, for an infinite being cannot be conceived by the mind, much less seen ; and if a being be infinite he must be everywhere present; confessed as a being he cannot be nowhere. But as we know that we exist and as we sec the works of the Creator in nature all round us we know that He exists and exists everywhere. But the Deity, as everywhere existing, speaking both from a physical and moral point of view, must include bad as well as good, false as well as true God. What we have said hitherto with respect to tho Creator we mean also of the Deity, for tho Creator and the Deity we understand as synonymous terras for the same Being. The Deity, then, though unseen, must comprehend in Himself all that is seen to exist, and to be perpetuated in existence, in the two opposite aspects of evil and good in which it is seen by us, for the physical as well as the moral world pre- sents existence in these two contrary aspects. In the physical world we have the frigidly cold climates of the north and south polar regions, — the regions of eternal snow and ice, in which animal life cannot exist, and where if human beings try to live for a short season they must sutfer the effects of intense, biting cold, and be every moment in danger of being frozen to death. We have also the parching torrid zone for twenty degrees immediately North and South of the equator, where men and animals suffer almost as much from the eficcts of the burn- * iSeo pages 14, 1"), etc. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 47 ing heat of a vertical sun, as in the polar regions from the effects of tho intolerable cold. In contrast with these vo have tho mild climates of . j temperate zones, where men enjoy the most delightful and refreshing breezes ; tho most beautiful scenery, and magnificent and sublime pros- pects of creation, the most lavish abundance of the good and useful pro- ductions of tho earth, both animal and vegetable ; where nature with benignant smile and outstretched hand seems to anticipate the various wants of man, and oft'or him in luxuriant abundance even more than his heart desires. Certain parts of the earth arc subject periodically to violent storms and tempests, hurricanes and tornadoes, which often render men lifeless or homeless, and cause a great deal of terror, inconvenience; and damage to the inhabitants of the districts where they prevail. Tho hurricane rnd tornado are destructive winds that prevail upon the Ameri- can Continent, and in the West India Islands, causing terror and often death both to men and the inferior animals. Then there are the poisonous winds, the terrible harmattan, and sirocco, and samiel, and simoom, which prevail upon the Continent of Africa, and in the south-western countries of Asia, causing tho inhabitants of these countries to quake and hide their heads, as well as often causing much destruction to life and property. In contrast with these wo have the mild and gentle breezes of our temperate climates, which arc favorable to vegetation and to animal health ; and, also, the trade-winds and monsoons which enable our seafaring men to navigate every sea and ocean, and to^waft the products of the earth and of the arts from land to land. In the animal kingdom wo can contemplate tho character and disposition displayed by the wild carnivorous animals of tho land, the lion, the tiger, the hyena, the wolf, tho bear, the jackal, the wild-cat, eic; and the monstrous carnivora of the ocean, as the shark, the whale, tho porpoise, and others innumerable about which wo know nothing. And among tho reptile tribes we can contemplate the boa constrictor, the rattle-snake, the adder, tho alligator, the crocodile, the anaconda, etc.; and also among ravenous birds, the eagle, the ostrich, the vulture, tho hawk, the raven, etc. And on the other hand we can contemplate the character and disposition of the gentle and useful domesticated animals, the sheep, the cow, the horse, the goat, the deer, the camel, the dromedary, the tamed elephant, the ass, the dog, the cat, the pig ; also, among birds, the pigeon, the hen, the goose, the duck, the guinea-hen, etc. In the vegetable kingdom we are presented with two varieties, noxious and innoxious plants. Poisonous plants are numerous indeed, they are to be found in most of the species, but some species contain many more than others. The order lianunculaceoe, for example, of flowering plants, are almost all poisonous, and in some cases the poison is so virulent, that death Jl '! l\ %[% 48 EXIHITKNCE AND HIIITV Mi.:' apcodilv iv8ult3 from swallowing' n very niiiiut.' |M.itioii oC lli(< iViiit. ISIoro than one poisonous piinciplo iibouutlH in this trilio ; hut of Ihi'si^ the alkiiii termini hy ohemi.sts m one oeea.sion made use of hy the natives to rid themselves of tlifir sulijii;^alors, the Eii<'lish. A few leaves of this plant having:; lieeii thmwu into a widl so imisoned the water, that men or heasts drinking it were almost infallihiy killed. Also, the Poppy trilie, espeeially euitivattvl in India, is that whieh sui)i)lie8 the opium which is doin.L^ so nnieh to poison the Chinese and tho Hindoos. Plants l)elon;:;in,L' to the order llanuncnlaee;v' are supplied with a watery, acrid, poisonous juice ; hut in plants of the Poppy trihe the juieo is milky, from which milky juiee the luxury, opium, is expressed. Also, the "reat natural onler UmhcUifcni, or u iihrella-hearin;^ plants, are of a dan;^crously douhtful character. Their chemical characteristics may ho said to depend on tlie pitxiuc ciil or ef in i dm us, volatile oil, or of a poisonous matter. Everyhody knows how a,i:reeal)ly odorous is caraway Seed, and most peoi)lo arc aware of the poisonous nature of the hemlock, and of the noxious character of the fools' parsley. The advanta,i;;o when one is in an unknown country of hein;:; a practical h(>tanist,so as to he al»le to refer a plant to a harmless or noxious kind, is considiM'ahle. \i is related that when, during Anson's voya-^e, his crews diseniharked in unknown jilaccs, the surgeon, fearful of poison, would not allow them to partake of any vegetahles, except grasses, notwithstanding the scurvy was making great ravages among them. The greater number, if not all the mem))ers of the order (Jncurhitaciv^ or cucumber-tribe, contain a bitter poisonous principle, presenting many degrees of intensity. In the colocynth it attains its niaximiun. In tho orduiary cucumber the poisonous bitter principle is usually but little deve- loped, never to tho extent of being dangerous, although frerjucntly enough to be disagreeable. In the melon sugar is the principal secretion, never- theless, the bitter principle so prevalent in the family is present in a small degree ; it exists hi the outside rind of the fruit, and to a still greater degree in the roots, which are violently emetic. J^ryonia, another species, is still more violent in its poisonous action than the colocynth. Also, nearly all, if not all the members of the order iSolanaomt, or Night-shade tribe, contain a poison of a narcotic kiiul. To this order belong the common night-shade, henbane, tobacco, stramonium, and the mandrake plant. It is a Idghly dangerous family of plants, although one that ministers to our sustenance in the potatoe. Even this is not entirely free from poison ; tho fruits are notoriously poisonous, and even the juice of raw potatoes is MMSTKM'I'; AND KKITV. ■lU fC'f, any tlio lii"lilv injurious. Tlic uutiitivc |)nt|u>rti<'M y tlio coolviu^ iinxjoHrt to wliicli tlio potatoes nro HulijoctiMl liulori) oaton. Tlio »'^>;-plaiil and tomato l)oloiit^«; to this family ; tlw lonncr is oci-a.-iionaliy eaten, tli(> latter IVo- (nicntly and alinoHt univernally by tlio Spaniards, and now liy tlie Au.ori- cans. We may Ikm'o reniark that the ve;j;etaidf! HuliHtance, starch, is Iar|;(dv dilVuHcd tlirou;:liout many poiHono\is plants, yet whi'ii separated from them it is invariahly lianidess. (j[ this \v(! have a remarkahh- example in tapioca, which is nothing; due than tho hakeil staiidi extracted from the trvmk of a tree, the jalrojilia manihot. The Juice of this tree is so poisonous that they poison arrows with it ; ncvcrthelesK tapioca isadoli- cato article of I'ood. The cinnmon deadly Ni;;' .shade, atropa lieliadonna, ;j;rows in shady places, and is an ele;:ant lhiiii;;li daii^^erons-lookin;^ plant. \Ve may hero remark that, "s a /general rule, most plants havin;!; dark- ^reon foliage and dark-coloured llowors are poisonous. 1'lie helladonna bears a cherry like fruit, which is sometimes incautiously oaten by children, nnd too often with a fatal result. In I7'd:» some orphans brou;;ht up in the lloxpit'i' (fr hi J'irtr at Paris were em]>loyed in wcediii;^; u botanical garden. 'I'hey hap|)cn(Ml to be attracted by the tcmptiii;;-lookin;.^ fruit of a Ixdladonna plant, ol" which they ate a considerable (piantity. Fourteen of these unfortunate children died in consecpience only a few hours after- wards. This lamentable catastrophe justifies the ;;eneric name atropa, I'rom atrojtos, ono of the fates who was supposed to cut tho thread of life. The 31)ecilio name bellailonna si;:;nifies beautiful lady, and is dependent on the circumstance that the Italian ladies used the distilled water of this plant as a cosiiu'tic. They foolishly ima;.;ine that it improves their complexions. 'J"he mandrake is a species very nearly allied to the belladonna. It grows in tho Soutli of Murope, and in dark places. This plant, kiKJWu ami cele- brated fnmi times of f2;reat anticpiity, was employed by the sorcerers of ancient days to produce narcotism, and disordered vision. Us roots are lar;:;c, often two-i)ron;j;ed, whence its fancied resemblance to 1)10 limbs of a man. This plant has from veiy early periods of history been re;i;arded with much superstitious dread, which has probably arisen partly from its poisonous properties, and partly from its largo and irregularly shajied roots, which at times approximate to tho uncouth form of a man. Shake- speare writes : "And shrieks tho mandrakes torn out of the earth, that living mortals hearing them run mad." The notion that prevailed in days gone by regarding the sounds of complaint uttered by the mandrake when being rooted up appears to have been widely entertained by the ignorant. Misfortune of the direst kind was believed to bo the portion of any ono bold or rash enough to engage in disturbing the mandrake in his eartlibcd. An old English proverb says : " lie who gathereth the mandrake shall : Ot «,: ao EXISTENCE AND DKITY. (lio ; blood for blood is his dostinio." It is supposed tliut the nmndmkos mentioned in some parts of tlio Old Testament were nut tho sanio as tho i)lant known to »is l»y this name, hut that under this term reference is had to tho fra"rant but insipid fruit of the Citcumis Diiilaimy a plant which is cultivated in the {gardens of tho Kast for tho odor it exhales. Tho mandrake is also confounded with tho sleep-apple, a mossy excrescenco on tho wild rose, which when laid under tho pillow was supposed not to allow any one to awake mitil it was taken away. This property of stupo- fyinj? doubtless arose from its narcotic properties. Henbane is a Kuropean plant belonging to this genus under considera- tion. It is a biennial plant, and grows amidst tho ruins of buildings, in the nei'diborhood of habitations. Its stem is studded with a cotton-liko substance, and it constantly exhales a repulsive odor. Its corolla is palish yellow, veineil with purple. It owes its peculiar properties to the presence of a peculiar alkali. Its action is far less jtowerful than that of belladonna; nevertheless it may cause death if eaten. A (ierman physician relates that, on a certain occasion, the IJenedictino moidvsof the convent oilihinon ^vere presented with a salad in which the root of chicory, aa was thought, had been jjlaced. Instead, however, being of chicory tho r-^ot was of henbane. After the repast tho monks went to bod. Symptoms of poisoning soon commenced ; the monks were all stupefied. The time for matins or morning prayers arrived, and one monk was so fast asleep that his fellows supposed him to be dying, and under this impression adminis- tered to him extreme-unction. Tho other moidvs went to chapel, but they had much better have stayed away ; some of them could not even open their eyes, much less read. The vision of others was so disordered that they thought insects were crawling on their books, and employed them- selves in blowing and brushing the intruders off. Others instead of praying uttered nonsense. In the end all the monks got well, oven the one supposed to be dead ; but one poor individual, a tailor, could not t.iroad his needle for a long time afterwards, so disordered was the state of his vision. Instead of one needle tho tailor saw three, and as he could not tell the real needle from its ghostlike duplicates, there was slight chance of his threading it. Tiiis anecdote illustrates better than any mere descrip- tion the jihysiological action of henbane. The stramonium is another plant of the Night-shado order. It was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, l>ut is now common in JMiropo, having been brought from Central Asia in the middle ages by the wandering gipsies. Its active principle is called daturini-, which exists in the leaves and in the seeds. This principle is a potent narcotic alkaloid, resembling in its quality and the effects it produces the alkaloids yielded by tho henbane and belladonna. It is a deadly poison, and among the most striking of its properties may be named the effect it produces on tho pujiil KXISTKXCH AND OKITY. 61 enng eaves iblini' of the oyo, namely, that of causiti;^ it to dilate Htron^^ly. Novorthelo.s.s tho Btramoiiimn, or tho thorii-ai>iile as it i.s soinetiiuos called, like many other poisonous plants, lias its lienefieial uses. In Cochin China a dceoctiotj made of its leaves is coi.sidorod an eflfootual remedy for hydrophohia, tho tcrrihlo malady resultii,;^ from tho hito of a mad tlog ; hut this hy somo is considered very doiibtfid. In small ((uantities ddturlne ia very useful as a pain another or anodyne, and as an antispasmodic. Persons suForing from asthma have found relief from smokin;^ tho dried leavos of tho plant, or inhaling an infusion made hy pouring boiling water on the seeds or leaves, (jreat care, however, should be used less the patient take an overdose. Tobacco is another plant belonging to this natural (U'(lor, and tho use or abuse of which ia too well known to re(piiro com.. lent hero. Tho onh'V Uuphoibi'dO'ce, to which the castor oil plant belong'', is mainly ma;'s i)eople, and himself killed Mr. Ilowc, the olHcer who connnanded. To judge of the character of Kahoora from what 1 liad hoard from many of his countrymen he seemed to be more feared than bolovetl among them, Not satisfied with telling me that he was a very bad man, some of them even importuned me to kill him, and I believe they were not a little surprised that I did not listen to them ior according, to their ideas of ccpiity, this ought to have been done. But if 1 had followed the advice of all our pretended friends, I might have extinguished the whole race ; for the peo[)le of each village or hamlet by tiuns applied to me to destroy the others. One would have aiinost thought it nnposriible that so striking a proof of tlio divided state in which these people lived could have been assigned." Similar dispositions arc disidayed by the inhabitants of almost all the other islands of the South Seas, The inllaenoe of Christianity does not as yet prevail very extensively among them. The following descri[)tion is given by M, de la Tcrouse of the inhabitants of Maouna Orjolava, and the other islands in the Navigator's Archipelago: — " Their native ferocity of countenance always expresses either surprise or anger. The least dispu'.e among them is followed by blows of sticks, clubs or paddles, and often, without doubt, costs the combatants their lives." With regard to the women he remarks: — " The gross effrontery of their conduct, the iudecency EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 6T of their motions, and the disgusting offers which they make of their favors rendered them fit mothers and wives for the ferocious beings that sur- rounded us." The natives of New Caledonia arc a race of a similar description. Captain Cook describes them as apparently a good-natured people, but subsequent navigators have found them to be the very reverse of what he described them, — as ferocious in the extreme, addicted to cannibalism, and to every barbanty shocking to human nature. The French navi- gator, the Admiral D'Entrccastcaux, in his intercourse with these people received undoubted proof of their savage disposition, and of tlioir being accustomed to eat human flesh. Speaking of one of the natives who had visited his ship, and had described the various practices connected with cannibalism, he says : " It is difficult to depict the ferocious avidity with which he expressed to us • it the flesh of their unfortunate victims was devoured by them after they had broiled it on the coals. This cannibal also let us know that the flesh of the arms and legs was cut into slices, and that they considered the most muscular parts a very agreeable dish. It was then easy for us to explain why they frequently felt our arms and legs, manifesting a violent longing ; they then uttered a faint whistling which they produced by closing their teeth, and apply- ing to them the tip of the tongue ; afterwards oj)ening their mouth they smacked their lips several times in succession. The characters of the islanders now described may be considered as common t'-' the inhabitants of the Now Hebrides, the Friemlly Islands, the Marquesas, the Sandwich Islands, New Guinea, New Britain, the Ladrones, and almost all the islands that are scattered through the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Captain Cook, in describing the natives of New Zealand, again remai*ks : " The inhabitants of the other islantls of the South Seas have not even the ideas of indecency with respect to any object or to any action." Of the natives of Otaheitc he declares : " They are all arrant thieves, and can pick pockets with the dexterity of the most expert London blackguard." When describing the societies distinguished by the name of Arreoy ho declares as a characteristic of the female part of the community : " If any of the women happens to bo Avith child, which in this manner of life happens less frequently than in ordinary cases, the poor infant is smothered the moment it is born, that it may be no incumbrance to the father, nor interrupt the mother in the pleasures of her diabolical prostitution." Another circumstance mentioned by the same navigator exhibits their former moral character in a still more shocking point of view. On the approach of war with any of the neighlwring islands, or on other impor- tant occasions, human sacrifices were a universal practice. " When I described," says Captain Cook, " the Native at Tongabatoo, I mentioned that on the approaching sequel of that festival we had been told that ten, E 1 1 J ^ *l - pf I es EXISTENCE AND DKITY. men were to be sacriflctl. This may ^ivo us nn idcr of tlio extent of the religious massacres on tliat island. And, thougli wo should suppose that nevermore than one person is sacrificed on any single occasion at Otaheito, it is more than ja-ohahlc that these occasions hajii^cned so freciuently as to make a shocking ^vaste of the human race, for I counted no less tiian forty-nine skulls of foimer victims lying before the Morai, wiiero wc saw one more added to the number. And, as none of these skulls had as yet suffered any considerable change frcan the weather, it may be inferred that i:o great length of time had elajscd since this considerable number of unhappy wretches liad been offered on the altar of blood." lie likewise informs us that human sacrifices were more frecjuent in the Sandwich than in the other islands. '"J'liesc horrid rites," says he, " arc not only had recourse to upon the commencem'uit of war and jireceding groat battles, and other signal enterprises, but the death of any considerable ciiief calls for the sacrifice of one or more tow-tows, that is, vulgar or low persons, according to his rank, and we were told that ten men were destined to suffer on the death of Terreeoboo, one of their great chiefs." "With respect to the North American Indians (who have now almost disap- peared from the Eastern States and Canada) it is the uniform description given of them by all who have travelled or lived among them in theii wild state that, if we except hunting, war is the only emiiloyinent of the men, and every other concern is le'.t to tJie women. 'J'heir most common motive for entering into war is either to revenge themselves for the deatli of some friend, or to ac(iuire i)risoners who may assist them in their hunting, and whom they adojit into their society. In these wars they arc savage and cruel to an incredible degree. They enter unawares the villages of their foes, and, Avliile the flower of tlio nation are engaged in hunting, massacre all the children, women, and helpless old men, or make prisoners of as many as they can manage, liut, when the enemy is appiised of their design, and is coming on in arms against them they throw themselves Hat on the ground among the witliered herbs and leaves which their ftaces arc pain ed to resemble. They then allow a part to jiass unmolested, when all at once, with a tremendous shout, rising up from the ambush, they pour a storm of musket-balls on their foes. If the force on each side continues nearly equal, the fierce spirits of these savages, inflamed by the loss of friends, can no longer be restrained. They abandon their distant war, they rush upon one another with clubs and tomahawks in their hands, magnifying their own courage and insulting their enemiei. A cruel combat ensues ; death appears in a thousand hideous forms, Mii.oh would congeal the blood of civilized people to behold, but wliicli increases the fury of these savages. They trample, they insult over the dead bodies, tearing the scalp from the head, wallowing in their blood like wild beasts, and some- times devouring their flesh. The flame of >Yar rages on until it meets with EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 59 jio resistance, then the priaoncra arc sccurod, who futo is a thouaand times uioro dreadful than tlioira who have died in tho fichl. The conciuerors set up a hideous howling to lament tho friends they have lost. Thoy approach to their own village, the women with frightful ahrioks come out to mourn their dead brothers, or their huabanda. An orator proclaima aloud a circumstantial account of every particular of tho expedition, and, as ho mentions tho names of those who have fallen, the shrieks of the women are redoubled. Tho last ceremony is tho proclamation of victory ; each individual tlien forgets hia private misfortune, and joins in tho triumph of his nation ; all tears are wiped from their eyes ; and, by a transition unaccountable to us, they pass in a moment from the bitterness of sorrow to an extravagance of joy. As they feel nothing but revenge for tho enemies of their nation, their priaoncra are treated with extreme cruelty. Tho puniahmenta inflicted on such priaoncra as are doomed to death are too allocking aiid horrible to bo exhibited in detail ; ono i)hick3 out tho naila of the priaoner by tho roots ; another takes a finger into his mouth and tears oft" the flesh with his teeth ; a, third thrusts the finger mangled as it is into tho bowl of a pipe, made red hot, and smokes it as if it were tobacco; they then pound hia toes and fingers to pieces between two stones; they apply red hot iron to his maniMed body ; they pull olF his flesh, thus mangled and roasted, and devour it greedily ; and thus they conthmo for several ho\u'a, and aomotimos for a whole day, until they penetrate to tho vital parts and completely exhaust tho s[)riiig uf life. Even tho women, forgetting the human as well as the female nature, and transformed into something worse than the reputed Furies, fre(jueiitly outdo tho men in this scene of horror, while the principal persons of the tribe sit round the stake to which tho prisoner is fixed, smoking and looking on without betraying the least emotion. And, what is (piite as remarkable, tho pri- soner himself endeavors to brave his torments with a stoical apathy : " I do not fear death," (ho exclaims in the face of his tormentors,) " nor any kind of tortures ; thoae that fear them are cowards, they are less than women. May my enemies bo confounded with despair and rage ! Oh ! that I could devour them and drink their blood to tho last drop " ! Such is a faint picture of the ferocious dispositions, which, with a few modifica- tions, have characterized tho Indiana of North and South America, and which we have reason to believe yet characterize those who are beyond the reach or influence of tho white races. We oursclf, have some cxpcrienco of the character of the Indians who live in tho neighborhood of the whites; for happening occasionally to be where they were, and observing their noisy conversation and their unruly gestures, we felt considerably alarmed for our own safciy, and did not wish to be among them longer than our duties required. n ■i... ■0 "i y^ti =1,1 90 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. If WO cross tlio Atlantic and land on the shores of Africa wo shall fuul the inhabitants of that continent oxhibitin;^ dispositions no loss cruel .ind ferocious, IJosman relates the followin;; instances of cruelties practised hy the Adomcso Ncf^rocs, inhabiting the banks of the Praa or Chnmali River : " Anqua, the king, having in an engagement taken five of his principal Antese enemies prisoners wounded them all over : after which with a more than brutal fiuy, he satiated, though not tired himself, by suckinf their blood at the gaping wounds ; but bearing a more than ordin- ary (^rudgc against one of them ho caused him to bo laid bound at his feet, and his body to be pierced with hot irons, gathering the blood that issued from him in a vessel, ono half of which he drank, and offered up tho rest to his god. On another occasion ho put to death one of his wives and a slave, drinking their blood also, as was his usual practice with his enemies."* Dispositions and practices quite as abominable arc exhibited in tho King- dom of Dahomey near the gulf of Guinea. An immolation of human vic- tims for the purpose of watering the graves of tho king's ancestors, and of supplying them with servants of various descriptions in the other world, takes place every jvar, at a grand festival which is held generally in April and ^lay. The victims arc generally prisoners of war reserved for tho purpose, but should there bo a lack of these, the number, between sixty and seventy, is made u[» from tho most convenient of his own subjects. Tho immolation is not confined to this particular period ; for at any time, should it be necessary to send an account to his forefathers of any remarkable event, tho king despatches a courier to the shades, by delivering a mes- sage to whomsoever may happen to bo near him, and then ordering his head to be chopped off immediately. It is considered an lionor when Ilia Majesty personally condescends to become the executioner in these cases, an office in wliich the king prides himself in being expert. Tho governor was present on ono occasion, when a poor fellow, whose fear of death out- weighing the sense of the honor '•onferrod upon him, on being desired to carry some message to his father declared on his knees that he was unac- c^ ainted with the way, on which tho tyrant vociferated. " I'll show you the way," and with ono blow made the head fly many yards from his body, higlily indignant that there should have boon the least expression of reluc- tance, t On the thatched roofs of the guard-houses which surround tho palace of this tyrant arc ranged, on wooden stakes, numbers of human skulls ; the top of the wall which encloses an area before it is stuck full of human jaw-bones, and the path leading to the door is paved with skulls. In the Kingdom of Ashanteo similar practices uniformly prevail. " When tho king of this country," says Dupuis, " was about to open the * Dnpms, Journnl in Aslinntce t MiLomrs Voynge to Africa. KXISTKNCE AND DFITY. 01 n Ilia cases, >vcrnov th out- lircti to unac- iTou tlie l.ody, irluc- 11(1 the liuinan full of iulls. rcvail. len the campaign in Gaman, ho collected together his priejits to invoke the Royal Fetischo (idol) and poribnu the neces.sary orgies to ensure success. These ministers of superstition sacrificed thirty-two male, and eighteen female victims, as an expiatory offering to the gods ; but the answers from the priests being deemed by the council as still devoid of inspiration, the king was induced to makes a custom at the sepulchres of his ancestors, where many hundrctls bled. This, it is afTirmed, propitiated the wrath of the advor'^i god." The same king when ho returned from the campaign, having discovered a conspiracy, decreed that seventeen of his wives along with his own sister should be strangled and beheaded. His sister's paramour, and all those of the same party, were doomed to the most cruel deaths, at tlio grave of the king's mother. While these butcheries were transacting the king prepared to enter the palace ; and in the act of crossing the threshhold of the outer gate was met by several of his wives whoso anxiety to embrace their sovereign lord impelled them thus to overstep the boundary of female decorum in Ashantee ; for it hapiiencd that the king was accompanied by a number of his captains, who accord- ingly were compelled to cover their faces with both their hands, and fly from the spot. This is said to have enraged the monarch, though his resent- ment proceeded no further than words, and he returned the embraces of his wives; but another cause of anger soon after occurred, and he was inflamed to the highest pitch of indignation, and in a paroxysm of anger, caused these unhappy beings to be cut into pieces before his face, giving orders at the same time to cast the fragments into the forest to bo devoured by birds and beasts of prey, nor did the atonement res^ hero ; for six more unhapjiy females were impeached of inconstancy, and they also expiated their faults with their lives. Like auotlicr Ulysses, His Majesty then devoted himself to the i)uriri(;ation of his pala.e, when to sum up the whole horror of these bloody deeds, two thousand wretches s )lected from the Gaman prisoners of war, were slaughtered over the royal death-stool in honor of the shades of departed kings and heroes. We are not to imagine that such fiendish and malignant dispositions arc confined to kings and the ruling order of society. Wherever such ferocious passions are displayed among barbarous chieftains, they pervade to a greater or less extent the great mass of the people, and almost every one in proportion to the power with \vhicli he is invested perpetrates similar atrocities. The following instance, selected from Major Gray's " Travels in Africa in 182-4, " will corroborate this position, and also show for how many acts of cruelty and injustice the abettors of the infamous traffic in slaves are accountable. The Kaartan force which the Major accompanied had made 107 prisoners, chiefly women and children, in a predatory excursion into Bondoo, for the purpose of obtaining a supply of slaves. The following is an account of the manner in which they were dragged M 02 EXISTKNCK AND DKITY. nloufT : " The men were ticil in pairs ''y ti>e nocks, their hands securcil bohinil tlieir backs ; the women by the necks only, hut their hands wero not left tree from any sense of feeling for them, but in order to onablo them to bahmce their immense loads of con> or rico, which tliey were ()bli"ed to carry on their heads, and their children on their backs. I had an o|fortnniiy, says Major dray, of witnessing];, during this short march, the new-made slaves, and the suflerings to which they are subjected in their first state of bondage. They wero hurried alon<' tied, at a j'aee little short of running, to enable them to keep up with the horsemen, who drove thetn on as Smithfiold drovcr» do fati<'ucd bullocks. Many of the wonien were old, and by no means able to endure such treatm;?, are extremely treacherous and vindictive. They daily demanded of us some hrandy for the use of tho king and tho chief mon of tho town. One day this re(piest was denied, and we had soon reason to repent it ; for all the Knglish and Krench ollieers having gono to fish on a small lake near tho sea-coast, they erected a tent for tho purpose of dross- in" and eating the fish they had caught, when amiising themselves ai'tor tho repast seven or eight negroes, who wore tho chiefs of Loango, ariivod in Sedans, and presented tlieir hands according to tho custom of tho com.- try. Tho negroes privately ruhbed tho hands of tho officers with a subtle poison, which acts instantaneously, and accordingly five captains and three surgeons died on tlie spot." Tho Moors aro charactorizod by Mungo Park as having cruelty and low cunning de[)icted on their countenances. Their treachery and malevolence are displayed in tlioir plundering excur- sions againt the negro villages. Without the smallest provocation, and sometimes under the fairest professions of friendship,^ thoy will soizo upon tho cattle of the negroes, and sometimes up t(<«>lli Ioohch, tlio liair falla off, and nt loni^tli, having dra;:;,i;rd out a luisorahlo and forturi'd oxis- tcnco for a whole yoar or more, the unlia|tpy bcin^ dies in tho moat excruciating tonncMitH. If wo pans from Africa to the regions of Asia wo hIimII find itHinhahitantrt of a similarly dopravod character, and practising? similar jtrinoiplos in all tho varioiia ranks of its population, lloro tyranny in its most do;j;nulin;; and cruol forms roif^ns supromo and uncontrollod ovor a superstitious a doj;raded, and an idolatrous race of mankind. Tho followin"?, in rolati(»n to a potty tyrant of Persia, may servo as a specimen of Asiatic tyranny : *' Tho <4overnor, Zulfecca Khan, is pronounced to lie a cruel and unprin- cipled tyrant ; unfortunately for tho |ioople he has tho oar of tlio sovereij;n, and they have no resource against his rapacity. Ho pays to tho Crown 7000 tomaims * a year, hut it is asserted that )»o collects from tho district 100,000. His ojipression was so griovouB that tho inhahitants, vcaricd out, went in a body to tho king to comjtlain ; but His Majesty only referred them back to thoir tyrant, who, e.\as|)orated at their boldness, wreaked upon them a cruel vojigeanco. It is said that ho maimed and put to death upward of a thousand of both sexes, cuttiiig off tho hands, putting out tho eyes, and otherwise mutilating tho men ; and cutting off tho noses, ears and breasts of tho women. The jteojile, desponding and broken hearted after this, jtaid in so far as they wore able the rapacious demands of their oppressor, and tho natural conse(juence, ruin and deso- lation, has ensued." f Sir John Chardin gives the following account of the inhabitants of Min- grelia, particularly the women: " Tho jiooplo are generally handsome, tho men strong and well made, and tho women very beautiful, but both sexes are very vicious and debauched. The women, though lively, civil and affectionate, are very perfidious ; for there is no wickedness which they will not perpetrate, in order to procure, to preserve, or to get rid of their gallants. The men likewise possess many bad (jualitics. Al! of them arc trained ti> robbery, which they study both as a business and as an amuso- mont. With great satisfaction they relate tiic dopradations they have committed, and from this polluted source they derive thoir greatest praise and honor. In Mingrelia falsehood, depredation, and theft are gotxl actions ; and whoredom, bigamy, and incest, are csteemcil as virtuous habits. The men marry two or three wives at a time, and keep as many concubines as they choose. They not only make a common practice of selling thoir * A lomaiin oquals about SH.OJ, t Fiazei's Jour.H'v to Khornzan. i;.\l«TF.NCK AND DKITV. Of) cliiMi'»'"i oitlior for ;;ol(l or in (vxclmii^^o for wnn'H n\v\ proviMioiiH, Imt oven iiiui'iUt tla'in or iMiry llicm iilivc, when tlicy fiiMl it diHitHilt to Itriii^ 'I'ho TiirtarM, wlio oo1 * Smellie's Philosoiiliy : Nnturul History, 66 EXISTENCE AND PETTY. bora, on which account, it is saiil, no grain is grown in Malacca, but wliat ia in ganlcMis enclosed with the thickest hedges, or doop ditches ; for when the corn is grown on the open plain tl/e Monucaboca never fail to set fire- to it. ,.,.,,..„. Cliardin describes the Persians as warlike, vani, and pmbitions ot praise, exceedingly voluptuous, prodigal, luxurious and addicted to gallantry. Althou<'h this country is regarded by the Western nations as one of tho most civilized in Asia, it is well known that tho wars and tho fiendish cruelties in which the despots of Persia have been engaged, have changed many of tho provinces of that country into scones of sterility and desola- tion ; and much of tho miseries of famine, which lias recently boon deso- lating that country, is owing to its misgovernment. The Hindoos are eftemiiiate, hixurious, and practised in tho arts of dissimulation. They can caress those whom they hato, and behave with tho utmost affability and kindness to those whom they intend to deprive of existence by the most sanguinary means. Though they seldom scold or wrangle, tl;ey often stab each other insidiously, and without any public quarrel gratify a private revenge. Tho destruction of infants, the immo- lation of widows, tho drowning of aged parents, which prevail among them, and tho cruel and idolatrous rites which distinguisli their reli- gious services, arc too well known to require description. The Turks though grave, sedate, and rather hypochondriac, yet when agitated by passion are furious, raging, and ungovernable, dissimulative, jealous, suspicious and vindictive. They are superstitious o,nd obstinately tenacious in religious mntters, and, until of late, did not ordinarily exercise benevolence or even humanity towards those whose religion differed from theirs. Interest appears their supremo good, and, when that comes in competition, all ties of religion, consanguinity and friendship are, with tho g<>nerality of them, speedily dissolved. They have deprived of their liberty, and to a great extent of their wealth, those who have been subjected to their iron sceptre, and have phuigod them into tho depths of moral and mental debasement. Their devastations and cruelties, and the deeds of injustice and horror which they have committed, are detailed loon tho pages of history, and thej are scarcely surpassed by tho atrocities ot tho most savage hordes of mankind. Such is a partial review of the moral state of the savage and semi-civil- ized races of mankind, and shall we find a review of the nations called civilized to present a favorable contrast to it ? Shall we find that the general mora' goodness of the nations called civilized compares favor- ably with the radical and general moral badness of the nations wo have passed in review ? Each intelligent person can answer this for himself. What one nation can be pointed to as a good moral example for all other nations to follow? It will be much easier to EXISTENCE AND DEITY. GT find an individual man whoso moral example would bo worthy of being imitated by all the inhabitants of his own nation and all mankind than it would be to find a nation whose moral character, as a nation, would be worthy of being imitated by all other nations. In the moral world, as well as in the pliysicaljthere are degrees of approx- imation to perfection. The jihysical universe, of course, always exists perfectly constituted, but within the range of our observation wo find changes continually taking place in nature. There is first the blade, then the car, after that the full corn in the ear. The moral world exists in relation to man, and so changes to suit his changeable nature that wo hoar of moral badness as avoU as moral goodness. And then there are degrees of approximation from a very bad to a very good moral character. Tho word moral, derived from tho Latin word mos, mores, meaning customs, manners, usages, etc., will clearly show the distinction between tho phy- sical and moral world, and that the moral world has special reference to rational beings. People's morals are their manners, customs, usages, etc., in their intercourses which each other ; and the morals of an individual are his or her manners, customs, usages, practices, etc., in relation to one's self and to others. Hence, as the manners and customs of a people react in forming their permanent character, we hear of a good or bad moral character, national as well as individual. As mankind has always existed, so mankind has always had, in some sort, manners, customs, usages, etc., and so the moral world is always coexistent with the physical. But tho moral world exists especially in reference to man ; he may bo said to have created it for his own purposes ; and if by any catastrophe, now unknown to us, the race of man should entirely perish from the earth, one world would perish with him, the moral world, which he has created for his own purposes. Tho original thinker in his first excursions is apt to suppose that that which goes by the name of moral world is not worthy of tho name world. Wlu;t, he says, have not all the loMcr orders of animals their peculiar habits as well as man ; habits, which in tho case of some of them, as tho beaver, the dog, the mole, and the bee, amount to what might be called manners and customs ? Or, is the routine of mankind in their intercourses with each other, in accordance with established rules or laws, called social, political and religious, worthy of the name of world as compared with the jihysical world ? But such an one should bethink him- self that the term world (the Greek representative of which is cosmos, signifying order, or systematic arrangement,) involves the idea of system and order ; and the fundamental idea of true morality is order. Thus, tho law of Moses, contained in the Ten Commandments, is called the Moral Law, because it contains a system of rules which, if perfectly and univer- sally observed, would ensure the preservation and continuance of order among all human beings. ' M *\' 08 KM3TKNr|i: ANP PKII'V TlnH. (l)i' (liflliiii'li.iii i-4 cli'Ufl^y cptMi ltrl\M>(M\ llu' pliv^iful mill tiiitnil MKilil ; mill IIimI. il'liv miy iiu'MIi'' nil tuiiiikiiiil ci'mi-mI In cxiql. Ilic mniitl vovM wo\\\i\ ccnso ti» t'xifiii of iii!il((«i- Icmh liy llu' ilisi;i|)p('iir!iii!'i> ol' ii'.nii IViMU if. wiMiM foiilimu' (•> cxinl. mul In ri'vnlvi' ii|inii iIm iiri-*. iiiiil rouml llu' siin, nml il:iv niul ni;ji;lil \m>\i1i| cnniiiuii' In lnhc pliH'c ii|inM it, ninl llii' st'dpnnq wmilil i-onu' mul fi" in sncoi'SHiou mm |||(>v iId mhw. miiiI IIm> ohnniM'S in nulnro wnnM ciMiliiim' In l:ilu> pl:ii'i> in llicir si'ii^^nuM. in llm mnin, nlwayp nn lliov im", iln. l( will Ito vtMiiiMii'x'ViMl lliiil tliis is a snpimscil I'lisc niilv {'• filtnw iiimu'm \v\\\ inipnilnncc, if «>' nv.xy ««' ''p<^nk. ninl lii^ iimiI pn^^ilinn in oxijlcncn. Mill nil llio nllior liniiil. \v»' I'cliovc liml, !\q inmi Inis iil.viiyn I'xipti'il, un Iw Mill iiiMiM' ociifii" In cvisl. mill p>'' IIh' wnilil lie liM;^ en iiIimI. IIh' inmiil wmM, will iiovor (M'Mflc In o\isl. ,\iiil. nmicnvtM', n^" In- i« n rlimiifcniilt' Itfinir ln> will cniilinm* li' t'li:iiim' liis iiminl s_vs^I«mii. mniliiyinu il. roiiimli'lliii!; il, mid iMonliiiii i( miiMv ; n-i. I'm- o.Minipln, n nnlinn nmv "In wliifli •miy oli;iiip' its mnvnl nv^lcin in pnvl, ov niny clKinnc il in wlmlc, snciiil. pnii tii'nl. mill roli^iniH. nvmy oontnvy nmii' or Inss, nnil nmy lli'i« crciilc n iuM\ lunval Hnilil ;h nl'iiMi H'^ il sni's I'd. Tim inipmlmi m\ llicn, n|' Iln- !ii|np- tinii mill |ii!\»'lifo pcrmnnonlly ol'n gntnl nmrnl svHloni.sm'li nf llinl rmilniin'il ill llm TiMi rniunimi'lmiMiln. is InMo cli'iii'ly viM'nunizcil And imw lol n" l)i'i(>lly i-oviiMV llio sl.iln ol" inmiil cliiirm-li'V nl' llu> linliniiv wnii' llinsii> A\lii('l\;irolliiMialil inl\;ni> ;iU;iiin>d I ho Iiii},lin-il piMfni'linn in ml mid lilnr;ttnn>. Tliov wiMV thns,> wlih'li. nl' all Ihn muMiMil->, nrndoin nalimisi iiin>4l di'li:J\l In imilnto in vo^iH^M In llioiv arN. liltMalmo. and aniH. no itrrcK !ini 1 \tMiian laii^na'^os mnl lit- raluvi' arc lan;i'>< in nnr acMil iMiiH's mil 1 ml o,i:!;os.mid tlio laws ol" l.ioui>:\\a and ISnlnii, nl" Nnma and .Inslinian.tuo stndiod liy o\u iindoro;iadnato'>. Uul wliat inrnnnalinn iln Iho roonrdf^ nl' lii'^inrv rtlVnrd n^ as In Iho iibM-al oliavaolor oi' tlm-io nalinu'i. Wars and inln;j;nos, troav'liiMv ;ind n]^]^1vssinn. and all snrh n|' I'rinin onmprisn nin-i| nlil. In 10 oarliosi povmds .>!' whioli liislmy ivivos us any inrnnnalinn. \\> liml 10S0 nations on^acod in wars Tl 10 war n| liu' luunhors said io ha\o hot'u oi\i:a,i;'o d wo \nn\\ iho loss of lilo iiiihI hav(> 1 oon vow livoat. i-v>v i? said, aoonvdiii'' In iho onniniou holiol'. |n havo fallon in tlio voav llS| hol'oro ( hvist. Wn niontinn this war In slmw what * tvo moot with in tho vorv lH'>:iiinin;:s ofiinH'ian liistnvv. and as oxporionoo laiMTnNi'li) AND |i|i)ITV, (111 h'di'Iw'fl ilii'l lii^'i'iV io|iiMil3 iNc>ir. w(» nuiy lti>lii«vn iIimI lliis wfif wtci Kill; n i'f'l>''(' in iitrliiMlntic iijn'K. AKim- lliiq (nlliMvril )l."' Ili'sl mill Mri'Miiil Mcrtfli'iiiini «iu« I'linii'il nn li(«hvi'«n Hi'inln mxl IMi'MMtMiin Tnr n pi'iinil nf inniiy V'iu'm, ilmiii;; wliidi miiny liiiltli"' ^TtTc rmijrli^ will) iiH'HM!(Mi. Cmv imhI ^iimiI tiiiiiiliciM IumI \\\i'u live?*. Tlii'M rc>ll"\vi>i| IIm< Pci'^iMii uiii'J. imui'umI mii (nn( liy hiiiini lli(> I'l'iHiiin, nifiiiii'-il lilt' Uroi'iim ciilniiirM in ,\.)i,i Minnf, iiiiil iiCli-nvni'ilM liy hiiiiuM 'iihI liifl BiiC)M>M'jni' Xorti'o iii',!''ii''t 'ln'ccc ilsii'ir. 'I'lif ^ll•nl IimIIIc uf MiiiiiIIimm, nns rmiiili* !ii>l\vtM'ii llii' wjir M/^rnml Ok-ccc In |ii^ fji>n icrxi' Till' MMIIV wllirli ||h< ImII.t |(>i| inin « Mf'fcc \M|g II II' nuKt nnini'iiii ifl of wliii'li wi' liJivi' iinv Mci'iinnt in (I 11" (nniMlM III In'^I'M v IM> l!\f«>l'«>|- nl' HlO I'XHnliliiMH 1)1" lIlO I'lliyinlrM nl' Mivll-iMI i-liiIiii iivq (iCl'-fWIMlh nnl I'liMiin^ nnniv up I" il'. Ai'i'nnlinji In ||ii> M|iililli«q|iiinl. Ilic hIdhI wIiIcIi Mi<|iMni(i>q l';Mi'n|ii< IVi'iii A^in, siii jnlijilinn wmm ninili' In il IV'mii hiIim nMli'iiH dni'i' IimihIitiI lliniiiMml, wliirli infii|i' lii'4 liin'l \i iiccM inn'Hitil Id I cnn'iiqlcil (iC lu'clvc I W'l lun ntillinn nin' Inniilri'il lliiniMdiMl nirn. IliHllivl ilri'il mill '^cviMi vi'q^i'lq. oni'li cnfi'viii^ l«i. InniiliiMl nml lliiity itinn, in fill Iwn liiniilri'il mill ii'mmiIv mi-vimi llinit^Mnil niy Inniilri'il nti'l Imi men, wliirli Wll si miii,nirii(i'i| liy till' |i;inii|ii>!in niilinn-t wilh Ini'lvi' linii'licil VI'IMcIM. cnn'viiiii; Inn liumlriMl mimI I'nilv lliniiqniiil itn-n. I'.c^iili. || li'^ ll""l III" mudiII jtnlli'V^. Iriin^pnrl ^jliipf), I'tiv, iiiniiiiiiliMJ In lliico llimiMiin'l, (■(iii|.|i hvn Imiiilri'il iiiul I'mly llimiqnnil nii>(i. Ini'liiili iiin^' iili'iiil, 11^ McrvitiilM, cMnnclH, WHitii'ii. mil I MllllI i-'^, mill itllii'tH Willi iHiuilly Inllmv nn miny,il, Ih i(>(|<(inf'i1 lliiil till' wlinli' iiiimlii'f iirsiiiilM (lull iiivfi'icil (Jcffi'i' willi \ III livi' inillimw. iinil ih'miIv IIiu'k liunilii'il llinuqjinil qmil-i. •TKi'M inrionnt"r| A fl 'T r"fti(iiri- liM viimI (irinv, Mlnrnf w'llli II in;f '3niiii' liim-in < iri'i«i>r<. ni>!irl v tli" wlmlc n| i lli'i'l. \V!M rmili'ij mill i|"Hli'iivril. Mmilnnii' Xi'i'vi'M. wliiini llii> liilli'i' (il liiM iii'|iiiitnri' It'll In piiKi'ddc l| witli tliii'i' liniiilii'il IIiiuhmihI iiii-n, win liniilly ili'li'iilcil mi'l qjoin Ity llm (iri'('l(s 111 till' liiittli' III' I'liil")!', mill iinly llm'c Mionimi'l 'iflliif! viml armv nil' "T III" liMil"niiMh 111' in s.iir in ' m ""crt iM siml IlllVI' I'^^I'M |ii'i| ili'ilnicliun. 'I'ITh m'ciiinil nl' IImj i riviifliori (. Xcrxi'M ii|i|ii'm'M III! Ill" wli'i!" In lie cxninN'mli'il. Al'li'i' llii-i I'lilliMvi'il III" liiMl mill flornnil l'"l'ipi,nr :i;in wm-! Ii('lw"'ii tlif« (iri'i'k^ llii'iii^ti'lvcM. Ill" Iwn li'ii'linif HliilfH, AIJi'TH mul ,''|ifirl(i., Iicinc i'ii;f!\i.i,"il luifiiiHl oni'li nllii'i' 'I'l H'Mc wiii'M wcri' riinii'i I nn ( '»r v<'ry inuny yi'Mr'4 willi viiryiiit!; fdicri'MH, niii| ii;ri'iit I(H,m ol' lifii In Itnlli mIiIc^. Arnl r.r' ci'iliiif; mill liillnwiiig all lln'sc tlicio wcro otii||oM3 wars an'l CHikuitioriH 'm '■Si q 70 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. between the pet^y Grecian States themselves, in ^hich were displayed the basest intrigue, perfidy, treachery, dishonesty and animosity. They made truces with each other only to break them when they got a fair opportunity ; nor did they lose any occasion which presented itself of inflicting damage on each other when at war, attacking each c^^^her at night, and murdering and robbing all they could. And it shou'.d be borne in mind that the Greeks were a shrewd, cunning people ; they united the ciinning and treachery of the fox with the boldness and ferocity of the lion and the tiger ; and in very numerous individual case." the wisdom of the sago with the courage of the warrior. The opening history of the Romans also represents that people as engaged in war. The founders of Rome are represented in mythical tra- dition as descended from the Trojans, who, after the fall of Troy, emigrated to Italy under the leadership of the Trojan chief, iEneas. Romulus and Remus, the descendants of ^neas on their mother's side, and who are represented as having the god M^rs for their father, are said to have founded the city, Rome, about the year 753 B.C. In a dispute which arosc between the two brothers, as to the name to be given to the new city, Romulus is said to have slain his brother Remus, and so the city was called Rome after tl'.e name Romulus. (This, as we have mentioned, is derived from tradition, and is not at all to be relied on as authentic history ; indeed there are reasons to believe the city, Rome, may have been an old city, before the time it is said to have been founded by Romulus and Remus.) But it goes on to say : The new city being well filled with men who flocked to it from all sides, but there being a scarcity of women, Romulus, in order to obtain wives for his citizen-subjects, is said to have made application to the neighboring communities, with that in view ; but his proposal being treated with contempt, he resolved to obtain by strata- gem what had been denied his honorable request. lie invited certain tribes of the Sabines and Latins to como to Rome to witness certain fes- tive games, and when they were assembled his Romans fell upon the daughters of their guests and carried them off by force. In consequence of this Rome became involved in a war with the Sabines, which, however, was brought to an amicable conclusion by the intervention of the women, who threw themselves between the two armies and declared themselves willing to share the fate of their new husbands. After this Romulus is said to have waged successful war against Fidenre and the Etruscan town of Veii, the latter of which he compelled to give up a portion of its terri- tory. His reign is said to have extended over a period of thirty-eight years, 753 — 71(3 B.C., and his death was as marvellous as his birth; for while he was reviewing his people his father. Mars, descended in a tempest and bore him up to heaven. Under the name of Quirinus he was afterwards worshipped as a god for a period of nearly eleven EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 71 h'-'ndred years, from the time he ia said to have lived to the estab- lishment of the Christian rehgion, in the empire, by Constantine, A.D. 330. The same honors were paid him as to his father Mars, and it was bcHeved that he watched for the interest of the state ho had founded. This may have been one cause of the invincibility of the Romans in battle, that they thought themselves watched over, favored, and assisted by the founder of their state. Men often believe a lie as if it were the t^uth ; but firmly, though blindly, believing it, it is as truth to them. Although this account, as that of the war of Troy, is mythical, it nevertheless shows us the warlike practices of these people in early his- toric times, and as we find them to be at the very beginning of their history, so we may certainly conclude them to have been before. From the reputed time of Romulus to that of the Sicilian and Cartha- ginian wars, for a period of between three and four hundix^u years, the Romans were perpetually engaged in contests with the Italian tribes. The Etruscans, the Latins, the Marsians, the llernicans, the ^tjuians, the Pelignians, the Urabrians, the Lucanians, and the Samnitcs, were all sub- jugated by Rome. She then proceeded to subdue the Grecian States of Southern Italy, and, after continuing the war for many years, during which time the Romans fought many and hard battles, especially with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who had come from Greece with an army to assist these Grecian colonics, Rome finally succeeded in comiucring both Pyrrhus and all the Grecian States of Southern Italy, and in establishing her government over these States. In more modern times we have a counterpart for Rome in the Aug'o- Saxon Heptarchy ; for after, by conquest or otherwise, the seven Saxou kingdoms were brought under the power of the king of Wessex, their forces being concentrated, they expanded by degrees on all sides, and, under a succession of Norman princes, brought into subjection the remaining parts of Soutli Biitain, and eventually Ireland. Scotland was united to the government in after times, and by peaceful means. But as Rome did not cease to advance her coniiuests after she had subdued Italy and Sicily, neither did the Anglo Saxons, when they had subdued Britain and Ireland ; but tlicy advanced . i all directions in enterprise and arms, until to-day the sun never sets upon the Anglo-Saxon race and language, and their influence in arts and arms is far more than commensurate with the .coun- tries they inhabit. But the comj)arison in other rcFpects stands thus, — if in the acquisition of territory England slew her thousands, Rome did her tens of thousands. It is to be hoped that, henceforth, England will take care that she add not largely to her cup of blood by war. Carthage was originally a colony of Phoenicians who, about the yeax- 800 B.C., settled on the northern coast of Africa. These colonists increased their dominions by inroads on the neighboring tribes, and, being fin ill ■I M ■ -. i mi c) 72 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. a naval power, by degrees became masters of almost every island in the Mediterranean. Thus Carthage may be truly said to have become great at the expense of her neighbors. Their efforts to conquer Sicily brought them into collision with the now formidable forces of Rome. The conflicts between Rome and Carthage are distinguished in history by the name of the Punic Wars, Punic meaning Phoenician, for Carthage, as wo have said, was a Phoenician colony. The first Punic war, beginning B.C. 264. lasted twenty-four years ; the second seven, and the third four years and some months. In the last contest the city of Carthage was destroyed to its foundations by the Romans. It was delivered up by Scipio, the Roman general, to be plundered by the soldiers ; its gold, silver, statues, and other treasures amounting to 4,470,000 pounds weight of silver were carried to Rome ; its towers, ramparts, walls mid all the works which the Cartha'nnians had raised in the course of many centuries, were levelled to the ground. Fires were set to the edifices of the once proud metropolis, which consumed them all ; not a single house, it is said, escaped the fury of the flames. And although the fire began in all quarters, and burned with freat violence, it continued for seventeen days before all the buildings were consumed. Thus perished a city which contained 700,000 inhabi- tants and which had waged so many ferocious wars with neighboring nations a terrible example of the destructive effects produced by male- volent passions in war, and of the retributive justice of the Governor of the universe. The destruction of human life in the wars which Rome wa«^ed with Carthage is beyond all specific computation. During the space of sixteen years Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, sacked no less than fourteen hundred towns, and destroyed tlu*ee hundred thousand of his enemies, and we may safely reckon that nearly an equal number of his own men were cut oif by the opposing Roman armies ; so that several millions of human beings must have been sacrificed in these bloody and cruel wars. The following is a summary statement of the number of human beings that were sacrificed in a few of the battles recorded in history, as fought for the most part by the Greeks and Romans against their enemies. In the battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great, at the head of the Greeks, and Darius the Persian, there are said to have been slain 110,000 ; in the battle of Arbela, two years afterwards, between the same two despots, 300,000. In the siege of Jerusalem by Vespasian and Titus, according to Josephus, there were destroyed 1,110,000. And there are said to have been slain in Jerusalem in the year 170 B.C., by Antiochus Epiphanes, celebrated for liaving compcllest dreadful cruelties and devastatio' J. It is computed that ' .in;,; r,e last twenty-two years of his reign no less than 14,470,000, * r. ' ■ .hered by this merciless scourge of mankind. He appeared to '■■■:. pe(/>' of the East like an infernal fiend, breathing out destruction wherever he went, and the doctrine which he preached after conquest was utter extermination. A1 out the same time when this monster was ravaging the Eastern world those mad expeditions distinguished by the name of Crusades were going f(irward in the ^Vest. Six millions of infatuated mortals, raging with hatred and thirsting for blood, assumed the image of the cross and marched in successive expeditions, in tumultuous confusion, to the confines of Palestine, in order to recover the city of Jerusalem from the hands of the Maho iiotans. In the-e holij wars, as they were impiously called, mc-e than 8;J0,000 Europeans are said to have been sacrified, before they obtained possession ot Nice, Antiocti, and Edessa. At the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, about 75,000 are said to have been slain ; and at the siege of Acre 300,000. For nearly two hundred years these wild expe- ditions continued to go forward, and were urged on by proclamations issued from the papal and kingly thrones, and by fanatical sermons from the pulpit, until several millions of deluded wretches perished from the earth ; for the greater part of those who engaged in the crusades either died from hardshii)S endured on the march or were slain or taken prisoners. At this period, and for many centuries before, the wide expanse of Europe and Asia exhibited little else than one great field of battle, in which nations were dashing against each other, conquerors ravaging kingdoms, tyrants exercising the most awful cruelties, superstition and revenge immolating their millions of victims, and tumults, insurrections, slaughter, and uni- versal alarm, banishing peace and tranquility from the abodes of men, and subverting the moral order of society. The European states were distracted by the incessant disputes between the popes and the emperors ; the interior of every European kingdom was torn in pieces by the contending ambition of the powerful barons ; in the Mahometan Empire the caliphs, sultans, and emirs, waged continual war ; new sovereignties ■were daily rising and daily being destroyed, and amidst this universal slaughter and devastation the whole earth seemed in danger of being laid waste, and the human race to suffer an extermination. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 75 ■i In the latter part of the 14th century arose Tamerlane, one of the successors of Zingis Khan. This ruthless conqueror followed in the footsteps of his predecessor, the cruel Zingis. Putting himself at the head of large armies he overran Persia, Turkestan, Kipzak, Russia and Hindostan, ravaging as ho went, levelling cities with the dust, cruelly destroying their inhabitants, and committing the most horrible depreda- tions. He also conquered the Turks of Asia Minor and carried the Sultan Bajazct into captivity, as it is said, in ar iron cage. Whole nations were crushed under the iron heel of this conqueror. The historian Gibbon ■when speaking of him says : " The ground which had been occupied by flourishing cities, was often marked by his abominable trophies, 5y columns or pyramids of human heads; and perhaps his conscience would have been startled if a priest or a philosopher had dared to number the millions of victims, whom he sacrificed to the establishment of peace and order." * Such is the motive that invaders generally avow for their action^ — that they may establish order in the nations which they invade, but too often it happens that instead of bringing order and tranquility they bring to them ruin and devastation. By the Crimean War, carried on between France, England and Russia, there were killed 784,991. By the Italian war of 1859, 45,000. By the war with Schleswig-IIolstein, 3,500. In the Amer- ican civil war, of the Northern army there were killed 281,000; of the Southern army, 519,000. In the war of 18Gi3 between Prussia, Austria and Italy, 45,000. In distant and various wars in Mexico, Cochin China, Morocco, St. Domingo, Paraguay, etc., G5,000 ; making a total of one million seven hundred and fif*^^y thousand men swept oft' by war in the space of fourteen years, between 1853 and 186(3. And in carrying on these wars it is estimated there was spent at the least calculation nine thousand five hundred and sixty-five millions of dollars ; an amount of money which, if put to the use of benefiting humanity, might have trans- formed the whole moral and social condition of civilized nations for tho better. It is said the entire loss of Germany in the late war it had with France was something like 180,000 men, rather more than one half of whom are invalided ; and it is certain the loss on the part of France was not less but perhaps much greater ; and this war also was carried on at a coi;res- ponding rate of expense. It may be remembered that the instances we have adduced are only a few circumstances in the annals of warfare. And yet in a few of the instances last stated we are presented with a scene of horror which includes the destruction of between fifty and sixty millions of the human race, besides the other various kinds of suffering which war entails. Language can scarcely be found strong enough to express the emotions of the mind * Gibbon's Rome. 76 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. when it seriously contemplates the horrible scene. And is it not melan- choly to reflect that in the present age, Avhich boasts of its improvements in science, m civilization ami rcliyicn, neither reason, nor humanity, nor Christianity, nor benevolence, has yet availed to stop the progress of des- troying armies, and to sot n, mark of ignominy upon the nations that delight in war. To counteract this most irrational and deplorable propensity by every means which reason or humanity can suggest should be the duty of every one who is desirous to promote the present and future benefit of his species. For our review of the moial character of the civilized nations we have chosen Greece and Rome, and the nations immediately connected with them, as the most fit representatives of ancient times ; and in continuing this review we shall confine it to those nations which have arisen out of the Roman Empire, as the fittest representatives of civilization in modern times. It would not answer to choose out any one of these nations as the fittest national representati^ e of civilization in modern times, for each of them would be unwilling to be classed as less high in that respect than any of the others. It becomes our duty, therefore, to take a glance at each of them so far as our limits will allow, and see how they appear to stand with respect to moral character. We have given proof of the warlike dispositions which were displayed in the Greek and Roman empires, and in a few instances of other nations also that waged war with them and on their borders ; and now it will be well to slightly examine what dispositions are displayed by these modern nations, while at the same time they may be considered in connection with their religious institutions. As to the dispositions displayed by these modern nations pride and selfishness are prominent characteristics in them all. All these nations are more or less addicted to war, and pride and selfishness are the prime movers to the wars which they wage. Russia has proceeded in her career of self-aggrandizement for the last two centuries, absorbing one nation after rx^.other against their will, until her dominions now extend across the whole continent of Asia from the China Sea to the Baltic ; and from ]\[ount Caucasus and the frontiers of Tartary to the frozen ocean. Russia has to a large extent made herself great at the expense of her neighbors ; starting from her northern deserts, in the time of Peter the Great, she has extended her dominions, until she is now equal in extent of territory to any other nation on the globe. Her government is strictly despotic. Her religion is Christian of the Greek model, which we shall have occasion to speak of in the latter part of the book. The mass of her peoples, until lately serfs, are generally ignorant and of a servile spirit. Her penal laws are exceedingly severe ; the severest punishments are frequently inflicted for the most trivial offences. At the will of the emperor, and often for very slight offences, men are bound ia EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 77 irons and transported to llio frozen regions of Siberia, tlicre to drag out a most miscrablo existence, until death or the terra of their banishment puts an end to their sufferings. The knout is one of the most common instru- ments of punishment used in Russia. This instrument is a thong made of the skin of the elk or the wild ass, and so hard that a single stroke cuts the flesh to the bone. The following description is given by Olearius of the manner in which he saw the knout inflicted on eight men, and one woman, only for the crime of selling brandy and tobacco without a license : " The executioner's man, after stripping them down to the waist, tied their feet, and took one at a time on his back. The executioner stood at three paces distance, and, springing forward with the knout in his hand, whenever he struck the blood gushed out at every blow. The men had each twenty- five or twenty-six lashes ; the woman, though only sixteen, fainted away. After their backs were thus dreadfully mangled they were tied together two and two; and those who sold tobacco having a little of it, and those ■who sold brandy a little bottle put about their necks. They ^''-re then -whipped through the city of Petersburgh, for about a mile and a half, and then brought back to the place of their punishment and dismissed." This is what is termed the moderate knout, for when it is administered with the utmost severity, the executioner, striking the flank and ribs, cuts the flesh to the bowels, and therefore many die of this merciless and inhuman punish- ment. The punishment of the pirates and robbers who infest the banks of the Volga is another act of savage cruelty peculiar to Russia. A float is built whereon a gallows is erected, on which is fastened a number of iron hooks, and on these the wretched criminals are hung alive by the ribs. The float is then launched into the stream, and orders are given to all the towns and villages on the borders of the river, that xk, one upon pain of death shall afford the least relief to any of these wretches. These criminals sometimes hang in this manner three, four, and even five days alive. The pain produces a raging fever, in which they utter the most horrid lamenta- tions, imploring the relief of water and other liquids. During the reign of Peter the Great the robbers who infested the various parts of his dominions, especially the banks of the Volga, were hung up in this manner by hun- dreds and thousands, and left to perish in the most dreadful manner. The boring of the tongue, and the cutting of it out, are practised yet in Russia as an inferior species of punishment. It is much to be hoped that the time will soon come when governments Avill see and admit the folly and injustice of such proceedings. Punishment administered beyond the desert of the offence can have no other tendency than to demoralize the minds of the people, to blunt their natural feelings, and to render criminal characters still more desparate ; and hence we need not wonder at what travellers affirm respecting the Russians, that they are very indifferent as to life or •death, and undergo capital punishment with unparalleled apathy and !*l| 78 EXISTENCE AND DEITT. iiulolcnce. It ninttora littlo what the name of the religion is that ia pro- fessed by a government which practices, or allows to be practised in its donnnions, such tyranny, brutality and cruel barbarism. In order to show itself civilized and a worthy apostle of its faith to foreign peoples, a govern- ment should show itself exemplary at home by dealing righteously, bene- volently, and boneficently with its own people. Prussia and Russia may be said to have attained a conspicuous national existence at the same time. In the year 1701 Frederick, the Margrave or Count of lirandenburgh, deeming himself strong enough to make good his pretensions against the nations which might chc->s'3 to oppose him, crowned him f king, and publicly announced that his name henceforth was not elector of Brandcnburgh, but king of Prussia. At the same time Peter the Groat was engaged in the work of building the City of St. Peters- burgh, and of making Russia a naval power, after having a few years pre- viously prepared himself for this task, by practising as a shi}ibuiMer in an English dockyard. Both of these nations have since then under succes- sive rulers made great advances to power. Wo have stated by what means Russia enlarged her dominions to such a great extent ; and shall ~ve now inquire by what means Prussia has come by her power and attained to the supremacy among the German States which she now enjoys ? Was it by peaceable or by warlike measures? Mainly by war. True, Prussia owes much for her present eminency to the intelligence of her people ; and this is, of course, owing to the system of education that is established and carried out in that country. Now the proper object of a system of educa- cation is to diffuse a knowledge of the sciences, the useful arts, and of any other branch of knowledge the acquisition of which may tend to the happiness and well-being of the people. But the system of education established in Prussia includes the teaching of the military art as well as the other arts. And it may probably be argued that the art of war is a necessary and useful one. There is no necessity of it if men but keep the principles of pride and selfishness in their own nature in due subordination to the principles of godliness, which they can do by having right reason rule. Nor can th'!' greatness that is derived from war be called true great- ness. What, it may be asked, is a nation to look on inactively and see itself invaded, desolated, and absorbed by an enemy without offering any resistance ? This sometimes would be the wisest policy for a nation in such circumstances. Some of those nations, for example, which have been absorbed by Prussia herself during her career of conquest and by Russia might have done better had they thus acted. Since they were not able effectually to repel, it would have been wiser for them to have sub- mitted to the invader, without actively resisting him, by which course they would at least have saved the lives of those who fell, and perhaps obtained better terms from the aggressor. But if a strong nation is attacked what EXISTEXCE AND DKITY. 