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1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
>*u
AGE OF CREATION
BY
WILLIAM J. CASSIDY.
product ofpkyncal agm^ll^^''' " '''' ^^^^'^^ ^^ « '^^^*^ •««» »ot th.
TORONTO:
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR BY
WILLIAM BRIGGS, 78 & 80 KING STREET EAST.
1887.
6S 657
c-i
at tbe Department of Agriculturer
f
M
COXTEJVTTS.
INTRODCCTIOX PAflE
5
PART I.
Th« XT- • * XT CHAPTER I.
The Voice of Nature . .
9
Tho Earth CHAPTER II.
:.. 12
The Glacial Drift «"APTER„L
20
A • ,.. CHAPTER IV
i\ncien) Water Marks ....
41
AHuvialDcposits ^"^^™« ^-
53
V , CHAPTER VI
Former Volcanic Effects
61
VnHi, A . CHAPTER VII,
^orth American Prairies
89
The Coral Reefs ^"APTEU VIII.
73
CHAPTER IX.
riie Fauna of the Tertiary Period
80
Cave Deposits CHAPTER X.
95
„. , . CHAPTER XI.
Historical Records of the Drift
108
CHAPTER Xil.
I ho Recency of the Glacial Events
- 129
T»,« «. 1. CHAPTER XIII.
ihe Standing Still of the Sun
•••- 134
Tbe Inter-glacial Period '^"^"''"^ ^^^^
13»
iv Contents.
CHAPTER XV.
The Post-glacial Period U7
CHAPTER XVI.
Manner and Time of the Standing Still of the Sun 154
CHAPTER XVII.
The Mound-Builders 1(5*'
CHAPTER XVIIl.
The Sun 180"*
CHAPTEH, XIX.
The Moon 204
CHAPTER XX.
The Planets 220
CHAPTER XXI.
Comets, Meteors, etc 246
CHAPTER XXII.
Nebuloe and Star Clusters 201
PART I I.
CHAPTER I.
Physical Evidence of a Universal Deluge 269
CHAPTER II.
The Deluge of Noah 283
CHAPTER III.
The Antediluvian World , 299
PART III.
CHAPTER I.
Tho Carboniferous Period 303
CHAPTER II.
The Primary Rocks 320
^ART IV.
CHAPTER I.
The Mosaic Cosmogony 327
CHAPTER II.
The Origin of Life • 342
CHAPTER III.
The Final Catastrophe 363
be
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U7
154
1**'
. ia>*
. 204
.. 22() '
.. 246
...261
. 269
.. 283
.. 299
... 303
.... 320
.... 327
342
36»
INTRODUCTTOX
,-»
;T,N tlje stuily of Geoloi^y in times pist two rival
•I
:^^ schools, known as tl\o C;itastrt>])liists and IJnifor-
mitarians, (listinu^nislied tlieniselvos, 1'lie former in-
cluded Cinier and a nuniher of others, who maintained
that many (jf tlie physical features of the earth had
been caused by sudden Hoods and catastrophes. The
Uniformitarians, led by Ly ^eld that the .same had
been cause<l by the forces ; "■ in operation, which
were the same in all times past, and extended over a
period of time so remote as to be beyond the power of
human comprehension. As the Catastrophists could
show no reason for the occurrence of cataclysms, etc./
the doctrine of Uniformitarianism prevailed, and is
the one now generally accepted. The object of this
work is to point out the results which originally led
the earlier geologists to believe in catastrophes, and
to suggest causes for the same. Of course, these will
at first not only be discredited but scouted as absurds
Experience has shown that it has been always so in
the past. But the paradoxical ideas which stood alond
VI
INTRODUCTION.
in opposition to all commonly accepted theories, on in-
vestigation generally proved correct. Galileo suffered
imprisonment for asserting that the earth moved ;
Newton's Law of Gravitation did not meet with im-
mediate acceptance ; the Glacial Theory of Agassiz
was at first stubbornly opposed; while Hugh Miller's
dr-scriptions of the fossil fishes of the Old Red Sand-
stone were first rt^coived witli doubt and incredulity,
and consideied by mmy as altop^etlier iinnglnative,
but confirmed in time as true representations. As the
causes herein sunfijested briuLjf tlie occuirence of the
events witliiu Mie Scriptural age of the eartli, and
consecjuently in conflict with the teachings of Science,
a general opposition is expected. But it must be re-
membered that " to err is human," and it is not im-
possible that in the past the scientists have erred who
first cast doubt upon the Scriptural account of the age
and origin of the world.
In the compilation of this book the various geolog-
ical text-books and other such scientific works have
been consulted and freely made use of. To credit each
authority individually would burden the work with
cumbersome references ; but wherf extracts have been
quoted the authorities have been given. Among the
authors referred to, the works of Agassiz, Lyell, Geikie,
Dana, Dawson, Page and others on Geology have been
INTRODUCTION.
tised, as well as the asfcronomical works of Herschel,
Dick, Proctor, Newcomb, Guilleniin, Ledger and nu-
merous others. In the descriptive matter, therefore,
there is nothing new, the originality being solely in
the causes attributed to the origin of unexplained
mysteries. A few are suggestive in order that atten-
tion may be drawn to the subjects, and the whole
made the work of a careful investigation from an
entirely different point of view than at present taken,
which may lead to confirmation and a final solution,'
which must sooner or later come to pass.
"I atn as certain as of my own existence that Science> in a more
txtended compass, 'ong, very long, before it is perfect, will be the
surest, stoutest, most irresistible, apology for the Bible in the whole
history of facts and arguments since controversy began. It will
prove the Mosaic Creation, the authenticity of the Pentateuch ; it
Will establish the Deluge and Noah's ark, and it will render all
Joshua credible ; the miracles of Moses and the Red Sea. It will
tnake every syllable of the Old and New Testaments as clear and cer-
tain to our minds and souls as hunger and thirst, food and raiment,
pam and pleasure, are to our bodies."— Lord Shaptesbury,
<(
! 1
AGE OF CREATION.
s> m a more
will be the
n the whole
n. It will
itateuch; it
1 render all
3ea. It will
lear and cer-
md raiment,
URY,
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
THE VOICE OF NATURE.
"|N the beginning G0..I created the heaven and
^ the earth." Such i., the brief, expressive and
most authentic account known of the Ln,atio„ "f
the u .er.se. It was created. It was the production
of a thought emanating f,.o„, the mind of a G «,"
Unseen. Ill„„„able Being. Science has .searched S
va,n for a more comprehensible cause ; but the deep r
he thought, l,e more profound the research intofl e
vorkmgs and teachings of nature, the more does il
become ev.dent that the whole system is the desl„
and handiwork of an o.nnipotent G-reator ^
Let us take a brief glance at this mighty universe
of which he earth forms such a ponderous.!.„d '1 !^'
>P»ard^s. Far as the eye can reach appear,, a vast
10
AGE OF CREATION.
expanse of ethereal space, in vdiich the sun shines by
day and the moon and stars by night. The sun equals
in volume l,27o,000 bodies the size of the earth, and
is distant from it about 92,000,000 miles. It is a mas-
sive luminous globe 880,000 miles in diameter, and its
influence is known to, extend for a distance of 3,000,-
000,000 miles, yet the space it occupies in the heavens
appears to us but a few inches ! What, then, must be
the size of the remaining space, to which there is no
conceivable limit ?
The stars that shine by night are worlds of enor-
mous magnitude, millions of miles apart, the nearest
of them being twenty millions of millions of miles dis-
tant from the earth. Beyond the powder of sight, be-
yond the range of the most powerful telescope, there
lies a dim and impenetrable abyss, the depth of which
cannot be fathomed by the mind's imagination !
The moon is 240,000 miles distant from the earth.
" This distance, great as it is, is little more than one-
fourth of the diameter of the sun's body, so that the
glr'' of the sun would nearly twice include the whole
orbit of the moon ; a consideration wonderfully calcu-
lated to raise our ideas of that stupendous luminary."*
Let us examine a drop of infused water. By the
aid of a microscope it is seen to be a living world,
teeming with animal life of the most varied and gro-
tesque forms, the infinitude of which cannot be com-
prehended no more than the magnitude of the heavens.
Yet this diminutive world and the stupendo'^s globes
* Herschel's " Outlines of Asti'onoiuy," p. 2(W.
THE VOICE OF NATURE.
11
isby
I, and
nias-
nd its
l,000r
lavens
ust be
i is no
' enor-
learest
les dis-
rht, be-
e, there
i which
earth,
an one-
hat the
e whole
V' calcu-
nary.
By the
a world,
md gro-
be com-
leavens.
s globes
of space are the handiwork of that one Invisible and
Incomprehensible Being.
Everywhere may be seen evidence of God's working
in nature. In the growth and development of organ-
ized beings ; in their geographical distribution through
space ; and in the progressive succession of created
animal life from the lowest form to the crowning
work of creation. The mysterious and awe-inspiring
presence of nature may be felt in the pervading sense
of majestic grandeur on the lofty and rugged moun-
tain ; in the feeling of repose and serenity occasioned
in the quiet and peaceful valley below ; in the moan-
ing and soughing of the tree-tops in the depths of the
forest ; or in the motionless calm or terrific sublimity
of the mighty ocean. The strange, unmistakable voice
of nature permeates the whole univ^erse, exciting
admiration for the wondrous works of a Supreme
Being, and constantly reminding us that " The hand
that made them is Divine."
"Alone with the waves, on a starry night,
My thoughts far away on the infinite ;
On the sea not a sail, not a cloud in the sky,
And the wind and the waves with sweet lullaby
Seem to question in murmurs of mystery,
The fire of heaven, the waves of the sea.
" And the golden stars of the heaven rose higher,
Harmoniously blending their crowns of fire,
And the waves which no ruling hand may know,
'Midst a thousand murmurs, now high, now low,
Sing, w.iile curving their foaming crests to the sea,
It is the Lord (iod '. ii is Re."
■~^ Victor Huyot
^
12
\0E OF CREATION.
CHAPTER II.
THE EARTH.
tHE relation of the heavenly bodies to each other
_^^ in the solar system, the causes which produce
day and night, the regularity of the seasons, an<l
other similar phenomena, are subjects which astron-
omy has long since mathematically and sa<"lsfactoriIy
demonstrated. The earth is known to be the third of
a series of planets which revolve around the sun, and
though of enormous magnitude, is but an infinite
atom in the complex system of which it forms a re-
markable and prominent part. It is a globe 8,000
miles in diameter, surrounded by a shell or crust
apparently as thin in proportion to its bulk as the
globular covering of a soap bubble ! The interior is
supposed to be a glowing, incandescent mass of molten
material, of a temperature vastly beyond the range of
any source of heat existing upon its surface. The doc-
trine of the igneous nature of the interior of the earth
is generally believed in by geologists, though many
tenaciously maintain a belief in a solid or nucleated
centre. But there is a mass of undisputed evidence in
favor of the former, not the least among which is the
undeniable fact that volcanoes exist all over the ijlobe.
from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, emitting fire,
fr.
th
tio
tw
na<
On
atti
at
» < I
THE EARTH.
13
ri other
)ro(Uice
IS, and
astroii-
actorily
third of
mn, and
intinite
ms a re-
)e 8,000
or crust
as the
terior is
f molten
range of
rhe doc-
,he earth
h many
iucleate<l
idence in
.ch is the
,he dobe,
'Amcf fire,
ashes and melted lava. The lavas are all of a similar
character, indicating their origination from the same
universal source. Another argument is the fasct that, in
excavations made in the crust of the earth, the tem-
perature increases with the de.scent, varying slightly
accordinir to the nature of the surroundino- strata. At
but a comparatively short depth the degree of sub-
terranean temperature attained shows that it could
have only emanated from an igneous source. There
are a fe.v plausible objections against the theory of a
central fire in the earth, but let it be temporarily
granted that it is so. The thickness of the earth's
crust has been variously estimated at from ten to
thirty miles ; but compared with the diameter of the
globe itself this is but an insignificant fraction. It is
composed of earths, minerals and rocks, which were
originally of a soft, coherent nature, but afterwards
solidified by the agency of the elements. These have
been ruptured and upturned by convulsions arising
from the working of fire beneath, or gradually, as by
the agency of water, etc. The form of the earth is that
of a spheroid, or a globe slightly flattened at the poles,
showing that it first obtained its axial motion, and
was rapidly whirled around while in a plastic condi-
tion. It revolves on its axis from west to east once in
twenty-four hours, each half of the globe being alter-
nately presented to the sun, producing day and night.
On account of its beingr bulfjed out in the centre the
attraction of the sun is greater at the equator than
at the poles ; and instead of remaining upright the
li
14
AGE OF CREATION.
earth is drawn dovvii in a stnopinfr (v inclined posi-
tion, this inclination heing tvv(3nty-three and a-half
decrees hx>m its perpendicular. This obliquity pro-
duces the seasons, owins: to the heat of the sun acting
in a direct line. The earth revolves around the sun
in 365J days, and as the rays of the latter in a direct
line strike the oblique re^^fions the different variations
in light and heat are the result. The moon vlso re-
volves on its axis, and has a motion around the earth,
and is carried with it in its circuitous course around the
sun. The planets of the solar system are held in their
place by the attractive power of the sun. The strength
of this attraction varies accordinfj to the distance be-
tween the bodies, and in agreement with the following
laws : " Suppose that one ball is drawing another to-
wards it with a certain force, and that the distance
between their centres is one foot ; if the distance is
increased to two feet the force of the attraction is re-
duced to a fourth of what it was ; if the distance is
made three feet the attraction becomes a ninth ; if
four feet, a sixteenth ; and so on — the diminution be-
ing always as the squares of the distance ; that is, the
distances multiplied by themselves. The distance from
the centre of any round mass of matter to its surface
is called its semi-diameter ; that is, the half of its diam-
eter or thickness. If, then, there are two such masses,
a large and a small, and if we ascertain how many
semi-diameters of the larger the smaller is distant from
it, and multiply that number by itself, the result shows
how many times the attraction at this distance is less
th(
po
THE EARTH.
16
i posi-
a-balf
y ?!•«-
acfcing
he sun
, direct
iations
'Iso re-
B earth,
und the
in their
trength
mce be-
)llowing
ther to-
distance
tance is
on is re-
itance is
linth ; if
tion be-
lt is, tl»e
tice from
3 surface
its diam-
A masses,
w many
aut from
dt shows
ice is less
than if the two were close together. The moon, for
instance, is distant 240,000 miles from the earth, or as
inucli as sixty semi-diameters of the earth ; 60 multi-
plied by 60 gives 3,600 ; consequently the attraction
exercised by the earth upon the moon is a 3,600th part
of what it would exercise upon the same mass at its
own surface."*
So that, according to the law of gravitation, if the
distance between the earth and the sun were increased
to a certain extent, and the earth removed farther
away from the sun, the attraction would be lessened
to such a degree that the earth would lose its present
obliquity and remain in a perpendicular or upright
position. The nicety and harmony of arrangement in
the whole planetary system is in entire accordance
with fixed laws in nature; by the.se law^s they are sus-
tained in their respective positions, and in the least
deviation or departure from them disastrous results
would follow.
Floating through illimitable space, and suspended
upon nothing, the earth performs its annual revolution
around the sun in the manner following : —
" Let us suppose the earth at its creation to have
been projected forwards. We know, from the laws of
motion, that if no obstacle impeded its course it would
proceed interminably in the same direction and with
a uniform velocity. Let A represent the earth and S
the sun. We shall suppose the earth arrived at the
point in which it is represented in the figure, having
^Chumbera' "Introduction to the Sciences," p. 15.
;:1I
ill!
16
AGE OF CREATION.
! I
I
! !
i I !
a velocity which wouhl carry it on to B in the .space
of one month, \vhil«t the sun's attraction would bring
it to C in the .same .space
of time. Rea.soning up-
on the laws of uniform
motion we might has-
tily conclude that the
earth would move in
the diagonal AL oi the
parallelogram A BCD,
as a ball struck by two
forces will do. But the
force of attraction is continually acting upon our ter-
restrial ball, and producing an incessant deviation fi'om
a course in a straight line, and thus converts it into a
course in a curve line.
" Let us detain the earth a moment at the point D,
and con.sider how it will be affected by the combined
action of the two forces in its new situation. It still
retains its tendency to fly off in a straight line ; but a
straight line would now carry it away to F, whilst the
sun would attract it in the direction DS. In order to
know exactly what course the earth will follow, an-
other parallelogram must be drawn in the same man-
ner as the first — the line DF describing the force of
projection, and the line DE that of attraction — and it
will be found that the earth will proceed in the curve
line DG drawn in the parallelogram DFGE; and if we
go on throughout the whole of the circle, drawing a
line from the earth to the sun to represent the force
of attraction, and another at a right angle to it to de-
A
THE EARTH.
17
e .space
1 bring
our ter-
ion Lorn
it into a
point D,
:ombined
It still
e ; but a
hilst the
order to
low, an-
|nie man-
force of
. — and it
he curve
,nd if we
rawing a
the force
it to de-
scribe that of projection, we shall find that tlui earth
will proceed in a curve line passing through similar
parallelograms till it has completed the whole of the
circle. The attraction of the sun is the centripetal
force, which confines the earth to a centre; and the
impulse of projection, or the force which impels the
-earth to quit th(^ .sun and fiy ofi' is the centrifugal
■force.
" We have described the earth as tnoving in a circle
merely to render the explanation more siniple ; for in
reality the centripetal and centrifugal forces are not
so proportioned as to produce circular motion, and the
earth's orbit or path aiound the sun is not circular, but
elliptical or oval.
" Let us suppose that when the earth is at A its pro-
ectile force does not give it a velocity sufficient to
counterbalance that of grav-
ity, so as to enable these ^
'^powers conjointly to carry it
around the sun in a circle; the
earth, instead of describing g
the line AC, as in the former
figure, will approach nearer
the sun in the line AB. Un-
der these circumstances, it
^ will be asked, what is to pre-
vent our approaching nearer and nearer the sun till we
fall into it ?- -for its attraction increases as we advance
tov.ards it. There also seems to be another danger.
As the earth approaches the sun the direction of its
motion is no longer perpendicular to that of attraction,
18
AGK OF CREATION.
I' I \
but inclines more nearly to it. When the earth reaches
that part of its orbit at B the force of projection would
carry it to D, which brings it nearer the sun, instead
of bearing it away from it ; so that, being driven by
one power, and drawn by the other, towards this cen-
tre of destruction, it would seem impossible for us to
escape. But with God nothing is impossible. The
earth continues approaching the sun with an acceler-
ated motion till it reaches the point E, when the pro-
jectile force impels it in the direction EF. Here, then,
the two forces act perpendicularly to e.ach other, and
the earth is situated as in the preceding figure ; yet it
will not revolve around the sun in a circle for the fol-
lowing reasons : The centrifujjal force increases with
the velocity of the body; or, in other words, the quicker
it moves the stronger is its tendency to fiy off in a right
line. When the earth arrives at E its accelerated mo-
tion will have so far increased its velocity, and conse-
quently its centrifugal force, that the latter will pre-
vail over the force of attraction, and drag the earth
away from the sun till it reaches G. It is thus that
we escape from the dangerous vicinity of the sun ; and
as we recede from it both the force of its attraction
and the velocity of the earth's motion diminish. From
G the direction of projection is towards //, that of at-
traction towards S, and the earth proceeds between ,
them with a retarded motion till it ha^ completed its
revolution. Thus the earth travels arouiid the sun, not
in a circle, but an ellipsis, of which the sun occupies \
one of the foci ; and in its course the earth alternately
approaches and recedes from it,, so that what at first
^i
THE EARTH.
19
\i reaches
ion would
11, instead
driven by
J this cen-
j for us to
ible. The
m aceeler-
in the pro-
Here, then,
other, and
ure ; yet it
for the fol-
reases with
ihe ([uicker
ff in a right
lerated mo-
and conse-
r will pre-
the earth
s thus that
le sun ; and
attraction
lish. From
that of at-
Is between
►mpleted its
the sun, not
un occupies
alternately
^hat at first
appears a dangerous irregularity is the uieans by which
the most perfect order and liannony are produced. The
earth, then, travels on at a very unequal rate, its ve-
locity being accelerated as it approaches the sun, and
retarded as it recedes from it."*
The centripetal force, therefore, is the attraction of
the sun whicli confines the earth to a centre; and the
Centrifugal force is the impulse of projection, or the
force which impels the earth to fly off in a straight
line instead of going on in a circle. Thus, " thrown out-
wards by one power, and drawn inwards by another,
they have settled into paths where the two forces bal-
ance each other, so that they can neither go further
from the sun, nor come nearer to him, than they do."*f'
^And in this manner the planets have revolved since
their creation. Referring to these luminaries, it is
Recorded in the Psalm of Solomon, iSth chap. v.
ilt., as quoted by Whiston in his '"Life of Josephus,"
*.' They have not wandered from the day that He cre-
ated them ; they have not forsaken their way from the
ancient generations, unless it were when God enjoined
them (so to do) by the command of His servants."
Here exceptions are pointed out, from which it may
bo inferred that in some remote period of the past
tliey have wandered from their courses and forsaken
their way, but at what time and under what circum-
stances will be referred to further on. In the mean-
time a brief glance may be taken at some of the
peculiarities connected with the crust of the earth.
* I.ibrary of Useful Knowledge, t " Introduction to the Seienccs," p. 19.
20
\(iK OF CREATION.
cl.
CHAPTER III.
■I,
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
|i I
c>^
iJLN the hurry and bustle of every-day life how few
(^ stop to contemplate, even for a moment, the
wondrous phases of animate and inanimate nature !
The mind has become so engrossed with other thoughts,
and the eye so accustomed to the surrounding scene,
that for them the rocks and stones, animals and birds,
trees and flowers, have no charm, and the grandeur
and magnificence of the starry heavens have long since
lost their attractiveness. But there are others who
have devoted their lives to an enthusiastic study of
nature, overcoming obstacles in the face of almost in-
surmountable difficulties, and from the combined result
of their labors we are enabled to penetrate the dim
vistas of the past, and read the life-history of succes-
sive generations of animals and plants that " lived, and
moved, and had their beinjj " in the dim and twilio-ht
days of the earth's infancy, even ere the sun and moon
had been created. The broken and upturned rocks,
boulders and gravel, speak in silent voices, and tell
of bygone days when tremendous floods and mighty
cataclysms swept the face of the earth with cyclonic
fury, and suddenly obliterated nearly all animal and
vegetable life, and consigned their remains to a sepul-
m^
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
21
!l
) how few
)ment, the
be nature !
[• thoughts,
ling scene,
and birds,
} errand eur
lonjx since
pthers who
study of
almost in-
ined result
e the dim
of succes-
lived, and
1 twilight
and moon
ned rocks,
s, and tell
id mighty
h cyclonic
nimal and
io a sepul-
10
chrc of unhewn rock to point oiit and tell to future
g( Derations the history of their past existence. The
story of their birth dates back to the time of creation,
an«l includes the great geological breaks in the earth's
crust that confront the observer at every step, the
origin of which has heretofore remained an unsolved
problem, and constituted a great gap in the scientific
knowledge of the world.
If the crust of the earth be perpendicularly pene-
trated it will be found composed of layers or beds of
rocks, piled one on another, like the leaves of a book.
I'hese are called stratified rocks, and they rest upon
others of a hard, crystalline and sparkling appearance^
known as unstratified or igneous rocks, as having been
produced by the agency of fire. Like the leaves of a
tnttered book, some of the layers are broken, crumpled
and torn, while others are partly, and in some places
altogether, missing, but still bound together and follow-
ing each other in continuous regularity. Each of the
layers represents a period of time in the history of the
earth's formation, and by way of illustrations the
stratified rocks contain remains of petrified plants and
enimals, known as fossils, which once lived and existed
m the earth when these rocks were forming.
The following table will explain the system of ar-
rangement adopted by geologists respecting the for-
[nation of the earth's crust. Though most of the
groups subjoined are sub-divided in geology, the sub-
livisions are omitted for the sake of simplicity. The
tabulation varies slightly in different countries, but
22
AGE OF CREATION.
the .system peculiar to British and American geologists
is the one herewith annexed :
Systems.
QUATKICNARY .
Tertiaky
Secondary.
Primary.
Groups.
( I'resent.
\ Recent.
Boulder Formation.
Pliocene.
Miocene.
Eocene.
{ Cretaceous.
-J Jurassic.
( Triassic.
(Permian.
Carboniferous.
Old Red Sandstone.
Silurian.
Cambrian.
Laiirentian.
Periods.
■Cenozoic.
Mesozoic.
Palffiozoic.
Cycles.
Neozoic.
•Palaiozoi
0.
in i
is a
i Eozoi
Resting on the top of the sedimentary rocks in
many countries, and immediately below the surface of
the earth, there lies the first great geological obstruction
— a vast, unstratified, heterogeneous deposit of sand
clay and gravel, from one to several hundred feet in
depth, known to geologists as the Glacial drift. Where
it came from and the manner in which it was depositeo
is now generally agreed upon ; but the causes which
produced it have hitherto remained an unsolved mys- 1
tery.
Enclosed in this deposit are found fragments of rock
which have been transported for a long distance, andj
bear on their surfaces certain peculiar marks known
to have been caused by some powerful grinding, abra--
sive action. They are of all dimensions and forms, ^
some being partially rounded and others broken into!
angular shapes, and water-worn. Broken trunks of
I! i
!1
THE OLACIAI, DIIIFT.
23
I geologists
Cycles.
V Neozoic.
)
;^ Paleozoic
ry rocks in
le surface of
I obstructioi
sit of sand
Ired feet in
rift. Where
as deposited
luses which
solved mys
ents of rock
istance, and
arks known
nding, abra-
and forms,
broken into
trunks of
tiees and branches are often inchided, and all are
mixed together in the utmost confusion.
jThis accumulation has been thoroughly sorted, and
may be classified under the heads of the Glacial, Tnter-
glacial, and Post-glacial deposits, according to the man-
ner in which they have been laid down, either at the
beginning, during, or at the end of the period known
as the Glacial epoch.
■ The nature of the whole deposit varies considerably
in the different districts in which it is found, but there
is an almost universal similarity throughout.
The lowest deposit consists of unstratified clay or
loam, containing numerous rounded or broken blocks
of stone, and is known as till, or boulder clay. The
surfaces of these stones are often polished, striated
and grooved, and they are altogether foreign to the
immediate localit}'' in which they are found, having
been transported from similar rocks at a greater or
l|ss distance from their present positions.
The surfaces of many of the stones found in the
boulder clay present a remarkable appearance. Those
<»nsisting of fine, hard rock, are generally striated and
sera ched along the whole length of their flat sides,
and these are occasionally crossed by similar markings
ill opposite and various directions. All appear to have
|een scratched or scored by the friction of sand and
[ravel, and ground smooth by a mighty and tremen-
fous force, which propelled and pushed the entire mass
'ith a steady and continuous movement in an on-
'aid c'(;ur.<e, and in the one direction^
ll
24
AGE OF CREATIO.V.
The texture of the till is very fine and of great ten-
acity, forming a tough cement by which the numerous
enclosed stones of all dimensions, from the size of the
smallest pebble to a large boulder, are firmly knit to- 5
gether into a solid mass. The underlying rocks upon
which it rests generally present the various character-!
istics of modern ice glaciation, according to the nature
of the material of which they are composed. It often
attains a thickness of 100 feet in low-lying districts,-
and has been found at a height of 2,000 feet abov(^
the level of the sea.
The Inter-glacial deposits consist of beds of marine
and fresh water material, in which are found shells of
existing species, many of them of a boreal character,
indicating that they had been transported from more
northern regions. Beds of laminated sand are a prin-
cipal feature. These consist of a white sandy loam,
of a structureless appearance, seen sometimes in flexed,
contorted and complicated foldings, somewhat resem-
bling the gun material known as " twist." Though
evidently deposited in an even and horizontal manner,
many of them are bent and curved, and as apparently
confused as the foam of an angry sea. The deposits
overlying the till often partake of remarkable struc-
tural forms, such as mounds and ridges, which stretch
across the plains, along the sides of hills, and in the
valleys. Some of the ridges range from twenty to
thirty feet in height, and are about fifty feet in diam-
eter at the base. Many of them extend in nearly a
uniform course for several miles, while others appear
lliliiH
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
25
oreat ten-
numerous
ize of the
y knit to-
ocks upon
character
:he nature
It often
r districts,
feet abovt^
of marine
d shells of 1
character,
from more
are a prin-
ndy loam,
in flexed,
lat resem-
Though.
3,1 manner,!
ipparently
le deposits
ible struc-
ch stretch
nd in the
twenty to
t in diam-
nearly a
2rs appear
b have been whirled around into a crateriform shape,
[closing a basin-like hollow within. In Scandinavia
ey are known as osars, and in Ireland and Scotland
eskers and kames respectively.
I " Some writers," says Archibald Geikie, " have com-
bed these features to the submarine banks formed
the pathway of tidal currents near the shore,
ithers have supposed them rather to be of terrestrial
■ioin, due to the meltinof of the izreat snowfields and
aciers, and the consequent discharge of large quanti-
[es of water over the country. But no very satisfac-
iry explanation of them has yet been giv«n."*
In North America the Post-glacial period is known
the Champlain epoch. During this period the brick
-rths and valley gravels were formed. These are
accumulations of fine mud and loam, in the form of a
tdiment, deposited along the banks of ancient river
urses, and at various heights above the present level
of the river. This fluviatile deposit is especially
apted for brickmaking, and is known as brick-earth
loess, and along the banks of the Mississippi, and
le Rhine in Europe, this deposit is spread over a large
•ea, and attains a thickness of several hundred feet.
he valleys of nearly all the extinct rivers and chan-
els in North America contain this deposit to a greater
less extent. The valley gravels are also fluviatile
posits, but consist of coarse sand and gravel found
difterent levels in the river valley, having been
irmed at periods when the river bed existed at those
*Geikie'8 "Text-book of GeoloKV."
3
:4
w
26
AGE OF CREATION.
places. These are known as hi^h-level and low-level
gravels. The Post-glacial deposits consist of an upper
boulder clay, with water-worn stones, intermingled
with sand, gravel or silt, and occasionally contains
marine shells, bones of extinct animals, etc.
These three deposits — the Glacial, Inter-glacial and
Post-glacial, consisting of rubbish, gravel, clay, sand,
stones, rocks and organic remains — combined form
what is known as the Boulder formation. It is also
known as the Glacial drift, as evidently having been
deposited by the aid of floating ice.
There is no other known cause whereby they could
have been possibly transported to their present sites,
except by the agency of powerful currents of water,
impelled by some sudden and tremendous force that|
originally blasted the rocks and detached them fromj
their former places in the mountains.
Enormous blocks of stone have been dropped on the
rugged sides of lofty mountains, where they remain!
perch-^d in a position of the most threatening insecu-
rity. Many of these are foreign to the locality in
which they are found, and have been transported froni|
their original positions, across surrounding plains an<
over ranges of hills and other apparently insurmountl
able obstructions. The flanks of the Jura Mountains]
in Switzerland, &re the resting place of great numbers!
of erratic blocks, which are known to have crossed the|
vast plain of Switz rland from their former places ii
the Alps. As the Jura Mountains are principall]j
formed of limestone, the crystalline granitic boulderj
THK GLAC;iAL DRIFT.
27
fou.id on their sides could only have originated there
hy transportation. Many of these hive been carried
for a distance of about sixty miles. Above Lake
Neufchatel, at a hei<i[ht of 800 feet, a chain of boulders
extends for many miles, containing thousands of erratic
blocks of enormous dimensions ; and in many other
mountainous regions of Europe similar instances are
known to exist. About two miles west of Neufchatel
a gigantic block of transported rock, known as Pierre
a Bot (Toadstone), is estimated to weigh about 3,000
tons. According to French measurement it is 50 feet
long by 20 feet wide. Its height is 40 feet and its
contents about 40,000 cubic feet, and it is known to
have travelled for a distance of 66 miles. On the Chas-
seron enormous blocks are seen at a height of 3,000
feet, and on the southern side of the Alps great mass( s
of erratics are high up on the mountain sides, in the
vicinity of Lake Como, over which they have been
originally transported. In Europe the detritus from
the mountains of Scandinavia is scattered over an
estimated area of 1,200,000 square miles, lying between
the German Ocean on the west and the White Sea on
[the east — a distance of about 2,000 miles in length, and
I ranging from 400 to 800 miles wide. On the plains of
Russia, Prussia and Poland erratic blocks of immense
size are me^. with belonging to the primitive rocks of
Scandinavia. In St. Petersburg an errant boulder
forms the pedestal to the statue of Peter the Great.
[Its weight when found in its previous resting place
[was estimated at 1,500 tons.
28
AGE OF CREATION.
In North America erratic blocks are strewn almost
over the entire country as far south as 40° north lati-
tude. In Canada the transported rocks and boulders
are scattered over the face of the countrv in thousands.
In the Qu'Appelle Valley, in the Canadian North-West,
an enormous erratic block protrudes above the surface
of the ground to a heiojht of 14 feet, and is 78 feet in
length. Another of limestone, below the Moose Woods,
is estimated at 60 feet in circumference and 16 feet in
height. Thousands of smaller boulders are strewn
over the country many miles from their source of
origination.
In the eastern parts of the United States transported
rocks of great dimensions are seen, some of them esti-
mated to weigh from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 pounds.
They have been carried bodily over a long distance
from their original place in the mountains from which
they were formerly detached. Trains of boulders Jiave
also been traced to their native source, and other long
and narrow lines of broken frao-ments and detritus are
seen to extend continuously for hundreds of miles.
In the State of New Hampshire numerous detached
rocks of great dimensions are found. The Churchill
Rock, of Nottingham, as described by Prof. Hitchcock,
is estimated to contain 75,000 cubic feet, its dimensions
being 62 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 40 feet high. It I
weigh about 6,000 tons. Another in Whitingham,
Vermont, weighs about 8,000 tons. Many boulders
have been found at an altitude of over 5,000 feet above!
the sea level, and their source of origin known to be|
many miles away.
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
29
The Drift presents many curious and interesting
features. In Britain and other parts of Europe many
of the hills are worn and denuded on their northern
and north-western sides, exposing a rough and craggy
surface, while their southern and south-eastern slopes
are generally covered with a thick accumulation of
sand and gravel. The whole appearance thus pre-
sented is Jcnown as " crag and tail."
Another remarkable form of abrasion in connection
with the Drift is seen in the phenomena known as
" giants' kettles." These are deep, eroded holes in the
solid rock, formed by the grinding action of sand, mud
and stones carried by water issuing from crevasses
over precipices in waterfalls, and descending in one
particular spot. The cavities become filled up with
the detritus and remain there after the water has dis-
appeared. In Norway great numbers of these exca-
vations exist, having been filled to the brim with sand,
gravel and stones deposited by the Drift.
Another peculiar feature in connection with the
[Drift is observed in its geographical distribution. The
true till is found on only one side of the globe, ex-
Itending from the North Pole as far south as 38° and
[40 degrees north latitude, and disappearing in the
([uatorial region. West of the Rocky Mountains, in
.uierica, along California and the coast, the till is
ibsent. In northern Asia and Siberia, on the eastern
)iirt of the globe, the true boulder clay is also missing.
