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I .

THE ,

PUBLIC SCHOOL

GEOGRAPHY

AUTHORIZED FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS.

AND COLLEGIATE INSTITUTES OF ONTARIO, BY THE

DEPARTMENT OF_£jailCATION

Entered accok-ding to Act of Parliament, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture, in the
year 1887, by the Canada Publuiiino Company (Limited)

•^^'tDL CATION

4 51 ^

TORONTO

CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY

(LIMITED)

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The study of Geography, often the driest and most wearisome the
pupil has to deal with, will always be so unless the Teacher " to his
knowledge adds understanding," and presents the subject so that,
wlille he satisfies the child's eager curiosity by offering to It well
arranged facts, he also enkindles the child's imagination, and thus
makes possible the mental assimilation of these facts. In other
words, it is from the Teacher's own lips, from his own vivid portraiture
and apt Illustration (as well as orderly grouping) of tiie infinite
number of details which make up the great moss of geographical
knowledge, that the pupil must catch that necessary enlivening of
the imagination which shall grive to hia conceptions of these details
the vividness of comprehension without which they will be for-
gotten in £. day or two, or, if remembered for a longer time, will be
utterly valueless.

For example, suppose a child learns from his Oeography, or other-
wise, that " the commonest timber trees of Ontario are the pine, the
spruce, the hsmlock, the oak, the elm, the ash, the maple, and the
beech": what chance has he of ^membering this fact (or of what
value is his knowledge to him if he does mechanically remember it?)
unless at the same time he acquires some definite and apprehensible
(apprehensible, because interesting and useful) ideas in regard to these
trees, their appearances, their manners of growth, their relative
plentifulness or rarity, their qualities (whether hard in the grain or
soft, whether ecisy to be worked or difficult, whether durable or quick
to decay), their respective utilities, and so on ? Yet even in his method
of developing these ideas the Teacher may make serious error;
he may think that by perfectly describing these matters in correct
phraseology and obtaining his descriptions from the pupils in return,
ha has done his whole duty, when in reality he has failed almost
altogether. These ideas should not be implarUed in the minds of the
pupils,— they should be begotten there— by the development of simpler
related ideas which tho pupils already have: that is to say, the
Teacher, by a series of apt questions, and apt illustrations, and apt
appeals to their own experiences, should develop in the pupils' minds
the concepts which he wishes them to retain.

Take another example. Suppose the statement whicL the pupil is
desired to remember is that " the forest vegetation of Brazil is dense
and luxuriant." The phraseology is simple ; not a word is used that
the pupil does not understand ; and yet if nothing be done to illumin-
ate that statement with the light of the pupil's previously acquired
knowledge, it will remain a dead fact, or disappear from his mind
altogether. But if the nature of a forest, the effects of heat upon
vegetation (as manifested in summer growths and In hot-house
growths), the effects of dammcss upon vegetation (as manifested in
swamps and in rainy seasons),- if these and other related notions are
elicited or developed from the pupil's own experience, they will give
such reality to the statement in question, and so illustrate it, that
its impression on the mind will be indelible.

Again, every geographical fact is naturally connected with some
other geographical fact ; and this, again, with some other ; so that
the fact most foreign to the pupil's experience may be brought in close
relation to it, if <iufflcient pains be taken. For example, the statement
that "in Siberia great quantities of fossil ivory are found" is a
dry and uninteresting one in itself, and one likely to be soon forgotten.
But if notions respecting the appearance and uses of ivory (as, for
iniiitance, the smoothness, whiteness, and non-metallic lustre of piano-
keys, ivory knife-handles, ivory chess-men, and so on), and also
concerning ivory in its natural condition— the tusks of elephants— be
elicited from the pupil's experience ; and then if the facts be clearly
stated and illustrated that the mammoth (which was a tusk -bearing
animal— a sort of elephant) was once an inhabitant of Canada, and
that remains of mammoths with their ivory tusks have been found in
several places in Ontario, but that in Siberia (where also in former

ages the mammoths were inhabitants, and where they seem to have
been very numerous) their remains have been much more perfectly
preserved, Siberia being a very cold country,— if these notions anil
facts are all brought out and logically linked together, the pupils
will undoubtedly have a vivid and novor-to-be-forgotlen realization
of the meaning of the statement referred to.

In the Public School Oeography, then, it is intended that the whole
of the matter shall be presented to the pupils by the Teacher— not in
a series of categorical statements to be accepted by the pupils without
refiection and without comment, but in a series of converifdlons,
consisting to a large extent of questions by the Teacher and replies
by the pupils— questions, not on what the pupil has consciously com-
mitted by rote from the text book, but on what he has obtained for
himself, he knows not how, from the use of his eyes and oars and
brain, over since he began to observe and think ;— conversations con-
sisting, moreover, of volunteered statements which the pupils should
be encouraged to offer, based on their own reading and research.
Hence much of the matter of this book is marked " To the Teacher,"
the intention being that the Teacher shall neejitat so much of it or so
little as he may think best, after having taken carefully into consid-
eration the age and capacity of his pupils and other local and indi-
vidual circumstances.

Again, a very great deal of discretion is very properly allowed to
the Teacher in respect to what may be called "Structural Geography,"
or the coast and surface features of countries, with their nomemclo-
ture. Very frequently this is mode the whole burden of geographical
study, although it ought really to play only a subordinate part in
it. And since this knowledge should be obtained entirely from the
study of the maps under the guidance and oversight of the Teacher,
it has been thought best not to over-fill the text with a mass of details
which are sufliciently well indicated by the maps. The Teacher is
supposed to be able (as it is his duty) properly to direct the pupils
in their study of these matters ; in a few instances, however, some
assistance has been offered here by indicating methods, where great
choice lay, which experience has proven to be good.

As the Public School Oeography is intended for several years of
study (extending over the whole Public School course) the earlier
chapters of tho book have been made very simple and have been
couched in simple conversational language ; as the book proceeds,
however, the degree of minuteness with which the topics are treated
increases somewhat, and the style becomes more formal and precise
to allow of condensation of expression. In consequence, the various
parts of Canada have not perhaps received that attention which their
importance merits ; if this appears so co the Teacher he can supple-
ment the matter here given by information obtained from the High
School Oeography.

And it is earnestly recommended that the Teacher shall not confine
himself to the facts herein detailed in reference to any part « f the
world. Bspecially should he be ready with appropriate passages of
travel, and with descriptions of scenery, and of the natural products of
countries, and of the manners and customs of their peoples, by reading
(and subsequently conversing about) Which, he may illustrate (as in
no other way he can), the concise statements of the text.

The Teaeher should be careful to remember that all the Oeography
is not to be committed to memory, or indeed more than a small part
of it;— he who should insist upon his pupils memorizing the nimibers
representing the square miles in the various countries of the world,
or even a table of their relative sizes, would be worse than an intel-
lectual tyrant— he would be a de*royer of intelle 3t. But the skilful
Teacher will find no trouble in devising ways 9j-d means whereby he
shall assure himself that his pupUs understand what their text- book
contains; then, what is useful for them to remember, they will
remember without much subsequent effort.

\ ■

IMPi

INTRODUCTORY.

LESSON I.

INTRODUCTORY— THE TEACHER TO HIS PUPILS.

1. The Teacher's Greeting to his new

Gteograpiiy ClaiSS. — I am glad to see so many happy-
faces in my new class this morning. You are happy
because you have been promoted, and because you are
eager to know what you are going to study in your
new books, and particularly in this large one full of
pictures. It is called a Geography; and you are right
in thinking that it will be a very delightful book. If
you listen closely, and try to remember what we talk
about, you will find the hour we shall spend in studying

it one'of the happiest hours of the day.

2. "What the Pupils already know.— In your

reading lessons you found many interesting things about
animals and plants. You there learned where tea grows,
what the coffee tree looks like, that sugar is made from
the sugar-cane, and how cotton is gathered and made
into cloth. .You found there, also, much about the rein-
deer, the fierce tiger, the huge whale, and the majestic lion.

3. The Pictures of the new Geography. —

You will find pictures of many of these things in your

new book ; and pictures, also, of panthers and leopards,
elephants and kangaroos, crocodiles and ostriches, bufia-
loes, great snakes, comical little monkeys, and strange
birds and trees. Upon one page, you will see a picture
of men, women, and children, gathering grapes in a
vineyard. On another page, is a picture of several
boats with fishermen catching codfish. In one place,
down in a deep mine, are miners digging out coal ; in
another place, you will see, on the edge of a dark forest,
some lumbermen chopping down trees, while others are
hauling logs to a saw-mill. And again, in another
picture, there are men on horseback chasing wild cattle
and trying to ^asso them, by throwing over their horns
a strong leathern rope with a noose at the end.

4. What Geography is about.— All these, and

the many other pictures, will make you begin to think
that our new Geography is to tell us about the different
countries of the world ; and, as many of the pictures
represent things in Canada, we shall, perhaps, learn
more of our own country than of any other. And now I
see you are well pleased with the thought of learning all
about the people, animals, and plants, of your own and
other lands, and about many of the strange and curious
things to be seen in the different parts of the earth

-2.

DIRECTION AND DISTANCE.

Among other things, we shall liear of many different
kinds of people — of some who are wild and savage, and
who spend their time in hunting and in fighting with
each other. We shall make some imaginary voyages,
over great oceans, past enormous ice-bergs, and among
islands full of trees laden with oranges and other deli-
cious fruits. We shall visit wondeiTul lx)iling springs,
and climb lofty mountains, Wo shall sail up mighty
rivers, and hoar the roar of tremendous cataracts ; and
we shall walk through the streets of great cities, and
behold their beauty and magnificence.

5. Definition of Geography.— Wo call all this

the study of Geography ; and this is what I wish you |
to remember : tliat
Geography describes
the countries, the
people, and the pro-
ducts of the world.
And now I shall
explain our lesson
for next day, which
you will study from
your own Geoyra-
phy at your seats.
You will find it to
be a lesson about
Direction and Dis-
tance.

LESSON II.

DIRECTION AND DISTANCE.

1. Direction. — We shall have to learn in our Geo-
graphy class about many places we have never seen ;
and one of the first thoughts we must have about any
new place is, "Where is it? In what direction is it
from here ? "

2. East and West. — We can leam about direc-
tion from the sun, for it seems to rise every morning in
the same part of the sky. That direction is called the
East; and in the evening it sets in the West, or in that
part of the sky directly opposite to the East.

To the TVocAer.— Make this and subsequent Exercises practical and inter-
esting by gettini; some of the pupils tn do what is aekeA tor. For example,
tn dealing with the first question, asV. one of the children to wallc to the east
wall of the room, as well as to answer the question in words.

Elxeroise.— 1. Which ia the east side of the achoouuumt /
2. In wliat direction ia a little girl running when the firat aun-
shine of the morning cornea directly on her face J 3. Stand oo
the floor and take two stepa westward. 4. When driving in a
carriage at six o'clock on a summer evening, in whai direction
will your ahadow fall ? 5. Extend both arms so that the right
arm points to the east. 6. In what direction does the left arm
then point ?

3. North and South.— You have now learned two
directions. East and West ; there are two directions
nftire to learn. Stand in the middle of the room and
raise both arms, so that the right arm points to the East,
and the left arm to the West. This brings your face
to the North. Take four steps forward : you are now

travelling towards
the North. Now
turn round until
your back is to-
wards the North :
you are looking to-
wards the part of
the sky opposite to
the North, and this
direction is called
South : now walk
four steps forward :
you are travelling
towards the South.
These four direc-
tions, East, West, North, South, are the four chiej
directions. By them, when we travel, we can describe
the way we go; and by them, also, we can tell a stranger
how to find a place, if he ask us.

Exercise. — l. Stand on the north side of the room, and
take two steps east, two steps south, two steps west. 2. In what
directions does your shadow fall at midday, at sunrise, and at
sunset, respectively f \ In what part of the sky will a rainbow
appear in the evcnin" •( 4. If you watch the sun go down behind
a distant hill, in v**^ direction is the hill from you ?

4. The Noron Star. — We have now learned how
to tell direction by day when we can see the sun ; but
how can we tell east, west, north, or south by night —
especially if we are in a strange place 1 Well, on a clear
night, travellers on land, and sailors out on the sea, often
find their way by looking at the North Star. Ask some
one to point out to you the Dipper and the Pointers. By

PICTURES AND MAPS.

them, you can always tell which is the North Star, when
the stars are to Ije neen.

5. The Mariner's Oompass. - But if the sun and

stars were both hidden from sight, how could we then
determine which is
north 1 Some of
you have seen a
pocket compass. In
it there is a little
needle made of
steel, and this nee-
dle always points
to the north. Thus
this wonderful lit-
tle instrument en-
ables us to tell
which way is
north ; and by the
printed card within the compass, we can tell the four
-chief points or directions, and also the points between
these — north-east, south-east, south-west, north-west.
Thus yo.u see that the steersman of a ship, in the darkest
night, or the surveyor, in the midst of a dense forest,
knows how to go in whatever direction he wishes.

X
To the Teacher,— ExfAain to the pupils the directions, north-east, south-
east, etc. ; also the symbols N., S., E., W., N.E., S.E., N.W., S.W. Drill the
pupils thoroughly upon all these eight directions.

Exercise.— I. Point out theN.E. and the S.E. comeraof
^he schoolroom. 2. In what part of the sky is the sun in the

middle of tlie afternoon?
3. What direction is oppo-
site to S.E.? 4. If you
stand with your right arm
pointing to the north-east,
towards which part of the
bky is your face turned? 5.
Draw on your slates a cir-
cle to represent the Mari-
ner's Compass, tlien mark
lines to denote the eight
directions we have been
talking about. Put letters
at the ends of the lines to
tell the directions. Now
hold your slates so that
the proper line points to the east.

6. Distance. — But to tell where a place is, we need
to know another thing about it. First, we must get the
proper direction, then we must know how far it is from

us — that is, we must know its distance as well as its
direction. To be able to measure distances, and to make
other measurements, is a very important thing in the
study of Geography. You all know how to measure
short distances with the rule, and with the tape-line; and
you know the length of an inch, a foot, a yard, or a
mile. We shall now try to put some of your knowledge
into practice.

To the 7V(ieA«r.— Propose other questions and exorcises similar tothefoK
lowing, and induce the pupils to a8l< questions of thiir own. Explain the
meaning of the word right-angie. Direct the pupils to rule a margin on their
slates, and to number their answers to correspond to the questions

Exercise. — l. Name the direction of your own home from
the school. 2. Name tlie direction of the nearest church from
the school. 3. If you were to walk from the nearest post-cTice
to the school, name the direction and the distance of your walk.
4. What is the name '>f the nearest river or creek ? 5. Give its
direction and distance from die school. 6. In what general direc-
tion does the water run ? 7. Where is the nearest town or city T
In wliat direction is it from your house? 8. Mention in proper
order the different directions in which you have Ij walk in re-
turning home from school by the streets or roads. 9. IIow many
yards wide is the nearest road ? 10. How many feet wide is this
room? 11. How long is it? 12. How many M'indows are there
on the south side of the schoolroom? How many feet wide is
each window? 13. What is the length of the play-ground?
14. Name the directions of the lines M'hich might be drawn
between opposite corners of the schoolroom. 15. If the moon is
rising just as the sun is setting, describe the direction of a
straight line joining them. 16. What is the direction of a rail-
road which crosses at right angles a river running S.W. T 17.
A ship was sailing south and was struck squarely on the left
side by a steamer and sunk ; in what direction was the steamer
going?

LESSON III.

PICTURES AND MAPS.

1. Learning to make Maps. — Before you can

know much about Geography you must learn to ma.ke
maps and to understand what they mean ; and before
this lesson is over, we shall, I hope, bo able to make &
little map of our schoolroom upon the blackboard.

2. A Picture. — You all know what a picture is. If
I were to show you a picture of this schoolroom, you
know it would be much smaller t/uin the achoolrooat
itself. You would expect the picture to look as the
schoolroom would appear to a person standing in the

PICTURES AND MAPS.

doorway, or at the bock of the room. You would see
before you three walls, the clock and the maps on the
wall, and the seats and desks on the floor. And this

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picture, as you know, would show the heights of the
things in the room. Here, in your Geography is a
picture of a schoolroom something like your own.

3. A Bird's-Ey . View. — If, however, we were not
standing on the floo» but were looking through an open-
ing' in the ceiling, si. .ught down upon tlie floor and the
desks, we should see the tops of things— the tops~of the
desks, the tops of tlie seats, and so on. What we should
then see world have a very different appearance from
the view we had from the doorway; and because it would
look as bird would see it if lie were up in the air above
us, and the roof were lifted off, this view would be called
a bird's-eye view. And if this bird's-eye view were
set correctly down upon paper, or upon a blackboard,
so ^■'.lat the tops and edges of things were drawn, but not
their heights, as in a picture, then this drawing would
be called apian, and not a picture.

4. A Map. — Now a map is a plan, or a sort of
bird's-eye view, of a piece of country. It may be a
large piece, or it may be a very small piece, of country,
or it may be only so much as this very room covers.
You see, now, that it is easier to draw a map than a
picture ; for in a map we do not have to mark the
heights of things, but only their edges and their dis-
tances from each other. We must lie very exact about
directions and distances, since the usefulness of a map
depends very greatly upon the exactness with which
these are set down.

5. A Plan, or Map, of the Schoolroom. —

To make a map of our schoolroom we nmst first take
our tape-line and measure the side of the room carefully.
How many feet does the tape-line tell you it is 1 Very
well, set that number down on the blackboard. Now
let us see how many feet there are across the end of the
room. Set that, too, down on the blackboard. But in
our map on the blabk board we must represent the side»
and the ends of the schoolroom by lines much shorter tfian
t/is sides and the ends themselves ; for, if not, our map
would l)e too large. Suppose we draw a line fo»* each side,
as many inches long as there are feet in the side of the
room. This is what I should intend you to do, if 1
should say, " Use a scale of a foot to the inch." And
if we make all our lines — such as the widths of the win-
dows, the lengths of the desks, and so on — on this same
scale of a foot to the inch, our map will be a true map,
just as a photograph is a true view of a face, though it
is on a smaller scale than the face itself. So, wherever
we measure one foot in the room, we will represent that
foot, in our map on the blackboard, by one inch. And
now let us take the windows ; how wide are they 1 how
far apart are they % And now the door.

At last we have it di-awn. There are the sides, and
the ends, and here are the windows, all one foot to the
inch ; there is the door, also one foot to the inch. Now
we have the floor of the schoolroom, but there is nothing
on it. That will never
do. We must have
all the desks and the
teacher's table and chair.
Here, then, we put in
the desks, one foot to
the inch for length, and
the same for breadth.
The small oblong will
represent the teacher's
table; the square, the
teacher's chair ; and
this little circle will do for the paper basket This is
the map of our schoolroom ! Let us put N., E., S., and
W. at the proper sides, to mark north, east, south, and
west, and our map will be finished. You see it is very
much like the map of the schoolroom in your Geography :
only, that in the Geography, being in a book, has to be
on a very much smaller scale than ours upon the black-
board.

MAPDRAWINO.

Now take your slates, and see if you can draw this
map over again, on the scale of four feet to the inch,
instead of one foot to the inch. At the bott'im of your
map draw a line to show the scale, thus : —

ScALi-iN Fin.

i M 1 1 ■

Bzeroise. — 1. Draw a plan of thete' >^her'a table, two inches
to the foot, showing three books upon it. 2. Draw a plan of a
dinner-table with plates, large dishes, cups and saucers, etc.,
upon it. 3. Make a plan of a stable with four stalls for horses,
« manger, a bin for oats, a door, and two windows. 4. Draw a
plan of your church. Mark the seats, the pulpit, the doors,
the windows, the lobby, and the stoves. 5. Draw a plan of
your own house, showing the rooms, the halls, the stoves, the
tables, sideboards, book-cases, beds, sofas, and chairs.

LESSON IV.

MAPDRA WING. .

1. A Map of the School-Grounds.— In the last

lesson we began to learn how to make maps. Let ua
now extend our map-drawing to places beyond the school-
room. Suppose we take our tape-line and get the mea-
surements of the school-grounds ; and after that is done,
we shall Have to mark the distances of things from one
another, such as the sheds, the flower-beds, the pump,
the trees, etc. We shall measure the widths of the
paths, and also the width of the street, or road, which
passes in front of the gate. We will appoint two pupils
to hold the tape-line tight and even, two more to write
down the measurements on their slates, and two others
to make the map on the blackboard, after we come in. . .
And now we have the measurements on the two
slates. The mea.surements are set down in feet. What
is the next thing to be decided t The scale. That is
right. Let us use several scales this time. One of the
two pupils who are to make the map on the blackboard
shall make it on a scale of four feet to the inch. But
the other may draw the map on a scale of, say, eight
feet to the inch. The rest of the class may use their
slates, and draw their maps on a scale of sixteen feet
to the inch. Be sure to use your rules carefully, and
get your maps ^.r .e ti the scale. And when these maps
are finished, vd ahall see that they are like three differ-

ent photographs of the same face, in this way, — they
ure all true copies of the one real thing, though they are
of three different sizes ; that is, as we say of maps, the}
are drawn on three different scales,

2. Importance of the Scale.— And now yoB

begin '/o see why it is that, in looking at any map, in 8
book or on a wall, you must never forget to notice tht
scale V 'lich you will find marked at the bottom of the
map. For on one map an inch may stand for a mile,
while on another map it might stand for a hundred, or
even a thousand miles. Here is a map showing a

5n«TH

schoolhouse and its grounds, and the places near by.
Look at the line which you see marked at the bottom,
and tell me what its scale is. Two hundred feet to the
inch, you say. That is right. Now each of you may
rule an inch at the foot of your map, and mark upon
it the scale you have used.

3. Which side of the Map shall be North ?—

There is one more thing to do before the maps art
completed. You have made your maps just as the
grounds lie. Now which side of your map stands foi
the north side of our school-grounds ? Mark that sidt
north. Maps are usually made with the top for tJie
north. Now turn your slates, so that the north side
shall be at the top. I£ l!ie maps on the blackboard are
not made with the top for the north, we shall have to
make them over again, for we cannot turn the black-
board round. Now, when the top is north, which sides
will be south, east, and west? Mark these directions
upon your maps, and they will then be complete.

MAP-BRA WING.

4. A still larger Map— Do you think that now
we can make a map of a farm divided into fields 1 You
aan easily mark the house, the barns, the stables, the
orchard, the lane up through the middle of the farm,
and a piece of woods at the back with a creek running
through it.

To the Teacher.— U your school Is in a town or city, and some of the pupils
are unacquainted with a farm, let them nialce a map of the streets and blocks
tn the immediate vicinity of the school, instead of a map of a farm.

Sxercise. — l. Name the principal roads or streets, neairst
your home, which run east and west. 2. Name those whicli run
north and south. 3 What is the direction of the road in front
of the Bchoolhouse gate? 4. What is its width ? 5. Are there
any streams near the schoolhouse ? In what general direction
do they run? 6. Make a map of a garden. Mark the paths,
flower-beds, trees, and shrubs. Put dots to represent the trees
and shrubs. 7. Draw a map of two roads, or streets, crossing
each other. Represent a house at one corner and two trees at
another corner. Put in a crooked line to stand for a creek
crossing one of the roads a little way from the corners. 8. State
the direction of the nearest post-office from the school. Mark
the position of both the school and post-office on the black-
board, and indicate correctly the directions of the roads joining
them. 9. What is the nearest railroad? Which way does it
go? 10. How many miles distant is the 'nearest town or city?
Represent the direct distance by a line, using a scale of two
miles to the inch. 11. Make upon the blackboard a map M'hich
will show the schoolhouse, the city, and the railrc d, in their
prope** positions, and the directions of the roads joining them.
Use a scale of one mile to the inch. 12. Explain the difference
between a picture and a map. 13. Which direction should the
top of a map represent ? Which the bottom ? Which the right
side? Which the left side ? 14. If a map be laid upon the floor,
what part of it should face the west? 15. If a map be hung
on a wall, what direction doss the upper part of the map repre-
sent? 16. If a fly is crawling up towards the top of a map
upon a wall, is the fly travelling to the north ?

LESSON V.

MAPDRA WING.— Continued.

1. A Map of a Town, — Here we have a map of
a small town. There is one main street going north and
south, and another going east and west. You see that
the river runs south-cast, and tliat the factory lies to the
north-west of the town. Now, notice the scale. One inch,
you see, stands for 500 feet. Take a narrow piece of
paper, and mark it ofF in inches very exactly, and use it
to measure the distances on the map. You need not

measure by the roads, but straight a^crcss, " as the bird
flies." Since one division of the paper measures 500 feet»
we find, by applying the paper to the map, that Mr.
Smith's house is about one thousand feet from the centra
of the little town.

Scale -IN Feet.

I \ \ L_

250

600

Bxeroise. — l. How far is it from the cross-roads to the
factory? 2. In what direction is the school from the hotels
3. In what direction is the court-house from the school ? 4. In
what direction is the mill from the court-house ? 5. How far is-
the mill from the cemetery ? 6. In what direction is the factory
from the south boundary line ? 7. How far do Mr. Smith's chil-
dren have to walk to school by the road? 8. How far is it-
from the cross-roads to the north boundary line ?

To the TeacAer.— Help the pupils to make a map, similar to the above, of
the village, or of the school section, in which they live. But if your school be
in a large town or a city, let ti>em make a map of as many of the blocks and
streets in the vicinity of the school as you think they will be able to da
well. Before entering upon the work of the next section, explain fully to the
pupils what a township is.

2. A Map of a Township.— Most of our town-
ships are bounded by straight lines. Many of our roads
also are quite straight, and cross each other at right
angles. Now, if you can find out the distances from
corner to. corner of the township in wiiich you live, and
then the nuraVier of roads running north and south, and
also of those running east and west, I think you can
make a map of it. You would first decide upon a scale.

ic ^^

MAPS.

One mile to the iuch would be a good scale to use.
Apply your scale, and lay down everything on your
map as accurately as you can. Draw the boundary
.roads first, then the other roads. After the roads are
all drawn, mark down what rivers, creeks, lakes, or
ponds there may be, and the railroads, if there be any ;
also mark down as many schoolhouses, churches, mills,
factories, foundries, hotels, etc., as you can. Probably
there will be some places in the township which you
have not visited ; you may ask your friends about theae.

Scale— IN Miles.

I I

Here is a specimen map of a township, which will
guide you. Notice how the railroads are marked, also
the common roads. In drawing your map avoid the
crossing of lines where roads meet. You see that the rivers
and creeks are marked by irregular wavy lines, thus : — •
^^,;^ 2^^<>;;^v^^a^i^i^^'y>>» rr~"i' "~ On your map mark
villages with a full point (•) ; towns, with a larger point
in a circl'j (0); and cities, with a -ossed square (|3).

If you wish to mark a lake or part of a lake, you
may represent the water by fine lines ruled parallf^l to
the bottom of the map ; or you may draw wavy lines
round the borders, as you see in the map o ' the town-

ship. Ridges of hills may be shown by a series of
crosses (xxxxxxx). Mountains are generally marked
with a dotted line •••'*~*^'V'''\^~'''^, which is afterwards

fringed thus : P^^^^^- The lettering should be

neatly done, and you should write the names upon a
clear space, as far as you can.

3. A County. — Most of you know that every town-
ship contains a number of school sections, and that a
county is made up of several townships taken together.

Sxercise. — l. In what county do you live? 2. How many
townships does it contain ? 3. Write down their names in order.
4. In what township do you live? 5. What railroads pass
through your county? 6 What are the names of the towns in
your county? 7. Which of them is the county -town? 8. W^hat
public buildings are there in that town ? 9. Why is it called
the county -town ? /

4. A Map of a County.— With the information
that you now have concerning the county in which you
live, and with a little help from your friends, you can
easily draw a map of it. Try it ; with the practice you
have already had, you will succeed much better than
you expect.

Preserve all your maps with care. You will take
pleasure in looking at them years hence, as mementos
of your happy school days.

LESSON VI.

A TALK ABOUT PRINTED MAPS.

1. A Map of a Large Country.— If you knew

all the roads, towns, rivers, etc., of the next county, you
could draw a map of it and join it, in proper position,
to the map of your own county. You might, then, in
the same way add the next county, and the next, until
at last your small map would become a very large one,
and would represent the whole province in which we
live. This is, in fact, the way in which all large maps
have to be made. Men who are called surveyors go out
into the country and measure all the distances, just as
you measured the schoolrooin and the school-grounds.
Then they sit down in their offices and i-epresent all these
distances upon a map. They mark the important places
so as to represent their directions and distances from

i l li-iXJi Jii...-«.J

«iSSi«3Sh3mB

one another. They use their scale very carefully, and
when the map is at last finished, any person, who under-
stands what the marks on a map mean, can study it and
find out all about the roads, the rivers, the towns, etc.,
almost as well as if he were to travel over the whole
country himself.

2. Meaning of Geographical Terms.— You

must now learn how to study a map, so that you may
be able to obtain from it as much information as pos-
sible in regard to places you have never seen.

You will all the time be using geographical terms,
about many of which you have, perhaps, already learned
something ; but you nmst now learn to know them
thoroughly. Let us see how much your present know-
ledge of geographical terms will help you in talking
about the various forms of land and water.

Here is a picture. (You notice, do you not, that it
is a picture, and not a map?) You see on the left a
town built upon the shore of a harbor, upon which are
two sail-boats. A railroad and a telegraph line connect
the town with inland places. About the harbor there
are five pieces of land surrounded by water. These, as
you know, are islands. Two of the islands separate the
harbor from a bay. On the bay is a row-boat going
towards a high cliff. On the top of the cliff you see
a lighthouse. You tell me that the narrow stretches of
water between the islands themselves, and also those
between the islands and the mainland, aro called straits.
That is right. You can count eight straits iu the picture.

(8)

There is one piece of land almost surrounded by water
That is a peninsula, you say ; and the narrow neck join-
ing the peninsula to the mainland is an isthmus. On
the other side of the' peninsula, there is a ship at the
mouth of another harbor, and near the ship you can see
a cape, or headland, jutting out into the water. Beyond
the harbors, and the peninsula, and the headland, lies
some great lake or sea, or perhaps the wide ocean
thousands of miles in breadth. The line where the sky
and the earth appear to meet is called the horizon. In
the picture, the horizon is where the sky'and water meet.
If you go to the top of a high hill, the sky and the earth
will seem to meet on all sides of you, and you will find
that the horizon is really a circle. In this picture we
see only a small part of the horizon, and it is represented
by a straight line.

Here is a pic-
ture of a volcano,
or burning moun-
tain. From the top
of it flame, smoke,
ashes, and melted
vock, called lava,
are sometimes
thrown out. The
opening at the top
is called tlie crater,
which means the
cup. This cup is sometimes half a mile, or even a mile wide.
In the next picture are two cities on opposite sides of

RAILWAYS—A CITY.

7 K

4. The Railway Station.— We now come to the

railway station, where we shall buy our tickets for the
city. These long buildings near the station are the
railway workshops, where cars and locomotives are re-
paired. Over there you see the round-house, in which
engines are kept ; and there, too, are the freight sheds
and the grain warehouse. This extensive yard covered
with iron tracks is used for cars and trains to run
out upon, to make way for other trains to pass. Two
railways cross one another here, and form a luilway
junction. ,

5. A Railway Train. — Yonder is our train stand-
ing 0.1 the track beside the platform. Look at the power-
ful engine, with its immense furnace and boiler. As
you draw near, you can see how bright and clean every-
thing about it is kept by the engineer and the fireman.
Immediately behind the engine is the tender, which car-
ries the coal or wood used on the engine. You see that
the engines in the yard are of different sizes. They
"weigh from twenty to fifty tons each, and are each worth
from ten thousand to thirty thousand dollars. Some of
them can draw a train of forty live-stock and freight
«ars, filled with cattle and horses, sheep and pigs, grain,
lumber, coal, iron, and general merchandise, and weigh-
ing in all from one thousand to two thousand tons. Or
the train we are going to take, which is called a pas-
senger train, there are, besides the engine and the tender,
•express and baggage cars ; and here is the mail car, in
Avhich the mail clerk is busy sorting letters, papers, and
parcels, and getting everything ready to receive .•..id
distribute the mail at the different stations as the train
passes along. Besides these, there are first-class and
second-class passenger coaches, and luxurious drawing-
room and sleeping coaches. On some lines' of railway
there are also dining coaches attached to passenger
trains. As these various coaches are worth from ten ■^o
fifteen thousand dollars each, you now have some idea
■of the cost of an ordinary railway train.

As we glide along the smooth rails, at a rate of from
tin'enty to forty miles an hour, we cannot but wonder at
the great skill of the men who invented this swift and
comfortable mode of travelling, and at. the enterprise oic
those who overcome all the difficulties that lie in the
way of making a railway. Observe the high embank-
ments, the long iron bridges spanning the valleys, the
deep cuts and tunnels through the hills, a you will

more fully understand what is represented by the little
lines en your map which you call railways.

Bzeroise. — l. Write out in your own words th" meanings
of the following geographical terms: — Lake, bay, inlet, harbor,
sound, strait, channel, river, cataract, island, archipelago,
isthmus, mountain. 2. Point out on the map of Ontario an
illustration oi each of tlie geographical terms mentioned in the
previous question. .** Make a Ust from your map of the large
rivers and lakes that form boundaries to Oatario. 4. With the
map before you, write out lists of the counties of Ontario that
border upon— (1) Georgian Bay, (2) Lake Huron, (3) Lake Erie,
(4) Lake Ontd,rio, (5) River St. Lawrence, (6) River Ottawa.
5. Make a list of the counties that do not border upon any
large lake or river. 6. What things ought one particularly to
observe in travelling if one wishes to extend one's knowledge
of geography? 7. What are the chief employments of the
farmer? How does he make his living? 8. What is agricul-
ture ? 9. What are the chief employments of the people who
live in towns? 10. How do mechanics, nerchants, bankers,
and other townspeople, make their living? H. What is meant
by trade? 12. What is meant by manufcuturxng? 13. Show
how the people of the town are dependent upon the pr ople of
the country, and how tho people of the country are dept,:<dent

upon the people of the town. 14. Explain in your own words :

County-town, court-house, county-court, registry-office, judge,
sherifiF, councillors. 16. Of what use are railways ?

LESSON IX.

AN IMAGINARY JOURNEY— Continued.

1 . A Oity. — At the end of our firSt trip by rail we
find ourselves entering a city, where we shall spend a
few hours. We alight from the train, and soon leave
behind us the immense glass-covered depot, with its din
of travellers from all parts of the country, and even
from foreign lands. Out in the busy street we find a
change — people are hurrying to and fro, boys on errands,
ladies shopping, and men hastening to their places of
business. Here, just ready to start, is a street car, which
will take us along the principal streets and thoroughfares.
You see that many of the streets are paved with blocks
of wood, and that metal tracks are laid for the cars. Of
those street lamps that you see, some are lighted by
means of gas, and others by electricity. Those wires,
strung plong the tops of high posts and passing over
houses, vonduct the electricity, which lights the lamps
and works the telegraph instruments, the telephones,
and the fire-alarm system. From the miles of shoos

AN IMAGINARY JOURNEY.

and warehouses in sight, we can judge what a large
number of people are here engaged in commercial life ;
and from the busy crowds going to and fro in all
directions, wo may form an estimate of the amount of

business transacted.

2. Spme Manufactories.— Let us now notice

what the people of the city are doing. Many of them are
engaged in making things that contriljute to our welfare
and Iiappiness. That large building on our right is a
cotton factory. The cotton comes to it in bales, and
goes out from it in the form of cloth. The long room
in which fifty people or more are busy, the hundreds of
spindles twisting the cotton into thread, and the many
looms with their shuttles dashing to and fro, weaving
the thread into cloth, make a most wonderful sight.

INTERIOR OP A COTTON FACTORY.

In that long car-shop there are several hundred men at
work ; they are making railway cars and coaches, such
as those we saw and rode ia to-day. In that foundry,
likewise, just beyond the car-shops, many men are
employed ; but these are making stoves of everv Vmd.
Up this street to the left, we shall come, fii'st to a car-
riage factory, then to a sewing machine factory, and
next, to a large factory where men are manufacturing
agricultural implements, such as reapers, threshers,
gang-ploughs, etc.; and in those places yonder, where
you see the tall smoke-stacks, steam-engines are made,
and the heavy maehinciy used in mills. Here is an oil
refinery, where the crude petroleum, as it comes from
the earth, is purified and converted into the clear, refined
oil that we use in our lamps. Up this street are an
organ factory and a piano factory, side by side ; and
farther along we shall pass a large building in which all

kinds of furniture are made. But you will wonder more
at what we shall see in this large printing and publish-
ing house, to which we will pay a short visit. Here booka
and papers are printed. See the huge printing presses.
Does it not seem strange that such large machinea
should be used to produce such fine and delicate work
as the page of a book ] Some of these presses cost aa
much as six or eight thousand dollars each.

It would take many days to examine minutely into
the work that is going on all o\ er the city ; but you
have seen enough to show you that the people are chiefly-
occupied with manufactures, or are engaged in mercan^
tile pursuits.

3. Public Institutions.— In that large park-likft
; enclosure upon our right, you see the Exhibition Build-
ings, where once a year a display is made of the things,,
the best of their kind, that the people from both the citjr
and the country round can produce. Then all kinda
of agricultural products may be seen there, machinery,
pianos, handsome furniture, collections of the birds,.
i.isects, plants, and stones of the country, besides frv ita
and flowers, beautiful toys, and many other things. Ta
know that their products will be compared with those of
others, encourages people to take every pains to make them.
better and better year by year ; and thus, you see, the-
exhibition does much good by improving all the products
of the country. If you were to visit one of these exhi-
bitions you would increase your knowledge of geography
in a very pleasant way, and gain much information con-
cerning the reso irces of your country.

If we had more time, you would take much pleasure
in visiting some of the schools and colleges of the city,
the hospitals, t}ie many fine churches, the lunatic asylum,
the blind asylum, the school for the deaf and dumb, and
the free public library where the poorest people of the
city may obtain any books they may wish to read.

4. Under the Streets.— " But why," you ask,,

" are those men digging a deep hole right in the middle
of the street 1 " They are going to mend a water-pipe
which runs under the roadway and brings water to all
the houses of the city from a large reservoir outside of it,
made like a small lake, and kept filled with water from.
some lake or spring farther away. Down under the streeta
are also tlie gas-pipes, and the large drains called sewers.
How very different is all this busy hive of people from

ire- ,^

fcy»

WHARVES— OIL WELLS.

the silent forest that stood here not many years ago i
And how different it is, also, from the quiet farming
district, and from the town that we saw this morning !

5. The Wharves. — As this city has a fine harbor,
before we take the train again, let us go down to the
wharves and docks, nnd look at the shipping. Here
are many steamers and sailing vessels, some of them from
a distant country. Here, too, are barges of lumber, which
have been brought down the large river at your right.
And yonder you see several lishing-smacks coming in.
They are laden with fish caught in nets during the night.
Out yonder are two yachts. The wharves here present
as busy a scene as did the streets up in the city. The
work of lading and unlading the vessels is constantly
going on. You see that coal is being unshipped there ;
and here, boxes of oranges, casks of sugar, and bales of
cotton ; while yonder is a vessel being laden with wheat
and barley for some distant port.

il \

LESSON X.

A SECOND JOURNEY.

To the r«acA«r.— Place the wall map of Ootario before the olav a^ii point
out the places mentioned in the lesson. Supplement the text \riih further
details, and draw from the pupils what they may have learned from their
own observation. Encourage them to ask questions ; in fact, let your
teaching be as much as possible a continued conversation between youTMlt
And your pupils.

1. Oil W^ellS. — To-day we shall make another im-
aginary journey. The first place we will visit shall be
the oil district in the County of Lambton; and there you
will see how the oil which we burn in our lamps is
obtained from the earth. These oil wells are made by
boring; and though some of them are five hundred feet
deep, they are only a few inches in diameter. As mood

.6. Names and Things. — And now that our visit

to the city is over, and we are upon our journey home-
ward, you are thinking of the difference between the
small circle on the map, which you call a city, and the
city itself. We could not possibly picture the city, as it
really is, upon the map, and so we set that little mark
down to represent it. In the same way, we draw a
wandering line to mark where a river runs, or a line of
crosses to mark a range of hills ; but you would learn
very little of Geography if, when you see the marks r.iul
lines on your map, you did not always think of the re.'il
things which they stand f oi- — the busy, stirring city ; the
winding, gliding river, bearing ^"^^ts upon its waters ; j
the lofty hills, which hide the sunset from our view. '
You are beginning to see that studying Geography means
II, great deal more than merely learning the names of
things.

Exercise.— 1. What is a city ? 2. Make a list of as many
cities of Ontario as you know of, and find tliem on the map.
3. What are the various principal occupations of the people who
live in cities ? 4. Write out a list of the principal manufactures
fc'und in Can' Jian cities. 5. Give some account of the telegraph
system. 6. Give some account of tlie telephone. 7. How are
letters and papers sent from one part of the country to another?
8. How are goods brought to us from foreign countries ? 9. Give
some account of the following public institutions: — a college, a
hospital, an asylum, a gaol, an exhibition building.

OIL WELL AND DERRICK.

as the oil is reached, iron tubing is let down, and the
steam pump, which goes night and day, is set to work
to pump up the crude oil, as it is called, from its deep
home. As we approach we notice the derricks, or scaf-
folds, erected over each well. To the derricks are fastened
windlasses and long ropes, by which the drilling tools
and the iron tubing are lowered into tlie wells. You see
that one steam-engine wprks the pumps of several wells at
once. Everything around s)nells of petroleum, and the
ground is soaked with it. Hore-is a new well that does
not need a pump. It is a flowing well, from which the
oil pours, like water from a spring. Yonder a train of
tank cars tilled with crude oil, is starting off for an oil
refinery like the one we saw in the city.

A SECOND JOURNEY— vSALT WELLS— LUMBERING.

Sometimes there is an escape of natural '^as from a
well, and should it catch fire from lightning or by acci-
dent, there would be great danger of the men in attend-
ance being burnt to death.

If you consider that, besides l»Tip oil, many other use-
ful products come from this petroleum, or rock oil, such
as vaseline, naphtha, and the paraffine fronj which
candles are made, you will understand that these oil
wells are very valuable to the people of this country^
Our chief oil wells are at Petrolia and its neighborhood,
and in Petrolia most of the crude oil is refined.

2. Salt Wells— Next

we visit Goderich — having
made the journey from Pe-
trolia by rail, through Lon-
don and Clinton. In this
town, and at Seaforth, at
Clinton, at Blyth, and at
Kincardine, are a number
of salt wells. You see they
are similar in appearance to
the oil wells at Petrolia.
There are derricks, and pipes
for carrying away the brine,
and steam pumps which
bring it up from a depth of
eleven or twelve hundred
feet. The brine is poured
into large evaporating pans,
and boiled down, after
which the salt is raked out
from the bottom. These

pans are so large that one of them alone will produce
from a hundred to a hundred and fifty barrels of salt
in a day, ten cords of wood being consumed in the
process.

nearly two hundred miles broad ; so, if we were in tne
middle of the lake, we might keep on sailing for a long
time without coming in sight of land. See the white sails
of the fishing-boats ! The fishermen who are in them are
catching whitefish and salmon trout. Our fisheries are
very valuable, and produce for us a great deal of delicious
food. Here is a large raft of timber coming down the lake.
Do you see that it consists of thousands of logs securely
lashed together, and that it is towed by a steam-tug, to
which it is fastened by a strong cable 1 How slowly it
seems to go! Those men who are on it appear to be

3. A Sail to a Lumber District. — Here at

Goderich we can go aboard one of our large lake
steamers and take a trip to a lumber region, where we
may see for ourselves how the great pines of our forests
are made into planks, boards, laths, shingles, and timber,
for building houses and ships, and for other purposes.

Now we are out on Lake Huron ! The land recedes
almost from sight as we steam ahead. This lake is
aearly three hundred miles long, and it is in one place

A LOMBER PORT.

enjoying an idle life in their little house, or hut. But if
a great storm should arise, and the white-capped waves
dash over their raft, they would be in great danger.
Perhaps the cable by which they are made fast to
the tug might snap, or even the lashings of Cab raft
itself might breal:, and they would then be left to the
mercy of the waves.

4. Saw-mills. — While we have been talking, and
watching the scenery along the distant shores, and the
white gulls flying around our vessel, we have sailed a
long distance, and now you see we are approaching the
north shore of tlie Georgian Bay. Away up there, in
the north-west corner of the bay, is the little village of

FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH.

tne
mg
ails
are
are
ous
,ke.
•ely
, to
f it
be

er.
to
ift
he

in
of

Killamey, where live l. any of the fishermen whom we
saw a little while ago in their boats. From the country
on this north shore, as you will soon see, a great deal of
our lumber comes.

Here we are on land again' ! As we walk away from
the dock we hear the loud puffing of an engine, . the
merry whiz and ring of saws, and the general clatter of
an immense saw-mill. Look at those thousands of logs
in the bay and the river, confined by long timbers chained
together, called booms. A man, there, is floating two
logs forward to the e'evator. At a signal from him, up
they go into the mill ! Observe how machinery, that
men contrive, does hard work for them. See how,
when one man touches a lever, the macliinery seizes a
great log and whisks it about as though it were a mere
plaything. Now the large circular saws are stripping
off the slabs ; now the great gang-saw, with its dozen
or more blades, is rushing through two logs at once,
and in two or three minutes it has made them into
boards. Close at hand, the lath machine and the shingle
saws are turning the slabs and rough boards into mate-
rials for our houses. Notice the little horse-cars which
are taking the lumber down to the water's edge, where
men are loading large schooners with it. Some of those
great stacks of lumber that you see piled yonder, are
twenty-five feet high and half a mile long. You can
now understand why lumbering is said to be one of the
great occupations, or industries, of our country. We
manufacture and sell millions of dollars' worth of lumber
every year ; and in its production thousands of nifn are
employed. This north shore country is not the only
important lumber district in Ontario ; a great deal of
lumber comes from the country along the Ottawa River,
and much also is made around the lakes and branches of
the Trent River. If we could visit any of these lumbering
districts in winter, we should find men cutting down
trees, sawing them into logs, hauling them to a lake or
river, and piling them on the ice, or upon the bank. In
the spring these logs are floated down through the small
lakes and rivers, over timber slides in some places, until
they reach a large river or lake, where they are either
cut up at once into lumber, or made into rafts to be
floated to Quebec or to some other distant place. i

And now, as we are upon the homeward road of our
imaginary journey, let us reflect how the lives of all these
people differ from one another — the lumbermen, the men
who work at the salt wells, those who work at the oil i
4

wells, the people of the city, of the town, and of the
quiet country.

To the TeaeKer.—Ihe three preceding leaiona were dinply exempUflsatlon*
of a method of developing in the pupils euoh a habit of obeervation aa will b»
conducive to the obtaining of geographical knowledge. It ia recommended
that all lesions in the subject at this stage be conversational in form. (Th«
part to be taken by the pupils has necessarily been omitted from the models
here given.) In all these conversations the teacher should keep constantly in
mind what things are to be aimed at in his teaching. The study of Qeoornphy
(as understood in this text-book) has a very deflntte end In view— (Ae itud]/ of
the earth a» an abode /or man. Hence in studying a particular part of th«
earth, the first things to be learned are, its potition on the earth's surface, and
its phytical features, fiinoe these greatly affect climate, soil, vegetation, animal
life, and mineral wealth, and, hence, men's life, and everything that he doea.
Then next the climate and toil should be studied. Then what grows in the
country, that is, its vegetation, and how far this Is naturally utejut to man, and
how far it can be made so. Then the animal li/e of the country should \m
studied, since this affects the habits and industries of the inhabitants in many
ways. For a similar reason the teojiomie minerals should then be taken upt
Then the people themselves should b<9 studied, their character and habits;
then what us» they m^i^ of their natural advantages of position, climate,
vegetation, animal life, and mineral wealth— in short, their occupations; then
what great works they have built to Increase the value of their natural advan-
tages, such as railuoays, oannls, telegraphs, and so on ; and finally, whak
they are doing in establishing for themselves good systems of government,
education, and religion. Very much more Is, of course, comprised in the
study of Geography, especially in regard to the laws which govern natural
phenomena, but much of this must necessarily be left until the pupils cao
enter upon the Advanced Oeography.

^ LESSON XL

FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH.

1 . The Horizon. — Wherever we are, if our view is
unobstructed, the sky and land seem to meet before us.
If we are on a wide, l^vel plain, they seem to meet on
all sides and form a circle about us, which, as we learned
in Lesson VI., is called the Iiorizon. If we are out on a
wide lake, the sky and the water seem to meet in a well-
defined circle, of which we are the centre. We also find,
as we get upon the top of a high building, or climb a
lofty tower, or ascend a high hill, that this circle grows
larger and larger, and the horizon more and more dis-
tant, the higher we ascend ; and if we were to go up in
a balloon we should find the same thing.

Perhaps this will lead you to think that you could see
the whole world at once, if you could but 3limb high
enough. Let us examine into it, and see how that
would be. , * -

To the Teacher.— It is impera^'ive that actual illustrations accompany this
lesson. An apple or a ball may be substituted for the orange. The pupUa
should be reiiuired to draw diagrams of large size on the blackboiutl, to
exemplify the statements of the text.

KOTUNDITY OP THE EARTH ILLUSTRATED.

First Expeuiment. — Let us observe two flies walking
about on the top of a smooth table. As we watch them,
it is plain that each fly can see the whole of the other
fly, as long as they keep upon the surface of the table.
When they are near they will seem to each other to be
of theii usual size ; but the further apart they go the
amaller will they seem to each other to be ; still,
wherever either fly goes on the top of the table, the
other can see the whole of his body; r-id this would be
true, no matter how large the table might be.

Second Experiment. — Now we will take an orange
and lay it on the table, and suppose the two flies to light
on it, one at A, and the other at B. The lines in the
picture show the directions in which they can look. Each
line is called the line of vision. While they remain in
these positions, the flies cannot possibly see each other,
for the whole orange is between them. But let B creep
slowly round to the
point C, which is just
on A'slineof vision. A
can now see the top of
B's head, but B's body ^--""
is still hidden from A
by the curve of that -.,
partof theorangethat ""'••
lies between them.
When B comes up
still nearer, A will see
more and more of him, and B will see more and aiore
of A, until at length they will be in full sight of
each other.

2, The Earth is round like the Orange.— Now

see whether you can find anything like tliis in what I
am next going to tell you ; only, instead of thinking of

(18)

little things like the surface of the orange and two flies,
you must think of the wide surface of the earth and large
objects like men and ships. If, upon a very clear day,
you were watching for a sliip coming home across the
lake or the ocean, you would not see the whole ship
at once ; you would first notice a tiny speck — this would
be the top-mast of the ship — then this speck would grow
larger and the upper parts of the sails would appear;
then more and more of the sails, then the upper part of
the hull, and at last^ the whole ship would be in sight.
Now which do you think this is most like — our first
experiment with the flat table or our second experi-
ment with the orange? "The second," you all say, after
thinking for a moment. And it is nothing else than
the curved part of the earth that would hide the lower
part of the ship from our sight until she had sailed
round it; just as it was the curved part of the orange that
hid the little fly B's body from his friend A. And this
tells us that ti'.e surface of the land and water must be
curved. People in every part of the world observe
that ships always come into sight in this way, no matter
from what direction they are con)ing ; and this proves
that the earth must be curved in every part, and so must
be round like the orange, — not round like a fifty-cent
piece, nor round like ,

large roller.

3. "What Magellan did. — More than three hun-
dred years ago Magellan sailed round the world; and
since his time hundreds of ships have done the same
thing. If wo chose to take the journey ourselves we
could now make it in about three months ; and when we
had gone completely round the world we should have
travelled abcut 25,000 miles. Of course, no one has ever
been able to make a hole completely through the earth ;
but by calculation it has been found that the diameter
of the eart): is nearly 8,000 miles- If a well were dug

DAY AND NIGHT.

/•>

down to tlie centre of the earth it would be 4,000 miles
deep, or about twelve times the distance between Mont-
real and Toronto.

To ihe T«<ieA«r,— Whenever experiments or lllustrattoni are necesury, do
not be content with makinif them and explaining them yourself ; endeavor
Always to got the pupils also to make them, and to explain them to one an-
other. At eaoh step In the work test their knowledge with suitable questions. ;

Exercise.— 1. What is the horizon? 2. How can you in- ]
urease your horizon ? 3. Describe our first experiment. What
does it show? 4. Draw on the blackboard a re-iresentation of 1
our second experiment, and explain it in your own words, i
-6. Describe how a ship would come into our sight in sailing i
tovards us across the sea. 6. What reason, then, have you for
thinking that the world is round? 6. Why do you think the
world is round like a ball, and not round like a large roller?
8. If the earth is round like an orange, why does it appear to
US to be flat ? 9, How long would it take a railway train to
travel round the earth's circumference, running night and day
at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour ? 10. If the earth were
perfectly flat, when the sun rises it would make morning for
all parts of the world at the same time: can you show, with a
4amp and a table, that this statement is tine ?

into the darkness on the other side ; so that, no matter
how I manage, I cannot get more than one-half into
the light at once. (2) The two points through which
tlie needle passes do not move. These two points are
called the iwhs. The line joining these points, or poles,
along which the needle passes, and round which the
orange turns, is called the axis. Now, with a piece
of chalk I will draw a circle round the orange, exactly
midway between the poles. This circle may bo called
the equator of the orange ; and if the orange were cut in
two there, both parts would be exactly equal. Let us

LESSON XII.

DAY AND NIGHT.—LINES ON THE GLOBE.

1. Day and Night. — First Experiment. — Since
■we have found out that the immense globe on which we
live is round like an orange, in the experiment which we
shall now make we will take an orange to represent it.
Let us put il knitting needle through the centre of the
orange, so that one end comes out at its stem, and the
•other at the point opposite the stem; and let us put
■one end of the needle into a large, heavy pincushion, to
hold the orange firm and steady in the air. We will
stick a common pin into the orange to represent a man
on the earth, pushing the pin in so far that its head
rests upon the surface. Then let us carry orange,
•cushion, and all, into a dark room, (or else darken this
room); and let us get a lighted lamp, which we will
take to represent the sr.n.

We are ready to begin. Now watch closely, and
remember what you see. As I take hold of the top of
the needle and twist it slowly around, you observe two
.things; — (1) Only one-half of the orange is lighted at
a time by the lamp, which stands on the table. I may
turn it so as to 1 Hng a dark part into the light, but as
iM)on as I do this, just as much of the light part goes

put the pin, which represents our man, near the equator,
and facing the lamp, which represents the sun.

I now twist the orange slowly through a quarter of a
circle. This brings the pin to the line where the light
ceases to shine upon the orange. This line which divides
the dark half of the orange from the light half is called
the circle of illumination. A slight turn more sands the
pin into the dark. Turn on, until it has gone another
quarter of the circle. The pin is now in the middle of
the dark half of the orange ; that is, of the dark hemi-
spliere, as it is called, since "hemisphere" means half a
sphere, or half of anything round like an orange. Again
I twist the orange through a quarter of the circle, and
the pin is just coming into light again, at the circle of
illumination. Another quarter's turn brings the pin back
to the point of starting, and the lamp is again shining
directly upon it, as at first.

Second Experiment. — We will now repeat this experi-
ment with the school globe, which we will suspend by a
string. We will make a dot for the man, and draw a
line for the equator. You see, do you not, that it is the
spinning of the globe before the lamp that brings light
and darkness to every part of it in succession ?

;0NES-CONTINENTS-OCEANS.

2. The Earth turning on its Axis.— Now let ua

fancy that the little orange expands into a huge globe
the aize of our earth, 25,000 miles in circumference ; let
us imagine that the feeble lamp grows into our greu"-
and dazzling sun, millions of miles away. In place of
the pin, let us think of ourselves "tanding upon our
huge globe; and then, as this globe tui-ns round and
round on its axis, 8,000 miles long, you can under-
stand how we regularly pass through times of light
and darkness in succession. These times are what we call
day and night. The earth spins round its axis once every 1
twenty-four hours, while the sun shines steadily in the i
sky. There is a bright side and a dark side of the earth
all the time. If the earth were to stand still for a week,
one side of the world would have daylight for a week, and
for a whole week the other side would have night. But
this the earth never does. It keeps constantly turning,
and so we have day and nigfht with the utmost regularity.

3. Imaginary Lines. — But you must not suppose i

that there is any great rod round which the earth turns,
as the orange turns round the needle. The axis of the i
earth is only an imaginary line, and its equator is also
an imaginary line. The poles, which are at the ends of
the axis, are points, and cannot be actually seen. We '
speak of them as the north pole and the south pole; and
the hemisphere in which the north pole is, we call the |
northern hemisphere, and that in wiiich the south pole i
is, we call the southern hemispJiere. !

4. Which way does the Earth turn?— We

now know-that the earth must turn at the rate of 25,000
miles in twenty-four hours; that is, any place on its
equator is moving at that rate, or faster than 1,000
miles in one hour, or about seventeen times as fast as
our swiftest railway trains, since these travel at a rate
of only sixty miles an hour. Now, when we are on a
fast railway train, the trees and houses and telegraph
poles all seem to be running past us in the opposite direc-
tion to that in which our train is going, although we know
that they are quite still and it is really only ourselves
and the train that move. Just in the same way the
sun seems to us to be travelling from east to west, while
it is really our earth which is constantly turning round
in the other direction from west to east. And for the
very same reason the moon and all the stars seem to us
to move from east to west, while in reality it is we who
are moving in the opposite direction.

5. Tlie Earth also revolves round the Sun.—

The eart-h has another motion besides that round ita
axis. It also revolves once a year round the sun ; and
this revolution, and the fact that the axis of the earth
it, inclined to the plane in which the earth moves, are the
causes of the four seasons of our year — spring, summer,
autumn, winter. But this is too hard for you to under-
stand just ow. You will be able to understand it more
easily when yo study the Advanced Geography.

To the Teacher.— U 'vill not bo araiu, however, at thl» ataye, for you to
give the puiiilg some Ider- of the revoh'tlon of the earth around the iun.
Suspend from your hand, by a «trln(f, a ball or globe, repretenting the earth.
Turn It slow'y with your finger*, and move it around a lamp representing the
■un. Or put a wooden ball, representing the Bun, in a large tub of water, and
let a smallei' ball, representing t.ie earth, be made to move around it. Thi«
may be done by a string attached to the smaller ball. In similar ways the
motion of Me moon about -le earth may be roughly illustrated. By a little
ingenuity the two motior.- may be shown together.

Exercise.—*. Describe the first experiment in this lesson.
2. In th experiment what is meant by (1) the axis, (2) the
poies, (3) the equator, (4) the dark hemisphere, (5^ the light
hemisphere, (6) the circle of illumination? 3. I^ sne experi-
ment, when does the light of the lamp first begin to shine upon
the pin ? When does it Just cease to shine ? 4. With respect
to the earth and the sun, what does the lamp represent ? What
does the orange represent? What does the knitting needle
represent? What does the dark hemisphere of the experiment
represent? What does the light hemisphere represent? 6.
Show by the second experiment how it is that we have morning,
full day, evening, and night, in regular succession ? 6. What it
meant by the earth's equator? 7. What is meant by the earth's
northern hemisphere ? What is meant by the e,irth's southern
hemisphere? In which of the earth's hemispheres are we ? 8.
With regard to day and night, what would happen if the earth
should cease to turn round its axis ? What woiJld happen if it
should turn twice as rapidly, or twice as slowly, as it really
does? What would happen if it should turn the other way?
9. If the earth were to stand still, how might day and night be
caused? Illustrate your answer by means of a lamp and a
globe. 10. Why is it that the sun and stars seem to move
round the world from east to west, when m reality it is the
earth that moves from west to east ?

LESSON XIII.

ZONES— CONTINENTS— OCEANS.

1. Why some parts of the World are hotter
than other parts.

To the Teacher.— The explanation of this is too difficult for the pupils to
understand, without considerable painstaking on your part. You may help
them to understand it, hy using a lamp and an orange, as in the last lesson ;
a candle and a large pumpkin would be even better. Your explanation should
be something similar to that which follows in the succeeding paragraph. II
you desire ^o show whij it is that rays of light falling directly upon a surface
have more effect than when they fall ulantingly, you may use the explanation
and diagram found on page 31 of the Advanced Geography.

Z0NE8-C0xV llNENTS-OCEANS.

" We have ftlU loinethliitr more to learn from the oraiiKe and the lamp I
M we bad them fixed (or our laat experiment We will ttlok the pin Into
the orange at the equator, lo that the light (rom the lamp will (all directly
upon it* head. We may lay It U noonday (or the pin. Now turn the orange
on Ite axil till the pin la Just paiaing theclrole o( Illumination and entering Into
darkneaa. It U now evening, or luniet, (or the pin. We will take a string
and hold It, itretuhed ti|[ht, with one end at the lamp and the other end
»t the pin. The atrintr repreaenta the pathi o( the rays o( light and heat
coming (rom the lamp to the pin, and at the pin they are parallel to the
iur(ace o( the orange. Similarly, i( we turn the orange round so that the
pin is at its morning, or sunrise, the rays (rom the lamp would again be
parallel to the iur(ace o( the orange. But whoruvnr on the equator the pin
may be, between Its sunrise and sunset the rays o( light will (all slantingly
upon It, except at Its noon, when the rays always (all directly upon It. Now
you know that at noon the heat Is greatest, that In the morning and evening
It la least, and that at any time between noon and morning, or between
noon and eveaing. It Is not so great as at noon, but yet greater than at morn-
ing or evening. So you perceive that when the sun's rays (all directly upon
the earth they cause more heat than when they (all slantingly, and they cause
least heat o( all wlien they (all so as to be parallel with the 8ur{ace o( the
earth. Now i( you place the pin anywhere else on the orange than at the
equator, you will see (especially If you apply the string) that the rnys (rom the
lamp always (all slantingly upon the pin, though more directly at Its noon
than at any other time ; so that no matter whereabouts on the earth one
may be, noon Is, as a rule, the hottest part o( the day. And the (arthcr
north or south the pin is put, the more and more slantingly do the rays (rom
the lamp (oil upon it, even at its noon ; and so, likewise, the (arther north
or south (rom the equator we ourselves may be, the more slantingly do the
sun's rays (all upon us, even at noon, and therefore the cooler will our days
be. Finally, it the pin be put at either of the poles the rays which it
receives (rom the lamp (all parallel to the 8ur(ace all the time. So that at the
poles, we may say. It is always very cold, (or the sun's rays always (all very
■iantlngly there. Hence it is that the countries about the equator, where
the sun shines almost straight down at nocn, are the hottest parts of the
world ; that the countries about the poles, where the sun's rays are always
very slanting, are the coldest parts o( the world; and that the countries
mid-way between the equator and the poles, where the sun's rays at noon
(all neither directly nor very slantingly, are not, as a rule, either very hot or
very cold."

2. The Five Zones. — The hot district, which lies
along both sides of the equator, is called the Torrid
Zone, that is, the hot belt, for "torrid" means hot, or
burning, and "zone" means belt, or girdle. The cold parts
around the poles are called the North and the South
Frigid Zones, — "frigid" meaning frozen. The two
districts which lie between the torrid zone and the
frigid zones, as they are neither very hot nor very cold,
are called the North and South Temperate Zones. The
diagram will help you to understand the positions of
these zones. The zones, in a general way, divide the
surface of the earth into five great climate divisions,
which differ very widely in their temperatures, their
animals, and their vegetables. "We shall study the
climates of the zones in a separate lesson by-and-by.

3. The Hemispheres. — Let us look again at the
orange. You know that only half of it at one time can
be lighted by the lamp. Notice, too, that, try as you

may, you can see only one-half of the orange at once.
To 8ee the whole surface at one view we must divide
the orange into two hemispheres. Let us do so. If
now we lay the flat surfaces on the table we can see the
whole surface of the orange. The immense globe on
which we live, cannot, of course, be actually divided in
this way ; but we can imagine, from this illustration,
what it would be like, if it were so divided.

To the Teacher.— Vno picture below represents the world divided Into
bemispherei and zones, the zones being distinguished by differences of light
and shjde. The ilmilarity of this flat representation of the earth to tb«
appearance of the school globe when so placed that the eye sees first on*
hemisphere and then the other should be clearly brought within the compr^
henslon o( the pupils. In like manner, the maps o( the two hemispheres In tb«
Geography should be compared with the school globe. The names o( tb«
hemispheres should be taught, the positions of the zones should be noted, and
their names, and the names of their limiting circles, should be taught.

WUTBBN UIIIISPHIRII.

SASTBRM HBMISPHaRI.

4. Land and Water. Continents and

Oceans. — Now we must make a ca' ' il study of the
school globe, and also of the maps of the two hemispheres
in our Geography, and see what the earth's surface is
composed of, — whether mostly of land, or mostly of
water; and how the water and the land divide one
another into great natural divisions ; and we must also
learn what names have been given to those divisions.

To the Teacher.— The pupils (who by this time should have learned to
distinguish land an J water on the maps and on the globe) should now be led to
observe the distribution of land and water on the earth's surface ; howaaoh
the water exceeds the land on the whole ; how much the land of the Mttani
hemisphere exceeds the land of the western hemisphere ; and how much tb«
land of the northern hemisphere exceeds the land of the southern hemlspher •
They should then be led to observe that there are two great masses of land
(North and South America in the one hemisphere, and Europe, Asia, and
Africa, in the other), and moreover, that there is one smaller mass (Aiutralia).
And then by a study of the map they shoidd see how these masses art
naturally subdivided into the so-called grand divitiont, or eontinentt, of the
earth, and then they should learn their names — North Amihica, South
Amirica, Europb, Asia, Africa, and (for the present) Avstsalia. The
"region of many islands," between Asia and Australia, and America, or
PoiiTNBSiA, should also be observed. When all this baa been done, the great
water subdivisions, or oeeant, should be observedj and their namer learned—
namely, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antamtio.

9<>

CLIMATES.

Then itioulJ tie iioluU Uie rulatlve ixultloni of thesu oceani— In ru^urd to ono
another, to the varloui contlnciitii, ai <l to tlio vuriuuH zoiiui. The relativu
ttieeol thocontlnci:tsan(loccuniihoul(lalii i beolmiTvcd. Aa far ai ponallilu
•11 thli kMo\vlo(li;e ihonld )iu ifalni il by tho jniplUf roiii their iwraotml ohservu-
tlon and atiirly oi the ichool triohe, and of tho nmpi nf tlia hcniis|)hcrcs ; hut
tho tuarhtr Hhoiilil Kfu that tho knowlwlt^o !• lyiteiiiutlciilly olituiiicd, and U
ooniplete and accurate.

BxerciBe.— 1. Whoa do tho Hun'a rays Boem hottest — when
thoy fall iilinost directly upon our heiuU, aa at noon-day? or
when they fall Hhintiiigly upon us, au in the>evening or in the
inoniing? 2. Point out on tlie suhool gloho tho parts of the
earth in which tho sun's rays are always very direct at noon-
day. What nanio is given to these parts?
Why aro they so called ? 3. Point out on
the globo those parts of the earth in
which the sun'a rays always fidl
very slantingly upon tho surface,
even at noon-day ? What names
aro given to these parts?
Why are they so called

4. Point out on the
globe the Temperate.
Zones, and explain
why they are so called.

5. Draw a diagram of
the hemispheres, and
draw the boundaries of
the zones ; then write in
the names of the zones
and of the boimdaries.

6. Give the boundaries
of each of the conti-
nents ; that is, tell the
names of the oceans that
wash its shores, or of the
other continents adjoining
it. 7. Examine the school
globe, and give, as well as you
can, the boundaries of each of
the oceans. 8. Examine the globe,
and say which you think is the largest
of the continents, and which is the small
est. Similarly, whicii is the largest of the

oceans, and which is the smallest? 9. Find on the globe the
position of Canada, and say in what continent it is. 10. From
the globe ascertain what oceans wash the shores of Canada.
11. From the globe ascertain in what zone the greater part of
North America is. In what zones is the remainder ? 12. From
the globe ascertain in what zone the greater part of Canada is.
13. Ascertain from the globe where the first meridian is. Then
find out between what meridians Canada lies ; also to what
parallel of latitude Canada extends. 14. Find on the globe the
position of Ontario, and say in what continent, and in what zone,
it ia. 15. Find on the globe the position of London, England,
and place the globe so that London is directly under your eye :
about what portion of the land surface of the globe do you see ?

' \ LESSON XIV.

CLIMATKS—VKGKTAliLK AND ANIMAL ZONKS.

1. How Plants mark off Olimates. — Wo

l(>artied in our lust leasoii thiit tho amount of hoat which
any part of tlio earth gets from tlie sun depends very
much upon the direction of the rays falling upon it.
The parts of the earth that get the most direct rays of
the sunlight ai"'^ the hottest; those that get slanting rays
^•e only moderately heated ; while those
that get rays so slanting that the sun-
beams are nearly level "with the
ground, are quite cold. We
.saw that these parts were
separated by imaginary
lines into five zones,
or climate divisions.
But these imaginary
lines correspond to
no real things upoii„
the earth. The plants,
however, that grow
upon the earth's sur-
face mark oflf real
divisions of climate.
Thus, peach trees
cannot endure more
than a certain de-
gree of cold. The line
formed by the most
northerly peach trees marks,
therefore, a real climate divi-
sion, and you will find that this
line passes across Ontario. Similarly,
if we go further south, and travel along
the edge of the most northern orange groves, we shall be
tracing another climate division across the continent;
and so on, for many other trees and plants. These real
lines are not straight, but they correspond nearly to
imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator.

To the Teacher.— It is highly important tliat you should interest the clsM
in natural history hy means of familiar conversations. Make use of their own
observation and reading. Get them to tell what they Icnow about the plants
and animals mentioned in the text. Encourage them to ask questions ; and
supplement their k-iowledge by graphic descriptions of your own, and by
pictures, specimens, and appropriate readings. Propose suitable questioiu
to be answered by them at a subsequent lesson.

CUMATES.

2 Each Zone has its own peculiar Plants

and Trees. — If we know what plants and treeH grow
in a certain part of the world, wo can tell what its
climate is like, for we know that these plants and trees
ne(Hl a certain amount of warmth to bring them to per-
fection. And, similarly, if the climate of some place is
described to us, we can infer what sorts of plants and
trees grow there. This picture {nee pnye 22) sliows some
of the principal vegetable products of the various zones.

3. What Grows in the Torrid Zone.— In the

hot climate of the torrid zone we find that only such
vegetation thrives as requires a great amount of heat,
like the flowers that we grow in our hot-houses. In it
flourish the plants and trees from which come our finer
spices, such as ginger, vanilla, pepper, nutmegs, cinna-
mon, and cloves. In it, also, grow to perfection some
fine fruit-bearing trees, as the date-palm, the cocoanut
tree, and the bread-fruit tree. In its forests are found
many valuable woods, such as teak, mahogany, sandal-
wood, rose-wood, and bamboo; and many very large
trees, as the banyan, and the baobab. In the torrid
zone are also found many other useful ^ilants and trees,
as the tapioca plant, the rubber treip, and the sago-palm.

4. What Grows in the Temperate Zones.—

In the warmer parts of the temperate zones we find
the olive, the orange, the lemon, the banana, the rice
plant, the sugar-cane, the tea plant, the cotton plant,
the raisin grape, the currant grape, the mulberry tree,
and the cork tree. Many of these also grow in the
torrid zone. In these parts, also, we find the wine
grape, the tobacco plant, the peach tree, and the maize
plant. In the colder parts of the temperate zones we
find magnificent forests of oak, elm, maple, and pine.
In the cultivated fields are grown such grains as wheat,
peas, barley, rye, and oats. In the orchards are found
apples, pears, plums, and cherries.

6. What Grows in the Frigid Zones.— As we

pass on still farther towards the frigid zones, the trees
gradually disappear, — stunted birches, blue beech, and
alders being the last, and these dwarfed to mere shrubs.
The grass is gradually replaced by mosses and lichens ;
and at length, as we approach the poles, we como to a
barren, frozen desert, where scarcely a trace of vegetable
life can be found. Thus you perceive that the vegeta-
tion of the world marks off" climates very accurately.

6. How Animals mark off Olimates.— AnimaU

depend v«ry much upon plants for their fo<Kl, and they
can live oidy where those kinds of plants that are suited
to them abound. The animals of the zones vary, there-
fore, nearly as much as does the vegetation of tho zones.
But OS animals can move from place to place, you will
easily understand that tho boundaries of their homes can-
not be so definite as those of tho homes of plants. The
picture shows some of the animals of the various zones.

7. Animals of the Hot Climates.— In the

torrid zone we find some very large animals with thick
leathery skins, such as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the
hippopotanms, and the tapir. Here, also, are some of the
largest beasts of prey — the lion, the tiger, the panther,
the leopard, the jaguar, and the hyena. Here, too, we
find some of the largest birds in the world — the ostrich,
the emu, the cassowary, and the condor ; and also some
very beautiful birds, such as the lyre-bird, the bird of
paradise, and many kind' jf parrots. In these regions
formidable reptiles and insects are exceedingly numer-
ous, such as the alligator, the boa-constrictor, and the
python, and many kinds of immense lizards, great frogs,
monster spiders, and poisonous flies. In hot climates,
too, we find many kinds of apes (including the gorilla,
the chimpanzee, and the baboon), and other very wonder-
ful animals, such as the camel, the girafle, and the zebi'a.

8. Animals of the Temperate Olimates.— In

the temperate climates, the moi-e common domestic ani-
mals are found in greatest perfection, such as the horse,
the ox, the sheep, and the goat ', and these are often
found also in a wild state. Many kinds of deer, and of
bears, wolves, and foxes, are also found. Among the
more remarkable animals are the kangaroo and the yak,
and our own bison and moose-deer. In the colder parts
of the temperate regions are found fine fur-bearing
animals — as the mink, the otter, fi,nd the marten.

9. Animals of the Cold Olimates.— In the polar

regions, as they are called, live many of the fur-bearing
animals found in the colder temperate climates, as well
a. nany others, valuable for their furs or skins, or for
th oil or other products which they supply. Among
these are the whale, the seal, and the walrus ; the rein-
deer, the arctic fox, and the polar bear. The seas teem
with fish; and Ir. r;<3 birds, such as the eider-duck and
tho penguin, supply both food and clothing for man.

'r>

■p»«

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.

If you reflect a moment, you .will perceive that men
must 'lepend upon plants and animals for all their food
and clothing, and for most of the materials out of which
they make huts, tents, and houses for shelter. You can
therefore understand that the food, clothing, and occu-
pations of the people
in the world depend
very much on the
plants and animals
of the climates in
which they live.

Exercise.— 1.
Show how the growth
of plants and trees may
indicate differences of
climate. Do you know
of any plants or trees
that will grow in south-
ern parts of Ontario,
and will not grow in
more northern parts? 2. Give some reasons why the plants
and trees of one part of the world ly differ very much from
the plants and *rees of another part. Illustrate your answer
by as many examples as you can. 3. Give some reasons why
the animals of one part of the world may differ from the
animals of another part. 4. Show how the occupations of men
depend very much upon the plants and trees whish will thrive
in the country in which they live. Illustrate your answer by as
many examples as you can. 5. Show how the occupations of
the inhabitants of a country depend somewhat on the animals
which will live in that country. Illustrate by examples. 6.
Make out as large a list as you can of the useful timber trees
of Ontario, and state the uses to which they are put. Do the
same for the useful fruit trees, grains, grasses, roots, and plants
of Ontario. 7. Make out a list of the useful animals of Ontario
(both wild and domestic), and describe what uses are made of
them. 8. Make out a list of vegetable and anirial products in
common use, -?'■ "oh the people of Ontario must obtain abroad.

KIIiING Fim-BEAKINQ SEALS.

I.ESSCI-i' XV.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.

1 . To denote the position of a place. — Let us

now learn a little more about direction and distance.
I stick a pin into this ball, and ask you "Whereabouts
on the ball is th. pin ? " You can easily point out its
position, but you find a difficulty in expressing its posi-
tion in words. And wliy ? Because the surface of the
ball is all alike, and you ha-^ " fixed place on it to

which you can refer. I next stick a pin into the oranse.
with its equator plainly marked, and with two pins
marking its poles. You can now say that the pin is
north of the equator. This is somewhat better, but you
still have no fixed line from which you can denote it»
distance to the east or west. Now geographers have
agreed on a very good plan for indicating the exact posi-
tion of any place on any part of the round world. An
illustration will make this plan easily understood.

Illustration. — Let us take the orange with the equa-
tor marked upon it, and the two pins stuck in to repre-
sent the poles. Notice that the distance from the equator
to either of the poles is one-quarter of the circle of the
orange. Now this distance must be 90 degrees, because
the whole of any circle contains 360 equal parts, called
degrees. You must not think that degrees are always
of the same size. The degrees of the circle of a dinner
plate would be larger degrees than those in the circum-
ference of the orange ; and the degrees of a barrel-hoop
would be greater still ; but yet every circle, great or
small, contains 360 great or small degrees.

Now we will divide this quarter-circle of 90° into nine
equal parts, by stickijvg in, between the equator and the
pole, a row of eight pins at equal distances from one
another. Tell me now how far apart the pins are. "Ten
degrees," you say. Now I will very carefully draw
through these eight points eight circles parallel to the
equator, like the lines 10, 20, 30, etc., in the diagram.

2. Parallels of Latitude.— ^/lese lines which ar^.
dravm. from east to west, parallel to the equator, a/re
called parallels of
latitude. They enable
us to tell how far
north or south a
place is from the
equator. Thus, the
upper 10 in the dia-
gram is 10°" north of
the equator, and wo
say of all places on
this circle that they
are in 10° north lati-
tude. I have now
divided the quarter-
circle between the equator and the south pole into nine
equal parts, and the circles which I have drawn through.

PAEAHiELS OF LATITUDE.

1 into the orange,
I with two pins
that the pin is
it better, but you
)U can denote its
jeographers have
ig the exact posi-
)und world. Aa ..
mderstood. .

ige with the equa-
stuck in to repre-
I from the equator

the circle of th&
3 degrees, because
qual parts, called
igrees are always;
:ircle of a dinner
se in the cireum-
3 of a barrel-hoop
r circle, great or
•ees,

e of 90° into nine
e equator and the
stances from one
le pins are. "Ten
carefully draw

s pa>'allel to the
in the diagram.

se lines which art-
the equator, are

LATITUDE AND LONUITUDE

F LATITUDE.

th pole into nine
e drawn through

thesA points are likewise parallels of latitude, and are
ten degrees apart. The lower line marked 30 is 30°
south of the equator, and all places on this circle are 30°
south of the equator, and are in 30° south latitude. The
north pole is in 90° north latitude, the south pole is in 90°
south latitude, and the equator is marked 0°, for it is
neither north nor south of itself. Thus parallels of latitude
enable us to denote distanceand direction, north andaouth.

3. Meridians of Longitude.— We still have to

learn some way of denoting distance and direction east

and west. Every

circle contains 360°.
Then the equator
c<5ntains 360°, or
36 equal parts of ten
degrees each. Let
us divide these parts
off with 36 pins.
Now let us care-
fully draw an even
line between the
north pole and the
head of each of
these 36 pins. Let
us next draw similar lines between the south pole and the
pins. These lines which are drawn through the poles at right
angles to the equator are called meridians of longitude.
They enable us to indicate the distances of places, east
and loest. We fix upon one of these meridian :i as the
starting place, and call that the first meridian. Any
one of them would do for the first meridian, but astrono-
mers and geographers have agreed to call that meridian
which passes through Greenwich, England, tlw first mei-i^
dian. In the diagram the darker line represents the first
meridian. The rest of the meridians aro numbered each
way, east and west, till, on the opposite side of the globe,
180° east longitude is tho same as 180° west longitude.
The first meridian is neither east nor west of itself, and
is therefore marked 0°, just as the equator was said to
be 0° of latitude. In the diagram the line 100 is 100°
west of the first meridian, and all places on that line
north and south of the equator are in 100° west longi-
tude. In the same way all places on 20 to the right of
the first meridian are in 20° east longitude.

4, Latitude and Longitude on a Map. — A^hen

you look at a map and see lines running across it, east
5

MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE,

and west, you will now know that they are parallels of
latitude, and that the other lines which run up and down
the map, north and south, are meridians of longitude.
The degrees of latitude are numbered at each side of th-n
map, and the degrees of longitude at the top and bottom
of the map. In a map of a small country the meridian
lines seem to bt parallel; but in a map of a large
country, or of a hemisphere, these lines are not parallel,
but approach one another near the north pole ; and so,
also, near the south pole. This corresponds to their
appearance as we drew them on the orange.

To the Teacher.— See that the pupils thoroughly understand what latitude
and longitude mean. Take the large wall-map of Ontario and aslc them to
find out the latitude and longitude o( places, also to find places having a given
latitude and longitude. Use the large sciiool globe in a similar way. AIfo
practice them in finding out places having the same latitude, and other plact<«
having the same longitude. Compare the use cf latitude and longitude to
denote the positions of places on the earth's surface, with the r.aming of
streets and the numbering of houses in a town or city, and th:< nv.mberini;
of concessions and lots in a townsliip.

Sxercise. — !• Denote the position of your seat in the
schoolroom, describing it as in the first, second, or third lino,
etc. ; and in the first, second, or third row, etc. 2. Make a map
of an orchard. Describe the position of a tree in. the orchard,
thus: — The tree X is in the third rovr from the west, and in the
second row from the south, and so on. 3. Take a cheas-board,
or rule your slate like a chess-board. Number the lines each
way along the sides. Place chess-men, or mark letters at the
points where some of these lines cross one another. Hold one
side of the board, or of the slate, towards the north Now
describe the positions of the chess-men, or letters, as third line
east, fourth line south, etc. 4. Draw a line from east to west
across the middle of the board used in question 3. Mark this line
0, and number the lines above it 1, 2, 3, etc.; the lines below it
in the same way. Draw another line down the middle from north
to south, and mark it 0. Number the lines on each side of it I,
2, 3, etc., both to the east and the west. Now describe the
positions of the points previously marked, and call the distances
latitude and longitude, thus : — The point A is in latitude 4 north,
and in longitude 3 east. 5. Describe the position of a farm
in your township, thus : — The farm is lot 7, 4th concession east of
the base line.

To the Teaeher.— Show the pupils that while a degree of latitude always
represents the same distance, about 69 miles, the degrees of longitude vary
all the way from that distance at the equator to zero at the poles. You
may get them to solve some Interesting problems with the aid of the globe,
which will serve to fix important geographical facts in their memorixs.
Stretch a string around the globe. With great care obtain its exact length,
and mark this off accurately upon a convenient place, say the frame of tlie
blackboard. Divide this distance into 86 exactly equal parts. Divide some
of these parts again into exactly ten equal parts, f^ch of the small parts
will represent a degree, and therefore 69 miles. To find the distance between
any two places, say Montreal and Calcutta,— stretch a string from point to
point over the globe, taking care that the string forme part of a true a'rwum-
ference of the globe. Then find out from the scale previously made how maqj-
degrees this represents. Convert the degrees into miles.

I Ji'

III:

PACIFIC OCKAir

SECTION PROM VAHOOUVER lO. TO NEWFOUNDLAND

(*" t'f-° i« oj ^

10,000 Fn<'
•,000
(.000
4,000-
1,000

^iJ'oW/P

CaAAd&Eub. Co., Toronto

NORTH AMERICA.

LESSON XVI.

NORTH AMERICA.

To the Teaeher.—This lesaon gkould eontist entirely cf eonvertiUions
tetvieen yourself and your pupils. The wall map should be so placed that it
can be well seen by all the pupils, and should be constantly referred to by
you and by them. The following notes are intended to indicate those things
upon which special stress is to be laid, and the general plan to which the
conversations should conform. (Lesson XVII. and Lesson XVIII. may be
taken as illustrations of two of the many conversations that may be based on
these notes.) Do not attempt to teach too many details. If the notes appear
to be too full, omit some, still retaining the same general ground-plan.
Emphasize your conversations by every possible sort of illustration :— pic-
tures, interesting bits of travel, descriptions of scenery, and of plants, animals,
birds, races of men, and so on. In the meantime do not insist upon memor-
ization ; leave most of that to be done in a review. Your present object is to
give the pupils some general notions concerning the continent, so that what
they afterwards learn of Canada and its provinces, and of the United States,
-and 80 on, will he properly correlated in their minds.

1. Outline, Extent, Population.

First, the general shape of the continent should be observed. Its outline
-should be dra\/n upon the blackboard by the teacher for the pupils ; also by
the pupils themselves. The pupils should also draw it, or trace it, on paper,
from the map in their Geography. The outline of the continent being thus
fixed in their minds, then the names of the oceans that wash its shores should
be learned; then the names and positions of the principal bays, gulfs, and
.straits, and also of the principal peninsulas and islands (including Ornenland).
(Note. — In all map study, the pupils should be incited to make as many dis-
coveries for themselves as possible.) — The area of North America (including
the islands) is estimated at alx>ut 8,400,000 square miles. The population is
estimated at about 71,000,000. (Note.— Numbers representing areas and popu-
lations are not given to be inconsiderately memorized. They are given — in
their proper places— for the pupils to refer to when necessary, and in order
that they make comparisons which will help them to remember important
facts in regard to the sizes and populations of various parts of the world, as
it were, involuntarily. For example, the land surface of the world is esti-
mated at 62,000,000 square miles, and the population of the world at about
1,400,000,000: what part of the world's land surface is taken up by North
America? and what part of the world's population does the population of
North America make up?)

2. Subdivisions.

Teach at present only the main subdivisions. These arc : — 1. Tiiu Dominion
OP Canada. 2. &rhe.nland. 3. Newfoundland (including Labrador). 4. Tub
United States of America (including Alaska). 6. Mexico. 6. (central
America. 7. The West Indies. Teach the relative positions of these from
the map.

3. Physical Features.

(Note.— If possible these should be taught from a "relief map," which
should be made by the teacher with the assistance of the pupils. A spare
table with raised edges may be used for the support. Moist sard or clay will
do for the material. If permanency be desired, plaster of Paris should be
used; or, better still, Parian cement, which does not "set "so easily. If it
be impossible to make a relief map, then a " sketch map " should be made on
a spare blackboard, the outlines first being drawn, and the details being filled
in OS the lesson proceeds.) The principal physical feature of North America
is the great plateau on the western side. The eastern edge of this plateau is
form'jd by the Rocky Mountains. This range, which is of great height (in
some parts from two to three miles high), extends through the whole length
of the continent, from near the mouth of the Mackenzie River to the Isthmus
of Panama. On the eastern side of the range the (ffscent is long and giudual,
but on the western side it is more precipitous. The western edge of the plateau
runs quite close to the Pacific Ocean, and is formed )>> a series of ranges (in

some parts, parallel ranges) called, in different regions, the Coast Mountain!,
the Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada. These ranges desnend more or lets
precipitously on their western sides, and give to the western coast r! the
continent a bold and uniform contour, except in the north, where the Coast
Range seems broken up into a number of rocky islands. The plateau thus
bounded extends from Alaska to Central America ; in the north it is low, but
it l)ecomes higher and higher towards the south, and there it is a mile and •
half high. The part lying to the west of the Rocky Mountains is crossed by
several rivers, which moke their way to the Pacific Ocean,— the Simpson, the
Fraser, the Columbia, and the Colorado; but, owing to the mountainous
nature of Ue country through which these flow, they are of little use for
navigation. In the United States the plateau is at its greatest width, being
over 1,000 miles wide in one part, and here it is marked by connecting ranges
running, tor the most part, east and west, and a)°o by a great depression
called the Great American B isin

On the eastern side of the continent is another plateau, but much shorter,
narrower, and lower. It is known as the Appalachian Plateau, and it, also,
in places, is broken up into several parallel ranges. It extendj from the Quit
of St. Lawrence nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, This east>?rn plateau is sc ' .r
removed from the ocean as to leave a low, but somewhat n\rrow, coast region
all the way frora the Bay of Fundy to the Gulf of Mexico, [n this coast region
rivers are numerous, and many of them are navigable for iihort distances.

Between these two great plateaus is a vast, comparatively low, region
stretching from the Arctic Ocean and the Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico,
which may be called the great central plain region of Xorth Aneriea. It is
crossed, however, by several higher 7and8. One of these, called the Height ot
Land— never more than a quarter of a mile in height, however — divides the
continent into two parts, in one of which the waters run principally north-
ward ; in the other, principally southward or eastward. The Height of Lard
extends irregularly from the Rocky Mountains eastward, nearly along the line
which is the boundary between Canada and the United States, half-way across
the continent ; then, bending a little to the north, it lies wholly in Canadian
territory, and reaches the Atlantic near the middle of the Labrador coast.
(It may be easily traced on the map, since its course must lie between the
head-waters of the neighboring rivers.)

Of the two continental divisions made by the Height of Land, the southern-
most one is occupied by two great river basins (separated by a very slight
elevation), the Mississippi Basin, and the St. Lawrence Basin. The Mississippi
Basin comprise^ almost the whole of the United States lying between the
Appalachian Plateau and the Rocky Mountains ; it is a vast, very level, and
somewhat low plain, drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, many ot
these being of the greatest service for navigation. The Mississippi and the
Missouri together form the longest river in the world. The St. Lawrence
Basin is occupied by the St. Lawionce River, its tributaries, and its great
lake expansions. Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and
Lake Superior.