79 course shoukl it pursue ? Intellij^ent non-rosidtanco would in this case even be the best course to follow, and by peaceful moaauros to obtain the best measures obtiiiiialtle ; it is also by far the most praisowortiiy. But oich nation, when it feels itself greatly a«i;)^rievod by another, no matter iiow limited its resources for olVeuco and defence are as compared with those of the other, is apt to feel itself equally strong, just as a shiu.I weak man feels when ho is provoked to combat by a largo athletic one. Well, as there is no necessity of either of those men striking the other, nor of the one that may have been struck, striking in return, so there is not the slightest need of a nation, whether it may be powerful or weak, striking either hi aggression or defence. Intolligcni m-resistance on the part of a nation, as if an individual, ra.ikos the aggressor feci ashamed of his conduct, and is the means of saving life and Umb and property, and of securing the blessings of happiness and peace to many people who should otherwise suiTer. But the ((uostion is often and very inconsiderately asked ; who, when struck or insulted, can abstain from striking or insulting in his turn. Any one can abstain from it if he will but act considerately. If a man returns an insult he degrades himself to the level of him who insults him ; but if one try to kill him, he should endeavor to not bo killed. Reason should always be allowed to govern ; passion or male- volence not for a moment. Wo have ourself always acted on the principle of intelligent non-resistance, and mean to do so as long as wo live. Tho principle of good-will to men, men of every character and temper, should b) cultivated by all, and no principle contrary to this should be allowed to occupy the breast for a single moment. If men are weak enough to strike or insult, they are so from ignorance or ihe depravity of their nature ; such should be looked upon with compassion, and their good, not their evil and destruction, should by every means be sought ; when thoy come to fully understand what they are, and what they should bo and do, they will bo strikers and insulters no longer. Exami)lc is ever more powerful than pre- cept, in the case of nations as well as individuals. But, as in the case of two men who are about to quarrel the law holds that one accountable who strikes first, why may there not not be an international law established among the civilized nations, which n<' one nation will be allowed to trans- gress ? But it may be said that transgression of that law would imply tho use of compulsory means to enforce obedience to it, and that this means might necessarily be war. If it were stipulated by the international law that all the nations agreeing ^r^ \t should remain unarmed, that military principles should not be taught nor warlike implements manufactured or retained by these nations, then war could not be the means resorted to in such a case. But it may be said that when a nation would feel inclined to transgress or to secede from the international confederacy it might insi- diously import arms and equipments of war from some other nations out- 80 KXISTIONCK AND DEITY. side of the league, and so prepare itself to elfootuallv accomplish its object. To prevent the occurrence of such a breach it would bo wise for the con- federacy to embrace within itself as many ns possible of the nations of tho earth, even those they would deem uncivilized ; to brin;^all these if possible to live and abide by the stipulations of the international law; so that there nii^^ht be no place left from whence to import the moans and implements of war. Cannot such a state of thini^s bo brought about ? It can be effected, first by the civilized nations anion;; themselves; then by their gradually bringing into their confederacy all the other nations. Tho first step to be taken to this good end is the universal education of the masses of th.o people high as well as low in every nation, in the principles of self- denial, charity and true humility ; and to this end, the principles of mili- tary discipline should not be taught in the scools, nor should anything be taught which would tend to foster or cultivate a warlike spirit. There should be no panegyrics delivered by the teachers nor found in tho school- books upon the virtues of warriors of past ages or of the present ; nor .should an Alexander, a Ciesar, a Frederick, a Bonaparte, a Wellington, or even a Washington, so far as lie was a warrior, be held up to the admira- tion or the imitation of the students ; only the sciences and tho arts which tend to peace should be taught ; the princijilcs of pride and selfishness should be not only suppressed but eradicated ; and the principles of true virtue, of honest industry, of charity, and intelligent humility, should be univer- sally inculcated and exemplified to the youth. Such a state of thi"g3, then, as we have contemplated might bo begun to be brought about by tho universal education of the masses, commencing with all the youth of the present generation ; and, as the people would be continually advancing to a higher state of knowledge and civilization, tho nations would become more peaceful, stable, and prosperous, would cultivate more the sciences and arts which tend to peace, and wo'ild become more closely united to each other in the bonds of charity and mutual good-will. We have before explained how that man creates tho moral world, and that the great object of a moral system is to eiial>lo men to live in association with each other according to order and rigiit. Now this being so that moral system is certainly impf-fect, and unworthy of the name of world, which does not provide that men sJiaU U'lf kiU vach otlwr by means of war. It implies not order, but disorder, and all its train of evil coiisotiuences. To the end tiia*' a bet*-or 33'stem may be established, and that as universally as possible, much may now be begun to be done by rulers and men of power and intiuence in all nations, yea and by every teacher, every parent, and every individual both subjectively and objectively. This education, which as wo have said is the first step towards the t^ringing in of a state of things for the better, permanently, must be as universally diifused as possible, and individually subjective as well as objective ; for each one must educate KXrSTRNCR AND DEITY. 81 .'f to a more OS and ,0 each before object other stem is )es not ies not 1 that lossibic, er and I every 1 as wo n;^3 for e, and ;ducato liim or herself in the principles and practices of self-denial, humility and all the kindred principles which pertain to godliness, as well as teach others, as far as one, can the .me principles and practices. Then would love be the motive power to action, instead of, as before, pride and selfishness. l>ut to return to our main subject, Prussia has to a j^reat extent a""randized herself, as Russia did, at the ex|)en3e of her neighbors. It has subdnetl one nation after another by ''orce of arms ; it has domineered over Austria; it has humiliated France, and by its course of war and bloodshed it has attained the supremacy in the German States ; and in other respects also the moral character of the Prussians is not what it ought to be. It has long enforced a very sevei'o penal code. Tlio following account, is "•iven by a traveller who was in l>erlin in IHID, of the execution of a man for murder, which shows that the execution of criminals in Prussia is frequently attended I/y a species of cruelty worthy of the worst days of the Inquisition: " Amidst the parade of executioners, officers of police, and other judicial authorities, the beating of drums, and the waving of flags and colors, the criminal mounted the scallbld. No ministers of religion appeared to gild the horrors of eternity, and to soothe the agonies of the criminal ; and no supplicatory prayer closed his (juivering lips." " Novor," says the narrator, '' shiill I forget tlie ouc bitter look of imploring agony that he threw around him, as, inuncdiately in stepping on the scaffold, his coat was rudely torn from his shoulders. He was then thrown down, the cords fixed around his neck, which were drawn until strangulation almost commenced. Another executioner then approached, bearing in his hands a huge wheel, bouml with iron, with wliich he violently struck the legs, arms, ani^ chest, and lastly the head of the criminal. I was unfortunately near enough to witness his mangled and bleeding body still convulsed. It was then carried down for interment, and in less than aipiarter of an hour from the beginning of his torture, the corpse was completely covered with earth. Several large stones which were thrown upon him hastened his last gasp; he was man (/led into etei niti/.''^ Punishments, as we have before said, sliould not be more than proportioned to the crimes for which they are inflicted, and in every case should be designed for the benefit of the criminal, or of society, or of both. If the life of the criminal is to be taken, the object of the punishment cannot be his benefit ; and no benefit can accrue to society from his being treated with a greater degree of severity than his crime deserves. If the lite of the crimiu' J is not to 1)0 taken the object of tlie punisluneut should be his moral improvement, and the punishment should not be greater than he deserves. An unduly severe criminal code in any country is proof that that nation has yet to advance some degrees before it can be called civilized. France is a nation which until very lately played an important part in the history of Europe. From being one of the provinci of the Roman 82 EXISTKNCE AND DEITY. 1 Empire she was raised to the position of an iiulepeiulent atato hy Clovia in the 5th centm-j, A. D. In tlie hitter part of tlie 8th century she was raised to ii "reater lieiglit of power by the conipiests of Charlemagne ; she afterwards lost a "-reat part of the dominions which she acquired through him, and •'uined tliem again after a long interval througli the compiests of Napoleon lionaparte, but only to retain them for a very short time. France, before called (Jaul, has as long as we have known her historically, been a nation addicted to war, fc^he has, however, not been remarkably successful in •war, never having attained to a very great degree of power, except under the two oonqucvors just named. Charlemagne is said to have carried on fifty-three campaigns. He was a remarkably ferocious and cruel man. (^)n one occasion, it is said that he beheaded 4,r)00 Saxon prisoners on the same spot, which may serve as a sjiecimen of the butcheries of this fero- cious warrior This was the man who was crowned by Tope Leo in the church ox St. Peter at Home, in the last year of the 8th century ; and who is also iascribed as a Saint of the Roman Church. In hii i the H,oman Emjiire of the west was considered to have been revived after it had been overtln-own and trampled u[)on for some centuries by the Godis, and "\ andals, and other northern nations; and from that tiuic till the with- drawal of the French troojs from Rome, in the time of Napoleon ILL France has almost always been a zealous su[>porter of the Papacy. AVo need not here detail the wars of the Bonapartes, their rise, progress, and terminations ; they are very generally known, and ecpial in cruelty and the destruction of human life the battles of ancient times. We shall relate only a few instances of French barbarity in these wars. After the taking of Alexandria by Ronaparte, says the relater, *" we were undei- the necessity of putting the whole of them to death at the breach. Rut the slaughter did not cease with the resistance. The Turks and inhabitants Hed to their mosijuos, seeking protection from God and their pro})het ; and then men and women, old and young, and infants at the breast, were slaughtered. This butchery continued for four ; >urs, after which the remaining part of the inha))itants were much asto .shed at not having their throats cut." From what follows we can see that all this bloodshed was premeditated. '" Wo might have spared the men whom we lost," says General Royer, "by only summoning tlio town; but it was neceesary to begin by confounding cur enemy," After the battle of the Pyramids, it is vemarked by an eye witness, '• tiic whole way through the desert was tracked by bones and bodies of men and animals, who had perished in these dreadful wastes. In order to warm themselves at night they gathered together the dry boL".- and bodies of the dead, which the vultures had spared, and it was by a fire composed of this fuel that Rouapartc lay down to sleep ill the desert."* Miot gives the following description of a scene * Mioi'j Mi^nuiirs. EXISTENCE AND DEITY, 85 at Jaffa: *' The soUlicr a^audoas himsolf to all the fury wliioh an assault nutliorizcs. llo strikes, ho slays, nothing can impcdo him. All the liorrors which accompany the capture of a town by stumi arc repeated in every street, in every house. You hear the cries of violated females calling in vain for help to those relations whom they arc butchering. No asylum is respected. The blood streams on every side ; at every stop you meet with human beings groaning and expiring, etc." Sir Robert Wilson, when describing the campaign in Poland, relates, that" the ground between the woods and the Russian batteries, about a ipiarter of a mile, was a sheet of naked human bodies, which friends and foes had during the night mutually stri[)pcd, not leaving the worst rag upon them, although numbers of these bodies still retained consciousness of their situation. It was a sight which the eye loathed, but from whicli it could not remove." In Labaume's " Narrative of the Campaign in Russia," we are presented with the most liorrible details : palaces, cluu-ches, and streets enveloped in flames ; houses tumbling into ruins, luuidredsof tlie blackened carcasses of the wretched inhabitants, whom the fire had consumed, blended with the fragments ; hosjiitals containing 20,000 wounded Russians on fire, and consuming the miserable victims ; luimbers of half-burned wretches crawl- ing among the smoking ruins ; females violated, and massacred; parents and children half-naked, shivering with cold, flying in consternation with the remains of their half-consumed furniture ; horses falling In thousands, and writhing in the agonies of death ; roads covered .for miles with thousands of the dying ami the dead, heaped one upon another, and swim- ming in blood, and these dreadful scenes rendered still more horrific by the shrieks of young females, of mothers, and children, and the piercing cries of the wounded and the dying, invoking death to put an end to their ag(mics." It is probable that some of our readers have been so alTected by the description already given, that they have turned away their eyes in disgust from such an appalling spectacle of suffering and horror, but those are only a few instances out of thousands whicli the authentic histories of the French wars present before us. What untold suiferiugs have been caused by the wars whish France has carried on in our own day I Wars with Russia, with Austria, with Prussia, and last the fratricidal war which was waged at Paris between its own citizens at the termination of the late war with Germany. Yet France has long been considered a leading civilized nation of Europe. The French nation have been characterized as a vain, immoral, and licentious people, in their social state, especially the inhabitants of their chief cities ; and these their sins may have sometimes brought destruction upon that peo[)le ; but we are aware that the suifering and destruction of the many are often caused by the pride ami selfishness of a few, very often by the will of an indivi- dual, as Ave believe that last war with Germany may Lave been which W' W I % u EXISTENCE AND DEITY. humbled France to the dust, and caused such immense loss and suffering to her people. The penal code in France has also been extremely severe. The execution of Damiens in 1757, for atcempting to assassinate Louis XV., was accompanied with tortures, the description of which is enough to harrow the feelings of the most callous nature, tortures which could scarcely be exceeded in intensity, even though they were invented by an infernal fiend ; and yet they were beheld with a certain degree of apathy by a surrounding populace, and cen counsellors and physicians could talk together deliberately about tho best mode of tearing asunder the hnibs of the wretched victim, with as much composure as if tlioy had been dissecting a dead subject or carving a fowl. France has also distinguished itself for its massacres or account of religion. Of these, that of the French Protestants, on the Feast of St. Bartholomew, August 24th, 1572, was, perhaps, one of the most diabolical acts of perfidy and cruelty which have stained the character of that nation. Everything connected with this unexampled conspiracy and assassination was atrocious and horrible. Ties of the most sacred nature were violated ; superstitious zeal was changed into an impious frenzy ; and filial piety degenerated into sanguinary fury. Under the direction of the infamous Duke of Guise, the soldiers and the populace, en masse, at the signal of the tolling of a bell, flew to arms, seizing every weapon that came in their way ; and thus rushing in crowds to every quarter of the city of I'aris, no sound was heard but the terrible cry, " Kill tho Huguenots I" Everyone distinguished for being attached to th'» • *"rnred faith, Avithout any distinction of rank, age or sex was indiyerimii .tely massacred. The air resounded with the horrid cries and Ikiapnemous imprecations of the murderers, the piercing shrieks of the wounded and the groans of the dying. Headless trunks were every moment tlirown into the court-yards or the streets, tnc gateways were choked up with the bodies of the dead and dying, and the streets presented a spectacle of mangled limbs and human beings dragged by their butchers in order to be thrown into the Seine. Hotels and public buildings were reeking with blood ; death and desolation reigned on every side, and in all quarters carts were seen loaded Avith dead bodies, destined to be cast into the river, whoso waters w.i'»~- for several days polluted with tides of human gore The infuriated assa^^ain, ,. ■'^od oi ^v the cry that " it v.t.s the King's Avill that the very last of tiiis race of vipers should be crushed and killed," became still moi^ (■ riousiia tlf slaughter; in pr^of of which one Cruce, a jeweller, displayin-' l,v-' naVt- and bloody arm, vaunted aloud that he had cut the throats of vajro than four hundred Huguenots in one day. Tho number of victims ihu^ : laug'jte- e i in the city of Paris amounted to above '3,00U; and, in the provincoi n> the same time, perished about 60,000 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 85^ souls. The news of this massacre was wclcometl at Rome with the most lively transports of joy. The Cardinal of Lorraine gave a large reward to the courier, and interrogated him in such a manner upon the subject as plainly to indicate that he had been previously aware of the intended cacastrophe. Cannons were fired, bonfires were kindled, and a solemn mass celebrated, at which Pope Gregory XIII. assisted, with all the splendor which the Papal Court was accustomed to display on the happen- iui'- of events the most significant and of the most important conse- quences.* In the civil wars on account of religi in in France, in the early part of the seventeenth century, it is computed that about a million of men lost tlieir lives; and nine cities, 400 villages, 2000 churches, and 10,000 houses were burned and destroyed during tlieir continuance, besides the many thousands of men, women and children, which were cruelly butchered ; and 130,000,000 livres were spent in carrying forward these slaughters and devastations. It is said of Louis XIII., who prosecuted these Avars, by one of his biographers and panegyrists, Madame de Motte- ville, tl.'.it " what gave him the greatest pleasure was his thought of drivii;^!: heretics out of the kingdom, and thereby purging the different religions which corrupt and infect the Church of God." But France has distiiiguishcd herself for a fanatical persecuting spirit as well in an atheistical as in a religious or superstitious point of view. Th'^ first revolution in France, in 1789, was a revolution unt merely in politKS and government, but in religion, in manners, and in the common feelings of human nature. It is stated on good authority tb.at a little before this revolution a numerous assembly of i^/'6'«t7t Zjit'm^i" being asked in turn at one of their meetings by their president, " whether there was any such thing as moral obligation, answered in every instance that there was not." Soon after that revolution the great body of the French infidels who then ruled the nation not only denied all the obligations which bind us to truth, justice, and kindness, but pitied and despisetl, as a contemptible wretch, that man who believed in their existence. Atheism was publicly preached and its doctrines disseminated among the mass of the people. A professor was even named by Chaumette to instruct the children of the state in the mystery of Atheism. De La Metheric, the author of a philo- sophical journal, when discussing the doctrine of crystallization, made the wild and monstrous assertion, " that the highest and most perfect form of crystallization is that which is vulgarly called God. In the National Con- vention, Gobert, Archbishop of Paris, the Rector Vangirard, and several other priests, abjured the Romish religion, and for their abjuration they received applauses, and the fraternal kiss. The convention decreed that Iti ; I * Memoirs of Heury the Great. 86 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. all the churches and temples of religious worship, known to be in Paris, should be instantly shut up, and that every person requiring the opening of a church or temple should be put nnder arrest as a suspected person and an enemy of the State. The consequences of the universal operation of such principles, and such a high-handed course of procedure on the part of those in authority, were such as might have been expected. They are written in characters of blood- A scene of inhumanity, crueltj-, malig- nity and insatiable rapacity was presented to the world, which escitcd in the mind of every virtuous spectator amazement and horror. Savage atrocities were committed, which would have been shocking in the most barbarous and unenlightened age ; and perhaps at no time and in no country was there more hcentious practices and moral degeneracy displayed. The ties of friendship were severed, the claims of consanguinity disregarded, and a cold-blooded selfishness pervaded the great mass of society. " The kingdom appeared to be changed into one great prison ; the inhabitants converted into fclors, and the common doom of man commuted for the violence of the sword and the bayonet, and the stroke of the guillotine," Such was the rapacity with which destruction was carried on that, in the short space of ten years, not less thaii three millions of human beings are supposed to have perished in that country, chiefly through the outworking of the malevolent iirincij)les of th'; human heart, and the seduct .ns of a false phi'.noc wii'i brute ferocity against the priests of the Romish Church, who Wc'X ''>utchered wherever found, hunted as wild boasts, frequently burned alive. ■ dro\n->ed in hundreds together, without accusation or trial. Ac ISantz, >60 priosts are said to ha^o been shot, and 4i30 drowned. 1 , one night 8 wore shut up in a barge, and drowned in the Loire, 292 » riests Avere massacred during the bloody scenes of the ]Oth August, and *■ io 2nd SepLemler, 1792 ; and 1135 were guil- lotined under the government of the National Convention, from the month * Gregoiro. .,'U_.^--f<: EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 87 of September, 1702, until the end of 1795 ; besuiles vast num jcrs who, hunted by the infidel republicans like owls and partridges, perished in different ways throughout the provinces of France. The bloody scenes which have been enacted in Paris in om- own day, when Darboy, the arch- bishop, and several priests, besides thousands of other people, were killed by the Communists and Nationalists in their mutual struggle, correspond to the scenes we have just depicted. And the fact of these infidels or atheists, when they came into power, carrying on such violent persecutions plainly shows that the persecuting spirit is not confined to one sect, be Ihey called papist or atheist, but is simply the working out of the evil principle in man. Men, however, are always inclined to leave the blame of their diabolical actions upon other things than themselves, often upon mere names or ideas. We gather also from the foregoing history of the rei'''n of atheism in France, that, when a nation becomes too enlightened for its established religion or superstition, it is sometimes apt to discard it altogether, and io adopt a system of principles the opposite to those of the old. I'he same thing takes place in the case of individuals. There is danger in such a course, and there hardly ever is any necessity of adopting extreme opinions upon one side or the other. Changes in the moral world as in the natural take place gradually. A plant does not come to maturity in a moment nor a child to manhood in a day. Time is required for the intelligent adoption of a creed both by an individual and a nation ; and the truth is best arrived at and maintained 1)y preserving the mean between oppo- site extreme opinions. A national religion should not be discarded by the state until a better substitute can be made for it ; and the new system if established should receive the moral support and protection of the government of the state ; if not established as in republics, where all religions are ecjually tolerated, but yet has become so generally prevalent as virtually to supplant the oM, it should receive at least the moral support and protection of the government. Violent changes in any department of the moral world are productive of disorder ; and since, as we have said before, the fundamental idea of morality is order, when a change in any department of the moral system is required, not only the change itself but the best manner in which it can be brought abo\it is to be considered by those who are to effect it. The object of government is not only to preserve order among the people but also to subserve and advance their interests and highest good ; and the necessity of the worship of the Deity being generally recognized as conducive to the happiness and order of the people, governments may well give their moral support and protection to that system of religion M'hich combines simplicity with truth, and which can be practised most intelligently by the masses of the people. As corroborative of the idea advanced with respect to'^^tho licentious character of the French, especially the Parisians, wo extract the following from Sir Walter Scott's visit to Paris in 1815, ,|:: il ?^ m 88 EXISTENCE AND DEITY, " Tlic Palais Rojalc, in whose saloons and porticoes vice has established a public and open school for gambling and licentiousness, should be levelled to the ground with all its accursed brothels, and gambling houses, rendez- vous the more seductive to youth as being free from some of those dan- gers which would alarm timidity, in places of avowedly scandalous resort. in the Salon des Etrangers, the most celebrated haunt of this Dom-Daniel, which I had the curiosity to visit, the scene was decent and silent to a dei'ree of solemnity. An immense hall was filled with gamesters and spectators. Those who kejit the bank and managed the affairs of the establishment were ^'-'tinguished by the green shades they wore to pre- serve their eyes, by uieir silent and grave demeanour, and by the pnleness of their countenances exhausted by their constant vigils. There was no distinction of persons, nor any passport required for entrance save that of a decent exterior ; and on the long tables which were covered with gold, an artizan was at liberty to hazard his week's wages, or a noble his whole estate. Youth and age were equally welcome, and any one who chose to play w ithin the limits of a trifling sum, had only to accuse his own weak- nosfi, ( he was drawn into deeper or more dangerous hazard. Everything appeared to be conducted with the most perfect fairness. The only advan- tage possessed by the bank, which is, however, enormous, is the extent of the funds by which it is enabled to sustain any reverse of fortune ; whereas most of the hulividuals who play against the bank are in circumstances to be ruined by the first succession of ill luck : so that ultimately the small ventures merge in the stock of the principal adventurers, as rivers run into the sea. The profits of thi^ establishment must indeed be very large to support its expenses. Besides a variety of attendants who distribute refreshments to the players gratis, there is an elegant entertainment with expensive wines, regularly prepared about three o'clock in the morning for those who choose to partake of it. AVith such temptations around him, and where the hazarding an insignificant sura seems at first venial or inno- cent, it is no wonder that thousands feel themselves gradually involved in the vortex whose vei'ge is so little distinguishable, until they are swallowed up with their time, talents, fortune, and frequently also both body and soul. This is vic3 with her fairest vizard ; but the same uniiallowed pre- cinct contains many a secret cell for the most hideous and unheard of debaucheries ; many an open rendezvous of infamy, and many a den of usury and treason ; the whole mixed with a vanity fair of shops for jewels, trinkets, and baubles, that bashfulness may not need a decent pretext for adventuring into the haunts of infamy. It was there that the preachers of revolution found, amidst gamblers, desperadoes and prostitutes, ready auditors of their doctrines, and active hands to labor in their vineyard. It was here that the plots of tlie Boncjiartists were adjusted ; and from hence the seduced soldiers, inflamed with many a bumper to the health EXISTENCE ANt) DEITY. 89 uUum, 1' inno- cd in lowed y and cd pre- ;ard of den of jewels, pretext lachers ititutes, leyard. id from health of the exile of Elba, under the mystic names of Jean de TEpdc, and Cor- poral Violet, were dismissed to spread the news of his approaching return. In short from this central pit of Acheron, in -which are openly assembled and mingled those characters, and occupations, which in all other capitals are driven to hide themselves in separate and retired recesses ; from this focus of vice and treason have flowed forth those -waters of bitterness of which France has drank so deeply." Now if such a state of things as is here set forth existed at head quarters, right in the departments of the Royal Palace, what must we think existed in other and loss public places in Paris, and in France ? The great mass of a people are generally imita- tive, inclined to follow the example set them in high places. We submit a statement of the affairs of the French capital for the year ending September 1803, given by the prefect of police to the Grand Judge. During this year 490 men and 167 women committed suicide ; 81 men and 69 women were murdered, of whom 55 men and 52 women were foreigners ; 66-4 divorces ; 155 murderers executed ; 1210 persons con- demned to the galleys, etc. ; 1620 persons to hard labor ; and 64 marked with hot irons ; 12,076 public women were registered ; large sums wore levied from those wretched creatures, who were made to pay from 25 to 50 dollars each monthly, according to their rank, beauty or fashion ; 1552 kept mistresses were noted down by the police ; and 880 brothels licensed by the prefect. From the number of divorces it appears that mar- riage was looked upon as a mere temporary connection from which tho parties might extricate themselves when they pleased, and illegitimate children, especially in Paris, are numerous beyond what they are in any other city. It seems hardly conceivable that a government should debase itself to authorize the practice of such licentiousness as is here represented, and to derive a large revenue from such infamous and polluted sources. No government which authorises or countenances such practices may expect to thrive or be perpetuated. Such practices enervate a people, yea destroy them body and soul. They are sure to bring down upon the nation in which they exist, sooner or later, the retributive justice of the Governor of mankind. May it not truly be said that the humiliations to which France was subjected at the termination of the first empire and in the late war with Germany, when her whole armies were taken into cap- tivity, which was succeeded by the mutual slaughter of her own people at Paris, were so many visitations on this people for their wickedness ? They doubtless were. And not only that, but we fail to see that the sympa- thetic refinement, which is derived from a too free intercourse of tho sexes with each other, while unmarried, is worthy of the name of civilisation. It is altogether too contemntible and base for the name. Men and women shotdd deny themselves if they cannot afford to live in honorable mar- And men and women, be they young or old, should prefer to live a M nage. 90 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. on the humblest faro, and clotlied with the coarsest garments, oven though their means were sufficient to afford them a daintier kind, rather than practice luxurious living, or any species of licentiousness, or scjuandcr the time and talents which they possess in a too free intercourse with each other. Thus from the review we have been able to give of the moral cha- racter of the F>onch, as indicated by their history, it is evident that though they arc esteemed a civilized nation they are yet far behind true civiliza- tion and that, ir they ever attain a high national character for morality, they will have to alter radically and completely their jtresent moral prin- ciples and practices. In takin" a review of the moral character of the Spaniards, as indicated by their history, we find it a good deal as we have found it in the case of the French. From the earliest historical records wo have of Spain wo find that country to have been the scene of savage warfare, on which the most ferocious passions were displayed. There the Romans, the Goths, the Vandals, the Moors and the Arabs, fought and reigned at different periods. During certain periods of her history, Spain possessed great power as a nation, and, as France, she attained her power by war, and lost it in the same way. In the employment of war, and otherwise, the Spaniards have displayed the most savage ferocity, and the most brutal as well as the most refined and cxc)uisite cruelty. Spain has always been a champion of the Romish religion, and in this country that diabolical tril)unal of the Inquisition was firmly established and manipulated. Con- sidering indeed the inhuman and refined cruelties which have been practised by Spain on account of religion or superstition, that country may, with propriety, be called the peculiar seat of Satan. In the Nether- lands alone, from the time that the edict of Charles V. was promulgated against the reformers, more than 100,000 persons were hanged, beheaded, buried alive, or burned, on account of professing the reformed religion. The prisons were crowded with supposed heretics, and the gibbet, tho scaffold and the stake filled every heart with terror. The duke of Alva, Spanish general to the Netherlands, and his bloodthirsty tribunal, spread universal consternation throughout the provinces ; and, though the blood of 18,000 persons who in five years had been given up to execution for heresy, cried for vengeance on this persecutor, and his abettors, yet they gloried in their cruelty. Philip II., in whose reign these atrocities wore committed, hearing one day that thirty persons had a little before been burned at an Auto da ¥6 (Act of Faith), required that a like execution should be performed in his presence ; and ho beheld with joy forty victims devoted to torments and to death. One of them, a man of distinction, requesting a pardon : " No," replied he coolly, " wore it my own son I nvould give him up to the flames, if he obstinately persisted in heresy." EXISTENCE AND DFITY. 91 The rrrocitics which tlio Spaniards committed on their concjuests of some of tlio West Indian Islands, Mexico, and Peru, are ahnost beyond credibility that they should bo performed by man, if wo did not otherwise know the cliaracter of tliat people. The island of Ilispania was their 6rst settlement in the new world. They forced the inhabitraits to labor as slaves for them, dij^ging gold, and, when the object of their cupiditj was exhausted, thoy exterminated them, and the other i . .ives most barbarously. Of two millions of inhabitants which the island contained when discovered by Columbus in 1492, scarcely loO were alive in 104'), only about fifty years afterwards. The conquest of Mexico by Cortes and his followers was marked with ccjual horrors. During their whole ])rogres3 through that country the route of the Spaniards was marked with carnage, injus- tice, perfidy and deeds of atrocious cruelty. Oa one occasion sixty cacicjues or chiefs of tho Mexican Empire, and 400 nobles wore burned alive with the utmost coolness, and deliberation ; and; to complete tho horrors of the scene, the children and relations of the wrctche 'x victims •were assembled and compelled to be spectators of their dying agonies. On another occasion when tho inhabitants of the city of Mexico were celebrating a festival, and all the people, especially the nobles, were dressed in their richest decorations, under a pretence of a pretended conspiracy, the Spaniards, in order to seize upon their valuable ornaments fell upon them unsuspecting, and slaughtered 2,000 of the nobles. Every right ^Ya3 violated by the S|)aniard3, which is generally held sacred by hostile nations. On every trivial occasion the natives were massacred in great numbers, their lands apijortionod among the Spaniards, the inhabitants reduced to the condition of slaves, and forced to labor, without payment, on all their public works, while the officers, distributed into different pro- vinces, imitated all the excesses and barbarities of their avaricious com- mander. In the siege of Mexico alone no less than 100,000 natives arc said to have fallen by the sword, beside those who perished by famine and other causes connected with warefarc ; but, in their retreat from the capital, the Spaniards suflered a just retribution for their enormities, for numbei'S of them were butchered by the enraged Mexicans, and those who were taken alive were carried off in triumph to the temples, and sacrificed, with all the cruelty which revenge could invent, to the god of war, while their companions at a distance heard their dismal screams and piteous lamentations. Etjual atrocities were committed in the expedition of Pizarro to Peru. In order that they might obtain the golden treasures of this country, they resorted to the basest treachery, and exercised the most cold-blooded cruelties. Under the fairest professions of amity they seized upon tho Inca or Emperor of Peru, who had received them in a friendly manner and had commanded his attendants to offer the strangers no injui'y, and ISiili' m: ,.^.. ^.^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1^ |Z8 12.5 US *■■ Ui Itt 12.2 1^ i il 2.0 1.8 |l-25 1.4 ||.6 ■« 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation # V <^ N> rv 33 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ;\ ^ 191 92 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. slaughtered, with deliberate and unrelenting fury, above 4000 of his attend dants, who never offered the least resistance, after which they passed the- night in the most extravagant exultation over the plunder they had' acquired from the bodies of the slain. The Inca, in order to regain his liberty, promised them as many vessels of gold as would fill an apartment 22 feet long, l(i feet wide and 8 feet high, and, after having collected the promised treasure from all parts of his kingdom, and fulfilled his agree- ment, they not long after. Under the most frivolous pretext, condemned him to be burned alive. The booty they acquired by such atrocious means amounted to about ton millions of dollars in gold. The day appointed for the division of this prey was the festival of St. James, the patron saint of Spain; and, although assembled to divide the spoils of an unoffending people, obtained by treachery, cruelty and slaughter, they had the hy- pocrisy and audacity to commence the transaction with a solemn invocation of the name of God, as if they expected heaven's blessing to descend upon the wages of their iniquity. It would be difficult to conceive that any beings exist in any region of the universe of a worse moral character than these Spaniards proved themselves to be ; and it shows what an ineffably bad being man is capable of becoming when he chooses to work out the evil principles of his nature, and to give reins to his depraved passions and propensities. Here, indeed, we find the one characteristic extreme, that of badness ; let us sec before we finish our review of the nations called civilized whether we shall be able to find the other extreme that of good- ness ; for in the beginning of this review we stated that the two extremes exist in principle in man, either of which he may develope if he chooses, to an almost unlimited degree. The cruel practice of bull-fighting has, until lately, been in vcgue in Spain, almost every large town in that country having an arena set apart for the purpose. We shall give a concise description of a bull-fight in Madrid, from a traveller who was present at it in 1803: " The Spanish bull-fights," he says, " are certainly the most extraordinary exhibitions in Europe ; we were present at one of them this morning. The places in the amphitheatre were nearly all filled at half-past nine, and at ten the corregidor came into his box, upon which the trumpet sounded, and the people rose and shouted from the delight that the show was to begin immediately. Four men in black gowns then came forward, and read a proclamation enjoining all persons to remain in their seats. On their going out of the arena, the six bulls that were to be fought this morning were driven across, led on by a cow with a bell round her neck. The two picadores (the men who were appointed to fight with the furious animals) now appeared, dressed in leathern gaiters, thick leathern breeches, silk jackets covered with spangles, and caps surmounted with broad-brimmed white hats ; each rode a miserable hack, and carried in his hand a long pole, with a goad at the end. As soon as they were prepared a door was ■■' * ■ EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 98 t>pened, and the first bull rushed in. In the course of the contest I felt first alarmed for the men and then for the horses. Soon the accidents of the men withdrew my pity from the beasts ; and, latterly, by a natural and dreadful operation of the mind, I began to look without horror on the calamities of both. The manner of the fight is this : The bull rushes in and makes an attack, severally, upon the picadorcs, who repulse him, he being always, upon these occasions, wounded in the neck ; and, after a few rencontres, he becomes somewhat shy ; but, at the same time, when he does rush on, ho is doubly dangerous. lie follows up the attack and frequently succeeds in overthrowing both horse and rider. As long as the horse has strength to bear the picadore he is obliged to ride him. This morning one of these wretched animals was forced to charge with his guts hanging in festoons between his legs. His belly was again ripped open by the bull, and he fell for dead ; but the attendants obliged hira to rise and crawl out ! This seems the crudest part of the business — for the men almost always escape, but the blood and SaSe rings of thirteen horses were exhibited in the short space of two hours ; four men were hurt : one, who was entirely overturned with his horse upon him, was carried out like a corpse ; but the spectators, totally disregarding this melauL'.cly sight, shouted for his companion to renew the attack. The bull, during his first rage and subsequent fury during many rounds, begins to feel weakness, and declines further attacks on the horsemen. Upon this a loud shout re-echoes through the theatre, and some of the attendants advancing stick his gored neck full of arrows, which cause him to writhe about in great torment. When the efibrts he makes under these sufFerings have consider- ably spent his strength, the corregidor makes a motion with his hand, and the trumpet sounds as a signal to the matador to despatch him. This is a service which requires great skill and bravery ; for the madness of the bull and the torture he endures prompt him to destroy every one around. The matador advances with a red cloak in one hand and a sword in the oilier. He enrages the bull with the cloak until, at length, getting opposite to him, he rushes forward and the sword pierces his spinal marrow, or, what is more common, is buried to the hilt in his neck ; upon which he turns aside, at first moaning, but a torrent of blood gushes from his mouth, and he staggers round the arena and falls. The trumpets sound ; the mules, ornamented with ribbons and flags, appear to drag the wretched victims out by the horns, and the horsemen to prepare for the attack of a fresi* animal. In the evening a show began at half-past four, and ten bulls were brought forward. To tame them before the matador approached, a new expedient was resorted to, most infamously cruel, namely, the covering of the darts with sulphur and fireworks. The torments of these were so dreadful that the animals, whose strength was fresh, raged about terribly, so that the assistants were forced to use great agility to get from them. There were many hair-breadth escapes. One of the animals, in pursuit ■'if \\v,r u" if'^i .'1 94 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. of a man, leaped the barrier of the arena, which is about eight feet high.^ A second bull was still more furious, and made more tremendous attacks. In one of them he pinned the man and horse against the barrier, got his horns under the horse and lacerated him dreadfully ; in a moment after- ward he lifted him up and threw the man with such force through one of tho apertures as to kill him on the spot. lie was borne past tho box in which we were, with his teeth set and his side covered with blood ; the horse staggered out, spouting a stream of gore from his chest. The remaining picadores renewed the charge, and another came in with shouts to take the dead man's place. One of these had his horse's skin dreadfully ripped off his side, and when he breathed the entrails swelled out of the hole ; to prevent which the rider got off and stuffed in his pocket liandkerchief.* Another traveller adds : '• I have seen eight or ten horses torn, and their bellies ripped open, fall and expire in the field of battle. Sometimes these horses, affecting models of patience, of courage, of docility, present a spectacle at which it may be allowable to shudder. You see them tread' under their feet their own bloody entrails, hanging out of their open sides, and still obey for some time the hand that guides them.f Such are some of the amusements which were long practised in Spain, and which fascinated all classes from tho prince to the peasant. It is said they were prohibited in 1805, to the deep regret of the most numerous part of the nation, and that another entertainment, an image of the bull- fight, was substituted in their place, and is still in some places retained. The bull-fights may be said to have represented the gladiatorial shows which were held at Rome, and in the principle cities of the Roman empire, for many centuries ; in \?hich gladiators (swordsmen) trained for the pur- pose — for the most part slaves or prisoners of war — fought with wild beasts for the entertainmenc of the people, who, in great numbers, surrounded the amphitheatre. These gladiatorial exhibitions were abolished by the Emperor Honorius, in A.D. 404. The cruel practice of the bull-fight does not argue a high state of civil- ization for the nations that delight in it. Under an impression of his great superiority in the scale of being, over the brute creation, man has always been accustomed to treat the lower orders of animals with excessive cruelty. This^ however, does not seem so much to be wondered at since he iii so cruel to his own kind ; it is all the working out of the evil prin- ciple within him. We may assume with certainty that the sufferings of these bulls and horses, wounded and dying, were quite as intense and exquisite, as were those of the wounded and dying men. And these animals were ei\mally worthy of pity, if not more so, since they were not the cause: • Travel* through Spain and Portugal in 1803. t Bourgo ng's Modern State of Spain. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 95 of their sufforings, which wore altogether unnecessary, and couKl as well have been avoided, and since they could not speak to make their sufferings known. Men should remember that the lower orders of animals have feelings as they have themselves, and are susceptible in most cases, if not all, of as exquisite pain and suffering. We are often very much affected at seeing animals, especially horses, treated with such inconsideration and cruelty. They are made to draw too heavy loads, to travel too fast, and to work too long hours, upon, perhaps, a scanty allowance of food by men who seem as thoughtless as they are themselves, and infinitely more cruel. We have been a short time ago in a large city where the practice is to a great extent to yoke but one horse to a hack, which in all other cities ■with which we are acquainted is accustomed to be drawn by two horses, and still this horse is made to travel equally fast up and down hill, and to draw equally heavy loads, (as many as they can get into the carriage,) as if there were two horses attached. When men come to know what they really are, and that all other animals have feelings as well as themselves, and are as susceptible of pain and suffering ; that they are always under the Creator's eye, who is every where present to sec and know what they do ; and that they are accountable for the manner in which they treat these animals which He has entrusted to their care, which are also His crea- tures, they will then recognize the propriety, as well as necessity, of treat- ing their animals more considerately and bettor than they have generally Irterto been accustomed to treat them. The empire of Austria has long been a leading state in Europe. Until the ascendancy of Prussia in our day she had the pre-minencc among the German states. Like Russia and Prussia, in later times, she made herself great at the expense of her neighbors, absorbing one neighbor- ing state after another until she attained her present dimensions. She comprises in her dominions various nations and languages, and her people generally are loss enlightened than are the other German nations. The prevailing religion in Austria is that of Rome, and this nation like France has always been a stout supporter of the Papacy. As that state rose out of part of the Roman Empire, and has always been under the influence of Rome, most that will be necessary to say here with regard to its moral character is that it partook of the character of the Roman Empire in its two aspects of civil and religious, and the character of the Roman Empire we shall have to speak of more fully in the latter part of this book. Savage warfare has always there been practised ; the prin- ciples of the Inquisition have there been carried out ; and the Romish Church, as in other European states, has for many centuries there held sway both over the souls and bodies of men. So that in our review of the moral character of Rome, which will have especial reference to the doings of the Roman Church, we may have glimpses of that of Austria, as 111 I '>^cM :,tj 96 EXI8TENCB AND DEITY. Austria since hor rise has always boon a principal member of that Church. The modem Kingdom of Italy lias very lately been formed. From a comparatively limited extent of territory, comprised in the state of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, with the assistance of some able and Uilented states- men, has extended his dominions over all Italy. lie has even added the Papal States to his dominions, and made the city Home his national capital, lie is a man who, (whatever his secret motives may have been, they are best known to himself) for doing so well for his people and for humanity at large, in the circumstances in which he was phiced, is entitled to the consideratic . and respect of all civilized nations, and of all good people. Much fault has been found with him by lloman Catholics for having appro- priated the Papal States ; but in appropriating the Papal dominions he only took away from the Pope what did not belong to the Pope, and what, according to the voice of the people, the Pope was misgoverning, and res- tored to the Kingdom of Italy its ancient capital. The popes have been accustomed to claim the Papal States and the city Rome as their dominions by right of donation by Constantino, which donation they claimed to have been confirmed nearly five hundred years after by Charlemagne. But history goes to prove the said donation of Constantino to have been a fic- tion, most probably of tlie eight century, and its confirmation by Charle- magne to have been no better ; for although both Pepin, the father of Charlemagne, and Charlemagne himself had pretended to make gifts and promises to the Popes of these dominions, yet Charlemagne at his death reckoned the city of Rome and the territories nonimally governed by the Pope as part cf his dominions ; of this we may have occasion to speak again in the latter part of the work. The Pope, therefore, had no right to the dominion of Rome except the right of possession ; and the vote taken in the Papal dominions to ascertain the will of the people on the subject plainly proved that they wished the government transferred to the King of Italy. It was then a matter of duty as well as of right for him to assume the government of the Papal dominions. It is much to be hoped that he will proceed even farther in his laudable course, and, as he has been the liberator of Italy civilly, become also its liberator religiously from the shackles of Papish or Romish idolatry. The Italians only need to become more generally and liberally educated in order to fit them for this more perfect freedom. But to this universal education they need to be encouraged and assisted, and, as in Prussia, required to attend by the gov- ernment. In time past in that country education was not only not permitted or encouraged, but positively interdicted. A royal Sardinian edict, published in 1825, " directs that henceforth no person shall learn to read or write, who cannot prove the possession of property above the value of 1500 livres, (about 300 dollars.) The qualification for a student is the pos- EXI8TENCK AND DEITY. 97 session of an income to the same amount. " Ihe people of Italy, as well as tliose of the other European states, have too long been prevented from education, and kept enslaved, body and mind, by the diversified machinery of the civil and religious power of the Catholic church. But Italy, as the other European states, is a warlike power, and maintains a large standing army ; yet it is hoped that, in the process of time, when her people have become enlightened by education and true religion, Italy, which has been the scene of so many conflicts, and has drunk the blood of so many myriads of the human race, shall become a peaceful nation ; her government joiii- ing hcartely with the other civilized nations in disbanding their armies and police, and in inaugurating and maintaining a reign of peace and righteousness in the world. There is much to be done, and some time will be required, in bringing the people of Italy, as well as of the other European nations, to that degree of enlightenment and civilization which wo wish they had now attained. Tho sooner the movement is made in the direction wo have indicated, and persistently carried out, the sooner will this great end be attained. The present and future rulers of Italy and of each of the other European states may, if they but will, do much toward the enlightenment and highest good of their people. England is a nation of great power and influence. If it be enquired by what means this nation has come by her dominions, it mr.y be answered that it was mainly by force of arms. The seven states of the Saxon Heptarchy waged war among themselves. After they had become united, and their power became concentrated, England, under the Norman and other princes, carried on destructive wars with Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and France, in the last-named country of which she maintained her power for some centuries. Scotland, however, become united to England in more modern times and by peaceable means ; and the rise of the English power to its present state has been mainly accomplished since the union of these two countries nearly three centuries ago, since when the united nation has been called Great Britain. By her conquests on sea she has secured the possession of extensive colonial territories, and by the maintenance of a great naval power she retains them. England's naval wars have been des- tructive of life, and very fertile in the increase of her power. Her wars with France, with the Dutch, with her own colonies in America, with Russia, with India and China, have been ferociously carried on, and with great loss of life and property to the people of these countries as well as to herself. By savage warfare, then, England has attained and maintains her power and influence among the nations of the earth. Without adverting to the oppressive landlord and tax system which is in practice in Great Britain and Ireland, by means of which the great mass of the people cannot do much more in the acquisition of wealth than obtain a bare subsistence, in order the better to illustrate the moral char- i Irl ' 1 ''■'it M^M 1'n ■M/J;' 98 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. actcr of Great Uritain as a nation, wo sliall bring forward one or two instances of the manner in which she has accumulated her wealth. In another ago it will perhaps scarcely bo believed, and in this age it is very little known, that Great Britain, distinguished for her zeal in propo- gating Christianity throughout the heathen world, has for many years derived a revenue from the worship of the idol Juggernaut, and other idols of similar description at Gya, Allahabad, Tropotty, and other places in Ilindostan, From the year 1813 to 1826, there was collected, by order of the British Government, from the j llgrims of Juggernaut alone about 1,300,000 rupees or #850,000, a great part of which was given to the support and maintenance of the abominable worship of this idol. Dr. Buchanan, in his " Christian Researches," states, from official accounts, that the annual expense of the idol Juggernaut presented to tho British Government is as follows : — nL'PEKS. DOLLARS. Expenses of tho table of the idol ;ti;,lir) or 22,r)TU " of his wenring ftpparel '2,712 or 1,G95 Wnpis of his servimls 10,057 or 0,295 Contingent exiienses nt tho iliUeicnt seasons of ]iilgriniftge 10,989 or C,fi05 Expenses of his elejihants and hones 3,030 or 1,890 Expenses of iiid annual state carriage or car, and tower uf the idol 0,713 or 4,195 Ilup.G9,G10 or $43,510 Forty-three thousand five hundred and ton dollars, paid annually by ine British Government for the support of one idol, Juggernaut ! Some of our readers will say they never expected that Britain, which has displayed so much zeal in the dissemination of Bibles and Testaments and Tracts and orthodox Christian doctrine, would be guilty of any such practice. In the item " wages of servants" is included tho wages of the courtesans that are kept for the service of the temple. Mr. Hunter, the collector of the pilgrim tax for 1806, told Mr. Buchanan that three state carriages were decorated that year at an expense of up'vards of one thousand dollars, with English broadcloth and baize. The following items show the gain of this association with idolatry at some of the principal idol stations in India : — ni'PEE9. Net receipt of Pilgrim tax at Juggeruant for 1815 135,607 " " at Gya for 1810 182,87a '• " at Allahabad fur 1816 73,053 " " at Kashee-poor, Snrkuree, Sumbal and Kawa, 1816 5,083 " " at Tri petty and Madras, for 1811 152,000 549,279 A rupee, though generally considered to be only of the value of half a crown or about sixty cents, is said to be received in the case of the EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 99 pilgrims of Iiulia as equivalent in value to one pound stcrlinj^ or five dollars to an inhabitant of England ; so that in this point of view rupees may he considered as eqiiivalent to pounds sterling or five dollar pieces. Mr. Hamilton, in his " description of Ilindostan," as quoted by Mr. Pcggs in his " Pilgrim Tax in Indiu,"' states, with respect to the district of Tanjore, that " in almost every village there is a temple with a lofty gate- way of massive architecture, where a groat many Brahmins are maintained partly by an allowance from government The Brahmins are hero extremely loyal on account of the protection they receive, and also for an allowance granted them by the British Government, of 45,000 pagodas or 18,000 pounds annually, which is distributed for the support of the poorer temples." One can scarcely conceive of anything more inconsistent than the conduct of a nation, that professes itself to be Christian and will not allow that it is idolatrous, supporting a system of idolatry the most revolting, cruel, lascivious and profane ? Yet a member of the British Parliament, C. Bullen, Esq., in his letter to the Court of Directors rela- tive to Juggernaut in 1813, says : " I cannot see what possible objection there is to the continuance of an established tax, particularly when it is taken into consideration what large possessions in land and money aro allowed by our government in all parts of the country for koeping up the religious institutions of the Hindoos, and the Mussulmans." From all parts of India multitudes of idol-worshipers or pilgrims annually travel many hundred miles to pay homage to the different idols alluded to above. A tax is levied on those pilgrims graduated according to the rank or circumstances of the pilgrim, and amounting from one to twenty or thirty rupees. Those travelling to Allahabad, for example, are taxed at the following ratfcd ; on every pilgrim on foot, one rupee ; on every pilgrim with a horse or a palanquin, two rupees ; on every pilgrim with an elephant, twenty rupees, etc. Vast numbers of deluded people flock to these temples every year. In 1825, the number that arrived at Juggernaut was estimated at 225,000, and in some years they have been calculated to amount to more than a million. The deprivations and miseries endured by these people are almost inconceivable. Dr. Buchanan, who visited the temple of Juggernaut in 1806, gives the following statement : " Numbers of pilgrims die on the road, and their bodies generally lie unburied. On a plain near the pilgrim caravansera, one hundred miles from Juggernaut, I saw more than one hundred skulls ; the dogs, jackels, and vultuics seem to live here on human prey. Wherever I turn my eyes I meet death in one shape or other. From the place where I now stand, I have a view of a host of people, like an army, encamped at an outer gate of the town of Jugger- naut, where a guard of soldiers is posted to prevent them from entering^ the town until they have payed the tax. A pilgrim announced that he :! 'i! W€ ■'f hi if '\\ 100 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. was ready to offer himself a sacrifice to the idol, lie laid himself down on the road before the car as it was moving along, with his arras stretched forward. The multitude passed him leaving the apace clear, and ho was crushed to death by the wheels. IIow much I wished that the proprietors of Indian stock would have attcmlcd the wheels of Juggernaut, and scon this peculiar source of their rovenne. I behold a distressilng scene ^lia mornin" in tho place of skulls, a poor woman lying dead or nearly so with her two children by her, looking at tho dogs and vultures which were near. The people passed by without noticing the children. I asked them where was thoir home, they said they had no home, but whore their mother was. Oh, there is no pity at Juggernaut. Those who support his kingdom err, I trust from ignorance; they know not what they do." " The loss of life," says Colonel Phipps, "by this superstition probably •exceeds that of any other. Tho aged, tho weak, the sick, are persuaded to attempt this pilgrimage, as a remedy for all evils. The number of women and children is also very great, and they leave their families and their occupations to travel immense distances with the delusive hope of obtaining eternal bliss. Their means of subsistence on the road are scanty, and their liglit clothing and little bodily strength arc little calculated to encounter the inclemency of the weather. When they approach tho temple they find scarcely enough left to pay the tax to government, and to satisfy the rapacious Brahmins ; and, on leaving Juggernaut with a long journey before thom, their means of support are often (juite exhausted. Tho work of death then becomes rapid, and tho route of the pilgrims may be traced by the bones left by the jackals and vultures, and the dead bodies may be seen in every direction." It may be said, therefore, without any extravagance, that a certain portion of tho British nation luxuriate upon tho nicest dainties, and the choicest finery derived from the intolerable sufferings and the life's blood of the Hindoos ! Do they ? With regard to the number that perish on such occasions, Rev. Mr. Ward estimates that 4,000 pilgrims perish every year on the route to and at holy places, an estimate which is considered by others as far below the truth. Captain F estimates those who died at Cuttack and Pooree, and between the two stations, at 5,000. What a number of these deluded wretches must die before they reach their homes, many of them coming three, six or nine hundred miles ! Mr. M , tho European collector of the tax at Pooree estimated the mortality at 20,000. Juggernant is the most celebrated station of idolatry in India. All the land within twenty miles is regarded as holy ; but the most sacred spot is enclosed by a wall 21 feet high, forming a square of about 65 feet. Within this area there are about fifty temples, but the most conspicuous building consists of one lofty stone tower 184 feet high, and 28^ feet square inside. The idol Juggernaut, his brother Bulbudra, and his sister EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 101 Subadra occupy this tower. The roofs are ornamciitoil with representations of monsters ; the walls of the teinjtle are covered with statues of stone ropro- sentinj^ Hindoo gods with their wives in attitudes grossly indecent. The three idols alluded to are wooden busts six feet high, having a resem bianco of the human head, and are painted white, yellow and black, with frightfully grim and distorted countenances. They arc clothed with span- gled broadcloth furnished from the export warohouso of the British Govern- ment. The car on which Juggernaut is drawn measures 43^ feet high, has 10 wheels of 6i feet diameter, and a platform iH\ feet scjuaro. The ceremonies connected with this idolatrous worship arc in many cases exceedingly revolting and obscene. At Ranibut, in the I'rovince of (lurwall, is a temple sacred to Rajah Ishwara, which is principally inhabited by dancing women. The initiation into this society is performed by anointing the head with oil taken from the lamp, placed before the altar, by which act they make a formal abjuration of their parents and kindred, devoting their future lives to prostitution ; and the P»'itish government by giving annually 512 rupees to the religious mendicants who fre(iuent this temple, directly sanction this system of obscenity and pollution ? Many temples of impurity exist in other places iu Ilindostan. Tavcrnier mentions a village in which there is a pagoda to which all the Indian courtesans come to make their offerings. This pagoila is decorated with a great number of naked images. Girls of eleven and twelve years old, who have been bought and educated for the purpose, are sent by their mistresses to this pagoda to offer and surrender themselves to this idol. If, as we have seen, the French Government authorize prostitution at home, what do they more than the British Government does in India, only that they act a little more directly in the matter ? Such an abominable practise is sure to bring its equivalent measure of punishment, sooner or later, upon the nation whose government allows or supports it. In order to induce ignorant devotees to leave their homes, and com- mence pilgrimages to these scenes of impurity and idolatry a set of avaricious villains, termed pilgrim-hunters, are employed to traverse the country, and by all manner of falsehoods to proclaim the greatness of Juggernaut and their idols. They declare, for example, that the idol has now so fully convinced his conquerors (the British) of his divinity, that they have taken his temple under their own superintendency, and that they expend 60,000 rupees yearly to provide it with an attendance suitable to his dignity. These pilgrim-hunters are paid by the British Government. If one of them can march out 1,000 persons and persuade them to undertake the journey, he receives 1500 rupees if they be of the lower class, and 3000 rupees if they are persons belonging to the highest classes. And, what seems a very natural consequence, the procedure of the British Government in relation to this system has led many of the . ,4 , m. 102 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. i\ I r natives to suppose tliat the British people approve of the idolatrous worship cstaMitthod in India. A Hindoo cnfjuirod of a raissioaary ; ** If Juggernaut be nothing; what docs the company take so much money from those wlio come to see hira ' " Mr. Lacy, a missionary, who went to Buccour tho destitute on the road to Cuttack, during one of the festivals, relates the following incident : *' You would have felt your heart moved to hear, as I did, the natives say : — ' Your preaching is a lie, for, if your Saviour and your religion are thus merciful, how do you then take away the money of the poor and suffer him to starve ? ' It is indeed no wonder that when the natives see a poor creature lying, about to die for want, they should reflect that the two rupees he has paid as a tax would have supported his life." Nor should it be a pleasing reflection to an English mind that these two rupees form precisely tho difference between life and death to many who have perished for want on their way homo. Another missionary relates : " Passing one evening a large temple I caught a sight at one of the idols and exclaimed, sinful, sinful ! ! Iho native who was with me asked : ' Sir, is that sinful for which the company gives thousands ? ' A man said to me a few days ago, ' If the government does not forsake Juggernaut, how can you expect that we should' ?" In this way the efforts of the Christian missionaries to convert the Hindoos are in many instances rendered of no avail. Could not the British nation endure to bo less wealthy, and refrain from increasing their stock of riches by the support and encouragement of such a polluted system of idolatry, attended with such an amount of suffering, deprivation and death to the people of ludio ? But, doubtless, the great body of tho British people are ignorant of any such practice being authorized or countenanced by their government. Or, do the British Government carry on this vile business lill now ? People should prefer to live on herbs, and go clothed in the coarsest garments, rather than luxuriate on the most delicious fare, clothed in the finest and costliest garments, derived from such an unspeakably abominable and polluted source. Another glaring instance of British moral or Immoral character is found in their imposition by force of the drug opium upon the Chinese. We have stated before that opium is derived from the juice of the poppy plant, which is cultivated largely in India. We shall now state some facts in relation to this subject from the work of a late writer on Chir.a,a Christian missionary, who has lived among the Chinese for a number of years,and is fully conversant with this subject : " The profits of the opium trade to Great Britain are enormous not less than twenty to twenty-five millions of dollars a year. According to the estimate of an English newspaper, published in China, * the total profit from the time when the trade I'he North China Herald of Sbangliai. fcXISTENOK AND DKITY. 