The whole of Northern Europe, Russia, Scandinavia,
pid the elevated portions of Central Europe, and the
80
AGE OF CREATION.
temperate and polar regions of North America, are the
countries principally affected by the Drift. In the
northern parts of Asia there are no such deposits,
though in the same latitude as other westerly regions
where the Drift occurs. This is a remarkable and ap-
parently unaccountable fact, why such deposits could
have accumulated only on one side of a swiftly rotat-
ing globe such as the earth, revolving with an equa-
torial speed of over 1,000 miles an hour, and not on
the other.
From the foregoing a tolerably fair idea may be had
of the deposits known as the Glacial drift ; but there
are many peculiarities connected with it.
In the first place, unlike the rocks below it, the
formation is mainly unstratified, that is, there are no
continuous layers or beds, but a heterogeneous mass of
gravelly rubbish, looking as if it had been scraped to-
gether, ranging from 50 to 800 feet thick. The till, or
lower portion, is extremely hard and tough, and an
intercalary layer is found between the two deposits.
In the upper deposit there are rocks of immense size
and weight, some having been estimated to weigh from
one to four million pounds.
Many of the stones found in the till are strangely
marked, striated and scratched with lines parallel to
the longest diameter, and are found on the mountains
as well as in the valleys and on the plains.
In the till clay, sand, stones, boulders and gravel
are found mixed together in the utmost confusion,
" higgledy-piggledy, pell-mell," and in some instances
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
81
the underlying rocks have been decomposed and melted
as if bj'- fervent heat.
The deposit is thick in the valleys and thin on the
hills, ridges and elevations.
Some of the boulders are not water-worn nor round-
ed. Neither are they angular, for the projecting points
have been ground off.
The surface rocks on which the drift is deposited are
polished smooth, scratched, striated and furrowed in
two opposite directions.
Only the northern and western sides of hills and
mountains are scarified ana striated, while the south
bears little or no striae whatever.
The till is not found all over the world, but only
on the northern portion of the western side of it,
being absent in the equatorial regions and the eastern
hemisphere.
The entire deposit is generally unfossiliferous, that
is, it is almost devoid of organic remains ; and while fos-
sils are found above and below, few traces of pre-exist-
ent or contemporaneous life are found in till whatever.
The period in which it was deposited was accom-
panied by a sudden change in climate, by which the
polar regions became habitable and the tropical regions
colder.
A universal change of level also took place, by which
the land in many parts became completely submerged
and afterwards re-elevated.
Finally, aerolites, or metoric stones, have been found
in the drift.
\m
32
AGE OF CREATION.
li!
Lyell cites a circumstantial account from " Erman's
Archives of Russia " respecting the finding of a mass
of meteoric iron in the auriferous alluvium of the
Altai : " Some small fragments of native iron were
first met with in the gold washings of Petropawlow-
sker, in the Mrassker Circle ; but though they at-
tracted attention, it was supposed that they must i.ave
been broken oft' from the tools of the workmen. At
length, at a depth of thirty-one feet five inches from
the surface, they dug out a piece of iron weighing
17i pounds, of a steel grey color, somewhat harder
than ordinary iron, with a small proportion of nickel,
as is usual in meteoric stones. It was buried in the
bottom of the deposit where the gravel rested on a
flaggy limestone. Much brown iron, as well as gold,
occurs in the sand gravel, which appears to be part of
the extensive auriferous formation in which the bones
of the mammoth, the rhinoceros (tichorhinus) and
other extinct quadrupeds abound."*
Where all this gravelly rubbish came from, and the
cause of its heterogeneous peculiarities, had long been
a puzzle and a conundrum to geologists. All the older
geologists were agreed that it was the result of vio-
lent action of some kind ; and it is now generally ad-
mitted that the deposit was caused by ice, and hence
it is known as the Glacial drift. The proofs of this
fact are overwhelming. The surface of the rocks un-
derlying the glacial deposits in the more northern
regions present the similar scratched and polished
•LyoU's "Elementary Geology," p. U5
ha
th{
to
to
In
ha^
cen
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
33
characteristics of the stones found in the boulder
clay. Where the superficial deposits have been imme-
diately removed the exposed surface of the underly-
ing rock is found to be pjrooved and deeply striated
in a manner almost identical with similar markinfja
now known to be the result of the sfrindinir action
of moving ice. That the grooved, scratched and stri-
ated rocks were thus marked by glaciers is evident,
for no other cause is at present known by which they
could be produced. In mountainous countries where
glaciers exist, the rocks over which they have passed
are found to be identically striated, and to bear the
same marks of glaciation as those existing on the
mountain tops, and in the valleys of the regions affected
by the Drift, and consequently could have been pro-
duced only in the same manner. From the direction
of the strife on the surface of the rock beds, and the
accumulation of Drift material left behind, the move-
ments of the ice-sheet by which they were produced
have been traced. By this means it has been found
that great oscillations of level have accompanied the
march of the floating ice. The extent of the vertical
movements has been ascertained by Prof. Ramsay to
exceed 2,000 feet. The British Isles are known to
have undergone a great change of level, amounting
to 500 feet in some parts of Scotland, and from 1,200
to 1,400 feet in Central England and North Wales.
In America, also, a similar change of level is known to
have occurred. Many mountainous districts formed
centres of distribution from which the ice passed
:U'
;i
:1
:u
AGE OF CREATION.
i I
I !'
till 11
downward, and radiated in various directions into the
surrounding neii,diborhood. The entire body of ice
moved steadily forward in one general direction —
from north-west to south-east — over broad and exten-
sive plains, down steep ravines, and up lofty precipices
almost to the summits of many mountain peaks. The
vast ice-clad mountain chain of the Alps formed a cen-
tral axis, down the sides of which the glaciers slid
and spread in every direction over the low undulating
land lying at its base and across the adjoining plains.
In Scandinavia the ice is computed to have reached an
elevation of about 7,000 feet. Great Britain was com-
pletel}^ submerged beneath the floating icebergs. In
the Highlands of Scotland many mountains are stri-
ated to a height of over 3,000 feet ; and the progress of
the ice-sheet and its various deflections can be dis-
tinctly traced as it advanced in its onward march,
grinding the entire surface of the country, and round-
ing and grooving the summits of the lower hills and
prominences that lay in the course over which it
moved. From Scotland the torrent of ice descended
into Ireland and the Irish Sea, and at the same time
the ice-jam filled the basin of the North Sea to over-
flowing, and spread over the entire length and breadth
of the British Isles. The rough and jagged edges of
the hardest crystalline rocks were ground down and
worn perfectly smooth by the grinding action of the
moving ice. These rounded hummocks are known as
roches moutonees, and are found over entire valleys as
well as on the mountain side and the plains. Numer-
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
35
ous small lakes and pools are enclosed within the
erosive depressions between these clustering domes,
and many of the rocks still retain distinctly their ice-
worn characteristics, as though their abrasion had been
bub of recent occurrence.
In North America the results of Glacial action are
seen in grand magnitude. The highest mountains
formed but a slight barrier, and the advancing icebergs
swept from Greenland and the Arctic seas over the
face of the country with apparently the greatest ease.
East of the Rocky Mountains the Dominion of Can-
ada was utterly devastated by a continuous sheet of
marching ice, which moved from the Arctic regions
downward over the northern continent. Every mov-
able thing was carried forward, and enormous quanti-
ties of debris strewn for miles over the tract passed
over by the mighty avalanche of destruction. In
the Missouri coteau of the North-West, as shown
by G. M. Dawson, a mass of Glacial debris and
scattered boulders extends diagonally across the
central region, with an average breadth of from
thirty to forty miles, for a distance of eight hundred
miles, and marks the forward course of the vast
and stupendous ice-sheet in that direction. Onward
it plowed, grooved and tore up the entire surface
of the country, as it steadily continued on its south-
ward march. Over every obstruction it pushed with
irresistible force, clambering up the Laurentian Hills,
and sliding over their summits with the same uni-
formity of force by which it crossed the vast and
ii!
36
AGE OF CREATION.
more level portion now t'orining extensive plains. The
mountain tops of Labrador were levelled down, and
the rocky fragments carried away and scattered for
miles with inconceivable fury. Gigantic boulders of
granite and gneiss were torn from their sides, and
grooved or polished smooth by the stupendous tor-
rent of marching ice which passed over their surfaces.
The steep banks of the River St. Lawrence, along the
lines of its various rapids, are composed almost entire-
ly of boulder clay ; and the numerous striated and ice-
worn hummocks of gneiss along its shores retain the
tell-tale marks that the ice had been there. South-
ward it sped onward into the United States, and in
the eastern portion ground and scratched the Catskill
Mountains to a height of 3,000 feet. At a height of
nearly 6,000 feet the White Mountains show unmis-
takable proof that the icebergs had also been there,
and smashed and detached from the mountain sides
enormous boulders weighing as much as 4,000,000
pounds. Gradually the onward movement of the ice
ceased as it approached the temperate regions, the
boulders became diminished in size, and further south
towards the equatorial regions all traces of the drift
disappeared. After a lapse of time another somewhat
similar movement took place from the Antartic regions,
by which the land in the southern portion of the globe
became deluged and strewn with diluvial deposits as
far north as the 41st degree of south latitude. In the
equatorial regions, including the torrid and adjacent
portions of the temperate zone, the Drift deposits are
THE GLACIAL DRIFT.
37
almost entirely wanting, showing that in each instance
they were polar phenomena, an<l disappeared as each
approached the equator.
But where did all this ice come from ? and how
would it be carried up 6,000 feet on the sides of the
mountains ? If the drift had been gradually deposit-
ed under water deep enough to tioat icebergs, it would
present some evidence of stratification ; but this is not
the case, for the boulder, sand, gravel and clay are
all mixed together in the utmo.st confusion. Besides,
when the ice melted the heavier stones would first
fall to the bottom, then the smaller stones, and final-
ly the finer material. Then these deposits would fall
evenly on the surface below in layers, conforming to
the inequalities of the ground, instead of being thick
in the valleys and thin on the hills and ridges. How
could the ice have been high enough to groove and
scratch the rocks on the tops of the highest mountains
and in the lowest valleys at the same time ? And
where would a sheet of ice 6,000 feet thick come from ?
and where would the force come from to drive it into
the rocks in the valleys and on the mountains and
striate them ? Again, the rocks are striated in an ex-
traordinary manner. They cross each other in two
diametrically opposite directions, in the form of the
letter X. These are some of the conundrums in con-
nection with the ice theory.
As to the cause which produced the downward march
of the ice, Norton says : " When we come to study the
cause of these phenomena we find many perplexing
-II
II
I ;
im
88
AGE OF CREATION.
and contradictory theories in the field. A favorite one
is that of vertical elevation. But it was impossible to
admit that the circle enclosed within the parallel of
40 degrees — some 7,000 miles in diameter — could have
been elevated to such a height to produce this remark-
able result. This would be a supposition hard to recon-
cile with the present proportion of land and water on
the surface of the globe, and with the phenomena of
terrestrial contraction and gravitation,"*
" Exactly how the Glacial period was introduced,"
observes G. M. Dawson, " or by what phenomena its
beginning was marked, it is now very difficult, if not
impossible, to tell. Nor can any reliable estimate of its
duration be formed, for the effect of the later periods
has been, not only to obliterate more or less many of
the former physical features of the country, but such
as to cover up and conceal those which antecedent
glaciation may have produced. There is nothing to
show, however, that the glacial conditions prevailed
for a very long period before that of the greatest sub-
sidence, nor do we meet with any plienomena not easily
explained by the action of the waters and ice during
the subsidence and subsequent elevation. There is also
reason to believe that the elemition took place rapidly,
as compared with the subsidence." -|-
Tn "The World before the Deluge" M. Charles
Martins says : " The most violent convulsions of the
solid and liquid elements appear to have been them-
selves only the eft'ects due to a cause much more
* " Climate and Time," p. 391.
t "Geology and Reaources of the 49th Parallel," p. 236.
iHE GLACIAL DRIFT.
39
powerful than the mere expansion of the pyrosphere ;
and it is necessary to recur, in order to explain them,
to some new and bolder hypothesis than has yet been
hazarded. Some philosophers have helief in an astro-
nomical revolution which may have overtaken our
globe in the first age of its formation, and have modi-
fied its position in relation to the sun. They admit
that the poles have not ahuays been as they are now,
and that some terrible shock displaced them, changing
at the same time the inclination of the axis of the
rotation of the earth."
There is distinct evidence of two great convulsions
having occurred during the period known as the Gla-
cial epoch, and after describing them Figuier says :
" The two cataclysms of which we have spoken sur-
prised Europe at the moment of the development of
an important creation. The whole scope of animated
nature, the evolution of animals, was suddenly arrested
in that part of our hemisphere over which these
gigantic convulsions spread, followed by the brief but
sudden submersion of entire continents. Organic life
had scarcely recovered from the violent shock when
a second and, perhaps, severer blow assailed it. The
northern and central parts of Europe, the vast countries
which extended from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean
and the Danube, were visited by a period of sudden
and severe cold ; the temperature of the polar regions
seized them. The plains of Europe, now ornamented
with luxurious vegetation developed by the heat of a
burning climate — the boundless pastures on which
It!
40
AGE OF CREATION.
herds of great elephants, the active horses, the robust
hippopotamus, and great carnivorous animals grazed
and roamed — became covered with a mantle of ice and
snow."
Arch. Geikie says : " That the axis of the earth's ro-
tation has successively shifted, and that consequently
the poles have wandered to different points on the sur-
face of the globe, has been maintained by geologists
as the only possible explanation of certain remarkable
conditions of climate which can be proved to have
formerly obtained within the Arctic circle. Even as
far north as latitude SI"" 45' abundant remains of a
ve^xetation indicative of a warm climate .... have
been found in situ. It is contended that where these
plants lived the ground could not have been perma-
nently frozen or covered for most of the year with
thick snow. In explanation of the difficulty it has
been suggested that the North Pole did not occupy its
present position, and that the locality where the plants
occur lay in more southerly latitudes."*
Would a sudden upward and downward shift of the
North Pole, with the occurrence of an interval of time
between the events, produce the Glacial epoch, and
explain the various peculiarities connected with the
drift ? Let us see.
*Geikic'8 " Toxt-book of Geology."
ANCIENT WATER MARKS:
41
CHAPTER IV.
ANCIENT WATER MARKS.
I' f
I ■
> f
■ i
IGH up on many a mountain side, far above the
0^-*- level of the surroundin^r ooantry, may be seen
lon«^ parallel rows or terraces, composed of pebbles,
stones, sea shells and gravel. Seen at a distance
they appear like chalk lines drawn across the face
of the hills ; but a closer examination proves their
true character. They are ancient sea beaches ! Here
the waters once found their level, and after their re-
treat left their imprint as clear and distinct as if the
recession had just recently taken place. There is no
mistaking their nature. Long lines of undisturbed
stones and boulders, covered with adherent barnacles
and other littoral organic remains, bear undoubted
testimony of a former high-water mark. Not only on
the beaches, but below them, in what was formerly
the water-bed, are found the remains of organisms
attached in positions where they had formerly grown.
In addition to these, rocky cliffs bearing marks of lit-
toral and sub-littoral life, many hundred feet above
the existing sea, furnish direct proof of a change of
level in the surrounding land.
Many centuries have passed since the waves of these
vast inland seas beat against the mountain side, and
ilfi
I
I II
I :i
42
AGE OF CREATION.
washed up the littoral that now marks its former level.
Bleached in the summer's sun and winter's snow of
ages past/ they still remain to corroborate the solution
of that^reat geological mystery — the Glacial epoch.
These raised beaches are generally known as terraces,
and are to be met with in various parts of the globe
on many maritime coasts, as well as in inland countries
where no sea at present exists. One great peculiarity
common to them all is the fact that they are of recent
origin, and of a comparatively modern geological date.
Not until the later Tertiary period, after all the pre-
viously existing rocks had been formed, did these
great changes in level take place ; and it is a well-
known and established geological fact that their for-
mation was contemporaneous with the Drift.
The terraces of Great Salt Lake, in Utah, south of
Salt Lake City, along the flanks of the Wasatch Moun-
tains, present a fine illustration of terraces in general.
A group of level lines, parallel to each other, encircle
the base of the mountains for miles, crossing obstruc-
tions and following the declivities in the mountain
side with remarkable and unvarying regularity.
Great Salt Lake lies 4,218 feet above the sea level,
covering an area of 2,360 square miles, and has an
average depoh of twenty feet, its deepest part being
about eight fathoms. The highest terrace is 940 feet
above the present surface of the lake, consequently
when the water stood at that shore line its surface
was 5,158 feet above the sea level. The water then
had an outlet northward through Snake River into
■ ; t 1
ANCIENT WATER MARKS.
43
the Pacific Ocean, for a gap in the basin rim north of
the present shore of the lake has been found to corres-
pond in height with that of the terrace line. This
fact, together with the presence of fresh-water shells
on the terrace, proves conclusively the absence of salt
water, and that the lake was then a vast inland sea,
like one of the present inter-oceans of Canada. Here
the lake stood at the time of the first disturbance,
as indicated by the presence of moraines and Glacial
dehds at the edge of the terrace. The Wasatch Moun-
tains rise to a height of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet,
and are covered with snow throughout the greater
part of the ^ear. The polished, grooved and scored
rocks of the valleys prove conclusively that the snow
and ice formerly descended from the mountains ; and
the great accumulations of moraine detritus on the
highest shore line show that the glaciers descended to
the edge of the water. No otiier known cause but a
sudden upward movement of the North Pole could
have instantaneously precipitated the snow-caps of
these mountains into the lake below, and at the same
time chanjxed the level of the water to a lower terrace.
Great Salt Lake is at present about eighty miles
long by thirty-two wide. It has no visible outlet, and
receives the melted snows of the Wasatch and other
ranges through the rivers on the north and so^^th,
Bear River on the north being 300 miles in length.
The lake lies in a slight depression of the vast desert
plain which stretches to the west from the base of the
mountain range. The shore is on a level with the sur-
I i;
i' I'
111 ^'
44
AGE OF CREATION.
rounding plain, which graduates slowly out under the
lake with remarkable uniformity. Its waters contain
twenty-two per cent, of salt, and are entirely destitute
of ichthyic life, though fish are found in its inlets, but
none in the lake itself. The entire margin of the lake
is completely encrusted witli salt, and the water has a
heavy, placid and lifeless appearance. As the waters
of the lake were proved to have been formerly fresh
when they stood at the highest terrace, it is evident
that they now owe their present salinity to the Drift.
This evidently has been caused by the deposition of
salt from an overflow of the waters of the ocean, which
became land-locked in the valleys after a change of
level occurred. The lake then sank to the level of the
lowest terrace, and below the outlet by which it had
been formerly drained into the Pacific Ocean. With
the occurrence of the second vertical disturbance the
waters again rose to the second terrace, and have
gradually fallen to their present position, from which
they are slowly diminishing, notwithstanding the
manv contributions received from the surrounding
streams, so great and rapid is the extent of its
evaporation.
The well-known terraces of Glen Roy, in Scotland,
a result of the Glacial epoch, bear similar testimony
to a former change of level in Great Britain at the
same geological period. The upper terrace is 1,139
feet above tide level, the second 1,059 feet, and the
third 847 feet.
The terraces bordering on the great lakes of Canada
ANCIENT WATKR MARKS.
45
indicate that in former times the waters stood much
higher than they do now. There is substantial and
undoubted proof that Lake Superior stood at least 180
feet higher than at present. Lakes Michigan and
Huron were then flooded to a height of 200 feet above
their present level. The whole of Western Ontario
was submerged, and the waters stretched westward for
twenty-seven miles into the State of Michigan, where
an ancient beach indicates their termination in that
direction. A large part of Illinois was also inundated.
At Mackinac Island a perpendicular limestone wall,
150 feet high, by which it is surrounded, is eroded and
worn by exposure to the action of the waves from
bottom to top. On the main plateau of the island
stands the well-known " Sugar Loaf," all that is left of
a similar formation by which it was formerly sur-
rounded. Up to the very pinnacle this old monument
bears the well-known smooth characteristics peculiar
to the erosive action of water.
North and west of Toronto the presence of a former
high-water level is marked by ridges or sand bars,
running parallel with Lake Ontario at different alti-
tudes, ranging from 100 to 600 feet above its present
water level. These ridges have been formed according
as the water retreated, and are not confined to Toronto,
but similar ones are found in the neighborhood of all
the great lakes. If the water again attained its former
level, all the cities bordering on the lakes would be
entirely submerged, and Toronto would be buried at
the bottom of a sea, the waters of which would roll
'.e
46
AGE OF CREATION.
over two hundred feet above the top of the spire of St.
James' Cathedral, on King Street, its present height
being 316 feet.
Another ridge lies along the south side of Lake On-
tario, and has been found to exactly coincide with the
summit of the' country between the St. Lawrence and
the Ottawa, both oing of an equal height — 392 feet.
From observations made on the great lakes of North
America, and the formation of their ancient beaches,
Dr. Andrews, of Chicago, has demonstrated the man-
ner in which the Drift occurred. He points out the
changes of level which formerly took place, and the
rapidity with which the lakes fell and rose, and estab-
lishes an identification of the alluvium, known as
loess, with the period of the formation of the middle
beach. " The loess," he observes, " is not a continua-
tion of the boulder clay, as is often supposed ; on the
contrary, it is separated from the true drift by a
stratum of vegetable mould, marked with subserial
denudations, showing that a period of dry land and
vegetation intervened between the close of the Drift
and the submergence called the loess.'" He also shows
that the Drift period closed abruptly by the sudden
retirement of the waters. " it should be observed,"
h says, " that our lakes have existed ever since the
close of the Drift period, a time which is rather sharply
defined, because the close of the Drift in this region
occurred with a suddenness unusual in geological
phenomena."
Of the formation of the three concentric beach lines
ANCIENT WATER MARKS.
47
of Lake Michigan, Dr. Andrews shows that the
"upper beach, which appears all around the lakes
where not worn away by subsequent erosion, and
which originally must have been level, has now been
thrown into a sinuous form, showing that the country
has undergone changes of level since that time." As
this shore line must have been originally level it is
held that its present distorted grade can only be due
to flexures of the strata of the continent occurring
since the beach was laid down. The fall of waters
from the line of the upper beach appears to have been
very sudden. This he explains by a peculiarity in the
contour of the deposit, which is of a uniform nature in
all the sand shores of this part of the coast. Going
out into the lake the bottom gradually descends from
the water line to a depth of about five feet, when it
rises again on a recession from the shore, and then
descends towards deep water, forming a subaqueous
ridge or " bar " parallel to the beach, and some ten or
twenty rods from the shore. The upper beach pre-
serves its old bar perfectly, as if the lake had left it
but yesterday. This is an indication that the waters
receded rapidly, for had it occupied even two months
in receding from the bar the waves would have torn
it to pieces ; and furthermore, there are no sand ridges
between the upper and middle beaches. The waves
of Lake Michigan act upon their shores with tremen-
dous force, and they could not possibly effect a slow
retreat without leaving marks which no time could
erase. When a subsidence took place the waters fell,
■HI
M
48
AGE 0¥ CHKATION.
not to the midrlle beach, but to the lower one. They
" fell to about the preseTit level so suddenly that they
not only left the subaqueous 'bar' almost undisturbed,
but they did not throw up a single intermediate beach
line, whicii, at the rate of sand deposit prevailing in
this region, would have been visible if there had been
a pause even of six months. The waters remained
here long enough for a thin stratum of peat to form,
and then rose again over the soil bed and deposited
the middle beach upon it." The deluge of the middle
beach, he has discovered, went temporarily much
higher, and deposited a stratum of muddy gravel over
the black soil which had accumulated on the upper
beach. The water remained at this upper limit for a
very brief period — not long enough to lay down a
definite shore line. The higher part of this inunda-
tion he identifies as the true analogue of the loess
deluge. " From the upper edge of the middle beach,
the wav::;r receded very slowly .... throwing up,
where the sand supply was most abundant, numerous
parallel ridges. It then fell, perhaps, ten feet more
pretty rapidly, to the upper part of the present beach
leaving a continuous valley between the middle and
the modern sands. This last recession, however, was
not so sudden as that from the upper line, as shown
by the fact that the subaqueous bar was demolished
by the retiring wave action, and a considerable amount
of sand was left between the middle and lower beaches."
When in America Sir Charles Lyeli visited Toronto,
and afterwards, in referring to the ridges and other
AXCIENT WATEK >fAHKS.
49
marks of ancient levels between it and Lake Siincoe,
said : " With the exception of the parallel roads or
shelves in Glen Roy, and some neighboring glens of
the Western Highlands, in Scotland, I never saw so
remarkable examples of banks, terraces and accumu-
lations of stratified gravel, sand and clay maintaining
over wide areas so perfect a horizontality as in this
district north of Toronto."*
As a definite result of general geological research it
has been ascertained that a perfectly equable shift of
level to a height of at least 2,000 feet has been effected
in times past on the surface of the globe. This con-
formity in the change of level is not confined to any
particular locality, but extends all over the world — in
America, Britain, France, Switzerland and Scandinavia.
Its universal equality of range shows that the dis-
turbing movement was not of a local nature. This
has been proved in comparing the lands of one coun-
try with those of another, by which some of them
have been found exactly to coincide with each other.
Respecting this wonderful coincidence of parity and
uniformity of level, Robert Chambers long ago re-
marked : " There is, nevertheless, enough to justify a
question regarding imiformity of level, not only
throughout North America, but also — bold as the idea
may, in the present state of knowledge and of hy-
pothesis, appear — the old and the new continents. It
has certainly appeared to myself, to say the least, a
promising prognostic of some important new views
• ** Travel* in North America," Vol. U., p. 106.
m
,}
m
Ml
50
AGE OF CREATrON.
i
i 'i
1 ')
rep;artling a chapter in the past history of the globe,
when, it being granted that terraces and benches of
land are marks of ancient levels of the sea, I find that
a tendency to a bench form or plateau, at sixty, or
from sixty to seventy, feet above present high water,
exists on the coasts of the "' '^.ed States and in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence as it t. js in Britain ; that con-
spicuous terraces in Britain and in France, at 188 and
392 feet, are repeated in America ; that there, also, at
about o4!i) feet, are several repetitions of a decided and
most notable Scottish terrace, and that Scott built his
house of Abbotsford on an ancient soa beach beside
the Tweed, which finds an analogue in the first of the
grand ridges sweeping from east to west behind
Toronto."*
The peninsula of Scandinp * i presents some striking
proofs of a former change c tcI. At a distance of
at least fifty miles inland from the ^", coast the rocky
sides of the Norwegian fjords bear the usual terrace
lines to a height of over 600 feet above the level of
the sea. The Siberian coast east of the River Lena,
for a distance of 600 miles, is characterized by similar
markings. So, also, are the islands of Nova Zembla
and Spitzbergen. In South America, along the west-
ern coast, terraces have been traced on the frontier
of Bolivia at various heights above the sea. In the
mountain regions of Chili they exist at 1,000 feet, and
as high as 1,300 feet near Valparaiso.
The whole South American continent shows con-
•>♦ ««
Ancient Sea Margins," p. 316.
ANCIENT WATEK MARKS.
51
vincinc: evidence of a former elevation and subsidence.
For a distance of 1,200 miles, from the Kio Plata to
Terra del Fuego, the land has been formerly raised,
and in Patagonia to a height of between 800 and 400
feet. Speaking of the western coast Darwin says
that "marine remains occur at intervals, and in some
parts almost continuously, from lat. 45" .'}')' to 12" S.
alono- the shores of the Pacific. This is a distance, in a
north and south line, of 2,07o geographical miles.
Along this great line of coast, besides the organic re-
mains, there are in very many parts marks of erosion,
caves, ancient beaches, sand-(lunes and successive ter-
races of gra'^el, all above the present level of the sea.
Judging from the upraised shells alone the elevation
in Chili has been 350 feet ; at Conception certainly
025 feet, and by estimation 1,000 feet; at Valparaiso,
1,300 feet ; at Coquimbo, 252 feet ; northward of this
place shells have not, I believe, been found above 300
feet ; and at Lima they were falling into decay at 85
feet. Not only has this amount of elevation taken
place within the period of existing moUusca and
cirripedes, but their proportional numbers in the exist-
ing sea have in most cases remained the same." In
Ej 3tern Terra del Fuego the occurrences of similar
I. races led Darwin to believe "that the entire breadth
of cbe continent of Central Patagonia has been uplifted
in mass."
In North America river terraces rancjinfy in altitude
from 100 to 250 feet in height above the present level
of the water exist along the Missouri, Connecticut,
'J
M
o2
AGE OF CREATION.
Hudson, Mohawk, Genesee and other rivers. These
show that the producing cause was not confined solely
to the coast, but was peculiar to the entire continent.
Raised beaches also occur in New Zealand. In the
more northern and southern countries some of the
beaches are not quite horizontal, but are found to rise
in height in the direction of the poles. These facts con-
clusively prove that an upward and downward polar
shift of the globe has occurred and at a period of com-
paratively recent date.
If the terraces had been caused by a slow and
gradual change of level, the uniform space between
them could not have been maintained. This .shows
that the movements must have been in^itantaneous,
and that the waters by wdiich they were formed sud-
denly fell or were raised from one terrace to another.
Many similar instances might be cited in proof of
former changes of level having taken place simultane-
ously throughout the entire globe, but the facts are so
well known to geologists that no further confirmation
is necessary. It is ccU old story now, worn threadbare
by constant repetition in the endeavor to find its solu-
tion. But when the vast and mighty changes that
have occurred in times past are seriously considered,
it would be idle to account for their origin by the
gradual action of the known physical agencies now in
operation.
A LLU VI AL DEPOSITS,
53
CHAPTER V.
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS.
■vv
;HE great rivers all over the globe bear unn:istak-
able evidence of once havinjj been Qorjjed with
a much greater volume of water than they now con-
tain. The ba* ks of the principal American rivers for
liundreds of miies are lined with a thick coating of
alluvial deposit, forming extensive lines of cliffs which
rise far above the present bottoms of the valleys. It
consists of a pure sediment of unstratified mud, as
tine in texture as though it had been ground in a mor-
tar, and contains the remains of land and fresh-water
shells, toijether with traces of former veijetation. This
deposit is known as loess, and is similar in charac-
ter and in the nature of its vegetable and concholog-
ical genera to the loamy deposits of the basins of the
Rhine and Danube, in Europe, and the Nile, in Egypt.
A vast quantity of floating sediment is still being
washed down by these and other large rivers, into the
trunks of which it is deposited by the tributaries and
streams which drain the slopes of the surrounding
countries. Year after year the sediment is being car-
ried far out into the sea, or dumped on obstructions
in the course of the rivers, where the accumulations
have increased to an enormous extent, contributing to
1 1 ■
^11
54
AGE OF CREATION.
the formation of broad deltas, such as exist at the
mouths of the Nile and the Mississippi.
The immense deposits of alluvial and sedimentary
matter forming the delta of the latter river, in North
America, are supposed by (geologists to have been the
accumulation of the debris of that river for a very ex-
tended period of time. They are many hundred feet
deep, and cover an area of 25,000 or 30,000 square
miles. Assuming a continual uniformitj'^ in the rate
of deposition, estimates have been formed as to the
length of time required for the Mississippi to discharge
such a vast amount of sedimentary mrterial, by tak-
ing into consideration the quantity of fluviatile matter
carried annually in the flow of the river, which is sup-
posed to have entirely formed the great alluvial plain
or delta at its mouth. A conclusion has been arrived
at that an immense lapse of ages has been necessary to
allow of the formation of the delta at present existing
at the entrance to the Mississippi River.
If the delta of the Mississippi had been of the same
gradual formation in all time past as at present, and
the quantity of sediment deposited at the present rate
of accumulation, it could easily be understood why
such periods of time would have been necessary for
the process of formation. But there is every indica-
tion that the forces at work acted with far greate" in-
tensity in former timts, for the Mississippi would re-
quire a much greater velocity than it now possesses to
deposit, within a reasonable period, such an immense
quantity of diluvium. A geological examination of
tb(
!:i!
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS.
56
the country in the neijrhborhood of the river, near its
entrance, according to Lyell, shows that the surface
material rests upon an immense Drift deposit of sand
and gravel, containing fragments of palsBOZoic rock and
silicified coral, and the latter upon a lower Tertiary.
In^several secrjons of the bluff near the mouth of the
river vegetable remains and stumps of erect cj^press
trees have been observed in the strata one 'above the
other, corresponding exactly wich the formation of the
alluvial plain or delta at its mouth.
The latter bears the same geological structure as the
neishborinfj land throuo-h which the river flows, show-
ing that it was once a continuous portion of the main-
land, and that during a change of level it has been sub-
merged by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Had it
not been for this obstruction the sediment now floated
down would in all probability have been carried farther
out into the Gulf of Mexico. At the mouth of the river
there are deposits of several acres in extent, known as
" mud-lumps," in which salt springs exist. An inflam-
mable gas also rises to the surface upon them. It is
highly probable that the bases of these were formed
by the debris of the Glacial floods being deposited in
submerged forests which are known to exist in the
neighborhood, and the whole covered with a discharge
of sediment from the mouth of the Mississippi. These
saline springs, no doubt, owe their origin to beds of
oceanic salt which would likely be deposited there at
the time of the vertical movement which caused the
change of level. The decay of submerged vegetable
■1.1
56
AGE OF CRKATIOX.
matter would also form the gas which forces its way
through the soft alluvium and rises to the surface.
The southern shore of the United States bears every
evidence of a former submergence and elevation, and
of having been eroded originally by the Gulf of
Mexico. There are many peculiarities connected with
the Mississippi explainable by the former changes of
level, and which will be found applicable to all the large
rivers in the world. Whether a river Hows east, or
west, or north, or south, a similar increase or decrease
in its volume of water would result if a change of
level took place. The Amazon, the Nile, the Ganges,
the Hoang Ho, and all other great mud-carriers, have
in a former time had their ups and downs in like
manner, and at the same geological period as the
Mississippi ; and the originating causes of the one will
be found to explain the geological peculiarities of all
the others. In estimating the age of rivers by the
deltas at their mouths a uniformity in the rate of
sedimentary deposition has been generally assumed,
under the impression that the physical operations
now in force have been the same in all time past. But
such has not been the case.
" If we could take for granted," says Lyell, " that the
relative level of land and sea had remained stationary
ever since all the existing deltas began to be formed —
could we assume that their growth commenced at one
and the same instant when the present contine -^
acquired their actual shape — we might understand the
language of geologists who speak of 'the epoch of
land
trial
havin
of lev
of N(
equal]
tuatio
Water
Th(
basin
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS.
57
existing continents.' They endeavor to calculate the
age of deltas from this imaginary fixed period ; and
they calculate the gain of new land upon the sea, at
the mouths of rivers, as having begun everywhere
simultaneously. But the more we study the history
of deltas the more we become convinced that upward
and doiumvard movements of the land and contiguous
bed of the sea have exerted, and continue to exert, an
influence on the physical geography of niany hydro-
graphical basins, on a scale comparable in magnitude
or importance to the amount of fluxatile deposition
effected in an equal lapse of time. In the basin of
the Mississippi, for example, proofs both of descend-
ing and ascending movements to a vertical amount of
several hundred feet can be shown to have taken
place since the existing species of land and fresh water
shells lived in that region. The deltas also of the Po
and Ganges have each, when probed by the artesian
auger, borne testimony to a gradual subsidence of
land to the extent of several hundred feet — old terres-
trial surfaces, turf, peat, forest, land and 'dirt beds'
having been pierced at various depths. The changes
of level at the mouth of the Indus, in Cutch, and those
of New Madrid, in the valley of the Mississippi, are
equally instructive, as demonstrati' g unceasing fluc-
tuations in the levels of those areas into which running
water is transporting sediment."*
The change of level so distinctly marked in the
basin of the Mississippi may be explained by a sud-
• *' Principles of Geology," p. 1G5.
flK
58
AGE OF CREATION.