North of the Height of Land there are also two well-defined ^^arts : (1) the
eastern part, or the Laurentian region (that surrounding Hudson Bay), (.n
uneven, rocky, largely sterile country, abounding in lakes and in tumultuous
rivers unfit for navigation— all draining into Hudson Bay; and (2) the western or
plain region. This plain region (or great central plain reg'jn of Canada) also
consists of two parts: (1) th'i southern part, drained by the great na'igable
rivers, the Assiiiilioine and the Saskatchewan, which empty into Lake Win-
nipeg (though this lake is itself drained through the Laurentian region into
Hudson Bay by the rapid-flowing Nelson River); and (2) the northern part,
drained by the great Macker.-'.ie River, its tributaries, and its great lake
expansions. Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca.

4. Climate.

At this stage little can be taught concerning the climate of the continent,
except a few general facts.— In the northern islands and on the northern
coasts, winter is almost continuous,— the short summers being nothing better
than seasons of clouds and cold mists and rains (and this sort of climate
obtains in all the north east of the continent as far south as Labrador).
Farther south, the summers are longer and brighter, and the winters less
severe, though still very cold. In Ontario, we have cold winters and hot
summers, with a plentiful (but not excessive) supply of rain at all seasons,
and much snow in winter ; and at all times we may have sudden variations of

a«!5

NORTH AMERICA.

temperature. This sort of climate obtains also in eastern Canada, and alon^
all the eastern coast region and plateau region of the continent south of us
(and aloii;; all the eastern part of the central plain region as well)— as far south
•8 the Gulf of Mexico; with this inodiflcation, of course, that the summers
become longer and the winters become less and less severe (especially on the
Atlantic coast), che farthc wc go south, till, at the Gulf, rain almost entirely
takes the place of snow in winter, very little snow being seen. — Along the
western part of the great central plain there is a similar gradation of climate,
with, however, on the whole, less rain and a somewhat higher average tem-
perature than in corresponding parts eastward At the eastern base of the
Rocky Mountains, in Canada, the winter temperature is so mild that cattle
remain out all winter, and the rainfall, though not abundant, is sufficient ; but
in the United States territory, the average heat and dryness increase as we
proceed southward, and finally, the country, through excessive dryness,
becomes an arid desert.
—The western coasts of
the continent have a
much milder climate
than that of correspond-
ing parts of the eastern
coasts; for example,
Alaska has a much more
hospitable climate than
Labrador; the western
coasts of Canada have
»iuch more rain than
snow in winter; and the
western coasts of the
United States have an
agreeable climate all the
year round (with, how-
ever, an insufficiency of
rain). But farther south,
in the (leninsula of GUI
California, so dry is the
climate, the country is a
desert.— Mexico and Cen-
tral A lerica, except in
the hijThlands, have a
tropical or hot climate,
with a great deal of rain
all the year round— in
some parts daily.

5. Vegetation,

The vegetation of the
continent varies with its
climate and its soil. In
the extreme north, with-
in the Arctic Circle, not a
tree is to be found : vege

table li'e is seen only in mosses ("ome of which, however, are edible), lichens,
saxifrages, and a few shrubs. (The pretty red snow-plant, which tints with
crimson the ice-floes and cliffs of the polar sea, is one of the most characteristic
forms of vegetation in this region ) Mosses, lichens, and shrubs, too, are the
only vegetation found in all the north-eastern part of the continent, as far south
as Hamilton Inlet, in Labrador— the barren rocks and perpetual cold of this
region permitting no higher forms of vegetable life. But to the south and
eat'o of this great treeless area, o less severe climate obtains, and trees begin
to appear : at first, sparse short and stunted, then more frequent, more
lofty, and more robust ; birches, willows, larches, spruces, and poplars ; then
pmes and oaks ; then t'.ie majile, the beech, the ash, the elm, the cedar, the
linden, the chestnut, the walimt, the hickory, the wild cherry, and the locust.
In Ontario, which lies midway between the cold regions of the arctic zone and
the hot countries about tlic Gulf of Mexico, we have all these sorts of trees.
Farther south, the hardier, frost-enduring trees disappear, and those that
prefer a warmer climate take their place,— the li\ e oak, the lorg-leavcd pine,
the catalpa, the persimmon, the palmetto, and others, At one time the whole

KICK FIELD AND HOUTHKKN .SWAMl'

eastern plateau and coast region woscovered with forest, from the Height of Land
to the Gulf of Mexico, but now a great portion of this has been removed to make
room for farms and plantations.- In the interior of the continent the forest
region does not extend below the flfty-flfth parallel of latitude. From this
parallel, almost to the Gulf of Mexico, the great central plain is generally
treeless, but much less so on its eastern side than on its western side. In ita
south-western portion the plain is rainless and infertile,— its characteristic
vegetation being the sage bush, and in the hotter parts, spiny, leafless,
fleshy forms, called cactuses ; } ut elsewhere it is for the most part of great
fertility, and where not forested, covered with grass throughout the entire
year, constituting the great prairie region of North America. South of the
prairie region, around thd Gulf of Mexico, the region of forest again appears,
but comprising many sub-tropical forms, such as cypresses, acacias, and very
beautiful magnolias.— The western plateau region is, in Canada, well wooded

with magnificent pines
and other useful timber
trees, in the United
States, the northern part
of the plateau is well
timbered with pines and
other valuable trees; so
also is the southern coast-
ward part ; but the south-
ern interior portion is
well-nigh rainless, and
for the most part desert.
—Mexico and Central
America have a tropical
climate, and it is only in
the highlands of the more
northern parts that the
vegetation of the tem-
perate Eone can exist:
the hot lowlands of the
southern coasts are lined
with mangrove jungles
and other dense, rank,
tropical growths ; while
farther inland, palms,
giant ferns, and valuable
cabinet and medicinal
woods (never found ex-
cept in tropical regions),
are very abundant.

In cultivated vegeta-
tion there is a similar
gradation. Ontario for-
tunately admits of the
cultivation of nearly all
the useful food grains
and roots, and of many
useful fruits ; and thus as an agricultural regiof. b unsurpassed in the
world. Wheat, in the great central plain, can be grown at a latitude much
farther north than Ontario, and barley and oats (but perhaps not so fruit-
fully) still farther north ; and all these grains can be grown in latitudes much
farther south. The potato has a much less limited range than wheat, and
nowhere thrives better than in Ontario. Maize (or Indian corn) scarcely does
well in Ontario ; bat it thrives luxuriantly in all parts of the fertile central
plain south of the latitude of central Ontario, and indeed, with wheat, forms
the staple crop of all that region. Of fruits, the apple and the pear will
scarcely thrive in northern Jntario, nor in parts farther north. The peach
and the grape come to perfection in Ontario only in the southern parts, but
in the United States they are grown through a considerable range south of us.
In that part of the United States east of the Mississippi, and midway between
Canada and the Gulf ob^Iexico, tobacco forms a principal crop. Farther
south, cotton is the stajile crop; and still farther south, the rice plant and the
sugarcane, and such sub-tropical fruits as the orange and the banana, are the
principal cultivated vegetable products.- On the Pacific coast, there is »

- I;

" ''/«V<'-^MC/^ W^

Animals of North America.

- it

1. Puma. 2. Eaqlr. 3. Antblofi.
4. Rocky Mountain Goat. 5. Lynx. 0. Kockt
Mountain Siiekp. 7. Moosr. 8. Grizzly
Bear. 9. Stao. 10. Wild Tcrkey.
11. BiHON. 12. MuBR Ox. 13. Eider Duck.
14. Auk. 13. WiiiTB Bear. 16. Seal.
17. Walrus. 18. Pklican. 10. Canvas
Back Duck. 20. Beaver. 21. Otter.

d^ To the Teacher.— Iho Puma or Cougar, sometimes called the American Lion,
and popularly known a3 ihe Painter, was formerly found as far iiorlli as the Great
Lakes, but is now found no farther iiorih than Mexico. Eagles, of various species,
are found in every pait of the continent. The Antelope, or Prong-horn, is found on the
western plains. The Rocky Mountain Goat, a sort of Antelope, and the Rocky Mountain
Sheep, or Big-horn, inhabit the inaccessible peaks of the Kock> Mountains. The Lynx,
or Wild C.it, is found in M eastern North America. The Moose, or Elk, is found in all
parts of Canad",, as far north as tiie Arctic Ocean. The Grizzly Bear is found in the Rocky
Mountains as far south as Mexico. Deer, of various species, are found in every part of
the continent. The Wild Turkey was formerly coniuicn in Ontario and in tlie Eastern
States, and especially in the Southern States. The Bison, or Buffalo, not long .igo incred-
ibly numerous on all tho northern prairies, is now found only in the loneliest plains of the
Northwest. The Musk Ox, or Musk Sheep, inhabits the barren plains of the far North-
west. The Eider Duck, tho Auk, and the Walrus, are found in the northern and
north-eastern coast regions of tho continent. Tho White Bear is found only on
the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The Brown Pelican is found in Central America
and the West Indies; the White Pelican in summer migrates from the Gulf
States to the lake regions of north-western Canada. The Canvas Back Duck is
found on the coasts of the middle Atlantic States. The Beaver, formerly common
throughout all the northern part of the continent, is now found chiefly in the
loneliest parts of Canada. The Seal is found along the coasts of all the cold
ocean waters of the continent. The Otter is found in all

NORTH AMERICA.

itmllar gradation of cultivated ve((etiition ; but the climate there be ng warmer
than on the Atl •ntic coast, sub-tropiuil phmts and fruits (as, tor example, the
wtton plant and the orange true) are grown in latitudes fai ther north than
n the east. — Few of the useful fo d grains, plants, roots, and fruits, are
ndlgenoua to our continetit. Maize and the }>otato, however, two of the most
iieful food products known to man, are natives of America ; so also are the
tapioca plant and the banana tree ; and so too is tlie common tobacco plant.

6. Animal Life.

The uniniaU of North America vary with the climate and the vegetable
products, but, of course, all have a more or less wide range. In the Arctic
regions are found the polar bear, the silver fox, and the blue fox. In the cold
Bub-arctio and cold-tcmiierate parts of Canada are found the musk ox, the
caribou or American reindeer, the wapiti, and the moose deer. In all these
oolderparts (and sometimes even much farther south) are also found fine fur-
bearing animals, such as the ermine, the otter, the iiiartcii, the fisher, the
beaver, and the mink. Having a wide range through Canada and the United
States are, the black bear, the wolf, the fox, the lynx or wild-cat, the raccoon,
the badger, the porcujiiiie, the 8()uirrcl, the rabbit, the weasel, the wood-
ohuck, the skunk, and the nmskrat. In the south-eastern and southern
parts of the United States is found a curious, pouched animal, called the
opossum. In the gre.it plain region of the continent are found the bison or
American buCfalo, many sorts of antelopes, the coyote or prairie wolf, and the
prairie dog. On the heights of the great western plateau are found the grizzly
bear, the cinnanicn bear, the niouiftain sheep, and the mountain goat. In
Mexico and Central America are found the puma (or catamount or cougar),
and the jieccary ; and also the tapir, the jaguar, and other strange animals
which are also found in South America. Of seaanimals, the right whale, the
white whale, the narwhal, the walrus, the sea-lion, the seal, and the sea-otter,
abound in the cold Waters of the north; nnd the manatee or sea-cow in the
wann shore-waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies.— Of birds, the
eider-duck, the auk, and other sea-fowl, nn'l tlie ptarmigan, are very numer-

ous in coast regions of the Arctic and the suvtIi

east. Birds of pr';y, as eagles,

almost ail parts of the con-

'anaila rnd the United States,

•■'jui, cat-bird, blue-bird,

i«i' T, ohony-bird, swivUow,

. . , ~ rrov;, snow-bird , niarsh-

■ ili^'i, oriole, crow, blue-jay.

vultures, buzzards, hawi:s, and owls, ant icn.
tinent. Of bii-ds found i.' the eastern )j • t" .
the principal are (of lana hirdsi:-
chickadee, wren, wagtail, warl'tr. .ly-*
sand-niarteii, shrike, finch, cross-bill, t!. i
robin, grosbeak, nicailow-lark, bobo'.iiu , ^
king-bird, pewec, whip-poor-will, uiihi li.awi., swift, kingfisher, and wood-
pecker. Some of these aie <if many ric'lei. Of game birds, beside wild
pigeons (which, !ioc long ago, were exietdingly numerous), there are, the
grouse or "partridge," and the prairie-iion, and ((uail, woodcock, snipe, and
plover; also the magnificent wild-turkey, found nowhere in the world except
in Ontario, and some other parts of eastern America. Of water-birds, there are
the swan, the wild goose, and the wild duck, and cranes, herons, and bitterns,
•mils, divers, and loons, coots or mud hens, and the pelican ; some of these (as,
Dr example, the goose and the duck) exist in many vaijeties. One of the
aost beautiful of birds is the ruby -throated humming-bird, found in all parts
f the continent from the warmer parts of Canada southward. Ilumniing-
irds are not found elsewhere than in Anicrie ; Noi'th America is not distin-
uished for its song-birds ; but the mocking-bird of tlie south-eastern United
tates (found nowhere else in the world) U 'usurpassed for the variety and
lower of its niusiial notes. Very many North American birds are migratory.
— Of fishes, this continent has in great abundance very many useful sorU. Of
"cold-water" sea-fish, there are, the cod, the haddock, the nake, the halibut,
the mackerel, and the herring ; of " warm-water " flsh, there are the sturgeon,
the "scup," and the blue-fish. Of fresh-water fish, there are the lake sturgeon,
the salmon-trout, the white-fish, and tlio lake herring ; also the salmon and
the shad, which, though inhabitants of the sea, are generally captured in
ocean-reaching rivers. Besides these, there are many other useful fresh-water
fish, such OS the brook-trout, the niaskinongc, tlie pike, the pickerel, and the
bass. Oyster, lolister, and Ehrinip fisheries are valualile sources of revenue on
the eastern shores of Canada and the United .Stites.— Of reptiles. North
America has many varieties, including S' akrs, (i'.a? ''■, turtles, frogs, and
toads. Of Biiakes, the rattle-snake is the most i!a<i,; vio .': it is found through-
out most parts of the United States, and 'n r ■> \-. Canada. The huge
alligator is found in the swamps and marshes of the southern United States;

and the great, much prized, green turtle li found In the West Indies, — Of
insects, there ore many kinds, including beautiful sorts of butterflies, moths,
and beetles. Of useful sorts, are the honey-bee and the cochineal insect.
There are also many noxious insects, the principal among them being, per-
haps, the mosquito, the wasp, the block fly, the gad-fly, the chigoe (or Jigger),
the potato beetle, the Hessian fly, and the curculio or weevil. Other insects,
usually harndess (as, for example, the groschopper), by suddenly incroasingr
to great numbers, occasionally become serious plagues. — It must not be for-
gotten that many of the land animals and many of the birds spoken of above,
have become very scarce, and even extinct, in largo parts of the continent,
owing to tlie general occupation of the country by settled communities of men.
The domestic animals of North America, south of the arctic and sub-arctlo
regions, are very niuvh the same as those wo have in Ontario, and are put to
very much the same uses : except that in the hotter parts of the continent
the mule replaces the horse as a beast of draught. In the arctic regions the
only domestic animal is the dog, which is used not only (or hunting, but also
for drawing sledges and carrying burdens. (Tlie domesticated reindeer, how-
ever, has in some places been introduced by missionaries.)

7. Minerals.

North America is most bountifully supplied with useful minerals. Gold is
found vsry plentifully in many parts of the great western t^ateau ; so also is
silver; and silver is abundant on the north shore of Lake Superior.— Iron is
found very plentifully in many parts of the eastern plateau, both in Canada
and in the United States ; and so also is coal ; and in some parts these
(wo minerals are found very near one another, which is a matter of treat
importance in the manufacture of iron. Coal and iron are also found near
one another on Vancouver Island and other islands of the Canadian Pocifio
coast. Coal is also found in many parts of the great central plain, both in

Canada and in the United States Copper is abundant on the north shore of

Lake Huron, and especially so on the south shore of Lake Superior.— Lead is
very abundant in the upper part of the Mississippi valley, and also in some
parts of the Rocky Mountain region (in Colorado).— Petroleum is obtained in
great quantities in that part of our own Province lying south of Lake HurOb,
and also in a large district of the United States lying south of Lake Erie.

8. People.

The present inhabitants of North America are principally the descendants
of European colonists, and these also constitute the leading races. So numer-
ous have the colonists from Great Britain and Ireland been, that the English
language is that almost universally spoken in Canaila v\(l the United States ;
although many people of French descent are found in eastern Canada (Quebec)
and in the southern part of the United States ; many people of Oerinan descent
in Canada, and in the United States especially; and many people of Spanish
descent in the south-western part of the United States. The ruling classes in
Mexico and Central America, and in some of the larger islands of the West
Indies, are principally of Spanish descent— Of the aboriginal races, the Eski-
mos of the north (Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Labrador) are a short, but
muscular and active, f.at-nostKl, oblique-eyed race, and though of msiny tribes,
are perhaps all allied to the Mongolians Oi* Northern Asia. — The Indians or the
" red men " of America, once very numerous in Canada and the United States,
am now but a small part of the population, and number scarcely more than
350,000 altogether. They are of many tribes, and speak many languages ; but
all (svith the exception, perhaps, of tlie tribes in the United States west of the
Rocky Mountains) bear a great likeness to one another. Though naturally
cruel (\. .' vindictive, and (as a rule) disinclined to agriculture or any sort of
labor ' I than hunting, they were, when first encounteretl by the w hite men,
in mu -aspects a noble race, and in oratorical ability and diplomacy (juite
the m^ 'those who came to intrude upon their soil. The principal tribes

or nation; . Ith which our Province has been concerned, are known as the
Algonquins (including the Chippewas or Ojibways, and the Ottawas), the
Ilurons, and the Iroquois.— Tlie aboriginal races (or Toltecaiis) of Mexico and
Central America were much superior, in respect of civilization, to those of
the United States and Cana<la. In agriculture and architecture, and in
weaving and other mechanical orts, they had made great advancement when
first encountered by Europeans, and as a substitute for a written language
they had a system of picture-writing. Since tlieir subjugation by th«
Spaniards they have deteriorated in almost every respect.

l! *

i)v

A JOURNEY THROUGH NuRTH axviERICA.

ESKIMOS AND POLAR BEAKH.

LESSON XVII.

A JOURNEY THROUGH NORTH AMERICA.

1. The Zones of North America.— Our conti-
nent, as you know from your study of the globe, stretches
from the north frigid zone to the torrid zone, and so has
every variety of climate, from the very coldest to the
hottest. Let us make an imaginary journey through it
from north to south ; we shall theT' see for ourselves, as
it were, that as
climate changes so
does vegetation, so
also do animals,
and so, too, do the
modes of living of
people, and also
their occupations.

2. The Arctic
Regions. — Let

us begin our jour-
ney at the Arctic
Ocean, near the
mouth of the great Mackenzie River. It is always very
'■jold here, even in summer, for summer is only a short
season of cold mists and rains. The ground beneath our
feet remains perpetually frozen, except for a little while
in July and August, and then it thaws out only for a
foot or two of depth. Mosses are the principal forms of
vegetable life. A few short shrubs may be seen ; but no
kind of food plant, or grain, or fruit, can be grown by
■cultivation. But animal life is not wanting. Fine fur-
bearing animals abound — wolves, foxes, boa vers, martens,
and ermines; and, in the interior, the elk, the caribou,
and the musk-ox, may be found. Here, at the coast, are
seals, sea-otters, walruses, and polar bears; and, also,
hosts of eider-duck and other water-fowl. The seas teem
with good fish, and several sorts of whales are to be seen.

3. The Eskimos. — The pecMe who live here are
■called Eskimos. As they can get no food from the soil,
they niuso subsist by hunting and fishing. They live in
huts built half underground, and made of stones, earth,
and bones. Sometimes, for winter, they build huts made
of ice and snow. They clothe themselves in skins of seal
and caribod, using therefor needles made of bone, and
thread made of the sinews of animals : the garments are
always very neat, fit beautifully, and are frequently

highly ornamented with embroidery of brightly colored
leather. They make excellent canoes of bones and hides,
and are very skilful canoeists. They also make sledges
out of similar materials; these are drawn by dogs —
strong, sinewy-necked, wolf-like animals — their insepar-
able companions. The Eskimos are very dexterous in
their use of fish-harpoons and bird-spears, and in the use
of all their weapons and tools; and, on the whole, they
are a skilful people and quite intelligent. But their mode
of living is very different from ours, let us hope. They are
enormous consumers of fat fish and flesh, and drink blood
as their favorite beverage. Where Christian missionaries
have not labored among them they are exceedingly filthy
in their habits, and they rarely touch water except by

. PRAIRIE ON FIRE See Mxt pajje.

.accident. Their, skin is naturally of only a slight brown;
but it is perpetually so begrimed with smoke, grease, and
other dirt, that it always appears black.

4. The Great Wood Belt of Canada.— We

must now imagine ourselves to be ascending the Mac-
kenzie and crossing its numerous lakes. On either hand
stretches a great forest region, as yet rarely visited by
white men, except adventurous hunters and trappers. The
climate is still cold, but birciies, spruces, larches, pines,
and hemlocks, though perhaps not of great size, are yet
very abundant, and they still remain untouched by lum-
berman or pioneer. This is a famous hunting ground,
for not only are nearly all the animals of the nortli also
found here, but likewise many others, as, for example,
the black bear, the lynx, and several kinds of deer.

A JOURNEY THROUGH NORTH AMERICA.

P-'

TOBACCO PLANT.

LESSON XVIII.

A JOURNEY THROUGH NORTH AMERICA— Continued.

1. The Great Prairie Region of North

America. — Having left the Wood Belt, we enter an
open country, treeless, but fertile and grass-covered.
Far away before us it stretches in waving rises and falls,
but it is scarcely ever hilly, and is
never mountainous. This id the
famous Prairie Region of our conti-
nent. Here, in Canada, it is but just
beginning to be occupied by the set-
tler ; but as we journey along we
come upon occasional farms and
cattle ranches, and here and there a
village, and, at much longer inter-
vals, a railway, or a river with steam-
boats upon it. Later, when we enter
the United States, and cross the
Height of Land, and journey down-
wards on the great Mississippi River,
farms and villages, and even towns
and cities, become numerous, and we
know that, for a longer time than in Canada, the land
must have been occupied by settled communities of labor-
loving men. In all this region, farming, much
like our own farming, is the principal
occupation of the people ;
for this is the world-
famous Wheat Belt of
our continent. But as
we journey southwards
we notice that Indian
corn more and more
largely takes the place
of wheat, barley, and
oats, as the principal
crop of the country; for
the climate gets warmer
and warmer, and at last
Almost too hot for wheat
and barley at all.

2. The Past Life of the Prairies.— Not long

ago all this prairie region was an unoccupied wild — in
summer a vast sea of verdant waving grass, but occa-

sionally in the dry autumn time (see picture on previous
page) catching fire and burning for hundreds of miles
with terrible rapidity and fury. The prairies abounded
in game — buffaloes, antelopes, deer, prairie hens, and
quail — and in wolves and vultures, and other animals
of prey. Their only human inhabitants were Indians j.
but the Indians were not fond of labor, and did little to
cultivate the soil. They lived almost entirely by hunt>
ing ; and, game being so abundant, they did not lack
for food — the buffaloes, then incredibly numerous, form-
ing their chief supply. But now that the white men»
iuive come into the country
and turned it into farms,
game has become very scarce,
the buffalo especially being
almost extinct ; so that the
Indian now depends for main-
tenance largely upon the
bounty of his white brother.

3. The Sunny Sputh.

— As we leav'e the prairie
region (which we do near
where the Mississippi is
joined by the Ohio) we notice
that the climate becomes still
warmer, and that farms pre-
sent new appearances. Wheat
fields now are very rare, but
tobacco fields are numerous.
Then we come to cotton plan-
tations, and these remain on
either side of us for a long
time, for we are now in one of
the great cotton-producing
regions of the world. Finally
we come to rice fields and sugar plantations — the rice
plant and the sugar-cane requiring just that sort of wana
climate which is found near the Gulf of Mexico.

To the Tea-Aer.— The rice plant, when growing, resembles wheat In.
appearance ; but, unlike wheat, it requires a wann moist soil. It is generally
cultivated in fields surrounded with embankments, and is sown in trenches
which, by opening or closing sluicegates, can be flooded or drained at will.
(See picture, pape 2S.)— The sugar-cane is a perennial gross, growing from 8
to 12 feet high, having a sweet, juicy jiith. The juice is extnicted by crushing^
the canes between iron rollers.— In these southern fields and plantations labor
is chiefly performed by negroes, whose ancestors were brought from Africa, and
held as slaves ; but, happily, slavery is now abolished.— The southern forests
are remarkable for their many flowering trees, also for their clinging vines-
and draping mosses. This south-land also is remarkable for its swampy
rivers, the homes of thousands of alligators and deadly moccasin snakes

SUGAR-CANE.

I i
I

THK DOMINION PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS.

ID.

LESSON XIX.

CANADA.

To the Teacher. — This lesson is presented in conversational form ; but
neoeuarily very briefly : many of the topics will be treated more fully
under the several provinces. The outline here given may be enlarged as
oiroumstances may require.

1. Position, Extent, and Popul:^tion.— Our

own country is called the Dominion of Canada. It
occupies the whole northern half of the continent of
North America, except the Territory of Alaska, which
belongs to the United States; and the coast of Labrador,
which belongs to Newfoundland. — In area, Canada is
nearly 3,500,000 square miles; it is thus considerably
larger than the United States without Alaska, and is
not much short of being as large as Europe. The popu-
lation of Canada is a little less than 5,000,000.

To the reocfier.— Greenland is an island, and belongs to Denmark.— The
estimated area of the Dominion is 3,470,392 square miles. The population, by
the census of 1881, was 4,324,810.

2. Boundaries and Subdivisions.

To the Teacher. — Teach the boundaries from the map. In the first reading
It will bo sufllcient to teach the principal boundaries only, as :— The Gulf of
St. Lawrence, the Atlantic Ocean, Baffin Bay, the Arctic Ocean, the 141st
.meridian of wei>t longitude, southern Alaska, the PauiQc Ocean, the 49th

parallel of north latitude. Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair, lA<'e
Erie, Niagara Uivcr, Lake Ontario, Kivcr St. Lawrence, the 46th parallel of
north latitude, and northern New Hampshire and Maine. In review, teacb
oil the boundaries, making the circuit complete.

Canada consists of seven Provinces, five Districts, and two Territorie*.
The seven Provinces are :— Nova Scotia, Princr Edward Island, New Brdnb-
wicK, QuBBKc, Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia. These have
governments of the'r own. The five Districts are :— Kewatin, Abbiniboia,
Saskatoiibwan, Albbrta, and Athabasca. The two Territories are:— The
North-EXst Territort and the Nortii-Webt Territory. Teach from the
map the relative positions and boundaries of these fourteen subdivisions.

3. Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— The names of the principal coast features — islands, penin-
sulas, gulfs, bays, and straits— should bo taught in order from the map. The
main surface features of Canada have already been considered in Lesson XVI.
("North America"). They should now be reviewed, and be dwelt upon
more particularly. If possible, they should be taught from a "relief map" ;
if this be impossible, then from the wall map. The following notes will be of
service :— The western part of Canada is occupied by part of the great western
plateau of America, from whicli, both at its edges and in its interior,
several parallel mountain ranges rise, giving it an exceedingly hilly or moun-
tainous character. The range which forms its western edge has many out-
lying parts in the ocean, so that the Pacific coast of Canada is lined with
rocky islands and indented with many rock-bound inlets. For Its eastern
edge the plateau has the Rocky Mountain range. Taking their rise on th«
western side of the Rocky Mountains, several great, but rapid and tumultuou
rivers find their way across the plateau to the Pacific : the principal of these
are the Stickeen, the Skccna, and the Eraser.

The eastern edge of the western plateau is lined by a series of hills (off-
shoots of the mountains), called the Rocky Mountain Foot Hills. To the east
of these succeeds a vast level plain, the great central plain region of Canada,
divided into two parts : the southern part, with an eastward slope, and the
northern part, with a slope towards the Arotio Ocean. The southern pturt is

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generally treeloee, but fertile, and covered with griMi, coniprlilnir the prairie
roKlon or "fertile tielt" of our " North- Weit"; it is drained by two Ioiik
navlKable riven, the Awiiniboine and the 8aikatvhewan. The northern part
ol the central plain U tho vallny of the Maokoiizle ; In It* loutbern portion
(the valleys of the I'oocc and tho Athabasca) It alio Is treeless, thou|[b fertile
■>nd Kross-covered ; but farther north, though Keneruily wooded, It has a
oUinatuso uold and Inhospitable that It will never bo of much service as an
abo<le tor man.

To tho east of this central plain region Is a rugged, uneven, rocky (but not
elevated) countr>', called the Lauruntian region, encircling the whole of Hud-
son Bay, butconipriHing soiiiuwhat moro than the Hudson llay Uosin, l)oth on
tho west and south, und on t'.ie east. Its western and south-western edges uro
marked by a wondurful series of lake basins. Of these, Qreat Itear Lake,
Qrcnt Hlavo Lake, and Lake Athnbasca, drain Into the Mackenzie River. Lake
WoUaston and Kelndeer Lako drain into tho Churchill Kiver, which forces Its
way through the Luurentian region, and empties Into Iludnon Day. Lake
Winnipeg, after receiving the waters of tho Assinibolne and the Saskutchewan,
also drains through the Laurcntian region Into Hudson Bay, by the Nelson
River. Other great rivers emptying Into Hudson Bay, and assisting to drain
tho Laurentlan region, are the Albany, the Abittibi, the Kast Main, and tho
Qreat Whale rivers.

The great region lying to tho Houth of tho Hudson Bay Basin Is known as
the Basin of the St. Lawrence. Tlie water-parting separating those two biisiiis
Is tho eastern half ot tho Height of Land ; it lies wholly in the Laurentlan
region, so that the southern slope of the Laurentlan region is part of the St.
Lawrence Basin. (In tho cast, the Height of Land is known as the Watchish
Mountains.) Tho St. Lawrence River (known by dilTe nt names In difTerciit
partst is remarkable for its great lako expansions— Lake Superior, Lake Huron,
Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario— the largest fresh-water lakes In
the world. The tributaries ot the St. Lawrence which drain the country
south of the Height ot Land are, many ot them, very large ; ot these the
principal are the NIpigon, French River, the Ottawa, tho St. Maurice, and the
Saguenay. Several large rivers flow into the St. Lawrence from the south ; of
these the Richelieu Is tho largest. The parts of Ontario and Quebec which lie
between the Laurentlan region on the one hand, and the great lakes and tho
St. Lawrence on the other, comprise some of the finest agricultural lands In
the world ; but as the Laurentlan region in Ontario comes quite near to Lako
Superior and Lake Huron, and In Quebec extendi almost to the St. Lawrence,
a large portion of the northern parts ot these provinces is of very much less
value tor agricultural purposes than the highly fav-red parts just described.

South-eastern Quelsec, and New Brunswick a.id Nova Scotia, are part of
the Appalachian Plateau, but these regions are scarcely mountainous ; they
are merely hilly or undulating, rnd abound In fine stretches of pastoral and
agricultural lands. The St. John, in New Brunswick, is a great river, and is
navigable for some distance.

Northern Canada is but little known. Its shores are characterized by
many great peninsulas and islands; those are, a.s a rule, level, frozen wastes.

4. Climate, Vegetation, and Animal Life.

To the Teacher.— These topics have already been treated in connection with
the whole continent, in Lesson XVI. They should now be reviewed, and be
dwelt upon more particularly. The climate, goil, vegetation, and animal life,
characteristic of Ontario, should first be considered in conversations. The
facts in regard to these, elicited from the pupils, should bo written upon the
blackboard in due order ; and then be made standards of comparison by whioh
statements concerning the climate, soil, vegetation, and animal life of other
parts of the Dominion shall be understood.- Of the wliole inhabited or
southern portion ot Canada, except the western coast, it may be said that the
climate (although, on the whole, very healthy) is excessive ; that is, that it is
cold In winter and hot in summer, and subject to great and sudden variations
at all times. But, in the matter of rainfall, probably no part of the world
is more favored than Ontario : our annual supply of rain is sufficient and
not excessive.— In tho Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Prince Edward Island) tho rainfall is greater than in Ontario, the winters
being less dry and bracing, and the springs being subject to much rain und
fog. But the extremes of heat and cold are not so great as in Ontario. — On the
other hand, in the gre.it plain region, the climate is more given to extremes
than m Ontario, an J the rainfall is less. In the south-western part of the plain

INDIAN CORN.

region, however, the wmters are much Irsa severe than In part* farther eaili
the temperature being reduced by very frequent warm winds from the
west; but at times, oven this milder region ^although it has but little mow)
suffers from extreme oold ; and in summer It sometimes suffers from lack ot
rain.— On the PaclHo coast, tho climate is much milder and more equable
than In Ontario, but tho rainfall is exocsiive.

With respect to vegetation, It should be pointed out to the pupilaboir
largely the industries ot our country depend upon « hat naturally grows, aEd
what can be made to grow, on our soil.
Tho whole of eastern Canada, south ol
tho Height ot Land, was not long since
covered with an alinost unbroken forest ;
and as a largo part ot this still remains,
lumliering is now, as It has been from
tho first, one of tho most ini|K>rtant ot
our industries. Of the limber trees of
Canada, tho whito pine has been the
most abundant and tho moat valuab c.
Other valuable sorts are the red pine, the oodar
(used for making telegraph poles), the tamaroo (use<l
tor making railway ties), tho white oak (largely used
for making staves and in car-building), the hem-
lock, tho birch, the ash, the elm, the walnut, the
butternut, the linden (or tho basswood tree), and
the cherry. The maple and tho beech, although
goo<l timber trees, are mostly used tor fuel —Where
tho forusts have been clcare<l off, farms, orchards,
and gardens have appeared. The vegetable pro-
ducts obtained from those are well known, but thoy
should be enumerated ahd described (aa far as
possible, by the pupils themselves).- In the great
central plain region, the farms as yet are almost exclusively devoted to the
raising of wheat and oats. In the mild south-western part ot this region,
cattle-grazing is an important industry, the prairie grass being edible and
obtainable all winter. (For "Animal Life" see Lesson XVIX

5. Minerals. — Canada abounds in minerals, but
only in the older and more settled pa,rts has the mineral
wealth of our Dominion been turned to much good
account. Nova Scotia has an abundance of excellent
coal, some go).d, and some very rich gypsum beds. New
Brunswick has iron, as well as coal and gypsum. Quebec
has iron, copper, gold, and phosphate of lime; but, un-
fortunately, no coal. Ontario, too, has no coal ; but it
has iron, copper, silver, salt, and petroleum in abundance.
The great central plain region has an abundance of soft
coal, and, in its western mountain boundary, an abun-
dance of hard coal. British Columbia already produces
a great deal of gold, and has, as well, inexhaustible
stores of both iron and coal of the very best qualities. —
As our country becomes older and more populous, mining
will more and more become an important industry of
our people.

To the IVacAer.— Explain the different uses to which the above-mentioned
minerals are put. Locate on the map the places in Ontario where its minerals
are obtained.

6. Occupations of the People.— Canada is

peopled by industrious communities : it has no large idle
classes. But our industries mainly consist in turning

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the natural rosourcoa of our own country to the host
account for the sustenance and comfort of ourselves and
of the world in general. Wherever forests remain, lum-
bering is still a great industry. Where the forests have
been cleared away, agricultur<», and the raising of cattle
and sheep, and (in son>e of the warmer parts oJ Ontario)
the production of various sorts of hardy fruits, are the
leading occupations of the people. Wherever useful
minerals abound, mining will certainly, at some time or
other, become an important occupation ; but as yet it is
only in Nova Scotia and in British Columbia that mining
can be said to be a leading industry of the people. In
all the sea-shore regions of eastern Canada, and along the
shores of some of our great lakes, fishing is a very im-
portant industry. The fisheries of our ocean-bordering
provinces and of Newfoundland are the finest in the
world. The salmon fisheries of British Columbia are also
of great importance. In the Maritime Provincas the
building and sailing of ships is a very important industry.
Moreover, in all our towns and cities, besides those who
are employed in trade, there are many other people
engaged in the manufacture of goods of all sorts — prin-
cipally, of course, for the use of our own people at home ;
but also, to some extent, for sale abroad.

7. Facilities for Transportation and for

Oommunication. — Canada possesses a water system
which, as a highway for ships and boats, is unexcelled
in the world ; and, to perfect this system, many canals
have been built. In addition, Canada has built about
12,000 miles of railways; and, as our country is con-
stantly becoming more settled and more populous, new
railways are continually in process of construction. — For
the advantage of communication the whole of the settled
portion of Canada is supplied by an efficient postal ser-
vice ; and throughout almost the whole of this portion,
telegraph lines have been constructed.

To the TeocAen— Show to the clasa how canals benefit river and lake
navigation. Locate on the map our principal canals— the Welland Canal, the
Rideau Canal, the St. Lawrcncj River canals, and the Richelieu River canals ;
also, the St. Mary River Canal, which has been built by the United States
Government. Help the pupils to trace on the map the main lines of our three
great railways— the Intercolonial Railway, the Grand Trunk Railway, and
the Canadian Pacific Railway. Describe the postal and telegraph systems.

8. Exports and Imports. — Canada sells to other
countries much of the rich produce of her forests, fish-
eries, mines, farms, and orchards ; also some manufac-
tured articles: these are our exports. Canada purchases
from other nations very many manufactured articles,
such as woollen, cotton, and linen goods, silks, hardware.

cutlery, and books ; also many articles of food, as tea,
coffee, sugar, rice, spices, and tropical fruits ; and alio
some minerals, as, for example, coal : these are our import*.

9. People, Religion, and Education.— The

people of Canada are principally of British origin, being
the descendants of English, Scotch, and Irish ancestors,
who came to this country as colonists. But in the Pro-
vince of Quebec the people are mostly of French descent,
that province having once belonged to France. And in
all parts of Canada there are many people of German
descent. But all original race distinctions are lost in our
one common nationality; we now are all Canadians. — Of
the aboriginal inhabitants of Canada, the Indians and
the Eskimos, a number still remain ; but they are found
principally in the unsettled regions of the west and
north. The Indians of Ontario, and of the provinces
eastward, are, for the most part, civilized. — Christianity
prevails everywhere throughout all Canada, except among
some still savage tribes of Indians; and even among these
Christian missionaries are successfully laboring. — All the
provinces of Canada have established excellent systems
of free (or almost free) public instruction ; so that no
Canadian boy or girl need grow up without obtaining as
thorough an education as may be desired.

To the TeacAer.— By the census of 1881 the number of Indians and Eskimo*
in Canada was 108,547. Of these 75,133 were outside the limits of the six
eastern provinces. The number of Canadian Eskimos is about 0,000.

10. Government. — Canada forms a part of the

great British Empire, and the Governor-General of

Canada is appointed by the Government of Great Britain.

But though loyal to the motherland and proud of her

parentage, Canada is practically a self-governing state,

and the tie which binds us to Great Britain is principally

that of strong filial affection.

To the Teacher.— T^e pupils should now acquire some knowledge of the
government of Canada. The following points should be explained :— The
relation of Canada to the Empire ; the relation oi' the Governor-General to the
Empire and to the Dominion ; the constitution of the Canadian Parliament;
the power of Parliament to make laws tor the whole Dominion ; the duties of
the Premier and his colleagues of the Cabinet; the responsibility of the
Cabinet to Parliament ; the relations of the different Provinces to one another
and to the whole Dominion ; what sorts of laws the Individual Provinces may
pass but which the Dominion may not pass ; and the relations of Territories
and Districts to the Dominion. Only a general knowledge of these mat; -..«
should bo imparted now ; when Lesson X.VIII. has been completed, they may
be taken up again, and more particularly.— In practice it will be best to
deduce the idea of government and law in general from the pupils' notion of
government and law in the school; from this, and from the pupils' own
experience, obtain a conception of government and law as these appertain to
a township, or village, town, or city ; from this deduce the idea of the govern-
ment of the Province ; and from this again deduce the idea of the government
of the whole Dominion as outlined above. Information respecting thne
matters will be found in the Public School History of Canada.

■■■■PI

A JOURNEY AROUND ONTARIO.

LESSON XX.

A JOURNEY ABOUND ONTARIO— I. FROM LAKE OF
THE WOODS TO SARNIA.

1. Ontario and ifs Boundaries.

To the Teacher.— Betote enterii ? \i\v>a this lesson, which is intended as a
oonvergational introduction to the particular study of the Province of Ontario,
the ground taken up in Lesson VII. she jld bo gone over again in review. The
pupils should then be led to observe how remarkably encircled by a chain of
lakes and riv ers our Province is. The map should be in constant use as the
lesson proceeds. The teacher need not confine himself to the details given in
the text ; but in everything let it not be forgotten that the knowledge to be
Imparted is (1) what natural advantages does our Province afford its people;
and (2) what uso have the people made of their advantages.

2. Rainy River District. — We will suppose our

starting place to be in the Rainy River District, in the

J3M

FUU-BEARIN(i ANIMALS.

extreme west of the Province, at what is known as the
North-west Angle of the Lake of tlie Woods. This lake,
whioh has Manitoba on the west, the State of Minnesota
on the south, and Ontario on tlie east, is on the northern
slope of the Height of Land, and its surface is more than
1,000 feet above the sea. It feeds tl^Winnipeg Ri% cr
on the north, and is itself fed at the soulh by the Rainy
River.

Commencing our journey, we cross the Lake of the
Woods and ascend the Rainy River to Rainy Lake.
Thence by a chain of small lakes, and across a short
jportago over the crest of the Height of Land, we reach

Pigeon River, aiid by it we descend to Lake Superior.
Tlie country through which we have passed is but
sparsely settkd as yetj but it is valuable for its fur-
bearing animals, its timber, and its minerals.

3. Lake Superior. — We are now upon the largest
fresh-water lake in the world. It covers about 32,000
square miles — an area almost equal to that of Ireland.
Its waters are remarkably clear, and in some parts hp.ve
a depth of over 900 feet. Its surface is about 600 feet
above the level of the sea,. Its length from Duluth, in
jNEinneaota, to the river St. Mary, its outlet, is over 400
miles. ,

4. Thunder Bay District.— From the mouth of

the Pigeon River, sailing north-easterly, we skirt the shore
of Lake Superior and enter Thunder Bay. Here, at the
mouth of the Kaministiqvia, is Fort William, famous
f ■; its scenery ; and six miles farther on is Port Arthur,
the most important place in Thunder Bay District,
where the Canadian Ifacific Railway comes down to the
shore to secure the traffic of the lake — to proceed thence
to Winnipeg and the West. On Silver Islet and Pie
Island in Thunder Bay, and on the mainland adjacent,
are some remarkably rich mines of silver.

All the lakes and streams about Lake Superior abound
in blackj<ass, speckled tront, and other choice iish. The
Surrounding woods are the home of numerous wild
animals, such as the deer, the bear, and the wolf. The
mineral wealth of the region is exhaustless.

5. The North Shore of Lake Superior.—

Sailing on, at the head of Nipigon Bay we come to the
mouth oZ Nipigon River, wiiich is the outlet of a large
lake of the same name. The Canadian Pacific Railway
again appears, traversing a wild, though picturesque
country, chiefly valuable for Its minerals. At the Wel-
lington Mines we see quantities of copper ore ready for
shipment.

Passing out of the eastern channel of Nipigon Bay,
our steamer heads for Michipicoten Island. Suddenly,
as we approach the island, we are enveloped in a thick
fog. We must patiently lie to for a time, when the fog
will lift as quickly as it came. These fogs, and the
great storms that sometimes arise, are among the dangers
of this immense lake. Across from here, on the United
States side, are the famous Pictured Rocks, so called
from the fantastic shapes into whicft the sandstone clifia

Superior,
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J mouth of
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FROM THE LAKE OF THE WOODS TO SARNIA.

of the shore have been worn by the waves. Passing
the island, we steam onward towards the south-east. The
lake grows narrower; soon we can see both shores —
Ontario on our left, Michigan on our right. We now
fewter Whitefish Bay, and pass on into the St. Mary River.
Here our course is interrupted by a rapid, down which
no vessel dare venture. The descent of 20 feet is quickly
made, however, by means of a magnificent lock in the
St. Mary River Canal. This canal iy on the American
side, and was built by the United States Government.
Here, too, a fine raUway bridge spans both river and canal.

6. Algoma Dis-
trict and the
North Channel.—

Below the canal we
touch at the village
of Sault (soo) Ste.
Marie, the capital of
the District of Al-
goma ; and, after a
delightful run down
the St. Mary River,
we pass the fertile
island of St. Joseph,
and come to Bruce
Mines. Here much
copper was once ob-
tained. The river now
widens into the North
Channel. On the
north shore is Thes-
salon, where we see
the smoke of large
saw-mills. L u m b er
manufacture is carried on extensively here and at several
other points along the coast. Drummond Island, away
there to the south, belongs to the United States ; but
Cockbuin (ko'-burn) Island, next to it, belongs to Canada.
That river whose mouth we are passing is the Mississauga.
We see in the distance on our right the Grand Mani-
toulin Island, the largest island in Lake Huron. The
Indians who named it believed it to be the abode of the
Great Spirit (Manitou). Many civilized Indians now
have their homes on the island, especially at the east end
of it ; and also at the mouth of tiie Garden River, which
empties into the St. Mary River beiow Sault Ste. Marie.

PICTCRED ROCKS, LAKE SUPERIOR.

Manitoulin Island is about 80 milb? long, and from 6
to 30 miles broad. Its surface is elevated and rugged.
Much of the island, however, is fit for agriculture, and
is now well settled. At Algoma Mills, on the north, we
see signs of extensive lumbering operations. Through this
village a branch line of the Canadian Pacific Railway
runs from Sudbury, on the main line, to Sault Ste. Marie.
Continuing our course, we pass the Spanish River, and
wind our way among the many rocky islets in which
the channel abounds. The La Cloche Mountains skirt
the shore upon our left, Manitoulin Island soon comes

quite close to the
mainland. Manito-
waning, its chief port,
is away to the south
of us at the head of
a long, narrow bay.
Passing through some
very narrow channels,
we at length reach
Killarney ; thence we
sail out into the open
waters of the Geor-
gian Bay.

7. Georgian Bay.

— Georgian Bay is in
reality a large lake,
120 miles long and
50 wide. At its north-
east corner we stop
at the mouth of the
French River, noted
for its scenery. This
river is the outlet of
Lake Nipissing, which is 55 miles from its mouth. Lake
Nipissing is 50 miles long and 15 broad. Around its
north shore the Canadian Pacific Railway passes. If
we were to cross Lake Nipissing, and make a short
portagfi, we might proceed by several small lakes and
the River Mattawa to the Ottawa River. In doing so
we should pass through the heart of a great lumber
district.

8 Parry Sourd and Muskoka Districts. —

C'Tiising southward along the shore of Parry Sound Dis-
trict, on the east side of Georgian Bay, at Byng Inlet

rE_.

A JOURNEY AROUND ONTARIO.

If 1

we pass the mouth of the Maganetawan River, which
drains a well-timbered valley, and is the outlet of many
small lakes. Farther south, the rockbound coast )pens,
and we enter Parry Sound, which gives its name to
the district, and also to the capital, a village on the
mainland, behind Parry Island. The large saw-mills in
the village remind us that we are still in a lumber
region. On Parry Island we may visit a settlement of
Indians. Journeying southward, we coast along the
Muskoka District and pass the mouth of the Muskoka
River, into which empty the waters of a long chain of
beautiful lakes, much resorted to in summer by tJie
people of Ontario. All along the course we have taken,
from the mouth of the French River, are myriads of
small islands, whose beautiful verdure, and variety of
size and shape, make this trip one of the most picturesque
in the world.

9. Matchedash Bay. — Entering Matchedash Bay,
we explore the mouth of the Severn River, the outlet of
Lakes Couchiching and Siracoe, on whose shores stand
Orillia and Barrie. At Orillia is the Provincial Asylum
for Idiots. Up the west shore of the bay we call ai
Midland, the terminus of the Midland division of the
Grand Trunk Railway. At Penetanguishene, which is
a terminus of the Northern Railway, is the Provincial
Reformatory for Boys. Much lumber is conveyed from
these points to the larger cities and towns of the Pro-
vince. We next round Christian Island, occupied by
Indians, and reach Coliingwood, on Nottawasaga Bay,
the southern extremity of Georgian Bay.

10. The South Shore of Georgian Bay— Col-
iingwood is an important town. From it several lines
of steamboats make trips to various points on Georgian
Bay, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior, whence they
return with lumber, minerals, grain, cattle, and furs.
They also bring over a great deal of grain from American
ports, especially from Chicago and Duluth. The Northern
Railway takes these products to Toronto, on Lake Ontario,
a distance of about 100 miles, whence, for the most
part, they are transported to the United States, or to
England. Resuming our journey, we first come, not far
west from Coliingwood, to Meaford, a terminus of the
Northern Railway, and a calling place for many steam-
ers. Then we enter a deep bay called Owen Sound, at
the head of which is the town of Owen Sound, the ter-
minus of a branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway

running from Toronto, and the starting place of the
Canadian Pacific line of steamers, which run to Port
Arthur on Lake Superior, and connect there with the
Canadian Pacific Railway. Next we come to Colpoy's _
Bay, whose port — Wiarton — is a calling place for
steamers, and the terminus of a railway running from
Port Dover, on Lake Erie. Then sailing northward and
rounding Bruce Peninsula (a part of which is reserved
by the Dominion Government for the use of Indians) we
at length enter Lake Huron.

11. Lakes Huron and Michigan.— Connected

with Lake Huron is Lake Michigan, lying wholly in
the United States. The channel joining the lakes, in
one place only four miles wide, is called Mackinac
(mack'Inaw) Strait. These lakes are each about two-
thirds the size of Lake Superior, Lake Michigan being
a little larger than Lake Huron. Lake Michigan is
about 320 miles long ; Lake Huron, about 280. Their
waters are from 800 to 1,200 feet deep.

12. The East Shore of Lake Huron.— Sailing

own Lake Huron, at the mouth of the Saugeen River
we come to Southampton, the terminus of the Welling-
ton, Grey and Bruce division of the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, running to Guelph. Not far from Southampton
we pass Port Elgin. Coasting somewhat farther south-
ward, we reach Kincardine, where a great deal of white-
fish and of lake trout are caught. These are se i to
inland towns by another division of the Grand Vrunk
Railway. There are also some salt- wells here. Our next
place A call is Goderich, at the mouth of the Maitland,
a river which drains one of the finest agricultural sec-
tions of Ontario. Goderich has a good harbor, and is
the terminus of the Buffalo and Lake Huron division of
the Grand Trunk Railway. It has extensive salt works,
and exports large quantities of both fresh and salted
fish. Sailing south-west from Goderich, we soon come
to the end of the lake arid enter the River St. Glair.
Point Edward and Sarnia are on our left, and on cir
right is Port Huron, in the United States. Point Ed
ward is the Canadian terminus of the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, and cars which may have come from Toronto,
Montreal, or even Portland in Maine, are here conveyed
across the river on innnense ferry-boats, to be taken to
Detroit or Chicago ; and hero we will make a brief halt,
after our long coasting crui i of more than 1,000 miles

FROM SAUXIA TO KINGSION.

What towns an<1

Exercise. — l. What is remarkable about the boundaries
of Ontario ? 2. Describe briefly the water system between Lake
«f the Woods and Sarnia. 3. Mention as many facts concerning
Lako Superior as you can. 4. State what you know of the
■silver mines and copper mines about Lake Superior and the
North Channel. 5. What is the nature of the country on the
north shore of Lake Superior ? 6. Describe the Pictured Rocks
of Lake Superior. 7. State what you know of St. Mary River.
■8. Give some account of the north shore of the North Channel.
What are the principal industries of the people there ? 9. De-
scribe Manitoulin Islan^d. 10. What can you say of the scenery
along the east shore of Georgian Bay? 11. Give some account
oi the Muskoka lakes. 12. Mention as many as you can of the
settlements of Indians along the shores of Lake Huron and
"Georgian Bay. How do these civilized Indians make their
living? 13. Tell what you know of the fisheries of Lake
Superior, Lake I^uron, and Georgian Bay.
villages are Krgel'i' ■ i)f aged in the fishing
industry? V,! it • '.,f edible fish are

found in our g. fi it ..t.- 1 14. What towns
«n'' villages of this district are largely en-
gaged in the lumber industry? Describe,
«s well as you can, the whole process of
making lumber, beginning with the felling
of the trees in the forest. From what kinds
of trees is most of the lumber in Ontario
-obtained? Mention the different uses to
■which the various sorts of Ontario lumber
-are put : for example, what use is made of
hemlock lumber? 15. Describe the Canadian
steamboat routes of the northern lakes.
What are the chief commodities trans-
ported by means of these steamboats? With
what lines of railway do these st' . .'nbocfc routes make connection?
16. What fur-beaiing animals . i^ foaii in Ontario. State the
different uses to which the!; u- : !i c , bo put.

resorted to by sportsmen for duck-shooting. Vessels
pass from the river to the lake beyond by means of the
St. Clair Flats Canal, eleven miles; long, which has been
dredged out by the United States Government.

2. Lake St. Clair. — We now enter the small and

shallow Lake St. Clair. The moutli of the River Thames

is at the soutli-east corner of this lake. The Thames

drains five of the best counties of Ontario. Essex and

I Kent counties, which lie upon the south and east shores

I of Lake St. Clair, are level and fertile. Essex County,

I indeed, consists of prairie land, similar to that we saw in

our journey down the Mississippi. These counties are

! ii."'ch noted for their vineyards.

i 3. The Detroit River. — From Lake St. Clair we

LESSON XXI.

A JOURNEY AROUNn ONTARIO.— TI. FROM SARNIA
TO XmOSTON.

1. The River St. Olair, — We leave Sarnia and
resume our journey, sailing down the River St. Clair.
We find this river t'> ', v, ider and deeper than the
River li \ >' i,ry. As wy > '

'l;,ng, we have a good

view of the fine country vu both sides of us. At the
lower end of the river, we come to a large delta, whose
low j'.'urslies and islands are formed by deposits of mud
brouErlit ■ vvn by the river. Of the islands, Walpole
Island, l)elonging to Canada, is the largest. The St.
Clair Flats, as these low places are called, are much
/

sail into the River Detroit, and
soon the town of Windsor appears
on the Canadian side, and the city of
Detroit on the American side opposite.
Connecting these is a railway ferry. The
trains o* the Great W astern division of the Grand Trunk
Railway a"e taken l^odily across the river to Detroit, on
their way to C^hicafjO and the west. One branch of the
Canada Southern division of the Michigan Central Rail-
way also crosses here by ferry ; and, as we sail fartlier
down the river, we come to the other bi-ancli at Am-
herstberg. Here, also, the trains are transported by ferry.

4. Lake Erie. — Rounding the south-western comer
of Essex, which is aJso the south-western corner of On-
tario, we find ourselves upon Lake Erie, the shallowest
of the Great Lakes. It is only about 100 fe^it deep. On
account of its shallowness, the sudden storms by which
it is visited are more dangerous than they would otherwise

A JOURNEY AROUND ONTARIO.

be. Lake Erie is only half the size of Lake Huron. It is
about 250 miles long, and 80 miles across at its widest
part. Its shores are low, and it has few good harbors.

5. The North Shore of Lake Erie.— The north

shore of Lake Erie, and the peninsula between Lake Erie
and Lake Ontario, compose the great fruit-growing dis-
trict of the Province. Grapes, peaches, pears, and plums,
are produced in great abundance, besides apples, and all •
sorts of small fruits. In sailing down the lake, along
the Canadian shore, we see, some distance out, Pelee
Itland. It belongs to Canada. Then we round Point
Pelee, and then pass Rondeau (o) Harbor, and after a
while reach Port Stanley, an important shipping point,
connected by a railway with the cities of St. Thomas and
London. Then we come to Port Burwell; and then,
passing Long Point Island, we run in to Port Dover,
connected by rail with Stratford, Wiarton, Hamilton,
Barrie, and CoUingwood. Farther along, we come to the
mouth of the Grand River. This river, with its five
branches, drains one of the very best agricultural dis-
tricts in the world. It has come down all the way from
the head waters of the Nottawasaga and the Saugeen,

6. The Welland Canal. — ^We are now nearing
Port Colborne, at the entrance to the Welland Canal.
This canal is about 28 miles long, and has cost the
Canadian Government over twenty millions of dollars.
Were it not for it, ships could not get from Lake Erie
to Lake Ontario, as the great Falls of the Niagara pre-
vent the through navigation of that river. But by the
canal and its locks, ships can easily, though somewhat
slowly, make the journey, and passing Thorold and the
city of St. Catharines, come to Port Dalhousie, on Lake
Ontario — descending over 325 feet in all.

7. Niagara River and Niagara Falls.— We,

however, will go down to Lake Ontario, along the bank
of the Niagara River. Having come to Fort Erie,
opposite the city of Bufftlo, we visit the great Interna-
tional Bridge, which spans the Niagara River. It cost
$3,500,000. Continuing our journey, we follow the
Canadian bank of the river. We observe that the cur-
rent grows swifter and swifter. Soon it breaks into
rapids; and these becoming yet swifter and more awful,
the river finally makes its great plunge, forming the
world-renowned Falls of Niagara. At its cataract, the
river is divided into two parts by Goat Island — the
American Fall about 1,400 feet wide, and the Canadian

Fall, of nearly twice that width, better known from its-
sliape as the Horse Shoe Fall. The great river leaps
over a sheer precipice of about 160 feet, and the thunder
of its waters can bo heard ten miles away.

Niagara River is 34 miles long, and the Falls are about
20 miles from Lake Erie. A little way below the Falls
is a bridge spanning the river, much used by sight-seers ;
and a little farther down still are two magnificent rail-
way bridges — the Cantilever Bridge and the Suspension
Bridge. About two miles below the Falls is the great
Niagara Whirlpool. Below the Whirlpool the river flows
with a calm though still rapid current, on which steamers
can easily ply.

our journey
along the bank of the river,
we come to Brock's Monu>
nient, on Queenston Heights,
which reminds us that this Niagara peninsula has been
tlie scene of many important events in the history of
our country. At last we reach Niagara, a very old
town, the first capital of our Province. Here the river
empties into Lake Ontario.

8. Lake Ontario. — Ontario, the lowest of the
Great Lakes, is 247 feet above the sea level. It is about
190 miles long, and, at its widest part, 65 miles broad;
and its area is somewhat more than 6,000 square miles.
It is thus the smallest of the Great Lakes. Its waters
are from 300 to 700 feet deep. The country along both
the Canadian and A.m^rican shores is generally fertile,
and is well peopled with agricultural, manufacturing,
and commercial communities.

9. The West End of Lake Ontario.— Our

journey westward from Niagara takes us along a fine
peach-growing district. We first reach Port Dalhousie
at the end of the Welland Canal. Soon the Hamilton

/ <

:\^

FROM SARNIA TO KINGSTON.

Mountain appears. In a little while we enter the
short Burlington Canal, over which, by an iron swing-
bridge, the Northern and North-Western Railway passes.
By the canal we reach Burlington Bay, which is, as you
see, completely land-locked. Upon its south-western
shore, the city of Hamilton is picturesquely situated at the
foot of the Mountain. Hamilton is the second city in
Ontario ; it has excellent railway facilities, and is noted
for its manufL,ctures. The Desjardins Canal extends
from Hamilton to Dundas, five miles inland. Dundas
was the original poit of the eai-ly settlers of this part of
the country. . Dundas and Hamilton are also connected
by a steam tramway.

Leaving Burlington Bay, we sail north-eastward, and
pass along a district noted for the tine strawberries and
other fjmall fruits which it produces. We come to Oak-
ville, and then to Port Credit, at the mouth of the Credit.
This river has descended from the highlands near the
seurces of the Grand and Nottawasaga rivers. Passing
now the mouth of the Humber, we enter Toronto Bay,
well sheltered from storms by its island. The city of
Toronto is built upon this bay. It is the capital of tlie
Province of Ontario, and contains more than 112,000
inhabitants. Next to Montreal, it is the greatest com-
mercial centre in Canada. It is the crfnverging point
of the railway system of the Province, and it is grow-
ing year by year with great rapidity. But as we shall
ler.,rn more of the cities and towns of Ontario by and by,
we hasten on.

10. The North Shore of Lake Ontario.— Con-
tinuing our course eastward, we skirt a magnificent
agricultural district, and pass in succession Whitby,
Oshawa, Bowmanville, Port Hope, and Cobourg, all
thriving towns. Three of these — Whitby, Port Hope,
and Cobourg — are each the terminus of a railway. We
sail rouiid the county of Prince Edward into the Bay of
Quinte. This county, naturally a peninsula, has been
converted into an island by the Murray Canal, which
you must find for yourselves on a map. Prince Ed-
ward is noted for its barley and fruit. Sailing up the
Bay of Quinte, on our left we sight Picton, the capital of
the county — far in at the head of an inlet. At the head
of the Bay of Quinte we come to Trenton, at the mouth
of the Trent. If we chosn to make an excursion up the
Trent, we should constantly meet large quantities of
tiu^ber floating down, to be sawn into lumber at towns

along its banks. We might ascend this fine waterway,
past Campbellford, Hastings, Pet< Thorough, Bobcaygeon,
and Fenelon Falls — through Rice Lake, Stony Lake,
Sturgeon Lake, Balsam Lake, and on through many
other small lakes and their connecting rivers, to the
head waters of the rivers of the Muskoka District. This
journey would afford us some of the most varied and
picturesque scenery to be found on the continent. How-
ever, as we cannot now do this, we return down the bay
to the city of Belleville, at the mouth of the Moira.
From this city a railway runs northward to Madoc, the
centre of a tine mineral district which produces excel-
lent iron-ore, and some gold. From Trenton, also, a
railway runs to this mineral district, and brings down
much iron ort from Marmora. Continuing our course
down the narrow and winding Bay of Quinte, we come to
Amherst Island at its mouth. Passing it, we next come
to Wolfe Island ; and then, on the mainland opposite,
to the city of Kingston.

At Kingston is the entrance to the Rideau (o) Caaal,
which, linked with a chain of small lakes and the Rideau
River, unites Lake Ontario with the River Ottawa. This
picturesque waterway is 126 miles in length.' Before
the canals on the St. Lawrence wore constructed it was
part of the great water route to Montreal. From the
plentifulness of limestone about it, much of which has
been used in building it, Kingston is called the " Lime-
stone City." It is the terminus nf a railway running up
to Renfrew, and connecting it with the Canadian Pacific
Railway. Kingston is one of the oldest places in Ontario,
a fort having been built here by the French over two
hundrea years ago. It was the first capital of the
Province of Canada (Ontario and Quebec), and has been
an important military post. Near by is Fort Henry.

Exercise.— 1. What causes the St. Clair Flats? Why are
they resorted tx) by sportsmen ? 2. At what places are railway
trains conveyed into the United States from Ontario by ferry T
At what places may they pass over on bridges ? 3. What are
the fruit-growing districts of Ontario ? Describe each. 4. What
railway comes to Port Stanley ? What railways come to Port
Dover ? What connections do these railways make ? 5. What
is a canal lock ? Of what use is it ? 6. What railway passes
over the International Bridge? What railways pass over the
Cantilever and Suspension I>ridges at Niagara Falls ? 7. Trace
the courses of the Thames, Grand, and Credit Rivers. 8. What
railways meet in Toronto? 9. What railways terminate at
Whitby, Port Hope, Cobourg, Picton, Belleville, Kingston i
10. Tell what you know of the mineral district lying north i>k
Belleville. 11. Trace on the map the Rideau CanaL

A JOUUNEY AROUND ONTARIO.

LESSON XXII.

A JOURNEY AROUND ONTARIO-III. FROM
KINGSTON TO LAKE OF THE WOODS.

1. The Lake of the Thousand Islands.—

Leaving Kingston, we resume our journey around tlie
Province of Ontario. To descend the St, Lawrence we
will take one of those magnificent steamboats that ply
between Toronto and Montreal, and are such favorites
with tourists. We leave the waters of Lake Ontario and
enter an archipelago known as the Lake of the Thou-
sand Islands. This beautiful lake is 50 miles long, and
is studded with islands —

some 1,900 in all — of
various shapes and sizes.
For the most part these
islands aie granite rocks
coverfed with a thin layer
of soil, and clothed with
beautiful verdure. As we
glide along, at the rate of
14 or 15 miles an hour,
through channels now
wide, and now narrow,
passing here a tiny island
which seems to be merely
a large basket of foliage
daintily resting upon the
water, and there a larger

LACHINE RAPIDS, ON TUK ST. LAWRENCE.

island with picturesque groups of trees upon it, amid
which may be seen the gay-colored tents of pleasure-
seekers escaped from the heated city, we .nay well fancy
that .ve are gazing upon the moving sconery of some
fascinating panorama. After we have passed Wolfe
Island we come to the widest expanse of this charming
lake. Here we have Clayton on the American shore,
and opposite, on the Canadian shore, Gananoque (gan-3,-
nock'-we), a town which manufactures agricultural tools
in large quantities. A further delightful sail of 30 miles
brings us to the last of the islands ; the shores approach
one another, and we are in the St. Lawrence River proper.

2. Down the St. Lawrence. — We soon come to

Brockville, a town of 9,000 inhabitants. Large quan-
tities of cheese and butter, produced in the neighboring
rich pasture country, are shipped from here. Anim-

f Dortant branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway comes to
' Brockville, and the main line of the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, whose course has run parallel with the shore of
tlie river all the way from Kingston, passes through it.
Near the dock we see the entrance to a tunnel, half a
mile long, running under the middle part of the town,
through which trains come down to the river. A ferry
crossing to Morristown connects these railroads with the
American lines. Continuing our course, we next come
to Prescott, another important town, on the Grand
Trunk Railway, and, like Brockville, connected by rail
witli Ottawa. Across the river is Ogdensburg, an
American city of 12,000 inhabitants, noted for its large

flour mills. A mile below
Prescott are the ruins of
the old Stone Windmill,
made famous in the Re-
bellion of 1837. A few
miles farther down we
pass Morrisburg, and soon
after we come to the great
rapids known as the Long
Sault. "Sault" (so) is a
French word meaning
"leap." We become some-
what exc'ted as our
steamer rushes down
through the broken water
— darting suddenly to .
right or to left in obedi-
ence to the helm, in order to shun the sharp rocks
which lie on every side. A slight error in steering
would be fatal to our vessel ; but the course is so well
known to the skilful pilots who are always employed
here, that accidents very rarely happen. There are several
Oi these rapids in the St. Lawrence before it reaches
Montreal, the more formidable being the Long Sault, the
Cedars, the Cascades, and the Lachine (lah-sheen'). All
the rapids are navigable by steam craft on the down-trip,
but upward-bound vessels have to make use of the canals
built along their banks. The canal around the Long
Sault is Hi miles long. In Ontario and Quebec we
have, altogether, about 150 miles of canals, besides the
canals of the Rideau. Our canals have cost $50,000,000.
At the foot of the Long Sault we call at Cornwall.
Here we see vessels entering the canal on their up-trips ;
and we might visit, if we had time, the blanket factory.

^ . ■'

FROM KINGSTON TO THE LAKH OF THE WOODS.

the cotton mills, and the paper mills, for which Cornwall
is noted. So far in our trip down the St. Lawrence the
•State of New York has been on our right hand. At Corn-
wall, however, we pass the international boundary line,
and the St. Lawrence is henceforward a Canadian river.
Journeying on we soon find the river expanding into a
lake, called Lake St. Francis. Farther down the river
there are two other expansions — one near Montreal,
known as Lake St. Louis; one some distance below,
known as Lake St. Peter.

About the middle of Lake St. Frn' '^•is the Ontario
boundary line turns to the north, and runs to Point
Fortune on the Ottawa. The small triangle thus cut
off between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa belongs
to the Province of Quebec. We will leave our steamer
at Coteau Landing, and, descending to Lake St. Louis,

will niake a turn at Isle Perrot
(eel per-ro'), and ascend the Lake of the
Two Mountains, which is the expansion of the
River Ottawa where it joins the St. Lawrence.

3. The Ottawa River and its Tributaries.—

"The Ottawa River is almost 500 miles long. It comes
down all the way from the Height of Land, and drains a
valley of 80,000 square miles, of immense value for
the timber which it produces. The navigation of the
river is in several places broken by rapids, but there are
many long stretches over which large steamers make
regular trips. The Ottawa has many tributaries. On the
northern or Quebec side are the Rouge (roozh); the
Petite (p6-teet') Nation ; the Du Lievre ; the Gatineau
{o), itself 250 miles long; the Coulonge (koo-lonzh') ; and
the Black Itiver; and on the southern or Ontario side,
the Nation, which rises near Prescott and Brockville;
the Rideau ; the Mississippi, which drains the county of
Lanark; the Madawaska, whose head waters adjoin

those of the Trent and the Rluskoka; the Bounechftre
(bon-share'), which drains a large part of the county of
Renfrew ; the Petawawa, which carries off the waters of
the Nipissing District; and the Mattawa, whose head
waters are quite close to Lake Nipissing.

4. Up the Ottawa. — Having left the Lake of the
Two Mountains we ascend the Ottawa River, and at
Carillon, on the Quebec side, enter a canal by which
rapids are avoided. Here an immense dam has been
built right across the river, and slides have been made
through it, down which timber can be sent swiftly with-
out being damaged, as it would be if it were allowed to
rush down the rapids. A little farther up, on the Ontario
side, is L'Orignal (IS-re-naV), the capital of the counties
of Prescott and Russell. As we journey on we meet
rafts of square timber and of deals on their way to
Quebec, whence they will be shipped to England. By
and by we come to the city of Ottawa, the county-
town of Carleton, and the capital of the Dominion of
Canada.

As we shall learn more of Ottawa after a while, our
visit here musu be short. We must, however, go to the
Parliament Buildings, the finest government buildings
on the continent. The prospect from the top of the
main tower is one of the most extensive and magnificent
to be obtained in Canada. We must see, too, the inter-
esting locks of the Rideau Canal, and also the Suspen-
sion Bridge, which connects Ottawa with Hull. From
the bridge may be had a fine view of the Chaudi6re
(sho-de-are') Falls, next to those at Niagara the finest
in Ontario. Close to the city the Rideau River fairly
tumbles into the Ottawa River, forming the Rideau
Falls, also noted for their beauty.

Leaving the capital and ascending the river again, we
enter Chaudi^re Lake, and some distance farther up,
Lake des Chats (day-shah'), which receives the waters
of the Mississippi, the Madawaska, and the Bon"^och6re.
Then we pass two large islands, both belonging to
Quebec, — Calumet and AUumette. Opposite AUumette
Island is Pembroke, the county-town of Renfrew The
Canadian Pacific Railway, which came close to the river
at Arnprior, oii Lake des Chats, at Pembroke again
approaches it. From Pembroke to Mattawa it runs
parallel with the river. At Mattawa it leaves the valley
of the Ottawa, and ascends that of the Mattawa to
La Vase, at the east end of Lake Nipissing, where it

ONTARIO.

is joined by the Northern and Pacific Junction Railway,
from Toronto. Thence it winds round tlie north shore
of the lake, and proceeds on its long course to the Pacific
Coast.

At Mattawa our course turns north-westward up the
Ottawa, which hero makes a bend ; and soon we are in
the waters of the long Lake Temiscaming.

5. From Lake Temiscaming to the Lake

of the Woods. — At the head of Lake Temiscaming,
at a point almost straight north of Toronto, the provin-
cial boundary line leaves the Ottawa River, and runs
due north over the Height of Land, across the head of
Lake Abittibi, and down to James Bay, near the mouth
of Rupert's River, which is the outlet of Lake Mistassini.

Having, in fancy, made this journey, we now find
ourselves on a bleak, roclf girt, inland sea, icebound nearly
all the year. We skirt, however, the southern shore of
the bay westward, past tlie mouths of the Harricanaw,
Abittibi, and Moose Rivers, and up the western shore to
Fort Albany, at the mouth of the Albany River. Thence
we ascend the Albany, with the District of Kewatin on
our right, until we reach a point almost straight north
of Port Arthur, whence the Province of Manitoba is on
our right. We reach the head of Lake Joseph ; thence
we make a portage to Lonely Lake, and from it we de-
scend the English River to its confluence with the Win-
nipeg River. We ascend the Winnipeg River to Rat
Portage, at the north end of the Lake of the Woods.
Rat Portage is the capital of the Rainy River District.
Possessing unlimited water power, it manufactures a
great deal of lumber. It is also the centre of a rich
mineral district. The Canadian Pacific Railway, that we
left at Mattawa, here meets us again, and, crossing the
Winnipeg River, proceeds to the city of Winnipeg,
which is only 132 miles distant.

We will now go across the Lake of the Woods, to its
•* north-west angle," Avhicli was the point from which we
set out on our long journey along the boundaries of
Ontario.

To the Teacher.— the western boundary of Ontario is not exactly that
given in the text, but a line drawn due north from the international nionu-
ment, at the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, to the English River.

Exercise. — l. Trace on the map the eastern boundary of
Ontario. 2. What waters are passed on the route from Lake
Temiscaming to Lake of the Woods ? 3. Trace on the map the
boundaries of the districts of Ontario, and point out their ctiief
places. 4. What boundaries of Ontario are not formed by water?

LESSON xxin.

ONTAniO. ^^ ,j,-^

1. Size and Population.— Ontario is, jiext__to/

I British Columbia, the largest province in the JDominion;

its population is the greatest of the provinces ; and in j

respect of wealth, products, manufactures, and general ^

I business, it is the most important. Its area is about
; 220,000 .square miles. Its length from east to west is

abouU.UUCHniles. Its population in 1881 was 1,923,228.

Its present population is estimated at about_2^'*>000.

2. Boundaries, Physical Features, and Sub-
divisions.

To the Teacher.— Iho boundaries as described in the three preceding
lessons should be reviewed from the map.— The physical features as incident-
ally treated in Lesson VII., and also as described in Lessons XVI. and XIX.,
should atjain bo taken up, and be thoroughly taught from the map, — The
Laurentiiiii region occupies almost the whole of western and northern Ontario,
and a branch of it stretches from Georgian liuy and French Itiver south-east-
ward to the St. Lawrence at the Luke of the Thousand Islands. It is in this
region that the principal mineral wealth of Ontario is obtained - silver, copper,
gold, zinc, nickel, and lead, i)i the west; iron, mica, i)lumbngo, phosphate of
lime, and some lead and gold, in tlie east.— The counties should be taught from
the map in group.s ; and with each county should bcassociated its county-town.

3. Soil, Climate, Occupations of the People.

To the Teacher. —The Laurcntian region of Ontario, although it comprises
many good farming tracts, is of niuclx less general fertility than the non-
Laurontian iiarts, these l)ei ng among the finest agriciUtural regions of the world.
—The climate, as treated in Lesson XIX., should bj reviewed.— The industries,
other than agriculture, will be sufficiently treated under " Cities" c ;id "'Towns."

4. People, Religion, Education, and Govern-
ment. — The people are, for the most part, of English,
Scotch, and Irish descent ; but about one-tenth are of
German descent, and one-twentieth of French. All re-
ligions possess equal privileges. Education is liberally
supported, and is practically free to all. The Provincial
Legislature consists of (1) the Lieutenant-Governor, who
is appointed every four years by the Governor-General,
and (2) the Legislative Assembly of 90 members, elected
every four years by the people. The government is ad-
ministered by the Lieutenant-Governor, with the assist-
ance of an Executive Council of si.c members.

To the Teacher.— See that the pupils acquiru a definite knowledge of the
educational system of the Province— the relntions to one another of the public
school, the high school, and the university ; how these institutions are sup-
jtorted- what the Government does for them, and what the people directly ;
how they are conducted; how a pupil may advance from one to another;
and so on. The constitution of the Government of Ontario was treated
incidentally in Lesson XIX. It shoidi now be thoroughly explained to the
pupils— the mode of election of members of the Asst iibly ; the method of
appointment of the Premier and of his colleagues, their responsibility to the
electors and to the Assembly, and their duties and term of office ; the duties
of the Lieutenant-Governor ; how a bill becomes law ; and so on.

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SCENES IN ONTARIO.

6. Cities.— The cities, at present, number eleven.

To the TeoeAer.— Explain to the pupils what is meant by an incorporated
village, an incorporated town, an incorporated city. Explain their respective

-constitutions and governments ; the duties ot their officers, and the modes of
the appointment or election of these. Explain wliy Ottawa is called the
capital of the Dominion, and Toronto the capital of Ontario. In the following
description many things are mentione<l which will bo new to the pupils.
Converse with the pupils about these, eliciting information where you can,
and conveying new information to them where it is necessary. See that the
pupils understand the uses of the different public institutions that are men-
tioned; also, the meaning and use of all other thiiigsmentioned and described.
The information given in the text, especially in reference to manufactures
and trade, is only general ; wliercver you can, make it more definite, incite
the pupils to give descriptions of the particulars of their own localities, as
the situation, population, size, government, civic officers, trade, mwiufac-
tures, commercial facilities, natural products, etc. The text-book must not
be regarded as the solo source of information ; its lessons and statements
are smiply texts which you arc to amplify, and on which you will base furcher
information. Its statements, in tliis lesson particularly, are nut intended to
be learned by rote, but to be talked about and discussed until they are
undei-stoml, and made iiart of tlie mental equipment of the pupils.. Tlie
numbers enclosed In brackets are the populations of tlie places to which
they are attached. Tlie fli-st number gives the exact population according to
the census of 1881 (explain to the pupils what is meant by "census"); the
second numl)er gives tlio estiniuted present population. These numbers
ahould not be learned by rote. Tliey are given merely to aid the pupils in
forming correct notions of the sizes of places and their relative importance.
The pupils should be taught to take the population of their own village or
town as a unit, and with that to comjiare the populations of other places.

. Squares drawn upon the blackboard will convey fairly accurate notions of
the relative sizes of jilaces. For example, if a square of one inch be taken to
represent a place of 1,000 inhabitants, a square of a little more than lOJ
inches to the side will represent Toronto (112,000). Let the pupils do for
themselves as iliucli of this work of comparing as iiossllile. If they uiidcr-
'fltand square root they will have no difliculty. If they do not, they can easily

^47)

find the proper dimensions by trial. Areas can be compared in the sama
way. Do not leave the lesson until the pupils can point out upon the map
immediately any place given in the text, and ?an trace quickly the course ot
any railway, and nientio'i the more important towns and villages situated upon
it. The railway system ot the country is exceedingly important. It should
be thoroughly mastered.

Toronto (86,415; 112,000) is the capital of Ontario, and its
largest city, and the second largest city in the Dominion. In-
cluding its suburbs, its population is about 112,000; and this is
rapidly increasing. Toronto was founded in 1793. It was first
called York, and was long known as ' ' muddy York. " It was not
till 1834, when it was incorporated as a city, that it assumed its
present name. The city is built on the shore of a fine, well-
protected harbor, and has excellent facilities for its shipping
trade. One may pass out from it in eight directions by railway;
it is thus the chief railway centre of Ontario. Its distance from
Montreal is 333 miles; it is connected with that city by water,
and by the Grand Trunk Railwcy, and by the Canadian Pacific
Railway. It has also regular steamboat connection with several
American cities. It has a large wholesale trade, and its manu-
factures are numerous and important, including engines, agricul-
tural implements, pianos, organs, furniture, safes, stoves, boots
and shoes, books, paper, carriages, sewing-machines, leather, and
soap. In fact, there is scarcely any branch of manufacture which
is not carried on in this city. Toronto is justly celebrated for
its public buildings. Of these, ' iie University of Toronto is the
finest. Of the others, there may be mentioned Osgoode Hall,
the Customs' House, the Xormal Hchool, and the Parliament
Buildings ; Upper Canada College, Trinity College, Knox College
(Presbyterian), McMaster Hall (P-aptist), St. Michael's College

ONTAHIO.

(Roman Catholic), and Wycliflfe College ; St. James a Cathedral,
St. Michael's Cathedral, the Metropolitan Church, and St.
Andrew's Churcii j the General Hospital, the Central Prison, the
Mercer Reformatory, and the Provincial Asylum tor the Insane,
— this last probably the largest building in the Dominion.

Ottawa (27,412; 30,000) is the capital of the Dominion of
Canada. It became so when the Dominion was formed, July 1st,
1867. Previously, in 1858, it had been selected by Queen Victoria
OS the capital of Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec).
Its former name was By town, having been named after Colonel By,
by whom it was founded in 1827. It assumed its present name in
1854, when it became a city. Ottawa is noted for its picturesque
situation. The Chaudi6re Falls and the Rideau Falls are much
celebrated for their beauty. The magnificent Parliament Build-
ings excite the admiration of visitors from all parts of the world.
One of the two Normal Schools of the Province is at Ottawa.
It is the seat, also, of the College of Ottawa (Roman Catholic),
Ottawa Ladies' College (Presbyterian), and several other educa-
tional institutions. The city has an immense lumber trade,
and its saw-mills and lumber factories are of the most complete
and extensive kind. Divisions of the Canadian Pacific Railway
connect Ottawa with Toronto, Brockville, and Prescott ; and
the main line of this railway, which runs from Montreal io
Manitoba and British Columbia, passes through the city. By
the Canada Atlantic Railway it is connected at Coteau Landing
with the Grand Trunk system, and railways are being con-
structed up the Ottawa River and up the Gatineau. There are
also steamboat connections with Montreal and with Kingston.
Ottawa is the home of the Governor-General of Canada. His
residence is Rideau Hall, in New Edinburgh, a suburb. In-
cluding its suburbs, Ottawa has a population of 30,000.

Hamilton(35,961 ;42,000)isthesecond city of the Province. It
was founded in 1813. It has a fine harbor, and regular steamboat
connection with Toronto, Montreal, and other cities and towns
on Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence. The Great Western
division of the Grand Trunk Railway, and its branches, and the
North-Western Railway, which runs from Port Dover to Barrie
and ColUngwood, give to Hamilton excellent railway facilities.
Hamilton is a manufacturing city. Its manufactures include
machinery, agricultural implements, iron bridges, stoves, sewing
machines, boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and pianos.
The city possesses an excellent system of water-works. It is the
seat of the Wesleyan Female College (Methodist), and of one of
the Provincial Asylums for the Insane. The building which has
been erected by the Dominion Government for the Post Office,
Customs' House, etc., is one of tb • Pnest in the Province.

London (19,746 ; 22,(KX)) is the p. i u>. ipal city of western Ontario.
It is surrounded by a rich agricultural district, and it manufac-
tures agricultural implements largely, and has a large trade iu
all sorts of farm produce. It also manufactures railway cars and
engines. At London the two branches of the Thames meet, but
the river here is of no value as a waterway. Several divisions
of the Grand Trunk Railway radiate from London, and thus its
commercial facilities are excellent. The streets of the city are
wide, and their appearance fine. London ia the seat of the

Western University, and of Hellmuth Ladies' College ( Anglican)^,
also of one of the Provincial Asylums for the Insane. If itik
suburbs be included, London has a population of over 30,000.

KiNnaT0N( 14,001 ; 16,000) is the oldest city in Ontario. Asettle-
ment was made on its site in 1783, but it had been an important
military post of the French from 1673. It is the only fortified
place in the Province, and for military strength ranks next to
Halifax and Quebec. The first Government of Upper Cunada^
(Ontario) was organized at Kingston by Governor Simcoe in 1792.
Kingston is the seat' of Queen's University and College, and
of the Royal Military College. The Provincial Penitentiary and
the Rockwood Lunatic Asylum are at Portsmouth, adjacent t»
Kingston. Its fine harbor, the Rideau Canal, its railroad to
the north, and its advantageous situation, have made Kingston a.
place of very considerable commercial importance. Among ita
manufactures are railway locomotives and cars. It has, also»
smelting-works, for reducing metals from their ores.

GuELPH (9,890; 11,000), on the Speed, a branch of the Grand
River, is in the heart of one of the finest agricultural districts in
the Province. It is noted for its cattle market. As the main linc^
of the Grand Trunk Railway is crossed by the Wellington, Grey
and Bruce division at Guelph, the city has excellent facilities for
trade. It manufactures engines, agricultural implements, sewing-
machines, pianos and organs. Ono mile to the south is the On-
tario Agricultural College. Near the city are fine quarries of
building-stone and limestone.

St. Catharines (9,631 ; 10,500), on the Welland Canal, has
mineral springs which attract invalids from all parts of the conti-
nent. It is also a favorite summer resort. It has large flour mills,
paper mills, and engine works, and builds ships and steamers,
and manufactures saws and edge tools. The Welland and Great
Western divisions of the Grand Trunk Railway cross at St.
Catharines.

Brantford (9,616; 12,000), on the Grand River, is a beautiful
city surrounded by fertile and picturesque plains. The Buffalo
and Lake Huron and the Brantford and Port Burwell divisions of
the Grand Trunk Railway cross here. The manufactures of the
city include agricultural implements, engines, machinery, cottons^
woollens, and pottery. Brantford has a Ladies' College (Presby-
terian); and it is the seat of the Ontario Institution for the Blind.
The city derives its name from Joseph Brant, a famous Indian
chief. Near by is a large tract of land, reserved for the use of
the Six Nations Indians, to which people Brant belonged.

Belleville (9,516; 10,000) is one of the most attractive cities
in the Province. Large quantities of lumber, grain, cheese, and
iron ore are shipped from its port. It is the seat of Albert
College (Methodist), and of the Ontario Institution for the Deaf
and Dumb, It is on the main line of the Grand Trunk Railway,
and it is also the terminus of a division from Peterborough, and
of a branch from Madoc.

St. Thomas (8,367; 10,000) is an important railway centre.
The Canada Southern division of the Michigan Central Railway
has workshops and head offices here. It is the terminus of the
Credit Valley division of the Canadian Pacific Railway ; and the
London and Port Stanley and Loop Line divisions of the Grand

,-• I

CniK8 AND CHIKl' TOWNS.

Trunk Railway run through it. It is the seat of Alma Liuliea'
College (Methodist).

Stratford (8,23l , ^0,000) ia at tho centre of the western
peninsula Oi! Ontario. Three divisionB of the Grand Trunk
Railway pass through it. It has large railway workshops, and
manufactures agricultural iin|>leinent8, machinery, and furniture
extensively. Its trade in dairy produce and grain is very large.

6. Chief Towns. — Tlie towns of Ontmio are rapidly
growing, and many will soon be incorporated as cities.

Chatham (7,873; 8,.5(X)), on the Thames river near its mouth,
has a large shipping trade, the river being navigable thus far.
It manufactures steam-engines, boilers, fire-engines, and wagons ;
and it also does some ship-building. The Erie and Huron Rail-
way here crosses the Great Western division of the Grand Trunk.
Chatham is the seat of the Wilberforce Educational Institute
(colored).

Brockville (7,609 ; 9,000), named in honor of General Brook,
wiio fall on Queenston Heights in the war of 1812, is most beauti-
fully situated on the St. Lawrence. It has a large trade with
the United States. Sulphuric acid, dynamite, and gunpowder,
are manufactured near by. There are also manufactures of hard-
ware and railway supplies. Brockville is the cc oital of the
counties of Leeds and Grenville.

Petekborouoh (6,812 ; 8,000) is an agricultural and lumbering
centre, and the most important place in the upper part of the
Trent Valley. The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Midland
division of the Grand Trunk Railway pass through it. Its
situation is picturesque. Including Ashbumham, which is
practically a part of it, Peterborough has a population of over
9,000.

Windsor (6,561; 7,000), opposite the city of Detroit (with
which it is connected by steam-ferry), is a terminus of the Great
Western division of the Grand Trunk Railway, and of the Canada
Southern division of the Michigan Central Railway. It is the
chief market for the rich farm and fruit country which lies
behind it. Two miles from Windsor, and connected with it by
street-railway, is Sandwich, the county-town of Essex, and the
seat of Assumption College (Roman Catholic).

Port Hope (5,585; 6,000), the terminus of the Midland
division of the Grand Trunk Railway, has regular steamboat
connection with Charlotte, near Rochester, and has a large
export trade. It possesses an excellent harbor. Trinity College
School (Anglican) is at Port Hope.

Woodstock (5,373; 6,000) is at the centre of one of the finest
farming districts in the world. The Credit Valley division of
the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the Great Western division,
and the Georgian Bay and Lake Erie division, of the Grand
Trunk Railway, all pass through Woodstock. The manufac-
tures include furniture, organs, and agricultural implements.
Woodstock is the site of Woodstock College (Baptist).

Galt (5, 187 ; 5,800) is known as the "Manchester of Canada. "

Its manufactures include engines, boilers, all kinds of mill and

factory machinery, saws, edge tools, safes, woollen goods, pins,

flour, and oatmeal. The Grand River, which flows through the

town, supplies abundant water-power. Near by are HESPKUCft
and Phksto.v, noted for their cotton and woollen mills.

Lin dsay (5,080 ; 6,300) is the centre of a rich farming country.
It is the point of junction of several branches of the Midland
division of the Grand Trunk Railway. The Scugog River, a
tributary of the Trent, which passes through it, is navigable for
barges and small steamers.

CoBODRO (4,957 ; 6,000), the capital of the counties of North*
umberland and Durham, has large car-shops. Its harbor has
been made a ' harbor of refuge " by the Dominion Government.
Much grain and iron-ore are shipped from its port. Cobourg is
the seat of Victoria University and College.

Barrik (4,854 ; 5,000) has a most charming situation on
Kempenfeldt Bay, an arm of Lake Simcoe. It has railway
connection with Toroato and Hamilton, with the ports of the
Georgian Bay, with Bracebridge, the capital of the Muskoka
District, and with La Vase, on the main line of the Canadian
Pacific Railway near Lake Nipissing.