108 becnn until tho year IH.Vi woro, in ronml niunl»or8,tliroo hundred nnd ten millions of dollars, and fronj that timo to tho pio-iont it U throo hundred and forty millions moro. Tho total U ahout six hundro< is tho actual not profit to tho produce upon a trade which atnoiuitii to from sixty to eighty thousand che.sts a year, which are worth in all from forty to sixty niillioi.s of dollars. Tlio ext(?nt of the responsiliility of the llritish govenunent for the production and sale of opium I prefer,8ays tho writer, to state in the words of one of its own subjects. The Calcutta corres- pondent of tho London Times thus presents tho case for tho consideration of the readers of that influential i)aper : ' What,' says he, • arc tho facts ? As to IJcnj^al, I have gone through the poppy fields of Shahabad ,and have witnessed every dotnil of the manipulation in the enormous go-downs of Putna. Under a severe contract law, twice as penal as any that has ever been proposed for ordinary agricultural juirposes, and scouted by Englaml, advances of money are annually made to the peasants of Behar, Benaroa, and elsewhere. (It will bo remembered that the opium is grown in British India, and is thonco exported to China, and that the British government has, by means of war, cuiiipelled the Chinese government to admit it to their country in which its sale is now legalised, as is well known by the latter to tho great detriment of tho Chinese people.) Tho state lies out of those advances for a year. Its establishment of highly-paid officials, and oppressive or colluding native subordinates, supervises every detail, tho preparation of the fields, the sowing, the weeding, the scrap- ing of tho capsules, tho collection of the crude juice, its transit to the state factory, and its sale in Calcutta. Yet, in spite of its establishments, smuggling is tho rule. Tho state of tho case is this : China will have opium just as England will have gin, and Scotland whisky. All facts go to show that the abuse of opium in China, though great, is by no means equal to that of alcohol in Europe. Tho moral question is, not whether China may bo supplied with opium, but whether England as a nation, as the ruling power of India, ought, in its official and national character, to grow, manufacture and export the drug, the use of which has, after two or three wars, been legalized in China. Yet this is the position of England at this moment in relation to three-fourths of the opium imported from India ? ' What is the effect of the opium trade upon Christian missions ? Tho writer and every man who has been engaged in tho work of preach- ing the gospel, healing the sick, instructing the young, and disseminating the word of God, knows that the incessant and bitter objection urged by all classes to his efforts is that it is impossible that nations which carry opium in the right hand can carry any boon of mercy in the left. It (the opium traffic) is planting seeds of enervation, crime, and disease in tho Chinese, who are coming to our shores, and creating corresponc' g 104 EXISTENCE 4ND DEITY. K.U vexation and injury to us ; it keeps the sword of war continually unsheathed and wot with blood, the torch of conflagration constantly burn- ing, and every puff of hostile wind distributing its sparks amidst materials which are ever ready to burn hotly ; it makes the benevolent efforts of the preacher of the Gospel of mercy and of the Christian physician and teacher appear like shallow and abominable hypocrisy, and the word of God itself something ^Ise and hateful when offered by hands imbrued with so stupendous a crime against humanity and justice, against the conscience of man, an.i against the iaw of Heaven." Here we find a Chiidtian nation itself the cause of the Gospel being virtually excluded from China, with its teeming population of four hundred millions of people. Tho same author says : " Would that it were possible to say that the hands of American merchants have not been stained by connivance with the crime of the opium trade in China ! We are grateful to God that ic it has not been made "• an official and national business to grow, manufacture and export the drug ' by any other nation than Great Britain, and its Indian dependencies. But our ships have helped to convey and distribute the poison ; our merchants have partaken to some extent of the profits of the work; and we have given it a garment of respectability by the deceitful pleas with which we have palliated its enormity. " That unjust practice of forcing its commoditiea upon other nations against their will has of old been the policy of England. The reader may remember that the war which resulted in the independence of the United States, which, until then, were British colonies, arose from the British government having undertaken to compel the colonists to receive its cargoes of tea against their will. In the case of the Americans they did not succeed in their undertaking, but in that of the Chinese they did, after two or three wars, so that now the sale and use of the drug is legalised in that country. Great Britain, therefore, notwithstanding the progress she has made in the sciences and the arts, and the great efforts she iias made in the dissemination of religious and other kind of knowledge, has yet much national injustice to answer ' ^r, and scill far to advance before she has attained to true civilization, of which the practice of true Christian morality is the beginning and the ending : " Do unto others as you would have others do unto you." Another unfavorable feature in the moral character of the British nation is the severity of its penal code. Among the variety of actions which men are daily liable to cor .nit no less than 160 have been declared by Act of Parliament to be felonies without benefit of clergy, or, in other words, to be worthy of instant death. Those who are found guilty of high treason are condemned by the law " to be haaged on a gallows for some minutes, then cut down while yet alive, the heart to be taken out and exposed to view, and the entrails burned." Though the most cruel part of this statute EXISTEXCF AND DEITY. 105 is said never to ha^'c been liiflictecl in modern times, yet its existence on the statute book (docs it now exist ?) is a disgrace to the British nation, a disgrace which should be got rid of as quickly and as far as possible. Instead of dhninishing the number of offenders experience teaches that crimes are almost uniformly increased by an undue severity of punishment. This was strikingly exemj)lificd in the reign of Henry VIII., remarkable indeed for the number of its crimes, which certainly does not seem to have arisen from mildness of punishment. In that reign alone, says his historian, 72,000 executions took place /or robberies alone ; exclusive of the reVujious vuirchrs^ which arc known to have been so numerous as to amount, on an average, to six executions a day, Sundays included, during the whole reign of that monarch. The design of the institution of government is, or ought to be, to subserve the benefit of the governed, to advance their highest interests ; but the government which will carry on such a wholesale slaughter among its people as that under the English monarchs did seems certainly to have another object in view, not the benefit, but the injury and destruction of its people. If we enquire after the moral character of the United States as a nation, we shall find that it, too, has been affected with many of those imperfections which we have seen so glaringly to be in the case of those we have reviewed. By war it attained its existence as a nation, and by the exercise of war it has maintained its independence and integrity, as Avell as extended its dominions. By the war of the revolution, ending in 1776, the iiidependenco was acheived, and by that of 1812 it was main- tained. The United States has also carried on a war with Mexico, as a result of which the territories of the former have been extended westward to the Rio Grande and the Pacific Ocean, over Southern California. The States havt ulso carried on another great war with its own people, dark and fratricidal in its character, and which, though it may be thought to be pro- ductive of many good results, yet there are many reasons to deplore. It appears that the wais which tho first colonists carried on with the Indian tribes arose from their peculiar situation in relation to those tribes ; but there are reasons to believe that the Indians were taken advantage of in too many cases by the white settlers of the Atlantic states. In their advance inland they drove the Indians before them, and gradually exterminated them as they advanced. If it be enquired what has become of all the Indian tribes which once inhabited the Northern, the Southern, and the Western stages to the Missisippi River; what has become of all the Indians that three centuries ago inhabited the Continent of America now thickly inhabited by white people ; the answer is plain ; they have: in the main been exterminated by the whites, gradually, by means of' war, and secretly. Many strange but likely stories are told by some of the old settlers around the Great Lakes of the ways in which they m 106 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. ; 'S havr. known tho Indians to be got rid of. And the means employed in one section of the country to get rid of them, or means equally effective, may have also been employed ir other sections for the same purpose. Some of the Indians, doubtless, made their way into British America, still beyond the reach of the whites, and some of them 8re provided for by the United States Government in territories appor- tioned to them for a residence ; but the greater part of the Indians must necepsarily have suffered extermination by the whites in their gra- dual settlement of the country. Since the formation of the United States Government, however, the Indians that have submitted to it have been liberally death with, and a hke liberal treatment has always been given by the British Government to the Indians settled within their North American possessions. And it may, perhaps, be considered that the Indians by their uncalled-for aggrsssioiis on the new comers were, to a great extent, the cause of their own destruction . The two races might have lived together peaceably and prosperously if thi.y had mutually cultivated and exercised toward each other the proper temper and spirit, — there was abundant room for all on the wide continent of America, — but they were mutually jealous, it appears, and suspicious of each other; either did not feel themselves safe in the neighbourhood of the other ; and thus arose their mutual Avarfare. Heretofore, in the history of mankind, we observe that when two races, speaking different languages, and differing froii each other perhaps only triflingly in other respects, came face to face on the same soil, human barbarity has generally necessitated the yielding of the one to the other. Instead of the principle of benevolence, that of malevolence is usually practised in such cases. Cannot a new era, an era of benevolence, of self-denial, of humility and peaceful industry be inaugurated ? It can, if eac'i one living will do their part towards it by always cultivating and exercising the right temper and spirit. The existence of slavery so long in the United States was the great est moral reproach to the nation. The way, also, in which it was got lid of is a reproach. The pride and haughtiness of certain individuals of the rival parties — slave and free — kindled the flame of war, which for four years T"..ged with such destructive violeroe. The result of the war — the abolition of slavery — was great, but how much better it would have been had the same result been accomplishes by peaceful measures and meaas. Slavery is an evil, which every one must conscientiously know to be an evil. But because an evil exists must an equal evil be perpetrated in order to get rid of it ? Should the proud hearts of the leaders of the South and North not bend to an act of lerrlation by which the slaves might be eman- cipated by means of an equitable purchase, and slave "^y abolished? ^he thing was not impracticable, for it had been done before by the British Government in the case of their West Indian slaves. Or, on the other EXISTENCE AND DEIT' 107 \v and ro Tiand should not those who held the slaves in bondage have acted bene- volently toward them and set them free, and put them to work at a fair wages ? It is time that such benevolence were exercised by human beings toward each other. It Is said to be more blessed to give than to receive. Men have but a short time to live on this earlhlv scene, and though they be rich or poor, they will be all the happier and better for doing all the good that lies in their power, by acting benevolently and beneficently toward each other. There is no doubt of this. Let each one realize it for one's self. Your Creator is everywhere present, recognizes all your acts, and will be sure to reward the good acts, and, if you are unable to act, the good-will and intentions. You are also an accountable being, and will in yourself experience the consequences of your evil, whether of omission or of commission. A small moiety of the treasure which was expended in carrying on that atrocious war — the result of pride and selfishness iu a fe^ might have been sufficient to have bought the slaves out at a fair price. And how many fathers, and husbands, and brothers, and sons, whom that war has laid low, would now be alive, a help and a comfort to their friends, and a blessing to their country ! The emanci,.>ated negroes would be equally well ofi",— perhaps better, — tl.j country much more pros- perous, and the people much happier. America, both South and North, would thus have given proof of a higher state of civilization, and of a higher moral character, than it now can be ad nitted to have attained. How long before men come to realize that their duty is to deny self, to subdue and eradicate pride, and to act benevolently and charitably toward each other ! May there not be less crime of a private and of a public nature committed in the United States? Wi'l not each individual, old and young, male and female, in the republic, leave nothing undone which they can do to bring about the era of righteousness, and peace, when all shall enjoy and be satisfied with the fruits of their own integrity, industry, and strictly moral living ? The country which has hitherto been the refuge of the poor and oppressed of all nations may thus be rendered of still greater benefit to mankind. Heretofore in our review of the moral character of the civilized nations we have spoken of Rome and its empire with reference mainly to its civil aspect. Now we shall inquire ^vhat information history affords us as to the character and doings of the Catholic Church, whose head was the Pope. Hitherto we have not found that the nations called civilized are exalted to a very great degree above those called uncivilized, in point of true morality, (although they are exalted in some degree,) so that our readers may ere this have begun to suppose that if the nations called civilized have much in their moral character to entitle them to the name civilized, it must be found in the religion they profess. We shall see. 08 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. The New Testament teaches us of the characters of the founders of the- christian church. They are all said to be men distinguished for self-denial, for humility, for charity, and for active industry in the cause which they espous- ed, and endeavoured to promote. During the early ages of Christianity a goodly portion of the same spirit was manifested by the greater number of those who enrolled themselves as the followers of Christ. Even in the midst of the reproaches and persecutions to which they were subjected during the two first centuries of the Christian era, a meek and forgiving disposi- tion, and a spirit of benevolence toward one another, and toward all man- kind, distinguished them from the heathen around and constrained even their enemies to exclaim : " Behold how these Christians love one an- other ! " But no sooner was the church combined witli the state in the days of Constantine than its native purity began to be sullied, and Pagan maxims and wordly ambition began to be blended with the pure doctrines of Christianity. Many of its professed adherents, overlooking the grand practical bearings of the Christian system, began to indulge in vain specu- lations concerning its doctrines which they could not understand ; to substitute a number of unmeaning rites and ceremonies in the place of love to God and man, and even to persecute, and destroy all those who refused to submit to their opinions and decisions. Pride and ambition usurped the place of humility and meekness, and the foolish mummeries of monastic and ascetic superstition and austerity were substituted in the place of the active duties of justice and benevolence. Saints were deified ; the power of the clergy was magnified; religious processions were appointed ; pilgrim- ages were performed to the tombs of the martyrs; monasteries and nunneries- without number were erected ; prayers were offered up to the departed saints; the doctrine of the Trinity was instituted ; the Virgin Mar^ was recognized as a species of inferior deity ; the sign of the cross was regarded as capable of securing victory in all kinds of trials and calamities, and as the surest pro« tection against the influence of malignant spirits ; the bishops aspired after wealth, magnificence, and splendour, which they have not yet ceased to do ; errors in religion were punished with civil penalties and bodily tortures ; and the most violent disputes and contentions disturbed every section of the Catholic Church ; while the mild and beneficent virtues of the religion of Christ were either discarded or thrown into the shade. Of these and similar dispositions and practices we might give details which would fill many volumes, and which would convince every impartial mind that the true lustre of Christianity was sadly obscured, ai.d its heavenly spirit almost extinguished, amidst the mass of superstitious observances, of vain speculations, and of angry feuds and contentions, which prevailed. Millot, in speaking of the state of the church in the days of Constantine and the succeeding emperors, justly rema: ks : " The disciples of Christ were in- spired with mutual feuds, still more implacable and destructive than the * .Mil EXISTENCE AND DEIT^ 109 !■ \ Tactions that were formed for or against different emperors. The spirit of contention condemned by St. Paul became almost universal. New sects sprung up incessantly and combattcd each other. Each boasted its apos- tles, gave its sophisms for divine oracles, pretended to be the depositary of the faith, and used every effort to draw the multitude to its standard. The church was filled with discord ; bishops anathematized bishops ; vio- lence was called in to the aid of argument, and the folly of princes fanned the flame which spread with such destructive rage. They played the theo- logists, attempted to command opinions, and punished those whom they could not convince. The laws against idolaters were soon extended to heretics ; but what one emperor prescribed as heretical was to another sound doctrine. What was the consequence ? The clergy, whose influence was already great at court, and still greatei' among the people,began to withdraw from the sovereign authority that respect which religion inspires. The popular ferments being heightened by the animosities of the clergy, prince, country, law or duty were no longer regarded. Men were Arians, Donatists, Priscillianists, Nestorians, Eutychians, Monothelites, etc., but no longer citizens, or, rather, every man befiarao the mortal enemy of those citizens whose opinions he condemned. This unheard-of madness for irre- concilable quarrels on subjects which ought to have been referred to the judgment of the church, never abated amid the most dreadful disasters. Every sect formed a different party in the state, and their mutual animo- sities conspired to sap its foundations. " * At the period to which these observations refer two erroneous maxims appear to have generally prevailed, which tended to undermine the gos- pel system of morality, and which were productive of almost all the con- tentions, tumults, and massacres, which distinguish that era of the Christian church. These were, first, that religion consisted in the belief of certain abs- tract and incomprehensible dogmas, and in the performance of a multitude of external rites and ceremonies ; and, secon'l, that all heresies or differ- ences of opinion on religious points ought co be extirpated by the arm of the civil power. Than such maxims nothing can be more repugnant to reason or subversive of genuine morality, or more inconsistent with the genius and spirit of the true religion of Christ. And yet, to this time they are rcted upon by four fifths of the Christian world, notwitlistanding the numerous examples which history furnishes of their futility and erroneous tendency. We shall state only two or three instances referring to this period. The Emperor Theodosius came to the throne of the Roman empire in the year 379, A. D. Being originally a pagan he was baptised into the Christian church in the second year of his reign, during a severe illness, which threatened his life, and on his recovery he professed great zeal for Sr/j m..m * Jlillot's Modern Hist. Vol. 1. ^1 , 1 I; I ;, 110 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. that church. Soon after his baptism, lie dictated the following edict : " It is our pleasure that all the nations which are governed by our clemency and moderation should steadily adhere to the religion which was taught by St. Peter to the Romans, which faithful tradition has preserved, and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus, and by Peter, bishop of Alexan- dria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the teaching of the apos- tles, and the doctrines of the Gospel let us believe the sole deity of the Fa- ther, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, under an equal majesty and a pious tri- nity. We authorise the followers of this doctrine to assume the nameof Catho- lie Christians; and as we judge that all others are extravagant madmen, wo brand them Avith the infamous name of heretics, and declare that their conventicles shall not longer usurp the respectable name of churches. Beside the condemnations of divine justice they must expect to suflFer the extreme penalties which our authority, guided by heavenly wisdom, shall think proper to inflict upon them." * T'leodosius declared apostates and Manicheans incapable of making a will or receiving any legacy ; and, having pronounced them worthy of death, the people thought they had a right to kill them as proscribed per- sons. He enacted a law condemning to the flames cousins-gerraan, who married without a special license from the emperor. He appointed inqui- sitions for the discovering of heretics. He drove the Manicheans from Rome as infamous persons, and on their death ordered their goods to be distributed among the people. In the space of ten years, he promulgated at least fifteen severe edicts against nonconformists and heretics, more especially those who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity which, under his reign, was established by law ; and to deprive them of every hope of escape he sternly enacted that if any laws or rescripts should be alleged in their favor, the judges should consider them as the illegal productions either of fraud or forgery. Leo, another emperor, " commanded every person to be baptised under pain of banishment, and made it a capital offence for any one to relapse into idolatry after the performance of that ceremony ; '* as if men could be made Christians by a forced baptism or by a law of the state. Such edicts clearly showed that whatever zeal those princes or the clergy might manifest in favor of the Christian religion, they were totally devoid of the true spirit, and ignorant of the means by which its benevolent objects were to be accomplished. To illustrate the manner in which such edicts were carried into effect, the following instance may be stated : Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, the celebrated geometrician of Alexandria, exceeded her father in learn- ing, and gave public lectures in philosophy with the greatest success ; nor was she less admirable for the purity of her virtues, joined to an uncom- * Gibbon's Rome. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. Ill 3r t, mon beauty, and every accomplishment that could adorn human nature. But that excellent woman, because she would not accept of the established religion, and was supposed to be active against St. Cyril, the bishop, became an object of detestation to the Christian multitude. A set of monks and desperadoes, headed by a priest, seized her in the open street, hurried her into a church, where they stripped her naked, lacerated her body with whips, cut her in pieces, and publicly burned her mangled limbs in the market-pkce.* St. Cyril, who was suspected of having fomented this tragedy, had previously attacked the synagogues, and driven out the Jews ; their goods were pillaged, and several persons perished in the tumult. Such conduct plainly demonstrates the tendency of the human mind to abuse power, for the purpose of revenge and persecution ; and illustrates, also, what the ideas of these persecutors were of their pretended religion. About this time, and afterwards also, vain speculations about abstruse and incomprehensible subjects occupied the minds and the time of theolo- gists, engendered religious quarrels and disputes, and burst asunder the bonds of affection and concord. A play upon words and vain subtleties were substituted for clear conceptions and substantial knowledge ; which, instead of directing tiie faculties of the human .oind to the proper objects, tended to obscure the light of reason, and to usher in the long night of ignorance, characterized as the Dark Ages. It was a prevailing madness with these early theologists, who were obstinately ten-xcious of their opinions, and it has been too much the case with certain modern theolo- gists to dispute about doctrines which they claimed to be incomprehen- sible, to render them more obscure by their attempts to explain them, never giving the proper explanation, and perpetually to revive the most angry contentions. The Arians rejected the divinity of Christ in order to maintain the unity of God ; the Nestorians denied that Mary is the mother of God, and gave two persons to Jesus Christ to support the opinion of His having two natures. The Eutychians, in order to maintain the unity of the person, confounded the two natui'es in one. This sect became divided into ten or twelve branches, many of them, as the Gnostics of the Primitive Church, maintaining that Christ was merely a phantom or appearance of flesh, but not real flesh. The Monothelites maintained that Christ had only one will, as they could not conceive two free wills to exist in the same person. Another sect maintained that Christ's body was incorruptible, and that from the moment of His conception He was incapable of change and of suffering. This chimera the Emperor Justinian attempted to establish by an edict. He banished the patriarch Eutychius, and several other prelates IT* ill r ffi * Millet's Modern History. 112 KXISTKNTK ANI> I>i;iTV. \\\\o (^pjiosovl liis soiitinuMits. and «!»!< |>n'paiin>!; to tvr;\Miiiz«' mor (lio omi- soionoos of iuot\ with still luoro vii>l»M\oo, when. al>iM' n lon^ voign, iloi\U» intorp«vso«U nml roniin'od liiin fnMU this oiirllily st'ciio. In suoh vain nnil propost(MnM»« (lis|mto» nn tlicso tl\(» numls of prt««oil riuistians wore ooou)>ioil. notwitlislnmlinii tl\o noriN with which thoy woro thou onooiupassoil liv tho invasion of tho hnrhniimts. Counoil-* woro hoM to (lotonuino tlio i>rllioih»x siilo of a tmostion ; ana(ho\naf4 woro hiirhMl against those who vofusod to aonuiosoo in thoir (hu'isions ; prinoos in(orpofl(>i| thoir authority. nn conipol nu'u to profosA what thov did not behove and emihl not nudorstaud. whih' the esMotttial truths i^f reho;i«>n were overhiokcd, and its morality ilisreirardod. " Mcli- gion," says Millot, •' inspires men with a eoutenipt of earthly vanities, a detestation of vice, and iudiilfjiMico for the t'raillies of o\ir nei^hhors, iuvulnerahlo patience in misfortune ami compas>atan, in warding off all sorts of calamities, and in healing the diseases of the body and of the mind • works of piety and benevolence, as in Ilomish countries at tho present day, were viewed as consisti.ig chiefly in building ami embclliahing RXIMTKNrH ANI> hKITV. Ii:i l)lo the of i<)imrlii"» nii'l ('lm|n'|fl, in i>inl')\vni!» m'mnsfrM'i»M, in liniifiii;^ nfti'r tlio r(>liffl m( mtirtvrfl, in prDnniiiji tlu> iiifcri'cM-tinn nf Hnintfl liy licli (tltlalioim, in woiMliipinir imivijoq, in |iil;rrinnL;Iiliii'v iim-4-«t>fl, nw\ in n vnrioty »»f siinilnr Rorviccs nliirli cinilil ciiflily I'o ri'CMni'iloil witli tli(Mliiv a pouilorous ohain, he asoondod noohinu), whioh was sucoossivoly raised from the height of nine to that of sixty foot, from tho ground. In this last and lofty station tho Syrian monk resisted tho heat of thirty summers, and the cold of as many winters, llahit an*l exoroiso instruotod him to main- tain his dangerous situation without fear ov giddiness, and suooossivoly to assmne the dilferont postures of devotion, lie somotimos prayed in an erect attitude with his arms outstrotohod in the tiguro ot a cross, hut his most familiar practice was that of honding his meagre skeleton from tho forehead to tho feet ; and a oirious spootator, alter mimhoring I- 1 4 repetitions of this act. at length desisted from tho endless aocomit. Tho ju'ogross of an ulcer in his log might shorten, hut it could not disturh this celestial life ; and tho patient nu>nk oxpiroil without descending from his cohunn. This voluntary martyrdom m\ist have gradually destroyed tho sonsihility hoth of tho mind and hotly ; nor can it he presumed that fanatics who unnecessarily tormoui uliemsolvosareauscoptihlo of any lively impression for tho rest of mankind. A oruel unfeeling temper has distinguished tho monks of every age and country ; their stern indiireronco is inilamed by religious hatred, and their merciless xoal has stroimously adminislored the oilice of the Impiisition. To the same irrational principle are to ho attributed tho revolting prac- tices of the Flagellants, a sect of fanatics who chastised thomsolvos with whips in public places. Numbers ot persons of this description of all ages and sexes niaile processions, walking two by two, with their shoulders bare, which they whi[)ped until tho blood ran down in streamlets, in order to obtain the mercy of God and apjioasc his anger against their wickedness. They hold, among other things, that Hagellation was of equal virtue with bajnism and the other sacraments; that the pardon of all sins would be obtained by it, without the merits of Jesus Christ ; that tho old law of Christ was soon to be abolished, and that a new law, enjoining a baptism of blood to be administered by whipping, would be substituted in its place. The enormous power that came to be vested in the ecclesiastical rulers was another source of immorality, and of the greatest excesses. Tho Pope and the clergy reigned over the greatest part of tho Catholic church without control, and made themselves masters of almost all tho wealth in every country in Europe. Many of them perpetrated crimes of tho deepest dye, and the laity, thinking themselves able to purchase the pardon of their sins for money, followed without scruple tho example of tlioir pastors. Every Christian country swarmed with lazy monks, and tho most violent conten- KXIHTKNCa AND DKITY. Hi tionfl, ftiiimo«itioH niid Imtrod rci^iied nmonft tlicir difforcMit orders, ft* wt'll ns botwecu all raiikH and ordcM of tlio i'Ioijj;y. "■ Inntoad of coimo- crntiiig occloHiuatioal coiihuich solely to Hpiriliial pnr|HH('H, tlioy convortod tlicin into a weapon for dofondin^ llu'ir privileges, and Hupportin^ their protcnjions. Tlie pricatliood, wliieh was principally deHigned to IdeMH, wan nioHt fre(|nenlly employed in eursing. lixeomniunicatiou wan made the instrument of damnin;^ nistead of saving souls, and wtis inllioted accordin;^ to tlio dictates of policy or rev()ng(>." Tlio groat and powerful, oven kings and emperors, wcuo oxcommunieated when it was demgnod to roh or to enslave them ; and this invisihle engine, which they wielded with an eftectivc and a sovereign hnnd, was used to stir up diasenwions among *ho nearest relations, and to kindle the most Moody wars. The generality of priests and monks kept wives and coneuhines without sluuno or scruple, and even the papal throne was at sumo times the seat of del>auchery and vice. Tho possessions of the church were either S(»ld to tho highest bidder or turned into a patronage for the bastards of tho incumbents. Marriage, wills, contracts, the interests of families ami courts, tho state of tho living and the dead were all convertoil into instruments for proujoting their credit and increasing their wealth. It was, therefore, a necessary consequence of such a state of things that vices of every djscriptiou abounded, that bad morals prevailed, and tho benevolenco of the divino law was trampled under foot. Tho ignorance and superstition which tho corruptions of Christianity introduced wore dexterously im|)roved by the ecclesiastical rulers to enrich themselves, and drain the purses of the deluded masses. Each rank and order of tho clergy had its peculiar method of fleecing tlic people and increasing its revenues. " Tho bishops," says Mosheitn, " when they wanted money for their private pleasures, granted to their flock tho power of jmrchaaing the remission of tiio penalties imposed upon transgressors by a sum of money ,which was to bo applied to certain religious purposes, or, in other word3,they published indulgences, which became an inoxhaustiblo source of opulence to the episcopal orders, and enabled them to form and execute tho most difficult schemes for the enlargement of their authority, and to erect a multitude of sacred edificos, which augmented the external pomp and splendor of the church. The abbots and monks, equally covetous and ambitious, had recourse to other methods for enriching their convents. They carried about the country carcases and relics of the saints in solemn procession, and permitted tho multitudes to behold, touch, and ombraco those sacred and lucrative remains, at certain fixed prices. By this raree-show, tho monastic orders often gained as much as the bishops did by their indulgences."* The Pope at length assumed the chief power Mosheim's Hist,, 12tli Cent. 1M r\tsT»A«v »>■'' »Mn'< «UM1hM^ of lUrtlii'O ^^^^«^^^|♦l^»^^ tliom (•> l''''V I'lH r>«V MOW «<«'»li«lti>M «»r n\\ tl«i> JiMttpovfU )vmm<> mul jvnnllio?* wliu>l\ tlu» rhuii'h lm>l ni\ni>M\»«lr uonpoil tl>i> niul<''('t^ nhich ln«>« In (iml nli«no, n\\<\ impiiMiMlv i>i,>ii1'>>1h1( ovon <)»•> )<<»n"'lni\t'nl'« wliioh mo ii'>ioi\t'il in .1 l\Uinv «(;ifo (or tl»o Morkoi-a orini.juitv. n «iop «l»io|i llio M^h.tp^ \\\\\\ nil lIuMf rtvnnoo nwA |Mv<«iu«piiou. I»rt>l tiovor onoo »otUnn«t| Jo fnki- "• Mv ll\o unlo of «\«ol\ inil^lironoo* tl\o <»onov «n« o1>»hImoi| I«v motun >>(' «l\iol\ tl\o m!t'iiu(l«'<'i\( «(rut'l»tro of S» Poloi'x riiuroh i\\ Homo «tH lonll. 1\<|>o l,»o. ottili'il fn lOI irtwks !\}\\\ ohnrrtolov of nii'n. iiiiil oH.io\«« n)oi)nnlion ol' (ho proi' >t<»ltvoi ,\\ Iho Pcily Thio tlarino iinpioty wn^* ounioil lo Mi\oh i) pi(oh (linl in.ldljioiiot'o «oio rmiiioil o\U (o (ho hii;hos( l>i ninKo (ho ino9( otil ol" (lu>ir hiii(»iiiii, |>roo\n'0(| tho !\hh«n( «looliuiuor4, in\ii (ho ii\'«>( o|oi|noiit pronohorn. (n oxtnl (ho ol1io;\('y. uii'l oi\h'U\oo tho m\ io, <>(' ■luoh «mo<». A ^rivlmitoil nonlo ot' prioo'* «;»>« urruujioil t'.)|- (l\i> roini^^inii of '*'u\a uT ovorv ilojoriplinn. nut ovot( ovooptin^t tho most honitl oi im4»>i, suoh H" tho iiinitlor nl' n (nlhi'i, n\oihor. or \\\\\< ; h.> thut (or niiioly livroi. or n low i|iii':«('», or ii hwq qimi, n p.'M-.lon fiivjht ho proo\»r('i| lV>>n» (ln> " ,\p'>q(i>lii' ChnnoiMv." I'or oiimos «hioh nil oi\ili;oi| n;\tioiH dotormiuoil (n ho W'M iliy ..(' dcnlh. All (ho pn>vinoon i>r lM\rop(< woro in t\ niiiniior ilniinoil In omioh (hn^o yhnqdy tyrnnts. who noro pcrpotuiilly fZ"p''*.tf I'l^or h.mv ni'oo->qiiiiiq uC wonllh. in oi'iliM- to aii'iinoiit (ho immhors of (hoii- iViomh. nuA (ho nluhilKy ol' (hoir (loniiuions ; ainl ovory qtrntjiircm wus \i'>oi| tn loh tho nnhjoot wilhniit. shookiiig tho sovoroiu;u. nii>l (o levy taxoM miilor (lii> npiioimiq initok of roligion, ISiioh \va!« tho shamoloM!* rapnoity whioh (hon prcvniloij. thnl ovon in (ho aijo of igniM"anoo and sorvilily, tho v\\^^ dI tin' poopio hpijnii to opon, and to porooivo tho vilonosM, inipioty. iind IjiImo pi'(tilil<> )i|i{it, ilitiiliMi'MA, or Mhi'tiiilln'iiiii^ llii|li^|||'v fiM liDil iM>\i'i Im>|iii'> Im'i>ii c^liiliiti'il ni)lt Hiii'li I'lVii'iiti') V in unv •■"iniliv iniil''t Inini'ii. Till' )tnlilii> Hoinliip )ii till' hi'ity wnt ii( tlint titiii> lilllx timiM tlinii n |iitn<|«itiH ii'iiihI III fiicmi'uli'*, ii'lii|iliii| iiiIIm'I Im tlffflf llii' "y«» nf hi>ii«i« [\\\\\\ 111 I'lilinlili'ti \\\v m(ilci'|iii|tM nritiiinrliiM, mi'l |ii»i'li(i;i»"*, iiini|iii| l((lili'>». uii'lilii'il i)iiililili"<. ii)ii| Mciimli'MM liiiivm, nliii'li ijiciiivi'il (lii> niiilhliiili' iiixli'inl III iniliiii'liiiu lln'itt Tlii> iinllintil y "I l|ii. Iinly M>i|||i>i < 'liiiii'li, llii' iililiiMilimi III iilii'ilii'iii'i' III lii'i ili'i'iniiiiio. till' mi'iilM tiiiij vitliicM III lliK niiiiil'j. till- ilijiiiily I'ti"! ylmy nl tin- llli"4'4i.i| N'iiyin, i||i< i>I||imh*v tif ii'lii"*. till" ni'iiliiitiu III i'litiri'l(i'«, llii' I'liiliiwiiiii III iiiniinHh'iiim, tjn' utility III iinlnldi'iH'cJ*. mill lln' liimiiiii;M nl |iiii^iiImi y, tti'i*' llit> |iiiiiri|iiil Miilijorln 11(1 wliii'li llii> I'li'lfV ili"wm," Iihvc nhviiyt ili>4liii^iiiHlii cHiMJiiijr iMinliiinl't, mii| llii« rii|ii''n Ni'|i|ic\tM, rcliili'M, innnii^ nllii'i I'lnimiH iiiiij iiH'liiiirlinly )ii«'iM>« nj' liip<|iiiy. Hi'- I'lllnwinn ''•'" I'liniHlmiiM' : " A IVit'iul nl' iniin' linil lli»' niiiimily In nilciiliilc llic iii'nii'y (Iml linti Imm'ii yivni In llm Ni'|i'/h'Wf», mul lii' ln't/iiii iil tlii' yonr li"i(M), himI iilltM' II (iHMil ili'iil III imiiiH III- liiiiiiil iHMniiijf liiiui llic ln-iHiiiy nl IIm* ' 'Inirdi, nliiivt' fliivnilv milliiiiiM nl' i|imiIi|i> iIiu'iiIh, * nil i|i>livt'ii'tl iiitn (lie Imn'ln nf llicii IuiiiIumI. AiiiI lliin in In Im> iiiMloinlnnij nl' viqilijc niniif>vM ; Inr oC pi-iMili' Mill iiivi«ililt> niiiiirt llii>n« iiwiy |i('iliii|ifl lio lw«'iily millinnH rrmrn. And lliiiflo Uniiiniifi lliiil hip williiii IIm> Inwii, mi'l Ikivc mnn. tii(i(> tn »ihbI, up wliiil Imp Imm'ii I'xlnrlcij rinin (ln-in, il' llii'y uniijil tnko l.lio |inirin In oMiiiiino il iiinn> rIiji'IIv, I niii RiiliHlicd wniihl liiiil il, niiioli iri' irf '11 lO lUlllini'. lilu' II zciilmiH I 'iillinlii', iiiiiki'f llio Injlitwiiij^ ndli'dinii nn Uiin ffwi : " irdii'Ri' fl(>v»>iily iiiilliniifl III' <|nuli|i> iIiiciiIr Iiu'I Ikw'Ii Hpf'iit in porMiiciilifi^ lion'tirfl. or ill iiiiikiiiji; wtw iipnn inrMldfl, wIh-K' wniili| niiy iiirKlnJ Im '( Tlu'HC Pcvt'iily Miilliniifl wniiM Imvc Im'oii cnniij^li l«i Imvi' nvcrnin all A«ifi, mill, (wliioli is of iitipnilanco Inn.) Iho piiniH'S wniild Imvo ; nnliilHih'fl m iiiut'li iiioro lind tlicy booii IIu> I'npi'fi iiion* li'iiniiiniis iiyniiipt Mioir kindred, niid iimrr I'lcc to tlio onldiois wlm wore lij;liliii^ Inr CliiiHt." A iloiiMi' iliuiil in nliniil '^2 fill ill pilvi'i', nr .iImhiI jr. (id in lu'iM. ,L.--i. -^-i iM, 118 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. I' The same author states that " Innocent X., to satisfy the fancy of a kinswoman, spent a hundred thousand crowns upon a fountain, yet with great difficulty could scarce find forty thousand to supply the emperor in his wars with .he Protestants ;" and " this good Pope would nevertheless leave to his cousin, to the house of Paraphylia, and other houses allied to that, above eight millions of crowns, with which sum they flourish in Rome to this very day." Again : " The Barbarini were in Rome at the same time, and enjoyed a rent of four hundred thousand crowns, and yet in a war of so much importance to the Catholic religion they could not find forty thousand. But Oh God ! (I speak it with tears in my eyes) against the most Catholic princes of Italy whole millions were nothing ; they could turn the cross into the sword to revenge their particular injuries ; but, in the relief of the emperor who was vindicating the Christian faith, they could not find so much as a few hundreds," " The infidels laugh, and the heretics rejoice to see the wealth of the Church so irreligiously devoured, ■while the poor Christian weeps at their merriment." " The heat and passion which the Popes show hourly for their Nephews to gain principalities for them, to bestow pension upon pension upon them, to build palace upon palace for them, and to fill their coffers with treasures to the brim is that which cools the resolution of the zealousest prince, and exasperates the infidels in their wicked designs. A great shame it is indeed that the heretics should have more ground to accuse the Catholics than the Catho- Uc has to impeach the heretic." And he adds the following apostrophe in reference to this subject : " Oh God ! to what purpose will they keep so many jewels at Loretta, so much consecrated plate at Rome, so many abbeys for their Nephews, so much wealth for the popes, if, abandoning their Commonwealth, and refusing it that humane supply that is necessary for the celestial glory, it be constrained to submit to the Ottoman power, which is threatening it now with the greatost effect ? If the wealth of the Popes be devoured, the benefices of the cardinals given to the priest of Mahomet, the abbeys of the Nephews usurped by the Turks, the sacred vessels at Rome profaned by these infidels, and the seraglio adorned with the gems of the Loretta, God grant my eyes may never see that spectacle ! * " Thus it appears, from the testimony of Catholic writers, that the immense sums which were wrested from the people by every species of fraud and extortion, instead of being applied to the maintenance and defence of the Church, as was pretended, (which application, in the state in which the Church was then, would not have been an over-good one either), were wasted in luxury and extravagance by the Popes and their minions in selfish gra- tifications, in riot and debauchery, in accumulating wealth on the heads * Soe n volume in Italian entitled " II Uardinalismo di Sancta Chicsa." Or the Historj of the CarJiuaU of the Roman Church. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 119 of their relatives and favoi'itea, most of whom were infidels and debauchees, in f^rotifying the pride and avaric^ of courtesans, and in the uiost romantic and ambitious projects. The single structure of St. Peter's at Rome is said to have cost the enormous sum of sixty millions of dollars, and in our at^e and country would have cost, at least, three times that amount. What immense sums, then, must have been expended on similar objects intended merely for worldly ostentation by the Catholic hierarchy throughout the whole of Christendom, besides the millions that were expended in their pursuits of tyranny, sensuality and debauchery. The mind, whonit reflects upon it, is almost overwhelmed at the thought that such sacrilegious enor- mities should have been so long continued with impunity, and that such immense treasures should have been consecrated for so many ages to the support of the kingdom of darkness, while the true Christian church was allowed to pine away in poverty, and compelled to hide its head in dens and caves of the earth. The Pope's revenues, as a temporal prince, at the beginning of this century, have been calculated to amount to at least a million of pounds sterlin"-, or five millions of dollars a year, arising chiefly from the monopoly of corn, the duties on wine and other products. Over and above these, vast sums were continually flowing into the papal treasury from all the Roman Catholic countries for dispensations, indulgences, canonizations, annats, the pallia, the investitures of bishops and archbishops, and other resources. It is computed that the monks and regular clergy who were absolutely at the Pope's devotion did not amount to less than two millions of persons, dispersed through all the Roman Catholic countries, to assert his supremacy over princes, and to promote the interest of the Church. The revenues of these monks and priests did not fall short of two hundred millions of pounds sterling, or a thousand millions of dollars, besides the casual profits arising from offerings and the people's bounty to the church, who are taught that their salvation depends upon this kind of charity. In Spain alone the number of ecclesiastics, including the parochial clergy, monks, nuns, syndics, inquisitors, etc., amounted to 188,625. The number of arch- bishops was eight, and of bishops forty-six. The archbishop of Toledo alone had a revenue, which, according to the most moderate computation, amounted to four hundred and fifty thousand dollars a year. In Portugal, in 1732, there were reckoned above 300,000 ecclesiastics out of a popula- tion of less than two millions. The patriarch of Lisbon had an annual revenue of one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, and the revenue of the patriarchal church above $570,000. It is stated by Mr. Locke in the diary of his travels that the expense of the ecclesiastical establishment in France, at the time that he resided in that country, amounted to about twenty-four millions of pounds sterling, or one hundred and twenty millions of dollars. This may give some idea of what must have been the immense •:■ i i ' i4ll.| I ■ \i 120 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. treasures of wealth collected by the Roman Popes and bishops, prior to the Reformation, when the whole of the European nations were in subjection to them, and when the newly discovered countries in the Western world were plundered to augment their revenues and to satiate their rapacity ! The theological speculations in which these ecclesiastics indulged corres- ponded to their degrading practices, and tended to withdraw the mind from the substantial realities both of science and virtue ; sophisms and false- hoods were held forth as demonstrations. They attempted to argue after thc>y had lost the rules of common sense. The cultivation of letters, as well as of the arts, was neglected ; eloq\ience consisted in futile decla- mations ; and true philosophy was lost in the abyss of scholastic and sophistical theology. They endeavoured to render theology a subject of metaphysical speculation, and of endless controversy. A false logic was introduced which subtilized upon ivords^ but gave no ideas of tldnjjs, which emploj 3d itself in nice and refined distinctions concerning objects and operations, which lay beyond their limited understandings, and which could not be understood. The following are only a few instances out of many that might be brought forward of the questions and controversies which occupied the attention of bishops and scholarly doctors, and gave rise to furious contentions : Whether the conception of the Blessed Virgin was immaculate ? Whether Mary should be denominated the mother of God or the mother of Christ ? Whether the bread and wine used in the Eucharist were digested ? In what manner the will of Christ operated ; and Whether He had one will or two ? Whether the Holy Spirit proceeded from the P'ather and the Son or only from the Father ? Whether leavened or unleavened bread ought to be used in the Eucharist ? Whether souls in their intermediate state see God or only the human nature of Christ ? It was disputed between the Dominicans and Franciscans whether Christ had any property. The Pope pronounced the negative proposition to be a pestilential and blasphemous doctrine, subversive of the Catholic faith. Many councils were held at Constantinople to determine what sort of light it was whioh the discinles saw on mount Tabor. It was solemnly pronounced to be thr eternal light with which God is encircled, and which may be termed his energy or operati.n, but is distinct from his nature or essence. The disputes respecting the presence of Christ in the Euc'uarist led to this absurd conclusion, which came to he vkiiiversally admitted : " that the substance of the bread and wine used in that ordinance is changed into the real body and blood of Christ," and consequently when a man eats what has the appearance of a wafer, or a piece of bread, he really and truly eats the body and blood and soul of Christ ; and when he afterwards drinks what has the appearance of wine, he drinks the very same body and blood, and soul, which, perhaps not a minute before, he had wholly and entirely eaten ! EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 121 At the period to which we now allude the auth.'^nticity of a suspected Telie was proved by bulls. Councils assembled and decided upon the autho- rity of forged acts with regard to the antiquity of a Saint, or the place where his body was deposited ; and a bold impostor needed but to open his mouth to persuade the multitude to believe whatever he pleased. To feed upon animals strangled or unclean, to eat fleah on Tuesday, eggs and cheese on Friday, to fast on Saturday, or to use unleavened bread in the service of the mass, were by some considered as indispensable duties, and by others as vile abominations. In short the history of the period is a reproach to the human understanding, an insult oflFered to reason, and a libel on the benevolent spirit which breathes through the true religion of Christ. Nothing can be more directly opposed to the spirit which this religion inculcates, than the temper and conduct of many, if not all, of those who arrogated to themselves the character of being " God's vicegerents on earth," and who assumed to themselves the sole direction and control of the Chris- tian church. In persons who laid claim to functions so sacred and divine it might have been expected that, at least, the appearance of piety, humi- lity and benevolence would have been exhibited before the Christian world. But the history of the Popes and their satellites displays almost everything "which is directly opposed to such heavenly virtues. Their avarice, extor- tion, and licentiousness became intolerable and excessive, even to a proverb. To extend their power over the kingdoms of the earth, to increase their wealth and revenues, to live in opulence and splendour, to humble earthly rulers, to alienate the affections of their subjects, and to riot in the lap of luxury, sensuality, and debauchery, seemed to be the great objects of their ambition. Instead of acting as the heralds of mercy, and the ministers of peace, they thundered anathemas against all who dared to call in question their authority ; kindled the flames of discord and civil wavs, armed subjects against their rulers, led forth hostile armico to the battle, and filled Europe with confusion, devastation, and carnage. Instead of applying the mild precepts of Christianity and interposing their authority for reconciling enemies, and subduing the jealousies of rival monarchs, they on many occasions delighted to widen the breach of friendship and to fan the flame of animosity and discord. Dr. Robertson, when adverting to the personal jealousies of Francis I, and Charles V, remarks : " If it had been in the power of the Pope to engage them in hostilities, without rendering Lom- bardy the theatre of war, nothing would have been more agreeable to him than"to see them waste each other's strength in endless quarrels. * Some of our readers may have ere this become impatient and digusted with the characters which have been drawn of those ghostly leaders of the V i'V, il n Robertson's Charles V. 122 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. people. They may, however, remember that these arc but a few of the^ facta of a similar kind which history presents before us, and that they are iiot exaggerated. The Son of Man comes into the world not to destroy men's lives but to save them ; but in such instances we behold his pretended vicars preparing and arranging the elements of discord, laying a train for the destruction of thousands, and tens of thousands, and taking a diabo- lical delight in contemplating the feuds, the massacres, and the miseries, which their infernal policy had created. The decrees from the papal throne, instead of breathing the mildness and benevolence of the gospel, became thundering curses and sanguinary laws, and a set of fanatic enthusiasts or a lawless banditti were frequently appointed to carry them into effect. Not resting satisfied with the insurrections and the desola- tions they had caused among the European nations, they planned an expe- dition for the purpose of subduing Western Asia, and consequently of massacring its inhabitants. Urban II, about A. D., 1095 travelled from province to province levying troops, even without the consent of their princes, preaching the doctrine of " destruction to the infidels," and com- manding the people in the name of God to join in the holy war. Peter the Hermit, represented by historians as a man of a hideous figure and aspect, covered with rags, walking barefooted and speaking as a prophet, inspired the people everywhere with an enthusiasm similar to his own. St. Berna'"d ran from town to town haranging the populace, performing pretended miracles, and inducing all ranks, from the emperor to the peasant, to enroll themsclvos under the banner of the cross. Thousands of wicked and abandoned debauchees were thus collected.; and bishops, priests, monks, women and children were all enrolled in the holy army. A plenary abso- lution of all their sins was promised, and if they died in the contest <-hey were assured of a crown of martyrdom in the world to come. With hearts burning with fury and revenge this army of banditti, without discipline, or a sufficiency of provisions, marched in wild confusion through the Eastern parts of Europe, ' ad at every step of their progress committed the most horrible outrages. So inveterate was their hatred of the Jews wherever they found them that many of these unfortunate beings, both men and women, murdered their own children in the midst of the iespair to which they had been driven by those infuriated madmen ; and when they had arrive ' at Jerusalem, and had taken the city by assault, they made a universal slaughter of the infidels. Such was the way in which the successors of the apostles and the vicars of Christ displayed their general benevolence, and their love to the souls and bodies of men. The establishment of the Inquisition is another mode in which the tyranny and cruelty of the church of Rome have been displayed. The office of inquisitors of the faith was first instituted under Theodosius, and was, doubtless, retained and exercised to a greater or less extent in all the ages j.i ! > EXISTLxVCE AND DEITY. 123 lews Iboth ppair rhen Ithey Ihich their Inny le of ms, iges subsequent to liira. But the Court of the Inquisition, which became so terribly notorious, was founded in the Twelfth Century, by Father Domi- nic and his followers, who were sent by Pope Innocent III, in order to excite the Catholic princes to extirpate heresy, and was, some time after, put into execution in Spain with awful effect. It is scarcely possible to conceive of any institution more diametrically opposed to the dictates of justice and humanity, and to the genius of the religion of the Gospel, than is this infernal tribunal. The proceedings against the unhappy victims of that court were conducted with the greatest secrecy. The person granted them as counsel was not permitted to converse with them, except in the presence of the inqv.ioitors ; and when they communicated the evidence to the accused persons they carefully concealed from them the name of the authors. The jirisoners were confined for a long time until they them- selves by the application of the torture became their own accusers ; for they were neither told their crime nor confi'onted with witnesses. When there was no shadow of proof against the accuse J person, he was dischar- ged after suffering the most cruel tortures, a tedious and dreadful impri- sonment, and the loss of the greatest part of his effects. When he was convicted anc' condemned, he was led in procession with other unfortunate victims on the festival of tie " Auto da i6 " (Act of Faith) to the place of executiou. lie Avas there clothed with a garment painted with flames, and with his own figure surrounded with those of dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed, as if ready to devour him. Let the reader for a moment imagine himself in this situation, at the mercy of these fiendish men, simply because he could not conscientiously confess his belief of their absurd doctrines ; he will thus the better realize the position of these victims. Such of the prisoners as declared that they died in communion of the church of Rome were first strangled, and then burned to ashes* Those who died in any other faith were burned alive- The priests told them that they left them to the devil, who was standing at their elbow to receive their souls, and carry them with him into the flames of hell ; as if there could possibly be any more real devil than these priests themselves, or any more real flames than those to which they subjected their victims. Flaming fuzees fastened to long poles were then thrust against their faces, until their faces were burned to a coal, which was said to be accomplished with the loudest acclamations of joy among the thousands of spectators. At last, fire was set to the furze at the bottom of the stake over which the criminals were chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reached higher than the seat they sat on ; so that they were roasted rather than burned. There could not be a more lamentable spectacle ; the sufferers continually crying out while they were able : " Pity for the love of God " etc. ; yet it is said to have been beheld by people of all sexes and ages, with transports of joy and satisfaction; and even the monarch, surrounded 'if )U f ' p'« ^^t 124 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 1*1 with hia courtiers, has sometimes graced the scene with his presence, ima- gining in his wicked ignorance tliat he was performing an act liighly acceptable to God. * And yet there are amongst us Protestants, callin'' themselves " High Churchmen " and what not else, who are really Papists and Jesuits except in name. How long before the cause of truth and humanity is asserted ? How long before the preachers of deceit and falsehood are left to starve, to preach to the Avails or to the winds ? And what were the crimes for which those dreadful inquisitorial punishments were inflicted ? Perhaps nothing more than reading a book which had been condemned as heretical by the holy oflBce ; assuming the title of a freemason ; irritating a priest, or mendicant friar ; uttering the lanf^uage of a free thinker ; declaiming against the celibacy of the clergy ; insinuating hints or suspicions respecting their amours or debaucheries ; or throwing out a joke to the dishonor of the Virgin Mary or, at most, holding the sentiments of a Mahometan, or a Jew, or of the followers of Luther or Calvin. In the year 1725, the inquisitors discovered a family of Moors at Gra- nada in Spain, peaceably employed in manufacturing silks, and posses- sing superior skill in the exercise of this profession. The ancient laws supposed to have fallen into disuse were enforced in all their rigor, and the wretched family was burnet alive, f On the entry of the French into Toledo during the peninsular war, Gen. Lasalle visited the place of the Inquisition. The great number of instru- ments of torture, especially those for stretching the limbs, and the drop- "baths which cause a lingering death, excited horror even in the minds of soldiers, hardened in the field of battle. One of these instruments, singular in its kind for refined torture, and disgraceful to humanity and the name of religion, deserves particular description. In a subterraneous vault adjoining the audience chamber stood in a recess in the wall a wooden statue made by the hands of monks, representing the Virgin Mary. A gilded glory beamed round her head, and she held a standard in her right hand. Notwithstanding the ample folds of the silk garments that fell from her shoulders on both sides, it appears that she wore a breastplate, and upon a close examination it was found that the whole surface of the body was covered with extremely sharp nails, and small daggers or blades of knives, with the points projecting outwards. The arms and hands had joints and their motions were directed by machinery, placed behind the partition. One of the servants of the Inquisition was ordered to make the machinery maneuvre. As the statue extended its arms and gradually drew them back, as if she would afieotionately embrace and press some one • Bourgoiug's Modern State of Spain, ,t Id. Enc. Brit, Art. Inquisition. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 125 to her heart, the well-filled krapsack of a Polish grenadier supplied for this time the place of the poor victim. The statue pressed it closer and closer ; and when the director of the machinery made it open its arms and return to its first position, the knapsack was found pierced two or three inches deep, and remained hanging on the nails and daggers of the mur- derous instrument. This infamous tribunal of the Inquisition is said, between the years 1481 and 1759, to have caused 34,658 human beings to be bumcd alive ; and between 1481 and 1808 to have sentenced 288,214 to * the galleys or to perpetual imprisonment. In the Auto of Toledo in February 1501, sixty- seven women were delivered over to the flames for Jewish practices. This tribunal was exceedingly severe in its action against the Jews, who suffered in great numbers, and, as ihe heretics, they wore condemned for very slight offences. A priest, who did not put up for being a zealot, wrote thus of the Jews : " This accursed race were either unwilling to bring their children to be baptised, or if they did they washed away the stain on returning home. They dressed their stews and other dishes with oil instead of lard ; abstained from pork ; kept the Passover ; ate meat in Lent ; and sent oil to replenish the lamps of their synagogues, with many other abominable ceremonies of their religion. They entertained no res- pect foi' monastic life ; and frequently profaned the sanctify of religious houses by the violation or seduction of their inmates. They were an exceedingly politic and ambitious people, engrossing the most lucrative municipal ofiices, and prepared to gain their livelihood by traffic, in which they made exorbitant gains, rather than by manual labor or mechanical arts. They considered themselves in the hands of the Egyptians, whom it was a merit to deceive and pilfer. By their wicked contrivances they amassed great wealth, and thus were often able to ally themselves by marriage with noble Christian families." The Inquisition entertained accusations against high and low, both Jews and Christians, upon pretexts the most f'-ivolus as well as grave ; and condemned by punishments, varying from deaih by fire to simple penance, delinquents who could not say they believed what to their mind was a lie. It accepted evidence, which even in its own day would not have been admitted in a civil Court of law ; and the pretexts upon which condemnation frequently proceeded were such as to make them marvellous even in a barbaric age. Tortures of the most exquisite and excruciating kind were practised on the accused to make them confess or to induce them to accuse others ; and the hateful system of espionage and secret prison-houses were adopted by the Inquisi- tion at every place where its courts were established. The evidence on f^ii; ^:l; in * Histoire Abrugee de rinquisitiou. iM X-^ t,J 126 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. I which Jews -.vore condorancd would bo simply ludicrous had it not bce^ so tcrriblo in its effects. An author of high standing remarks on this subject. " It was considered good evidence of the fact, i, o., Judaism, if the prisoner wore better clothes, or cleaner linen on the Jewish Sabbath than on the other days of the week ; if he had no fire in his house the preceding evening ; if he sat at table with Jews, or ate the flesh of certain animals, or drank a certain beverage held much in estimation by them ; if he washed a corpse in warm water, or when one was dying turned one's face to the wall; or, finally, if he gave Hebrew names to his children, a provision most whimsically cruel, since, by a law of Henry II, ho was pre- vented under severe penalties, from giving them Christian names." Such testimony being accepted the number of the condemned must, of course, be legion ; and in the interval between the beginning of January and the beginning of November, 1481, the first year in which the Inquisition was put into terribly active force, in Spain, there had perished by fire in Seville no less than 298 persons. Notwithstandmg the plague which in this year visited Seville, sweeping oflf 15,000 of the inhabitants, the Inqui- sition still continued its fiendish work ; so that by the end of the year, or up to the ensuing first of January, 2000 persons, many of them the most learned and respectable of the day, had perished at the stake in the pro- vince of Audalusia. Twice that number having managed to escape were burned in eflSgy, and 17,000 were condemned to lesser punishments ; of which the least must have been a terrible infliction. Some few years after this when one Deza came into power as Inquisitor-General in Spain, in the first eight years he presided at Seville, he caused 2,592 persons to be burned aUve, to say noching about 35,000 condemned to various other punishments, short of death, but illustrating that tlie tender mercies of the wicked are cruel. When the Reformation began to be proclaimed the work of the inquisitors increased and several hundreds of persons werj annually burned alive in various parts of Spain, as the consequence. But not only in Spain did the Inquisition carry on its work so devilishly : in her colonies, especially in South America and Mexico, the cruel office was set up, and the Indians who escaped the cruelties of the colonists as civil governors, experienced the rigorous punishment of them as religionists, and destroyed themselves in large numbers rather than fall into their hands.