I
den upward shift of the North Pole. After an in-
terval of time to allow of the accu,mulation of the
loess, a downward polar movement would result in
producing the physical peculiarities of the Mississippi,
as well as the formation of the delta at its mouth, by
means of the accompanying elevation and its detach-
ment from the mainland by the force of the waters.
Admittinof a chanfje in the axis of the earth's rotation
as the cause of the former changes of level, and con-
siderincj the enormous majinitude of the disturbins:
force, it will be seen that a much shorter period of
time would meet the requirements of sedimentary de-
position than that based on the present rate of forma-
tion. The age of the delta of the Mississippi has been
estimated at from 5,000 to 70,000 years, and that of
the Nile, in Egypt, at from 0,350 years upwards. But
the unreliability of these figures will be seen at a
glance when the former agencies which were at work
are taken into account.
Along the southern coasts of Asia, and especially in
India, there is distinct evidence of a great change of
level having occurred during the Glacial period. In
India a vast area of country is inundated with what
is known as the Himalayan mud, which has been
compared to the loess of Europe and America. Ac-
cording to Lyell, " the vast plains of Bengal are over-
spread with Himalayan mud, which, as we ascend the
Ganges, extends inland for 1,200 miles from the sea,
continuing very homogeneous on the whole, though
becoming more sandy as it nears the hills. ... To
AM.UVIAL DEPOSITS.
59
what depth the mud extends is not known, but it
resembles the loess in beinj^ generally devoid of strati-
fication and of shells, though containing occasionally
land shells in abundance, as well as calcareous concre-
tions called kunkur, which may be compared to the
nodules of carbonate of lime sometimes observed to
form layers in the Rhenish loess. . . . Borings
have been made at Calcutta, beginning not many feet
above the sea level, to a depth of 300 and 400 feet.
. At the bottom of the borings, after passing
through much fine loam, beds of pebbles and boulders
were reached, such as might belong to an ancient river
channel ; and the bones of a crocodile and the shell of
a fresh-water tortoise imbedded in it were met with
at the depth of 400 feet from the surface. No pebbles
are now brou^jht down within a jjreat distance of this
point, so that the country must once have had a to-
tally different character, and may have had its valleys,
hills and rivers before all was reduced to one common
level by the accumulation upon it of fine Himalayan
mud. If the latter were removed during a gradual
re-elevation of the country many old hydrographical
basins might reappear, and portions of the loam might
alone remain in terraces, on the flanks of hills, or on
platforms attesting the vast extent, in ancient times,
of the muddy envelope."*
Here is distinct evidence of a former change of
level on this part of the globe, accompanied by a vast
inundation, in which beds of gravel, sand and boul-
* *' Antiquity of Man." p. 336.
60
AGE OF CREATION.
ders were deposited over the then existing surface, at
a great distance from their present accumulation. An
elevation of the North Pole would produce this result,
for the change of level would cause a submergence of
the lands on°that side of the globe. Allowing an in-
terval of time for the accumulation of the alluvium,
a subsequent lowering of the North Pole would pro-
duce the existing effects, and result in the present dis-
tribution of the land and water in the East.
ii
I
iii'!
JFORMER VOLCANIC EFFECTS.
61
CHAPTER VI.
FORMEn VOLCANIC EFFECTS.
HILE the raging waters of the Glacial floods
have left behind an indelible imprint of
havoc and destruction, vast eruptions of volcanic mat-
ter in many parts of the globe bear testimony to the
intensity of the igneous forces which accompanied
them. The terrific eruptions of Vesuvius, ^Etna and
other volcanoes in modern times are feeble emissions
in comparison with the immense and violent out-
bursts of lava, scoriae and ashes that resulted from
the upward and downward movements of the earth
in the later Tertiary periods. Modern volcanic dis-
turbance is characterized by rumbling subterraneous
noises, accompanied with convulsive earthquakes and
a discharge of vapor and molten lava, which is ejected
with stupendous force many thousand feet into the
air. Here the vapors spread like a broad canopy,
occasionally becoming condensed and descending in a
deluge of rain, ashes and mud, in such quantities as to
completely inundate the surrounding country. Dark
clouds of cinders and fine dust hover over the moun-
tain top and the adjoining neighborhood for many
miles, while streams of liquid lava pour down in
torrents from its summit. Over this a crust is rapidly
II
62
AGK OP CREATION.
lilt*
formed by exposure, enveloping the country for miles
in a shroud of complete desolation.
In Iceland, in 1788, the volcano of Skaptur Jokul
alone poured out a volume of lava of not less than
655,000,000,000 cubic yards. In some places the mol-
ten material attained a thickness of over 490 feet. Ac-
cording to Prof, Buschoff the mass of lava poured out
from the subterranean regions by this eruption sur-
passed in magnitude the bulk of Mount Blanc, in
Switzerland. The volcano was cleft open and two
great streams of fire escaped, flowing in opposite
directions. One attained a length of fifty miles, with
an estimated breadth of from twelve to fifteen miles ;
the other being about forty-five miles long and about
seven miles wide. The streams attained an average
height of 100 feet, but sometimes rose as hifjh as 600
c5 ' c5
feet in the narrow defiles. A torrent of lava, in many
places from 400 to 600 feet in depth and nearly 200
feet in breadth, was poured forth inco the channel of
the Skapta, entirely filling up the rocky gorge and
overflowing the neighborhood for a considerable dis-
tance. After flowing for several days the molten lava
plunged over the tremendous cataract of Stapafoss,
filling up the deep gorge which had formerly been
hollowed out by the fall of the water.
Previous to the eruption of Skaptur Jokul a sub-
marine volcano burst out of the sea at a distance of
200 miles from the mainland, and ejected pumice to
such an extent that the ocean was covered with that
substance for a distance of 150 miles. A new island
hav(
dur:
beei
ated
of
even
ous
FORMER VOLCANIC EFFECTS.
63
was formed called Nyoe, from which eruptions also
took place, but it disappeared again during the follow-
i^ig year.-
The eruptive nature of Vesuvius, and its destructive
effects in times past, when Heiculaneum, Pompeii and
Stabile were overwhelmed, is well known. In 1872
Vesuvius poured out a molten stream of lava 3,000
feet wide and 20 feet deep, and shot forth volumes
of scoriae, fire and smoke to a height of 4,000 feet
amid a roar like that of distant artillery. In Cen-
tral America an eruption of Coseguina covered the
neighboring country with a layer of ashes IG feet
thick for a distance of 25 miles. Ashes fell in Jamaica,
800 miles away, and the noise of the explosion was
distinctly heard at Bogota, a distance of 1,025 miles.
The quantity of lava emitted was not less than 6o,-
500,000,000 cubic yards.
The Gulf of Santorin, in the Grecian Archipelago,
is known to have been the scene of volcanic eruptions
for at least 2,000 years ; and there is geological evi-
dence to prove that the whole mass of Santorin for-
merly stood at a higher level by 1,200 feet.
Similar volcanic disturbances of equal intensity
have taken place all over the globe in modern times,
during which hundreds of, thousands of lives have
been lost, and many cities and towns entirely obliter-
ated. If, then, such destructive results are the effect
of volcanic action in the earth's natural course of
events, what must have been the intensity of the igne-
ous force and disturbance during the Drift epoch,
64
AGE OF CREATFON.
when the globe itself had been tilted out of position,
if the shocks were the result of a sudden displacement
of its axis of rotation ? But there is no need to draw
on the imagination for the result : the . cient lava
sheets of the later Tertiary speak for themselves. This
period bears the marks of two great volcanic disturb-
ances of stupendous magnitude, in the building up of
great mountain cones and the extraordinary outflow
of molten lava. Along the west coast of Africa and
in California the ancient lavas are spread over the
country in most striking forms. In North America,
during the eruptions, the neighboring river channels
were filled with outflowing lava; nnd, as an accom-
panying change of level took place, the river drainage
consequently became altered. The modern streams, in
some instances, have cut a passage across the more
ancient lava-filled river beds ; and where the erosion
has taken place along parallel lines, the interlying
lava- topped formations are known os table mountains.
In other places the rivers have excavated new chan-
nels alongside the hard lava, leaving the ancient
sheets, which cover the former river bottoms, resting
on elongated ridges.
With a repetition of the continental upheaval, and
during the process of re-elevation, gigantic crevices
and fissures were rent in the solid rock, extending
perpendicularly to a great depth. Into these deep
fissures rushed voluminous torrents of water, which
swept through the mountains with teriffic velocity,
excavating and eroding the softer portions of the
she
at
coa,^
is
pro
Mid
Lace
flow
ineq
FORMEll VOLCANIC EFFECTS.
65
surroundinfv rocks, and leaving those of harder com-
position standing in numerous peaks and isolated
domes. The Grand Canon of Colorado is a mighty
gorge through a bed of solid rock 300 miles long and
from 3,000 to 6,000 feet deep. The gorges of the
north and south forks of the American River are
rent through solid slate to a depth of from 2,000 to
3,000 feet, and others through hard granite at various
depths ranging from 3,000 to 4,000 feet.
The Columbia River has found a passage through
the entire Cascade range of mountains, leaving its
gigantic peaks standing as the result of the erosion.
The walls of the great canons, extending for miles, are
formed entirely of lava, rising to a height of from
2,500 to 3,500 feet above the surface of the river.
Through fissures in the mountain range the lava
poured in torrents, extending in one continuous sheet
across the eastern part of Oregon to the Blue Moun-
tains. In Sierra Nevada the flow also overspread the
country to an enormous extent, building up large iso-
lated volcanic accumulations, and forming vast lava
sheets through which river channels at present exist
at a depth of from 500 to 800 feet. The western
coast of America, from California to British Columbia,
is completely inundated with ancient lava, forming
probably the largest area known. " Commencing in
Middle California in separate stroams," according to
Laconte, " in Northern California it becomes a flood,
flowing over and completely mantling the smaller
inequalities, and flowing around the greater irregu-
m^
^M
66
AGE OF CREATION.
larities of surface ; while in North orn Oregon and
Wasliington it becomes an absolutely univ^ersal flood,
beneath which the whole original face of the country,
with its hills and dales, mountains and valleys, lies
buried several thousand feet. It covers the greater
portion of Northern California and North-western Ne-
vada, nearly the whole of Oregon, Washington and
Idaho, and runs far into Montana and British Colum-
bia on the north. Its eastern and southern limits are
not well known, but its extent cannot be less tha.ii
1.' 0,000 to 200,000 square miles, with a thickness of
3,000 to 4,000 feet in its thickest part, where cut
through by the Columbia river."
The magnitude of the former eruptions may be in-
ferred from the fact that the molten lava flowed for
hundreds of miles in a liquid condition, while in
modern eruptions the flow generally accumulates near
the vent, and seldom extends over more than a com-
pars^tively small area. Many lava eruptions take place
through fissures in the mountain side ; and so copious
has been the flow in times \. \st that great volcanic
cones, thousands of feet in ^ight, have been entirely
built up, and owe their origin to this source alone.
The great basin ranges through Utah, California and
Arizona, east of the Sierra Nevada, are mainly the re-
sult of former volcanic disturbance. The great basin
of the West, stretching from the Sierra Nevada to the
Wasatch Mountains, at this period was a scene of tre-
mendous volcanic action. The surface of the land
and the waters of the lakes were deluged with ashes,
FORMER VOLCANIC EFFECTS.
67
which, accordinj^ to Newberry, were "in some in-
stances ten or twenty feet in thickness. At other
times the volcanic action was still more intense, and
floods of lava were poured out which formed continu-
ous sheets hundreds of miles in extent, penetrating
far into the lake basins, and giving to their floors
bottoms of solid basalt."*
In Europe many mountains and gigantic lava cones
were formed, and vast basaltic eruptions took place,
during the two great continental upheavals of the
Tertiary period. In France the extinct volcanoes of
Auvergne consist of three separate groups, and ex-
tend for a distance of 100 miles in a north and south
direction, and range from 20 to 80 miles in width.
The trachytic outflows are spread over an extensive
area. The ancient lava streams may be traced for a
distance of many miles, and in some places have filled
valleys half a mile in width to a depth of 150 feet.
The district surrounding the extinct volcanoes of Mont
Dore, the Cantal and Mont Mezin are covered with im-
mense beds of scoriae and pumice, and floods of basalt.
At the foot of the Pyrenees, in the north-east of
Spain, in the Appeiiines, in Central Italy, and in Sar-
dinia, there are extensive groups of extinct volcanic
cones of the Tertiary period. According to Judd, all
through Northern and part of Western Bavaria, as
well as in Central Germany, isolated hills of basalt
occur by hundreds ; and the volcanic district of Schem-
nitz, in Hungary, is a vast extinct volcanic centre,
* Hayden and Selwyn's " North America." p. 131.
68
AGE OF CREATION.
covering an area of 50 miles, in whinh lava cones
were formed in abundance. The Madeira Islands, in
the Atlantic Ocean, the islpnds of Ascension, St.
Helena, the Azores, Cape Verde and Canary Islands,
were in a state of intense volcanic activity during
Tertiary times. In Asia Minor, Central Asia and the
Caucasus there are many remarkable groups of extinct
volcanoes. In Great Britain the islands of Mull and
Skye were originally parts of a vast plateau of ba-
saltic lava nearly 2,000 feet deep, a great portion of
which has been washed away by denudation. Its cir-
cumference is estimated by Judd to have been 40
miles, and its height not less than 14,500 feet.
Volcanic eruptions of a similar nature took place in
India during the same geological period. Commenc-
ing on the southern line c f the Vindhya and Aravulli
ranges, the outflow of trap in some places attained
(j thickness of about 4,000 feet, covering an estimated
area in Central India of 200,000 square miles.
All over the globe there is ample evidence of two
eruptive outbursts of enormous magnitude, accom-
panied by continental changes of level, having oc-
curred during the geological period which marks that
greatest of modern terrestrial disturbances — the Gla-
cial epoch. One of these lava sheets being more
ancient than the other it is evident that an interval
of time existed between each disturbance, and these
were undoubtedly the result of the same cause which
produced the accompanying changes of level, viz., an
upward and down^' ird shift of the North Pole.
NORTH AMERICAN PRAIRIES.
69
CHAPTER VII.
NORTH AMERICAN PRAIRIES.
" Lo! they stretch
In airy undulations, far away,
As if the ocean, in his gentlest swell,
Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed
And motionless forever. Motionless !
They are all unchanged again. The clouds
Sweep over with their shadows, and, beneath.
The surface rolls and fluctuates to the eye ;
Dark hollows seem to glide along, and chase
The sunny ridges, " — W. C. Bryant,
[HE vast and extensive prairies of North America,
and the broad and waving pampas and savan-
nahs of the South, are remarkable features of striking
admiration peculiar to the New World. Millions of
acres of treeless land, covered with a rich, arable
diluvial deposit, are characteristic of the whole North
American continent. Far as the eye can reach appears
one vast expanse of boundless meadow, to which there
appears to be no terminable limit. Gently undulat-
ing, the land is sometimes rolling, and again reaches
an almost unbroken level ; not a tree to be seen for
miles, and then only in isolated places. These plains
are covered with rank and succulent grasses and plants,
which attest the rich, produtive nature of the soil.
70
AGE OF CREATION.
The absence of trees long ago attracted attention, and
many theories have been advanced as to the cause.
Some have supposed the plains to have been cleared
of forests by prehistoric races, while others attribute
their removal to devastating fires occurring in primi-
tive times. But with the particulars of the Drift
explained there is no difficulty in understanding the
origin of the treeless nature of the prairies. Over
these plains the Glacial floods made a clean sweep,
with a force that could not be dammed back by a wall
of rock itself, rooting up trees bodily and carrying
them oft' with the ease of a Western cyclone. The soil
itself bears satisfactory evidence of having been accu-
mulated under water. The rich, black, arable mould,
several feet thick, is plainly a sediment deposited by
water. In this soil fresh-water shells and other re-
mains have been found, indicating that the land had
been completely submerged. Over this inundated
land vegetation soon found a foothold after the waters
retreated. Grasses and flowers sprang up ; the sum-
mer's heat and winter's snow of centuries contributed,
with the annual decay of vegetation, to what is now a
sward of rich and fertile land spread over a country
abounding with animal life, and unequalled for agri-
cultural purposes by any in the world.
Previous to the Drift the vegetation of North
America was very similar to that now existing. Ac-
cording to Lesquereux and Newberry, oak, hickory,
poplar, maple, mulberry, hornbeam, box-elder, laurel,
bay, dogwood, sumac, olive, buckthorn, magnolia, smi-
lax, white cedar, sequoiaj, cypress and sabal flourished.
NORTH AMERICAN PRAIRIES.
71
m
and show the greatest affinity with species of our own
time. This fact is another indication of the modern
age of the Drift, and that the event occurred at a time
so recent that the flora of the American continent was
exactly identical with that of the present day.
The great alkali plains of the Canadian North-
West and the United States deserts owe their origin
to the Drift. The soil is thoroughly saturated with
alkali, barren, and the water unfit for use. Here the
salt water of the ocean evaporated, after strewing the
contents of its basin over the surface. This formed
great lakes in some places to which there was no out-
let, and the water gradually evaporated, forming a
crystallized deposit of salt on the bottom of the now
extinct lakes. In some parts of the prairies the land
is a solid bed of §tiff clay, on which is deposited a layer
of alkali srlt three or four inches thick, with a top
covering of vegetable mould. Millions of acres of land
of this description are to be found in Canada alone,
and the whole topography of the country may be
traced to Glacial action. The great chain of North
American lakes found an outlet in the St. Lawrence
River, thus drawing off the salt water with which they
were flooded, and contributions from the clouds pro-
moted the maintenance of a supply of fresh water.
Otherwise these lakes must have remained as inland
oceans of salt water. In some portions of the country
every valley, every hollow, and every depression on the
surface, was filled with brine, and innumerable shallow
ponds were formed from which the imprisoned waters
found no escape except by evaporation. Into these
' t
72
AGE OF CREATION.
II
lakes the oozinof mud and drainage from the hills and
ridges were washed down by rains until gradually the
salt disappeared beneath the mud and marl, and vege-
tation soon found a foothold. When the continent
regained its former level the lakes gradually dis-
appeared, leaving behind a surface of argillaceous
matter and alkali, to be scorched and dried up by the
heat of the sun, forming the great barren alkali plains
which abound over the North American continent.
There can be no doubt that the courses of the large
rivers in America, and the great chain ot* Canadian
lakes, stretching in one long curve from the north to
the south-east, owe their present peculiarities and
their origin to the Drift epoch.
The indented land across the north of the whole of
British America bears every appearance of having
been violently torn open by the mighty icebergs of
the North sweeping down the face of the continent.
The broken and shattered rocky northern shores of
the vast lakes, the deserts of alkali, the transported
rocks and drirt, show plainly the traces of violent
action ; while the rich valleys of the southern shores
are covered by unmistakable traces of alluvial de-
posits, showing how destructive and widespread was
the havoc caused by the flood. Here, at an elevation
of from 300 to 600 feet above the sea level, nearly
one-half of all the fresh water in the world is now
accumulated.
The pampas of South America bear a similar geo-
logical formation as the prairies of the North, and
their origin may be also traced to the same source.
ten(
the
they
si f 111
like
belo^
a ste(
iagoo
An
land
THE CORAL REEFS.
73
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CORAL REEFS.
'"vjK^HE dread of mariners and the wonder and aston-
(^ ishment of travellers, the coral islands emerge
from the waves or rise to a small depth below the sur-
face, forming one of the most conspicuous features of
the ocean. Spreading in clusters over the Pacific and
Indian Oceans, they at once attract attention by the
variety and beaiity of their scenery and the curious
nature of their structure. Rising abruptly from the
bottom of the sea, some of the reefs circle round an
enormous area for miles, enclosing a vast lagoon of
smooth, bright green water, protected on all sides from
the fury of the surging breakers by which they are
surrounded. These are known as atolls. Others ex-
tend in straight lines a short distance off the shores of
the mainland, or encircle smaller islands from which
they are separated by a broad, smooth area of water,
similar to that lying within the atolls. Externally,
like the latter, they rise abruptly from the depth
below, while internally they occasionally terminate in
a steep perpendicular wall, or gradually slope into the
lagoon.
Another class known as fringing reefs border the
land shores, extending but a short distance out into the
6
;ii
74
AGE OF CREATION.
water where the coast terminates abruptly, or spread
still further as the inclination of the land extends, but
only till a certain and requisite depth is attained.
These three classes — the atolls, barrier reefs and fring-
ing reefs — represent the form of the coral islands in
general. On these a luxuriant tropical vegetation has
obtained a foothold, and some of the choicest pro-
ductions of the tropics flourish. Tall, waving cocoa-
nut trees relieve the monotony of the surroundinij
ocean, and add materially to the habitation of the
islands. Numerous birds of oceanic species, such as
terns, gannets and frigate birds, find a place of abode
in the islands ; while turtles and other marine animals
abound in the lagoons and waters of the surround-
intr sea, all contributing to form what are now the
most conspicuous wonders of the ocean. The great
Polynesian archipelago is composed almost entirely of
coral islets, reef-chains and groups of atolls, forming
one of the great geographical divisions of the globe.
Many of these islands are of vast extent, and some of
the groups spread over an enormous area. The Radick
group of atolls, as described by Darwin, "is an irregu-
lar square 520 miles long and 240 broad ; the Low
archipelago is elliptic-formed, 840 miles in its longer,
and 420 in its shorter, axis. There are other small
groups and single low islands between these two archi-
pelagos, making a linear space of ocean actually more
than 4,000 miles in length, in which not one single
island rises above the specified height. Again, in the
Indian Ocean there is a space of ocean 1,500 miles in
in I
that
I
THE CORAL REEFS.
75
iM
u
lenj^th, includinpf three archipelagos, in which everj^
island is low and of coral formation."*
Between New Guinea and Australia a coral forma-
tion extends for 700 miles, and on the east side of the
latter are 350 miles of unbroken reefs, and a chain
of reefs and islets runs on the south-west of Mala-
bar alone 480 miles in length. The island of New
Caledonia is encircled at both ends bv a barrier reef
400 miles long, which extends in a continuous line
beyond its northern limit for a distance of 150 miles.
The reef is broken in many parts, and includes several
separate and distinct rocky islands of various heights,
The depth within the lagoon channel varies from GO
to 336 feet, while externally the reef rises abruptly
out of the ocean. In some places the lagoon channels
are very deep, ranging from 100 to 200 fathoms in
depth, dividing separately what appears to have been
formerly one distinct atoll. In each of the different
classes of reefs similar passages form an entrance from
the dashing breakers of the foaming sea without to
the smooth and serene waters of the lagoons within.
The coral of which the rockv domes of the reefs are
composed was formerly supposed to be a marine plant,
owing to its shrub-like form, and the soft, glutinous
nature of the coating with which branches are covered
while in the w^ater, but which immediately dries up
and decays on exposure to the atmosphere.
In 1727 Peyssonel, a French physician, discovered
that the supposed plants were minute animals, and
*" History and Geology," p. 467.
76
AGE OF CREATION.
they were afterwards designated zoophytes by Lin-
naeus, as indicating the twofold nature of an animal
and a plant. Their general character is that of a polyp
— by which they are also known — a small animal con-
sisting of a stomach surrounded with radiating ten-
tacles. An indefinite number of polyps may be at-
tached together on a general frame or branch-like
stalk. One of the most remarkable peculiarities con-
nected with this class of animals is their extraordinary
tenacity of life. " If a polj^-p be cut in two," remarks
M. Trembloy, "the fore part, which contains the head
and mouth and arms, lengthens itself, creeps and eats
on the same day. The tail forms a new head and
mouth ; at the wounded end shoot forth arms ; if
turned inside out, the parts at once accommodate
themselves to these new conditions. If the body were
cut in ten pieces, every portion would become a new,
perfect, living animal. A polyp has been cut length-
wise at seven in the morning, and in eight hours
afterwards each part has devoured a worm as long as
itself! How astonishing it is to see a creature, so ap-
parently frail in structure, possessing the actions, sen-
sations and powers of higher organized beings ! The
stomach is without membrane or cell ; the outside sur-
face cells form a kind of double skin, and the inside
consists of a wall of cells running crosswise, with a
velvet-like surface, being red or brown grains held
together by a gluey substance." To this class belong
the coral lif era, a minute tribe of wonderful character,
to which tlie rockv domes of the coral islands owe
incr
m -afcLi' ---
THE CORAL REEFS.
77
their formation. Living mounds of coral-builders,
hundreds (K miles in extent, work unceasingly in the
formation of the wonderful groves and submarine
forests of delicate branching corals so extensively
spread over the tropical seas. Seen at work in their
native element the forms and tints of the teeming
millions of zoophytes shine and gleam through the
clear crystal water, and present a radiant and brilliant
appearance. They are described as of every shape —
"some delicate and leaf -like ; others with large branch-
ing; stems ; and others aofain exhibiting an assemblasfe
of interlacing twigs of the most delicate and exquisite
workmanship." Only in the water, however, do they
present such an appearance, for immediately on ex-
traction they shrivel and dry up rapidly. The soft,
gelatinous body of the polyps unite the atoms of car-
bonate of lime from the ocean into a hard, twisted
substance of symmetrical structure. By this process
large masses of solid rock are formed capable of resist-
ing the violent action of the foaming waves more
firmly than if formed of granite or the hardest rock.
It has been formerly suj^posed that coral reefs were
built from the bottom of the ocean, and that in the
early stages of their operations the coral-builders
worked perpendicularly, throwing up a breastwork to
afford protection on the inward side from the violent
action of the waters of the deep. But the latter has
been found to be incorrect, for it is known that the
corals growing on the exposed shore cannot live within
the lagoon where the more delicate kinds exist. The
:<ti
78
AGE OF CREATION.
former has been also proved untrue. From observa-
tions and Houndinjxs made and confirmed it is definite-
\y known that the greatest depth at which corals can
grow is between twenty and thirty fathoms. As the
coral islands are generally of a uniform height above
the surface, it was clear that a foundation must have
originally existed at that depth, from which the reefs
were built upward. This was found to be the case, the
soundinjrs indicatino- that the structures were based
on a bottom of sand. A generally-supposed theory
was, that the atolls were based on the craters of ex-
tinct volcanoes. Though this may be undoubtedly cor-
rect respecting some of the coral islands, it is clear
that they are not all of volcanic origin, for this theory
has been found inapplicable for the barrier reefs, and
also for the atolls when their form, size and number
are taken into consideration. They appear to be based
on broad, steep banks of sediment rising to a uniform
height from the bottom of the ocean, and arranged in
long lines for hundreds of miles, or grouped together
in vast circles over an immense area of ocean. But of
what origin are the bases if not volcanic ? Are there
any similar structures known to exist that a compari-
son might be made with in order to obtain an idea as
to their formation ? Yes ; the osars and the great
ridges and reefs of the Drift epoch. During the Post-
glacial period a submergence of the ridges and reefs
took place with the accompanying changes of level,
while the corals again grew upward to the surface. If
these facts are considered it will be seen that the coral
THE CORAL RKEFS.
79
reefs aro of comparatively modern origin ; and that in-
stead of requirin<^ an "immense series of ages" for their
formation, two or three thousand years un(Jer such cir-
cumstances wouhl suffice for the present growtli of the
coral islands. It has been estimated that the rate of
growth of the common madrepore, one of the most
abundant of the coral tribes, is nut over an inch and
a half a year. After making allowance for porosity,
disintegiation and other reducing causes, and comput-
ing the thickness of some of the coral reefs at about
2,000 feet, the result arrived at has been one of those
" inconceivably vast periods of time" which have never
had an existence except in the imagination ! If the
corals grew from the bottom of the ocean, at their
known rate of increase, there might be some truth in
such a result ; but it is well known that corals live
only in comparatively shallow water, and that the
greatest depth at which they can exist is from 120 to
180 feet. It is also well known that a foundation of
some sort exists on which the structures are based.
From the top of their bases to the surface of the
water the coral builders work, and the existence of
ancient beds of dead coral on many of the islands is
an indication that they formerly existed near the sur-
face. These were afterward deprived of life by sub-
mergence in deep water during the universal change
of level which accompanied the Post-glacial period.
M;F(
80
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER IX.
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
^iil^
jT[,N Geology the Tertiary formation is that which
.J^, follows the close of the Cretaceous period and
extends upward to the Boulder formation of the Drift
epoch. It has been divided into three divisions by
geologists, and these again sub-divided, but the prin-
cipal ones now generally followed are those named
by Lyell as Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. These
with their subdivisions, form what is known as the
Tertiary formation. The Tertiary period is described
as the " reign of mammals." The gigantic extinct
animals — the mastodon, mammoth, and other great
pachyderms and i-uminants — then roamed over the
greater portions of the Old and New Worlds in herds ;
while South America was the home of colossal eden-
tate giants, such as the megatherium and mylodon.
In Europe the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
tiger, hj^ena, bear, wolf, ox, camel, deer and .smaller
animals, abounded from the Mediterranean to the
Arctic Ocean. The animal remains of this jxeolos:-
leal period are found, in some cases in great quanti-
ties, buried in ancient marshes and alluvium, in caves,
or frozen and embedded in arctic ice. The mam-
moth (Elephas primigenus) far surpassed in size the
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
81
largest elephant of the present time. It stood nearly
a third taller, being from fifteen to sixteen feet in
height, with a body nearly thirty feet in circumfer-
ence. It was covered with long, bri^stly hair, while
a rough, shaggy mane hung from its neck and ex-
tended along its back. Underneath was a woolly
coatinof of fine hair four or five inches lono\ The
tusks of this animal weighed from 150 to 200 pounds,
and are eagerly sought for as fossil ivory. In one
year alone — 1844 — 16,000 pounds were sold in St.
Petersburg. Two enormous truncated tusks projected
forward from the head, curving outward and back-
ward. Its teeth were massive structures, measuring as
much as a foot and a half in length, and weighing
about seventeen pounds each. The grinding teeth
were of a peculiar nature, the crown being divided
into a number of plates ranging in succession, and
these plates again into a sub-cylindrical process,
resembling a perfect tooth, each being ''omplete
within itself, the m-owth of the whole btinjx of a
gradual formation, as required by the animal.
In the museum of St. Petersburg a perfect skeleton
stands as high as sixteen feet. The tusks measure
one foot across the base, and fourteen feet long. Tlie
sole of the foot alone is a yard in diameter. Several
discoveries of perfect specimens found have been de-
scribed. At the beginning of this century, Adams, a
Russian naturalist, discovered the carcass of a mam-
moth at the mouth of the River Lena, in Siberia,
frozen and completely enveloped in ice. It retained
*^.-1
82
AGE OF CREATION.
'
all its parts, and was so perfectly preserved that, when
thawed, its flesh was devoured by dogs. Since that
time many similar discoveries -have been made, from
which tlie nature and the habits of the anitnal were
gleaned, and are now well known. In 1843 Midden-
dorf found a mammoth in such a perfect condition
that the bulb of the eye is still preserved and on exhi-
bition at the museum in Moscow. Several other
instances are known of complete specimens being
found embedded in frozen ice.
The mammoth roamed over the greater part of the
earth — in North America from the Arctic regions to the
Gulf of Mexico, and in the eastern hemisphere from
Siberia to the West of Europe as far south as the Medi-
terranean. The bones of these animals, together with
those of the elephant and rhinoceros, have been found
in thousands in Siberia, " heaps upon heaps," where
they are extensively sought for the sake of their tusks,
of which an enormous quantitj'- has been found and
sold. The remains of elephants are found in such
abundance in Northern Russia and Siberia that the
statements of travellers made concerning them ap-
pear almost incredible. Whole islands, many miles in
length, are described as being formed almost entirely
of the bones of these animals. New Siberia and the
Liichow islands, oft* the mouth of the River Lena, are
of this nature, forming an actual ivory quarry from
which a constant supply has been exported to China
for Mve hundred years, and Europe for the last cen-
tury, with apparently no signs of exhaustion.
B g.tir? ' " -'':
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
83
" There is not," says Pallas, " in all Asiatic Russia,
from the Don to the extremity of the promontory of
Tchutchis, a stream or river, especially of those which
flow in the plains, on the banks of which some bones
of elephants and other animals foreign to the climate
have not been found. But in the more elevated
regions, the primitive and scliistose chains, they are
wanting, as are marine petrifactions. But in the
lower slopes and in the great muddy and sandy plains,
and above all, in places which are swept by rivers and
brooks, they are always found, which proves that we
should not the less find them throughout the whole
extent of the countrv if we had the same means of
searching for them."
The mastodon (giganteivs) equalled the elephant in
height, but its limbs were thicker and the abdomen
slighter and of greater length. The head was also
larger and more massive. Its tusks were four in
number, the two upper ones curving upward to a
length of twelve or fourteen feet. Two tusks also
appeared in the lower jaw, one only in the adult
male reaching development, both being shed early in
the female. The name " mastodon " was given by
Cuvier, who designated it such from the nature of its
teeth, mai^tos being the Greek for nipple, and odons a
tooth, or nipple tooth. The tooth is of a rectangular
form, the surface of the crown being formed of great
conical tuberosities with rounded points ranged in pairs,
to the number of four or five ; and from remains of
undigested food in its stomach, and other evidence, it
\m
iilP
I
ffa*
84
AGE OF CREATION.
is clear that it sub.sistt^d chiefly on vegetation, such as
the tender branches of trees and leaves. The teeth
bear no resemblance to those of the carnivora, but par-
take of the nature of those of the hippopotamus and
other herbivorous animals. The animal roamed over
a vast extent, from the tropics, both north and south,
into the temperate latitudes, its bones being found in
vast quantities throughout North America.
Among the most remarkable of the Tertiary mam-
mals was the gigantic dinotherium, which was even
superior in dimensions to those of the mastodon or the
mainmoth. It is believed to have inhabited the great
swamps bordering on the banks of rivers and the fresh-
water lakes. Its lower jaw was armed with defen-
sive tusks, curving downward, which appear to have
been formed for the purpose of tearing up from the
bed of the river or lake the roots of aquatic plants, for
which the large surface of its teeth and the powerful
muscles of its jaws were apparently a('apted. It pos-
sessed a long tapir-like proboscis, which it evidently
empl yed in gathering the plants that floated on the
surface or the leaves of trees which hung suspended
over the waters. In 1(S37 a nearly perfect head of one
of these animals, found at Eppelsheim, in the Grand
Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, was publicly exposed on
exhibition in Paris. It was nearly a yard and a half
long, and over a yard wide. The molar teeth were
analogous to those of the tapir, while its enormous
tusks were curved inwards, being carried at the an-
terior extremity of the lower maxillary bone. Two
KM
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
85
great holes joined to the nasal bone, under the orbits,
indicated the existence of a trunk or proboscis.
The rhinoceros abounded in «^reat numbers during
the Pliocene period. The rhinc^ceros (tichorimis) was
remarkable for the peculiar formation of its nostrils,
which were separated in two by a bony partition, a
peculiarity which bears resembUinco to that of the
existing species. The nose of this animal was sur-
mounted by two horns, of a much larger size than those
carried by such animals of the present day, while its
body was clothed with skin covered with very thick
hair. Several other species existed, among them a
dwarf, in size resembling the common hog.