GoDERiCH (4,564; 5,000) is the most important port on Lake
Huron. The town is built on a level plain, between the Mait-
land River, at its mouth, and the lake, and is 120 feet a!'- 'e the
level of the water. Its pleasant and cool situation makes it a
favorite summer resort. Goderich is a terminus of the Buffalo
and Lake Huron division of the Grand Trunk Railway. It has
large flour mills, and extensive salt works and soap works. It
has, also, a large trade in fish.

Cornwall (4,468; 5,500) is the capital of the counties of Dun-
das, Stormoiit, and Glengarry. It has excellent water-power from
the Long Sault Canal, and manufactures cottons, woollens,
paper, and pottery.

CoLLiNGWooD (4,445 ; 5,000), the principal port on Georgian
Bay, is beautifully situated at the foot of the Blue Mountains.
It has a large grain trade with Chicago, and a large lumber trade
with all the north-shore ports of Georgian Bay. It commands
much of the shipping bus'ness of Lake Superior.

Owen Sound (4,426; 5,C00) is the terminus of a division of
the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the headquarters of its steam-
ship line. The harbor is one of the best in Ontario. Ship-
building is a thriving industry. At Owen Sound is one of the
best dry-docks on the lake.

Ingersoll (4,318; 5,000) is the principal lUeese market of
Ontario. It manufactures agricultural implements very largely.

Berlin (4,054 ; 4,500) is noted for its manufacture of buttons,
felt goods, and children's toys. Adjacent to it is Waterloo
(2,066; 2,200), with manufactures of buttons, furniture, and
woollen goods.

Oshawa (3,992; 4,200) is noted for its manufacture of water-
wheels, engines, stoves, threshers, scythes, forks, hoes, furni-
ture, flour, and malleable iron.

Sarnia (3,874; 4,200), including Point Eilward, with which

it is connected by street-railway, has a population of over 6,000.

It is the headquarters of a line of steamships that trade with

! the principal ports on Lake Huron and Lake Superior. Point

I Edward is the Canadian terminus of the main line of the Grand

I Trunk Railway.

/ «,

ONTARIO.

Stratiikoy (3,817: 4,100) inatuifiiutures agricultural imple-
meats, and knitted uiul wuuilon gouilit,

DcNiiAs (3,709 ; 4, 100) inanufauturoa odge-toola, sorowa, paper,
cottoiia, knitted gouda, engiuea, and ugriculturul iinploniunta.
An impotuoua atroam flowing through the town aupplius it with
abundant wiiter-puwer. Tlio auonory ulxjut Dunda>i is very
picturebcjue.

Napankk (3,080; 4,000) is the terininua of tlie Nupanec,
Taniwortli and Qiiuhuo Railway. It exports much iron-ore,
obtained in the ininural region aurved l>y this railway. Napaneo
manufactures paper largely, and alao window glass. It is the
capital of the county of Lennox and Addingtun.

BowMVNViLLK (3,504; 3,800) manufactures furniture, pianos,
and organs,

Pktiiolia (3,465; 5,000) is noted aa being the seat of the
great petroleum industry of Ontario. The rock-oil district is
about 70 miles long, and from one to four miles wide, and
I'etrolia is at the centre of it. The number of oil wells in opera-
tion is over 3,000. More tlian $3,000,000 of capital is invested
in the oil business. Most of the oil that is produced is refined
in Petrolia, ulthoug'' so' n i, i ofined in London and St. Tiiomas.
In addition tc it: i..',u.- i'etrolia has many other buuineasea
connected with ihr oil >n« ry.

St. Mary's (3,413; 3 C^D) is at the centre of a rich agricul-
tural district, ami it has a laig" trade in i"ricultural products
and live stock. It has Hour, oatmeal, woollen, and flax mills.
Near it are extensive quarries, and it exports much limestone
and buililing atone, A brancii of the Grand Trunk Railway
connects it with London,

Paris (3,173; 3,400), sui^>plied with water-power by the
Grand River, has the largest woollen factories in tiie Dominion.
It has also flour mills of large capacity, and it manufactures
carpets. Near it arc extensive deposits of gypsum, from which
much plaster is made and exported.

Wiuthy (.3,140; 3,300) has a fine harbor; and a railway to
the north, serving one of the ricliest agricultural districts in the
Province, enables it to do a largo grain buainess. It also exports
a great deal of lumber. It is the seat of the Ontario Ladies'
College (Methodist).

Trenton (3,042; 3,500) Ins a large lumber and shipping
trade, and manufactures (lour and paper. It has steamboat
connection with Belleville and Pioton. The Central Ontario
Railway connects it with a rich mineral region, and enables it to
export much iron-ore.

Prescott (2,999; 3,200), by its railway ferry to Ogdensburg,
enables the Gi'and Trunk and Canadian I'acilic Railways to
make connections with the American railway system. All river
and lake steamboats call at Prescott.

PiCTo.NT (2,975; 3,200) is beautifully situated on an arm of the
Bay of Quinte. It has steamboat connection with Belleville
and Kingston. It is the terminus of the Ontario Central Rail-
way, which, running through the county of Prince Edward,
one of the best for grain and fruit in the Province, enables it to
do a large export business.

Brampton (2,920 ; 3,200) ia at the centre of a fine wheat-
growing district, and it exports much grain and other farm
l>roduce.

OuiLLiA (2,910; 3,200) on Lake Couchiching, ia one of th«
moat pictnre8(iuely situated towns in tlie Province, and ia nmch
resorted to by t juriits. It is connected by railway m ith l)oth
Toronto and Port llopo, The Provincial Aaylum for Idiots is
situated at Orillia.

KixoARDiNE (2,87fi; 3,000), Clinton (2,006; 2,800), and
especially Skakorth (2,480; 2,000) are aU noted for their salt
wells. Underneath Seaforth are extenaive beda of pure rock-
salt many feet thick,

GANANoyi'E (2,871 : 3,000) has magnificent water-power, and
is one of the most important manufacturing towns in the I'ro-
vince. Among its maimfactures are agricultural implementa
and tools, bolts, nails, hinges, carriage-springs, machinery, and
woollen goods,

Oranokvillk (2,847; 3,000), Simcoe (2,045; 2,800), and
Walkhkton (2,004; 2,700) are county-towns with local manu-
factures and exports of grain and live stock.

Pemrroke (2,820; 3,.300) is the county-seat of Renfrew, i.^J
the most important place in north-eastern Ontario. It has a
large lumber trade.

Listowel (2,088; 2,800), Almonte (2,084; 3,000), Thoroi.o
(2,450; 2,700), and Mitchell (2,284; 2,400) are all manufac-
turing towns. Almonte is ncl,cd lor ita extensive woollen mills
and knitting works. Thorold is noted for its flour mills, its
cement works, and its building-stone quarries. Mitchell has
flax mills.

AMHERrtTBDRO (2,672; 2,800) is a terminus of the Canada
Southern division of the Michigan Central Railway. It is, next
to Kingston and Niagara, the oldest place in Ontario. It
possesses extensive limestone quarries,

Perth (2,407; 3,200) is noted for its export of phosphate of
lime, of wliich more than 3,000 tons are siiipped annually. Mica
and plumbago, also, are found near the town.

Niagara Falls (2,247 ; 2,800), a little to the north of the
famous cataract, is a terminus of the Canada Southern division
of the Michigan Central Railway, and also of the Great Western
division of the (hand Trunk Railway. Across the Niagara
River at this point are the famous Cantilever and Suspension
Bridges, worked by the former and the latter of these railways
respectively.

Mount Forest (2,170; 2,500), Arnprior (2,147; 2,500),
Smith's Falls (2,087 ; 2,200), Newmarket (2,006; 2,200), Dres-
den (1,979 ; 2,100), Carleton Place (1,975; 2,400), Til.sonburg
(1,939; 2,000), Hawkeshury (1,920; 2,100), Wingham (1,918;
2,200), Wellamj (1,870; 2,200), Meakord (1,806; 2,000),
PALy.ERSTo\(l,828;2,000), UxBUiDGE (1,824; 2,000), Dunnville
0,808; 2,000), Port Perry (1,800; 2,000), Meuritton (1,798;
2,0:0), H.\RKisT0N (1,772; 2,000), Feucuts (1,7.33 ; 2,000), Port
CoLiiORXE (1,716; 2,030), Exeter (1,725; 2,000), Morrisburg
( 1 ,719 ; 2,000), Oakville (1,710 ; 2,000), Renfrew ( 1 ,605 ; 2,000),
liuir.iiTON (1,547; 2,000), Avlmee (1,540; 2,000), Parkhill
(1,539; 2,000), Ridgetonvn (1,538; 2,400), Deseronto (2,000), .

— /-

ONTARIO COLLEH': OF E'^L'CATION

(jUKUEC.

^?ct EiMRX Cbntrk (2,000), ara an rapiilly growing towns,
with local inanufaoturea, and a large agricultural trade. Smith's
Falls has malleable-iron works. At Carletuu IMuce are work-
shops of the Canadian Pacitiu liuilway. Near by lead is found.
Arnprior is noted for its beautiful marble, and ucur it are rich
iron mines. Merritton has lar^e paper, cotton, and flour mills.
Fort Colborne does shipbuilding. Duiicioato manufactures
lumber in large quantities. Tilsonburg has famous fluur mills.

Bkacebridoe (1,500) is the most important place in the Mue-
koka District. Near it are the famous Muskoka lakes, so much
resorted to by tourista. The scenery about these lakes is beau-
tiful, and they abound in trout, maskinonge, pickerel, bass, and
other fish much prized by sportsmen.

Parry Sound (1,5(X)) is the most important place in the Parry
Sound District, and is its capital. It has uii excellent harbor.
It is the depot for a magnificent timber district, and manufac-
tures immense quantities of lumber.

Port Arthur (],SOO) is the most important place in the
Thunder Bay District. It has a fine, well-protected harbor, and
excellent docks, and large elevators for storing and shipping
iraL-. It is the western terminus of the steamboat routes from
Collingwoodand Owen Sound, and a chief point on the Canadian
Pacific Railway. It exports a great deal of fish. The surround-
ing district ir '*ch in minerals.

Sault P Tarie (780; 1,200), beautifully situated on the

north ban] e St. Mary River, below the rapids, is tlie

capital of Alguma District. It is much resorted to by tourists.

Niagara Falls South( 1,(K)0) is annually visited by thousands
of tourists from every part of the world, who come to see the
wonderful Falls of Niagara. On the site of the town was fottght
the battle of Lundy's Lane, in 1814. Near by is the Loretto
Academy (Roman Catholic).

North Bay (1,000), on Lake Nipissing, and Maftawa (1,000),
at the confluence of tho Mattawa and Ottawa Rivers, are the chief
places in Nipissing District. They are each tho centre of a great
lumber industry. Itlattawa is an old Hudson Bay Company post.

Haliburtok is the chief place in the county of Haliburton.
It is the terminus of a branch of the Midland division of the
Grand Trunk Railway. Minden, 18 miles to the (.outh-west, is
the county-seat.

Rat Poktage, at the north end of the Lake of the Woods, is
the capital of the Rainy River District. It is iioted for its
beautiful scenery. It possesses abundant water-power, and
manufactures immense quantities cf lumber.

Manitowanino (1,000) is the chief port of Manitoulin Island.
It exports grain and cattle, and is a favorite summer resort.

ESxercise. — l. Write an account of Toronto. 2. Trace on
the map the routes of the railways running out from Toronto.
3. Trace on the map the steamboat routes which start from
Toronto. Do the same for CoUingwood, Owen Sound, and
Samia. 4. Give an account of Ottawa. Why should it have
been chosen as the capital of Canada ? 5. Point out on the map
all the places noted for the manufacture of lumber ? 6. Point
out on the map the salt district, and also the oil district, of the
Province. Point out, also, the chief mineral district. •

LESSON XXr7.

' ! QUEBEC.

1. Position, Size, and Population.— Quebec

(nay be said to consist of the valley of the lower St.
Lawrence. It h is an area of nearly 190,000 square
miles. Its population is about 1,400,000.

2. Boundaries, Physical Features, and Sub-
divisions.

To the Teacher.— Teach tho boundurit^g from the map: the northern
boutidary tg tho HelKht of Land. Tuoch from the map the main coogt features
— the bays, gulfg, Islaiidg, capeg, etc. ; also the main gurface featureg. The
whole of Quebec north of the St. Lawrence, with tho exception of a narrow
gtrip aloni; the St. Loiwreiice and tho lower Ottawa(gomvwhat wider, however,
behind Montreal), ig Laiircntlan ; and hence ia a rocl<y and hilly re(rion,
abounding in lal<ea and rivers, but everywhere it la well wooded, and Itron-
talng much mineral weajth. South of the St. Ijiwrenco, Iho western part la
a Hlightly undulating expanse of good agricultural land. The remainder la
almost entirely occupied by the Appalachian Plateau, oxtendliig to the
Peninsula of Gaspo. Thoiiuh in ports hilly, and even mountainous— as, for

example, in the Notre Duip Mountains, and in the Sblokshuok Mountaina

yat this region aUo is well wooded and well watered, and haa many excellent
agricultural stretches, especially in tho river valleys ; it also haa rich storea
of minerals.— Tlio courscg of the great rivers which flew into tho Ottawa and
the St. Lawrence ghould bo traced on the map.- If the counties be taught, let
them be taught from the map also, arranged in groups. The twelve counties,
Mlssisquoi, Brome, Shcfford, Drummond, Stansteod, Sherbrooke, Riohinond,
Arthabaska, Coinpton, Wolfe, Megantio, and Bcauce, are usually called tho
Eastern Townships. These counties comprise many fertile agricultural areas.
It is in them, principally, that the people of British origin live.

3. Soil and Climate.— Although so much of the
surface of Quebec is hilly and rooky, yet along the St.
Lawrence, and in the Eastern Townships, and in all the
districts about Montreal, there is a great deal of land
well suited to agriculture. In these fertile parts, beet-
root, flax, and tobacco, are largely cultivated, besides
the ordinary grains and fruits. Winter in Quebec is
longer and colder than in Ontario, but healthful and
not unpleasant ; summer is sliorter, but quite as hot as
in Ontario, and with an abundance of rain, so that
vegetation is vigorous and rapid.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— A large part of Quebec is still covered with forest,
hence lumbering is the chief industry of the province.
Immense quantities of lumber are sent to England, tL.
United States, and other countries, every year.
Quebec has also a great fishing industry: for, in
addition to the fine fish which may be obtained in
its innumerable lakes and rivers, its fisheries in the
River St. Lawrence, and in the Gulf of St. Law-

mmmim

Ctn&dn FubUehing Co^ Toronto

inda V*IIm

CloriilociD*

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ongitude W<>8t 70 from Greenwich

— L „-J_|JI

■liiHHIl

VIEWS OF MONTREAL AND QUEBEa

rence, are among the most celebrated in the world. The
value of the fish (cod, mackerel, herring, salmon, etc.),
and of the lobsters and seals, annually taken, is over two
and a half million dollars. The St. Lawrence being navi-
gable as far as Montreal for ships of all but the largest
size, the people of Quebec are much engaged also in
seafaring. The shipping trade of the St. Lawrence is
one of the largest possessed by any river in the world.
Ship-building, too, is an iinportant industry. Although
agriculture is followed in most parts cf Quebec, yet,
^)wing to the length and severity of the winter seasons
in the north, the only districts that can properly be
called agricultural are the southern portions, especially
the Eastern Townships. Mining is a growing and
important industry. Iron is found on the St. Maurice ;
gold is found on the Chaudidre, in Beauce County ;
excellent copper-ore is mined in the Eastern Townships ;
of apatite (phosphate of lime) there is an almost inex-
haustible supply in Ottawa County ; in the same county
mica is mined. Lead, silver, zinc, and platinum, also,
occur. As in Ontp.rio, the cities and towns are largely
engaged in manufactures. The refining of cane sugar,

(54)

and the making of sugar from the beet-root, are among
the principal of theiic.

6. People, Religion, Education, and Gov-
ernment. — About three-fourths of the people of Que-
bec are of French origin ; and throughout the Province
it is the French language that is most used, although
English also is spoken in 0,11 the towns and cities.
About six-sevenths of the people belong to the Roman
Catholic Church. Education is well attended to, and is
aided by the Government. There are two classes of
schools — Rornan Catholic ^.iid Protestant — and these are
of all grades. There is no provincial university ; but
the universities of McGill College, at Montreal, Bishop's
College, at Lennoxville, and Laval' (Roman Catholic), at
Quebec, are very efficient institutions. The Government
of Quebec is similar to that of Ontario, but there is, in
addition, a Legislative Council of 24 members, appointed
for life by the Lieutenant-Governor. That is to say,
the Legislature consists of a Lieutenant-Governor, the
Legislative Council, and a Legislative Assembly ; and the
government is administered by the Lieutenant-Governor,
with the assistar -e of an Executive Council.

\ .

CITIES AND CHIEF TOWNS.

A .

6. Oities. — There are six cities in Quebec.

MoNTUEAL (140,747; 200,000) is the largest city of the Do-
minion, and its commercial metropolis. Including the suburbs,
its population approaches 200,000. It ie, beautifully situated
on the island of Montreal. Behind it rises Mount Royal, whence
it derives its name. The public buildings of the city are very
fine, and are much visited by tourists, especially Notre Dame
Cathedral, which can hold 10,000 people ; and St. Peter's
Cathedral, which is 300 feet long and 225 feet wide. Other
public buildings are the City Hull, the Customs' House, and
McGill College. There are two normal schools, several medical
schools, and numerous theological colleges and seminaries. The
unanufactures of the city are very important, and include rail-
way cars and locomotives, hardware, boots and shoes, clothing,
india-rubber goods, wooden ware, p; uts, glass, cottons, wool-
lens, fur goods, and sugar. Montreal possesses excellent facili-
ties for trade. Ocean steamers and sailing vessels in summer
readily ascend the river to its port. It is the headquarters of
the Allan line ana tho.Dominiou line of steamers. The principal
ofiSces and workshops of the Canadian Pacific aod Grand Truak
Railways are situated in Monf real. Victoria Bridge, whicr'is
nearly two milds long and cost $6,000,000, enables the trains of
the Grand Trunk Railway to cross the river. A magnificent
steel bridge, more than two-thirds of a mile long, over the
Lachine Rapids, is used by the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Several lines of railway running to the United States start from
Montreal. The city is very old. Champlain selected its site as
a fit place for a city in 1611 ; but the ISth of May, 1642, was
its real birthday.

QcEBEC (62,446 ; 65,000) is a quaint old town, with a foreign
aspect. It was founded by Champlain in 1608. The commandiLg
site of its famous citadel and its strong fortifications have gained
for it the title, "the Gibraltar of America." It may be said to
possess the key of the St. Lawrence. Quebec consists of two parts
— the Lower Town, close to the river, wliere the trade of the city
is carried on ; and the Upper Town, on the heights above. It
was on these heights, on the Plains of Abraham, that the battle
was fought, in 1759, by which Canada was lost to France, and
became a British possession. Quebec is the second city in the
Province of Quebec, and the third in the Dominion. Its shipping
trade, its ship-building, and its timber trade are very important.
The passengers of ocean steamers are taken on and put off at
Quebec, though the steamers themselves ascend as far as Mont-
real to unload and receive their freight. Quebec is the terminus
of the eastern division of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which
runs from Ottawa, Montreal, and Three Rivers ; and a division
of the Grand Trunk Railway from Montreal has its terminus at
Point Ldvis (lay-vee) opposite Quebec. From Point L^vis, too,
the Intercolonial Railway starts, which, after skirting %\ie south
shore of the St. Lawrence to Rimouski (oo), then runs south-
eastward to St. John in New Brunswick, and Halifax in Nova
Scotia. Quebec was long the capital of Canada, and it is a place
of great historical interest. It is the seat of the University of
Laval, and it has a cathedral (Roman Catholic) capable of
holding 4,000 people. Around the city is some of the finest
Bceneryin the world. Near by are the beautiful and famous

«^

Falls of Montmorenci. Levis and Point L<ivis may be consid-
ered suburbs of Quebec. If their population, 9,000, be included,
Quebec may be considered a city of nearly 76,000 people.

Three Rivers (8,670 ; 10,000) derives its name from the triple
mouth of the St. Maurice, w here it is situated. It is exactly mid-
way between Montreal and Quebec. It is aVery old French town,
having been founded in 1618, next after Quebec. Its cathedral
is one of the finest edifices in America. Three Rivers has impor-
tant iron works, and has a large trade in the lumber which comes
down the St. Maurice, a river 400 miles long. Twenty-four
miles up the St. Maurice are the Shawenegan Falls, 150 feet high.

SuEBBROOKE (7,227 ; 8,000), at the junction of theMagog (which
empties Lake Memphrema'gog) with the Si. Francis, is the chief
town of the Eastern Townships. It has abundance of wi.ter-
power, and its mills and factories are numerous. It has large
manufactures of woollen and cotton goods, and hardware. By
the Grand Trunk Railway it has connection with Montreal,
Quebec, and Portland in Maine. Near by is Lbknoxville, the
seat of Bishop's College.

Hull (6,890; 8,000), opposite Ottawa, has a large lumber
trade, and manufactures matches and woodenware extensively.
Near it are valuable iron mines.

St. Hyacinthe (5,321 ; 6,000), where the Grand Trunk Rail-
way crosses the Yamaska, is the seat of a Roman Catholic
college and cathedral.

7. Chief Towns — Sobel (5,791 ; 6,500), at the mouth
of the Richelieu (reesh-el-yoo' ), ia a very old town. It manufac-
tures engines, mill-machinery, and stoves. The Richelieu is the
outlet of Lake Champla - By aid of tlie Chambly Canal, and
of the Champlain Canai , i^ is a continuous waterway along

the Richelieu, Lake Chann ..lin, and the Hudson River, from
the St. Lawrence to the city of Nev York, the commercial
metropolis of the United States. Valleyfield (3,906 4,500),
on Lake St. Francis, has many important manuiactures, includ-
ing that of paper. Rimouski (oo) (1,417), Cacouxa (oo), TADor-
SAC, and Murray Bay, on the St. Lawrence below Quebec, a •
favorite summer resorts. At Rimouski the largest oocan vessels
can safely harbor. Chicoutimi (oo) (1,935) and 'Aa Ha Bay
are visited every year by thousands of tourists, wlio ascend the
Saguenay to enjoy tlie grand and imposing scenery of tliat river.
Into their harbors the largest ocean vessels easily enter St.
John'^ (4,9«14), Nicolet (ne-c5-la) (3,764), Lauzom (r, >,556),
Joli^e (3^268), CoATicooK (2,682), Longueil (2,..)), Fra-
sERViLi* (2,291), Berthier (2,156), St. Jerome (2,032), Farn-

HAM (1,8&0), ACTONVALE (1,861), IbERVILLE (1,847), SUAWVILUt

(1,827), Aylmer (1,762), Montmagny (1,738), Waterloo (1,617),
Richmond (1,. 571), Chambly (1,506), Buckingham (1,479), and
Gatineau (1,460), are all rapidly-growing towns.

Sxercise. — l. Trace on the map the courses of the prin-
cipal rivers of Quebec. 2. Why are so many people in Quebec
of French descent ? 3. Trace on the map the railway system of
the Province. 4. Point out on the map the mineral district;,
and specify the minerals found in each. 5. Point out on the map
the cities and towns mentioned in the text. 6. Account for the
commercial supremacy of Montreal. 7. Describe Quebec City.

. .^.a.~». . .a.

1^^

r '

SCENES IS NEW BK0N3WICK.

LESSON XXV. -

KEW BRUNSWICK.

1 . Position, Size, and Population.— New Bruns-
wick lies between Quebec and Nova Scotia. It is
connected with the hitter Province by the isthmus of
Chignecto. It is about 210 miles long from north to
south, and 180 miles wide from east to west. Its area
is nearly 28,000 'niles. It has a coast-line of about 500
miles, deeply indented with many tine bays and harbors.
Its population is about 325,000.

2. Boundaries, Physical Features, and Sub-
divisions.

To the Teacher.— Teacy. the lioundarics from tlio map ; also the physical
features. In the north-wect, notice the mountains which form the waterslii'd
between the St. Lawrence ami tli? St. .lolin. These are 2,(K)0 feet lii),'h. Tlicy
form the heginti'";,' of tlie ffreat Appatacliian cliain. Tlio country consists of
river \alleys ; — teadi the names of tlie more important of these. The valley
ot the St. John is the largest; it oi'cii])ies more than half the Province.
Notice tlie watershed, running nortli-wcst and south-east, wliich separates it
from the oth-'r valleys. The Hestitjouche (200 miles lony), the .Mirainichi
(sheo') (i-lO miles), the Petitcodiac (100 miles), and the St. Johti i'450 miles),
are all navi;.;ahle for some distance fronv their mouths. The counties may
be taught, in groups, from the map.

3. Soil and Climate. —The soil, cspeciiilly along
the rivers, is productive. The climate is healthful. Ji;

? M7)

the coast districts the winters are milder and the sum-
mers less hot than in Ontario, but the springs are subject
to dense fogs. In inland districts the climate resembles
that of Quebec. The rainfall is everywhere abundant.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— The production of lumber — spruce and pine, and timber
for ship-building — is the chief occupation of the people.
The mineral products of the Province are also very valu-
able, — coal, iron, gypsum, and building stone. Lime is
an important export. The principal coal mines are in
Queen's County. In Albert County is found a valuable
sort of coal, called Albertite. The fisheries are very
valuable. They produce cod, herrings, salmon, smelts,
.sardines, oysters, and lobsters. These are exported tc
all parts of the world, especially to England and to the
West Indies. The shipping trade, also, of New Bruns-
wick is very extensive. Agrioulture is becoming more
general as the forests disappear under the efforts of the
lumbermen. The manafactures, in addition to ship-
building, are principally of liardwarc, leather, cottons,
woollens, railway supplies, mill machinery, and engines.

5. Peopl-, Religion, Education, and Gov-

ornment. — The people are mostly of British and Irish

MOVA SCOTIA.

/•

descent. The Province, liowever, with Novft Scotia,
once belonged to France, and one-sixth of the popula-
tion are of French descent. More than one-third are of
the Boman Catholic religion. Education is under the
control of the Government, and is well attended to.
The conxmon schools are fi'ee to all, as in Ontario.
There is a, Provincial University, and also a Provincial
Normal Scihool, — both at .Yredericton. The constitution
of the Provincial Government and Legislature is the same
as in Quebec ; that is to say, the Legislature consists of
a Lieutenant-Governor, a Legislative Council, and a
Legislative Assembly ; and the government is adminis-
tered by the Lieutenant-Governor, with the assistance
of an Executive Council.

6. Cities and Chief Towns.— st. John (26,127;

30,000) and Portland (15,226; 18,000), though distinct in name
and in government, are in reality one city, situated at the
mouth of the St. John River. The river, which farther up is
of considerable width and expanded into lakes, ia here much
contracted by high rocky shores, and ia called the Narrows,
Through this gorge the tide flows with great violence, rising
thirty feet. Farther up the Bay of Fundy the tide rises even
seventy feet. (To the Teacher. — Explain the motions of the
tides.) The harbor, however, is excellent, accessible to shipa
of the largest size, and remaining perfectly free from ice all
winter. In respect of shipping, St. John is the principal port
of the Dominion, and the fourth in the British Empire. The
fisheries and ship-building of the two cities are very extensive
industries. Lumber, fish, li^ie, ana plumbago, are chief ex-
ports. There are, also, numerous cotton mills, saw mills, and
iron works. The Co^dbrook rolling mills are the finest in the
Domuiion. Carleton (3,166; 5,200), on the opposite side of
the river, forms a part of St. John. A magnificent suspension
bridge spans the Narrov/s at Portlar.d ; the view obtained from
it is unsurpassed on the continent. In 1877, three-fourths of
the business portion of St. John was destroyed by fire. This
was soon rebuilt. St. John is connected by a division of the
Intercolonial Hailway with Moncton on the main line, and thus
with Quebec n.i.d Halifax. By the New Brunswick Railway it
is connected with Frederictou, Woodstock, and Edmundston,
and with the railway system of Maine.

Fredericton (6,218; 7,000) is the capital. In it are the
Government Buildings, and it is the seat of the University of
New Brunswick, and of the Provincial Normal School. Fred-
ericton has a large lumber trade and owns much shipping.
Ordinarily the city is at the head of navigation for the St.
John ; but in times of flood the river is navigable to Grand
Falls, 225 miles from the sea, where it tumbles precipitously
down a perpendicular wall of rock 75 feet high.

Moncton (5,0.32; 6,500) is an important manufacturing town,
and the headquarters of the Intercolonial Railway. Chatham,
or MiRAMiciii, (.3,000) and Newcastle (2,000' are engaged
largely in ship-building, the fisheries, and the shipment of

lumber. Woodstock (2,500) is a lumbering town. Magnifi-
cent iron-ore is found near Woodstock. St. Georob (3,412)»
St. Stephen (2,338), and St. Andrews (2,128) have considerabl*
trade with the United States. Richibucto and Shkdiao are
noted for their fisheries and oyster beds. Sackville is the seat
of Mount Alison College (Wesleyan) ; Memramcook, that of
the Catholic College of St. Joseph. At Dorchester ia the-
Penitentiary for the Maritime Provinces. Albertite, or "jet
coal," is mined near Dorchester. It is used in the manufacture-
of gaa. At Marysville is the larcest cotton factory in the
Dominion; also the largest factory iov .• dtted goods.

Exercise.— 1. Draw an outline map of New Brunswick.
Mark on it the chief bays, rivers, and towns. Draw m th»
courses of the railways. 2. Where are Bay Verte, Cumberland
Basin, Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Croix (kroy) River, and River
St. Francis? 3. Where are Salmon River, Grand Lake, and ,
Grand Falls? 4. W^hat are the chief occupations of the New
Brunswickera? Why are they so much engaged in lumbering
and fishing? Why should ship-building be an important industry f
Why is lime a principal export? What ia lime? What is
gypsum? 5. Describe the railway system of the Province..
6. Describe the educational system. What are the chief educa-
tional institutions? 7. Why should Dorchester, rather thaa
Woodstock, say, have been chosen for the site of the Peniten-
tiary? 8. Explain the difference between the Provincial Legis-
lature and that of Ontario.

LESSON XXVL

NOVA SCOTIA.

1. Position, Size, and Population. — Nova

Scotia lies at the extreme south-east of the Dominion. It
is connected with New Brunswick by the isthmus of
Chignecto, only 14 miles wide. The Province includes,,
besides the peninsula of Nova Scotia, the island of Cape-
Breton. Cape Breton is separated from the mainland
by the Gut of Canso, a strait 15 miles long and two-
miles wide. The total length of the Province is 350'
miles; its breadth, from 65 to 100 miles. The area is,
about 21,000 miles, or three-fourths that of New Bruns-
wick. Nova Scotia, of all the provinces, has the longest
coast-line; it is 1,500 miles long. The population is,
about 450,000.

2. Boundaries, Physical Features, and Sub-
divisions.

To the TeacAer.— Teach these from the map. 0( the many bays and
harbors by which the Atlantic coast-line is broken, teach only the most impor-
tant. The Bay of Fundy coast, west of Jlinas Basin, is precipitous. Off the-
sou'h-westeni extremity of the Province is a line of reefs, very dangerous to.
navigation. The surface of the country generally Is hilly. Notice the direo-
tion and extent of theCobequid Mountains (whose principal summits are 1,10ft
feet hi;.'h), and the parallel ranges of the North and South Mountains. Notioe^
i and account for, the absence of large rivers.

Nova.

lion. It

imus ot

icludes^

»f Cape

dnland

id two.

350'

larea is,

iBruns-

|ongest

tion is.

Sub-

ys and
^t impor-

Off the-
jerous to.
he direo-
kre 1,10a
I Noiioe,.

'* " ^: ;if ;?'yW "' '?l !J'''ft Sl l ! g ' IW i ^!llWj fe )v^

,^^ 7>SHIPPIMq COAL

SCENES IK MOVA SCOTIA.

3. Soil and Glimatd. — The soil in the valleys is
rvch, but on the highlands it is light and poor. To the
north of the central watershed the land is much more
fc^rtile than along the Atlantic coast, where it is rocky.
The Annapolis valley, between North and South Moun-
♦ 'ins, is the finest part of Nova Scotia, and is famous for
its fruit. Along Minas Basin and Cumberland Basin
large tracts of marsh land have been reclaimed from the
S(ta by means of dykes ; these are of inexhaustible fertility.
The climate of Nova Scotia is very temperate, being less
subject to extremes than even that of New Brunswick;
aad it is remarkably healthy. In winter, however,
fi-equent sudden variations of temperature occur, and in
spring, on the north-eastern coasts, dense fogs prevail.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— Nova Scotia ranks first among che provinces in re-
spect of minerals, fisheries, and ship-building. More
than 1,500,000 tons of coal are mined annually. The
principal coal mines are in Cape Breton, and in Pictou
and Cumberland Counties. More gold is obtained
than in any other province except British Columbia.
It is found chiefly in Guysboro', Halifax, and Hants
Counties. Iron is abundant in the Cobequid Moun-
tains, in Colchester County. The gypsum beds of Nova

Scnti??.. are unequalled in the world for richness *nd
extent;. Building stone, lime, slate, and granite, also, %re
plentifully obtained. All these minerals a,re largely
exported. Copper too, is found in small quantities.
With the exception of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia
has the finest fisheries in the world. The value of
the fish taken in one year (cod, mackerel, salmon, her-
ring, shad, halibut) is sodietimes eight millions of dollars.
It is along the coasts of the Atlantic counties and of
Cape Breton that the fisheries are most profitable ; the
northern counties are for the most part, engaged in agri-
culture. The agricultural products ot the Province are
the same as in Ontario. Ship-building is prosecuted
on all the coasts ; the forests in the interior supply
the necessary timber. Nova Scotia has an important
foreign trade, and has much capital invested in ship-
ping — more, in proportion to its population, than any
other country. In the towns are important manufac-
tures, including " home-spun," blankets, tweeds, leather,
boots and shoes, furniture, agricultural implements,
heavy machinery, and sugar.

5. People, Religion, Education, and 'Gov-
ernment. — Although the people are mostly of British
and Irish descent, yet in th' 7est«m counties, and in the

«■»

NOVA SCOTIA.

■ l-i

counties adjacent to tlio b'trait of Causo, are many
Acadians, or descendants of the French who occupied
the country when it helcjnged to France, and — with tlie
settlenienta in Cape Breton, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Ishmd — was called Acadia. In Lunenburg are
many Germans. About three-fourths of the people of the
Province are Protestants ; one-fourth Roman Catholics.
Education is aided by the Government, as in Ontario.
The public schools are free to all. Dalhousie College,
at Halifax, is also maintained by the Government.
There are four other colleges. Like Quebec and New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia has a Legislative Council, whose
members are appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor. In
other respects the government of the Province is similar
to tbat of Ontario.

6. City and Chief Towns.— Halifax (36,054;

43,000), the only city in the Province, is the capital. It has a
large and safe harbor, open all the year round, and is called the
' ' winter port " of Canada. It is the terminus of the Intercolonial
Railway. By the Annapolis Railway it is connected with
Windsor, Annapolis, and Yarmouth. It is also connected with
Pictou, Antigonish, and other towns in the east. Next to
Quebec, Halifax is the most strongly fortified town in the
Dominion. It is tho only station for British troops in Canada.
It is also the chief naval station of tho North American and
West Indian fleets of Great Britain, and has one of Her
Majesty's dockyards, the finest in the British colonies. In
respect of shipping it is the third port of the Dominion, and it
has an important trade with the West Indies. Halifax is tho
seat of Dalhous ieXlflllege (Provincial) and of St. Mary's College
(Roman Catholic). To the north of Halifax harbor is Bedford
Basin, capable of containing all tho navies of the world. Dart-
mouth (3,786), the chief suburb of Halifax, about a mile dis-
tant, on the opposite side of the harbor, manufactures engines
and heavy machinery, and is the seat of the Provincial Lunatic
Asylum. Richmond, another suburb, manufactures fuse, powder,
nails, engines, and pianos, and has large sugar refineries.

Yakmocth (7iOOO), Lunknbubg (4,000), and LiVERrooL (3,500)
are all extensively engaged in fisheries, lumbering, and ship-
building ; and all have a large amount of shipping, and a brisk
foreign trade. In respect of shipping, Yarmouth is the second
port in the Dominion, and in respect of ship-building it is the
first. DioBY has important fisheries. Annafolis is tho oldest
town in Nova Scotia. As Port Royal, it was the capital of
tho French colony, Acadia. Windsor (3,019; 3,300) exports
large quantities of gypsum, and is the seat of King's College
(Episcopalian). Wolfvillk is the seat of Acadia College (Bap-
tist). Trcko (3,401 ; 4,500) is the seat of the Provincial Normal
School. From Truro a branch of the Intercolonial Railway runs
to Pictou, Antigonish, and the Strait of Canso. Antigonish is
the seat of St. Francis Tavier's College (Roman Catholic).
PiCToir (3,403 ; 4,000) and Nkw Glasgow (2,595 ; 3,000) are
important commercial and ship-building towns, possessing much
shipping. They export a very great deal of coal. Shelburne
(2,055) has the best harbor in the Province. Amherst (2,000>
is engaged in the lumber trade and in ship-building.

Sydney (6,000) was once the capital of the colony of Cape
Breton. It is the centre of an extensive coal district, and
exports much coal of a superior quality. Louisbdrg is connected
with Sydney by railway. The French once had a fort at Louis-
burg which cost $6,000,000. Arichat, on Isle Madame, is the
headquarters of valuable fisheries.

To the 2'eacAer.— Give tho additional information necessary for the follow-
ing exercise :

Sxercise. — 1. Draw an outline map of Nova Scotia showing
its mountain ranges, principal watersheds, and principal rivers.
Draw in the lines of railway, and mark the principal towns
Color the coal districts black, the iron districts brown, and
the gold districts yellow. 2. What is gypsum ? Of what use is
it ? Where is it obtained ? 3. Why should Nova Scotia be so
much engaged in ship-building? Why so much in fisheries?
4. Describe the various sorts of fish obtained by the Nova
Scotia fishermen. 5. Why are there so many people of French
descent in Nova Scotia. What geographical names show that
the French people once possessed a part at least of the Province?
6. What popular and well-known poem takes a part of Nova
Scotia as the scene of its action? What part of the Province is
thus taken? 7. By whom, and for what reason, was Halifax
founded? 8. For what is Louisbuig noted in history? What
'amous British General was called the "Hereof Louisburg?"
J. When was Cape Breton taken from the French. When
was it united with Nova Scotia. 10. What is meant by "lier
Majesty's dockyard," and by the "North American fleet"*

Review Exercise. — 1. Make a table comparing the four
provinces, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia,
as regards (l)area; (2) population. 2. Compare these four
provinces in respect of (1) agriculture; (2) lumbering; (3) ship-
ping; (4) mining; (5) fisliing, 3. Describe (1) the systems of
government of these four province", ; (2) their educational sys-
tems. 4. Give a short account of the history of these provinces
previous to confederation. 5. Wliat advantages have been
gained by confederation ? 6. Describe the Intercolonial Railway.

I'KINCE KDWAUD IjLAND AND MANlTOliA.

LESSON XXVII.

PniNCE EDWARD ISLAND.

1. Size and Population. — Prince Edward Island
is the smallest of the provinces of the Dominion. It is
but 130 miles long, and 34 miles broad. Its area is
2,133 square miles. Its population is about 110,000.

2. Boundaries, Physical Features, and Sub-
divisions.

To thf Teacher.— ToacXx these from the map. Notice the Indentationa of
the cooat-lliie. The surface la gently undulatliiif nowhere mountainous or flat.

3. Soil and Climate. — A l.irge part of the surface
of the Island is perfectly free from stone. No minerals
of value are found. The soil is remarkably fertile.
More land is und(!r cultivation in Prince Eiiward Island,
in proportion to its si;;e, than in any other province.
The climate is free from severe extremes of tempera-
ture, and is healthful. The air is usually free from fog.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— As the soil is so fcitile, agriculture is the prevalent
occupation of the people. The farm products are the
same as in Ontario. The fisheries ai-e very valuable,
especially on the northern coast, which is nmch fre-
quented by mackerel and cod. Oysters, also, are taken
and e.xportod. Shipbuilding is an important industry;
the other manufactures are for home consumption.

5. People, Religion, Education, and Govern-
ment. — Prince Edward Island once formed part of the
French Province of Acadia, but only one-tenth of its
people are of French descent. The remainder are of
British and Irish origin. Over two-fifths of the people
are Roman Catholics. The public schools are free.
There is a Provincial Normal School, and there are two
colleges. The Government is similar in constitution to
that of the other maritime provinces, save that the
Legislati\ e Council is elective.

6. City and Towns.— Cuarlottetown (is.ooo) is

the only city. It contains all the government buildings, the
colleges, and the principal schools of the Island. It has a good
harbor. It is largely engaged in ship-building, and exports
agricultural produce and oysters. By the Prince Edward Island
Railway it has connections with all the principal places of the
Island. St'MMKRsiDE (3,000) has an excellent haibor, does
much ship-huilding, and exports farm produce and oysters.
Oeou(!ET(iw.n' (1,100) has one of the best harbors of the Island.
Souins docs ship-building, and is an important fishing centre.
Aluerton has a fine harbor. Ticmsh is a tishing point.

*^! «« ^ LESSON XXVIII.

MANITOBA.

1. Position, Boundaries, Size, and Popula-
tion. — Manitoba, the Prairie Province, lies to the west
of Ontario. Its southern boundary is the international
line, or the 4'Jth parallel of latitude. Its northern
boundary is the 53rd parallel of latitude. Its south-
eastern boundary corresponds with the north-western
boundary of Ontario. Its length from east to west is
544 miles ; its breadth from north to south is 2G4 miles.
Its area is 1 1 6,000 square miles. Its population is rapidly
increasing ; at present it is estimated to be 12.5,000.

2. Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— The followinif notes may be made use of in teaching the
physical features from the map :— The Red Uiver, flowing northward into Lake
Winnipeg, divides Manitulm into two ner.rly equal iKirts. The eastern half,
especially that lying to tlie north and east of the Wirinl|>Rg River, is hilly and
rocky , but it ia well covered with timber, and parts of it abound in small
lakes. The remainder of the Pruvince consists mainly of level prairie. On
the southern boundary are t\vo elevations — Pembina (pcm'bi-nu; Moimtain, and
Turtle Mountain. Towards the west and north are other elevations— Riding
Mountain, Duck Mountain, and Porcupine Hills. The soil of the prairie is a
rich, deep, black mould, resting on a hard clay sub-soil, or on a limestone
which easily disintegrates and enriches the mould above it. From the pecu-
liar fineness of the particles of the soil in Manitoba, it is supposed that the
t^rcater portion of the Province once fonned the bottom of a large lake. The
lakes of the Province — Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegosis-are all con-
nected, and, through the Nelson River, flow into Hudson Ray. The rivers are
extremely inipurtant. I'he Asfiniboine, which flows into the Red River at
Winnipeg, is navigable for 320 miles. The Red River is navigable from Moor-
licad, in Minnesota, to its mouth— 400 miles, the Saskatchewan, which flows
into Lake Winnipeg, is navigable as far as Edmonton, at the base of the Rooky
Mountains. Winnipeg, the capital of the Province, may be said to bo, com-
mercially, the converging point of this vast water-system.

3. Climate. — The climate, though excessive, is very
healthy. The wintei-s ai'o extremely cold. They com-
mence in November, and last till the end of March ; but
the atmosphere is bright and dry, and the low tempera-
ture is endurable. At times, however, "cold waves"
set in, and " blizzards " occur — furious winds, intensely
cold, and laden with snow blown into particles like dust,
and these are driven with such force that they penetrate
the skin like needles. The summers are warm, sometimes
hot ; but they are subject to frosts. June is a mouth of
rain. Excessive as the climate is, however, all kinds of
grain, roots, and garden vegetables ripen to perfection,
though, occasionally, wheat is injured by the early

I autumn frosts.

I 4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

i — Manitoba occupies one of the best portions of the

■ S

> >

wheat belt, and tlie raising of grain is, and nuist con-
tinue to be, a chief occupation of the people. Stock-
raising is also an important industry, the hay of the
prairie being very nutritious. There is little timber in
the prairie portion of the Province, except in fringes !
along the edges of the streams. The timber of the eastern i
part is principally made into lumber at Rat Portage, |
which is in Ontario. There are no minerals in Mani-
toba, but lignite coal is found on the Sonris River just
outside of the Province. The manufactures as yet are
merely for local use.

5. People, Religion, Education, Government.

— The people are principally settlers from the older
provinces and the mother countries, although a large
number (about one-fifth) are descendants of the French
hunters and trappers who once were the only white in-
habitants of the country. All religions enjoy equal
privileges. Education is under provincial control, and
is well attended to. Free schools are established as
rapidly as they are needed. There is a Provincial Uni-
versity, and, also, a Provincial Normal School. There are,
besides, three colleges — St. Boniface (Roman Catholic),
St. John's (Anglican), and Manitoba (Presbyterian).

(63)

The Legislature consists of the Lieutenant-Governor and
a House of Assembly, as in Ontario. The District of
Kewatin is under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-
Governor of Manitoba.

6. Cities and Chief Towns.— Winnipeg (36,ooo) is

the capital city of the Province, and the commercial metropolis
of the North-West. It has excellent communications by water
with the great fertile belt which stretches between Lake Win-
nipeg and the Rocky Mountains, and it is at the centre of the
railway system of Canada. In 1870, when the Province cf
Manitoba was organized, Win'.ipeg was a hamlet of but 300
people. In 1S74 it was incorporated as a city ; and now its popu-
lation is 36,000. It possesses all the conveniences of a well-
established modern city ; its streets are lighted by electricity
and gas, it has a system of waterworks, and it has street-
railways. It is the seat of the University of Manitoba, of
^lanitoba College, of St. John's College, and of the Provincial
Normal School. Its public buildings, and especially its churches,
are very fine. Opposite Winnipeg is St. Boniface, the resi-
dence of the Roman Catholic Archbishop, and the seat of the
College of St. Boniface.

Brandon (3,000) is 133 miles west of Winnipeg, on the Assini-
boine River. Its growth has been marvellous. It exports much
grain.

Portage La Prairie (3,000) is the largest of the towns. It is
the centre of a rich grain district. It has local manufactures, and
is the headquarters of the Manitoba and North-Western Railway^

UISIUICIS AND TEUUITOUIKS OF THK DOMINION.

Emerson (2,J00), Uai-iu City (1,500), Minnedosa (1,000),
Gladstone, Sklkikk, Nkuson, Moiiris, and Biutlk, are all
rapidly-growing towns, fast rising into iinportanco.

Exercise.— I. Traeo on tho map tlio river system of Mani-
toba. 2. Trace on tliu map tlio railway syatom. 3. Locate the
cities and towns mentioned in tho text. 4. Trace on the map
tho various routea l)y which grain and cattle may be sent from
the North-West to ICurope— ( 1 ) via Montreal ; (2) via New York.
6. What advantage to the North-West would be gained by the
building of a railway from Winnipeg to Hudson Bay?

LESSON XXIX.

THE DISTRICTS AND TERltlTORIES OF THE
DOMINION.

1 . The " North-West."— The vast tcact of country
lying to the north
and west of On-
tario and Mani-
toba, and to the
east and north of
British Columbia,
ispopularly known
as the North-West
Tenitory. Of this

tract, however,
several distinct
portions have been
constituted Dis-
tricts, and the
name "North-
West Territory"
should be restrict-
ed to the remain-
der. The Districts are Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Al-
berta, Athabasca, and Kewatin.

2. The North-East Territory.— The North-East

Territory is the tract lying to the north of Quebec, be-
tween Hudson Bay and Labrador.

3. Cession to Canada, and Extent. — These Dis-
tricts and Territories, together with the tract now com-
prised within the Province of Manitoba, were formerly
known as the Hudson Bay Territory. This Territory
was for many years under the authority of the Hudson
Bay Company, whose chief offices were in London, Eng-
land ; but in 1869 it was relinquished to the Government
of Great Britain, and in June, 1870, it was ceded to the
Dominion of Canada. The extent of the territory thus

gained by tho Donnuion is estimated at from 2,300,000
to 2,800,000 square miles.

4. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacher. —Teach tho boundariei of tho various Diitriota and Tern-
toriuH from tho nmg. Also, in a Horica of convoiiuitioiis, with tho map c6n-
Btantly in view and constantly referred to, g\\o tho pupils sonio idea of the
physical features of thia vast re)flon. llouKhly spoakini;, thero are three
distinut divisions of it.

(1) The Ilmlunn Say Area. Thisdivision conipriiies the North-East Terri-
tory, Kewatin, and tlio parts of Manitoba, Soskatchowan, and tlio North-West
Territory which oro to the eastward of tho lakes lyinj botwoon Lake of the
Woods and Great 81a\ o Lake. It is a rii;;gcd, rocky country, a))oundin|{ in
small lakes and rapid rivers (the rivers ititerruptcd by numerous waterfullg),
covered lari;cly with foret, and containing much minora! wea'.tli. Coal, iron,
manganese, and lead, are to be had on tho Qroat Whole and Little Whale
Rivers, and iron on tho Churchill and Nelson Rivers. Of tho whole area but
little is adapted to agriculture, and scarcely anything has boon done towards
developing its resources of mine and forest. The building of a railway from
Winnipeg to Port Nelson, as is proposed, and tho consccjuent establishing of a

steamboat route from
Hudson Ray to Kngland,
in order to aflord tho
grain of the North-West
an easier access than it
has at present to the
markets of Europe, will
result in the opening up
and working of tho iron
deposii.li of Kewatin,
which are said to bt rioh
and numerous.

(2) The Arctic Slope,
or the Valley of ike ilae-
kettzie. The southern
boundary of this slope
corresponds verj' nearly
with the 66th parallel <A
latitude, and is formed
by the watershed which
marks oft tho northern
boundary of tho valley of
the Saskatchewan. Tiie
northern part of this di-
vision is a great plain,
frozen nine months of
tho year, generally wooded, but valuable only for the fur-bearing animals
which are found upon it, and for its coal ; but the coal has been little worked
or sought for, although it is known to, exist almost throughout tho whole
plain, and in especial richness near Great Bear Lake. Copper and lead ore
also known to exist, especially on the Coppermine River, where the copper ore
13 very rich. The more southern parts of the slope— the vaUeys ol tlie Atha-
basca and Peace Rivers — comprise the best and largest wheat area in tlie
Dominion. These valleys contain some of the finest prairie land in tlte
North-West— the grass upon them being of better quality than tliat found
on the plains,— but they are separated from one another, and from the great
prairie region to the south, by vast forcEts. Lignite coal is abundant along
both rivers, bu. this is the only mineral. ' jng the Peace River petroleum,
ton, is said to be abundant.

(3) The " Fertile Belt," or Prairie Rerjion. This division lies to the north
of the watershed corresponding generally with the international line, and
within a boundary which may be traced as follows :— The Red River valley
northward as far as Winnipejj ; thence tho val'.ey of the Assiniboine Jtiiver
westward to the confluence of the Qu'Appelle with the Assinitraine ; thence
the valley of the Assiniboine north-westward and across the plains to the oon-
(liicnce of the two branches of the Saskatchewan ; thence along the valley of
the North Soskatcbewan westward to Edmonton ; thence south-westward to
Cal'rnry ; thence along the base of the Rocky Mountains to the inteniationai

(

DISTRICTS AND TERRITORIES OF THE DOMINION.

line. Thin area oi xriOitAn/ ai(U«re mllei it either quite trcoleii, or merely
dotted at Iritenali with groves of aipen and other loft-wnod treoi. The
•outhorn and louth-weitem portion of It Is almost uiitlrcly without wood, save
fringes of Cottonwood trues along the banks of the rivers. The soil of this
division is, (or the most, part, of surpassing richness, being a deep loam or
mould, resting upon a clay subsoil, or upon limestone ; but in Assinibola,
near the boundary lino nro strctclios of alkali lands which are worthless except
when artlflcially furtillze<l. The whole region is, aa a rule, well watered, —
small lakes, rivers, and streams, being very numerous.

The large lakes and rivers of the Territories and Districts should be taught
trom the map. The courses of the Haskatchewan and the Assinlboine, with
their tributaries— the lUittlu, Bow, Delly, Qu'Appelle, and Souris Rivers,— and
of the Athabasca and Peace Rivers, should be traced with care, as in the
future it is with these rivers that the hijtory of our country will be largely
concerned,— tho lands they water being extensive enough, and fertile enough,
to sustain a population of 60,000,000 people, or ten times tho present popula-
tion of tho whole Dominion.

5. Glimate. — The climate of the Territories, and of
the District of Kewatin, is exti fraely cold. Summer, in
these regions, is but a short season. The climate of the
other Districts resembles that of Manitoba ; though in
the south-west it is much milder, and the snowfall there
is slight, so that horses and cattle remain out through
tho whole winter, feeding upon grass, which is abundant
and nutritious all the year round.

6. People, and Occupations.— Until 1870, in

all this country there were fe'^ people that were not
engaged in hunting and trnnpii -r. The inhabitants,
other than the
agents of the
Hudson Bay Ter-
ritory, were In-
dians and Half-
breeds, and a few
enterprising ad-
venturers from
the older pro-
vinces. Since that
time, from every
province of Can-
ada, from the
Mother Coun-
tries, and from
tho United States, constant streams of colonists have
been pouring into the Fertile Belt, and mucli land has
been occupied and devoted to agriculture. Farming
is prosecuted as in Ontario, except that the farms are
larger, and a greater use is made of machinery. Wheat,
oats, barley, rye, and potatoes, mature perfectly, —
though the early frosts of autumn are sometimes de-
structive. In the valleys of the Bo'' t and Belly Rivers
cattle raising is largely followed. For this purpose the
10

THE TKAPPEK'S RETURN.

land is parcelled out into "ranches." On some ranchoi
from 10,000 to 50,000 cattle are kept. The rich min-
erals of the north and east are not yet mined, for lack
of facilities of transport. In the "North-West," how-

ever, coal is presently needetl. and is now plentifully
mined along the South Saskatchewan, and its branches,
the Bow and Belly Rivers, and on the Souris River.
The supply of coal is practically inexhaustible.

7. Government, Religion, and Education.—

The government of the Territories is administered directly
by the Dominion Executive. The District of Kewatin
is under the jurisdiction of the Lieutenant-Governor of
Manitoba. The government of the Districts of Assini-
boia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, is admin-
istered by a Lieutenant-Governor, whose seat of govern-
ment is at Regina. Laws for these Districts are framed
by a Council, a part of whom are nominated by the
Dominion Government, the remainder being elected by
the people directly. These Districts have representation
also in the Dominion House of Commons. Through the
liberality of the people in the older provinces, and the
enterprise of missionaries, the interests of religion are
well provided for. Educational interests are attended
to as well as circumstances permit.

8. Chief Places. — Regina Ib the cnpital of the Diatricta
Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, the residence
of the Lieutenant-Governor, and the headquarters of the Mounted
Police. It is in the centre of the largest wheat-growing district
of the North-West. Battleford, at the confluence of the Battle
River with the North Saskatchewan, was the former capital.
It was the scene of the principal Indian rising in the Rebellion
of 1885. Medicine Hat, where the Canadian Pacific Railway
crosses the Saskatchewan, is the centre of a rioh coal district.
Caloary is the centre of the cattle-grazing district at the foot
of the Rocky Mountains, and the chief place of southern Alberta.
Prince Albert is the chief place in Saskatchewan District.
Carleton, Ddck Lake, and Batoche, are among the oldest places
in the North-West. The district adjacent to these places wa*
that principally concerned in the Rebellion of 1885. Edmonton,

^ /}

v^o.

0.0/

^vmiSmi

SCENES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.

the centre of an inexhaustible coal region, is the chief place in
northern Alberta. The Saskatchewan is navigable in times of
flood from Edmonton to the rapids, near its mouth; at other
times, from Battleford. Fokt McLeod is at the centre of a rich
grazing couiiry. Qo'Appellk, Moose Jaw, Moosomin, Fort
Pelly, and Fort Saskatchewav. are vapidly growing places.
Moose Jaw has productive coal mines.

Fort Vermillion and Dpnvkgan are the chief places in
Athabasca District.

Port Nelson is the chief place in Kewatin District, and the
teiTninus of the proposed Winnipeg and Hudson Bay Railway.

Elzercise. — l. Trace on the map th« boundaries of all the
Districts and Territories mentioned in the text. Trace on the
map the tourses of all the rivers mentioned. Point out the
large lakes. 2. Give some account of the history of the "North-
West." 3. Describe the "Hudson B.;y Area." 4. Describe
the "Vauey of the Mackenzie." 5. Trace on the map the
boundaricsof the "Fertile Belt." 6 Describe the Fertile Belt.
7. Describe the grazing districts which lie under the shelter of
the Rocky Mountains. 8. Deaoribe the Peace River District.
9. Give some account of the people of the " North-West." 10.
What are "cattle ranches?" 11. Describe die Governments of
the several Districts and Territories. 12, Point out on the map
the " chief places " mentioned in the text. 13. Trace the course
of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It. Point out on the map the
various mineral regions of tlie Districts and Territories. ITi.
Give some account of the Rebellion of 1 670 ; also of that of 1 S8.").

LESSON XXX.

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

1. Position, Extent, and Population.— British

Columbia lies to the west of the Rocky Mountains and
south of the 60th parallel of latitude. It includes Van-
couver Island, and Queen Charlotte Islands, but it does
not include the coast (with the islands adjoining) north
of Portland Channel ; this belongs to the United States'
Territory, Alaska. The length of British Columbia from
north to south is about 760 miles. Its area is over 340,-
000 square miles. It is the largest Province of the
Dominion. Its population, however, is the least, being
less than 60,000.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacher. —Teach the boundaries from the map. Notice that from
latitude 54° the eastern boundary line ia the 120th meridian of longitude.
Notice that the Island of Vancouver comes below the 49th parallel. Notice, too,
that the coast north of Portland Channel (a strip about 60 miles wide) belongs
to Alaska ; and that the Island of San Juan, in the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
belongs to the United States. In teaching the physical features from the
map the following notes may be used .—The entiro Province is mountainous.
Tlie Rocky Mountains constitute the principal range. These mountains attain
their extreme height In British CoUinibia— Mount Rrown, Mount Hooker, and
Mount .Murchison, being all from two and a lialf miles to three miles high.

6»

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Through the Rockiua arc several passes; the principal of these are Peace
River Pass, Pine River Pms, Yellow Head Pass, and Kick<!i|f Horse Pass.
Through Kickinsr Horse Pass, which la about one mile hi^h, the Canadian
PaciQo Railwav enters the Province. In the soutlicrn part o( the Province,
parallel with the Rockies, is the Gold Range, consisting of several associated
ranges; and parallel with these, bordering uiKin the coast, is a third ran;;e,
•he Cascade or Coast Mountains. Between these ranges are elevated table-
lands, generally with a rolling surface, and for the most part covered with
grass, though some are wooded. These table-lands are usually furrowed by
valleys ploughed out by rivers. — The rivers of British Columbia are impetu-
ous, tortuous, andintricate— frequently with abrupt changes in their general
direction. The valleys of the principal rivers should be traced on the map.
The valley of the Peace River Is of comparatively low altitude, and where it
leaves the Province the adjacent land is well suited to agriculture. Along
the lower part of the Fraser Rivtr is an excellent grazing district. The
Thompson (an afltuent of the Fraser) flows tlirough one of the most beautiful
countries in the woild. Of tlie Columbia, more than SIH) miles are ?n Canadian
territory. The Skeeiia River
affords a route to tlio min-
ing district of the noiMi.
Its head waters, and tho;ie
of a tributary of the Pea-.e,
are fed by the same lake.
The Stickeen and tlie Liard
are the remaining impor-
tant rivers.— The coast of
Brltisli Columbia is moun-
tainous, its edge precipitous
and rocky; but it is in-
dented with \ory many
long, narrow inlets. Of
these sonic make excellent
harbors; otiiers are ex-
posed, and so deep that
nnchonige is inipossiI)le.
But the whole coast may
be said to abound in har
bors, and in tins respect it
offers a contrast to tliat o*
Washington, Oregon, and
California, to the south,
which, as far as San Fran-
cisco, has not one available
harbor. Tiie more impor-
tant harbors arc :— Burrurd
Inlet, Blsfinimault, Howe
Sound, Jer\i3 Inlet, Bute

Inlet, Dean Inlet, and Port Simpson. The location of the principal islands,
Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, etc., should be observed. Vancouver Island is
275 miles long. It ia separated from the mainland at the southeast by the
Strait of Juan de Fnea, 16 miles wide, and along tlio west by tlie Strait of
Georgia, in some places only a few luindrid yards wide. The whole coast of
Bri'.ish Coliinibia, with the exi'cption of two short stretches, is bordered by
islands, which leave a channel wide ami deep enough for the largest ocean
steaniera to ply up and down, perfectly safe from the winds and billows of the
Pacific.

3. Soil and Climate. — About one-half of _t]iQ.

Proviuco is lit for agriculture, tlioULfli tho arable districts

are much broken by the mountains. The climate is

milder than that of corresi)onding regions in eastern

Canada, owing to the influence of warm winds from the

south and of a warm ocean current. In the southern

part of Vancouver I.sland there is Imt little snow, and

The coast regions

the winter temperature is never low.

have a great deal of rain. The table lands of the south*^
em interior have little rain, the irrigation of land being
sometimes necessary to agriculture; and their winter
temperature is so mild that cuttle remain out all winter
grazing. In the Peace River district the climate ia
similar to that of Ontario, and the rainfall is sutiicicnt
to bring all crops to maturity.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

To the Teacher.— The following notes may be need in conversation :—

The forests of British Columbia are noted for their value and
ej'.tent. The Douglas pine, which is found principally on the

western slopes of the
Coast Mountains,
grows to the luightof
300 fett, anil is much
prized as masts for
ships. There are also
found scvt;ral other
varieties of pine, and
besides, c'dji.', hem-
lock, tamarack, yew,
oak, and riiaple. The
timber trade is only
beginning, but it ib
already of great im-
portance. Lumber is
exported to the neigh-
boring States-, and to
South America, Aus-
tralia, and China. In
the north, fur-bearing
animals are very nu-
meroHs — beavers,
bears, land and sea
otters, seals, martens,
muiks, the wolf, the
fox, the lynx, and tho ermine— and tho lumting and trapping of
these engage many of the Indian population. The annual ex-
port of furs amounts to $.'509,000. The fisheries of British
Columbia are yet in their infancy ; but tliey will become exceed-
ingly productive, and may yet rival those of Newfoundland and
Xova Scotia. The rivers teem with salmon. Cod, halibut,
haddock, smelts, and sardines, are all found abundantly along
the coasts. The vahie of the fish annually taken is nearly
$2,000,000. FLsh are not valuable as an export alone ; the lu-
dians of the I'a< ifio Coast live largely upon this article of fo 1.
Agricidture is as yet confined to local demands ; no grains are
exported. Tlie great industry of tho Province is mining. Gold
is found on the Kootenay River, a branch of tlie Columbia; in
the Cariboo district on the Upper Fraser, and on the creeks
between it and the Thompson lliver ; in the Omineca district
between the Skeena and the Peace Kivers; and in Cassiar
between the Stickeen and tho Liard — the Cariboo district being

INDIAN ENCAMPMENT.

•

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

the richest. The gold was formerly obtained by washing the
silt of the river beds, which accumulates in bars after every
freshet, or by washing the sand taken from old river beds ;
but little can now be had in this way ; it must be obtained by
crushing quartz. In 1858 gold was first discovered on the
Fraser River. Since then nearly two million dollars' worth
a year has been taken out of the Province ; and in 1864
the amount obtained v/as neaily four million dollars' worth.
Silver, also, is found near Hope, on the Fraser. Of iron there
is an unlimited supply. The whole Island of Texada, in the
Strait of Georgia, is said to be almost a mass of iron-ore, yielding
80 per cent, of pure iron of the best quality. But the most
valuable mineral resource is coal. On Vancouver Island a
deposit of bituminous coal runs in a
trough almost the whole length of the
island. It is obtained principally at
Coinox and Nanaimo. It is of excellent
quality, and is much used on ocean
steamships. Queen Charlotte Islands
have extensive beds of the very best
anthracite coal. Lignite coal is found
on the mainland, in the Nicola Valley,
and along the Thompson and Skeena
Rivers.

5. People, Religion, Edu-
cation, and Government.—

About one-half of the population
consists of Indians, but these, liow-
ever, are quite peaceful in their
habits. Though not industrious
naturally, yet they are easily civil-
ized and can bo made good citizens.
They care little for farming, I ut
the hunting and fishing industries
are almost exclusively carried on
by them, and they supply tlie
principal labor for the timber industry. One-tenth of
the population consists of Chinese. The remainder are
of British origin (many from the older provinces). At
one time adventurous fortune-hunters from all quarters
of the world thronged the mines, but most of these have
now disappeared. Religious worship is general among
the white people, as in the older provinces; but the
Indiana and Chinese remain largely pagan, although,
through the enterprise of missionaries, many of these
have become Christians. Education is very liberally pro-
vided for by the Government. There are both public
and liigh schools. The constitution of the Provincial
Government and Legislature is the same as in Ontario
and Manitoba. British Columbia was admitted into the
Dominion of Canada in 1871.

GOLD-WASHINO

6. Cities and Chief Places.— Victoria (5,925) is

the capital and chief place. It was formerly tlie capital of the
Province of Vancouver Island. Its population has fluctuated
much, owing to tlie excitement caused at various times by the
discovery of gold in new districts ; as, for example, in the
Cariboo district in 1800, and in Cassiar in 1873. The city in
pretty ; its parks and gardens are attractive, and its view of
the snow-clad heights of the Olympian Range to the south
gives it au additional charm. Its harbor is small and unimpor-
tant. EsQUTMALT, four mvlcs distant, is the true harbor ol
Victoria. Esquimalt is the station of the British North Pacific
fleet, and t'ne site of a Government graving-dock. Nanaimo
(connected with Esquimalt by railway), CoMOX, and FoKT
Rupert, have extensive coal mines.

New Westminster is the principal
place on the niaiidaud. Formerly it
was the capital of the old Province of
British Columbia. It is the chief centre
of distribution of supplies for the in-
terior, and the depot for the products
obtained in it. Hope, Yale, and Lyt-
TON, on the line of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, are thriving places in the
pasturing district of the lower Fraser.
Between Yale and Lytton the scenery
of the Fraser is of the grandest in the
world. From Yale, which is the head
of navigation for the Fraser, a wagon-
road has been built, at a cost of half a
million dollars, along the river to the
Cariboo mining district. Kamloops is
the centre of a grazing district. Van-
couver, nine miles from New West-
minster, on Burrard Inlet — one of the
best harbors on the coast — is the west-
ern terminus of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, and the centre of the Douglas
pine industry. It will, in all proba-
bility, become an important town.
Lines of steamships running from it will connect Canada with
Australia, Japan, and China. Port Essington and Port
Simpson are the most important places on the northern coast.
Near them is Metlaukatlah, a large and flourishing Indian
village, the result of missionary enterprise.

Sxercise. — l. Point out on the map the mountains and
passes mentioned in the text. Trace the courses of the rivers,
and point out the inlets and islands mentioned. 2. Trace on
the map the ship-passage along the coast. 3. Account for the
peculiarities of the climate of British Columbia. 4. Give an
account of the natural products of the Province. 5. Point out
on the map the four gold districts mentioned in the text. How
is gold obtained ? Point out the coal and iron districts. 6. Tell
what you know of the coast Indians. 7. Trace on the map the
course of tiie Canadian Pacific Railway. 8. Trace on the map
a route, suitable for a railway, from Peace River Pass to Port
Simpson ; also, for one from Yellow Head Pass to Bute Inlet.

NEWFOUNDLAND.

LESSON XXXI.

XE ]VFO UND LAND.

1 . Position, Size, and Popillation.— Newfound-
land (nu'fun-land) is an island lying between the Gulf of
St. IjawrenrfR ond tbe A+lay*'" Oonan. Tt is an irregular
triangle in shape, with each of its sides something over
300 miles long. Its area is about 42,000 square miles.
Its population is about 185,000.

2. Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— Teach these from the map. The many deep bays uiiU
inlets which indent the coast-
line should be noticed ; and
the more important of these
— Hare, Wliite, Boiiavista,
Trinity, Conception, St. Mary,
Placcntia, Fortune, St.
George, and Day of Islands —
should bo regarded- particu-
larly, as it is upon their
shores that the only settle-
ments upon the island have
as yet been mode. In these
bays, and on the east and
south shores generally, are
many excellent harbors. —
The south-eastern part of the
island, which is attached to
the main part by merely a
slender isthmus, is known as
the Avalon Peninsula. — The
hill-ranges, and hence the
rivers, have all a general
direction — north - east and
south-west. The face of the
country consists of a succes-
f 111 >f these ranges with nar-
iT* alleys between. There
are but few plains. The
rivers are not important,
though some are large. The
lakes and ponds are very
numerous ; it is thought that

one-third of the surface of the island if taken up with them : they are for the
most part small, and are found cvc.ywhere, even on the tops of the highest
hills.— Notice the Strait of Belle Isle at the north, through which, as it
never freezes, is the "inside route "of ocean steamships between Montreal
and Liverpool.— Notice, also, the two small islands, Miquelon and St. Pierre,
at the south ; they belong to France. The names of three capes— Cape Ray
(which is the point nearest Cape Breton— only 50 miles distant), Cape Race
(ut which ocean steamships call), and Cape Spear (the point nearest to
Europe — only 1,040 miles from Ireland)— should also be remembered. — With
the physical features of the island should be ossociated the "Newfoundland
Banks"— stretches of elevated level sea-bottom, at comparatively shallow
depths below the surface. The Grand Bank of Newfoundland, off the eastern
coast, is 600 miles long from north to south, and about 200 miles wide, its
depth being only frotn 60 to .300 feet, while the sea-bottom beside i*; is 9,000
feet deep. There arc other lianks ; hut none else are so large or of so shallow
a depth. They arc all of great connnercial importance.

3. Soil and Climate. — The proportion of amble
land in the whole island is small, though along all the

rivers, and at the head of every bay and inlet, are areas
of alluvial soil, valuable — some very valuable — for agri-
culture. Some of the plains are covered with grass and
are fit for pasturing. Tliere is a great deal of forest
land in the west, but as yet it has been left unbroken.
The climate is less subject to extremes than that of the
provinces on the mainland ; but fog is prevalent along
the coasts, and the atmosphere is always moist, so that
cold temperatures sua keenly felt. The eastern coast
is subject to the chilling efl'ects of the Arctic current,
and, in spring, of passing icebergs. However, all the
northern grains (with the exception of wheat), and the

ordinary northern
fruits, mature per-
fectly. In the forests
the ordinary north-
ern woods are found,
except the oak, the
beech, and the maple.

4. 0<^cupations
of the People.

To the Teacher.— Use the
following notes in conversa-
tion : —

The principal occupa-
tions of the Newfound-
landers are nearly all
connected with the fish-
ing industry. The fish-
eries of Newfoundland
are the most celebrated
in the world, and its
cod fishery is superiorto

COD-FISHING. *^1^* ^^ ^'"y °^^^^ *^'^^^'

try. The value of the
fish annually taken is $8,000,000, The "Benks," from June
until November, are the resort of countless myriads of cod-fish ;
and the bays and inlets of the coast, especially at the south and
west, in the respective seasons, swarm with cod, salmon,
herring, and lobsters. The inhabitants of the island, however,
devote themselves principally to the coast fisheries, as these are
less expensively prosecuted than bank-fishing. The seal fish-
eries are also very important. The seals are caught in spring,
while young, on floating ice off the coasts of Labrador and
north-eastern Newfoundland ; but the pursuit of them is at-
tended with much danger. Whales, too, and grampuses and
porpoises are hunted. These are valuable for their oil, and also
for their skins.— The second industry in importance is mining.
Copper is found in very rich deposits around Notre Dame Bay,
and is mined largely ; so that, for the production of copper,
Newfoundland is e.xcelled l)y very few countries. Lead is found

! i

NEWFOUNDLAND.

iu mines around Placentia Bay anil St. George Bay. Bituminoua
coal is very abundant in the west, but is not yet mined. The
gypsum beds, too, of the west, in richness and extent, rival
those of Nova Scotia. Other minerals and metals are abundant,
especially marbles, building-stones, and stonea suitable for
grindstones and whetstones ; but little has been done to develop
these. — Of wild animals, in the interior, reindeer, or cariboo, are
very numerous ; martens and beavers are also numerous, and
u.re trapped for their furs. — Of lumbering little has been done,
though, in the west, pine and spruce are abundant. Agriculture,
too, has, as yet, been little pursued, and only to satisfy local
demands. The manufactures of the island are confined to the
capital, and are merely for domestic use.

5. People, Religion, Education, and Govern-
ment. — The people are nearly all of English and Irish
origin. One-third of the population belong to the Roman
Catholic Church, one-third to the Church of England.
Education is provided for in free public schools, the
Ptoraan Catholics having separate schools. Newfound-
land, though part of British North America, does not
form part of the Dominion of Canada ; its Governor is
appointed by the Queen ; he is assisted by an Executive
Council. The Legislature is similar in constitution to

nnVINO CODFISH.

t lat of New Brunswick or Nova Scotia. The eastern
part of Labrador belongs to Newfoundland.

6. City and Chief Places.— St. John's (30,ooo) is

the capital and the chief place of business. Its harbor, thougli

somewhat small, is perfectly slieltered from all gales and easily
accessible, and hence is much resorted to by ships escaping from
the storms of the Atlantic. St. John's is the seat of the gov-
ernment buildings, the asylums, hospitals, etc., and of the
principal educational institutions of the Province. Owing to

' KILLINO SEAL.

di3 fact that there is scarcely more than one other place of
business on the island, its trade, especially in busy seasons, is
of great volume, and exceedingly brisk. It has many manufac-
tures, more particularly of articles used in the fishing, fish-curing,
and oil-producing industries. Its public buildings, especially
its two cathedrals (Roman Catholic and Anglican), are very fine.
Tilt Cove, on Notre Dame Bay, the principal sent of the
copper-mining industry, is connected with St. John's by railway.
Harbor Grace (8,000) is the largest town and an active
place, transacting one-fourth of the business of the Province. It
is the seat of a Roman Catholic cathedral. Bonavista (3,000)
is one of the oldest places on the island. Heart's Content
(1,000), on Trinity Bay, is the landing-place of the Atlantic tele-
graph cables. A land telegraph wire runs from it to Cape Ray,
and thence is a sub- marine cable to Cape Breton.

Review Exercise. — l. Distinguish British North America
and the Dominion of Canada. 2. Describe a trip by railway
from Halifax to Victoria, mentioning the towns and cities that
would be passed in the journey, the important rivers crossed,
and other geographical features of interest that would be met
with. Describe the varieties of soil and climate that would be
found in the districts traversed in the trip. 3. Suppose two
steamers should leave Montreal, one to take supplies of stores
to lighthouses on all Canadian waters west of Montreal, one to
the lighthouses eastward — mention all the geographical features
that would be passed in their respective routes.

MOUNTAIN

V I

f ¥.

Cajiada Pub. Co., Toronto

CENTRAL

CASTrRN

THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON,

LESSON XXXII.

THE . UNITED STA TES OF AMERICA.

1. Position, Size, and Population.— The

United States of America, one of the most important
political divisions of the Avorld, comprises the whole
middle area of the continent of North America, and, in
addition, the peninsula of Alaska. Its length near the
42nd parallel is 2,800 miles ; its greatest breadth is
1,600 miles; and its area is nearly 3,600,000 square
miles. Its population in 1880 was over 50,000,000 ; or
more than eleven times the population of Canada,

2. Boundaries.

To the reacAer.— Teach the boundaries carefully from the map. The
northern boundary is conterminous with the southern boundary of Canada.
The southern boundary is formed in great part by the Rio Grande.

3. Natural Divisions.— By the Alleghany Moun-
tains in the east, and the Rocky Mountains in the west,
the United States is naturally divided into three great
divisions : — The Eastern Division, or Atlantic Seaboard ;
the Central Division, or the Valley of the Mississippi ;
and the \Vep*?rn Division, or the Western Plateau
Region.

4. Political Subdivisions.— The United States

of America is made up of thirty-eight States, eight
• . (70

organized Territories, two unorganized Territories, one
District, and one Tract of Public Land.

To the Teacher.— the names of the States and Territories should be
memorized from the map. There are many ways of grouping the States and
Territories, but the following will be found simple and useful :—

1. Tub Eastern Division, or Atlantic States, consisting of (1) the New
Englatid fiffitc*— Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, and Connecticut; (2) the Middle Atlantic States— THew York, New
Tersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Slaryland, and Virginia ; (3) the Southern

Atlantic States Sorth Carolina, Soutli Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

2. The Central Division, or Mississippi Valley States, consisting of (1)
the Gulf States— Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas ; (2) the South
Central States —Indian Territory, Arkansas, and Tennessee ; (3) the E( it
Central Stoics— Kentucky, West Virginia, and Ohio; (4) the Central Stateo ■
Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa ; (b)the North Central States— Hichigan,
Wisconsin* Minnesota, and Dakota (Territory); and (6) the West Central
States — Nebraska and Kansas.

3. The Westers Division, or States op the Western Plateau, consisting
of (l)the Mountain States -if ew Mexico (Territory), Colorado, Wyoming (Ter-
ritory), Montana (Territory), and Idaho (Territory) ; (2) the States of the Great
American fi(i«t)i— Nevada, Utah (Territory), and Arizona (Territory) (Note.
Only parts of these States constitute the Basin) ; and (3) the Pacific States
—California, Oregon, and Washington (Territory).

4. Alaska (Territory).
6. District of Columbia.

6; Public Lands (north of Texas, between New Mexico and the Indian
Territory ; usually recognized as part of the Indian Territoiy.)

6. Soil and Climate. — The United states pos-
sesses every variety of soil, and within its borders is
found every variety of vegetation from arctic to tropical ;
and while there are some barren areas, and much moun-
tainous region incapable of cultivation, and also much
swamp, especially in the south and south-east, yet the

.^H.,

THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.

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^uth

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igan,
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proportion of good arable land is very great, and the
Middle Area, or Central Division, comprises a great
deal of the very best agricultural land in the world ; and
in the Eastern and Western Divisions are equally fertile,
though smaller, areas of rich land. Indeed, in the whole
country there is little land that is not naturally productive
•either of agricultural, pastoral, or mineral wealth. The
climate, also, is of every degree from arctic to tropical ;
and though in the south-east, owing to defective sanitary
precautions, yellow fever is sometimes an epidemic, yet
in no extended area of the whole country can the climate
he said to be insalubrious.

6. Occupations of the People and industries.

— By reason of the great variety and richness of the
natural resources of the country — ^woods, agricultural
products, fruits, minerals, fish, — and also of the excellent
means of inter-communication, the United States has
made wonderful development and progress in the mani-
fold varieties of human achievement, and there is
scarcely a branch of agriculture, or of manufacture, or
of mining, or of any other sort of industry, which is not
flourishing in some part or other of the vast area com-
prised within its limits.

7. Facilities for Traiisportation.— No country

is more favored with natural facilities for transportation
than the United States. Besides the great northern
lake system, which it enjoys in common with Canaida, it
possesses the widely ramifying Mississippi River system,
and many other rivers as well. To increase its facilities
it has built 115,000 miles of railway, and, besides, many
miles of canals. Its railway mileage is two-fifths that
of the entire globe.

To the Teacher.— Some of the principal lines of railway should oe traced
-on the map when the remainder of this lesson is finished :— (1) Those of interest
to Canadians— the New Yoric Central, the Erie, and the American divisions of
the Grand Trunl{ ; (2) the more important other jrreat Mnea—e.ff., the Pennsyl-
vania, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the main lines leadinjr westward from
Chicago ; (3) the tliiee great Pacific lines running west from the Missouri.
The canals connecting the Hudson and the Mississippi with the St. Lawrence
lake and river system should also be traced.

8. Government. — The United states is a federal
union of separate States. The government of the United
States, or the National Government, as it is called, con-
sists of three branches — the Executive, the Legislature,
and the Judiciary. The chief of the Executive is the
President, who is elected every four years by the people.
He is assisted by a Cabinet of seven Secretaries appointed

by himself. The Legislature consists of Congress and
the President. Congress is made up of two houses, (1)
the House of Representatives — these elected every two
years by the people directly, 325 in all, one for each
cpngressional district ; (2) the Senate, wliich is made up
of two members for each State, chosen for six years by
the legislatures of the several States. Of the National
Judiciary, the principal court is the Supreme Court of
the United States, consisting of nine judges.

To the Teacher.— The following notes may also be used if thought best ;—
The President, in addition to his power of appointing the members of his
Cabinet, has the appointment of all the Judges of the national Judiciary, and
of all the subordinate officers of the Oovernment ; but all his appointment*
must be approved by the Senate.— A bill, to become law, must pass through
both Houses of Congress and be approved by the President. The President
nmy veto, i.e., forbid, the passing of a bill ; in that case it cannot become law
unless it passes both Houses again, receiving a two-thirds vote in each case.—
When the President is elected, a Vice-President also is elected, who succeeds
to the presidency in case of the death of the President. He has, however, no
important duty during the life of the President— The Supreme Court, besides
being the chief court of the nation, has the duty of forbidding any national
bill from becoming law if it deems it unconstitutional.— The several States
have legislatures (a Oovemor and two Houses), v^xecutives, and Judiciaries,
similar in constitution to the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary of the
United States. An organized Territory possesses a legislature, executive,
and Judiciary, similar to those of a btate, except that its Qov6;nor and Judges
are appointed by the President. The unorganized Territories and the District
of Columbia are governed directly by the National Government. There ore
but two unorganized Territories— Indian Territory and Alaska.

9. People, Religion, and Education.— Of the

people, over one-eighth are " colored," being descendants
for the most part of the negroes who were formerly im-
ported from Africa for slaves. (Slavery was 'abolished
in 1865.) Over 100,000 are Chinese. About 400,000
are Indians. The great mass of the people are either
the descendants of immigrants from Europe, or are recent
immigrants therefrom. The immigration has been prin-
cipally from Great Britain and Ireland, and Germany ;
a large part of it, however, has been from Sweden and
Norway, France, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, Holland,
and Poland. One million are either immigrants, or
the descendants of immigrants, from Canada. All
religious denominations possess equal privileges. Edu-
cation is under the control of the several States.

To the 7'eacAer.— While all the States liberally support education, so that all
public schools, and in some States the high schools, and even i.ae universities,
are perfectly free, yet the people in the eastern, northern, and western
States ".ttach much more importance to it than do those of the more southern
States. In the latter there are very many negroes and " poor whites,"
who are not only indifferent to iducation, but also are unable to avail
themselves of the assistance wliich the State governments offer them to
enable them to obtain it. So that while the people of the northern and
eastern States are among the most enlightened of the world, and those of the
western States scarcely less so, the people of the southern States, with the
exception of the wealthy, are among the most ignorant.

76 -

THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA-EASTERN DIVISION.

THE EASTERX DIVISION.

1. Subdivisions and Physical Features.

To the '/Vrto/icr. -The sulHlivlsioiisaii Ntatt'd al)ovo blmuld bo thoroughly
iMriiL'd (rem tho iiiup. The following notes resiK'itiiij,' tlio I'hjHicul t'caturus
iiiuy lio UHc<l in t'oiiver<iation :— Tho wostem border of tho diviHion is iiiuiiily
formed by tho Appalachian Chain, which extends from Maine to <ieorKi;>i but
under various names; c.,'/., in Now Hampshire as the White Mountains; lii
Vermont as tho (iruen Mountains; in Massachusetts as tho Iloosac Moun-
tains; in New York as tho Ailirondacks (in reality a distinct Kroup)and iho
CatskiU Mountains; in I'ennsylvania and Virginia as thu Alleghany Moun-
tains ; and in Kentucky and Tennessee as the Cumberland Mountains. Be-
sides tho main ridge, there aro several parallel riil;,'es, especially in IVtinsyl-
vania and Vir^^inia ; the most important ol these is that which is ktiown in
Virginia as tho Blue Ri<lge, in North Caro
Una as the Glack Mountains, and inTenne^sco
M tho Smoky Mountains. The Appalachians
attain their greatest heights towards their
extremities ; e.g., JFount Washington, in New
Ilampsliire, is a cone whose snow-capped
summit (0,288 feet) is generally concealed by
clouds ; Mount Marcy, in New York, ono of
the Adirondacks, is 5,407 feet high; and
Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, is 0,707
feet high. In northern Georgia and Alabama
the range terminates somewhat tumultuously,
giving a very rough surface to those districts.
— The whole coast-line, except at the north,
is low,— for the most part sandy, but in the
middle States, and in those farther south,
marshy,— the land sloping oft gradually into
the ocean. This low coast-lino is bordered
by many islands, consisting either of sand
washed up by the sea, or of alluvium de-
posited at the mouths of rivers. There are,
in conseciuence, few good harbors, though
enough for commerce. The northern coast-
line, especially in Maine, is of quite a different
character, being rocky, abounding in harbors,
and edged with rocky islands.— The surface
of the country, from the sea to the mountain-
border, is gener-illy plain, though, of course,
in the neighborhood of the mountains it be-
gins to roll and becomes hilly. — The rivers
are comparatively short, though those of the
middle and southern Atlantic States are
navigable for considerable distances. In New

York there is a break in the mountain chain, and through this break descends
the Hudson River, the most important river of the division. The other im-
portant rivers are the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac (these also flowing
through breaks in the mountain chain), and the Connecticut, James, Roanoke,
and Savannah. A few of the remaining rivers may be learned from the map.
At the mouths of some of the rivers aie ocean inlets, or estuaries. Some of
these are of commercial importance, and should be learned; e.g., Delaware
Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Albemarle Sound. Long Island Sound is almost a
salt-water lake. —Long Island, and Aquidneck or Rhode Island, are the only
important islands. To the south of Massachusetts are some low-lying islands
and "shoals," very dangerous to navigation ; and off the south of Florida
are others even more dangerous, known as "keys."— Cape Cod and Cape
Hatteras arc the important capes.

2. Soil and Climate.

To the Teacher. -Vaa the following notes in conversation, constantly
referring to the map.

The soil in the more northern States of the division is not
good — in Maine, especially, the surface is rugged and the soil
poor, and agriculture but little followed. In New Hampshire

and Vermont much of the surface is mountainous; hence there-
ia little arable land, but pastunige is rich and abundant. la
Ma8sachu.setts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, only tlie river
valleys are fertile ; but agriculture is everywhere pursued with.
scientific skill. Now York, while tlie eiistern and northern
portions are rocky, has in its river valleys of the centre and
west some of the must fertile land in the Unicin. Pennsyl-
vania may he similarly described. New Jersey and Delaware,,
and tho eastern part of Maryland, luivo low sundy soils, suitable,
however, for market and fruit farming. Western Maryland and
Virginia have rich agricultural areas ; and the mountain valleys
of tliese States, and of North Carolina, are especially fertile. In

Delawaie and Maryland the swamps
of the coast begin, and these ar^
found at intervals all along the line,
till in Florida they are almost con-
tinuous. However, the wide plain,
between the coast and the mountains
in the south Atlantic States is well
suited to the agriculture of a southern
climate. — The climate of the division
varies from a mild sub-arctic in north-
ern Maine to a decided tropical cli-
mate in Florida. Throughout it is
less subject to extremes, and less
subject to sudden variations, tlian
that of corresponding regions in the
Mississippi Valley. This is owing to
the influence of the ocean, and to the
protection afforded by the mountain
ranges. Rainfall is everywhere abun-
dant, but not excessive. Snow falls
throughout the whole division, but in
gradually lessening quantities from
Maine to Florida. The south-eastern
coast is unhealthy, by reason of its
swamps and excessive moisture ; the-
corresponding inland sections, how-
ever, are quite healthful. — The vege-
tation of the more northern States corresponds to that of Ontaria
a,nd eastern Canada. Such fruits as the grape and the peach ripen
to the greatest perfection in New Jersey and Delaware, but the-
grape is cultivated for the making of wine in all the southerly
States. Wheat is cultivated in all the States except Florida, but-
in the southerly States only on the highlands. Tobacco, though
it matures most perfectly in North Carolina and Virginia, grows
in all the States as far north as Connecticut. Rice grows in low
districts of the south-eastern States, and cotton everywhere in
these States, except on the highlands. The islands of the south-
ern coast mature the famous sea-island cotton. Florida, while
especially famous for its oranges and bananas, prod' 'jes pine-
apples, figs, lemons, guavas, pomegranates, olives, and cocoanuts.
— Of forest woods there is also a similar gradation. The ordinary
northern woods are found as far south as Virginia. The Caro-
linas are famous for their "pitch pine," and "live oak," each
of great value for ship-building ; while in Georgia and Florida.

■\

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA— EASTERN DIVISION.

are found ii profusion the magnolia, palmetto, und cypress ;
«nd in Florida the mahogany and lignum-vitw.

3. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— Every variety of liuinan industry is pursued in this
■division, "which comprises the oldest and most densely
settled States of the Union. Generally speaking, how-
■ever, the States as far south as Pennsylvania are more
■engaged in manufacturing than in other pursuits — tlie
remainder more in the various branches of agri-
culture suited to their respective soils and climates.
All the cities of the coast are engaged in com-
merce, but the commerce of the cities of the more
northerly States exceeds that of all the rest of
the Union.