- It is wonderful that there was no actual rebellion against the Inquisition in Spain which continued for three centuries doing its terrible work of human destruction. Yet there was no uprising against it. Men hated but feared a tribunal, whose spies were all around, even in the bosom of the family, and which dealt its blows so secretly and suddenly, and with such awful effects. Nine hundred females were burned alive in the Dutchy of Lor- raine in France for being witches, by one inquisitor. Under this accusa- EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 127 jor- isa- tion it 18 said that upward of 30,000 women have porlshod hy the hands of the inquisitors*. Torquemada, that infernal arch-inquisitor of Spain, brouglit into the Inquisition, in the space of fourteen years, no loss than 80,000 persons, of whom 0,000 were condemned to the flames and burned alive with the greatest pomp and exultation ; and of that vast number there was not, perhaps, a single person who was not more pure in religion and morals than their fiendish persecutors.! Does the Deity, then, whom the Inquisition professes to serve, take such intense dehght in the sufferings of human beings ? lias that Being, whose sun cheers the habitations of the Avicked as well as the good, -"m- manded such blood-thirsty monsters t) act as his ministers of vengeance, to torment and destroy his rational creatures ? Does the doctrine of the Gospel, which they profess to believe, inculcate such practices ? The very thought is absurd and blasphemous. If they would do as God requires of them, to do good and be good, live godly lives, no such insti- tution as the Inquisition would ever exist, nor any other evil work. But it is men themselves, of their own free will, who inflict these suSerings upon their fellows. Man is the author, the agent, as he is the object of the cruelty. But some, perhaps, will suppose that the devil hardens man's heart, and prompts him to the perpetration of such infamous crimes as that of roasting his fellow-man over a slow fire. Well, that is a very true supposition in a certain sense. But who or what is the devil ? Why, he is the man himself, who acts according to his own will and practices such unspeakable wickednesses. Yes, my readers, man himself is that evil being, by whatever name he may be called ; of which fact you have partial evidence in the foregoing statements. Can anything be conceived of, as more intensely evil than a human being who will seize and subject his fellow-human beings to such unspeakable tortures as those peculiar to the Inquisition, and then roast thera to death over slow fires, as we see these men to have done ? The foregoing statements are of facts which we may believe to have occurred, just as if we were eye-witnesses of every one of them. The blood of these tens of thousands who have been so cruelly and mercilessly sacrificed, cries unto us from the ground, to tamper no longer with hypocrisy and deceit, to lay aside that old theory of a devil, or any Being leading men to do evil, othor than themselves, and to make men stand on their own basis, and account them responsible for their con- duct and acts. In a preceding part of this book we have shown that not only the earth on which we live is a concentration of spirit, but that man also is a spirit, and, behold, here we perceive in him the spirit of evil i M • Inquisition UnmaiKed. t Eaime's Sketches. ill 128 EXISTRNCE AND DEITY. (Icvelopcil, WO may say, to almost an iiifiiiito oxtont. Tho cxiHtonce of cruelty 111 men evidonces that tho perpetrators of it aro i;^norant of tho true Goil. They have no true knowled-^e of him, for if they had they woiiKl not ho cruel. Oocl is manifested in a human \m\v^ patiently endurin;^ for tho truth, and for ri^^hteousneas' sake amid all opposition from adverse intluenees, visihle and invisihle. And tho devil is manifested in him who inlliots siirt'erinj; undeservedly or wantonly upon the true and righteous man, or upon any human being. In short words God is mani- fested in the life and eonvcrsation of the truly good and righteous man ; and tho devil is manifested in the life and eonversation of the evil and actively wicked man. And thus wo have found a proj)er application for tho term God, which moans ho that is good ; and also of tho term devil, which means he that is evil : and henco it is seen that the term Deity includes both of these, and infinitely more in its fullest exteiit, and aa wo have used it in the beginning of this book. In tho New Testament tho apostle John, in his 1st Epistle, says that " God is lovo " ; and in tho same Epistle, as well as in his -nd, that " lovo is tho keeping of tho com- mandments " ; and in another place of tl o New Testament it is said that " love is the fulfilling of the law " ; therefore it is quite evident thai God is manifested in the human being that keeps tho commandments, or fulfils tlio law, which means the same thing ; that is, in tho man who truly is and docs good, lives a life of godliness. But in the case before us, as wo have said, man is the suttV er, and man inflicts the sufi'ering. Man is the author and agent as well as the object of the suftering. When a man commits an otVenoe ;igaiiist the laws of his country, the law looks to the man himself for satisf;K'ti(Mi for it. It looks not after an imaginary being,of whatever name, for all that is of an imaginary being is the name it looks after ; the real being, the direct jierpetrator of tho crime. The individual has com: iitted an ortence against mankind, and the latter looks to the individual himself for atonement for it. He would not be listened to, if, when brought before tho judge, he sought to justify himself by leaving the blame of his crime upon an imaginary being. Even so there is no necessity any longer of men blaming any other being tlian themselves for the evil they commit. Tho life of godliness implies a denial of pride and of self; and here we repeat tho true God is manifested in the character and conduct of the man who, in his daily walk and conversation, during his life-long, evinces self-denial, long-suftering, and humilitj, and gentleness, meekness, truth and right" eousness, who, in short, cultivates and displays all the true Christian graces, subjectively and objectively. ^len can be good if they will. They can also be evil if they will. Will men not henceforth universally choose to be good? How amiable the character of the man or woman who displays the spirit of charity and benevolence to all around, and to all mankind ! And uiany,many such we have in the world in our time. But how unlovely the character of one who EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 120 displays the spirit of hatred and maligtiity to one's fellow-human beings to the extent wo have seen itdisplayetl in the case of the in([uisitoi's, or to a far loss extent ! The Deity is everywhere present, and thoiij^h unseen, his character, as indicated by the beneficent operations of nature around u>i, and by the testimony of good men of tho past, condemns tlio hellish practices of tho infamous agents of the Romish superstition, whose char- acter wo have been reviewing. Tho horrid practice of dragooning, which was used by the Romi.sji church for converting supposed heretics, was another melancholy example of religious cruelties and fanaticism. In the reign of Louis XW of France, his troops, soldiers, and dragoons, entered into tho houses of tho Protestants, where they marred and defaced their furniture, broke their lookinc-irlasses ; let their wines run about their cellars, tl\rcw about and trampled under foot their stock of provisions, turned their dining-rooms mto stables for their horses, and treated the proprietors with the severest contumely a,nd cruelty. They bound to posts mothers that gave suck, and allowed their sucking infants to lie languishing in their sight for several days and nights, crying, and gasping for life. Some they bound before a great fire, and after they were half roasted let them go. Some they hung up by the hair and some by tho feet in chiranoys ; smoked them witli wisps of hay luUil they wore Suffocated. Women and raaiils wero hung up by their feet and by their armpits, and exposed stark-naked to public view. Some they cut and slashed with knives, and, after Gripping them naked, 'stuck their bodies with pins and needles from head to foot, and with red hot pincers took hold of them by tho nose and other parts of tho body, and dragged thorn about the room until they made them promise to bo Catholics, or until tho cries of the wretched victims, calling upon God for help, induced them to let them go. If any endeavoured to escape from those cruelties they pursued them into tho fields and woods, where thoy shot at them as if they wero wild beasts ; and they prohibited them from leaving the kingdom on pain of tho galleys, tho lash, and per- petual imprisonment. On such scenes of desolation and horror the Romish clergy feasted their eyes, and made them a matter only of laughter and sport.* What fiendish crimes for those calling themselves civilized to perpetrate ! Could an American savage or a now Zoalander have devised more barbarous and exquisite cruelties. In the island of Great Britain the flames of persecution have somc.times raged with unrelenting fury. During the last two or three years of tho short reign of Queen Mary, it is computed that 277 persons were com- mitted to the flames, besides those who were punished by fines, confisca- tions, imprisonments, or otherwise. Among those who suffered by fire I ■1:1 ill: I m ■ V, r ■' Mi ;'i; ;:ii m * Enc. Brit. Art. Dragooning. 180 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. tlicro were five Id^liops, twcnty-ono clor^ymou, eight lay-gontlomon, and ci^jlity-four tradesmoii ; one hundred hushaiuhiien, fifty-nine women, and four children. Hunter, a youn;^ man of about nineteen years of age, was one of the unhappy viotima of the z"al of (.^leon Mary for I'opory. Having been inadvortently betrayed by a priest to d.-ny the doctrine of transub- Btantion he abaconded to keep out of harm's way. Bonner, that n jto.ioua popish executioner, thr.'atcno I rain to the father if h • diil not d livor up the son. Young Hunter, hearing of hia father's imminent peril, preaouted himself, and waa burned to death instead of being rewarded for his fihal jiiety. A woman of the island of Guernsey was brought to tne flames without regard to her advanced pregnancy, and she waa delivered of a child in the midst of the flames. One of the guards snatched tlio infant from the flames to save it, but the magistrate who superintended the execution ordered it to bo thrown back, being resolved, ho said, that nothing should survive which sprung from a parent so obstinately her- etical.* The Protestant reformers also did somewhat in the wor'^ of persecuting and burning those who opposed their tenets ; but their doings we shall have ncceasarily to advert to in the latter part of this book. "When we consider on the one hand the purity of faith and morals which generally distinguished the victims of persecution ; and on the other, the proud pampered prieats, and prelates, abandoned without shame to every species of wickedness, we can scarcely find words sufliciently strong to express the indignation and horror which arise in the mind when it views the striking contrast, and contemplates such scenes of impiety and crime. Could a religion which breathes peace and good will to men be more basely nnsrei)regented ; or do the annals of the human race present a more stricking display of the perversity and moral badness of mcikind than we have in the case of the Catholic hierarchy ? To represent religion as con- sisting in the belief of certain incomprehensible dogmas, and then to undertake to compel men to believe these dogmas, which they could not possibly understand, and to inspire them to bouevoleace by racks and tortures and fire, is as absurd as it is impious and profane, and represents the Deity as delighting in the torment and death, rather than willing the life and salvation, of his creatures. Wherever religion is viewed as consisting chiefly in the observance of a number of absurd and unmeaning ceremonies, it is to be expected that the pure morality inculcated in the New Testament, and in the Ten Command- ments, will seldom be exemplified in human conduct. This is strikingly the case in those countries, both of the Eastern and Western world, where the Catholic religion, both Greek and Romish, reigns supreme. Mr. Howison, in his " Foreign Scenes," when speaking of the priesthood in • Kaime's Sketches. EXISTKNCE AND DEITY. VM tlic islaDil of Cul)ti, sftya: " The number of jaio.-its in Havana exceeds four IiuiuIixhI. With a few excoptions they neither ileserve nor enjoy tlie respect of the community. However, no one dares openly to speak a'ainst them. In ILivana the churcli is nearly onmip.)tentand every ono feels himself under its immediate jiu-isdictiuu. Most persons, therefore, attend mas regularly, make confessions, uncover when passing a religious establishment of any kind, and stand still on the streets or stop their volantos, the moment the vesper bell begins ringing. But they go no farther, and the priests do not seem at all anxious that the practice of such individuals should correspond to their profession. The |)riests show by their external appearance that they do not practice these uustorities, •which are generally believed to be necessary concomitants of a monastic life. The sensual and unmeaning countenances that encircle the altars of the churches, and the levity and indilTerence with which the most sacred parts of the service arc hurried through, would shock and surprise a Protestant were ho to attend mass with the expectation of finding the monks those solemn and awe-inspiring persons which people who have never visited Catholic countries olton imagine them to bo." This account of Mr. Ilowison wo know to correspond with fact; for wo have had a liko account from a person who had resided in Cuba ^or some time. Of the city of Montreal in Canada the Roman Catholics number much the largest part of the population. The Church of Homo flourishes there, and its worship is carried out with great pomp and ceremony. Wo were present there ono Sunday of late, June llth 1871, when the Feast oi Corpus Ch'isti was celebrated with great eclat, A grand procession took place, which when moving extended nearly a milo and a half in length. There were the various orders of the nuns, the Gray, Black nuns, etc ; and of the clergy, Friars or Miniks, each having (as we suppose) its appropriate place in the ranks. Hero and there at intervals in the long procession were schools of boys dressed neatly in black or gray suits, and schools of girls dressed in white with white, flowing veils. Some of these boys and girls, we learned, were wards of the church, attending school in the convents ; and they appeared intelligent and cheerful. Hero and there were societies of men, who, as we were informed, belonged to"the Tompor- ance and other orders, and of women who did not appear to belong to any particular order, but were out displaying their zeal for the church. At the head of each column or order was homo a silken flag variously figured, each flag having inscribed upon it the motto of the order, mostly in French or Latin. At intervals they were chanting lustily the hymns of the occasion to time kept by some of the priests ; and they sung in French or Latin. The sidewalks along the line of march and the avenues leading to it, as well as the windows and balconies, were crowded with spectators . \Vlien the canopy approached under which was borne the Corpus Christi, :i . , T1 .1 !.iU" il^ ll mi 132 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. and accompanying which the Bishop and other clerical dignitaries were supposed to be, arrayed in their gorgeous robes of office, the Catholics on both sides of the line of march uncovered their heads, and knelt down on the sidewalk or on the side of the street, or wherever they happened to be, until the canopy had passed. This operation of uncovering and kneeling was repeated at every point of the way along which the procession moved. It seems, indeed, strange that such absurd and gross idolatry should bo practised in British ^Vmerica, in the latter part of the 19th century. The practice of the Romish clergy, who, giving their whole attention to the subject of religion, must know better things, of imposing t'^us upon an ignorant and credulous populace, appears, to say the least, immoral. The following extract is from a mo.lern writer on Italy : " When Vesu- vius thunders aloud, or when an eartliquake threatens them with destruc- tion, when the fieiy streams vomited from the rousing mouth of the volcano roll on, carrying desolation over the plain below, when the air is darkened by clouds of smoke and showers of ashes, the Neapolitans will fall on their knees, fast, do penance, and follow the procession barefooted ; but as soon as the roar has ceased, and the flame has disappeared, and tho atmosphere has recovered its wonted serenity, they return to their wonted mode of life, they sink again to their former level, and the tinkling sounds of the tumberella call them again to the lascivious dance of the taren- tella." As an evidence of the litigious character of the Neapolitans, the same author remarks : " That there is scarcely a landholder but has two or three cases pending before the courts ; that a lawyor and a suit are indis- pensable appendages of property ; and that sonu of the principal families have suits that have been cax-ried on for a century ; and for which a cer- tain sum is yearly appropriated, although the business never advances ; and at last the expenses swallow up the whole capital." The infinite number of churches," says another late writer, " is one of tlie most efficient causes of the decline of the religion of Rome, whose maxims and practices are diametrically opposite to those of the Gospel. The Gospel is the friend of the people, the consoler of the poor. The religion of Ro'iie, on the contrary, considers all nations as great flocks, made to bo shorn or eaten according to the good pleasure of the shepherd ; for her the golden lever is the lever of Archimedes. The favors of the Church are ou'y showered on those who pay ; with money we may purchase the right to commit perjury and murder, and be the greatest villain at so much per crime, according to the famous tariff pi'inted at Rome, entitled • Taxes of the Apostolic Chancery." In a conversation which Bonaparte had with his fi'iends at St. Helena, on the subject of religion, as related by Las Casas, in his journal, the Emperor said, among many other things: " How is it possible that conviction can find its way to our hearts, when we hear the absurd language, and Avitness tho acts of iniquity of the EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 133 of bo lier rch the ich C09 Lad Iby 53: lien Ithe greatest number of those whose business it is to preach to us ? I am surrounded with priests who preach incessantly that their reign is not of this world, and yet they lay hands on all they can .yit. The Pope is the head of that religion from heaven, and he thinks only of this world, etc. The Emperor ended the conversation by desiring my son to bring him a New Testament, and taking it from the beginning he read as far as the conclusion of the speech of Jesus on the mountain. He expressed himself with the highest admiration at the purity, the sublimity, the beauty of the morality it contained, and we all experienced the same feeling." Had Napoleon, in his youth, taken that which he now heard rjad as the rule of his life, and lived according to it, what an amount oi human suffering and destruction, which he caused, might have been spared, and how much a happier man he would have lived and died himself ! Such facts as these we have adduced may give some idea of what the state of morality is in all Catholic countries, and what may be the height of civilization to which they have attained. Now, if we take a cursory glance at the Protestant branch of the Catholic Church, we shall observe a similar spirit in operation in it, as we have seen prevailed in the early Church under the Christian Roman emperors. The Church was at that time spli^ up into a number of sects, each distinguished from the other by its peculiar tenets. Protestant Christians are also divided into a great number of sects, each distin- guished from the other by its peculiar tenets and opinions as to mode of worship. Church government, etc. The differences between these sects which, in time past, were wide, are now becoming much narrower. All these sects profess to believe the orthodox Catholic creeds, such as the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, and, some of them, the Athanasian Creed ; and the two orthodox sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper ; but their belief in these creeds, etc., are very general, and they all differ from each other in many particulars. The Protestant Church has been distinguished to a considei'able extent by the spirit of persecution which raged with such unmitigating violence in the Romish Church. The Reformation had scarcely been begun in Oermany and England, when a series of persecutions were begun against dissenters from the doctrines of the reformers ; and it is of late that these persecutions have ceased. Luther and Calvin did their part in this work in the continental countries of Europe and notwithstanding the unjust and cruel punishments which Enghsh Protestants endured at the hands of Popish priests and princes, a short time only elapsed after they had them- selves risen to power before they began in their turn to harrass their dissenting brethren with vexations, and persecutions, and fines, and imprisonments, until many of them were compelled to seek a dwelling place in a distant land. And shortly after the English independents had m^\ 134 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. established themselves in America, they, in turn, set on foot a persecution against the Quakers no less furious than thn.t to which they had them- selves been subjected in the country from which they had fled. They apprehended and imprisoned a number of those peaceably disposed and worthy persons, and seized upon the books they had brought out from England with them, and burned them. By a law which had been enacted against heretics in general, sentence of banishment was pronounced against them all ; and another law punished with death all Quakers who should return into the jurisdiction after banishment ; and it is a fact that four persons suffered death under this impolitic and unjust law.* Nor did the reformed clergy in Scotland lose sight of that magisterial bearing, which was assumed by the Romish Clergy. Upon a represen- tation in 1646 from the commission of the Church of Scotland, James Bell and Colin Campbell, bailiffs of Glasgow, were committed to prison by the Farliamei!*:, merely for having said that " kirkmen meddled too much in civil matters," f And even so late as the middle of the last century, when Whitefield, Wesley and other earnest and pious men began to address the ignorant villagers of England upon the important subject of religion " a multitude has rushed together, shouting and howling, raving and cursing," and accompanying their ferocious cries and yells with loathsome or dangerous missiles, dragging or driving the preacher from his humble stand, forcing him and those who wished to hear him to run for their lives, sometimes not without serious injury before they could escape. And these barbarous tumults have in many cases been well known to be instigated by persons, whoso advantages of superior condition in life, or express vocation as instructors of the peo- ple, has been infamously lent in defence of the perpetrators, against shame or remox'se or legal punishment for the outrage. And there would be no exaggeration in affirming that since Wesley and Whitefield began to conflict with the heathenism of that country, there have been in it hundreds of instances answering to this description. Yet the well-mean- ing and zealous men, who were thus set upon by a furious rabble of many hundreds, the foremost of whom acting in direct violence, and the resi venting their savage delight in a hideous blending of ribaldry, and execration, of jibing and cursing, were taxed with a canting hypocrisy or a fanatical madness, for speaking of the prevailing ignorance in terms suitable to the state of the case. But we need not go back over half a century in order to find instances of religious intolerance among the Protestant communities and churches ; our own times unhappily furnish examples of an intolerant and persecuting • Morse's American Geography, t Kaime's sketchea. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 18& spirit, though wo arc happy to bo ablo to say that this spirit is fast disap- pearing among Protostants. About fifty years have elapsed since tho mcthodist chapel in Bax-badocs was thrown down, and demolished by tho *' mob -gentry, " and with the connivance of the public authorities of that island ; and Mr. Shrewsbury, a worthy missionary at that station, was obliged to flee for his life. Previous to this outrage ho suffered insult, contumely, and reproach. Ho was abused as a villain, and hissed at on the 8treet«(, not by the mere rabble, but by the groat vulgar, by merchants from their stores, and individuals in the garb of gentlemen. By such cha- racters his chapel was surrounded and partly filled on Sunday, during tho hours of worship. Their glass bottles had been previously pre[iared and filled with a mixture of oil and asafoctida, and all on a sudden they were thrown with great violence among the people, and one was aimed at tho head of the preacher ; and during the whole time of worship, stones wero rattling against the chapel from every quarter. On tho next sabbath an im- mense concourse of people assembled, breathings out tlieatenings and slaugh- ter, and from twenty to thirty of the gentlemen mob planted themselves around the pulpit, apparently ready to perpetrate any mischief. Men wearing masks, and having swords and pistols, came galloping down the street, and pre- senting their pistols fired them at the door ; and it was originally designed to have fire-crackers among tho females, to set their clothes on fire. At length on an ensuing sabbath this execrable mob, consisting of nearly two hundred gentlemen and others, again assembled with saws and hammers, axes, crowbar and every other instrument necessary to execute their infamous purpos , and in the course of a few hours, tho lamps, benches, pews, pulpit, and even the walls, were completely demolished. They en- tered the dwelling-house of tho preacher, broke the windows and doors, threw out tho crockery-ware, chopped up the tables, chairs, and every article of furniture ; tore tho preacher's manuscripts and destroyed his library of more than three hundred volumes. All this was done under tho light of the full moon, in the presence of an immense crowd of spectators, without the least attempt being made either by the civil or military author- ities to check them, while the unfortunate preacher wi^h his wife in an advanced state of pregnancy had to flee to a neighbouring island to save his life ! Such is the civilized and humane conduct of gentlemen of tho 19th Century, gentlemen who would no doubt consider it very unhand- some were they compared to the Vandals or Tartars or to the rude and barbarous savages of Caffrai'ia or New-Zealand. How utterly abominabla is the pride, hypocrisy, and deceit of the human heart exhibiting^itself in such disgraceful and wicked proceedings ! And such emissaries, often weak- minded and giddy-headed, in common parlance having no mind of their Report of the Wesleyan Missionary Soc'ety for 1824, Debates in Parliament 1825, 11 136 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. im own, are sometimes set on to their barbarous work, perhaps, by the sneer- ing suggestion of others who are not so easy to bo discovered, and who if they are suspected and questioned about it, will not only pretend their total ignorance of it, but express their sympathy with the sufferer, although they are themselves the real and prime causes of the whole barbarity. Several instances of this kind have come under our own observation, one of which we shall relate. In the college which we were attending, we had a worthy man for our president, a man, wo had reason to believe, of a good christian temper, and of a sound missionary spirit. He was accus- tomed to teach certain branches of knowledge, and had a recitation room, as the professors, set apart for the purpose of teaching in. Into this recitation room, situated on the second story, and containing ben- ches, chairs, fire apparatus, tables, books, etc., there was brought one night a full-grown cow ; and what must one thmk was the surprise of the president on his coming next morning to meet his class, at' finding such a tenant occupying his recitation room, which last, indeed,was in an exceed- ingly disordered and filthy state ! Some of the giddy-brained students who were discovered to have done this disgraceful deed suffered such penalties as the president and faculty thought proper to impose ; but any careful observer who was present and knew the circumstances of the pre- sident in relation to some other influentials, would at once perceive that those who performed the wrongful transaction were not the prime causes of it, but were incited to it by perhaps the sneering suggestion or remark of another, who, were he earnestly asked about it afterwards, would prompt- ly disclaim all knowledge or intention on his part concerning it before it happened, and would most likely pretend the deepest sympathy with the sufferer. Such is the deceit of the human heart ; and such are the devious ways of the old serpent. This worthy man was soon afterwards made a bishop, which office he holds now. About the same time of that transaction which we have related as taking place in regard to the Methodist church at Barbadoes, the authorities of Demerara set on foot a persecution against Mr. Smith, a missionary from the London Society, under various pretexts ; but his real crime in the eyes of his persecutors was his unwearied zeal in instructing the negroes in the knowledge of religion. He was condemned to death by a court-martial, in opposition to every principle of justice. He died in prison, was refused the privilege of Christian burial, and his friends were prohibited from erecting a stone to mark the spot where his body was laid. The whole details of this transaction present a scene of savage barbarity, scarcely to be surpassed in the history of Europe. The death of this missionary was that event which prepared for the overthrow of the slave system in the British West Indies. It called forth one of Lord Brougham's noblest speeches, and stirred the heart and conscience of the r/ I' ' I EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 137 English people. The liloocl of the martyrs is sometimes the seed of freedom as it is of the church ; and the execution of John Brown, in Virginia, corresponded in its effects to the murder of this worthy missionary in the West Indies.* In Switzerland, where formerly Protestantism had its stronghold, the demon of religious persecution has, even in the 19th century, raised its head. The council of state of the Pays de Vaud, at the instigation of the clergy, on January loth, 1825, published a decree " prohibiting under the penalty of severe fines and imprisonments, all meetings for religious worship or instruction, other than those of the established church." And in the following May another deo >e was issued, which denounced " fines, imprisonment, or banishment, upon the most private kind of religious assembly, or even the admission of a single visitor to family worship." In pursuance of these disgraceful laws several ministers and private Chris- tians of high character for piety and learning were banished from the Canton, some for one, and some for two years, ciit off from all means of subsistence, unless possessed of independent fortunes, or able to procure it by labor, and some of them perhaps left to starve and perish in foreign lands. If they returned before the expiration of their sentence, death was the penalty to be inflicted. One poor man, a schoolmaster, in the principality of Neufchatel, was condemned to ten years' banishment. He was brought out from prison, tied with cords, and compelled to kneel in the snow in the public square to hear his sentence read. His crime was that of gathering together a few fellow-Christians in his own house, to whom the Lord's Supper was there administered by a clergyman. Nor has England been free from the spirit of persecution and intolerance in the 19th century. At Kenneridge, in Dorsetshire, a worthy and excel- lent individual belonging to the Wesleyan denomination had attended on a green where twenty or thirty persons were accustomed to congregate on. Sunday afternoons to listen to the truths he thought it important to declare. The English church clergyman of the parish approached with a retinue of servants and commanded him to desist. The preacher took no heed to the command and proceeded to read his text. The clergyman then commanded the tithing man to seize him, (which he had the power to do as a civil r.^glstrate, for the clergymen of the chui-ch of England very commonly fill the office of justice of the peace as well as that of a priest). He was directed to be conveyed to Wareham jail ; and to every question the preacher put as to the ground of his being arrested, the reverend and worthy clergyman only replied by brandishing his walking-stick. Instances have occurred in which clergymen of this establishment have refusod to ^ !i if;::KiX^y< n Report of Ihe Wesleyan Missionary Society, for 1824. Debates in Parliament 1825. Cong. Magiiziue, June 1825. K 188 KXrSTIiXiMC AM> PK.ITV bury tho dond. At Cliidds Eronl. in Sliroi.sliiiv, the chinl (»f n pnor man was rofuRoil intonnont, and the father was (^Iilifijod to oarry it six niilos before be oonld inter it in a oemetery. At Catsfield, in Siissox, a similar infamous act was oommittod. At tbe mometit the l)ell bad toHod. wbon the eartl\ was about to fall upiMi tbe ooflin, and wl-eii tbe relati(uis standing; by wanted all the consolation which reli_u;iou c;in atVord, at this moment Uie clergyman apjieared, but advanced only to jiivv pain U> the motuners, and to ajjiMiize t]\i'ir lieart by sayinj: : " Now that you have waited an hour un'il it suited me u> come I will not inier your child ! I did not know that von were dissenters : take vour child somewhere else, take it where y*"*" ploase, but liere it shall not lie in CMisecrated ij^romid," dust as if all jilaces on the siu'face of the earth were wot e(|ually eonaeerateii ; or, as if a cemetery or church yard was a better and holier place to inter a dead body thaTi any other j^lace a jierson mi;j;ht choose. It is certain that a cemetery or church yard, in the couunon acceptation of the term, has no si.j^erior sanctity over any other spot of frnumd ; its s\jperiority in this respect is merely imaginary, delusive, and arises to the mind from the cnsttun of mankind in all the ages of history l>eing to bury their dead in certain ]ilacos set ajiart for that p\irpose. In America, where ;nany of the old su]ierstitious n:>tions have been given up, people viu'y conunonly, espe- cially in New England, have each family their own burying ground on their own farm. This is as good a plan to follow as any other a person may chooso with respect to the place of biirial of the dead. This Knglish family, however, to which we liave just alluded, were not allowed to bury their child in tlio church-yard, and had to carry it eleven miles from the abode of its pivionts before they consigned it to its kinomo of tho Protestant eatablishmmts also are falling, that of the Irish clmrch having completely given w.ay. Substantial knowledge is being uku'o generally diiTused among all classes of the people ; tho shackles of despotism are bursting asunder ; tho darkness of superstition is gradually dispelling ; tho spirit of persecution is borne down by the force of truth and of common sense ; and tho rights of conscionco aro being inore generally recognized. Philanthropic institutions of various descriptions have been ostablidhod ; missionary sociotics aro extending their labors to almost every land ; and now tho far-off continents aro to some extent com- ing under the influonco of Cbiiatian civilization. !J i ' '■■■■ j| H jH * ■ I ^m !? S! \\ M M 140 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 1 The light of science now shines with a greater lustre than at any previous period of which history informs us. The Telescope has opened up to us distant scenes of the universe, and has enabled us to calculate the distance, character, and motions of the moon and planets. The Micros- cope has introduced us to the invisible worlds of matter far beyond the ken of the unassisted eye. Tiie electric Telegraph enables us to communicate momentarily with all parts of the earth. The Magnetic needle directs our course around the globe or to any point beyond the seas. The power of steam has been greatly developed to the use and convenience of man- kind. The progress of invention has tended greatly to abridge human labor. Agriculture is practised more skilfully and advantageously than in former times. The arts, both useful and oinamcntal, are extensively cultivated. The use of the art of printing puts substantial knowledge within the reach of all, even the poorest. Literature and practical science are the order of the day in our schools and academies, and the youth of a dozen of years, whose time has been well employed in study, possesses more definite science at his command than the aged man of five centuries ago. But here the question arises : is it possible, judging from what we know of the past history of mankind, to bring the inhabitants of this world to a general observance of the laws of benevolence, which is the true index of high moral character and civilization ? To such a rjuestion, wo have answered frequently before that man has it in his power to cultivate the spirit of benevolence or of malevolence, either of which he chooses ; but in this connection we answer it thus ; that whatever man has accomplished man may accomplish. Amidst the darkness, depravity, and wickedness with which the earth has been generally enveloped individuals have occa- sionally arisen who have shone as lights in the moral world, and exhibited bright patterns of true christian temper and of active benevolence. The founders of the Christian faith appear to have belonged to this class. The Apostle Paul had his mind imbued with a large portion of the spirit of philan- thropy. He voluntarily undertook a tour of benevolence to the nations, and notwithstanding the persecutions, the reproaches, the stripes and imprison- ments Avliich he encountered ; and notwithstanding the perils in the waters, perils of robbers, perils by his own countrymen, perils in the city and perils in the wilderness to which he was subjected ; and in the face of death itself, he prosecuted with a noble heroism, his labor of love, purely for the sake of promoting the best interests of mankind. All who at the same time engaged in the same bene*olent undertaking sacrificed all private' interest and selfish consideration in order to bring men to a belief of the doctrine which they had themselves espoused. In modern times many individuals have arisen and distinguished them- selves and reflected honor on their race by the benevolence which they displayed. The name of John Howard is familiar to every one who is at. EXrSTEN'CE AND DlilTY. 141 tall acquainted with tho annals of pliilantliropy. This excellent man devoted his time,iii3 strength, his genius, his literary ace ' 'tions, his for- tune, and finally his life, to pursuits for the^benefit of huinanity and to tho unwearied prosecution of active benevolence. lie travelled over every country of Europe and into the adjacent regions of Asia, impelled by tho spirit of true christian love in order to survey the mansions of sorrow and pam. and to devise schemes for the relief of human wretchedness wherever it existed. And in tho execution of this scheme of benevolence the energies of his mind were so completdly absorbed, that he never sufifored himself for a moment to be diverted from his purpose even by the most attractive of those objects, namely, the pleasures of music, which formerly possessed all their most powerful influence upon his curiosity and taste. Also, Walter Venning, who has been denominated by Prince Galitzin the Second Howard, followed the course of his illustrious predecessor, and with the most fervent christian zeal devoted his short but very useful life to the alleviation of human misery, and to the promotion of the best interests of thousands of wretched individuals, who were all but lost. He withdrew from the ordinary routine of what is called genteel society in order that ho might devote all the energies of his soul to benevolent occupations. H3 commenced his philanthropic career by cooperating in the organization of " the Society for the Improvement of Prison DiscipUne," >vhich was founded in London in 1816 ; and he afterward visited the prisons in the cities of St. Petersbourg, Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, and other cities in Russia. The prisons, hospitals, workhouses, madhouses, houses of correction, aad the abodes of misery of every description in St. Petersbourgh were visited by him day after day ; and many a prisoner bowed down with affliction and iron was cheered, instructed, comforted, and served by his ministra- tions ; for, it is said, that his philanthropy extended both to the bodies and souls of men. This truly benevolent person died in the city of St. Petersburgh in the year 1821, in the fortieth year of his age. In our own day we have had a noble example of generosity and bene- volence in George Peabody. An American by birth, having amassed a large fortune by the industries of trade and commerce in London, he libe- rally bestowed a goodly portion of it to provide shelter and comforts for the poor of that vast metropolis. In his native state he founded hbraries for the instruction and enlightenment of the people, and his generous bene- ficence, and magnificent donations to worthy objects, ansure to him the respect of mankind in after ages. Men, who have any pecuniary legacy to bequeath to mankind, should, like George Peabody, always keep the foor and the indigent prominently in view. As the poet Homer, for the honor of whose birth-place, we are told by Cicero, several rival cities disputed, so this worthy man had the honor of his burial amicably disputed by two great nations, England and America, "I'll .y ■.■■]■■ • (-. tv' \m A ,„ c) , '^^'^f U2 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. Many other examples might bo adduced from the history of our timc3v and illustrious characters now living, both men and women, to dcmonstrato that a noble and disinterested benevolence is a i)rinci[)lo capable of being developed and exorcised even in the present degenerate state of mankind. "Wo find parents sometimes displaying a high degree of boncvolonco toward their children ; and sacrificing their ease and their personal interests in order to secure their health, their happiness, and their future good. Wo find bosom friends as David and Jonathan, and as Damon and Pythias, rejoicing in each other's welfare, and encountering difficulties and dangers in promoting the interests of "the objects of their friendship. What then should hinder such dispositions from becoming universal ? What should hinder them from being cultivated and exercised by all rational beings ' Would not the universal exercise of such dispositions be highly desirable ? Would it not tend to banish war and discord from the world, and promote peace on the earth and good-will among men ? Why then are such dispo- sitions so rarely to be met with ? Not because the universal exercise of them is a thing impossible, but because men, actuated by pride and self- ishness, are unwilling to give full scope to the cultivation and exercise of the benevolent affections ; because they have never yet persisted in their endeavour to bring all these into full operation. If all the energies of the intellect, and all the treasures which have been expended in fostering malignant passions, and in promoting contentions and warfare, had been devoted to i. 3 great object of cultivating and exercising the principle of benevolence, and distributing happiness among men, the moral, yea, and natural, aspect of our globe would long ago have assumed a very dif- ferent appearance fiom what it now presents to view. We have examples before us not only of a few insulated individuals, but of societies where the principle of active benevolence to a greiter or less degree pervades the whole mass. The people denominated Quakers have always ueen distinguished for their humane and peaceable disposi* tions, their probity and hospitality toward each other, their unostentatious liberality to indigent and suffering humanity, the modest cheerfulness of their manners, their opposition to war, and the active zeal they have dis- played in promoting the moral welfare of mankind. We give the following extract from a daily paper of February 25th, 1872 : " M. Drouyn de Lhuys, in his capacity as President of the French Soci^t^ des Agriculteur, has written a letter which sets forth the help given to France by the English Quakers during the war. Those generous people have bestowed in the most unostentatious way aid to the extent of four milHons of francs in the period named. The sum has been proved by regular accounts written by M. dc Lhuys, kept with the exactitude of a commercial house. He expresses the gratitude of a Frenchman in manly and affectionate terms, not only for the help given, but for the delicate manner in which it KXIdTENCE AND DEITY. 143 has been bestowed. Tliere is soraetliingfine and touclilng in these friends, the professed advoeates of peace, tiuis giving out of their moderate posses- sions to repair tiic ravages of war." Thus the spirit of benevolence has to make repairs for the damage done by tiie outworkings of the spirit of malevolence ; and it is (piite as imi)ortant that men should do the justice to themselves and to mankind of restraining and eradicating the spirit of malevolence, that delights in war and every evil work, as it is that they and all others should cultivate and exercise the spirit of benevolence, which delights in all that is good. The Quakers are also distinguished for the simplicity and purity of the creed they profess. The Moravians aro likewise distinguished for their affectionate intercourse with each other, the liberality of their dispositions, the peacoablencss of their temper, tho purity and simplicity of their lives, and their missionary efforts for con- verting tho heathen to the truths of the Gospel. Would that the whole race of mankind were Quakers or Moravians (if they will not bo more perfect), notwitnstanding their peculiarities of opinion. With all their faults society would then present a more beautiful and alluring aspect than it has yet done; peace and industry would bo promoted; the fires of persecution would never bo kindled ; the sciences and the arts that tend to peace and order would be cultivated ; philanthropy would be exercised by the nations ; and the people would cultivate tho spirit of benevolence toward each other, and learn war no more. After our review of the moral character of mankind in its two aspects of bad and good ; and after having illustrated that man himself is tho former of his own character and determines which of these it shall be ; we now think it proper, for the sake of digression, variety and information, to turn the attention of our readers to other things connected with our subject, which tend to iUustratefurther the eternal existence of the earth, or of the order of nature and of man, in the main -^s now existing. First then we shall state, as we have done before, that there is no evidence except what is derived from contrai^ctory and metaphorical and consequently from unrehable narrative3,which goes oo prove the contrary of the earth's eternal existence, although, notwithstanding all this, there are some who may not beUeve in this eternal existence. * But having before * It is easily seen, however, that the question of the eternal existence of the earth and of the iieavenly bodies in the forms which they have now can be only of secondary importance when it is remembered that the substance of these bodies certainly existed eternally. f If any one should undertake to say thai these bodies assumed or were given their present forms and motions at some period of the past from their substance existing before in a nebular state,it would be well for such an one to say at what time that change took place, and how long their substance had existed in that supposed nebular state before it became into these globiUar forms, and in what state it existed before it became into the supposed nebular state. For if men allow themselves to launch out into the region of conjecture with respect to this subject there is no knowing where they will terminate their speculations and theories concerning it. That the earth and the heavenly bodies existed always in their present general form and aspect there is, as we have before stated, no evidnce to disprove. t See page 27 at the bottom. ■fi! vwu :m 144 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. brought forward facts wliicli tciidcil to illustrate this, the eternal existence of man, and of all other animals, and of |)lants, will not be dilficult for tho readers to conceive ; wo moan, that thoy who conceive the one will easily conceive the other, and admit tho earth and all tho order of nature to bo an ever present thing ; and thoy who do nut coiicoivo the one will not conceive the other, nor admit tho earth and all the order of nature to bo an ever present thing. Solomon was a wise man and uttered the truth when he said that there is no now thing under the sun. Paul or any other was a wise man also, •who said: If a man sow not neither shall he reap, and whatsoever a man soweth that shall ho also reap. It is a fact known to all common observers that all plants and animals bring forth after their own kind. Tho farmer does not expect to reap if he do not sow or plant, nor docs he expect that a blade of rye will spring from a grain of wheat that ho has sown, neither of barley or of buckwheat or any other than a blade of wheat ; and he is never disappointed in this expectation. Nor does ho expect that any of his domestic animals will bring forth other than young of their own species, unless ho has crossed the species for the purpose of producing a hybrid, as, for example, a mule, the result of the crossing of the ass and horse species. Of all the known species of plants — and there arc reckoned as known, wo believe, about ninety thousand species — there is not one that produces other than its own kind. Also, each of these species is distinguished by having varieties in it ; and each of these varieties brings forth after its own kind. For instance the species oak, of tho genus qnercus, is distinguished by such varieties as the white oak, red oak, etc., as almost every one knows, and each of these varieties progagates after its own kind. The seed of tho red oak will bring forth a rod oak, that of the white vjak a white oak, etc. Also, of the birch species there are several varieties, and each of these brings forth its own kind. And so it is with all the other species of plants and their varieties, unless, as some say happens, a different variety may arise within the same genus from the pollen of a plant of one variety falling upon and fertilizing the seed of a plant of another variety of the same genus, whence a new variety, a cross between these two varieties of the same genus or species, might arise. Of all the known species of animals — and there are reckoned as known nearly as many as there are of plants, without reckoning the miscroscopic species — tho general natural rule is that each species, as well as their several varieties, brings forth after its own kind. This they do permanently, unless, as we have said before, a hybrid is produced by the arbitrary government of man. Thus, in the animal kingdom propagations according to species and kind is tho great rule ; hybridism the very rare exception. But it is an ubsolute fact, to which there is no known exception, EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 145 that no plant or animal of any kind whatever can be produced unless the seed exists before from whence it is to sprin;^. So, then, not only are all plants and animals j)roi)a^ated in succession from their own kinds, but neither plants nor animals of any kind could exist hav.atiou and depression of tho earth's surface takes place froinu'iitlv, when by the fluctuations of the temperature of the earth's crust the rocks expand or contract, in the former case of which an eleva- tion takes place in the surface immediately above the h)cality wliich experiences the expansion ; in tho latter case, especially when ?.hc contraction or cooling down takes place rapidly, fissures are made in the rocks, which admit the water to the igneous regions. When the shock takes ]ilace in tho interior it is prop.agated on all sides from the centro of disturbance in a wave, which reaches the surface, and as it rolls wider and wider from its centre causes all tho phenomena exhibited in an earth- quake, gradually decreasing in its power until it becomes imperceptible. There may be earth DK.ITV, Idl Wi>si Iiuliofl. Tlio j>;roat laKoa of Nort.li Ainorica felt tlio inovotrnMit. Tn 8('otlnn<1, Tiocli lionuti.d nmo on one Wnvh inoro tlinii two fo(>t, tlio water not itarticipating in tlui lurcli of the land. Tlio wavoH of diflttirli- anoc (>xt(Mitlo(l to the very iini'tli of Muropc. In rIx ininutos, (!(),0()0 |)r()])l(> in l/iwhotj p(mmh1i(m1. Many liai' tlio Hplintdr of a wrook. waH over known to liso from tlio watory <1o|>IIih. \V(» oat\ only HuppoHo tliat a riHfliin^ opened lionoatli tlio liarlior, and, after ongnltlng tlio wliolo, Hiiddonly rlimod in. In tliis (>artli(piake a roniarkaldo proof wan olTorod of the fact that the oarthi|uako wave in more readily propagatoil in Home formalioiiH than in othorM. The lower part of tlu city which roHted on hino clay \vm mont Hovoroly Hhattcrod, Avhilo that part of the city which waw hiiilt, (»n limo- Htone and hanalt escaped. The wave niovenKMit paHflCMl along the earth's punface at tho rato of twenty miles an hour ; the nea wave which in aiich caaoH nsually follows the land wave at a mnoh slower pace, rolled ahout four miles in tho same time. Tho sea wave is generally tho cause of a» much loss of life as the actual violence of the sluick. This may he well understood from the fact that at Cadiz, the wave was sixty feet high. But the reason why the waters of lioch Lomond did not participate in any peroeptiI)l(> degree in the lurch wliiidi the land gave is that that lake is of so small an extent, and that the water wavo travels so much slower than tho land wave. Stmth America lias fut none of these calamities seem comparahio to that which has [laralyzcd that country some four years ago. ()t» tho I'Uh and lOtli of Augu-tt 1H(JH, two eartli(piako shocks jiassed over Peru and K(!uador, ruining every town and city, and leaving hetweon two and three hundriMl tliousan PKITY. gave ovidouc, ot .) viso of nino loot. (For tunny otiior fuota illiHliativo of the altovation of lovol in all piulwof tho world as n conaomionoo of inliMunl disturbanoos, tho roadiM- \na_v oonsnll IaoU's Prinoiplos of (loolo^v. vol, 11.) lint tlioro is fonml (o ho a ^radnal alliM-ation yA' Icvol (nkinji; plaoo on tho earth's purfaoo. not ald^ndod with oonv>\lsivo niov»Mnon(s. whioli is more important than thoso lov'al vaiialions. t)l)sprvors find it dillionlt lo ostahlish (hoso facts, hooanso thoro is no standard which is not itself suhjcci to allcratitMi. ("arcful invcstijiations. however. o\' the eoasi of Swodon has shown that most of the t^cnndinavian peiiinsulu is risinu; at tho ralo of four feet a century. The coast is faviu-ahle lor the ohsorvation , (hero are no tides in the Baltic, and tin* i'lilfs which line the coasts desccMid porpeir d\c\ilarly into the sc;i. hew othor places presont (l\o samo advantnjvos for observatitMi. Ilic water l(>vcl has ho, n repeatedly marked, and the rise judged hy its clian>i;e. It Ims ;ilso Immmi ohsi>rve(l thai the hoil of tht' South Pacific (>ccan is sinKiiig in these a,y;es. Sunic jndire thus from (lio fact that the hods o[' (he coral formation are found far helow (he depth of twenty fathoms, hclow which, it has heen said, the coral inaeci emild no(, exist from (he ju'cssure of (ho wa(er heinjj; too }j;reat ; just as if any ninn nf sane uiind co\Ud hidi(ne that an insect whieli (>\ists under the piossur(> n\' twenty fatiioins o\' water wo\dd h(> previuitod from existing at. live times that depth " hy its ]>rcss>nc. " 'I'hcre aie douhll( IxmI of the 8o\i(hern (tocan sinking (o eorresponil wi(h the ehnalions wliioli aro takiuii place in (he N'or(hern hemisphere, for. for (>very elevation tlnue is a ciu'rcspondiui: depression on the earth's siu'lace. (>ne well known proof of tho repeated oscillations of tho earth's cnnt is that which is olVered hy the temple of Serapis near I'nz/.uoli in (ho I'.fiy "f 2Saples, The ruins of this teniple consist of three pillars of marhh>, Iumvu out of solid blocks of mori» than forty foot lii.iL^h. The history of this remarkablo temple a]ipears to ho as follow : I'Vom cerlaiu iuscriptioni disc()veretl in the vicinity, we learn that in the year {••.') I'. ( '. a temple dedicated to Serapis existed on the sliori\ In ISJS, tln^ haudsomo mosaic pavement was discoveroil live fe(uoath that from wliicli tho pillars rise. The intury. the temple was repairo(| ami beautified by the I'lmperor Alexander Soverus, At what time it was deserted, it is not known, but, in 1T41*, the following facts w(U'(> broui;ht to light by excavating : That when tho sea hroko in tho salt water cansod a hot spring which exists to throw dowc a dark calcareous (lo|)osit two foot thick. Above this a layer of volcanic tufa was found reposing, which must have been ejected by the neighboring volcano. This (Uiposit is not rcgul.ar, varying from five to nine feet in thickness. Tho eruption seems to hri RXIPTKNUM ANM liRITV, U9 linvc ritniKMl II liiniiiT \vlii"li kcpl mil llif watoM mC IIic simi, sm (lini l|. > liitl Mpriiitj; (MinlimnMl In i|(>|iimil, itn (iinlMumto mI" Hidm, Imt witliitui, ni\y iiimiiio (vilmixliu-o ; Huh a'tnut. I wn r»M>t (ti'« wero a(M(Ml I't tlnMrmlfff uliicli cnilitMliltMl l,ln> lioltnm ul'lln' cnlnmii. Mmo VMlcinii(5 tufa whs ii'jv? plncoil iipoii llio limn (l(>|iiiHi(fl, (>il|i(>r hy n^tonn nr aiMillMT pni|illMii, irifikitij^ a total tlo|i.Hit, ol" (.|.>viMi loot. All tlii^ tiiuo Uin jhimI Iia>l Immjh sinkiny. Tlin SfMi now HinioMiidcil llic |iillfiifl. wliii'li (iiially Riiiik iiirx' r«'('t, more ; lliufl liali'llio lii'iirjit WHS iiliovo tlic wnlfr, aii Hill fnco, (»U>vi'ii IViH, wnfl ciiiltpilih^il, tun! niiin oxpoBcd to t,lin wator ; ill tliifl flpaoo tlio |iilliiifl wore poroHplilily iK'rCorati'il hy iv Itivalvo " |,itl)(». ilonmsi. " 'I'liiiH if wi' iin'lu lowor puvi'iiiciis Um laiiil it.uflt liavo Bunlc 'Ji'» i(>t(|, nt Hip rato oralionk dmo inch iinniially. Iloro IIkmi wo have evideniie of a afcriK'tnre wliicli lias iin'lfM'- fj;oiio n fliilmidenoo and an npli(»aval of at loaflfc "20 leot, and still fltanils t(> altoflt tlie (piictncMfl and ri>|i;uliuity of llio iiiovonwnt. Altlimijrii this siiNjoofc ol" tli(» allomtion of lovol ol'llio oMith'fl fliirface is a dilliijiiH on(» > \>r<)ve, IVoin the peculiar eircMinislaneeH of the cfiMn, yot, we in;i.y saffly iiil'nr that this osoillation in more general than is oonpiionly Muppusnd ; and may fairly he hroufrht to acooutit for the th'preasion and upheaval neoeH'^ary for hriiigiiif^ the acpieous roiiks to form the Hiirfaoe of ooiitinents. For (ho reader miiy rememher thiit the roekn which underlie a ^reafc part of the dry land, aa well aw most of thoso found in the formation of lofty mountains* lurnisli unmistnkeahle evidence of their havini/; /^rown hencath the water. TliiM too will partly account for the Uxoi of hy far the <^reatest part of the fossilized plants and animals which have heon found hein^j; of a'juatic oritrin. In 110 other part of tln> world, wo helieve has the suhjcot of ^colocry hoen more pursued than in the island (»f Hritain, and as this island is so extreme- ly small in proportion to the great extent of the k'"'"'» "-'"l ^^ '^'"'y small portions of it too have Ikmmi geologically examined, it is the more sur[)ris- iiig that such a great nunilier of fowsil animals and plants, and other inter- esting fossils, have heen discovered there. We would add a list of the fossil [daiits and animals which have until recently he(>n discovered in all parts of the glohe to show the pro|iortion wliicdi th(!y hear in respect to kind to those now existing, hut for the fact that these (»roportif»ii9 are con- tinually varying hy means of the discovery of more fossils, and some now living species. (leologists remark that the remains of man are mostly found in the alluvial deposits of rivers and lakes. These deposits contain also akolotona of land animals together with fresh water shells, intermixed with silt and vegetable drift carried down hy the rivers. The reason they are found in k i . ff 1 m 154 EXISTENCR AND PETTY Bucli places rather than in others is, first, that man must have always occupied the regions of the land as a residence ; anes and nations may iiavc been more civilized and ingenious than others, and that while one tribe used instruments of one material, and of good workmanship, anotlior may have used instruments of another material and of better workmanship. There arc found instruments of stone, of bronze (an alloy of tin and copper) and of iron ; and the ages in which they are said to have been used are termed respectively tho stone ago, tho bronze age, and the iron age. In the stone instruments there is a variety played indicating a less or a greater degree of ingenuity or tact in their making. Some of them are made of flint seemingly chipped into the required shape by hand. The regularity and proportion displayed in these arrow and spear heads are often remarkaulc. Although it may appear strange, it is said that the flint chips more easily, when chipped with another flint, than if an iron tool be used ; so that we need not be surprised at the clever specimens of stone handicraft, preserved for us in these deposits, and formed by men who, like the North American Indian of the past, were not acquainted with the use of iron. Some of those flint instru- ments appear as if they had been subjected to a process of grinding, and consequently exhibit more skilful workmanship. An ancibnt people who fabricated these instruments lived in the Northern parts of France, and in the South of Britain. In the river gravels of Abbeville and Amiens in France, M. Boucher de Perthes found in 1847 many specimens of their KXIHTKNCH AND DKITY. 156 liatidiwork. Thcso boils of frrnvol vary in tlioir depth to tlio prosont bt)ttom of the valley from 20 to 200 foot. This depth indicates tho ninount of scoopin;^ work tho rivor has done since these ancient people occupied its banks. Those tools arc usually bleached by long cvposuro to the air, or they are stained with tho same yellow tin;^o which pervades the gravel bank, and sometimes cry,4alIino incrustations of carboiwito of lime a[)pear upon their surface. Their edges are blunted either by wear or by the rolling action of tho water, and they are usually found at depths of from liltocn to twenty feet from tho surface. Tho fact that the Homme rivor has worn away more than 200 feet of valley since tho pcofjlo of this stono ago inhabited its banks may impress us with some; notion of tho time which has elapsed since that very remote period ; yet tho position in which similar instruments arc found in tho South of England, carries our minds still far- ther back into the past. On tho tops of tho hills in South Ilarapshiro, and in tho North of tho Islo of Wight, masses of gravel are found. Thcso detached bods are bcliovod to bo remnants of a groat deposit of drift res- ting upon tho Eocene Tertiary Strata. In this gravol aro blocks of sand- stone, some twenty foot in circumforoncc, and to account for their prcsenco at some distance from their native beds geologists have recourse to tho agency of tlic glaciers. It is in this gravol that numerous specimens of 8ton© tools, precisely similar to those of tho Somme valley have been found. If tho theory of tho glacier agency with respect to those rocks be true (and it does not seem altogether improbable when wo consider that glaciers of groat extent exist in tho Alpino districts in tho centre of Europe at present), then, when these ancient people inhabited Britain it was amid the ice and snow of tho Artie regions, or, at least, in tho proxi- mity of glaciers and ice fields. And since tho time of their existence tho Southampton river, tho Avon, and tho Stour have begun their course and gradually Avorn for themselves their present valleys And probably the Isle of Wight was then part of the mainland ; whether or not tlio strait of Dover then existed may be guessed or known. But not only have they passed away, but many of the animals then existing are now extinct. Tho bones of tho mammoth, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, the reindeer and the Nor- Avcgian lemming all are associated with the flint instruments. These animals have all an Artie relation, and the two first have been known alive in historical times. Tho first of these is simply a large kind of Elephant, and the lemming is of the rat species. In the valley of tho Somme the hippopotamus and the musk ox are also found, indicating a somewhat more genial climate. Tho reason why the remains of men aro not in general found associated with these instruments, is, as will appear more clearly from information hereafter to be given, that mankind has always been accustomed to bury their dead in detached places, or to burn ihcm. ¥ i-n'm l:%i Aiu 156 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. For a long time geologists refused to entertain the idea that mankind Tras co-existing with the mammoth ; but now all doubt upon this subject too has been removed, for even in the scanty researches thus far more than 3000 flint instruments belonging to the ancient stone ago have been discovered in Europe. Throughout the whole of Scandinavia (Sweden and Norway), although quantities of flint instruments are found none of them are of the rude stone type found in the South of England, and in France ; but all are ground and better shaped. This may indicate that they wore of a later age than the stone weapons, or of tho same or even an earlier age, and made and used by a more ingenious and civilized race of men. The thought will probably strike one, was not Scandinavia in these early times covered with ice, and how coi.ld it then bo inhabited ? An equal and an equally forcible consideration is this — that Denmark was certainly inhabited by the men of the stone period ; and if this, being in such close proximity to the Scandinavian Peninsula, was inhabited, why should not the latter have been ? Doubtless tho Scandinavian geologists have given considerable attention to this subject and understand it. Along the coasts of the Danish islands are mounds from three to ten feet high, and some of them as many as 1000 feet long. These mounds are termed kitchen middens^ being found to contain some shells of mol- lusks, etc., upon which the people lived. Being in close proximity to their dwellings it is natural they should contain many remnants of their mode of life ; burnt bones of the animals they cooked, their stone knives, spears, etc. Sometimes bone and horn instruments are found in great numbers. The animals with which they were associated are still living in Europe, excepting die beaver. The dog alone, however, seems to have been domesticated by them. These facts, and fragments of rude pottery^ that are found, go to prove them to have been partially civilized. These ancient people have reminiscences of their existence preserved to us in peat-bogs, and in Denmark successive stages of civilization are observed. In the lower beds of peat stone-weapons occur side by side with the roots of the Scotch pine, a tree which has never been known in Denmark in historical times. Higher up in the same bog bronze in- struments are found ; but here the pine has become extinct and the oak takes its place. Still nearer the surface iron instruments are found ; but during the bronze period the oak growth waxed and waned, and next the beach tree which now flourishes in^Denmark occupied the country. Let the long periods whicc it must take for successive generations of forest trees to wear themselves out tell the years which measure these ages of stone, and bronze, and iron. An interesting and singular repository of these ancient relics has lately been discovered in Switzerland. It seejis that it was the custom of the ancient inhabitants of the Swiss valleys to construct their villages on piles,. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 1G7 mm- (Iriven into tlie bottom of the lakes, where the water was not more than fifteen feet deep. No fewer than onehamlred and fifty of these lake villa- ges, have been already discovered. Bjin:^ surroimlod with water the inhabitants were secure from the attacks of wild beasts, and in some measure from their human enemies. By dredging in the ooze great num- bers of articles have been found. Some villages are characterized as of the stone age, others of the bronze, and others again give evidence of having been inhabited by people who used both the stone and bronze instruments. Among other things taken up from the villages characterized as of the stone age are charred corn, and bread. This proves that the people of that very ancient period cultivated corn. No corn has been discovered in the villages where the bronze instruments have been found, but the vessels occasionally bear the marks of the potter's wheel. Nume- rous animals were dome3ticated,and gold, amber, and glass were used for ornaments. From the size of the sword-handles and the bracelets it is concluded that the people denominated as of the stone ago were smaller than the present inhabitants of Northern Europe. With respect to the disposition made of the dead the evidence is as follows. During the age of the stone weapons the mode of burial seems to have been in rude coffins of undressed stone. The skull is remarkably round and small, and this type is now most nearly approached in the Laplander. It is suggested that he may be the descendent of the men of the stone age, his ancestors having followed the ice northward. During the age of the bronze weapons the fashion of burial changed ; or, perhaps, we may say with equal propriety that the men characterized as of the bronze weapons disposed of their dead diflferently. No human remains understood to have belonged to that period have been found ; they burned their dead. When the age of iron came they again resorted to sepulchral burial, and now the skull appears larger and longer. The floors of caves have proved the richest storehouses of human remains ; but owing to the fact that the cave may have been used as a burial place in comparatively recent times, it does not necessarily follow that human remains lying side by side with the bones of extinct animals belonged to human beings that lived contemporaneously with these animals. Out of the numerous frag- ments of skeletons which from time to time have been brought forth froja such places Professor Duncan concludes that the lower jaw found in the cave of La Nautelle, the skull from the Engis cave, and the jaw of the Grotto des Fdes are " the only examples of human bones which can bear criticism, and which can be referred to the mammoth age." As we may have before intimated the stone, bronze, and iron instruments may have been used by the same nations and tribes for long successive ages, and may indicate the advances they made in civilization and art,or may have been used contemporaneously by different tribes and nations of different or w 1 > 1 1 Si I* •!.*t .M 158 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. the same degrees of civilization ami art. TIio fiiuling of tlio stone, hrome^ and iron in succor livo strata, as in Denmark or in any other jjlaco where a sufficiently extensive search had been made, mi^ht appear to suhstantiato the first supposition ; but the finding of these different kinds of instruincnta in neighbouring villages or in the same village, would indicate that tho second supposition may be equally true. Tho Augustan ago in Europe, characterized by a certain ki/id of arms and arts, may have been cliai""* acterized by very different kinds of arms and arts in China, which it un- doubtedly was. Also, Oie ages of the bow and arrow in Europe and Asia were different from the modern age of artillery : and tho tribes of Indians orother tribes who use the bow and arrow contemporaneously with tho uso of artillery by their white neiglibours, may differ somewhat in point of civilization and art from the whites ; or there may be tribes on the earth who might be considered as equally advanced in many respects in regard to civilization with the whites who still use bows and arrows. And even neighbouring as well as distant tribes in prehistoric times may have differed in like manner, doubtless did. Each nation had then its own language* and differed from its neighbours in arts and characteristics even moro than the nations differ now. We are to remember that the facts here adduced as to the discovery of human remains or of instrumouts indicating the existence of human beings in those very ancient times refer to Europe alone, and only to a small portion of that. But we have ocular evidence in the numerous tumuli of the Western States of the existence of men on tho American continent in past ages, men who, as we have been informed by a man of sound judgment, who had inspected some of the remains, and handled some of tho limbs, averaged 10 to 12 feet high (some of them much higher) and were made in proportion. This fact evidences as strong a s 1 vthirg can that different races of men have existed on this continent in pas t;. (?,and have passed away in succession; men, some of whom were in point of size to the men of the present day either white, black, or red, as the huge mammoth or mastodon would be to the elephant. The whole continent of America has been peopled in some of the past ages by these gigantic races. We have mentioned in another place the huge fossil man we inspected in Western. New York, which was casually happened upon by a man digging a well on his own farm . And we have been since told by a clergyman, who resides on the eastern side of lake Erie, that he had reason to belie'"? that such huge fossils are not uncommon in the district in which he lives ; for that, when in Elgin county, in Canada, he handled a skull of one of these ancient giants, whose remains had been casually found in the neighbourhood, and that when through curiosity to find how his head compared with it in size he inserted his head into the cavity of the mammoth skull, there was still more than enough of room left on each side for him to insert his two hands between the skull and his ears. .1 EXIdTb'NCE AND DEITY. 