Pallas gives an interesting account of the discovery
of a rhinoceros (tichorinus), which had been taken out
of the ice in a remarkable state of preservation. It
was found on the banks of the Viloui River, near a
low, sandy hill about a hundred feet high. " The body
of the rhinoceros," he saj's, " had been buried in coarse
gravelly sand near this hill, and the nature of the soil,
which is always frozen, preserved it. The soil near
the Viloui never thaws to the depth of two yards in
the more elevated sandy places ; in the valleys, where
the soil is half sand and half clay, it remains frozen at
the end of summer half an ell below the surface-
Without this intense cold the skin of the animal and
many parts of it would long since have perished. The
animal could only have been transporte»l from some
southern country to the frozen north at the epoch of
the Deluge, for the most ancient chronicles speak of
I
86
AGE OF CREATION.
Ill'
hi h
no change of the globe more recent to whicli we could
attribute the deposits of these remains and of the
bones of elephants which are found dispersed all over
Siberia."
Commenting on the extensive ransje of these ani-
raals Figuier remarks : " It is very strange that the
East Indies, that is one of the only two regions which
is now tl home of the elephant, should be the only
country in which the fossil bones of these animals
have not been discovered. In short, from the preced-
ing enumeration it appears that during the geological
period whose history we are recording the gigantic
mammoth inhabited most regions of the fflobe. Now-
adays the only climates which are suited for the exist-
ing race of elephants are those of Africa and India,
that is to say, tropical countries ; from which we must
draw the conclusions to which so many other iiifer-
ences lead, that, at the epoch in which these animals
lived, the temperature of the earth was much higher
than in our days ; or more probably, the extinct race
of elephants must have been adapted for living in a
colder climate than that which they now re(|uire."*
In Great Britain the hippopotamus found a home in
the rivers and lakes, while wild oxen, gigantic elks,
and other animals of proportionate dimensions and
strength, tenanted the forests and plains. The huge
carnivorous animals, such as the lion, hyena, tiger,
bear, wolf, leopard, lynx and wild cat, larger and more
ferocious than those of the present time, skulked in
* "The World before the Deluge," p. 350.
I
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIODi
87
the forests, and made them an uncomfortable habita-
tion for their weaker neighbors.
Among the animals inhabiting South America the
megatherium occupied a place between the sloths and
the ant-eaters, burrowing in the soil like the latter
animal, and subsisting on the leaves of trees like the
former. In size it exceeded the largest rhinoceros.
Its ponderous bones show the animal to have been of
colossal dimensions. As represented by Hawkins, the
skull is two feet nine inches in length and one foot
six inches in breadth. The head wa^ relatively small
in proportion to the body, and evidently possessed a
snout analogous to that of the tapir. Its molar teeth
resemble those of the elephant, their structure indi-
cating that the animal was not carnivorous. In di-
mensions it was about eia'hteen feet in lenjTfth and
eight feet in height, with a body like that of an ele-
phant. The pelvic- was of enormous size, the massive
iliac bones being nearly at right angles with the verte-
bral column, and the distance from their external
edges being over a yard and a half. The femur, or
thigh bone, was three times as thick as that of an
elephant, being twenty- six inches in circumference.
The leg bones were short and very thick. The fore-
arms terminated in hands about a yard long and one
foot broad, and were furnished with long and powerful
claws, or talons, evidently designed for excavating the
earth and penetrating to the roots of vegetables and
other plants on which the animal subsisted. The
whole anatomical organization indicates 'slew, pon-
88
AGE OF CREATION.
derous and powerful locomotion, its massive dimen-
sions denoting its movements to have been excessively
slow, hardly able to drag itself alon^', but making up
for lack of agility in its incalculable strength. The
huge tail, which is supposed to have been used as a
support when the animal raised upward, was six feet
in circumference at the base. As the dimensions of
the animal were too ponderous to enable it to climb a
tree to obtain the foliage in the manner of the sloths
of the present day, it is represented as leaning against
the trunk of a tree in a send-erect attitude, the huge
tail forming a tripod to support the heavy carcass,
while the unwieldy- arms gathered in the vegetation
on which it subsisted.
The megalonyx was another genus of sloth-like ani-
mals, and so named in allusion to the wonderful size
of its claws.
The scelidotherium was a similar animal to the
megalonyx, being as large as a rhinoceros, and also
found in South America.
Another genus, known as the mylodon, measured
eleven feet in length, and was larger than an ox. It
belonged exclusively to South America, and differed
from the megatherium in the structure of its teeth,
the molars presenting a smooth surface, indicating
that the animal existed on leaves, tender buds and
vegetables. It is supposed to have formed a link be-
tween the ungulated, or hoofed, animals and the eden-
tata, from the fact that it presented both hoofs and
claws on each foot.
long-.
'S*,:S;'
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
89
"The habits of these mej^atheroid animals," says
Darwin, " were a complete puzzle to naturalists until
Prof. Owen, with remarkable ingenuity, solved the
'problem. The teeth indicate that they lived on vege-
table food, and probably on the leaves and small twigs
of trees. Their ponderous forms and curved claws
seem so little adapted for loco:;iotion that some natur-
alists have actually believed that, like the sloths, to
which they are intimately related, they subsisted by
climbing, back downwards, on trees, and feeding on
the leaves. It was a bold, not to say preposterous,
idea to conceive even antedeluvian trees with branches
strong enough to bear animals as large as elephants-
Prof. Owen, with far more probability, believes that
instead of climbing on the trees they pulled the
branches down to them, and tore the smaller trees
up by the roots, and so fed on their leaves. The
colossal breadth and weight of their hinder quar-
ters, which can hardly be imagined without being
seen, become, on this view, of obvious service instead
of being an incumbrance ; their apparent clumsiness
disappears. With their great tails and huge heels
firmly fixed like a tripod in the ground they could
freely exert the full force of their long, powerful arms
and great claws. The mylodon was furnished v/ith a
long, extensile tongue, like that of the giraffe, which
by one of those beautiful provisions of nature thus
reaches its leafy food."
The glyptodon was a gigantic South American
armadillo, with a mail-clad covering resembling the
7
90
AGE OK CREATION.
shell of a turtle. This animal was enveloped in a solid
tesselated carapace, being covered on the upper surface
from head to tail by a hard, scaly shell formed of
numerous segments. Each jaw was armed with six-
teen teeth, possessing ten broad and deep grooves,
dividing the surface of its molars into three parts.
The feet were evidently formed for supporting a great,
heavy carcass, while the phalanges were armed with
short, thick and powerful claws. Some of these mail-
clad species were as large as a rhinoceros or a North
American bison.
In the gypsum of Paris, of the Eocene period, the
remains of other pachyderms have been found of a
very curious nature. The adapsis was apparently a
gigontic hedgehog three times the size of the species
now existing, and appears to have formed a connect-
ing link between the insectivorous carnivora and the
pachyderms.
The palteotherium was a three-hoofed animal as
large as a horse, and resembling a tapir in form.
The anoplotherium was an animal about the size of
an ass, the feet terminating in two large toes, the
tarsus of which resembled those of a dromedary. They
formed an equally-divided hoof like that of an ox or
other ruminant. It possessed a tail of about a yard
long and very thick at the base, which probably served
as a rudder when swimming in water, which it fre-
quented in search of roots and stems of aquatic plants,
it being a strictly herbivorous animal. ** Judging from
its habits," says Cuvier, " the anoplotherium would
^
THE FAUNA OK THE TEKTIAKY I'ERIOD.
91
have the hair smooth like the otter ; perhaps its skin
was even half naked. It is not likely, either, that it
had loni^ ears, which would be inconvenient in its
aquatic kind of life; and I am inclined to think that,
in this respect, it resembled the hippopotamus and
other quadrupeds which frequent the water much."
In Central Europe the auroch, the bison and the
reindeer roamed over the plains, and the brown bear,
wolf, dog, wild boar, goat, sheep, fox and badger ex-
isted in cfreat numbers.
One of the largest and most curious of ruminants
was the sivatheriuin, the remains of which have been
found in the Sewalik Hills, one of the spurs of the
Himalaya Mountains in India. It derives its name
from the Indian deity, Siva. The animal appeared to
have been a jjigantic deer, rivallinof the existin^f elk in
size and dimensions. The head carried two pair of
horns, one pair projecting forward above the eyes, and
the other, lesser in size, spreading in broad tines above
the forehead.
Ireland was the home of a gigantic elk, known as
the megaceros hibernicus, that ranged from that coun-
try as far as Italy.
The wild goat, chamois, musk-ox and marmot abound-
ed in France and Spain ; beaver were common in the
rivers and lakes of Europe; and numerous other smaller
animals of still existing species were everywhere to be
found.
In the Miocene period the apes are found. The
mesopithecus, of which an entire skeleton was found
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92
AGE OF CREATION.
by M. Albert Gaudry, at Pikermi, in Greece, resembled
a dog-faced baboon, while remains of other species
have been discovered, but only in an imperfect condi-
tion.
A great number of reptiles existed during the Ter-
tiary period. In America the remains of the zeuglo-
don, a great alligator-like animal allied to the whale,
are found over the cotton lands of the Southern States.
This animal had a head six feet long, its immense jaws
being armed with a row of formidable teeth. Its
length was about seventy feet.
The gigantic amphibious batrachian, known as the
salamander, lived during this period. It attained the
dimensions of a crocodile.
All the foregoing animals are now extinct, and
various reasons have been assigned for their extinc-
tion ; but the floods of the Drift epoch will be found
correctly to explain the cause.
In America the remains of the mastodon and ele-
phant are mostly found in superficial deposits, in the
bogs, swamps and shell -marl of lakelets and ponds, and
in the river-gravel deposits. Some have been found
in an erect position near the surface, as though they
had but sunk in the bog. As these ancient lakelets,
bogs and sedimentary accumulations owe their origin
to the Drift, it is not difficult to see why these gigan-
tic animals are now extinct. In these cases it would
be an utter impossibility to assign to these bones a
remote antiquity such as that variously ascribed to
them. It would be hardly credible to suppose for a
THE FAUNA OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD.
93
moment that these remains could have resisted disin-
tegration, under unfavorable circumstances, for 5,000
years, much less a period of 100,000 or 200,000 years.
In the case of the mammoth, where the animal was
completely encased in frozen ice, the remains would
undoubtedly be preserved for ages ; but the mammoth
and the mastodon were contemporary, and both became
extinct simultaneously. There is the clearest proof
that these animals perished suddenly. In Siberia the
remains are found in a vast assemblage, showing that
the animals sought a place of safety ; while the trees
of that geological period have been uprooted and
blown down, presenting every trace of disorder and
violence.
Lyell quotes a letter to Baron Humboldt from Prof.
Brandt, of St. Petersburg, giving particulars of the
carcass of a rhinoceros obtained from Wiljuiskoi, in
latitude 64°, from the banks of the Wiljui, a tributary
of the Lena, by Pallas, in 1772 : " I have been so for-
tunate as to extract from cavities in the molar ^eeth
of the Wiljui rhinoceros a small quantity of its half-
chewed food, among which fragments of pine leaves,
one-half of the seed of a polygonaceous plant, and
very minute portions of wood with porous cells (or
small fragments of coniferous wood), were still recog-
nizable. It was also remarkable, on a close investiga-
tion of the head, that the blood vessels discovered in
the interior of the mass appeared filled, even to the
capillary vessels, with a brown mass (coagulated blood),
r
M
f
i-H
11
II
94
AGE OP CREATION.
which in many places still showed the red color of
blood."*
The foregoing is a sure indication that the animal
had been feeding just previous to its death when over-
taken by the Post-glacial flood that rooted and tore up
the trees, and swept the vast mammulian herds out of
existence before they had any time to prepare for
escape. In this manner perished all the gigantic
mammals and nearly all the other strange animals of
the Tertiary period which are now totally extinct.
The deluge by which they were suddenly overtaken
can be accounted for by a sudden downward shift of
the North Pole from a vertical position. Dvring the
Inter-glacial period, subsequent to an upward move-
ment, the axis of the earth would occupy a position
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, resulting in
a perpetual equinox. The Arctic region would then
become open and habitable. In these high latitudes
many of the great mammals of the Tertiary period
roamed in thousands until a sudden downward move-
ment of the North Pole brought upon them the waters
of the Arctic Ocean, by which they were forever blot-
ted out of existence.
* " Principles of Geology," Vol. 1., p. 183.
■^r
>dtlv
wmm
CAVE DEPOSITS.
95
CHAPTER X.
CAVE DEPOSITS.
tHE bone caves of Europe and America, which
have been found to contain human and animal
remains, are supposed by many to have formed the
habitations of men or animals in primitive times, and
are referred to as evidence of the great antiquity of
man. They are mainly extensive, natural rocky cavi-
ties of various size and irregular form, generally
situated at some height above the level of the present
watercourses, and communicating with the open air
by fissures in the roof or ancient channels in the
mountain side, through which a stream of water
originally flowed. When first discovered these open-
ings have been found choked up with detritus, and
the caverns and their contents hermetically sealed.
These were found to contain bones of extinct species of
the bear, lion, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, hyena, and
other species still existent, together with human re-
mains and implements of flint and stone, buried pell-
mell in a mass of dark sandy sediment at the bottom
of the caves. The remains are generally co^'ered with
a thick layer of stalagmite, on the top of which rests
a thin layer of surface soil, of which the floors of the
caves are formed. Very rarely has the complete re-
;1
11 1
96
AGE OF CREATION.
mains of any animal been disinterred, all found being
fragments, detached and scattered over the floors of
the caves. The bones of some of these animals have
been found broken and cracked, rounded and polished,
while others are in perfect condition, bearing no
marks of violence whatever. Dispersed through the
cave-mud have been found many species of land shells,
mingled with bones of birds, and occasionally fish, etc.
Comparatively few of thesi caves have been discovered
containinof human bones.
Out of eiorht hundred Brazilian caves examined bv
Lund, only six contained human remains. Of forty-
eight Belgian caves explored by Schmerling, in two or
three only were human bones found. Still there are
several instances where they have been discovered,
and sufficient evidence has been obtained to prove
beyond all doubt that man existed contemporaneously
with the animals whose remains are found in the
caves.
The most remarkable of these bone-caverns are
those of Gailenreuth. near Liecje, in Germany ; those
of Britain — in Devonshire, Somersetshire, Derbyshire
and Yorkshire ; others in France ; anvi! those of Ken-
tucky and Virginia, in America. Bone caves have
been discovered in Australia of a similar nature to
those of Europe and America, containing cemented
fragments of bones of animals common to the same
geological period.
Many of these caves, containing the remains of man
and his industry, together with the bones of extinct
CAVE DEPOSITS.
97
species of animals, have been discovered throughout
Europe. Among them is the celebrated cave known
as Kent's Hole, in Devonshire, England. The principal
cavern is about 600 feet long, into which emerge many
fissures or crevices in tie surrounding rock from all
directions. The floor of the cave, which was formed of
a red sandy clay, was found strewn with a vast assem-
blage of bones of extinct and existing animals, such as
the mammoth, bear, lion, rhinoceros, hyena, reindeer,
Irish elk, beaver, etc., together with numerous flint and
bone implements. The whole mass was covered by a
thick bed of ancient stalagnute, on which rested a thin
layer of surface soil This cavern presented undoubted
evidence of having been at a former period submerged
under water, from which it afterwards emerged, and
remained entirely closed till the day of its discovery.
The celebrated cave at Brixham, opposite to the Bay
of Torquay, was composed of several passages, with
four entrances which were blocked up with breccia and
other material. The main opening of the cave was
found to be 78 feet above the vallev and 95 feet above
ft/
the sea level, the opening being eight feet wide. The
contents were found to consist of the bones of ele-
phants, rhinoceros, bears, hyenas, lions, reindeer, horses,
oxen, and rats and other rodents. No human remains
were found, but many flint knives and other imple-
ments. These lay on a bed of gravel and pebbles in
which no remains were found, while a layer of reddish
loam from two to thirteen feet thick, containing peb-
bles and angular stones, overlaid the remains, the whole
98
AGE Of CREATION.
brin^ covered with a layer of stalagmite from one to
iifteen inches thick. The entire hind leg of a bear
was found among the remains, which could only have
been introduced when clothed in its flesh. The cave
presented no appearance of ever having been inhabited
by man or any other animal. The erosive action of
the water on its walls could be distinctly traced, and
at the time of its formation, as shown by a report
made by Mr. Bristow to the Royal Society, the land
was at a lower level to the extent of 95 feet, and that
its mouth must have been then situated at or near the
level of the sea.
From the south of France many discoveries of these
ossiferous caves have been reported, containing a simi-
lar association of remains; and buried in the alluvium
and gravel beds in the valley of the Somme human
remains were found in company with the bones of
extinct animals. Further discoveries in other places
have resulted in the finding of arrow heads, flints,
hatchets and other implements of stone, together with
the crania of man and the bones of other animals.
Many conjectures have been advanced as to the
cause of such an assemblage. By some the caves are
supposed to have been the habitations of man, owing
to the presence of rude implements, flint arrow and
spear heads, mingled with human bones, found in the
caves. Others are of opinion that these caverns were
sought f^ 'merly as places of refuge by animals broken
down with old age, and compelled by instinct to seek
a place of safety ; that they were afterwards inhabited
CAVE DEPOSITS.
99
by a succession of human beings and animals, and that
floods of running water may have displaced the re-
mains and mingled them in the confused mass in
which they have been found.
Cuvier and the earlier geologists were of opinion that
these ancient animals were destroyed in some terrible
catastrophe, and that they had been engulfed during
a great inundation ; but this idea is now generally
abandoned by modern scientists, who assign their ex-
tinction to local causes of a slow, successive nature,
and principally to a gradual lowering of the tempera-
ture, and for other natural reasons generally. Nearly
all these bone caves have been found imbedded in the
old channels of former rivers which have long since
disappeared, and generally covered by a deposit of
broken ; el and sand of the Boulder formation of
the Drift 'ch. They are not artificial caves hewn out
of the rojk, and bear no traces of mechanical excava-
tion whatever, but are simply hollow cavities, consist-
ing of numerous chambers, connecting with each other
by long and narrow passages. Occasionally some are
found several miles in length. The interior walls
generally present traces of the erosive action of water,
and the floors are covered with a thick coating of the
calcareous deposit called stalagmite. This is a deposi-
tion of carbonate of lime, formed by infiltrating water
through the overlying limestone dripping into the in-
terior of the cavern. As recorded in Lyell's "An-
tiquity of Man," Liebig gives an instance, and thus
describes its formation: "On the surface of Franconia,
100
AGE OP CREATION.
where the limestone abounds in caverns, is a fertile
soil in which ve^etible matter is continually decaying.
This humus being acted on by moisture and air evolves
carbonic acid, which is dissolved by rain. The rain-
water thus impregnated permeates the porous lime-
stone, dissolves a portion of it, and afterwards, when
the excess of carbonic acid evaporates in the caverns,
parts with the calcareous matter and forms stalactite.
So long as water flows, even occasionally, through a
suite of caverns, no layer of pure stalagmite can be
produced ; hence the formation of such a layer is gen-
erally an event posterior in date to the cessation of all
system of drainage, an event which might be brought
about by an earthquake causing new fissures, ur by
the river wearing its way down to a lower level, and
thenceforth running in a new channel. All of the
caves are connected with the surface of the earth by
narrow, oblique, or almost upright crevices choked up
with soil and gravel; and in some placea the rents
communicating with the surface are filled to the brim
with rounded or half-rounded stones, angular pieces of
limestone and shale, besides sand and mud, together
with bones, chiefly of the cave-bear."'"
It is a very prevalent and universal belief that these
and other caves formed the habitations of primitive
man ; but with the exception of a few isolated cases
there is no ground whatever for such a supposition.
Man and the animals could not inhabit the caves
simultaneously. The presence of flint arrow heads
•LyeU'a "Antiquity of Man."
CAVE DEPOSITS.
101
and implements show clearly that man in those days
knew how to protect and defend himself against wild
beasts. But the bones of both are found in the caves
in a broken and confused heap, showin<^ that none
escaped, but all shared the same fate alike. If man
inhabited the caves previously to the animals, traces
of habitation around tho walls or on the Hoor should
be found ; but the caves are natural cavities in the
rock, and show no signs of artifice whatever. These
scattered and confused bones, their rounded and pol-
ished condition, the grooved and scratched appear-
ance of the walls, the broken gravel and drift, and
the dripping stalactite, all point to the one and only
conclusion — they were caught suddenly in the first
dreadful cataclysm of the Drift epoch, caused by a
sudden elevation of the North Pole, and escapeJ
trituration through being sucked into the caverns by
the vortex of waters above. Here they were whirled
round and round against the walls of the caves until
the waters subsided, when they were torn to pieces
and fell to the floor in the confused position in which
they are now found. After the waters flowed out of
the cave the dripping from the stalactite roof formed
the thick bed of stalagmite which covered the remains
for centuries and preserved them in the confused con-
dition in which they now lie.
Such a conglomerated mixture of gravel, mud, peb-
bles, shells, flint arrow heads, with an immense quan-
tity of bones of animals of diflerent species, could
have only been borne thither by the waters of a flood.
KW
102
AGE OF CREATION.
II
I
I
il:i
This has been objected to on the ground that often the
most fragile and delicate bones present no trace of hav-
ing been carried in a current, and their acute edges and
perfect condition show no trace of violence whatever.
But this objection is easily explained by supposing the
animab to have been carried thither bodily in the flesh,
or torn to pieces, as undoubtedly they must have been,
when the tremendous nature of the Glacial floods is
taken into consideration. There is absolute proof that
such was the case. In the sediment of Dream Cave, in
Derbyshire, England, an almost entire skeleton of a
rhinoceros was found, which is sufficient evidence to
show that the animal must have been clothed with
flesh when introduced into the cavern. There are a
great many technical objections raised, also, againsj
the fllling of these caves in this manner ; but this will
be found to be the only solution, not only of the pres-
ence of the bones, but of the formation of the caves in
which they have been found. Louis Figuier held this
opinion: "The bones most frequently found in caves,"
he says, " are those of the carnivora of the Quaternary
epoch, the bear, the hyena, the lion and tiger.
The animals of the plain, and notably the great
pachyderms — the mammoth and rhinoceros — are only
very rarely met with, and always in small numbers.
From the cavern of Gailenreuth (Franconia) more
than a thousand skeletons have been taken, of which
eight hundred belonged to the large ursus speloeus,
and sixty to the smaller species, with two hundred
hyenas, wolves, lions and gluttons. In the Kirkdale
m
CAVE DEPOSITS.
103
cave the remains . . . included about 300 hyenas of all
ages. Dr Buckland concludes from these circumstances
that the h , enas alone made this their den, and that
the bones of other animals accumulated there had been
carried thither by them as their prey. It is, however,
now admitted that this part of the English geologist's
conclusions do not apply generally. In the greater num-
ber of caves the bones of the mammals are broken and
rubbed as with a long transport — rolled, according to
the geological expression — and finally cemented by the
same mud, and surrounded by the rocks of the neigh-
borhood. Besides bones of hyenas are found, not only
the bones of inofFen.sive herbivora, but the remains of
lions and bears. All these circumstances unite in
establishing that the bones which fill the caverns have
been floated at random into these cavities by the
rapid current of the diluvial waves. The bone-caves
are generally found near the entrance of the valley,
in the plain, or at a height which exceeds the limits
of the diluvial phenomena. We may then suppose
that, in the greater number of caves, the animals,
surprised and killed by the sudden and impetuous
torrents, have been drawn into the caves by the cur-
rents, where they have been engulfed, and cave and
bones buried in the diluvial mud."*
As an argument in favor of a great antiquity for
these ossiferous caves it is held that the formation
of stalagmite is a process so slow that thousands of
centuries must have elapsed in order to allov/ of the
• " The World before the Deluge," p. 376.
m\
104
AGE OF CREATION.
accumulation of a bed of tlipf^ deposit one foot in
thickness. If it could be shown that the operations
now in force have been the same in all time past, this
objection mif^ht be considered sound. But the great
chanofes of level which occurred durinjj the Glacial
period must be taken into account, and allowance
made for the stupendous effects of these terrestrial dis-
turbances. In the " Epoch of the Mammoth " Southall
cites several authentic instances in which stalasrmitic
matter has accumulated with considerable rapidity.
In one of the Gibraltar caves two swords and a copper
plate were found. The latter, on which the figure of
a dragon was enamelled, lay beneath eighteen inches
of hard stalagmite, and this covered by six feet of
earth. The date at which they w^ere used is known to
have been about the end of the twelfth centur3^
" Recent facts show," says Sir William Dawson,
" that under favorable circumstances stalagmite may
be deposited in a much shorter time than hitherto
supposed ... In Kent's cavern the thin film of car-
bonate of lime which has formed over dates scratched
on the rock more than two centuries ago, would lead
to the belief that the thick beds of stalagmite in that
cave, would require even half a million years for their
formation ; but observations in other caverns show that
under favorable circumstances beds of this thickness
might be formed in a thousand years."*
At all events, the condition under which the stalag-
mite was formed were altogether different from those
* " Fo88il Men," pp. 222, 244.
f SI
CA.VE DEPOSITS.
105
now existing, and the formative process must have
acted with greater intensity than at the present time.
The caves are now elevated far bevond their former
level, and depend mainly on rainwater and such minor
percolations for the accunmlation of stalag^mite where
its formation has not already ceased. Previously they
were constantly exposed to the dripping action of the
surrounding river-beds to which many of the caves
were then contiguous, as well as aided by the dissolv-
ing power of acidulated water, generated during an
accompanying movement of elevation. In the Brix-
ham cave, for instance, it has been shown that at the
time of its formation the land stood at a lower level
to the extent of ninety-tive feet, its mouth being then
situated near the level of the sea. Under such condi-
tions the formation of stalagmite must have un-
doubtedly proceeded with far greater rapidity than at
the present time under less favorable circumstances ;
and there is no just grounds whatever for assuming
the process to have occupied a period extending over
hundreds of thousands of yeai's. " In any case," says
Sir William Dawson, " to apply to the explanation of
such cases the continued operations of merely modern
causes, without taking into account floods and other
cataclyasmic agents, is a stretch of uniformitarianism
which the deposits in the caves themselves plainly
contradict."*
Isolated cases are known where men have discovered
caves of a habitable nature, and temporarily made
"•Fossil Men," p. 224.
8
i
106
AGE OF CREATION.
Ill !l
them a place of abode. Such, apparently, was the
cave of Chalenx, in Belgium, where 30,000 flints were
found, together with numerous carvings and engrav-
ings on bone, ivory, stone, etc. The remains of a
hearth formed of flat stones, and containing a quantity
of coals and ashes, lay in the centre of the cave, in-
dicating temporary habitation. But that man gener-
ally inhabited those caves as a semi-savage, ).undreds
of thousands of years ago, and afterwards gradually
emerged in civilization, there is no substantial evidence
whatever. The skilful enfjrav'nsf and other artistic
work found in the caves testify to the contrary, both
in manner of delin^^ation and their remarkable state of
preservation. Southall cites as an example an engrav-
ing on bone of a browsing reindeer, found in the
grotto of Thayngen, in Switzerland, of which he says :
" The drawing, so elegant and accurate in its execution,
speaks louder than all the facts presented to prove the
antiquity of man. No imbecile hand guided that
pencil, and the blood which coursed in its veins is not
separated by any extravagant period from the blood
which produces the same artistic representations to-
day."*
In addition to the remains of man and animals found
in the caves, primitive works of art and industry
are found in abundance throughout the continent of
Europe, nearly all of which appear to have had an
abrupt termination. These include the megalithic
monuments and tumuli, which are found in abun-
*" Epoch of the Mammoth," p, 70.
CAVE DEPOSITS.
107
in
ic
dance throughout the western hemisphere, and also
the ancient lake dwellings of Switzerland. Not only
do the ossiferous caverns owe their contents to the
Drift, but nearly all the fossil beds of the same geo-
logical period, such as the Danish peat mosses, with
their ancient submerged forests, and others which
have borne investigation and were found to contain
similar remains, can be ascribed to the same cause.
The great geological peculiarity connected with the
peat bogs of Denmark is the fact that the forests con-
sist mainly of species of trees which formerly grew in
abundance, but have long since disappeared, and still
refuse to thrive when afterwards re-introduced. This
will be found explainable by the change of climate by
which the Drift epoch was accompanied.
108
AGE Or' CREATION.
CHAPTER XL
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
I HAT such disastrous events as the Glacial floods
could have occurred since the existence of man
upon the globe, and at times when civilization was
comparatively far advanced, would seem an almost
unaccountable fact if no authentic records of the same
had not been preserved. But it is well known that
many nations have traditionary evidence of a deluge,
or even more than one, in which, with a few exceptions,
their ancestors were swept away and the world de-
stroyed. As most of these nations w^re idolaters it is
but natural that they should ascribe the origin of the
floods to their gods. In this form the various accounts
have been preserved and handed down in a combina-
tion known as mythology. By sifting the real from
the imaginary, in many instances the authentic facts
may be obtained. These traditionary evidences of
great floods have been almost universally supposed to
refer to the occasion and principal events connected
with the Noachian Deluge, as described by Moses in
the Book of Genesis. But such is not generally the
case, and a careful investigation will show that the
majority of these traditions are direct and reliable
accounts of the floods of the Glacial epochs.
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
109
i
lo
In
The Chinese historical records contain accounts of a
great flood which occurred in the reign of the Emperor
Yau, or Yeo, to wlioni is credited the merit of having
successfully combatted the ravages of the flood, and
of repairing the damage occasioned by the inundation.
According to Sir William Jones, it is recorded by
the Chinese that " the pillars of heaven were broken ;
the heavens sunk lower towards the north ; the sun,
the moon and the stars changed their motions ; the
earth fell to pieces, and the waters enclosed within its
bosom burst forth with violence and overflowed it.
Man having rebelled against heaven, the system of
the universe was totally disordered. The sun was
eclipsed, the planets altered their courses, and the
grand harmony of nature was disturbed."*
The event is thus recorded in the Shd King, one of
the Sacred Books of the East : —
"Yeo, in what year of his reign we are not told,
appears suddenly startled by the ravages of a terrible
inundation. The waters were overtopping the hills
and threatening the heavens in their surging fury.
The people everywhere were groaning and murmur-
ing. Was there a man capable to whom he could
assign the correction of the calamit}^ ? All the no-
bles recommended one KhwS,n, to whom Yeo, against
his own better judgment, delegates the difficult task,
on which KhwS-n labors without success for nine
years. His son, Yu, then entered on the work. From
beyond the western bounds of the present China
•Discourse on the Chinese, "Asiatic Resources," Vol. II., p. 376.
V'
■^f
no
AGE OF CJREATION.
proper he is represented as tracking the great rivers,
here burning the woods, hewing the rocks and cut-
ting through the mountains that obstructed their
progress, and there deepening their channels until the
waters flow peacefully into the Eastern sea. He forms
lakes and raises mighty embankments, till at length
the grounds along the rivers were everywhere made
habitable, the hills cleared of the superfluous wood,
and access to the capital was secured for all within the
four seas. A great order was affected in the six mag-
azines (of material wealth) ; the different parts of the
country were subjected to an exact comparison, so that
contribution of revenue could be carefully adjusted
according to their resources. The fields were all classi-
fied according to the three characters of the soil, and
the revenues of the Middle Kingdom were established.
Of the devotion with which Yu pursued his work he
says himself, in the *Yi and Ki': 'I deepened the
channels and canals, and conducted them to the
streams, at the same time, along with Ki, sowing grain,
and showing the people how to procure the food of
toil in addition to flesh meat.'"*
The account of a great catastrophe given in Ovid's
description of the world on fire, and which is attrib-
uted to an astronomical event, undoubtedly refers to
the Post-glacial disturbances. It is recorded in the
myth of Phaeton, son of Phoebus — Apollo (the sun) —
guiding the chariot of his father, who loses control
of the horses of the sun while driving through the
♦ " The Shu King," p. 16, edit. Max Miiller, Sacred Books of the East.
HISTOHICAL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
Ill
heavens, thereby causing an astronomical revolution,
and coming so near to the earth as to set it on fire.
Phaeton is finally killed by Jove in order to save the
universe from complete destruction. Phaeton demands
of his father the right to drive his chariot for one day,
in order to prove his paternity. The latter reluctantly
yields, after much persuasion, and in endeavoring to
convince him of the enormity of the undertaking thus
advises Phaeton : —
" Besides, the heavens are carried round with a con-
stant rotation, and carrying with them the lofty stars
whirl them with rapid revolution. Against this I
have to contend ; and that force which overcomes all
things does not overcome me, and I am carried away
in a contrary direction to the world." But the plead-
ings of the son overcame his father, and the latter
consented. The disastrous results arising from his
incompetency to guide the chariot are recorded by
Ovid. In the second book of his " Metamorphoses" he
tells how the rivers and springs were dried up, while
others boiled ; how the volcanoes were set in action,
and emitted ashes, embers and smoke; that great
chasms were formed, and the mountains despoiled of
their snow-caps ; how the delta of the Nile sank, and
the mouths of the river became empty, and subsided
into mere channels ; and of the encroachment of the
sea on the land ; and how the moon was affected, and
that one day passed without the sun.
" The moon, too, wonders that her brother's horses
run lower than her own, and the scorched clouds send
\\
i
112
AGE OF CREATION.
forth smoke. As each region is most elevated it is
caught by the flames and cleft : it makes vast chasms,
its moisture being carried away. The grass grows
pale," he says, " the trees with their foliage are burnt,
and the dry standing corn affords fuel for its own de-
struction. But I am complaining of trifling ills. Great
cities perish, together with their fortifications, and the
flames turn whole nations with their populations into
ashes : woods, together with mountains, are on fire.
Athos burned, and the Cilician Taurus, and Tmolus,
and CEto, and Ida, now dry, but once most famed for
its springs, and Helicon, the resort of the virgin muses,
and Hsemus, not yet called (Eagrian. ^lEtna burns in-
tensely with redoubled flames, and Parnassus, with its
two summits, and Eryx, and Cynthus, and Ortheys,
and Rhodope, at length to be despoiled of its snows,
and Mimas, and Dindyma, and Mycale, and Cithseron,
created for the sacred rites. Nor does its cold avail
even Scythia ; Caucasus is on fire, and Ossa with Pin-
dus, and Olympus, greater than them both, and the
lofty Alps, and tho cloud-bearing Apennines. Then
was Lybia made dry by the heat, the moisture being
carried off"; then with disheveled hair the nymphs
lamented the springs and the lakes. Boeotia bewails
Dirce, Argos, Amymone, and Ephyre the waters of
Pirene, Nor do rivers that have banks distant re-
main secure. Tanais smokes ii ' e midst of its waters,
and the aged Peneus and Teuthrantian Caicus, and
rapid Ismenus The Babylonian Euphrates, too,
was on fire, Orontes was in flames, and the swift
.111
'
HIST01J':!AL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
113
Thermodon, and Ganges, and Phasis, and Ister. Alphe-
sus boils ; the banks of Spercheus burn ; and the gold
which Taorus carries with its stream melts in the
flames. The river-birds, too, which made famous the
Maeonian banks with song, grew hot in the middle of
Cayster, The Nile, affrighted, fled to the remotest
parts of the earth and concealed his head ; his seven
last mouths are empty, seven channels without any
streams. The same fate dries up the Ismarian rivers,
the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Po, and the Tiber, to
which was promised the sovereignty of the world. All
the ground burst asunder, and through the chinks the
light penetrates into Tartarus, and startles the infernal
king with his spouse.