To the Teacher. — The following may be given in addition:—
Maine, and especially central Pennsylvania, are tlie seats of a great
'iuni))er industry, as are also northern New York and the CaroUoas
and Georgia. New Ilanipshire and Vermont are grazing States. All
the New England States, but especially Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
and Connecticut, are engaged in manufactures. In the nianii-
facture of wooden wares, of cottons and woollens, boots auU
shoes, and of small hardware,
these States are not surpassed
by any conmiunities in the
world. New York ond Now
Jersey also have manufactures
•of every sort. Pennsylvania
has the richest coal mines, both
anthracite and bituminous, in
the Union, and al?o exceed'
ingly rich iron mines; and in
the production of these min-
erals, and the consequent
'manufacture of iron and steel,
it exceeds every other State.
Its production of petroleum,
also, is the largest in the worKI,
and the main source of the su|>-
ply. Long Island, New Jersey,
-and Delaware, are largely given
■up to fruit farming and the
tikising of garden produce
Maryland, and especially Vir-
rginia, and the highlands of North Carolina, are the great scenes of tobacco
culture. Cotton is grown in all the States from Virginia southward,
more especially in South Carolina and Georgia. South Carolina ia the
principal rice-growing State, but this plant is also largely cultivated in
'Georgia. The two most southerly States produce sugar, but in small quan-
tities as yet. Florida is every year being more and more devoted to the
culture of oranges and bananas.— The fisheries of this division are very
important, and include the whale fishing and cod fishing of the fishermen of
Maine and Massachusetts, the fisheries of Long Island Sound, and the im-
'mensely valuable oyster fisheries of Chesapeake Bay.

4. Chief Cities.

To the Teacher. — Teach from the map the name and situation of the
capital of each State. Rhode Island has two capitals. (The populations in the
-following lists are from the Census of 1S80.)

New York (1,206,299) is the commercial metropolis of the
State of New York and of the whole Union, the chief city of

SUUAU CAKK.

the continent, and one of the great cities of the world. In-
cluding BiiDOKLVN (.'560,0(1.1), Jeksky City (120,722), Hobokkn
(.30,999), and its many other suburbs, the population of New
York is over 2,000,000, and in this respect it is exceeded only
by London and Paris. In commerce it is also the third city in
the world — London and Liverpool alone surpassing it. In
addition to its immense foreign and domestic trade, it has an
enormous number of manufactures, and it is the great money
market and the second grain market of the nation. Its impor-
tance in the national life can hardly be over-estimated ; it is the

centre of influence, ita
daily journals and other
publications being more
widelyread and circulated
than those of any other
city. Ita public buildings,
parks, monuments, mu-
seums, libraries, etc., are
all befltting themctropoliB
of a great nation.

Philadelphia (847,-
170) is a gi'eat manufac-
turing city ; but its com-
merce, both foreign and
domestic, by land and sea,
is very important. It is
one of the best built and
most regularly laid out
cities in the Union. In ita
museums and parks, and
every sort of public insti-
tution, it is not inferior
to New York.

Boston (362,839) is the
metropolis of New Eng-
land, and the great rival
of New York in every-
thing connected with
literature, science, art,
education, and social pro-
gresfi. It has a large
At Cambridge, near by, is

foreign trade and much shipping,
the famous Harvard College.

Baltimore (332,313) is a great cotton, flour, and fruit market,
the chief centre of the oyster trade, and the leading port in
North America for the importation from South America of
coffee and guano. Its trade with Europe is also very great. It
is the seat of Johns Hopkins University, one of the most impor-
tant educational institutions on the continent.

Washington (147,293), in the District of Columbia, is the
national capital. Among its more important public buildings
are : — The Capitol (the largest edifice on the continent), the
Treasury Building, the "White House" (Ihe residen'ce of the
President), the General Post Office (built of white marble), the
War and Navy Departments, and the Patent Office ; also the

THE UNITED STATES OP AMEllICA-CENTRAL DIVISION.

Smithsonian Institution, and the Corcoran Oallery. Near by
aro the United States Arsenal and Navy Yard. The city is
regularly laid out and licautifully built.

PiTTsnuHu, Pa., (15»},380) with its suburb Allegheny (78,-
682), for its inanufaoturos of iron and glass, ranks first in the
Union. It is also the chief point for the distribution of coal.

BuFKALO, N.Y., (1.5r),l.'}4) has a large grain trade with the
west ; and it and both Albany (90,758) and RoOHKSTKB(89,,'Ja6)
have a large trade with Canada in grain and lumber. Tkoy
(66,747), Syrao0.sk (51,792), and Osweoo (21,I1«), also in New
York, are noted manufacturing towns. Syracuse produces one-
third of the salt used in the United States.

Newark, N.J. (136,508), Pkovidence, R.I. (104,857), New
Haven, Conn. (62,882), Lowell, Mass. (59,475), Worce.ster,
Mass. (58,291), Paterson, N.J. (51,031), Fall Biveb, Mass.
(48,901), ScRANTON, Po. (45,850), Wilmington, Del. (42,478),
Hartford, Conn. (42,015), Camukn.N.J. (41,059), Springfield,
Mass. (33,-340), and Manchester, N.H. (32,630), are all noted
for their manufactures — Providence, especially for silverware,
tools, and lacings ; Lowell, for cottons and woollens ; Worces-
ter, for boots and shoes and wire ; Paterson, for silks ; and Fall
River and Manchester, for cottons. At New Haven is the cele-
brated Yale College.

Portland, Maine (33,810), ia the eastern terminus of the
Grand Trunk Railway of Canada.

Richmond, Va. (63,600), and Atlanta, Ga. (37,409), are the
great centres of the tobacco industry.

Charleston, S.C. (49,984), Savannah, Ga. (30,709), Norfolk,
Va. (21,966), and Wilmington, N.C. (17,350), are seaport towns,
exporting especially cotton, rice, lumber, and sweet potatoes.
Wilmington exports turpentine.

St. Augustine, Fla., (2,293) is the oldest town of the conti-
nent. It is a favorite health resort.

THE CENTRAL DIVISION.

1. Subdivisions and Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— the States and Territories as given above should be
thoroughly learned from the map. The following notes respecting the
Physical Features may be used in conversation :— The Mississippi and its two
principal aflluents, the Ohio and the Missouri, are the most noteworthy
features of the division. The courses of these rivers, and of tlieir tributaries,
indicate the general slope of the country, which on the whole is very slight
and gentle, and in consequence, these three main rivers, and many others of
the division, are navigable almost to their sources. • ; -a eastern and western
borders of the division being formed by mount .ii s, there is naturally a
plateau region on either side, next within these borders ; that on the east is
more broken than that on the west. But the courses of the larger rivers are,
In the main, through rich alluvial "bottom" lands; these are bordered by
bluffs, beyond whicli, on either hand, level prairies stretch away to the hill
regions. Tlie whole southern portion of the division, however, is of very low
altitude, and tlie lower course of the Mississippi is for a long distance on the
same level with, or somewhat above, the neighboring country; so that
throughout tlie States of Jlississippi a. id Louisiana, to prevent inundation in
times of flood, artificial banlts, or levees, have been built.— Though the
eastern plateau region is much brolsen by hills, there are claowhcre but few
interruptions of the general prairie-lilie surface of the country, except the
Ozar]( Moiuitains in Missouri, and the several heights of land in the nortli
which separate the valley of the Jlississippi from the two great lalte systems
of Canada. The Blacit Hills of Dalcota, and the hills of western Texas, are

parts of the Uoclcy Mountain lyntvni.— The courses of the three great rivers.
iiaiiitHl above, and of their principal tributaries (which together form the
greatest river-sygteiit of the world), and alitu of the prlnui|iul minor Quit
rivers, should be carefully tracetl on the map. It should bo noticed that at
Chicago, Toledo, Cleveland, and Ilochester, the great central river system ol
the continent Is connected by canals with the great nortli-uastern lake system.

2. Soil. — As regarda soil, extreme fertility is th&
prevailing characteristic of this immense area.

To the Teacher. — The infertile localities are : — Northern
Michigan and W^isconsin, the more broken parts of the eastern
plateau region, and the district of the Ozark Mountains (all of
which, however, are highly productive of mineral wealth);
uorth-eaatern Dakota, which is alkaline and saline like some
parts of Assiniboia and Manitoba ; the "Bad Lands " of south-
western Dakota; western Nebraska and Kansas, which seem
to be unproductive for lack of rain ; the " Staked Plain " of
north-western Texas, destitute of both grass and water, bearing
only the branchless yucca, which gives it its name ; mountainous
south-western Texas ; and the sandy or swampy regions of the
Gulf coast.

3. CHmate. — Of the climate of the Central Division
there are the same gradations as in the Eastern Division;,
but, O.I the whole, this division is more subject to ex-
tremes of heat and cold, and to sudden changes of tem-
perature, than the mountain-protected eastern coast-

To the Teacher.— The same gradation also of vegetable production obtains,
but with this peculiari'^y-. 'hat a great portion of all the central States ot this-
division is naturally ireeless ; trees, however, grow with great luxuriance when
artificially planted and protected, and arboriculture is every year more and.
more attended to. The north, east, and south of the division is either natur-
ally wooded, or has been but recently cleared of its forests. The ordinary
northern trees are found throughout the whole of this forest district — pine,
oak, and hickory, flourishing abundantly even in Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana. But the trees of the south are ordinarily much more luxuriant
and beautiful than those of the central or northern States, and the catalpa
and magnolia, and many other beautiful varieties, are abundant. Spanish
moss, used by upholsterers, and the "brake cane," a sort of reed, used for
making paper, are also found every^vhere in the Gulf States. The more
northern States of the division produce plentifully the same grains as Ontario-
—wheat, oats, barley, rye, and buckwheat— and these ore grown largely in
all the States of the division, but (with the exception of oats) in very small
quantities in Mississippi and Louisiana. Corn, however, I's the principaL

THE UNITKD 8TATKS OF AMKRICA— CKNTUAL DIVISION.

7»

oerfal In all the Statei, except the (our moat nortliorl>'. Kcntucliy in tho
f roat tuboooo-growinK State of tho I'liion ; and Ohio, ToniiusHov, uti<l MUaouri
are t'ii((a((e<i largely in the wtiiiu imliiNtry. All tho ^-ulf Htatm ami ArkuiiMus
and Tvnneuee produce imnioMHO qimtititioa of cotton. LotiUlana i'\ceedii all
the othiT States of the divUlon In the pnxluction of rliv ; and In tho produi'-
tlon of HiiKnr and niuloigeg, which are umonir its chii'f product*, it U almoHt
alone. Rice, howovrr, ii grown in both Mlrahiilppi und Alabama.— In fruit*
there isi again the same grailittion in this diviNlon aa in the Atlantic States.
In Ohio, aiul Honio of the central States, tho grupo U largely cultivated for tho
production of wine. In the Qulf States the orange, pomegranate, and llg, are
everywhere found.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— The occupations of tho people are the tlifrerciit agricul-
tural, pastoral, commercial, mauufacturiug, and mining
industries which the varied resources of soil and climate
supply. But manufacturing is much less general than
in the Atlantic States, and the manufactures much less
varied ; and, as in tho
Eastern Division, the
northern, and more
especially the middle
States of the division,
are much more largely
engaged in manufac-
tures than those to-
ward the south ; so in-
deed are those to the
east more than those to
the west.

To the Teacher.— The fol-
lowing notes may be used :—
Agriculture is pursued wherever
it is possible. Corn Is the prin-
cipal cereal product, and is
raised in every State in the
division, but in the prairie
States, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
Missouri, and Kansas, in im-
mense quantities. Wheat is als a
very lar^'ely grown l:\ these
States, and in all others except

ihose of the extreme south. PICKING COTTON

Stock-raising is pursued every-
where, especially in the plateau regions of the east and west ; Kentucky
being especially celebrated for its fine breed of horses; Texas for its im-
mense herds of cattle. Wool is a principal product in Ohio, and in all the
eastern States of the division. Fruit-growing is pursued for profit every-
where—the grape and the peach being the fruits most cultivated. The
manufacture of wine is an important industry in Ohio.— The production
of lumber is still enormous, especially in the north, east, and south;
Michigan is, however, the principal scene of the industry, manufacturing,
as it does, about one-fourth of the whole amount used in the United States.
— Ohio and Illinois ore the States most largely engaged in manufacturing ;
Michigan, Missouri, and Indiana, next. All these States pro<luce iron
largely— Ohio being the second State of t'.ie Union in tho amount of its
production ; and they all, with the exception of Michigan, produce coal
largely. Coal is found in all the States of the division, except three to the
north-west — Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Dakota; and two at the south-
Mississippi and Louisiana; and this is very important, both •'a affecting

manufacture, and linoe, on account of tho general treeleii character of th*
prairies, coal is necoHsary for fuel.- The manuructures, except in tho Iron
protlucing dUtriots, are in addition to tools an 1 implemrnts for agriculture,
princl)ially concerned with the ronvoniion of the natural pro<luctii of the
Hull into articles of food ; e.</., canned and packed incuts, flour and cornmeal,
luid priwcrvrMl fruits. Itcaldus tho mining of coul and Iron them are mary
other mineral industries. The cop|)er mines of northern Michigan are
suiivriortoall others in tho Union, and aro bcarcely surpoased any where. Thi
loud mines in the neighborhood of Uuluna and Dubuque, on tho MiHsisHlppi,
r.re of wcjvM-wlde fame. I'etrol uin U foinid plentifully in Ohio; and in

Michigan are some of t'.io moat
productive salt wells on the
continent. In Uio Illack Hilla
in Dakota much gold is mined.
- Tho flshericH of tho north-eoat
lakes are Imirartant, and re-
Heniblo those of Ontario.- -Tho
Mississippi River system and
the Great Lakes being natural
waterways, tho shipping cf this
division is very im))ortant. i^ke
and river freight is now trans-
ported mainly by means of
barges drawn by steam vessels.

5. Chief Cities.

To the Teacl er.- Teach from
the map the name and position
of the capital of each Stat« and
Territory.

Chicago (503,185) is
the third city in the Union
in respect of population,
but the second in commer-
cial importance. Its situa-
tion at the head of a great
water system leading to
theocean, and at thecentre
of an immense railway
system ramifying through
one of the most fertile
areas on the globe, makes
it unrivalled as a grain
market — in the Union, if
not in the world. Its lum-
ber trade is also enor-
mous, and its manufac-
tures are very numerous. The growth of Chicago has been
marvellously rapid : in 1831 but a dozen families lived in the
area now occupied by the whole city.

St. Louis (.350,518) is scarcely second to Chicago as a railway
centre, and its situation near the confluence of the Missouri and
tlie Mississippi gives it great facilities for transacting business
with the whole Mississippi Valley, It is also the third manu-
facturing city in the Union, and the first in the manufacture of
flour. St. Louis is noted for its public parks and its beautiful
" Botanical Gardens." The Mississippi is crossed at this jioint
by an immense railway bridge; it is also bridged at several
other places, but this is the lowest point.

CiNXiNNATi (255,139) is also a great railway centre, and for

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA— WESTERN DIVISION.

river Rhipping it is unsurpassed. It i manufautures are counected
inainly wl ;h preparation for sale of nie.<,ts, breadatuffa, and fruits.

New Orleans (216,090) is tlie natural ceutre of commerce
for the Mississippi Valley, but ag yet it is not a great railway
centre. It is t!i3 chief cotton market in tlie Union, onc-thi' ^
ot tne cotton raised in t!ie United States l)eing sliipped from its
port. It also exports sugar and imports totfee, largely.

CtEVELAyD (100, 146),rETROiT(llC,;}40),and Toledo (.^.0. 137),
are all railwa,-' centres and iv.ip^rtar ' shipping points, having
man^' manufactures and a very large lake trade, and consider-
able trade with Canada. From Cleveland much of the coal used
in Western Ontario is
imported.

Louisville, Xy.
(123,758), is the great
centre of the tobacco
export trade, Kentucky
produc<ju^nuch more
than^^^^of all the
tobacnjj^lKd in the
Union. K"as!sville,
Tenn. (43,330), Mk cot-
ton and tobacco mar-
ket; Mjimphis (33,o92)
is also D. cottou market.
Mobile, Ala. (29,132),
is the third cotton
market c* the Union.
ViCKSBDBO, Miss. (11,-
814), is also in impor-
tant cotton market.
Galveston, Tex. (22,-
"j), the commercial
metropolis of the south -
west, exports hides,
'ott'On, and grain.

iNmANAPOLIS (75,-
066) io a great railway
centre, and a very im-
port«nt manufacturing
place. Kansas Cirv,
Mo. (65,7S6), St.

Joseph, ''.lo. (32,431), and IjEaven worth, Kan. (16,546), are
the moat important places in the central south-west. W^heelino,
W. Va. (30,737), is a rapidly growing manufacturing town.
Omaha, Neb. (30,513), and Da\ *:vport, la. (24,831), are impor-
tant railway and commercial centres.

liTiL VAUKEE (1 15,5S7), as a gsncril produce market, is second
only to Chicago. Minneapov i (40,887) is noted for its manu-
facture of flour and lumbei St. Paul (41, t73) is at the heid
of navigation on the Mississippi.

Ghanr Rapids (32,016), Bay City (20,69c), EAsrSAaiNA>v
(19,016), Saginaw (10,.';25), and Ann Arbob (8,061), are impor-
tant ijowns in Michigai. Bay City and hhe Saginu," j are
erpecially famous for their immense production of salt and lum-
ber •. Ann Arbor for its fine university.

CANYON OF C0I.0KAU0.

THE WESTERN DIVISION.

1. Subdivisions and Physical Features.

To the TeachcA -Tho Stawst and Territories as given aljove should be
thoroughly learned Irom the map. Respecting the Pliysical Features the
following notes may be used :— Tlio whole region is an elevated plateau, much
broken by higher elevations forming mountain ranges, and in places inter-
sected by larga rivers, which usually have furrowed out for themselves very
deep channels. The principal range is the E'jcky Mountains; the Sierra
Nevada, and the Coast and Cascade Mo^ntai'iS (these latter forming one
range), are scarcely Inferior in height. Betwren these -nain ianges are many
otlier parallel ranges aiil some oroi-s i-anj-'os.— In the division there arc four

principal depressions, each
with a river system of its
cv.ii. In the no;-thermnost
depression is the Columbia
Iliver(w)th its main affluent,
the Sr.ake), a rapid stream,
navif.able, however, tor con-
sider.'ible strutuhcs. In the
southernmost depression is
the Colorado, also very
rapid, but navigable for
some hundred? of miles from
its mouth. In north-western
Arizona this river plougtis
its way through an inter-
vening plateau 6,000 or 7,000
feet above the sea, forming
for itself a channel with
vertical walls of rock 3,000
to 6,000 feet high. This
chauncl, known as the
"Great Canyo" of the Colo-
rp,do." is but one of many
such !ound in this western
pla'ean region, although
nona other is so larye or
woi it rtul as this. A third
li-jp: -tii-.-.n is the fertile
valley .a California between
the Sierra Nevadc and the
k, oast Range, t' raii'dd by the
Sivramento ai. d San Joaquin
(wah-keen') Rivers. The
fo<irth depression is entirely
interior, and is known a., the
"Great American Basin."
It consists of western Uttl.,
nearly ail Nevada, anu a siiiall part of Arizona. This is a treeless, arid waste,
diversified, however, by some mountain ranges and some large riverj ; but
the rivers do not find th Jr way to tho sea ; they lose themselves in tlio sand,
or in "sinks," or saline lakes. The 'lumboldt is tho largest of those rivers,
and Great Suit Lake the largest of the lakes.— In the tipnor part of the
valley of the ilcrccd, a tributary of tho San joaquin, is the famoue Yosemite
(yo-sem'-i-te) Valley, reserved for nil time as a public park. The north-west
cornerof Wyoming is also reserved ag a "National Park," and la fcmous for
its wonderful geysers, ami for its beautiful mountain and canyon scen^rry.

2. Soil. — The soil in those valleys which are not
oauyous i^- evt>rywh»M'e of groat fertility. The mountain
ranges abound in every kind of mineral wealtli, and
their sides are gonerully cover ;d witli forests of lir and
pin". The interior and southernmost depressions, how-

MEXICO.

the Colo-

of many
western

although

large or
A third
fertile
between
iind the

dd by the
Joaquin

rs. The
entirely

wn a^ the
Basin."
rn Utr-.,

id waste,
erj ; but

b'.io sand,
se rivers,
t of the
Ifoseraite
irth-wost
mou8 for
i-ry.

re not
untain
|i, and
|ir and
how-

ever, liave little land fit for agriculture — and none so 1
without irrigation.

3. Climate. — The climate has the same gradations
as in the other divisions, but is much more equable.

Tii the Teacher. — On the western coast the winters are much shorter and
milder than in corresponding regions eastward (winter being a season of
rain rather than of snow), and the heat of summer is made bearable by
the dryness of the atmosphere, the sea breezes, and cool nights. Throughout
the whole division the snowfall is but small, except on the mountains, and
In summer the rainfall, especially in the centre and south, is so sl'ght that
irrigation is everywhere necessary to make agriculture remunerative.— South-
ern California with its gentle, equable climate, and the high altitudes of
Colorado, are much resorted to by invalids from the East suffering from
pxdnionary affections.

4. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— INIiniiig, agr"julture, fruit-farming, stock-raising, and
wool-growing, are the principal occupations of the people.

To the Teacher. — The whole country is new and sparsely
settled as yet, but California is au'eauy one of the best States
for agriculture in the Union, and in the production of wheat
ranks seventh of the States, and in barley first. Grape culture,
for the manufacture of wine, in an import.*^ nt industry in this
State, and is somewhat followed :n all the others. Raisins,
prunes, figs, oranges, lemons, olives, citrons, pomegranates,
almonds, walnuts, and other fruits and nuts, are grown in
southern California and exported. TWe culture of the tea plant,
the coffee plant, and the silk worm, <ire also pursued there.
Timber is everywhere abundant, especially on the slopes of the
mountains, but hard woods are rare. In central and southern
California are found, though in small numbers, the celebrated
•'big trees," some of the.n over 100 feet in circumference, and
over 400 feet high, computed to be nearly 2,000 years old. —
In New Mexico and Ar:„ona immense tracts of land are devoted
to wool -growing and stock-raising ; and so fitted are those coun-
tries for these industries that vast flocks and herds find there
abundant and rich food in the bunch-grass of the plains, and
require neither hand-feeding nor shelter. — But the main industry
of this division has hitherto been mining. The most valuable
metals and minerals are found in every State of the division. In
the production of gold California has excelled every other
country in the Morld, and its annual product is still immense.
The silver mines of Nevada, Colorado, and Utah, are very
rich ; and these States all produce gold as well. Every other
sort of mineral and metal is to be found ; but with the excep-
tion of mercury, of which California produces great quantities,
none other than the " precious metalc " hp ve been largely mined.

5. Chief Cities.

To tht T'cac/icr— Teach from the map the name and position of the capital
of each State and Territory.

San Francisco (233,959) is the commercial metropolis of the
west. Its harbor, which, however, is one of the best and largest
in the world, is, with one exception (San Diego), the only good
one belonging to the United States on the Pacific coast. San
Francisco hat regular steamboat connection with China, Japan,

Australia, Mexico, and Panama. The exports of the city are
gold, silver, mercury, wheat, flour, wine, barley, wool, lumber,
and silk. Its manufactures are very important, but are mainly
for domestic use. At the mint here much of the money used in
the United States has been coined. Oakland (34,555) and
Sacramento (21.420) are other important cities in California.
Los Angeles (los an'-je-l6z) (11,183) is a popular health resort.

Denver (35,029) is the emporium of the mining district of
Colorado, and the seat of a United States mint. Leadvillb
(14,820) is famous for its production of silver, lead, and gold.

Salt Lake City (20,768), Virginia Citt, Nev. (10,917),
Santa Fe' (6,635), and Helena, Mont. (3,624), are the remaining
leading < ''■ies in the mining localities. At Virginia City are the
richest Kil fer mines in the United States, the celebrated Corn-
stock Lode and the Big Bonanza.

Portland, Oregon, (17,577) is the emporium of the north-
west ; its exports are mainly produce and lumber. Walla
Walla (3,588) is the chief place in Washington Territory.

LESSON XXXIII.

MEXICO.

1. Position, Size, and Population. — Mexico

lies between the United States and Central America ;
three-fifths of its territory is within the Torrid Zone.
Its area is about 760,000 square miles. Its population
is about 10,000,000.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— Teach the boundaries from the map ; also the names and
positions of the peninsulas and gulfs. For the most part Mexico consists of an
elevated table-land (from 5,000 to 8,000 feet high), in reality a continuation of
the western plateau of the United States. .Several .iiountain raiigsa rise above
this plateau region —continuations of the Eocky Mountain system. Ilcnce all
the rivers are short, impetu""s, and unnavigable; ami transportation, cast
and west, is exceedingly difficult, being effected principally by .nules ; but on
the plateaus, between the mountain ranges, the roads are comparatively level.
The entire coast of Mexico is low. Upon the west the mountains descend
abruptly, and leave but a narrow shore-margin ; the harborage, however, i«
good and abundant. Towards the Gulf side the mountains descend in it
series of terraces, and leave a wider margin, but the coast is low and edged
w'.th drift-islands thrown up by the ocean currents which Eweep round the
shores of the Gulf , hence good harborage on that side is entirely lacking.—
Across the country from east to west, a little fouth of the capital, is a
narrow belt in which the mountains are all of volcanic origin— many of them
still active volcanoes.

3. Climate, Soil, Vegetation, and Animal

Life — These all vary with the elevation above the sea-
level. Near tlie coast the air is humid, tlie vegetation
ronk, and the climate unhealthy. Away from the shore,
on the lower table-lands, the climate is temperate^ and
the vegetation similar to tliat of the southern or middle
American States. On the higher table-lands the air is

MEXICO.

dry, rain is scarce, the soil is infertile for lack of watei-,
or can be made productive only by irrigation, and vege-
tation is stunted or altogether absent.

To the Teacher.— The following notes may be u^<id in addition :— Generally
fipeakipur, there are two seasons, the "dry" and the " 'ainy," the latter lasting
from May to October. In the south the coasts are re,"r.i8 of exessive rain ;

GATHERING INDIA-RUBBER.

on the highlands the rain is not excessive even in the wet season. In the
north, and especially in the north-west, the dry season is prolonged, and the
total annual rainfall is but scant. — The Mexicans divide their country into
"Hot Lands," "Tomperate Lands," and "Cold Lands," these distinctions
depending almost entirely upon the elevation above the sea-level. Owing to
the rapid decomposition of the rank vegetation and abundant shell-fish of the
"Hot Lands," these are extremely unhealthy to any but natives; but the
plains of moderate elevation in the interior enjoy a delicious climate, and a
luxuriant and innoxious vegetation. The lowlands are remarkable for rich
cabinet woods— mahogany, ebony, rosewood, etc.— and, besides, for the
rubber tree. They abound also in giant palms and ferns, < iid in woods which
are valuable as dye-stuffs or dr-gs. The banana and plantain (upon which
the inhabitants of the lowlands principally live) are here very plentiful, as
well as the manioc, or tapioca plant, and the mangrove ; and Spanish jicpper,
of which the natives are very fond, is widely cultivated. In the rivers of
these regions are found the crocodile and the cayman, and in the lagoons of
the Qulf coast, the sea-cow ; the forests swarm with parrots, liumming-birds,
monkeys, armadillos, sloths, gluttons, ant-caters, and porcupines; and the
t-ipir, jaguar, cougar, ocelot, tiger-cat, and peccary, are also found. In
regions somewhat higher the sugar cane is cultivated ; also the cacao,
chocolate tree, the vanilla plant, the coffee plant, the iixii^'o plant, and the
cotton plant (here a perennial) ; the climate is especially suited to the growth
of these, but their c\iltivatlon is not prosecuted with energy. Hilk-culture,
too, to which the climate is suited, is now also neglected. In the "tem-
perate lands" everywhere are found tlie olive, and grnpe, and the beautiful
evergreen oak. On t'le upper highlands, the maguey, a sort of agave, is
largely cultivated, bc'ng especially valued since from its sap is prepared the
favorite beverage of the Mexicans. Maize is the principal food of the great
mass of the people, '.nd it is grown on all the highlands, as is also tobacco, of
which the Mexicans, male and female alike, arc inordinately fund. Wheat
and barley mature perfectly on the highlands. On the plains !n the interior,
especiilly toward the north, are found great herds of bison, and besides, great
droves of wild horses or "mustangs," and of wild cattle.

4. Occupations of the People. — The peop^

appear to he iiidolem., and reap but sihall advantage froiu
the magnificent resources of tlunr country. Tlie culti-
vation of maize and tobacco, of the maguey and the oJive,
and of the coffee and vanilla plants, are the agricuh-aral
industries which have received juost attention, C»tt««-
grazing and sheep- raising are largely ;i>llowed, and also
mining. Manufacturing is not at aSl general, and is
contin*«d principally to sugar, rum, l>r>i,n6f, and olive oil.

To tlie 'T'iacher.~'\n its producdon of the preolooe mMi^ especialTy «f
silver, Mexicohas long been famous -it has produced more jhw two-flfths ot
the silver produ.ifc of tlic .vori-f The development of the cotM«0' ''»» been
delayed by the ditticulty of securing access from the interior highlands to the
sea; railway constiniction on the table-lands is comparatively vmx, but the
descent to the seaboard can be accomplished only at enormous cobt and as the
result of the utmost engineering skill. The cultivation of the cochineal
insect, valued for the beautiful carmine dye which it yields, is everywhere an,
important industry. It is found on the leaves of a kind of cactus, very abun-
dant in Mexico.

5. People, Religion, Education, and Govern-
ment. -Of the people 5,000,000 are Indians ; 1,000,000
are native whites of Spanish descent; the remainder are
Mestizoes, or people of mixed race. The Spanish lan-
guage is that most used. All religions are tolerated, but
the Roman Catholic is everywhere pre-
valent. Education is but little attended
to except in the cities. The
Government is a federal re-
public very similar to that of
the United States.

To the Teacfwr. ~^]^e aborigines of
Mexico are very differ-
ent from the Korth
American Indians.
When the country was.
conquered by the Span-
iards, in the early part
of the sixteenth cen-
tury, the inhabitant*
had advanced some
way towards civiliza-
tion: they had a sys-
tem of picture-writing,
and some tribes h'\d &
phonetio alphabet;
they had constructed ft
s'lperiorcalendar ; they
were skilled in the
working of metals and
minerals, and had built
large temples, pyra-
mids, bridges, bnd
aqueducts. Their religious rites, however, were hideous and cruel, and their
habits barbaric, Man> extensive remains of the works of this wondertlili
jwople still exist. — Mcjico became independent of the Spanish in 1822.

COFFKK PLANT.

CENTRAL AMERICA. THE WEST INDIES.

6. Ohlef Places.— Mexico (260,000), the capital, is a
handsome walled city, situated at the centre of one of the most
fertile table-lands of the country. It contains the national
palace, mint, and prison; a university, a public library, a
museum, at <1 a very splendid cathedral. It is the terminus of
a railway from the United States, and it is connected by rail
with the seaboard at Vera Cruz
{v&'t& krooss).

Vera Cruz (16,000),
tJtiiough its harbor is very
poor, is the chief seaport. Its
aitoation is unhealthy, but its
itsimngn trade is important,
>MWfriaing nearly all the ex-
port* of the country — silver,
g»>ld, and quicksilver; hides,
cocliineai ■■ugar, indigo, drugs,
uad logwood; and oranges,
pineapples, bananas, and olive
oil. AcAPULCo (a-ca-pool'co)
(5,000) has a fine harbor, but
its trade is small. Its exports
are hides, cedar ♦it'^ber, and fruit.— There are many other
important cities — <:"i very populous.

LESSON XXXIV.

CENTRAL Aui'ERIOA.

1. Position, Population, and Boundaries. —

Central America is the name given to that part of tho
.American isthmus lying between Mexico and Panama
( pjin-a-ma'), occupied by the British Colony of Balize
(ba-leez'), and the five republican States — Guatemab^
(gwji-ta-ma'la), Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua
(nik-ar-ii'-gwii) and Costa Rica (ree'ka). The population
is about 3,000,000.

To the Teacher.— Teiich the boundaries from the map.

2. Physical Features, Climate, and Produc-
tions.

To the 2'eacher.— These are all similar to those of southern Mexico, except
that tho rivers are lartfer, and tlie climate of tlie lowlands even more
unhealthy. Volcanoes are very numerous, and 'jarthquakes have been fre-
quent. The natural resources of Central America— in mine, forest, and plan-
tation—are of tho richest possible sort; but on account of tho continued
instability of the govennnents, and for lack of capital, they have been but
little developed. The mines yield gold, silver, copper, mercury, iron, platinum,
and zinc. In the forests are obtained mahogany, jiboiiy, rosewood, cedar,
caoutiliouc, Brazil-wood, lojfwood, fustio, copal, and Peruvian balsam. As
results of cultivation, coffee, especially, and maize, are t'i-> principal products ;
(, ther products are -cotton, cacao, tobaco, sugar, rice, vuii.Ila, 'ndigo, ipecacu-
anha, sarsaparilla, jilantains, limes, >o>nons, orBiiges, and cocoanuts. Among
'he exports, besides tho products named, aie hides, skins, and cochincai. Tho
"rdln^iry domestic animals thrive well and arc numerous. Among the wild

animals are the deer, peccary, tapir, monkey, opossum, ant-eater, tiger-oa^
and puma ; among the native birds, parrots, macaws, humming birds, ai*
pelicans; and among the reptiles, the alligator and the iguana.— Lake
Nicaragua and the river San Juan are navigable, and it has been proposed, by
cutting a canal from the lake to the Pacific, to utilize these as a highway foi
ships from ocean to ocean.— Central America his suffered very severely from
-earthquakes,— especially in some of its capital cities.

3. People, Religion, and Government.— In

the republics tho people are descendants of the early
Spanish conquerors, Indians, and Mestizoes or people of
mLved race. The Spanish language is that usually spoken,
and the Boman Catholic religion is everywhere preva-
lent. The States are independent of one another — not
federated as in the United States or in Mexico, .Balize,
or British Honduras, is a crown colony; its people are
principally English settlers, and negroes — descendants of
the former slave population.

To the Teacher.— hike the aborigines of Mexico, the Indians of Central
America had made considerable progress towards civilization at the time ci
the Spanish conquest. The remains of their pyramids, temples, grottoes, and
arabesque ornamentations— although but few escaped destruction by the
conquerors, and these have been almost buried under the accumulations of
centuries of luxuriant vegetation— still excite the wonder of the traveller who,
penetrating the jungles, succeeds in discovering them.

Teach frcm the map the positions of Guatemala (56,000), San Salvasob
(40,000), and liAL... (4,000).

The Isthmus of Panama (or Darien) geographically is a part of Central
America, though politically it belongs to Colombia, a republic of Soutb
America. As it is only from 30 to 70 miles broad, many plans have been
proposed lOr making through it a passage for ships from the Pacific to the
Atlantic ; and a ship canal from Panama to Aspinwall, along the Chagres
Iliver, is now in process of construction, under the direction of De Lesseps,
the celebrated French engineer, ^t will be entirely free from locks, and wilJ
have a slight current. It will cost $220,000,000, and is to bo completed in 1890,
A railway also connects Panama and Aspinwall.

LESSON XXXV.

THE WEST INDIES.

1 . Position and Natural Divisions,— The West

Indies is the name usually given to the arcliipelago off
the south of Florida, between the Gulf of Mexico and
the Atlantic Ocean, They form four somewhat distino
groups, generally known as (1) the Greater Antilles (an
teel'), which are the four larger islands, Cuba, Hayti,
.Jamaica, and Puerto (pwerto) Rico ; (2) the Lesser
Antilles ; (3) the Bahama Islands ; and (4) the Leeward
Islands — off ohe South American coast.

To the T«i«A#r.— The use of these names Is variable; the phrase " Leeward

Islands" has been taken by the British Government to denote a diilerent
gro\ip from that off South America.

2. Political Divisions.— Only one of tha islands,
I Hayti, is independent ; the remainder belong principally

to Great Britain, Spain, and France,

•o

•^

THE BRITISH WEST INDIEa

•a

I
a

o
o

THE BRITISH WEST INDIES.

t. Governments and Population.— The Wesb

Indian islands belonging to Great Britain are crow;i
colonies, and, for convenience of government, are dividet'
into several t,roups, viz., (1) Jamaica, (2) the Bahamas,
(3) the Leeward Islands, (4) the Windward Islands, (5)
Barbados, and (6) Trinidad ; to these may be added (7)
the Bermudas, which, however, are not a part of the West
Indian archipelago. The population is about 1,250,000.

2. Jamaica. — Jamaica is the largest of the islands
belonging to Britain. Like that of all the West Indies
its surface is very uneven. Its
climate varies with the eleva-
tion above the sea, and though
sometimes unendurable at the
coast-level, in the higher re-
gions it is always salubrious
and extremely favorable to
those suffering from diseases
of the lungs. Snow never falls;
and there are no frosts, though
frosts sometimesoccurinOuba,
and other of the more north-
erly islands. The productions
are the usual staples of a fer-
tile soil it.i a tropical climate.
To the government of Jamaica
belong Turk Island and Caicos.

KiKGSTON (40,000) is the cipital.

THE PINEAPPUl

To the Teacher.— Th6 soil of Jamaica
IS not so productive as tliat of some of the other islands, but its natural
products nvay be taken as representing (of coursi' with many variations)
those of the West Indies generally. Products of the forests are :— Rosewood,
satinwood, niahogany, lignum-vitas, lanccwood, cedar, and cbon\', among
woods ; the liamboo ; and logwood and fustic, among dyes. Tiio pimentum,
which is veiy common in Jamaica, but peculiar to it, yields a berry
which fumislies our allspice. Products of the piuntation are:— Sugar,
-nolasses, rum, cocoanuts, palm oil, castor oil, and sunflower oil; cacao
^nr chocolate), ginger, arrowroot (of an excellent kind), cinnamon, pine-
apples, orangeii, lemons, limes, the breaJfruit, pomegranates, olives,
tamarinds, the cassava or manioc (tapioca plant), yams maize, rice, the
plautain, the Imnana, and tlic swiet potato- the last three formnig the
principal food of the blacks. The production of joffee, and of tobacco and
cott'-n, thongi these are produced very abundantly in some of tlie West
Iiidlan islands, especially in Cuba and Ilayti, are not leading industries in
Jamaica. Ordin.iry vegotablcs grow on the lillls. The connnon domestic
animals, including the nnilc, thrive well and arc nmncrous. In the sea along
the coast i i found the manatee, or sea-cow ; and in the rivers, the cayman and
thi) crocodile. The highly prized green turtle is exported. The lizaixl iguana
is eaten for food, and so is tli-3 land crab, or to. coise. The scorpion and centlpcdi-
aro found ; and ants, mosquitoea, Jiggers, and sandflies, swarm in the low-
land!. There are many kinds of beautiful flreflics, and many kinds of parro'H.

Jamaica is noted (or the ma^nilfloence and variety ot Ita flowers, among whioh
should be mentioned its aloes ; also the Victoria Jtegia, whose beautiful blos-
soms are more than a foot in diameter. The mineral products of Jamaica are
not numerous or rich, and are principally copper and lead ; but in m<uiy of
the islands ot the archiiielago gold and other metals have been largely mined,
and in some ot the islands, salt, sulphur, and bitumen or mineral pitch, an
now very important productions.

3. The Bahamas. — The Bahamas comprise about
twenty inhabited, and many uninhabited, coral islands.
Their climate is very salubrious. Salt and sponges (be-
sides fruits) are the prinsipal exports.

Nassau (8,000), on New Frovidenoe, a popular health resort,
ia the capital.

4. The Leeward Il^lands.— The Leeward Islands

consist of Antigua (an-ts'-ga)
and Barbuda, Montserrat, St.
Christopher's, Nevis, Anguilla,
Dominica (dom-T-nee'-ka), and
some of the Virgin Islands.

St. John's (9,000), on Antigua,
is the capital. '

5. The Windward

Islands. — The Windward
Islands consist of Grenada and
the Grenadines, St. Yincent,
St. Lucia, and Tobago.

St. George (5,000), on Grenada,
is the capital.

6. Barbados. — Barbados

is one of the most important
of the British West India
islands. It is famous for its
abundant production of sugar.

to Jamaica, is tho
It is famous for 'ts
exten^. of pure

Bridgetown (21,000) ia the capital.

7. Trinidad. —Trinidad, next
largest of the British West Indies,
wonderful asphalt lake, 90 acres
mineral pitch, of which great quantities are cvported.

Port of Spain (32,000), or.o of the finest towns ia the Wast
Indies, ia the capital.

8. The Bermudas,. — The Bermudas are noted for
their salubrious climate, and are much resorted to by
invalids from Canada and the United States, especially
from November to April.

Hamilton (2,000) is the capital.

ExerolBe.— 1. Compare the government of Jamaica with
tliat of Ontario. 2. Trace on the map the route of a steamer
from Montreal to Port of Spain. 3. What is the natuie of the
oommercf between *•'"'» West Indies anil Canada ?

^^gggmfgMgmmglt

Ix)iigltude • Wert

nTHMITB

nvvkWAMi

PBUrCIPAL PRODUCTS

tt,pooa<<r

16,000
10,000'

" !■

t vi

'anaua Pub. Co.. Toronl ;

Grip, PriulBiB and Kugravers, Toroni-

FOREIGN AND INDEPENDENT ISLANDS. SOUTH AMERICA.

FOREIGN AND INDEPENDENT ISLANDS.

1 . Spanish Islands. — The Spanish islands are Cuba
and Puerto Rico. Cuba is by far the largest of all the
West Indian islands, being 650 miles long, and having
an average breadth of 80 niile^ It is over ten times
the size of Jamaica. Its population is about 1,400,000,
of whom nearly 400,000 are slaves, and 60,000 Chinese
coolies. Education is in a very backward state. The
Roman Catholic religion is the only religion tolerated.
The government is the despotic authority of the Governor-
Captain-General. For the production of sugar, tobacco,
and coffee, and for all fine tropical fruits, Cuba has an
unrivalled soil and climate ; its forests consist of useful
palms, and the best and most prized cabinet woods; and
its mineral resources are exceedingly rich; yet, owing to
bad government, agriculture and commerce languish, its
forests are comparatively unbroken and its minerals
Undisturbed. Puerto Rico resembles Cuba in climate
and productions ; but in that island slavery is abolished.
The population of Puerto Rico is about 750,000.

Havana (ha-van'-a) (206,000) is the capital of Cuba. San
Juan (27,000) is the capital of Puerto Rico.

2. Ha3rti. — Hayti is the only independent island,
but it has been the scene of many disastrous political
changes. It consists of two political divisions — the Re-
public of San Domingo, with a population of 300,000 ;
and the Republic of Hayti, with a population of about
100,000. Hayti is probably the most fertile, and the
most favoied with mineral resources, of all the West
Indies ; but the terrible political disorders of the island
have hitherto made prosperity impossible.

San Domingo (20,000) is the capital of San Domingo. Port-
au-Prince (20,000) is the capital of Hayti.

3. French, Danish, Dutch, and Venezuelan
Islands.

To the Teacher.— To the French belong St. nartholomew, Deslradc,
Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, and Martinique, all in the Lessor Antilles ; to
Denmark belonjf St. Thomas, St. John, and Santa Cruz, all near Puerto Uico ;
to the Netherlands belong St. Martin and St. Eustatius in the Lesser Antilles,
and some of the Leeward Islands off South America ; to Venezuela belong the
remaining South American islands.

Teach from the map the positions of the vario\i8 groups of islands, and of
the important soaa and channels adjacent to them ; also the capitals men-
tioned in the text. The import trade of the West Indies is of considerable
value to Cantvda, since they require from us fish, flour, meat, and hunber.

Give to the pupils some account of the Gulf Stream. It is a vast ocean
current which flows out from the Gulf of Jlexico past Florida, and northward
parallel with the shores of the United States to Newfoundland, thence east-
ward to the shores of the British Islands atid Norway. Its waters are
averywhcro warmer than those of the ocean beside it ; hence it lias great
effect in modifying the climate of the countries wliose shores it laves.

LESSON XXXVI.

SOUTH AMERICA.

1. Position, Size, Population, and Bound-
aries. — South America lies for the most part in the
southern half of the Western Hemisphere. It is about
4,800 miles long from north to south, and about 3,200
miles wide. Its area is estimated at 6,800,000 square
miles. Its population is estimated to be about 29,000,000

To the Teacher.— Teach the boundaries from the map.

BOUNDING CAPE HORN.

2. Political Subdivisions.— In South America
are ten separate and independent nationalities, viz. : —
The Empire of Brazil ; and Venezuela, the United States
of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argen-
tine Republic or La Plata, Paraguay, and Uruguay — all
republics. In addition, there are three colonies under
European governments — British Guiana, Dutch Guiana,
and French Guiana.

To the Teacher. -Teach the positions and boundaries of these subdivisions
from the map. The following statistics may be used for the purpose ot
making comparisons :— Ot Brazil the area is 3,219,000 square miles ; the popu-
lation, 10,000,000. Venezuela : area, 600,159 square miles ; population, 2,200,-
000. Colombia : area, 381,420 square miles ; population, 4,CO0,00O. Ecuador:
area, 248,380 square miles ; population, 1,000,(00. Peni : area, 405,040 square
mi'es; population, 2,970,000. Bolivia: area, 481,600 square miles; popula-
tion, 2,325,000. Chili : area, 307,525 square miles ; population, 2,350,000. The
Arijentlne Republic: area, 925,000 square miles; population, 3,000,000.
Paraguay : area, 92,000 square miles ; population, 476,000. Urug\iay : area,
72,112 square miles ; population, 620,000. British Guiana : area, 85,442 square
miles; population, 252,000. Dutch Guiana: area, 4O,CO0 square miles;
population, 70,000. French Guiana : areo, 27,560 square miles ; population,
3;>,0' 0. (Note,— These figures arc only approximately correct ; acc"r"*e infor-
mation in the matter is unattainable.)

SOUTH AMERICA.

3. Physical Features.

To the Teaeher.— Teach tlio Plijgical Features from the nap In a mries of
oonversatioiis. The followliij; notes may be used :— The great iiumiitain
range, known as the Andes, is the prinoipal feature of South America, and
one of the most rtinarliablo on the jjlobe. It extends from the southern
extreniityof thecontinont— Capo Horn— al6ng the entire western side, panilel
with the coast, from 50 to 200 mites inland, to the isthmus of Panama, a
distance of 4,800 miles. In the extreme south the ran-e is only a series of
detached ]>eaks, and throughout its ■'hole portion iteo isistsof but a single
chain ; but towards the north of Chill it begins to div.de, and in Bolivia it
spreads out and forms an immense elevated plateau of rocks. Throughout
Peru there are two chains; in Ecuador these again unite and form the
most wonderful scries of volcanoes In the world, in the midst of which lies the
fertile table-land of Quito. Thenceforward there are three branches- the
westernmost running to the isthmus and so on into North America, the
easternmost terminating alongside the T Jlf of Venezuela. Throughout their
whole length the An.les are of great height
(next to the Himalayas tlie highest moun-
tains in the world), but they are higher in
their central portions tlian elsewhere. Acon-
cagua, in Chili, is said to be the loftiest
peak, and its summit is 23,290 feet above
the sea ; Chimborazo, near Quito,
is 21,4:0 feet high; the volcano
Cotopaxi is 18,8S0 feet high, and
the volcano Antisana is 10,148
feet. There are but few passes
across the Andes, and even those
are all of immense height, and
very dangerous, and only practi-
cable for nmles and llamas. The
Andean range, with its contigu-
ous tr.ble-lands, occupies one-
sixth of the entire surface of the
continent. It divides the conti-
nent into two divisions— that to
the west being a narrow table-
land with precipitous and rough
descents to the sea, and having
oidy short and un navigable
rivers ; that to the east being n
vast plain, for the most part
extremely level, but broken by
a series of parallel mountain
ranges and a plateau region in
eastern Brizil, and by another
series of s*.( rt mountain ranges

and a plate 1 region to the north of Brazil.— A second great physical feature,
scarcely lesc f'onderful than the Andes, is the River Amazon, the largest river
in the world : it has a great number of very large affluents, and principal
and tributary streams alike are navigable for imnien .e distances. The Orinoco,
to the north (connected by a natural canal with the Amazon), and the Parana
(pa-rii-na'), (with its tributary, the Paraguay), at the south, are also great
navigable rivers. The San Francisco, in the east, is, with but one interrup-
tion, navigable for a thousand miles. — The whole coast-line of South America
is but little indented by bays or inlets; and harbors are not plentiful,
especially on the western coast ; southern Chili has numerous bays, but they
are of little value, aa their shores are edged with lofty mountains. — Nor are
the islan '.a numerous — the principal being (in addition to those comprised
within the West Indian archipelago) Marajo, Terra del Fuego (fwi'-go), and
Chiloc (cheel-o-fl'), all adjacent to the coast ; the Falkland Islands, belonging
to Great Britain ; and the Galapagos Islands, belonging to Ecuador. The
shore islands of the south-west are merely volcanic rocks.— There are exceed-
ingly few lakes : Maracaybo (ma-rii-ki'-bo) is a sea-inlet, whose waters, how-
ever, are ouly brackish ;Tlticaca(te-te-ca'-cii), which is about two-thirds the
size of Lake Ontario, is 13,000 feet obo\e the sea ; and though its waters
overflow into a smaller lake, this latter has no outlet.— Between the mainland

and Terra del Fuego is the Strait of Magellan, an intricate and dangerouk
passage 300 miles long, wlicrc the tides rise 60 feet ; hence it is not available
for sailing vessels,— these nmst round Cape Horn.

4. Climate and Soil. — Three-fourtlia of South
America being within tiie torrid zone, and the greater
portion of the remainder being witliin tlie warmer part
of the temperate zone, the climate is necessarily liot ;
but in a great part of tlie continent excessive heat is
prevented by counteractiiif' influences. There are two
seasons — the dry season, and the rainy, the average
length of the latter being from January to May inclu-
sive, but varying greatly in different regions. — In the

mountainous parts there is natur-
ally a great deal of soil unsuited
to agriculture; in other parts the
fertility of the soil depends
upon the rainfall, being,
as a rule, greatest where
that is greatest; how-
ever, a great proportion
of the whole continent
is extremely fertile.

To the Teacher.— in the An-
dean region, from about the 30th
parallel of latitude to the north-
ern boundary of Peru, while on
the eastern side of the mountains
the rainfall is fairly fibundant, to
the west, beyond the mountains,
but little or no rain falls ; b^nce
tlie whole of maritime Peru and
northern Chili is ari^ and sterile.
Rocky south-western Bolivia is
also unproductive. South of the
30th parallel, while rain is abun-
dant on the wsstcrn side of the
mountains, it is scant, or absent,
to the e ast beyo nd the mountains ;
hence the soil of western La IMata is arid and unproductive. 'But the valleys and
slopes of the Andes (especially those on the eastern side north of the 30th
parallel, and those on the western side south of that parallel) are regions of
great fertility, supporting abundantly the vegetation of their respective
climates; and, as in aU mountainous countries, these climates vary with the
height above the sea-level. In Colombia and Ecuador, where the rainfall is
excessive, the coast regions are hot and unhealthy, vegetation rank, the soil
marshy, and pestilential insects incredibly abundant; the conesponding
districts of Peru and northern Chili being ra' 'less, are, as has been said, arid
deserts. But higher up the slope the climate ih at first subtropical, and then
most agfreeably temperate, and finally, in the region of the snow-clad moun-
tain-tops, completely art'tic. Some of the Andean plateaus— for example, that
of Quito— are regions of perpetual spring,- a little rain falling every day,
tlie temperature remaining delightful.— In the great plain of the eastern
division, the basin of the Amazon is visited by constant rains, the soil is of
great fertility, and the whole basin is covered with dense luxuriant forests,
called SUbc':, These forests, and the prevailing east winds which sweep up
the Amazon and its iniinense tributaries— the courses of which nearly all lie
exposed to tlieir direction— and the presence of vast bodies of water, are such
modifying infiuences, that the climate of the Amazon region, though itllet

SOUTH AMERICA.

8»

•ufficiently abundant vix months of the year, and not completely absent at
other times ; but in La I'lata, especially in its middle area, the dry season
is completely destitute of rain, and ia somewhat prolonged. Hero are
the Pampas, immense level, treeless, stoneiess plains, naturally fertile,
and in the rainy season olotliod with coarse but nutritious gfrosK, and tall
artichokes; but in the rainless season completely losing their vegetation,
and presenting the appearance of useless deserts. Southern La Plata, or
Patagonia, again, is an arid, sterile region, its soil being for the most part
coarse sand and gravel ; and Terra del Fuego is the " Land of Desolation ;" its
climate is most wretched— mist, and rain and snow in long-continued storms,
being its otily phases. —North of tlie basin of the Amazon the coast regions are
well supplied with rain all the year round, and the soil is productive and the
surface naturally wooded with the finest trop'.cal trees; but in the basin of the
Orinoco there are vast level plains
called Llanos, similar to the Pampas,
inhere the seasons ore either very rainy
or completely rainless. Di'ring tlie
rainy season these plains are covered
with a most beautiful soft and nu-
tritious herbage; but in the rainless
seasons they become baked by tho sun ,
and all vegetation entirely disappears
from them. These Llanos,
or "Steppes of Caracas,''
08 they are sometimes
called , are the hottest parts
of South America.

5. Vegetation.

— The vegetation of
South America is of
great variety, and
for the most part
exceedingly luxuri-
ant. In tho tropical
Andean regions it
ranges, according to
the elevation, from
the richest and most
valuable plants,
fruits, and trees —
peculiar to warm

climates — to the oak, wheat, maize, potato, and such
other products as are usually associated with the tem-
perate climate of Canada. The forests of the Amazon are
rendered impenetrable by the rich festooning and cling-
ing drapery of climbing plants und creepers, and consist
almost entirely of the most valuable woods for ship-build-
ing, cabinet work, and dyeing. The climate of vast area?
of the continent in the intertropical part is especially
suited to the cultivation of coffee, tea, sugar, cotton,
cocoa, rice, maize, tobacco, the rubber tree, yams, and
the manioc, or tapioca plant. — In the temperate regions,
east of the Andes, grass for cattle is abundant, but agri-
culture is neglected and the capabilities of the soil are

directly under the equator, Is neither excessively hot nor unhcalthy.-Sonth i unknown ; ill the rainy districts of tho western Andean
of the Amazon basin the rainfall is less excessive : in southern Urozil rain is , , . n i i -i^i

slope, tlio country is naturally wooded with evergreen

forests, and though the climate ia too moist for cereals,

root-crops thrive perfectly.

6. Animal Life.

To the Teacher.— It is not intended that tho names given in the followlug
notes should bo meniorized as mere lists; they are merely topics for simple
and interesting lessons in natural history, to be conveyed to the ]>upil3 in
conversations.— Tho South American forests ore largely in the i]08session of
monkeys— excellent treo-climlicrs, that use their tails as dexterously as their
liitids, and rarely descend to the ground. Other inhabitants of tlie forests
are, the tapir, the armadillo, the ant-eater, the sloth, and the peccary. The

principal beasts of prey are, the jaguar or
American tiger, tho puma or cougar, and
the ocelot- all trec-ernibers and inhabl>
tants ct tho frrcsts, tlie juguur and the
puma being much dri adcd, and very de-
strurtive of domeslin animals in forest
settlements. — In tho Andes the llama is a
beast of burden, much more sure-footed
than the horse or mulo ; tiio oipuca, a
gregarious animal allied to
the llama, inhabits the
highest ranges, and is
valued for its long, fine,
silky wool, and has become
partially domesticated; and
the vicugna (vee-eoon'ya),
also allied to the llama. In-
habits the loneliest peaks,
and is much prized for Its
fine, short, curled wool. In
the Andes, too, is found the
chinchilla, a little animal
of the size of tho rabbit,
whose fur is an important
article of cumnierce. In
some parts of Brazil and
Guiana, vampires, or blood-
sucking bats, are numer-
ous, very destructive of
domestic animals, and for-
midable even to man. — On
the Llanos and Panipaa
immcnge herds of wild
Cu.NUOKS. cattleand liorsesareft j.id,

descendants, however, of
stock originally imported from Europe; and throughout the continent are
many varieties of deer. — In tlio tropical area the marshes abound in large boa-
constrictors and venomous rattlesnakes, and fairly swarm with scorpions and
centipedes; and tho rivers contain hosts of alligators and porpoises, and their
banks are the homes of multitudes of water-hogs and turtles. In the coast
regionsof the equatorial parts, life is rendered miserable by the incessant stings
of poisonous insects ; and in both seas and rivers, fish of very many kinds are
inconceivably abundant, but owing to tlie heat of the climate they are of little
value for food.— Of birds, the condor, whose home is on the highest peaks of
the Andes, is tho most wonderful, being said to visit twice a day the coasts, 100
miles distant, to feast on shell-fish, and to be able to reach, by flying, a height
of six miles. Sea-fowl are very numerous, as ore also eagles and vultures ; and
in the forests are myriads of humming-birds, parrots, toucans, and many other
birds of brilliant plumage. — Off the north-west coast the pearl oyster is abun-
dant, but pearl fishing is not much prosecuted, for fear of cuttle-fish.— A very
valuable commercial product of the whole western side of South America is
guuno, or the excrement of sea-fowl ; it is found on tho islands and shores
of the coast, and is exported in large quantities to Europe and North America
for use as manure.

Animals of South America.

1. MoNKETH. 2. Anaconda. 3. Jaouar. 4. Toucans. 5. Tapikh. 0. Pkccaribs, or
Wild Houb. 7. Armadillo. 8. Ant-Katkr. 9. Llama. 10. Condors. 11. Catmah.
12. Nanoub, or RiiBAS..

To the Teacher. —iilonkeyB are excecdiiis-ly minicroiis in nil the tropical regions of South
America, but especially in the forests of liiazil. They are of iiitliiito variety,— among them
being the large sluggish "bowling" monkey, tlie easily tamed "spider" monkey, the
thumbed " woolly " monkey, the beautiful little " squirrel " monkey, and the marmoset, — all
having prehensile tail; , and of arboreal haliits ; and, besides, the timid "short-tailed ape,"
which rarely ventures higher than the tops of bushes.— The Jiboya, or Boa-Constrictor, «
large serpent, sometimes twenty feet in lengtli, inhabits the dry and sandy tropical districts.
It is not venomous, and is afraid of man. It feeds on small animals, such as ant-bears tnd
the lesser monkeys, though at times it seeks larger prey. Us Jaws are capable of enormouu
extension. The Anaconda, or Water Boa, is a nmch more formidable creature ; it is some-
times forty feet in length, and is the largest serpent now known. It inhabits lakes, rivers, and
marshes, is exceedingly voracious, and feeds un fishes, nnd upon any animals which it can
seize wlien they are unwarily drinkitig. It occasionally visits farm-yards, and carries off
poultry and young cattle.— The Jaguar is the largest animal of the cat kind in the western
continent. It was once exceedingly numerous in South America. It preys by preferenoe
upon large animals, such as the iiorsc, tapir, deer, dogs, and cattle. It is of immense
strength, and has been know.i to swim across a river with a horse it had killed, and carry it
off into the forest. —The Toucan is a gaudy-colored bird with an omnivorous appetite,— greedy
of fruit, but equally delighting in snia'' birds, its powerful bill enabling it to kill them with
a single squeeze.— The Tapir is a thick-skinned animal which feeds upon the young shoots of
treu'i and on fruits, but it relislics almost anything that comes in its way. It is inoffensive to
man, but is a favorite prey of the jaguar, from which, however, it sometimes frees itself by
rushing into water— Peccaries somewhat resenil)lo our domestio hogs; they live in herds.
When assailed they vigorously defend themselves with their sharp tusks. Their
flesh is eaten. — The Armadillo is covered with a bony coat of armor. It is a nocturnal
animal, and burrows in the earth for its food. Some species greedily devour the
semi-putrid carcases of wild cattle that liave died on the Pampas, and even burrow
into the gravcT of hinnan beings.— The Aiit-Eatcr, or Ant Bear, is a toothless animal,
with a long round slender tongue which cosily seizes the ants and other insects that
form its food. It is unsocial and stupid, and ppends much of its time in sleep. —
The Llama has long been domesticated as a beast of burden. Its ui>'ml load is about
12.5 lbs., which it will carry twelve or fifteen miles a day. Without its aid the silver
mines of the Andes could scarcely be worked —The Condor is an exceedingly
voracious creature. It i)refers carrion to other food, but it does not hesitatb to
attaci; goats, sheep, and deer. When gorged with a heavy meal it becomes stupid,
and is then easily captured. - The Alligator, or Cayman, abounds on the Amazon
and Orinoco, and the silence of these regions is said to be rarely broken except by
its nocturnal bellowing.— The Nandu, Khea, or American Ostrich, inhabits the
plains of the ArgentiP'? Republic. It lives in families, the male bird batching the
eggs. The natives of Patagonia chase it on horseback, and capture it by throwiiv
the bola—A ball attached to a string, something like a lasso.

SOUTH AMERICA.

»1

7. Minerals. — Tho mineral wealth of South America
is very great, and in the Andes aif some of the richest
mineral regions in tiio world — in fact, almost all tho
useful minerals and metals are abundant throughout the
whole range. Tho silver mines of Potosi (poto'-.iee) in
Bolivia, and of Pasco in Peru, have been worked for
three centuries, and are still, next to thoso of Mexico,
the richest known. Silver is found also in Chili. Gpld,
Also, is found in all these countries, but more abundantly
in Brazil and Colombia. For the production of copper
Chili has few rivals. In the mountain valleys north of
Kio Janeiro, in Brazil, are found the most valuable
precious stones — diamonds, especially, and emeralds,
aapphires, ru-
bies, and to-
pazes. In Colom-
bia are found
the finest em-
erald"? in the
world. Coal is
found plenti-
fully in Brazil,
Colombia, and
Chili.

8. People.

— The ru'.xng
classes in Brazil
are of Portu-
guese descent;
in rU the repub-
lics they are of Spanish descent; in the colonies of Guiana
they are settlers from the respective mother countries.

To the Teacher.— The rulings classes of pure blood, Creoles, as they are
called, are but a small proportion of the whole population ; the Mestizoes, or
mixed races, arc much more numerous, and share with the Creoles all posi-
tionj of influpnce.— The Indlins of South America are of countless tribes, but
in general they may be described as more amenable to civilizing: influences
than the Indians of North America.— The Indians of Peru, under their rulers,
the Incas, i^t the time of the Spanish conquest were well advancL^ in civiliza-
tion, and had made consiuerable progress in the arts— in iirchitecture, sculp-
ture, road building, weaving, and metal working ; they p.r' i st,ed an excellent
political organization, and though unwarlike, they had the art r ■' taming and
holding in subjection other tribes. Their descendants, he Quii'us, however,
are given to excessive intoxication, and have mucn ^ictcnorated.— The
Guaranis, ci' nutive Indians of Brazil, are mild and pat, -t, a id have been
largely amalgan^nted with the settlel population. The Pampas Indians are rude
and untameable, and the Gauchos, or Pumpas halfbrueds, are almost equally
fierce; they hold agriculture in contempt, eat nothing but beef, and live
almost entirely on horseback.- The Patagonians are giant-like in stature, the
tallest race on the globe ; their manners, however, are those of animals. —The
Fuegians are a small stunted race, among the most barbaric of mankind ;
they live principally upon raw shell-flsh, and are terribly cruel to any unfor-
tunate white people whom they may capture.— The Araucanians of Chili

GACOHOS LASSOING CAITLE.

desorvo especial mention : They were an exceedingly inteliiK«nt, brave, ancf
warlike race ; for manliness and energy of character thoy surnoued all other
American natives ; for two centuries they resisted all attempts tt subjugation,
and finally uxpullcd the Spaniards (whom they held In contempt) from thelv
country. Dut of late, owing to lessening numbers and thi enslavery of
drunkenness, they have to some extent acknowledged Chilio/* outhority.—
In Brazil there are many negroes, and nefrro mixed races, descendants of
slaves that have been brought over in immense numbers from Africa ; but thf
slaves are being gradually emancipated, and sUvery will soon bo unknown
In tho northern part of tho continent are also many negroes, and vcmdJ
coolies, or Chinese who have been imported as laborers.

9. Occupations of tho People and Industries.

— The principal industries are mining, cattle-grazing, anc'
sheep-farming, the cultivation of colTee and tropical fruitf
for export, and the cultivation of maize and t)\e manioc
for home consumption, and the collection of the leaves

of tho mate'
(mji-tny '), or na^
tive tea There
are few manu-
factures except
in Brazil, and
not many even
there.

10. Pro-
ducts and
Exports.—

The natural pro-
ductiveness of
South America
is so great that
its products,
either used in

home consumption or exported to foreign countries, are

extremely numerous and valuable.

To the Teacher.— Tho following notes may be used in conversation, the
niap being constantly referred to :— The exports of mineral products are prin-
cipally, gold and silver, and diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones, and
iron, from Brazil ; silver, from Bolivia and Peru ; silver and copper, from Chill
— but all these countries plentifully produce other minerals and metals. Salt is
a principal article of production in Brazil and Colombia ; and nitrate of soda,
or nitre (used in the manufacture of gunpowder), is an extremely valuable
export from Peru, Bolivia, and Chili.— Of the products of the tropical forests,
the following are largely exported : Brazil-wood (which yields a red dye-stuff),
logwood, and fustic ; rosewood, ebony, mahogany, and tortoise-shell wood ;
caoutchouc (from the rubber tree— a most valuable export), and vegetable-
ivory (of which buttons are made— the kernel of the nut of a sort of palm);
cinchona, or Peruvian bark (from which quinine is obtained), ipecacuanha,
calisaya bark, balsam of tolu, and sarsaparilla (obtained from the roots of a
shrub, a sort of smilax) ; bamboo ; copal gum ; and palm-wax (of which candles
are made).— Of the tropical fruits the banana is the most important, as it is
the chief food of the native Indians: other impo;-tant fruits are, the pineapple,
orange, mango, and guava; and to these may be added many kinds of nuta. —
The most important product of cultivation is coffee, which is the principal
export of Brazil ; but sugar, tobacco, cotton, rice, cacao (or chocolate), indigo,
vanilla, and tapioca, are valuable exports also.— From Colombia are exported

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SOUTH AMERICA.

ponama hats, and also the fibre of the palm-like tree from which these hats ,
are made. — Hides, tallow, horns, and wool, obtained from the cattle and
■beep of the I'ampas, are the principal exjiorts of tlie temperate regions.
Deerskins arc exixirted from all parts ; and K^ano from all the western coast
from Peru to Patagonia. Pearls, and mother-of-pearl, are exported from
Culomliia,

11. Facilities for Transportation.

To Ihe Teacher. — The eastern division of SduiIi America, in its magnificent
rivers, is abundantly supplied witli natural facilities for transportation ; rail-
way construction, too, is comparatively easy, and p.lrcady about 6,000 miles of
railway have been built. In the western division, and in the Andean region,
there are no natural facilities for transportation : packing by mules and lliimas
must be resorted to ; however, in Peru and Chili about 3,000 miles of railway
have lately been constructed, and the development of the natural resources
of these countries will hereafter, it is hoped, be much more rapid than
heretofore.

12. Governments. — Brazil is a constitutional em-
pire ; British Guiana, Dutch (- uiana, and French Guiana,
are crown colonies. The remaining States are constitu-
tional republics with governments modelled after that of
the United States ; but their history has been almost
constantly one of terrible disorder — first in bitter strug-
gles for freedom from Spanish thraldom and for inde-
pendence ; then in sanguinary revolutions, or in long
international conflicts. Even in Chili, the most stable
of all the republics, life and property are said to be very
insecure,

13. Religion and Education.— Throughout the

whole of South America, except Guiana, the Boman
Catholic is the prevalent religion ; it is established by
.'aw in Brazil, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Peru, and
Paraguay — in Peru none other is tolerated ; in Brazil,
none other openly so. Education is well provided for
in Brazil, Chili, Colombia, and the Province of Buenos
Ayres; in Ecuador, and in Peru especially, it is in a
very backward state.

14. Chief Cities.

To the Teacher.— Teach from the map the name and position of the capital
of each state.

Rio Janeiro (n'o ja-nee'-r6) (."loCOOO), the capital of Brazil,
is the metropolis of South America. Possessing one of the finest
harbors in the world, and being the terminus of several lines of
railway, its commerce, both foreign and inland, is very great.
It is the scat of the principal offices of the Imperial Govern-
ment, and of an imperial college, of several medical colleges, of
a naval and military academy, and of many public schools. Its
libraries, museums, and botanical gardens are much noted.
Baiiia (bii-ee'ii) (128,929), 800 miles north of Rio Janeiro, has
an excellent harbor and a large foreign trade, and is much cele-
orated for its whale fisheries, once the most important in the
world. Its churches, monasteries, and convents, are very
numerous. Pebnambdco (116,671) has a large European trade.

IJuKNos Ayres (b6'-nos ai -rez) (295,000), the capital of the
Argentine Republic, is a beautiful city, with an enterprising
and highly intelligent populace. It is the terminus of several
important lines of railway, and its commerce is very great ; but
its want of good harborage is a serious drawback to its progress.

Santiago (150,367), the capital of Chili, is situated amidst
the grandest mountain scenery in the world. Its "valks and
gardens are extremely beautiful, and many of its houses and
public edifices are splendid and elegant ; but as the city suffers
much from earthquakes, all its buildings are usually of but one
storey in height. Valparaiso (viil-pii-rl'-s6) (97,737) is the port
of Santiago, and the principal port on the Pacific coast. It
possesses a fine 'oreign trade.

Lima (lee'ma) (101,488), the capital of Peru, in general
appearance is the most splendid city of South America. Its
university, which is much celebrated, possesses a fine rauseum
of Peruvian antiquities. Callao (cal-la'-6) (34,492) is the port
of Lima.

Quito (kee'to) (80,000), the capital of Ecuador, has suflFered
much from earthquakes. Though situated almost directly under
the equator, eleven snow-capped mountains are in view from
the city.

Montevideo (115,000), the capital of Uruguay, La Paz
(76,372), the capital of Bolivia, Caracas (ca-ra'-kas) (55,368),
the capital of Venezuela, Bogota (bo-go-ta') (41,000), the capital
of Colombia, and Asuncion (15,000), the capital of Paraguay,
are the remaining important cities in the republics.

Georgetown (36,567), the capital of British Guiana, is built
below the level of high tide, R"d has canals running through its
streets. It has large exports of sugar and coffee.

Sxercise- — l. Compare South America with North America
in respect of (1) shape, (2) size, (3) population. 2. Describe the
Andean regions: (1) in respect of their physical features, (2) in
respect of their climate and productions. 3. Describe in similar
manner the basin of the Amazon. 4. Describe the Llanos and
Pampas of South America. 5. What are the principal vegetable
products of Brazil ? Describe their uses. 6. What are the prin-
cipal products of Chili and Buenos Ayres? 7. Describe the
seasons of tropical South America ; compare them with those of
Ontario. 8. Give some account of the aboriginal populations of
South America ; compare them with the aborigines of North
America. Compare the native Indians of Patagonia M'ith the
Indians of (1) Ontario, (2) British Columbia, (3) the Arctic sea-
board. 9. Compare the people of European descent in South
America in respect of origin, character, and habits, with the people
of European descent in (1) Ontario, (2) Canada, (3) the United
States, (4) North .America. 10. Give some account of the beasts
and birds portrayed on page 90. 11. Compare the forests of
Brazil with those of Canada and the United States. 12. Draw
an outline map of South America ; color the forest districts
dark green, the grass districts light green, the mineral districts
yellow, and the desert districts brown ; in the appropriate places
mark the names of the principal vegetable and other productions
of the continent. 13. Describe the governments of the various
states of South America ; compare them with the governments
of North Arae>'>ca. 14. Describe the foreign trade of Brazil.

THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE. EUROPE.

LESSON XXXVII.

THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE.

To the Teacher.— "With a map of the world, or, better, with a large-sized
g^lobe, review Lesson XIII., mid fix firmly in the minds o( the pupils the
general configuration and distribution of the land and water areas of the two
hemispheres ; also the shapes and relative positions of the five great conti-
nents, Australasia, and the five great oceans.

1. The Old World. — The Eastern Hemisphere is
generally spoken of as the Old World, especially western
and southern Asia, southern and western Europe, and
northern Africa, since it was in these regions that
modem civilization first began, and that the races that
now dominate or rule the world had their early homes.
Civilized races knew nothing of America until 1492,
when Columbus discovered the West Indian Islands and
claimed them for the King and Queen of Spain. From
that time on, Europeans have poured into America, occu-
pying it and cHiming it for their own, until now it is
almost all in the possession of Europeans or their
descendants. America is thys spoken of as the New
World, since when discovered it was "new" to the
civilized occupants of the Old World.

LESSON XXX^TII.

EUROPE.

1. Position, Size, Population, and Bound-
aries. — Europe is a peninsula, in the north-west of the
land area of the Eastern Hemisphere, jutting out from
Asia. It is the smallest of the five great continents,
containing only, in round numbers, 3,825,000 square
miles, and thus is not much larger than the United
States, or Canada, or Brazil. Its length from Cape St.
Vincent to Ekaterinburg is 3,293 miles. Its population
is about 325,000,000.

To the Teacher,— Teajch the boundaries from the map.

2, Political Subdivisions.— Europe is divided

into a large number of independent states, but some of
these are very small, and others, again, have entered
into federations with one another for mutual advantage.
The principal states are: — Russia (in Europe), Germany
(made up of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtemberg,
and several other states), Austria^Hungpry (made up
of Austria and Hungary), France, Great Britain and

Ireland, and Italy. These are called the Six Great
Powers of Europe. Of the remaining states the most
important are : — Spain, Sweden and Norway, Belgium,
Roumania, Turkey (in Europe), Portugal, the Nether-
lands or Holland, Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia,
Switzerland, Denmark, Greece, and Servia. In addition
there are several very small independent states.

To the Teaeher.-loaich the boundaries ana relative positions of the
principal states of Europe thoroughly from the map.— The arrangement of
the states as given above is in the order of their respective populations, and
ind'c .tes in some degree their relative importance ; but not entirely so, for
Russia's inhaence, for example, is not at all commensurate with her i>opula-
tion ; and Roumania, and Bulgaria especially, being newly constituted states,
enjoy as yet only a jwcwi-independence. On the other hand, Great Uritaii)
from the magnitude of her Indian and Colonial Empire, holds one of the very
flrstpositions in the world. — ^The populations and areas are given on subse-
quent pages ; they should be mode the subjects of comparative study.

3. Physical Features.

To the Teacher. — ^The configuration of the continent, which is somewhat
intricate, should be impressed upon the pupils by a close study of the map.
The great length and irregularity of the coast-lino is the most conspicuous
feature; and it is of great importance,— for this, added to the fact that
navigable rivers are numerous and general, has made the Europeuns a colon-
izing and trading people. The names of the seas, bays, and gulfs that indent
the coast should be learned in order from the map. — In stnicture the conti-
nent consists mainly of (1) a plateau region at the south from which rise
numeroua irregular, but, in the main, connected mountain ranj;cs ; avA {2)
to the north of this plateau region a great lowland plain, bordered to the
north-west and northeast by mountains. The Southern Plateau Region
includes Spain and Portugal, south-eastern France, Italy, Switzerland, south-
ern Gennany, Austria (excluding Hungary), Turkey, and Greece. The Alps
arc the central ridges of the mountain ranges that traverse this plateau, Mont
Blano (15,7S1 feet) being the highest peak. The remaining ranges of the
plateau for the most* part radiate from, and are connected with, the central
Alpine heights : to the north and east, the Black Forest of southern Gennany,
the Bohemian Mountains, and the Carpathians ; to the soutii and east, the
Dinaric Alps and the Balkans ; to the south, the Apennines, forming the
back-bone of Italy ; and to the west, the Jura range and the Cevenncs, these
latter joining the Pyrenees, with which the remaining ranges of the Spanish
peninsula are parallel. The Caucasus are an outlying range of this system.
— Flanked on its southern border by the plateau region just described, and
extending the wliolo length of the continent from Asia to the Bay of Biscay,
is the Great Lowland I'lain, comprising Russia, eastern Sweden, northern
Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, northern and western France, and
the south-eastern parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland— the Baltic with its
adjacent waters and the North S:a being niorciy submerged parts of the
plain. The Dovrefleld Mouncains oi Norway and the Highlands of Scotland
border the plain on the north-west, and the Urol Slountains on the north-
east. This great plain, though for the nost part low, and in two districts
below the level of the ocean (viz. , the regions adjacent to the Caspian Sea, and
a great part of Holland), is, however, not monotonously flat, but rather gently
undulating. The Valdai Hills in Russia are ;i,8 only considerable elevation. —
Within the plateau region, between the Carpathian Mountains on the one
hand, and the Dinaric Alps and the Balkans on the otiier, is another great
plain, divided, however, into two parts known as the Plain of Hungary and
the Wallachian Plain, constituting the Valley of the Danube. (These plateau
and lowland regions are distinguished in color on the little map in the lower
left-hand corner of the map of Europe, page 01.)— The rivers of the platt'^u
i.!gion, with the exception of the Rhone, are for the most part short and
rapid, and of little use for navigation. In the Great Lowland Plain the rivers,
though not of such great size as those of the American cotitinents, are proper*
tionately more numerous, and the larger ones are all navigable for light cnfb

•^ X— -^ ^ ^ ^. yii»»»^ »i 05,

aNVINS ^UHD

EUROPE.

i
o

I-

-§

From the Petchora to the Garonne, and from the VoI};a to the Pruth, they
form a series of parallels whose general direction is either north-west or
south-east— Asa result of its irregularity of outline, the number of peninsulas
in Europe is very great, and many of them are so large as to form independent
states. Increasing the effect of the irrc^ilarity of outline are the numerous
islands, which, for the most part, partake of the physical characteristics of
the continent adjacent to them. Great Britain is separated from the mainland
by so narrow and shallow a channel as to be almost peninsular, Iceland is
the only important European inland that is distinct from the mainland in its
physical features. — The names and positions of the principal plateaus, plains,
mountains, rivers, peninsulas, islands, and straits, should be thoroughly
taught from the map.

4. Climate and Soil. — Europe possesses much
variety of climate, but as compared with corresponding
parts in Korth Amer-
ica^ in all except
central and eastern
Europe, the prevail-
ing temperatures are
higher and more
equable than in our
own continent. Ire-
land enjoys so genial
a climate that it is
called the Green or
Emerald Isle, and
yet it lies nearly
within the same lati-
tudes as our James
Bay. The settled por-
tions of Ontario are
no farther north than
southern France and
northern Italy, but,
though our summers
are warm, our winters
are so cold that the oranges and olives wliich mature
perfectly on the shores of the Mediterranean, in the
same latitude as Toronto, are impossible with us. On the
other hand, central and eastern Europe have winters
even more rigorous than ours. — ^The soil of Europe is,
for the most part, fertile, the only barren areas of wide
extent (with the exception, of course, of the moimtain
peaks) being the lower or salt " steppes " of south-eastern
Russia, the tundras of north-eastern Russia, the "lake
region ". of north-western Russia, and the Pinsk marshes
of western Russia. Agriculture and horticulture have,
in Europe, reached their highest development.

To the Teacher.— The equability and relative warmth of western Europe
are largely due (1) to the influence of the currents and winds of the Atlantic,
which oome mainly from the south-west (notably the Gulf Stream) : (2) to the

GATHERING GRAPES IK FRANCR.

exposure of the European Arctic Ocean to the influence of the Atlantic ; and
(3) to the preponderance of water over land within the Arctio circle.— In all
except southern Europe the variation of the seasons is much the same as with
us, except that in the coast rc^Mons in winter the rainfall is nmch greater,
and the snowfall much less, than with us.— In southern Europe the climate is
affected by the presence of the Mediterranean (whose waters are much
warmer than those of the Atlantic) and by the proximity of the hot desert
region of northern Africa ; and the four seasons give place there to a perpetual
summer, marked only by alternations of dry and rainy periods, of which thv
rainy period corresponds mainly to our winter.

5. Vegetation. — As Europe lies almost entirely
within the north temperate zone, its prevailing vegeta-
tion (especially such as is the result of cultivation) is

very similar to that
with which we are
familiar in Ontario;
except that in south-
em or sub-tropical
Europe such fruits
and flowers grow aa
are found in this con-
tinent not farther
north than the
warmer regions of
the United States.

To the TeacAer.— Europe
was once largely wooded,
only a comparatively small
portion— the "high" or fer-
tile steppes in Russia, be-
tween the Don and the
Dnieper — corresponding to
the treeless prairijsof North
America. Of this original
forest-land a large portion
remains, especially in Norway
and Sweden; P.ussia, Austria-
Hungary, Germany, Turkey,
and Switzerland ; in France,
Italy, and Greece a less amount is left, while from the remaining coun-
tries the forests have almost disappeared. In the Scandinavian peninsula
(Sweden and Norway) the forests consist largely of a very valuable
species of pine, and pines are widely distributed over the whole continent
In what may be called the middle zone of Europe, the more common trees are
similar to those we fl:"d in Ontario, except that the maple is much less
frequent, and the beech and oak much more frequent than with us. In Spain
and Portugal, affording employment to thousands of the population, grows
that species of oak from the bark of which the cork of commerce is obtained ;
and in these countries and in Turkey grows the box-tree, the wood of which
is the most valuable known for the handles of tools, tor the wooden parts of
delicate instruments, and for the blocks used in wood-engraving. — In
northern Europe, especially within the Arctio circle, the soil is marshy and
vegetation stunted, and hence tillage is impossible.— In Great Britain and
northern France, and in the corresponding parts of the continent to the
eastward, the same fruits, flowers, grains, grasses, and roots, tha^ are culti-
vated in our own fields and gardens, everywhere abound ; and owing to the
perfection with which agriculture and horticulture are prosecuted, to the
equability of the climate, and to the constant but not excessive supply ot
moisture, especially in the coast regions, the yield is greater than with va,
especially of small fruita— In southern France and southern Germany, and »*<

EUROPE.

diatrioto farther Bouth, the vine is extensively cultivated, an- 1
with a success perhaps greater than elsewhere in the world ;
one variety, found in Oreece, supplies our currants, and from
other varieties, found in Spain and Portujral, our raisins are
obtained, All the European coasts of the Mediterranean
produce in abundance moat of niitd which we are accus*

tomod to associate with a wo ;ir ■'■ e— the orange, the
lemon, the citron, the pomegru ;he almond, the

bgf tne uate, anu uie oiwo , vl Uieso vue uuiio is ouiy
of linii^'Cd range, but the production of olive oil in
Spain, Italy, and Greece is enormous. The sugar*
cane, however, is but little cultivated ; cotton is grown
only in Turkey and Greece, and even there not exten-
sively ; and rice is remunerative only in the valley of
the Po and in some other Italian districts. Tobacco
is grown extensively in all central and southern
Europe; and some vegetablv: products receive an
attention unknown in America: for example, the
beet-root, in Germany and France, cultivated for its
yield of sugar ; the flax plant, in Ireland, Belgium
and Prussia, valued both for its flbro and for its seed
(from the latter the linseed oil of commerce, and
oil-cake, used as food for cattle, are obtained); the
hemp plant, in all eastern Europe from the White
Sea to the Mediterranean, valued also for its fibre and
tor the oil expressed from its seed ; the hop plant, in
England, Belgium, Germany, and Austria ; the chest-
nut, of very common consumption as food in Italy,
France, and Austria ; and the acorn, used as food in
Sardinia.

6. Animal Life.— The animal
life of Europe is very similar to
that of the various parts of North
America corresponding in climate.
As on our own continent, so much
more so in Europe, has the soil been
so largely subdued to man's uses
that wild animals, at least such as
are formidable, are not numerous
in species or plentiful in numbers.
Of the animals which have been
domesticated by man, almost all
kinds (including even the camel —
ki southern Russia, Turkey, and
Spain) are found abundantly in
Europe. Birds are very numerous,
— not only most of those with
which we are familiar in Canada,
but very many others — birds of
prey, aquatic birds, and songsters.
In beauty and flexibility of voice
European song-birds surpass those
of *11 other continents. Reptiles,
at lea»i such as are offensive to
man, are not exceedingly numer-
ous. As to fish, European seas ond

1. Ermink.
2, Sablb. 3, Snowt

Owl. 4. Rbindker. 6. Barn Owl. 6. Elk. 7. Wolf.
8. Fox. 9. Brown Bkar. 10. Ibex. 11. Chamois,
12. Wild Boar. 13. Lammer-obikb.

To the Teacher.— the Sabie, a species of Marten,
is found in Europe only in north-eastern Russia,
though the common Marten is of very general diatri.
bution throughout all northern Europe.

rivers teem with them, — not only
most of those species which are
found in our own waters, but many
others also.

To the Teacher.— Ot the larger and more
formidable European animals the principal are :
the white bear, found on tne Arciio coaato ; ths
brown bear, found in the Pyrenees, the Car-
pathians, the Dovrefield Mountains, and occa-
sionally in the Alps ; the grey wolf and the
block wolf, once numerous all over Europe,
now confined to the wilder parts of the east and
south, but still numerous ; the jackal, found in
Russia, Turkey, and Greece ; the common fox,
of almost universal distribution ; the blue fox,
found only in the Arctic regions; the lynx,
found only in mountainous districts and in the
north; and the wild boar, fo.;nd in all southern
uninhabited districts. Sma ier and less for-
midable animals, many of them exceedingly
numerous and of general distribution, are the
hedgehog, the badger, the glutton, the mole,
the weasel, the civet, the lemming (remarkable
for its strange periodical migrations), the jerboa,
the rat, the mouse, the marmot (or European
woodchuck), the porcupine, the hare, and the
..squirreL Harmless animals, which, however,
are pursued by man, are the elk, found in
Scandinavia, Russia, and Poland (south-western
Russia); the aurochs, urus, or wild ox (from
which it is said our domestic ox is descended),
found only in Poland ; the musmon, or wild
sheep, found in Spain, Sardinia, and Coreioa;
the antelope, found in the coimtries north ot
the Black Sea ; the ibex, found in the Alps and
Carpathians; the chamois (from which the use-
ful chamois or "shammy" skin is obtained),
quite common in all Alpine regions ; the fallow
deer, found wild in Spain ; and the red deer and
roebuck, found in the Highlands of Scotland,
Spain, and Germany. Fur-bearing animals, like
the ermine cr the marten, exist only in the
north; and the beaver, once vevy abundant
throughout almost all the continent, is rapidly
disappearing before the advance of civilization,
and is now found, and rarely, only in central
Europe. — The walrus, found in our own Arctic
waters, is also found on the Island of Spitz-
bergen. Seals, though becoming scarcer, are
found on the shores of all European seas, in-
cluding the Baltic and the Caspian. Whales
and rorquals (though not so frequent as form-
erly) are found in northern and western wateia;
and dolphins and porpoises are to be seen in
all the seas,— Two animals may be especially
mentioned— the Italian sorex or shrew, a little
burrowing, insect-eating creature, the smallest
quadruped in the world; and the Gibraltar
monkey, the only species of the monkey tribe
found in Europe.

Inthenumber and variety ot its birds Enrope
is surpassed only by tropical America. The
north ot Europe abounds in aquatic birds, as
storks, herons, plovers, curlews, geeae, ducks,
and swans,— some of these ot almost infinite

EUROPE.

-^•riety ; in the south are found the pelican, the spoon-bill, and the flamingo
—the last remarkable (or its bright red color. Birds o( prey are numerous,
' but especially so in the mountain regions ; o( these the more noted are the
bearded vulture, lammer-geler, or bearded griffin, found in the Alps and tiie
Caucasus,— the largest of European birds, and so bold and rapacious that it
has been known to carry off children ; the king vulture ; the golden eagle,
found in the Alps, the Py ranees, and the Qrampianc of Scotland,— c bird of
prey as bold and rapacious as the lammer-geicr ; the imperial eagle ; the great
horned-owl ; the hawk ; the buzzard ; the falcon ; and the kite. Of smaller
birds, especially noted (or their song, and characteristic of Europe, are the
nightingale, the redbreast, the goldQnch, the linnet, the skylark, and the
thrush. Birds of the cock kind (those related to our commoa hen)— part-
ridges, grouse, and pheasants -arc abundant in all central Europe, and are
much prized as game. Other birds well known to us, such as the sparrow,
the swallow, the blackbird, and the crow, are equally common in Europe.

Of sea flsh, nearly all the economic kinds familiar to our tables, and many
others, abound in the waters of western Europe, and are a source of enormous
wealth to England, Soot-
land, Norway, Holland,
and France. The cod and
the herring, especially,
are abundant in the North
Sea; the pilchard in the
English Channel; the
sprat in the Baltic; the
flardine on the northern
coasts of France, and in
the Baltic and the Medi-
terranean ; and the tunny
«nd anchovy in the Medi-
terranean. Mullet and
«el8 constitute a valuable
fishery in the Adriatic. Of
-other sea animals, the
oyster is abundant on all
the Atlantic coasts, and
its artificial culture re-
ceives great attention in
Frani''? and England;
-sponges are obtained
plentifully in the iEgean
Archipelago ; and corals

BRANCH OF MULBERRY TREE, SILK -WORM,
COCOON, AND MOTH.

off the coasts of Sardinia and Corsica. Of river flsh, the most important is
the salmon, "noblest of all flsh, ' an abundant source of wealth in Scotland
and Norway ; while in south-eastern Russia the rivers supply enormous num-
bers of sturgeon and perch.— Reptiles are not numerous or formidable; the
commoner ones are the turtle of the Mediterranean ; the chameleon of Spain ;
the lizard, found generally throughout the continent ; salamanders, newts,
irogs, and toads ; of poisonous snakes, the adder, found generally in central
Europe ; and of non-poisonous snakes, several species, the largest of which,
however, is p«>vpr more than five feet.— 0( insects, the most troublesome to
man are the mosquito and the tarantula ; locusts are sometimes so numerous
as to become a terrible plague, especially in Turkey; vineyards are sabject
to the ravages of the phylloxera, and are sometimes ruined thereby ; and our
own potato-beetle ia occasionally a very unwelcome visitor to European fields
and gardens. Of useful insects, those of most importanoe are the silk-moth,
very attentively cultivated, and a source of g^reat revenue in all southern
Europe ; the honey-bee, equally priced in Italy, Greece, and all central Europe ;
the cantharis, or Spanish-fly, a sort of beetle, used in medicine for raising
blisters, found principally in Spain, but also in other southern countries ; and
the cochineal insect, not long since introduced Into Spain from Mexico, and
now of great commercial value.