159 The whole continent of America presents innumerable cvitlonces of an extinct civilization. These are of varioin kinds, inchulinj^ mound.H, tumuli, fortifications of larj^o proportion-i, ^^anlem, wells, artificial meadows, ruins of towns and cities once wcaltliy anil populous, which all, with many other monuments are to be found scattered throughout the continent, especially from the 48th or nOth parallel on the north to about the same latitude on the South of the Eijuator. The valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio abound in ancient mounds, tumuli, extensive fortifications, and traces of wells, salt mines, and artificial meadows which speak unmistakoably of a long period of time during which a numerous and powerful people of settled agricultural habits had made such considerable progress in civilization as to require largo temples for their religious worship and oxtonsivo fortifica- tions to protect them from their enemies. On the banks of the Blue river, the Black river and the St. Charles, near the river Gila, and upon an alluvial soil which reposes ujwn basaltic rocks, the remains of ancient colonies are very numerous. Hows and piles of stones show the plan of houses, though nearly covered up by the accumulated soil of ages. Hero is seen a ruined circular stone wall about 250 yards in circumference witii an entrance on the eastern side, and containing in its centre the ruins of a dwelling in which no traces of wood exist ; three quarters of a mile dis- tant the soil is strewn with enormous remnants of spacious edifices which contained rooms fifteen feet square. In most of those, fragments of painted pottery have been found and traces of decaying cedar wood. These houses are surrounded by a rampart 300 yards in length. One writer observes in speaking of this locality : "Subterranean fires appear to have ruined all this country and converted it into a barren waste ; the country may also have been deserted in consequence of volcanic convulsions spread- ing death and misery among the inhabitants." Judging from tl c walls, houses, and remains of pottery met at every step all this rugion of country seems to have been very populous in past ages. In the Apache territory near the Rio Grande is a copper mine which shows distinct traces of ancient working A little to the East of this an ancient fort of a square shape is erected with a tower at each corner. The walls are four feet thick and in a state of some preservation. The banks of the Rio Verde abound in ruins of stone dwellings and fortifications which appear to have belonged to a more civilized people than the Aztecs. They are found in the most fertile valleys, where ti*aces of former cultiva- tion and of small canals for artificial irrigation are yet visible. The firmly built walls of these dwellings are twenty and thirty yards long to thirty or forty-five feet high, and from four feet thick at the base gradually taper to the top. The houses were four-stoHed, with small openings for doors, windows, and loopholes for defence against outside attacks. Exca- vations among these majestic ruins have yielded abundant fragments of 160 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. beautiful pottery black, yellow, red, striped and scoloped and ornamented ■with brilliantly colored paintings. Of the ruins in New Mexico the most modern are the pueblos or stone dwellings ; they comprised usually a main portion and two receding wings at right angles to the main part, from the extremities of which extended a circular wall enclosing a large yard or court. They had the appearance of an immense barracks, being of four stories high, each receding from the preceding one like a series of terraces rising one above another. The outside wall had no openings in the first or lower stories, and each story was reached from the court or yard by ladders which could be drawn up after the inmates, thus giving no opportunity for the enemy to enter. The minor details of these struc- tures Indicate much ingenuity and art. Some of them appear in the dis- tance like splendid mosaic work, being constructed of stones of various colors. They are built of small flat slabs, in some cases of fine granite sandstone, a material never used in any of the raf^dern monuments of Mexico ; and the walls show no trac^ of cement, the intervals being neatly filled up with small colored pebbles incrusted in mortar made without lime, Remains of ancient towns are extremely numerous in the country of the Zunis, the Navagos, and Jemez. All these towns are so ancient that no Indian tradition makes any mention of them. Humboldt, speaking of these remains of the unknown past, in which may bo included the ruins of populous cities possessed of much grandeur, the amazing signs of mecha- nical and architectural science which are manifest in the construction of the palaces of Tezcotzinco, the temple of Xochicaico, and the colossal stone calendar of Mexico, says ; " Certain it is thnt they are the work of a great people, of an mtelligent nation, whose civilization was far superior to that of the actual tribes." These ancients seem to have possessed a knowledge of astronony, as all their structures had either four entrances or four corners or towers answering to the four cardinal points. Among the basses Grandes are met numerous ruins, among which is a tumulus sur- rounded by an earthen wall 100 yards in circumference. A little from this is a large round terrace 100 yards by 70, supporting a pyramid 30 feet in height by 25 yards at its summit, commanding a view of a plain extending north, east and west, on the left bank of thu Gila. The Pirn ^"• Indians have a logend concerning these ruins wliich runs thus ; They pretend that these edifices were constructed by the son of the most beau- tiful woman that ever existed and who formerly lived in the neighbouring mountains. Her extrtme beauty caiised her to be beloved by a multitude of suitors ; but she refused to marry ; when they visited her they paid her tribute, and by means of this resource she provided for the people during times of famine without provisions ever failing. At length one day she fell asleep, and from a dew-drop descending and falling upon her bosom she conceived and gave birth to a son who built those houses and many EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 161 others to the north and south-west. Among all these ruins are found beads and painted pottery, and perforated shells which antif|uarians believe were used as coins or ornaments. The valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi are rich in monuments of various kinds, dating from a period long anterior to the historical era. In Ohio alone, the number of ancient mounds, wells, etc., has been estimated at ten thousand. The American mounds have been divided by antiqua- rians, as follows: altars, tombs, temples, and tumuli of no determin- ate character. Out of one hundred examined, sixty had served as temples, twenty as tombs, and the rest were places of observation, or mounds, the uses of which could not be determined. Their plan and construction differ according to the situation. In the vicinity of the great lakes, and in the States of Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, and the western territories, they are made of earth, of conical form or in the shape of animals, birds and reptiles, or even in that of man ; appearing like immense Bassi Relievi carved out on the soil by the hands of giants. In the inte- rior of these monuments relics of art have been discovered beloufjing to a very ancient period, and consisting of personal ornaments, domestic uten- sils, and articles connected with religious worship, made of different metals and of Pietra dura, also polished stone and copper implements. In the Ohio valley these earthworks are larger, more numerous, and of a more regular construction, in many instances surrounded by earthworks or strong walls ; and give the best indication, from their number and style, of the greatness, or at least the multitude and superiority of the popu- lations by which they wei-e constructed. Advancing southwai'd these antiquities are remarkable for the great regularity of their structure and their extraordinary size, and in these southern parts only have traces of brickwork been detected in their construction. In Florida and Texas these mounds are composed of several stories, somewhat resembling a Mexican Teocallis in their pyramidal form, dimensions, lofty passages, spacious ter- races, and long avenues ; they are often surrounded by smaller ones placed at regular ii tervals, some with paths winding around them from the base to the summit ; others have gigantic steps, like slips in European forti- fications. Enclosures are rare in Florida, but those of a military character have been discovered in th(^ Carolinas. Of the courts or amphitheatres that existed in the far South, the purpose seems to have been that of places for public amusement, as in the amphitheatres at Rome. The tetragonal terraces are apparently foundations for elevated fortifications, while the pyramidal hillocks are supposed to have served as observatories command- ing a view of a wide extent of country. In Florida, frequent vestiges of extensive roads are met with, some running in a straight line for sixty to seventy-five miles. These highways were elevated above the surrounding 162 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. plains, anil appear to have led to the greoi centres of population, traces of which still exist. After traversing ruins of towns and villages they terminated at the foot of one of those artificial teocalli, or high dwellings of the chiefs. Few American cux'iosities arc more striking to the imagi- nation than these great roads, and the magnificent scale on which they were constructed brings to the mind the great roads made by the Roman government through the provinces of the empire. The elevated struc- tures, or mounds of Florida, were usually s(iuare-shaped, sloping on one side to the road, or reached by a series of wide steps leading to the summit of the monument. The Indian population, whom Columbus found here, had no knowledge of the origin or uses of these structures, which were covered equally with the surrounding country by forests of gigantic growth. We might mention also the immense gardens, of unknown origin, found scattered over various parts of the American continent, whose size and state of preservation has produced, in the minds of observers, much astonishment. This perfect preservation is thought to be owing to the thick coats of prairie grass, which is so dense and abundant as to form a compact vegetable coating on the surface of the soil. This enables all their sinuosities to be easily traced, and has prevented their surface being overgrown with forest, as obtains in other ruins. They are s([uare, or semi-circular, and are divided in parallel lines so as to form a series of ridges or beds, two or three yards in width, and are separated from each other by a number of very narrow paths. One of them is described by Doraencck, as above eight miles in extent. No light has been thrown upon the nature of the produce of those extensive fields laid out with so much regularity. The finest and best preserved have been found in Indiana, Michigan, the Western territories and Texas. Besides these gardens, artificial meadows, many of which were found situated on the borders of wood land or in the midst of forests, were also cultivated by the agricultural population which inhabited the western world previous to the tribes now existing. From the nature of the country, the configur- ation of the surface, as well as the agricultural implements of stone and brass found in those meadows, it is believed that in remote times these regions were covered with trees which must have been bui-ned or torn up to make room for pasturage, etc., in the vicinity of human habitations. There are many traces which make it appear proboblo that the ancient inhabitants of the country worked the salt water springs in order to procure salt. These traces appear in Illinois, where, in a salt mine, there existed an extavation one hundred and thirty-five yards in circumference, in the middle of which a great pit had been dug at some unknown period. A conduit also existed by which it is supposed the water was drained off. In Ohio the salt mines give evidence of having been worked, the ancient remains of vases used in ihe evaporation of water having been found near EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 163 the mines. In the salt-j)etre cave of Missouri hammers and axes similar to those found in the tumuli have been discovered. In the Lake Superior region are copper mines which bear unmistakeable traces of ancient mining. It appears that the ancients made use of tools of tempered copper, specimens of which have been found in the mines, as also evidences of the use of firo. The marks of such tools are traceable on the native copper. Fortifications, of a singularly strategical character and of immense pro- portions, have been found existing in tlic vicinity of the Ohio and Missis- sippi rivers. With reference to these it has been said that, " of all tho great works left by the ancient American nations, none are more extra- ordinary or more worthy of study than those colossal fortifications and vast entrenched camps protecting and surrounding spaces so very con- siderable that, of necessity, they must have been the work of a largo population." The epoch at which these were constructed is, of course, quite unknown, but it is evident that they must have been coeval with the most ancient mounds or tumuli, since they are often placed within, or in the immediate neighborhood of, the fortifications, and in many cases form part of tho general plan of defence. These fortifications are lound to consist sometimes of earthworks thrown up in the form of an extensive entrenched camp, or in the stone walls which have been thrown across peninsulas formed by the conflux of two rivers, and around the declivities of elevated terraces ; while in all cases it is observable that a careful choice had been made of the most suitable position, of which every advantage has been taken to construct defensive fortifications on a surprisingly gigantic scale. On the delta formed between the Raccoon and Newark rivers in the county of Licking, Ohio, there exists an elevated table-land about 35 feet in height upon which are remains of milUary constructions of great extent. On the west side of the platform stood an octagonal fort enclosing an area of about forty acres, having stone walls of solid masonry about nine feet in height, and the same in width, at the base, each protected by a tumulus placed in the interior in front of tho entrance. Two parallel walls lead to another circular fort at the south- west of the first, covering a space of 22 acres ; further south is an elevated hillock or observatory which commands a view of the whole position, beneath which a secret passage leads to the opposite side of the river. A third fort of a circular form stands more to the right, enclosing about 62 acres ; there was an interior ditch in this, out of which earth had been taken to assist in the formation of the wall, which ranged from 25 to 30 feet high. Two other parallel walls run towards the north, gradually con- verging to another fort of quadrangular form, enclosing an extent of about twenty acres. These four different forts are connected by rather low walls, and in the centre of the enclosed area is a shallow pond covering 150 to 1 ■■i- ^ 1.:! 1 ' i '■'■''- i' ] il M^ ^ 1'!^' ^'11 ■„ , ■■i .(^sl 1^ ■ ii 1 164 ExrsTENrr: and dkity. m 200 aoivs, R\i]ipo30(l to bo artificial, and to mvg been rcijuireil to aftonl V ater to the peojile and animals inbabiting tbc? pl;"'<^ : towors ^'f -/bserva- tion placed at cacb of tbe aaliont ]iointa ooinplote tbe x^orka at tbis point. At Marietta, near tbe montb of tbe Muakiuguni, 9on»o e? traordinary ruins exist, among wbioli are two siipiaro forts, tbe largest covori,., 'orty acres ; tbose bave eavtb walls from tliree to six feet bigb, and nidcst at tbe base ; sixteen openings exist at regular intervals ; at one si
  • arallel manner. But enough has been said to show that the strongh<>ld3 crectecl by tbese ancients wore not of the meaner sort, — the earthworks aeemii\g to be pos- sessed of the greatest durability ; for they !\ave been protected by a growth of forest or thick grass, while the stone structures have tumbled in most cases to a mass of ruins only intelligible to the penetrating glance of the anti(^uarian. The Tniiians know nothing about the origin of these struc- tui'cs, nor about the people by whom they were erected ; but they bold them in traditional veneration, The tumuli are massive and pyramidal in fouVi and some contain a vault within which are laid the remains of the dead ; these vaults are usually built of stones placed one above another, \\ithout any cement, sometimes of wood, or of both combined. The mounds aiv of various dimensions, from three to ninety feet in height, and fr(MU 100 to 700 feet in circumference at the base. In the top there exist altars of leaked clay or stone in the shape of large basins, varying from 19 inches to 17 yards in length ; but the average is from 2 to 8 yards. A niimber of these were examined by Messrs. S(i[uire and Davis and were usually found to contain ashes and remains of calcined human bones, with some- times a few ornaments ; this leads to the belief that the aicient Ameri- cars sometimes burned their dead. In the larger burial mounds the vaulted chamber usually contains a raised pedestal or altar, upon which is laid the human remains. Tliese skeletons are ordinarilv covered with sheets of mica, and carefully placed around them are found ornaments and utensils of various descriptions. One was discovered in Utah in which a polished silver breastplate lay upon the skeleton ; at each side of his head lay what Appeared to have been two tapei-s extending upwards, while between the foot was found an earthen vessel of remote antiquity. Some of the vaults have a stone pavement floor while others arc vaulted and floored with EXtSTENCR AND DEITY. 165 what nppoara to hnvo boon a Hppcioa of hrick or firo clay. In tlio Sontliorn Jr^tatcfl, funeral \u'ns have ot'tou hooii fouinl w'.thin tuiniili oFtliia kiti'l ; also beils of chai'Cnal, fi'om wliioli it ia inforreil that firo was iisod in their fiinoral rites. In these monmnenta also have heen discovoroil ornarnonts of r4iIvor, brass, stone or hone, anil ornatnental heads made of shells ; also piece-* of siiex, tpiRrtz, garnet, and obsidian, points of arrows, copper tools, niarino shells, sculptures of human heads or of difi'erent animals, fragments of bca»itif\d pottery, ornamantcd with brilliantly colored paintings (»f butter- ilies, ipiadrupeds and other things, indicating a knowledge of art. Very valuable discoveries of this kind have been made in New CJranada, where arms, itlols, and medals were found enclosed in tombs of peojilo whose successors have disappearofl fnr many centiu'ies, anil whoso enor- mous wealth is reported by tradition. The arehjcologists of I'anama declare these works of art to belong ti» very remot .nti(pnty, and consider them to poseesa characteristics of both Chinese and Egyptian art. Domeneoh describes (Miclosures ma ! I I if 1 rfi 166 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. relates that on the same spot he, in company with Dr. Hildreth, in 1842, eaw a tree, which when sawn asunder numbered eight hundred rings of annual growth. Gen, Harrison, President of the United States, in 1841, who was well skilled in wood-craft, remarked in a memoir upon this subject : " Several generations of trees must have lived and died before the mounds could have been overspread with that variety of species which they supported when the white man first beheld them, for the number and kind of trees were precisely the same as those which distinguished the surrounding forest." " We may be sure," he observes, '• that no trees were allowed to grow so long as the earthen works were in use, and when they were forsaken the ground, like all newly cleared land in Ohio, would for a time be monopolised by one or two species of trees, as the white poplar, the hickory, the yellow locust, and the black and white walnut. When these had died out, one after another, they would, in many cases, be succeeded, (by virtue of the law which makes rotation in crops profit- able in agriculture,) by other kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries, several thousand years perhaps, that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North America, and far exceeding what is seen in European forests, would be established." Taking this in connection with the opinion of a celebrated naturalist, who assumes that the oak is five hundred years in growing, remains five hundred years in statu quo, and is another five hundred years in decaying, we get some idea of the great antiquity of the American tumuli on which enormous oaks are found growing amid the remains of other oaks reduced to dust by extreme old age. Hieroglyphic Inscriptions have also been discovered from time to time in the States of Georgia, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ohio, Connecticut and Rhode Island, while some, remarkably well-preserved, have been found in the islands of Lake Erie. The red pipe-stone quarries of the meadow liillocks in the Western States conceal numbers, while others are met with in New Mexico. The most important and significant of these is that of Dighton rock. This rock is situated at the East of the mouth of the Taunton river in Manchuctka ; the width of the rock is about forty-four feet, and the height in use about five feet ; the surface is polished, either by water or by the hand of man. It was for a long time covered with moss, detritus and dirt, so that the inscription was not noticed until the middle of the last century, when it became a subject of much interest and scientific discussion. The characters entering into the composition of this inscription are decided to be hieroglyphic, kyriologic, and symbohcal, and the strokes, roughly sculptured, appear to have been cut in the stone with a cylindrical instrument, the depth of the incision being about two lines. It has been attributed by M. Mathieu, a French writer to the Atlantides, about the year of the world 1902 j and Messrs. Yates and Moi An in\ cont lines EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 167 Moulton, in their History of Ne^ York, say it is of Phoenician origin. An inscription of much interest was also discovered in Grace Creek tumuli in Western Virginia. It was found buried with a skeleton in a mound containing two vaults ; it is composed of twenty-two characters in three lines with a cross and a mask engraved on a dark hard stone of an elliptic shape, about two and a half inches long, two inches wide, and about five lines thick. Learned men who have examined this inscription most carefully, neither agree as to its origin nor as to the nature of its characters, of which four, it was thought, had a resemblance to the Etruscan signs, four to the Thugga (African), five to the ancient Runic in Scandinavia, six to the Touarick, seven to the old characters found in Ireland, ten to the Phoeni- cian, and fifteen to the Celtiberian, several resembling more than one kind of character. The divided state of opinion as to the relic only proves the uncertainty of its meaning, and causes one writer to ask the questions concerning it : Is it a sign, a motto, an ornament, or an historical remem- brance. There is another circumstance which is worthy of mention and is thought to le of great historical significance among the evidences of past civiliza- tion which are found to exist on this continent, namely, the marks of " fountain Avorship." The ancient peoples of Mexico and Peru have left traces, not only of the Phallic worship and its accompaniments, but also of that ancient material worship that believed the spiritual essences of things to be manifested in the expressions of life around them. Deity was perceived everywhere, and in everything, and thus they worshipped the sun, the moon, (which they supposed controlled the weather,) the stars, the earth, (which they called their mother, the sun being their father,) the rivers and fountains. The Zunis, above all, not using artificial means to irrigate their fields, and whose crops, therefore, depended entirely upon the rain that fell, believe to this day if they neglect to make their annual offerings to the spirit of the fountains their harvests will be destroyed by drought. Thus, in Mexico, Ireland, Scotland, as in ancient Carthage, Persia, Chaldoea, India, China, and Arabia, holy wells are held in great reverence and vene- ration by the inhabitants, who repair to them every year to make their offerings to the spirit of the springs. In the country of the Zuni one of these is still found ; it is seven or eight yards in circumference, and sur- rounded by a low circular wall. Once a year the water is withdrawn, when offerings of varnished pottery are placed upon the wall, there to remain until they fall by accident or time ; hence there are to be seen here specimens of pottery of great antiquity. A tradition obtains among them that any one attempting to steal one of these ofterings would be punished by instantaneous destruction. The worship of wells was practised in the East from times of the greatest antiquity, not only by the worship- m tj' ill ' I'll 'I- ii !•:, r- i[ 1G8 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. i pora of Baal, by the Scythians and their iloscondanta, but also by the Chinese, Hindoos, Moors, Persians, Arabians, Egyptians, Jews, and Celts of Ireland and Scotland, where these objects of the profound veneration of the Celtic people were usually situated in the most picturesque spots, on the slopes of hills and venerable oaks, amidst rocks covered with iioaths, in rctrc its difficult of access, and, above all, in the vicinity of an ancient oak or upright unhewn stone, and in dark and mysterious solitudes, where the breezes and the brooks murmur incessantly, and where the voice of man finds a faithful echo always ready t > ui;;ke nature resound with tho song and praises inspired by i pio' > f the- people. In England, it is said, the Druids practised this w *• ■-' i>. \r.v\ under the reigns of Canute and Edgar edicts wore promulgated a^. i v ■ :i ^e who venerated these secred wells ; while in the Scandinavian mauuscrip; . ' 's related that in the tenth century, a schism arose among the Americans, some of whom wore accused of despising the sacred well of Vagarscriebat. That a worship so ancient and 80 general in tho Eastern hemisphere as that of the fountains and wells should have boon found to exist in the Western IIemisi)here, may ajipear to be a mark of no small significance. In those times, there were people who believed that spirits presided over these fountains and rivers ; that these spirits were invisible, a .i» hovered around them, and received with pleasure theofterings made to them by mankind either as thanksgiving or propitiation. Certain idols, shells, pottery and ancient mummies, have been found in the mounds and caves of Ter.v.isee, which are thought by some writers to point to an Asiatic origin. In reference to these remains, the Abbe Do- menech writes : •' A knowledge of conchology is by no means unimportant in the study of the origin of the first inhabitants of North America, since it appears that they employed large marine shells, for their personal use, and for their sacrifices." The tumu ' found in the valleys of tho great rivers and the ruins of ancient fortifications contain a great number of these shells, which have formed the subject of long discussions among ethnographers, who are not ageed as to the locality of their origin. The most curious perhaps of the idols which have been found in these ruins have been found in the state of Tenessee. One of these was found en- closed in a small shell of the species Cassis Flammea which is of tropi- cal origin, the others are without shells and either seated on their heels or kneeling, the hands being placed upon the thighs or abdomen. They are naked and represent difterent sexes ; the largest are about four inches in length ; they are cut in stone common to the country. One of the professors of the University of Tenessee expressed the opinion that all these idols were representations of the ancient Phallic worship and were similar to those exposed in the temples of Eleusis. The existence of American mummies, swathed in the veritable manner of the ancient Egyptian mummies, excited considerable surprise and com- EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 169 mcnt at the timo of their discovery. They happoned to bo discovorod only in the neighborhood of largo river?, whore voasols could easily approacli ; they evidently belong to a race anterior to the red Indian ; and from their dis- covery, some writers agree that the ancient inhabitants of the continent Were of Egyptian origin, or at least came from tho shores of the Mediter- ranean, while Dr. Mitchell endeavored to prove that tho ancient inha- bitants of America were of Malay origin, and resembled tho natives of the islands of the Polynesia and Australasia. He founded this opinion on tho resemblance of the cloth in which those mummies were enveloped to that brought from tho Sandwich and Figi Islands, which is similarly made of fine cord doubled and twisted by hand ; and again on the tact that feather mantles are applied to a similar use by the islanders of tho Southern Ocean. It may, however, appear strange to men of sobei reflection that our modern ethnographers aro not content to allov> tho ancient inhabitants of this continent to have had an Araeric i origin without wearying themselves with investigating an origin for t'- 'Ui on other parts of tho earth's surface. The mummies were found in great numbers in tho mammoth cave near Louisville in Kentucky. This cave contains a large quantity of nitr. rfl the preservation of these mummies is attributed to its presence. Domencch describes one of these, that was found nine feet below the surface of tho soil ; it was placed between two large stones and covered by a flat slab, the knees were drawn up to the chest, the arms crossed, and the hands folded the one over the other at the height of tho chin. Tho hands, nails, ears, hair, teeth, and all the features were in a state of perfect preserva- tion. The skin resembled leather of a yellowish color, and no traces of an opening in tho body could be detected. Though this mummy Avas of a person six feet in height, it Avas so dried up that it did not Aveigh more than fourteen pounds. This body Avas not surrounded either by bandages or by any bituminous or aromatic substance, but Avas Avrapped in four coverings. The first or interior one was made of fine cord doubled and twisted in a peculiar manner, and of large feathers interwoven Avith great art ; the second Avrapping was of the same stuflT, but Avithout feathers ^ the third consisted of a deer skin Avitliout hair ; and the fourth and exter- nal covering of another deer skin, but Avith hair. The bodies of a man and Avoraan found in a saltpetre cave in Warren County, Tenessee, are also described by the same Avriter ; these Avere Avrapped in deer skins, and ia a cloth made of the fibres of the bark of trees and ornamented Avith fea- thers ; Avliile in the hand of the female Avas a fan composed of turkey's fea- thers, and made to open and shut at pleasure. These relics of past ages have greatly occupied the attention of American antiquarians, but the race to which they belong, evidently anterior to the Indian, is not decided. :•» -i ;mH! hm >■,. ' ^5 *^;i tf lii' <■ , :■;■(■ : '! . ihI :V. i .. I ii3 170 KXISTKNCP AND DKITY. NatuniliHta have oxprossod the ojiiiiion that tho horse ia not n native of the American continent ; according to liinnivus, it is n native of Kiirope nnil the l-'ast, while (Jolilsniith makes it to be a native of Africa ; at.d yet, when tho European first set foot upon tliis continent, vast herds of these animals in a wild state were found roaniinir; at l!ir;^e over the inunense jirairies of the West, it has l»een su}^gested that these may l)e the des- cendents of the domesticated animals, once used hy the ancient agrioidtu ral population who were the former cultivators of the soil. 1'here are also herds of sheep in tho north of Mexico appearently (piite wild. Of these are two varieties, one called the " JJ'cky Motnitain ISheep," found inha- biting '.he elevated regions between the •iS'-'th and <')()'"'th parallels of north latitude, and near the head waters of the Columbia, the country at the eourcos of the Marais, the Saskatchewan and Arthabaska rivers, but less numerous on the eastern than on the western slope of the Ilocky Moiui- tains ; and a second, bearing the name of the American Argali or Ovis I'ygargus, believed by some to be identical with the Ovis Amnion of ('en- tral Asia, {Siberia and Kamschatka. The wild ln'noii, of which the domestic ox is a variety, are also found in large hei'ds, and these, together with inunense tlocks of wild tur/cri/n luxuriate at perfect liberty upon the rich pastures of the great prairies of the West. The turkey was supposed by some to be a native of I*oru, South Ame- rica, by others to be a native of the East Indies, or Japan, or probably some of the islands of the Indian Ocean, whei\ce it was brought to America by the ancient Malayan maratime adventurers. We see, however, no good reason why naturalists should seek an origin outside of America for any tribe of animals found on this continent, when the modern white men first sot foot on it ; still not attempting to deny that somo of those tribes might have had an origin, if wo may speak of an origin in sorao other quarter of the globo, for it cannot be said that there was no intercourse of men between these continents in the ages preceding tho discovery of America by tho modern Europeans, which undoubtedly there was. Troi'ical plants and varieties of grasses common to other countries are found growing in tho Western sections of tho continent ; among those are the maize and garden bean. From tho various relics which have been mcnticnod, and others to which wo need not here refor,wo gather that a great and powerful people, advanced in arts and agriculture, and acquainted with the use of metals, held sway over this continent prior to the rod Indians. Ruins of ancient pueblos, remarkable for their construction and immense size, somo of which w'ere erected on tho opposite sides of rivers, and connected by oridgos, are scattered over tho country, south of tho groat prairies of tho West. The configuration of the surfaco,tho existence of river bods where the water has long since ceased to flow, whose banks, once gay with a tropical EXI8TKNCB AND DEITY. 171 vorclarOjplar^s, flowora n\u\ trcofl,havo now ^ivon placo to divsortsof sand, prosonting ovorywlicro a picture of desolation ; ho tliat Domouoch and (itliors, who liavo oxplorod thoso ro;^iotis and written npon them, hclievo that, at some indolinite [Kjriod of the piwt, this whole torriiory waH densely populated by a settled agricultural people, hut who, hy somo great geological change, peru..ps volcanic, taking placo in tlio country, changing the soil from a rich and fertile country, well watered, into a dry, barren, sandy desert, were compelled to seek a settlement olse- whero. Domcnech thinks tliat the great centres of this ancient civilization were near the groat lakes in Ohio, and in Mexico, and Peru, whither the natives repaired to have ccmunercial itjterchango with each other. ThiH he deduces from the discovery of mica sheets from the Alleghanies, shells from the (jlulf of Mexico and Florida, and obsil'onl(\u'o ol' anoiont growth, \\h\lo Ihi' inhabitants oftho Atlantic co;\M woro i'ouml in a slato of ori>;inal Itarlian.^ni. 'I'ho .itono an-ow-lioaiis, h\ni'o-hoaio that. ovvMvwhori' oxoopt in Ai\ioriea th,>so woapons are hi'l'unod hy tho oonnnmi pooph' t(^ l>o l!inndoi--hohs. Tuov aro oaHod olt'-holts in iScoth'ind ; ami riiny speaks of tl\em as ('owaiu : whiU' in t"hn>a and Ja|>au tho samo origin is aserihed to tlieivi, M. Leon de IJosny has nseortaui 'd (hat h'u l^ani; is th(> tnpie ol' ." eui'i>'ns notice n> (lie ."real Japanose I'.neyolopedia. whieh enjoys tho I'uiioiis th name A' the " \Va kan san-lai-dron-V(> 111 that work it is said (o 1)(? situattvl east >^f.lapan. t>eyond iho oeoan, ivt the' (hs(anei> of about 'J(t,tH)0 Vh inese mih^s from '!" i nan koiu'k. (Jreat stress is laid upon those records o\' tho Chinese and dapanese, as ihey are peoph's thai do not doal in myths, hut in actual facte* and historical events. Lot us n nv turn our attentiojt to the .\tlantic coasts, and entjuiro inli tho early comntunioation with this continent hy iMiropcms. prior to t\iluiiitms. Following the chri'iioloiiical order of ovents as ihev seem to have transpired here we tiiNt refer to the emiirration of tiie Les. or people from Irol.ind, who came to this continenl hv wav o[' Icoland at rather micerlain onochs. e opinion ol learned men. iamiliar with the antiipiitu's of th \V tern world, is tliat.as in the most ancient records of K'cland the first inlialti- tnnts of that islmd are called " men come from t 10 Wl •si hv the soa, ' so we mav oonclude that Iceland wa s not eoloni/,i>d hy petM im'Uir direct irom KunijK-. but by Ires who had returnod from .\').K'nci' who at an early period had hoen transplanted and. who rcturnod •Vo.in \ irginia and the Ciiast of Carolina (called (Jreat IrelaiiiH to settle in tiic island of Papar and the south eastern coast of L-eland. In tho auoiout documents ]nvsorvod in Icelaiul accounts are given of t'hrisiian I'aiKis, or fathers who returned from Groat Lcland k>n the West (^Amorica) to K'claiid, to instruct the Icelanders in the principles of tho Christi;in religion, about tlio year S0() A. I\ Accounts aro also given oi' persons who, having been cast away in ships, landed upon a western eoast called "huitra manna land " or ^ho land of tho white m en. Th esc stories aro considc lerod as autliontjo. -.nd as an important proof in favor oi' tho prevailing opinion tliat at a very v;.i"y pori m of the Christian era L'ish colonies existed on rlio co;i,st of tho Carolinas and farther south. The Ahhd J^rassour do BourlKHir^. i'l a wac t > his translation > .' the Popol-Vuh, saya on this matter there :i! uiuiauco of legends and traditions concerning the passage of \\\j insh ii'.to America, aiul their liahitual communication with that continent iiv..nv oo:\t.nies bot'oro Columbus was hearvl of. KMSTKNCK AND UriTV. 175) All IimhIi Miiiiifc iiMinod Vi^ilo, wlui livcil in (ho (M/^^!;litlt cciilury, wna ucoustMl Ity I'ii|H' '/iu"li!\i'y nf liMviii;^ Inn^lit IioroHii-H on (lie Multjfot of Uio ,'iiiti|iiMl(>M. He at lirnt wrntc tu llic I'lipo in rcplv In Hif (•liMr;i;(\ Imt iiH(>r- wiril,^ wiMil to IJoiiio to ju,'4tiry liimsoll'; ninl tliorr lie provod to tlio I'opo tli!\t tlu' li'iwli liMiI Ioii;<; I)oimi n('(MiK|oiin'(l to ('oitiiinmiriito witli (i IriiiiHfit- linitio world. Tlirso InclH me Mi\id lo lie incHcrvcd in Ilic rccordH of tlio N'aticim. It \n now ;ni hi ildiii-nl Im<"I also that tho tiorthinoii Hailing from ict'lnud not only iliscovcrcd /\nM'ri( a in the Icnili contiiry, hut, alio ostji- liiiHluMl colonics on llic ooast of Now I'ln^Iand, and |tr< colonics for two ccnturicM. In M77, (Jnnhiorn, tlio loc- landinh navigator, fuMt Haw Iho inoiinlain Moa-hnard of tJrccnhind It a|>iM'ar:^ from the Scandinavian nianiuicript, in which an< to he lonnd tin^ accniuilM of the Nonnann' llrHt voyagcH to AmcricMi, that in '.>s;'. Iho oolo- loalcd Ari MarsHon, \\l co.iMt. of lliiH conlinc Ic sailing Mnnlliwaid, waw ( :ant. 1 ly a Htnnii ii|ioii tin which ho called /i/itihlif /1///rAr, nr t Iicat Irclaud. In i'lSti Kric, Hiirnaincd the Ucd, (>slahlishcd on thfrit.! shorcM Iho lir.Ht colony, coniposcd of emigrant.^ fioin Iceland. Aftcrwaid.t, in I I Jl I, a hiriho|irio waH instituted hero calleil (Jarda, which exi^li-d [or upwardn of 'UIO yi-arn. Ill the year I (1(10, liief, tlM^ eldenl, noli of Mric the l{.e(|, nailed with tliirty- live conipaniotiH in Hcacli nf new discov(>rieK, when he ilirtcov(.'r(Hl Nowfoiuid- laiiil, and called it Kitla I Icllulainl ; re-eniharking he anived in tlio comitry nilnalcd hctwecn Newfoimdlanil and ( 'aiiada, whiidi he call(Ml Markland (iii>w Ijahrador) : |Hirsiiing his* voyage farther h(hiMi, ho landed on an agreeahic coast, where he found an alunidance of vines, which 1m^ called \'iidanil (now New iMigland ) ; here he made a settlenient, which lloiiriHiiod for a lenglh of time, and wan visiled in I I -I hy the lir.'^t IjIkIioj) of (iroon- land, Kric I'pii, of Irish origin, for the |inr|iose of confirming the coloni,stn of Vinland in the doctrines of ( -hristianity. In the y(\'ir |()()'Z another expe- dition, under Thorwald, visited thin coast and landed at <'a[)e (Jod, near Ilosttin, wh(>re th(> leader was killed in an encoiuiter with the [vs(prnnau;s In the year lOOlJ, 'riioi-stcin emharked on a similar expedition, Imt was im- succeHsful. Thornnn, the most cMdehrated of the first, explonsraof Ainciriea, landed in the year 1007 on the island called iMiirlhax Vineiiartl^ on die New Mngland coast, and spent, two winterM in the hay of Mount Hope, close toSeooiM d. From thin time to the middle of the lourteenth c s(t\ight, and having niadi prO| laratioiis for a Hettlement, he returnod to Wales, secured a larger oompany, that filled ten ships, and then sailed away '4 ! i JiH y\i m ISO liixisTi'iNcii; AND hkitv iVi;ivin H'lil n('\iv \;\ui\ iVnm Sniilli <'m'i>lii\!\ lo KminnKt'. wm^ ('npliircil liy IIh' 'rnica vitrn Imliuii'' Ilo iloolurofl ll\ul IiIm lil'o wiv^ wpMiod Imm'uubo li<'H|in|ii «illi IIkmii linn- nimilli^ |n-0!i('liiii;i; Ik llicm ni \V(>1mIi. |)r, WiIIimims. in Ium work ni\ llio " Mmv of I'lincc M;iil<>ir*M (Mltii/lMlion ■' |>\iItliHln>il ill 17, '1. ON|il!nii('(l Mr. ,I.iin,-;'i pI'iIoiiumiI liy h^mii mill!!; Ili;il llii> \\ i>1m1i Ci'lnnv. l>i>('iiiiiiiii', woiiKciicil, li.i'l Immmiiiu' ini'(ir|ii'r;it(-i| Milli llion(> Imiiiiiip ; niui il in ni'll Iviinwii lliiil in (>;irlv ('nlnnisil linnv; Ihc TnsojnorMM wovo M.unoliiiios i';ill(>ii " While IikIkiiim." Il im Kiinwii lliol (lio norllniiiMi I\:iil ('nlniiioM in New iMiivIaml lomr liorurc prince IMinii'ir'n oolnnv Hinleii lor Ihe Wc^nl.M'n ("onlinent ; Mini niie nl>lt' wriler mmv' "h \\\\h puliject : " 1( IS not mo woI! Known. Inil i;i noverllioIcsM ipnlo lino. iIimI IIiov woi'i^ piiM'o. it'll in loohniil liy llio IihIi, mihI in vovm^om |o Ainorion Ity llio Irish Mii'i IV'nJipioM ; llio hillor. ho 'twya, woio !i.l\ onlnrouM liMhoinion. who V(MV aeonMlonioii lo \i-iil tli<> norlh ojimI oonol ol" Annnioii iVoin linio inniio- uiovial " Tims il .ippours llial fAiilliciinif oviilonoo i^ alVonloii hy iinoimil 1''nvoponn voi'onla (o wMrrnnl nw in holioyina llnil Aniorioji \m\h iiol nnlviiowu to lh<> MiuMonlsi. :nni wns ooinpnvrtliyi'ly well Known lo Min-opouiiM. in Iho <';ivly p:ir( o| llio ("hiiM(i:Mi eiM. I'onlnrio," hclon' ('olinii' 'is wmh hoiinl of tM" Iho (liis-iojil nnlioiiM ihoiigll of cli.'uijiin.o; llioir palii^lic ^ongrrtpliv. llio jihunilonnionl of li.iyo upoKoii nhoyo, 'Vho pol•^>ll <>riiino wliicli iimimI 1i;\vo ohipjod snu'o •'i'> anoionl nioniunonlM of Amoiioa. oj" wlnoh , Pnnn'ioihaps loiisr anhnior *■' omlnslorio ai';oM . and Ihm being (he ea«e we are (old lliai lliose nalioiiM olaim an anliiinilv whieli lo l-'iiropean;' appear,« alino<>t fahnlons. Tlu' InMieal elironoloiritvs e\(an( in lie i^rosent day appear to havv' heen made onl (o show thai (lie eardi itself is searoe 0000 \»ar.- ola Inil ;l should lie rememhered thai lln> foriptnral >vritinj^ funvi-h no d.ua whereon to I'omid any oilier than an »ineertain and speenlal \e i' iu'onole^r\ . When we looK into llie hooK of 1 d. Iialniv. whieh proelauu:^ m urii oi ii)iieiil lemi'^ ihe wi-jdom and desi;;n a\\\ (he projiressiyo operations '( o TiwAior. and whu-h eannol lie, we iind it tells ns of events of sneii n; nitude !?:■■ ti^ re.piire prodigiously long periods l of (he sea. and that !5o late in the world's history as sinee the beginning of the tertiary period ? V-'\vM if it infonn.s ns that the pe.iinsula of Florida, whieh is etn;ililerons. iijvn wlueli are tovmd monnmonl.s o( aneieiU races, abandoned soore^ A' I |i!XIM'riCN tlmt, llio oual (lopowiln of iJin curlli, wliidi oikh) iti lli<>ir liinlory woo iiiiinfiiKM tinisn InroMlM of )M)',niilic iVnii (i<>"M iiml jM'iuifKni, iiiiihI, liivvo i(M|uirr(| iv I.nidd ..r 'J'fO.OdO yciiiM M iJio iiriiiiiiiKin limn lor tlmir iiri'immlalinii i iiflMiiiiiiiifJi; Dial il in iiiipoHMiMo lo Mii|i|Mir«' lliiil lli'-y woir (iiruioil (aHlor tlifiri nt llio rnic of nnc Inilli of an im-li in ii year ; find IITih iiii('i|(Ih to n'l Iml, u rrn/i;m(Mil uf (ft«i»|it^i(Mil Umo. Or if w<< dimviviT IVnin it tlmt tlio j/;rarfi fnf ilH oxiMiviilinn , ni- tjiiil^ in (M)it.ain allnviiil ImmJm nMni<>r"im f(|M-ciinnnH Itrcii fninid on l.lic hIikiom i>\' IjiiIiI on d»>proH*ion of llio iVrn for(>MlH wliitdi now form (lie foii, I licilsi of Nova Scotia toolc plaoo at llio rato of foiii- loci, in a coiiiiiry, Uioro wan roipiirod a, p'-iiod of inr»,(l(l() years f>r llieir romplelion lo tlirir proMont deplli. Or, fi ' a oresl ean Hearee produce more In an t wo oi' lliree loot ol vcki 't,al tie Hoil IM Or I a IIio\i:^and yoarM, lli(> dirt. ImmIm are the work ol lnmdred.~i ol (ient.uricM. if it lell.'t \i.'t that, the delta, of tln< MinniMnippi coidd only liave IxM'ti forino< in n\ai\y Ioom of tliousand.n of yenr.4 (cHlimat.ed liy Sir l(tO,Mterday (voiipariMl to tl Cliarl <>M liV< II at K^ inland ter- raecM (d' the Mi.M.VisMippi river ; that HkidetonH have hecn diHinhnmed in this ;4ame delta to whieh l>r. howler af4Mi;.!;ii,4 an anti(piity of |0,0 hed, then a ra<'( iiimaii hein^M nuist have oet^ipied that country more than a thousand (M-nturiert and if a thousand ceiiturieH, we may way, why not tenn of tliouwand.s of (XilO oen t\irie,4 ; yea. a l)e;;iniiin};lesn sueecHsion of (MMiturieM ; for who will [•nl'- a he};inninj; to the human race other thnn it has now '( To many who with ditlicully shako olVtlH>ir patri.^tie elironulo;j;y su(di statements appear woudt-rful, :.nd yel th(>y ar<> the deduetions the most learned and proloiunl Wl .m'ologists have drawn from tli(>ir perusals of the hook of natur( then will say that the poet was not partly ri;:;ht who penned that rcinark- alile line : " Thou cai\st )iot lin«l one spot whereon no oity stood." l'>ofore (his eonfiiient was diseovered hy < "olumhus, lOuropeaii'? }^ono- rally did not know tliatil existed, with its racesof iniMi, its many lan;^uaga I 2.5 1^ 1^ 12.2 fu 136 wmm I.I 1^ 1.8 I 1.25 M IIIIIJ4 Photographic Sciences Corporation // < ^1^ ^' 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. US80 (716)872-4503 i Ijp 186 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. his own species which none of the lower orders of animals were capable of exercising. This of itself is enough to show that he always possessed and exercised the power of reason, and speech. * Would that he had always used this faculty aright ! Well and happy would it thus have been for him ! Even the Quadrumana, or Ape-tribe, which comes nearest to man in the scale of being, do not evince to us that tliey have any conception of care for their dead. All the care which they exhibit and which they have in common with all others animals, even the lowest, is for their young, and to supply their own pliysical wants. All the Indian tribes of North and South America, even in their most wild and savage state, have always, since the white men have become accjuainted with tliem, given evidence of deep affection and care for th'jir dead ; and some of these tribes are accustomed to come periodically, bringing offerings and tears to their tombs ! And every human being, possessing the ordinary mental faculties of a human being, of whatever nation or language, you may meet with, will, if you find him in circumstances favorable for the intercommunication of ideas, give unmistakable evidence of his possessing reason, and of his having some thoughtvS as to right and wrong much as you have yourself. How long ere human beings exercise such kindness toward each other as their kindred relation calls for ? How long before all men will cultivate and exercise only the principle of benevolence, to be good and to do good ? When that • The considoration of the great devcloi'inent of Iniipimge among the civilized nations, ancient ns well us niudcrn, would go far to show man's true position in the scale of creation. This is especially so in the case of the Greek language, which is constructed with such mathematical precision, and which has been cultivated after that manner in such an early age. Also, in the Latin, which approaches the Greek in tho beauty and the complexity of its construction, though net in the ^mootllncss of its 3ounrof ideas by one word, " nadhoiinecn ; " " Come and fetch us across the river in a canoe." The Greek lan- guage, both as to its alphabet and construction, must have been in use in very early times. This is evident from tlie perfection it displayed, as compared with other ancient languages, even so early as the age of Homer, the I'ith century li. C. It then had its several dialects of the Doric, Ionic, -Kolic, and Attic, which all after yielded in perfection to the perfected Attic. The Latin also, which, as the Attic, was the jierfecfed jiroduct of many Italian dialects, must have had a very early origin as to its characiers and construction, since that we meet with the construction of mood, and tense, and case, even in the earliest authors of this language, as in tlie Greek. The characters and constructions of these two languages are old, and the thought of tueir authors is old, and indicative of true human feeling. but EXISTENCE AND DEITT. 187 time has como, they will know what we say to be true, and each one will realize for one's self the application of the name which has long ago been given of the Eternal Father. A contemplation of other scenes and objects of Nature intended to further enlighten us and to exalt onr conceptions and ideas concerning the Deity. All the works of nature speak of their author in silent but emphatic language, and declare his wonderful perfections. But, although there is no speech nor language in which the voice of Deity is not heard, yet how gross and inadequate are the conceptions generally entertained of that Being in whom we live and move, and by whose power all events in nature are directed and controlled. The benevolence of the Deity is seen not only in the sunshine and the shower, but in the ample provision which is made on the earth for the wants of man and all other animals. Some fifty years ago it had been ascertained that more than 60,000 species of animals inhabited the air, the earth, and the waters ; and it was supposed that many more thousand species existed, which had not, up to that time, come within the observation of the naturalist. Since then, naturalists may, by their discoveries, have added largely to the number of known species, and they may still go on discovering, and be able only to make norr approaches to the real number existing in the earth and in connection with it, a num- ber which it does not seem they will ever be able definitely to learn. On the earth's surface there is not a patch of ground or a portion of water, a single shrub, tree, herb or plant, nor a single leaf of a tree or flower, but what teems with animated or sensitive beings. What countless mil- lions even of visible animals have their dwellings in caves, hi the clefts of rocks, in the bark of trees, in ditches and fences, in marshes, in the forests, the mountains and the valleys. What innumerable shoals of fishes, of various sizes and appearances, inhabit the ocean and sport in the seas and rivers. What millions on millions of birds and flying insects, in end- less variety, wing their flight through the atmosphere above and around us ! Besides these there are innumerable multitudes of animated beirgp, invisible to the unassisted eye, and dispersed through every region of the earth, air, and seas. In a small stagnant pool which, in summer, appears sheeted over with a green scum, there are more microscopic animalcules than would outnumber all the human inhabitants of the earth. How immensely great then must be the collective number of these creatures throughout all the regions of the earth and atmosphere ! It utterly sur- passes the limits of our conceptions. Now, it is a fact that, from the elephant to the mite, from the whale to the clam, and from the ostrich to the gnat or the microscopic animalcule, no animal can subsist withoit nourishment. The species, too, require various kinds of food ; some live on grass, some on shrubs, some on flowers, and some on trees ; some feed l! 188 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. only on the roots of vegetables, some on the stalks or stems, some on the leaves, some on the fruit, some on the seed, some on the whole plant ; and some, as we have shown before, from LinntTius, with respect to quadrupeds, prefer one species of grass or vegetables, some another. Yet such is the boundless munificenco of the Creator, that all these countless myriads of sentient beings arc amply provided for in nature. The jyes of all these sentient beings look unto the Creator, and he openoth His hand, and satis- fieth the desire of every living being. The world is so arranged that every place affords the proper food for all the living creatures with which it is inhabited. They are furnished with every organ and apparatus for the gathering, preparing, and digesting of their food, and arc endowed with admirable sagacity in finding out and providing their nourishment, and enabling them to distinguish between what is salutary and what is pernicious. In the exercise of these faculties, and in all their motions, they appear to enjoy a happiness suitable to their nature. The young of all animals in the exercise of their incipient faculties, the fishes sporting in the water, the birds skimming through the air or warbling in the thickets, the gamesome cattle browsing in the pastures, the w"ld beasts bounding through the forests, the insects gliding through the air and crawling along the ground, and even the earth-worms wriggling in the dust, all proclaim, by the vivacity of their movements and their various tones and gesticulations, that they are not without enjoyment in the exer- cise of their powers. In this boundless scene of animate existence we see a striking illustration of the truth of the statements, "Jehovah is good to all," the earth is full of His riches," and " His tender mercies are over all His works." Although such displays of adaptation in animate crea- tures to their circumstances, and in the arrangements for their wants and enjoyments, are obvious evidencer of benevolence in the Deity to a reflect- ing mind, yet they are almost entirely overlooked by the bulk of mankind, owing to their ignorance of the facts of natural history, and the incon- siderateness with which they are accustomed to view the objects of the visible creation. Hence they are incapable of appreciating the bene- ficence of the character of the Deity, and the wealth of his munificence, and unable to feel those emotions of admiration which an enlightened contemplation of *be scenes of nature are calculated to inspire. Infinity of ideas and conceptions in the mind of the Creator. As the conceptions existing in the mind of an artificer are known by ihe work he produces, or the operations he performs, so the ideas which have eternally * existed in the Creator's mind may be known from the objects • That this infinity of ideas always existed in the Creator's, mind is necessarily certain from the tact of the infinite and eternal omnipreseuco of the Creator, which necessitates that these ideas could not arise to him from any other source than from himself. The EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 189 lie creates, the events He brings aVou, and the operations lie is incessantly conducting. The production of a single object is an exhibition of the idea existing in the creAtivo mind of which it is a copy. The production of a second or third object exactly resembling the first would only exhibit the same idea a second or a third time without disclosing anything new con- cerning the producer ; and, consequently, our conceptions of his intelligence would not be enlarged though millions of such objects were presented to our view, just as a hundred pairs of spectacles or a hundred microscopes of exactly the same pattern, constructed by the same artist, give us no higher idea of his skill and ingenuity than the construction of one. But every variety in the objects and arrangements of nature exhibits a new discovery of the contrivances, the intelligence, and the multiplicity of ideas of the Creator ; and tiiese varieties, as the Creator, are infinite. It is proper here to state that the objects which man produces are all imitations of objects already existing in nature, and that man cannot have any true conceptions but what are of existing things. The word idea means literally an imago or picture of anything ; and as everybody knows there cannot be a true imago or picture unless there exists a tiling of which the image or picture is a representation ; so neither can there be a true idea conceived in the mind unless a thing exists in the universe of which it is a representation. This will at once satisfy any thinking mind that a real world exists external to one's self in opposition to any false theory which wil represent the world as consisting merely of our conceptions. We remember once being in company with some rural friends, when bishop Berkeley's theory was mentioned, a theory which protends to demonstrate that no external world exists, and that when one sees with his X',i > ■^ '- Creator alone is eternal ; all crjatod things have a beginning and an end in time and space It cannot be said that the idea or ideas implied in the created thing arose to the Creator from the thing created any more than a picture can exist without an original existing of wiiich it is a copy. All created things are merely copies of ideas pre-existing in the creator's mind. This general idea of created things refers to all the objects created on or iu the earth, on or in any of the heavenly bodies, or in any part of space. That the earth» considered as a globe made up of solid, liquid and aeriform substances, has a limit in every direction in space cannot be doubted; and thus it is beyond all doubt with each of the heavenly bodies, for the earth and each of them perform motions and revolutions in space around each other ; but it cannot he said with any exhibition of evidence that any of them has had a beginning or will have nn end in time. It is in accordance with our experience and knowledge that all things created in the animal and vegetable world have a beginning and an end in time and space; and also in the mineral world, even in the bowels of the cartli, we find change taking place, one form or species of matter frequently taking the place of another in mineral existences, and to the extent that this change takes place in the mineral department of existence, to this extent there is mineral creation. Indeed tlic whole earth may bo said to be continually in a state of change, and so it may be said to bo aa object of creation. But while all these creative changes which we speak of take place it is contrary to our experience, nor is there any valid evidence to prove, whatever individua' reason may have to say concerning it, that the earth or any one of the heavenly bodies aa to its form and substance, ever existed otherwise than it exists now. I, i" : ■i m 5 fi ;■} 190 KXISTENCE AXP DEITY, eyes any o1»joct, for example a tree, ho does not see the tree hut only a picture of it on his retina. This illustration of the theory heing made, one of the company expressed liimself as follows : " Well, I guess, if he bumped his liead against it, he would find out whether it was a tree or only an idea." Even so the readers may always feel assured that a world exists external to themselves in which they as creatures live and move. And each human being has his own ideas of and concerning the world. This external world you realize in every man and every object you behold. The martyr at the stake, or on the cross, realizes it in those who are cruelly depriving him of life. The convicted person in the court or on the scaffold realizes it by all he sees around him. And both opposing parties in the terrible bayonet charge realize mutually this great fact. Let no one by sophistry or plausible talk impose upon you to such a degree as to cause you to believe that a shadow can exist without a substance ; or that true ideas can exist in the mind without the real things existing of which they are the pictures,* even so the Deity is everywhere present, a great reality ; You can appreciate his presence and character in all the objects and oper- ations of nature ; nor can sophistry or plausible words, spun out to any extent, make the Deity other than that great and omnipresent reality the Deity is. You should ever remember that your duty is to be good and to do good before him, worshipping him who is invisible alone in spirit and in truth. The young (yea, and the old) should always remember, that while studying, either from bo)ks or from niture, it is very important to acquire full and distinct ideas in their minds of the subjects of their study ; for as true ideas cannot exist without the real things existing, of which they are but the pictures or shadows ; even so a proper and well connected discourse on any subject cannot be produced unless the distinct ideas exist in the mind before, of which the discourse is but a representation. Ideas are rejiresentations of things, and words are representations of ideas ; and words spoken inconsiderately, and at random, which are not the representations of true and well defined ideas, are as chaff blown away by the wind ; they produce no proper effect, and are better left unspoken. The young and old should endeavour to have full, and true, and well- defined ideas of things, and having these they will acquire, with compara- tive ease, words to express them. First have full and accurate ideas on any subject, and a suflBciency of words to express those ideas will natu- rally and easily follow. Now in the universe, wo find all things constructed and arranged on the plan of boundless variety. In the animal kingdom, as we have already remarked, there had been ascertained some fifty years ago. • Lie:!; which do not represent real things are fictitious, creations of tlip imngination. I i EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 191 sixty thousand differcMt species of animate beings. Those wore cnunionited as follows : Six hundred species of nianinialia, or animals tliat suckle their young, most of which are (juadrupcds ; four thousand species of birds ; throe thousand species of fishes ; seven hundred species of reptiles, and forty-four thousand species of insects ; about three thousand species of shell-fish ; and besides these there were perhaps one hundred tJiousand species of animalcules invisible to the naked eye, which the microscope had brought to view, ami new species daily discovering in consequence of tlie zeal and industry of the lovers of Natural History. We cannot set any definite limits to the number of animate beings existing in the earth, which has never yet been thoroughly explored, and never can be. Wo may next consider that the organized structure of each species consists of an immense number of parts, and that all the species are endlessly diversified, diflfering from each other hi their forms, organs, members, faculties, and motions. They arc of all shajjcs and sizes, from the microscopic aniraalculum, ton thousand times less than a mite, to the elephant and the whale. They are different in regard to the construction of their sensitive organs. In regard to the eye, some have that organ placed in front so as to look directly forward, as in man. The human eyo is so constructed by means of muscular bands attached to it as to bo able to move up or down, to the right side or to the left, without the head being moved. This, you see, is a very convenient arrangement indicating bcnovolent design in the Creator. Other animals, as birds, deer, hares, and conies, have this organ so placed toward the siile of the head as to take in nearly a whole liemispherc. This is a convenient arrangement for them, as it enables them to see their pursuers behind them, without turning the head. Some have this organ fixed and others moveable ; some have two globes or balls, as man and quadrupeds ; some have four, as snails, which are fixed in their horns ; some have eight, set like a locket of diamonds, as spiders ; some have several hundreds, as flies and beetles ; and others have over twenty thousand, as the dragon-fly, and several species of butterflies.* *f ' i! - • 'ijlf • The eyes of beetles, silk-worms, Hies, and several other kinds of insects are among the most admirable productions of the Creator. On the head of a fly are two large protuberances^ corresponding to the two eyes in other animals, one on each side; these constitute itsorgai • of vision. The whole surface of these protuberances is covered with a multitude of small hemispheres, placed with the greatest regularity in rows, crossing each other in a kind of lattice work. These little hemi.si)heres have each a minute, transparent, convex lens in the middle, each of which has a distinct branch of the optic nerve ministering to it ; so that the ditfcrent lenses may be considered as so many distinct eyes ; Mr. Leeuwenhoek counted C23G in the two eyes of a silk-worm, when in its fly state ; 3180 in each eye of a beetle; an! 8000 in the two eyes of the common fly. Mr. Ilookc reckoned 14,000 in the eyes of a drone-fly; and in one of the eyes of a dragon-fly there have been reckoned 13,500 of these \4m 102 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. lii In roganl to the car, some have it hirj;;e, erect and open, as in man an(f the hare, so r.s to lioar the least noise and avoid danger ; in some it is covered to keep out noxious lK)die8 ; and in others, as the mole, it is lodged deep and backward in the head, fenced and guarded from external injuries. With regard to their clothing, some have their body covered with hair, as quadrupeds; some with feathers, as birds; bome with scales, as fishes; some w ith shells, as the tortoise ; some only with skin, as some serpents and eels ; some with stout and firm armor, as the rhinoceros and crocodile ; and others with prickles, as the hedgehog and porcupine ; all nicely adapted to the nature of the animal, ami the element in which it lives. These coverings too are adorned with diversified beauties, as appears in the plumage of birds, the feathers of the peacock, the scales of fiihes, the hair of (juadrnpeds, and the variegated polish and coloring of the tropical shell-fish, beauties which, in respect of symmetry, polish, text irc,varioty and cxfjuisite coloring, defeat every attempt of human art to miitatc or to copy. In regard to respiration, some breathe through the mouth by means of lungs, as men and quadrupeds ; some by means of gills, as fishes ; and some, during the early part of their life, as the frog, breathe by moans of gills, ind in a more advanced stage of it they acquire lungs and breathe by means of them ; and some breathe by organs placed in other parts of their bodies, as insects. In regard to the circulation of the blood, some have m n 1 es, and conscqnoiitly in both eyes 27,ooi\ every one of which is capahle of forming n uidiinct inmgi' of any object, in the same nuinner us a cominim convex glass ; so that there nre 27,000 iiua;;es formed on the retina of tliis little animal. Mr. Leeuwunhoek, having prepared the eye of a tly for that imrpose, placeil it a little farther from his microscope than when he would examine an object, so as to have a proiier focal distance between it and the lens of his microscope ; and then looked through both, in the manner of a telescope, et the Steeple of a church, whicii was 299 feet high, and 730 feet distant, and could plainly aeo through every little lens the whole steeple, inverted, though not larger than the point of a fine needle ; and then din-cting it to a neigbouring house saw through many of the little hemispheres, not only the front of the house, but also the doors and windows, and coidd discover distinctly whether the doors were open or shut ; Such an exquisite piece of me- chanism transcends nil human comprehension. The eyes of a fly are very large when compared with the size of the head. If one of these compound eyes l>e examined under a glass with a linear magnifying power of 100 the organ will be found to consist of many thousand tubes, each fixed in a six-sided case. Every one of these ey.lets appears to be a perfect 3imi)le eye, resembling in all essentials that of a man. Dr. Hooke gave the nunjber of eyelets in eiich eye at 7,O00, and Dr. Car- jienter estimates them at 40oO. Thus at the lowest computation, a common house-fly pos- sesses 8000 separate organs of vision. The eyes of all insects are compound. The eye of a butterfly contains in reality about 17,000 eyelets giving to this gaudy insect, 34,000 in all. Each eyelet is a jerfect organ in itself, hexagonal, or six-sided, in shape, so that the whole collection resembles the cells in a large honeycomb. Some of these insects have also two simple eyes on the top of the head, so that we must confess ourselves to be altogether inferior in the matter of eyes to the gaudy butterfly. It must not be supposed that when a butterfly looks upon a female of his own «|>ecie8 he sees 34,0(i0 fluttering beauties before him. As the two human eyes do not double objects so the numerous lenses of the butteifly may combine to form but one image.. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 193 but ono ventricle in tlio heart, some two, and others throe. In some animals, as man, the heart propels the blood to the remotest part of the system ; in some it throws it only into tho respiratory or;^an9 ; in others tiic blood is carried from tho respiratory organs, by moans of tho veins, to another heart, and this second heart distributes the blood by tho channels of its arteries to the several parts. In many insects a number of hearts are placed at intervals along tho circulating course, ami each renews the impulse of the former, so that a continual circulation is kept up. In regard to the bodily movements, some are endowed with (juick motions, others slow ; some walk on two legs, as fowls ; some on four, as dogs ; some on eight, as caterpillars ; somo on a hundred, as scolopendra ; some on fifteen hundred and twenty feet, as ono species of starfish ; and some on two thousand feet, as certam species of echinus. (It is mentioned by Lyonct that these echini have 1300 horns, which they protrude and draw in at pleasure). Somo glidu along with a sinuous motion on scales, as snakes and serpents ; somo skim through tho air, ouo species on two wings, another on four ; and some convey thomsolvos in speed and safety by means of their webs, as spiders ; while others glide with agility through the waters by the instrumentality of their tails and fins. Some animals are distinguished for having an internal bony skeleton, as man, beasts, birds, and fishes, thenco called vertebrate ; some for having an external bony skeleton jointed at intervals as the lobster and insects, and thence called arti- culate ; some for living in horny houses, as shell-fish, turtles, and land snails, and thence called crustaceous, and molluscous. Some live fixed like plants at tho bottom of the sea, as the hydra. This animal, for example, produces young not only from eggs in tho ordinary way, but also by putting forth buds from its sides, which while attached to the parent develop mouths and arms, and then become separated ; and having become fixed in their turn they live for themselves. The animals called crinoids grow like plants in the seas of the Tropics. The sponge also is a plant animal which lives fixed at the bottom of the sea. These sponge-plant animals, are of various forms, somo of them corresponding to our moorland moss-tufts ; some to the most elegant types of flower form, and some resembling in miniature the great candelebra-formed berus of the Gila regions. Most people have seen and used the sponge sold in our stores, which is merely part of the skeleton of these plant-animals. The great coral islands of the Pacific Ocean are merely aggregations of animal developments. The coral is the solid parts of the animal, composed of carbonate of lime, and corresponds, as does the sponge, to the bonj skeleton in higher animals. Corals are of different forms, sometimes having the form of trees and shrubs, and some- times a round form, as the brain-stone. You have, therefore, in these plant-animals, which are developed in great variety and to vast extent in the seas and oceans, the connecting link between the animal and vegetable^ and mineral kingdoms. ,!