" The ocean, too, is contracted, and that which lately
was sea is a surface of parched sand ; and the moun-
tains which the deep sea had covered start up and
increase the number of the scattered Cyclades.* The
fishes sink to the bottom, and the crooked dolphins
do not care to raise themselves on the surface into the
air as usual. The bodies of sea-calves float helpless
on their backs on the top of the water. The story,
too, is, that even Nereus himself, and Doris, and their
daughters, lay hid in the heated caverns."
After referring to the destruction of Phaeton in the
attempt to guide the chariot through the heavens, and
the committal of his body to the tomb, Ovid continues :
" But his wretched father (the sun) had hidden his
face, overcast with bitter sorrow ; and, if only we can
* A cluster of islands in the A^.gean Sea.
i-W
114
AGE OF CREATION.
believe it, they say that one day passed without the
sun. The flames afforded light, and there was some
advantage in that disaster."
After the entreaties of the deities to the sun not to
determine to bring darkness over the world, the sun
examines the earth and the works of man. " He re-
stores, too, the springs and the rivers that had not yet
dared to flow, green leaves to the trees, and orders the
injured forests again to be green."
The foregoing is undoubtedly a graphic account of
the result of the later Glacial event, the origin of which
has been ascribed to heathen deities. It would require
a great stretch of the imagination to conceive that
such local events, so minutely described, are but pure
fiction ; for the details of the change of level and the
numerous volcanic eruptions are too faithfully por-
trayed to have had but an imaginative origination.
Another authentic reference to the Glacial period is
preserved in the Dialogues of Plato. The author tells
how Solon, the great Athenian lawgiver, who flour-
ished about 600 years before Christ, visited Egypt,
and of his cordial welcome by the priests of that
country, from whom he received much information
about the antiquity of his own country as well as
Egypt. His visit is thus described : " At the head
of the Egyptian delta, where the river Nile divides,
there is a certain district which is called the District
of Sais, and the great city of the district is also called
Sais, and is the city from which Amasis, the king, was
sprung. And the citizens have a deity who is their
HisrourcA. K.eoKns or rn. br.k.. ,,,
foundress : she is callorl • ..^
Neith, which is asserti k" 1^' ^^^P"-^" '"ng-e
of this city are groat lo et j 2%.^"' "^^ •='"-"«
'hat they are income wlyre Ited ^ :k""''' """ ""^y
earne Solon, who was reL^ a h V"""' '^'''"'^^
'">nor; and he asked thr I ^ "''''" *'"> g^eat
f i'f"' in such matter, ! out'^r: " •"''° "''- ">-'
discovery that neither he n! '^""^' ^""^ '"''de the
-.thin, worth r^ZZZ' :ZT\: T'"' ''-^
On one occasion, when h. „ ? " *""'^" °f "W-
«Peak of antiqui y, he betn f .T'"^ '^"" O" *»
ancient thingiin^^rJtTf,^ ''" "^""^ '''^ «"«*
";-. who i^ called the tttr'^-"'^-' fhoro-
after the Delude to te nf V r'' ^''°"' ^iobe ; and
Pyrrha; and hftraced L' T "' ^«"<=^'-» -"d
-H and atte„,pt:rto teToT"'"^ °' '''^'' '^^--^i-
were the events of which hi ""'"J' ^^^rs old
'he dates. Thereupono' e'^rtLT'^^" '"'' '" ^■-
--y great age, said, 'O So Ln s , "' '"' ""' °'
»>■« but children, and there kn ' ^°" ^^''^n-^^ '
- an Hellene.' Solon W„;?; "" °!^ '"''" -ho
you n,ean ?' -j „,,„ ^;7""g 'h.s .sa,d, ' What do
yo" are all young; there ^1 "■'':^''- '*''*' i° mind
do^n among you l- ancTen tradr "P'"'"" ''^"'^^d
which is hoary with a^e Tn'l 7 ,'°"' "'"' ''"^ «<=ience
of this : there"^ have been and "!. ' ^"^ "^"^ ^--"
J-tio„s of n,a„ki„rar.- 1"' 1^-="-. "-y de-
ri>ere ,s a story, which even y^ou h! "^ "™''^-
once upon a time Phaeton th ! P''^-^«"«d. that
'""• ''•^ «on of Helios, havin<r
to
I
S
116
AGE OF CREATION.
I!
yoked the steeds in his father's chariot, because he was
not able to drive them in the path of his father burnt
up all that was upon the earth, and was himself de-
stroyed by a thunderbolt. Now, this has the form of
a myth, but really signifies a declination of Ike
bodies Gloving around the earth and in the heavens,
and a gr^at conflagration of things upon the earth re-
curring at long intervals of time: when this liappons
those who live upon the mountains and in dry and
lofty places are more liable to destruction than those
who dwell by rivers or on the sea shore ; and from
this calamity the Nile, who is our never-failing
saviour, saves and delivers us. When, on the other
hand, the gods purge ihe earth with a deluge of water,
among you herdsmen and shepherds on the mountains
are the survivors ; whereas those who live in cities are
carried by the rivers into the sea. But in this country
neither at that time nor at any other does water come
up from above on the fields, having alwa^'s a tendency
to come up from below, for which reason the things
preserved here are said to be the oldest. The fact
is, that wherever the extremity of winter frost or of
summer sun does not prevent, the human race is
alway increasing at times, and at other times dim'n-
ishing in numbers. And whatever happened either in
your country or in ours, or in any other region of
which we are informed — if any action which is noble
or great, or in nny other way remarkable, has taken
place, all that has been written down of old, and is
preserved in our temples ; whereas you and other
nations am uta^ u •
o'^er thing,s^:tfj:i:-i;;ed w,, , ^^.^, ^^^, ^^^
usual period, the .stream fl 7 ' ' ""'' ""^n- "* the
P-tiIe„ee, and Jeav onlv t ' T" ''^'^'"'"'l^ '"<e a
tute of letters and ZZlll "J ^"^ "■'^" ^'^ d««'i-
begin all over a^ai , a , ? ' ""'' ">»« >'- have to
"•'"^t happenedln .1 ' r;;"!;,'^-- -thin, of
among yourselves. A, for thn "' ""'""^ us or
y ich you have recount: to T/s'oT'tr " >•""-
'•etter than the tales of children ^ ' "^'^ *"•« "«
you remember one delu! nt' '^i '" "'^ '''' P'-'^ei
'"any of them; and, in the neu '"'"'' ''"' "^^-^
. know that there dwelt in ! , ^ ""• y°" ^fo not
noblest race of men we "ov^eHLr',"': '''"''' -"
your whole city are but a ,se d 0!^ "" ^'"' ™^
WM unknown to you ber.n. 7 """'• ^"'^ ^hk
the survivors of that dX f' -^'"'"'^ ^--'^t'ons
«ign. For there Wa7a t I *?" "^'f '""^ ">«''« "o
I'e'uge of all, when he vi?'- '"''''" '''»' »--'
hr.st in war, and was pre- min^ , "" ?"' ^"'^n^ ^-«
her laws, and is said (!, , ^ ""^ ^^''^''^n^e of
bleeds, and to have had h f P'^"""'^'' "'« "oblest
of Which t.aditio?:eiiruSrtrf '■'""? "^' -^
Solon marvelled at this and ! , "' °* ''^'^^^n-'
priest to inform him e^ltlv , ."""''"^ '"^l"^^''^^ the
former citizens " ^ ^"^ '" order about these
- 'X^ !f£ SLfr " '° ^^'^*« *« «°'-
«acred registers of E.ypt 'a L, T "'"""^"^ '" *he
-tiquity far greaterl^ "thlt'": Z T^' ''''
01 tue kingdom of
i
118
AGE OF CREATION.
lis
it
'•im •
Egypt, and of the sudden destructio);i by a deluge of
Atlantis, an island in the Atlantic Ocean opposite the
Mediterranean Sea, that was formerly the abode of a
populous nation, and the home of an advanced civiliza-
tion.
" Many great and wonderful deeds are recorded of
your State in our histories," said the Egyptian ; " but
one of them exceeds all the rest in greatness and
valor; for these histories tell of a mighty power which
was aggressing wantonly against the whole of Europe
and Asia, and to which your city put an end This
power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean, for in
those days the Atlantic was navigable ; and there was
an island situated in front of the straits which you
call the columns of Heracles. The island was larger
than Lybia and Asia put together, and was the way
to other islands, and from the islands you might pass
through the whole of the opposite continent which
surrounded the ocean; for this sea which is within the
Straits of Heracles is only a harbor, having a narrow
entrance ; but that other is a real sea, and the surround-
ing land may be most truly called a continent. Now,
in the island of Atlantis there was a great and wonder-
ful empire, which had rule over the whole island and
several others, as well as over parts of the continent ;
and besides these, they subjected the parts of Lybia
within the columns of Heracles as far as Egypj, and
of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia. The vast power thus
gathered into one endeavored to subdue at one blow
our country and yours, and the whole of the land
'^1
■n
HISTORICAL RKCORDS OF THE DRIFT.
119
which was within the straits ; and then, Solon, your
country shone forth in the excellence of her virtue and
strength among all mankind ; for she was the iirst in
courage and military skill, and was the leader of the
Hellenes. And when the rest fell off from her, being
compelled to stand alone, after having undergone the
very extremity of danger, she defeated and triumphed
over the invaders, and preserved from slavery those
who were not yet subjected, and freely liberated all
the others who dwelt within the limits of Heracles.
But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and
floods, and in a single day and night of rain all your
warlike men in a body sunk into the earth, and the
island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared, and was
sunk beneath the sea. And that is the reason why
the sea in those parts is impassable and unpenetrable,
because there is such a quantity of shallow mud in the
way ; and this was caused by the subsidence of the
island."*
The sudden disappearance of Atlantis in a single
day and night was undoubtedly the result of the
change of level which accompanied the Glacial period.
Many reliable accounts of destructive floods, which
will be found to correspond in detail with the events
of that epoch, have been preserved by the various
Indian nations which inhabited Central America at
the time of the Spanish conquest.
The Toltec legends tell of a time when "there was a
tremendous hurricane that carried away trees, mounds,
* "Plato's Dialogues," IJ., 617, Timeeus.
I
120
AGE OF CREATION.
houses and the largest edifices, notwithstanding which
many men and women escaped, principally in caves
and places where the hurricane could not reach them.
A few days having passed they set out to see what
had become of the earth, when they found it all popu-
lated with monkeys. All this time thty were in dark-
ness, withont seeing the light of the sun nor the moon
that the wind had brougfht them."*
The apparently incredible portion of this account is
that referring to the vast assemblage of monkeys.
But it is not difficult to understand how the superior
agility of these animals would enable many of them
to escape the coming calamity, and effect a passage
through the trees to a place of safety, while ether
quadrupeds were caught in the approaching waters
and swept away.
Father Bernardino de Sahagan, a Spanish Francis-
can, and one of the first Mexican missionaries who
labored in that country during the sixteenth century,
carefully transcribed the following pitiful and pathetic
prayer of the Aztecs to the great god Tezcatlipoca, the
most important of the Mexican deities, and used by
the priest during a time of pestilence. It appears to
be offered on behalf of a surviving remnant of people
who had escaped a disastrous calamity, and were sur-
rounded by total darkness, waiting for the ligut of the
sun, which had failed to rise, and which they never
again expected to behold : —
" Oh mighty Lord, under whose wing- we find de-
fence and shelter, thou art invisible and impalpable,
* "North Americans of Antiquity, " p. 239.
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
121
even as nijyht and the air. How can I, that am so
mean and worthless, dare to appear before thy Ma-
jesty ? Stuttering, and with rude lips, I speak ; un-
gainly is the manner of my speech, as one leaping
among furrows, as one advancing unevenly ; for all
this I fear to raise thine anger, and to provoke instead
of appeasing thee. O Lord, thou hast held it good to
forsake us in these days, according to the counsel that
thou hast as well in heaven as in hades ; alas for us, in
that thine anger and indignation has desjended upon
us in these days ; alas, in that the many and grievous
afflictions of thy wrath have overgone and swallowed
us up, coming down even as stones, spears and arrows
upon the wretches that inhabit the earth ; this is the
sore pestilence with which we are afflicted and almost
destroyed. valiant and all-powerful Lord, the com-
mon people are almost made an end of and destroyed ;
a great destruction the ruin and pestilence already
make in this nation ; and, what is most pitiful of all,
the little children, that are innocent and understand
nothing only to play with pebbles and to heap up
little mounds of earth, they, too, die, broken and
dashed to pieces as against stones and a wall — a thing
very pitiful and grievous to be seen, for there remain
of them not even those in the cradles, nor those that
could walk or speak. Ah, Lord, how all things become
confounded ! of young and old and of men and women
there remains neither branch nor root ; thy nation and
thy people, and thy wealth, are levelled down and de-
stroyed.
■: 3
i
122
AGE OF CREATION.
" O our Lord, protector of all, most valiant and most
kind, what is this ?
" Thine an^er and thine indignation, does it glory
or delight in hurling the stone, and arrow, and spear ?
The fire of the pestilence, made exceeding hot, is upon
thy nation, as a fire in a hut, burning and smoking,
leaving nothing upright or sound. The grinders of
thy teeth are employed, and thy bitter whips, upon
the miserable of thy people, who have become lean
and of little substance, even as a hollow green cane.
" Yea, what doest thou now, Lord, most strong,
compassionate, invisible and impalpable, whose will
all things obey, upon whose disposal depends the rule
of the world, to whom all are subject, what in thy
divine breast h !,st thou decreed ? Perad venture hast
thou altogether forsaken thy nation and thy people ?
Hast thou verily determined that it utterly perish,
and that there be no memory of it in the world ; that
the peopled place become a wooded hill and a wilder-
ness of stones ? Peradventure wilt thou permit that
the temples, and the place of prayer, and the altars,
built for thy service, be razed and destroyed, and no
memory of them left ?
" Is it, indeed, possible that thy wrath and punish-
ment and vexed in<lignation are altogether implacable,
and will go on to the end of our destruction ? Is it
already fixed in thy divine counsel that there is to be
no mercy nor pity for us until the arrows of thy fury
are spent to our utter perdition and destruction ? Is
it possible that this lash and chastisement is not given
shall ne^enaore skineXoZ'TZ' "'''' ''" ^-
more wilt thou look nn„r "-""^ ^tlence ; that never
"either little nor much? "' "'"" '^^^'^ o*' mercy,
«'euhi::t:tta rtttoH n^^ ^^^ --«'>«^
^hose mouth and telth T '"r"/™™ sWe to side.
--^^ I-t a sore S to 1 '^'^ "'*'> -^'^ and
-tch for or ai/onrit e" T " "" ^«"«^ '<>
and without under.,ta„di„t wiS^' Tl "" "^ '^'•""'^'^"
aH-eady the little children "perlht."'"' "' ^"^ '"^J-
>s none to give them food nor , , ="■■ ^"^ *«'«
nor caress ; none to .ive the h ?> ""■■ «°"^«'ation,
for their fathers and not I I '° "^'^'" "^''^ ^^^k
orphans, sufferingfor 2 " 'j:? "^.'^^ "^"^ '^^^ 'hem
^^ "O our Lord, aH-powerfu In """ ''''"'''■
though indeed thiLa'^t 1 -T^' «- refuge,
arrow, and stones, have sorely htttJr'"°"' *'''"''
let It be as a father or a mofh^ ,v\ , ' P"""" P<^0P'e,
pulling their ears, pinchinT! \' '"^''"'^''^ ''''ildren
nettle-s, pouring chfl Iw J'^ ''' '"'''PP'"^ «'«« with
">at the? .nayli: Ih -pTrihf ■"• f ^'"^ <^o-
Thy chastisement and ind l„r .^ ""'' "^ild-shness.
vaiiod over these th/sew ^ '"'"'^'^'^ ''"^ pre-
even as rain falling upon "he t ' ""' f' P°°^ P«ople.
being touched of the wind d ''' T^ '^' ^'''"' «anes
are below. ^"'''' '^'"P' also upon those that
124
AGE OF CREATION.
" O most compassionate Lord, thou knowest that
the common folk are as children, that being whipped
they cry and sob and repent of what they have done.
Perad venture already these poor people, by reason of
their chastisement, weep, siojh, blame and murmur
against themselves ; in thy presence they blame and
bear witness against their bad deeds, and punish them-
selves therefor. Our Lord, most compassionate, piti-
ful, noble and precious, let a time be given the people
to repent ; let the past chastisement suffice ; let it end
here, to begin again if the reform endure not. Pardon
and overlook the sins of the people ; cause thine anger
and thy resentment to cease ; repress it again within
thy breast that it destroy no further ; let it rest there ;
let it cease, for of a surety none can avoid death, nor
escape to any place.
" We owe tribute to death, and all that live in the
world are vassals thereof ; this tribute shall every man
pay with his life. None shall avoid from following
death, for it is thy messenger, in what manner how-
soever it may be sent, hungering and thirsting always
to devour all that are in the world, and so powerful
that none shall escape ; then, indeed, shall every man
be judged according to his deeds. O most pitiful Lord,
at least take pity and have mercy upon the children
that are in the cradles, upon those that cannot walk.
Have mercy also, O Lord, upon the poor and very
miserable, who have nothing to eat, nor to cover them-
selves withal, nor a place to sleep ; who do not know
what thing a happy day is ; whose days pass altogether
"Pon the soldiers, and UDonTh ='' '" '"'^^ "^ey
wiit have need of rl-L^t ^^d 7-^^"* "^°"
d'e in war, and go to serve f. i ', " ''^"'^'' '»
house of the sun. Than to d el t " ..'""'^ '" '^e
«<=end to hades. O most .7r , *"?««'''«"<=« and de-
iord of the earth, governo tf ^'"■■^' ,?-'-'- of all,
•«-»ter. let the sport aTd aj f\ "'. '"' ""'^«^«'"
'''ken in this past pun.shme': rffl°" "'''='' ""'" ^'''t
this smoke and ilT^T '"' "*''«*» end of
'■^e burning and dlstro^n^g fi^ "Iv ^ ''"^"•='' ^'-
seren,tycome.and clearness ,;,K T ^"^''- '«'
people begin to sins ZlZ ' . " '"'"" '''^ds of thy
quiet weather so "hat th^ *'^ ^"" ' ^'^« '^en!
r^ y f ^^'-dtLr;::^^^^^^^^ '»
O our Lord, ,nost strono- mS ^^'"•
Most noble, this littlehave fJ'^ kTP'^''''"^'^' «nd
nothing more to say onTv to T ^^°''' '^''- ^ ^''ve
-'f at thy feet, seeking t'l^f'^'? »,'' ^l^^ow my.
7 prayer; certainly frjiro"" *''«/»">'« of this
pleasure, and I have no Th ' fl '!■"*'" '" '^y dis-
The forecroino- ;. °, """^ 'o say"*
^iderable extent throul the """ "^^^'^'"^" '" "^ <=°n-
circumstanees, the Tt t'dn uT "^ "™^' '>' «ther
the events of that period ^°"'''*^'^'^ corresponds with
The temporary absence of the snn • ,
crofts Native Races." Vol. III., p. 200.
126
AGE OF CREATION.
that " there had been no sun in existence for many
years ; so the gods, being assembled in a place called
Teotihuacan, six leagues from Mexico, and gathered at
the time round a great fire, told their devotees that he
of them who should first cast himself into that fire
should have the honor of bein^ transformed into a
sun. So one of them, called Nanahuatzim — either, as
most say, out of pure bravery, or as Sahagun relates,
because his life had become a burden to him through"
a malignant disease — flung himself into the fire. Then
the gods began to peer through the gloom in all direc-
tions for the expected light, and to make bets as to
what part of the heavens he should first appear in.
And some said here, and some said there ; but when
the sun rose they were all proved wrong, for not one
of them had fixed upon the East."*
The sacred books of the Hindoos contain the records
of two devastating floods — one occurring in the south
of the Himalayas, and the other in the north. The
Greeks have also preserved traditions of a similar
deluge. The Persians also have recorded accounts of
a great flood, which corresponds with the Drift, and
the remarkable change of climate which followed is
also pointed out. The mythology of the Celts and
Scandinavians contain many references to devastating
floods. The North American Indian tribes possess
similar traditions also.
The Polynesian legends tell how those islands were
once inundated and flooded by a great rain. With the
* Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. III., p. 60.
f
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF THE DRIFT.
127
exception of a small number who were saved on the
island of Mbenga, all the people were swept away.
The traditions of one group say that " in ancient time
Taarva, the principal god according to their myth-
ology, the creator of the world, being angry with men
on account of their disobedience to his will, overturned
the world into the sea, when the earth sank into the
water, excepting a few aurus, or projecting points,
which, remaining above the surface, constituted the
present cluster of islands."*
Almost every nation in the world possess traditions
or recorded accounts of a deluge ; and on the supposi-
tion that they referred to the Noachian flood the
great dissimilarity in the dates recorded gave them
a vague and undefined authenticity. But while some
of the more ancient nations undoubtedly have pre-
served a record of that event, many of the others
are faithful and reliable descriptions of the Glacial
periods, both in point of detail and chronological
occurrence.
It would be unwise to cast aside the enormous mass
of traditionary and mythological evidence — referring,
as much of it does, to personages and places — as an
agglomeration of pure fiction, and entirely without a
shred of foundation.
"We may be sure," says Bancroft, "that there
never was a myth without a meaning ; that myth-
ology is not a bundle of ridiculous fancies invented for
vulgar amusement ; that there is not one of the stories,
* Ellis' '• Polynesian Researches," Vol. II., p. 57.
T
128
AGE OF CREATION.
no matter how silly or absurd, which was not founded
on fact, which did not once hold a significance,"*
The events of the Glacial periods, therefore, show a
reliable basis for such accounts, and throw a new
light over the hitherto uninterpretable mystery of
mythology.
^Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. III., p. 17.
THE RECENCY OF THE GLACIAL EVENTS.
129
CHAPTER XII.
THE RECENCY OF THE GLACIAL EVENTS.
Tf?>TNDOUBTED proofs of changes of level having
Tgr occurred throughout the globe during the
Glacial period, the date at which these events took
place remains to be shown. Although the drift is
known and admitted by all to be of recent origin, yet
by calculation based on a slow and gradual process of
formation, its occurrence is estimated at hundreds of
thousands of years ago. To this there is one conclu-
sive and undeniably fatal objection. Human bones
and animal remains have been fpund embedded in the
drift. The question then arises, How long will bone,
as a perishable substance, resist disintegration ? In-
stances dve known of Egyptian mummies, preserved
by the best process of embalming ever known, having
crumbled to dust on exposure to the atmosphere after
a lapse of but 8,000 years. If some of the remains
found imbedded in the drift were of greater antiquity
the same should be expected of them. But many of
them are in a tolerably fair state of preservation,
which is undoubted proof that the Post-glacial event
took place at a comparatively recent period.
The traditions of all nations point to the occurrence
of great catastrophes within the period of their own
i
130
AGE OF CREATION.
existence, and therefore after many of the great king-
doms of antiquity had been founded. There is no
historical account of any nation living upon the earth
at a period of 100,000 or 200,000 years ago. The
events consequently must have occurred long after the
introduction of man upon the oarth, as further in-
dicated by the abundance of flint and stone imple-
ments, and other works of art, found in the drift. In
reply to the question, " What geological evidence have
we that the residence of man in Europe has been
longer than 6,000 years ? " Sir William Dawson says :
" The answer must be, Absolutely none, as far as the
association of man with extinct animals is concerned.
Further, when we consider the mode of occurrence and
state of preservation of the remains, and their identity
with the remains of modern American races, the very
long periods assigned, by some authors to the resi-
dence of man in Europe become ridiculous in their
absurdity."*
The antiquity of man has been divided into three
epochs by archaeologists, known respectively as the
ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron. In Europe thf^ Lronze
age has been dated back previous to the ti.ne of the
Romans; and as the implements found in the drift
belong to the age of Stone, which is sub divided into
two divisions, the Palaeolithic and Neolithic — ancient
and new — the latter period is held to have been
long anterior to Roman history. But this means of
estimating the antiquity of man cannot be received
* " Fossil Men," p. 228.
1
THE RECENCY OF THE GLACIAL EVENTS.
131
as absolutely reliable, for flint and stone implements
are found in abundance in America that have been in
use by Indians during the present century. Therefore
the presence of stone impleiiients in the Drift deposits
cannot be definitely regarded as indicatinn; an ex-
tremely remote period of time at which the Glacial
events occurred. Respecting the later Stone age, or
the period when implements of polished stone were in
use, Sir William Dawson concludes " that there is no
adequate geological reason for attributing the so-called
'Neolithic' men to any time older than that of the
early Eastern empires, or say 2,000 or 3,000 years
before Christ; and that the time required for the
Palaeolithic men need not be more than twenty or
thirty centuries additional."* As attested by animal
remains found imbedded in the drift, the Post-glacial
event occurred within a period at which they would
resist decay. It occurred when civilization was far
advanced, and after many of the great nations of
antiquity had been founded, as indicated by the tradi-
tions of these nations of great catastrophes having
taken place during the early period of their existence
as such.
The two events were caused by an upward and
downward shift of the North Pole, as explained by the
great changes of level, and other evidence of upheaval
and subsidence, by which the Glacial period was ac-
companied. They were sudden and instantaneous in
action, as shown by the remarkable uniformity of the
» " Fossil Men," p. 246.
I iilll
I
132
AGE OF CREATION.
terrace lines and the wide interval by which they are
separated from each other. If the action had been
slow and gradual the waters could not have dropped
or risen from one terrace to another, and the latter
could not have maintained a perfectly horizontal level.
The traditions of all nations point to an astronomical
revolution as the cause, and in which the sun and the
moon played an important part. This is also attested
by the presence of meteorites in the drift.
The disturbances were therefore universal and cata-
strophic. The first came suddenly from the north,
like a fearful cyclone, with a force so mighty that it
decomposed the underlying rocks, smashed, pounded
and tore down the gigantic mountain tops, and rooted
up enormous trees growing on the surface, and scat-
tered them for hundreds of miles, extending over
the western hemisphere from the North Pole to the
temperate regions ; and if it had been gradual in its
action the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis
would have carried it around the globe in twenty-four
hours. It i.s evident, then, that the earth had ceased
to revolve on its axis, the blow came instantaneously,
and the Drift was the result of a gigantic catastrophe,
a mighty and violent cataclysm, that nearly blotted
the earth out of existence. It came instantaneously,
suddenly arresting the rotary motion of the earth, and
with a tremendous force hurled it bodily from its
course, like a stone shot from a slinjj. This was asrain
followed in course of time by a second event of a
similar nature, and almost as destructive in its effects.
• THE RECENCY OF TRF /^r *^
THE CLACIAL EVENTS. I33
the history of our Ibf *'' V'^'**f°"«- «Pi-de in
no explanation presents itself ^17.!'' ^' '"f'^^'
conclusive; and in ..eien ^ ^tir '"^ T'"'^^'
to say, I do not Icnow." "'""'"■ ^e afraid
I Mi
"ia-
134
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE STANDING STILL OF THE SUN.
^n^yTHEN the Israelites were in bondajije in Ef^ypt
so complete was their slavery they might
have continued in captivity while Egypt remained a
nation had it not been for Divine intervention. Mose^
was chosen to deliver them from their affliction, and
after the performance of many signs and wonders in
the land of Egypt led the Israelites from bondage, and
accompanied and guided them during their wander-
ings in the desert to which they had been condemned.
After the borders of Canaan had been reached Moses
died, and Joshua was appointed to succeed him in the
command. He engaged and defeated his enemies in
many a desperate conflict, for God had said to him :
" There shall not any man be able to stand before thee
all the days of thy life : as I was with Moses, so I will
be with thee: I will not fail thee, nor forsake thee."*
Jericho and Ai had fallen into hi:, hands. Gibeon had
made peace with Israel, and the five kings of the
Amorites combined together to make war upon Gibeon.
In their distress the men of Gibeon sent to Joshua, to
the camp at Gilgal, saying : " Slack not thy hand
from thy servants ; come up to us quickly, and save
* Joshua i. 5.
THE STANDmo STILL O.^ „»: STO.
-• So Joshua .ZlerifTc-f /T "^^' ''S--'
people of war w,th hh„, araHtt ' ' w' ^" *'^«
valor. And the Lord said 1/ *^'\""?''ty men of
»°t: for I have delivered i. l^""' ^"''^ '»>«»
«halt not a man of 11™' a- ^'"p° ^"'""^ '"'"'' ' '^^e
-oshualeff P!i , .'"."'^''d before thee."*
■'- -cidittS* r:;'f,^* -<1 -e upon the Amor-
The Israelite^ chased 15 ? T\' ^'"''' '''^^hter.
Theevenin^shadoj';:' el'''" "" «""^«--
- was disappearing in « e wSr;„"f i° ^""^^"■ "•<>
the e,.eray would escape hiJ^'T ""''"'' "^^ 'h^t
" Then spake Joshua to thTr . ?'"'"^ '^'"•''"«^^«'
Lord delivered up the A morf^ k"", *'"' '''^ "'>«" "'«
Israel, and h^ saL in If ""^"'^ ">« «f>iWren of
thou still upo: oTbe .':;;?' 1^--'' «-. .stani
of Ajalon."t ' "' ^'^"' '° "'e valley
o4ttv::r;i:;?t:f ir ''- ----^ -
the universe were shaken Th' ''•'' ''"'"'''^*'''- "^
axial motion and power of .Z T '"'''*^""y 'ost its
flew in all directicfn.s. 1 kc spa k's f'"' "V' P'-«'«
anvil. Slanting obi uuelvT . °'" " *'''«=ksmith's
t-enty-three and a Llftr T '' '" »="'« "*
eentripetal influence of hf''"'^ '"^''""^ f™'» «>«
bounded upright to gain itsealu" "'"'^ '"■'^^""^
tangential to the course of tr^K.?'"' ""'^ '" <" '"'e
teor into the realms orspfe' ^e t', "'' '"' ^ ™- '
pace. The whole of the polar
Joshua X. M. , ft., ^, ,2,
136
AGE OF CREATION.
regions, consisting of incalculable tons of mountainous
ice and snow, were instantly precipitated down that
mighty incline, and over the face of the north-western
hemisphere. The molten, seething mass of incandes-
cent matter in the centre of the earth boiled and
bubbled. Great cracks or fissures were reft through
the crust of the earth in many places, and released the
imprisoned cauldron of molten matter, and this poured
over the surface in devastating torrents for many miles.
Shooting through illimitable space the earth flew as a
meteor. "Darkness was upon the face of the deep."
No sun, no moon, and the stars shooting by in all
directions, their flashing faintly discernable amid the
glare of volcanic flame and clouds of smoke and steam.
Great whirlwinds, hurricanes and cyclones were cre-
ated, and struggled with the raging fire and water
for the mastery. Trees, rocks, boulders, animals and
every conceivable thing were carried into the air,
whirled round and round, and violentlv hurled into
the raging, tempestuous jam of icebergs in the waters
below. Every hill became a Niagara, every valley a
whirlpool, and every fissure in the rocks a raging
maelstrom, into which the marine and land animals
were drawn and torn to pieces. The mountains leaned
at an incline, deposited their snow-caps in the valleys
below, and over their tops the raging torrents poured
in mighty cascades. Along the surface of the earth
that terrible ice-jam tore, scratched, and plowed those
striated groves and furrows which centuries of time
have failed to efl'ace. The birds of the air were en-
THE STANDING STILL OF THE SUN.
137
veloped in storms of ice, gravel and frozen spray ; and
on the land bordei ing the drift the broken ice and hail
were showered for miles. Every living thing caught
in that raging flood of crunching ice was torn to
pieces and instantly destroyed. In its onward course
the mightest cataract in the world would be as a rivu-
let compared with that tremendous and dreadful catas-
trophe.
On the other side of the globe a different scene was
taking place. Many of the rivers and streams were
dried up, while others changed their courses, and the
sun, just above the horizon in the western heavens,
looked down with a pale, feeble glare on the swiftly
receding earth. The battle between Joshua and the
Amorites had been decided when the sun ceased to
go down, but the work of slaughter had only com-
menced. Separated from the flood on the other side
of the globe by the time of distance the sun was above
the horizon, Joshua and his warriors w^ere beyond
the reach of danger, and pursued their enemies into
the borders of that awful cataclysm, and " they were
more which died with hailstones than they whom the
children of Israel slew with the sword." On and on
the earth flew and trembled in its mad career, dragging
the helpless moon behind, while the battle with the
elements raged. Nearly a whole day had passed. The
earth had tra\elled far beyond the line of its former
orbit. Joshua's enemies had perished, and the victory
was complete. The sun had done its duty, as com-
manded, and God once more set it in motion. Instantly
10
138
AGE OF CREATION.
the sun revolved on its axif , and the planets strove to
regain their former positions, but at their increased
distance from the sun the power of attraction was
diminished, according to the inverse squares of the
distance, and the earth failed to reach its former in-
cline and remained upright. Then whirling once more
on its axis it flew oti' in a path lying far beyond that
of its former orbit. The work of slaughter and
destruction was over. The waters became peaceful,
and the floating rocks, boulders, stones, gravel, and
everything that escaped trituration, were suddenly
precipitated to the bottom in a conglomerated hetero-
genous mass. The trituration of the ice upon the
rocks formed that tough, unstratified, unfossiliferous
bed of deposit known to geologists as " till," or " hard
pan," the true origin of which is a puzzle and a mys-
tery to the scientiflc world.
Thus was fulflUed the promise God gave to Joshua
on appointing him to the command of the Israelites -,
" Be strong and of a good courage ; be not afraid,
neither be thou dismayed : for the Lord thy God is
with thee whithersoever thou goest."*
This wonderful event took place Anno Mundi, 2553,
or 1451 years before the birth of Christ, and "there
was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord
hearkened unto the voice of a man : for the Lord
fought for Israel.""!*
* Joshua i. 9. t lb., x. 11.
THE INTER-GLACIAL PERIOD.
139
CHAPTER XIV.
THE INTER-GLACIAL PERIOD. ,
^\5^^yHEN that loni^ night of terror rnd darkness in
the western hemisphere had passed, in which
death and destruction stalked hand in hand over the
country and blotted out of existence all animal and
vegetable life in their path, and the rays of the rising
sun had struggled through the accumulated clouds
and mists, a scene of utter devastation and desolate
grandeur must have presented itself.
After the icebergs had melted, great walls of loose
detrital accumulations remained in the valleys con-
nected with high mountain chains. These were com-
posed of masses of stones, gravel and broken rocky
material, which had been carried down by the ice, and
are known as moraines. Where this debris has been
pushed forward and deposited at the lower extremity
of the glaciers it is found to have always terminated
in a semi-circular form. These terminal moraines
mark the lower limit of stranded ice, and in the wide
marginal depressions formed by the glaciers masses of
loose material, composed of fragmentary rock, etc.,
have been accumulated, known as lateral moraines.
These ancient deposits are now covered with soil on
which vegetation has long since grown, and some of
140
AGE OF CREATION.
the largest trees flourish. In Europe cities and vil-
lages have been built upon ancient moraines. Upon
these the foundations of Berne and Zurich, and other
cities, are laid. Some extend completely across en-
tire valleys, through which overflowing rivers have
since cut their way. The whole surface of the West-
ern world had undergone a complete metamorphosis.