7. Minerals. — Europe is rich mineral wealth,
especially in iron, lead, copper, coal, and salt ; but not
•especially so in the precious metals, silver and gold, — for
U

a sufficient supply of these it must import largely from
other continents.

To the Teacher.— (irmt Britain, Oermany, and Austria-Hungary are all
very richly endowed with deposits of the several most useful minerals and
metals ; Belgium owes a large share of its prosperity to its rich coal-fields ;
and Sweden, to the abundance of its well-known iron-ore ; Spain and Turkey,
though rich in mineral store, have left their mines unworked ; Qreece pro-
duces some silver ; Roumania possesT/CS very valuable deposits of salt and
petroleum ; and south-eastern Russia, of petroleum and saltpetre, which are
now being turned to account.— Platinum is found only in Pirm, in eastern
Russia. Oold and silver are somewhat widely rtiffused, but the supply is not
equal to the demands of the coinage and of the arts. Of iron. Great Britain
produces more than all other European countries combined (its product,
indeed, is two-fifths of the iron product of the world), Germany, France,
Belgium, Austria, and Sweden being next in order. Of coal, too. Great
Britain produces more than all other European countries combined, and
Britain's product is one-half the total product of the world ; but it is also
abundant in Germany, France, Belgium, and Russia (in the last named country
but little worked, however). Lead is most abundant in Spain, Belgium, and
Germany ; it is also found in England and elsewhere. Copper is exported from
Sweden and Norway, but it is largely produced by Britain (especially Cornwall),
Germany, Belgium, and Hungary. Tin is found scarcely anywhere but in Eng-
land (in Cornwall) and in Austria, but in these places abundantly. Mercury is
confined to Spain and Hungary. Salt is mined in Oalicia (in the Carpathians),
and in England (Cheshire) ; and it is manufactured from sea-water in France,
Spain, and Russia; and from the salt lakes of Bessarabia (south-western
Russia) enormous quantities are every year produced. Sulphur mining is a
very important industry in Italy and Sicily ; and asphalt, of which pavements
and roofing cements are made, is a valuable product in Switzerland, Italy,
and the Tyrol (in Austria).

8. People and Languages.— Europeans are of

very many different original races ; but the races are

now not at all distinct ; inter-marriages and social and

commercial intercourse during many centuries, have

brought it about that, with the possible exceptions of the

Jews and Gypsies, there are no pure races remaining.

But though race distinctions have become much confused,

the languages spoken by Europeans are, many of them,

very unlike one another in character, and altogether

there are no less than sixty distinct languages spoken,

besides very many dialects. However, of these languages

the English, French, German, Russian, Italian, and

Spanish, are the strongest and most progressive (the

English, owing to its prevalent use in North America,

India, Australia, and South Africa, the most progressive

of all); but the Dutch (or the language of Holland), the

Scandinavian (or the languages of Sweden and Norway),

the Bohemian, Hungarian, Servian, and Greek, are at

present holding their own.

To the Teacher.— Ihere are four divisions in which most of the various
peoples or races may be classified :— (1) The Oneco-Latin, or southern races ;
(2) the Celtic, or central races ; (3) the Teutonic, or northern races ; and (4)
the Slavonic, or north-eastern races. To the first division, or the Grsco-Latin
races, belong the Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, and
Roumanians. To the second division, or the Celtic races, belong the Irish,
the Gaels or Highlanders of Scotland, the Welsh, the Manx or peoplt' of the
Isle of Man, the Cornish or people of Cornwall, and the Bretons or people of
Crittany in France. To the third division, or Teutonic races, belong the

EUROPE.

loelandera, the lyont'vgians, the Swedes, the Danes, the Anglo-Saxons or
English, the Flemings and Dutch or Inhabitants of Holland, and the Oer-
mans (including about one-fourth of the people of Austria-Hungary). To the
fourth division, or the Slavoiiio races, belong the Russians, the Bulgarians,
the Servians, the Poles (in Austria and Qemian}), and the Bohemians and
Croatians (in Austria-Hungary). Not belonging to the four divisions thus
outlined, are the Jews, scattered throughout all Europe in great numbers; the
Magyars of Hungary; the Finns of north-western Russia; the Lithuanians
of Russian Poland ; the Tartars of Turl<ey and soutli-castern Russia ; the
Albanians and Turl<8 of Turkey ; and the Circassians of the Caucasus. The
wandering Oyp8ie8(who number three-fourths of a million) are also considered
a distinct race ; and in northern Spain are a people, the Basques, supposed to
be the representatives of the very earliest inhabitants of Europe.

9. Occupations of the People and Industries.

— Europe has long been the centre of modern civilizar
tion, and its people are industrious and ingenious, and
engage in every sort of useful employment. Agricul-
tural, pastoral, and horticultural occupations, of course,
occupy the great majority of the people; but fishing,
navigation, and all the useful and ornamental arts,
employ their due share. It must be said, however, that
nowhere else in the world are there so many people
whom birth and fortune have placed beyond the need of
work : many of these lead useful lives ; too many of them,
however, do very little for the benefit of their fellow-
men.

10. Facilities for Transportatioii. — On account

of its peculiarly indented outline, no part of Europe,
except eastern Russia, is situated far from the sea;
hence, from time out of mind, Europeans have made
large use of boats and ships as a means of transporta-
tion; the many navigable rivers which are everywhere
found, even in the east, have also largely aided to
establish and extend communication by water. More-
over, wherever they have been needed, canals have been
built, either to improve river navigation, or to join
together navigable waters naturally separated. And since
the invention of the steam-locomotive, in 1825, the con-
tinent has become covered with a network of railways,
so that now even in the most mountainous countries of
Europe, as Switzerland, for example, railway transporta-
tion in every direction may be easily eflTected.

1 1. Governments. — Europe is not, like America,
a continent lately acquired and occupied by civilized
people. Eu ropeans have gradually risen to their present
condition from a state of savagery ; and so their various
governments, which, no doubt, were at first tyran-
nical, have improved as the people have become wiser
and found out better methods of managing national
afiairs. ^"^rmerly, all the governments were absolute

monarchies, that is, governments in which a king or
emperor ruled his subjects much as he chose. Now there-
are but two such governments left — Russia and Turkey.
IVIost of the European nations ai'e now constitutional
]nonarchies, that is, their chief ruler, styled Emperor,
or King, administers only such laws as have been
agreed to by the representatives of all the people of the
country. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland is the best example of such a government.
Similar governments are possessed by Germany^ Austria-
Hungary, Italy, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, Hol-
land, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Roumania,
and Servia, and also by many of the states that go to
make up the German Empire. France and Switzerland
are republics, and some of the smaller states also are
republics.

12. Standing Armies. — European nations are
conspicuous for the enormous magnitude of their stand-
ing armies, and for the immense sums of money which
they spend for the maintenance of tliese. The number
of men in Europe constantly kept ready for war is more
than 4,000,000; and the total number kept enrolled for
service is three times the whole population of Canada.
Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy,
maintain the largest armies. Great Britain, also, main-
tains a large army, but her principal reliance in time of
war is placed upon her navy, which is the largest and
most complete in the world. All the lesser powers
maintain such armies as they can ; and besides Great
Britain, all the other maritime nations have navies also.

13. Religion. — Europeans are nearly all adherents
of Christianity, The principal exceptions are (1) the
Jews, of whom there are 4,500,000 scattered throughout
Europe, but living principally in Ru.ssia, Austria, and
Germany; and (2) the main population of the present king-
dom of Turkey, and the Tartars and some other A-siatic
races of Russia, in all about 6,500,000, who are Moham-
medans. Of Christians, there are three main divisions : —
(1) the Roman Catholics, who constitute about one-half
of the whole population of the continent, and largely
preponderate in all southern Europe, except in Greece
and Turkey; (2) the members of the so-called Greek
Church, the principal church in Russia, Greece, Rou-
mania, Bulgaria, Servia, and eastern Austria, consti-
tuting nearly one-fourth of the whole population of the
continent; and (3) Protestants, who also constitute-

EUROPE. THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

»•

nearly one-fourth of tlie whole population, and piepon-
^ilerate in the nortn-western nations of Europe. The
Itoman Catholic Church is united in all its parts, and
the Greek Church is divided only by nationalities ; but
Protestants are separated into numerous independent
sects.

14. Education. — In Europe are situated the chief
seats of human learning, and every branch of study is
prosecuted further there than elsewhere, even in America ;
but while the rich have always had facilities for obtain-
ing the very best education the world coifld give, it is
only within a comparatively short time, not much more
than a century, that anything has been done to make
education cheap and accessible to the poor. However,
now, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Norway and
■Sweden, Holland, Denmark, France, Belgium, Austria-
Hungary, and Great Britain, primary education is liber-
ally provided for by government; in Switzerland and
Prance schools are free, and in all these countries, with
the exception of France and Belgiun" education is com-
pulsory. Still, in all the southern countries of Europe,
and in some of the northern countries, the education of
the great masses of the people is in a very backward con-
dition; especially is this so in Spain, Turkey, and Russia.

Bzercise. — 1> Compare the populations of North America,
Soutu \merica, and Europe. 2. Arrange the political sub-
divisions of Europe in (1) the order of their areas, (2) the order
of their populations, (3) the order of their importance. 3. Of
what consequence has its irregular shape been to the inhabitants
of Europe ? 4. Account for the warmth and equability of tem-
perature of the climate of southern Europe. 5. Describe the
vegetation of Europe, beginning with the north and ending with
the south. 6. What are the resemblances and what the differ-
ences in the animal life of North America and of Europe? 7-
Locate on the map the principal fisheries of Europe. 8. Givo
some account of the useful, and also of the destructive, insects
of Europe and of North America. 9. Locate on the map the
principal coal, iron, salt, and petroleum districts of Europe.
10. Compare the people of Europe and North America as regards
(1) races, (2) languages. IL Compare Europeaus, North Ameri-
cans, and South Americans, in. respect of their occupations and
principal industries. 12. Compare Europe and North America
in respect of (1) their facilities for transportation; (2) their
governments ; (3) their principal religions. 13. Compare
European nations, the United States, and Canada, in regard to
their standing armies. Why should such large standing armies
be kept up in Europe? What e.Tect had the maintenance of
them upon the happiness of the people ? 14. Give some reasons
why European nations are so backward in the matter of public
•educati'"".

LESSON XXXTX.

THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

1. Extent and Population.— The British Em-

pire, formally en^tled " The United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland," comprises a large number of pos-
sessions in all parts of the world. In extent and number
of people it exceeds all other empires or dominions. Its
area is, in round numbers, 8,836,000 square miles ; a
portion of this, however (the northern parts of the
Dominion of Canada and the middle of Australia), is
inhospitable to man and barren. Its total population is
probably nearly 315,000,000, or not far short of one-
fourth of the entire population of the globe. The British
Islands, *.e.. Great Britain (made up of England, Wales,
and Scotland) and Ireland, are the chief seat of empire
and the ancient homes of the people whose energy and
intelligence have thus gained for them so commanding
an influence in the world ; but in extent and population
these "mother countries" are far exceeded by their
dependencies. . -■ -

To the Tea«A«r.— The extent bnd population at the British Empire u«
08 (ollowg :—

1. P088S8BIONB IK EuROPB.— <1) Oreat Britain and Ireland : area, 121,184
square miles; population, 86,OCO,000. (2) The Ctiannel Islands (Jersey,
Guernsey, Aldemey, Sark, and Herm): area, 73 square miles; population.
89,000. (8) Tlie Isle of Man : area, 282 square miles ; population, 66,00a
(4) Heligoland : area, 1 square mile ; population, 2,000. (5) Qibraltar : area,
2 square miles; population, 25,000. (6) Malta: area, 117 square milas;
population, 162,000.

2. Possessions in Asia and Asiatic Watkrs.— (1) The British Empire in
India (including the Nicobar and Andaman Islands): area, 1,618,044 square
miles ; population, 257,500,000. (2) Aden and the Island of Perim : area, 70
square miles; population, 36,000. (3) Socotra (in the Arabian Sea): area,
1,310 square miles; population (?). (4) Ceylon : area, 25,635 square miles;
population, 2,800,000. (5) The Straits' Settlements (including Singapore,
Penang, Province Wellesloy, and Malacca): area, 1,500 square miles; popula-
tion, 500,000 (Connected with the Stroits* Settlements are three native
Protected States, whose areas and populations are not herein included.)
(6) Hong-Kong : area, 32 square miles ; population, 161,000. (7) Labuan (off
Borneo) : area 30 square miles ; population, 6,000. (8) British North Borneo
(nortliem part of Borneo): area, 30,000 square miles; population, 160,000.
(9) Port Hamilton (in the Corea Strait): area, 6 square miles; population,
2,000. (IJ) Cyprus (only protected by Great Britain): area, 3,584 square
miles ; population, 187,000. '

3. P0S8B8810N8 IN Australasia.— (1) Australia: area, 3,030,771 square miles;
population, 2,550,000. (2) Tasmania : area, 26,216 square miles ; population,
135,000. (3) New Zealand : area, 104,403 square miles ; population, C20,00a
(4) Papua, or New GuineU (British portion) : area, 88,457 square miles ; popu-
lation, 137,600. (6) The Fiji Islands: area, 7,424 square miles; population,
128 000. (6) Norfolk Island : area, 16 square miles ; population, 8,600.

4. Possessions in Africa.— (1) Cape Colony : area, 213,636 square miles;
population, 1,240,000 (but these figures do not incluJe several recent annexa-
tions). (2) Natal : area, 18,750square miles ; population, 426,000. (3) The Islands
of Mauritius and Rodrigues, and the Seychelles: area, 1,063 square rolles;
papulation, 385,000. (4) Sierra Leone : area, 600 square miles • population.

01,000. (5) The Gambia Settlements : area, 21 square miles ; population,
lfi,000. (6) Gold Coast Colony : area, 16,620 square miles ; population, 620,000.
(7) Lagos (north of the Gult ot Guinea): area, 73 square miles; population,
76.000.

6. PossassiONs IN TUB SouTH Atlamtio.— <1) Ascension : area, 35 square
mOes ; population, 100 (?). (2) St. Helena : area, 47 square miles ; population,
6,000. (3) Falkland Islands: area, 4,740 square miles; population, 1,660.
(4) South Georgia : area, 1,570 square miles ; uninhabited.

6. Possessions in Ahbrica — (l) The Dominion of Canada : area, 3,470,392
square miles ; population, 6,000,000, (2) Newfoundland, with Labrador :
area (not including Labrador), 42,000 square miles ; population, 185,000. (3)
Pritish West Indies : area, 13,750 square miles ; population, 1,250,000. (4)
Balize, or British Honduras : area, 7,562 square miles ; population, 28,000.
(6) British Guiana: area, 86,442 square miles ; population, 262,000.

2. People. — Of the vast population of the British
Empire but a comparatively small portion is of British
race, and it is only in the British Islands themselves, in
the settled parts of Canada (exclusive of Quebec), in the
settled parts of Australasia, and in some of the minor
dependencies, that the race — the Anglo-Saxon race as it
is popularly called — preponderates in numbers. In
nearly all the other parts of the empire, but especially
in India (where the great mass of the population is) and
in Africa, native ra.^'^s are very greatly in the majority,

(100)

and people of British descent are as mere handfuls.
here and there.

3. Government. — All this vast empire is under
the authority, more or less direct, of the people of Eng-
land, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The head of the
Government is the Queen, who is styled " Queen of the •
United Kii:gdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and
Empress of India," and all government is administered
as if by her. But she is relieved of nearly all her duties .
by her Prime Minister, who acts in her place, and is
held responsible by the people for all his acts done in
her name. The Prime Minister is assisted by other
ministers (the whole forming the Cabinet), who are also-
held responsible by the people. Laws are enacted by
Parliament, which consists of (1) the House of Commons,
or representatives of the people; and (2) the House of'
Lords, or representatives of the ancient nobility of the
realm (but every law must receive the assent of the
Queen); and it is the duty of the Premier and his col-
leagues to see that all the enactments of Parliament
are duly carried out. This Parliament of Great Britain
and Ireland is the supreme authority in the whole-
empire, but the relations of the different dependencies-
to it differ very widely. Some, like Canada and tha-
colonies in Australia, make most of their own laws and.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

101

institute their own governments, and are practically
independent : the principal tins which bind them to the
crown of Great Britain are lovo for their mother coun-
tries and loyalty to the Queen. Others, like India, have
nearly all their laws niiwle for them by Parliament, which
also appoints their governments. Others, again, like
many of the West India Islands, make no laws for them-
selves, and are governed by Parliament absolutely.

4. Influence Upon the Progress of Oiviliza-

tion. — Because of their great empire, but more by
reason of their intelligence and their moral and religious
character, the people of
the British Islands
must be considered one
of the most infiuential
for good (that is, for
increasing and extend-
ing the blessings of civ-
ilization) in the whole
world. Moreover, their
language, the English
language as it is called,
seems destined to be-
come much moi:e widely
spoken by civilized peo-
ple than any other. In
addition, the people of
the United States are
for the most part of the
same race, their lan-
guage is the English
language, and their laws are modelled upon British laws,
so that they form another great Anglo-Saxon community :
thus these two great nations may be considered as con-
stituting but one in the noble work of advancing civil-
ization throughout the world.

EiXeroise. — 1. Point out upon a globe, or upon a map of
the world, all the British Possessions. 2. Arrange the British
Possessions in order of their respective areas. 3. Arrange the
British Possessions in order of their respective populations.
4. What proportion of the total population of the British Empire
does the population of Canada constitute ? 5. What proportion
of the total area of the British Empire does the area of Canada
constitute? 6. By using a globe find out approxim itely how
far from London, England, is (1) Montreal, Canada; (2) Cal-
cutta, India ; (3) Melbourne, Australia ; (4) Capetown, Cape
Colony ; (6) Kingston, Jamaica; (6) Victoria, B.C., Canada.

LESSON XL.

THE BHITISH ISLANDS.

1. Position, Extent, and Population.— The

British Islands are an arckipelago oft* the north-west of
the continent of Europe. They consist of two large
islands and very many small islands, — said to bo al)out
5,500 in all — but of these the greater number are little
more than mere rocks. The larger of the two large
islands is known as Great Britain, and the smaller as

Ireland. Great Britain
consists of three coun-
tries — England, Scot-
land, and Wales. Eng-
land has an area of
50,823 square miles ;
Wales, of 7,363 square
miles; Scotland, of 30,-
463 square miles; and
Ireland, of 32,535
square milea The popu-
lation of England in
1881 was 24,613,926;
of Wales, 1,360,51 3; of
Scotland, 3,735,573;
and of Ireland, 5,174,-
836. The population
of England, Scotland.
and Wales is continu-
ally increasing; but the
population of Ireland is decreasing — it has decreased
from 8,295,061 in 1845.

To tAtf Teacher,— Teach the relative positions of tlie various countries
comprised by the term British Islands trom the map (the smaller islands, as u
rule, are said to form part of the respective countries to which they are
adjacent); Hao the names and relative positions of their containing^ waters.—
The terms, < >reat Britain, and England, are often used in wider senses than
those implied in their geographical definitions. "Great Britain," and oven
" Britain," is frequently intended to include Ireland; and "England" is fre-
quently used so as to include all the British Islands ; a more common use of the
terra " England " is that by which it is made to include Wales with England.
Again, England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, are frequently spoken of
separately an "Kingdoms," and the whole British Islands as the "Three
Kingdoms."— The lengtU of England from Portland Bill to Berwick is 363
miles ; of Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway to Dunnet Head, 287 miles ; of
Ireland, from Mizen Head to Fair Head, 300 miles ; of Great Britain, from
Lizard Point to Dunnet Head, 608 miles.

2. Subdivisions. — England is divided into forty
counties; Wales, into twelve counties; Scotland, into

GIBRALTAR.

"•■•6IIH.HW

■9P

Longitude

Oreenwich

Oiiuida 'EMliihing Ca, Toronto.

■ wliima wA I rri 1 i

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V /

IIIK JmiTISlI ISLANDS.

103

- M

MUkomi I

thirty-three oountios ; and Irehiiul, into tliirty-two coun-
ties. Ireland is also divided into four provinces — Ulster,
Ltiiuster, Munster, and Connaught. ,

To the Teacher Tlie countlea of the British Klands (In England anil

Scotland often called ahircs) play 80 Important a part in history, and are «o
frequently referred to in literature and conv""8ation, that their names and
relative poaitiong should be made very familiar to the pupils : whether more
should be required of the pupils tnan to become able to point out quickly on the
map any county when Its name Is given, should deiwnd upon their age and
mental development. As an aid to memory, and as a guide to recitation
from the map, the following arrangement will be found of service :—

1. CouNTiBg OK Enoland. (1) Si* northern coiiiUiea: Northumberland,
Cumberland ; Durham, Westmoreland ; York, Lancaster. (2) Four eautern
eountiet: Lincoln, Norfolk, iSuSolk, Essex. (3) Four western count ien :
Chester, Salop, Hereford, Monmouth. (4) Ten north-midland i'luntiei:
Nottingham, Derby, Stafford; Rutland, Leicester; Cambridge, Huntingdon,
Northampton, Warwick, Worcester. (5) Ten touth-midland counties: Hert-
ford, BedfunI, Buckingham, Oxford, Gloucester ; Middlesex, Surrey, Berks,
Wilts, Somerset (6) Six southern counties: Kent, Sussex, Hants, Dorset,
Devon, Cornwall. (Notb.— To many of these names Is frequently added the
general term "shire;" thus "Yorkshire," " Devonshire," eta "Berkshire"
and "Wiltshire" are perhaps as conunonly used as "Berks'* and "Wilts."
Lancaster, Chester, Salop, and Hants, are fre(|uontly called " f^ncashlre,"
"Cheshire," " Shropshire," and " Hampshire," rest-eotively. Buckingham Is
sometimes called " Bucks.")

2. Cousnss OP Wales. (1) Six northern Louulies: Flint, Denbigh, Car-
narvon, Anglesey ; Montgomery, Merioneth. (2) Six southern eountien :
Radnor. Cardigan ; Brecknock, Caniuithen, rombroko; Glamorgan.

3. CouMiKS OF Scotland. (1) Eight Highland counties : Orkney and Shet-
land, Caitlmess, Sutherland, Ross, Cromarty, Inverness, Argyle, Bute. (2) Ai'rM
counties, x)i part Highland, in part Lowland . Nairn, Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen,
Kincardine, Forfar, Perth, Stirling, Dumbarton. (3) Sixteen Lowland eoun-
tics : Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan ; Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow,
Linark, Renfrew, Ayr; Berwick, Selkirk, Peebles; Roxburgh, Dumfries,
Kirkcudbright, Wigton. (NoiR.— Ross and Cromarty are often considered
one county.— The distinction of counties Into Highlands and Lowlands cannot
be definitely made ; for example, a large part of Caithness is Lowland ; the
above arrangement is sufficiently accurate, and will be serviceable. — Many
parts of Scotland are popularly spoken of by ancient names no longer offlcially
used: "Angus" denotes Forfar; "Clydesdale," part of Lanark; "Ettrick
Forest," Selkirk; "Galloway," Kirkcudbright and Wigton; "Oowrie," port
of Perth and Forfar; "Lennox," Dumbarton; "Liddesdale," part of Rox-
burgh; "Lochaber," part of Inverness; "Lorn," part of Argyle; "East
Ixjthian," Haddington ; "Midlothian," Edinburgh; "West Lothian,' Lin-
lithgow; "Moray," Elgin; " Nltlisdale," part of Dumfries; "Stratheam,"
part of Perth ; " Strathmore," part of Perth and Forfar; "Teviotdale," part
of Roxburgh ; "Tweeddoie," part of Peebles.)

4. Counties of Ireland. (1) iVt'ne counties of Ulster: .Vntrim, London-
derry, Donegal ; Tyrone ; Down, Armagh, Monaghan, Fermanagh ; Cavon.
(^) Twelve counties in Leinster: Louth, Meath, Westmeath, Longford;
Dublin, Klldare, King's County ; Wicklow, Carlow, Queen's County ; Wexford,
Kilkenny. (S) Six counties in Mtinster : Tipperaxy, Limerick, Clare; Water-
ford, Cork, Kerry. (4) Five counties in Connaught : Leitrim, Sligo, Mayo ;
Roscommon, Qalway.

3. Physical Features.

To ttie Teacher.— Viio British Islands should have more Interest for Cana-
dians, and especially for the people of Ontario, than any other portion of the
globe outside of our own country ; for they are our mother-land. There is
scarcely a geographical name belonging to them that has not its importance
from being associated with some great event in history, or with some noble or
other.viso eminent character in biography, -or with some romantic incident in
poetry or fiction ; or that has not become famous from ita connection with
commerce, or manufacture, or art. So that it should be the aim of the
teacher tr h ipa c to Lb pupils a very clear and comprehensive knowledge of
the phyu .<.:^'. A^^tures of tiiese islands ; but the minuteness of detcll with which

these are presented should depend upon the age and mental capacities of the
pupils. It is not important to know Mala of names; but, if posiiblo, the
pupils should become familiar with the phyiiical features of the lsland« to the
extent that when a mountain, or river, or lake, or heuilland, or otl\er feature
Is mentioned, or alluded to. Its position on the map should instantly come to
the mind without effort— The Physical Features should be taught entirely
from the map in a series of conversations. The following notes niuy be used :
The main features of the two larger islands are somewhat similar— oti tiie
westa mountainous district constituting as it were a "backbone," running
■om north-east to south-west ; and on the oast and south a distric^t generally
lowland in Its character, varied, however, by elevations. In the larger of the
twi Islands irregular marses of mountains and mountainous land oc<!upy
n -mt of the north and west of Scotland ; a continuous group of these masses
extending through the middle of the kingdom, from west to oast. Is called thu
Grampians. To the east and so'jth of the Highlands, occupying the remainder
of Scotland, is an Irregularly simpeil plain, called the Lowlands, in which, how-
ever, theSidlaw Hills, the Ochill Hills, the Pentland Hills, the Lanmiermulr
lliiis, and the Lowther Hills, are considerable elevations ; and these, and the
Cheviot Hills, which form part of the lx>undary between the two kingdoms,
continue the backbone Into K : < id. In England It is further continued by
the mountains of Cumberland :> 1 Westmoreland, and by the Pennine
Range as far as tlie Peak in Deriv sliire. Here it turns to the west, and,
spreading out, covers most of W le^ as the Snowdon and Cambrian Mountains.
In England, the contlnuaMin of tho range is of much lower height, and is
known OS the Malvern Hi' '^ and thu ootswold Hills. Continuing still of low
height it turns again to the west iiuder tho name of the Mendip Hills, and,
gradually declining, it terminates at ia<it with Land's End In Cornwall. The
principal elevations in this ran -h ar j : Ben Wyvis (3,442 feet), in Cromarty ;
Ben Nevis (4,406 feet), in Inverness ; Ben Lawers (3,984 feet), in Perth ; Skid-
("aw (3,022 feet), Helvellyn (3,110 feet), and Scawfell (3,208 feet), in Cumberland ;
and Snowdon (3,571 feet), in Wales. Tn F.ngland, as compared with Scotland,
there is a much greater proportion of lowland, and east of the range just
described there are found only comparatively very low elovations ; the most
considerable of these are the Wolds, the Chlltern Hills, and the Downs.—
In Ireland the western "backbone" Is not continuous as It is in Great
Britain : the detached masses are known as the Sperrin Mountains and tho
Donegal Mountains in the north ; the mountains of Leitrim and Sligo in the
north-west; Nephira Beg Mountains and tho Oonnenmra Hills in tho west;
and the mountains of Kerry in the south-west Other ranges or detached
masses are: the mountains of Antrim, the Hourne Mountains, the Wicklow
Mountidns, the Slieve Bloom Mountains, "nd the Knockmeledown Moun-
tains.— Apart from the mountainous districts outlined above, England is. In
the centre and south, generally undulating la surface, but in the east it is for
the most part merely a low plain ; Scotland generally is hilly, but it has
several large level plains or "straths," of which the most considerable are
Stratheam and Strathmore ; and Ireland is, in the north and south, generally
hilly, but its whole central portion is occupied by a low undulating plain
stretching from shore to shore.

The outline of the islands, especially of Scotland or North Britain, is very
irregular, but much more so in the west than elsewhere. Hence the coasts
are characterized by the possession of very many bays, both large and small,
and many xcellent harborages for ships (these, of course, being fewer on the
east) ; Ireland, in especial, is favored with good harbors. The estuaries, also,
of the larger rivers usually afford good harbors even for ships of the greatest
size. On the east of Scotland the indentatlonb of the sea are usually called
" firths" ; in the west of Scotland many of them are called " lochs"— a name
given also to the fresh-water lakes of Scotland. Similarly, in the north-west
of Ireland the indentations of the sea are sometimes called " loughs," a natne
which is given also to most of the fresh- water lakes of Ireland. The names of
the principal bays, estuaries, firths, lochs, loughs, and harbors that indent
the shores should be taught from the map ; also the names of the principal
channels, straits, sounds, etc., that separate the various islands of the British
Islands from one another.

Owing to the prevalent moistness of the atmosphere, &::d the favorable
configuration of the mountain ranges, the British Islands are drained by
numerous rivers, and many of these are suitable for navigation. The general
use of railways has of late lessened the commeidal importance of these rivers,
but they were formerly of great '<wvice i" '>flerting communication and

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THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

105

transportation. Nearly all the larger rivers, the Thames, the Severn, the I
Mersey, the Hiimbcr, the Clyde, the Forth, the Foyle, the Shannon, reach the ,
sea by long and deep estuaries, which adds much to their commercial impor- j
tancc, since these afford conveniciii mcctinp-places f or the necessary transfers |
of external and internal traffic. In Great Britain most of the rivers flow out-
wards from the main mountain rango towards the east or south; but the
Severn and the Clyde traverse breaks in this mountain chain, and flow west-
ward. The rivers of England are connected into one system by a network of
canals ; in Scotland, the Forth and the Clyde are also joined by a canal, and
so are Moray Firth and Loch Linnho (by the Caledonian Canal), communica-
tion thus being established from sea to sea; so, too, in Ireland, Dublin Bay
on the east is connected (by the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal) with the
Shanncn on the west, and Belfast Lough is connected with Lough Neagh and
Lough Erne ; but since the introduction of railways both canals and rivers are
now but little used except as a cheap though slow means of transporting
heavy merchandise. The names of the principal rivers should bo taught from
the map in order.

Lakes are not numerous in England and Wales ; the only notable ones are
Windermere (by far the largest, and only 8 square miles in area), Ulleswater,
and Derwetitwater, in the so-called "lake region" of Cumberland and West-

FINGAI, S CAVE, ISLE OF STAFFA.

morcland; but these, though very small, are much celebrated for their
beauty, being surrounded by the grandest mountain scenery in England.—
Scotland has a very groat number of lakes ; many of these are also much
famed for the beauty and grandeur of their surrounding scenery, being situ-
ated for the most part in deep glens amid lofty mountains. But few are in
the Lowlands : of these St. Mary's, in Selkirk, and Loch Leven, in Kinross, are
the most celebrated. In the Highlands, among the more noted lakes, are
Loch Lomond— the largest lake in Great Britain— 24 mili?8 long, near Ben
Lomond ; Loch Katrine, in the Trosachs— the latter a tract thought to surpass
in loveliness and variety of scenery every other district in the British Islands ;
Loch Awo, near Ben Cruachan, in Argyleshire; and Lr. i Tay, near Ben
Lawcrs, in Perthshire. Between Moray Firth and Loch Linnhe is a remark-
able v.iUey, long and deep, called Glenmore, in which a nuniber of lochs, the
principal being Loch Ness, have been Joined together iiito one navigable
system known as the Caledonian CaniU.— While in England the lakes are but
few, and in both England and Scotland are foimd principally among mountains,
in Ireland tlicyaro exceedingly numerous and are found everywhere. The
largest is Lough Neagh (IfiS scjuare miles), and it is the largest lake in the
British Islajids. Other large lakes are Lough ; 'ne. Lough Allen, Lough Ree,
Lough Dcrg, Lough Conn, Lough Mask, and Lough Corrib. The Lakes of
Klllarney, in Kerry, though very small, are nmch celebrated for their pictur-
esque beauty- from their western side rise steeply from the water's ■ ugo
UoGillicuddy's Reeks, the highest mountaina in Ireland.

Of the numerous islands of the British archipelago but comparatively tew
belong to England and Wales, and these lie so close to the mainland as almost
to form part of it, and many indeed are islands only at high tide. The Isle of
Wight, Anglesey, Holyhead, and Sheppey, are the principal islands; smaller
islands are Holy Island, Eddystone, the Scilly Islands, and Lundy Island. (The
Isle of Man, though geographically an island of the archipelago, is considered
politically as a dependency rather than a part of the British Islands).— In
Scotland, on the oast side the islands are few and very small ; on the north
and west they are nume -ous and important. These latter fall naturally into
four groups : — (1) the Shetland Islands, of which the principal are Mainland,
Yell, Unst, and Fetlar ; (2) the Orkney Islands, of which the principal are
Pomona or Mainland, Sanda, Westra, and Stronsa ; (3) the Western Islands
or Outer Hebrides, of which the principal are Lewis and Harris, North Uist,
Benbeculo, and South Uist— these are so nearly connected that they almost
form one body, and so are sometimes called the Long Island ; (4) the Inner
Hebrides, of which the principal are Skye, Rum, Coll, Tiree, Mull, Staffa,
lona, Colonsay, Jura, and Islay ; and (5) the islands of the Firth of Clyde, of
which the principal are Bute, Arran, Cumbray, and Ailsa Craig. The islands
of Scotland make up an area of 4,070 square miles.— Around Ireland, likewise,
islands are almost wanting on the eastern side ; on the western side they are
very numerous, but they are small and conform so closely to the winding of
the coast-line that they almost form a part of it. The principal islands are,
Rathlin, Tory, Neish Aran, the Mullet, Achil, Clare, the islands of Aran,
Valentia (from which the Atlantic telegraph cable proceeds), Dursey, Cape
Clear, Spike, Ireland's Eye, and Lambay.

A very long and much ii.dentcd coast-lino gives rise to an immense number
of capes, heads, points, forelands, and so on. The prinuipal are :— In England
and Wales, Flamborough Head, Spurn Head, the Naze, North Foreland,
South Foreland, Beachy Head, St Catherine's Point, Portland Bill, Start
Point, the Lizard, Land's End, St. David's Head, Holy Head, Great Orme's
Head, Formby Point, and St Bee's Head.- In Scotland, Duncansby Head,
Tarbet Ness, Kinnaird Head, Fife Ness, St. Abb's Head, Mull of Galloway,
Corsill Point, Mull of Cantiro, Mull of Oe, Butt of Lewis, Cape Wrath, and
Dunnet Head.— In Ireland, Fair Head, Hill of Howtli, Wicklow Head, Camsore
Point, Kinsale Head, Cape Clear, Mizen Head, Dunmore Head, Slyne Head,
Achil Head, Erris Head, Bloody Foreland, and Malin Head.

4. Climate and Soil.— Tlie British Islands enjoy
a climate very much milder and much more equable
than that of corresponding parts of Canada in the same
latitude, and much milder, indeed, than that of corres-
ponding parts of the continent of Europe in the same
latitude ; and hence the difference between the average
temperatures of the northei-n and southern parts of tlie
islands is not nearly so great as from their distance apart
might be supposed, Tliis is owing to the presence of a
surrounding body of water (for water everywhere pre-
serves a more equable temperature than land), and to the
influence of the warm south-west currents and winds of
the Atlantic — in particular the Gulf Stream. Ireland
is milder and more equable in temperature than Great
Britain, tand, as a rule, has more rain ; but, in comparison
with Great Britain, the rainfall is more equally spread
over the whole island, although in places, in the west
and south, it is excessive. Similarly, the western parts
of England and Scotland are milder and more equable
than the eastern parts, which are cold in winter and dry
in summer; but while the rainfall is considerable in
all the west, and excessive in some parts — ^particularly

mam

I »•

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Oanftdk-Publiibing Co,, Toronta

ifori

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E A

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

107

the north-west of Wales and the north-west of Scotland
— in the eastern part of the island it is comparatively
slight. The east, moreover, is exposed to cold m inds,
that come down across the North Sea, and much retard
vegetation, especially in spring. The south-west of Eng-
land enjoys the finest climate in Britain, and hence is
much resorted to by invalids. — Although there are some
very rich agricultural areas, yet, on the whole, the soil
of the British Islands cannot be said to be very fertile ;
but owing to the general humidity of the atmosphere,
the prevalence of rain, the equability of the climate, and
the thoroughness and skill with which the ground is
tilled, especially in England and Scotland, the natural
deficiencies of the soil are not manifested by deficient
crops, — on the other hand, nowhere does the husband-
man reap a richer reward for his toil. In England and
Wales eight-ninths of the soil is capable of cultivation,
but three-fifths of this is fit only for pasturage. In
Scotland only one-fourth of the soil can be cultivated,
and one-half of this must be given to pasturage. The
proportion of poor land in Ireland is very much less than
in Britain, and. altogether Ireland possesses but little
soil that could not be reclaimed either for pasture or for
tillage, and much of the boil is very fertile; but the
excess of moisture and rain, especially in the west and
south, is detrimental to grain crops, and even to green
crops; and, moreover, agriculture is neither so well
understood there, nor so well practised, as in either
England or Scotland.

To the Teacher.— In England, outside of the mountain districts and liill
districts previously described, a great portion of tiie land is comparatively
low, especially in the east— gently undulating for the most part, bi ' in places
spreading out into plains, as in the Great Yorlishire Plain, which embraces a
large part of Yorkshire, and the Fen District, which comprises a large portion
of the several counties adjoining the Wash. It is this lowland district which
is the fertile part of England, its river valleys being the most fertile. The
Yorkshire Plain, however, is bleak and in great part barren, though even its
river valleys comprise some of the richest tracts in England ; and the Fen
District is naturally marshy or fenny, having no natural drainage, as it is
almost on a level with the sea, and so is saturated with water and in its natural
state quite unfit for cultivation ; but artificial drainage, aided bysteau.-power,
has now reclaimed most of it and converted it into a fertile area. The higher
districts, comprising the "hills" and "downs" already mentioned, besides
many "moors" and "plains,"— as Dartmoor in Devon, and Salisbury Plain in
Wilts— are not arable, but a great portion of their soil is good for pasturage.
And, on the whole, as the western part of the island is higher than the eastern
part, a line drawn from the mouth of the Tyne in the north to the mouth of
the Stour in the south, will divide England with fair accuracy into two parts,
the one pastoral, the other agricultural, the "grazing counties" to the west,
and the " corn counties" to the east, -thouij;h, 3( course, the liighlands in tlie
east must be considered pastoral.— In Scotland not all, even of the Lowlands,
is fit for cultivation by the plough: Dumfries and Ayr, Lanark and Renfrew,
and Fife, and some other parts of the Lowland district, contain fertile areas
suitable for tillage; but the "dales," of which many are so famous— high
▼alleys found among the Lowland mountains - though ui 'clled for pasturage.

are not strictlj' agrioultural districts. The Lothiana and Berwick, however,
are arable and fertile, and it is in these counties of Scotland that agdoulture
is most successfully pursued. In the Highlands the soil is, as a rule, either
quite unfit for cultivation, or of only inferior value as pasturage.— In Ireland
one-seventh of the country is bog-land; the "bogs," however, are not
marshes ; they lie above the level of the sea and are easily drained. The
districts comprised within the two lines which may be drawn— the one from
the Hill of Howth to Siigo Bay, the other from Wicklow Head to Oalway Bay
-is largely covered with flat " red bog" ; besides, in mountain districts there
is, when taken altogether, an almost equal area of "black bog. ' The bog,
both black and red, consists mainly of decayed wood, moss, and other vege-
table matter, and can be cut out, dried, and then burned as fuel ; and indeed
"peat," as this dried bog is called, furnishes the people of Ireland with the
most of the fuel which they use. Nearly all bog-land can be reclaimed— flat
red bog tor tillage, mountain bog for pasturage. As a whole, in natural
fertility of soil, Ireland is much superior to Britain— the "Oolden Vein,"!!!
Hunster, between Cashel and Limerick, is one of the richest districts in the
United Kingtjom.

5. Vegetation. — The vegetation of the british
Islands greatly resembles that of Ontario. The larger
islands were once well covered with wood, but much of
this has now been cleared away. In England, more
woodland remains than elsewhere, principally in well
protected "forests" in Hampshire and the central
counties. In Scotland, the Lowlands are ia general
well cleared ; but in the Highlands extensive forests of
Scotch fir remain. In Ireland, nearly all the forests
have been destroyed, and wood is comparatively scarce.
— Agricultural crops are much the same as those with
which we are familiar in Canada. Wheat is the staple
cereal and the principal crop in England, and oats in
Scotland. Oats are the staple cereal in Ireland also, but
potatoes are the principal crop there. Grass for pasture
and for hay is more extensively grown thar any other
product in western England, in the more elevated dis-
tricts of the Lowlands and in the Highlands in Scotland,
and largely throughout Ireland — in England for the
food of both cattle and sheep, in Scotland for sheep prin-
cipally, and in Ireland for cattle principally. — The
British Islands are not distinctively fruit-producing
countries, but apples, pears, plums, cherries, quinces, and
such small fruits as gooseberries, currants, and black-
berries, thrive well and are cultivated with great success
in the lower and warmer parts of England and Scotlahd,
especially in southern and south-western England. — For
the supply of the vast populations of the manufacturing
cities and towns of England and Scotland, immense
quantities of garden vegetables are raised, especially ir
the counties about London, and in all the southern and
eastern counties of Great Britain generally.

To the Teacher.— The trees most common in the British Islands are t***
oak, the birch, the alder, the hazelnut, the aspen, the dwarf-willow, the yew,
the blackthorn, the ash, and the holly. Besides these; which are of geneni

108

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

distribution, in Scotland are found abundantly the fir, the mountain ash, and
the poplar; and in southern England, the elm, the maple, the beech, the
chestnut, and the parasitic mistletoe.— Agriculture and horticulture are
rowhere better understood, or more scientifically and successfully prosecuted,
than in eastern and southern England and the Lowlands (especially the
Lothians) of Scotland. Artificial and imported manures, artificial drainage,
machinery for ploughing and tilling the land, for reaping and storing the crops,
and for preparing food for stock, the rotating of crops, and other aids to good
husbandry, are everywhere made use of ; but of late years it has seemed most
profitable to give mora attention to the raising of cattle and sheep, the
making of butter and cheese, fruit-farming and market-j^ardening, than to
growing grain, since grain can be so easily and cheaply imported from other
countries. After wheat and oats, barley is the grain crop next in impor-
tance. Wheat is the tenderest of the grain crops, and is grown principally in
the southern counties of England and the warmer Lowlands of Scotland ; oats
are the hardiest crop, and can be thrown anywhere, even in the far north. Turnips
constitute an important crop in east England and in the district south of the
Forth in Scotland ; and potatoes in all the Scottish Lowlands. The valleys
of the Severn, Ouse, and Cam in England, and of the Clyde, Ayr, and Doon in
Scotland, are the chief dairy districts of Britain. Somerset, Devon, and
Hereford are the apple-orchard counties ; besides fruit, they produce also
immense quantities of cider. Hops are a principal crop in Kent, Surrey, and
Worcester.— In Ireland, flax is an important and valuable crop— principally in
Ulster, the flax grown there being of superior quality.

6. Animal Life. — The animal life of Great Britain
and Ireland in all its essential features very much re-
sembles that of Ontario and southern Canada generally,
with the exception that birds are much more varied in
kind and much more numerous than with us, and that
the song-birds greatly surpass our own both in beauty
of voice and variety of note.

To the Teacher.— The animal life of the British Islands so intimately con-
cems the inhabitants, not only in their occupations and amusements, but also
in their very habits of thought, that a fair knowledge of it is important. The
following notes may be used in a series of conversations ; wherever possible,
additional information in regard to the several blasts, birds, fish, etc., should
be given, pictures of them be shown, and an xact account of them be im-
parted ; the successful doing of this will depend upon the teacher's tact and
skill : — In the British Islands but few wild animals remain, though at one
time the wolf, the bear, and the wild boar were common ; the elk, too, was
once found in Ireland. The fox <s still preserved for the purpose of hunting
him, #0 also are rabbits and hares ; and in the Highlands of Scotland the stag
and the roebuck are preserved to gratify the tastes of the lovers of the chase.
The wild goat may still be met with in the mounts'ns of Wales; and a few
other animals, like the otter, the marten, the weasel, and the badger, are not
yet exterminated, though found only in uninhabited parts. The ■ ~'>h8, or
wild ox, is kept as an object of curiosity in the parks of some of t.. oillty.
Smaller animals, as squirrels, hedgehogs, moles, and dormice, similar to those
found in Ontario, abound, but are not (tli of general distribution. On the
whole, Ireland has fewer animals than B-itain.

Of birds, the British Islands possess a wonderful variety — a greater variety,
perhaps, than can be found in any other region of the same size on the globe.
Blspeciaily is this true of song-birds, such as the nightingale, the blackbird,
the linnet (lint-white), the thrush (mavis), the goldfinch, and the skylark, whose
beautiful warblings have been mode the theme of many a poet's song, and so
have bci3ome endeared to all the world. These birds are o\\ of small size ;
other small birds are the sparrow, the wren, the swallow, the marten, the
robin, and the cuckoo, some of which are known in Ontario.— Birds of the
cook kind— partridges, grouse, and pheasants- are prescr\'ed for game, and
the shooting of these in their season is an amusement ardently enjoyed by
many of the wealthier classes ; moreover, grouse, ptarmigan, and the caper-
cailzie, are found wild in the Highlands of Scotland. — Of birds of prey, the
principal are the golden eagle, the largest bird of the British Islands, found
only in tliu higher mountain regions, principally in Scotland ; the white-tailed

or aea eagle, found in the Scottish islands ; and falcons, hawks, buzaurd%
owls, and shrikes. Other land birds are the crow, the magpie, the Jackdaw,
and the starling. Of water-birds (both sea-fowl and inland water-fowl) the
number of varieties is exceedingly large : of the more common sorts are
divers, putflns, gulls, petrels, ducks, geese, gannets, herons, storks, cranes,
bitterns, curlews, plovers, sand-pipers, snipes, and terns. The swan is kept as an
ornamental bird in the streams and lakes of parks and gardens.— Of reptiles
few are found, and these are principally frogs, toads, newts, and a few lizards ;
the common adder Is the only poisonous snake,— no snakes, of any ""'t, are
found in Ireland.

Of domestic animals, both quadrupeds and fowls, all the sorts with which
we are familiar in Ontario are everywhere numerous ; and to the rearing of
pure and improved breeds of cattle, horses, and sheep, and of new varieties of
barn-yard fowls and pigeons, great attention is given. For the purity and
excellence of its breeds of farm and other stock Great .. Itain has long been
noted.— Of horses, perhaps most attention has been given to "thoroughbreds"
for racing, the best of which are descended from an Arabian horse imported
in the reign of Queen Anne. " Hunters " are next most prized. The great
" English black-horse," much fancied by London brewers, the Clydesdale, the
Cleveland Bay, and the Suffolk Punch, are also pure breeds, valued for heavy
work.— The Shetland Islande are famous for their breed of diminutive ponies
—in size not larger than a Newfoundland dog. Wales, Galloway, and some
other districts are also noted for their breeds of ponies.— Of thoroughbred
cattle, the different varieties often receive distinctive names from the counties
or districts in which they are kept purest : the most famous are the Durhams
(or short-horns), the Herefords, and the Devons, and the hardy black and
hornless cattle of Aberdeen, Angus, and Galloway— all valued tor their weight
and grazing qualities ; and Che Ayrshires, the Suffolks, and the Jerseys (the
latter from the island of Jersey), for the abundance and richness of their milk.
In the Highlands are found the Kyloes, a breed of small cattle much valued for
their beauty ; and in the Shetlands are found the smallest cattle in the world,
little things not much larger than a large-sized sheep, but excellent mil ers.
—Of sheep, the most noted varieties are the Leicesters, the Linoolns, the
Cotswolds, the Southdowns, the Dorsets, and the Cheviots, so called from the
districts in which they were first bred, and in which the breeds are kept
purest. Sheep-farming is a much more important industry in Britain than
we in Ontario should naturally suppose, judging from its inferior importance
in our own country.

In fish, the British Islands are peculiarly rich, both in fresh-water fish and
sea fish. Of those that are found inland, the trout and the salmon are the
most sought after — the trout in nearly all clear streams and lakes, especially
in mountainoiTS districts ; the salmon in the larger streams of south and west
Ireland and north Scotland. The salmon is the most highly prized of all fish,
both for its size and delicate flavor, and also as an article of game ; and tor
its preservation and to promote its increase many protective laws have been
passed.— The great extent of the coast-line of the British Islands, and the fact
that about them are so many shallow waters where fish congregate to feed,
have brought it about that a large number of the inhabitants of south and
east England, and of east and west Scotland, are engaged in sea-fishing, this
industry being, indeed, one of the great industries of the nation. — lii? most
important fish, probably, is the herring, of which, by drift-nets, enormous
quantities are taken, off the eas'. and south coasts of England, among the
western islands of Scotland in early summer, and in later summer off the east
coast' of that country. Mackerel, also, are taken in drift-nets. — Second in
importance only to the herring fishery is the cod fishery, which is prosecuted
by line-fishing— that is, the fish are caught by hooks attached to long lines.
The cod are brought into port alive in " well-smacks "—that is, in vessels
through the holds of which sea-wattr is allowed to poss freely. A single
smack may put out at once 8 miles of lines, on which will be nearly 6,000
hooks. At Grimsby and Harwich, the great centres of this fishery, the cod
are stored and kept alive until they are needed for market. By " long lines,"
also, the haddock fishery of east Scotland is prosecuted, the famous "Finnan
baddies" being caught off the coasts of Kincardine.— By deep sea trawl-nets,
turbot, soles, mullet, and haddock aie caught, principally on east England
coasts.— By sean-nets, pilchards in immense numbers are caught,— almost
solely off the coasts of Cornwall.— The east and south coasts of Ireland are
also good fishing grounds, principally for herring and mackerel ; but the Irish
fisheries have not been so energetically worked oc those of England and

\ ■

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

109

Scotland.~0( other 8ea-anlmal8, oysters of fine quality ar« taken in the estuary
Of the Thames, and some attention is g^iven to the arti&oial culture of the
9yster at several places on the east coast of England ; lobsters for the English
VQorkets are obtained principally in the waters of Cornwall, amongr the
Orkneys and Hebrides, and off the west coast of Ireland.

7. Minerals. — In. mineral wealth Great Britain is
particularly rich — not in the so-called precious metals,
silver and gold, but in. those most used in the arts —
iron, copper, tin, lead, and zinc — and in coal, porcelain,
•clays, and salt. It is to the fact that England and
Scotland each possesses abundant stores of both coal and
iron very close to one another that these countries owe
their acknowledged supremacy in the arts and manufac-
tures. Ireland possesses immense stores of iron, but, on
^account of her lack of a near supply of coal, these stores
cannot be profitably utilized. Ireland has some valu-
able coal fields also, but at present they are not worked
80 as to produce more than a tenth of the amount re-
«|uired for home use. Gold was once abundant in Ireland,
■and some valuable nuggets have been found in late years;
but the supply seems to be now exhausted. Of other
minerals, also, Ireland produces but little.

To the Teacher. — The mineral resources of Oreat Britain have had so much
to do with its prosperity that, it possible, they should be understood some-
'What more in detail. — Coal is the mineral of greatest importance, since,
indeed, it is the "chief material element of modern civilization." Iti:ithe
life-blood of Great Britain. Although the supply is great, the available
-Amount being estimated a'li about 160,000,000,000 tons, the amount annually
raised is enormous, being estimated at about 150,000,000 tons, or one-halt the
total output of the world. Of this nearly one-eighth is exported to foreign coun-
"tries. It is in the mountainous districtsot north-west England and of Wales, and
on the borders of the Forth and the Clyde, and in north Ayrshire in Scotland,
that the coal is obtained,- -Durham, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Northumberland,
Staffordshire, south Wales, and east Scotland, producing the largest quanti-
ties.— The iron of England and Scotland derives nearly all its economic value
Irom the near presence of coal, since that fuel is necessary tor smelting it.
Ireland, as was said above, pooaesses abundance of iron, and yet, from lack of
a cheap supply of coal its iron adds nothing to its resources. In England
Iron is abundant almost everywhere, e ' '*' is fairly abundant in Scotland,
■especially in the Forth and Clyde valleys ; uut it is worked only in the coal-
producing districts,— Yorkshire, Durham, Lancashire, Staffordshire, Mon-
caouthshire, south Wales, and west Scotland (iiei^rhborhood of Glasgow)
producing the largest quantities.— Of the remaining mineral resources of
Britain, next to iron, but far below it in value, is lead, produced principally
in Durham and Northumberland, and in Montgomeryshire and Cardigan, and
in the Lowther Hills in Scotland. — Tin has been from the very earliest times a
tamous mineral product of Britain, the tin mines of Cornwall having
attracted the Phenicians and Romans to the island in very early ages ; It is
found only in Cornwall, however, and in Devon— principally in Cornwall. Of
copper, also, the nrincipal supply comes from Cornwall and Devon. Zinc is
found in Wales, and in several mining counties in England ; and some silver
is obtaine<f in combination with lead ores in the lead mines. -Salt is hod
principally in Chester, which produces 1,500,000 tons annually, obtained both
Irom the evaporation of water from brine and by mining. —Kaolin, or porcelain
clay, from which the finer sorts of chinaware are mode, is produced in Corn-
wall and Devon. " Poole's clay," used also in the manufacture of pottery, is
an important product of Dorset. Fire-clay, used in making fire-bricks for
vmeltiiig and other furnaces, is an enormov.s product of Northumberland,

Durham, and south Wales. Buildlng-stone and slates are very wklelydlc-
tributed in mountainous districts. A very superior granite la obtained in
great abundance in the Grampians, near Aberdeen.

8. People. — The people of the British Islands are of
several original races, but these have become so blended
by social intercourse and inter-marriages that it is very
doubtful if any people of pure or unmixed race remain.
Generally speaking, the ancient Britons — the inhabitants
of Britain at the time of its first occupation by the
Romans, nearly two thousand years ago — and the Anglo-
Saxons — people from Germany who, about 600 years
later, conquered the islands — are together the principal
ancestors of the present inhabitants. But with these
must be included, also, the Danes and Norwegians, who
invaded Britain in large numbers in the 9th and 10th
centuries, and the Normans (also Norwegians, thougb
they had lived some time in northern France), who set/
tied in Britain under William the Conqueror.

To the Teacher.— The question to what extent the difleront original racer
affect the present population of the British Islands is not definitely settled,
but it is pretty certainly established that the earliest inhabitants of Britaio
were a dark-haired race, usually spoken of as Euskarians, and allied, it it
thought, to the Basques, or people now found in the western Pyrenees in Spain)
and from these the dark-haired people of the islands derive their origin.
With these in very early times were mingled the Celts, a light-haired race,
who invaded the islands in large numbers and established themselves there,
but did not by any means extirpate the earlier inhabitants, but seem rather to
have settled among and intermarried with them. These Celt-Euskarians were
the inhabitants of Britain at the time of the Roman invasion (the so-called
" Ancient Britons" of history), and, though long kept in subjection by
successive conquerors, they constantly .emained a substantial part of the
population, <and their descendants constitute a considerable portion of the
population at present. The next principal stock, if not indeed a more
numerous stock than the Celt-Euskarians, are the Anglo-Saxons, who were,
however, of several tribes, as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Danes and
Norsemen, and the Normans, though each in turn gained u political supremacy
over the islands, were also each in turn absorbed by the earlier races.—
Roughly speaking, the Anglo-Saxon population is now found mainly in
southern and south-eastern England. To the west and north the population
becomes more and more Celtic-Euskarian ; till finally, in Cornwall and Wales,
it is principally of the ancient Euskarian or Celtic-Euskarian stock. A well-
defined Danish stock, however, is found in the eastern counties, and an equally
well-defined Norseman stock in Lancashire and the Lake district. — In Scot-
land, the Anglo-Saxons obtained a firm foothold in the Lothians, and the
eastern part of the Lowlands may, on tho whole, be said to be occupied by
that race. In the north and west, especially in the Isles, the Celt-Euskarians
predominate, largely mixed, however, with Danish or Norseman blood ; while
in the central Highlands unmixed Euskarian blood is principally found. The
western Lowlands, also, are occupied by a Celt-Euskarian race, but mixed
with Anglo-Saxon blood.— In Ireland, the dark-haired Euskarian race is found
in the west and south-west, and Celt-EuskarianF', or almost pure Celts, in the
remainder of the island, although in the east there are many descendants of
the Anglo-Saxons and Normans, who settled there during the early years of
the English occupation. — These re: narks can scarcely apply other than to the
agricultural class, who have moveu about but little ; the artisan and trading
classes, found in towns and cities, and the higher social classes generally. ?t«
of all races, blended together by intermarriages.

9. Occupations of the People.— Nowhere are

the occupations of the people more vari«d thaii io. the

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

British Islands. I'Totwithstanding that land is dear and
hard to obtain, owing to an overcrowded population,
nevertheless, the primary occupations of mankind — agri-
culture, and the rearing of cattle and sheep — still employ
a large proportion of the people , and fishing, the third
j ^ great primitive industry, employs the bulk of the popu-

lation on all the sea coasts. But it is for their skill in
all the useful arts that the people of Great Britain are
most famous ; nowhere else in the world are all sorts of
manufactures pursued with such vigor and such success
as in th towns and cities of England and Wales, and
Scotlanu. The enterprise and ingenuity of the people
have been principal causes in effecting this manufacturing
supremacy ; but it is also largely due to the abundance
in these countries of the supply of coal, and consequently
to the cheapness with which steam-power can be pro-
duced and crude iron be onverted into cast-iron and steel.
Since the invention of the modern steam-engine and the
general employment of coal in smelting iron — each not
much more than a century ago — central and northern
England and southern Scotland have become, as it were,
one vast workshop foi* the manufacture of almost every
sort of article that the world needs, but especially of
articles made from iron and steel, copper, lead, and tin ;
and from wool, cotton, silk, flax, and hemp. — Besides
the agricultural, pastoral, fishing, mining, and artisan
classes, there are many people engaged in the carrying
trade, both on land and on water*; but especially in
navigation, for Great Britain has such supremacy in
ships, and her people are such good sailors, that she is
called the "carrier of the nations." Again, all this
farming, pasturing, fishing, mining, manufacturing, and
carrying, requires a commercial class; and so large is
this latter class in England and Scotland that it was
once said of the people of Great Britain by a great man
who very much feared them, but who wished to deride
them, that they vVfre a "nation of shop-keepers." In
addition, there is necessarily a large professional class ;
and besides all these, there are, in every part of the
United Kingdom, many people whose great wealth —
principally in land, descended to them from their ances-
tors — puts them above the necessity of doing any work
whatever : most of these belong to the ancient nobility
of the kingdom, and have titles which distinguish them
from their less fortunate fellow-countrymen.

To the Teacher.— y/itti regard to the agricultural classes it should he
■aid, that in both England and Scotland small holdings of land are almost

unknown, and the bulk of the rural classes are engaged aa laborers for oth«n>
In Ireland large farms are much less common ; three-fourths of the holdings
are less than thirty acres, anr'i one-flfth less than five acres ; but few of th»
occupants of the soil throu^nout the whole kingdom are its actual owners,,
and husbandry is in a very low condition. The country is naturally adapted,
to dairy-farming and stock-raising, but these pursuits receive less attentioa
than they should, principally fur lack of capital, but also because the small
holdings can yield for their occupants little more than a iMue subsistence—
and this of the most simply grown and most cheaply raised products.

10. ManufJEtctures. — Great Britain, among all the-
countries in the -vt^orld, is unrivalled in the immense
amount and variety of her manufactures; and in the
inventiveness and skill of her artisans, and in the won-
derful contrivances by which machinery is made to sup-
plement human labor, she is surpassed by none, aud^
until late years, was equalled by none.

lo the TeocAer.— Varied and Immense as the manufactures of Britain are»
those of cotton, wool, and iron, are by far the most important. Next in.
importance are the manufactures of articles of leather, silk, linen, and glass,
and porcelain and earthenware, watches and jewellery, paper and hats. Ship-
building, too, with its many connected trades, is one of Britain's principal
industries. The manufacture of beer and spirits, of soap and candles, of
carriages and musical instruments, of furniture and turned-ware, also employe
a large portion of the population. — The chief seats of the cotton industry ara
in Lancashire, Cheshire, and the north-midland country of England generally^
and in Lanark and Perth (in and around Glasgow and Paisley) in Scotland,
but especially in Lancashire. The woollen and worsted manufactures have-
their chief seats in Yorkshire and Lancashire in England, and in the south.
Lowland counties of Scotland. Carpets, both Kidderminster and Brussels,,
are made principally in Worcester, west Yorkshire, and Ayrshire. The silk,
manufacture is chiefly carried on in Lancashire, in the central counties, in the-
London district, and in the larger Scottish cities. The chief seat of the linen
manufacture is in Ulster (in and around Belfast), but eastern Scotland (Fife;
and Forfar) is also largely engaged in it. Hosiery and lace have their principal
seats in Lancashire and the midland counties of England, but lace and sewed
muslins constitute a very important industry in Ulster also,— The chief seat»
of manufactures from iron are, for heavy goods, machinery, and so on, south,
Staffordshire and the aajacent parts of Warwick, Worcester, and Shropshire-
(that is, the district in anu around BirminghamX the Merthyr Tydvil district
in South Wales, and the Glasgow district in Scotland ; and for cutlery, west.
Yorkshire or the Sheffield district.— The shoe trade has its chief seats in
Xorthampton and Stafford, and the glove trade in Worcester— Earthenware;
is manufactured most extensively in the "pottery district" of north Stafford-
shire ; porcelain in Derbyshire, south Yorkshire, and Worcester ; and glass in>
the Newcastle district, Staffordshire, and the Birmingham district Ship-
building is most extensively carried on in and near the great seaports at the
heads of the large ri\ er estuaries, especially on the Clyde, the Mersey, and the
Thames, and at Plymouth, Hull, and Newcastle. — Finally, in the metropolis,.
London, almost every branch of manufacture is more or less carried on ; Lut
book-making and its connected trades are its distinctive industry, as indeed
they are of Eklinburgh, the capital of Scotland.— It will be seen that the manu-
facturing counties of England are Lancashire, west Yorkshire, Cheshire,.
Shropshire, Staffordshire, Worcester, Warwickshire, Derby, Nottingham,
Leicester, Northampton, and Middlesex, in England ; Glamorgan, in South.
Wales ; Lanark, Ayr, and Renfrew, in Scotland (and, to some extent. Box*,
burgh, Fife, and Forfar) ; and Antrim, in Ireland. Lancashire is known as the-
" Cotton Country," west Yorkshire as the "Wool Country," south Stafford-
shire and the adjacent parts of Worcester and Warwick as the "Black
Country," or the " Iron District," and north Staffordshire as the "Pott-'.-ies."*
— Ireland has had many important manufactures both of metals and ol-
fabrics, but, with the exception of that of linen, they have nearly all decayed.

11. Imports and Exports. — The amount of the

foreign trade of the British Islands far exceeds that o£

i V

THE BBITISU ISLANDS.

Ill

* V

any other country in the \.'orld. Germany, France, and
the United States ar ^ the only countries that at all
approach Great Britain in this respect, and the imports
and exports of Britain are more than double those of any
one of these three countries. The articles imported come
from every quarter of the globe, and comprise every sort
of product that other countries have for sale, both crude
and manufactured ; but principally they are either
articles of food, or else raw material required for the
many manufactures in which the people of Great Britain
are engaged, — these six articles, however, being, in
order, by far the most important : wheat (including llour),
cotton, wool, sugar, timber (including fine woods), and
tea. The exports, likewise, go to every quarter of the
globe ; they consist mainly of manufactured goods and
coal, — and, in respect of value, in the following order :
cottons, woollens and worsteds, articles of iron and steel,
coal, machinery, and linens.

To the Ttaeher.—Ot articles of tood imported, wheat is by far the most
important : it is brought from Russia, Pnwia, the United States, Canada,
Fr«nce, Turlcey, and Egypt ; flour is brougm from the United States and
Canada; barley and oats, from Canada, Oenmaric, and Holland ; and Indian
oorn,fromthe United States and the countries on the Danube. Next to wheat,
as an article of tood, sugfar is the principal import ; it is brought from Cuba
and the other West Indian islands, the East Indies, and Brazil ; the next is tea,
brought, to the amount of nearly 100,000,000 lbs. per annum, solely from
China and India ; and the next, coffee, brought in almost as large quantities
from Ceylon, Central America, the West Indies, Brazil, and Arabia. Other
articles of food imported are: rice, from India, the East Indies, the West
Indies, and the United States ; sago, from the E^t Indies ; arrowroot, from
the East Indies, the West Indies, and from South America ; cocoa, from
Brazil; pepper, ginger, nutmegs, cinnamon, clove;^ and other spices, from
the East Indies and Ceylon ; dried fruits— raisins, flgs, dates, and so on— from
Spain, Turkey, and Italy ; currants, from Greece ; oranges, from Spain,
Portugal, the Azores, and Malta ; almonds and other nuts, from Spain and
Portugal ; and pineapples, bananas, and other tropical fruits, from the West
Indies. Beef— salt and fresh— and pork are imported from Canada, the United
States, and Australia; and butter, eggs, and cheese are imported from
Holland and France— also largely from Canada. — Tobacco (in immense quan-
tities) is imported from the United States— also from Cuba ; brandy (in millions
<tf gallons annually), from France ; rum (in much larger quantities), from
Jamaica and other West Indian islands ; and wine (in still larger quantities),
from Spain and Portugal — also from France, Germany, and the Canary Islands.
— Of the raw materials of manufactures which are imported, cotton is the most
Important, brought from the United States, India, Brazil, and Egypt. Wool,
klso, is imported in immense quantities, principally from Australia, the Cape of
Good Hope, and India, and some from Canada ; alpaca wool and llama wool
»re brought from western South America ; and mohair, from western Asia.
Silk (raw) is imported from India chiefly— also from China, Italy, and France.
Flax and hemp are imported from Russia.- Of the various kinds of timber,
imported pine is the most important, and is obtained chiefly in Canada ; but
also in Prussia, Russia, and Norway. Mahogany, rosewood, ebony, satin-
wood, cedar, and other valuable cabinet woods, are brought from Central
America, Brazil, tropical Africa, and the East Indies. Box-wood (for wood-
engraving) is brought from Turkey. Teak-wood (most valuable for ship-
building) is imported in large quantities from India and west Africa.— Other
important articles of raw material imported are: hides and tallow, from
Russia, India, Australia, and the Argentine Republic ; olive oil (used also as a
toad), from Italy, Spain, and Turkey ; cocoanut oil, from the East Indies and

Brazil ; cod oil, from Newfoundland ; spermaoet'I *t>\ wotue abt ifKn th»
South Seas, Newfoundland, and Greenland; petroleum, froui Canada and
the United States ; dyestuifs, from Mexico. Central America, Brazil, and th»
East Indies; sulphur, from Italy; saltpetre, from Peru and India; and
guano, from Peru, and from Ichaboe(off the south-west of Africa).— Moreover,
nearly all these articles are imported from other countries than those men-
tioned, and an immense number of other foods, also, are imported.— Th«
exports comprise, in addition to coal, salt, and flsh, which are almost the only
natural products exported, every sort of manufactured article, but they ar»
principally articles of cotton, wool, silk, and flax, and of iron, steel, copper,
and brass (including all sorts of machinery and cutlery), and earthenware,
china, glass, soap, stationery, and books. The great bulk of the export trade
is with the British Possessions in India, Australasia, Canada, South Africa, and
the West Indies ; and with Germany, tlio United States, France, Holland and
Belgium, Italy, Russia, Brazil, and Ch na ; but every country and nation in,
the world has Its due share.

12. Shipping. — Great Britain's immense foreign
and colonial trade is finely supported by her magnificent
commercial marine, which is without rival in the world,
and, indeed, beyond all comparison with that of other
nations. Regular lines of steamships and sailing-vessels,
ply between the principal British ports and the chief
ports of the United States, Canada, the West Indies,.
Brazil, India, the East Indies, China, Japan, Australia^
South .Airica, and Egypt, and the ports of all European
countries. In addition, British sailing-vessels of every
variety of shape and size trade more or less regularly
at every seaport of importance on the entire globe.
Moreover, ships from the United States and Canada^
and from France, Germany, Holland, and other Euro-
pean states, regularly visit the ports of Great Britain^
and assist in the carriage of her immense import and
export trade. . '

To (As Teacher.— The shipping of the United Kingdom is more than one-
third of the shipping of the entire world, and more than double that of the
United States, which is next in importance. The larger number of ships that
are now built are constructed of iron ; hence the Clyde and the Mersey, whiclk
are near the large iron and ooal fields, are the great centres of the iron ship-
building trade.— Sailing-vessels are being gradually replaced by steamship*;
and the necessities of commerce seem to require that these shall be built
larger and larger year by year.

13. Facilities for Internal Transportn.tion»

and for Communication. — Railways are spread
like a network over all England and the greater part of
Scotland. Ireland, too, is well supplied with railways.
The principal railways of Britain ramify from the metro-
polis. Canals (no longer used for passenger trafiic,
however) connect all the navigable rivers of England;
and two each traverse both Scotland and Ireland, from
east to west. Macadamized roads of the best quality
are found everywhere; but exceedingly irregular and
intricate in their routes — not in straight lines and at
right angles to one another, as in Ontario. — The British

112

ittti BRITISH ISLANDS.

post-office system ^lOi.' transmitting letters, cards, news-
papers, books, and small parcels of all sorts) is the model
of all the best post-office systems in the world ; the tele-
graph system is also under the control of Government,
and is excellently managed as a part of the post-office
system. — Ireland is connected with Great Britain by
lines of steam mail-packets, and by submarine telegraph
cables. Submarine telegraph cables also connect the
British Islands with the United States and Canada, and
with France, Belgium, Holland, and other European
countries, and thus with all the world.

14. Government.

To the Teacher.— Aa the Oovernment of Oreat Britain and Ireland is, to
A lari;e extent, the model after whiot) our Dominion and Provincial Oovern-
tnents are patterned, the pupils should be given such a knowledge of it as is
•uited to their ages and oapooities. The following notes may be used in
conversation : — As was stated in a previous lesson, the Parliament of Oreat
Britain and Ireland is the supreme authority in the whole British Empire ;
but many of the colonies possess, almost in entirety, powers of legislation
«nd aelt-govemment. " Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Com-
inonsandthe House of Lords.— The House of Commons is praotioallythe omni-
potent authority in the whole realm, especially in the uritish Iplands, although
«I1 its acts, and all its bills, before they become law, must be approved of both
by the House of Lords and by the Sovereign ; it is elected tor seven years by
the people of the British Islands at large, and consists of 670 members, of
whom 465 are elected by the people of England, 30 by the people of Wales, 72
by the people of Scotland, and 103 by the people of Ireland.— The House of
Lords consists of a varying number of peers, representatives of the ancient
nobility of the three kingdoms, England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
The peers are of different orders : princes, dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts,
And barons. All the peers of England are entitled to sit in the House of
Lords for life ; but the Scottish peers are represented by 16 members of their
order, elected for each parMu.iient ; and the Irish peers by 28 members, elected
tor life. New peerages can be created at any time by the Queen upon the
advice of the Prime Mmister. Besides the peers, the two archbishops and 24
of the bishops of the BIstablished Church of England are members of the
House of Lords. — All government is administered in the name of the Queen,
but the real ruler of the empire is the Prime Minister, who, with his fellow-
members of the Cabinet, constitu'«s a committee of Parliament,' to whom all
authority is entrusted for the time being ; but the Prime Minister and his
colleagues must have the confidence of a majority of the House of Commons ;
when that is withheld they must resign their positions to make way tor others
who shall have this confidence.— The laws of the kingdom are administered
by an able judiciary, at the head of which is the Lord High Chancellor ; all
the judges, except the Lord High Chancellor, are appointed for life, and are so
well remunerated, and accorded sq much respect and honor, that they are
thought to be removed from all temptation to do wrong in their high office.

15. Army and Navy. — One-third of the entire
expense of the government of Great Britain and Ireland
is for the support of the array and navy. The effective
standing army consists of about 140,000 men ; but this
is not nearly so large as the armies maintained by other
European nations, notably by Russia, Germany, France,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy; but it is supplemented by
a large and well-equipped volunteer force, somewhat
similar to our own in Canada, and by a considerable
force of " reserves." Great Britain's principal i;eliance

for defence in time of war is placed upon her navy, which
is esteemed the finest and most formidable in the world;
it consists of about 60 armor-clad vessels of great size
and strength, together with very many other vessels,
both steamships and sailing-ships. None but the strong-
est and swiftest iron steamships are now built, and
nearly all are clad in steel armor of great thickness.

''n the TVocAer.— A large portion (considerably more than one-half ) of the
land force of Great Britain is distributed among her various military stations
all over the world. Besides, in India there is a large army kept ready for
service ; but its expense is not borne by the home treasury, but by that of India,

16. Religion. — The people of the British Islands
have always been remarkaoie for their attachment to
religion; and their character for integrity, justice, and
purity of life, is not surpassed, if indeed it be equalled,
by any other nation. Any person is at liberty to profess
whatever religion he may choose ; but certain religions
possess civil privileges and rights which others do not
have, although the tendency of recent legislation has
been towards establishing for all religious denominations
perfect equality before ^Jle state. In England and Wales,
and Scotland, Protestants are very largely in the ma-
jority; in Ireland nearly four-fiftlis of tlie people are
Roman Catholics. In England and Wales, the Church
of England (Protestant Episcopal) is established ; that
is, it is recognized by law as tlie Church of the kingdom,
and is partly supported by money and land which once
belonged to the state. In Scotland, the Church of Scot-
land (Presbyterian) is established. Ireland has no estab-
lished church.

To the reocAer.— Statistics in reference to the memberships of the religious
denominations of England and Scotland are unattainable, but the following
statementsare approximately correct :— In England and Wales, about one-halt
of the people belong to the Established Church ; of the remainder, Methodists
are most numerous; but Roman Catholics, Congregationalists, Baptists,
Presbyterians, and Unitarians, are also numerous. There are over 209
separate religious denominations in England and Wales.— In Scotland, about
one-halt of the people belong j the Established Church ; but the whole popu-
lation is largely Presbyterian, the Free Church of Scotland and the United
Presby te> n Church being very strong denominations ; and, besides, ther*
are other Presbyterian organizations. Roman Catholics are numerous in the
north and west; and the Episcopal Church of Scotland is a large body.— In
Ireland, the Protestant Episcopal Church, known as the Church of Ireland, is
a large and powerful body, formerly established, comprising one-ninth of the
whole population ; PrcsbyterLins are very numerous in Ulster; and besides
these Protestants there are many .Methodists and Congregationalists.— By the
law of the realm, the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Lord
High Chancellor of the United Kingdom, and the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland,
must be Protestant.

17. Education.— For those who can affijrd the
expense, that is, for tlie Avealthier classes, the facilities
for education in Great Britain and Ireland are unsur-
passed in the world : in addition to the great universities

THE BRITISH ISLANDS.'

113

r I

and colleges intended for higher education there are, in
all the three kingdoms, but especially in England, a great
many richly endowed schools, for the education of the
sons of the wealthy. But for the education of the poorer
classes not nearly so much provision has been made. In
Scotland, it is true, the education of the poor has long
been fairly attended to ; but in Ireland, and especially
in England, it is only in late years that the edupation of
the great masses of the people has been much cared for.
A large proportion of the people are still unable to read
or write, but this gross illiteracy is now rapidly decreas-
ing. The improvement is due — in Ireland to the estab-
lishment of an excellent system of national schools; and
in England and Scotland to the general establishment of
"board schools," or schools supported partly by local
taxation and partly by the nation at large, and to the
bettered condition of the denominational schools, — ^the
result of the Government aid which they now receive.

To th» TeacA«r.— The great universities are :— Oxford, Cambridge, London,
and Victoria (Manchester and Liverpool), in England ; Edinburgh, Olasgow,
St. Andrew's, and Aberdeen, in Scotland *, Dublin, the Royal University, and
the Catholic University, in Ireland. Besides these there are very many other
excellent institutions for education in all the arts and sciences.— Of the
endowed schoo'p, the "Great Public Schools," as they are called, the most
famous are Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, Shrewsbury, the Charterhouse
(in Oodalming, t^urrey), and Westminster (London) ; but besides these there
are many other endowed schools almost equally famous. — Attendance at some
school between the ages of 6 and 13 is, since 1872, compulsory in Scotland ;
and between the ages of 5 and 14, since 1876, compulsory in England. — For
the higher education of girls but comparatively little provision is made in all
the United Kingdom, though of late some of the very best institutions in the
realm have opened their doors to women.

18. Wealth and Poverty. — Perhaps nowhere
eLe in the world are there such contrasts of wealth and
poverty as in Great Britain and Irelaijd. A large pro-
portion of the people are, of course, moderately well-to-do,
or comfortably well-off; and though, it may be, not rich,
are yet entirely free from the oppression of poverty, or
the apprehension of it ; these are the so-called middle
classes, upper and lower — farmers, artisans, tradespeople,
merchants, and so on. Again, there are the so-called
upper classes, to whom belong not only those v.'ho have
become rich through their own enterprise and good judg-
ment in business, and the more fortunate of the learned
professions, but also those who have inherited wealth
and titles from their ancestors — the members of the
nobility and landed gentry, many of them enormously
rich. But; besides all these there are, in every one of
the three kingdoms, in great numbers, the so-called
lower classes, who are unable to supply themselves with
16

the common necessities of life, whose poverty must be
relieved by public or private charity, and whose wretch-
edness and ignorance are beyond anything that we have
ajiy experience of in our own favored and happy country.

To the Teacher.— Tii^ land of the United Kingdom !• held by oompM*>
tlvely tew proprietors. Two-thirds of the antire land of England li owned by
no more than 10,000 persons— of these many own thousands of acres each;
one-fourth is owned by less than 1,200 persons. In Ireland, four-flftha of th»
whole country is possessed by 3,760 persons; and one-half of the whol*
country by 760 persons. In Scotland, 12 persons possess not far from a fourth
of the whole land of the kingdom.— On the other hand, the number of " regis*
tered paupers," or people supported In whole or in part from the public pune,
is nearly 1,300,000 ; of whom, however, by far the greater number are In
England and Ireland. The number has been very much greater, but Is now
happily decreasing, owing, no doubt, to the recent diffusion of the blessings of
education among the poor, and, consequently, to their increased self-respect.
The relief of pauperism, however, still entails an immense charge upon the
country, amounting to many millions of dollars per annum.

19. Chief Cities and Towns.

To the TeacA«r.— Nowhere else In the world are there so many large oltie*
and towns crowded together in such small space as in the British Islands,
especially in England. It will be Impossible even to enumerate all here. Th»
following list includes most of the larger and mure famous, with some of
their distinctive characteristics specified ; but the information given In the text
should be supplemented by the teacher with details of such other matter
(historical, biographical, etc.) as will be useful and as will serve to fix the text In
the minds of the pupils. The pupils should be required to locate on the map
accurately every place mentioned, and to connect It with the physical feature
—river, coal-bed, mineral district, etc.— which has contributed to Its impor-
tance. — The population given in brackets \h (in almost every case) that of the
census of 1861.

London, the capital of England and of the British Empire,
is the largest city in the world. In 1881 the population included
within the City and Metropolitan Police Dintricts — that is, of
"Greater London," as it is sometimes called — was 4,766,661, or
nearly half a million more than the total population of the
Dominion of Canada ; and the population of the city proper waa
comparatively only a little less. Throughout the whole of the
city proper the population is more than 50 persons to the acre,
and in a large part of it, it is more than 100 persons to the acre.
London is the metropolis not only of England and of the British
Empire, but also of the world. It is situated almost at the
centre of the land surface of the globe, and its commercial rela-
tions extend to people of every kindred and tongue. It is the
great money market of the world, and in all matters of trade
and commerce, both by land and sea, the world's chief city;
and while in these respects it is superior to all other cities, it is
inferior to none in manufactures, art, science, and literature.
London is the seat of government for Great Britain and Ireland,
and either the residence or chief resort of all the principal
people of the kingdom — the leaders in statesmanship, learning,
art, and science, as well as in wealth and fashion. Its public
buildings are among the finest in the world, and many of them,
from their historical or other associations, are of great intorest
to every Briton. Among the more famous of these are Y/ hite-
hall Palace, the Tower, St. James's Palace and Buckingham
Palace (residences of the Queen), the New Palace of Westminster
(where the Houses of Parliament meet), the Mansif^ House (the

114

THK BRITISH ISLANDS.

toBidcncoot the Lord Mayor), St. Paul's Cathedral, WestminBter
Abbey, Lambeth Palace, the British Museum, Soutli Kensington
Museum, the Crystal Palace, the Mint, the Guildliall, the Royal
Exchange, the Bank of England, the Central Moat Market, and
Billingsgate Fish Market. There are also a great many public
monuments and statues, of which tlie more famous are the
Nelson Column, the Duke of York Column, the Albert Memorial,
and Cleopatra's Needle (this last broug) from P'^ypt). London
is famous for its public parks and gardens ; of these, Hyde Park,
Kensington Gardens, St. James's Park, Green Park, Regent's
Park, and Victoria I'ark, are the most noted. The bridge? over
the Thames, the Thames Tunnel, the underground railv/ays, the
docks, and the Thames Embankment, are other public works of
^reat importance and interest. — London is u world in itself:
people of every nation and language, and of every variety of
<3Ustom and habit, and of every degree of character, are gathered
within its limits. Its contrasts of wealth and poverty, of virtue
and vice, of intellect and mental degradation, are of the strongest
possible kind ; in no other city in the world are there so many
wealthy and highly educated people; in none, on the other hand,
are there so many whose wretchedness, depravity, and ignorance
are so dreadful, so utterly hopeless. Greenwich, a suburb of
London, is the seat of the Royal Observatory, from which longi-
tude is reckoned. Woolwich, another suburb, has the largest
arsenal in Great Britain ; it contains over 24,000 pieces of
ordnance, besides guns and ammunition and other military
|1| stores.

Liverpool (552,425), with its suburbs, the second city in the
United Kingdom, is the great por*^^ of the manufacturing district,
and, as a seaport, the rival of London ; and in the amount of
shipping registered at its port (that is, owned by it), it is with-
out rival in the world. Its commterce is with every country on
the globe, but principally with the United States and Canada.
Its docks, and quays, and floating landings, are the finest in
the world. Its great industry is shipbuilding. Birkenhead
(83,324) is, commercially, a part of Liverpool.

Manchester, including Salford, (517,649) is the chief city
in the world for the cotton manufacture, and in Britain a great
centre of political interest and of science and art. It is also
celebrated for the number and excellence of its public buildings,
its parks, its colleges, its free libraries, and its charitable insti-
tutions. It is one of the great railway centres of the kingdom.

Birmingham (400,757) is the chief city in the kingdom for
the manufacture of all sorts of metal work, including iron and
steel goods, tools, machinery, steam-engines, firearms, cutlery,
and pens. It is also noted for its brass-founding, its saddlery,
its gold, silver, plated, bronze, ormolu, and japanned wares, its
papier mach6 goods, and its manufacture of toys, jewellery, and
buttons. Birmingham, like Manchester, is a great canal and
railway centre.

Leeds (309,119) is the great centre of the woollen manu-
facture, including broad-cloths, narrow -cloths, kersey-meres,
beavers, and carpets. Large quantities of manufactured webs
are brought from other towns to Leeds to be finished. Its
cloth market is the most famous in the world.

Sheffield (284,410) is the chief seat of the manufacture of

cutlery, silver-plate, and plated-goods. It is also noted for Its
German-silver goods, buttons, combs, and optical instruments.

Bradford (183,0.37) is the chief scat of the manufacture of
worsteds, both yarns and stuffs; it is also noted for its mohairs,
alpacas, and silks.

Leicester (122,376) is the chief scat of the manufacture of
woollen hosiery ; it is also noted for its lace, cords, and clastic
wjbs. NoTTiNr.HAM (111 ,031 ) is the chief seat of the manufacture
of cotton hosiery and of lace. Oldham ( 1 1,1,343) has the largest
machinery works in the world. It is also noted for its manu-
facture of velvets and silks.— Other towns especially noted for
tlieir manufactures are : — Bolton (105,422), for cottons; Black-
burn (104,012), for cottons and woollens ; Preston (96,532), for
cottons and linens ; Norwich (87,842), for shawls, crapes,
muslins, dress-goods, and handkerchiefs; Huddersfield (81,-
825), for broad-cloths, kerseymeres, and fancy-goods; Derby
(77,636), for ribbons, hosiery, and porcelain ; Wolverhampton
(75,738), for locks, tools, nails, and general iron-mongery ;
Halifax (73,633), for unfinished woollens and silks ; Rochdalk
(68,865), for coarse woollens and calicoes ; Stockport (59,544), for
cottons; Burnley (58,882), for cottons and M'oollens; Walsall
(58,806), for iron-mongery ; Bromwich (50,299), for hardware;
Northampton (51,880), for boots and shoes ; Bury (51,582), for
cottons; Ipswich (50,762), an ancient, irregularly-built, old-
fashioned town, for woollen cloths and yarns ; Hanley (48,354),
for pottery; Wioan (48,190), for woollens, cottons, and iron;
Dudley (46,233), for iron-ware ; Reading (42,050), for silka
and velvets; Coventry (42,111), for silk gauze and ribbons,
elastic webs and lace ; AsH ton-under-Lynb (37,389), for calicoes
and ginghams; Maccleskiicld (35,480), for silks; Worcester
(33,955), for china-ware and gloves ; Carlisle (31,074), for cot-
tons and prints ; Shrewsbury (23,406), for linen thread and
canvas; Kidderminster (19,473), for fine carpets and rugs;
Stoke-upon-Trent (19,263), for china and earthenware; and
Taunton (15,466), for silks and woollens.

Bristol (206,874) is one of the chief seaports in the kingdom
for foreign trade ; it is also noted for its cathedral, and '>thtjr
fine public buildings. Opposite to Bristol is its suburb, ClifKiN
(26,364), famous for its warm springs.

Hull (181,225) is the chief seaport in the kingdom for the
North Sea and Baltic trade. Its docks, basins, quays, and
warehouses, rival those of Liverpool.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne (145,228), Gateshead (65,873), on
the opposite side of the Tyne, and South Shields (56,922), to-
gether form one of the great seaports of England, in this respect
ranking next in importance after Hull, They are largely engaged
in ship-building and in the manufacture of sail-cloth, cordage,
and other ships' supplies. Their manufacture of machinery,
glass, firearms, ordnance, and chemical products, are also exten-
sive. Sunderland (110,262) is an important seaport, noted for
its export of coal and manufacture of glass. Plymouth (75,096)
is noted for its Baltic and West India trade, and its ship-building
(principally for the navy). In Plymouth Sound is the celebrated
Plymouth Breakwater, the most famous structure of the sort
in the world. Entrance into the Sound is guided by the cele-
brated Eddystone Lighthouse. Southampton (60,235) ia a

THE imiTISII ISLANDS.

u»

oalling- place for the steam- packets which ply between London
«nd the Mediterranean ports, India, and Australia, at which
they often take on or put oS passengers. Southampton has a
large ship-building trade. Stookton-on-Teks (41,040) has a
North Sea and Baltic trade, and is engaged in ship-building.
Chestkr (35,257), an old Roman town, also has a ship-building
trade. Duvkk (28,590), an old Roman and Saxon town, has a
harbor of refuge, and is the chief port of communication between
England and France. Falmocth (5,294), from its position, is a
ipreat resort for shipping in stormy weather. It also hat a good
West Indian and South American trade.

PoRTaMODTii (127,95.3) is one of the great naval stations of
England, with a (Government dockyard containing basins, dry
and wet docks, forges, and every other necessary for the con-
struction and outfit of ships-of-war ; also with a Government
-arsenal containing armories and ammunition depots for the
«quipment of soldiers. In Portsmouth Harbor the whole British
navy might ride at anchor in perfect security. Devonport
{48,745) has the largest naval arsenal in the kingdom, and its
Oovernment dockyards are the finest in the world. Chatham
<46,806) is another of the chief naval and military stations of
England, containing great barracks, armories, dockyards, mili-
tary schools, hospitals, and so on. Sheerness (13,956) also has
« famous Government dockyard.

Brighton ( 107,546), one of the most beautiful cities of Europe,
is the most famous watering-place of Great Britain. Bath (51,-
790), built mostly of white freestone, is also famous for its beauty,
and claims to be the most beautiful city in Britaip. It is noted
for its warm medicinal springs, and Is a fashionable health
resort. Cheltenham (44,519) h also a fashionabie health resort
by reason of its saline springs. Tynemocth (43,863) and
Hastings (42,256) are favorite sea-bathing places. Scarborgitqh
^24,259) is famous both for its sea-bathing and for its mineral
nprings. Leamington (20,910) derives its fame from its sulphur
luid chalybeate springs.