■ ' '}l im I i! 1 > M 1 1 i i\ !' i 1 il 194 EXISTENCE AND DEITY, ;l But it would rcM|uiro volumea to enumerate and explain all tlio varieties and peculiarities which distin^jjuiah the different species of animated beings. Besides the varieties which distinguish the species from each other, there arc not, perhaps, of all the huntlreds of millions of individuals which compose any one species, two individuals exactly alike in every point of view in which they may be contemplated. As an example of the nume- rous parts and functions which enter into the construction of an animal frame, we may state that in the human body there are about 2")-l bones, each of them having about forty different intentions or adaptations ; and 440 muscles, each having ten several intentions, so that the system of bones and muscles alone comprises about 14,t»20 varieties or different scopes and intentions. But, besides the bones and muscles, there are hundreds of tendons and ligaments for the purpose of connecting them together ; hundreds of nerves ramified over the whole body to convey sensation to all its parts. The nerves have their centres in the brain and spinal marrow, whence ramifications proceed to all parts of the body. Nerve is derived from the Latin, and means cord ; and the nerves, though infinitely fine cords, may, for the sake of illustration, bo compared to telegraph-wires, which communicate their mebsagos instantly to their centres, and thence to all parts of the system. The human being has five senses, sight, hearing, touch or feeling, taste, and smell ; each of these has its peculiar set of nerves ; and not only that, but the nerves are so closely reticulated over the whole body that you cannot prick it in any place with the point of the finest needle without affecting numbers of them. The senses, then, are the channels through which the sensitive or animate being communicates with the external world ; by which the rational being knows that it exists, and that he exists. There are thousands of arteries to convey the blood to the remotest extremities of the system, and thou- sands of veins to bring it again to the heart ; thousands of lacteal and lymphatic vessels to absorb nutriment from the food; thousands of glands to secrete humours from the blood, and of emunctories to throw thtm off from the system ; and besides many other parts of this variegated system with which we are unacquainted, there are more than sixteen hundred millions of membranous cells, or vesicles, connected with the lungs ; more than two hundred thousand millions of pores in the skin, through which the perspiration is incessantly flowing ; and above a thousand millions of scales which, according to Leeuwenhoek, Baker, and others, compose the cuticle or outer covering of the body. We have also to take into account tlie compound organs of life, the numerous parts of which they consiiit, and the diversified functions they perform ; such as the brain, with its infinite number of fibres and numerous functions ; the heart, with its ven- tricles and auricles ; the stomach, with its muscular coats and juices ; the liver, with its lobes and glands ; the spleen, with its infinity of cells and EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 195 monilirancs ; the pancreas, with its juice anh, the saliva, the chyle, the hair, the nails, and the numerous other parts and substances, every one of which has diversified functions to perform. We may also take into consideration the number of ideas included in the connection and arrangement of all these parts, and of the manner in which tho yaro compacted into ono system of small dimensions, so as to allow free scope for all the intended functions. If then, for the sake of illustration, wo were to suppose, in addition to the I4,t'>'20 adaptations of the bones and muscles, as stated above, that there are 10,000 veins, groat and small ; 10,000 arteries, 10,000 nerves, 1,000 ligaments, 4,000 lac- teaU and lymphatics, 100,000 glands, 1,600,000,000 vesicles in the lun;;8, 1,000,000,000 scales, and 200,000,000,000 pores, the amount would be 202,000,149,400 different parts and adai'ations in the human body; and if all tho otlier species were supposed to consist of a similar number of parts, though differently organised, this number multiplied by 800,000, tho supposed number of species, the product would amount to 60,780,044,838,000,000, or above sixty thousand billions, the number of distinct ideas, conceptions or contrivances, in relation to the animal world, a number of which we can have no adequate conception, and to our minds seems to approximate to infinity ; but tho calculation is merely a rude approximation, and may serve to convey some idea of the endless multi- plicity of conceptions which pervade tho Eternal mind. That many other tribes of animate beings have an organization no loss complicated and diversified than that of man, will appear from tho follow- ing statement of M. Lyonet. This celebrated naturalist wrote a treatise upon a single insect, the cossus caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of the willow, in which ho has shown from the anatomy of that animal, that its structure is almost as complicated as that of the human body, and muny of the parts which enter into its organization even more numerous. He has found it necessary to employ twenty figures to explain the struc- ture of the head, which contains 228 different muscles. There are 1647 muscles in the body, and 2066 in the intestinal tube, making in all 3941 muscles, or nearly nine times the number of muscles in the human body. There are 94 principal nerves, which divide into innumerable ramifications. There are two large tracheal arteries, one at the right and the other at the left side of the insect, each of them communicating with the air by means of nine spiracula. Round each spiraculum the trachea pushes forth a great number of branches, which are again divided into smaller ones, and these subdivided and spread through the whole body of the v.. :r I «!f ^h m ^"■fi ^..iJHiiiihj 1' i 1 190 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. il I 1 'I I \ ■ . ' ' \\ 1 I ■ 1 ||: caterpillar ; tlioy are naturally of a silver color, and make a boantiful appearance. Tlio principal tracheal veasels divide into l.'V2»l different branchoa. All this coiu[.lication of delicate mcchaniam, with numerous Other parta and organs, are co'^ipreased into a body only two inches in length. If we direct our attention to the vegetable kingdom, we may contem- plate a scene no less variegntetl and astonishing than what apfteai-s in the animal world. There have already been discovered about ninety thousand species of plants, specimens of the greater part of which have been preserved in tiio museum of Natural History at Paris. But it is said by naturalists that the actual number in tiio earth and waters cannot bo reckoned at less than four or five hundred thousand species ; indeed the truth is tliat as in the animal kingdom, they can put no definite limits to the number, for a great part of the earth they can never explore. The observer who takes a survey of the various mombors of the vege- table kingdom becomes cognisant of at least one prominent distinction between them. He soon perceives that while certain vegetables have flowers, others have none ; or, perhaps, more correctly speaking, if the second division really possess flowers they are imperceptible. This distinc- tion was first taken as a basis of classification by Liimieus, the Swedish naturalist ; ami to this extent the classification adopted by that groat philosopher was strictly natural ; beyond this his classification was arti- ficial. Now taking advantage of this distinction, Linnaeus termed the evident-flowering plants phoenoganious, from a Greek word signifying to appear ; and he designated the non-flowering or more correctly speaking, the non-evident-flowering plants Cryptogamic, from a Greek word signi- fying concealed. In making this division of plants into flowering and non-flowering, one must greatly expand his common notions of a flower, and not restrict the appellation to those pretty floral ornaments, which become objects of attraction, and of which bouquets are made. On the contrary ho must admit to the right of being regarded as a flower any floral part, however small, even though a microscope should prove neces- sary for its discovery. Thus, in common language we do not usually speak of the oak, the ash, the beech, the elm, etc., as being flower-bearing trees ; but they are, nevertheless, and consequently belong to the first grand division of flowering, or phoonogamous, plants. The reader may remember as a rule, to which there are no exceptions, that every member of the vegetable world which bears a fruit, and consequently seeds, belongs to the phoenogamous division. By following the indications of this rule, wo restrict the cryptogamic, or non-flowering plants, to the seemingly narrow limits of ferns, mushrooms, mosses, and a few others, all of which are devoid of seeds, properly so called, but are furnished with a substitute for seeds termed aporules or spores. Sporulee, then, the reader may FXrSTEXCE AND DEITY. 197 remcml'cr aro, so to spcai^, the bociIs of Howorloss fttnl, thorcforo, sccillcss plants. Wo have before spoken of the voj^etablo kinj^-lora as l)cin;j5 diviiloil into the two great branches of cxogenonH and endogenous plants. We may hero state, however, tliat these two branches aro inchidod within the one groat division of flowering pi- nts, and have nothing to do with the non Hdworing division, winch is itself confined to narrow limits of the lowest species of plants. All plants, most probably, certainly all flowering plants, possess sexes. The fli>wer and its appendages aro the reproductive organs of the jtlants. Without flowers there could be no fruit ; without fruit there could be no seed ; and without seed, properly so called, by far tho greater number of vegetables could not bo multiplied. Both sexes, tho male organ called stamen, upon which the pollen or fecundating dust is produced, and tho female organ called pistil, in which tho fertilizing takes place, arc usually contained in tho same plant, in the same flower of the plant. Occasionally, however, the two sexes are on diflFerent flowers of the same plant, and sometimes on different plants. Wo may, therefore, properly say that tho greater number of flowers contain both sexes ; but occasionally, on some l)lant3, the sexes have flowers, each sex to itself; anf the plant ; which latter may be obtained by opening the sporidia. These sporules, when viewed with the naked eye, look almost like dust ; when examined under a microscope, however, their outline is easily recognized. The difference between a sporidiura or spo- rule and a real seed may be thus explained : a seed has only one part, the embryo or germ, from which the young plant can spring ; w^hereas a sporule does not refuse to sprout from any side which may present itself to the necessary conditions of earth a^J moisture. Thus we see the resem- blance of these minute soeds to the sponge, which is said to be a vast mass of reproductive matter. Although the sporules are thus easily discernible in the fern tribe, yet they are not found so easily in other members of the cryptogamic division ; in various members of which not only does their position vary, but their presence is undiscoverable by any means we possess. Now the members of the vegetable kingdom are of all sizes, from the invisible forests, which are seen by the aid of the microscope in a piece of moldiness, to the cocoa of Malabar, fifty feet in circumference, or the great dragon tree of Teneriife, which is of such dimensions that ten full grown men joining hand to hand are scarcely yufficient to encircle its base. Each of them, great and small, is furnished with a complicated system of vessels for the circulation of its juices, the secretion of its odors, and other impor- tant functions, analogous to those in^animals. Almost every vegetable consists of a root or an assemblage of roots, each of which is terminated by a number of rootlets or little tufts called spongioles, which absorb the nourishment from the soil ; a tuber or bulb, a trunk or stem, branches, leaves, skin, bark, sap-vessels, or -lystem of arteries and veins, glandules for perspiration ; flowers made up of sepals, petals, stanima, pistils, farina, ' ovary or seed-case, seed, fruit, spores or sporules and various other parts ; and these are different in their construction and appearance in the diffe- I'ent species. Some increase, or grow, as all exogenous plants, by external depositions of their woody matte, and are distinguished, if cut in horizontal section of the trunk, by concentric rings increasing in dimensions from the centre to the outside. See, for illu8tration,_^a horizontal section of the trunk of the oak or elm. Others, as all endogenous plants, grow by internal deposi- tions of their woody matter, and are distinguished, if cut in horizontal section of their tiunk^ by the absence of pith and concentric rings ; and EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 199 by the tissue, of which the stem is made up, appearing as long strings of Tvoody fibre, and extending upwards. See, for illustration of this kind. 1. Ilorizonti' Section of an F.xofjen 2. ITorizontnl Soction of an Endopon. 3. Dottod VosspIs of the Clematis. 4. Dotted Vessels of tlio Jlelon. D. Spiral Vessels of the Melons. 0. Lactiferouj Vessels of tlio Celandine. 7. Ovoid Cell. 8. Stelliform Cells. 9. Angular Cells. the horizontal section of the palm tree of tropical climates, the sugar cane, the bamboo, and all the grasses. Some vegetables, as the oak, are distinguished for their sti'cngth and hardness ; others, as the elm and fir, are tall and slender ; some are tall> and tapering upwards to a point, as the cedar ; while others never attain to any considerable height, as the thorn-shrub ; some have a rough and uneven bark, while others, as the birch, the maple and tho poplar, are smooth and fine ; some are so slight and delicate, that the least v,'ind may bend them ; while others can resist the violence of the strongest blasts ; some acquire their full growth in a few years ; while others, as the dragon- tree, grow to a prodigious size, and stand tho blasts of many centuries ; some have their branches close to the trunk ; while others, as the banyan tree, sl^oot them out so as to cover five acres of land, and shelter a thousand men ; some have loaves scarcely an inch in length and breadth, while others, as the tallipot of Ceylon, have leaves so large that one of them, it is said, will shelter fifteen or twenty men from the rain ; or as some of the 200 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. il ii ;i water lilies of Central America, whose leaves, being fifteen or eighteen feet in dian" ier, a man may float on in safety, and whose flowers and ovary are proportional.y large. Some drop their leaves in Autumn, anl remain for months like blighted trunks; while others, as the hemlock, the pine, and the holly, retain their verdure during the winter. The variety ,iu the vegetable kingdom as to flowers is apparent even to the most careless observer. Each species of flower differs from another in the form and hues which it e:':hibits. The carnation differs from the rose, the rose from the tulip, the tulip from the primrose, the auricula from the lily, -he lily from the daffodil, the narcissus from the ranunculus, and the butter-cur from the daisy ; while at the same time each narcissus, ranunculus, rose or daisy, has its own particular character and beauty ; something peculiar to itself, and which distinguishes it from the others. In a bed of ranunculuses or tulips for example, we shall scarcely find two individuals that have precisely the same aspect, or present the same assemblage of colors. Some iicwera are of stately appearance and seem to reign over their fellows in the sami narterre ; others are lowly, and creep along the ground ; some exhibit the most dazzling colors ; others of less imposing appearance blush almost unseen ; some perfume the air with the most delightful fragrance, while others emit an unpleasant odor, and only please the sight with their beautiful tints. And not only do flowers differ in their forms and colors, but there is a great diversity in their perfunes also. The smell of southernwood differs from that of thyme, that of biilm from that of peppermint, and that of the primrose from that of the daisy ; which indicates a variety in their internal structure and in the juices which circulate within them. As to the flower it is made up of different parts, as the calyx or under whorl, which is itself made up of several parts, called sepals ; and the corolla or upper whorl,which is also madu upof severals part8,called petals- The calyx and corolla taken together comprise what ia called the perianth, or that which surrounds and protects the reproductive parts of the flv/wer. It may be called a beautiful painted house, in which the gentlemen and ladies of the flower live.* Thus,in the concave space enclosed by the perianth are found the reproductive parts of the plant ; the stamena and pistils, or carpels, eitVor or both. At the bottom of che pistil, or carpel, which means the same thing, is situated the ovary, or seed-case ; the point in which it terminates above is called the stigma, and the middle part of it, the style. Upon the stigma of the pistil falls the pollen from the stamen, which causes the ovary to expand, the fruit to ripen, and the seed to grow. Thus, while the roots, with their spongioles, are called the nutritive, the Pee page 197. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 201 flower and ita appendages are called the reproductive par^s ot the vegetable. See annexed figures ; also figures on pages 202 and 208, 10. Calyx ot Ranunculus. 11. Corolla of Ranunculus. 12. Stamen of Ranunculus. 13. Carpels of Ranuuculus. 14. puiaquepartite Calyx of the Pimpernel. 15. Quinquefld Calyx of the Gentian. 16. Irregular Calyx of the Dead Nettle. 17. Calyx of the Madder. 18. Adherent Calyx of the Sunflower. 19. Ca'yx of the Dandelion. 20. Calyx of the Centranthus. 21. Calycule of the Strawberry. 22. Aooru and Cup. 28. Involuorura of the Chestuut. The leaves of all vegetables, like the lungs and skin of the human body, are diversified with a multitude of extremely fine vessels, and an astonish- ing number of pores. The leaf itself consists of two flattened expansions of the epidermis, or the outer covering, called the cuticle, of the tree, the one above and the other bolow, enclosing between them nerves and veins, vascular and cellular tissue. The word vascular means consisting of, or contaming, vessels ; and cellular means consisting of cells. By vascular tissue is meant those little pipes and tubes which run through vegetables, just like arteries and veins through animal bodies, and which serve the M I'l, ill '11 ri \'M\ H- if 202 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. purpose of conveying juices from one part of the plant to another. In> plants, those pipes or tubes are so exceedingly small, that their tubular character is only recognized by the aid of a microscope or powerful lens,, but their presence may be recognized in general by the naked eye. Cellu- 24. Crncifom Corolla of the Celandine. 25. Rosaceous Corolla of the Strawberry. 26. Caryophyl- ate Corolla of the Lychnis. 27. Paplllionaccous Corolla of the Pea. 28. Tubular Corollalof the Corn Centaury. 29. Inflindibuliform Corolla of the Bindweed. 80. Campanulate Corolla of the Campanula. 81. Labiate Corolla of the Dead Nettle. 32. Hypocraterifcrm Corolla of the Peri- winkle. 88 . Rotate Corolla of the Pimpernel . 34. Anomalous Corolla of the Foxglove. 36. Per. senate Corolla of the Snapdragon. 36. Ligulate Corolla of the Chrysanthemum. lar tissue is,as its name indicates, an assemblage of little cells, the natural form of which is spheroidal or oval ; but ^more frequently this form is modi- fied from various causes, usually the mutual pressure of the cells against each other. Thus, the pith of trees, a portion of which is made up of cel- lular tissue, if examined under the microscope,will be found to be composed of cells, having the form of honeycomb cells, that is, hexagonal. Occasion- ally the cells assume a stellate oi star like form, which may be seen in a I; EXISTENCE AND DEITY. *203 section of the common bean, if examined under the microscope. Usually those vegetable cells are so very small that a mic-oscope or a powerful lens is necessary for observing them. In certain vegetables, however, they 37. Pome. 38. Drupe. 39. Achnfniuin of the Ranunculus. 40. Caryopsis of the Buckwheat. 41. Fol- licle of the Columbine. 42. Capsule of the Gentian. 43. Capsule of the Corn Poppy. 44. Legume iT the Lotus. 45. Capsule of the Colchicum. 40. Capsule of the Iris. 47. Siliqua of the Celan- dine. 48. SUiculeof the Mustard Plant. 49. Samara of the Maple. 60. yut of the Chestnut. 51. Berry of the Deadly Nightshade. 52. Capsule of the Lychnis. 63. Pyxis of the Plmpernel- 54. Germination of the Bean. 65. Germination of Indian Corn. are of such dimensions as to admit being readily seen by the naked eye. For example, if the fruit of an orange be cut or pulled asunder, the cells will be readily apparent. And not only do the cells of this cellular tissue admit of being altered in form, but occasionally they give rise to parts if: H'H ' V (ill m m r\l 204 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. If in the vegetable organization, which -would not be suspected to consist of colls. The cuticle, or outer skin, of vegetables is nothing more than a layer of cells, firmly adherent ; and the pith of exogenous plants, for example, the substance which makes up the densest part of the centre of the oak is nothing more nor less than closely compressed cellular tissue. In a former illustration we have stated that the air contained in an apple can be expanded into forty-eight times the bulk of the apple ; and this is because the inside of the apple is made up of little cells, each of which is filled with closely-compressed air. We have also intimated that leaves perform for vegetables the same functions in a manner as the lungs do for man and land animals, and the gills for fishes. But how is this performed ? AVe have shown that the leaves, as well as the skin, are full of cells, and tubes, and pores, just as the lungs and the skin of an animal are ; but, they make use of that very kind of air which man and the animals refuse ; they inhale cavbonic acid, so much of which is generated on the surface of the earth by combustion, as well as otherwise, and in animal bodies ; they retain the carbon, which the animals refuse, and reject the oxygen, which the animals retain, and which supports their life. Carbonic acid is in itself poisonous to animals, but is thus the support and nourishment of vegetables ; and the latter, by using it, perform the part of purifying the air. Hence it is seen how one part of nature is adapted to the other j how each clement returns to its proper place, and all things to equilibrium. In a kind of box-tree, called Palm of Ceres, it has been observed that there are above 172,000 pores on one aide of the leaf. The whole earth is covered with vegetable life in such profusion as astonishes the contemplative mind. Not only the fertile plains, but the rugged mountains, the moat barren spots, and even the caverns of the ocean, are diversified with plants of various kinds ; and from the torrid to the frigid zone every soil and every climate has plants and flowers peculiar to itself. To attempt to estimate their num- ber and variety whould be like attempting to dive into the depths of infi- nity ; and, therefore, we shall have to content ourself with merely giving this interesting part of nature a passing notice, so far at least as to show its analogy and relation to the animal kingdom. Yet every diversity in the species of plants, every variety in the form of individuals, and even every differeuc o in the shade and combination of colors in flowers of the same species, exhibits a distinct conception which ever existed in the Eternal mind. Linnaeus adopted the folio wirg pithy designation for minerals, vege- tables and animals. " Minerals," he said, " grow : plants grow and live ; but animals grow, live, and feel." An expression which indeed, if insuffi- cient, is not unjust. We may say more distinctively, however, that animals are those living beings which derive their nutriment from an internal cavity, the stomach ; and vegetables are those living beings which derive their nutriment from without. \ EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 205 If wo should take a survey of the mineral kingdom we should also behold a striking expression of the manifold wisdom and the power of Deity. It is true we cannot peiietrate into the bowels of the earth so as to ascertain the suhstancos which exist and the processes which are going on near its central regions. But within a short distance of its surface we find such an astonishing variety of mineral substances as clearly shows that its internal parts are constructed on the same plan of variety as characterizes the animal and vegot ible kingdoms. In the classes of earthy, saline^ inflammable, and metallic fomh, under which mineralogists have arranged the substances of the mineral kingdom, are contained an immense number of genera and species. Under the earthy class of fossils are comprehended diamonds, chrysolites, menillites, garnets, zeolites, corunduras, agates, jaspers, opals, pearl-stones, tripoli, clay-slate, basalt, lava, chalk, limestone, ceylanite, strontium, barytes, celestine, and various other substances. The ialine class comprehends such substances as the following ; natron or natural soda, rock-salt, nitre, alum, sal-amoniac, epsom-salts, etc. The class of inflammable substances comprehends sulphur, carbon, bitumen, coal, amber, charcoal, naphtha, petroleum, asphalt, caoutchouc, miueral- tar, etc. The metallic class comprehends iridium, platina, gold, mercury, silver, iron, lead, tin, bismuth, zinc, antimony, cobalt, nickel, manganese, magnesium, molybdenum, arsenic, scheele. monachanite, uran, silvan, chromium, tungsten, uranium, titanium, tellurium, sodium, potassium, etc. All these mineral substances are distinguished by many species and varieties. There are reckoned eight genera of earthy fossils. One c f these genera, the flint, contains thirty-four species ; and these species are distinguished by numerous varieties, such as chrysoberyls, topazes, agates, beryls, quartz, emery, diamond, spar, etc. Anothei' genus, the clay, contains thirty-two species, such as opal, pitch-stone, felspar, black-chalk, mica, horn-blende, etc. And another genus, the calc, contains twenty species, as limestone, chalk, slate, spar, fluor, marie, boracite, loam, etc. There are ten species of silver, five of mercury, seventeen of copper, fourteen of iron, ten of lead, six of antimony, three of bismuth, etc. All these mineral bodies present differences as to figure, transparency, hardness, lustre, ductility, malleability, texture, structure, sound, smell, taste, weight, and their magnetical and electrical properties ; and they exhibit almost every variety of color. As to structure, a body may be brittle, sectile, or separating in layers, malleable, flexible and elastic. A mineral can only effect the taste which is soluble in the saliva, and is saline, alkaline, or astringent. Dependent upon light are five characteristics of minerals, color, lustre, diphaneity, refraction, and fluorescence. Color is either metallic or non- metallic. Metallic lustre is that peculiar lustre which distinguishes the metals, although it does not belong exclusively to them ; for graphite, which is carbon, and the scales of iodine both possess metallic lustre. Minerals i::y ¥1. 11^ h 1 ir',''' r 111 ;;.|p|| Pm w Ij .!»: 200 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. whoso colour is non-metallic may be found of every hue, from the black onyx to the colorless diamond. The colors which distinguish all other objects arc non-metallic. The degrees of lustre are five ; splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, dull, which expresses the absence of lustre. The degrees of diaphaneity arc five ; transparent, semi-transparent, translucent, translucent on the edges, opaijue, when no light passes through, etc. Some of these substances are soft and pulverable, and servo as a bed for the nourishment of vegetables, as black earth, chalk, clay and marl. Some are solid, as iron and silver ; and some are fluid, as mercury, sodium, and potas- sium. Some are brittle, as antimony and bismuth ; and some arc malleable, as gold and zinc ; some are subject to the attraction of the magnet ; others are conductors of electricity ; some arc easily fusible by heat ; others will resist the strongest heat of our common fires. Some are extremely ductile, as platma, which has been drawn out into wires less than the two-thousandth part of an inch in diameter ; and gold, the parts of which are so fine and expansible, that an ounce of it is sufficient to gild a silver wire more than 1300 miles long. To have the opportunity of acquiring the most ample and impressive idea of the mineral kingdom, one should visit an extensive mineralogical museum, where he will have ocular evidence of the great beauty and the encuess variety which this department of nature exhibits. Here it may also be remarked that not only the external aspect of minerals, but also the interior configuration of many of them presents innumerable beauties and varieties. A rough, dark-looking pebble, which to an incurious eye appears only like a fragment of common rock, when out asunder and polished, presents an assemblage of the finest veins and most brilliant colors. Marble workers have daily experience of this in tho rough blocks of California and other marble, as well as of granite and other stone, which they reduce to such smoothness and beauty by their art. If one goes into a lapidary's shop which is furnished on an extensive scale, and takes a leisurely survey of his jaspers, topazes, cornelians, agates, garnets, and other stones, he cannot fail to be struck with admiration, not only at tho exquisite polish and the delicate wavings which their surfaces present, but at the variety of coloring and design exhibited, even by individuals of the same species ; the latent beauties and diversities of which require the aid of the microscope to discern, and are beyond the efforts of the most delicate pencil fully to imitate. And not only in the objects which are visible to the naked eye is the characteristic of variety to be seen, but also in those which can only be discerned by the aid of the microscope. In the scales of fishes, for example, we perceive an infinite number of diversified specimens of the most curious productions. Some of these are of an extended form, some round, some triangular, some square, in short of all imaginable varieties of EXISTENCE AKD DEITY. 207 3liapo8. Some are furnished with sharp prickles, as in the perch and solo ; some have smooth edges, as in the tench and cod fish ; and oven in the same fish there is a considerable variety ; for the scales taken from the belly, the back, the sides, the head, and other parts, arc all different fr^^m each other. In the scale of a haddock wo perceive one piece of delicate mechanism ; in the scale of a perch another ; and in the scale of a sole beauties different from both. We find some of tliera ornamented with a prodigious number of concentric flutings, too near each other, and too delicate to be easily enumerated. Those flutings are frequently traversed by others diverging from the centro of the scale, and proceeding from thence in a straight lino to the circumference. On every fish there are many thousands of these varigated pieces of mechanism. The hairs on the bodies of all animals are found by the microscope to be composed of a number of extremely minute tubes, each of which has a round bulbous root, by which it absorbs its proper nourishment from the adjacent hunours ; and these are all different in different animals. Hairs taken from the head, the eyebrows, the beard, the nostrils, the hand, and other parts of the body, are unlike each other, both in the construction of the roots, and the hairs themselves, and appear as varied as plants of th ; same genus but of different species. The parts of which the feathers of birds are composed present a beau- tiful diversity of the most exquisite workmanship. There is scarcely a feather but contains a million of distinct pari-s, every one of themof regular shape. In a small fibre of a goose quill more than 1200 downy branches, or small leaves, have been counted on each side ; and each appeared divided into sixteen or eighteen different joints. A very small part of the feather of a pea-cock, one-thirtieth of an inch in length, appears no less beautiful, when viewed through the microscope, than the whole feather does to the naked eye, exhibiting a multitude of bright, shining parts, reflecting first one color and then another, in the mf^'-t vivid manner. The wings of all kinds of insects too present an astonishing variety, and no less captivating to the mind than pleasing to the eye. They appear strengthened and distended by the finest bones, and covered with the thinnest membranes. Some of them are adorned with neat and beautiful feathers, and many of them provided with the most symmetrical articula- tions and foldings for the wings when they are to be withdrawn and folded up in their cases. The thin membranes of the wings appear beau- tifully divaricated with thousands of little points like silver studs. The wings of some flies are filmy, as the dragon-fly ; others have them stuck over with short bristles, as the flesh-fly ; some have rows of feathers along their ridges, and borders round their edges, as in the gnats ; some have hairs, and others hooks, placed with the greatest regularity and order. In the wings of moths and butterflies there are millions of small feathers of dif- W']:' |'ii¥sl:1 r h i i ( :? _T !j i r 1 - h ^^! ^'^ 208 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. ferent shapes, diversified with the greatest variety of bright and livery- colors, each of them so small as to bo altogether invisible to the naked eye. The leaves of all plants and flowers, when examined by the micros- cope, are found to be full of innumerable ramifications, corresponding to the closely interwoven network of veins on the surface of the human body, whose office is to convey the perspirable juices to the pores, and to consist of the baronohymous, and ligneous fibres, interwoven in a curious and admirable manner. The smallest leaf, even one which is little more than visible to the naked eye, is found to bo thus divaricated, and the variega- tions are different in the leaves of different vegetables. The way in which the leaves are veined is also another means, beside that of tho horizontal sectional aspect of tho trunk or stem, of determining the class of ^lowering vegetable to which their plants belong. If the veins run parallel to each other on the loaf, the plant belongs to the endogemm class ; if they are reticulated, or, interlacing each other in all directions, it belongs to the exogenous. Thus, referring to the leaf of the iris, you find that it is of an endogenous, or within-growing, plant ; and you know by the same kind of examination that tb« melon is an exogenous, or without-growing, plant. A transverse section of a plant not more than one fourth of an inch in diameter, when viewed through a powerful microscope, displays such beauties as cannot be conceived without ocular inspection. The number of pores of all sizes, amounting to hundreds of thousands, which are tho vessels of the plant cut asunder, the beautiful curves they assume, and the radial and circular configurations they present in endogenous plants are truly astonishing ; and not only the two great classes but every dis- tinct species of plants exhibit a different configuration. There have been counted in a small section of a plant, of the size above stated, 5000 radial lines, each containing about 250 pores, great and small, which amount to one million two hundred and fifty thousand of these variegated apertures. Even the particles of sand on the sea shore, and on the river's banks, differ as to the size, form, and color of their grains ; some being trans- parent, others opaque : some having rough, and others smooth surfaces ; some are spherical or oval, and some pyramidal, conical, prismatical, or polyhedral. Mr. Hooke happening to view some grains of white sand through his microscope, hit incidentally upon one of the grains which was exactly shaped and wreathed like a shell, though it was no larger than the point of apin. "It resembled", says he, " the shell ofasmallwater^snail, and had twelve wreathings, all growing proportionately one less than another toward the middle or centre of the shell, where there was a very small, round, white spot." This gives evidence of the existence of shell-fish, which are invisible to the naked eye ; and therefore smaller than a mite. The variety of forms in which animal life appears, which the microscope enables us to explore, is indeed wonderful. Microscopic animals are so EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 209 different from those of the larger kind, that scarcely any similarity seems 10 exist between them ; and from a limited knowledge of them, one would bo almost tempted to suppose that they live in accordance with la\^ ' directly opposite to those which preserve man and all other animals in existence. When we begin our explorations in this region of animate nature, we feci as if we were entering upon the confines of a now world, and surveying a new race of sentient existence. The number of those crea- tures exceeds all human calculation or conception. Many hundreds of species, all differing in their forms, habits, and motions, have already been distinguished and described ; but wo know that by far the greater part of the system of the earth is unexplored, and doubtless forever hid n-om the view of man. They are of all shapes and forms. Some of them appear like minute atoms ; some like spheres or spheroids ; some like hand-bells ; some like wheels turning on an axis ; some like double-headed monsters ; some like cylinders ; some have worm-like appearances ; some have horns ; some resemble eels ; some are like long hairs, 150 times as long aa they are broad ; some like spires and cupolas ; some like fishes ; and some like animated vegetables. Some of them are almost visible to the naked eye ; and some so small that the breadth of a human hair would cover fifty or a hundred of them ; and others are so minute that millions on millions of them might be contained within the space of a square inch. In every pond and ditch, and in every puddle ; in the infusions of pepper, straw, grass, oats, hay, and other vegetables ; in paste and vinegar, and in water found in oysters ; on almost every plant, and flower ; and in the rivers, seas, and oceans, these creatures are found in such numbers and variety, as alto- gether exceed our conceptions. A class of these animals, called Medusre, has been found, so numerous as to discolor the ocean itself. Captain Scoresby found the number in the olive green sea to be immerse. A cubic inch contained sixty- four; and consequently a cubic mile would contain 23,888,000,000,000,000, or nearly 24 thousand billions ; so that if one person could count a million in seven days, it would have required that 80,000 persons should have begun 6,000 years ago, in order to have com- pleted the enumeration at the present time. Yet, all the minute animals to which we now allude, are furnished with numerous organs of life, as well as the larger kinds. Some of their internal movements are distinctly perceived ; their motions are e\ident\y vohmtari/, and some of them appear to be possessed of a considerable degree of sagacity, and to be fond of each others' society. It may in short be unhesitatingly aflBrmed that the beauties and varieties which exist in those regions of the earth which are invisible to the unassisted eye are far more numerous than what appear to a common observer in the visible domain of nature. How far this scene of creating power and intelligence may extend beyond the range of our microscopic instruments it is impossible for us to determine ; for the more; li 51 ;fH- 210 BXISTENCE AND DEITY. perfect our glasses aro, and the higher the magnifying power wo apply, the more numerous and diversified are the objects which they discover to our view. And as the most perfect telescope is, and will ever be, insuffi- cient to convoy our view to the boundaries of the great universe, so wo may justly conclude that the most powerful microscope that has been, or over will be, constructed, will bo altogether insufficient to guide our view to the utmost limits of the descending scale of creation. But the knowledge wo already possess of those invisible and inoxplorablo regions gives u" an amazing conception of the wisdom and intelligence of the Creator, of the immensity of His nature, and of tho infinity of ideas which during all time existed in His all comprehensive mind. What an immense space in the scale of animal lifo intervenes between an animal which appears only tho size of a visible point, when magnified 500,000 times, and a whale a hundred feet long, and twenty broad ! The proportion of bulk between one of these beings and tho other is nearly 34,500,000,- 000,000,000,000 to 1, or over thiriy-four trillions and a half to one. Yet all the intermediate space is filled up with animated beings of every form and order. A similar variety obtains in tho vegetable kingdom. It has been calcu- lated that some plants which grow on rose leaves and other shrubs are so small that it would require more than a thousand of them to equal in bulk a single plant of moss ; and if we compare a stem of moss, which is generally not above one-sixtieth of an inch, with some of tho large trees in Brazil and California, of twenty feet diameter, we shall find the bulk of the one to exceed that of the other, no less than 2,985,984,000,000, which, multiplied by 1,000, will produce 2,985,984,000,000,000, or nearly three thousand billions of times, which the large tree exceeds the rose- leaf plant in size. Yet this immense interval is filled up with plants and trees of every form and size. With good reason then may we repeat the language of the Psalmist, with reference to the Deity : '* How mani- fold are thy works, Lord ! In wisdom hast thou made them all. Mar- vellous things doeth He, which we cannot comprehend." On Crystallization. The subject of crystallization is one which is also of great interest, and in which there is great variety of forms of matter displayed. When a mineral from any cause has been deprived of its cohesion, and its particles separated, if the particles are permitted to associate themselves again to form a solid, in such a way that they can follow their own inclination, the solid will indicate its being constructed according to certain laws ; that is to say, the force of cohesion operating in the new formation does not act equally in all directions, but in the great majority of cases sets itself to construct regular geometrical solids, called crystals. For illustration, if any EXISTENCE AXD DEITY. 211 ordinary salt, common salt, or salt-petrc, or alum, bo addoil to boiling ^ator until tho water will dissolve no more, and a bunch of thrcods bo suspended in this solution, and allowed to stand all night, in tho morning tho string will bo found covered all over with crystals. If common salt bo used tho crystals will bo cubes ; if alum they will be four-sidod pyramids, placed base to base. Tho larger tho quantity of solution, and tho moro slowly it cools, tho larger will bo the crystals ; muddy solutions also increase their size. The presence of a substance which does not crystallize with tho salts may modify the shapo of tho crystals ; thus, if in the solution of common salt urea be present, tho crystals will no longer be cubes, but, like those of alum, octahedra. Tho peculiarities of crystallization are many. Wo might almost say that crystals in their formation exhibit signs of instinct. If a damaged crystal be suspended in a saturated solution of tho salt which composes it tho salt out of the solution will begin to repair the damage, so that in a little while tho . general coniour of tho crystal will bo restored. If in a solution there be small and largo crystals, and tho solution by an altera- tion of temperature bo mado alternately saturated and non-saturated, it will be found that the small crystals become entirely dissolved, while the largo crystals grow. Crystals may also be obtained from a vapor condensing. Sulphur, arsenic, and iodine, afford examples of this, or from a liquid cooling. If, for example, six or eight pounds of sulphur of bismuth be melted and allowed to cool, if, when a crust has been formed on it, the crust be removed, and tho yet liquid substance be poured out, the cavity of tho vessel will be found lined with crystals ; and often when a metal has been molten, and in its cooled state exhibits no signs of crystal- lization, yet the existence of the phenomenon may be shown if a weak solvent be applied to remove those particles which mask the formation. If a sheet of tin, while hot, be washed over with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, tho crystals which make the tin moir4e metallique (or crystallized tin plate), and which previously existed, will appear. A bar of nickel, placed in dilute nitric acid, becomes covered with tetrahedra, because the acid dissolves the intervening uncrystallized metal. But, perhaps, the tendency of particles to arrange themselves in some order of polarity is most strikingly illustrated in solids which are undergoing processes which move their particles. For example the axle, or the tire of the wheel, of a railway carriage, by constant vibration occasions the particles of which it is composed to take positions according to the polarity of their kind, and the consequence is that many axles or trees, when broken after years of service, exliibit throughout their mass crystals of iron. \ V ' rif m i.^ lili \-i'\ il ill j w ijli i lii 1! ! I. 212 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. Very few pei-sona out of the great mass of mankind are aware that when they are walking on snow they are treading beneath their feet the most beautiful crystals. Snow is all composed of crystals in which, though a great diveraity of figure is apparent, yet all the angles are equal, being those of an equilateral triangle, sixty degrees ; and it is the angles which are the constants in crystallography ; these never vary ; but the faces of the same form of crystal are always equally inclined. When a flake of snow is examined by a magnifying glass, the whole of it will appear to be composed of fine shining specula, diverging like rays from a centre. Many of the snow crystals are of a regular figure, for the most part stars of six points, and are as perfect and transparent ice as any we see on a pond or river. Their forms present an almost endless variety, are often very regular and beautiful, and reflect with exceeding splendor the rays of the sun. This is the reason why snow appears white, the light being reflected from every angle and face of the infinite number of crystals. The crystals of snow vary from one-third to one thirty-fourth of an inch in diameter, in the natural size. Ice, as we have had occasion to remark before, is crystallized water, just as snow is crystallized water from vapor in the air. See annexed figure. A very slight acquaintance with crystals will assure the observer that those of the same mineral have a close relationship to each other, whenever the same forms are studied. The law of symmetry is one of the principles upon which creation is carried on. It is observable in every organic structure that about a certain plane or certain planes the structure is built up. For example, a plane passing down through the centre of the human frame would divide the body into two similar halves. So with crystals they 'ire all arranged symmetrically about imaginary hues ; and according to the arrangement of these axes of symmetry crystals are divided into six classes or systems. Ist. The Monometric, Regular, Tessular, or Cubic, System has three axes of symmetry, all equal, and all at right angles to each other. About these axial lines the crystal is symmetrically built up, so that when heated it expands equally in all directions, and transmits light without refracting the rays. The primary figures of this system may be found by causing planes to pass perpendicularly through the extrem- ities of the axis. This will produce the cube. The other prominent figure of the system, the octahedron, is formed by causing eight planes to pass through the three extremities of the axes. The reader will EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 218 easily conceive of two tetrahedral, or four-sided, pyramids, being joined to each other base to base, which is the form of this octahedron. By combining these two primary figures in various proportions a series of crystals may be produced. It is proper here to remark that this combi- nation we speak of is only imaginary, for all the forms of crystals are natural, and that by this imaginary combining and modifying the prominent forms of each system a series of crystals appear for each system, which are called secondary crystalline forms, which only means that they aie forms which are scarce in the system as compared with the primary or prominent forms. The following are the forms of this system and the minerals which crystallize into it : The tetrahedron, in which form grey copper crystallizes. ' Flour Spar Galena „ , ... Rock-Salt Crystallize. Iron Pyrites f Alum The Cube (Primary) in which form. The Octahedron (Primary) The Cube Octahedron The Rhombic Dodecahedron The six-faced Tetrahedron The six-faced Octahedron ^ Figures 56, 57, 58 represent the primary. 60 ^r"^^^. K \J..X.....y^^ 1 Spinell Crystallize. Galena (ore of Lead) " Garnet " Diamond « Garnet « r"i-i *,.;,jp'1 r.{ i ^ »f i 214 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. Figures 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, the secondary forms of this system. See also figures on proceeding page. 2nd class : The Dimetric, Bight Square ; Prismatic, or Pyramidal syttem has also three axes all at right angles to each other ; but ono axis is lonster than the other two. The prism and the double-pyramidal oc- tahedron are the usual primary forms of this system, and it has also its secondary forms. The following minerals are known to crystallize into this system : TL itone, ferrocyanide of Potassium, cyanide of Mercury, 70 rutile, anatase, and idocrase. Figures 69, 70, 71, 72 representjthe pri- 74 mary • and 73, 74 the secondary forms of this system. 3.vd Class. The Trimetric, Right Rectangular, or Prismatic system. This system has three axes all at right angles, but all unequal. The pri- EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 215 mary forms in this system are the rectangular prism, and the octahedron. It has also its secondary forms. Nitre, aragonite, topaz, sulphate of baryta, sulphur, and stilbite crystallize in this system. Figures 75, 7e», represent the principal forms of this system. 4th Class : The Monodinic, or Oblique system. The axes of thi? system are unequal in length, like the last ; but two of them intersect each other, not at right angles. The effect of this is that the base of the prism or octahedron, which are the principal forms of this system, is a paralle- logram of unequal sides. Green vitriol, sulphate of soda, phosphate of sodaj sulphur, crystallized from its melted state, and borax, crystallize in 78 n ktziSi this system. Figures 77, 78, 79 will give the idea of this system. 5th Class : The TricUnio, Doubly Oblique, or Anorthic system. Thia system has also three unequal axes, but none of them intersect at right angles. The prism and the octahedron are the primary forms, but these are necessarily different in form from the preceding ; and there are secon- dary forms. But few minerals appear to crystallize, in this system. The most common are blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), labradorite, anorthite, iy- I'll 'I-SS'm <^ f"-' ) .li 1*: P t >■ ■ X; 1 i M >: :.! »~i!i| ; ;;' 1 '.(.vB ' '''U ■ '■''IH 1 ( ^"i'i'A ■ A _L». 5 ■ il 216 EXISTENCE AND DEITt. and aximite. Figures 80 and 81 show tho octahedron and the prism of this system. Gth Class ; The Hexagonal^ and Rhonibohedral System. The crystals of this system have four axes, three of them in the same plane, and inter- secting at angles of sixty degrees, and all equal ; the fourth perpendicular to these, and varying in length. By the supposed joining of the extremities of these axes a hexagon is formed, which is the base of a prism (therefore six-sided,) and of a hexagonal dodecahedron. These primary forms appear in snow crystals, beryl, tourmaline, and nitrate of soda, and the very common quartz crystals, which almost every one has seen, are gene- rally six-sided prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids. This system is also called the Rhombohedral, from the fact that tho rhomb, so admirably shown in calc-spar, is the hemihedral form of the hexagonal dodecahedron ; that is, if tliij alternate facos of the double, six-sided pyramid be supposed 84 83 produced, they will form a six-sided solid, which appears in figure 84. Figures 82, 83, represent the principal forms of this system. Almost all minerals crystaUize into some one of these systems. For example, gold, silver, copper, and platina are found to crystallize in the first or monometric system. A subUme display of crystallization is seen in some places on the earth's surface. A visit to the island of Stafia, in Scotland, and to the Giai-i's Causeway, in Ireland, would be amply repaid to one who liked to inspect and contemplate such sublime natural wonders. In order that some of the words which we have found it necessary to use in this short description of crystallization may be understood by all our rf^aders, we may explain that monometric signifies having one measure, ment, or cqu;,l measurement, the monometric system being distinguished by equality of axes. Dimetric signifies having two measurements, crystals in this system having one longer axis and two shorter ones, which latter two are of the same length. Trinietric signifies having three measurements, the crystals of this system having three axes, all of which diflcr in length. Monoclinic signifies having one sloping a.xis, crystals of this system having one axis, which is not rectangular ^'> the other two. Triclinic signifies hav- ing three axes at oblique angles to one another, Hexagonal signifies six- ( EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 217 sided, or six-angled . Dodecahcdrnl signifies having twelve sides. Rhom- bohedral signifiot, having its sides in the form of a rhombus, from a figure Tvhose four sides aro equal, but its angles are not right angles. :ii;!:i! ON LIGHT. But all this scene of beauty and all these natural wonders we have been contemplating need the agency of light to make them apparent. Light, as wo have before remarked, is essential not only to the existence and growth of plants and animals, but also to the phenomena of colors. It is a manifestation of a substance which is universally present, but needs to bo in certain conditions of cliemical action in order that tlie light be made manifest. It radiates from a luminous object in straight lines in all directions, and all objects are seen by its reflection from their surfaces. The rcjii'ction of the rays cf light is that property by which, after striking the surfaces of bodies, they are driven back or repelled. It is, therefore, in consequence of this property that all the objects around us, and all the diversified landscapes on our globe are rendered visible. When light impinges or strikes upon a surface, — say, for illustration, a polished surfiice, rather more than half of it is thrown back or reflected in a direction simi- lar to that of its approach ; that is to say, if it fall perpendicularly upon a surface it will be ptirpcndicalarhj reflected ; but, if it fall oblitpicly, it will be reflected ^vith the same obliquity/. Hence the following funda- mental law, regarding the reflection of light has been deduced botli from experiment and mathematical demonstration, namely, that the amjle of rejlection is, in all cases, e.vactlij equal to tho angle of incidence. * Thus if a ray of solar light be admitted into a dark room through a hole in the window-shutter, the ray will pass straigiit through to the opposite wall, and by its reflection from the wall throw a certain amount of light round the whole room. Thus the whole room is to a certain degree lighted, although not with the direct rays of the sun. Also, if the window be not situated directly opposite to the sun, the ray of light which enters must itself be a ray of light reflected from the atmosphere, or from some outside objects. This last ray, however, when admitted, passes through as a direct ray to ii; 11 ♦ Let A B, represent a plane miiTor, and C D, a line, 01- my of light, perpendicular to it. Let E D, bo the inci- dent rny, from nny object; then D F, will be the reflected ray, tiirowu back in the direction 1) F; and it willniako witii the perpendicnlar C D, the same angle which tho incident ray E D does with the same pcrfiondicular ; that iti, the angle F D C, is equal to the angle E D C, in all cases of obliquity ; tho perpendicular ray being, of course, perpendicularly reflected. The way we see our faces and our persons in a looking-glass, is illustrated by ligure 87. 1' i 'A, 'm %-M I 1! i'lMi 218 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. the opposite wall, and is again reflected. Thus it is seen that there is no end to the reflections of light, and the atmosphere during the day is one great illuminated ocean, from the fact that the ^olar image is reflected and refracted from every portion of it. You see your own image in a looking- glass, moreover, by the rays of light from your body being reflected ; and by placing two plane mirrors in certain positions in relation to each other and to a luminous object, you can multiply the number of images of an object indefinitely. In the case too of your image being reflected from a looking-glass, the angle of reflection is equal to that of incidence ; for your image seems to form the same angle with the glass behind it, as you do before it ; and if you change your position it changes also, and maintains the same angle as you do in relation to the glass. While light, when proceeding from a luminous body, without being reflected from ary opaque substance, or inflected by passing near one, is invariably found to proceed in straight lines, without the least deviation, yet, if it pass obliquely from one medium to another, it always deviates from its original course, and takes a new one. This change of direction, or bending of the rays of light, is what is termed refraction, from the Latin y\-orc\ frangere, to break or to bend. The angle of refraction depends upon the obliquity of the rays falling upon the retracting surface, beinof Let. A B, represent a mirror, and C, a per- son looking into it. If we conceive a ray, H proceeding from the forehead U E, it will be Fig.St reflected to the eye at 0, agreeably to the angle of incidence aid reflection ; but, the mind puts CEO, into one line, and the fore- head is seen at H, as if the lines CEO, had turned on a hinge at E. It is a peculiar faculty of the mind to put two oblique lines C E and E, into one straight line H ; yet, it is seen every time we look at ourselves in a mirror. For the ray really strikes the mirror from C at E, and thence strikes the eye at ; and it is that journey which determines the distance of the object ; and hence we see our image as far behind the mirror as we stand before it. Though a ray is here taken only from one'part of the face, it may be easily conceived that rays from every part of the face must produce a similar eflfect. In every plane mirror, the imago is always equal to the object, at what distance soever it may be placed ; and as the mirror is only at half the distance of the image, from the eye, it will completely receive an image of ttcice its own length. Hence a man six feet in height may view himself completely from tij) to toe in a looking-glass of three feet in length, and half his own breadth ; and this will be the case at whatever distance he may stand from th 8 is shown in figure 88. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 219 •always such that the sine of the incident angle is to the sine of the refracted angle in a given proportion*. The incident angle is the angle made by a ray of light and a line drawn perpendicular to the refracting surface, at the point where the light enters the new medium. The refracted angle is the angle made by the ray in the refracting medium with the same perpendicular produced. The sine of the angle is a line which sc-ves to measure the angle, being drawn from a point in one side perpendicular to the other. * For illustration of refraction : ^.et A D H I, fig. 89, be a body of water, A D its sur- face, C a point in which a ray of light, U C, enters from the air into the water. This ray, by the greater density of the water, instead of passing straight forward in its first direction to K, will be bent at the point C, and pass along in the direction (J E, which is called the refracted ray. Let the line F G be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the water in C ; then it is evident that the ray B C, in passing out of the air, a rare medium, into a deme medium, as water, is refracted into a ray C E, which is nearer to the perpendicular C G than the incident ray B ; and, on the contrary, the i ay f] C passing out of a denser medium into a rarer, is refracted into C B, which is further from the perpendicular. The same thing may be otherwise illustrated, as follows : — Suppose a hole made in one of the sides of the vessel, as at A, and a lighted candle placed within two or three feet of it, when empty, so that its flame may be at L ; a ray of light proceeding from it will pass through the hole A in a straight line, L B C K, until it reach the bottom of the vessel at K, ■where it will form a small circle of light. Having put a mark at the point K, pour water into thi vessel until it rise to the height A D ; and the spot of light which was formerly at K will appear at E ; that is, the ray which went straight forward when the vessel was empty, to K, lids been bent at the point C, where it strikes the water, into the line C E. In this experiment it will be necessary that the front of the vessel be of glass, in order that the course of the ray may be seen ; and if a little soap be mixed with the water, so as to give it a little mistiness, the ray C E will be distinctly perceived. If, instead of fresh water, we fill the vessel with salt water, it will be found that the ray B C is more bent at C. In like manner alcohol will refract the ray B C more than salt water, and oil moie than alcohol ; and a piece of solid glass, of the shape of the water, will refract the ray still f Ig.b X mor" than the oil. Further explanation : In this figure B C is the incident ray, F G the perpendicular, B F the sine of the angle of incidence B C F, and G E the sine of the angle of refraction G C E. Now, it is a proposition that the sine B F, of the angle of incidence B C F, is either accurately, or very nearly, in i> -^iven proportion to the sine G E of the angle of refraction G C E. Tuis ratio of the signs is as 4 to 3 when the refraction is made cut of air into water ; that is B F : G E ;: 4 : 3. When the refraction is made out of air into glass, the proportion is about as 31 to 20, or nearly as 3 to 2. If the refraction be out of air into diamond, it is as 5 to 2, that is B F : G E ;: B : 2. The denser the medium is the less is the angle and sine of refraction. If a ray of light, F G, were to pass from air into water, or empty space into air, in the direction C F, perpendicular to the plane A D, which separates the two mediums, it would ■suffer no refraction, because one of the essentials to that effect is wanting, namely, the obliquity of the incidence. The refraction of the atmosphere produces an effect upon the heavenly bodies that their apparent positions are generally diflferent from their real. la consequence of this the sua is seen before he comes lo the horizon in the morning, and after he has sunk beneath it in the evening; and hence this luminary is never seen in the place in which it really ig, except in places within the torrid zone, when it passes the zenith at noon. The sun is visible wheii thirty-two minutes of a degree below the horizon, and when the opaque curvature of the earth is interposed between our eye and that orb. '■ f! 220 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. On the principle of refi action.you may,by means of a multiplying glass, Sw-c* as many images of a luminous object as the glass has different surfaces. If" the multiplying glass have twenty different surfaces, you see twenty diffe- rent images ; or, if the surfaces could bo cut and polished so small that it has five hundred surfaces, then you see five hundred images of the same luminous object. Thus, it is seen, the light of a given luminous object will be the more diffused, the'more surfaces there are for it to be refracted and reflected from. But if a luminous object be completely separated from you by the intervention of an opaque body, as is the sun from us during our night by the intervention of the body of the earth, then you have no light from the luminous object. Light passes through all transparent substances, such as the atmosphere, water, and glass ; and in its passage through these substances of different densities it is refracted, as we have explained, according to certain laws. A body, ordinarily speaking, is said to be transparent when every part between its two surfaces is of the same density, and therefore the ray of light emerges on the opposite side. In the case of the looking-glass, the ray of light would pass through it, being refracted, but for the coating of quicksilver which it has on its back, which prevents it passing through, and causes it to be reflected. A body is said to be opaque when the parts between its two opposite surfaces are of different densities, and so the rays of light ai-o destroyed by the many refractions and reflections, and do not emerge on the opposite side. All substances that are not transparent are opaque, though there are different degrees both of transparency and opacity. Light and heat usually accompany each other, but light is not always manifested where strong heat is evolved. The heat accompanying the solar light is so great that when concentrated on double-convex lenses it will be sufiicient to fuse the densest metals. Mr. Parker, of Fleet Street, London, once made a burning glass three feet in diameter, and when fixed in its frame it exposed a clear surface of uore than two feet eight inches in diameter, and its focus, by means of another lens, was reduced to a diameter of half an inch. The heat produced by this lens was so great, that iron plates were melted in a few seconds ; tiles and slate became red-hot in a moment, and were vitrified, or changed into glass. Sulphur, pitch, and other resinous bodies were melted under water ; wood-ashes, and those of other vegetable substances, were turned in a moment into transparent glass , even gold was rendered fluid in a few seconds ; and notwithstanding the intense heat at the focus, the finger might without the slightest injury be placed in the cone of rays within an inch of the focus. The force of the heat collected in the focus of the double-convex glass is to the common heat of the sun as the area of the glass is to that of the focus ; it may, of course, be a hundred or even a thousand times greater in the one case than in the other. When a fire or a candle burns, or a horse strikes his shoe against a stone ,■ light as well a» EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 221 "heat is evolved ; but a stack of hay, or a pile of dry goods,if allowed to stand long enough in a damp condition, may bo heated to a high pitch without any light being evolved. Light is produced in many ways artificially, as by chemical action in tho combustion of solids, liquids, and gases ; by percus- sion,as in the use of the flint and stool, which is called " striking fire," and by the electric light, which may bo considered tho most intense and bril- liant of all artificial lights. This last is procured from the ignition of two points of charcoal through which the current of electricity from a powerful battery is passed. But all terrestrial modes of obtaining light, such as chemical action, friction, ignition of solids, phosphorescence, crystallization, and the electric light, sink into insignifi jance before the great natural Sv ^rce of light, the sun, the centre of our planetary system, and the source both of light and heat to our world. Sir John Herschell has estimated that *' the sun gives out as much light as 14(3 lime lights would do if each ball of lime were as large as the sun, and gave out light from all parts of its surface ; and that the heat evolved from every square yard of the sun's surface is as great as that which would be produced by the burning of six tons of coal on it each hour." Although it is said that light is emitted in straight lines from a lumi- nous body it must not be understood that a given quantity of light goes on continuously in the same bulk or volume ; it is continually expanding as it recedes from the point of emission. The areas of space filled with ii as it proceeds are to each other as tho squares of their respective dis- tances from*the luminous point of emission ; and consequently the intensity or illuminating power of the light is inversely as the areas. Thus lumi- nous bodies give, at the respective distances of two, three, or four yards, a fourth, a ninth, and a sixteenth, respectively, of the light they give at one yard from them;] the areas illuminated and filled with the diffusing light being, at these several distances, four, nine, and sixteen times as great as at one yard distance. It may, therefore, be said more correctly that light diffuses itself universally in expanding volumes, bounded as the volumes increase by straight diverging surfaces, which form the boundaries of areas whose relative magnitudes are as the square of their distances. * * Tliis may be illustrated by the following fiprure. Suppose that light which flows from a caiulk- A, and passes through a square hole B, is received upon a plane 0, parallel to the plane of the hole; or let the figure C be considered as the shadow of the plane B. When the distance of C is double of B the length and breadth of the shadow C will be each double of the length and breadth of the plane B, and treble wh^n A D is treble of A B, and so on. Therefore the surface of the sha- dow C at the distance A C, double of A B, is divisible into four squares, and at a treble ■distance into nine squares severally equal to the square B. The light then which falls upoa !,■! I !,' «■»". ". Iif J; h: I \l\ im '::U iiii 000 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. siil >if!l'!l Tho larger the luminous l)0(ly ia the more space it will enlighten ; aiul it id plain that the onlightened space will correspond in form with tho hoily which enlightens it. Thus, the sun being of glohular figure, — and, as we may hero, for illustration, suppose it, luminous all over its surface, — enlightens an area, however great in extent, of spherical shape ; the space nearest tho sun being most enlightened, and the light becoming less as tho distance from it becomes greater. The larger the luminous body is, too, at tho greater distance will it be seen by tho eye ; also, the larger it appears at a given place the more light it will ditfuse at that place; for the larger will its image be to be reflected and refracted from all objects ; and, conversely, the smaller a luminous body appears from a given place tho less light will it diffuse at that placo, for the smaller will its imago bo to bo reflected from all objects. When, therefore, a luminous body, of however great a size, is at so great a distance from a placo as not to bo perceivable by tho eye, then it gives no light at that placo, from tho fact that there is no image of it to be reflected. Also, if one was situated beyond tho I'ange of our atmosphere, away out in tho ethereal regions, it is determi lod he would experience no such flood of light as he does at the earth's siirfaco, because of the absence of a reflecting medium. TIio denser and rougher in surface bodies are the better in general they reflect tho light ; for tho image of the sun is reflected from one corner, face, or angle of rough sur- faces to the other oO as to make them more luminous than if they wero smooth, tb.ough of the same density as they are. But tho ether Avhich exists beyon'^ the limits of our atmosphere being so exceedingly rare, docs not reflect the imago of the sun ; and the sun to an observer situated there would appear like a luminous globe placed in a black canop'*, and surrounded on all sides with pitchy darkness. So tho stars might appear like luminous points scarcely distinguishable, in regions of the blackest darkness. The appearance of the earth would depend upon the distance of tho observer from it ; the nearer ho would be to the earth the moro luuiinous would it appear, the light being reflected from its surface and atmosphere. On the subject of light, two leading theoi-ies have been propounded in the philosophic world. Sir Isaac Newton supposed that light was corpus- cular, or composed of minute particles of a material nature, which are the i)l:ine B, being suffered to pnss to double that distance, will be uniformly spread over four times the space, and consc(iuenlly will be four times less intense in every part of that space. And at treble distance it will be nine times thinner, and at a quadruple distance sixteen times thinner than it was at first. The quantities, therefore, of this rarified light received upon a surface of any given size and shape, when removed successively to their several distances, will be but one-fourth, one-ninth, one-sixteenth of the whole quantity received by it at the first distance A B. This law holds good with respect to the quantity of light received by the planets at their respective distances from the sun. EXLSTENCE AND DKITV. 