The land in many places had become completely in-
undated, and vast inland seas had taken the place of
the previous fertile valleys and plains. The old river
channels were obliterated and new ones formed, and
an entirely diff'erent geographical aspect was the re-
sult. The entire world felt the eftect of the shock,
in the east as well as in the west, and the climate of
the globe underwent a complete and sudden change,
in which the fauna and flora of temperate and trop-
ical regions invaded that of the Arctic, and those of
the latter inhabited the lower latitudes. Remains
of plants and animals have been found in Northern
Siberia, Europe and America that could only exist in
temperate and tropical climates, and they are too
numerous and perfect to lead to the supposition that
they have been carried from a distance and deposited
there. Oaks, beech and other similar remains have
been found in great quantities in the Arctic regions ;
and the remains of huge animals, such as the elephant
and mastodon, have been found imbedded in the frozen
ice and gravel of the north. From this it is clearly
evident that for a period of time the polar regions
were once clear of ice, and enjoyed a climate similar
liMl
THK INTEII-GLACIAL PERIOD.
141
to that in which such fauna and flora could exist at
the present day. But while the ice and snow dis-
appeared from the north, and the temperature of those
regions became much higher than formerly, the climate
of the present tropical regions became much colder.
"More extended observations," says Lyell, "have
shown that in times past the climate of the extra
tropical regions has by no means been liotter than
now ; on the contrary, there has been at least one
period, and one of very modern date, geologicall}''
speaking, when the temperature of those regions was
much lower than at present."*
" In the so-called drift," Agassiz remarks, " there
are found far to the south of their present abode the
remains of animals whose home now is in the Arctics
or the coldest parts of the temperate zones. Among
them are the musk-ox, the reindeer, the walrus, the
seal, and many kinds of shells characteristic of the
Arctic regions. The northernmost part of Norway
and Sweden is at ihis day the southern limit of the
reindeer in Europe ; but their fossil remains are found
in large quantities in the drift about the neighborhood
of Paris, and quite recently they have been traced
even to the foot of the Pyrenees, where their presence
would, of course, indicate a climate similar to the one
now prevailing in Northern Scandinavia. Side by
side with the remains of the reindeer are found those
of the European marmot, whose present home is in the
mountains, about 6,000 feet above the level of the sea.
* "Textbook of Geology," Vol. I., p. 175.
* :■!
142
AGE OF CREATION.
•I
The occurrence of these animals in the superficial
deposits of the plains of central Europe, one of which
is now confined to the high north, and the other to
mountain heights, certainly indicate an entire change
of climatic conditions since the time of their existence.
European shells, now confined to the Northern Ocean,
are found as fossils in Italy, showing that while the
present Arctic climate prevailed in the temperate zone,
that of the temperate zone extended much further
south to the regions we now call sub-tropical. In
America there is abundant evidence of the same kind ;
throughout the recent marine deposits of the temper-
ate zone, covering the lowlands above tide water on
this continent, are found fossil shells whose present
home is on the shores of Greenland. It is not only
in the northern hemisphere that these remains occur,
but in Africa and in South America, wherever there
has been an opportunity for investigation, the drift is
found to contain the traces of animals whose presence
indicates a climate many degrees colder than that now
prevailing there."*
The Himalaya Mountains, in India, bear unmistak-
able evidence of having deposited their snow-caps down
their southern slopes at this time. Moraines abound,
and erratics of great size have been seen far above the
level of the sea, thouorh no marks of glaciation have
been observed in Southern India ; but there is a distinct
evidence in the fauna and flora on the south of the
mountains of a temporary change of climate having
occurred.
* "Geological Sketches."
THE INTER-GLACIAL PERIOD.
143
In Asia the whole of the northern part of that con-
tinent became the home of numerous and gigantic
mammals that existed during this period.
Many theories have been advanced as to the cause
of the sudden change of temperature in the climate of
the earth, though no satisfactory solution of the diffi-
culty has yet been found. It seems to be generally
believed, however, that it resulted from " the combined
influence of precession of the equinoxes and secular
changes in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit." Ac-
cording to this idea it is held that the North Pole is
constantly but gradually changing its position, and
that every 10,500 years it becomes reversed, the incline
being in the opposite direction. The effect thus pro-
duced is held to be longer and colder winters and
shorter and hotter summers in the northern hemi-
sphere. By the increasing eccentricity the effects
would be greatly augmented. When the eccentricity
was greatest the earth would be 14,000,000 miles fur-
ther from the sun durinor winter than in the summer.
In combination with different geographical causes, such
as the varied distribution of land and water, etc., the
climate is supposed to have become gradually colder,
and a Glacial period the result. But to this there are
one or two fatal objections. If the earth has had an
existence of many millions of years, as the advocates
of this theory maintain, a repetition of Glacial periods
must have occurred in the past. There is no geolog-
ical evidence of more than one having taken place, and
that is of the most recent occurrence. Again, this
I
I
144
AGE OF CREATION.
I
Arctic climate is supposed to have existed for over
100,000 years, and its intensity so severe as to freeze
water into solid ice 6,000 feet thick. Under such con-
ditions animal life could not exist, or find means of
subsistence ; and if it did, the fauna must have been
specially adapted for its surroundino[s. No evi-
nce of such has ever been found. The animals of
the Glacial period were similar in their habits to those
at present existing in temperate and warm climates,
and they could not possibly have lived under such
conditions for an extended length of time. If the
remains of the woolly rhinoceros, mammoth and rein-
deer, found in the driffc, are to be held indicative of a
prolonged and gradual refrigeration, the contempora-
neous existence of the hippopotamus and hyena —
' imals suited to a warm climate — is an implication to
contrary. These facts alone are certainly conclu-
sive ev ^'nce against the theory of gradual refrigera-
tion, which also fails to explain any of the peculiarities
connected with the drift.
Almost every available and conceivable cause known
has been advanced in the endeavor to solve the mys-
tery. " At first it was imagined," says Lyell, " that
the earth's axis had been perpendicular t the plane
of the ecliptic, so that tliere was a perpei al equinox
and uniformity of seasons; that the planet enjoyed this
paradisaical state until the era of the flood, but in that
catastrophe lost its equipoise, whether by the .shock of
a comet or other convulsion, and hence the obliquity
p
THE INTER-GLACIAL PERIOD.
145
of its axis, and with it the varied seasons of the long
nights and days of the polar circles."
Having ascertained the cause of the shock it can
be easily understood how the change in temperature
occurred. The perpendicular position of the earth
during the Inter-glacial period would result in a per-
petual equinox and uniformity of seasons. The climate
would be slightly varied as the earth approached to
or receded from the sun. The heat of the sun's rays
which are now concentrated on the tropics would be
spread over the whole globe, hence a lower tempera-
ture would result in the tropical regions. Thus it can
be seen how an excliange of the fauna and flora of
these regions could have taken place, whicii they did
during this period.
For more than seven centuries the earth maintained
an upright position, and while on its new orbit deposits
of a different nature were accumulated over that por-
tion of the drift known as the till. These formed the
intercalary layers, occasionally met with in some parts
of the drift ; and this was covered with a final overlay
of gravel and boulders by another sudden and violent
cataclysm, though not so destructive as the first, but
occurring in almost a similar manner.
" During the Inter-glacial period a tropical climate
had prevailed over a great part of the earth, and ani-
mals, whose home is now beneath the equator, roamed
over the world from the far south to the very borders
of the Arctic. The gigantic quadrupeds — the masto-
dons, elephants, tigers, lions, hyenas and bears — whose
!l
146
AGE OF CREATION.
remains are found in Europe, from its southern prom-
ontories to the northernmost limits of Siberia and
Scandinavia, and in America, from the Southern States
to Greenland and the Melville Islands, may, indeed, be
said to have possessed the earth in those days. But
their reign was over. A sudden, intense winter, that
was also to last for ages, fell upon our globe. It spread
over the very countries where these tropical animals
had their homes ; and so suddenly did it come upon
them that they were embalmed beneath masses of snow
and ice, without time even for the decay which follows
death."* What was it ?
Agassiz's "Geological Sketches.''
1:1
It
ll^l
THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD.
147
CHAPTER XV.
THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD.
XyoT'HEN Hozekiah was king of Judah he made
y^y great etibrts to reform his kingdom from
idolatry, and to lead the people to the worship of the
true God. Scripture tells us that " In those days was
Hezekiah sick unto death. And the prophet Isaiah
the son of Amoz came to him, and said unto him, Thus
saith the Lord, Set thine house in order; for thou shalt
die, and not live. Then he turned his face to the wall,
and prayed unto the Lord, saying, I beseech Thee, O
Lord, remember now how I have walked before Thee
in truth and with a perfect heart, and have done that
which is good in Thy sight. And Hezekiah wept sore.
And it came to pass, afore Isaiah was gone out into
the middle court, that the word of the Lord came to
him, saying. Turn again, and tell Hezekiah the captain
of My people, Thus saith the Lord, the God of David
thy father, I have heard thy prayer, I have seen thy
tears : behold, I will heal thee : on the third day thou
shalt go up unto the house of the Lord. And I will
add unto thy days fifteen years ; and I will deliver
thee and this city out of the hand of the king of
Assyria; and I will defend this city for Mine own
sake, and for My servant David's sake. And Isaiah
I
U8
AGE OF CREATION.
said, Take a lump of figs. And they took and laid it
on the boil, and he recovered.
" And Hezekiah said unto Isaiah, What shall be the
sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up
into the house of the Lord the third day ? And Isaiah
said, This sign shalt thou have of the Lord, that the
Lord will do the thing that He hath spoken: shall
the shadow go forward ten degrees, or go back ten
degrees? And Hezekiah answered, It is a light thing
for the shadow to go down ten degrees : nay, but let
the shadow return backward ten degrees. And Isaiah
the prophet cried unto the Lord : and He brought the
shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had gone
down in the dial of Ahaz."*
" So the sun returned ten degrees, by ivhich degrees
it was gone downy'-\'
Note. —Sundials used in ancient times were of various forms.
That of King Ahaz consisted of a flight of stairs, on which was cast
the shadow of an obelisk, or column, at the top, which fell on a
number of them according to the position occupied by the sun.
Though there is no record of the means employed
to cause the shadow to go back on the dial, it can be
seen that instead of the sun standing still, as in the;
days of Joshua, by which the whole solar system was
affected, the rotary mot'ons of the latter were arrested,
while the sun remained undisturbed. As a conse-
quence the revolutionar}'- motion of the earth was
overcome by the centripetal influence of the sun, and
it was gradually drawn back in an elliptical course
• 2 Kings XX. l-U. t Isaiah xxxviii. 8.
THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD.
149
t
to its former orbit. Deprived of all power of re-
sistance, and overcome by the magnetic attraction of
the sun, the earth was drawn down at le North Pole
from the upright position it then occupied to its for-
mer and present obliquity of twenty-three and one-
half degrees. In the western hemisphere the southern
part of the globe became elevated, and the waters of
the Antartic region swept into the south temperate
latitude. The whole world suffered from the effect of
the sudden shock, which w^as accompanied by all the
phenomena attending the previous one, and was almost
equally as destructive and devastating in its effects.
In some places the underlying rocks were actually
boiled and decomposed, owing to the intense heat of
the earth, caused by the sudden shaking of the molten
material in its centre. The volcanoes in all parts of
the globe were set in motion. Immense fissures or
cracks were opened in the crust of the earth down
through the solid rocks ; and wh»re these were not
deep enough to release the internal glowing mass,
they formed what is known as fjords and friths, which
exist in Scandinavia, Britain and other countries.
Total darkness, boiling and raging floods, flying debris,
inconceivable whirlwinds of gravel and hail, and an
utter obliteration of all animal life that existed in
its path, were the accompaniments of this terrible
cataclysm in the southern hemisphere. While the
deluge lasted the waters of the Arctic regions poured
over the North Pole into the Northern Ocean and
down into Siberia, overflowing the rivers and suddenly
150
AGE OF CREATION.
blotting out of existence the huge mammals and other
animals that roamed that country during this period.
After the earth had travelled back to the line of its
former orbit, and the shadow gone backward on the
dial ten degrees, it was again set in rotating motion.
Instantly whirling on its axis its velocity increased,
and the earth shot oft' in a circle around the sun in its
present orbit, and the one it had previously occupied
before the time of Joshua. In this manner were
formed what is known as osars, eskers, or kames —
long ridges of drift material whirled round into cir-
cular and semi-circular forms by the centrifugal action
of the water, caused by the revolution of the earth
upon its axis. In the tropical seas the bases of the
coral reefs were thus formed. A sudden change in
temperature instantly occurred, owing to the earth's
obliquity, and in twenty-four hours the polar regions
were again refrigerated. And this is why the remains
of the elephant and mastodon, and other large animals,
have been found in Siberia, and elsewhere in the
north, imbedded in frozen gravel and ice ; some of the
carcasses so complete that dogs chewed and devoured
the flesh when thawed, showing that they had been
unexpectedly caught in the flood and drowned, and
their remains preserved entire for centuries in the
perpetual ice and frost the Arctic regions.
Referring to this Cuvier says : " If they had not
been frozen as soon as killed, putrefaction would have
decomposed them ; and, on the other hand, the eternal
frost could not have previously existed in the place
THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD.
151
whore they died, for they could not have lived in such
a temperature. It was, therefore, at the same instant
when these animals perished that the country they
inhabited was rendered <^lacial. These events mfiust
have been sudden, instantaneous, aiul without any
gradation.'^*
In " The World before the Deluge " Figuier says :
*' The animals seem to have perished suddenly ; en-
veloped in ice at the moment of their death, their
bodies have been preserved from decomposition by
the continual action of the cold. As Agassiz says, in
his first work on Ghiciers : 'A vast mantle ot snow and
ice covered the plains, the valleys and the sea. All
the springs were dried up ; the rivers ceased to flow.
To the movements of a numerous and animated crea-
tion succeeded the .silence of death.' Great numbers
of animals perished from cold ; the elephant and rhi-
noceros perished by thousands in the midst of their
grazing grounds, which were suddenly transformed
into fields of ice and snow. It was then that these
two species disappeared, and seem to have been eflaced
from creation. Other animals were overwhelmed
without their race having been, always, entirely anni-
Mlated. The sun, which lately lighted up the verdant
plains as it dawned upon these frozen steppes, was
only saluted by the whistling of the north winds and
the horrible rending of the crevasses, which opened up
on all sides under the heat of its rays acting upon the
immense glacier which formed the sepulchre of many
animated beings."
* " Ossenients fossiles, Uiscours sur les Revolutions du Globe.'
152
AGE OF CREATION.
ii
Of the destructive results another authority says :
" In America, in Britain and in Europe the Glacial
deposits made clean work of nearly all animal life.
The great mammalia, too large to find shelter in
caverns, were utterly swept away, while others never
afterwards returned to those regions. In like manner
palaeolithic man — man of the rude and unpolished flint
implements, the contemporary of the great mammalia,
the mammoth, the hippopotamus and the rhinoceros —
was also stamped out ; and the cave deposits of Europe
show that there was a long interval before he ap-
peared in those regions. The same forces, whatever
they were, which smashed, and pounded, and contorted
the surface of the earth, crushed man and his gigantic
associates out of existence."
A downward shift of the North Pole having oc-
curred it can thus be seen how tlie animals in Siberia
escaped destruction, only to be entombed completely
in the frozen ice. Had they been caught in the seeth-
ing torrent, like those in the southern hemisphere, they
would have been torn to pieces in that mighty jam of
rocks, boulders, gravel and raging water. And though
the Drift deposits are not found in Siberia, the country
became inundated with water from the overflow of the
Northern Ocean, and with it occurred the sudden ex-
tinction of the tropical and temperate fauna and flora
that then existed in the Arctic regions.
In those vast mountains of snow and ice in the
North; in that desolate and dimly-lighted wilderness,
where animal life can scarcely exist; in the deep,
^ r
THE POST-GLACIAL PERIOD.
153
he
X-
Ira
silent and dreary solitudes of death, unbroken only by
the moaninor and roaringr of the blindin<j and drifting
storms, where other suns and moons seem to mock at
Nature, buried down in unknown depths beneath the
ice and snow in frozen sepulchres, lie the remains of
animal life which once lived and roamed in the North,
in a time when a temperate flora grew in Greenland,
Spitzbergen, and the Arctic zone. In silent voices
they tell of a Polar Eden in the past, and bear testi-
mony to the inscrutable working in nature of One
who " withholdeth the waters, that they dry up," and
" sendeth them out, and they overturn the earth," and
who said, " Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further :
and here shall thy proud waves be stayed."
U
154
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER XVI.
MANNER AND TIME OF THE STANDING STILL OF
THE SUN.
JIJ^T ANY opinions have been advanced as to whether
4=B6i the lengthening of the day by the standing
still of the sun and moon in the time of Joshua, and
the regression of the shadow upon the dial in the days
of Hezekiah, were physical or only apparent ; but the
latter idea has been largely adopted, and the former
has become a subject of ridicule and scorn by the advo-
cates of agnosticism and infidelity.
It has been held " that the whole effect wanted in
that case, and fully answering the description of the
apparent phenomenon as recorded, would be produced
by an alteration in the refracting and transmitting
properties of the atmosphere immediately over the
part of Judea where the victory was obtained."*
Grar'^;ing that such was the case, and the result only
apparent, then the Scripture must be assumed untrue ;
for it is recorded, " The sun stood still.""f* There is
no need, then, to advance such a theory as the fore-
going, or one at all, to account for an effect that could
not have taken place if the account is a deliberate
untruth. If the recorded cause which produced the
* Smitli's "Geological Science." t Joshua, x. 13.
MANNER AND TIME OF SUN'S STANDING STILL. 155
the
.ting
the
ly
on
irue ;
[re is
Ifore-
jould
irate
effect did not take place there could have been no
result whatever. And if the efteet be true that the day
was lengthened, then the cause must be true, or there
would have been no result. The sun either stood still
or it did not. It' it did, the effect narrated in Scrip-
ture actually took place ; and if it did not, it is idle to
advance any hypothesis to account for the lengthen-
ing of the day, a result that never could have occurred.
A general theory is that mentioned by Whiston : " Whe-
ther the lengthening of the day, by the standing still
of the sun and moon, were physical and real, by the
miraculous stoppage of the diurnal motion of the earth
for about half a revolution, or whether only apparent,
by aerial phosphori imitating the sun and moon as sta-
tionary so long, while clouds and the night hid the real
ones, and this parhelion, or mock sun, affording suffi-
cient light for Joshua's pursuit and complete victory
(which aerial phosphori in other shapes have been more
than ordinarily common of late years), cannot now be
determined ; philosophers and astronomers will natur-
ally incline to this latter hypothesis."* But why
should they incline to the latter hypothesis if they are
willing to admit the effect and concede that the day
was lengthened ? Let it be asked. What would be the
result if the sun were to be suddenly extinguished ?
Total darkness and intense cold. Then what would be
the result if the earth lost its centrifuixal force and
ceased to revolve on its axis ? It would be gradually
drawn towards the sun. And if the sun ceased to re-
' Life of Josephus,"
»^u
156
AGE OF CREATION.
r I
volve and lost its centripetal influence over the planets,
what then ? By the force of their centrifugal motion
they would fly ofl" in a straight line. The result in
this instance woul<l be cataclysms such as have been
recorded.
" When a body revolves on its axis the outer parts,
of course, acquire motion. The tendency of the motion
of these parts is, in reality, to go on in a straight line.
They are only kept within the circle of revolution
because they are fixed. If any piece of the revolving
body were suddenly detached or let loose it luould be
seen to fly off in a straight line, being forced or im-
pelled to do so by the motive power .^i force already
exerted upon it. We may observe this law operating
when we whirl a stone round in a sling. The stone is
then felt to have an inclination to start away ; and if
we suddenly let slip the string it does start away
with great speed. The tendency thus produced is
called centrifugal (that is, centre-flying) force, in dis-
tinction from the force that holds the body from going
out of the circle, which is sometimes called centripetal
(centre-seeking) force. In consequence of centrifugal
force the planets, in whirling round the sun, have a
tendency to fly away into space ; and they would fly
if they were not retained in a j^ctrticular imth or orbit
by the attractive pouer of the sun."*
It is generally agreed that if the earth suddenly
stood still the effect produced would be so enormous
that every movable thing would be thrown oft' it, in
* Chambers' " Introduction to the Sciences," p. 18,
Manner and time of sun*s standing still. 157
3ta,
ion
. in
leen
irts.
ition
line.
ition
iving
id he
r im-
ready
ratinj:;
one is
and i?
away
ced is
n dis-
going
•ipetal
•it'ugal
liave a
lid fly
ir orbit
Iddenly
)rmous
it, in
a manner similar to the results which would arise
from the instantaneous stoppage of a railway carriage
while travelling at fuii speed. But in this instance
the earth did not stand still, but merely continued its
former course in a straight line, instead of a curve,
after its rotary motion became arrested.* Scientists
hold that even if such were the case the waters of the
oceans would overflow the land in one devastating
torrent. Granted. That is exactly what did occur.
The waters of the Arctic Ocean swept over the face of
the northern hemisphere, carrying with them the in-
numerable and enormous icebergs of that region, the
imprint of which is still so plainly discernible in the
rocks lying in the route over which they passed.
As an objection to the account of the recession of
the shadow on th» ^lial in the days of Hezekiah it is
held that the event need not be considered universal,
but merely confined to the shadow on the dial of
Ahaz, which went backward ten degrees. Therefore
it would not be necessary to suppose that other dials
were similarly affected ; and if such an event actually
took place it was merely local, and confined to a single
dial. But this objection is offset by the historical
statement, mentioned in 2 Chron., xxxii. 31, that
ambassadors came " from a far country, even from
Babylon," to inquire of Hezekiah, "of the wonder
that was done in the land." As the effects of the
recession were apparent in a distant country it is
quite evident the event must have been universal.
The recession of the shadow on the dial may be ex-
m
I
158
AGE OF CREATION.
plained in the manner following: — According to the
laws of motion, when a body passes over equal spaces
in equal times the movement is said to be uniform. A
ball thrown by the hand would continue in a straight
line, with a uniform velocity, if its motion met with no
opposition from any other force. The ball being inert
has no power to stop of its own accord ; but the force
of projection being finally overcome by that of gravity
the ball falls to the ground.
If the earth, in its course around the sun, were sud-
denly deprived of its rotary motion, while the sun
still continued to exert over it the same influence as
usual, the earth would be drawn in the direction of the
sun. The path described would then be elliptical, and
not in a direct line, owing to the force of projection
being lessened, and that of gravity being continually
accelerated as the earth approached the sun.
Moving in its orbit the path described by a planet
depends upon its initial velocity and its distance from
the sun. If its 'rotary motion were suddenly arrested
the initial velocity would then be less than before, and
cause it to move in an ellipsis, with the sun in one of
the foci and the starting point its aphelion.
All objects on the earth have a motion in common
with it, and a movement of this kind would cause a
regression of the shadow on the dial such as that re-
corded to have taken place. After the earth had
reached the intersecting point in the line of its former
orbit an axial motion was imparted to ic, which caused
the globe to travel outward from its elliptical path
the
ices
A
icrht
[\ no
nert
force
ivity
> sud-
e sun
ice as
oUhe
al, and
jection
nually
planet
56 from
rrested
)re, and
one of
Manner and time of sun's standing still. 159
into its present and original course, by reason of the
increase in its initial velocity. As the earth flew away
from the sun at a point tangential to its orbit when
the sun stood still, the same point could not be reached
again by the earth except in a straight line. The
homeward path being elliptical the course back would
be by a considerably nearer route. The distance from
the outer to the inner orbit would be therefore trav-
ersed by the earth in about one-half the time required
by the globe to have gone forward, at the same time
bringing back the shadow on the dial ten degrees, by
which it was gone down.
Geologists refuse to entertain for a moment the
occurrence of miracles in connection v/ith the forma-
tion of the whole or any portion of the globe, and
allow of no other aid but the known forces now in
operation. These have been found altogether inade-
quate to account for its existence in its entirety within
a reasonable and known period, and Geology has been
compelled to look elsewhere for further assistance.
Discardinij the idea of a First Cause working- in na-
ture it calls to its aid instead a period of time so re-
mote as to be beyond the comprehension of human
intelligence ; and during a long series of ages, which
the imagination reels in the endeavor to contemplate,
the heaven and the earth are supposed to have been
slowly and gradually formed. Surely the aid of mir-
acles, by which Intlnite Power only is employed, and
by which natural results have followed, is equally as
intelligible and far more suitable to the purpose than
i
»
}!' i HI
■ \i
160
AGE OF CREATION.
the assumption of indefinite aj^es of time, of which his-
tory gives no record, and which has existed only on
supposition. If supposition in the matter of time is
admitted in Geology, it is but fair that the aid of Infi-
nite Power, by which miracles could be performed, and
of which history and chronology attest to have been
actual facts, should be also allowed. By the aid of
Infinite Power in place of indefinite time the same re-
sults may be obtaineti within a period known and cor-
roborated by historical facts to have actually existed.
Most of the earlier geologists were of the opinion
that the Drift dep'^sits were the result of a great cata-
lysm, but failed to identify it with the Noachian
deluge, as the eflfects had not been univ^ersal. " If
anything ai Geology be established," said Cuvier, " it
is that the surface of our globe has undergone a great
and sudden revolution, the date of which cannot be
referred to a much earlier period than 5,000 or 6,000
years ago." He pcjinted out chat as the Ethiopian,
Mongolian and Caucasian races existed upon the earth
at the time, and escaped its effects from all directions,
it could not have been universal.
What at first sight might seem an almost insuper-
able objection to the occurrence of a deluge of any
great magnitude at such a modern period as the days
of Hezekiah is the fact that about that time many of
the great nations of antiquity began to rise. The
kingdoms of Media and Macedonia had already been
founded, and ^.he rise of the Babylonian empire, or the
era of Nabonassar, was in the year 747 B.C. In 743
MANI^ER AJfD TIME OF SUN*S STANDIN'G STILL. 161
B.C. the Spartans were engaged in the first Messenian
war, when Hezekiah was but a child, and the city of
Rome was founded in the year 758 B.C. Even pre-
vious to these periods many of the kingdoms of an-
tiquity were well advanced in civilization and arts.
The Greeks computed their history from the first
Olympiad, which dates as far back as 776 B.C., and
earlier still, in 797 B.C., the kingdom of Lydia was
founded. The eighth century B.C. marks the starting
point from which the great nations of antiquity sprang
into existence ; and if such a world-convulsing event
as the last great continental upheaval of the Glacial
epoch occurred during that period the history of
these kingdoms should contain some reliable reference
thereto. This they certainly do, as shown in their
traditions. That these nations were not swept out of
existence altogether may be explained by the fact
that they were located near the equatorial regions,
and thus escaped the more destructive results of the
floods. The Glacial disturbances were polar phenom-
ena, gradually extending into the temperate latitudes ;
while in the equatorial region the results were more
of a local nature, and consequently not so destructive
as in the northern and southern portions of the globe.
But that they were of a violent nature, and that the
latter of the events occurred in comparatively modern
times, is vouched for by historians of that period. In
the fifteenth book of "The Metamorphoses" Ovid tells
that Pythagoris came to the city of Crotona, and in
expounding the principles of his philosophy said : " I
16^
AGE OF CREATION.
have beheld that as sea which once had been the
most solid earth. I have seen land made from the
sea ; and far away from the ocean the sea shells lay,
and old anchors were found there on the tops of the
mountains. That which was a plain a current of
water has made into a valley, and by a flood the
mountain has been levelled into a plain ; the ground
that was swampy is parched with dry sand, and places
which have endured drought are wet with stand-
ing pools. Here Nature has opened fresh springs,
but there she has shut them up ; and rivers have burst
forth, aroused by ancient earthquakes ; or, vanishing,
they have subsided." And then he tells how rivers
were swallowed by chasm: in the earth, and flowing
with their streams concealed sprang up afresh at other
places ; that others were altered in their courses, and
flowed in another direction ; and how water, formerly
used for drinking, became impregnated with bitter
salts ; that islands, once surrounded by waves, became
peninsulas, and peninsulas became islands, and the
island of Sicily, which had been united to Italy, was
cut off* from the neighboring region by waves flowing
between. " Should you seek Helice and Buris, cities
of Achaia," he says, " you will find them beneath the
waves; and the sailors are still wont to point out these
levelled towns, with their walls buried under the
water. ... So Troy was great, both in her riches and
in her men, and for ten years could afford so much
blood ; whereas, now laid low, she only shows her
ancient ruins ; and instead of her wealth she points at
MANNER AND TIME OF SUN'S STANDING STILL. 163
the tomb of her ancestors. Sparta was famed ; wreat
Mycenae flourished ; so, too, the citadel of Cecrops, and
that of Amphion. Now Sparta is a contemptible spot;
lofty Mycenae is laid low. What now is Thebes, the
city of (Edipus, but a mere story ? What remains of
Athens, the city of Pandion, but its name?" The
foregoing is historically certain proof that the cities
mentioned encountered a ijreat disaster durinjj their
early existence.
In the Mediterranean Sea the ancient beaches and
terraces of many islands testify to a former period of
upheaval. Along the coasts of Syria and Palestine
similar evidence exists, as well as that of the Egyptian
coast, though at present the land is known to be gradu-
ally subsiding.
Sea shells, identical with those at present existing
in the Mediterranean Sea, have been found inland in
the deserts of Northern Africa, as well as water-worn
rocks and beds of salt, indicating the presence of a
former inland sea. In the Algerian Desert species of
existincj shells have been found at a height oi" 900 feet
upon the hills, showing that the land had been up-
heaved during a recent period.
The change of level which occurred with the last
Glacial event resulted in the present distribution of
land and water on the globe ; and many of the ancient
cities which yet remain escaped destruction by an ele-
vation of the lan<l on which they were built, while
others, less fortunate, were submerged by the encroach-
ing waters of the surrounding sea.
m
164
Age of creation.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
CLOUD of mystery enshrouds the name of this
ancient race. Silent volumes of knowledge lie
hidden in the history of this wonderful people. Long
before the Red Indian set foot in America a highly-
civilized and industrious people inhabited the central
part of the continent, from the Gulf of Mexico on the
south to the Red River on the north, and along the
north shore of the River St. Lawrence, in Canada, and
as far as the Alleghanics and the State of New York
on the east. After a comparatively brief stity they
suddenly and mysteriously disappeared, leaving behind
their elaborately-made implements, wonderful en-
closures, and vast structural mounds, from which their
name has been derived, as an unwritten record of the
former character and civilization of this strange people.
The remains of their habitations, tombs and temples
are found over broad areas, in the rich and fertile
valleys, or occasionally elevated on high commanding
positions, and spread continuously over the western,
and some of the eastern, parts of North America, up
into north-western Canada, and around the neighbor-
hood of Lake Superior. The number and immensity
of these structures, the geometrical skill with which
THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
165
they have been constructed, the different mining im-
plements, relics of war and the chase, and other evi-
dences of civilization, bear witness to the existence of
an industrious and numerous race, emerged from the
ranks of barbarism, and acquainted with many of the
arts of civilization. Their principal labor took the form
of gigantic earthworks, such as mounds of various sizes,
and walls of earth and stone, ranging in height from
three to thirtv feet, and enclo.sinfj areas from ten to
three or four hundred acres. Some of these structures
are perfectly round, while in others a resemblance has
been traced to birds, reptiles, quadrupeds, etc. In the
mounds have been found sacrificial altars, on which
rested human skulls, with quantities of charcoal, pot-
tery and other relics. Stone carvings of human
figures in kneeling attitudes, copper instruments, spear
and arrow heads of flint, drills, pipes and decorated
ornaments of various descriptions and beautiful work-
manship, have been found in great quantities. A long
chain of mounds extends for miles diagonally across
the State of Ohio, and on the prairies and valleys of
the West they are almost innumerable. In Ohio alone
the number of mounds, including the different en-
closures, is estimated at about 18,000. They range in
size from a few feet in height, with a proportionate
base, to a height of eighty or ninety feet ; while the
bases of others extend over an area of several acres.
Some are scattered far and wide, while others are
located in groups. The material of which they are
composed, though mainly of earth, in many instances
■m
166
AGE OF OREATION.
bears evidence of transportation from afar, and is of
an entirely different nature from the soil by which
they are surrounded. They appear to have been
formed with the utmost order and regularity, there
apparently beinj^ no confusion or random means guid-
ing their construction. From the regular nature of
their- position and contents they have been found
capable of classiHcation, and are now known individu-
ally as sacrificial or temple mounds, sepulchral or
burial mounds, symbolic mounds, signal mounds and
indefinite mounds. Besides these there are terraces
or graded ways, and long walls or breastworks, rang-
ing from five to twiity feet high, known as enclosures.
The sacrificial or temple mounds, as their name
indicates, were the sacred enclosures of these ancient
people, within and around the walls of which the
temple mounds were raised, as shown by the nature of
their contents. The remains of sacriticial altars have
been found in all of these enclosures, on which a fire
was apparently kept perpetually burning, as evidenced
by the layers of ashes, charcoal and other burnt relics
by which they were surrounded. Heaps of burnt
human bones, and the presence of their skulls on the
altars, plainly indicate an idolatrous form of worship,
in which human beirnxs were offered in sacrifice. Most
of the enclosures of these ancient temples have their
openings facing the east, from which it has been in-
ferred that the Mound-Builders were sun-worshippers,
and thus located their altars to receive the first rays
of the rising sun. On exploration many of the altars
THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
167
have been found covered with successive layers of
drift material, consisting of sand and gravel, to a depth
of three or four feet.
The sepulchral mounds were the vaults or burial
places of the Mound- Builders. They are of various
sizes — some large, some small, some singly, others in
small clusters or scattered over the surrounding coun-
try ; while other burial places of great extent lie with-
out the enclosures, with nothing to mark or indicate
their nature whatever. Within the base of the sepul-
chral mounds vaults have been found of unhewn logs,
containing human skeletons in an advanced state of
decay, together with ornaments of mica, bracelets of
copper, carvings of stone and beads of shells. Occa-
sionally a large mound contains only one, or, perhaps*
two skeletons. Others have been found containing
several, grouped in a sitting posture.
The symbolic mounds are long ridges of earth, four
or live feet high and twenty or thirty feet wide at the
base. Their outlines appear to resemble the figures
of different animals, such as the elephant, mastodon,
alligator, serpent, beaver and tortoise. Within these
structures, also, altars have been found, and other evi-
dences of worship, from which it has been assumed that
the traced outlines were those of animals held sacred
by this ancient and idolatrous people.
The signal mounds were elevated stations, generally
located in commanding positions, on which it is sup-
posed a watch was constantly kept. A regular line of
communication could be held between the different
^^
^^mm
1 il:
A.GE OF CREATION.
stations by means of signals. A fire burned on one of
these elevations could be seen across the plains for
miles, where it could be repeated by the watchman
there, and flashed in another direction, and so on from
one mound to another, so that in a comparatively
short time the whole population could be aroused and
warned of any impending danger.
Of the indefinite mounds comparatively little is
known. They are supposed to be the uncompleted work
of the Mound-Builders. They are scattered in great
numbers over the country, and owing to their incom-
plete nature cannot be properlj'' classified.