York (54, 198), one of the oldest cities in England, is cele-
brated for its beautiful Minster, the finest cathedral in England,
«nd one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. York is
the residence of one of the two archbishops of England. Can-
l^ERBURV (20,962) likewise haa a famous cathedral, and is the resi-
dence of an archbishop also, who is primate of all England and
the first peer of the realm. Lincoln (26,766) has a cathedral
which is second in beauty only to that of York — its exterior being
•even superior to it. Exeter (34,650), Rochester (21,590),
Winchester (16,366), for a long time the capital of England,
Durham (14,932), Salisbury (12,903), Ely (6,114), and Norwich
-and Worcester, previously mentioned, all have cathedrals which
are the architectural pride and glory of the kingdom.

Yarmouth (46,211) is the great seat of the herring fishery.
Grimsby (26,244) and Harwich (6,079) are the great seats of
the cod fishery. Colchester (22,612) is a principal seat of the
-oyster fishery.

Oxford (32,477) and Cambridge (30,078) are the seats of the
two great universities of England. Their collegiate buildings—
oolleges, halls, libraries, museums, churches, and chapels — are

tlie finest structures devoted to education in the world. Oxford
is thought to be one of the most beautiful cities of England.

Truro (11,049) is the groat centre of the tin and copper-
producing districts, and of the tin ingot and plate manufacture.

Mkrthyr-Tydvil (91, .347) is noted for its coal and iron mines,
and for its iron works. Cardiff (82,573) is a seaport town with
large exports of coal, iron, steel-rails, and tin-plate. Swansea
(63,739) is the greau centre Tor copper-smeiting. it is also famous
for its iron, zinc, and tin works. Llanelly (14,073) has tin,
copper, and iron works. Pembroke ( 14, 197) is one of the oldest
towns in the kingdom, and was formerly a fortress of great
strength. Carnarvon (0,449) has mine^ of copper, lead, slate,
and coal. Milford (3,252) is the point of departure, by steam-
packet, for Ireland.

Edinburgh (236,002) was the capital of the former kingdom
of Scotland, and is now the scat of the Scottish Supreme Courts.
It consists of two parts — the Old Town, irregular but romantic-
looking, with lofty houses built on lofty sites ; and the New
Town, regular and modem-looking, built for the most part of
white freestone — together forming one of the most picturesque
cities in Europe. High Street, in the Old Town, and Princess
Street, in the New Town, are the pride of the city. Among the
more famous public buildings of Edinburgh are :— Holyrood
Palace, the residence of the ancient Scottish kings ; theCastle, once
the strongest fortress in the kingdom; St. Giles's Cathedral; the
Outer Houtie, once the meeting place of the Scottish Parliament ;
and the Royal Institution. The University of Edinburgh is one
of the famous universities of Europe; and the educational insti-
tutions of the city, both classical and scientific, are unsurpassed.
Asa literary centre, Edinburgh is second only to London, and
its book-publishing trade also is next to that of London. Leith
(61,168), the seaport of Edinburgh, has an important trade with
foreign ports on the North Sea, and with the ports on the Baltic;
it has also an important herring and haddock fishery.

Glasgow (511,532; with its subur^ 374,095), the metropolis
of Scotland, and one of the great cities of the empire, is famous
for its iron ship-building and machine-making, its "Clyoj-
built " ships and engines being known over all the world. To
make Glasgow accessible to the sea immense sums of money
have been spent in deepening and widening the river, and now
vessels of the largest size can ride safely at all states of the tide,
alongside her magnificent docks and quays. Glasgow has a
large trade with Canada and the United States, and is the
great centre of the sugar and tobacco import trade. In chemical-
making, calico-printing, glass-blowing, cotton-weaving, and
wool-weaving, Glasgow has also a pre-eminent place. Glasgow
University is an excellent institution, and possesses a magnificent
building. Among the other famous public buildings are the
Cathedral and the Royal Exchange. Near Glasgow is Greenock
(63,899), with shipping and manufacturing industries similar to
those of Glasgow.

Dundee (140,054) is the principal seat in Great Britain of the
linen, hemp, and jute manufactures. It is also the principal
seat of the British whale fishery.

116

THK IJIUTlaH ISLANDS.

Abkhdekk (100,003) is the Muat of an excellent university;
ftlso of many manufactures. It lias a largo foreign and coasting
trade, and exports salmon and other tish to London. It is
famous for its quarries of fine granite.

Paihley (.55, 1)12) is famous for its manufactures of silk and
woollen sliawls, muslins, silks, and fancy -gotHls. 1'kktii (28,780),
an old Roman town, exports liHh and ))<)tutou8 to London, and
has manufactures of cotton-stulTs, ginghuniM, and shawls. Kil-
marnock (24,077) is famous for its manufactures of carpets and
shawls. Akiiruatii (21,758) is famous for its spinning mills, by
which it prtxluces flax and homp yarn ; also for its manufacture
of canvas and of brown and bleached linens. Ayr (20,821 ) manu-
factures carpets and blankets, and i« a place of popular resort.
Invkknems (17,300), one
of the most ancitint places
in Britain, is beautifully
situated at tlie >utlet of
the Caledonian Canal in-
to Moray Firth, and has
manufactures of linens
and plaidings. It is called
the "Capital of the High-
lands." Dumfries (17,-
090) is called the "Capi-
tal of South Scotland";
it is famous for its manu-
factures of tweeds, hats,
and hosiery. Dunkerm-
LiNE(dum)( 17,085) is the
chief seat in the United
Kingdom for the manu-
facture of table-linen;
also of colored cotton and
worsted table-covers.
Stirling (16,013), for a
time the capital of Scot-
land, is celebrated for its
picturesque situation and
for its lofty ancient
castle, f][om which may
be obtained a view un-
equalled for beauty in
Britain. It has manu-

THE giants' causeway.

To the Teacher.— On the north coast ot Antrim is the famous Giants' Causeway, an
irre^lar platform compacted of about 40,000 dark-colored, perfectly-formed, polygonal,
basaltic columns. This platfonn, starting from the base of a high basaltic clifT, projects like
a pier or causeway about 700 feet out into the water, and is about S.IO feet in breadth, and of
varying height, ranging near to 30 feet. Tradition ascribes its conBtrnctioii to the labor of
giants in ancient days, who desired to construct a road across tlie sea to Scotland. Tho
island of Staffa, in Scotland, in which is tho celebrated Fingal's Cave, is a formation somewhat
similar to the Causeway.

factures of shawls and
tartans, and is noted for its dye-works. Kirkcaldy (15,055) is
noted for its manufactures of bed-tickings, canvas, and other
coarse linen fabrics. Montrose ( 1 4,975) is an important seaport,
its harborage and dockage being the best on the east coast of
Scotland. Dumbarton (13,782), a very ancient town, famous
for its castle, has glass-works, and iron ship-building yards.
Galashiels (12,434) is famous for its tweeds, woollen stockings,
blankets, ilannels, shawls, and plaids. Saint Andrew's (5,969)
is the seat of the oldest Scottish university.

the centre of its political, ecclesiastical, educational, military^
and railway systems. Its manufactures, however, are very few —
the only extensive ones being those of beer and ale, and of dis-
tilled liquors. Once tlie city was famous for its manufactures of
woollens, silks, and linous, but tliexe have all decayed ; its com-
merce, however, is improving. l)ul)lin has some of the finest
streets, and some of the flnes*^i buildings, both public and private,
of any capital of Europe ; but the beauty of the city is marred,
and even the grandeur of its noblest buildings obscured, by the
presence everywhere of such poverty, wretchedness, and squalor
as characterise few cities of its si/e in the world. Among the
more noted of the public buildings are Trinity College, theliank
of Ireland, St. Patrick's Cathedral, Christ Church Cathedral,

the Castle, the Customs'
House, the Four Courta
(for tho sessions of the
superior courts), and the
Post-OfKce. Dublin ia
famous for the number
and stateliness of ita
public monuments and
statues, — among the
more celebrated of these
ore the Nelson Pillar and
the Wellington Obelisk.
Dublin suffers, like other
Irish cities, from the per-
petual absence abroad of
the wealthy land-liolding
aristocracy of th<! king-
dom ; of all tho peers of
Ireland, only two are
said to have residences
in the capital. As an
educational centre, Dub-
lin holds high rank ; it
is the seat of the ^hrea
great universities of Ire-
land, and of many ncien-
tific institutions and
societies. The Bay of
Dublin is one of the
finest in the British
Islands. Kingston, on

Ni.

DuBiiiN (with its suburbs, 349,648) is the metropolitan city
and capital of Ireland, being the chief seat of its commerce, and

its south side, is the principal harbor of the city and the resort
of its largest shipping.

Belfast (208,122) is second to Dublin in population and
trade, but far superior to it in manufactures. In addition to
its other manufactures, it is the chief seat of the linen manufac-
ture of the world, and the depot of the whole linen trade for
wliich the north ot Ireland is famous. As a seaport, Belfast is
improving in importance, and its ship-building and manufactures
of ships' supplies are extensive. Queen's College, Belfast, is an
educational institution of high rank.

Cork (80,124), at the head of a magnificent harbor (one of
the best in Britain), has a fine shipping trade, especially vritik

GERMANY.

117

)r
ia

)

English and Scottish ports, to which It exports the farm pro<luce
bid the famous salmon of the south of Ireland. Its n^tnufac-
tures are important. Its cathedrals and churches are exceedingly
fine, and much famed. Queen's College, Cork, is an excellent
educational inatitutioa. At the entrance to Cork Harbor is
Qdken»town (9,738), which is the port of Cork for largo
■hipping. Limerick (38,600) is fatr.oua for its manufacture of
fish-hooks and Irish lace. It also exports farm produce in great
quantities. LoNDONUiiRRY, or Dkhky (28,047), is a famous his-
torical town, with linen, ilax-yarn, and other manufactures, and
a large export trade. At Moville, which ia the seaport of
Londonderry, ocean steamers on the Atlantic route from Canada
and the United States to Glasgow and Liverpool call to put off
and receive their mails. Waterfukd (22,401 ) is the port of ship-
ment of the produce of southeastern Ireland, including bacon,
livestock, dairy produce, and salmon. (Ulway (14,620), the
largest town in western Ireland, once had a magnificent foreign
trade; but this has long since declined. Its exports now are
principally wheat, flour, kelp, marble, and wool. Galway is the
■eat of one of the Queen's Colleges. In CladdaoH, a suburb of
Galway, the Erse, or native language of Ireland, is still the
language of the people. Droomeda (12,516), one of the historic
towns of Ireland, has good cotton and flax spinning-mills,
and a fair export trade. Dundalk (12,204) haa important fish-
eries. KiLKEyMY ( 12, 182) is famous for ita antiquities, including
a flne old cathedral, several monaateries, and a castle. It also
has, in good preservation, one of the famoua ancient " round
towera " of Ireland. Sligo (10,764) is seaport town with aome
manufacturea. Clokmel (10,519), a town of great antiquity,
haa a large trade in agricultural produce.

Exercise. — l. Compare in aize England, Scotland, and
Ireland, severally, with Ontario. 2. Describe the climate of
England, of Scotland, and of Ireland. 3. Poiat out on the map
the various grain-producing, paaturing, and fruit-producing
diatricta of the Brltiah Islands. 4. Give some account of the
condition of agriculture in the Pritish Islands. 5. Give some
account of the animals of Great Britain and Ireland. 6. Compare
the birds of Great Britain with those of Ontario. 7. Point out
on the map the various districts of Gveat Britain which are
famous for their pure breeds of farm stock. 8. Describe the
fisheries of Great Britain. 0. Give some account of the prin-
cipal manufacturing industries of Great Britain and Ireland.
10. Divide the British Islands into districts with r'tirence to
the occupations of the people. 11. Trace on a globe the various
courses of the export and import trade of Great Britain. 12.
Trace on a globe the routes of the great steamship lines of
Great Britain. 13. Duicribe the facilities for internal trans-
portation, and for communication, possessed by the British
Islands. 14. Describe the condition of the British Islands
with respect to education. 15. Describe the condition of t <<
people of Great Britain and Ireland with respect to the distr.
bution of wealth and poverty. 16. Locate on the map tb
various cities and towns mentioned in the text. 17. What
reasons are there that the towns of England should be much
more populous than those of Ireland ?

' LESSON XLI.

THE COUNTRIES OF THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE.
I. GERMANY.

1. The Empire of Germany; Its Extent and

Population. — The Gernmu Eiiipiro is a confederation
of twonty-live states, of whicli tlie principal are PrussisL,
Bavaria, Saxony, WUrteiuberg, and Baden. Prussia is
by far the largest of the oonfedorated states, and the
King of Prussia is hen5dit vry German Emperor. The
area of the empire is 208,683 square miles ; the popula-
tion is about 45,500,000.

To tht reacAer. —Alsace-Lorraine U not a confeaerato state of Oermany':
I*' beloiiKs to the whole empire in i^eneral. — In very recent times Germany has
been enileavorinif to establish a colonial em|iire. On the west coast of Africa,
a territory called LUderitz Land, between the Orange River and Capo Frio, is
claimed by Oermany— also some other paHa ; and on ttie east coast, a consid-
erable area bacic of Zanzibar. Northern New Ouinua, and the adjacent
Bismarck Archipelago, also belong to Oermany. Although thcHo so-called
colonial possessions cover about 460,000 square miles, there are no Qerman
settlers In any of them.

2. Boundaries . nd Physical Features.

To the 7'cacA«r,— Teach from the map the boundaries of Germany ; also the
relative positions and boundaries of the principal states of the empire.— Teach
also from the map the positions of the principal mountain ranges, the names
and courses of the princi|>al rivers, and the names of the seas and bays which
arc found along the north.— In respect of ita surface-features, Oermany la
divisible into two distinct parts. Northern Germany, the liirger part, Is a
low uniform plain, through which run to the sea n noble series of navigable
I'lvers. Southern Germany is very varied in structure : it Is for the most part
mountainous or hilly, especially in its southern portions, and has tew navi-
gable rivers ; it has, however, wide stretches of plateau land -one of which
comprises aloMst the whole jf Bavaria— and some low, fertile valleys, of which
those along the banks of the Rhine are famoua for their richness and the
salubrity of their climate. The Danube is navigable throughout the whole
width of the Bavarian platoau, and the Rhine is also navigable throughout all
its German course.

3. General Description of Germany and its

People. — Germany is one of the most important coun-
tries of the world. In political influence upon other
nations it is. perhaps, superior to every other state. In
its manufactures, its shipping, and its foreign tra,de,
though inferior to Great Britain, it rivals France, and
even the United States. In the variety and value of its
mineral resources, and in the suitability of its soil and
climate to productive agriculture, it has great naturai
advantages, and these have been fully turned to good
account by its frugal and industrious people. — Germany
possesses one of the very best systems of education in
the world, and in consequence its people are, in general,
intelligent and well educated: illiteracy is, in most parts
of the empire, very rare — in Prussia it is especially so.

• r ^ - . " ■

lis

GERMANY.

Most of tlio inhabitants of Germany aro true Germans,
althougli there are many Poles in tlio east ; but there
aro 13,000,000 Germans who live in Europe outside of
the empire, principally in Austria-Hungary, Switzerland,
and Russia. About five-eightlis of tlie people of Ger-
many are Protestants; most of the remainder are Roman
Catholics (these principally in southern Germany). —
Germany maintains an immense army and a considerable
navy — its military strength is, perhaps, superior to that
of all other states save Russia.

Tu the Teacher.— The climate of Gern ny is te-'neratc, and, on the
whole, very mucli the same thn)u,'houtall il.s ; .. tn, but milder and more
genial in the south-wrst thr.ii elsewhere, ajid colder an' .ore . trci.ie iii
the north-eaat. Tliu soil is, in {feiieral, fertile,— in tl-. lihino provinces
extremely so; in the north and east, however, there are considerable
areas of sandy, barren heaths, but even in these ot!, ;rwise arid districts
the river-borders aro fertile.— In the Rhino vali-^y. and in all south-

4. Chief Cities.

Berum (1,122,.360; with its suburbs, probably 1,300,000) is
the capital of Prussia ami of the German Empire, and in
rcspeot of manufactures, the first city of Germany. It is of
world-wide fame as a great educational, literary, and scientific
centre, and its educational institutions, both literary and scien-
tific, and its academies for instruction in the fine arts and music,
are among the most celebrated of Europe. Hamburg (410,127)
and Brkmex (150,723) are great commercial towns, with a large
foreign trade (especiaJly with American ports). Breslau (272,-

912), the capital of Silesia, is
famous for its great wool-mar-
ket and for its linen manufac-
tures. Munich (2,30,023), the
capital of Bavaria, is noted for
its magnificent museums of
painting and sculpture.

VIEW ON THE RHINE. — TOWEH AND KUINED CASTLES.

western Germany, vine-culture is the principal occupation of the people,
though the culture of tobacco is in these parts an important industry also.
Throughout the rest of the empire the ordinary cereals and root-crops gener-
ally prevail ; but the beet-root for sugar-making, hemp, flax, madder, and
saffron, aro very important crops in central Germany, and hops are an
important crop in southern Germany. -Snxony and eastern Prussia are great
sheep-raising countries, and in south-eastern Prussia, or Silesia, a very fine
wool is produced. — Orii. ^ is remarkable among all the naHons of the world
for its care of its forests- ti-ei -culture, indeed, is recognized as a science, and,
witn agriculture, is car'^tuily t? a^ . in school? and colleges.- Ccial and lignite
are wid'-'y distributed tli lutii'o • cei.tral : d western Germany. Iron is
very abundant; hv it iti found only in ii , luth, and not near the coal
deposits. Silver, < oppui,ai:dfi' r re produced more abundantly by Germany
than by any other Kinopean i- to, .md load also is largely pro<luced. Salt is
abundantly produced and largely exi)orted.— Tlie fisheries of Germany-
herring, oyster, and cod— aro very important.— Tlie manufactures of Germany
much rijemble those of Great Britain, and comprise nearly every article
needed by the people. The internal trade of the empire is very great.—
Gemiatiy exceeds every other country in the world in the immbcr and impor-
tance of its universities. It h.is altogether 21 great universities, with nearly
2,000 professors and teachers-, and 21,000 sludent-s : of these, the universities
of Berlin, Leipsic, Munich, liresl.iu, Tubin^'en, Bonn, Giittingen, H.alle, and
Heide'.'.org, are the most famous. Besides its universities, (icrmany lias
ojany other educational institutions of the very highest rank.

DuE^UEN (222,241), the capital of Saxony, is also noted for its
collections of paintings, statuary, gems, porcelain, and jewels,
— they are indeed the largest and most splerdid in the world.
Leipsic (149,081; with its suburbs, 175,000?) has probably
the largest book-publishing business in the world. It is also
famous for its conservatory of music. Hanover (145,227) is
the capital of the Province of Hanover, the Electors of which
were for a time the kings of Great Britain. Cologne (144,772)
and Stuasburo (104,501) are celebrated for their magnificent
cathedrals. KiiNiciSBERO (140,009) and Magdeburg (137,1.35)
are two of the most strongly fortified cities in the world.
Frankfort-on-thk-Main (136,819) is the cliief banking city of
Germany, and inferior only to London as the greatest money
market in the world. Stuttgart (117,303), the capital of
Wilrtemberg, has famous museums and libraries, and an excel
lent conservatory of music. Dantzio (108,549) is a great sea-
port, and one of the most famous v.-lieat markets in the world.
XuREMBERO (99,519) IS the most famous city in the world for
the manufacture of toys, trinkets, and wooden clocks. Aix-la-
CiiAPKLLH (85,551 ) is especially noted for its oloth manufactures.

I! i

FRANCE.

119

00,000) is

3, and in

It is of

scientific
j,nd acien-
nd music,

(410,127)
th a large
LAC (272,-
Silcsia, is
wool-mar-

manufac-
),023), the
I noted for
seums of
julpture.

ited for its
nd jewels,
the world,
probably
It is also
145,227) is
s of which
E (144,772)
nagnificent
(137,135)
;he world,
ing city of
cat money
capital of
1 an excel-
great sca-
the world,
world for

. AlX-LA-

lufactures.

n. yjiVNOE.

1. The Republic of France : Its Extent and

Populaition. — France is a very compact country, with
an area of 204,090 square miles, and a population of
about 37,700,000, The colonial possessions of France
are considerable ; but they are for the most part con-
quered territories or "protected" states, and not colonies
in the true sense of the term.

To the Teacher.— The island of Corsica is, politically, an integral part of
the republic. Algeria, in northern Africa, i: the most important colony; the
French inhabitants are less than 150,000, however. Tunis, also in northern
Africa, is a French protectorate, but "it has no French population other than
resident officials. — In Africa, on the west coast, there are lar);e French pos-
sessions on the Senegal and the Gambia rivers, and also on the Oaboon ; and
•mailer possessions on the Ivory Coast, and the .Slave Coast. In eastern
Africa, the French claim a large territory opposite Aden. Reunion (or
Bourbon), and some other islands near Madagascar, are also owned by France.
—In Asia, France has Pondicherry, and some other smallj possessions, in
India; Cochin China and Cambodia, in Farther India; and she claims
sovereignty of Tongking (or Tonquin), and also a wotectorate over Annam.—
In America, Fratice possesses Micquelon and St. Herre, Off Newfoundland ;
several West Indian islands; and Cayenne, or French Quiana, in South
America. — In the Pacific Ocean, France possesses several islands and groups
of islands, the more important being New Caledonia and Tahiti. -The foreign
possessions and claims of France comprise about 770,000 square miles, and
26,000,000 people, - but the number of Frenchmen in all these is comparatively
very small.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teac/ter.— Teach these from the map; the following notes maybe
used -—France is almost entirely enclosed by well-defined natural boundaries,
—the only exposed frontier of any considerable length is at the north.— The
larger part of France belongs to the Qrcat European Lowland Plain— the
Rhone valley and its enclosing watersheds being the only exceptions to this.
This lowland part is, however, by no means monotonously fiat, but rather
»ery varied in surface- much resembling England east of its central " back-
bone." Through this plain-part flow many large rivers ; three of these, the
Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne (this latter in the lower part of its course
called the Gironde), are not only navigable themselves, but have many
tributaries which are also navigable. The Rhone, though a rapid river, is
likewise navigable. These natural facilities for inland navigation have been
much increased (to the extent of one-half) by the construction of canals.—
The coast of France is nearly everywhere low, and good harbors are very
infrequent, the only naturally good ones being Havre, St. Malo, iJrest,
Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Toulon. In the south-west (south of the Garonne)
the shore lino is of shiftmg hills of fine white sand ; and tho adjacent interior
district is ktiown as the Landes. The Landes are, for the most part, a desert
of sandy heath, which yields only the scantiest lood for sparse flocks of
sheep. (The shepherds of the Landes are somewhat famous : they may be
said to pass their lives on their stilts, since they descend from them only at
nightfall and resume them again early in the morning.) Much of this barren
country has of late years been reclaimed by artificial drainage.— In the south
of France, the shore of the Gulf of Lycis is nearly everywhere lined by salt-
water niarshes, from which, by natural evaporation, much salt is produced,
and "harvested" by the neighboring people.

3. General Description of Prance and its

People. — France is one of the great states of tlie world.
Its manufactures, though inferior in variety and magni-
tude to tliose of Great Britain, are yet of very groat

but this is largely carried on by means of British or
other outside shipping. Its mineral resources are very
great, especially in coal, iron, lead, marble, and salt. Its
naval strength is next to that of Great Britain, and its
military strength rivals that of Germany. — France enjoys
one of the most genial climates in Europe, and its soil,
though not surpassingly fertile, yet yields abundantly
such products ..s are suited to it : olives and the mul-
berry tree in the south; grapes in the middle parts; and
apples, wheat, barley, oats, maize, the beet-root, and the
potato, in the north. — The French people are very frugal
and very industrious ; they are often described as being
vain, fond of pleasure, and desirous of military glory — but
this description applies only to some classes. Agricul-
ture, in its several branches, is the principal occupation
of the people ; but the manufacture of rich and delicate
fabrics in silk, cotton, wool, and linen, of gloves, of fine
boots and shoes, of elegant articles in porcelain, china,
and crystalware, of watches, clocks, jewellery, and fancy-
goods, of artificial flowers and other ornaments of apparel,
of toilet soaps and perfumes, and of wooden and cloth
shoes for home use, besides very many other things,
employs large populations in the cities and towns. — ■
France is a republic, its system of government being
similar to that of the United States. Its system of
public education is an excellent one ; and its facilities for
instruction in the fine arts and in the higher branches of
science are unsurpassed. Roman Catholicism is the
prevalent religion; but all religions are tolerated, and
Protestants and Jews, as well as Roman Catholics, re-
ceive aid from the state in the maintenance of their
pastors and oimrohes.

To the Teacher.— the great coal-beds of France are in the north, adjacent
to Belgium; and in the south, along the west side of t!io Rhone. Iron is
exceedingly abundant in France, but, unfortunately, it is not found near the
coal-fields. Elegant marble, alabaster, and fine building stone, arc also
plentiful and easily obtained ; and to this abun<lance the cities of France,
especially Paris, owe their beauty. Caen stone, from Normandy, is imported
into Canada. — Although the climate of France is genial, tlie country suiTers
much from inclement win'ls. — France is the most important vine-growing
country in the world : the grapes are used principally for tiie manufacture of
wines and liquors, the more f%mous sorts being champagnes, clarets, light
wines, and brandies. In tho mainifacture of brandy, imported sugar is also
very largely used. Beet-root is most extensively cultivated, and is used both
(or the manufacture of sugar and of alcohol.— A peculiarity of French agricul-
ture is that the farms are very small, averaging not more than from five to
ten acres each : this results from a law which compels fatliers to bequeath
their property to their children in equal shares. — The silk manufactures arc
principally in tho centre and south (district of Lyons); the cotton and linen
manufactures in the north and north-west (districts of Lisle and Rouen) ; the
fine cotton and lace manufactures in the north-east (districts of Valcncienm.o
and Cnnihrai); ihe watch munufiictiircs in tlie east (district of Besancnn);

• ^ ... £ * . 1 iiiiii v^aiMiiriii;, iiic wiiicri iiuinuiuciurcs in tci« east ^uisiricL or uesancon^ ;

importance. Its toreign commerce is also very great ; , the spirit and wine manufacture in the valley of the Gar'>nne (district of

120

ITALY.

Bordeaux), and in Champagne (district of Rhoiins).- Fishing is a very impor-
tant industry of the French -especially (or sardines, of Krittany ; and for cod,
off NuwfouniJland and Iceland, The rearing of oysters is also an important
industry on the west coast.

4. Chief Cities.

Paris ;2,269,023), the capital and inetropolitan city of France,
is the most beautiful city in the world, and, next to London,
the largest. In the number and magnificence of its public
buildings, its literary and scientific institutions, its museums, its
libraries, its galleries of art, its palaces, Its churches, il^ bridges,
its triumphal columns and arches, its statues and its fountains,
its boulevt .'ds and its parks, Paris is unrivalled. Paris is also
a great manufacturing city, manufacturing, principally, beautiful
and expensive articles of luxury. Paris is generally looked upon
as the world's chief centre of fashion and taste, and the manners
and customs of refined Parisian people influence society in every
civilized country, Paris is also one of the great cities of the
world in respect of literature, painting, poulpture, music, and
the drama. Near Paris is Versaille.s, one of the handsomest
towns in Europe, and noted for its beautiful palaces and gardens.
Four miles from Versailles is Sevres, of world-wide fame for its
manufacture of beautiful porcelam.

Lyons (347,619) is the first city in the world for the manu-
facture of silks. Its other manufactures are also very numerous.
Makseille.s (269,340) is the great seaport of France. Its com-
merce in wines, southern fruits, anchovies, and cork, extends to
all parts of the world. Bordeaux (221,305) has an immense
trade in wines, brandies, and southern fruits. RoUE>f (166,002)
is a great manufacturing city, famous for its cottons and confec-
tionery. Lille, or Lisle, (162,775) is noted for its cotton and
linen manufactures, especially calicoes, handkerchiefs, and
threads. Toclouse (127,196) is the chief seat of the trade with
Spain. St. Etienne (126,019) is in the midst of a rich coal
district, and has the most important iron and steel manufactures
in France. Nantes (122,247) is a beautiful, finely-built city,
with a large marine trade. Havre ( 105,540) is the port of Paris ;
its commerce is with all the world, but chiefly with America
and the north of Europe. Rkeims (93,683) possesses one of the
finest cathedrals in P^urope. Toclon (70,509), Brest (66,110),
and CiiERBODRG (35,691), are great naval stations, strongly
fortified.

III. ITALY.

1. The Kingdom of Italy: Its Extent and

Population. — The Kingdom of Italy consists of the
Italian peninsuUi, tlie islands of Sticily and Sardinia, tlie
isUmd of Elba, and about sixty smaller islands. The
total area is 114,410 square miles, and the population
about 28; 500,000.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacli(ir.—Tva.ch these from the map.— Italy's frontier line is very
distinctly marked : where it is not surrounded by water the great momitain
barrier of the Alps separates it from its neighboring statei.— The Alps and the
Apennines are the features which, next to the proximity of so much water,

most affect the cllinate, and hence the resources, of Italy. The Apennines ar»-
in reality a continuation of t#e Maritime Alps, and they stretch as a centraV
" backbone" down to the very extremity of the peninsula, and may be said,
to be continued farther as the mountains of Sicily.- Between the Alps and
the northern Apeimliies is the great I^ombardy Plain, one of the m 'st level
and most fertile tracts in Eur )pc, watered freely by the Po and its branches,
and by the Adige. The Po, though navigable through its entire length. Is but
little used for navigation, owing to the suddenness and frequency with which
its curri'nt is increased in times of rain or when the snows of the mountains-
are melting. The remainder of Italy, apart from the mountain ranges, is of
very varied character, level near the sea, but undulating and hilly as the
mountains are approached. Of the level parts, those districts known as the
Maremina of Tuscany, the Caiiip.igMa of Rome, and the Pontine Marshes, and
the great plain ailjacent to the Gulf of Taniitum, though all naturally fertile
and once populously inhabited, are now almost deserted, owing to the presence
in summer time of deadly malaria, exhaled from the soil everywhere, whether
it be dry or wet.— Besides the Po and the Adige, the only other considerable
rivers are the Arno and the Tiber. —The lakes of Italy— Como, Maggiore,
Garda, and Lugano-are much celebrated for their scenery.— Southern Italy
has suffered severely frDin earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and several of
its mountainous districts are made up of extinct volcanoes. The well-known
Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, has been in constant volcanic activity for over-
1,800 years. Mount Etna in Sicily, and Stromboli on one of the Lipari Islands,
are also volcanoes in constant activity. The volcan' ,s are not witliout their
good qualities, however : from the ejected lava, materials for pavements and
building are obtained ; of the finer sorts, ornaments are fashioned ; and other
sorts, when disintegratetl by atmospheric agency, become excellent soils.

3. General Description of Italy and its

People. — Italy was, in ancient times, the mistress of
the world, and even in more modern times it exercised
great influence; but for several centuries its power
decayed, and it is only very recently that it has be-
come once more one of the great states of Europe. Its
soil is fertile and its climate genial, and a fair expendi-
ture of jO;bor and care ensures the abundant harvest of
all products natural to both warm and temperate regions;
its mineral resources, also, with the exception of coal,
are very great ; moreover, from the extent of its coast-
line, and its central situation, it has superior facilities,
for developing and maintaining a large foreign trade;
but all these natural advantages were, for a long time,
allowed to remain unimproved. Of the people, those
wlio were rich and powerful — the so-called upper classes
— cared only for themselves ; and, though refined and
highly educated, they were notoriously inuuoral. As a
consequence, the national character greatly deteriorated;
immorality became general among all i'anks,and the lov/er
classes were indolent, unambitious, and exceedingly ignor-
ant; and, though theirs was a land in which nature most
amply repays the tiller of the soil for his slightest effort,
yet their poverty was deplorable, — their food coarse, in-
nutritions, and insufficient, and their clothing and habita-
tions e(|ually wretched : the country was aptly described
as a nation of princes and beggars. But this sad con-
dition of things is being gradually improved. The present

<.M)i'tasmuiif:.

■ I

ITALY.

123

government is energetic, and very solicitous for the real
welfare of the nation, even its poorest members ; and the
improvement in the moral, material, social, and intel-
lectual status of the people since 1870, when the present
Kingdom of Italy was established, has been marvellous.
The kingdom maintains a superior military and naval
strength; and the government has done much to promote
agriculture, manufactures, and internal and foreign com-
merce ; it has established an excellent system of educa-
tion ; and its support and encouragement of art, science,
and literature, is most generous. The Roman Catholic
religion is that professed by nearly all the people, and it
is maintained almost entirely at the expense of the state;
the Pope, the head of the Church,
resides at Rome, the capital.

To the Teacher. — The climate of Italy is
very different in its different parts. In tlie
Lombardy Plain, which is influenced by the
cold mountain-tops of the Alps, and shielded
from the south by the northern Apennines,
the climate is much colder than in parts
lying to the south of these latter moun-
tains; and the principal products are wheat,
millet, and rice— it is indeed the great rice
ground of Europe. On the other hand, the
Genoa versant, which is exposed to the
warm moist winds of the Mediterranean
and protected from the north, although it is
in the same latitude, produces the most
luscious of southern fruits— oranges, lemons,
olives- in great abundance, and supports
the aloe, the cactus, and the palm. In
central and southern Italy similar differ-
ences prevail : on the warm coasts are
found the olive, the fig-tree, the orange, the
Ismon, the citron, the lime, and the almond ;
the sugar-cane ripens and the cotton plant
flourishes to perfection ; pomegranates and
aloes form the enclosures of the fields, and
the liquorice root, the oleander, and the

myrtle, grow wild. Higher up, in the interior, the vine everywhere flourisliea
(as it does, indeed, on warm hillsides throughout all Italy), and the mulberry
tree is largely cultivated ; while regions still higher up the mountain sides are,
in winter, so exposed to excessive cold that they produce only the most hardy
cereals.— Of articles of food, bread made of maize, rye, or barley, and beans,
constitute the principal diet of the lower classes ; and, in some districts,
acorns. Whe.it pastes (macaroni and vermicelli) are also largely used,
especially in the south. Tlie sHcot chestnut, which grows wild on the sides of
all Italian mountains, is a favorite article of diet with the rura' clashes. Animal
food, with the exception of fish, is but little used. Tlio poorness jf the food of the
lower classes of Italy has done much to spread among' them a terrible disease
known as the 2>eWa3m.— Agriculture is the prev.\leiitoocupation of the people,
but it is in an extremely backwLrd condition. Vine-g owing, and the rearing
of mulberry trees for the support of the silk-worm, are important industries.
(Italy, next to China, is the grcitest silk-producing country in the world.)
Wool-growing is also an important industry. — The manufactures of Italy are
improving : the principal manufactures at present are silk-throwing, silk-weav-
ing, cotton-weaving, the tanning of skins, the plaiting of straw goods, atid the
weaving of flax and hemp— the last two being largely domcstio industries.
For the making of fine artistic pottery Italy has been celebrated from time
inMnemorial ; and for its manufacture of beautiful mosaics it is unrivalled.
The maiiufacturo of Jewellery, and of trinkets in coral, glass, and lava, is also

17 •

CATHEDRAL AT MILAN.

very considerable — Owing to the number of fast days obsened, Italy is »
great fish-consuming country, and its fisheries are important. Anchovies and
sardines (the latter so called from the island of Sardinia) are the principal fish
exported.— Of minerals, fhie iron-ore from the island of Elba is exported to
England, Italy not being able to smelt its own iron for Uck of coal. Borax is
an important mineral product : it is obtained along some of the shores of Tus-
cany from vapors exhaled from an infinite number of low volcanoes and
springs, which are in constant violent ebullition. Alum pits are al-o common
in Tuscany. Sulphur is obtained in abundance in the volcanic districts of
Naples and Sicily.— Sanitary conditions have been little observed in Italy.
" Many of the provincial capitals and cathedral cities are portentously filthy."
This state of things ia being improved, however.— The Italians have long been
noted for their love of art— music, painting, sculpture, architecture— and
some of the finest paintings and finest sculptures in the world are to be found
in Italian churches and palaces. Art students throng to Italy from all parts
of the world. Besides the art schools and musical conservatcdcs srpported
by the Government, there are many other very excellent art institutions
established by local auf'orities.— The system of primary education nowac* b-
lished in Italy is both free and compulsory.

4. Chief Cities.

RoMK (30iii,400), the capical of
Italy, is, from ta great antiquity,
its liistoric fanii!, and the grandeur
and interest of its architecture !
adornments, the most celebrated city
in the world. It was ihe most splen-
did city of ancient times, and evi-
dences of its former splendor now
remain as magnificent ruins. It has
been for centuries the chief centre
of the great Roman Catholic religion,
and the residence of the I'opes ; and
in the number, architectural beauty,
and sumptuousness of its churches,
it surpasses every other city, v/hilsc
its palaces are ecjually magnificent.
St. Peter's Church, at Rome, is the
largest and most splendid ecclesias-
tical edifice ever erected, and the
wonder of all sight-seers. The Palace
of the Vatican, or residence of the
Pope, is perhaps the most famous building in the world : its
chapels, halls, and other apartments, number 4,422; itsgallcriea
of sculpture and painting, its museums of antiquities and of objects
of curiosity, and its famous library, are the pride of Europe.
The modern Capitol, or senate house, is also rich in every sort of
work of art. Rome is visited annually by people from every
part of the world, who go there to delight in its magnificence or
to study its art-treasures.

Naples (458,614), the largest city in Italy, is most pic-
turesquely situated on the Bay of I^aples, and is famous for the
beauty of its surrounding scenery. So great is this beauty that
it is a common saying, " See Naples and die." As an offset to
its natural beauty it should be said that it is crowded with an
indolent and wretchedly impoverished populace. The manufac-
tures of Naples are principally vermicelli and macaroni. Naples
has the largest university in Italy. — Near Naples are Hercu-
laneum and Pompeii, once populous cities, but which wore buried
under ashes and lava ejected from the volcano Vesuvius, A.D. 79.

-grr^;jiP<.ii. y^.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

123

•n

Their slct^a have lately been largely cleared of the ashes
under which they were so long hidden, and the streets and
houses of those ancient cities are now exposed to the view of
sight-seers. Milan (295,543) is of world-wide celebrity for its
exquisitely beautiful cathedral, built of snow- white marble.
Milan is a great publishing city. Its opera-house, the Delia
Scala, is 'the most famous in the world. Turin (231,636) has a
great university and fine museums of works of art and antiquity;
Bologna (111,773), and Padua (66,151), are also famous for
their ancient universities. Genoa (178,006) is a great manufac-
turing and commercial city, especially noted for its velvets and
silks, and for its exports of oils, fruits, rice, cheese, and rags.
(Owing to the fact that the clothing of the Italian poorer people
is almost entirely of cotton and linen, the collection of rags for
paper-making is an important Italian industry.) Florence
(167,714) is celebrated for its extensive libraries and galleries of
paintings, for itft beautiful palaces, and especially for its cathe-
dral, or Duomo, which has the finest and largest dome in the
world. Venice (131,276) is one of the most wonderful cities in
the world. It is built on a great number of little islands, and
so completely is the land occupied by edifices that there are no
streets, properly so-called, only innumerable little alleys which
cannot be used except by pedestrians ; all traffic is carried on
in the canals of the city, which take the place of streets in other
cities; ' d boats or barges take the place of wheeled vehicles.
The G) Canal is lined on either side with such beautiful
palaces ..lat it is called the finest " street " in Europe. The
Church of St. Mark, at Venice, is greatly celebrated for its rich
and elegant interior. Leghorn (98,302) is an important seaport
with exports of silk and silk goods, plaited straw goods, and
borax. Pi.SA (50,374) is famous for its wonderful and beautiful
leaning tower, built of white marble. — Palermo (236,579) is a
seaport town, v ith exports of fruits, wines, essences, oils, skins,
sulphur, cream of tartar, liquorice, and manna. Messina (121,-
856) is famous for its silks and satins, and for its oranges and
other fruits. Both Palermo and Messina have extensive fisheries
of anchovies, tunnies, etc. Catania (91,417) exports silks, and
wares of lava and ambe«-.

IV. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

1. The Empire of Austria -Hungary: Its

Extent and Population. — The Empire of Austria-
Hungary is made up of two distinct states, Austria and
Hungary, confederated for common objects, such as the
support of the army and navy, and the maintenance of
relations with foreign countries— eacli possessing, how-
ever, its own parliament, and its own ministers and
government. The area of the empire is 261,591 square
miles, and its population about 39,200,000.

To the Teacher.— Jicsides Austria and Hungary, the empire has authority
over the Turliish provinces of Bosnia anil Herzegovina. —Austria is divided
into several provinces, or " crown lands," of wliicli the more important are :—
Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Bohemia (formerly a kingdom), Moravia,

Silesia, Gallcia (or Austrian Poland), Styrla, Tyrol, Salzburg, Carinthia,
Camiola, Istria, and Dalmatio. Similarly Hungary is divided into Hungary
(proper), Transylvania, Slavonia, Croatia, and the Military Frontier. The
area of Austria is 115,9X6 square miles ; of Hungary, 125,558 square miles ; of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 20,117 square miles. The population of Austria '»
about 22,160,000; of Hungary, 15,725,000; of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
1,325,000.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— Teach the boundaries of the empire, its more important
physical features, and the relative positions of the crown-lands, from tlie map.
—The outline of Austria-Hungary, though fairly well defined by coast-line,
mountain-range, or river, ia very irregular.— The Alps, in their various
divisions, occupy most of the south-west of the empire. The fertile plain of
Bohemia ia surrounded by mountains ; and the Carpathians form a huge
arch around the greater part of the crown-land Hungary.— Austria-Hungary
has no great river entirely its own, but it has parts of some of the largost
rivers in Europe. The principal river of the empire is the Danube, which ia
navigable throughout all its course through the empire, and many of its
affluents are navigable as well. The Hungarian valley of the Danube ia a
great fertile plain, known as the Plain of Hungary. Austria-Hungary has a
comparatively short sea-coast ; and as the greater portion of its territory is
separated both from this coast and from its neighboring states as well, by
high mountain ranges, the empire has comparatively little foreign commervM.

3. General Description of Austria-Hungary

and its People. — AustriarHungary is largely a moun-
tainous country ; but it contains little land that cannot be
cultivated, and many parts of it are very fertile. Its
mountainous districts all abound in mineral wealth : in
the variety, richness, and wide-spread distribution of its
mineral resources, it exceeds every other country in
Europe; but these resources have not as yet been fuUj
taken advantage of. Its climate is very varied : in iihe
south, tropical fruits are produced in abundance, and the
mulberry tree is largely cultivated for the support of
the silk-worm ; in the middle zone, maize and the grape
ripen to perfection ; whilst the northern zone yields rich
harvests of such grain crops and roots as are grown in
Ontario. — Austria-Hungary is one country in name, but
in respect of the languages, customs, and religious beliefs
of its inhabitants, it is made up of several very dissimilar
parts, so that the continued political unity of the empire
is not by any means assured. Austria, especially in the
west, is largely engaged in manufactures, commerce, and
mining, as well as in agriculture ; but Hungary has few
industries other than agriculture, vine-growing, and the
rearing of cattle and sheep. Agriculture in both coun-
tries is in a very backward condition. The prevalent
religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic ; especially
is this so in Austria. The present education system of
Austria-Hungary is an excellent one.

To the Teacher.— there is scarcely a mineral product which ia not found
more or less abundantly in Austria : of the more common kinds m.iy be
mentioned gold and silver, obtained in Transylvania, Hungary, and Bohemi*;

KHii:

124

RUSSIA.

Iron, generally throughout the empire, bat principally In the west ; copper,
in Hungary ; kwl, in Carinthia ; quicksilver (in extremely rich mines), in
Carnlola ; tin, in Bohemia; zinc, in Gaiicia; gait (in the flnest rock-salt beds
in the world), in Galicia ; and coal (in inexhaustible beds), in the western parts
generally. In addition, fine porcelain clays are found in Bohemia ; beautiful
marbles, in tlie Alps; precious stones (opals, garnets, etc.). In Hungary and
Bohemia; and other valuable metals and minerals in various parts.— The
mountain sides of Auc'ria-Hungary show a gradation of climate similar to
that which obtains in the empire generally ; at the base may be seen vine-
yards and n>aize fleiils ; higher up are fields of wheat, barley, oats, and rye,
and forests of oak, pine, beech, and elm ; whiie higher up still, live only such
trees and plants as can endure the temperature of an arctio region.— Despite
the want of scientific farming, Austria-Hungary, for the amount and variety
of its a;,'ricultural produce, ranks high among European states. Bee-keeping
is a great industry in the central provinces, and hop-growing in Bohemia. The
wines of Hungary are very famous, and Austria-Hungary is one of the great
wine-producing countries of the world. -The manufactures of Austria are
very important ; they include cotton-spinning and weaving (in Ix>wer Austria
»nd Bohemia), wool-weaving (in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Upper
Austria), silk-weaving (In Lower Austria), iron and steel goods, both heavy
ar.d light (in Lower and Upper Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Carinthia, and
Styria), glass (for which Bohemia is noted the wliole worlrt over), porcelain-
ware (in Bohemia and Moravia), chemical stuffs (in Bohemia, Lower Austria,
and Silesia), children's toys (made by the peasants of the mountainous districts
in Tyrol, Salzburg, Upper Austria, and Bohemia), mathematical, optical, and
surgical instruments (in Vienna and PragueX leather goods (in Lower
Austria, Bohemia, and MoraviaX sugar, front the beet-root (in Bohemia and
Moravia), and beer (especially In Lcwer Austria and Bohemia).— The Adriatic
fisheries are an important industry of the people of Dalmatia ; and leeches,
obtained in swamps along the coast, are a considerable article of export there.
The population of Austria is largely German ; but in Bohemia and Moravia
the people are principally Czechs, a Slavonic race. The people of Galicia
(who are principally Poles), and of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, are also
Slavonians of various races. The p<;.jple of the crown -land Hungary are
principally Magyari'— a Mongoliun nf . ,■ 'sides all t!iese races, there are in
the empire many WiJlachians, Jev -i ,
Althoui,'h the Roman Catholic i ■ .
many Catholics of the Greek ai.
Galicia; besides, in Kun^iry uuZ '
Oriental Greek Church, many PrOi-. .

.;;i:.' (these in Tyrol), and Gypsies.—

"vBient religion, yet there are

'■■X' . ";, .spef.'ially in Hungary and

, ' ' n are many adherents of the

-..J . !.uany Jews.

4. Chief Cities.

ViE5fVA '1,231,000) is tl ( ;a|vital of Austria and the capital
of the empire. It is a great manufacturing city, and is especi-
ally noted for its silk-velvets, shawls, ribbons, gold and silver
lace, porcelain, mathematical and musical instruments, and
beer ; and also for its cottons, woollens, and carpets. It is also
a great publishing rl^y. Its university is one of the most re-
nowned in Europe, and is especially famous for its faculty of
medicine. Vienna is justly celebrated for its libraries, galleries of
art, museums, and scientific Echoo'.j. It is also noted for its mag-
nificent public parks, gardens, and promenades; and, altogether,
Vienna is one of the finest cities in Europe, although its situa-
tion is neither picturesque nor healthful. Its growth in recent
years has been marvellous.

Buda-Pesth (360,551), formerly two cities, now incorporated
as one, is the capital of Hungary, In Bijda, which is the older,
but smaller, of tlie two cities, are the royal palace, and the
venerable buildings of the Hungarian (jovernment. Pestii is of
more modern appearance ; it is the " new " city, and has a fine
trade and important manufactures
famous university.

Prague (162,323), the capitil '<i
the antiquity and architectural iu^^)

It is also the seat of a

nia, is remarkable for
its churches, palaces.

and public buildings. It is the centre of a great manufacturing
district, and tlie seat of a renowned university. Trieste (144,-
437) is the great seaport of the empire, and the emporium of a
large trade with Britain and the other couiytries of Europe, and
also with Egypt, India, and the east generally. Lembero
(110,250), the capital of Galicia, is a great commercial town,
with a large Jewish population. Gratz (97,726), the capital of
Styria, has important manufactures in iron, steel, cotton, wool,
and silk, and excellent educational establishments. Brunk
(82,660), the capital of Moravia, is noted for its woollen manu-
factures. Cracow (66,095), formerly the ecclesiastical capital of
Poland, has many palaces, cathedrals, etc. — pathetic evi,Ienoes
of its former greatness.

Austria-Hungary is remarkable for the great number and
popularity of its mineral springs, some of which, as those of
Carlsbad, Marienbad, and Tofutz, are very famous.

V. RUSSIA.

1. The Empire of Russia: Its Extent and

Population. — Russia, the area of which is 8,457,289
square miles, is, next to Great Britain, the empire pos-
sessing most land surface on the globe ; but whereas the-
territories belonging to Great Britain are scattered over-
all tlie world, the territory under Bussian rule is exceed-
ingly compact. The population is also very great, being
about 102,750,000 ; but so vast is the area over which
it is scattered, that Russia is, on the whole, but thinly
populated.

To the Teacfter.— European Russia comprises; (1) Russia Proper, of
which the area Is 1,887,610 square miles, and the population 77,000,000; (2)
Russian Poland : area, 49,158 square miles ; population, 7,350,000 ; (3) Finland:
area, 144,254 square miles; population, 2,100,000; and (4) Cls-Caucasia :
area, 87,455 square miles ; population, 1,750,000. Asiatic Russia, in its four
divisions of Trans-Caucasia, Trans-Caspian Russia, Central Asia, and Siberia,
has an area of 6,288,812 square miles, and a population cf x4,650,000.

2. Boundaries and Physical Features.

To the Teacher. — Teach these from the map. — Most of European Russia is
part of the Great Lowland Plain, and is absolutely without either mountains
or hills, except In two small districts. The great water-parting, between the
rivers which flow northward and north-westward, and those that flow south-
ward and south-eastward, consists merely of a series of low undulations. The
rivers of Russia are among the most magnificent in Europe, navigable through-
out almost tlieir entire courses ; and, being connected together by an excellent
sv 1 'u of canals, they alTord almost unequalled facilities for internal trans-
^ tion ; yet so large is the country that there are yet many fertile districts
ling for lack of communication with the great markets of the world. —
1 . ; :( Russia Is unfit for cultivation. The tundras, which occupy most of
thu M . north of parallel 04°, are swamps In summer, and during the long nine
mntitlis' winter are "ast fields of ice. The peninsula of Finland, between the
Gulfs of Finland a'ul P-jthiiiti, Is a region of innumerable lakes interspersed
anions gr.inite rocks and hi'.Is "♦ sand. The wliole area between the Ural
River, and the middle and eastern shores of the Black Sea, consists, for the
most part, of low, flat areas, L-allcd steppes." The steppes to the west-
ward (including tliose of the Crimea) have a mouldy soil, that supports,
indeed, an annual growth of grass ; but, though used by wandering tribes tor

^•j))lr &.,

3ES!::

RUSSIA,

125

pasturage, it is burnt up every suramer uy the excessive heat which obtains
in these regions ; and those to the east— the Caspian steppes— consist largely
of sand impregnated with salt, or of salt lalies and marshes, and are completely
unproductive of anything except salt, of which great quantities are obtained
by evaporation. Again, in the central and western parts are many marshy
areas, as, for example, the Pinsk Marshes ; and much of Russia, not included
in the above areas, is still covered with forest— especially the region immedi-
ately south and south-west of the tundras ; in the valley of the northern
Dwina is also considerable forest land.

3. General Description of Russia and its

People. — Although much of the soil of Russia is in-
fertile, it yet possesses
vast areas suited to agri-
culture or to pastoral
occupations, and much of
its forest occupies a pro-
ductive soil. It has also,
in the Ural district, rich
stores of gold, platinum,
and copper ; much iron,
in the southern pro-
vinoes; and immense
beds of coal, in the valley
of the Donetz, and near
Moscow. Its climate,
however, is somewhat
against it, being far
colder than in corres-
ponding parts Oii Europe
to the west, since the
whole country is exposed
to the cold winds of the
north, and shielded by
mountains from the
warm winds of the south.
Yet, notwithstanding its
inclement climate, and
the very rude state of its agriculture, Russia produces
more grain than it needs, and is, indeed, one of the great
grain-producing countries of the world. It has, also,
considerable manufactures ; but these are principally of
the simpler and commoner kinds, and much of its manu-
factui'e is domestic. — Russit, is inhabited by people of
many races and of many tongues ; but the dominant people
are Russians proper, who are of the Slavonic race, and the
dominant language is that spoken by them. The govern-
ment is tlie absolute authority of tlie Czar or emperor;
but public opinion, as expressed in newspapers and other

WALRUS AND SEAL.

ways.

does much to influence his action. Tlie pstab-

lished and prevalent religion is the 'rreco-Russian Catho-
lic Cliurch. The Czar is the head of the church, as well
as of the government, and makes the appointment of
every church officer throughout the whole of his vast
dominions. Tlie people are divided into several very dis-
tinct ranks — the highest being thd nobility, who own most
of the land ; and the lowest being the common people, who,
until 1863, were nearly all slaves, either of the nobles
or of the Czar. The education of the lower classes is in

a lamentable condition,
but something is being
done to improve it. —
Russia maintains an im<
mense standing army,
and a considerable navy;
but the government is
very expensive and ex-
travagant, and very
heavily in debt.

To the Teaeher.— The olimata
of Russia is very varied, and no-
where is the temperature at all
equable : in south-eastern Russia
the winters are extremely cold,
and the summers extremely hot.
In the north-west, rain is ex-
cessive ; in the south-east, during
the long summer, rain very seldom
falls.— The forest growths are
principally the pine, the larch,
and the birch, in the north ; and
the oalc, the )irae, and the maple,
in the central parts. The pro-
ducts of the forests, besides tim-
ber, includetar, pitch, turpentine,
and potash.— Rye is the staple
farm product, and the chief food
of the people. Barley grows
everywhere ; wheat grows princi-
pally in the south-west and in
the centre. Other farm products
are oats, millet, flax, and hemp :
for its flax and hemp, and for flax-seed and hemp seed, Russia is very famous.
Hemp-seed oil is largely used by the peasantry for food, especially during the
church fast days, which, taken together, occupy half the year. In the south,
vine-fe-rowing, and the rearing of the silk-worm, are important industries. Bee-
culture is very general, the wax being used to make church candles. In tlie pas-
toral regions cattle and shoep are extensi vely reared ; tallow, hides, and skins are
largely exported, but Russian wool is, as a rule, of poor quality. Sheepskins
form the main clothing of the peasantry. Horse-breeding is also an important
industry ; the horses of the Cossack tribes in the south-east are famed for their
hardy vigor. Camels are kept \iv the wandering tribes of the steppes, and
dromedaries in the Crimea. (Much of the trade between European and Asiatic
Russia is accomplished l)y caravans). In Lapland the reindeer is domesticated
and forms the principal wealth of the inhabitants —Of wild animals, the
.lurochs, or urus, is found in the forests of western Russia ; tlie bear, the
wolf, the elk, the fox, and the marten, are found principally in the north. On the
Arctiocoasts the walrus and the seal abound.— Birds, especially water-fowl, are
numerous, and include the eider-duck in the north, the capercailzie in the

12a

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

central forests, and the poliuan in tho Houth.— Tho flsherlesof the White Sea are
very valualilo, and, liesulug Haliuon andherrinjjcatchin;;, include whaieflahin^
and seal DshlnK. Tlio Black and Caspian seas also have important flshcrie*.
— Internol coniincruu in Russia is elToctod principally by fairs, held at different
places. Russia has small advanta;;c8 for a forcii^n nmririe trade: its White
Seaaid Baltic iKjrts are blocked with iue for many months In tho jear. Tlio
exports from tho north are prinoipally timber, tar, turpentine, potash, flax,
hemp, flax-seed, hump-sued, cnble yarn, wool, tallow, hides and skins, furs,
feathers, bristles, bonus, and isin;,'lass ; and from tho south, grain, beef, seeds,
tallow, anri wool, —Of -aces, besides the Russians, there are the Poles, also a
Slavonic race, in the west ; the Lithuanians (who are not Slavonians), also in
tho west ; the Finns, in the north-west ; and the Tartars (a Mongolian race), in
the south-east. In addition, there are, in largo numbers, Germans, Jews, Per-
sians, Armenians, Circassians, Oeorgians, and Mongols. Although the
Oreco-Russian Church is establishotl bylaw, dissenting religions are allowed,
on certain conditions: of these tho more numerous are Roman Catholics
(principally in Russian Poland), Lutheran Protestants (principally In Finland
and tho Baltic Provinces), Mohammedans (in the south and south-cast), and
Jews.— Tho Russian Oovernnuiit discourages the use of any language other
than Russian, csiteciaily as an instrument of education.

4. Chief Cities.

St. 1'etkiwhuko (929,100), the capital, is, in comparison with
other European capitals, a modern city, having been founded in
1703. Its site is ill chosen, being low, marshy, unhealthy, sub-
ject to inundations, and difficult of access from the sea. Yet,
notwitlistanding this, it is built in a style of great magnificence,
and ranks as one of the finest cities in Europe : its massive
public buildings, surmounted by gorgeous gold-plated domes.
Its straight and spacious streets, its great imperial palaces
(among them the celebrated Winter Palace, the largest and
finest in Europe), its cathedral, its splenilid monuments, its
superb granite quays, its numerous handsome bridges, — all
entitle it to this praise. St. Petersburg is the chief educational
centre of the empire, and has many excellent literary and scien-
tific institutions, and many fine museums and art galleries. It
has a large export and import trade, but its harbor is closed
from November to May. It has, also, a large interior trade ;
and its manufactures, especially of munitions of war, are very
numerous and extensive.

Moscow (750,807), formerly the capital of Rue ,ia, is one of
the most picturesque cities in Europe. Its cathedrals and
churches (among which is the famous cathedral of St, Basil), its
palaces and towers, are of almost every imaginable style of
architecture, and are all ornamented in great magnificence, and
surmounted with domes, steeples, cupolas, turrets, and belfries,
gilt either witli silver or with gold. In the heart of the city is
the celebrated Kremlin, or citadel, crowded with palaces,
churches, monasteries, arsenals, and museums, nearly all of
fantastic Asiatic arcliitecture. Moscow is a great manufacturing
city, but it is principally famous as being the emporium of tlie
vast interior trade of the empire, both European and Asiatic.
Warsaw (4015, '2til), formerly the capital of Poland, has many
fine churches and palaces, built in the time of its national
glory. It is now a great manufacturing city. Odessa (217,000)
is a great seaport, strongly fortified, with an immense export
trade in grain, tallow, iron, linseed, wool, hides, cordage, sail-
cloth, tar, and beef. Nmni Novgouod (?) is celebrated for its
great fair, hehl annually for two montlis in summer, p,n<l attended
daily by from 200,000 to 300,000 merchant.i from all parts of

Europe and Asia, — the principal goods sold being tea, costly
shawls, carpets, and silks, and sheepskins and iron. RloA (98,802)
has a large trade in characteristic Russian produce. Nikolaiev
(S2,S0o) is tlie principal station of the Russian Black Sea fleet.
Kharkov (82, 133) is noted for its great cattle and wool fair. Tula
(57,374), from its metal manufactures, is called tho "Sheflield
and Birmingham of Russia." Astrakhan (48,220) is noted for
its exports of fish, caviare, and isinglass. Kronstadt (47,166),
one of the most strongly fortified places in Europe, is the
great naval station of Russia. Perm (22,288) is the centre of
the mineral trade of Russia. Archangel (19,936) is the em-
porium of the trade of the north, and exports characteristio
northern Russian produce.

There are many other important towns in Russia.

VI. THE REMAINING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.

1. The United Kingdom of Sweden and

Norway. — Sweden and Norway are distinct and sepa-
rate nationalities in every way, except that they liave
one king. Sweden is, for the most prirt, flat or undu-
lating in surface. In the north it is largely covered with
forests ; in the central parts it possesses rich stores of
iron, copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt, alum, and marble —
especially of iron ; and in the south it is a good agricul-
tural country, and produces abundantly all ordinary farm
products. — Norway is a plateau country, with many
irregular mountain elevations, and many deep valleys
and gorges ; and, although a large portion of its surface
is covered with valuable timber, most of it is naked,
bleak, and inhospitable, only one-thirtieth being fit for
agriculture. It possesses good harbors, however, qnd is
largely engaged in ship-building, and its mercantile
marine is quite extensive. Its fisheries, too — especially
of cod and herring — are very valuable ; and its mines,
though less rich than those of Sweden, are important. —
The people of both Sweden and Norway are hardy,
frugal, industrious, and intelligent. The government, in
both countries, is well and economically administered,
and the education of all classes is carefully attended
to. The established religion, in both kingdoms, is the
Lutheran Protestant; but all other religions aie tolerated.

To the TeacAcr,— The area of Sweden is 173,974 square miles; its popula-
tion, about 4,7(10,000. Tho area of Norway is 121,740 square miles; its
population about 1,000,003.— Teach the boundaries and physical features
from tlie map.— About one-ele\entli of the surface of Sweden is covered with
lakes. Norway also has numerous lakes, but is more remarkable for its
"fiords," or sea-inlets, whose hij,'h and steep t)ank3, clothed with forests,
make wildly grand scenery. Tliouih the rivers of the peninsula are very
imnierous, neither country has any hirj;e rivers ; but the rivers of Norway are
of great use in supplying water-power for its numerous mills and mines. The

4^)m»mMM>.

''Vf'i* PI",

DENMARK.

127

•hores of both countries are itudilcd with ivlands ; but thoM of Sweden are
low and sandy, while thuso of Norway arc liljfli and roclcy, with many twift,
'dangerous currents amonif thcni. - Althout;h little coal Is found in Sweden
«nd Norway, the Iron pro<luut i» very lar^e, the metal helnir smolte<l by means
of charcoal obtained from the forests, and Swedish iron and steel are of great
repute.— Besides timber, and charuoal and fuel, the forests produce larife
quantities of tar and turpentine, obtained from tlie roots of the pine.— The
«llmato of both countries (and especially of Norway) Is not so severe as mi^cht
boexpectedfroni their northern situation, owing to the near presence of so
much water, and, In Norway, to tlie influence of the Qulf Stream ; bu , Norway
is excessively humid.— Besides Its other protluets, Norway supplies much of
the eider-down and feathers of commerce, obtained from the sea-fowl which
literally swarm among its islands ; and its oyster and lobster fisheries, Its
•almon fisheries, and Its whale flsheries, are Important and productive. — The
wilder regions of the peninsula abound in wild animals and game— the bear,
wolf, lynx, and fox, the deer, elk, reindeer, and hare, the seal and otter, and
the grouse, — and skins and furs constitute Important articles of commerce. —
The north of Norway, and the adjacent

part of Russia, are together called Lap- -„-- •

land ; it Is inhabited by a thrifty short-
vtatured race, called Lapps, whose chief
source of wealth is the domesticated
reindeer.

Chief Cities.

Stockholm (205,129), the cap-
ital of Sweden, is built on a number
of islands between Lake Maelar and
the Baltic, and, by reason of its
pictures(iue situation, presents a
^rand and imposing appearance.
It has a magnificent royal palace,
several fine museums and art gal-
leries, and many excellent educa-
tional institutions. It has, also,
many important manufactures, and
'exports largely timber, tar, iron,
*nd copper. Gothenburg (81 ,203)
haa many manufactures, and a
large foreign trade in farm and
forest products, and in minerals.
Upsal (15,808} has an old and
famous university.

Christiania (130,027), the capital of Norway, is situated
Amidst the grandest Scandinavian scenery. It has important
manufactures, and a large export trade in timber, iron, fish,
matches, linens, and wood-pulp. Berijen (43,020) has a large
«xport trade in timber, iron, fish, oysters, lobsters, blubber,
skins, moss, and feathers. Trondheim (22,544) has a large
ship-building trade, and is celebrated for its venerable cathedral.
Hammerfest (1,547) is the northernmost town of Europe, and,
atrange though it seems, it enjoys so comparatively mild a tem-
perature, that its fishery can be carried on all winter. Its
exports are whale-oil, seal-oil, and fish -oil, furs and skins,
walrus hides and teeth, copper, and feathers.

2. The Kingdom of Denmark.— Denmark is a

small but very ancient kingdom, especially noted for
the sturdy independence and vigorous national sentiment
of its people. It consists of the peninsula of Jutland,

LAPPS A.ND REINDEER.

and the islands of Zealand, Funen, and Laaland, and of
some smaller islamls, with several foreign possessions.
In surface, Denmark is Hat, with few rivers, and no
largo lakos. Its climate, whicli resembles that of Scot-
land, is ijuite healthful ; and its soil, on tho whole, is
very fertile. As a grain-growing and dairy country,
Denmark ranks, proportionately, among the first in
Europe. Its manufactures, liowever, are few, and it has
fto minerals. — The government of Denmark is well ad-
ministered, and tho people are prosperous. The interests
of education are thorougiily well provided for. The
established religion is the Lutheran Protestant ; but all

religions are tolerated.

To the Teacher.— The area of Denmark
Is 14,842 square miles, and its population
about 2,03ri,0<X).— The foreign possessions
of Denmark are not unimportant, and
comprise :— The Faroe Islands (north from
Scotland), with a po)>uldtion of about
12,000; Iceland, with a {lopulation of about
75,000; Greenland, with a population of
about 10,000; and St. Croix, St. Thomas,
and St. John, in the West Indies, with a
population of about 88,(KX).— Teach from
the map the relative positions of the various
parts of the Danish kingdom, and the
physical features of Denmark proper.—
Tho coast of Denmark is generally low,
with many sand ridges and shallow lagoona
dangerous to navigation ; especially is this
true of tho west coast. Another peculi-
arity of the shore-line isi that 't Is much
indented by "fiords," or long sea-inlets.-
Although the surface of Denmark is low.
It is sufficiently raised above the sea not to
be swampy, or in danger of inundation, as
Holland is.— In north Jutland there is
much sandy heath-covered moorland ; but
even this is a good soil for buckwheat,
which Is largely grown. The islands and
southern Jutland have soils well suited for
the raising of all sorts of farm produce, and these parts are well furnished
with rich growths of fine beech.— North Jutland suffers in summer from
cold, dry, north-west winds, and south-west Jutland from salt mists.— The
thrlftiness and contentment of the Danes are largely attributable to the
fact that, as a rule, those who till the soil are the possessors of it.— The
Danes are good sailors, and, while their fisheries are not sufilcient to supply
home consumption, their mercantile marine is comparatively large.— Although
Denmark has no minerals, properly so-called, it is rich in porcelain and
otlier clays ; and one of the characteristic products of the country from
time Immemorial has been its amber, a fossilized gum, which is obtained from
buried bituminous fossil trees on the Baltic coasts. (Amber is also obtained on
the Prussian Baltic coasts.)— The Danish Government looks carefully after not
only the secular education of the people, but also their religious training and
health : certiflcatcs of baptism, confirmation, and vaccination, are re(|ulred
of every one before entering on service, apprenticeship, or matrimony.

Chief Cities.

Copenhagen (28.5,700), the capital, although occupying a l'^-;
and unpicturesque site, is a very handsome city — many ot its
public buildings being of considerable elegance, and its squares

tSSi

128

THK NKTHKRLANDS.

ami public gardens being numeroua and attractive. Copenhagen
is ju8tt, celebrated aa being a great literary, scientific, educa-
tional, and art centre : its famous university, its libraries, its
museums, and its art galleries, are among the finest in Europe.
Copenhagen is the great commercial and manufacturing centre
of the kingdom. Its liarbor is a fine one— large and safe — and
capable of holding the whole Danish f^eet, which is of consider-
able size. Of its manufactures, it is most celebrated for its
porcelain, terra-cotta, and faience, these being of world-wide
reputation. Aakhcus (24,831 ), in Jutland, and Odensb (20,804),
in Funen, are important seaports, and are the next largest towns.

3. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, or

Holland. — Holland (which is tlie English name for the
Kingdom of the Netherlands) is a part of the great
European Lowland Plain ; and so low is it, that a great
portion of it, especially in its western and northern parts,
is below the level of the sea, and is preserved from inun-
dation only by enormous dykes, or embankments. It is
not a fertile country, a large proportion of its soil being
either sand or fen ; nor does it possess a genial climate,
being subject to strong winds and cold sea-mists, while
its atmosphere is humid, and its sky, for the most part,
overcast ; yet such are the energy and industry of its
inhabitants, that they have made their country one of
the most productive in Europe — one that is especially
noted for the excellence of its horses and cattle and
other farm stock, for its garden produce — vegetables,
flowers, and fruits — and for its butter and its cheese.
Moreover, the Hollanders, or Dutch, as they are called,
from the magnitude and the far-reaching extent of their
commerce, are among the great trading nations of the
world ; and while in the amount of their manufactures
they are not pre-eminent, such goods as they do make
are noted everywhere for their excellence. The govern-
ment is energetically and economically administered.
Educational interests are exceedingly well provided for,
and all religions are perfectly equal under the law.
Holland maintains both an army and a navy, the latter
of some merit. The foreign possessions of Holland are
of considerable commercial importance.

To the Teacher.— The area of Holland is 12,680 square miles ; its popula-
tion is about 4,225,000. The foreign possessions comprise : — (1) the Dutch East
Indies, including the island, of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo (southern part),
Sumbawa, Sandalwood, Tim r (western part), and other smaller islands ; and, in
addition, the Moluccas, or the Spice Islands; (2) the western part of New Guinea;
^3) Surinam, or Dutch Guiana ; and (4) Curagoa, St. Eustatius, and several other
islands in the West Indies ; -in all an area of about 705,000 square miles, with
a population of about 28,010,000. —Teach from the map the boundaries of
Holland proper, and the relative positions of its foreign jwssessions. — Teach
also from tht 11 '.ap the physical features of Holland: -The shore-line, by the
action of the sea, has been subjected to many great changes ; and, in order

that the country may bo saved from inundation, the ooant8 are dotonde<>
nearly everywhere by dykes, or by artiflclal dunes which assist in strength-
ening the natural dunes. Despite this care of the inhabitants, great Inunda-
tions have taken place, some of which have been fearfully destructive of llf»
and property. The great sualnlet, the Zuyder Zee, and the Dollart, have both
lieen conciucrcd from the land. On the other hand, much land has been
reclaimed from the sea, and kept dralnc<l and safe by huge engineering
operations, as, for example, Haarlem Lake; the Zuyder Zee will ioon be
largely reclaimed also. The dykes are necessary not only along the shores of
the sea, but lidand as well ; and also along the ahorei of the rivers, since
these, 11 unrestrained, would almost constantly overflow their banks.
Altogether, more than 1,550 miles of dykes have been built Upon their tops,
roads, and even canals, are constructed. Canals, Indeed, are very numerou»
in Holland ; in proportion to its size, no other country has ao many. Some of
them are great ship canpis ; others are used merely by barges ; others again
are small, and can be ited only by boats, their principal service being to
drain the fens. Canalr are thus so numerous In Holland that they seem to
take the place which reads hold in other countries. The rivers, too, are much
like canals, being very slow of current ; and as they divide Into many branohe»
before they enter the sea, they serve as an extension of the canal system.—
The exhalations from so much stagnant water— in canals, In district*
dltfloult to drain, and in fens-are very prejudicial to health ; yet, owing to-
their careful and cleanly habits, the Hollanders are not more unhealthy than
other people.— Holland is, in its west-central parts, very densely inhabited, and
the kingdom has many large towns.— The Hollanders are largely engaged in
sea-faring, and shlp-buildlng Is their moat characteristic manufacture. Their
foreign trade is principally with their East Indian posaesaiona, and with Oreat
Britain, Germany, and the United Statea. The coloniea aend home cinnamon,,
pepper, and other apicery, and coffee, augar, Indigo, and dye and cabinet woods,
and these are again exported to other countries. Beaides ahlpa and boata, the
manufacturea are mainly cotton and woollen goods, velvets, glass and earthen-
ware, gold and silver gocds, leather, tobacco pipes, cigars, snuffs, and brandies
and gins.— Owing to the absence of water-power, and the prevalence of
strong winds, wind-mills arc largely used in all sorts of work to furnish the
motive power.— The inland trade of Holland is transacted largely by means
of fairs, at which the producers sell directly to the shippers. Among the
characteristic products of Holland are flower and garden aeeda, gardenera'
bulbs, chicory, honey, and druggists' herbs, which are all exported In large
quantities. — The Holland fisheries, both deep-sea and inland (the latter in the
Zuyder Zee and in the Friesland lakes), are of great importance.— Holland has
no coal or other minerals, but is somewhat plentifully supplied with peat.— In
religion, the northern, central, and western districts of Holland are prin-
cipally Protestant; the south-eastern, principally Roman Catholic.

The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg (to the south-east of Belgium), which is
an independent state of Europe, has the King of Holland for its Grand Duke ;
but there is no othev political connection between the two states.

Chief Cities.

The Hague (134,552), the capital, is a handsome city. As in
so many Dutch towns, canals traverse its principal streets ; some-
of these are beautifully embordered with trees. Amsterdam
(366,660) is one of the great commercial centres of the world.
Its trade, both hoiye and foreign, is immense, especially in char-
acteristic Dutch products, such as butter, cheese, eggs, fish, bread -^
stuffs, gin, and seeds; and in Dutch colonial produce, such as spices^
sugar, coffee, and dyestuffa. Its manufactures are also consider-
able, andinclude linens, silks, velvets, threads, chemicals, tobaccos,
canvas, and cordage. The streets of Amsterdam are traversed by
canals, and these are lined by quays, and thronged with ships from
every country in the world. Amsterdam is connected with the
North Sea by a great ship canal, by a smoller canal, and by the
Zuyder Zee. Rotterdam (169,477) is very favorably situated for
trade, both by sea and by canals. It exports in great quantities
characteristic Dutch products, mainly to Great Britain, Germany^

i^Bv;

■iPW^PW«iipmi*ll!,.l,i*.

BELGIUM. SWITZERLAND.

129

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•nd the United States. Its trade with the East Indies and
with the West Indies is also very great. It is also noted for its
breweries, distilleries, and dye-worlis. The "(ireat Church"
of St. Laurens, in Rotterdam, has one of the finest organs in the
world : it has 90 stops and 6,500 pipes. (The " Old Church," in
Amsterdam, also has a very famous organ.) Utrecht (60,221)
k noted for its manufactures of silks and woollens, and especially
for its velvets. It also has a large farm-produco trade. Lkyden
(41,241) is the seat of a university of great fame. (Amsterdam
and Utrecht also have great universities.) Haarlem (38,152) is
celebrated for its organ, probably the finest in the world. It is
alao celebrated for its trade in flowers, flowering bulbs, and
flower seeds.

4. The Kingdom of Belgium.— The Kingdom

of Belgium, though one of the smallest states in Europe,
is also one of the most prosperous. Its soil, in the west
and north-west, is extremely fertile, the country being
for the most part a well-watered, alluvial plain. In the
south and south-east the soil is of far less richness, the
country in these parts being much broken by low rocky
hills and barren ravines ; but the poverty of the soil is
made up for by the richness of the mineral resources
beneath it — coal and iron in especial plentifulness, also
zinc, copper, lead, and marble. — The Belgians are ex-
ceedingly industrious. They cultivate their land with a
care unequalled in the world, and with excellent results;
but their methods of agriculture are antiquated. As
manufacturers they rival the English and Scotch. Their
foreign commerce is also very great, but the amount of
their own shipping is inconsiderable. Their internal
trade is very great, and their system of railways is one of
the best in Europe. Their canals are numerous, also, and
their few rivers are all navigable. — The Belgian govern-
ment is an excellent one. The system of public educa-
tion is very complete ; but education is not compulsory,
and, owing to the great demand for labor, children are
often prevented by their parents from taking advantage
of the educational facilities provided them. All religions
are equal under the law ; ministers of all denominations
are paid by the state, but the great majority of the
people are Roman Catholics.

To the Teacher.— The area of Belgium is 11,373 square miles, and the
population about 6,726,000. Belgium is thus the most densely populated
country in Europe, even more so than England.— Teach the boundaries and
physical features from the map.— The north part of the Belgian coast is much
like that of Holland, and the adjacent provinces have to be protected by
dykes, as must also many districts adjoining the rivers. — The climate of
Belgium resembles that of England, only it is a little colder in winter, and
somewhat hotter in summer.— The people of Belgium are of two distinct
races : in the north they are principally Flemings (that is, Dutch), a German
race ; in the south they are principally Walloons, a French race, speaking an
ancient F'rench dialect ; but modern French is understood nearly everywhere,

and is the languaKe of the upper olaiaoi, of the government, of the univer-
sities, and of literature. — In Itolgium the land Is divided up into very snuUl
farms, many of them being mere gardens, and it Is largely held by
those who till it. All farm and garden crop* are plentifully grown, but fUu
is the characteristic Belgian product ; iHiut-root for sugar-making !• also
extensively cultivated. The Belgian farmers are noted for their fine horses
and cattle.— Belgium owes its manufacturing eminence to the fact that- its
coal and iron mines are near together : for the production of cutlery, and of
nearly every other article of iron and steel, Belgium is a keen competitor
with Elngland. Of fabrics, linens- are the chief productions, but cottons,
woollens, and hempstufls, are also largely produced and exported. So also
are lace (of the most beautiful and expensive sorts), gloves, silks, ribbons,
porcelain, and crystal ware. But the chief articles of export are coal, flax-
yarn, wrought iron, and woollen yarn.— The Belgian national system of educa.
tion includes not only primary schools, but secondary schools, univorsitiea,
technical schools (manufacturing schools, fanning schools, navigation schools,
and BO onX and schools for design, .lalntlng, sculpture, and music. Ths
charitable institutions of Belgium are alto very numerous, and very excellentl)
managed,— Belgium is noted for Its wateiing places : the most famous of thes*
Is Spa.

Ohief Cities.

Brussels (170,346; or, with Bubarb8,(403,388), the capital, U
a closely-built city, picturesquely situated, with many fine ancient
buildings, and many handsome modem ones, set ofif by many
l)eautiful boulevards and ornamental fountains. It is especially
remarkable for the number and excellence of its educational
institutions, both 1it«rary and scientific, and for its learned
societies, its academies of music and art, and its libraries and
museums. It is also remarkable for its manufactures — fine
linens, damasks, ribbons, gold and silver einbroidery, jewellery,
and mathematical and musical instruments — but especially for
its famous lace, made in darkened rooms, from the finest flax
(worth $80 a lb. ), and sold at $40 to C^ ^ a single yard. Antwerp
(175,636), although on a river, is a great feaport, with a com-
merce extending to all the world. It has magnificent harbor
and dock accommodations, but so great is its trade that these
are always very much crowded with ships. It has also many
manufactories, distilleries, and refineries. But Antwerp is more
widely celebrated for its beautiful cathedral and church of St.
James, and for its world-renowned picture gallery, which con-
tains some of the most famous pictures in Europe. Qhent
(133,755), from the importance of its cotton manufactures, is
called the "Belgian Manchester." It is the seat of a great
university, and is well known for its remarkable "belfry."
LiEOE (126,233) is the "Birmingham of Belgium," especially
noted for its manufactures of iron and steel — in particular, fire-
arms. Bruges (44,796) is famed for the number of bridges
which cross its numerous canals. (" Bruges " means Bridges")
It is especially famouu for its lace. It is also celebrated for its
belfry or tower, which has the finest chimes in Europe.

There are many other towns of considerable importance in
Belgium.

5. The Republic of Switzerland.— Switzerland

is a confederation of twenty-two cantons, with a govern-
ment somewhat similar to that of the United States. It
is the most mountainous country in Europe : the Central
Alps occupy its entire south-eastern half, and the Jura

180

SPAIN.

a groat portion of tlio rcimiiiKlor; but liotwopn these
rangoH, however, is iign^it plateau, with luiiucrous valleys,
kept perp(itually fertile by tlio tnirent Htreanis that
descend from tlio inountaiiiH. The pasture lands of
Switzerland are unexcc^lhfd in Europe; und the chief
occupations of the people are farming and pasturing —
especially the latter, The cattle are driven up the moun-
tiiin-sides in summer, where the butter and cheese are
made, and are brought back to the valleys iu winter. The
cheese of Switzerland is held in great esteem. Some of the
Swiss cantons, however, are famous for their manufactures
— those in the west, for watches, jewellery, and musical
instrumcmts; and those in the north, for silks, linens,
laces, and cottons. — The Swiss are noted for their spirit
of personal independence : they have no landed aristocracy
among them, and nearly every lu'ad of a family is the
own«!r of the soil he tills and of the house he lives in.
Education, in Switzerland, is more widely diflused among
the people than in any other state iu Europe, and the
people are exceedingly intelligent. k\\ religions are
upon an equality under the law; the north-western can-
tons (which are the most populous) are almost entirely
Protestant; the Alpine cantons are nearly altogether
Roman Catholic. — Switzerland is noted for its magnifi-
cent sceneiy : its great snow-topped mountains, its huge
and wonderful glaciers, its picturesque lakes, its beautiful
valleys, together make such natural pictures as are to be
seen nowhere else on the globe. From the number of
tourists who visit it annually it is .alled tho recreation-
ground of Europe, and of the woild.

To the Tiacher.—The area of Switzerland is 16,0S1 square miles; its
population about 2,900,000. Teach its boundaries from tho map ; aisc the
courses of its principal rivers— the i^mmen, tho Rcuss, the Aar, the Thur, and
the Rhine, the Doubs, the Rhone, tlie Ticino, and the Inn. Notice hi w the
mountains of Switzerland are the fountain reservoirs of many of the great
rivers of Kurope. Tuach also the positions of the princiiial lakes— Iklaggiore,
Lugano, Geneva, Thun, Bricnz, Lucerne, Zurich, Cuuatance, Neuch&tel,
Bienne ; most of these are very deep and rarely freeze, but are subject to
tearful storms.— The Alps are the (grandest mountains in Europe ; their peaks
ran^e from 9,000 to 12, .100 feet in hcijrht : among the more famous of them
are Mont lilanc (Just outside of Switzerland, the highest mountain ' i Europe),
Great St. Bernard, the Mutterhorn, the Jun<,'frau, the Wctterhorn, Mount
St. Gothard (the central knot of the system), and SplUgen. — Minerals arc
not abundant in Switzerland, but on the slopes of the mountains there is
sonsiderable forest land, which is very valuable both for the building
material it furnishes and for fuel. In the mountainous districts, too,
many wild animals are found : the chamois, the ibex, and the marmot,
are the most charactcrisUc. fhe ISnimer-geier, one of the largest birdu
in the world, inhabits the hlj^hest peaks. The lakes abound in trout
and other good fish.- Despite tlio mountainous character of the country,
Switzerland has excellent roads, and is well supplied with railways, and all
the larger lakes have steamboatn for the coMvenience of tourists. — Visitors are
attracted to Switzerland not by its scenery alone, hut also by its mineral
flprings, which are very numerous and popular.— The climate of Stvitzerland

U marked by stronar contraita— longr cold winters, hot lummeri, and sudden
ohanifes In teni|i«-fttturo in all iiuioiiH; oguln, tho cllniato varies with th«
elevation, so tliut tho same canton may havo districts pro»ontlii|{ every sort
of vegetation from trdplcul to arctic. — It is In the north and west thai,
the coiuitry is most pnxluctlvu. Tho vino, and wheat, barley, oaM, flax
(a notoil Swiss proiluct), and hemp, are all grown, each at the altitude suited
to It Northern .Switzerland Is a good fruitgrowing country, and cider and
cherry-water (cB|K'olally the latter) are favorite beverages of tho Swiss.— Th«
Swiss people are of several nationalities and speak different languages: »
llttlo loss than three-fourths are (lernian, and about one-fl(th an- French;
tho rcinaiiiilf r are principally Italian. Those various races are found In the
districts adjacent to the parent nations.

Chief Cities.

Bern (44,087 )> tho capital, is a hundsomely built, character-
iatio Swiss town. Its educational institutions, cspocially its uni-
xersity, are in excellent repute. Geneva (68,165) is especially
noted for its niaiuifacturo of watches, jewellery, and musical
boxes ; it is also the seat of some famous educational institutions,
especially theoloyical schools. Basel (61, .199) is greatly noted
for its manufacture of ribbons and other silk goods. Its univer-
sity, its technical and other schools, and its fine old cathe-
dral, are all famous. Lau.sanne (.30,179) is a famous resort of
English ^(eople, a ad has a fine cathedral. Zdrich (25,102), like
most other cities iu SwitzerLind, is famous for its educational
institutions; it is also noted for its manufactures of silk and
cotton.

6. The Kingdom of Spain.— Spain, from its

compact shape, its length of sea coa.st, its position be-
tween the two most important bodies of water (that is,
in a commercial sense) in the world, its general fertility
of soil, its great variety of pastoral, agricultural, and
horticultural products, its plentifulness of valuable min-
erals — all these without any serious natural drawbacks —
ought to be one of the most prosperous of nations. But
although it was at one time the chief power in Europe,
with a foreign trade and with colonial possessions ex-
ceeding those of other nations, yet, after that time of
pre-eminence, not only was it for many years completely
unprogressive, but it even fast lost ground in comme»'ce,
in industrial pursuits, and in popular intelligence. This
retrogression was due largely to bad laws and to bad
governments; but of late years Spain has much im-
proved : a good form of government has been established,
some provision has been made for the education of the
common people, and religious worship has been made
free to everyone according to his own conscience; and
as a result the people have become more enterprising :
railways have been built, agriculture has improved, and
commerce and manufactures have increased in impor-
tance; — but much yet remains to be done.

To the Teacher.— As part of the kinjrdom, are usually included : — Ceuta,
opposite Gibraltar ; the liiilearic Islands, in the Mediterranean ; and the
Canary Islands, in the Atlantic— thn area then being 196,173 square miles,

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I'OIIIL'OAL.

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181

•nd the population about 17,2SO,n()n, The torelifn poHgeHHtoiiH of R|>aln, thoUKh
now but a mure (raction <>( wlmt thoy once wcru, uru ntlll conitldurablu :— In tho
Weit Indlei, Culia and I'uurto Klco ; In Aaiu, tlio l>liill|i)itiiu iHlandN (area,
114,360 Kiuaro miles; population, about 6,(IMI,(KKI); In tliu I'ui'lllc, the Mariana
Iilanda, or the l^ronus; and in Africa, tliu lalundH of tVrnando I'o and
Annobon, and a "pntectoratu" over a Hinall part of tlie Sahara Coast —Teach
tho position* of Npain and of Uh dupendencleH, from the map ; alao iti
phyMicalfuatureM,— Tho ph.vHtcal features of Hpain aro bo very marked that
they Kreutly afTect Its climate and productions, and hetiuc, the occupations of
Its iHiople. In rrKurd to Its coast-line, Spain has few in entatlons : In the
north, the coast is tor the mont part one lonj; clllT, not destitute, however, of
trood harliors ; elsewhere tho coasts are Kcnerully low and sandy, but these
also have a Butllclency of harbors. -Kunniiii;acroHM tlio country from oast to
west Is a series of mountain chains, beifinnlnif with the snow-clad Pyrenees
and Cuntabrian Mountains, and sndini/r with thu 8ierra do Nevada (the
latter, next to tho Alps, hoinK the hi),'hw)( in Kuro)>e). lietween these ranjfes
is a series of lari;6 rivers, for the most part rapid and umiavlt;able. — The
whole of the central part of .S|>ain Is a plateau rttfion, from 2,(iU0 to 3,000 feet
high —the hiifhest In Eurojw— broken, however, by tho mountain rantfes, and
threaded by thu ifreat rivers and their tributaries. This |)latcau has a severe
climate— cold in winter, and hot and dry in sunnner, Southern and eastern
Spain have warm winters, and sununers of tropical temperature. Northern
Spain has lont( winters and much rain in sprintr and autumn. But despite
these extremes of climate, Spain is, as a rule, very productive, except in somo
of the arid districts of the centre. Northern Spain abounds in rich pasturage
and In forests of oak and chestnut (from the nut of tho chestnut a flour is
ground, which is largely used for food), and produces freely grolnf of all sorts,
and the apple and the grape. Central S|>aiii, in Its more fertile p:. rUi, produces
abundantly grain and wine, while everywhere the pasturing of sheep is a
profitable occupation. Southern Spain has a very fertile soil, and is supplied
with water by irrigation; atid. In return for careful cultivation, yields abun-
dantly the finest grapts, the orange, the lemon, tho almond, the flg, the olive,
the pomegranate, the banana, and tho date, besides sugar, cotton, and rice
(the last, indeed, is a chief article of export): tho wines of this district (as for
example, sherry, from Xeres), and the grapes (as for example, those from
Ualaga) are very famous. The cork-tree Is also a source of great profit in
southern Spain.— In agriculture the Spaniards aro very backward, though
their domcstio animals are noted for excellence : their cattle are of good
quality ; their sheep are mostly of the famous merino breed, whose wool is so
valued for its length and fineness ; their mules and asses are noted for their
size and strength ; and their horses (In southern Spain) are much celebrated.
— Wild animals abound in tho mountains : tho chamois and the Ibex in the
Pyrenees ; and there and elsewhere, the beat, the wolf, the marten, the lynx,
and the fox.— Tho minerals of Spain are of great value : lead Is found more plen-
tifully in Spain than in any other country in Europe, and quicksilver is almost
equally abundant. Coal and iron are also abundant, but are littlo mined. Tin,
copper, zinc, antimony, and salt, are also common ; and marbles, alabasters,
and kaolins, of the very best quality, are exceedingly plentiful. — The manu-
factures of Spain, once so celebrated, are much declined, and many are in the
hands of the government (In many of the larger towns are great royal tobacco
and cigar factories); but private capital, however. Is once more becoming
enterprising. The foreign commerce of Spain is considerable, but It is largely
carried in outside shipping. The interior commerce of Spain has greatly
suffered tor lack of good roads : nearly everything has had to be transported
on mules (the canals, though numerous and large, have been allowed to go to
ruin), but railways are now doing much to Improve internal trade. — The
Spaniards are, too many of them, of very idle habits, and fond of brutal sport :
bull-fighting during all the sunnner months is a chief delight of the people in
the capital, and in many of tho other larger cities. The Spanish nobility Is
very numerous, but very poor ; In fact, the whole kingdom has much decayed :
many of the towns of Spain were once treble and quadruple their present size.
—The Roman Catholic is the established religion, and nearly all the people
are of that faith. — The government maintains a considerable army and a
considerable navy. — Besides the true Spaniards, there are three other
remarkable races inhabiting the country: The Basques, in the extreme
north; the Moriscoes, or Moors, in the south; and the Gypsies.— Spain
boasts a great antiquity, and many of its towns are very ancient, and have
interesting ruins.