223 constantly emitted in all diroctlon-s 1)y lutninou.'i bodioa. This liypothosid waa acK»|)toil to a great cxtiMit, especially l)y Uritisih philosophor.s ; Init ia later times it has given way to the theory oF llnygcin, who ad.su:aed that all space is pervaded hy an elastic ether, the undiilatory motions of which, when it id disturbed, manitost themsolvus in lig'it, jint aa motion in water gives waves, or sound in air gives vibrations. Noit'.ior of those tho^rie-', it was afterwards tliought, havin;^ fully explained the pheno.nona of light, another cx[tlanation was ))r()poanded, which correspou'ls very mue'a with that of lluygens. Tliis is that all space is filled with electricity, the eh; 'io ether of lluygens, which, as is known, penetrates all bodies; and that tho great ocean of electricity in free space, having nothing to compress it, yieUU freely in all directions, and only undulates when passing tliro'ig'i ot'.iji* media, such as tho atmosphere, where it su'fjrs interruption, and alsj, to a certain extent, absor[)tion. Thus Hir as to the theories. But tho fivct is that men will bo ever changing their theories, rejecting old ones an.l substituting new ones, until they have come to a knowledge of the subject concerning which tho theory is. No false theory will fully satisfy tho mind, or last permanently. The phenomonou of light does not depend upon tho emission of luminous particles from luminous bodies ; neither docs it depend upon all space being filled with a particular substance called ether or electricity, or of any other name; but it consists simply in this, tho infinite multiplication of the image of the luminous object by reflction and refraction from tho media on all sides of it, and to all visible distances from it. It depends simply upon this, that a luminous body exists, and U within visible distance ; and then the amount of light places possess will depend upon tho adaptcdness or unfitness for refiection of the media of these places. When a body is permanently luminous, as the sun is, then tho space which it illuminates is always illuminated, (unless parts of it which, during certain intervals, are separated from the luminous body by the inter- vention of opaque bodies,) and so tho light cannot be said to occupy any time in passing from one point of that space to another, or from the lumi- nous body to any point of that space, as the common theories suppose, ono of which has it to travel at the rate of nearly 200,000 miles a second. Ihis theory is based upon deductions which have been drawn from obser- vations made upon tho satellites of Jupiter, at the time of their emorgenco from an eclipse. From these observations it was determined that it took the light a certain length of time to reach tho earth from tho satellites after their emergence from behind tho body of the planet. But it appears quite evident that at tho instant of their emergence, coming into the flood of solar light, they would be visible from the earth ; and that no percep- tible time might intervene between their emergence and their being seen by an observer on the earth. Light cannot be said to occupy any time ia moving through a space in which it is constantly present. The reason !' i m i>l ^ A p HI ill 224 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. why WO do not always oxporionco the li^ht of tlio sun is bocauso we aro provontod from doing so by the intervention of tlio body of the earth be- tween us and the sun during the night time, or by the intervention of some other object between us and the sun. But when the morning has come, and the side of the earth on which we live has come round to face the sun ; or when any other body, which has shut out from us the light of the sun, has been removed, and that luminary shines with a clear face, we can see him just in the same time as it takes us to see our neighbor standing at our elbow. No perceptible time intervenes between our opening our eyes to see the sun and our seeing him, although wo are certainly separated from that luminary over ninety millions of miles. Nor does it take the light of any of the stars that aro visible to us any length of time to travel from them to us. The light of the stars visible to us is always present to the earth, and wc only need to be on the side of the earth facing those stars, on a clear inght, in order to see them instantly. The only condition necessary to our seeing the star instantly is for the star to be visible, and wo then may see it in the same length of time it takes us to see the sun when that luminary is visible ; that is, when our eyes are opened and directed toward it, no time at all ; although it may be more than a thousand millions of times the distance from us that the sun is. A lighted candle, it is said, can illuminate a space of four cubical miles; that is, a spherical space whose diameter is four miles, the candle being placed in the centre. This candle, therefore, would be seen by an observer placed at any point in that space, say any extremity of a radius ; and neither would it take the light any time to reach his eye, nor would there necessarily be any luminous par- ticles emitted by the candle toward his eye. But the irairo of the candle is present in every point in the space, and is reflected from all the reflecting media. The nearer the observer is to the candle the larger it appears, and the more intense is its light ; the farther he removes from it the smal- ler it appears, and the less intense the light becomes, until finally the candle vanishes entirely from his sight, and there is no perceptible light from it in the surrounding space. So it is evident that when, on their emergence from behind the body of the planet, a suflSciently large portion of the sur- face of Jupiter's satellites has become enlightened to render them visible to a telescopic observer at the earth, (for these satellites aro not discernible by the naked eye,) no perceptible time need intervene until he sees them, provided no other body, as clouds, intervene to obstruct his view of them. Ncr is electricity found to occupy any perceptible time in traveUing, by means of wires, to any distance on the earth's surface ; that is, the instant the message is sent by the telegraph operator, tJiat same instant it is received at the other end of the wire, if the distance be over twelve thou- sand miles, or half the earth's circumference. The farthest point on the EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 225 earth's surfjico, reckonin;^ from nny given place, in somewhat over twelve thousand miles, or half the earth's circumference. The reader will be likely to ohsorve, himself, the absurdity of the theory which supposed light to bo dependent upon the emission of luminous particles fron a luminous body ; for, for example, not a particle of the matter of which the sun is composed can ever go beyond the range of his immediate attraction ; that is, every particle of the matter of which that body consists always did and always will belong to him ; he cannot lose it. Secondly, he will sec the absurdity of supposing that luminous particles of matter could penetrate through thick plates of glass or other trans- parent substances, which admit the light so freely, as windows, double or multiple i or the glass globes which surround our common lamps ; or dia- mond, one of the hardest known substances. But, as we have said before, light is only a phenomenon, the image of the luminous object infinitely multiplied, as well as the object itself, as far as the manifestation of light is concerned ; while, on the other hand, the substance of which light is a manifestation may be called electricity, or any other name one pleases. It is everywhere present, and manifests the light wlion the conditions necessary for that manifestation exist. All bodies possess in themselves, to a greater or loss extent, the principle of light and of heat. But it mostly exists in a latent state in terrestrial bodies, needing to be called into action in order that it become apparent. These principles exist in an active state in the sun ; and, therefore, that luminary is the great source not only of light but of heat to the earth. That part of the earth situated most favorably towards him receives the greatest quantity of his light and heat. The space which is constantly filled with the solar light is as con- stantly filled with the solar heat, and the reason we do not experience as much light and heat at one season of the year as we do at another is because the situation of the earth in relation to the sun does not admit of it. The earth is more than throe millions of miles nearer the sun in December than in June, yet we have less light and heat in the former season than in the latter, owing to the parts of the earth which we occupy being turned away from the sun, or, in other words, being situated more obliquely towards him. The earth is a dense body situated in the mi^^hty ocean of the solar light, as a theatre upon which he may display his cxhaustless power and energy, and give animation, beauty and sublimity, to every surrounding scene. The Prism is the most important and instructive of all optical lenses, and it has enabled philosophers to add what may be called another branch of science, " Spectrum Analysis," to those already known. This instru- ment is triangular, and generally about three or four inches long. It is commonly made of white glass, as free as possible from veins, and bubbles, and other e'-nilar defects, and solid throuhgout. Its lateral faces and sides i ' ' m li ij if" ^1 I ! II 226 EXISTENCE AND DKITY. i-l 'i avo perfectly plane and finely polished. The angle formed by the two faces, one receiving the ray of light that is refracted in the instrument, and the other giving it an issue on its return into the air, is called the refracting angle of the prism. By means of this triangular piece of glass we are enabled to decompose and analyze a ray of light, and, from the knoAvledge so obtained, to account for the phenomena of colors. If a ray of light, proceeding directly from the sun, be admitted through a circular hole, half an inch in diameter, into a room, the walls of which should be as dark as possible, or hung with black calico, and a prism intersect it near the window, the ray will cease to go forward in a straight line, being refracted, or bent a little upwards out of its original direction, and will bo decomposed, and exhibit, on a white screen placed opposite to the window to receive it, a beautiful spectrum, consisting of seven colors, beginning below and extending upwards in the order of red, yellow, orange, green, blue, indigo, and violet. If the refracting angle of the prism A C B, in the figure,* be sixty-four degrees, and the distance of the white screen from the prism eighteen feet, the length of the image will be about ten inches, and tho breadth two inches. This oblong image is called the prismatio spectrum, and in it the red color is least, and the violet the most bent from the original direction of the solar beam. The sides of the spectrum arc right lines, distinctly bounded ; and the ends are semi-circular. This cir- cumstance shews that it is still the image of the sun, but elongated by the refractive power of the prism. By an ordinary glass prism, such as those used for glass lustres, the margins of the colors are not clearly defined, but seem to melt or mix, the one into the other. If a hollow glass light. Ligh • The separation of a ray of white light into different colors, by refraction, may be moro accurately understood as represented in figure 91, where a ray of light is admitted through an aperture F in a window shutter into a darkened chamber, and causing it to fall on tho prism A B 0. A ray, D, thus entering, and suffered to pass unobstructed, would form on a plane surfoce a circular disc of white light E; but tho prism being so placed that the ray may enter and quit it at equal angles, it will be refracted in such a manner as to form on a screen M N, properly placed, an oblong image, called the solar spectrum, and divided horizontally into seven colored spaces or bands of unequal extent. The angle A C B ;s the retracting angle of the prism. It is seen that the ends of the spectrum are semi- circular. Fig.91 M Violet IlKligO Blue Green Vol low Orniige Ued EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 227 prism filled with bisulphitlc of carbon bo used, the seven, colors of tho spectrum are much more clearly defined. Sir Isao.o iSewton made this interesting and important discovery, that white light is a compound of rays of various kinds, having different colors, and -indices of refraction ; and that all the substances which appear colored when illuminated with white light, derive their colors only from a kind of " natural selection," that is, they may reflect certain colored rays and absorb or transmit others. IIo, however, concluded, from various experiments on this subject, that cvenj snhatance in nature, provided it be reduced to the requisite degree of thinness, is transparent. This is plain also, from the fact that all sub- stances arc of a nature reducible to an invisible gas. Many transparent media x'eflect one color and transmit another ; gold leaf reflects the yellow, but it transmits a sort of green color by holding it up against a strong light. Light is said to bo tho source of all colors ; but, if the principle of light is inherent in all substances, how can it be said that colors are not inherent in them ? Light itself is, in every case, a manifestation of matter. The matter which gives rise to the light is sometimes, as in the case of carburetted hydrogen gas, itself invisible ; yet, when properly examined, the light proceeding from it displays all colors, and renders them apparent in all other objects. The colors displayed by different objects, owing to their peculiar adaptedness for absorbing or reflecting certain of the colors of light, are various, and of different degrees of inten- sity ; but tho colors displayed by light in the prism are permanently the same, only, it may be, differing slightly in their intensity, according to the source whence the light is derived. When the solar spectrum, obtained as already described, is thrown upon a white screen, it is amusing to see the effect of different colored rays upon different pigments; and if slips of colored paper bo used the results are very distinct. By passing the ray of white light through two prisms, inverted to each other, and filled with bisulphide of carbon, the spectrum may be made to stretch much farthef across the screen, and the sunbeam under- goes by the double refraction a greater amount of dispersion. The colors are now more clearly separated, and the experiments w ith the slips of colored paper or other pigments, can be made with much greater facility. The drawing apart or separation of the colors is called dispersion, and thus the structure may be made shorter or ' jnger, by using prisms of different dispersive powers. Although it is uifficult for the best eyes to point out the exact boundaries of each color, Sir Isaac Newton concluded, after repeated experiments, that the lengths of the colors with the particular glass prism which he used were as follows : Red 45, orange 27, yellow 40, green 60, blue 60, indigo 48, violet 80 ; total number of equal spaces into which the spectrum was divided, 360^. By making a hole in the screen i\ ? ,'••11 -il i.'li'f U' y dJ 1^' 228 KXlSTKNOli; AND IMHTY. [1 ; . ; s op|H>8ito anv onoofthc oolors of the Hpootnuu. and pliioing tlio Horoon in .such a position as to allow tliat color only to pass, and hy lotting tlio ot-lor tlnissoparatoil fall npon a socoml prism, ho lound tlial oacli of llio colors was alike roiVangiMo, because the seemid prisni eoul.l not separate Iheni iuto an oMong imago, or into any other color, llenco he called all tho seven oolors ^iniph' or homogoiieoa>s, in contradistinction . The experimei\t can bo varied by mixing seven dilVerent colored powders together, the colors being, of course, as near as jH\<5sible to those of the solar sju'ctrum ; or these colors may be j^anued on a circular piece of cardboard, and when this is properly adjusted, and whirled ro\n>d with sulhcient velocity', the colors scom all Mended together, and proiluco the near estimitation of white light. If a sunbeam is passed through a double-convex Irtis, wliii'li rrpiwHcutg a scriis qf pHsms with iJ.rir bf color must occur, which is technically termed rhro)n'i({i' (tl'crration. Newton, however, examined the ratio between the sines of incidence and refraction of the decompounded rays, and found that each of the seven primary color- makiuii ravs had certain limits within which they were confined. Thus, let the sine of incidence in glass be divided into 50 diual jiarts, tho sine of refraction into air of the I<\ist refrangible, and the most refrangil.le rays will contain jvspectively 77 and 7S such parts. The sines of refraction of all tlie degrees of red will have the intermediate degrees of magnitude from 77 to 77,i ; orange from 77J to 77' : yellow from 77] to 77 J ; green from 77 i to 77i; blue from 77A to 77f, ; indigo from 77^ to 77;^ ; and violet from 77^ tc 78. From the foregoing statements it is evident, as has been shown above in the caac of double-convex lenses, that as any portion of an optic gla^s bears a resemblance to the form of a prism, the component rays which pass through it must necessarily bo separated, and will consoijuontly l^aint or tinge the object with colors. The edges of every convex lou3 approximate to this form, and it is on this account that the edges of objects ii;xtHTim("r, ani* imutv. 221> viewed tlirodirli flioniiire fdund ti) !)(> liiijrt>(l with the ftriflinntic cuIdrR. Ti» such a ^liiHfl, tlKMTfnrc, the dilToreiif: cfilnred vi\yn will lifivf> din»MPiil luci, mid will f<»nn Ihoir icflpoctivc iiiiiijfeM nl, dilVi«rtwceii tlw^ re(| niid the violcf, colora dl" the spectniin will l»o nlMiiil mio inch; if it he twi-iily oiiirht IV'cl, I'tieal diMlaiice the same Rpaen will he niit> |nMt,aiid f«» on in pidpnrtioii. When Miieh a Fmecoat>ii>n of imM|fe3, hmneil 'ly (ho dill'eroi,' (Vi|.,i('(| rayfi, is viewed lluorgh nii eye (j;laM,i, it will nppt>lir to lonii hut ono imnj/o, niid coiiHd color im lar^oHt. or flccn nndor tho ^roaleHl. aiijrjo, Die cttrotno partM >A' the coiduHcd iiiia^o will he rod, and a RiiecoRMiiiii oC tlio pris- matic cnlorM will ho Inrmod within tlTm roil IVin^ro, a-i is ifoncrally lorincd in I'onimon refractinir l(«I('ncn|i(>q, ciMi«t,riietcd with a, f)in;<;l(> ohjoi't, rrlaqq. To thin cii'CiiuiMtanco it, is owin^ that tho cnminon rclVactitij^ teh'scopo cannot, hi> much improvod withnnt, havitiii; rocfnirHc^ to Imf^o^ (if very lon;j; Focal di,4ta.ii<'(> ; and Iioikm- ahunt, |H() y(>!irM a^o rmcIi tch'-^ciipc^ w(M'o oonHlriict'Ml of SO, 1(1(1, anil PJO feot. fo'-al lry tiie eonslmit fallinj^ of the rain the iinai;t> in preserved eonslant and perfeet. Thi^ Hnhjeet may he partially ilhisirated in this v i\y ; take either u small snlid ^lass ^lolie or a small ;i,lass i;l(il»e lilled with water, and siis|iend it sn Iii;^li ill (he solar rays that (he ohserver wi(h his haek to tiio sun can see the ^luhe /•('(/: it' it then h lowered slowly he will see ilirx)ran>^e, then yellow, then fireen, then blue, then indigo, and then violet ; so that (he dr,«p of rain, as this, at dilVerent heights shall present to the eye of the ohserver the sev(>n prismatic colors in snceession. It must not he thought (hat niiv iH'rceptihle time is taken up in the relVaelions and relleetions wo speak of, ns hv which (ho rainbow is I'ormeil in (he falling rain-drops, or in (he lowering gla:s globe ; the phenomenon is produced by the posi(ions of ili,> fallmg drops, or of the glol)e, in relation to our eye and to the sun. Fig. D- illustrates the cause that produces tlio rainbow ; the lower drop, or series of drops, representing (he primary I)o\v, tln^ tipper the socon>lary. 'Ihe raitibow assutnes a semi circular appear;\nce because it is only at certain angles that the refracted rays come to our eyes, us is evident from this experiment of the glass globe, which will rellect the ditferent colored vavs otily in a certain position, 'riie'rej rays make an angle of forty-two degrees hvo minutes ; and the violet an angle of iWty degrees and scvtMi- tecn 1. nutes. Thns if a litie be drawn horizontally from the spectator's eve, it is plaiti that the angles formed with the line of a ccrtaiti dimension in every direction will produce a circlo, as will appear by attaching a cord of a certain length to a given point, around which, as round an axis, it may turn : and, in every point it will describe an angle with the hori- zontal line of a certain and determinate length. Now all the drops of water within the dijfcrenco of these two angles, namely, one degree and forty-five iLinutes, (sujiposing the ray to proceed from the centre of the suiO, will exhibit .severally the colors of the prism and constitute the interior bow of the cloud. This holds good at whatever height the sun may happen to be in a shower of rain. If lie be at a high altitude the rainbow will be low ; if at a low elevation the rainbow must bo high ; and if a shower hapjien in a vale when the observer is on a mountain ho will sometimes see the bow in the form of a complde circle below him. The largest angle then, or circle, is formed by the red rays, the middle one the green, and the smallest the purple or violet. If tlie si)ectator alters his position, he will see a bow, but not the same as before ; and if tliero bo many spectators they will sec each a difterent bow, though it appears to be the same. If there were no ground to intercept the rain and the view of the spectator, the rainbow would form a complete circle whose centre is diametrically opposite to the sun. Such circles arc often scon in the .1 K.XIHTKNCK ANh l»i;iTY, 2H7 flpray of tlio soa or nf a caflcailc, or from tlio top^ of l(»fty in tiint.iiiH wIhmi (ho Hliowcr li!i|i|MMin ill tliti viilo Im'Idw. IliiiiiltowM of viirio.m wavcH of tlio Hon, wIiomo lopn are Mown l»y tin; wind into small drnpH. 'I'licro iM one roj^ularly Hcon wlicn llio Hun U Hliinin;^, and tlu> oliHcrver in a proper ])OMitinn,at tlio Kail of StauMiaek, in tlio Iionoin of tlu« Ainu ; one near SoliiilVliaiiKcn ; ono at the Cancado of I of nearly two liundrod foot lii^^li, proflontM to tlio ol»Hervor l»olo\v a varie;^ated oirele, ovorreaeliin^ tlio fall, and two other I»owm Ruddenly ielIeote(l on the ri;^ht and left. ])on IMIoa, in the acottunt of hi-i travels ill South Anieriea, roIatoH that circ.lar rainhowH are frorpiontly hvi'u in the mountains ahovo t^uito, in I'oni. A naval friend, say,-4 Mr. Unelce, informed me that Mi ho was ono day watchin,:^ the sun's olTect upoi- tlio exhalations near Juan Kornandoz, ho saw upwards of fivo-and- twenty lrt'8 marhur animate t!io aoa at the same time. In these marine hows tho concave sid' .•» wore turned upward, the drops of water ri4in;^ from helow, and not falling from ahovo, as in the iiiKtanco of the aerial arches. Itain- liows are ahso occasionally soon on tho grass in tlio morning dow, and likcwiso when tho hoar-frost is descending. Dr. Langwilh onco saw a how lying on tho ground, tho colors of which were almost as lively as those of a common rainl'ow. It was not circular, hut ohlong, and was extended several hundred yards. The colors took up less space and wore much more vivid in those parts of the how which wero near him, than in those wliich wore at a distance. When IVF. Tjahillardicro was on Mount Teneride, ho saw tho contour of iiis hody traced on tho clouds heneath him, in all the colors of tho solar how. Ho had previously witnessed this phenomenon on the Kesrouan, in Asia Minor. T"..o rainhows of rirocn- laiid aro said to be fre(iucntly of a pale white, fringed with a hrowni-ih yellow, arising from the rays of tho sun being reflected from a frozen cloud. A rainbow may bo produced at any time by artificial means, wlicn tho sun is shining, and not at too great an altitude above the horizon. This i.^ cITocted by means of artificial fountains which are intended to throw up streams of water to a great height. These streams, when they spread very wide and blend together in their upper parts, form, when falling, an arti- ficial shower of rain. If then, when the fountain is playing, wo move between it and the sun to a proper distance from the fountain, until our shadow point directly toward it, and look at the shower, wo shall observe the colors of tho rainbow strong and lively ; and what is especially noticeable, tho bow appears, notwithstanding the nearness of the shower, '{• - i\\\ '■m If ? ; \\ 1 fl"]~" Tf - 288 EXISTKNCE AND DEITY. to bo na larj^c and as far olT as tho rainbow which wc soc in a natural shower of rain. Tho same cxporiment may bo niailo with camllo-lii^ht and with any instrument that will form an artilicial ahowcr. Tho following '\s a summary of the principal facts which have boon ascertained respecting the rainbow. 1. Tlio ordinary rainbow can only be seen when it rains, and in that jiart of the heavens opposite to the sun. 2. J}oth the primary and secondary bows are variegated with ail the pris- matic colors, the red being the highest color in the primary, or brightest bow ; and the violet the highest in tho secondary or exterior bow. 3. The primary rainbow can never bo a greater arc than a aeraicirclo ; and when the sun is sot no bow in ordinary circumstances can bo seen. 1. The breadth of tho inner or primary bow, suppoi^ing tho sun but a point, is one degree and forty-five minutes ; and tlie breadtli of tho exterior bow three degrees and twelve minutes, which is nearly twice as great as that of the other ; and tho distance between the bows is eight degrees and fifty-five minutes. But since the body of the sun subtends an angle of about half a degree, by so much vill each bow bo increased, and their distance diminished ; and therefore, the breadth of the interior bow will be two degrees, fifteen minutes ; and that of the exterior three degrees, forty- two minutes ; and their distan'io eight degrees, twenty-five minutes. The greatest semi-diameter of the interior bow, on the same grounds, will be forty-two degrees, seventeen minutes ; and tho least of the exterior bow fifty degrees, forty-three minutes. 6. When the sun is in the hoi'izon, either in the morning or evening, the bows will appear complete semicircles. On the contrary, when the sun's altitude is equal to forty-two degrees, two minutes, or to fifty-four degrees, ten minutes, the summits of the bows will be depressed below tho horizon. Hence during the days of summer within a certain interval each day no visible rainbows can be formed, on account of the sun's high elevation above the horizon. 6. The altitude of the bows above the horizon, or surface of the earth, varies according to the elevation of the sun. The altitude at any time may be taken by a common quadrant or any other angle-measuring instrument ; but if the sun's altitude at any particular time be known the height of the summit of any of the bows may be found by subtracting the sun's altitude from forty- two degrees, two minutes, for the inner bow ; and from fifty-four degrees, ten minutes for the outer. Thus, if the sun's altitude be twenty-six degrees, the height of the primary bow would be sixteen degrees, two minutes ; and that of the secondary bow twenty-eight degrees, ten minutes. It follows that the height and the size of the bows diminish as the altitude of the sun increases. 7. If the sun's altitude be mox-e than forty-two degrees, and less than fifty-four, the exterior bow may be seen, though the interior one is invisible. Sometimes only a portion of an arch will be visible, while all the other parts of the bow are invisible. This happens EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 239 when the rain ilocs not occur in a space of sudiciont extent to complete tho bow ; and the appearancoa of tho position, and oven of tho bow itself, will be various, according to the nature of the situation, and the space occupied by the rain. Lunar rainbowi are soraotimes formed at night by tho rays of tho moon striking on a rai'i-cloud, especially when the moon ia about at its full ; but such phcnomentt are not often observed. Aristotle is 8ai.»«aK| 250 FXrSTENCE ANT) DHITV. Tlic liglit of tlic 3un would be strongly rcilectcd from every object uitliin the bomuls of our horizon, and would laoducc such illuniiuation as would dazzle every cyo. The day would exhibit a greater brightness than it now docs ; and our eyes, having become accustomed to it,might be enabled freely to expatiate on the surrounding landscape ; but everything, though cnli'Witened, would appear confused, and particular objects would scarcely be distinguishable. A house or a tree near at hand might possibly be distinguished on account of its elevation above the general level of the gi'ound, and rivers, and valleys, and other hollow places, by reason of their being dej)ressed below it. But wo should be obliged rather to guess and conjecture as to the particular objects wo wished to distinguish than be able to arrive at any certain conclusion concerning them ; and if objects lay at a considerable distance from us it would be impossible for us with any dcgiee of probaI)iiity to distinguish one object from another. Notwithstanding the univtirsal brightness of the scene the uniformity of color of every object would certainly prevent us from easily distinguishing them from one another. In such a condition human beings would be confounded, and friends and neighbors be at a loss to recognize each other ! The heavens, too, .world wear a uniform ag])ect ; neither the moon noi planets would be visible to the eye, nor those numberless stars which now shine with such brilliancy and adorn the nocturn.il sky ; for it is by the contrast jjroduced by the white radiance of the stars, and the deep azure of the sky, that those distant bodies are rendered discernible. Were they dejiicted on a snow ndiite ground they would not be distinguishable from that ground, and conse(|uently would be invisible. Of course, all that beautiful variety of aspect which now appears on our terrestrial scene, — the rich verdure of the fields, the dark green foliage of tlie stately forest trees, the rivers meandering through the valleys, and the splendid hues which variegate and adorn our gardens and meadows, the gay coloring of the morning and evening clouds, and all that variety vhich distinguishes the different seasons,— would not at all appear. As every landscape would exhibit nearly the same aspect, the poet, the philo- sopher, the antiquarian, the scholar, or the man of science, would have no inducement to visit distant countries to investigate the scenes of nature or the productions of art ; and tours from one region of the earth to another ■would scarcely be productive of enjoyment. The prevalence of any other single color would be attended with nearly the same results. Were a deep red to be uniformly spread over the scene of nature, it would not only be disagreeable to the eye, but prevent all distinction of objects. Were a dark blue or a deep violet to prevail, similar effects would follow, and the scene of nature would present a dismal and gloomy appearance. Even if all nature were arrayed in a EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 251 robo of green, whidi is a riioro pleasing color to tlio eye, wore it not Jiversifiod with the cliflFercnt shades which it now cxliihifs, every ohject voulcl be cciually uudistinguishable. Such would bo the aspect of nature and the inconveniences to which human beings would bo doomed, were it that the light which shono upon them was without tliat intermixture of Colors which now appears over the face of all nature, and which serves to discrimiiiato ono object from another. Even our domestic apartments could not be decorated in the least degree, and the articles with whicli they would be furnished would be almost undistinguishablo, so that in dis- crimiiiiiting ono object from another, wo would be as much indebted to the sense of touch as to the sense of sight. But worst of all would be the numerous delays, uncertainties, and perplexities to which we should be subjected, were we under the necessity every moment of distinguishing objects by trains of reasoning, and by circumstances of time, place, and relative position. An artificer, Avhen commencing his work in the morn, ing, with his numerous tools of nearly the same size and shap". would have to spend a considerable portion of his time before he could select those he wanted to use, or the ^^bjectsto which he Avanted to apply them ; and in every department of society, and in all intercourses of persons by travel from one place to another, similar inconveniences and perplexities would occur. People would have to spend ono half their time in uncer- tain guesses and perplexing reasonings respecting the real nature and individuality of objects, rather than in a consecutive train of thought, or a regular employment ; and after all the perplexities and conjectures they must remain in the utmost uncertainty and ignorance of the thousands of scenes and objects which are now obvious through the instrumentality of colors. For the existing state of things in the visible universe, and for thus enabling us to distinguish objects by such an easy and expeditious mode as that of color, which in a moment distinguishes evory object and its several relations, we cannot but admire the wisdom and goodness of the Creator ! We rise in the morning to our respective employments, and our tools, our books, and whatever is necessary for our subsistence and com- forts, are at once discriminated. Without the least hesitation, and without any perplexing process of reasoning, we can lay our hands upon whatever article we require. Color clothes every object in its peculiar livery, and infallibly directs the hand in its movements, and the eye in its surveys and observations. But this is not the only end which is answered by the diver- sity of colors. They minister largely to our pleasures as well as to our wants. To those favored with a refined taste, as well as to almost every human being, the exquisite coloring of flowers, the delicate tints with which thoy are painted, the varied shades of green with which the hills and dales, the mountains and valleys, are arrayed, and that beautiful variety which nm 'i I ; '\\iiC A n }- ■ V ^IPT^'J i 'Ma ; 1 ' wM'' !,'! or.o KXISJTEXCE AND DKITY. 1i«i| ftppcfirs on a l)ni^lit sninmor's dny on all tlio ohjocts of unlvorsnl nature are sources of the imrest enjoyuient anil (U'li^ht. Color too, as well as mai^nitUiiO, aiUls to the sublimity of ohjocts. Wero the canopy of heaven of one uiiifonn color, it woukl not [)ro(luco those lofty conceptions, and those delightful and transporting emotions, whieh a conteni[)lation of its august scenery never fails to inspire. Tho colors displayed in the solar light are eomnion to all the globes wiiich compose the solar system, and must necessarily bo reflected in all their diversified hues from all objects on their surfaces. Some of the double stars appear to emit liglit of different hues, which is thouglit by some astronomers to arise from complementary colors. The larger star sometimes exhibits light of a rudtly or orange hue, and the smaller one a radiance which approaches to blue or green. There may, therefore, bo some reason to conclude that tho objects connected with tho planets which revolve around such stars, being occasionally enlightened with suns of different hues, display a more diversified and splendid scenery of coloring than is ever beheld in our world ; f i.d that one of tho distin- guishing characteristics of different worhh in regard to their embellish- ments, may consist in the variety and splendor of colours with which the objects connected with them are adorned. It need not be inferred from what has been said that we intend to con- vey the idea that the light, or colors which human beings have experienced in any past time were ever different from what we find them now to bo. Wo believe on the contrary that Uj;ht has always been what it is now, and that it has always displayed the same variety of colors. Moreover, light, with its inherent colors, is a creation in tlie same sense as any other object is ; and in the same sense as any other natural object it is an eternally creat- ed thing; that is to say, it has always been and it will always be, created. It is a new manifestation or combination of matter, as a man, or tree, or any other natural object is a new manifestation or combination of matter. It is everywhere present in principle, and is always manifested where- ever the conditions necessary for that manifestation exist. In this, as well as in many other arrangements in nature, we have a sensible proof of the presence and agency of that Almighty Intelligence in whom we live, and move, and have our being. None but an infinitely wise and beneficent Being, intimately present in all places, could thus so regularly create in us by means of color those exquisite sensations which afford us so much delight, and which unite us, as it were, to everything around us. In the variety of hu^j spread over the face of creation we have as real a display of the Divine presence as Moses may have had at the burning bush. Tho only difference is that the one was out of the common order of Divine pro- cedure, while the other is in accordance with those permanent laws which regulate the economy of the universe. In every color which we contem- plate we have a sensible remembrancer of the presence and benevolence of n EXISTENCE AM) DKITY. 253 that Being whoso spirit hath ^^anushoil tho hoavciis and the earth, and hj whoso power and aijoncy wo arc every momont sustained in oxistonoo. Oh that men wouUl, therefore, praise tlie Lord, for his ;^oo(hi03S, for his won- derful works to tho ehildron of men ! He giveth rain to the evil and tho good, and causcth his sun to shine upon the just and upon the unjust ! ON ASTRONOMY. Tho object of tho scionco of Astronomy is to explain tho motimis and magnitudes of the earth and the heavenly bodies, their various aspects, and other facts which have been ascertained concerning them. It is a scienco that has to do with our subject, since it illustrates tho changes of place effected in tho earth and the heavenly bodies by their motions ; gives tho mind a moro expansive idea of tho infinite Creator, and gives it to under- stand that it cannot possibly comprehend the mode of existence of that Being who is orerywhoro present in essoncn and power, amid such varied and complex changes and revolutions. It will first bo expedient for us to say a few words in relation to tho apparent motions of tho heavenly bodies during tho day and night, and as to tho form and motions of tho earth, before proceeding to describe particu- larly tho phenomenon of tho other heavenly bodies. When wo look up toward tho sky we perceive an apparent concave hemisphere, placed at an indefinite distance from us, and surrounding tho earth on every side. During the day the principal luminous object that appoa-s in this hemis- phere is tho sun. In the morning wo see him rise beyond the distant mountains or tho extremity of tho ocean ; ho gradually ascends the vault of heaven, and then declines and disappears in the opposite quarter SUMMER IM THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE • jp *• This diagram of the seasons will tend to illustrate the subject more clearly. It shows the tpositions^of the signs of the Zodiac Aries, Tau JS, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. ii ■'i.f hi > I m I'lil .'1 1 i -Ji^ J* ■ iiwiw i aro i j i i ■ H ' ' 1 n J 1 !, 254 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. of the sky. In tho northern parts of the globe, where we reside, if, about the 20th of March, we place ourselves in an open plain at about six o'clock in the morning with our face toward the South, the sun will appear to rise on our left, or due East, and at about the same hour in tho evening he will set on our right hand or due West. This time is called tho venial equinox, when day and night are equa.. About the 21st of June ho rises to our left, but somewhat behind us in the direction of the North- east, reaches a greater height at noon than on the 21st of March, and, after describing a large cu'cuit of the heavens, sets on our right hand and still behind us, in the North-western quarter of the sky. This time is called the aummer solstice, or the time when the sun appears to stand still a few days, and then begins to retrace his steps. At this time the day is longest and tho night shortest. At about the 2ord of September the sun again rises due East, and sets .mq West, as on the 20th of March ; and this is called the Auhannal Equinox, day and night being now again equal. At about the 21st of December, if we observe from the same position, we may see without turning our eyes the points at which he rises and sets. He rises in the South-east, ascends to a small elevation at noon, and sets in the South-wost, after having described a very small arc of the heavens. This time is called the Winter ISohtice, when the sun seems to remain stationary for a short time, as it wore, preparatory to his advancing to describe larger circles of the heavens. The day is now shortest and the night longest. Each succeeding day after this ho appears to rise a little farther toward the East, for the stars Avhich are seen to the Eastward of him appear every succeeding day to be nearer to the place where he is seen. All those various and successive changes are accompHshed within the period of three hundred and sixty-five days, six hours, in which time he appears to have made a complete revo- lution round the heavens from West to East, at the rate of about one degree each day. The moon is the next object in tho heavens which naturally attract? our attention, and she goes through similar changes in tho course of a m'»nth. When ohe first becomes visible at new moon, she appen/s in tlie Western part of the heavens, near where the sun went down, and she appears in the form of a crescent, having the horns pointed toward tho East, the sun being now to the Westward of her. Every night she appears increased in ^ize and removed to a greater distance from the sun, until, after the lapse of about two weeks, she appears in the Eastern part of the horizon, just as the sun disappears in the Western, at which time she presents a round, full, enlightened face, and is called full moon. After this she gradually moves farther and i1?rtlier Eastward, and her enlight- ened part gradually decreases, until at last she seems to approach the sun as nearly in the East as she did in the West, and rises only a little before EXISTENCE AND DEITY, MUl. him in the morning, in the form of a crescent, having its horns pointed toward the West, the sun being now to the Eastward of her. All these different changes may be traced by attending to her apparent positions from time to time with respect to the fixed stars. Again, if on a winter evening, abont six o'clock, we direct our view to the Eastern quarter of the sky, we shall perceive certain stars just risen above the horizon ; if we observe the sauio stars at midnight, wo shall see them at a considerable elevation in the South, having apparently moved over a space equal to one-half of the whole hemisphere. On the next morning, about six o'clock, the same stars will be seen to set in the Western part of the sky. If we now look quite toward the South, we shall find that the stars there only describe very small arcs, rising but a little above the horizon, and setting again, after a short time, not far from the same point ; the highest altitude attained at any time not being more than a few degrees. If we turn our eyes toward the North, we shall perceive a similar apparent motion of these twinkling orbs, but with this difference, that a considerable number of them neither rise nor set, but seem to des- cribe circles of greater or less diameter, round an apparently immovable point called the North Pole. Near this point is situated the pole star, which in our latitude appears elevatf I about half way between the horizon, and the zenith, or point directly over our heads ; and to a common observer seems fixed ; but is found by the telescope to describe circles of about three degrees in diameter around the north polar point, from which the star is, therefore, really distant about one and a-half degrees. Thus, these Northern stars never set to us, but seem sometimes above, some- times below, and sometimes to the East or to the West of the north polar point ; the dimensions of the circles they describe depending upon their distances from the north pole ; and the time they occupy in completing their circles is about 24 hours ; or more accurately 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds, that is, one day ; and they all finish their revolutions in exactly the .ame period of time. A person who has for the first time directed his attention to the heavens after having made such observations, will naturally enquire ; whence come these stars that begin to appear in the East ? Whither have those gone that have disappeared in the West ? And what becomes during the day of the stars which are visible during the night ? It occurs at once to an intelligent observer who is convinced of the roundness of the earth, that the stars which rise above the Eastern horizon come from another hemisphere, which we are apt to imagine below us, and when they set return to that hemisphere again ; and that the reason why stars are not apparent during the day-time is not because they are absent from our hemisphere, or have ceased to shine, but because their light is obscured by the more vivid splendor of the sun. The fact of their presence in our i 1i " ^ n m m mm. .^mMJ - 1 i' i '!| i • -"i \- i t I ■l.iM' 256 EXrSTENCK AND DEITY, i! Mi hemisphere during the day is put beyond all doubt by the use of the telescope, which instrument, adapted to an eriuatoria! motion, enables us to see many of the stars even at noon-day. Wo ourself have seen with the naked eye one of the planets at a pretty higli elevation in the North- Eastcrn part of the heavens, on tlio forenoon of a day when the sun was shining brightly ; its appearance at that time excited the attention of many others also. From such observations we are led to conclude that the earth on which wo dwell exists in empty space surrounded on all sides by the celestial vault; and that the whole sphere of the heavens has an appa- rent motion round the earth every twenty-four hours. Whether thii motion be real or only apparent is, however, determined by other consider- ations. Although such general views of the'yocturnal heavens, which every common observer may take, have a tendency to expand the mind, and to elevate it to che contemplation of an invisible Power by which such movements are conducted; yet such is the apathy with which the greater portion of mankind gaze at the heavens, that there arc thousands who have Fig. i)3.— TUB CONSTELLA-ION 01llO>'. occasionally viewed the stars for the space of fifty years, who arc still ignorant of the fact that they perform an apparent diurnal revolution round our globe. F,XISTENC15 AND DKITY. 257 Again, if wo contoini)l.ato tlio heavens with some attention for a number of nights in succession, wo shall liml that l)y far the greater number of the stars never seem to alter their positions with respect to each other. If wo observe two stars at a certain apparent distance from each other either North or South, or in any other direction, they will appear at the same distance, and in thosamc relative position, tho next evening, the next month, and the next year. The stars, for instance, which form the sword and belt of Orion, (which constellation may bo seen during the winter in the Soutliern part of the heavens), present to our view tlio same figure and relative aspect during tlie whole period they are visible in winter, and from one year to another. And the same is the case with the stars of the Great Bear, situated in the Northern parts of the sky*, and with all the fived stars in the heavens. • Figure 9.'! ri'prcscnts the constellation Orion ; 94 represents the constellations of the Great Bear, the Little Boar, ami the Pole Htar. The seven 3tiir> in the lovvcr part of the (ijriire represent Ursa Major, or the (Jreat Bear, sometimes known as tlie J'low ami C/nir/en' Wuin. The seven stars in the upper part rei)resent Ursa Minor, or the Little IJear, the largest star of which on tho right hand side is tho pole star. The two stars on the right liand side of the Great Bear are called the /'oiriten, because they jioint straight toward the north pole, anry evening at the exact time of its passing the meridian, or of its disappearance behind some conspicuous object, t^ay a tree, or a church steeple. Let him observe it again on the following evening, and again aftev *' •» lapse of a few days more, and he will fin;l that the star is a little earlier every day in arriving at the place. Thus, if it be on the meridian, or in a line with the marking object, at nine o'clock, one day, it will be there about four minutes before nine on the next day, and so on It is owing to this that we see different constellations at different seasons of the year. Many of those wl icli shine brightly on a winter's night are above the horizon in summer, during the day-time, and hence are invisible. In this way, we see by far the larger portion of the stars at some time or other of the year ; but just as those stars within fifty degrees of the north pole never set to us, so those within a similar distance of the south pole, never rise at all in our latitudes. Among the most brilhant of the constellations thus hidden from us is that called the Southern Cross,and when travellers are going toward the southern hemisphere they anxiously await the first appearance of this constellation. As they approach the tropics and the equator the north pole star seems to sink lower and lower in the sky, and the number of stars which never set in our latitudes becomes less and less, till, when they reach the equator, the pole is in their horizon, and all the stars are seen rising in the East, remaining visible exactly twelve hours, and then setting in the Western horizon. They all appear here also to travel in straight lines instead of in curves, as they appear to do in the north and south latitudes. By placing an artificial globe so that its axis is horizontal, and its pole in the horizon, one may obtain a representation of these phenomena. But while the fixed stars never appear to alter their positions in relation to each other, we find, by a close inspection of the sky, another class of bodies, which regularly shift their positions ; sometimes these appear to move toward the East, sometimes toward the West, and sometimes to remain stationary. These bodies have received the name of planets, or Avandering stars, in opposition to those which do not alter their position and are hence called fixed stars. In our latitudes the planets are most frequently seen in the Eastern and AVestern, or in the Southern quarters of the heavens ; and they are situated, with the exception of a few of the minor ones, in a belt called the zodiac, extending for nine degrees on both sides, of the ecliptic ; (tliis is, the apparent path of the sun) ; and hence the planets are easily found by observers. More than one hundred of these planetary orbs have been discovered, six of which were known in times of great antiquity ; and only about five are visible to the naked eye. By long con- EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 25^ tinued and careful observations of the aspects and motions of these pUinets, astronomers have determined that they all move round the sun as the centre of their motions, and form, along ,vith the earth, one grand and harmonious system. This assemblage of heavcnlj^ bodies in connection with tlie earth is termed the solar system, of which we shall exhibit a brief desciiption after we shall have shown the ball of the earth to be in motion. For a long time during the dark ages, and the infancy of science, the earth on which we live was considered ihe largest body in the universe. It was supposed to be an immense plane diversified with inequalities in the shape of mountains and valleys, and stretching out to an unlimited extent on all sides, bounded by the sky. What was below tliis immense mass of land and water, and how it was supported, none ventured positiveiy to tell ; though some of the Christian fathers strenuously assorted that the earth was extended infinitely downsvard, and established c ; several foundations ; a plain contradiction, for what is infinite cannot have a foundation. Accord- ing to the ideas of some of the ancients, however. Atlas bore up the worM on his shoulders ; and many of the Hindoos of the present day assert that it is supported by a serpent and a tortoise ; but it is clear that tliese attempted solutions of the dilHculty, as the foundations of tho Christian fathers, only remove it one step farther ; for we should have to seek some support for the man and the serpent. Such, however, were some of the absurd and foolish opinions of those who viewed the system of the universe through a false medium, and who were ignorant of the facts and principles of modern science. It is only within the perioil of the last three centuries that the true figure and dimension of the earth have been accurately ascertained. This figure is now foui..(' to be that of a sphere or globe, deviating, however, from the perfect spherical form, only so slightly that it could not bo perceived in any model we could make of it. Suppose for instance, we made a globe of thirty inches diameter, tho uiiference between the polar and equatorial diameters would be only roTt^^^ of an inch, a difference too small for tho keenest eye to detect. Tho real dimensions of the earth's diameters are found to be as follows : Tho greatov,, or equatorial, diameter, 7925^ miles ; the lesser, or polar, diameter 7899 m'^cs ; showing a difference of a Uttle over twenty-six miles. We do not know but that further investigations will make this difference even less, so that the earth may be regarded as a perfect sphere. That this is in reality the form of the earth will appear from such considerations as tho following ; when we stand by the sea shore on a calm day we easily per- ceive that the surface of the water is not quite plane, but somewhat convex or rounded ; and if we are on the shore of an arm of the sea, three or four miles broad, placing our eyes near the level of the water, and looking along its surface toward the opposite shore, we plainly see the ' I,, HM • fi «g^yj ! uuui».a.. '■^^^.. 200 EXISTENCE AN' PETTY. It 'if water elevated about midway between our eyes and the opposite shore, 60 as to prevent us soein;; the objects wliioh are near the edj^e of the Avater there. If wo make tho same experiment on a lake of tlu'eo or four miles in extent, a small boat near the end of the lake may be seen by one who is at soniehoijibt above the water ; but if we lay our eye near the surface the view of the boat will be intercepted by the convexity of the water, which proves the lake to be a small sej;mont of a globe. On land, it is seldom a large tract of land can be chosen sulHciently level to answer tho purpose of making such experiments, as even in large planes there are frequently undulations wliich materially' alter the earth's natural convexity. Again, when we view a ship departing from the coast in any direction, as it retires from our view we still see the masts and rigging of the vessel, when tho hull has disappeared, and has sunk, as it were, beyond the boundaries of our sight. First wo lose sight of the hull, then of the sails, and last of all of the topmast. On the other hand, when a ship is approaching the shore, the first part of it which is visible when at a considerable distance is the topmast ; as it approaches nearer the sails come into view ; and last of all tho hull gradually comes within the limits of our sight ; but the vessel will pass over several miles of tho sea, from the time of our first perceiving tho top- mast, until tho hull appears in sight. In order that such observations should be made with accuracy it is recjuisite that a telescope should be used. Fig, 05. Here only that purt of the ship iibove tho lino A C can be seen by the spectator A; the rest of the ship is hidden by tho swell of tho curve D K. What is it then that prevents the hull of tho ship, the largest part of it, from being seen when the topmasts are visible ? It is evidently Uie round or convex surface of the water, bulging up, as it were, between our eye and the lower part of the ship. When the ship is at a certain distp.nco Fig. 9t3. The diminution of the size of a ship seen at sea, owing to the convexity of the earth and the distance of tho observer, is also illustrated in fig. 31. from us ; when the hull has just begun to disappear from a person standing on the surface of the ground, tho whole will bo visible to an observer on an elevated building ; and if there be a lofty mountain near by tho vessel EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 2GI will 1)C flccn from this after every portion of it U hidden from those on the bcaeh. This proves without doubt that the earth's surfaeo is round ; and, in fact, a rouj^h estimate of the size of the earth may be formed in this way. Wc have only to fix upon two elevations of cfjual height, as, for instance, marked places on the masts of two vessels, and ascertain the exact distance at which they arc hidden from each other by the curva- ture of the earth. AVe must also know the elevation of tiiu marked places on the masts above the level of the sea, and then by a simple pro])orti(jn we shall obtain the diameter of the earth. The (piestion is stated thus : As the height of the station of observation is to the distance of the visil)le horizon (which is half the distance between the two stations), ho is this distance to the diameter of the earth. My anotlier calculation it is found that two ])lace3 elevated ten feet become hidden froin one another at a distance a little short of eight miles ; that is to say, a straight line ilrawn from one of these to the other would just touch the earth midway between them. The curvature then may be set down as ten feet in -i} miles ; and the projjortion is as follows : As 10 feet : 8j- miles : : 3^ miles : the diam- eter of the earth. This gives about 8000 miles for the earth's diameter, Avhich isnotlar from correct. Jlut the more accurate and philoso[)hical mode of ascertaining its dimensions is by measuring an arc of the meridian, which wc sh.aH have occasion afterwards to explain. Now as such appearances as those we have mentioned with resjjcct to the water's surface and the ship, are observed on every sea and ocean on the face of the earth, it follows that the ocean at large is a convex sur- face, or a portion of a globe ; and the waters cover more than three-fourths of the earth's surface ; and if the ocean, constituting three fourths of the earth, be globular, so also is the land, the remaining one-fourth, notwith- standhig that the hills and the mountains form a few inequalities on its surface ; for the regions of the land are all nearly on a level with the ocean, with the exception of tiie ranges of elevated mountains. The height of the table-lands and mountain ranges bears such a small i)ro[)ortion to the actual diameter of the earth, that they in no way interfere with its general spherical outline. The greatest elevations arc only about five uiilep, and there are but a few of these ; while the diameter of the earth is about 8000 miles. If then we would accurately represent these on a globe having a diameter of 16 inches, we must make them -r^otl^ ^^ ^^ i'^ch high ; or they might be well represented by very small grains of sand. The thinnest tissue-paper would fully represent the elevation of table-lands ; and minute scratches, almost invisible without a microscope, would show the mountain gorges and valleys of rivers ; so that for all ordinary purposes the earth is considered as absolutely spherical. On the other hand, were the surface of the sea a level plane the appearances would be very different. A straight lino might be drawn ii i ' mm ; If M 262 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. object, would be the Ion, ■ The considerations aU'CU S -. from an object, as a ship, upon it, from any distance out, to the shore. In this case any object on the earth or sea wouhl be visible at any distance, ■which was not so great as to make its appearance too small or faint to be perceived. An object would be visible at the same distance whether the eye were situated high or low- Sailors would not in such a case have to climb to the topmast in order to descry ships or other objects at a distance for they could see them just as plani and at as great a distance from the dock, after the objects had come within visible distance. The largest and not the highest objects would b > vi.'^ible at tlic greatest distance. The topmastof a ship wouh '■•%t<^ ^ pear> and the hull, as being the largest • ' \'^ ; but this is contrary to all experience. I i. ji'^jd are, therefore, clear and decisive proofs that the earth is not an extc , . \ plane, but a globular body ; and it seems truly wonderful that such a conclusion was not generally arrived at until a comparatively recent date. Moreover, that the earth is round from east to west is clear from the fact that navigation lias long been conducted on that principle with the greatest precision, and that navigators have repeatedly sailed around it from east to west. They have set sail from England, crossed the Atlantic, rounded Cape I jrn, sailed along the Pacific Ocean to the northern coasts of Australia, crossed the Indian Ocean, and, passing the Cape of Good Hope, liave again arrived, by traversing the Atlantic, at the port whence they set sail. These experimei tj, therefore, show that the earth is round from cast to west, but they do not prove that it is also round from north to South, for it has never been actually circumnavigated in that direction, owing to the obstruction caused to navigation by the immense masses of ice within the polar regions. Had we, therefore, no other proof of the earth's rotundity than this, we might be apt to suppose it somewhat resem- bling the shape of a cylinder ; but that the earth is really round from north to south appears from the following considerations. When we travel a considerable distance from north to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars successively arise in the quarter of the heavens (whichever it may be) to which we are advancing, and many of those in the opposite (juarter gradually disappear. For example, in sailing toward the south, when we approach the equator the brilliant constellation called the Southern Cross, before mentioned, which is never seen in our northern latitudes, makes its appearance ; and if we go farther south the constellations of the Great Bear, Cassiopeia, and other stars, visible in our northern sky, will entirely disappear,which could not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction ; for in such a case all the stars of heaven would be visible in every point from the north to the south pole. Another corroborative proof of the earth's globularity is this. In excavating a canal of any length, in order to have the waters on a level, certain allowances require to be made EXrSTEMC'E AND DEITY. 203 for the oarth'a convexity. The slope rcquiroil to bo made on this account is about ei;^ht inches ia the mile, tliirty-two inches in two miles, and so on, increasing with the S(iuare of the distance. If the earth were a level surface no allowances of this kind would need to be nn\de in order that the •water in a long canal might stand on a level. J)ut another most evident and conclusive proof of the earth's rotundity is that afforded in the shape of its 3had■. nil 204 EXrSTKXCE AND IHHTY. ili.il ''i hours, and in tlio niainior ilcscrihod altdvc. Such ohsorvations, whiol, cvoryono lias it in thi-if i)Ower to make, clearly show, that tlierc is motion somewhere ; and the (piestion is, is this only apparent with respect to the heavens, or is it tho motion of the earth that produces this appearance ? Let us suppose for a moment that it is tho eartli which moves ; what will be the rate of its motion in turninj^ round its axis to produce tho a))parent vevoUition of the heavens ? For if the earth really revolves round \U axis from West to East, the heavens will, of course, appear to revolve round us from East to West, just as when one is on hoard a steamboat on a river, and not noticing the motion of tho vessel, he sees the trees and other objects on tiie bank, (ipixtrentli/ moviui^ in the o[)posito direction to that in which the vessel is rrdlh/ goinj;. The same kind of appearances often happen to a person sittinj^ in a railroad car when in motion ; one is apt to think the fields and fences, the whole side of the country, to he moving in the contrary direction to that of the cars' motion. The rate of tho earth's motion will depend upon its magnitude. Now we know that tho earth is a globe somewhat more than twenty- four thousand miles in circumference, and con3e(juently in turning round every twenty -four hours some portions of its surface must move, at least, a thousand miles every hour. This is a motion far more rapid than has ever been produced in the smallest bodies by human art ; and, therefore, it may appear incredible to some that such a motion can exist in a globe of such vast dnncnsions as the earth. But if such persons deny that the earth thus moves then they onust admit that the heavens move. There is no alternative, for motion actually exists cither in the one or in the other. Now if the motion is to be considered as existing in the iieavcns, let us sec what tho rale of this motion must necessarily be. If a small globe of eighteen inches diameter globe of two thousand yards, or seventy-two thousand inches in diameter, to were supposed to perform a revolution round its axis in two seconds, and a finish a rotation in the same time, this large globe would move with a velocity four thousand times greater than tho other. In the annexed figure, if A ]] in the centre, represent the earth, then if the circle C E revolve around it in a certain time, and the other two circles revolve round it in the same time, it is certain that the circle F II il fI c.{ i/^?^B ^r. \u I must revolve with a quicker motion than the circle C E ; and the circle I L Avith a still greater velocity, in propor- tion to its greater distance from the centre of motion A B. We shall ccrsidor tlcn wl)at '^^( ild be the rate of n:oticn of sdne of the heavenly EXISTENCE AND DEITY. St].") 