Among the many works attributed to the Mound-
Builders is the well-known enclosure known as " Fort
Ancient," situated on the east bank of the Miami River,
in Ohio. The great fortress stands on an elevation
230 feet above the river, on either side of which a
deep ravine extends. The whole is encircled by a
wall, five miles in length, ranging from five to twenty
feet high. In this there are numerous openings, pro-
tected by mounds or inner walls. Two large mounds
stand at no great distance from the fortification, from
which two walls run parallel for a considerable length,
where they unite and enclose another mound. The
whole bears every appearance of an immense strong-
hold occupying a very commanding position.
In Illinois the truncated pyramidal n ound of Calo-
kios, according to Lubbock, is 700 feet long, 500 feet
wide and 90 feet high, its estimated volume being
20,000,000 cubic feet,
TEIE MOUND-IiUILDERS.
169
)alo-
feet
In the Mississippi valley, between Alton and East St.
Louis, the fjjreat platform mound ot* Cohokia rises up
in the form of a parallelo^vaui, over 100 feet high, its
sides being respectively 700 and 500 feet in length. On
its top is a platform 200 feet wide, and it is supposed
to contain in cubic feet about one-fourth that of the
great pyramid of Ghizeh. Above this rises a conies)
mound ten feet in height, in which were found im-
plements of stone, funeral vases and human remains.
The mound itself is surrounded by about two hundred
others of various sizes and dimensions.
Grave Creek mound, in West Virginia, is estimated
to be equivalent in size to the third pyramid of Egypt.
It is 70 feet in heicjht and about 900 feet in circum-
ference. When this mound was first discovered trees
supposed to be from 800 to 500 years old grew on
its summit. On exploration two vaults were found
within, one at the base being twelve feet long, eight
feet wide, and seven feet deep. The logs of which this
vault was formed were all decayed and covered with
loose, unhewn stone. Two skeletons were found en-
closed, one surrounded with shell beads and other orna-
ments, while the other had none. The upper vault,
which was of a similar nature, contained a skeleton
decorated with shell beads, copper rings and pieces of
mica.
The great serpent mound, in Adams County, Ohio,
is represented with an open mouth, between the jaws
of which there is an oval mound four feet in height,
the diameter of which is 160 feet in its thickest part.
12
11
170
AGE OF CREATION.
The body is formed of a curved wall four or five feet
in height, and the tail is rolled in a spiral coil. The
entire length of the mound is about 1,000 feet.
In the Scioto valley, within a vast enclosure, having
regular gateways and approaches, a number of squares
are found measuring exactly 1,080 feet.
According to Messrs. Squier and Davis some earth-
works of the Mound-Builders measure not less than
550,000 cubic metres, from which it is calculated that
four of them would exceed in bulk the largest of the
Egyptian pyramids, which is estimated to contain
2,000,000 cubic metres.
The State of Ohio appears to have been the head-
quarters of the Mound-Builders, they having had great
settlements at Cincinnati, Portsmouth, Marietta, Xenia.
Springfield, Dayton, Hamilton, Oxford, Miamisburg,
Mound City, Eaton, Athens and other places.
Enormous quantities of implements and relics of
this ancient race have been collected fr'om the mounds.
Whole armories of stone and flint weapons of war and
the chase, axes, hatchets, knives, chisels, gouges, pot-
tery of all descriptions, terra-cotta figures, pipes, mor-
tars, pestles, ornaments, coins and articles of bone
have been found in abundance. Galena, and instru-
ments of obsidian, a dark, transparent mineral, ex-
ceedingly hard, of which none is found in the neigh-
borhood, and which was probably brought from the
Rocky Mountains, have been discovered, together with
copper ornaments plated with gold, and rings of
meteoric iron. Some of the altars have been covered
THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
171
feet
The
lares
irtb-
than
that
i the
ntain
head-
great
SCenia.
"jburg,
LCS of
lt and
pot-
mor-
bone
istru-
d, ex-
heigh-
m the
with
rs of
)vered
with a thick layer of opacjue mica. In addition to
the above there arc remains of coarse cloth and other
articles of clothing, indicating the existence of a peace-
able, industrious and numerous race. That these peo-
ple had a tolerable acquaintance with the nature of
metals and their use is evident from the quantity of
broken minerals and the various mining implements
left behind. In the copper regions of Lake Superior
and other mining districts numerous excavations of
great extent have been found, from twenty to sixty
feet deep under the surface, containing stone hammers,
mauls, copper chisels and other implements used for
mining and excavating purposes. Ancient shafts have
been found in pits in Minnesota, where excavations
have been made as deep as sixty feet through the solid
rock, and extending over a broad area of several miles.
Detached blocks of copper of various dimensions have
been discovered some distance from the place of exca-
vation, together with the implements and tools used
in dislodging them, and oaken beams required for their
elevation to the surface.
All these works and relics appear to have been
suddenly abandoned, and never again claimed by their
former owners. Their tools, hammers and mauls lay
in undisturbed positions in the mines just as the
workmen left them one eventful evening many cen-
turies ago, and for which they never after returned.
The antiquity of the Mound-Builders is generally
estimated at about 2,000 years. This conclusion has
been arrived at by various geological considerations
/• r
t
172
AGE OF CREATION.
and the very decayed condition of tlie bones found in
the mounds. On exposure to the atmosphere the
skeletons of the Mound-Builders at once sliow si<^ns
of disintej^ration, some having- crumbled to dust.
Skeletons of one-half the estimated age arc known to
have nimained in a comparatively thoroui^h state of
preservation under as favorable conditions. The oldest
known Indian remains are remarkably well preserved
in comparison with those of the Mound-Builders. For
this reason alone their great anticjuity can be ascribed.
But there is other evidence by which a similar con-
clusion is arrived at. Some of the mounds are covered
with a growth of forest trees, many of which have at-
tained a great age. The ages of some of the trees
have been placed at about 700 or 800 years, as attested
by the number of their concentric rings of annual
growth. Beneath the surface evidence of former
forests exist in many places where the ancient trees
abound, showing that the mounds were entirely
deserted before the first vegetation obtained a foot-
hold. This would place the first growth of the pre-
vious forests at about fifteen or sixteen hundred years
ago.
But who were these strange people ? and what be-
came of them ? These are questions which have never
been definitely answered, though many efforts have
been made to solve their identification. Some have
regarded them as the earliest Indian tribes ; but this
idea has been disposed of by a comparison of the
crania of the two, which shows that the Mound-
THE MOUND-BUILDEUS.
173
Builders differed essentially from the Indians in the
elevation and breadth of the frontal bone, and were
their intellectual superiors in every respect. That
they were in no way connected with the roaming In-
dians of the present day is quite certain, for the latter
have never been known to lead other than a nomadic
life in the past; and they could hardly have gravitated
into their present state of degeneracy in a compara-
tively short period of time without retaining some
evidence of their former o-reatness. There is every
indication that the Mound Builders emigrated from
the south, where a far higher degree of civilization
then existed than that manifested by themselves. In
California, Mexico, Central and South Ameiica a])ound
the most magnificent antiquities and remains of a
perfect civilization. Great pyramidal mounds and
terraces, remains of gorgeous palaces adorned with
sculi3tures of the most elaborate description, altars,
paintings, ornaments and undecipherable hieroglyphic
tablets are found in great numbers scattered through-
out the country, and in the depths of the tropical
forests. It has been learned that as the comparatively
rude works of the Mound-Builders approach the south-
ern localities they appear to partake of a higher
character, resembling the more advanced works with
which they seem, to approximate. Among the njany
races who inhabited tropical America during the ze-
nith of its former civilization were the Alleghans and
the Toltecs. These races, together with several others>
were undoubtedly coiiqueiod by the Aztecs, a highly
J 74
AGE OF CREATION.
civilized people who inhabited Mexico previous to the
time of the Spanish invasion under Cortez. Now, the
crania of the Mound- Builders have been found identical
with those of the Toltecs, who, in turn, it is known,
resembled the AUeghans, with whom they appear to
have been intimately connected. This fact alone
would not be suffici<'nt to demonstrate the identity of
the Mound-Builders, nor to explain their sudden and
mysterious disappearance. From the historical records
of these ancient people, combined with the above fact,
together with traditionary accounts of their former
existing condition, enough can be gleaned to establish
an identit}^ between the two. The following appli-
cable narrative is recorded in the third volume of
Bancroft's "Native Races' (p. 89): "The natives in
the vicinity of Lake Tahoe ascribe its origin to a great
natural convulsion. There was a time, they say, when
their tribe possessed the whole earth, and were strong,
numerous and rich ; but a day came in which a people
rose up stronger than they, r^nd defeated and enslaved
them. Afterward the Great Spirit sent an immense
wave across the continent from the sea, p.nd this wave
engulfed the oppressors and oppressed, all but a very
small remnant. Then the task-masters made the re-
maining people raise up a great temple, so that they of
the rulint; caste should have a ref ujje in casf^ of another
flood ; and on the top of this temple they worshipped
a column of perpetual tire. Half a moon had not
elapsed, however, before the earth was again troubled,
this time with .strong convulsions and thunderings,
tHE MOUND-BUILDERS.
175
upon which the masters took refuge in their great
tower, closing the people out. The poor slaves fled to
the Humboldt River, and getting into canoes paddled
for life from the awful sight behind them ; for the
land was tossing like a troubled sea, and casting up
fire, smoke and ashes. Tlie flames went up to the
very heavens, and melted many stars, so that they
rained down in molten metal upon the earth, forming
the ore that white men seek. The Sierra was mounded
up from the bosom of the eurth ; while the place
where the great fort stood sank, leaving only the
dome on the top exposed above the waters of Lake
Tahoe. Tiie inmates of the temple tower clung to
this dome to save themselvc from drowning; but the
Great Spirit walked upon the waters in his wrath,
and took the oppressors one by one like pebbles, and
threw them far into the recesses of a great cavern,
called to this day the Spirit Lodge, where the waters
shut the:. In."
From this account alono may be learned the iden-
tity, history and doom of the long-lo.st Mound-Builders.
They were evidently the ancient Alleghans, in sub-
jection to the Toltecs, who were in turn conquered
and subdued by the Aztecs, a far more powerful race.
While in bondage they were suddenly surprised and
nearly exterminated by the first Drift catastrophe,
caused by the standing still of the sun at the command
of Joshua. When the waters had retreated, and the
temperature of the tropics had become colder owing to
the great change of climate which necessarily followed,
li
L
176
AGE OF CREATION.
many of the remnant emigrated northward into the
warmer regions. After that terrible event it was but
natural that these people should dread the occurrence
oi a similar catastrophe. Taking pos.session of the
great ridges and reefs of drift material lying over the
face of the country, the conquerors soon conceived the
idea of making preparations for any occurrence of a
similar nature. The captives, still in bondage, were
set to work, and the drift material was utilized in the
vast mounds and enclosures which still remain as a
lasting memorial of thoir former labors, and which
were evidently prepared with one object in view — a
place of refuge in which they might escape in case of
a Hood.
No adequate idea can be formed of the suffering
which must have been endured by the escaping rem-
nant of these people during the dreadful calamity by
which they were originally overtaken. The greatest
mining disasters, railway or steamboat horrors, of mod-
ern times, pale into insigniHcance in comparison with
that awful event. The poor victims can be imagined
fleeing in the darkness to the caves and caverns in the
mountains, seeking a place of shelter from the blind-
ing, fiery c)''clone of stones, gravel and hail which
swept the border-land of that great flootl. But many
escaped the raging waters only to be engulfed in the
torrents of molten lava which oozed from fissures in
the mountains and flowed over the country for thou-
sands of miles. The feelings of horror and despair by
which they must have been overcome can be better
THE MOUND-BUILDfiRS.
177
by
lod-
Lth
ined
the
lind-
lich
^any
the
ts in
1)0U-
imagined than described, as they patiently waited in
the total darkness for the couiin<x of the sun, which
they never more expected to shine upon them. And
as the day gradually wore away, and the earth still
tossed and heaved and no sun appeared, the intensity
of their horror must have greatly increased. Strong
men groping their way in the darkness in search of
their loved ones, and children and helpless babes cry-
ing for help from those who would never see them
again, must have added to the intensity of the situa-
tion. Again, their feelings of joy and delight must
have known no bounds when, bruised, burned, torn,
and famished with hunger, they once more caught a
glimpse of the sun peering through the thick fogs and
smoke in which they were enveloped. No wonder the
sun was an object of adoration by this ancient people.
As thev waited and watched in all directions a wel-
come sight nmst have met their eyes when the first
streak of dawn gleameii over the. eastern horizon, and
the sun gradually rose high up into the heavens. The
details are given by Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg in
Tylor's " Early History of Mankind": — " Now, behold,
our ancients and our fathers were made lords, and had
their dawn. Behold, wo will relate also the rising of
the sun, the moon and the stars ! Great was ^,heir joy
when they saw the morning star, which came out first,
with its resplendent face, before the sun. At last the
sun itself began to conie forth ; the animals, small and
great, were in joy ; they rose from the water courses
and ravines and stood on the mountain tops, with their
>\
m'
178
AGE OF CREATION.
1 :.i
M
heads towards where the sun was coining. An innu-
merable crowd of people were there, and the dawn
cast light on all these people at once. At last the face
of the ground was dried by the sun ; like a man the
sun showed himself, and his presence warmed and
dried the surface of the ground. Before the sun ap-
peared, muddy and wet was the surface of the ground,
and it was then only the sun rose like a man. But
his heat had no strength, and he did but show himself
when he rose ; he only remained like " (an image in)
"a mirror, and it is not indeed the same sun that
appears noio, they say in their stories."
The temporary change of climate which then oc-
curred is here referred to. As the absence and reap-
pearance of the sun were the most marked features of
the catastrophe, it is but natural to suppose that an
idolatrous people would attribute the cause of the dis-
turl^ance to that luminary. The position of their sacred
enclosures, looking to the east, and so constructed that
its rising rays would fall upon the altars, is sufficient
to indicate that they worshipped the sun, and in the
desperation of their devotion offered up human sacri-
fices. The watch towers of the signal mounds show
that a look-out was constantly kept in order that the
inhabitants might be warned of the approach of the
dreaded flood. But one eventful night about 2,600
years ago the beacons of the watchful sentries prob-
ably flashed their lurid signals in vain, for the great
billows of the second Drift catastrophe rolled over
the continent from an unexpected direction, swallow-
THE MOUND-BUILDERS.
179
acri-
show
t the
f the
2,600
prob-
er r eat
over
LUoW"
ing up their puny Babels and sweepinj^ their builders
out of existence. So suddenly did it come upon them
that no preparations appear to have been made for
escape. The skulls still remain undisturbed on the
altars, and the tools and implements of the workmen
lie in the mines and other places, just as they were de-
posited one tropical evening when the sun slowly sank
in the western heavens, never more to be seen or wor-
shipped by those ancient and highly-civilized people.
Over the North Pole the waves rolled down into
Siberia, engulfing all within their reach. The fleeing
natives who were not overtaken found an escape east-
ward along the peninsula of Alaska, and from thence
spread south and over the North American continent.
And this is undoubtedly where the Red Indian came
f mm, and how and when he first set foot on the great
plains of North America, after the disappearance of
that ancient and wonderful people — the long-lost
Mound-Builders.
■:;i[
i ; i 1
180
AGE OF CREATION.
I ;;;:
!)!.:
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE SUN.
** The spacious firmament on high,
With all the blue ethereal sky,
And spangled heavens a shining frame,
Their great Original proclaim.
" Th' unwearied sun from day to day
Does his Creator's power display,
And publishes to every land
The work of an Almighty hand."
— A ddUon.
(ERRIBLE and destructive as were the terrestrial
disturbances of the Drift epoch, they were but
particles of the two stupendous astronomical revolu-
tions that extended to the uttermost limits of the
astral univ^erse. Not only the planets but the entire
solar system suffered from the effects of these tremen-
dous shocks. When the number as well as the enor-
mous immensity of some of these gii^antic orbs is
considered it seems almost incredible that any power
could ever remove them from their existing positions.
That such a labyrinth of worlds could be scattered
like a storm of hail for hundreds of thousands of
miles, and be again brought back exactly to their
former positions, after a lapse of several hundred years,
is alone sufficient to excite admiration of the omnipo-
THE SUN.
181
"their
iears.
lipo-
tence of the Creator. That such events actually took
place is confirmed by the celestial bodies themselves.
Of all the mighty orbs within our solar system the
sun appears as the undisputed monarch of all, not so
much on account of his immense size as from the vast
influence wielded over the whole system.
Though its enormous dimsensions may be estimated
in figures, their realization is beyond comprehension.
It is 880,000 miles in diameter, requiring about
twenty-five and one-half days to turn once on its
axis Its estimated weight is placed at 2,154,106,580,-
000,vy00,000,000,000,000 tons, an amount as unintelli-
gible to the imagination as the figures used to ex-
press it.
" Perhaps the best means of appreciating so vast a
figure," says Guillemin, "is to compare it with the
volume of our earth itself, which is about 260,000,-
000,000 cubic miles. We find, nevertheless, that the
volume of the sun is equivalent to 1,273,000 terrestrial
globes. The earth is by no means the largest of the
planets, since Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
are respectively 1;230, 685, 74 and 85 times as volu-
minous as our planet. But if all the planets known,
toirether with their satellites, were fused toi]:ether into
one globe, we should find that the volume of the sun
was still 600 times as great as this agglomerated
mass."*
The enormous quantities of light and heat emitted
from the sun are ec^ually as incomprehensible as the
*'*The Sun," p. 113.
ii ill M
182
AGE OF CREATION.
realization of its rlimensions. Its light has been esti-
mated by Huggens as comparable to 765,000,000 times
that of Sirius, the Dog Star, one of the most con-
spicuous in the heavens. According to Young the total
quantity of sunlight is estimated at equivalent to
1,575,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 candles, and its
intensity at the solar surface has been estimated at
190,000 times that of candle flame, 146 times that of
a calcium light, 3.4 times that of an electric arc, and
5,300 times that of molten incandescent metal in a
Bessemer converter.
By a telescopic examination the surface of the sun
is found to be diversified by occasional spots, or funnel-
shaped openings, through which a dark interior is seen.
They are mainly observed on either side of the equa-
tor, and have been the means of confirming the idea
of an axial rotation of that luminary. Frequently the
spots are accompanied by a portion more brilliant than
the surrounding parts of the disc, upon the internal
surface, called facula3, which sometimes assume the
form of converging currents, and radiate towards the
periphery. In the solar spots two tints of a very
apparently different nature are distinguished by as-
tronomers. " One of these tints," says Guillemin,
"consists of one or more nuclei, which appear black
when compared to the general brightness of the disc ;
the other is a grey tint surrounding the nucleus or
several nuclei, and rather improperly called the penum-
bra. Sometimes, but not often, black spots or nuclei
THE SUN.
183
luclei
are seen deprived of a penumbra, and a penumbra is
sometimes seen witliout a nucleus.
" When minutely examined the nuclei are far from
possessing the same tint in every part, though their
periphery is generally very clearly defined.
" On the dark background certain hollow portions
arc noticed — cavities of darker tint than the back-
ground. . . . The same remark holds good for the
penumbrse. It is those portions of their periphery in
contact with the brilliant surface of the disc that are
of the darkest grey tint ; whether it be an effect of
contrast or a reality, the difference of tint is, neverthe-
less, very marked. Besides, the penumbrte are very
often striped with lines descending from their extertial
border to the nucleus, as straight lines, sometimes
curved, but generally perpendicular to the edges of
the penumbra and nucleus. They appear like the
beds of a multitude of streams that have furrowed the
slopes represented by the penumbra, and are precipi-
tating themselves into the dark gulf of the nucleus."*
Within the umbra Dawes discovered what might be
termed a nucleolus, or a nucleus within the nucleus.
'• In all spots which are tolerably sjnn metrical," he
holds, "this umbra will be found to be perforated near
its centre by a perfectly black hole, which is to be
regarded as the true nucleus."
The spots sometimes extend over a vast area and
attain immense dimensions, many having been visible
to the naked eye. In 1790 Sir William Herschel esti-
* " The Sun," p. 175,
^ 1.
184
AGE OF CREATION.
II
mated the diameter of a spot, which consisted of two
parts, at not less than 50,000 miles. In 1828 Pastorff
measured another whoso area was computed to be
about four times the entire surface of the earth. The
most extensive of a group observed by Capt. Davis, in
1839, was estimated at 186,000 miles in length, its
surface extending about 25,000,000,000 square miles.
Another, in 1843, according to Schwabe, had a length
of about 74,816 miles. In 1858 observations were
made of a spot more than 143,500 miles broad, or
nearly eighteen times the diameter of the earth. It
was computed that one hundred such globes would be
required to fill up the cavity, its depth being placed
at a very moderate calculation. One measured by
Newall, in 1859, exceedecP seven times the diameter of
the earth. Many others of extensive dimensions have
been observed, but the foregoing will show the enor-
mous extent to which they sometimes attain.
Regarding the distribution of the spots in latitude,
Carrington observed that they generally manifested a
tendency to advance towards the equator as the epoch
of minimum is approached. After the arrival of that
period the spots disappeared.
The duration of sun spots is also extremely variable.
Some vanish in a few minutes, while others remain
visible for months. During the course of a single
transit some are formed and disappear, and others, oc-
casionally of a more permanent nature, remain in sight
during the period of the sun's semi-duration, and after
an interval of another twelve and a-half days reappear
THE SUN.
185
jiule,
;d a
that
table.
nain
ini
fie
Is, oc-
sis
ht
I after
)pear
and acjain become visible on the disc. In 1779 Sir
William Herscbel followed a spot for six months. In
1800, while observing a group, his attention being dis-
tracted for a moment, it disappeared in an instant, and
could not be found again. Similar instances of this
kind have also occurred.
Certain spots have exhibited the appearance of
cyclonic motion. From observations made by Secchi,
Lockyer, Dawes and others, tornadoes of tremendous
fury are known to have occurred, in some instances
attaining a velocity of 120 miles per second.
On April 18th, 1860, Seccld observed that the whole
of a large spot and contiguous neighborhood was sur-
rounded by multitudes of objects resembling leaves of
an elongated form, and that a bridge of this structure
extended across the spot. ' On the following day,"
Secchi says, " it was in a marvellous condition, full of
bridges, arcs and leaves, like the great spot of 1868."*
In 1862 Nasmyth described the sun's surface as
covered with an afjijjlomeration of fibiments of defi-
nite shape and general uniformity of size, presenting
the appearance of a thin, flat layer of " willow leaves."
They appeared to be scattered ovf r the surface and to
cross each other in every imaginable direction, present-
ing no defined or symmetrical arrangement whatever.
Their average length is supposed to be about 1,000
miles and the width about 100 miles. In thickness
the layer did not appear very deep, as the darker
stratum underneath was rendered visible through the
13
Proctor, " The Sun," p. 223.
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186
AGE OF CREATION,
tili'H
^^
interstices which occurred between them. It was the
infinite number of these occurrences, he held, that gave
to the general solar surface its peculiar mottled ap-
pearance.
Many astronomers observe no resemblance in these
to willow leaves, though there appears to be a general
unanimity of opinion that innumerable granulated
masses of luminous matter are scattered over the sur-
face of the sun, crossed by numerous light and dark
lines. Others see in the granular nodules a resem-
blance to rice grains ; and they have again been sup-
posed to resemble matted chips of straw, lying parallel
to each other, constituting what has been called a
" thatch-straw" formation. The penumbrae of the solar
spots exhibited a somewhat similar structure, with
the exception that their pores are much larger than
those on the disc. The striated penumbra has been
likened to the bottom of a thatched roof, the separate
straws lying in the direction of the spot
Many theories have been advanced as to the origin
and nature of the solar spots. " The various conjec-
tures which have been formed on the subject," said Sir
William Herschel, "are evident marks of the uncer-
tainty under whicli we have hitherto labored. The dark
spots in the sun, for instance, have been supposed to
be solid bodies revolving very near its surface. They
have been conjectured to be the smoke of volcanoes
or the scum floating upon an ocean of liquid fire. They
have also been taken for clouds. They were explained
to be opaque masses, swimming in the fluid matter of
THE SUN.
187
Incer-
dark
jd to
I They
lanoes
iThey
lained
iter oi
the sun ; dipping down occasionally. It has been sup-
posed that a tiery liquid surrounded the sun, and that,
by its ebbing and flowing, the highest parts of it were
occasionally uncovered and appeared under the shape
of dark spots ; and that by the return of this fiery
liquid they were again covered, and in that manner
successively assumed different phases. The sun itself
has been called a globe of fire, though perhaps meta-
phorically. The waste it would undergo by a gradual
consumption, on the supposition of its being ignited,
has been ingeniously calculated. And in the same
point of view its immense power of heating the bodies
of such comets as draw very near to it has been as-
signed."*
Many important facts regarding the sun's physical
nature have been revealed by fche aid of the spectro-
scope, an instrument by means of which the chemical
constituents of matter in the form of vapor or gas are
determined. It consists of a prism placed between the
object glass of a small telescope and that of another
without an eye-piece, through which the light of the
object is admitted by means of a narro :' slit. The rays
falling on the prism are refracted and passed through
the object glass of the telescope at the other end. They
are thus brought to a focus, and the result observed is
the spectrum of the object light admitted through the
slit. A continuous spectrum is that in which there is
no gap observed in the series of colors, as in the light
obtained from a candle or from incandescent iron.
* Proctor, *' Tlie Sun," p. 172.
^1
l\ M
fi
188
AGE OF CREATION.
But light passing through a gaseous atmosphere, such
as that emanating from the celestial bodies, will give
a spectrum crossed by dark lines, showing that the
light has been culled by the gases through which it
has passed. It is also inferred that the hotter sub-
stances of the glowing atmosphere of an incandescent
body may produce bright lines, while the dark lines
may be attributed to the absorption of light by those
of a cooler nature. By means of a spectroscopic analy-
sis the substances which form the various vapors
through which the light passes a"e thus detected and
compared with that of others already recognized-
The substance known to produce the one is then in-
ferred to exist in the other.
Of the physical constitution of the sun compara-
tively nothing is definitely known. It is generally
believed that the sun is a vast globe of nebulous
matter gradually cooling, the effect of gravity upon
its mass producing a shrinkage by which its tempera-
ture is constantly maintained. In this manner, it is
supposed, the solar fires have been kept up for indefi-
nite ages in the past. The enormous quantity of heat
emitted from the sun — as estimated by scientists " at
one hundred and seventy -six millions of million horse-
power, or about 78,000 horse-power for every square
metre (a little more than a square yard) — would require
a contraction of the solar mass equal to thirty-five
metres per annum to maintain its energy." Thus, it is
held, the temperature is gradually decreasing, and in
THE SUN.
189
IS
at
:se-
lare
lire
ive
It is
in
the distant future will be lowered to such an extent
that life on the earth will cease to exist.
This theory requires for its development an indefi-
nite period of time, and assumes that the process has
been going on during the millions of years that are
supposed to have elapsed in the past since the sun was
first originated. But these are only scientific theories,
and must not be mistaken for actual facts. It is uni-
versally admitted by astronomers that during man's
existence upon the earth there is not the slightest
evidence of any variation whatever in the amount of
solar energy having taken place. As the cause and
date of I he Glacial period alone is a satisfactory con-
firmation of the Scriptural age of the world, the above
theory, and all others requiring for their bases an in-
definite period of time, at once lalls to the ground.
There is no alternative, then, but to account for the
blemishes, or sun spots, by a great catastrophe occur-
ring within the time of man.
From all accounts and observations, then, the sun
appears to consist of an opaque nucleus surrounded by
an ocean of molten liquid. The whole is enclosed
within a brilliant, corrugated, porous crust, in the same
manner as the floating film or scum formed on a
crucible of melted metal, the liquid and crust consti-
tuting what is known as the sun's photosphere, the
entire globe being enveloped in a zone of glowing
vapor. A spectrum analysis of the sun's atmosphere
shows the presence of metallic vapors, thus indicating
the existence of mineral substances in the body in a
i
]:
4
;Ll
190
AGE OF CREATION.
state of fusion, in all probability, analogous to terres-
trial lava.
The rays of light and heat emanating from the solar
body present a continuous spectrum, which is an un-
doubted indication that they proceeded from a more
solid substance than gas. The intensity of the light
also presents an unexplainable objection to the assump-
tion of a gaseous body. Although the photosphere is
surrounded by disturbances of the most violent nature,
it has always remained immobile, and presented a per-
fect, undisturbed appearance, in which no change of
level or upheaval has been observed except in the
region of spots. This could not possibly be the case
if the photosphere were gaseous.
The nucleus, evidently, is a solid globe from which
the material requisite to solar energy is derived and
maintained. Its constitution may also be of an ada-
mantine nature and the seat of attraction, owing to
the influence exerted upon the planetary system..
The idea of a solid nucleus within the body of the
sun is now generally abandoned by astronomers, and
there is a unanimity of opinion that its interior is
mainly of a gaseous nature. The objection to a solid
nucleus is met by the unquestioned discovery of Dawes,
who found the centre of the umbra perforated by a
perfectly black hole, which could not otherwise be if
the nucleus were not solid.
The spectroscope reveals the fact that gases of a
lower temperature than those in surrounding parts are
found in the solar spots. This would certainly favor
I
THE SUN.
191
the idea of an. opaque, solid nucleus, from which, on
exposure, a cooler region was formed. The objects
known as " willow leaves " appear to be the scum-
flakes, such as accumulate on any molten material.
" The exceedingly definite shape of these objects,"
wrote Sir John Herschel, " theii exact similarity to
one another, and the way in which they lie across
and athwart each other (except where they form a
sort ot bridge across a spot, in which case they seem to
affect a common dir 3ction, that, namely, of the bridge
itself) — all these characters seem quite repugnant to
the notion of their being of a vaporous, a cloudy or a
fluid nature. Nothing remains but to consider them
as separate and independent sheets, Jiakes or scales,
having some sort of solidity.''*
The sim spots are great holes or rents in the solar
crust, through which, at times, the interior nucleus
becomes visible.
The penumbras forming the sloping sides of the
spots are the broken and ragged edges of the crust.
It has been observed that the interior border of the
penumbra is generally of a brighter appearance than
its exterior, the radiating filaments of the penumbra
partaking of the same appearance toward their ex-
tremities. This is owing to the lower portion of the
penumbra being surrounded by molten fluid. It is
also shown that the filaments lying partly or wholly
down the slope of a spot manifest a tendency to turn
upward, and appear elevated above the surrounding
medium.
* Proctor, "The Sun," p. 122.
m
I
, (
S:l
192
AGE OF CREATION.
Hi
The facul?© are the ruptured elevations or ridges
above the rough surface, as shown by Dawes, who saw
them projecting beyond the edge of the sun's disc.
The rents or holes in the crust were dragged open
by the attractive influence of the planets as they tore
themselves away from the sun when it stood still and
ceased to revolve in the days of Joshua. In the equa-
torial spot zones the crust is rent and torn in all
directions. These cavities or breaks form immense
whirlpools, into which the molten material is drawn
to till up the vacancy. The rent is then temporarily
filled up until the spots are again brought under the
direct influence of the planets, when they are again
torn open by the dragging influence of the planets on
the sun's disc. This would account for the eccentricity
of the nucleus and penumbra of a spot, by causing
the molten currents to flow into and ebb out of the
cavity. The appearance of faculae generally precede
the formation of a spot. A dark point or dot is ob-
served increasing in size, and of an irregular form.
After it has attained some degree of development the
penumbra begins to be seen, and the cavity continues
to increase until its full dimensions are attained. The
spots diminish vice versa. The edges seem less defined,
being gradually covered over with the incandescent
molten matter, which occasionally exceeds the faculae
in brightness. As it increases the umbra becomes
divided by the joining of the flow^ ''g extremities of
the accumulated matter on the opposite, or even the
same, side of the spot. Across these molten streams
THE SUN.
193
les
nit
ilse
Ines
of
the
ims
float the flakes of scum or granules described as "willow
leaves," until the chasm is ponipletely bridged across.
It then becomes contracted in size, gradually closes up
and disappears. During the process of formation and
disappearance of a spot many changes of an irregular
and variable form are assumed, some spots suddenly
springing into existence, and others disappearing in
an instant.
That these cavities exercise an influence on the
planets is well known and there is now an established
association between sun spots and the magnetic dis-
turbances which take place on the earth. That the
planets also exercise an influence on the solar disc is
shown from observations made by Messrs. De La Rue,
Stewart and Loewy. They hold that the solar photo-
sphere is materially aflected by the c. anction of the
planets, and that the sun spots appea '^ be dragged
into the equatorial region of the sun's disc when either
of the planets Jupiter or Venus cross the plane of its
ecliptic. After the passage from the equatorial plane
the spots again spread in the direction of the poles.
Such being the case the rents on the crust would be
only a natural sequence if the sun stood still and ceased
to revolve. The planets would drag the sun or free
themselves by tearing away a portion of the disc. The
same planetary influence being constantly exercised on
the sun-spot zones would again draw open the rents
after they had been filled up and assumed the usual
level, and permit of their refilling with molten material
after the cause of the disturbance had ceased. " The
194
AGE OF CREATION.
^li
universe is one great whole," wrote Thomas Dick, " and
all its po.rts, however repote, must be supposed to
have a certain relation to one another ; and they may
produce an influence, however small and imperceptible,
on each other at the cji'eatest distances. The remotest
star perceptible to the eye may produce a certain phys-
ical influence on our globe, though so small and in-
sensible as to be beyond the nicest calculation."*
In addition to the sun spots another peculiar feature
common to the sun is the existence oi* what is known as
the sierra, or solar prominences. These are rose-colored
protuberances which have been observed around the
disc of the sun during periodical eclipses of that lumi-
nary. They appear in form as flames of rose-colored
light, rising sometimes in triangular or peak-shaped
masses, or as ragged lines of projections along the
solar disc. Their form is variable, and they have been
observed isolated and suspended like clouds in the air.
They have been compared by Baily to distant Alpine
peaks colored and illuminated by the rays of the set-
ting sun. Several small prominences observed by
Goldschmidt during the eclipse of 18G0 are described
as of an irregular form and resembling globules of
mother-of-pearl, which rapidly changed to a rose-color
and quickly disappeared. "The most imposing, as
well as complicated, of the prominences," he observes
— " which I will call the chandelier — was grand beyond
description. It rose up from the limb, appearing like
slender tongues of fire, and of a rose-color ; its edges
♦"Sidereal Heavens," p. 165.
The sun.
195
by
)ed
of
)lor
as
:ves
lond
Like
ig
es
were purple and transparent, allowing the interior of
the prominence to be seen ; in fact, I could see dis-
tinctly that this prominence was hollow. Shortly
before the end of totality I saw escape from the ex-
tremities of these rose-colored and transparent sheaves
of light a slight display in the shape of a fan, which
gave to the protuberance a real resemblance to a
chandelier."*
These prominences were first observed in 1773 by
Vassenius, at Gottenburg, but no satisfactory confirma-
tion of their existence was obtained till the year 1842.
Though recognized during the eclipse of that year, and
described by a number of the most reliable astrono-
mers of Europe, it was not till 1860 that all doubts
were removed and the prominences confirmed as ap-
pendages to the sun, and not optical illusions as pre-
viously supposed. While apparently seen protruding
from round the circumference of the sun's disc, their
general distribution is known to extend over the solar
surface, many thousands of miles apart.