Chief Cities.

Mahkiu (.')08,405), tho capital, ia situated in the midst of »
groat infertile plain, and has few natural advantages for com'
niei'co or niiinufuctures, although it is the centre of the railway
sjHtoni of tlie kingdom. It is noteworthy to foreigners princl-
piilly for its picture gallery, one of tho very finest in tho world.
Its royal palace, also, is noted — heing one of tho niont magniticent
in Kurope. Of lato years Madrid, liko other Spanish cities, haa
made great improvement in educational matters, and its facilities
for instruction (both primary and advanced), its libraries, and
its museums, are now excellent. — Not far from Madrid is the
E.sc'URiAL — a palace, churcli, and monastery, in one immense pila
— built in a style so largo and grand as to be called tiie " eighth
wonder of the world." Bakcklona (249,106) is the principal
manufacturing town in the kingdom, and has considerable coast-
ing trade. Valkncia ( 143,8r)(5) is celebrated for its silk and velvet
manufactures, and its exports of rice, silk, almonds, raisins,
and oranges. Sk.villis (1.')3,038) is noted for the magnificent
paintingH to be seen in its cathedral, and for its ancient
Moorish palace, tho Alcazar. Its exports are principally
oranges and olive-oil. Near Seville are the remains of a mag-
nificent Roman amphitheatre. Malaga (115,882) has a large
export trade in wines, olive-oil, figs, almonds, raisins, grapes,
oranges, and lemons; also in lead. Granada (76,108) ia of
world-wide fame for its palace of the Alhambra (in its interior
one of the most beautiful buildings in the world), which was
built by the Moors when they had dominion in Spain. CADIZ
(65,028) is noted for its export of sherry wine.

7. The Kingdom of Portugal.— Portugal, like

Spain, has liacl a glorious past; but from the high place
it once held among the ntitions of the world it is now
far fallen. In its favorable position for maritime com-
merce, in its mineral resources, in its valuable forests,
its agreeable climate, its fertile soil, and the variety and
usefulness of its natural products, it has all the material
elements of prosperity; but bad laws and bad govern-
ments, numerous wars and revolutions, and the indiffer-
ence of the higher classes to the education of the common
people, have resulted in the great degradation of this
once powerful nation. Yet, in Portugal, as in Spain,
matters are now improving : the government is being
more wisely administered, peace is maintained, and the
education of the people is receiving more attention;
and, as a consequence, Portugal is once more becoming
prosperous.

To the Teacher.— the area of Portugal is 34,606 square miles ; its popula-
tion, about 4,310,000. As Integral parts of the kingdom are Includt'l —the
Azores, in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands, off the north-west of Africa,
with an area of 1,237 square miles and a population c' about 400,000.— The
foreign possessions of Portugal, though far less than what they were, are still
numerous and important: — In Africa, the Capo Verde Islands, Portuguese
Guip"". in Senegambia, part of Dahomey, the island of St. Thomas, Prince's
Island, the Kingdom of Angola (from the mouth of the Congo to Cape Vrlo),

132

GREECE.

and Sofala iiiul Mozambique (these, on tho east coast) ; in India, Ooa, and some
other bniall territories ; in China, Maeao (at the mouth of the Canton Iliver);
and in tlic Kast Indies, part of Timor— in all about 205,0(X) stjuare miles, with a
population of 2,5CO,000.— Teaoh tiie boundaries of Portugal and its physical
features from the niaii; also the position of lis foreign dependencies. — The
physical features of Portugal resemble those of .S|)ain, for there is no natural
division between the two countries. Tho Spanish mountain ranges are
continued into I'ort\igal, but terminate before they reach the Atlantic ; the
great Spanish ))lateau subsides near the boundary line, so that Portugal is
for the most part made up < f mountain and valley, with a low flat region along
the coast. Tho rivers of t>e peninsula reach the level of tho sea soon after
entering the Portuguese teri.'tory, so that in Portugal they are generally
navigable ; but, unlike the northern nations of Europe, Portugal has not done
anything to in)provo its facilities for internal navigation.— Tlie mineral
resources of Portugal are much tlio same sis tliose of Spain, with the difference
that Portugal has no quicksilver, but lias some gold ; its rock-salt is much
valued for its hardness, and is exported to England for salting meat for ships'
use.- The climate of Portugal is much less subject to extremes than that of
Spain, but of course varies with the elevation and the distance from the sea.
Eaiii falls abundantly, especially on the coast, but snow is rare except on the
mountains.— All the useful grains, grasses, and roots of the temperate zone
grow on tho highlands; but Portuguese agriculture is in a wretched state,
and not enough food material is produced to support the people. As in Spain,
however, the domestic animals are of a superior quality. Goats and pigs ate
raised in great numbers and at little cost in the mountains, which are largely
co\ered with forests of oak or of chestnut, and goat-skins and pork are
exported. Chestnuts are much used as food, and also form an important
article of export. In the warm lowlandsevery sort of southern fruit is grown,
as in jnaritimc Spain ; but the cultivation of the grape and tho olive is the
main industry of the people. I'rom tho grape is made the celebrated port
wine, which constitutes ir.Jeed the chief article of export from the kingdom.
The mulberry tree is largely cultivated for the production of silk cocoons, and
bees are kept in great numbers. In the south the cork oak (from the bark of
which the cork of commerce is obtained) grows naturally in great abundance,
and k;ork is, after wine, one of the most valuable of Portuguese exports.— In
the south are important tunny and anchovy fisheries.— The manufactures of
Portugal, though long decayed, are now reviving ; domestic manufacture,
however, supplies most of the articles of prime necessity to families. Sliip-
t -Idiig is an important industry, and the Portuguese are successful navi-
gators. — The i'st.iblib'.'."d religion is the Iloman Catholic, and nearly all the
people are of that faith ; but Protestant worship is allowed in some of the
larger towns. Facilities for the education of the wealthy are, in Portugal, as
in most other l^uroi)can states, ample enough; and facUitie • for the educa-
tion of tlie poorer jieople are now being impro\ed and extended, though the
number of primary schools is still too few for the needs of the population.—
In race the Portuguese are allied to the Spanish, and their language is akin to
the Spanish language ; but they entertain for the Spanish an aversion amount-
ing to hatred.

Ll.SBON (233,496), the capital, has a fine foreign trade, not
only in the products of Portugal, but also in tliose of Spain,
with which it is connected by railway — principally in wine,
olive-oil, southern fruits, cork, and salt. It has also some
manufactures. Its aqueduct, by which pure water is brouglit
into the city, is one of the finest in the world. LisJion has
uufFered much from earthcjuakes. OrouTO (108,;U()) is the chief
manufacturing city in Portugal, but it is most noted for its
export of " port " wine, the name being derived from its own.
It also has exports of oil, sumach, lemons, oranges, kermes
(insects used for dyeing, found on the "kermes" oak), wool,
salt, and cream of tartar.

8. The Kingdom of Greece. — (lifeoe is one of

the iiKKst iiuoii'iit and most f;iiuous countries in the
world; but for centuries its inhabitants were under tlie

dominion of foreigners, anc^ it was only in 1832 that
they again became independent, and that the present
Kiiigdom of Greece was established. The country is
very mountainous, but its narrow alluvial valleys and
plains are capable of producing grain and southern
fruits in abundance ; the soil, however, is not well cul-
tivated, for Greek agricultures is of the most primitive
sort. Moreover, the government is very deeply in debt
(i)wing to the expen.ses incurred by the nation in obtain-
ing its independence), and is forced to levy hea"^' taxes
upon the people, and these are unwisely made to ftdl
most heavily on the farmers, who thus become discour>
aged and unenterprising. It follows that the produoe
of the soil is far short of what it might be. Again, good
roads are almost entirely wanting, and, as a conse-
quence, the resources of the mines and of the forests
(both very valuable) are not at all taken advantage ot
But the people are frugal and industrious, fond of
knowledge and exceedingly quick at learning, and agri-
culture and all other industries are improving; seafaring,
however, is, and has for a long time been, their favorite
occupation. — Greece has an excellent system of educa-
tion. — The Orthodox Greek Church is the established
religion, and nearly all the inhabitants are of that
faith; but all religions are tolerated.

To the Teacher.— Greece includes : (1) the mainland peninsular part, «t
which the southern portion (below the Gulf of Lepanto)i3 called the jiTorea;
(2) the island Eubcea ; (3) the Ionian Islands (Corfu, Cephalonia Zante, etc.);
and (4) tho Cyclados. Tl'o area is '24,977 si|Uare miles, and the population
about 2,000,000. -Teach the boundaries and the relative positions ot the
constituent jiarts of Greece from the map.— Greece is very much indented by
b.ays and gulfs, and it possesses ]iroportioiiately more sea-coast than any other
European state, and from this f.act, and because so large a portion of its
territory is insular, the Greeks are naturally a maritime people, bemg bred to
tlie sea from chiliihood.— The climate of Greece is exceedingly healthy, except
in some inclosed marshy districts, where malaria prevails. The summers are
somewhat hotter, the winters somewhat colder, than in maritime Spain,
the natural i)roduets being similar.— The atmosphere of Greece is in general
of exipiisite clearness, and tl'is adds much to the charm of the scenery, which
is in itself ot almost perfect beauty.— The mineral resources of Greece are
considerable : copper is abundant, and li.ad is obtaine''. (by an English com-
pany) in great quantities from ancie it ami long disused mines. Marbles are
extremely aliundaiit ; tliuy are also far famed for their great beauty, and are
much used for statuarx', especially those of Mount Pentelicus, and of the
island Paros.— Wild animals aliound, especially in the forest mountain
districts, and game is iileiitlful,- a large portion of Greece is still unoccupied
by man. From the forest oaks of the interior are obtained the insect kermes,
and v.alonia (the cups of tlm fannin acorn, used in dyeing and in tanning).—
The most noted pmniaa oi tireeco is the currant— the fruit of tho currant-
grape, which grows nowhere jlsc in the world. The olive and the mulberry
tree are also much culrivatuil. Wine-grapes, figs, apricots, oranges, lemons,
pomogranatts, grow ulmndantly, and in some parts are much cared for. The
cultivation of tobacco and cotton is encouraged by the government. Manu-
factures are being establislud as yet ship-building is that of most importance.
— (lieeoe is ropidly gaining uronnil, and were its government once free from
delit, it would soon take a pUiic among tile most prosperous of nations. The

^""^^^^i 1

TURKEY.

\-6'A

Manu-
irtance.
•ee from
iH. The

tjlreeks arc toinperate and pure of life, thrifty, brave, and ambitious to excel.
Thty are also exceedingly independent— even to vanity.

Chief Cities.

Athens (84,903), the capital, is, to the historian, the scholar,
and the artist, one of the most interesting cities in the world,
for it may be said tiiat there civil liberty, learning, and artistic
taste, had their birth. Perhaps its most interesting feiiture is
the Acropolis — a hill about which the city is built— its ancient
citadel, once strongly fortified, surmounted even now by the
celebrated Parthenon, a temple of pure white marble, one of the
oldest buildings in the world.
Many other remains of ancient
■Greek art are found in Athens,
and also in other places in
Greece. — Modern Athens is
growing rapidly. It is the chief
seat of manufactures and of
commerce in the kingdom ; and
its educational institutions arc
of high rank and are much re-
«orted to by foreigners. — Four
miles from Athens, and con-
nected with it by railway, is
PiRitus, its seaport. — Other
modern Greek cities are:—
Patras (25,494) and Zante (17,-
516), noted for their export of
currants; Syra (20,996), a noted
steamship calling-place, with
exports of sponges; and Corfu
< 16,515), famous for its oranges
and olives.

9. The Empire of

Turkey. — Turkey, or the
Ottoman Empire, was form-
erly one of the great powers
of Europe. It comprised
many peoples of widely dif-
fering races and religions, not only in Europe, but also in
Asia and Africa ; but among tliom all theOsniauTurk race
and the Mohammedan religion were dominant. For some
time past, however, its power has gradually decayed,
and not long ago it lost mucli of its territory, especially
in Europe. Throughout the Turkish Empire the Sultan,
or emperor, is the supreme source of law and authority ;
but his acts are considerably influenced by tradition
and custom. Turkey is hopelessly in debt, and the
aftairs of its government are in great confusion. Ta.x-
ation is most oppressive, and greatly liinders enterprise
and progress. Agriculture and ;ill manufactures are
carried on in tlie most primitive ways. Yet, notwitli-

standing its bad government and tlie backwardness of
its industries, such is tlie natural fertility of Turkey-in-
Europe that it ranks as one of xhe most productive
countries on tlie globe. The established

religion

a MOHAMMEDAN MOSQUE.

Mohammedanism, and the Sultan is t^e supreme head
of tlie faith tliroughout the empire; but all' other relig-
ions are ficely tolerated. Public education, as might be
supposed, is in a deplorable condition; but it is no
longer unattended to, especially in the capital.

To the Teacher.— Vetore the Treaty
of Berlin, in 1S78, European Turkey,
in addition to its present territory,
comprised the states now known as
the Kingdom of Roumania and the
Kingdom of Servia (formerly princi-
palities tributary to Turkey), r.nd the
Principality of Bulgaria, besides East-
ern Rounielia (which is niw joined
with Bulgaria), Bosnia and Herzegovina
(now military provinces of Austria-
Hungary), the island of Cyprus (now a
protectorate of Great Britain), and
some territory by the treaty ceded to
Russia and Greece. —The area of Euro-
pean Turkey is now CO, 500 square
miles, and its population U about
4,700,000.— Asiatic Turkey comprises
AsiaMinor, Syria(including Palestine),
part of Armenia and Kuniistan, Meso-
potamia, and those pas-ts of Arabia
bordering on the Red Sea and the
northern half of the I'ersian Gulf— in
all, 080,000 sipiarp miK'S, with a popu-
lation of abon'., 10,400,000. In Africa,
Turkey i ute:; Tripoli, Barca, and Fczzan
--about 400,000 square miles, with a
population of about 1,000,000. Turkey
also obtains u tribute from Egypt and
from Cyprus, and claims tribute from

Bulgariaand Eastern Roumelia Teach

the relative positions of the different
parts of the Ottoman Empire from the
map ; also the boundaries and physical
features of European Turkey.— Tui'key-
in-Europe is, for the most part, a hilly
and undulating country- but witli several distinct mountain chains, the prin-
cipal being the riM(ina range and the Balkans. It has numerous rivers, and its
river vallcvs are exceedingly fertile. The climate, on the whole, is genial and
ociuable, though it is hot in summer. Much of Turkey is yet covered with forests,
or otherwise in a state of nature. Wild unimalsabound— the wolf, the bear, the
boar, the stag, and the chamois. Agriculture is prosecuted in the rudest
manner. Ordinary grains and roots grow in thrfmore elevated regions ; cotton,
rice, and maize, in the lower parts. In the maritime plainsthrive the olive, the
orange, the raisin-grape, the ,.o.icli, and the prune plum.— The valley of
tlie Miiritza is note<l fur its roses, from tlio blossoms of which the far-
fanicil attur-ofroses is obtained. -Tlie pasturing of sheep and goats is a
prevalent oei?\iputior.. Among the other domestic animals ia the buffalo, used
both as a beast of driiught and of burden.— The manufartures of Turkey,
though carried on in a j)rinilti\e fashion, are many of them of great excel-
lence, though all are priiuninlly fcir home use: however, shawls, fine silks,
carpets, rugs, niorowo leatlier, ro<l cottons, prune brandy, ai;d swords, are
cxpur'rd. Other exports are boxwood, gall-nuts, and valonia, chamnis-skins
ani' gout-skins. go:its' hair, wool, sponges (obtained among the i.ilamls of the
.Kgeaii), madder, wax, mcerschanni <'lay, die. ry -stems for pipes, and leeches

134

ROUMANIA, SERVIA, BULGARIA, AND MONTENEGRO.

(obtained from madtimo marshes). —Turkey )ms iniiies of iron ii. r'.undance,
and of lead, salt, and marble ; but none of tlie^u are worked. — The people of
Turkcy-in-Europe, as now constituted, are princiimlly Osniaii Turks, and are
of the Mohammedan faith ; but south-western Turkey is inhabited niamly by
Albanians, of whom many belong to tlie Greek Church.— Turkish commerce
Is almost entirely in the hands of Oreeks, Arnicniuiis, or Jews.

Chief Gities.

Constantinople (871,561), the capital, was, under its
founder, Constantino the Greuc, the capital of the world. For
several centuries back it has been the chief centre of the great
Mohammedan religion and of Mohammedan power. Though it
has suffered terribly from numerous sieges, much of its former
splendor still remains — principally in Mohammedan mosques,
once C'hristian churches; of these is the celebrated Mo&que of
St. Sophia, famous for its splendid interior. The city has a
most picturesque situa-
tion — like Rome, it is ^f^^i'
built on seven hills ; and >^_ -^^^K
its appearance, when
approached by sea, is
most magnificent — the
gilded towers, minarets,
and cupolas of its nu-
merous mosques and
palaces, showing resplen-
dent in the sun; but
its streets are narrow,
crooked, and dirty, and
many of its houses are
poor and mean. — The
manufactures of Constan-
tinople and its suburbs
are' considerable. Its
foreign trade is very
great, but little of it is
in the hands of Turks.
Its exports consist of
characteristic Turkish
products and manufac-
tures, produce from Black Sea ports, and Asiatic goods of every
description brought by caravans to Scutari, on the opposite
shore of the Bosphorus. Adrianople (150,000) is famous for
its carpets and rugs, and its attar-of-ro^es, rose-water, and
opium. It is also famous for its mosque — the finest Moham-
medan temple in the world. Salonica (80,000 ?) exports largely
raw silk and sponges, and is famous for its numerous Roman
antiquities.

10. The Kingdoms of Roumania and Servia,
and the Principalities of Bulgaria and Monte-
negro. — Roumania, Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro,
were all, not long ago, parts of Turkey. As their in-
habitants were alien to the Turks, both in race .incl
religion, they strove for independence, and have become
independent states. These countries include some of tht)
best parts of Europe, and are naturally very productive;

CONSTANTINOPLE.

moreover, they abound in forest and mineral wealthy*
their resources, liowever, are as yet far from being fully
developed. The rearing of cattle, sheep, and horses,
Avith some agriculture rudely carried on, is the prin-
cipal occupation of the people.

To the Teacher, — Teach the relative positions, boundaries, and the mor»
prominent physical features of these countries, from the map.— Roumania
(area, 4tt,314 s(|uare miles ; population, about 5,400,000) consists principally
of a great p'.ain (called the 'iVallochian Plain) stretching from the Carpa .hians
to the Pruth and the Danube. The climate, especially In the south, is
extreme : very cold in •.vinter, very hot in summer. But the soil is exceedingly
fertile. There is an al;undance of magnificent pasture, and great numbers of
cattle, sheep, and horses, are reared. Wheat and maize are grown in the north ;
olives .ih(l tobacco in the south. Bee-keeping is an important industry.- Along

the Danube great swamps ex-

-==^^=^ tend, and these abound in

Sj^ _ ^ water-fowl.— Minerals and

- -^ '^^^^ ' precious stones are abundant,

but no mines are worked. —
The people are not Slavonic —
they are of the Latin race,
and their language is a mod-
ernized Latin ; but they ar&
members of the Greek Ortho-
dox Church. — Public schools
are numerous; education is
both free and compulsory.
Roumanian literature is ricl)
in folk-lore and popular songs.
—Bucharest (221,805), the
capital, has a large trade in
grain, timber, wool, iiides,
and wax.

SsRvfA (area, 18,757 square
miles; population, about
1,900,000) is a mountainous
country, covered largely with
valuable forests; but it has
also numerous va"'?vs whicli
might produce aoundantly
nearly all the us ..'ul sorts of
grains, roots, and truits. Little
land, however, is cultivated;
mil'' ■{'.■■> of hogs are fed on the acorns of the forests, and these form the prin-
cipal e.. !>ort. Other exports are gcat-skins, leeches, and valonia. Agriculture
and all other industries are in a, very backward state.— Copper and silver are
abundant, but are not mined. — The people are Slavonic in race, anc belong to
the Orthodox Greek Church ; they are distinguished for their valor.— Educa-
tion is backward, but is making rapid progress. Beloradk (35,471), the capital,
a very strongly fortified place, has many manufactures and an excellent trade.
Bi'LOARiA (area, 24,700 square miles ; population, about 2,000,000), though
nomina'ly independent, is tributary to Turkey, and much interfered with by
Russia. It is a mountainous country in the south, but level in the north, and
has nmch valuable forest land, ard much excellent pasture. The rearing of
live-stock is the principal industry, but grain, hemp, and flax, are cultiva',«d.
Among its exports are t'niber, cattle, wool, hides, skins, wax, and atuir-of-
roses. The Bulgariarrs are a distant branch of the great Slavonic race, and
are members of the Orthodox Greek Church, liiough many of the inhabitants
are of other races and faiths. They are industrious, hospitab'o, and moral. —
Sofia (20,500) is the capital. — Eastern Roumrlia (area, 13,862 square miles ;
population, about 1,000,000) is inhabited principally by Bulgarians, and has
effected a sort of union with Rulgarin.. Piiilippopolis (33,142) is the capital.

MoNTENRORO (area, 3,480 square miles ; population, about 250,000) Is a
mountainous, forest-covered country, inhabited by people of Slavonic ruoeand
of the'Creek Orthodox faith. Citte.njp '''.,400) is the capital.

V'>

•H ' jjf wmi iMi.in i mn iii w w' ." ' !." ' """

■ U .1 JimilMHWM.^-11*^ ll"gl»Wt,ill'|)jiJ

mfurr

-i^-^.ijUilij.BflPMiiii i"Hi™ P!|i!iHH-l''".-yJ' "' ■"'

ASIA.

t35

I '

LESSON XLII.

■ ' ASIA.

1. Extent and Population. — Asia is the largest

of the continents: it contains one-third of the land
surface of the globe. And although great parts of it
are very thinly populated, other parts, especially in the
south and south-east, are very densely populated, and
its entire population is perhaps not less than one-half
that of the whole earth. ' '

To the Teacher. — Statistics in reterenco to Asia (outAde of the British
po^oo^sions) are only approximate estimates. — The length of the continent,
from 'ihe Dardanelles to Behring's Strait, is about 7,600 miles. The entire
area is about 17,000,000 square miles. The population is thought to be
about 820,000,000 ; but this is probably too high an estimate. — Let the pupils
make comparisons of the area and population of Asia with the areas and
populations of Evope and the two Americas.

2. Ednd '■ --H and Subdivisions.

To the 1(-:K'.- •■ should be taught thoroughly from the map.—

With respent tu '.ne i^jlaiiJs of the Malay Archipelago, th'.re is some difficulty
'n determining whicn shall be considered as belongintr co Asia, and which as
bJonging to Australasia. Modern geographers b^.vc agreed, however, in con-
sidering an imaginary line through the Strait of Macassar (known as
Wallace's line) a natural demarcation. — With respect to subdivisions, it should
bo said that political subdivisions are continually changing, and territorial,
or geographical subdivisions, are in some cases better known. The following
may be used :— 1. Russia-iN'Asix (area, 6,288,812 square miles ; population,
14,550,000), comprising (1) Trans-Caucasia ; (2) Trans-Caspiana ; (3) Russian
Turkestan, or Central Asia ; (4) Siberia. (Note.— Independent Turkestan,
comprising the khanates of Khiva and Bokhara, may now be considered as
part 0( Russian Turkestan, for though nominally independent, it is really
subject to Russian authority). 2. The Chinese Empire (arsa, 4,553,000 square
miles ; population, 334,700,000?), comprising (1) China Proper (including the
islands of Hainan and Formosa), (area, 1,554,000 square miles; population,
300,000,000?); (2)Mantchooria; (3)Coria (only nominally subject to Chir a) ;
(4) Mongolia ; (5) Eastern Turkestan : >>.; Thibet. 3. The Indo-Chinese Pen>v-
BUbA, comprising (1) Anam, a Frf . : >' ; rotectorate ; (2) French Possessions,
including Tongking, Cambodia i .1 ''o-lii'- China ; (3) 8iam ; (4) Burmah (in
part a British possession, in ai. . ..''ii,->h protect.,. ate). 4. The Malay
PsNiNSCLA, comprising (1) Mai -oa, i.ii2 . L.c ' British possessions and pro-
tectorates ; (2\ some independent svat , ' . The Peni ^i la of Hindostan,
comprising (1) British India (which alsu 'nc' c^ Bv inah) (area, 1,618,044
square miles; population — including Bunnah—257,f 00,000); (2) the inde-
pendent states of Nepaul and Bhotan. 6. Tub Island of Cbtlom. 7.
Afghanistan and Beloochistan (which, though nominally independent, arc
preserved in then- independence and subsidized by the government of British
India). 8. Persia. 9. The Penin-sula of Arahia, comprising (1) Oman (in
the south-east) ; (2) Nejd (the middle parts) ; (3) Aden (a British possession) :
(4) Turkish Arabia (the entire eastern coast of the Red Sea— Hedjaz, Yemen,
etc.— and part of the western coast of the Persian Gulf) ; (5) small independent
states. 10. TuRKET-iN-AsiA, comprising (ir addition to Turkish Arabia) (1)
Syria (including Palestine) ; ? , the Euphrates-Tigris valley ; (3) Turkisn
Armenia* Cm Asia Minor. !■ '■.;« Vmpirr op Japan. 12. Tub Malay Archi-
PELAOO i IK ) comprising ill .1. -it. i "a' r., Borneo, the Philippine Islands,
andoth i...>iier islands. (Novu —•'■:.:. e are principally Dutch and Spanish
iluns. Sob under " Great BHt Jn," " The Netherlands," and " Spain.")

3. Physical Features.

i''> the Teacher.— thege should all be taught from the map. The coast is
leeasin"-:^ than that of Europe, but yet is much ind'jnted. The principal
|i«.'.(;ir i V' .re !— Yalmal (between Kara Sea and the Gulf i f Obi), Komtachatk*,

Otimi, Hm iBlIn CIMit fMlanilA, Vu Matey ptnlnwiU, HtndwNi. i
AnbK Aii» MlBor.-lht aoMl mtXm Qm addhiott to tk» IhiM
M« :— Kan B«i, Bdurlar StnM, IMvlBt tak, Bm of Oklwtik, !
Japui 8m, OocM Stmt, Taltow ■«, CMI •! PMhalaa, iMltn
Stnit, Halnaa Itnlt, 9hM tl tni^lv, Ohiaa Bm, CWf ol Has, Itnt) d
Malacca, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Martabtt., Folk Strait, Qolf of Uanaar,
Arabian Sea, Gulf of Cambay, Qulf of Cutch, Oulf of Oman, Strait of Ormua,
Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, Red Sea, Mediterranean
Sea, the Dardanelles, Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus, the Black Sea, and the
Caspian Sea ; also Celebes Sea, Strait of Macassar, Java Sea, and Sunda Strait
—The principal islands are:— The New Siberia Islands, Wrange! Island,
Saghalien, the Kurile Islands (belonging to Japan), the Japan Islands, the
Loo-choo or Liu-kiu Islands (belonging to Japan), Formoaa, Hong-kong,
Hainan^ the Philippine Islands, the Great Sunda Islands (Borneo, Java,
Sumatra, etc.), Singapore, the Nicobar Islands, thn Andaman Islands, Ceylon,
the Maldive and Loccadive Islands, Cutch (part of the year only a peninsula),
Cyprus, and Rhodes and other islands of the iGgea:' Sea.— The few important
capes may be learned from the map.

The physical features of the interior of Asia are exceedingly intricate, and
they should be taught only in the barest outline.— The great width of Asia,
stretching from for within the frigid zoue almost to the rquator, occasions
a is.r-\t variety of climate, ranging from the severest arctic to the fiercest
tropical ; but even more than by distance from the equator is the climate of
the various parts oI the continent influenced by such conditions as elevation
above the sea level, the constancy of oceanio winds, and especially by the
proximity of great mountain masses ; and no simple description of these
matters is possible. — The great range of the Himalayas— the highest moun-
i tains in the world (one of them, Mount Everest, being over 29,000 feet highX
whose peaks are everywhere covered with snow— and their connected ranges
westward, are the most important of the features influencing the climate of
Asia. These mountains oppose a barrier to the warm vapor-charged winds of
the south, and in consequence the countries north of them are more or less cold
and rainless. Thibet, north of the Himal<tya8, is almost completely rainless,
Thibet, moreover, is a plateau, the highf it in the world (16,000 feet), and its
great elevation increases the rigor of it& jUmate, so that while it is inropport-
ably hot and dry in summer, it is exceedingly cold in winter. Hence the
country is very poor, the chief portion of it being little better than a desert.
Vegetation is everywhere scanty— scarcely a tree is to be found. In the lower
and warmer valleys the people are settled and follow agriculture, but in ti-z
higher regions they are nomadic pasturers of flocks nnd herds.

Westward of Thibet stretches another great plateau, which, though not so
high as Thibet, is yet everywhere of considerable iieight, comprising Afghan-
istan, Beloochistan, Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. Its southern boundary
begins with the Suliman range, running south-westward, then skirts the
Arabian Sea, the Persia.''. Gulf, and the Euphrates-Tigris valley, and, flnally,as
the Taurus Mountains, runs parallel with the northern shore of ' 'le Mediter-
ranean to the iGgean Sea. Its nor^ihern boundary is formed by what may be
called a westward continuation of the Himalayas — the Hindoo-Kooeh, the
Elburz range. Mount Ararat, and the mountains to the north of Asia Minor.
The eastern half of this pis ueau, comprising Afghasisun, Beloochistan, and
Persia, i.' poor and unproductive. The climate is severe in winter, and
extremely i ot in summei , and the rainfall is very scanty. The population is
sparse, for thu most part nomadic, and addicted to plunder. It is only in the
valleys, or where migation can be employed, that the people follow settled
occupations. The western part of the plateau enjoys a lesf Lot and arid
climate, its productiveness is greater, and its people are more settled and
more generally disposed to fall in with the progress of civilization.

To the east of Thibet, and separated from it by ranges of high mountains,
is China Proper, which lower ranges of mountains traverse from east to west,
giving rise to numerous large rivers (the Hoang-ho, the Yang-tse-kiang, the
Canton, and others). China is e. fertile, well-wooded country, with a sufficient
rainfall ; and it is everywhere thickly populated with an industrious, settled
people. Its hot summers and cold winters do not interfere with the natural
productivity ot its soil, and this is cultivated with the greatest core.

The high mountain ranges at the eastern edge of the Thibet plateau,
with other ranges from China, run down into the Indo-Chinese peninsula, and
form baaina for the great riven of the paninwila, the Mekong, the Meinam,

i ■

)

ASIA.

i37

.§■

the Salwen, atid the Irawady. Indo-China is a well-wooded, fertile country,
inhabited by settled populations ; its climate is hot and moist— in the south
•o much so as to be unfit for Europeans.

The peninsula of Hindostan, from its cc .inection with the British Empire,
and also on account of its great natural capabilities, is the part of Asia most
interesting for study. The great snow-clad masses of the Himalayas intercept
the warm vapor-charged winds which blow from the south almost six months
in the year, and convert tlieir vapor into rain. This rain, descending from
the mountains down to the Great
Plain of Northern India (which
stretches from the mouth of the In-
dus to the mouths of the Qanges
and the Brahmapootra), perpetually
renews its surface soil with fine
alluvium, so fine indeed that scarcely
a pebble is to be found in all this
vast area. Moreover, this area en-
joys a good rainfall of its own
(except in its western portion, which
is consequently desert, and known
as the Great Indian Desert), and
hence it is extremely fertile. Its
climate, while favorable to certain
products, is too much subject to ex-
treme heat and drought to support
.xuitdrage. But the soil is every-
ivhere highly cultivated by a settled
population, who live entirely by agri-
culture or by manufacture and com-
merce, and are among the most
highly civilized people of Asia.
Northern India, and especially north-
eastern India, is one of the most
4msely populated districts in the
ivorld.— South of the Great Northern
Plain is the plateau district of India
(usually known as the Ueccan), tri-
angular in shape, occupying the
whole southern portion of the penin-
sula. Thissouthern plateau isflanked
on its western side by a high range
of mountains, known as the Western
Ghauts, and on its eastern side by a
lower range, known as the Eastern
Ghauts ; in consequence its rivers all
flow eastward. On its northern side
it is also bounded by mountains. Its
rainfall is rather slight, its climate
dry, and consequently its forests are
scrubby and open,— not dense and
luxuriant, as in the Indo-Chinese
peninsula — and cultivation of the
soil succeeds only with the aid of
irrigation. On the low roast regions,
however, the rainfall is heavy, the
climate warm and moist, and the
vegetation dense and tropical.

The peninsula of Arabia is an
elevated table-land, bordered by low
mountain ranges, barren towards the
coasts (except in Oman), but occasion-
ally very fertile in inner valleys,
especially in the south-west. Immediately within the mountains is a con-
tinuous ring of sterile desert (broadest in the south and east, where it expands
into a huge waste of burning sand), and witliin this ring is a series of
valleys and table-lands, the former rich in field and garden produce, the
latter in pasturage.— In Syria, the physical features are similar. In its
western part there is a double mountain range, through the middle of

BOLAN PASS.

The lofty Suliman ran^s would oppose a complete barrier between India
and Afghauistan and Beioochistan, were it not for its remarkable "passes,"
of which Khyber Pass and Boian Pass, called the " gate-ways of India," are the
most used. The famous Bolan Pass ascends to a height of one mile above the
sea level. It is 60 miles long, and its walls are perpendicular cliffs, often 600 feet
high. In this narrow defile a small regiment could easily withstand an army

which is the famous valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea ; in tms region tha
climate is dry and hot, and only where irrigation can bo made use of, or on
seaward slopes of the mountains (especially of Mount Lebanon), is the cuitiw
tion of the soil profitable. To the east is the Syrian Desert, a barren plateau;
but to the east again are the far-famed plains of Mesopotamia, or the
Euphrates-Tigris valley, well watered, and suited both for agriculture and for
pasturage.— The wholr Syria-Arabian area (except near towns where trad*
is established, or in the more fertile tr tcts where agriculture is possible) is

inhabited by nomadio tribes, undtr
petty chiefs, whoso sole occupadons
are pasturing and plundering.

The high table-land where the
Himalayas (in their western ex-
tremity, north of the Indus, called
the Karakoram range) and the
Hindoo-Koosh Mountains meet, is
called Pamir, which may be con-
sidered the central mountain-knot
of Asia. Extending eastward from
it is the Kuen-lun range, which
forms the northern boundary ot
the Thibet plateau. Extending
north-eastward is the Thian-shaa
range. The plateau between these
ranges is Eastern TurkestAn. In ita
western part it contains the principal
cultivated districts of Central Asia;
but its eastern part is a rainlesi
desert. This desert area, with ita
hounding mountains, is continued in
a north-easterly direction, under the
name of the Desert of Gobi, as far oa
the Khin-gan Mountains.— Again,
north ot the Pamir knot, are the
Ali^tau ranges, running westward,
and separating the basins of the Sea
of Aral (a salt lake) and its influents
(the Oxus, or Amoo Daria, and the
Sihon, or Syr Daria) from the Lake
Balkash basin. Another, much more
important, range, the Altai, branchea
off irregularly north-eastward from
the Thian-shan, and, running east*
ward, forms the northern boundary
of Mongolia. Mongolia is thus in-
cluded between the Altai, the Thian-
shan, and the Khin-gan ranges. East-
em Mongolia (except in the north,
where there is some rainfall, and
agriculture is somewhat possible) is
mainly conterminous with the Gobi
Desert ; and Western Mongolia is
little better than a desert, its climate
being severe, with extremes of heat
and cold, and its rainfall scant, while
its people are a nomad race, pasturing
herds of cattle, sheep, horses, and
camels, and being among the most
cruel and least civilized of human
beings.

JEa8twftrd..from Pamir, and north
of the Persian plateau, is a nearly-
desert low-lying plain, which extends northward across the Aral basin,
includes the Kirghiz Steppes, and terminates at the height of land which
forms the south-western boundary of Siberia. In this tract, which includes
Bokhara, Khiva, and Russian Turkestan, the rainfall is everywhere insufllcient
for agriculture, which is impossible except with the aid of irrigation;
the climate is extreme at all seos^^ns ; and the fixed population is very

ft^lU^yiy^

I3fi

ASIA.

•luall, the gtMter number o( the inhabitants belnK nonuul trlbef, whose
I HDoipol occupation is the plundering o( ttti^- ''".ravans.

Nortli ot Kussian Turlcestan, the Altai Mo > ins, and the Amoor River, is
9>beria, a territory almost as larpe as the whole ot Europe. It is (or the roost
p»vt a low-lying- diluvial plain with a slope towards the Arctic Ocean, but in
Hi* east it rises into hills, and finally into mountains (the Stancvol ranged In
rbintall it is not deficient, but its extremes of heat and cold are very great.
Its whole northern portion is a vast tundra— in summer a mossy swamp, in
winter a frozen waste. Farther south its plains are covered with grass and
shrubs, and its mountain-sides are covered with forests of pine. The middle
basin of the Obi is its most fertile portion. Its aboriginal inhabitants are
nomadic Mongols, of peaceful character, but in a very backward state of

ijivilization. The towns are made up entirely of Russian settlers Siberia is

drained by some of the largest rivers in the world— the Obi, the Yenisei, and
the.Lena.— The two most important lakes of Asia at o in Siberia— Lake Balkash,
and Lake Baikal.

The islands which lie to the east of Asia, on tho curved line which may be
drawn from Kamtschatka to Sumatra, are, almost all. of volcanic origin, and
in many of them volcanoes are now in constant activity. In consequence
Ihey are rugged and mountainous, but many of their valleys are among the
most fertile parts of the world. Earthquakes are not uncommon in tiiese
regions, and are sometimes frightfully destructive of life. It is thought that
there are no volcanoes on the continent itself.

4. Vegetation. — The vast extent of Asia, its differ-
ing climates, and especially the fact that it is divided
into so many distinct parts by almost impassable moun-
tain ranges, are ail causes for an Immense variety in its
vegetation. The great low plain of Siberia, which slopes
toward the Arctic Ocean, and is separated for the most
part by high mountains or vast plateaus from the warm
winds of the south, has in its northern parts only an
inferior form of vegetable life, the moss of the tundras ;
farther south, Avillows, beeches, larches, and pines are
found; and still farther south, besides the ordinary
grains of temperate regioKS, it produces a luxuriant
summer growth of garden plants. — South of the .A^*"
mountains, so dry is the climate, and so largely is the soii
either a hard stony desert, or a desert of salty* sand,
that vegetation is very sparse and stunted. On mountain-
sides, however, and in valleys, pasturage can be found ;
ami this determines the occupation of the people, — prin-
cipally the rearing of herds of cattle, sheep, and horses,
which they drive from pasture-ground to pasture-ground,
as fancy or necessity may require. Barley and some other
grains can be raised in the less arid parts, but so wan-
dering are the habits of the people, that little attention
is given to agriculture. — Farther south, in Eastern Turke-
stan, although a large portion of the country is little
else than a great sandy desert, the plains at the bases of
the mountains can be made fertile by irrigp.tion, and thus
supply pasture for horses, camels, yaks, and sheep; and
some of the warmer mountain-sides and valleys, being
favored with a sufficient rainfall, support not only the

, I

grains and fruits of temperate regions, but also some of
the characteristic products of the south, such as the
rice plant, the mulberry tree, and the cotton plant. —
Farther south, again, in Thibet, which is almost one
vast plateau — the highest and driest in the world, ex-
ceedingly cold in winter and very hot in summer — it is
only in the few valleys where irrigation can be employed
that the soil can be used for agriculture; on the up-
lands, almost the only vegetation that exists are poor
and scanty patches of pasture, with a few larches and
birches. — But once across the Himalayas a great change
occurs. India is a land of almost unsurpassed fertility,
and it is most industriously cultivated; and so varied is
its climate, that almost every vegetable product that
may be used for the food or clothing of man, or that
may form an article of trade between nations, abounds
in some part or other of its wonderfully productive
territory.

To the reaeA«r.— The following notes may be used if necessary:— Southern
Siberia is largely covered with forests ; it has also numerous fertile river
vaileys, capable of producing crops cf grain and useful roots.— The Tobolsk
Plain is a very fertile area and a great grain-growing district.— The salt-
impregnated or stony plains of the large district surrounding the Sea of Aral,
support little else than a tall coarse grass, on which the wandering tribes ot
the region pasture their flocks and herds.

Ch na Proper is oiio of the most fertile countries of the world, and prob>
ably nowhere else is agriculture held in such high esteem. Its range of
vegetable productions is almost as great as that of India. In the north abound
all the more useful vegetable products of the temperate zone— wheat, barley,
oats, millet, maize, pears, plums, apples, apricots, persimmons, rhubarb,
tobacco, and so on ; in the iniiidle and southern parts ' re equally abundant
those products which require a more constant warratti — the tea plant, the
mulberry tree, the cotton plant, the opium poppy, rice, arrow-root, the
sugar-cane, oranges, plantains, ginger, the cinnamon tree, the camphor tree,
the cocoanut palm, and tlie betel nut. — For its production of tea and of raw silk
China excels all other countries in the world. — Rice is produced in enormous
quantities, and forms the staple food of tho people. — In the middle and
southern parts of China the bamboo grows almost everywhere, and, being put
to an infinite variety of uses, it is perhaps the most valuable of all the
vegetable products of the country.— Tho camphor tree is found principally in
the island of Formosa.

The hot moist climate of the Indo-Chinese peninsula produces a luxuriant
vegetation, including forests of the valuable teak-wood and of bamboo ; and
among the natural and cultivated products are the banana, the guava, the
orange, the citron, tlie sugar-cane, the cocoanut ; besides rice (which i" the
chief product of the country), cinnamon (of excellent quality), cotton, and
pepper. But the climate, in a large part of the peninsula, is so unhealthy
that Europeans dare not live in it, and agricultural progress is very slow.

The vegetable products of the vast peninsula of Hindostan resemble those
of China, but the range is greater. On the mountain-slopes of the north are
huge forests of magnolias, firs, evergreen oaks, and yews. In the north-west
great areas are given to the production of wheat, barley, and maize — harvest-
time being in the spring. On the warm hill-slopes of the north-east the tea
plant is cultivated with great success, and it also grows wild in these parts as a
tree. In the valley of the Ganges, and nleo in Burmah (which is geographically
connected with Hindostan), rice is the staple product. In the central
provinces cotton is the staple product Opium is also grown largely in these
two last districts. The low coast-lands of southern India have, from time imme-
morial, been noted for their rich rice-harvests and for their magnificent fruit-

ASIA.

139

liearing pianui ; while upon the warm, dry highlands of the Interior, coffee U
.grown, and also cotton. Jute, which, next to cotton, is the most valuable
flbre crop of India, is confined to the north-east Millet is grown in almost
All India, and forms the chief food of the people, except in rice-growing
districts. Tobacco is also grown everywhere. Indigo (once the most im-
portant product of the country) is still largely cultivated in the north
and east. Of useful trees, the most important are :— the cedar, of the
north ; the bamboo (in reality a tree-like plant), found everywhere ; and
teak, sandal-wood, satin-wood, and iron-wood, found in the south. Among
other trees are the well-known banyan (one celebrated specimen is supposed
to be over 2,500 years old, and is known to have sheltered at once no fewer
than 7,000 men), the mango (one of the most common trees in India, prized
both for its fruit and for Its grateful shade), the tamarind, and many sorts of
palms. In addition, India produces in great abundance fruits of almost every
variety, but especially what are known as "southern fruits" — the delicious
mangosteen, the mango (spoken of above), and the tamarind, the plantain, the
pineapple, the x>omegranate, the guava, the Jack, the papaw, the cocoanut,
the betel nut, and many varieties of figs, oranges, limes, citrons, and melons ;
also spices of many sorts,
including tumeric and chil-
lies (used in the prepara-
tion of the well-known
Indian curry), mustard,
ginger, coriander, cum-
min, aniseed, and pepper
(on the Malabar coast);
also sugar, cinchona (or
Peruvian bark — much used
for the relief of fevers—
lately introduced), the
mulberry tree (for the
support of the silk-worm),
oil-seeds in groat variety,
and medicinal plants of
almost every necessary
sort ; while resins, gums,
and Ian (used in making
shellac varnish), are gath-
ered in the forests.— No
mere enumeration can give
iiny adequate idea of the
variety, richness, and use-
fulness of Indian vege-
tation.

Of Afghanistan and
Beloochistan little is
known. Their surface is so
rugged and elevated, and either so stony or so sandy, that useful vegetation is
found only in oases or in river valleys. In favorable places, however, the vege-
tation is varied and valuable, and resembles that of India, including, in the
warmer parts, dates (to the cultivation of which great attention is paid), pome-
granates, plantains, guavas, pistachio nuts, and oranges ; cotton, tobacco, indigo
(of superiov quality), roses, aromatic herbs, and asiafoDtida; and, in the less
warm districts, all sorts of grains, and apples, pears, plums, currants, and
quinces. The pastures of Afghanistan, though scanty, support numerous
droves of magnificent horses ; also camels of excellent breed, and the famous
black sheep trov 'vhich agtraka7i is obtained.

In Persia, three-fourths of the country, comprising most of the middle and
eastern area, is a sandy or saline desert, supporting only a sparse and valueless
vegetation ; but other parts, especially its mountain-slopes and valleys, arc of
the greatest fertility.— On the Elburz seaward slopes are magnificent forests of
oak, beech, elm, walnut, cypress, box, and cedar ; while in the mountain valleys,
wherever irrigation can be employed, wheat (the best in the world), barley,
and other cereals, are abundantly produced.— Southern Persia is especially
adapted to the growth of cotton ; also of rice (which is largely produced), and
tohaccu and opium. Vines are extensively cultivated, and Persian wines are
famous. The mulberry tree is also largely cultivated, the Persian silk product
being very important; and nearly all fruits, both of temperate and tropical
regions, abound.

TEA CULTURE.

In Arabia, much of the surface has a soil too parched and niggart*, tao
flinty or sandy, to produce other vegetation than prickly herbs and shrubs.
But in the south-west and south-east, and in the interior, are considerable
areas which are very productive if attentively irrigated. The date is the char-
acteristic product of Arabia, and (either fresh or stewed with butter) the chief
food of its people. Coffee, however. Is the vegetable product for which Arabia
is most noted : it is almost exclusively produced in the upland districts of the
south-west Vines are numerous and productive, but the grapes are never
pressed for wine. Peaches, apricots, and pomegranates, are grown in the
highlands'. Senna and other medicinal herbs, frankincense, and gum-arrMo,
arc also characteristic products of the country Garden fruits and vegetables
are easily grown, but of agriculture or horticulture the Arabians know little.
Syria (including Palestine) in its vegetation resembles Arabia. It is only
on the coast mountain-slopes, or where irrigation can be used, that cultivation
of the soil is profitable. Wheat and maize (which are harvested in May), and
rice, the olive, the flftr, the date-palm, the orange, the banana, and the mul-
berry tree, are the principal products ; but the cotton plant, the sugar-cane,
and the indigo plant, are also cultivated in districts suited to their growth.

In Asia Minor, the high
sterile plainsof the interior
plateau region, cold in
winterand exceedinglyhot
in summer, support a vege-
tation little other than »
poor sort of pasture for
sheep. But the seaward
mountain-slopes of the
south are, in the uplands,
clothed with forests of oak
and pine, and, lower down,
with groves of walnut and
wild olive, and with vine-
yards and tobacco fields;
while the valley s and plains
still lower down are mods
beautiful by the valonia
oak, the plane tree, the
cypress tree, the pome-
granate, the manna-ash,
and the bay tree ; and figs,
olives, lemons, oranges,
maize, cotton, and capsi-
cum, are cultivated.— On
the Black Sea coast the
mountain-sides are dense
with forests of oak, chest-
nut, beech, box, and other
trees ; while the lower hills and valleys below, especially to the eastward, are
a region of the greatest fertility and natural beauty. This is, indeed, the
native land of many of our finest fruits— the cherry, the apricot, and so on ;
and apple, pear, and plum trees grow wild everywhere, and are also cultivated
with great success. Moreover, the landscape is everywhere adorned with
rhododendrons, azaleas, myrtles, and other flowering shrubs.- The warm and
genial river valleys of the western coast are very productive, especially of
raisins, mulberry plants, cotton, opium, madder, and saffron.

Japan covers too wide a latitude to he dealt with summarily, but g . Jerally
speaking, although its surface is much varied (being the result of volcanic
action), its soil is very productive, and its climate, thougn very changeable
and extreme in both summer and winter, is favorable to •■-retation. of the
main portion of Japan it may be said that the whole country is covered with
a luxuriant vegetation. Tropical products and those of temperate regions are
found in nearproximity, owing partly to f requentabrupt variations in altitude.
Rice is the most widely cultivated product, and the chief food of the people.
Tea is also widely cultivated, and is a main article of export. The camphortree
of Japan is greatly valued, both for its gum and its wood. The production of
vegetable wax from the berries of the wax tree is an important industry.
The sumach or varnish tree is cultivated very largely, and is of the greatest
value, since from it is obtained a juice from which the celebrated Japan lacquer
ii made. From a sort of mulberry, called the paper tree, a pulp is obtained from

JAPANtSK TlCMPLt;.

Animals of Asia.

1. Zebu. 2. Bactrian Cahrl. 3. Tioer. 4. Leopard. 6. Rbkocerob.
6. Indian Bison. 7. Indian Buffalo. 8. Tapir. 9. Yak. 10. Ermini..
*> 11. Porcdpinb. 12. Ant-Eater. 13. Cheetah. 14. Arocb Fhxabant. 16. MusK
Deer. 16. Cobra di Cafello.

To the Teacher.— Tho Zebu, or Indian Ox, is used as a beast of burden and of
draught, especially in agriculture. The zebu has always been held in high honor-
by the Brahmins, and ho is treated with great consideration by them, bein;-
allowed to do almost everything that he pleases : it is thought wrong to beat him.
—The Bactrian or two-humped Camel is larger and more robust than the Arabian
or one-humped Camel, and is much rarer. It is found in the more northerly and
easterly parts of the continent, and can endure the severe winter oold ot those regionSk-
— The Leopard, unlike the tiger, .s seldom found in open jungles ; it haunts woody
places. It is, however, far more common than the tiger, and is equally destructive
of life and property.— The Cheetah, or Hunting Leopard, is found only in southern
India. It is trained to hunt deer, and the swiftness with which it bounds upon
its prey when let loose from the hunting-cart, exceeds that of any other animal. —
The Rhinoceroees found in Asia are usually one-homed, and in descriptions of
them tha fabulous accounts of the unicorn probably had their origin ; but two-
homed varieties are also found.— The Indian Bison, or "Oaur," is a large and
powerful animal, sometimes seven feet high. The pursuit of the bison is a»
dangerous and exciting as that of the tiger or elephant.— The Indian Buffalo,
whether wild or domesticated, is a strong and dangerous beast ; of all the animals-
of Asia the buffalo alone will charge upon man unprovoked. He is fond ot
immersing himself in water and of wallowing in mud. — The Malayan Tapir is found
in Malacca and Sumatra ; it is larger than the American Tapir, and while it»
forward parts are ot a glossy black color, its back, rump, and belly are white.—
The Ermine is a sort of weasel. Its fur, reddish-brown in summer, turns toasnowy
white in winter,exceptthetipof its tail, which always remains a jet black. Furriers
insert these jet-black tips at regular intervals in the snow-white skin, and thus-
make the highly valued ermine of commerce.— The Porcupine is quite common
throughout southern Asia.— The Ant-Eater of India^
differs from the American Ant-Eater in that its body
is covered with scales instead of hair.— The Argu»
Pheasant so called from the beautiful eye-like marking
of its plumage, is a native of Malacca and
the E^t Indies.— The Cobra di Capello,
though the most venomous of serpents^
I timid , and may be easily killed.

i^,^^f^^^^i

ASIA.

141

vhloh paper is inanufMturad. Silk culture ii also an important industry, the
mulberry tree thriviner in eastern Japan. The bamboo-cane is found every-
where in central Japan, and is put to almost innumerable uses. The sa^-palm
is also found. Indigo and opium are important products, and the cotton tree
thrives. All European fruits (both northern and southern fruits) are found in
Japan, but they are not of such excellence aa those grown in Europe. The
forests of Japan are magniflcent and valuable ; among the more common trees
kre the oedar, the pine, the maple, and tht "vergreen-ook. — In the northern
4iland (Tezo) wheat and barley are grown.

The Malay Archipelago, especially in its south-western and north-eastern
divisions, has the most remarkable vegetation in the world. A soil of extreme
richness, and a climate of great warmth and humidity, unite in producing a
flora iinexcelled for luxuriance. Among the more prominent products are :—
rice (which is the staple food of the people),
ooffee (especially in Java— Java coffee being
faighly esteemed all tlie world over), sugar,
tsa, tobacco, cocoanuts, bananas, and cot-
ton; while from the forests (which are
orowded with palm trees and with creeping
and hanging plants of the utmost luxuri-
ance) are obtained the most valuable woods,
nch as teak, ebony, and sandalwood.— The
oentral parts of this region are of world-
wide fame for their spices — cinnamon,
tiassia, cloves, nutmegs, and pepper. In
these parts sago is the staple food of the
people. The forests are not so luxuriant as
those in the south-west and north-east, but
they abound in the famous iron wood, in the
gfntta-percha tree, and in the camphor tree.
—In addition, throughout the whole archi-
p«..'ago nearly every sort of tropical fruit can
be obtiUned by cultivation.

5 ^Jlimsii Life. — In re-
spect of its animal life, Asia may
be divided into three regions:
(1) that part of the continent
lying to the north of the great
Himalaya range, in which the
animals very much resemble
those found in Europe; (2) the
Southern and south-eastern
parts, or the Indian region,
characterized by the tiger, the
leopard, the cheetah or hunting
!eopard, the elephant, the rhi-
tioceros, the tapir, the bison, the
buffalo, the monkey, the cobra di capello, the crocodile,
the pheasant, and the parrot ; and (3) the south-western
^>art, or the Arabian region, characterized by the lion,
the hyena, the jerboa, the ostrich, and the scorpion. —
(The domestic animals of Asia include not only the horse,
the ox, the sheep, the goat, the mule, and the dog; but
also the reindeer, in the northern parts of Siberia; the
yak, in Thibet and other highlands of Central Asia; the
buffalo, in north-eastern India; the elephant, in Hindo-
stan and the Indo-Chinese peninsula; and the camel, in

BAMBOO OROVE.

Arabia especially , but also in all the sandy and sterile
parts of Asia generally.

To the Teacher.— In Siberia are found the white bear and the arotio fox,
in the north; and the sable, the ermine, and the wild sheep, in the south;
the wolf, the lynx, and the wild boar, are generally diffused. The reindeer to
the chief article of wealth to the northern tribes, and dogs are there used to
draw sledges. Albatrosses are found on the shores of Kamtschatka. A sort ol
elephant, known as the manAioth, once abounded in Siberia, and fossil ivory,
obtained from its tusks, is a considerable article of export— In northern
Mantohooria, bears, wolves, and foxes are common ; but this country is moak
noted for the abundance of salmon in its rivers and streams : they are aa

numerous that frequently great numbers ol
Ihcm are squeezed out upon the banks and
so perish.— In Central Asia, in the mora
fertile mountain districts and valleys, are
many varieties of wild sheep, besides ante'
lopes and deer ; among the latter is thn
musk-deer, so well known for the perfume
which is obtained from it— In the high cold
mountain districts, the yak (a species of ox)
forms the chief wealth of the inhabitanta.
It is one of the most useful of animals. \t
is used OS a beast of burden, though not of
draught. Its flesh is of the finest quality,
and its milk yields excellent butter. Its
whole body, especially its tail, is covered
with long fine hair, which may be spun Into
ropes and cords, or woven into cloth.

In China Proper, it is only in the rougher
interior parts that wild animals are found.
This country, however, is noted for the
great variety and plentifuiness of its fish,
and fish form a very considerable part of
the food of the people. Sharks are numer-
ous on the coasts, and sharks' fins are
esteemed a delicacy. The beautiful little
goldfish was first found in China. China la
also noted for its beautiful pheasants, and
for its numerous water-fowl (some of thea«
latter are trained to catch fish for theU
owners) ; also for its tortoises and turtles.-* ■
The silk-worm has been associated with
China for ages ; and the little wax insect
that obtains the wax (highly prized for
candles) from the Chinese wax tree (a sort
of sumach) is also of great importaoj^

In India, and the Indo-Chinese penin-
sula, the lion was once common, but he la
now found only in the sandy deserts of the
north-west of the Hindostan peninsula;
wolves, hyenas, jackals, and wild dogs,
abound in the open country. Bears are numerous in India, especially the sun-
bear of the Himalayas, the sloth-bear, and the large Burmah bear. The tiger
is not usually a dangerous animal if unmolested, but when once he has tasted
human blood he becomes a terrible scourge, a ' ' man-eater," and is much feared
by the natives. Elephants, once so numerous, are now found only in hilly
and inaccessible districts : in British India they have become a government
monopoly. Other wild animals in this region are— the wild hog (well known
from the favorite Indian sport of "pig-sticking"), the wild ass, and wild
sheep, wild goats, antelopes, tree-rats, and field-mice (these last very trouble-
some).— Of birds, besides parrots, there are eagles, falcons, water-fowl of many
kinds, game-birds of many sorts, and the red jungle-fowl, supposed to be the
ancestor of our domestic poultry.— Poisonous snakes are very numerous, and
occasion many deaths annually The immense python, which is found in the
Indo-Chinese peninsula, though it sometimes attacks deer, and even lar^at

ASIA.

•nlmaU, is really benuflclal, In that it oata noriutls of ratB, csiHiclally the
tntolvrable muHk-rat.— Flsho8 of many lortaBwuriii In Indian waters, and are
much U8e<l as food ; but they are generally of interior quality. A rcmarkublo
variety Is the climbing or walking fish (a species of perch— edible), which la able
to brcatho when out of water, and can propel itself over dry land, and can
even climb trees.— A sort of dolpliln, an inimcnso creature, sooty-black in
color, with very small eyes and ears, is found in the Ganges.— Of insects,
noxious sorts are incredibly numerous, and locusts are sometimes great
plagues. Tlie lao Insect is very useful, since it furnishes the resinous tincture
(which it secretes from various jungle trees) fr«m which are manufactured
shellac and other varnishes, scallng-wox, and lac-dye.

In the south-weHtcrn division of Asia, which includes Beloochlstan, southern
Persia, and southern Arabia, the more common animals are— hyenas, Jackals,
small monkeys, the panther, the jerboa, and the gazelle ; and (of birds) eagles,
vultures, partridges and other game-birds, and peacocks. The most remark-
able bird is the ostrich, which, while running, cannot be overtaken by the
swiftest Arabian horses. Scorpions, locusts,
and poisonous spiders, are exceedingly vlen-
tiful : the locusts often commit great ravages
upon crops, but the Arabians retaliate by
eating them as food. There are no fleas or
bugs In any part of Arabia.— All
the coasts of this part of Asia
swarm with fish, and fish are
much eaten as food. (The people
of the coasts of licloochlstan have
from time immemorial been called
"flsh-eaters.") But the art of
salting fish is not known in any
part of southern Asia.

The animal life of Japan is
I'imilar to that of China.— The
animal life of the Malay Archi-
pelago resembles that of India.
Perhaps the greatest differences
are, that the elephant is not
naturally found in the Archipel-
ago, and that the Archipelago
hasseveral sorts of apes not found
in India, especially the orang-
outang, and t|io gibbon.

The great pearl fisheries of
southern Asia deserve especial
mention. The pearl-oysters are
found principally off the north-
west coast of the island of Ceylon,
and off the south-west coasts of
the Persian Gulf.

Of domestic animals, the horse is found in all Asia except the very hottest
parts, and the very coldest parts ; he is little used, however, as a beast of
draught or a beast of burden, but principally in war or for parade : in agricul-
ture he is scarcely employed ; ploughing Is effected (when performed at all)
by the ox, or (as in some parts of India and the Indo-Chinese peninsula) by
the buffalo. The horse is supposed to be a native of Arabia, and Arabian
horses surpass the best of all other countries, not in size or in speed, but in
perfection of form, and in speed coupled with endurance. The Persian horse
is also much esteemed. — The camel is the most valuable of Asiatic domestic
animals ; he is used both for riding and as a beast of burden— in Arabia, where
he is found in most perfectic i, and t\.- ■' ,;hout all the drier and warmer parts
of Asia generally. The camel can live- ;. the driest and most inedible vegeta-
tion, and his ability to do without water for days together (for ten days in
winter, and six in summer) is unequalled among animals. Nearly all the
internal commerce of Asia is transacted by means of caravans, or camel-
trams.- ^In Thibet, both the wup and the goat are used as beasts of burden.

6. Minerals.

To the Teacher.— Ot the n.meral wealth of Asia little is known except in
regard to some parts of it. The Apsheron peninsula, in Trans-Caucasian Russia,
is nturated with petroleum. The middle-eastern slopes ot the Ural Mountains

in Siberia abound In gold, platinum, iron, and copper; and precious s(ona»
are also found there ; these and other minerals are also found in southern
Siberia. The Oovcrnment of Russia forces many of its convicted criminal*
and political offenders to work in the Siberian mines.— China Proper, In
respect of minerals, is extremely well favored. In the north-east, almost at
the surface, are coal-beds of exceeding richness, perhaps the richeot in the
world ; and Us stores of iron are almost equally great. In the south-west are
the richest deposits of quicksilver known in the world. The Chinese are
skilful miners and metal-workers.- Indo-China, in its mountainous parts,
has rich stores of metals ; also of precious stones (sapphires, rubies, ame-
thysts, topazes). Amber and fine statuary marble are also among its mineral
treasures. Petroleum Is exceedingly abundant, and in some parts is much,
used by the inhabitants for lighting purposes ; i''. is dipped up from the
wells in palls, like water. The natives are excellent metal-workers; the
making of their celebrated tom-toms (or drums) is still a secret to Europeans.
—The Malacca peninsula is noted for Its exceedingly rich stores of tin.— India

has been greatly celebrated for its precious-
stones, especially for its diamonds, but dia-
mond-hunting has now become an insignifi-
cant industry. There is a great abundance
of coal in the north-east, but, though mucli
used, it contains a large propor-
tion of ash. The iron-ore of India
is noted (or its purity, and it is
found in every part of the coun-
try. Salt (which is a necessity to-
the Hindoo — since he abnor«
flesh) is obtained principally from
sea- water by evaporation, but also
in salt quarries in the north-east.
Saltpetre (for making gunpowder;^
is largely exported. Gold, copper,
and lead, are also worked.— The
mineral resources of all south-
western Asia, from India to the
Red Sea, though once believed to
be enormously rich, are, as far as
now known (with the exception
of salt), of inconsiderable value :
Persia has mines of lead, sulphur,
and coal ; but Arabia has little
else than lead and some of the
more common kinds of precious
stones. — Asia Minor has rich
mines of iron, salt, and fine
marble (all, in ancient times,
much worked), and also of coal ;
but these now are all neglected.
—In the volcanic islands of the east, minerals are everywhere plentiful : Japan
ai>ound3 in copper especially, and in g''ld, silver, iron, and marble ; while .n,
the Malay Archipelago— in Borneo and Sumatra precious stones are fouud,
in Sumatra lead is found, and in Banca tin is very abundant

7. People, Languages, Manners and Cus-
toms, and Religion. — The people of Asia are of
many races, and these races differ much from one another,
not only in origin, and in the languages which they now
speak, but also in dress, manners and customs, and re-
ligion. In all these respects, too, they differ from Euro-
peans, and from the people of the United States and
Canada. The Japanese, however, are adopting tho ideas
and customs of European and American civilization.
The people of India are also making some progress in.
the same direction, owing to the influence of the English

I. ■ '.

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ASIA.

who live among them. But among other Asiatic peoples
there is to be found — in agriculture, in manufactures,
in government, in religion, and in all habits and customs,
both public and » rivate — little similarity to European
and Aiutfrican ideas.

To the Teacher.— It is impos«lbiA to lonvey In a general de«criptlon any
adequate conception of tiie domestic or public life of tlie Asiatics. Thi4 must
be done by allowing the pupils to read to one another in class interesting
■ketches of travel which they themselves may havn met with (or in default of
this, which the teacher himself has helped them to And). This work should be
pursued systematically, country by country.— The following notes will be of
■ervice :— By far the larger part of Asia is occupied by the Mongolian races.
These have yellow-brown skins, black eyes and hair, flat noses, and oblique
eyes, and are short of stature, with little hair on the body ond face. These
races extend over the whole of northern Asia, as far south as the Caspian Sea
Mid the Hindoo-Koosh and the Himalaya Mountains, including China ; and
also over the Indo-Chinese peninsula and most of the islands of the Asiatic
part of the Malay Archipelago. The Mongolian races of the north are nomadic
In their habiti and are very peaceful. Those of the central parts, called Turks,
Moguls, Mongols proper, and Mantchoos, are collectively known as Tartars. The
Turks sre Mohammedans: they occupy the Kirghiz step) js of Siberia, and
the great plains about the Caspian and Aral and north of the Hlndoo-Koosh ;
and they have diffused themselves through a large part of western Asia and
given their language to the peoples among whom they have settled. The
Moguls are those Mohammedans of India who came originally from central
Asia. The Mongols proper, who occupy the whole of Mongolia, eastern
Turkestan, and Thibet, are Buddhists in religion (Thibet being the great seat
of Buddhism), and everywhere, except in the few to'^ns, are nomads of
predatory habits. The Mantchoos, once very powerful (the reigning dynasty
in China are Mantchoos), are now mostly confined to Mantchooria ; they are
Buddhists in religion.— The Chinese Mongolians (of China Proper) are a
thoroughly settled people of agriculturists, artisans, and traders. Buddhism
and Taouism are the prevalent religions among them, buy; these are professed
only by the lower classes ; the educated classes are followers of Confucius.
Their language consists entirely of monosyllables, and their written and
printed symbols represent not letters, but complete words.— The inhabitants
Of the Indo-Chinese peninsula resemble the Chinese in manners and customs ;
and in religion they are for the most part Buddhists. -The Mongolians of
Malacca and the Malay Archipelago are frequently spoken of a3 a distinct
race, and called Malays. The principal physical characteristic! of the Malays
are an oll"e-yellow complexion, black, sligh'ty oblique eyes, a small but not
flat nose, and black lank hair.

The aboriginal inhabitants of northern India are of a race called the
Aryan. (NoTE.-The Greoo-Latin, the Celtic, the Teutonic, and the Slavonic
peoples of Europe, oil belong to the Aryan race. Hence all these, and the
Aryans of India, are frequently spoken of as Indo-Europeans ; but the Arj'ans
Of India are darker than the races of southern Europe, and these again are
darker than those of northern Europe.) In the central and southern parts of
India are many non-Aryan races : of these the Dravidians (chocolate-brown in
color, and akin to the aborigines of Australia) are the most numerous. The
Aryans of India speak languages resembling the ancient Sanscrit, and their
religion is principally Brahminism. Brahmlnism, indeed, is the religion of
the great bulk of the people of India, though in some parts Mohammedanism
prevails. In Ceylon, Buddhism prevails.

Aryan people are found in all south-western Asia from India to Asia Minor,
but they are much blended with Tartars from the north. (The inhabitants of
A rabia and Syria are a distinct branch of the Aryan race, and their language
ia called the Semitic). Throughout all this region Mohammedanism is the
prevalent religion, Arabia being its original home ; although in regard to it
the people are divided into two much-contending sects.

In the Malay Peninsula, and in the Philippine Islands, and in other parts of
the Muay Archipelago, there is a dark-skinned, thick-lipped, woolly-haired
race, akin to the Negroes of Africa, and known as Negritos, — The Japanese are
0( a mixed race : their origin is uncertain, but they are probably Monirolinn.

8. Oivilization. — Asia is the ancient nome of civil-
ization. Loi\g before the aboriginal inhabitants oi
America, or even of Europe, had given up their wan-
dering savage habits, and hud become settled agricultur
ists, and dwellers in villages and towns, many of the
peoples of Asia had made considerable progress in civil-
ization — had become tillers of the soil and skilful workers
in W3od, metal, and stone, and weavers of wool and
vegetable fibres. But having attained to a certain de-
gree of advancement, the Asiatics (with the exception
of the Japanese) seemed content : they have made no
improvement in the arts and customs of civilization for
many hundreds of years. The S9,me rude methods of
farming are now followed as were employed two thou-
sand years ago ; and although the metal-working, weaving,
and other arts of the people of China, India, Persia, and
Arabia, produce articles which cannot in any way be
surpassed in the best European and American work-
shops, yet these arts have shown no progress for centuries.

To the TeacAer.— The very advanced civillzatinn of the people of Palestine,
as recorde<l in the Bible, can be used in illustration of this statement. — The
skill of the Chinese in the manufacture of silks, satins, cottons, and porcelain
(especially the latter), is not surpassed in the world;. but their methods of
manufacture have remained the same for centuiles. With many inventions —
printing, the making of gunpowder, wood-engraving, and the polarity of the
load-stone— they were familiar long before Europeans were ; but as a nation
they have long seemed to contemn improvements, and to desire to be no
better than their ancestors ; so that, far from making progress in civilization,
they are retrograding ; and, indeed, of many of the arts in which they were
once skilful, they have now lost the secret.— In India, the arts of spinning,
weaving, and dyeing.cotton, have been known and practised for two thousand
years, perhaps for a much longer time ; but the implements used in the whole
process of manufacture, of even thei- finest fabrics, are the same now as they
have been in all this long period.— The evidences of Persia's ancient archi-
tectural skill remain in many magnificent ruins on the sites of the capitals of
Cyrus and Darius, but in comparison the Persian architecture of to-day is
despicable.— The inventive skill for which the Arabians were oner noted was
not shown till a much .ater period ; however, they have long since lost it ;
but the sword-blades of Duinoscus, the coppersmiths' work of Bagdad, and
the goldsmiths' work of Oman, have never be::i surpassed in more modem
times.

9. Occupations of the People. — In no part of

the world are so many people enj::.,'e<! in pastoral occu-
pations as in Asia. In the whole of Asiatic Russia,
including Turkestan, in the whole of the Chinese Em-
pire outside of China Proper and southern Mantchooria,
in Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Persia, and Arabia, and
in the whole of Asiatic Turkey away from the sea-coasts,
the rearing of horses, cattle, sheep, and goats, and, in the
more southern parts, of camels, is the occupation which
employs most of the people ; and in the greater part of
this vast area the population is nomadic : that is, the
various tribes do not reside continuously in one district^

144

ASIA.

but wander from place to place, whenever the mood for
doing 8o posaessoa them, driving their flocks and herda
with them. Agriculture and fruit culture are pursued
only in those districts which have a sufficient rainfall (as
in the Tobolsk district, in Siberia, or on the coast regions
of western Asia), or where irrigation can be used. Towns
and cities, in this region, are not numerous, and are found
principally on the groat commercial routes between China
and European Russia, ond between central Asia and
Persia, Arabia, and Asia Minor. In the towns, of course,
the people are chiefly engaged in trade or in various
handicrafts. Some of their manufactures are exported :
for example, the carpets of Persia and Asia Minor are
very beautiful, and are much sought after by wealthy

JAPANtSE TOWN.

Europeans and Americans. — India and China are densely
settled by agricultural communities, and produce for
home use, and also largely for exportation, the most
valuable grains, fibres, and fruits. These countries also
have great manufacturing communities, and many of
their wares find ready sale in Europe and America, —
especially Chinese porcelain, satins, and carved ivory
work, and Indian silks, shawls, and muslins. But great
manufacturing establishments, such as are common in
Europe and America, are almost unknown in Asia.
India, and especially China, are also maritime nations,
having an immense number of small ships and junks,
which trade along their own coasts and the islands of
the Malay Archipelago. -^The people of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula and the Malay Archipelago are settled and
industrious, and though principally engaged in the culti-
vation of rice, and in tlie production of tropical fruits and
spices, they have some manufacture:!. — Japan is to be
distinguished from all other Asia tic countries : it attained
to a high degree of advancement by itself ; and it is now
so rapidly adopting the ideas of western civilization (that

is, the civilization of Europe and America), that ?.* is
' fast leaving all other Asiatic countries far behind. Its
people have all the varied pursuits of Europeans and
Americans ; and their manufactured articles in metals,
fabrics, and cabinet and lacquered ware, in beauty of
design and excellence of workmanship are equal to those
produced anywhere else in the world.

10. Facilities for Transportation.— Except in

India, ar^.d the islands of Java and Japan, railways can
scarcely be said to be found in Asia at all. The vast
interior trade of the continent, outsidb '>f India, is
carried on by means of caravans, or (as in Siberia and
China Proper) by river shipping ; China has also some
important canals.— India is well supplied with highways,
but elsewhere the governments of the various countries
pay little attention to road-making.

To the Teacher.— te\egnxpha are much more generally establiihed in Asia
than railways are.— Russia Is construotiner railways in several parts of her
western Asiatic {rossesslons ; but the Government ot China refuses to permit
either telegraphs or railways to be built In that country, although very short
lines of both have been constructed there notwithstanding the opposition oi
the Qovemment. ; ;

11. Government and Education.— In India,

the influence of the British has done much to establish
good laws and a just system of government. But else-
where the governments of Asia are absolute despotisms
— being simply the authority of the emperor, king, or
chief, limited only by the ability of the subjects to rebel,
although the conduct of the rulers is very much influ-
enced by traditions and long-established customs. Among
the small nomad tribes, however, all the members are
almost on an equality, and the chief is little more than a
nominal head ; but in settled communities his authority
and power are much greater. — In India, the interests of
education are fairly well provided for, partly owing to
native effort, and partly owing to English influence; and
the upper classes of the Hindoos are exceedingly intelli-
gent and astute. In China, education is held in the
highest esteem, and public offices are filled in accordance
with the results of competitive examinations ; but China
has no general system of education such as we have in
Canada, or as is found in European countries ; and the
sort of education esteemed there is what wo should call
valueless. — Throughout the rest of Asia, except Japan,
education receives but littls attention; save that in the
Mohammedan countries the Koran, or Mohammedan
Bible (which is held to be the final authority in customs

ASIA.

141

•nd laws, as well as in morals and religion), has every-
where many zealous teachers and students.

To tkt T«aeA«r.— A mo«t olwnoteriitlo tMtura of ftll AaUtlo oommunitiM
irhara European influences huve not been oxerted, t* the low looiiU poiltion
*ooorde<l to women— in Mohammedan countries especially, but scarcely less
ao In India. In China, woman Is held In higher esteem, and is put more
«ll an equality with man, but even there her education Is entirely negleoted.

Ik must be remarlced again that to much that has been said o( Asiatio
vonntries Japan Is an exception. The progress which this country is making
In her system of government and administration of Justice, and the attention
which she Is giving to education, as well as her recognition of the principle of
(ndlvldual freedom in matters of religion, and her energy In constructing
(mproved public works, are all rapidly placing her on an equality with the
lorsmost nations of the world.

12. Chief Cities.

TiFLis (70,.'>97) is the capital city of Qeorgia, or Russian
Trans-Caucasia.— Bokhara (30,000?), celebrated for its mosques
•nd schools, and the chief seat of Mohammedan learning in
«entral Asia, and Khiva (6,000 ?), are the principal cities in the
«o-called Independent Turkestan. — Ekatekinbdro (25,133) is
noted for its finely-polished precious stones. Tobolsk (17,427),
Omsk (30,550), Tomsk (25,605), and Irkutsk (32,321), are the
capitals of Siberian provinces, and the chief places to which
Russian exiles are transported. Kiajciita (4,286) is the great
emporium of the trade between China and Russia. Here the
teas, porcelain, silk^, nankeens, lacquered ware, candies, and
other product * China that have been brought across Mongolia
by caravans 'changed for Russian furs, lambskins, minerals,

•nd leather .tal goo^s, and are sent by river and overland

routes to Nijni-Novgorod and Moscow.

pEKiNa (1,000,000?), the capital of the Chinese Empire, is
perhaps the largest city in Alia, but the numl)er of its popula-
tion is unknown. Like most other Ciiinese cities, it is sur-
rounded by walls, but has many large suburbs. The principal
streets of the city are about 200 feet wide, and they are con-
stantly filled with a busy trading people; but the minor streets
^as in so many other cities of China) are crooked, narrow,
poorly built, and unclean. Foreigners are not allowed to trade
at Peking. (They are allowed to trade at several other cities,
but not at the capital.) Shako-hai (250,000) is the chief city
of China for foreign trade, and also for internal commerce. Its
harboi: is always crowded with Chinese junks and with
shipping from all parts of the world. • Nanking (250,000) was
formerly celebrated for its beautiful porcelain tower, now de-
stroyed. It was also in former ages the populous capital of
China, and magnificent ruins of its ancient splendor still remain.
Han-kow (700,000), on the Yang-tse-kiang, is the great em-
porium of central China. It is especially noted for its immense
«xport of tea ; also of raw silk and tobacco. HANO-CHow-roo,
or Hang-tcheou, (500,000) is one of the gayest and most beau-
tiful cities in Asia. It is especially noted for its silks. Foo-
CHOW (500,000) is noted for its porcelain manufactures, and
for its export of black tea. Amoy (300,000) has a large export
trade, especially in tea, camphor, sugar-candy, and paper.
Canton^(1,000,000 ?) has long been noted for its European trade.
Its chief exports are tea, silk, cassia, palm-leaf fans, pyrotechnic
Koods, sugar, and porcelain. In its markets, as in those of other
20

Chinese towns, are to be constantly seen the delicacies esteemed
in Chinese cookery: horse-flesh, dogs, oats, owls, hawks, and
edible birds' nests. The harbor and river of Canton are con-
stantly crowded with small boats, and many of these are
permanently moored, and inhabited as residences by people of
the lower classes. — There are many other large cities in China.
— All Chinese statistics are merely vague estimates.

Lhasa, or Lasha (25,000), the capital of Thibet, is the real-
dence of the Orand Lama, or sovereign pontiff of Buddhism, the
religion which prevails throughout all eastern Asia. Lhasa,
like other towns v aere Buddhism prevails, abounds in monas-
teries.— Cashqar (80,000?) and Yarkand (120,000?), the chief
towns of eastern Turkestan, have settled trading and manufac-
turing populations, and considerable commerce with China
Proper and Russia.

Hue (100,000?), the capital of Anam, is in reality «» French
garrison town. — Bangkok (400,000), the capital of Slam, is
traversed by canals, and many of its houses either float on water
or are raised on piles. It is noted for the number and gorgeous-
ness of its temples devoted to Buddhism. Bangkok has adopted
many European customs, and makes use of many modem inven-
tions. Its exports are large, and include spgar, rice, gums,
dye-woods, timber, and tin.

Calcutta (871,504), the capital of the B.itish Indian Empire,
is the seat of an imm use trade by sea and by river, and by
railways and canals. Its exports comprise most of the char-
acteristic products of India, including cotton, jute, rice, opium,
tea, raw silk, indigo, lac, hides, saltpetre, matting, gunny-
cloth, and gunny-bags. Calcutta has a university, several col-
leges, and a well-organized system of instruction for boys ; — as
elsewhere in India, the education of girls is less attended to.
Although its situation is unhealthy, Calcutta has become, since
its occupation by the British, the healthiest city in Asia.
Bombay (773,196), owing to its excellent harbor, and its situation
on the side of India nearest Europe, is fast becoming the com-
mercial rival of Calcutta. It is the terminus of the steamship
route vi& the Suez Canal from England to India. The exports
of Bombay, in cotton, grain, and opium, are very great.
Madras (405,948) has no harlior, but nevertheless its trade in
all characteristic Indian produce, including pepper, is very
large. Lucknow (284,779) is remarkable for its mosques,
temples and palaces — all resplendent with gilded minarets,
umbrellas, cupolas, and towers. Benares (207,578) is the
religious capital of Hindooism, the "sacred " or " holy" city of
the Hindoos. It has many beautiful temples, and is the resort
of pilgrims from every part of India. The waters of the Ganges
are here thought to be sacred, and to possess the virtue of
cleansing from all sin ; and hence the river-banks are constantly
crowded with bathers and worshippers. Benares is noted for
its delicate filagree- work, and for its gold-embroidered stufis ;
and its bazaars are always filled with the richest Indian goods
Delhi (173,393), formerly the capital of the great Mbgul Em-
pire, is the chief centre of Mohammedanism in India. Delh^ is
noted for its numerous mosques and palaces, although those that
now remain are only a scant part of its ancient magnificence.
Agra (149,008) is noted for its Pearl Mosque, the most beautifol

ASIA.

specimen of Mohammedan architecture in India; and for its
Mausoleum, the most splendid sepulchre in the world. — Rangoon
(134,176), the chief city of British Burmah, has a large export
trade in rice, cotton, petroleum, and teak-wood. — There are
many other very large cities in India.

Colombo (]20,0oO), the capital of ihe British crown colony
of Ceylon, is especially noted for its exports of cinnamon, coffee,
and coir or cocoanut cordage.

Cabool (60,000), the chief city of Afghanistan, and the resi-
dence of the Ameer, is noted for its fruit. Under English
influence its manufactures and commerce are improving. —
Khklat (17,000) is the residp.nce of the Khan of Beloochistan.
Like Cabool, it has an elevated site, but its streets are filthy,
and its houses are built mainly of mud.

Teheran (60,0C0 ?) is the modem capital of Persia, being the
principal residence of the Shah. Ispahan (80,000?), once the
exceedingly populous capital of Persia, though very much
reduced in splendor, is stii! noted for its mosques, palaces, and
colleges, all built in the magnificently decorated style formerly
so much in vogue in Mohammedan countries. The manufac-
tures of Ispahan, once so famous, are also much decayed, but
the city is still ^amous for its rich silks, satins, and brocades.
Shiraz (20,000) is noted for its wines, its sherbet, its attar-of-
roses, and for its sword-bladet; and silk-stuffs, Bushire
(20,000) has a large export trade in silks, shawls, carpets,
Persian horses, dried fruits, grain, turquois' ; arls, and
asEafcBtida.

Musca',? (60,000?) has a good harbor and a largv export trade
in pearls from the Persian Gulf, and Arabian coffee ; and also in
almonds and dates, olives, assafoetida, gum arable, copal, and
f ran'' incense, and ivory, horses, hides, sulphur, and saltpetre.
Mocha (7,000) is famous all the world over for its coffee ; its
other exports are dates, gums, balm, senna, and ivory.

Mecca (50,000?), the birth-place of Mohammed, is the sacred
city of Mohammedanism, and is visited r,nnually by thousands
of pilgrims from all parts of tha Mohamiredan world. The
resident population wholly make their living by viciously
cheating their visitors or begging from them. In the centre of
the city is the famous Gr#at Mosque, and in the centre of it is
the Caaba, or "square house," containing; in one of its walls the
celebrated black-stone, to kiss which is a chief object of the
pilgrims' devotion. Medina (20,000) contains the tomb of
Mohammed, and is also a place of pilgrimage.

Jerusalem (20,000), the chief city of Palestine, is, of all the
cities in the world, the one that is most interesting to the
Christian, since it was in it and in its vicinity that most of the
important scenes recorded in the Bible were enacted. To Jews,
Greek Christians, and Mohammedans, it is a holy city, and it is
visited annually, especially at Easter-time, by thousands of
pilgrims from all parts of western Asia and eastern Europe.

Damascus (150,000), the chief city of Syria, is perhaps tb"
oldest city in the world. It is noted for its manufactures (especi-
ally of silks), for its excellent bazaars, and for its trade (by
caravan) in European products and those of Arabia and Persia.
Damascus is a representative oriental city : no wheeled vehicles
are to be seen in its streets, and no glass in its houses. Viewed

from a dibtance it is entrancingly beautiful ; but a closer inaf'«o>
tion reveals much meanness and dirt. Beyroot (100,000?) is a
great commercial city, with expoi ' s of raw silk, olive oil, oak
galls, madder, gums, rags, sponges, wool, and skins. Aleppo
(90,000) has an immense caravan trade. Smyrna (160,000) ia
the chief centre of trade in the Levant (that is, the eastern
coast region of the Mediterranean). Its exports are principally
dried fruits, silk, cotton, goats" hair, camels' wool, skins, raga,
sponges, valonia, and saffron.

ToKio (811,510), the capital of Japan, has (since 1869, -when
it became the residence of the emperor or mikado) conformed
itself BO completely to modern ideas that it has much of th&
appearance, and all the conveniences, of a great European or
American city, differing in this respect from every other city in
Asia. Deserving of particular notice is its great Imperial
Uni Vol city, which has more than one hundred foreign instructors.
Tokio !° a great manufacturing city, and its manufactured pro-
ducts, in variety, excellence of workmanship, aqd beauty of
finish, rival those of any city in Europe or America. Yokohama.
(67,499), the port of Tokio, 18 miles distant, has an immense
foreign trade and regular steamship connection with London»
Melbourne, (• m Francisco, and Vancouver. Its prin vl ex-
ports are tea, silk, silk-worm eggs and cocoons, copper, cam-
phor, and "Japanese goods." Osaka (530,885) has both large
manufactures ar ... a great foreign trade. The city is traversed
everywhere by canals, and has more than 1,100 bridges. Kioto
(567,334), the former capital, has; extensive manufactures of
porcelain, lacquered goods, and silks.

Batavla (99, 109) is the capital of the Netherlands" J adies,
and the great emporium of the Malay Archipelago. It collects
the produce of the islands and exports them to Europe —
coffee, sugar, pepper, cloves, nutmegs, macs, sago, gutta percha»
indigo, camphor, benzoin, gold dust and dian.onds. tin, hides,
and dye-woods. Manilla (with its euburbs, V-'O.OOO) is the
capital of the Spanish East Indies. Its principal export is
Manilla hemp (the best of all f bres for making cordage — found
only in the Philippine Isla^xls;. Other exports are cigars (in
immense numbers), sugar, coffee, mcther-of-pearl, and gums.

Exercise. — l. Describe the main physical and climatal
features of the various geographical regions of Asia, and show
how they influence (1) the vegetation of these regions; (2) the
animal life; (3) the occupations of the people. 2. Give some
reasons why China, Indo China, and India, sliould be more
populous than ^ ther parts of Asia. 3. Enumerate the articles
of commerce furnished to Europe and America by the following
countries severally: — (1) China; (2) Indo-China; (3) India;
(4) Persia; (5) Arabia; (6) Turkey-in-Asia; (7) Japan; (8) the
Malay Archipelago. 4. Make a list of articles in common use
in Canada, obtained from Asia, and stat" from what parts of
Asia they are obtained. 5. Trace on the school globe the greah
commercial routes between (1) England, and India and China;
(2) Canada and Japan; (3) Russia and China,; (4) Ea.. ^°'•p
Turkestan and Asia Minor; (5) Persia and Turkey-in-Europe.
6. What articles of commerce may profitably be sent from
Canada to Japan? 7. Describe tlie state of education in ^<ift.

loser insf'/eo'
0,000?) is a
live oil, oak
18. Aleppo
(160,000) i»
the eastern
I principally
skins, rags,

1869, when
I conformed
(luch of the
European or
ither city in
it Imperial
instructors,
ctured pro-
i beauty of

YOKOBAHA.

iiU immeuse
th London,
rin \1 ex-
)pper, cam«
3 both large
s travarsed
[68. Kioto
ifactures of

idii* i adies,

It collects

Europe —

tta percha,

tin, hides,

000) is the
export is

ige — found
cigars (in
i gams.

climatal
and show
ns; (2) the
Give some
be more
he articles
following
(3) India;
n; (8) the
mmon use
it parts of
5 the greaJ;
nd China;

1) E«.^»rp

n-Europe.
sent from
n in Atia.

LESSON XLIII.

A FRIO A.

1. Position, Boundaries, Extent, and Popu-
lation. — Africa is a great peninsula in the eastern
hemisphere, lying, for the most part, within the torrid
zone. It is smaller than Asia, but larger than either
North America or South America, and niuch larger than
Europe.

To the Teacher.— By the Sue "^anal, Africa has been made completely
fnaular.— Teach the boundaries ; ..n the map. — The length of Africa, from
north to south, is about .1,000 miles ; its breadtli, from east to west, is about
the same as its length. The area of the continent is estimated at over
1 1,000,000 square railos; the i .>pulation (which, however, oan only be gues" d
nt> is thought to be over 192,000,000.

2, Subdivisions.