1)Otlio3 whoso distances from the earth are known. The sun is ascertained to bo somewhat near ninety-Gvo millions of miL . distant from the earth ; and, conse(iv.v-ntly, were ho to move round the earth ev^'ry day, as he apjiotirs to do, ho would move alon;^ a circun\feronco of live hundred and ninety-seven millions of miles every day ; that is, at the rate of ahout twenty- foiu" millions of miles an hour, four hundred and fourteen thousand miles a minute, and six thousand nine hundred miles a second. Again the planet Uranus at its nearest jwint to die earth is moro than one thousand seven hundred millions of miles distant; and conseiiuently the circumference of its orbit is more than ten thousand six hundred millions of miles. If, therefore, this jdanet were auin)osed to move round the earth every day, its motions would be at the rate of four hundred and forty-five millions of miles in an hour, seven million four hundred and twenty thousand miles in a minute, and one hundred and twenty-three thousand six hundred and seventy- seven miles every second. Again the nearest fixed stars are known not to be within 20,000,000,000,000, or twenty billions of miles olV the earth ; and consequently their daily circuit round our glol)e wouM measure 125,000,000,000,000, or one hundred and twenty-n-.o billions of miles; that is, at the rate of fourteen hundred millions of miles in the space of a single second, or the interval of time which the pendulum of a common clock takes in moving from one side to the other; stars at distances Iniudrcds of times greater, of which there are many in our firmament, would move with a rapidity of hundreds of times swifter ; and those still further removed from us in the depths of innnensity with a velocity far exceeding human conception ; yet all the stars of heaven appear to move round our globe every twenty-four hours. If the circle C D E of the figure represent the supposed diurnal orbit of the sun ; F G II that of Uranus ; and I K L M that of some of the fixed stars ; then it is e\'idcnt that in proportion to the distance of the body from the earth will the velo- city of its motion be, if it bo supposed to move round the earth every day. If, therefore, there be any reader disposed to reject the motion of the earth because it is inconceivable he must necessarily admit of motions ten hundred thousand times greater and far more incomprehensible ; more especially when it is considered that the bodies in the heavens to which we have alluded are incomparably greater than this globe of earth on which we live ; the planet Uranus being eighty times, and tiic sun more than one million three hundred thousand times larger than the earth, and the fixed stars on an average as large as the sun. Such a rate of motion in such a number of magnificent globes appears altogether overwhelming, incomprehensible, and incredible. The question, then, that is to be decided is, which of the motions to which we have refei'red is the most probable, — the motion of the earth or that of the heavens ? Is it really necessary that the whole universe, com- s ! I!: r ll::I I s!ir.. « li II m f :|1 26G EXISTENCE AND DEITY. Il|i Miil! poaotl of sun, mo( n, plitict.s, comotH, stars, and nchulic, shouKl movo round' our }^l()l)o witli rtucli astoiiiHliing volooitios in onlor to produce the altornato succossion of day and nij^lit on the earth ? llcason says that it is not. It would contraS,000 miles an hour, which is a velocity twenty ei^ht tiujes greater than that of iho earth, supposing the latter to move round its axis. The planet Saturn is about a thou»and times larger than our globe, and it is said to revolve round its axis in ten ht)urs a»id a- half, at the rate of 24,000 miles an hour in those places near its equator. To a spectator then, placed on these planets, the heavens would appear to revolve around him every ten hours, as they appear to us to revolve every twenty-four liours, but with an apparently more rapid motion ; while he, himself, might suppose, as we are apt to do, that the planet on which he is is really at rest. The earth, therefore, must bo considered as revol- ving round its axis, in accordance with the revolutions of the other planets of the system to which it belongs ; and to suppose otherwise would be in opposition to all the laws which govern the material universe, and would distort all our ideas of the harmony and order of the operations of nature. Another consideration which demonstrates the diurnal motion of the earth is this ; that such a rate of motion in the heavenly bodies as has now been stated wiuld shatter the material universe to atoms. Were a ball of soft wood projected from a cannon at tlie rate of 800 miles an hour, in a few moments it would bo reduced to s[)lintcrs ; and hence the forage and other light substances projected from a piece of ordn.anco are instantly torn to pieces. What then might bo supposed to be the conse- quence, were a body impelled through the ethereal regions with a velocity of a hundred thousand millions of miles in a minute, as multitudes of the stars behoved to be, were the earth at rest in the centre of the universe ? It would undoubtedly reduce to atoms the most solid bodies in existence, tliough they were composed of substances harder than adamant. Another corroborative argument which astronomers bring forward in support of the motion of the earth is this : that there is no instance known in the universe of a larger body revolving round a smaller one. We do not find, say they, such planets as Jupiter and Saturn revolving round their satellites ; but all these satellites, which are much smaller than their prunaries, perform their revolutions around the latter as the centre of their motions. The earth, which is fifty times greater than the moon, docs not kxistkn(;k a>ji> dkity. MT rovi)lvc rmiijil lior, l)iit th:it nootiirn'^l luinirmry ro;^iilivrIy rovolvon round tlio onrtli. Tho sun docs not njvolvo roiiml tho phinots Mercury or VonuB, which aro thousands of tiuios loas than that himiiiary, hut thoy invariahly rovolvo around him as their centre of attraction, li;4ht, and heat. Aa tho sun is over one million tliroo hundred tliousand times iar-'cr than tho earth it cannot, thereforo, ho supposed for a moment that such an onormo\is glohe would revolve with such an inconceivaldy rapid motion round so inconceivahle a hall as tho earth, and much less that Uie whole universe shouhl n^volve arouod it every day. Were the earth not rovol- vinj; round its circumference every ihiy there would l)o an infraction of all tiie laws which are known to govern the system of universal nature ; anl, therefore, it is ahsolutely n('C(!Ssary to admit its motion in order to direct our views and to hecoine fully convinced >. " tho systematic order and har- mony of 'he operations of universal nature. What would ho thou;^ht of a machine (if such could bo conceived to bo constructed) as large as tho city of London, or any other largo city, bearing a huge lamp near its centre, and revolving daily round a little ball of one inch in diameter, suspended in empty space, merely for the purpose of giving light and heat to the surface of this little ball, when, at tho same time, a revolution of the hall round its axis wowM an.>*\vcr the same purpose ? The designer and constructor of such a system, however ingenious ho might bo thought by some for his great contrivance, would justly, by all wise men, bo con- sidered insane for having so disproportioned moans to ends in tho accom- plishment of his object. Such a scheme, however, absurd as it seems, would not be half so preposterous as to suppose tho vast universe to turn round so inconsiderable a ball as the earth to produce tlie alternate suc- cession of day and i»ight, when the same object could be eft'ected by tho earth's simply revolving round its axis once in twenty-four hours. But the whole system of universal nature is proportionate as to its constituent parts, and their operations ; none of its parts are unnecessary ; none of its operations take place inconsistently with infinite intelligence and wisdom ; and its operations all appear simple and reasonable wlicn rightly con- sidered. Now, all these supposed inconsistencies and impossibilities, wh'ch we have been considei ig, are at once got rid of, and complete universal harmony and order restored, by the admission of tho rotation of tho eartli round its axis every day. Circles, Degrees, etc., explained. If we refer to an ordinary terrestrial globe, such for example as tliose used in schools and colloges, wo shall find that there arc several circles drawn upon it, and we shall also observe that these are of different sizes, these called parallels of latitude near the poles and the polar cu-cles being much smaller than those nearer the circle called the equator. These circles arc accordingly divided into two classes, called respectively great and if 'BiH' t ''I, I iflM-i 268 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. ■4, small circles. Great circles are those whose piano passes through the centre of the globe, so that they divide it into two equal portions ; and, assuming the earth to be a perfect sphere, all these great circles will be exactly equal. All other circles are called small circles. The most important of the great circles is the equator, Avhich is an imaginary line drawn round the earth, equally distant from the north and south poles, and therefore dividing the globe into two equal halves, called the northern and southcri: hemispheres. If now we conceive the plane of this circle to be extended to t!iO sky, we shall have a great circle of the heavens, known as the eelcsiial ^ equatory or more usually the cqidaoctiaJ. This latter term is derived from two Latin Avords signifying " equal," and " night," and is applied to it because when the sun appears to be on this line it shines equally pd-Jj^ j ^11 both hemispheres ; and day andnightaii' ■'rV yjy tlienof equal length in all parts of the caith, y .vi^'X. the sun being above the horizon at every [ilace for about 12 hours, and below it for the same length of time. The days on which this happens are the 20th of March and the 23rd of September ; and by counting the days between these dates we shall find that in the northein hemisphere the summer is a few days longer than the winter ; or, in other words, that the jicriod during which the sun is north of the equator is a few days longer than that during which he is south of a. The sun's apparent path is not, however, along the equinoctial, but in a great circle, inclined to it at the present time at an angle of about 23° 27' 30", and known as the ecliptic. Round this the sun appears to travel, per- forming the complete ciwcuit of it in the space of one year. The space extending for 9° on both sides of the ecliptic, and thus constituting a band or zone 18'^ wide, is knoAvn as the zodiac ; and within this space, as we have already explained, all the planets, with the exception of a few of the minor ones, are constantly found ; so that we can always tell somewhat of the position in which they are. The zodiac is divided into twelve equal por. tions, each containing 30*^, and the stars in these spaces a' i mapped out into the constellations known as the " signs of the zodiac," which wc shall notice hereafter. As we shall have frequent occ&sion to speak of degrc. : it is well that it be clearly understood at once what is nieantby a degree, and the mode in which it is measured. It is evidently necessary for us to have some means of measvxring the distances of the heavenly bodies fi-om one another, and this can only be done by measuring the angle which imaginary lines, drawn from them to our eye, subtend. By a little consi Icratlon we shall find that it in the around rg( _ rgc in word fraction J3, if W{ ference sions to adjaccnl paper tf: (leal wit sures ab In a r make a t (Icgrees. parts); c more deli sixty par signs for 37' 5" 1^ distances remembeii degree ; tj and that b four dei-n easily mea We ha^ equator, o 2oi degrc varies a li slight, beir place with: it can have 't will liavc the inclinat these slow limits, and or the systo Now sine points in v equinoctial the first dej EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 269 in the same way we form our estimate of the dimensions of ordinary objects around us, and hence when we bring them nearer to our eye they appear larger, because the rays coming from thoir extremes to our eye contain a larger angle. Now we want so^'-c means of measuring and expressing in words the angle thus contained, and this we do by moans of degrees and fractions of a degree. A degree then is the 3G0th part of a circle ; that is, if we draw a large circle on paper, for example, and divide its circum- ference into 300 equal parts, and then draw straight lines from these divi- sions to the centre of the circle, the angle contained between any two adjacent lines will be just one degree. On any circle we can draw on paper these divisions will necessarily be very small ; when, however, we deal with a globe hke the earth we find that a degree at the equator mea- sures about 69 miles. In a right angle there are, of course, ninety degrees, and if we can make a triangle with three equal sides, each angle will contain just sixty degrees. A degree is divided into sixty parts called minutes {mimite parts); each of these is divided into sixty parts, called seconds ; and in more delicate and accurate observations each of these is again divided into sixty parts, called thirds. These divisions are usually expressed by the signs for degrees (°), minutes ('), seconds ("), thirds ('") ; thus 16*^ 37' 5" 15'". As a general guide to us in estimating approximately the distances or dimensions of the heavenly bodies it will be expedient to remember that the apparent diameter of the sun or moon is about half a degree ; the distance between the pointers in the Great Bear is six degrees, and that between the pole star and the pointer nearest to it is about twenty- four degrees. By means of an accurately graduated semi-circle wc can easily measure any angle, and ascertain the number of degrees it contains. We have stated above th'^t the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, or, as it is termed the " obliquity of the ecliptic " is nearly 231 degrees. This amount, however, is not constantly the same, but varies a little in the lapse of centuries. The rate of this variation is very slight, being less than 1' in 100 years, and it is found that it can only take place within very narrow limits. At present it is decreasing, but before it can have deviated as much as a degree and a-half the causes producing it will have been so modified as to act in a contrary direction, and increase the inclination again. All through astronomy instances ai'e met with of tiicse slow and gradual variations ; but all are confined within very narrow limits, and instead of tending to a total change in the status of the earth or the system to which it belongs, they tend to the permanency of the system. Now since these two great circles ai-e thus inclined there must be two points in which they intersect one another, and these are called the equinoctial points, or the vernal and autumnal oijuinoxes. One of these is the first degree in the sign Aries, and the other the first in Libra. The I mmm m Wiffilti^ I I !l . ^ I ^1;; 4 ?ti' w 270 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. first of these, or the vernal equinox, is the most important, as it is taken as the fixed point to be employed in measuring distances from, -when wc want toindicpte the place of any body. We then take the equinoctial or equator as our base line, and first of all measure the distance of any star north or south of that. On a terrestrial globe parallels of latitude, (these are circles parallel to the ecliptic, having the poles of the ecliptic as their centres,) are drawn at distances of ten degrees.* It must be remembered that when we speak of degrees of latitude what we really mean is the inclination, which a straight line drawn from the place to the earth's centre would have to the plane of the equator. A degree is a measure of an angle, and not of a distance. It is well that this point should be clearly understood, as mistakes often arise through want of understanding it. Some folks will say " a degree equals somewhat over sixty-nine miles," when what they really mean is that at the equator two hues meeting at the earth's centre, inclined to one another as this angle, would include between them a portion of the earth's surface of that length. On Jupiter, or any globe larger than the earth, the amount thus subtended at the equator would naturally be much greater ; and on the other hand, in any small circle which we may draw on a piece of paper there is still 360^ ; each degree, therefore, is very minute. In astronomy, the distance north or south of the equinoctial is called the declination of a heavenly body. If now we draw another great circle passing through the poles, and also through the star, it will intersect the equator in two places, and the one of those on the same side as that on which the star is situated will furnish us with the other distance required. If we examine the equinoctial on a celestial globe, we shall find that it is divided into degrees from 0° to 360°, reckoning from east to west, the starting point being the first point of Aries. The great circles to which we have referred, r-^ passing through the poles perpendicular to the equator, are called meridians, and any number * la figure 98, the line P P represents the earth's axis, tlmi is, the diameter of the sphere passing throiigli the poles P P, and the centre C. The grea! circle E Q represents the equator, the great circle S T the ecliptic ; the points R, and 0, where it inter- sects the equator, are called the nodes, and also the . equinoctial points ; and the points S and T, its far- thest points norlliand south of the eciuator,are callcil the solstices ; respectively the summer and winter solstice. The two small circles M S, and T N, par- 'N nllel to the equator, are called the tropics, that totlic north the tro])ic of Cancer ; and that to the souili tlie tropic of Capricorn. The two g- ■:♦ circles M P Q X P T E, and R P P, (if the latte: je conceived as n great circle at right angles with the other,) are called respectively the aolstitial and equi- noctial colures. 3 M#==^.- ---^^-^ / n rfer-^^ — .-^ ^^ EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 271 of them might be drawn ; usually, however, twenty-four are drawn on the globe, their distance apart being fifteen degrees. They are then frequently termed hour lines, as the firiiiament seems to move just the interval be- tween two of them in the space of an hour. We can obtain a clearer idea of these meridians by taking the globe out of its framework, and letting the brass meridian be free to turn round on its poles ; we can then bring it over any star or place, and it will represent the meridian of that place. We shall hkewise be able to see on the equator, the distance of its inter- section from the first point in Aries. This distance is known as the right ascension, usually abbreviated thus,R. A. Thus, we see the way in which the position of a star is determined, the two measures being its right ascen- sion and its declination. Suppose, for example, we wish to point out the place of a star in the tip of the tail of the Great Bear, we first find it on the globe, and bringing it to the brass meridian, we shall find that its elevation above the equinoctial is very nearly 60°, this is its declination. We now look to the equinoctial, and find the point of it directly under the meridian is 204°, or 13 hours, 36 minutes, from Aries ; and thus we assign its place as 50"^ north declination, and 204° right ascension. In a similar way when the right ascension and declination are given, the star can be found. If we examine a celestial globe we shall find that though the mark ^, signifying the commencement of the sign iV.ries, is placed at the intersec- tion of the equinoctial and the ecliptic, yet the portion of the zodiac commencing at that sign is in reality occupied by the constellation Pisces. The stars forming Aries are moved 30° to the east, occupying the place assigned to Taurus, and all the other zodiacal constellations are moved one sign to the eastward. The cause of this is the precession of the equinoxes, which was first discovered by Hipparchus in the second century B.C. The points of intersection of the equator and the ecliptic, or as they are usually termed the nodes, do not remain constantly in the same place, but are slowly moving toward the west, that is in a retrograde direction. This was first observed by noticing that the right ascensions of all stars were slowly and uniformly increasing. This could only be accounted for in one of two ways ; either they must all be slowly moving forwards, or the point from which we measure taeir right ascension must be moving back- wards. The latter of these explanations, being by far the most simple, has been adopted. The rate of this motion is but slow, so that its effect on the position of the stars from year to year can only be ascertained by the most careful and delicate observations. When, however, we compare the position of a star with that assigned co it by observers a few centuries ago we soon become aware of the change. The most careful observations fix the annual amount of this motion at 50' 2" ; so that the time occupied by the nodes in making a complete circuit of the heavens would be a little more than 25,800 years. By reckoning backward it is found that the constel- ' i ' 1 w i IB' 1 f ¥ ^,'Y 'Iff 4 iimi 272 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. lations and tlie signs of the zodiac coincided with one another about the year 370, B.C. Besides this motion of which we have spoken, there is another of much smaller amount, which is known as natation or the noding of the pole. It arises from the circumstance that the cartli's distance from tlic sun varies at different times of the year, and tlius the amount of precession varies sHghtly from da) to day. The effect of this variation is to cause the pole to describe, in the course of about 18i years, a very small ellipse, the longer axis being about 18*", and the shorter nearly 14". This motion, combined with the other, produces a vibratory or undulating movement of the pole ; -t is only, however, in very accurate observations that this has to be taken nto account. One important effect of the pre- cession of the equinoxes is to change the pole-star. That ut present known by this name is distant about li*"' from the true pole ; its distance is, how- ever, gradually diminishing, so that in the course of years it will be with- in half a degree, and it Avill then commence to recede from it. In about 12,000 years it is estimated the brilliant star Vega, in the constellation Lyra), will be very close to the pole, and serve as a polo star. There are also two other points in the ecliptic especially distinguished, ^nd known as the solstkal points* These are situated midway between the nodes, and are at the commencement of the signs Cancer and Canri- cornus. The term solstitial is derived from the Latin sol, the sun, and stare, to stand, and is applied to these points, because when the sun reaches them it has attained its greatest north or south declination, and appears to stand for a few days before commencing to retrace 'ts v* ps. Two great circles are drawn on the celestial globe, passing throagii the poles, the one passing through the equinoctial points, and the other through the solstitial points ; and these are distinguis'-. ^^ "rs .he equinoctial and soi.^titial colures. They divide the ecliptic biW fou; equal portions, and mark the divisions of the seasons of the yeai . The days on which the sun is at the solstices are the 21st of June, and the 21st of December ; and these are respectively the longest and the shortest days. Two small circles, parallel to the equator, and passing through the sol- stitial points are called the Tropics, that to the north being distinguished as the tropic of Cancer, and that to the south as the tropic of Capricorn. These, however, are of more importance in the use of the terrestrial globe than in that of the celestial. There are ?'so two circles situated at a similar distance from the poles whicli iinrl' th*^ limits of the polar regions, from which the sun is sometimes hid- den io,- a.ore tiian a complete day ; that to the north is called the Arctic, ard tnat to the south the Antarctic, Circle. fi. > ;jus* isual way of describing the position of any star in the heavens is bp .."ivhij. it<< dedication and right ascension, as described above, the distances being reckoned from the equinoctial. Sometimes, however, ♦ St'- 'j^iU'^ ui d ;. te I a page 27':'. EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 273 these distances are reckoned from the ecliptic, and are then called the latitude and longitude. Parallels of latitude, circles parallel to the ecliptic, are frequently draAvn on celestial globes to enable the latitude to be found without difficulty ; the polo of the ecliptic is, of course, the centre of these circles. Longitude, as right ascension, is reckoned from the point Aries, and like it is reckoned only in one direction from 0'' to 3(30''". Terrestrial longitude, on the other hand, is reckoned from O*^ to 180'' east or west. Celestial longitude, therefore, measured from the point Aries on the ecliptic, corresponds to right ascension measured from the same point on the etpiinoctial ; and celestial latitude measured from the ecliptic north or south, corresponds to declination measured from the eciuinoctial. The Horizon. As we shall have sometimes to speak of the horizon, it will be well for us distinctly to state what wc understand by it, as sometimes there is a little confusion on this matter. The rational or true horizon is an imaginary plane drawn through the centre of the earth, so that tlie line, where it cuts the surface, is every- where equidistant from the observer. If wc take an orange or an apple, and divide it into t^o equal portions, or place a ring round it, so as to be midway between the eye and the stalk, it will represent the horizon. In an ordinary celestial globe, if the poles be elevated to the latitude of the place, the situation of the wooden horizon will correspond with that of the rational horizon to the observer. Thus, it will be seen that if this plane be extended on all sides to the sky it will divide it into two exactly ecpial hcmisphores, one of which will be visible to the observer. There is, however, another sense in which the word horizon is used. When we ascend any height we see a line all round us where the earth and sky appear to touch ; this is called the sensible or visible horizon. At sea or on a level plain this will appear to be a perfect circle ; on land the elevations of the country usually interrupt the outline ; still we can perceive that it is of a circu' ur form, and that our point of observation is situated in the middle of it. 'i .lO size of this circle increases with our elevation above the earth. Hence when a sailor Avants to know if any vessel is in sight, he ascends t the mast-head, where his view is much more extensive than it is from the deck of the ship. In the same way, if we ascend a high mountain, we ^aui a very extensive view of ihe surrounding country. If we could place our- selves at a great distance from the earth, as for instance, on the surface of the moon, we should see just one half of the globe of the earth, and the rational and sensible horizon would then exactly coincide. This, of course, cannot be, and the highest elevation ever yet reached by man, orthatiuall probability ever will be attained, is so small when compared witl 'he earth's diameter, that only a small portion of our globe has ever been visible at once. ' 'iipif J;:P ! P f! 1; i ' •■u 1 I ?!. ' :m li; !;W:ri ■Hlirt ! . y^' ! 1 . jW^H^; 1 , ■ i'JI I, 274 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. The following general rule will enable us approximately to calculate the distance of the /isible horizon when we know the height of the station of observation. Express the height in feet and increase it by a half ; then extract the square root, and this will give the distance in miles. Thus, if a building be 24 feet high, wo then add 12 feet to it, making it 36, the square root of which is G. The visible horizon is, therefore, distant six miles. Eclipses explained, A dark shadow is occasionally seen to move across the face of the moon which obscures her light, and gives her the appear ince of tarnished copper. Son:,etimes this shadow covers only a small portion of her disc ; at other times it obscures the whole of it for an hour or two, and its margin always appears of the form of the segment of a circle. This phenomenon, which happens on an average about twice every year, is termed an eclipse of the moon. It is pro- duced by the shadow of the earth falling upon the moon, when the sun, the earth, and the moon are in the same straight line ; the earth being interposed between the sun and moon : and this can only happen at the time oifull moon. Sometimes the moon appears to p:. s across the disc of the sun, Avhon her dark side is turned toward the earth, covering his disc, either in whole or in part, and intercepting his light from a certain portion of the earth. This is called an cc?t^se of the sun, and can happen only at the time of neiv moon, when the moon is interposed between the sun and the earth. In a total eclipse of the sun, which seldom happens, the darkness is so striking that some of the planets, and occasionally the larger stars, are seen, and the inferior animals appear struck with 1 rror. The theory of lunar eclipses will readily i>c understood by reference to the annexed SgUiOS. In figure 09, S represents the sun and E the earth, whose shadow is a long cone reaching into space. This dark shadov' is called the umbra, and it grad- ually shades oiF into the penumbra, which is bounded by the linos B D, A F, and tapers toward the earth instead .i'Mfl' EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 275 of away from it ; M represents the moon revolving round the earth, and in its journey it sometimes passes through the da. .<. cone and becomes for a time invisible. The commencement is marked by a faint shade, beginning to creep over the east side of the moon's disc. This is the first contact with the penumbra. As the moon travels onwards it enters the umbra, and the east side of its disc then becomes almost invisible. When fully immersed in the umbra, the moon may usually be feebly seen, and appears of a ruddy hue. The duration of a total eclipse of the moon may be as great as 1 hour 50 minutes. This is when the moon passes directly through the middle of the umbra. At other times it passes near the edge, and is then obscured for only a short period. When it passes through the centre of the shadow, the total duration, from the first contact to the last, may be 5i hours. Figure 100 shows at one view the phenomena of both lunar and solar eclipses. The solar eclipse repreticnted here is an annular one, as the shadow of the moon terminates at ?n before it reaches the earth. A moment's careful inspection of this diagram will show that an echpse of the sun can only take place at the period of the now moon, as the enlightened hemisphere is turned away from the earth ; and that an eclipse of the moon, on the other hand, can only occur at full moon. The reason why eclipses do not happen at every new and full moon is that the moon's orbit is inclined to the earth's orbit at an angle of o^ 9' ; so that during one half of its journey, the moon is below the plane of the ecliptic, and in the other above it. Now the earth's shadow is in the same plane as its orbit, and hence at the period of full moon the shadow may be above or below the moon, and in either case no eclipse will occur. The points in which these planes intersect are known as the nodes, and hence there is an eclipse of the moor, whenever a full moon happens at or near one of the nodes. In a similar way a solar eclipse occurs when the moon is near one of the nodes at the time of new moon. The position of the nodes of the moon's orbit is continually changing, at the rate of 10° 20 1-3 minutes in a year ; so that they perform a com- plete revolution in a trifle less than 18 years and 219 days. After an interval of 340. (')2 days, they come again into the same position in regard to the sun; and this period is called a sy nodical revolution of the node. Now it happens that 19 of tho^io periods are almost exactly equal to 223 synodical revolutions of the moon ; so that after this interval the sun, earth, and moon, arc again almost in the same relative positions and the same ,B| ' 'm m 276 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. scries of eclipses is thoreforo repeated. This period of 6,585 days, or 18 years and 10 days, is called a cycle of the moon. It was known to the ancients and called the Saros, and by means of it eclipses were roughly calculated before any great progress had been made in the science of astronomy. Conjunction and Opposition, When a heavenly body is said to be in conjunction it is meant that the body is in a line with the sun and the earth, either between the earth and the sun, or having the sun interposed between it and the earth. When the body is between the earth and sun it is in its inferior conjunction ; when on the other side of the sun from the earth it is in its superior conjunction. \Vi; \ a body is said to be in opposition it is meant that it is in a line with thb sun, and the earth, the earth being interposed between it and the sun. The planets whose orbits lie between the earth's orbit and the sun. Mercury and Venus, have each two conjunctions, one inferior, or when either of them happens to be in a line between the earth and the sun ; the other superior, or when they are in that part of their orbit that lies beyond the sun from the earth, in a lino with the earth and sun ; but these have no opposition. The superior planets, or those whose orbits lie without that of the earth hr^ve each one conjunction, the superior, and one opposition. The moon, whose movements are round the earth as a centre, and always accompanying the earth in its journey round the sun, has one conjunction, at new moon, the inferior ; and one opposition, at full moon. Proofs of the Earth's Annual Mutlon. Now the annual motion of the earth and its position in the solar system are proved ami illustrated by such considerations as the following : That if this motion did not exist, the motions of all the planets would present a scene of inextricable confusion, consisting of direct and retrograde move- ments, and looped curves so anomalous and irregular as to be altogether inconsistent with anything like harmony, order, or intelligence : That Mer- cury and Venus have two conjunctions with the sun, but no opposition, which could not happen did not the orbits of these planets lie within that of the earth : That Mars, Jupiter and all the other superior planets, have each their conjunctions with, and oppositions to the sun, which co-^ld not take place unless their orbits were exterior to that of the earth : That the greatest elongation (apparent distance) of Mercury from the Suti is only about 29'^, and that of Venus 48" ; but if the earth were the centre of their motions,as the Ptolmaic system,and some other systems suppo3e'l,thcy might sometimes be seen 180*^ from the sun, or in opposition to him,which never happens : That some of the planets appear much larger and brighter at some times than at others on account oftheirdiftcrent distances from the earth ; but on the other hypothesis, their brillancy and apparent size would be always about the same : That Mercury and Venus in their superior EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 277 conjunctions with the sun, are sometimes hid behind his body, and in tlicir inferior conjunctions sometimes uppear to pass across the disc of the sun like round black spots, which wouUl bo impossible, accordin;^ to the Ptole- maic system : And in short, that the times in which the conjunctions and oppositions, stations, (or when the planets arc in that part of their orbit in relation to the earth and sun in which they appear to be stationary,) and retroyrations, (or when the planets are in that part of their orbits in rela- tion to the sun and earth, in which they appear to go backward,) liappon are not such as they would be if the earth were at rest in the centre of tlioir motions, but precisely such as would happen if the earth move along with all the other planets in the stations and periods assigned them in the system which has the sun for its centre. For as the sun is intended to cheer and irradiate surrounding worlds, it is most fit that those agencies and inllucnces should proceed from the centre of the system from which they are communicated in an uniform and e(junble mode to the planets in every part of their orbits. Were the earth the centre of the system and the sun and planets revolving around it, the planets, when nearest the sun, Avould be scorched with excessive heat ; and when farthest distant would be frozen with excessive cold. There is another potent consideration by which the earth's revoUillon^ and its position in the system, are demonstrated, and that is that the infe- rior planets Mercury and Venus, when viewed through moderately good telescopes, are found to assume different phases in different parts of their orbits. Sometimes they appear a^ a crescent, sometimes with a gibbous phase, sometimes like a half moon, or having a full enlightened hemis- phere, which could not happen if they revolved around the earth as their centre of motion, and if the earth were not situated in an orbit exterior to theirs. This can be illustrated with peculiar effect by means of an equa- torial telericope and a planetarium. Having placed the Earth and Venus in their true positions on the planetarium by means ofan ephemeris, (a little book showing the positions, etc., of the planets for every day in the year,) or the Nautical Almanack, the observer should place his eye in a line with the balls representing these planets, and mark the phases of Venus as seen from the earth, whether a crescent, a half moon-, or a gibbous phase. He should then adjust the equatorial telescope lor Venus, if she be within the range of view, and he will see the planet with the same phase in the hea- vens. This exhibition never fails to gratify and convince the observer. But it can seldom be done if we must wait until the planet be visible to the naked eye, and capable of being viewed with a common telescope ; for it is sometimes invisible to the naked eye for nearly one half of its course from one conjunction to another. Beside, the phases of this planet are more distinctly marked in the day time, when it is near the meridian, than either in the morning or evening, when at a low elevation, in which i i' i m V ill W i> ii 278 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. >\ case it appears glaring and undefined on account of the brilliancy of its liglit, and the undulating vapors near the horizon through which it must then be viewed. With an equatorial telescope of a power of GO or 80 times, most of the stars of the first magnitude and some of those of the second, can be seen even at noonday. Venus may bo seen with thia instrument in the day time during the space of 19 months, with the inter- ruption of only about 13 days at the time of her superior conjunction, and 3 days at the time of her inferior ; so that the phase she exhibits may bo seen almost every clear day. Admitting then that the earth is of globular foi-m, as doubtless all our readers arc now prepared to do, it necessarily follows that it may bo inhabited on every side, and consequently that those who live on opposite sides of the globe must have the soles of their feet pointing towards each other, and their heads pointing in opposite directions ; and that if by any motive power acting from the earth's interior, they should bo curried forward in the directions to which their heads point, and the power to be continued in operation they would never meet during all eternity. This would result from the gradual and cipial expansion of the earth on all sides by the operation of some expanding force in the interior, of which supDOsed circumstance we have spoken before. It also follows, that could we suppose a hole bored through the earth's centre, commencing at the point where we now stand, and extending to the opposite side, it would terminate at our antipodes, and would measure nearly eight thousand miles. It likewise is most evident that this terraqueous globe is either at rest in empty space or is moving round its axis every day, and with immense velocity round the sun every year. If wo suppose the earth in a quiescent state in empty space, we have presented to our view a globe containing two hundred and sixty-four millions of cubical miles and weighing at the least calculation 2,200,000,000,000,000,000,000, or more than two thousand two hundred trillions of tons resting upon nothing, and surrounded with the immense bodies of the universe vith no visible support to prevent it from sinking into the depths of infinity. If we suppose it to be revolving round its axis and at the same time round the sun, a globe of the huge dimensions now stated, moving with a velocity of over a thousand miles an hour round its circumference, and of at least sixty-eight thousand miles an hour in its course round the sun, without ever intermitting its speed a single moment, we have presented to us a view sublime and astonishing indeed, but not anything more so than what we sec in the case of other heavenly bodies of a thousand times larger dimen- sions, and a view a great deal more reasonable than that of supposing it at rest in space with all the huge bodies of the universe revolving round it as their centre. It is plain, however, that whichever of these supposi- tions we hold to be the true one, an astonishing and sublime idea is conveyed to our mind. EXISTENCE AND DEITY, riicnomena arising from the Edrtk'n motion. 279 Fiirft ; if the cfirth revolve rouml the sun once every year, it is evident that the sun will appear to make a revolution round the heavens in the same time. In the figure let S represent the sun in the centre, and A B C D, the earth, in four positions ; and let us suppose the earth to move in the order of the letters A li C D ; it is evident that when the earth is at A, the sun will appear in that part of the heavens in Avhich the stars at G are situated. When the earth has moved to B, the sun will appear to have moved to the stars oppo- site to II. And, in like manner, when th( j-arth has moved to C, the sun will appear opposite to E. And when it has moved to D, the sun will appear at F. And when the earth has moved to A, the sun will again appear at G. And, as the earth revolves round the sun in the orbit A B D, so the sun will appear to a spectator on the earth, to describe the circle in the heavens, E F G II. Hence it is that we see the sun gradually proceeding in his course round the concave of the sky from west to east, at the rate of nearly one degree every day, through the twelve signs or constellations of the zodiac. And at the end of a year he returns to the same point from which ho set out. Hence, also, it follows that, if the plane of the earth's orbit be conceived to be extended to the heavens, it will cut the starry firmament in that very circle in which a spectator in the sun would see the earth revolve every year, while an inhabitant of the earth observes the sun to go through the same circle in the same space of time. This circle, then, is called the ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun, the real path of the earth through the heavens. xVnd, although the padi of the sun, and the particular stars he is passing along, cannot be seen in the day-time, yet, by observing the stars which arc directly opposite to liim at night, we can tell at any time what particular stars the sun is passing along at every point of his course. The inhabitants of all the other planets will perceive diiFcrent motions in the sun as we observed, but performed in different periods of time, according to the times of their annual revolutions. An inhabitant of the planet Mars, for example, would see the sun apparently revolving round him in the heavens in the space of about one year and ten months. The circle which the sun would appear to him to describe would not be very v^^mm^ n n m 1 .\^m IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^^ ^. ^^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 U2|28 |2.5 ■MUu I o^ ^ V5 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) •72-4503 '^"^^"'b^ ^ u mWliii fi 280 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. different from that of the earth, as the inclination of his axis to the pLine of his orbit is not very different from that of th • earth to the plane of the eclip- tic. An inhabitant of the planet Jupiter would see the sun apparently revol- ving around him, describing a circle in the heavens in the space of twelve years. This circle would not be exactly the same as our ecliptic, because the orbit of this planet is somewhat inclined to that of the earth ; but it would pass very near it. In the space of one of our years the sun from Jupiter would appear to pass through only a twelfth part of the circumference of the heavens. The sun from Saturn will appear to move in another circle in twenty-nine and a half years ; and from Uranus, in another circle, in about eighty-four years ; and a spectator in Venus will see the sun moving in a circle different from all these, with greater apparent rapidity, in the space of seven and a-half months. All these apparent motions of the sun arise from the real motions of the respective planets. Secondly ; the annual motion of the earth shows why we behold one set of stars in our firmament at one season of the year, and another set of stars at a different season. For example, the stars and constellations which, in our northern latitudes, are seen in the south during the winter months, are altogether different from those which are seen in summer, and those stars which surround the ])ole in the north, and which never set, if they are below the pole in winter, they will be seen as far above the pole in summer. At the etiuator, where all the stars north and south rise and set, the stars which are seen in the middle of Avinter are all completely different from those that arc seen at the same hour in the middle of summer. This is easily explainable by the preceding diagram, in which the earth, in four situations in its orbit, appears half enlightened and half in the dark, representing day and night. When it is at A the sun will appear at noon at G, and obscure all the stars in the hemisphere Ft II ; when, as at midnight, the point of the heavens E will be in the meridian, and all the stars in the other hemi- sphere, F E II, will be visible. Three months afterwards, when the earth comes to the situation B, the sun at noon will be seen at H, and all the heavens, G II E, will be day, illuminated by the sun ; and over all the other half, E F G, the stars will shine at night ; consequently, the stars in the quarter F G will now be visible, which, in the former position, were obscured by the sun ; and those in the quarter H E, formerly visible, will become obscured by daylight. In like manner when the earth is at C, the heavens II E F will be day, and F G II night, when all the stars which were obscured when the earth was at A, will now be visible. And, lastly, when the earth is at D, the stars and constellations in the hemisphere E F G will be obscured by the light of the sun, and those on G II E will be visible during the night. Hence all who are accustomed to observe the heavens will have seen that the bright constellation Orion, the brilliant star Sirius, which follows it, and the Pleiades, or Seven Stars, which are inatin; above torial By their in one globe, EXISTENCE i^MD DEITY. 281 visible in the southern sky during the winter oncl the approach of spring, are never seen during the summer months, because the sun is then illum- inating that portion of the firmament where they are situated ; but, being above the horizon in the day-timo, they may be seen by means of equa- torial telescopes. By observation of the starry heavens we find that the stars never alter their positions in relation to each other. They apj car to move round U3 in one compact body as the figures of the constellations do on a celestial globe, when that instrument is turned round its'axis ; but the stars of one constolb.ticn ne.'cr apiiroacU or mo^e awuy from those of another. If, for example, we direct our attention to the stars [of the Great Bear in the northern sky we shall find that at all hours of the day and night, and at every season of the year they present the same definite figure, and maintain "the same relative positions to each other, without any sensible variation of distance or magnitude ; and the same may be observed from one year to another. Hence, as before mentiored, they are usually denominated the " Fixed Stars." But when we examine the heavens with more care and minuteness we occasionally perceive a few bodies, having the appearance of stars, which when carefully watched for a few weeks or months, aro found shifting their positions with relation to the surrounding stars. In most cases their movements are toward the East, but not unfreqnently to- ward the West ; and at certain times no motion can be observed for a con- siderable number of days. The bodies which are thus perceived to change their positions among the stars are called planets, which word, as before mentioned, means " Wandering Stars." Until very recently there were only ten bodies of this description known to astronomers, and the paths of these had been traced in the heavens, and their motions accurately ascer- tained. Nearly one hundred of these bodies, all of them of small dimen- sions, have lately been discovered in the space intervening between Mars and Jupiter. Five of the planets are visible to the naked eye, and these were known to the ancients, who gave them the following names, derived from the heathen mythology : Mercury, Vt.ms, Mars, Jujuter and Saturn ; and if we count the Earth in it makes six. By long and careful investiga- tions of tlie phenomena and motions of these planets astronomers have ascer- tained that they all move round the sun, as the centre of their motions ; and along with the earth, the minor jilanets and the moons form one grand and harmonious system with which we are intimately connected, and which is called the solar system. The following is a list of the principal bodies of this group, in their order in space : First the Sun, the common centre around wnich the planets all revolve ; Vulcan, a planet very recently said to be discovered, but whoso existence Is as yet by some considered doubtful, Mercury, and Venus ; which all are distinguished as the inferior planets, their orbits being T ,it-ri t- .in h.l '^ ii m i I'fi :■ • !«IH1 282 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. included within that of the earth ; the Earth, and the superior planets r Mara, the minor planets or asteroids, Jujtitcr, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep- tune. There are also many secondary planets or moons, as well as comets, which arc reckoned as belonging to this system : besides there may be many other planetary bodies in it ; doubtless there are many that yet remain undiscovered. As we enquire more particularly into the movements of these bodies we discover many striking points of similarity. They all move round the sun in the same direction, and in elliptical paths of no great eccentricity. They arc all opaque bodies, like the earth, shining only by reflected light ; and all rotate on their axes, so as to produce the alternation of day and nif^ht. Their orbits, too, are all inclined to the plane of the ecliptic or earth's orbit. The following is a method by which we may obtain a toler- ably correct idea of their comparative magnitudes and distances, and the relative dimensions of their orbits. Select a large, clear space, and [Jace, nearly in the centre, a ball of about two feet in diameter to represent the Bun : Vulcan will then, supposing sucli a body to bo really existing, be represented by a small pin's head 27 feet from the globe ; Mercury by a mustard seed 82 feet distant ; Venus by a pea at a distance of 142 feet ; the earth by a pea of about the same size, or slightly larger, at a distance of 215 feet ; Mars by a large pin's head at a distance of 327 feet ; the minor planets or Asteroids by very small grains of sand between 500 and 600 feet distant ; an orange of about 2i inches diameter, and 1120 feet distant, will represent Jupiter ; one about 2 inches in diameter ..nd distant two-fifths of a mile will stand for Saturn ; a full-sized cherry, three quarters of a mile distant, for Uranus ; and a plum, a mile and a quarter off, for Neptune. On this scale the distance of the nearest fixed star is reckoned at 7,500 miles. The Sun. As the sun is by far the largest of those bodies we shall treat of him first ; and the question which at once suggests itself is, what is the dis- tance of this body ? The accurate solution of this question is found to be one of the most important problems in astronomy, as this distance is taken as the measure for determining the distances and magnitudes of tlic other heavenly bodies. There has always been great difficulty oxporiciicod in determining the distance of the sun, owing to the fact that tlie earth's diameter, being so small compared with the sun's distance, did not afford a base line of sufficient length for a triangle by which the sun's parallax, and thence his distance, might be obtained. There has, however, been obtained what is considered as a near approximation to it, 1)y means of observations taken of the transits of Venus. As a result of these obser- vations, the S'ln's mean distance is determined to be about 91,430,000 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 283 miles. Until recently the sun's distance has been taken at 95,000,000 miles ; but subsequent investigations have shown an error in these moasure- montg. The numbers here given however are only given as approx imation ssubject to future correction. The next transit of Venus, which will take place in 1874, is anxiously awaited to settle the question deci sively. It may be remembered too that the distance given above is the mean, the difference between the minimum and maximum being about 3,000,000 miles. Having ascertained the distance of the sun, and know- ing its apparent diameter to be about 32', a little over half a degree, wc obtain his real magnitude by a simple proportion ; and in this way wo find his diameter to be, in miles, about 853,000, or more than one hundred and eight times that of the earth. The sun's volume is so great that it would require over 1,300,000 globes of the size of the earth to be rolled into one to equal it ; and it is computed to be 450 times as large as all the known planets which revolve around it taken together. Its surface contains more than 12,000 times the number of square miles on our globe. The reason why the sun appears so small to our eyes, although being a globe of such immense magnitude, is owing to its great distance from our world. This distance may be illustrated somewhat as follows : It would require a can- non ball, though flying continually with a velocity of 500 miles an hour, 21 years before it could reach the sun. Suppose a steam-carriage to set out from the earth in the direction of the sun, and to move without inter- mission at the rate of twenty miles an hour, it would require over 520 years before it had traversed the whole space which intervenes between us and that luminary. How wonderful then that the sun at such a dis- tance should exert his attractive power upon the earth, raise the tides in the oceans, and diffuse light, heat, color, and animation over all its regions ! Some idea can bo formed of its light and heat when we remem- ber the enormous distance at which we are from its surface, and the degree, notwithstanding this, to which we feel its power and influence. Its ligl^t is computed to be equal to that of 5,500 standard candles placed at a distance of a foot from the given surface to be illuminated. We naturally want to know something more about the physical jiropcrtics of this wonder- ful and stupendous orb ; but we are to a great extent baffled in this enquiry, just as we are in regard to the exact physical properties of the bodies which make up the earth's interior ; though many great and irapoi*- tant discoveries have been recently made by means of spectrum analysis. In this way, it has been ascertained that many of the metals present in the earth are also present in the sun. When pieces of very dark glass are placed in front of the eye-piece of a telescope, so as to screen the eye from the intense glare of the sun, its surface may be carefully examined, and is found to present an appearance by no means uniform. Many dark spots termed macula; are found at timca I : I i hil i 284 EXISTENCE AND DEITY. to exist on ita surface. See figures 102 and 103. The centre of these is usually of a very dark color, and is surrounded by a margin much lighter in appcarunco, which is known as the penumbra. These spts are very irregular in shape, and frequently change in size or disappear altogether. This may in the main be accounted for by the rotation of the sun on his axis, by which different portions of his surface are presented to the earth in succession. The spots appear first on his eastern margin, at which timo they appear narrow and somewhat obscure ; they move gradually onward to the centre of the disc, when they appear largest and moat distinct ; aCterward thoy proceed toward the western margin, where they again SOUTH Figs. 102. and 103. appear narrow and obscure : and after a period of about 1-3 days from their first appearance on the eastern edge, they disappear from the west- ern limb ; and, in many cases, they again appear on the eastern limb, after the same period of 13 days. But they are frequently somewhat changed in their aspect before they reappear ; and,in numerous instances, EXISTENCE AND DEITY. 285 nrier disappearing from the sun's western boundary, they arc never again visible in the same shape ; but other spots at uncertain intervals, arc seen diversifying the solar disc ; though not unfrecjucntly scarcely a single spot is to be seen on the whole surface of the sun. The spots app'^^.'.ring narrower and less distinct on the eastern and western limbs, is owing to o ir vie wing obliquely those parts of the sun's surface. The conclusions which may be deduced from these circumstances are : 1st. That the sun is a globe and not a flat surface, as it appears to the naked eye ; otherwise the spots would appear equally large and distinct on every part of its surface : 2nd. Tiiat this luminary moves round his axis in the same direction as the rotation of the planets ; for its spots do not alter their places on its disc, but are carried along with the whole bo^y of the sun. The time of the apparent k volution of these spots is 27 days, 8ho\u'3 ; but the real period of the sun's rotation on its axis is 25 days, 7 hours, and 48 minutes ; and, tlierefore, the spaces about the sun's equator move at the rate of -4,407 miles an hour.* The solar spots are of diflforent sizes, and of different shapes. Their dimensions vary from the . ^-th totho-'th of the sun's diameter. The •/ 1) •> u smallest of these spots which can be distinctly seen are nearly 1,000 miles in diameter. Spots the j'^-th part of the sun's diameter, which are fre- quently seen, are 17,G00 miles in diameter, or more than double the dia- meter of the earth ; and if the spot be considered only as a plane, and some what circular, it will contain a considerably greater area than the whole terra- (jueous globe, and sometimes a spot of this vast size d sappears in a few weeks, not unfrequently in a few days. Sometimes no spot is to be seen on the solar disc, for weeks and oven for months togctlier ; at other times, over a hundred spots of different sizes are dispersed over its surface at one time. In such cases, there oro generally five or six large spots such as that alluded to above, accompanied with ten, fifteen, or twenty smaller spots ; but, after disappearing at the sun's western limb, it is seldom they come round again in the same order as before. Some appear to have been altogether dissipated, and others to have changed their shape and relative positions to surrounding spots in which they formerly appeared. Some of these spots of considerably larger dimensions than the earth, containing three or four hundred millions of square miles,occasionally appear and vanish in the space of 48 hoars. The parts of the sun's surface where these spots most frequently appear, arc those which lie adjacent to its equatorial regions ; no spots being ever seen near its northern or southern poles. In some years these spots appear in * This is obtained by dividing the sun's circumference 2,07L».785 miles by the number of hours in which the rotation is performed, namely 608 ; and thequoiient is the rate of motion per hour. ■if •Ff Ml .U.i ii '■ill. iitJilSI^ 1 ! 28G EXISTENCE AND I>EITY. r\ i^rcnt numbcrfl,nii(l seldom a week passes witliout a few of tlioin bcin^^scen; while in other years comparatively few are visible. Careful records have been kejjt of their iippearanco. They are found to diminish in frefjuoncy for about five or five and a-half years, when the number is at a minimum, the surface being then free from them on more than half of the days of observation. They tiien increase again in number for the next five and a half years ; and thus their period appears to bo about eleven years. A remarkable fact has been noted in connection with this, and that is that the daily variation of the magnetic needle is found to have a precisely similar period, and to increase or diminish witli the increase or diminution of the number of spots. Other phenomena seem further to show that there is an intimate relation- ship existing between the movements of the magnetic needle and the sun. I'uture observations will doubtless reveal to us more of this natural bond, and now discoveries on tho subject are frequently being made. Jieside the dark spots, which we have now described, there arc spots wliich display a bright, and mottled appearance, and which it is dilHcult in most cases to disting\iish from tho real body of tho sun. These are termed, /'(/f/i/Zu?. Tiiey are chiefly to be seen when thoy first appear on the eastern margin of the sun, and when they approach near tiie western limb ; but they are rarely seen near the middle of the disc. They are most generally seen in connection with clusters of dark spots, and when they are first seen near the eastern limb they frequently indicate that dark spots are about tr appear. They appear like luminous mountain ranges, jilainly indicating that the sun is not a smooth surface, but is diversified with elevations and depressions, or in other words, with mountains and vales of stupendous dimensions; otherwise we could by no means perceive them at the immense distance at which they are placed from us. Recent telescopic investigations, however, show that, beside the mark- ings of which we have spoken, the whole surface of the sun has somewhat of a mottled appearance. According to Nasmyth it presents an appear- ance as if it were covered over with scattered filaments, shaped like willow-leaves. This whole question of the physical constitution of the sun is now engaging the attention of many astionoraors. A total eclipse of that body presents a good opportunity for the observation of many points, and among the most remarkable features in connectior .vith these phenomena is the presence of dark flames or protuberances surrounding the dark body of the moon at the moment of total obscuration. These have recently been seen at other times also,and ire believed by some to be connected with the solar atmosphere. They probably arise from certain portions of the sun being for the present more combustible, and in a state of more intense in- candv^cence than others. KXISTENCK A\D DKITY. 287 The question will naturally aii'^^'''-!t its"lf — if the flun is coiitiimally in'a Jtnt(» of coinl)ustiuu, will it M'tt at souk; tiuK; ho onuMiunt'il ? A knowledge of chemistry will <^o far towiuilsaiiswiTiu^ .such a ((uestiou as this. Boilio!», while luidfr^oin;^ couihu.stiou arc also underi^uiug choinical docomposition, )r ji separation of their couiponout parts into their priiniry cloinonts, hi t i'Al Fix. 101. l;cLli'.-u OK nil; HU.N, JLLV IS, Ist'iiJ. not a single particle of them is lost by the process. Light is only a mani- festation which attends combustion, and is Cvpially attendant upon the combination as upon the separation of chemical elements ; the matter of the body undergoing combustion, unless what residuum there may be from it, is revolved into gaseous elements; which ascend to the level of their gravi. tation in their atmosphere, and there tioat, until, perhaps, rccorabining with other chemical elements for which they liavo an afiBn'ty, they thus return to the surface of their sphere again, it may be — as in the case of tho earth's atmosphere they do — in the form of a meteor, but in some way or other they eventually return to tho surface of their spheres, not a particle of t'aem being lost by tho manifestation of light. By this, it is understood that the elements of the sun in connection with which light is manifested, may go on separating and recombining under the influence of combus- tion without any actual waste or exhaustion of matter, as long as the want of equilibrium between his elements makes combustion to bo a con- secjuence of their contact. The constitution of the i un appears to be of such a nature, and such is the purpose which it answers in the system, that it may have ever existed and may ever exist luminous. Albeit, what hinders that during certain periods of the past our system may not have been enlightened by some other luminous oody ? ':},•!' um y'ri i)i! ^|.IH niilcH in ili'|i||i. 'I'liii* lii< logHiils !»« the t>nl»Minil>It' Hinrnoo ; mi>l unno«ra nf tlit< npniH, an.l ihni t'lo tlnik oontral part'* of tlio upots, or (ho nuchM. aro part of t||,. mhIhI m jl(oi- of whioh tlio sni\*f< h.i.lv i^ o.iinM.Hcvl. ,\i'(«.»iiliii ' |.» Hiioh vi own th • /:lol>i< of th<< H\n\ \\\:\y ho ri\.;aril>'.l a'^ of »'.»iHit nho^othor unhk«' the earth aii'l (ho other phiut't^. aixl not a vory^iroat por tion <>r itn mu'laoo. oojuj-aialivoly spoakiti;;, ai hoin;; in a Mtato ol" -Miuh-is tion ; ai\«l thoro in no in\prohahili(y in unppo^in;; i( (o ho inhahitoil with >*vm\ tivo an.l intolli^^otjl hoiii;;!* having constiliitiotts ailapli il lor (hoir Hitualion ; nnil il may oonstilnto tho most ^h»rious hahitation oonuootot', with (ho s.ilar iv spots on his surfaoo (ha( thoro aro foroos of proilivjious powor in oontinual oporation thoro, protlno in.i: tl\o nu^st astonishini; olVools in short spaoos of tinio. And suoh ohan;jos nro douhth'SiA tiooossary for ]>rosor\in,i: tho pro.sont ulato of tho hiui, for onahlinj: him to dilV\»si> hi;ht and hoat. and (o aot as tho so\il of snrroundiu;: worhls. 'IT.is ma;:nilioilano(ary ;:Iohos, >\ith thoir saloUiios nn> ana nn ;•*. w hioh h ,1. »o.on;j to our svsloni. I.v it> mllnonoi' it ohoors, annnat(l oonHnos thorn all to (Ih-ii pio|or paths, so that noiu' oaii wandovfrom thoir oourso or inlorforo wiih (ho oihors. Without (ho inlluonoo of (his luminary darKn«^ss and all its doo'.nv aooo;ui>.»ni;nouts would involvo our w>>rld ; tho hoauiios wliioh adorn (ho fioo of naturo wouM nowhoro bo soon : (uo warMiui: M' t'lo hinls would not ho hoard : tho ll>wors Fig. 105. would not ho dookod in thoir ^ay o»">lor?. nor shod (hoir rioh porfu mot: our oartli would bo %1 hid oovis chaos Can wo roiloot thoroforo LXIMIKNCK A Nil ItKITV. 'JH1» iipiiri IliK i^niiiiliMir iiinl inii;;iiiliiil<' oi' Ihi* liiiniiiirv, itii'l llio iiiiiiiir>i|i| limo lifinl cIVfclH wliicli il |iriMliii'i>rt in itiir wh-M, \villi->nt nii:iiii;^ unr Himh^IiIh (mm- Hiirvi'VH iitxl (')iiili ^Inry iluc Id IliM naiiK'. Till.; Pl.ANKI Vm.tlAN. \V<' iimv paMM Mil III iiiilit't' IIm' plaiH'lH wliii lin-vulvc iiM'omi'li'nM cmiiirH round llic HUH. Alioiil lourltM-n yoaiM a;;o \tv Vmlor, ii I'rrucji arilion omof, liaviii;; vory can'rully «'xiiiimn'i| tlio iiiovoiiiohIh oI' tlio plaiiol M<«f. oury, found in it 'i MJifjIil vaiialioii ..liirh I uldiKM'oinit lor only l>y ^tip po.-«in;; tlir.l lln' iiiaK,« of llic planot VriiuH wiin iiicorrcrtly {ifl(!) liopo lliat MotMt< furllici ri;.;lit ini;;lii Im< thrown on the inallor. It must lai rcmcmlM'rctl, howdver, tliat Morcury ilHolf, wliirli until now wiin vnm\- dorctl llic iionroHt plunrt to tlm huh, vmu only l»<< hi'oh at occaHional inlf-r- vals, and llimi willi dillicully. on account of ilM appariuil pniximily to (lu> HUH ; and llial, (hcrcl'orc, a plam-t mucli nearer to llie mm would never appear far enou;;li removed from lliat Itody to I»e clearly di-^cerned. AlmoHt the only opportunity of olmtu'vin;^ it llien would lie wlien it hIiouM lio in IrauMit- An hooh an he Vcrricu' liad puMinlied ITim statement u l''ri'nc|i pliysician namcil Ijescarltault announce(l that on th < tiiith of March IHjV.^ Iio had HiMui a Hinall hoily pass acrosH the huh, hut had not liked to nimounce the fart hefcu'c, no other oltHcrver liavin;^ called attention to it. Id* Vcrricr at once saw him and cand'ully enred a now planet, which was tlKui oallod Vulcan. Krom thi.s one ohsorvation no very decisive dc^tails could he drawn so as to calculato ita orhit aciMirately ; its (lulance from Uk; sun was, liowcver, set down at ahoiit l'l,000,O()0 miles, and its time of rov)- lution in its orhit at a ptuiod of n little mulcr twenty tlio »llojir.<.| plmiol, iiii*l arc only mvail in^ tlio result!' of I'dlun' iuv»'(«ti;;ali>M| lV"r ;\ 1 tioMomy ..r wliitli «.« Iiiivi' nuy ivoopiIh. ThiH Mpi'iik'^ \\t|| for tlio rcKi'iuvh of (lio ciuly aHlrotuiiiKTH ; Inf, owinj; In in small si/.(>, aiiil its piii\; tiiilv l'» tlio Mini, it is vrrv tlilliciilt to iiltlaiti a Kati^fai- t'lry viiMv <•!' this planet, ji i« saiil thai tlic Ci'lohratt'il t'lipontitMn, althn\i;;li tln' ^rratcst part <>f ln>4 lil'o wa-i ilcvdti'd to the stmlv of tlic » * ' / /. . ^\ \ » liravcns, never onee siieeeeil eij in olit.ainin^; a view of this orli. The j^reatest ilistanee at whieh it ean ever hi< iVi>ni the s\n\ is -'.•'^, !U\il .snnii'linies its eli>nfiati«»n helore it begins to retiirn is not nion> than l(>i*^'. The mean distance of Meronry iVoni the sun i^ nearly o."i,r>!>0,000 niilef . lt,s eooentricily, that is, the dist \nee tVoui the eentre ol' itii orhit to the centre of the sun, heinj;; very j:;reat, ^ahout seven inillions of miles. > its distance varies hetween L'v^,()0(K<)t>0 ami i:K(H)().<»(H> miles. It ]H^rforms its jouniey round the sun in a Irillo over S7 d.-iys, so that its year is less than a fourth the length of o\in». Its speed in its orhit is far greater than that of any of the other known planet.^ : heinj: computed to ho at an average lOl^SOO miles an hour, or 1,S;U) miles a mimite ; hence in the ancient mythelog^^ Mercury was represented with wings to his feot; and his name is said to signify the " swift mos,senger." This plat\et is hut small. its diameter being reckoned at i2,l*()0 miles, or ratlier more than one-third tliat of the earth. Hence its circumference, or a line extending quite round it. would measure ahout O.'J'JO miles : and the niunher of squares miles on its surface would 1)C nearly -7,.VJ.*).04t^. Its peri<>d of rotation round its a.\is is '24 hours '^\ minutes, and thus it clearly resom- Mcs the o.irth .is to the length of its day. A transit of this planet occui-s whenever it is in one of the nodes, (^that is, at the point where its orbit PlAfrrAm l1t)ii-lniM<\K ll\o n^lntivo |>««|iI.miii, oto |>lnni't)>. mill |iliiiii>l> •niu' Klin KXIMTKNCK ,\N|» hKITY. '2\n iiiJrrKoclH flml of Hh' ouiMi.) itl llii> tinn nf nn inrfrior ruiiiiMifJioii. 'I'lio iii'xt tiiiH' llii'^ will (H'l'iir will ln< mi tin- tllli •>{' Miiy, |M7M. |(' |||t< mliil 1(1' lliirt pliiiipf wt'H' ill lli(» Haiiio |i|iiin' willi tli.'il fil' t|i« oiwMi it wmiM triiMMit iIh' huh m dim' nt wvry iiil'iTinr iMiiijiiin'li'in, or Www or four limi'« cvcrv y<"nr. Hut iih ilw ii it i^ ut or iMMir i(H iiim|iMi;.i',itiii|i< ; riiiij llii.'i iii-nirM only lit iiitcrvnlM n\' m>\i>iiil yi'iiiN. 'I'lii^ |il;iiii't, i-xliil it-4 |.l|lHl•^ riinrM|)iiiiiliiiH; Im tliitni> iif llii« iiHM'ii. Oil ui'i'iiiiiit III' \\A |irM\iinily tu iho ^iiii lew iliHi'MVi'iir^ Imvc Immmi iiiii'Ii> on itn mirl'iH'i' liy tlii< ti'l<«-'.r'»|H«. It, Iuh Im'ch olimTVi'il, liiMVi'vcr, tliiil uIhh it Jipin'iiri ;h ii ('ii'MCint, uiu' nl" \\ a lnH'iM irt Iniiii'iiti'il, or nil n|V jil ilii> |iiiinl, liy wliicli tlii< |ii>ii<»| nl' tlio |iliiiMr i<|fviili<>in iiii'l i|<<|iiivHii>in nil itl 4iirriii'" ; iiiiij liriii'i' Hitiin' nMtrniiiiiiii4 Iiuvk rniii'lnili'il lli:il, niMiintaiiH <>f foiiHi'liTiiM" lii'i;:lil rxi.Mt mi MiTt^iiry, uiio nl" wliirli in cHliiiiatiil to Iik H mil's in |n'r- |i('nili(Milar altitmlo. Tlio i|iiMiility orii;^lik nMM'iv«'i| on Mi'iciiry i^ iiiMuly Hovni tiiiu'K thai wini'li \vi' ri>i'i«ivi' ; ami tlp'Miiii will apiifar IVoiii Miii»'ly ilrim* alinosplii'iT. 'I'lioii^li iliiniiintivi' ill ilM a|>|M'araiiri', aiii| >«'liloiii Mrni liy tlii> inlialii- liintH nl" tlu^ cartli, wi> can Mraircly i|miiIiI ||i;\|, llicm r\i-it, on Mi'icury millioiH of Hciilit'iit aii'l inli-lli^^iMit at.nr(»M, |ii'rlia|H miporior in hcjiI"' III' hv'\uliifli i(iialiry tin-in to know, to lovi', fin