To the Teacher. —It is generally more convenient in the case of Africa to
speak of geographical subdivisions than of political subdivitions,— sinio the
/atter are very unstable, and, for a lar.;e part of the continent, not definitely
known. The following may be taught from the map :— 1. North Africa, or
the Barbary States, comprising (1) Morocco (an independent state, governed
by a Sultan) ; (2) Algeria (a French possession); (3) Tunis (nominally indepen-
dent, but in reality a French possession) ; (4) Tripoli (including Baroa and
Fozzan~in possession of Turkey). 2. Nort.i-East Africa, compri' g (1)
Egypt (nomina'.iy subject to Turkey, and paying tribute thereto, but in i eality
a protectorate of Great Britain) ; (2) Nubia and the Egj-ptian Soudan (form-
erly subject to Egypt, but now independent and more or less under the
authority of one chief) ; (3) Abyssinia (made up of several independent states,
somewhat loosely governed by an "emperor"). 3. The Sahara, or Orbsat
Df.skrt, occupied by many wandering tribes. 4. The Soudan (which may also bo
taken U. include part of the Egyptian Soudan), comprising several independent
iiadve kini^oms— some of them prosperoiu aud considerably removed from

barbarism. 6. East Africa (from the Gulf of Aden to the Limpopo River)
comprising (1) various independent native people8(as the Somali, and the Oalla)

(2) Zanzibar (an Arab .'lAte, ruled by a Sultan) ; (3) Mozambique (including
Sofala — a Portuguese possession); (4) certain German possessions behind
Zanzibar. 6. Sooth Africa (south of the Limpopo and Cape Frio), com-
prising (1) Cape Colony and Natal (British colonies, with systems of govc.-n-
ment slm'lar to our own) ; (2) the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic
(indepjndent republics, acknowledging British suzerainty in foreign affairs);

(3) Zululand and the Zulu Republic , (4) German Possessions (the coast, from
Orange River to Cape Fiio — excluding, however, the territory of Walflsch
Bay, which belongs to Britain) ; (5) the Kalahari Desert. 7. West Africa
(from Cape Frio to the River Senegal), comprising (1) the Kingdom of Angola
(between Cape Frio and the Congo— a Portuguese possession) ; (2) the Congp
Free State (occupying also a largo portion of Central Africa— a territory littt
known, but being rapidly explored and colonized by the ' ' International Associa-
tion," of which the King of the Belgians is President) ; (3) Loango, Biafra, and
Calabar (regions occupied by many tribes, with occasional French, Portuguese,
E.nd German stations and claim? on the coast); (4)Dahomey and A8hantee(stron„-
native kingdoms) ; (S) the Gold Coast (a British possession) ; (6) Liberia (an
independent republic, founded by American philanthropists as a refuge lor
emancipated slaves) ; (7) Sierra Leone (a British colony, founded with the same
end in view) ; (8) Senegambia (occunied by many independent native tribes,
with French settlements on the S- > :gal, British settlements on the Gambia,
and Portuguese settlements on t^t Rio Grande. (Note.— Portions of West
Africa are frequently referred j ai Lower Guinea and Upper Guinea : the
locations of these geographi^il subdivisions can be seen on the map).
8. CF-STRAii Africa, little known, comprising, besides the Congo Free State,
many independent states and tribes.

3. Physical Features.

To the Teacher. — Africa has a very simple contour: the few capes and
bays by which the outline of the coast is varied should be taught from the
map. — Generally speaking, the continent is bordered by a narrow, compara-
tively low, coast region— in some parts (as ahjng the greater part of Guinea) so
low as to be visible to navigators from within only a shoi-t distance. Within
this low coast border, and at varying distances from i;he shore-line, but in
the main parallel with it, is an almost continuous range of hills, mountains, or
narrow pla::caus, supporting, in all the southern half of the continent, an
interior pUteau region. (Along the eastern half of the V.editerraoeaa i

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AFRICA.

SO^M

Mid along t-.. Atlantic end ol the Sahara, thia hill region ia wanting— aa may
be seen from the map). — In the north, the Atlaa Mountaina give rise to the
Barbary plateau (comprising Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis), the seaward
terraces of which are well watered, well wooded, and very fertile.

South of the Barbary plateau (but on thg east cxtciding to the very
shores of the Heditcrranean), and strctchins; in • a broad belt, of many
hundred milea in width, from the Atlantic to the plateau bordering upon
the Red Sea, ia a great desert region, the largest in the world. In the
caat this desert ia threaded by a river (the Nile), vhich is fed perpetually by
the rainfalls of equatorial regions. The parts of the desert adjacent to
thia river are known as the Egyptian and Nubian deserts ; a portion next to
Egypt is known as the Libyan desert ; but the rest of this vast region is known
M the Sahara, or the Groat Desert. The Sahara is by no means unvarying in
surface ; but though it ia for the most part a low, level waste of sand, it com-
prises, also, great wastes of hard-baked earth, or of rugged barren rock, with,
moreover, deep v.iUcys, high
plateaus, and even hills and
mountains. Some of the
elevatef'. parts obtain a suffi-
ciency of rain and are fer-
tile: these are the "oases"
of the desert. Some of the
valleya are also fertile ; but
for the most part the Sahara,
and the Libyan^ Egyptian,
and Nubian destrta aa well,
are rainless for years to-
gether;, and, exposed to a
burningsun, theirsandy and
rocky surfaces become hot
to a degree insup|>ortable to
man, and can be traversed
only by camels. These des-
erts are subject to violent
wind etorras, in which the
hot blown sand is fearfully
destructive of life.— Some
parts of the Sahi:^., especi-
ally in the north-cast, are
much lower than the level of
the ocean, and hence it has
been proposed to inundate
these par ts and convert them
into inland seas. No rivers
flow from the Sahara to thv
ocean, but numerous streams
are found within it, which
either lose themselves in the
sand, or empty into shallow salt lakes, whence the water disappears by
evaporation.

South of the Sahara is a great well-watered pastoral belt, for the most part
unwoodcd, which, enjoying a naturally fertile soil, and a sufficient but not
excessive rainfall, is, perhaps, the best part of Africa ; but it is as yet little
known. Some of its rivers flow northward into the Sahara. Lake Chad, fed
by the Shari and other great rivers from the south, overflows Into a river
which also loses itself in the desert to the north.

The southern half of Africa, withiii the bordering mountains, is mainly o
plateau, but of very irregular elevation, and comprising many river valleys
and many lake depressions. In the northwest the plateau includes Abyssinia,
the highest continuous plateau area on the continent. From the eastern
edge of the Abyssinian plateau the edge of the main placeau runs southward
(being marked at the equator by Jlounts Kenia and Kilima-NJaro, tlie highest
mountains in Africa); and, skirting the southern end of tlie continent, runs
northward up the western side to the confluence of the Ilenue with the Niger,
where it turns eastward ; finally, it reaches the western edge of the Abyssinian
plateau. A narrow extension of the plateau also runs westward, and. taking
Id the Kong Mn"^tains, ends in the mountains of Sencgambia.

VICTORIA FALLS,

Originating in thia great southern plateau, sevtiul grtut rivers find for
themselves channels and force themselves through the cmbordcrin<r mountaina
to reach the sea or ocean. The principal of these are :— the Nile, the Zambesi,
the Congo, and the Niger; also the Juba, the Limpopo, the Orange, the
Ogowai, the Gambia, and the Senegal.— The JMle, whose head-watera were
long unknown, may be said to take its rise in Lakes Victoria and Albert.
Flowing northward it dcscenda from the plateau in a series of falls; and
receiving its main tributaries, the Ghazal, the Sobat, the Blue Nile, and th»
Atbara (or Black Nile), it then traverses the great desert without receiving a
single additional tributary. By its annual overflowinga, which leave behhid
every year a fresh deposit of fertilizing mud, brought down by the Atbam
from the Abyssinian plateau, the Nile maintains in perpetual fertility a narrow
valley in the desert of about eight miles in width, aa well aa the delta at its
mouth.— The Zambesi is fed by Lake Nyassa, and by numerous tributaries in
the interior : on this river are the celebrated Victoria Falls, often compared

with those of Niagara.— The
Cor _,o was also long a mys-
tery ; its head-waters ars
iow known to be those ot-
■jake Bangweolo rnd other
Ukesof Central Africa. Lake
Tanganyika also overflo\v9
into the Congo, but only
.)3riodioally. — The Niger,
with its tributary the Bonuc,
is also a mighty river, but
lor the most part without
the plateau, although rising
within it ; Lake Debu forma
part ot ita upper course.—
Nearly all the rivers of Africa
are frpqucntlf iit-prrnpted
by falls or rapids, ami often
also by sand-bars at their
mouths ; ond navigation is
possible only in parts— gener»
ally ill their middle courses.
TliiCongoisthemost useful
river in this respect.

Southern Africa is, in 8->ie
ri'specta, the counterpnn uf
northern Africa : a ^'reat
pastoial belt stretches across
the continent from the Zam-
besi to sout rcrn Ant,'oI*
(Htnguela) ; tho Kalahari
Desert greatly n sen ' 'ostlis
Sahara, and its wustc i limit
is likewise the Atlantic Coast ; Lake Ngami, like Lake Clunl, is fed by waters
from the pastoral belt, and overflows into a river which ^^u loses itself in ths
desert ; and the southward-facing terraces of Cape Coluiiy are not unlike the
northward-facing terraces of the Barbary States.

4. Climateand Vegetation.— So mil.), i Africa

lies within the torrid zone, that necessaril its climate
is very hot. But the equatorial parts are not the hottest,
the heat in these regions being modified by an almost
daily rainfall and the presence of a dense covering of
luxuriant forest ; moreover, on the coasts, the ocean
breezes help to reduce the temperature, and in the in-
terior the elevation of the plateau helps towards the
same end. Towards the north and south of the inter-
tropical region the rainfall diminishes, and the vegetation

Animals of Africa.

1. Caiol.

; HoRMao

Vma. 8.lBia.

4. Flamihoo.

fi. Crocodub.

9. QORILLA.

7. Lion.

8. Elbpramt.

9. HlPPOFOTA-

Mua. 10. Rhi-

MOOBROS.

11. Purr Ad-
DiR. 12. Os-
trich. 13.QMV-

14. ZlBRA.

15. GiRAFra.
18. Koodoo.
17. Strips
Htbma.

To the Teaeher.-The single-humped Camel la used throughout all northern
Africa a8 a beast of burden and travel. All trafflo is carried on by hia aid ;
without h'm curamerce would be impossible.— The Horned Viper is found in
northern Africa, the Puff Adder in the deserta of South Africa; both are
exceedingly venomous. The Puff Adder is of considerable size, and, when irri.
tated, swells out the upper part of its body.— The Flamingo is found in salt,
marshy, tropical districts, and sometimes visits Europe. It is a bird of the
goose-kind, and is noted tor its beautiful plumage, its body being of a rich
rose-color and its wings of a dark purple.— The Ibis is found principally in the
Nile valley. It was held sacred and worshf»- 3d by the
ancient ERj-ptians, and was the object c. numerous extra-
ordinary beliefs— as, for example, that its flesh was incor-
ruptible after death.— The Crocodile is found in nearly all
African riven , especially the upper Xile and the Limpopo.
It attains a great length, sometimes as great as thirty feet ;
and it frequently seizes human beings as prey. It also was
held sacred by the ancient Egyptians.- The Gorilla is the
(ivrgest and strongest of the apes, being about six feet in
heiftl.j, and able with its teeth to crack nuts which would
otherwise require a heavy IjIow from & hammer. — The Ostrich
is found in almost every part of the continent, but especially
In the deserts and in the open plains. It is very vigilant
\nd fleet, and its capture can be effected only with great
dlfliculty. The artificial breeding of tho ostrich is now a
■Wccessful and important industry in Cape Colony.— The
Koodoo is one of the largest of the antelope species. It
lives in small families of four or
five. Its principal beauty lies
In its horns, which are about
tour feet long, and are grace-
fully twisted in a wide spiral.
The koodoo may be easily
domesticated.— The Striped
Hyena is peculiar to south-
western Asia and northern
Africa; the Spotted Hyena is
peculiar to southern Africa.
The Jackal, a distant relative of
the hyena, but a smaller animal,
ts common throughout all
Africa. Both the hyena and tho
Jackal are useful as scavengers,
being fond of carrion ; and botli
<9an be nerfectly domesticated

nnniii

AFRICA.

101

is less luxuriant — the landscape being principally open
pasture, and varied forest and glade ; while the seasons
are distinctly rainy and dry — the rainy season being in
summer. To the north and south again are the dec erts,
the Sahara and the Kalahari, comparatively rainless,
insupportably hot in the daytime, though often uncom-
fortably cold at night : the Nubian desert is probably
the hottest region in the world. On the plateau and coast
regions of the extreme north and
south the climate is still warm,
though in winter snow occasion-
ally falls ; and there are but twQ
seasons, the wet and the dry —
the dry season being in summer.
In these regions the soil is natu-
rally fertile, the mountain-sides
are well wooded, and the plains
and valleys abound in herbage,
and especially in flowers; the cul-
tivation of suitable products well
repays the agriculturist for his
labors, and sheep-pas ""uring and
cattle-pasturing are also profitable.

To the Teaehcr.—The seaward slopes of the Barbary plateau are
ezoeedingly fertile, and were at one time the granary of tlie world ;
but agriculture there is now in a wretched condition, and to the
Indolent habite of the people pasturing is more agreeable. The natural
and cultivated products resemble those of Spain.— The delta and valley
of the Nile, by reason of the annual overflowings of the river (which
begin at the end of June, and end with the end of November) are,
perhaps, the most fertilb region in the world. The seed grain is sown
in the layer of slimy mud left by the receded water, and, by the help
of careful irrigation, the harvests are abundant. The principal crops
are cotton, wheat, maize, rice, and sugar. Tropical fruits (dates, flgs,
pomegranates, oranges, lemons, and bananas) are cultivated. Among
trees, the date-paim, the doum-palm (or branched palm), ai)d the acacia
(or gum tree), are most abundant. Roses are
also much cultivated.

The Sahara has but a scanty vegetation, con-
sisting for the most part of prickly, leafless,

fleshy forms, which no aimestio animal but the THE DATE PALM,

oamel will eat. Its oases, however, and its

" wadies," or occasionally wav'>red valleys, are characterized by the presence
of the beautiful date-palm, which <n this region reaches its greatest perfection.
(The date-palm thrives best under a hot sun in a sandy soil, where its roots
%ie in reach of a not too plenteous supply of spring-water,~rain injures it. It
furnishes food for man, horse, and camel ; and without it the desert would
be completely uninhabitable.)

South of the great drsert the date-palm no longer thrives ; its place, as the
oharaoteristic feature o.' vegetation, is taken by the oil-palm, the sogo-palm,
the cotton tree, a.id the baobab or monkey-bread tree ; while the baobab (the
most enormous tree on the globe, though not the highest) partly supplies its
place as a food producer.— For temdegrees of latitude on each side of the
equator the vegetation of the interior is of the most luxuriant sort : giant
trees, thick underwood, and climbing plants in endless variety and number,
cover the surface so oompletely that the sun's rays never reach iti even the
rivelra, as well a" (h» swamps, at certain seMons of the year, are so filled with

papyrus (from which paper was first made) and otier aquatic plants, that It
is impossible to force a boat through them ; while the coasts are usually
lined with mangrove Jungles, and made unhealthy by constantly decaying
vegetation. In this luxuriant belt, as well as in the less luxuriant regions oa
either side of it, a sufficiency of food is obtained without much cultivation—
the staple articles being principally the cassava, the yam, the ground-nut, the
papaw, the tamarind, the custard apple, ard shea-butter (or butter expressed
from the kernels of the fruit of the butter tree)— though, o' course, these are not
found equally well distributed throughout the whole region ; besides, almost
all foreign tropical fruits have been introduced and can be easily cultivated!
The Kalahari, like the flahara, has its spiny, leafless, and contorted aloea
and other plants ; but groves of date-palms,
or of other useful trees, are wanting.— Still
farther south, the plains and seaward terrace*
of Cape Colony, while, for the most part, arid
and desert-looking in the dry season, in the
rainy season become one vast garden of beau-
tiful flowers interspersed over sward of the
richest verdure ; the mountain-sides are fre-
quently clothed with forests, while miniature
woods of heaths (some as high as 12 or U
feet), covered throughout most of the year by
innumerable flowers, are found everywhere.
The country and cUmate, however, seem to be
more suited to pasturing than to agriculture,
but grain is profitably g^rown in some parts.
The native fruits ire of little value, but nearly
all the fruits of northern and southern Europ*
have been successfully introduced, and vine-
growing is already an important industry.

6. Anima.1 Life. — The

animals of Africa are, for the
most part, peculiar to the continent, though some
resemble those found in Arabia, and in southern
Asia generally ; many of the birds of Africa resemble
those of southern Europe as well as of southern
Asia. The most characteristic animals are : — th«

gorilla and the chimpanzee (after the orang-outang
the most man-like of apes), the baboon (or dog-
headed ape), the mandril (or rib-nosed baboon), the
jackal, the hyena, the lion, the leopard, the antelope,
the gnu, the quagga, the zebra, the
giraffe, the Cape bufialo, the ele-
phant, the rhinoceros, and the
hippopotamus. Of birds, the more
characteristic are tlie ostrich, the secretary-bird, the
guinea-h^n, the honey-sucker, and the bee-eater, besides
many birds of beautiful plumage (as parrots and paro-
quets, sunbirds, orioles, and hoopoes), many water-fowl
(including the flamingo and the ibis), and many birds of
carrion. Of reptilv^s, lizards and vipers abound in the
deserts; crocodiles s\yarm in many rivers; chameleons
are found in all wooded parts ; and the huge python and
the deadly cobra are found in the swamps of Guinea.
Of fish, edible kinds are extremely abundant in the

152

AFRICA.

great lakes of the interior; and the coasts of North Africa

and South Africa are visited by many edible sea varieties.

— With insects, Africa is unfortunately too well provided.

The locust is a scourge to the whole continent. In the

Nile region the zebub (a fly of about the size of a bee),

and in central and southern Africa the tsetse (also a

small fly), aro exceedingly injurious to all animals,

especially those which are domesticated. The termites,

or white ants (most wonderful of the insect creation),

found in West Africa and South Africa, though useful

in many ways, are at times exceedingly destructive of

cultivated vegetation, and even of houses, household

furniture, and clothing.

To the Teacher.— The gorilla and the chimpanzee are confined to the
equatorial regions of West Africa ; varieties of the baboon are found through-
out all the continent ;

and many other Icinds -r-^tj^-^ j^-^ ^s^

of apes are found, ^_^J*^''^'"'^^'*°°'"""~"

especially within the ^Srf-^-

tropics The lion, king

of all the lower animal
creation, once common
in south-western Asia,
«nd also in south-east-
ern Europe, is now
found priiicipajly in
Africa; he rarely in-
habits the deep forests,
preterrins open plains
in which occasional
thicltets afford him
shelter. — Antelopes are
especially numerous in
South Africa, the eland, the spring-bok, and the koodoo, being the most
noted species. The gnu is also a sort of antelope, but in appearance it is
a very composite animal, having, with the body of the antelope, the
head of the ox, the horns of the buffalo, the mane of the horse, and the
legs of the stag.— The horse is not found wild in Africa, and cannot even
be acclimatized in the hotter parts of eastern Africa; but, of the horse
tribe, the quagga is found plentifully in southern Africa, and the zebra, a
somewhat larger animal, over the rest of Africa, o.d far as the Sahara.— The
giraffe, tallest of all quadrupeds, is found throughout all eastern Africa, gen-
erally in small herds.— The Cape buffalo is one of the most formidable of
animals, being more feared by the hunter than the lion. Its hide is so thick
that the natives make shields of it which can scarcely be pierced by a musket-
ball.— The African elephant is found in all well-wooded and watered parts of
the continent south of '.he Sahara. He is distinguished from the Asiatic
elephant by his larger cars and more convex forehead ; and, unlike his
relative, he has never been domesticated.— The African rhinoceros is of several
species, but always two-horned. He is found in all parts of tlio continent,
but principally in the south. The flesh of the rhinoceros is eaten as food, and
his skin, being very tough, is of much use to the natives.— The hippopotamus
is peculiar to Africa; he is found In all the hot river districts of the continent.
His body is nearly as large as the clepliant's, but his legs are shorter. He is
aquatic in his habits, and swims and dives with ease. His food consists of
plants and weeds which grow in shallow waters. — All these animals, especially
the larger sorts, not long ago very numerous, are fast retreating before the
advance of civilization to more iiiiiccessiblo parts, and, under attacks of
hunters who throng to Africa from Europe and America, are even disappearing
altogether. The elephant is iriso much hunted by the natives for the sake of
his ivory tusks, which form their most valuable artit'le for barter.— The
secretary' Mrd or serpent-eator is one of the most remarkable of birds. It is

OSTRICHES.

found in South Africa, and is highly prized there for its tearleanew in KilUiig
even the most venomous of serpents.— Of domestio aniroals, the oamel is
invaluable in all northern and north-eastern Africa. Ar.8e8, mulea, homed
cattle, sheep, and goats, are found in almost all parts o'. the continent; bat
in the hotter parts they are often of inferior kinds. The hoxoe, klso, is widely
distributed, but he is rarely used as a beast of draught

6. Minerals. — Africa is not rich in minerals. Gold
is the metal most widely distributed, but it is most
abundant in West Africa. Copper is very abundant in
South Africa. The diamond fields of the Orange and
Vaal rivers are the richest in the world. Salt, though
widely distributed, is in some distririfcs so scarce and
valuable as to be used as a sort of moi: > y currency, and
the deposits of the mineral are jealously guarded as
royal possessions.

To the TeacAer.- Minerals of various sorts are abundant in the Barbary
plateau, but they are little worlced. —The gold of West Africa is principally
found in river and coast districts, in small particles mixed with sand and loam
—hence the phrase "gold dust." (The people of Ashantee are skilful gold,
workers.) Gold is also found in East Africa, and more abundantly in the
Transvaal Republic and the district north of it.— Iron is abundant in Sierra
Leone, and in neighboring districts.

7. People and Religion. — The people of northern
Africa, including those of the Sahara, are of various
mixed races, related to the races of south-western Asia
and southern Europe. The prevailing religion in this
region is Mohammedanism. — The people of the Soudan,
and of all Africa southward (with the exception of the
Hottentots), are Negroid in race. The people of western
and central Africa (or the true Negroes) are the most
characteristic members of this race, — their hair being
woolly, their skin black, their noses flat, and their lips
thick ; but many of tlie Negroid peoples of Africa (as,
for example, the Foulahs of the Soudan, the Galla of
north-east Africa, and tlie Kaffirs of South Africa) are
not true Negroes ; for while resembling the Negro, they
also resemble the European, the Arab, and the Hindoo.
The Hottentots of South Africa (and their diminutive
neighbors and kinsmen, the Bushmen) are quite distinct
from the Negroid race ; they resemble somewhat the
Mongols and INIalays of Asia : their eyes are oblique, their
beard thin, thoir skin of a dull yellow tint, and their
hair harsli, wiiy, and arranged sparsely over their heads
in tufts.— In the Soudan, and in East Africa, Moham-
medanism is the prevailing religion ; but elsewhere among
the Negroid i .ces (and among the Hottentot races also),
the people are given up to fetisfh worship and numberless
other superstitions; although degraded forms of Moham-
medanism, and even of Christianity, are to be found
among tliem. — Through the labors of missionaries from

MMH

■BBBO!

■B9ISSP7W

AFRICA.

158

Europe, tue United States, and Canada, Christianity in
its pure form is now being introduced, though slowly,
into every part of Africa — but with- more success, per-
haps, in the south than elsewhere.

To the Teacher.— The orlg^inal races of the Barbary States are called
Berbers. Allied with the Berbers are the Copts (or descendants of the ancient
Ecryptians, still found in Egypt), the Nubians, and the native races of the
Sahara. The Moors are also ancient inhabitants of the Barbary plateau. But
the Arabs have been so long settled in all these regions that they have become
• much mixed with the original races (especially in some parts), and have given
to them their language and thoir Mohammedan religion. But although in
Egypt the Arabs (or Fellahs) form the great bulk of the population, the Copts
remain distinct, and retain their own religion, which is a sort of Christianity.
The Abyssinians are related to the Arabs in race, but their prevailing religion
is a corrupt form of Christianity.— In all Mohammedan intertropical Africa —
the Soudan, Zanzibar, and Mozambique — Arabs have become mixed with the
native races ; and it is owing to the constant intercourse of Arab traders and
adventurers with these people that they have become so Mohammedanized. —
The permanent settlements wh'ch the Europeans are now making in Africa
•re, of course, influencing religion and race distinctions. The colonists ■>'
South Africa are principally English, although there are many Dutch among
them, especially in the Orange Free State, and in the Transvaal Repubfic. In
Addition, English, French, and Greeks are numerous in Egypt ; many French
are in Algeria i and iMany Turks and Jews are found in all northern Africa,
«i>pccially in Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt.

8. Civilization, Government, Education. —

The north of Africa (especially the north-east — that is,
Egypt and Nubia) was an early home of civilization;
but that early civilization passed away, and was suc-
ceeded by others, which, in their turn, also disappeared.
Wonderful evidences of the early civilization of Egypt
still remain in stupendous pyramids, obelisks, and tem-
ples, which, by reason of the purity and dryness of tlie
atmosphere of the country, have been preserved un-
harmed — some of them, at least — for 5,000 years. How-
ever, in respect of civilization, all northern Africa is
now far behind western Europe. In the Barbary States
the governments have been despotic and cruel, and the
people are little better than semi-barbaric ; and, though
they possess considerable skill in the mechanical arts,
their agriculture is very rude. Tlie condition of Egypt
is but little better. Yet in both Egypt and Algeria the
influence of European civilization is bearing fruit in
better government, increased attention to education, and
the building of public works for the benefit of the whole
people. — In otlier parts of Af rici, civilization can scarcely
be said to exist at all, except where it has l)een intro-
duce^J by Europeans and Americans. Yet where Arab
influence has been exerted — in the Soudan especially —
a considerable advancement has been made in the useful
arts (especially in weaving and dyeing, and in metal-
working); and agriculture is systematically though
rudely carried on, and is a principal occupation of the
21

people. Elsewhere, the occupations of the people are
mainly those of barbarism : nature bountifully supplies
the necessaries of life without demanding much care or
labor, agriculture receives little attention, and manufac-
tures, except of a rude domestic sort, are unknown. But
nearly all the people of Africa south of the Sahara, how-
ever barbarous, live in settled communities, and in this
respect are superior to the nomadic nations of Asia. The
so-called kingdoms of this part of Africa are despotisms,
in which the most cruel and sanguinary customs prevail;
but the power of the king receives some check from his
obligation to consult, on all important occasions, with
his "headmen," or chiefs of his subordinate tribes.
Village and tribal afiairs are settled by " palavers," or
public meetings of the people ; — the headman exercises
no despotic power ; he simply executes the decision of
the palaver. Tribes and villages are frequently inde-
pendent of any king. — Slavery and the slave trade have
been the curse of Africa, and have made its people cruel
and vindictive, suspicious of foreigners, and opposed to
all civilizing and Christianizing influences. Slavery still
exists in the interior, and tribes and nations frequently go
to war for no other cause than the hope of making cap-
tives ; but the carrying away from Africa of human beings
to be sold as slaves in foreign countries, long the disgrace
aad sin of Europe and America, has now been completely
stopped, owing to the efforts of several civilized powers,
especially Great Britain. However, the importation of
gin into Africa is now producing almost as much mischief
as was formerly caused by the slave trade. — Education
reroives careful attention in the European colonies of
South Africa, and in Liberia ; and some attention is paid
to it in the cities ot" North Africa ; the Koran is taught
in the Mohammedan countries of the interior ; but else-
where, except at the mission stations, education is
unknown.

0. Commerce and Products. — Notwithstandinj;

the backwardness of its civilization and the rude state
of its agriculture and arts, yet, owing to its great
natural resources, Africa produces many things very
valuable in the world's commerce ; and when colonization
and the labors of missionaries shall have more fully
opened up the continent and civilized its people, Africa
will take its place as one of the most productive regions
of the world. — The difficulty of transportation is a
serious ob.stacle to African commerce. The rivers, great

104

AFRICA.

as they are, have as yet been of little service in further-
ing trade ; but the navigable stretches of the Congo and
the Zambesi are now well supplied with steamboats. In
the deserts of the nort ' and north-east, and in the hot
regions adjacent to tin in, the transportation of goods can
be effected only by means of camel caravans. Railways
have been constructed in Algeria, Egypt, and the colonies
of South Africa, but not elsewhere; and until these are
more generally built it will be difficult for African pro-
duce to reach profitable markets.

To the Teacher.— The exports from the Barbary States are the ordinary
KKins and sciui-tropical fruits, and cattle, wool, skins, and esparto gross ;
together with produce from the Sahara (principally ostrich feathers and
dates) and from the Soudan, brougb* to the north by caravans. Morocco is
celebrated for its leather (white, ytUow, green, and red), of great softness
and strength, superior to any made elsewhere, the result of a process nowhere
else understood. It is also celebrated for its sillcs and " fez " caps. The other
Barbary States have similar manufactures.— The exports from Egypt are
cotton, wheat, maize, rice, sugar, tropical fruits, and attar-of-roses ; together
with natural products brought from the interior— ivory, ostrich feathers, gold,
indigo, gum-arabic, and senna.— In all intertropical Africa, trade is almost
universally carried on by barter— the natives exchanging their products for
manufactured articles (such as guns, gunpowder, domestic utensils, tools,
clothing, piece-goods, trinkets, and toys) supplied to them by foreign traders.
But in many places " cowries" (shells brought from the Maldive Islands) are
highly 3Steemed as money currency, and the traders often find it more
convenient to purchase from the natives with these than to barter. The
principal products of these parts of Africa are ivory, gold-dust, palm-oil
(of which many thousands of tons are annually exported), palm-kernel,
ground-nuts, cocoanuts, gums, cocoa, caoutchouc, skins, coffee, rice, sugar,
cabinet and other woods (including the valuable African teak), and dye-woods.
But, owing to the dilfioulty of transportation, only the most valuable and
easily carried of these, are as yet brought from far inland. The trading
nations of Europe have established factories along the coasts, at which cargoes
are made up for exportation ; atid commerce with the interior is effected by
traders (European ind Arab), who bring native commodities to these factories
and exchange them for the articles which are needed in bartering with the
natives in return.— The colonists of South Africa are largely devoted to sheep-
pasturing and vine-growing ; but the growing of wheat, barley, and oats, and
the breeding of horses, cattle, and ostriches, also occupy much attention.
Wool, wine. Angora hair, and ostrich feathers, and diamonds, copper, and
gold, are the chief exports.

To the Teacher. — Most of the islands of Africa are small and belong to
European nations. (See under " Oreat Britain," " France," "Spain," "Portu-
gal.") The islands off Zanzibar belong to the sultanate of Zanzibar-
Madagascar, however, is one of the largest islands in the world, being about
1,000 miles long. Although its coasts are low. Hat, and unhealthy, these are
succeeded within by a higher and more healthy region of hill, valley, and
plain ; the innermost region is mountainous. Madagascar may be described
as very productive, abounding in pasture land and forest, with a vegetation
somewhat resembling that of tropical Africa. The people are not African ;
they are related to the Malays of Malacca and the Malay Archipelago. They
possess a high degree of mechanical skill, and have made considerable progress
in civilization, and, throufifh the efforts of English missionaries, have, to some
extent, become Christianized. Their trade with Great Britain (principally by
way of the island of Mauritius) is considerablo.— The population is about
8,600,000. -France has lately succeeded in forcing a protectorate over the island.

10. Chief Cities.

Fez (100,000), the principal city and one of the capitals of
Morocco, is the chief Mohammedan city of Africa, and a centre
of Mohammedan learning and of Mohammedan pilgrimage. It

is celebrated for its numerous mosques. Fez has numeron*'
manufactures, especially of the "fez" caps, morocco leather,
slippers, silk handkerchiefs, fme carpets, and saddlery. Mequimxi
(56,000), a favorite residence of the Sultan, and Morocco (50,-
000), the ancient capital, are also regarded as capitals of
Morocco. — Algiers (70,747), the capital of Algeria, since its
occupation by the French, has lost its oriental appearance and
is completely modernized. It has an excellent harbor, some
railway facilities, and a very large trade. Bona (21,074) is
noted for its red coral, the finest in the world. — TcNis (145,000)
is the most important commercial city in the Barbary States. It
has a large caravan trade with the Soudan and the oases of the
Sahara, which enables it to export ostrich feathers, gold dust,
ivory, and senna, largely; also a caravan trade with Constantinople
and the east. Its manufactures consist of caps, shawls, carpets,
leather, and essences ; and besides these it exports grain, wool,
hides, cattle, bone., rags, and sponges. — Trifoli (25,000) has a
large caravan trade, and its manufactures are similar to those
of Tunis. It has also one of the few good harbors on this part
of the Mediterranean.

Cairo (374,838), the capital of Egypt and the largest city of
Africa, is one of the most interesting cities in the world, uniting
as it does the picturesque features of eastern capitals — beautiful
gardens and gorgeous palaces and mosques — with the material
results of western civilization — manufactories, railways, iron
bridges, printing offices, gas, electricity, and so on. Cairo is a
great seat of Mohammedan learning, both primary and collegiate ;
but it has also a popular educational system, modelled upon
that of western cities. Cairo is a distributing point for the
merchandise of interior Africa, and its foreign commerce is very
considerable. Not far from Cairo is Ghizeh, near which are
the celebrated pyramids and the Sphinx, the grandest and most
venerable antiquities which the world possesses. Alexandria
(227,064) is the chief port of Egypt, and exports all characteristio
Egyptian produce. Its harbor is one of the best on the Medi-
terranean. The railway which connects it with Cairo and Suez
is an important link in the "overland" route between Great
Britain and India. Port Said (16,560) and Suez (12,500) are
the terminal ports of the Suez Canal. (Note. — The Suez Canal,
about 100 miles in length, finished in 1869, at a cost of $100,-
000,000, allows of the through passage of large steamships from
the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. It is partly owned by the
British Government. It shortens the distance by steamship
between Great Britain and India by 3,750 miles). Thebes and
Ifsambool are famous for the vast size, beautiful execution, and
wonderful preservation of their ruins (over 3,000 years old) —
palaces and temples (stilJ adorned with wonderful paintings and
sculptures), and colossal statues, obelisks, and sphinxes. —
Khartoom (20,000) is the chief town of Nubia and the Egyptian
Soudan. It was formerly a great slave depot.— Gondar (6,000),
the chief city of Abyssinia, has some manufactures, especially
of cotton cloths, iron and brass. The foreign trade of Abyssinia
is carried on principally by Massowah, but Massowah is now
claimed as an Italian possession.

TiMBUCTOo (12,000) is the starting place of ihe caravans
which convey the produce of Upper Guinea and Senegambia ta

'•^-.iMjSiMmnm

EHier*W*™: ;,^,m:gf^^-

AUSTRALASIA.

100

\'\

North Africa. Sokoto (20,000) is the capital of the Houssa
States, the most powerful kingdom of the Soudan. Its manu-
factures, and its trade with Great Britain, are important. Like
most other Soudan cities, Sokoto is adorned with numerous
mo8qu<>°. Seoo, Jennkh, Gando, Kano, and Kobbe, are
important capital towns in the Soudan, each with considerable
manufactures and a caravan trade with the north. They are
all strongholds of Mohammedan faith.

Zanzibar (80,000), on one of the most fertile islands in the
world, is the capital of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. It is the
chief market in the world for the supply of ivory, copal gum,
and '^loves. (It exports 7)000,000 lbs. of cloves a year, all
obtained from the island of Zanzibar.) It also exports red
pepper, sugar, rice, coffee, cocoanuts, and oranges. Mozambique
(5,000), the chief Portuguese town of East Africa, is strongly
fortified. Its export trade consists chiefly of ivory, gums, and wax.

Cape Town (45,240) is the capital of Cape Colony and of the
British empire in South Africa. It is a well-built modem city,
with excellent educational institutions and a considerable export
trade. Behind Cape Town rises the celebrated fiat-topped Table
Mountain. Fort Elizabeth (13,049) has the largest export trade
in South Africa. Kimberley (12,Cu0), in West Griqua Land, is
in the heart of the most productive diamond region in the world.
— Pietebmabitzbcko (14,429) is the capital of Natal. D'Urban
(16,630) has the only good harbor on the south-east coast. It
exports wool, sugar, ivory, hides, maize, angora hair, and
ostrich feathers, besides cotton, cofiee, rice, indigo, arrowroot,
pepper, and ginger. — Pretoria (4,500) is the capital of the
Transvaal Republic. — Bloemfontein (3,200) is the capital of the
Orange Free State.

Saint Paul de Loanda (20,000), the capital of Portuguese
West Africa, exports ivory, bees-wax, hides, coffee, rubber, and
palm-oil. It was once a notorious slave port. — Leopoldville,
near Stanley Pool, is the capital of the Congo Free State. —
Abomey (12,000) is the capital of the pagan native Kingdom
of Dahomey. Like other West African strongholds, Abomey
is defended by a living wall of dense prickly acacia trees. (Note.
— Dahomey is remarkable for the degraded estimation in which
its women are held : one-fourth are considered as married to the
national fetish or idol, and the remainder are at the absolute
disposal of the king. A large part of the king's army is com-
posed of women. When the king dies, his wives murder one
another. Human sacrifices are horribly common in Dahomey. )
— CooMASSiE (18,000), the capital of the pagan native Kingdom
of Ashantee, has considerable manufactures of cotton, pottery,
and gold. Human sacrifices were, not long since, frightfully
frequent in Coomassie, but, through the infiuence of the British,
they have lately become much less frequent. — Monrovia (6,000),
the capital of the Negro Republic of Liberia, has a considerable
export trade in coffee, palm-oil, arrowroot, and ivory. It is the
seat of a college, and has many churches. — Free Town (22,000)
is the chief seat of British government in West Africa. Its
climate is exceedingly prejudicial to Europeans. Its exports
are cocoanuts, ginger, ground-nuts, india-rubber, copal, and
palm-oil. Bathurst, the capital of British Gambia, exports
gum, ivory, gold, tortoise-shells, African teak, and palm-oil.

LESSON XLIV.

AUSTRALASIA.

1. Position and Extent. — Australasia, the sixth
grand division of the land surface of the globe, comprises
tlie group of islands lying to the south-east of Asia,
eastward of Macassar Strait, of which the great island-
continent of Australia is the central member. The
other principal islands of Australasia are : — Papua or
New Guinea, Tasmania, and New Zealand ; and Bismarck
Archipelago (including New Britain and JJf ew Ireland),
the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia
and the Loyalty Islands, and the Fiji Islands; besides
Celebes, the Molucca Isli\nds, and other islands of the
Malay Archipelago east ol Macassar Strait.

To the Teacher.- 1\\a name " Oceania " is sometimes used to desifirnate the
sixth grand division of the globe. This term is more comprehensive than
'Australasia," and is understood as comprehending all the islands lying
between the Indian Ocean and the continent of America. Modern geographers,
however, generally agree to consider the islands of the East Indies west of
Macassar Strait as belonging to Asia, to use the tenn " Australasia" as
deflned above,iand to speak of the islands of the Paciflo eastward of Austral-
asia as " Poljmesia."— The territories in Australasia belonging to Great Britain
are :— Australia, Tasmania, and Mew Zealand, and their adjacent isbutds ;
Southern New Quinea, the Fiji Islands, and Norfolk Island,

AUSTRALIA.

1. Extent and Population.— Australia is the

largest island on the globe and a continent in itself : it
is only one-fifth less than Europe. '

To the Teacher. — The length of Australia, from east to west, is about
2,400 miles ; its breadth, from north to south, is about 1,900 miles. Its area
is estimated at 3,030,771 square miles. Its population is about 2,660,000.

2. Subdivisions. — Australia is divided among five
colonial governments : New South Wales (the oldest
colony), Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and
Western Australia.

To the Teacher.— Teach the relative positions and boundaries of the
several colonies from the map. —The government of South Australia extends
over all the middle part.of the island.

3. Physical Features.

To the Teacher.— Te&ch the coast waters and the principal land features
from the map.— The shore-line of Australia is little indented ; good harbors,
however, (except along the Great Bight) are fairly numerous.— The coast
waters of the whole continent are comparatively shallow; so also are the
waters between it and Papua. Along the whole north-east shore, at an
average distance of about 30 miles, extends a line of reefs, or low sunken
islands (for the most part coral), called the Great Barrier Reef, exceedingly
dangerous to navigation, although it allows a safe passage for ships and
anchorage within. Beyond the Reef the sea is very deep. Bass Strait also
contains many reefs and low islands. All these facts lead to the supposition
that the oontinent was formerly much larger than it now ia.— Austnllai Uk*

■

■A

AUSTRALIA.

157

Africa, la MMertiu ^, oomparatlvely narrow lowland region. Within this
lowland border Is a ring or belt of plateau land and mountain clialna ; but on
parts of the north and acuth thia ol .vatod belt is wanting. On the aouth-eaat
and eoat of tlio laland the belt is much more prominent than on the weat ;
iipre Jt receives different names In different parts— as the Pyrenees, the
Australian Alps (with perpetual snow-clad aummits— the hi|;ho8t elevatlona
In Australia), the Blue Mountaina, tl.o Liverpool Range, etc.— but it really
forros one continuous cordillcm 2,000 miles In length, from near Portland
Bay to York Peninsula. Between the ridgea of this coi'dillera and the coast is
the most fertile part of Australia— for the most part well wooded, but In the
south-east containing immense stretches of pasture land. This region Is also
well watered ; but Its rivers are generally short and rapid, and vary very
greatly In volume with the seasons of the year, and 80 are of little use for
navigation. In the valleys on the northern and western slopes of the
tordillcra the principal mineral wealth of Australia, the gold for which it Is
ao famous, if found.— In the south-uaiit, occupying almost a quarter of the
continent, Is a great lowland region, drained by the Murrumbidgee, tho
Lachlan, tho Macquarie, tho Darling, ond other streams. These rivers, as
they approach the Interioi of the continent, owing to increasing evaporation
and diminishing rainfall, grow less; and in consequence, the Murray, to
which they are all tributary, is not the magnificent river which its head-waters
would 8'!em to give promise of. This south-eastern lowland region of
Australia contains much of its celebrated pasture land ; still, large areas of
this part consist of notlitng but swamp and barren fields of "scrub." Pasture
lands are also found along the inner slopes of the cordillcra, far up into
Queensland— these being the upland "downs" for which New South Wales
and Queensland are noted. — In tho north-cast of the continent — tlie east and
north-east of Queensland— there is that luxui iance of vegetation which char-
tcterizcs all well-watered tropical regions. — The northern shores of tho
continent, westward of York Peninsula, are for the most part low and sandy,
lined with mangrove Jungles, and apparently of little value for human
occupation. — The hill ranges which run parallel to the shores of West
Australia contain many bands and stretclies of pastoral and agricultural land ;
but the shores are v.ninviting, and this parttof the island has mode but little
progress except In the extreme south-west.— Tho southern portion of the
continent, from King Qcorge's Sound to Spencer Ouif, is uniformly low, flat,
sandy, and barren ; and, moreover, rainless and uncrossed by a single river or
stream.— The Interior if Australia (apart from the south-eastern lowland
quarter) is but little known ; but it seems to be a vast, comparatively low-
lying, rainless region, diversificil by few rivers or streams, and with but a
tew Inconsiderable mountain ranges. It is for the most part infertile, and
from its appearance is supposed to liavo fonnerly been the bed of a vast scu.
Tho exploration of It has been exceedingly UilBcult, owing to the abnence of
Kater and the frequency of gieat areas oi impenetrable "scrub." From its
general rainlessness its rivers (or "creeks,"asthey are all called) are of very
uncertain flow ; ai;(l its lakes (with the exception of a few in the south) are
mere drainage pools, and disappear in the drj' season. Despite this general
infertility, there are yet large areas which have recently been found to be
suitable for pasturing, or to be otherwise comparatively fertile, but of these
little is known.

4. Climate. — The climate of the settled coast regions
of Australia is warm, but very healthy — the atmosphere
being remarkably clear, dry, and agreeable, throughout
most of the year. Winter, there, corresponds in time
with our summer; but it is a season of very heavy rains,
not of frost and snow — snow is rarely seen except on the
higher uplands. Summer corresponds with our winter,
but it is much hotter and drier. Three or four times
in the season, hot, scorching, dust-laden winds blow from
the interior as from a furnace — exceedingly injurious
:o vegetation and very weakening to the human system;
but eisewhile the dry summer heat is bearaiile, being

tempered by regularly occurring Bea-brcezes in thfl mold-
ing and land-breezes in the eveuing. — Tho inward alopt.
of tho great cordillera do net enjoy so equable a tem-
perature as the coast regions; and, moreover, l)esides
always having n less rainfall, they are subject to occa-
sional long-continuing droughts, v')ien, for many months
together, not a drop of rain falls, -uid when, for lack of
water, the sheep and cattle of the peeture lands die by
thousands.

To the Teacher.— Ihe high hills and mountali ranges of the coasta,
especially in the oast and south-oast, intercept tho vapoi -laden winds from
the ocean and cause the sutBcient rainfall of the shoreward slopes, and the
diminished rainfall of tiie Inward slopes. In tho interior, few hills exist to
intercept tho winds from tho ocean; t'.e great low flat bosin, under an almost
vertical sun, becomes intensely heated ; and, being so vast, 8U»h winds as do
reach it from the ocean have no effect in cooling \t. But occasionally It
relievos itself by pouring furnooe-blasts outwords upon the coast region.

5. Vegetation. — In the low coast regions of the
north, and in the north-east, the vegetation is tropical
and resembles that of India and t!.3 East Indies, con-
sisting of many sorts of large umbrageous trees, matted
together in one close thicket by inimmerable climbing
and hanging plants, and harboring in their shade dense
masses of orchids and ferns. But elsewhere the vegeta-
tion is, for the mo.st part, peculiar to the cont'uent. In
all the more fertile regions the forest treea ^.id princi-
pally evergreens, and many of them are of gigantic
growth. They shoot their stems high up into the air,
and have few branches, and these also shoot upward.
They also have comparatively few leaves; and these
present their edges to the sun, and so cast little shade; —
this peculiarity permits good pasture-grass to grow every-
where among them. Some trees shed their bark annually.
I'orms of vegetable life which elsewhere appear only aa
i plants and shrubs, in Australia grow to an immense size :
ferns, nettles, reeds, lilies, tulips, fuchsias, geraniums,
and honeysuckles, are found as tall as many trees are
with us. The native grass of Australia, so valuable for
pasturage, is also very unl'.ke our grass: it grows to a
great height, but sparsely, in separate tufts; and in con-
sequence, pasture grounds must be proportionately of
greater size. — Australia has few food plants of its own;
and extremely few of the food grains, roots, and fruits,
found so abundantly in other parts of the world, grow
naturally there ; but nearly all these have been introduced
and now thrive abundantly in districts suited to their
growth.

To the Teacher. — The most common trees of Australia are of the eucalyptus

or gum tree tribe, and of the acacia tribe. Some of tlic e are of'.ori/erous ;

' others distil a substance called manna, to the eye not unlike hoar frost, whion

Animals of Australasia.

To the Teacher.— The Brush
Turkey, much esteemed for
the delicacy of ita flesh, is
found only in the dense thick-
eta of Bouth-eostcm Australia.
Unlike other birds, the female
does not hatch her eggs by

incubation. The eggs are pl^ed in great mounds of grass and weeds,
which the birds heap up, and ara there hatched by the heat of the decom-
posing vegetable matter.— The Lyre-bird is found in the mountains of
New South Wales. It flies but poorly, though it runs with great swiftness.
It is of about the size of a common hen.— The Block Swan, a most
graceful bird, is found in southern and central Australia,— The Kangaroos
are of very many species ; they are mostly confined to Australia and
Tasmania ;— a few species are found in Papua. To Australia the kangaroos are what
deer and antelopes are to other continents. Many cT the species might be domesti-
cated.— The Brush-tailed Bettongs arc a sort of kangaroo ; they have long, prehensile
tails, which they use for carrying bundles of grass with which they build their nests.
— The Wombats are terrestrial burrowing animals, harmless, and slow-moving ; they
inhabit southern Australia and Tasmania.- The Bandicoots are also terrestrial
animals; they make their nests out of dried leaves, gross, and sticks. — The Duck-
billed Water-mole, and the Porcupine Ant-eater, are found only in Australia and
Tasmania.- The Emu is a bird of the ostrich kind. It has only rudimentary wings,
and its feathers at a distance resemble fur. It is a very swift runner, but it is so
much hunted that it is now found only in the interior parts of Australio. (Note.—
In the Malay Archipelago is found onother bird of the ostrich kind, which much
resembles the emu ; it is called the Cassowary). — TheTasmanian Wolf, or Zebra-wolf,
is a pouched animal, wolf-like in its habits, and having a head like a dog. It is
found only in Tasmonia. — The Apteryx is found only in New Zealand. Like the emu,
it has merely rudimentary wings. When resting, it partly supports itself by its long
bill. Its feathers are furnished with long fine hair, so that, at o distance, it 8e3m8
to be fur-covered. From its peculiar cry it is called by the natives Kivikivi,

AUSTRALIA.

169

to found on the (n^ound In the morning and JtMppMri with tho lieat of tho
■un. —The Auitnlian foreiti abound in wood* very vaiuitble for ihip buildInK,
houM-building, and Iioum furniture ; not only euoalyptui treee ai I acacia
treei of many lorta, but alio pine, cedar, and othir woods. In the Qi ' jnilund
tropical forests, sandal-wood, satin-wood, rose-wood, tulip-wood, a d other
valuable cabinet woods, abound.— In Wust Australia there are Immen. i tracts
covered with the Jarrah tree (a sort of eucalyptus), very valuable on account
of Its durability when exposed to water, and tor its resistance to uU destructive
insects.— The vegetation of a great part of tho Interior of Australia is sparse
and stunted : much of It consists of >ea-shore plants and other low forms ; and
this helps to confirm the opinion that this region was formerly the b«d of a
great sea.

6. Animal Life. — The animal life of Australia is
as peculiar as its vegetation. Australia has no apes or
monkeys; no thick-skinned animals like the elephant
and tapir; no bears, foxes, or wolves; no wild cattle,
horses, asses, or sheep, except such as have escaped from
the colonists. Most of its native quadrupeds a "e " marsu-
pials" or pouched animals, the mothers being provided
with a sack or pouch iu which they carry their young :
of these are the well-known Australian animals, tho
kangaroos, and the wombats, phalangers, bandicoots, and
native "cats," "rats," and "mice." One other very strange
animal is the duck-billed water-mole, which has a boly
like an otter and a bill like a duck, while the webbed
claws of its feet enable it both to burrow and to swim.
Few Australian animals are troublesome, but the dingo
or native dog is an exception, for it commits great rav-
ages on sheep and cat' le. Bats are numerous and of
various kinds; one very ugly sort is known as the flying
fox. — Of birds, the most remarkable are : — the emu or
Australian ostrich (often as high as a man), the graceful
lyre-bird, the black swan, the white eagle, the bower-
building satin bird, the " laughing jackass " (a sort of
woodpecker, whose cries are most mirth-provoking), and
the honey-eater. Parrots and cockatoos are perhaps the
most common of Australian birds, and some sorts are
very beautiful. — Of reptiles, the Queensland crocodile is
30 feet long ; the "leathery" or " oil " turtle of the east
coast is sometimes 9 feet long. Lizards are very numerous,
especially in the hot, sandy, or rocky districts of the
interior : one sort grows to a length of 8 or 9 feet. Snakes
are numerous, and many are venomous. There are many
kinds of frogs, and one sort is quite handsome, having
blue legs and a gold-colored back. — Of edible fish, Aus-
tralian waters are inhabited by many fine sorts, some of
which are of great size. The right whale, the sperm
whale, and severa^ sorts of seals, also are found ; but
these are becoming scarcer year by year. — Of insects,
the mosquito and the lion-ant are the most formidable.

the former being, in some parts, for six months in the
year a formidable scourge.

To the T«a«A«r.— The kangaroos are grais>eaters. They are of many sorti
and sizes, but are all distinguished by tliu great length of the hind legs and
hind feet, while their fore legs are short. They run by leaping. The Qreat
Kangaroo Is often more than 7i feet in length and over 200 lbs. In weight. Hi(
spesd is sometimes too swift for the swi/test greyhounds. His tail, which Is
very long, thick, and strong, is of great use to balance himself while leaping.
When at 'i^y he is able to kill a dog with a single stroke of his hind leg.— The
wombats are burrowers and root-eaters.— The phalangers are small fruit-eaters
and insect-eaters; they live In trees; some of them, on account of their
graceful leaps from tree to tree, are calle<l flying squirrels. The native bear
Is also an insect .".iter, but It Is more like a sloth than a bear.— Tho bandicoots
are llttlo Insect-eaters and root-eaters, very pestiferous to farmers.— The
marsupial so-called "cats," "rats," and "mice," are flesh-eaters. —The English
rabbits, which the colonists Introduced, have increased so enormously that
they have become a most formidable nuisance.

7. Minerals. — The mineral wealth of Australia is
very great. New South Wales has an abundance of
gold, iron, and copper; as well as of silver, lead, and
tin; and, by reason of its vast deposits of coal, this
province will, no doubt, in time, become the great manu-
facturing region of the continent. Victoria has pro-
duced more gold than any other country in the world
except California, and it now exceeds California in its
annual output of the precious metal. Victoria ha'; also
rich stores of other metiils, especially of coal. Queens-
land has rich stores of gold and tin ; and also of copper,
iron, and coal. South Australia has probably the most
productive copper mines in the world. West Australia
has mines of lead, silver, copper, and iron. — Precious
stones of many sorts are frequently found in New South
Wales and Victoria; and pearls are obtained quite plen-
tifully off the coasts of both Queensland and West
Australia. Petroleum is a product of New South Wales.

8. People. — The people of Australia are principally
colonists, or the descendants of colortists, from the
British Islands. Many Chinese are found in the east
and south-east. Of the aboriginal inhabitants there are
now only about 75,000 remaining, and their number is
rapidly decreasing.

To the Teacher.— The aboriginal Australian is now considered as one of
the principal primitive types of man. He is distinguished by a chocolate-
brown skin, large sunken black eyes, thick, but not protuberant lips, a broad
nose, and black hair cither straight or wavy ; also by wearing whiskers and a
short beard. He is of average, but not large, stature. Though long considered
among the lowest of human beings, the Australians are in fact possessed of
considerable intelligence. Some of their languages (and they are quite
numerous) are comparable with the Greek in grammatical refinement;
but they have no god and no religion, and no word ocpresslng either of these
ideas. In their native state they had no kli.crs or chiefs ; they were governed
by councils, and the different tribes lived apart from one another. They
showed little mechanical ingenuity or skill, except in the making of weapons
of war and hunting— as, for example, the well-known boomerang, and their

■■MaiiAM

leo

AUSTRALIA.

nets for catching emus and kAL.gtuoM. Their drcag oonslated of a single skin
or matting. They had no settled anodes, and so they di J not build permanent
dwellings; their shelter was never better than a hovel of sticks and leaves.
They kept no domesticated animals, nor did hey in any way till the ground
to produce a foou crop. And as Australia naturally furnishes but very few
kinds ot vegetable food, they livod principally on animal food : of this scarcely
any sort came amiss— gruba, worms, snakes, lizards, shellfish, turtles, birds,
and kangaroo flesh. They sometimes ate human flesh, and their morality was
of a low type ; however, their character was far from being altogether bad.

9. Occupations of the People.— Tlie principal

industi/ in Australia is •vl'ool-growing. The number of
sheep kept is ovei' 60,000,000, many of them being of
fine breed. South- astern Australia ' i now the great
wool-producing re-
gion oj the world.
Cattle-raising is also
an important indus-
try. The Ci-v ;tle and
aheep are kept on
great stretches of
pasture-lani called
"runs." All the or-
dinary farm grains
and roots known in
England or TJntario,
have been intro-
duced and are found
to flourish abun-
dantly, and agricul-
ture is an important
occupation ; but m ore
BO, perhaps, in South
Australia than » Ise-
where. Mining is
the industry next
in importance to
wool-growinjr ; and the richntss of the gold deposits in
Victoria and New South V/ales has done much to draw
settlers to these colonies. The indigenous fruits of
Australia are valueless; but the growi.ig of foreign fruits
(both of ordinary and tropical Icinis) promises to be a
veil' Ti.iportant industry in all the con,st districts of
t' 6 cast and so 'tli-east; the 'cultivation of the grnpe for
wino-rnaking has already met with much success in New
South Wales, Viinoria, and South Australia. Sugar is
produced in Queensla-nl and Now South Wales, aru the
cotton plant aurl the tea plant liave also been introduced
into these colonies. Tlie manufactures of Australia arc
entirely for lionie use ; as yet they are almost wholly
confined to the capitals.

SHEtP WALK.

10. Government, Religion, and Education.

-^The Australian colonies have systems of government
very similar to tliose of the several provinces cf Canada;
but the colonies are independent of one another — not
confederated, as in ^ur Dominion, The governors of the
different colonies are appointed by tlie Government of
Great Britain. — Tlie various religious denominations
found in Canada are also found in Australia; about one-
third of the people are Roman Catholics. — Education ia
exceedingly well attended to, each province having a

public school system
similar to our own
in Onta'io.

11. Chief Cities
and Towns.

Sydney (with sub-
urbti, 300,000) is the
capital of New South
Wales. It is sii'uated
on Port Jackson, one
of the finest harbors in
the world, ami.lst
scenery of the most
surpassing beauty. It
hr.s regular steamship
cor\nection with Lon-
don (vid Melbourne,
Adelaide, and the Suez
Canal), and with Wel-
lington(New Zealand),
Panama, San Fran-
cisco, and Vancouver.
Sydney is a beautiful
city, having many
handsome buildings
and large parks. It ia
the seat of a Royal mint, and of an excellent university.—
Newcastle (15,600), Paramatta (8,440), and Bathtjrst (7,250),
are the remaining principal towns cf New South Wales.

Melbourke (with its numerous suburbs, 365,000), the cap?*,al
of Victoria, is situated on tlie Yarra Yarra river, at the head of
the great bay of Port Jphillip. Melbourne owes the great
rapidity of its recent growth to the richness of the gold fiifclds
which lie behind it. It is exceedingly prosperous : its public
buildings are very fine; its public parks and gardens are
numerous and beautiful ; and its university is very rit^hly en-
dowed. — Ballakat (41,110) and SANimnRST (36,570) are in the
midst of the gold-fields. Geeloko (20,890) is an important port.

Adelaide (with suburbs, 47,970), the capital of South Aus-
tralia, is in tiie midst of the rich copper mines for which tliis
i.olony ia noted. From Adelaide an overland telegraph line,
2,200 miles long, extends to Port Darwin, on the north coast of

•^:

REMAINING COUNTRIES OF AUSTRALASIA.

181

ucation.

)vernment
f Canada;
ither — not
iors of the
rnment of
tminations
about one-
lucatioii 13
having a
lool system
3 our own

ief Cities
wns.

r (with sub-
,000) is the
New S«uth
t is situated
ackson, one
at harbors in
Id, ami-lst
if the most
\ beauty. It
ir steftinship
a with Lcn-
Melbourne,
and the Suez
id with Wel-
ew Zealand),
, San Fran-
[ Vancouver.
3 a beautiful
ving many
1 buil4ings
parks. It ia
university. —
tJRST (7,250),
ales.

t), the capital
t the head of
es the great
lie gold fields
s : its public
gardens are
ry richly eu-
70) are in the
iportant port.

)f South Aus-
■or which this
ilegraph line,
north coast of

the'continent, and joins with a uubmarine cable, tnd the East
Indies, to India, and thus establishes telegraphic communication
"With England.

Brisbane (40,000?), the capital, and Rockhampton (12,000),
«re the chief places of Queensland. — Perth (10,000?) is the
capital of West Australia.

To the Teacher.— 'The sottlcd portions of Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria, and South Australia, are well supplied with railways ; and the railway
vystems of the tliree flrst-mentioned colonies are connected.

THE REMAINING COUNTRIES OF AUSTRALASIA.

1. Tasmania. — Tasmania, in its physical features,
climate, vegetation, animal life, minerals, and cultivated
prouucts, generally resembles the best parts of south-
eastern Australia. It is a British colony, with a system
of government and an education system similar to those
established in Victoria and New South Wales.

To the 1 ;A«r.— Theareaot Tasmania is 26,215 square miles ; the popu-
lation is aoout 135,000. Tasmania is a hilly country, beinj; indeed but a
prolongation of the great eastern cordiiicra of Australia, A large part of its
•urface is still covered with forests whicli afford the most beautiful cabinet
woods and the largest-sized timbers. The soil of thrcc-fourtlis of the island
is exceedingly fertile ; and the climate is well suited to the growing of grains
and fruits ; but fanning, hitherto, has been negligently practised. Economio
minerals are very abundant. The principal products are wool, gold, tin, and
truit. The people are nearly all of British descent; the aboriginal race has
lately become extinct. Hobart (29,823), the capital, and Launckston (18,630),
«re the chief towns ; they are connected by railway.

2. New Zealand. — New Zealand consists of two
large islands, and several adjoining smaller islands, situ-
ated on the eartli's surface almost directly opposite the
British Islands, and having an area almost equal to their
area. The New Zealand islands are of volcanic origin,
and for the most part are occupied by mountains, some
of these bemg active, and others extinct, volcanoes. Yet
only one-fourth of the soil is unfit for cultivation, and
Hiany of the mountains are covered even to their very
tops with evergreen foi ests of luxuriant gro^vth. Indeed,
in respect to fertility of soil, and geniality and salubrity
of climate. New Zealand is one of the most favored
regions of the world. Its forests, slirubberies, and
grassy plains, remain green throughout the year, and
fanning operations iud pasturing may be pursued at
all season.s. All the useful grains, grasses, roots, aiid
fruits, !• -iown to England or Ontario, have been Intro-
<3uced into New Zealand, and are cultivated with great
success. — The people are principally British colonists ;
but the Maoris, or aboriginal inhabitants, who have
larjijely become civilized, are numerous enough to be
influf^ntial. In respect to its industries, its form of
government, its education system, and the religion of its
people, New Zealand resembles the Australian colonies.

To the 7ca«A«r.— New Zealand is about 1,200 miles from Australia, and
about 0,600 miles from British Columbia. The area of the islands is 104,409
square miles ; the population is about 620,000, including 42,000 Maoris.— The
islands are subject to occasional earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, especially
the northern island.— Tho climate is very equable throughout the year, winter
(corresponding in time to our summer) being a very mild season. Rain is
always plentiful ; and this, rather than extraordinary fertility of the soil,
accounts for the luxuriance of vegetation. The timber trees of New Zealand
are of great value, especially its pines (the kauri-pine in particular) and its
birches, and these are much valued for ship-building. Kauri-pine gum is also
a much valued vegetable product. Tho native flax is highly esteemed for the
making of ships' cordage.— New Zealand is remarkable for the fewness of its
indigenous animals. The most noteworthy of these is t>io apteryx or " wing-
less " bird, which is allied to the ostrich and emu ; it is nocturnal in its habits,
and of about tho size of a goose. The only quadrupeds are a few lizards and a
species of rat ; and there are no snakes and scarcely any noxious insects.
Domestic animals that have been introduced thrive well, -jspecialiy sheep and
cattle.— There is an abundance of mineru. resources, especially of coal, iron,
and gold.— The principal exports are wool, gold, kauri gum, tallow, timber,
and native flax.— The Maoris are a brave and intelligent people, allied to the
Maiivys of the Malay Archipelago and the islands of Polynesia, and very
different from the aboriginal Australians, and^rom the Papuans of Melanesia
(gee NoTS, under " Kew Britain," next page), having an olive-brown skin, a
large stature, a full muscular development, and well-shaped, intellectual heads.
(NoTB— For this, ond for other reasons. New Zealand is often classified with
Polynesia.) The Maoris are now nearly all civilized, and have several repre-
sentatives in tho New Zealand Parliament.— Wkllisotojj (27,833), the present
capital, has a magniflcont hirbor and regular steamship connection with
Sydney, Londm, Panama, and Vancouver. Auckland (57,048), Dunedw
(<5,518), and CilRiSTCiiURCii (44,688), are the remaining principal towns.—
Railways run almost throughout the whole length of the islands, connecting
tho la.*ger towns. A submarine telegraph line connects New Zealand with
Australia.

3. The Fyi Islands. — The Fiji Islands constitute
a crown colony of Great Britain. They are of volcanic
origin, and are exceedingly fertile, producing naturally
the bread-fruit tree, bananas, plantains, cocoanuts, the
sugar-cane, the sago-palra, and arrowroot. The natives,
once proverbial for their savagery (especially for their
cannibalism), have now, through the etforts of mission-
aries, largely become Christianized.

To the Teacher.— The islands are nliout 280 in number ; their united area
is 7,424 square miles; they are ner.iiy all surrounded by barrier coral reefs.
The population is about 128,000, of whom 3,500 are British colonists. The
natives, who are of a mixed race— allied to the Malays of Polynesia on the one
hand, and to the Papuans of Melanesia on the other— are an intelligent,
energetic people— skilful in cultivating tho soil, boat-building, house-making,
mat-making, and pottery-making. Their principal article of food is the yam (a
tuber, prepared for eating by boiling— somewhat like our potato), which there
sometimes attains tho length of 8 feet, and a weight of 100 lbs.

4. Papua. — Papua, next to Australia, the largest
island of the world, has been but little explored ; but it
is known to be very fertile, to be clotlied with magnifi-
cent forests of timber and fruit trees, to abound in the
most valuable tropical food plants, and to possess great
mineral Avealth.

To the r^acfter.- Tile urea and population of Pupua are both unknown;

imt it is supposed to contain about 325,000 square miles (somewhat more than

I r>ornco), and to have a popul.ition iif about 700,000. The people are of several

I related (though diilering) races, being princ*nn.11y Malays (brown-skinued.

162

POLYNESIA.

Btralght-haired) or Papuans (also called J»r«//nto»-dark-8kinned, frlzzle-halred,
akin to the Negroid races of Africa). The Papuans are rude and barbarous.
Th.ey wear scant clothing or none at all, and are given to tatooing and the
ludicrous ornamentation of theii noses with hideous bore-Jewels ; and many of
them are addicted to cannibalism. But, though inferior to the Malays in civiliza-
tion, they are superior to them In natural intelligence. Both races, too, in
respect of civilization and intelligence, are far superior to the aboriginal
Australians, since they live In houses, build boats, and cultivato the soil.— Papua
is remarkable for its birds : among them are the beautiful bird of paradise, and
many kinds of parrots. The island has few wild animalp : it has no monkeys,
but their place is supplied by climbing, monkey like kangaroos.— The Dutch
claim the western part of Papua ; Germany claims the north-east ; and Great
Britain has established a government over the south-east.

To the TeocAer.— Cklebbs, the Spicb Islands, and the other islands of
the Malay Archipelago east of the Strait of Macassar, though geographically
a part of Australasia, in their vegetable products so much resemble the
eastern islands of the Malay Archipelago that they have been treated inci
dentally under "Asia." Their soil is most fertile; they abound in tropical
fruits ; and in spices they surpass all other parts of the world. (Notb.— From
the prevalence of Malay races In the Penin-
sula of Malacca, in the western part of the
Malay Archipelago, and in the islands men-
tioned in this paragraph, these regions are
collectively called Malaysia ; but the boun-
daries between Malaysia and Melanesia (see
NOTK below) are very indefinite.)

Nbw BarrAiN, Nbw Ireland, and the
other islands of the group now known as
the BisuARCK ARcuiPELAao (claimed by
Germany), Nbw Caledonia, the Loyalty
Islands, and the New Hebrides (all claimed
by France), and the Solomon Islands, are
the remaining principal islands of Austral-
asia. Some of these are volcanic islands,
but others, and a vast number of smaller
islands, are of coral formation; and that
part of the Pacific which they enclose is
called the Coral Sea. Nearly all these
islands (and especially the volcanic islands)
are very fertile, and rich in tropical woods
and fruits. Many of them abound in sandal-
wood ; and, in the carriage of this valuable
wood to China, Australian ships have a
large trade. The inhabitants, who possess considerahle intelligence and
skill, are either Malays or Papuans (i.e. Negritos), but principally the latter.
Formerly cannibalism, and other deplorable practices, were common among
them; but in many of the islands, through the efforts of missionaries
from Great Britain, France, the United States, and Canada, the morals
and habits of the people have been much improved ; some, indeed, are
civilized and Christianized. The natives of the more northerly and westerly
islands of these groups, however, still remain in a state of benighted barbarism
— being, for the most part, immoral in their conduct, and indecent in their
habits. (Note. — All the islands mentioned in this paragraph, together with
Papua and some adjacent islands westward— from the prevalence among them
of Papuan (i.e. Negrito) races— are collectively called Melanesia, or the
"Islands of the Blacks"; in this way they are ('.intinguishtd from the Aus-
tralian islands, in which the natives are chocolate-brown Aiistralioids, and from
^be Polynesi'"> islands, in which the natives are of the light-brown Malay race).

BREAD FRUIT,

LESSON XLV.

POLYXESIA.

1. The Islands of the Pacific— Polynesia (that
is, the Region of Many Islands) is the name given to the
many small islands of the Pacific Ocean lying between

Australasia and America— principally between the Tropio
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Many of thes&
islands are of volcanic origin, and many are coral islands.
The climate everywhere among them is pleasant and
healthful : they have no seasons such as ours ; with them
it is always spring. The islands are nearly all of great
fertility, and produce, naturally, rich fruits and food
plants ; moreover, they support in great luxuriance all
tropical fruits and plants which have been introduced into
them from other parts of the world. Few wild animals
or insects were found when the islands first were visited
by explorers, though birds were numerous; but all sorts,
of domestic animals have since been introduced, and

have thriven so well that some
of them are now abundant as
wild animals. Noxious insects^
such as the mosqiiito, have, un-
fortunately, also been intro-
duced. The natives of the various
islands differ much from one
another both in physical char-
acteristics and in language, but
they are all related to the Malays
of the Malay Archipelago, and
thus to the Mongolians of Asia,,
and are intelligent and skilful.
Not long ago, in respect of mor-
ality, they were in a state of
barbarism; but, through the
efforts of missionaries, the people of most of the islands
have become at least partially civilized and Christian-
ized ; but in too many instances the vices of the white
man (especially that of drunkenness) have been more
firmly adopted than his virtues.

To the Teacher. — The positions of the following groups of islands should!
be taught from the map :— The Sandwich Islands, The Ladronb or Mariannb.
Islands, The Caroline Islands, The Samoan or Navigator Islands, Thb.

Friendly or Tonqa Islands, and The Society or Taiiitian Islands The larger

islands of Polynesia are generally mountainous and volcanic : of these the-
principal arc the Sandwich Islands and the Society Islands. — The coral islands,
are much more numerous than the volcanic islands ; but they are usually
of small size ; and they are nearly always low, rising only a foot or two above
the surface of the ocean. The coral islands arc formed by the limy secretions-
of marine plant-like animals, called polyps— the so-called 1' coral insects."
Sometimes they are built close to and around other islands, in which cose-
they are called "fringing reefs." Sometimes, when an island "fi ■iged"with
coral has been only partially sunk by volcanic action, the coral polj'ps continue
their structure vertically upwards, and form what is known as a "barrier
reef"; in this case a lagoon-like space is left between the coral ring and the
top of the original island. When the suljmergence of the island gradually
goes on until it is comvilete, the coral polyps continue their work, and the
barrier reef becomes an "atoll" — that is, a nearly-circular or horseshoe
shiped ring of coral, enclosing a quiet lagoon within.— The coral islandlr

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THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE VVoRUD.

168

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iMlner of recent origin, cannot of ntocaslty bavo deep coils; but, r.Il'.i
their white beochce, placid lagoons, and soft vegetation, they form the
most picturesque feature of ocean scenery. — The fertility of the Polynesian
Islands of volcanic origin, in esculent fruits and roots, and other food plants,
«urpasses that of all other parts of the world. The bread-fruit tree (whoso
unripe fruit is baked and eaten as bread) is the staple article of the diet of the
natives,— except in the Sandwich Islands, where the kalo root, prepared into
« sort of porridge called " poi," is the national dish. Other abundant articles
of food are the plantain, the pandanus, the arrowroot, the yam, and the
«weet potato ; while the orange, lemon, lime, grape, tamarind, pomegranate,
Dustard-apple, mango, and flg, besides the cotton plant, the sugar-cane, the
rice plant, the indigo plant, and the tobacco plant, grow luxuriantly wherever
Introduced. In the coral islands the vegetation is not so luxuriant as in the
Tolcanic islands ; but on them everywhere, in the fullest perfection, the cocoa-
nut tree abounds, and furnishes to tha inhabitants food, drink, clothing,
bousehoid utensils and furniture, tools, weapons, cordage, and medicine.

2. The Sandwich Islands.— The Sandwich

, Islands constitute the Kingdom of Hawaii, and are the
largest and most important of
the islands of Polynesia. The
native people are an intelligent,
skilful, and progressive race.
They were the first of the Pacific
Islanders to put away their
idols — this they did voluntarily;
and subsequently, through the
^flforts of American mission-

aries, they have become Chris-
tianized and civilized. Unfor-
tunately, however, they are
rapidly dying out. Many Ameri-
cans, British, and Portuguese,
are settled in Hawaii, and con-
trol its industries. There are
also many Chinese. — Situated
on the ocean highway between America, and Asia and
Australia, Hawaii is destined to become of great com-
mercial importance.

To the TeacAer.— The Sandwich Islands are all mountainous and volcanic,
though they are fringed and reefed with coral, as are so many other of the
volcanio islands of Polynesia. Hawaii, tlie largest of the islands, contains two
Active volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The crater of Kilauca (which, how-
ever, is but a hill on the side of Mauna Lea) is the largest in the world : it is 9
miles in circumference ; its vertical sides arc 1,000 feet deep ; and its bottom is
covered with a lake of liquid lava, at one end always red and boiling. — Owing
to its trade relations with the United States and its favored position, the
Kingdom of Hawaii has an important export trade. Sugar, rice, and coffee
■(produced in plantations establislied by foreigners), are the principal exports ;
but pulu (a fibre used for upholstering), hides, end wool, are also exported. —
The government of the kingdom is modelled upon that of Great Britain.
Education is well provided for, and all the natives can read and write.
English is fast becoming the sole language of the islands. Honolci,u (20,487),
the capital, has regular steamship connection with Yokohama, Sydney,
IVellington, San Francisco, and Vancouver.

The SociETT Islands and the Friendly Islands are the two most important
vemaining groups of Polynesia. The Society Islands are under French rule ;
the Friendly Islands are independent, and have established a form of govcrn-
tnent somewhat similar to that of Great Britain. Both groups have been
onccesaf ul fields of missionary enterprise.

LESSON XLVI.

THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE WORLD.

1. Water Routes. — Commerce between distant
countries is always effected, wherever possible, over
water rather than over land, since for long distances
water-carriage is cheaper than land-carriage, even by
railwcty, allhougii it is slower. In all navigation sailing-
vessels were formerly used; but of late years steamships
are displacing sailing-vessels very largely, the reason
being that they are much more certain and regular in
their trips, and that they can take routes which to

sailing-vessels are impossible.

To the Teaclier.— Another reason for
this change is, that while the building of
sailing-vessels has almost reached perfec-
tion, steamships are being constantly im-
proved—in strength, in carrying capacity,
in speed, and in economy of maintenance.
Formerly, too, all vessels, both sailing craft
and steam craft, were built of wood ; now
they are built altogether of iron, and even
of steel. As illustrative of the superiority
of steamships to sailing-vessels it may be
stated that in the important trafiio between
England and China, which used to be
effected by sailing-vessels sailing around
the Cape of Good He pe, the quickest passage
that could be made was over 90 days in
length. Now, steamships can nrnke this trip
by way of the Suez Canal in JS da>.'<.' The
construction of the Panama Canai will have
a similar effect on the trafiio between New
York and San Francisco, and between
England, and Japan and China, and perhaps
do away with sailing-vessels on the route vid
Capo Horn altogether. Again, the passage from England to Australia by the
fastest sailing-vessels used to take 60 days ; now it can be made in steamships in
less than 34 days. Steamships have been gieatly improved within even the last
few years ; and many now can make from 18 to 20 knots an hour (a " knot" is
a nautical mile, and is equal to 6086.7 feet) ; and can maintain this speed for
days together ; so that the Atlantic voyage from New York to Liverpool, that
used to take sailing-vessels from three weeks to a month, and not long ago even
the fastest steamers 14 days, to accomplish, can now be made in a little more
than days.— Even on our Canadian lakes, steel-built steamships are displacing
all other kinds of craft.— Assist the pupils to trace on the globe the following
routes:— (1) From Quebec to Liverpool viA the Straits of Belle Isle and the
North Channel. (2) From Quebec to Glasgow vid Cape Race. (3) From
Halifax to Liverpool vid St. George's Channel. (4) From New York to
(a) Liverpool ; (6) London ; (c) Hamburg. (5) From Fort Nelson (Hudson
Bay) to Liverpool. (6) From Southampton to New Orleans. (7) From San
Francisco to Sydney (a) vid Honolulu ; (6) vid Wellington. (8) From San
Francisco to Canton. (9) From Vancouver to Yokohama. (10) From Sydney
to London vid Batavia and Singapore. (11) From London to Foo-Chow.
(12) From Plymouth to Cape Town. (13) From Halifax to J.amaica. (14) From
Baltimore to Rio Janeiro. (15) From Port Arthur to Montreal. (16) From
Quebec to Charlottetown and Halifax.— Question the pupils as to the com-
modities that would naturally be exchanged over these routes.

2. Land Routes. — In all enterprising communities,
wherever the physical nature of the country makes their

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PRONUNCIATION OF SOME DIFFICULT GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

conRtruor,)on possible, railways are built to facilitate
jr .flBo and inter-communication.

To thi rsdc/ie/'.— Even in South America already 12,000 miles of railway
have been built, and betore loni; it will be possible to make a continuous
railway journey from any place in Canada to the southernmost part at Chili.
Asia, thoui^rh so populous, is far behind in railway construction ; but ev«n in
Asia railways will soon be g^eneral, and will do away with caravans everywhere,
except, perhaps, in the deserts. The only parts of the world in which caravan
routes will remain perpetual are perhaps the desert regions of North Africa ;
but already French enterprise is building railways from the seaboard to the
Sahara, both on the north and on the south-west. —Canada has shown remark-
able enterprise in railway construction ; its two great railways, the Canadian
Paciflo and the Orand Trunk, are, in respect of mileage, t wo of the very greatest
railways in the world —the former having 4,050 miles, a'ld the latter 3,449 miles.

—Trace on the map for the pupils the so-called "overland route" betweoa
London and Calcutta; also the railway routes from (1) Paris to Mosbow;
(2) Toronto to Mexico ; (3) New York to San Francisco ; (4) Halifax and Quebeo
to Vancouver.— The distance from Vancouver to Montreal is 2,906 miles, whloh
is 365 miles shorter than the distance from San Francisco to New York. Even
from Vancouver to New York (viA Brockville) is 109 miles shorter than from
San Francisco to ITew York. Also, from Yokohama to Vancouver is 6,04»
miles, while from Yokohama to San Francisco is 5,153 miles. Again, from
Montreal to Liverpool is 3,204 miles, or 3,458 miles, according as the route Is
north or south of Newfoundland, while from New York to Liverpool is 8,628
miles. Thus the shortest route between Yokohama and Liverpool run*
through Canada.— When the railway now in course of construction between
Winnipeg and Fort Nelson and Fort Churchill is completed, there will be a
still shorter route, since the distance from Winnipeg to Liverpool viA Churchill
will be only 4,063 miles, while vid, Montreal (shortest route) it Is 4,627 miles.

Pronunciation of Some of the More Diflacult Geographical Names.

NoTB.— In the re-spelling of the ii imes the following phonographical expedients are used :— a, as in .fate, is represented by ay ; a, as In/ar, by ah;
I, as in /at, by a (unmarked); a, agin fall, by aw; 0, asin >»«, by ee; S, asin?»ie«, and also 6, as \nher, by e (unmarked); mute e, oa in golden, by e ; I, aa
in pine, by ei ; I, as In pin, by i (unmarked) ; o, as in note, by oh ; 0, as in not, by o (unmarked) ; u, as in mooe, by oo ; u, as in tube, by ew ; Q, as in tub,
by u (unmarked); u, as in bull, by uh. Oi, ou, ch, g, j, a, and y, represent the same sounds as in oil, pound, chain, go, job, so and pass, and yes, respectively;
Eh represents the sound of z in azure ; phe French n (nearly like the sound of ng in song) is represented by n ; and tlie Scotch and German ch (as in loch).
Is represented by ch.

Aarhuus, ohr'hoos.

Adige, ah'(Jeo-jay.

AfKhanistan, ahf-galm'i-stahn*.

Aix-laChapelle, ayks-iah-shuh-pel'.

Alsace, ahi-sahs'.

Altai, ahl-tei'.

Amoy, ah-moi'.

Appalachians, up-palay'chee-anz.

Aral, ah'rahl.

Arbroath, ahr'brohtli.

Arichat, ah-rce-sha'.

Arkatisas, uhr-kan-saw'.

Ashar.tee, ash-an-tee'.

Asuncion, ah-soon-see-ohn'.

Baikal, bci'kahl.

Balearic, bal-e-ahr'ik.

Ballarat, bal-a-rat'.

Barbadoes, bahr-bay'dohz.

Beauce, bohs.

Beloochistan, be-loo'chis-tahn".

Benares, ben-ah'res.

Bengnela, ben-gay'lah.

Berthier, ber-tee-ay'.

Beyroot, bei-root'.

Bhotan, boh-tahn'.

Bienne, bee-en'.

Bloenifontein, bhihm-fon'tein.

Bologna, boh-loh'nyali.

■Jra9<l' Or, bra-dohr'.

Bremen, bray'men.

Brienz, bree'ents.

Bruges, (^t.\nenrbi') breezh.

Bucharest, boo'c/ia-rest.

Buda-Pesth, boo'dah-ijcst".

Bushire, boo-sheer'.

Cairo, kei'roh.

Carlisle, kahr-leil'.

Carnlola, kahr-nee-oh'lah.

Celebes, sel'ce-beez.

Cettenje, set-tayn'yay.

Ceylon, sce-tohn'.

Chignecto, shig-nek'toh.

Chili, chil'o.

Chiml)onizo, C'him-boh-ra\''zoh.

Cobequid, kob'kid.

Colorailo, kol-oh-r.ih'doh.

Connectk'ut, kon-nef i-cut.

Couchiching, coo'chi-chiiig.

Cracow, krali-4<ou'.

Curacjoa, koo-rah-soh'ab.

Cyclaldes, sik'la-deoz.

Dahomev, dah-hoh'nii.

Darieii, dah'ree-cn.

Delhi, deli.

Dnieper, nee'per

Drou'liedft, droc/i'e-dah.

Dultith, doo-looth'.

Dumfries, dum-frces'.

Ecuador, ek-wab-dohr'.

squimalt, es-kee'malt.
Euboea, yew-bee'a.
I'^uphrates, yew-fray'teez.
Faroe, fay'roh.
Fiji, fee'jee.
Friesland, freez'land.
Frio, frce'oh.
Oalashiels, ga-la-sheelz'.
Gauoho, gah-oo'choh.
fleclong, gee-long'.
Genoa, jen'oh-ah.
GhautH, gahts.
Gh! , gee'ze.
Gloucester, glos'ter.
Gothenburg, got'en-burg.
Granada, grah-nah'dah.
Greenwich, grin'ioh.
Grenada, gre-nay'dah.
Griqua, gree'kwah.
Guadalquiver, gaw-dahl-kwiv'er.
Guaranis, gah-rahn'ees.
Guiana, geeah'nah.
Havre, (En'jr.) hah'ver.
Hawaii, hah-wei'ce.
Herzegovina, herts-e-goh-vee'nah.
Hoansf-ho, hwang-holi'.
Hohoken, ho-boh'kjn.
Honolulu, ho-no-loo'loo.
Hue, hway.
Irkutsk, eer-kootsk'.
Iroquois, ee'roh-kwaw.
Ispahan, ees-pah-hahn'.
Java, jah'vah.
.Tiingfrau, yoong'frou.
Kahlaharl, kah-lah-hah'rec.
Kaministiquia, kahm-in-is'ti-kwi-a.
Kamtschatka, kam-chat'ka.
Kenia, ke-nee'ah.
Kewatin, kee-waht'ln.
lihartouni, kahr-toora'.
Khivn, kee'vah.
Kilauea, ki-louav'ah.
Kilima-njaro, kil-ce'raahn-jahr"oh.
Kirghiz, keer-geez".
Kirkcaldy, ker-kaw'dl.
Kirkcudbright, ker-koo'bree.
Kronstadt, krohii'staht.
Kurilc, koo'ril.
Laaland, loh'lahn.
Ladrones, lah-drohnz'.
I.andes, (Fr.) loud,
liiiusanne, loh-zahn'.
Leicester, les'ter.
Leinster, len'ster.
Leipsic, leip'sik.
Leitrini, lee'trlm,
Levant, lee-vant^.
Leyden, lei'den.
Li^ge, lee-ayzb'.

Linnhe, lin'ni.

Lisle, leel.

Liu-kiu, lee-oo'-kee-oo".

Loire, Iwawr.

Longueil, (Eng.) long-gewl'.

Maoao, mah-kah'oh.

Madeira, ma-dee'ra.

Maelar, niay'lahr.

Maggiore, niah-joh'ray.

Magyar, mair'yahr or mod-yor'.

Malaga, mah'lah-gah.

Malay, ma-lay'.

Manaar, mah-nahr'.

Maori, mah'oh-ri.

Marienbad, mah-rec"en-bad'.

Marseilles, mahr-saylz'.

Martinique, mahr-tee-neek'.

Milan, mil'an.

Miquelon, mik'e-lon.

MIramichi, mir-a-mi-shee'.

Mistassini, mis-tas-sin'i.

Mobile, moh-beel'.

Mocha, mok'a.

Montevideo, (Eng.) mon'tee-vid"ee-oh.

Montmagany, mon-mahii'yee.

Mozambique, nioh-zam-beok'.

Munich, mew'nik.

Mysore, niei-sohr'.

N.anahno, na-nci'moh.

Nantes, (Eng.) nants.

Natal, tia-tahl'.

Negrito, ne greo'toh.

Nepaul, ne-pawl'.

Neuchfttcl, (Fr. ; nerirhj) nush'ah-tel".

Nevada, ne-vah'dah.

New Orleans, new or'lee-atiz.

Ngand, n-gah'nice.

Nij.ni-Novgorod, nizh'npe-nov"goh-rod.

Notre Dame, notr-dahm'.

Nyassa, n-yabs'sah.

Oilense, oh'den-say.

Ouse, ooz.

Pamir, pah-mcer'.

Pembina, pem'bi-na.

Pisa, pce'sah.

Pompeii, pom-pee'yei.

Pondicherry, pon-di-sher'ri. '

Potomac, poh-toh'niak.

Pruth, prooth nr proot.

Qu' Appelle, kah-pel'.

Quichas, kce'chahz.

Quinte, kwin'tee.

Kuuss, rois.

Rheims, reemz.

Riga, ree'ga.

Rodrlgucs, roh-dree'gez.

Saghalien, sah-c^ah-leen'.

Saharo, sabh-ih'rah.

Said, eah-eed •

Salisbury, sawlz'be-ri.
Salonica, sah-loh-nee'ka.
Samoan, sah-moh'an.
San Diego, san dee-ay'goh.
Scilly, sii'li.
Seville, se-vil'.
Sevres, (Fr.) sayvr.
Seychelles, say-shel'.
Shanghai, shang-hei'.
Shiraz, shee-rahz'.
Sierra Leone, see-er'rah lee-oh'ne«k.
Socotra, soh-koh'trah.
Sofala, soh-fah'lah.
Sofia, soh-fee'a.
Soudan, soo-dahn'.
Spliigen , (nearly) splee'gen.
St. Croix, (Eng.) kroi.
St. Gothard, goth'ahrd.
St. Pierre, pee-ayr'.
Strasburg, strahs'hoorg.
Ktromboli, strohm'boh-iee.
Stuttgart, stuht'gahrt.
.Sumatra, soo-mah'trah.
Tahiti, tah-hee'tee.
Tanganyika, tan-gan-yeelta
Teheran, te-he-rahn'.
Thibet, ti-bet'.
Thun, toon.
Thur, toor.
Ticino, tee-chee'noh.
Tiflis, tif-lees'.
Tokio, toh-kee-oh'.
Toulouse, too-Ioos',
Transvaal, trans-vahl'.
Tripoli, tree'poh-lee.
Trosachs, tros'aks.
Tynemouth, tin'muth.
Tyrol, tee-rohl'.
Uist, wist.
Utrecht, oo'trecftt.
Valenciennes, (Fr. ) vah-lon-see-erf»
Venezuela, ven-e-zwee'lah.
Versailles, ver-saylz'.
Vosges, vohzh.
Wallachia, waw-Iay'ki-a.
Warwick, wor'ik.
Winnipegosis, win-i-pe-goh'sis,
Woolwich, wuhl'ich.
Worcester, woos'ter.
Wyoming, wei-oh'ming.
Xeres, chei-es',
Yemen, yem'en.
Yenikale, yay-nec-kah'lay.
Yenisei, ye-nee-aay'ee.
Yokohama, yo-ko-liali'mah.
Yosemite, yob-sem'i-te.
Zambesi, zam-bee'zi.
Zante, zahn'te.
Zurich, (Eng.)zoo'rik.
i Zuyd'-r Zee. s ol'der za'

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