Respighi observes that the prominences are less fre-
quent and active at the equator than in the higher
solar latitudes, while a few observed in the circum-
polar regions are comparatively small and undevel-
oped, and of short duration. Low jets are seen over
the sun spots, and prominences are usually seen
where there are faculse, to which they appear to be
more closely related than to the spots. Some remain
for several days, while others are rapidly developed or
• Proctor^ •• The Sun," p. 262.
I
\i
1D6
AGE OF CREATION.
ill
'1!
disappear in a few minutes. A rising jet is usually
the first indication of prominence, wliich, after attain-
ing sometimes an amazing height, gradually sinks back
again to the solar surface, many changeable transfor-
mations sometimes taking place.
According io Prof. Young " the number of protu-
berances of considerable magnitude (exceeding 10,000
miles in altitude) visible at any one time on the cir-
cumference of the sun is never very great, rarely
reaching twenty-five or thirty. Their number, how-
ever, varies extremely with the number of sun spots :
during the sun-spot nunimum in 1878-79 there were
not unfrequently occasions when not a single one could
be found, though even during those years the more
usual number was five or six — some of them of con-
siderable size. The observations of Tacchini and Secchi
have shown that their niunbers closelv followed the
march of the sun spots, though never falling quite so
low."*
They vary greatly in magnitude also. Secchi esti-
mated the height of one at 800,000 miles. Three or
four observed by Prof. Young exceeded an altitude of
150,000 miles. One seen by him on October 7th, 1880,
attained the hitherto unprecedented height of 350,000
miles. But these are exceptions. Of 2,767 promi-
nences quoted he says: "1,9G4 attained an altitude of
40", or 18,000 miles; and it is worthy of note that
the smaller ones are so few, only about one-third of
the whole; 751, or nearly one-fourth of the whole,
•"The Sun," p. 199.
THE SUN.
197
SO
of
o£
lole,
reached a height of 1', or 28,000 miles. It is only
rarely that they reach elevations as great as 100,000
miles."*
Two classes of protuberances have been observed,
both differinff widelv in their form and structure.
They are known as eruptive and quiescent promi-
nences, the former generally appearing in the shape of
brilliant jets, of various forms, presenting a metallic
spectrum, and the latter of a more diffu-^ed nature, in
form resembling terrestrial clouds. " The protuberances
of this class," writes Prof. Young, " are often of enor-
mous magnitude, especially in their horizontal extent
(but the highest elevations are attained by those of
the eruptive order), and are comparatively permanent,
remaining often for hours and days without serious
change; near the poles they sometimes persist through
a whole solar revolution of twenty-.seven days."-f-
The eruptive prominences usually occur in the neigh-
borhood of a sun spot. They appear to be propelled
with an immense velocity, often exceeding 6,000 miles
a minute. " Their form and appearance change with
great rapidity, so that the motion can almost be seen
with the eye — an interval of fifteen or twenty minutes
being often sufficient to transform, quite beyond recog-
nition, a mass of these flames 50,000 miles high, and
sometimes embracing the whole period oF their com-
plete development or disappearance."!
Surrounding the photosphere is a continuous zone
of what appears to be a flickering sheet of scarlet
* " The Sun," p. 202. t lb., p. 204. t Young, " The Sun," p. 209.
il
.•JUuU
198
AGE OF CREATION.
fire, of which the protuberances have been found to
be merely an extension, and known as the chromo-
sphere or chroniatospliere. A spectroscopic analysis
of the chemical constitution of the prominences has
shown thorn to be enormous masses of crlowin<', <xaseous
matter, of which hydrot^en is a conspicuous element.
The causoji: which produce these eruptions have
never been definitely a^jcertained. The body of the sun
has been supposed to be mainly of a gaseous nature,
and on that account it is altof^ether inconceivable how
any power from within could impart such a tremen-
dous velocity as is requisite to attain such an elevation
as that ascribed to the prominences. But this objec-
tion disappears if the outer part of the photosphere is
assumed to be a solid, porous crust. " KirchofF and
Ziillner have maintained that the luminous surface is
either liquid or solid."* Respij^hi "considers that the
sharply-detined Oases of the eruptive jets prove that
the eruption takes place throu<^h some compact sub-
stance formmsr asT)p 3 of solar crust."+ The cause
of the eruptions may be attributed to the up-rush of
heated <2;as propelled by the constant opening and
closing of the solar spots. The gaseous matter escap-
inof throu'jrh the porous crust forms the chromato-
sphere ; that escaping througli the temporarily closed
suti spots, the eruptive jets; the (|uiescent prominences,
in the shape of filamentary clouds, or plumes, being
those issain<; throuijh the rents or cracks variously
distributed over the solar crust. Seech i notes that
Proctor, " The Sun," p. 285.
t lb., p. 313.
!X«71
THE SUN.
199
)eing
msly
that
the luminosity of the jet prominences is intense, as
shown by Proctor, "insomuch that they can be seen
throuGjIi the light clou<ls into which the sierra breaks
up. Their spectrum indicates the presence of many
elements besides hydrogen. When they have reached
a certain height they cease to grow, and become trans-
formed into exceedingly bright masses, which eventu-
ally separate into fiery clouds. The jet prominences
last but a short time — rarely an hour, frequently but a
few minutes — and they are only to be seen in the
neighborhood of the spots. Wherever there are jet
prominences there also are facuhie. The plume promi-
nences are distinguished from the jets in not being
chaiacterized by any signs of an eruptive origin.
They often extend to an enormous height, last longer
than the jets, though subject to rapid changes of
figure; and lastly, they are distributed indifferently
over the sun's surface. 'It would seem,' says Secchi,
' that in jets a part of the photosphere is lifted up,
whereas in the case of plumes only the chroiiiato-
sphere is disturbed.' "*
The foregoing plainly indicates that the jet promi-
nences are eruptive emanations from the temporarily-
filled sun spots. The uplifting of part of the photo-
sphere, an<l the presence of other elements in their
spectrum besides hydrogen, shows an origination from
molten material below the crust of the photosphere.
The undisturbed condition of the (juiescent eruptions
over the solar surface tend to confirm the idea of
* "The Sun." p. 319,
;t^
200
AGE OF CRP:AT10N.
I
i|i
cracks or fissures in the suti's crust. Through its
pores, cracks and rents the heated gaseous matter
finds an escape, forming the chromatosphere — a com-
plete envek)pe around the entire circumference of the
sun — and causing the many-colored prominences and
rose-tinted arcs observed in connection with the solar
disc.
Another even more peculiar phenomena than the
solar prominences is what is known as the corona, of
which no satisfactory explanation is yet known. Dur-
ing a total eclipse of the sun the black disc of the
moon is seen surrounded by a luminous halo, from
which shoot out in all directions radiant beams and
fiashing sheets of pearly light, the portion immediate-
ly surrounding the sun being of dazzling brilliancy.
Through this luminous eflfulgence the rose-colored
prominences of the chromatosphere blaze and shine
with the utmost briofhtness, the whole formin^j a crown
of glory, or what is known at the moment of totality
as a "sun-burst,"
The bright inner portion of the corona is generally
of a uniform height, surrounding the solar circumfer-
ence in the form of a ring of glittering, silvery white-
ness. This is extended into a luminous expansion of
irregular form, presenting every variety of appearance.
Dark, narrow beams, or " rifts," emanating from the
body of the sun, radiate through the corona, and ex-
tend far into the outer regions of space. Occasionally
the rifts take the form of symmetrical curves ; and
equally as conspicuous are the bright, beaming strearq-
lity
My
[er-
lite-
of
ice.
the
ex-
lallv
and
lam-
THE SUN.
201
ers which shoot forth in a somewhat similar manner.
Frequently these are tancrential to the sun's surface,
and sometimes assume the form of straight, narrow
rays, or beams, which also extend to a vast distance.
In form the corona generally appears to partake of
that of a four-rayed star, varying in shape as the rifts
and streams radiate through it.
The coronal beams are seen to extend for more
than a million of miles, many times exceeding in
height the lofty solar prominences. Occasionally the
appearance presented partakes more of the form of a
square than round ; but this is known to arise from the
fact that in the sun-spot zones the corona attains its
greatest accumulation, being apparently diminished
and lesy brilliant at the solar poles, and there is also
a more undoubted connection between the two than a
mere similarity of location.
During the total eclipse of 1867 observations were
made by Herr Grosch, of the Santiago Observatory,
Chili, in conjunction with Vice-Director Vergaza and
Lieut. Vida. After remarking that the corona does
not partake of the nature of a solar atmosphere,
Herr Grosch observed that " in the direction of its
poles its apparent height exceeded that of the moon
by only a third of her diameter ; in the direction at
right angles to this its extent amounted to four-fifths
of that diameter. Its light was white, brighter on the
moon's limb, and becoming gradually fainter on the
other side. This white light was not in the least
radiated itself, but it had the appearance of rays pene-
14
!|*
^1 l|
202
AGE OF CREATION.
m
trating throucjh it ; or rather, as if rays ran over it,
especially in the direction of east and west, forming
symmetrical pencils diverging outwards and passing
far beyond the boundary of the white licht. These
rays had a more bluish appearance, and might best be
compared to those produced hy a great electro-magnetic
light. Their similarity to these indeed was so striking
that under other circumstances I should have taken
them for such, shining at a great distance."*
The corona is evidently an ocean of electricity
emanating from the body of the sun itself, being
generated on an enormous scale by the friction of the
molten liquid of the lower portion of the photosphere
against the solid nucleus, in a manner similar to that
in which electr.'city is generated by the friction of a
glass cylinder or wheel against a mixture of tin and
quicksilver. In the solar-spot zones, where the friction
is most extensive, the electrica' coronal accumulation
is greatest. From the umbra of the open spots, where
no friction is taking place, the dark rifts or bars are
emitted ; and through the cracks, rents and fissures in
the crust of the photosphere the radial beams and
streamers shoot forth in all directions. It does not
necessarily follow that the coronal spectrum and that
of an electric spark should be exactly identical, unless
the electricity in both instances were generated by the
same material, the spectrum depending mainly upon
the substance through which the discharge passes.
An unknown bright green line crosses the coronal
* Proctor, '• The Sun," p. 345.
THE SUN.
203
it,
ng
Ing
ese
; be
.etic
ang
.ken
icity
)eing
[ the
phere
) that
I of a
1 and
iction
ation
where
^rs are
ires in
and
■es not
that
unless
by the
upon
Ipasses.
joronal
1
spectrum, which may have its origin in the solid
nucleus, the material of which it is formed being un-
known. The electrical repulsion from the solar sur-
face would also account for the clouds of prominence
matter which appear to have no direct connection
with the chromatosphere, but are seen unaccountably
suspended above it.
" That electricity is involved in some way in the pro-
duction of the coronal light," Proctor remarks, " may
well be believed ; and further, it is far from improb-
able there is som.e special electrical action in progress
above the prominence regions. . . . The sole explana-
tion which seems available is so startling that at first
sight many will be disposed to reject it on that account
alone. It is this — that a portion of the coronal light
is due to the ejection of matter from the sun, and
either chiefly or wholly from those bands of the solar
surface which we have thus far termed the spot
zones." *
This matter ejected from the sun which forms the
corona is, then, simply electricity generated on an enor-
mous scale, and extending beyond the orbits of the
planets. From this source the supply is derived which
maintains the connection between the surface of the
sun and terrestrial magnetism.
. *"The Sun," p. 414,
204
AGE OF CREATION.
1
J^N
CHAPTER XIX.
THE MOON.
** Soon as the evening shades prevail
The moon takes up the wondrous tale,
And nightly to the listening earth
Repeats the story of her birth.
** Whilst all the stars that round her burn,
And all the planets in their turn,
Confirm the tidings as they roll.
And spread the truth from pole to pole. "
— Addison.
OCKY and rugged mountains, extinct volcanoes,
J^V precipitous cliffs, yawning chasms and great
barren plains, constitute the present characteristics of
our satellite. No atmosphere, no water, no life of any
kind, is known to exist on its surface. Yet it evidently
was not always so. Once this desolate region presented
a scene of animation, and was surrounded by the very
same elements of which our planet is composed. But
all have long since disappeared. The atmosphere has
gone, the oceans and rivers are dried up, the volcanoes
are inactive, and naught remains but a world of barren
rock, the mere skeleton of its former existence. Every-
where it presents traces of violent eruptive action,
to which it appears to have been largely subjected
THE MOON.
205
iut
Ihas
loes
-ren
iry-
lion,
ited
in times past. Not on one occasion only, for there is
distinct evidence of a repetition of extraordinary erup-
tions. The ring-mountains or craters in some places
often overlap one another in a manner which conclu-
sively proves that one disturbing cause took place
previous to the other. Owing to its smaller size the
effects of these disturbances would be of a more de-
structive nature on the moon than if reproduced on
the earth. Between the material comprising the lunar
formations and that of the earth there is a universally-
accepted identity. Many of the former present a dis-
integrated and weather-beaten appearance, and are
surrounded by debris — an undoubted proof of erosion
and atmospheric effects in times past. But all is now
chanjxed. No life or vegetation is know^n to exist
upon its surface ; no plant or any sentient thing. Of
the absence of an atmosphere comparable to that sur-
rounding the earth there is every reliable evidence.
A familiar test is that afforded in the occultation of a
planet or star by the moon's disc. By this means,
according to optical laws, the planetary rays would be
refracted when the planet apparently came in contact
with the limb of the moon. And not only at the
actual moment of contact would this be observable,
but for a considerable period previous to the occulta-
tion. But not the slic;hte.st indication of the same has
been ever observed. The star is seen to disappear
instantly without any perceptible change whatever.
Spectroscopic observations also have shown an un-
changeable spectrum in the light of the star — an un-
i:
^t
206
AGE OF CREATtOK.
expected result if the sidereal light passed throucfh a
lunar atmosphere. As a consequence no water or
volatile fluid can possibly exist on the moon, for the
reason that its evaporation would form an atmosphere
dense enough to be observed.
From observations made of the lunar regions the
surface is seen to be covered with various irregulari-
ties in the form of elevations and depressions, such
as great ranges of mountain formations, peaks, hills,
plateaux, mounds and land swells ; while on the vast
level stretches, or gray plains, are observed what are
known as crateriform mountains, classified into walled
plains, mountain rings, craters, craterlets, pits and
cones. In addition are numerous clefts or rills, to-
gether with radiating streaks or rays, and other pecu-
liarities.
The lunar mountain ranges in many instances re-
semble those of the earth, rising from the highlands
occasionally in gigantic peaks varying in altitude from
10,000 to 20,000 feet. Others appear as single cones
rising from a broad, extensive base to a height of from
5,000 to 8,000 feet. They are crossed and intersected
by deep ravines and nutnerous valleys and passes,
analogous to those of the mountain rang-es of the earth.
The more level portions of the lunar disc were sup-
posed to have been formerly seas, and are thus known
as mares, on which undoubted traces of a former cover-
ing of water have been observed. These remain in
the form of alluvial deposits and other similar indica-
tions of water erosion. " As remarked by Chacornic,
[
THE MOON.
207
fes,
Itb.
ip-
wn
rev-
in
tca-
lic,
and confirmed by most observers," says Neison, " the
surface of the great gray mares appears to have been
fluid long after the principal formation of the moon
had become permanently rigid. This is especially to
be noticed in those cases in which the presence of some
powerful disintegrative force seems to have broken
down into ruins the wall bordering the mare, whilst
that abuttino; on the hiorher land remains intact, and
the interior appears to have been filled up by the in-
rash of fluid material from ofl* the mare itself. In
many other cases also, on the borders of the mares,
there are very strong and consistent indications of the
originally semi-fluid condition of the mares, in the
form of fiUed-up ring-plains, submerged mountains
and walled plains, eruptions of matter into valleys,
etc. ; and there are also indications of the gradual
solidification of the Tiiare in the shape of less and less
plasticity in the intruding matter."*
The numerous craters and crater pits existing upon
the moon consist mainly of large and small saucer-
shaped elevations, altogether unlike volcanic orifices
or craters, and present a flat interior occasionally in-
terspersed with small conical mounds, or sometimes
one single mound rising in the centre. The apparently
smooth floors of these low-lying .spaces resemble a
baked mass of plastic mud, by which they are easily
distinguished from the true volcanic craters. The walls
of the latter class rise abruptly from the surface, and
are more precipitous, while their conical aperture is of
•"The Moon," p. 49.
$'
208
AGE OF CREATION.
small dimensions. The whole is surrounded by what
appears to be volcanic debris and ejected matter, simi-
lar in appearance to an extinct terrestrial volcano.
Between these two lunar formations a marked distinc-
tion exists.
According to Neison "the greater craters apparently
existing upon the moon yield to close examination
with powerful telescopes, and appeal' leas and less like
volcanic orifices or craters, their enclosing walls lose
their regularity of outline and form, and appear as
confused masses of mountains, broken by valleys,
ravines and depressions, crossed by passes, and sur-
rounded by low plateaux and an irregularly broken
surface ; whilst the seemingly smooth floors generally
appear as diversely interrupted as the environing sur-
face. These formations are seen more and more in
their true character, not as craters, but as low-lying
spaces surrounded by mountain regions or disturbed
highlands."*
The crateriforra mountains differ chiefly in size, and
are occasionally observed overlapping and encroaching
upon each other in a manner indicating the existence
of an interval of time between their successive forma-
tions — the subsequent disturbance of the larger show-
inor their orifjin to be of an older date. In addition to
these the mares are seen to contain long ridges, hills
and mounds, and occasionally present in some places
an undulating appearance.
An interesting feature peculiar to the lunar forma-
*"The Moon," p. 44.
1
THE MOON.
209
:o
tions is a class known as clefts or rills. These appear
as long, narrow, deep cracks in the moon's surface,
which occasionally extend without interruption for a
considerable distance, except when abruptly turned
aside by an obstruction, and afterwards continuing
their onward course as before. Occasionally they en-
tirely surround a crater formation and radiate out-
wards ; but generally they lie in the open levels,
without any apnarv^nt source or termination. Their
magnitude has been estimated by Schmidt at from
eighteen to ninety-two miles in length, and varying in
breadth from half a mile to a fraction over two miles.
They are often observed on the floor of a walled plain;
and though the bottoms of the rills appear to be per-
fectly flat, the sides of many are usually very rugged,
presenting an appearance resembling a dried river
bed.
A remarkable feature connected with the moon's sur-
face is observed in the great system of rays or streaks
which are observed radiating from some of the moun-
tain walls, and occasionally extending to a great dis-
tance — sometimes from 100 to 500 miles. They trav-
erse over the plains, mountains, valleys and craters,
and all obstructions, without any perceptible change.
They are usually straight, but sometimes branched
or curved, and often disappear abruptly at the wall of
the viare, as though they had been enveloped in some
surrounding liquid. At other times they gradually
disappear on the plains, where they often originate and
disappear without any apparent termination whatever.
f
210
AGE OF CREATION.
Many of the mountain formations are ol)servecl sur-
rounded by these briglit rays or streaks, the principal
being Tj'cho, Copernicus, Kepler, Byrgius, Anaxagoras,
Aristarchus, Olbers and others.
The streaks are seen in their greatest clearness at
full moon, and can be traced from their originating
point onward over mountain ridge and crater, into the
valleys and out again, continuing on their course with
perfect straigii.;aess, seldom being deflected or turned
aside by any obstruction. They are usually parallel
to each other, and do not appear to have any consider-
able depth, but are known to extend for a long distance
from their origin, one of which has been traced for
l,/00 miles. They have also been observed intersect-
ing each other in a manner indicating successive radi-
ations, the earlier streaks being broken at tho points
of intersection.
" The true nature of these rays and the origin of
the ray system," says Nelson, " is unknown, though it
appears that they are not merely surface elevations,
such as the mountain ridges, etc., and Beer and Madler
regard them as perfectly independent of all surface
formations, which, however, later observations with
moie adequate means do not entirely confirm. The
most obvious course would appear to be, to connect
them with some process of weathering or surface action,
but of what nature there does not appear to exist any
evidence ; and this alone affords no clue to the reason
of their radiating from a centre, as shown in the most
prominent systems. In some instances they seem con-
THE MOON.
211
on,
tny
^on
lost
lon-
nected, not only with very delicate surface irregular-
ities, but with crater Hystems, as at Gassendi, and near
Kepler, Byrj^ius, and in the south-west ; whilst at
others they seem dependent on faults or disturbances
of the surface. In several formations the rays seem
to have been overwhelmed bv the surface of the mare,
almost a« it' they had disappeared beneath through
some irruption of material from the surrounding sur-
face ; whilst in one or two cases they have been dis-
turbed by large formations, as Saussure, and in others
by craters and craterlets. In several formations that
have the appearance of having been filled up by some
means by material from the surrounding mare, the
rays disappear abruptly at the wall. The true solu-
tion of the origin of these streaks or rays will probably
not be found until their appearance has been made the
subject of a thorough investigation, so as to make
known the more delicate feature^ they present."*
The lunar surface presents a peculiar diversity of
appearance. The crateriform rings are remarkable
for their extraordinary circularity of form. Whether
broken or overlapped, large or small, they are wonder-
fully uniform and numerous. No theory his yet
been found to account for their formation, though
almost every known cause has been suggested. They
have been supposed to have originated by the dov/n-
fall of meteoric matter at a period when the lunar
surface was in a plastic condition, or to have been
formerly great lakes existing upon the moon ; and
* • " The Moon," p. 78.
i I
i
!IP
212
AGE OF CREATION.
again, that they were produced by the contraction ot
the lunar crust. Nothing, however, but the solution
of the causes which produced the disturbance will be
found to explain the inexplicable features of the lunar
surface. The so-called craters and walled-plains were
formed by the centrifugal action of the water when
the moon regained its axial motion after it had ceased
for nearly a day at the command of Joshua, and the
smaller formations when a similar occurrence took
place in the days of Hezekiah, whereby the celestial
bodies lost tlieir axial motion and were drawn back
to their former places by the attraction of the sun,
and the shadow on the dial of Ahaz went backward.
While the moon with the earth shot away from the
sun, the bottoms of the sea w^ere scooped up in long
ridges, which were whirled into circular form when
their axial motion was regained. The lunar forma-
tions find their terrestrial similitude in the coral reel's
of the Pacific and Indian Oceans and the mounds and
ridges of the Glacial period.
Prof. Huxley thus draws attention to the remark-
able similarity existing between them : " If the waters
of the ocean could be suddenly drained away we
should see the atolls rising from the sea-bed like vast
truncated cones, and resembling .so many volcanic
craters, except that their sides would be steeper than
those of an ordinary volcano. In the case of the en-
circling reefs the cone with the enclosed island would
look like Vesuvius, with Monte Nucvo within the old
crater of Somma; while, finally, iho island with a
THE MOON.
213
m
In-
lld
lid
a
fringing reef would have the appearance of an ordinary
hill, or mountain, girdled by a vast parapet, within
which would lie a shallow moat. And the dry bed of
the Pacific might afford grounds for an inhabitant of
the moon to speculate upon the extraordinary subter-
ranean activity to which those va&i, and numerous
' craters ' bore witness."*
Of the numerous theories advanced by selenogra-
phers to account for the lunar ray system none have
been found to satisfactorily explain their strange
peculiarities. They are supposed by some to be lava
streams ; by others, cracks filled with molten matter
from the interior, and diverging from a centre where
an explosion took place. Their origin has been re-
ferred to the fracturing of the lunar crust by the
reaction of the moon's interior, and to the effect of
direct instead of oblique rays of light. But no ex-
planation has been found to cover some of their re-
markable peculiarities, such as an entire disregard of
obstructions in their onward march, continuing in
an unswerving path to a termination, although radi-
ating from a known source. The great mountain
Tycho is remarkable for the sy.otem of rays which
emanate from a gray border surrounding its crater.
They radiate to a great extent in an undeviating
course. Directly in the line of a streak emanating
from Tycho is a large crater known as Saussure. This
formed no obstruction, for the ray has been traced in
the bottom of the crater. A correct theory to account
* " Critiques and Addresses," p. 120.
if|i
214
AGE OF CREATION.
for the lunar formations must explain the many
similar instances of this kind; how the streak in this
case rose up the side of the crater and crossed the flat
interior, notwithstanding^ its great depth. There is
only one known way by which it could be done, and
that is, by floating icebergs, at a time when such ex-
isted upon the lunar surface. The streaks or rays are
the striae or furrows plowed in the surface by the
advancing ice, and are identical with those formed
on the earth during the Glacial period. Of course,
this implies the former existence of an atinosphere
and a distribution of land and water similar to terres-
trial conditions. But it would be contrary to the
philosophy of science to suppose that such did not
once exist.
Whether a creative or an evolutionary theory is as-
cribed to the origin of the moon, it cannot possibly be
entertained that the direct and immediate result was a
dead and barren waste or a world of desolation. Be-
sides, its extinct volcanoes present evidence of hav-
ing been once in a state of activit3^ This indicates a
degree of terrestrial analogy ; and as water is known
to be an absolute factor in volcanic disturbance, it
must consequently have existed upon the moon. By
no other means than moving ice can the ray or streak
systems be explained. The radiations down the moun-
tain side from a common centre show the origination
of the glaciers. The parallel furrows extending for
hundreds of miles, over every elevation and depression,
indicate the forward march of the ice, while the inter-
THE MOON.
215
a
a
it
lak
u\-
ion
lov
m.
secfced streaks, where the striae cross each other, plainly
demonstrate the occurrence of a second similar cause
of disturbance. The apparent overwhelming of the
streaks by material from the surrounding surface of a
mare, show where the ice disappeared in the waters of
the oceans, while their abrupt cessation at the wall of
a formation marks their termination. Althoufifh all
observations tend to prove the non-existence of water
upon the surface of the moon, the indications of its
former presence are so apparent that Glacial action
has by some been considered evident. " Prof. Frank-
land believes," says Guillemin — " and his belief rests
on a special study of the lunar surface — that our
satellite has, like its primary, also passed through a
Glacial epoch, and that several, at least, of the val-
leys, rills and streaks of the lunar surface are not im-
probably due to glacier action. Notwithstanding the
excellent definition of modern telescopes, it could
not be expected that other than the most gigantic
of the characteristic details of an ancient glacier
bed would be rendered visible. What, then, may we
expect to see ? Under favorable circumstances the
terminal moraine of a glacier attains enormous dimen-
sions ; and, consequently, of all the marks of a glacier
valley this would be the one most likely to be first
perceived. Two such terminal moraines, one of them
a double one, have appeared to observers to be trace-
able upon the moon's surface. The first is situated
near the termination of the remarkable streak which
commences near the base of Tycho, and passing under
i ;('
216
AGE OF CREATION.
the south-eastern wall of Bullialdus, into the ring of
which it appears to cut, is gradually lost after passing
Lubiniezky. Exactly opposite this last, and extending
nearly across the streak in question, are two ridges,
forming the arcs of circles whose centres are not coin-
cident, and whose external curvature is toward the
north. Beyond the second ridge a talus slopes gradu-
ally down northwards to the general level of the lunar
surface, the whole presenting an appearance reminding
the observer of the concentric moraines of the Rhone
glacier. These ridges are visible for the whole period
during which that portion of the moon's surface is
illuminated ; but it is only about the third day after
the first quarter, and at the corresponding phase of the
waning moon, that the sun's rays, falling nearly hori-
zontally, throw the details of this part of the surface
into strong relief, and these appearances suggest this
explanation of them. The other ridge answering to a
terminal moraine occurs at the northern extremity of
that magnificent valley which runs past the eastern
edge of Rheita."*
The rills or clefts observed on the lunar surface — at
times on the open plain, within a ringed formation, or
surrounding a crt^ter anu extending for a considerable
distance — are gigantic cracks or fractures in a coating
of alluvium or clay with which a great portion of the
moon's surface appears to be spread. Their rugged
sides and perfectly flat bottoms can only be accounted
for in this manner. The irregularities in some parts
* " The Heavens," p. 160.
THE MOON.
217
a
en
lat
lor
le
[•ts
of the lunar surface resemble those formed by dropping
pebbles in a smooth mass of plastic mud or mortar.
Exposed to the intense heat of the present long lunar
day, which is equal to nearly fifteen terrestrial days,
the diluvium of the Drift epoch would be instantly
baked and dried in a hard mass, the rills and clefts
thus originating from its contraction owing to the
rapid rate in which the evaporation took place.
The form of the moon has been demonstrated as
that of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes, that of
the poles being the shortest, the longest lying in the
direction of the earth, and the intermediate that in the
direction in which the moon moves. The elongation
is attributed to the attraction of the earth upon the
moon, the latter being slightly drawn out in the line
of the earth's attraction. But, according to Neison,
"the moon's figure is, independently of surface irregu-
larities, sensibly perfectly spherical; for, although it
has been shown from theoretical considerations that it
is ellipsoidal in form, owing to a very small elongation
towards the earth, and to a still more minute polar
compression, these variations are so slight as to be
utterly imperceptible. It has indeed been considered
by Gussew that the moon may depart sensibly from
the form of a sphere ; but the evidence in favor of
such a supposition, never in any way strong, has be-
come still weaker and entirely inadequate for any
purpose.'"*
A peculiar feature in connection with the motion of
IP
■ ifi
il
The Moon," p. 12.
16
218
AGE OF CREATION.
the moon is the fact that its movements of rotation
and revolution exactly correspond. The moon re-
volves i^ound the earth in a period of twenty-nine and
a half days, and completes only one revolution on its
axis during the same time. As a consequence, vi^ith
the exception of a slight libration, only one side of the
lunar surface is presented to the earth, the other being
forever hid from sight.
It is considered altogether improbable that an exact
correspondence between the two motions could have
existed during all past time without the slightest
variation taking place. If its axial motion of rotation
were at any time but slightly increased, the present
adjustment of the two motions could not be main-
tained, and as a result every portion of the moon's sur-
face would in turn be presented to the earth. That
the present seeming irregularity originated from the
beginning is also doubtful, especially in the face of the
violent changes the moon has undergone in the past.
All that now remains of its former conditions is a
hollow bomb of barren desolation, on the surface of
which no life of any kind could possibly exist. Being
deprived, by ejection, of its internal source of heat,
water or any volatile fluid remaining on the moon
would be speedily evaporated, owing to the vicissi-
tudes of its temperature, which evidently resulted
from a change in the velocity of its movements of
rotation.
For fifteen days the surface of the moon is exposed
to an intolerable degree of heat and light emitted
THE MOON.
219
a
ot*
Ing
jat,
)on
isi-
ted
of
from the sun, followed by a corresponding period of
intense cold and darkness. Under such conditions,
without an internal temperature, evaporation on an
enormous scale would be a direct result. With the
absorption of all fluids from the lunar surface the
moon's atmosphere would disappear also. All, there-
fore, that remains of its former vitality is a world of
lifeless, arid rock, its surface torn and shattered by
gigantic, yawning tissures, diversified by lofty and
extinct volcanoes, immense moraines and osars, and
strewn with huge boulders and glacial debris of enor-
mous magnitude. In this land of utter desolation un-
broken silence reigns alone. Out of its lights and
shadows the voice of creation is not heard. "Walking
in brightness," amid eternal solitude, its desolate ruins
are but the wreck of that first time when
" Glowed the firmament
With living sapphires ; Hesperus, that led
The starry host, rode brightest, till the Moon,
Rising in clouded majesty, at length.
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light,
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw."
IT
Ised
Ited
j,
220
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER XX.
THE PLANETS.
1
'* What, though in solemn silence all
Move round the dark terrestrial ball:
What, though no real voice, nor sound.
Amid their radiant orbs be found?
*' Tn Reason's ear they all rejoice,
And utter forth a glorious voice,
Forever singing as they shine,
* The hand that made us is divine.' "
— Addison.
more striking proof of the wisdom and benefi-
cence of the Creator is atForded than that
shown in the heavens on a clear, calm night. A
fathomless abyss of incomprehensible depth stretches
from infinity to infinity, in which is displayed the gor-
geous majesty of the universe in all its grandeur and
magnificence. In this broad expanse of ethereal space
gigantic orbs of ponderous magnitude roll in their
orbits with inconceivable velocity, while golden suns
and silvery moons glimmer and sparkle in the dark
transparent azure of the starry firmament. The whole
is pervaded by a unity of plan, characterized by the
greatest mathematical precision, which would be en-
tirely unaccountable for if it were a direct result of
chance. But " the heavens declare the glory of God;
J
THE PLANETS.
221
e
le
and the firmament showeth His handiwork. Day unto
day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth
knowledge. There is no speech nor language, where
their voice is not heard."*
Among the myriads of celestial bodies the sun and
the planets which circle around it form a class known
as the solar system. At various distances from the
sun eight large planets revolve, accompanied by a
number of satellites, together with a numerous family
of smaller members known as asteroids or planetoids.
The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The asteroids revolve
in a ring between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, the
four largest of the group being Juno, Ceres, Vesta and
Pallas. Of the planets Mercury is the nearest known
to the sun, around which it moves in eighty-eight days
at a mean distance of 36,000,000 miles. With the
exception of the asteroids it is the smallest of the
family. Its diameter is given at 2,962 miles — about
one-third that of the earth. It revolves once upon its
axis in twenty-four hours and five minutes. Owing
to its close proximity to the sun, the great ellipticity
of its orbit, and its variable brilliancy, no definite indi-
cations of its physical condition have been determined.
It appears to be enveloped in a seething atmosphere,
but does not shine by its own light, its brilliancy being
derived from the light of the sun. Its weight is about
one twenty-fourth that of the earth, and it has been
estimated that if the sun were divided into a million
* Psalm xix. 1-3. .
222
AGE OF CREATION.
equal parts, one-half of one of them would exceed in
weight that of the entire planet. The light and heat
derived from the sun is also many times greater at
its surface than that received by the earth, and the
changes in the planet's temperature occur with great
rapidity, the interval between midsummer and winter
being only forty-four days. No actual knowledge of
its physical condition is known, nor is it a suitable
abode for life such as exists on the earth.
The existence of a planet between Mercury and the
sun has long been suspected ; and though various in-
stances have been recorded of dark bodies resembling
planets passing over the sun's disc, no observation has
been definitely confirmed. That there is room for an
intra-Mercurial planet is generally admitted by astron-
omers. Leverrier supposed a group of small planets
to exist between Mercury and the sun, in order to ac-
count for the fact that the perihelion of Mercury moves
more rapidly than it should according to the theory of
gravitation. But no such group has ever been found.
But the intra-Mercurial space, however, is by no means
vacant. Surrounding the sun, and extending out be-
yond the orbit of the earth, appears what resembles
a faint circle of light, rising above the horizon shortly
after sundown or just before daybreak, on a clear
evening in the spring or autumn, known as the zodi-
acal light. In the tropical regions the light appears
equally visible during the whole year, owing to the
height of the ecliptic above the horizon. In the tem-
perate regions, where the course of the ecliptic in sum-
THE PLANETS.
223
.s
y
'[-
*s
e
mer is close to the horizon, the light becomes extin-
guished by the atmosphere of the earth. In tlie tropica
it has been observed in the form of a circle, the light
of which gradually fades as it recedes from the sun.
Its spectrum has been observed by some to be contin-
uous, and by others to consist of a single yellow line,
as though arising from glowing incandescent gas. As
to the origin of this phenomenon nothing is definitely
known. As it is of a my.sterious nature it may be
accounted for by the explanation that it arises from a
cloud-like mass of planetary debris — the fragmentary
remains of a shattered planet that exploded during the
tremendous and awful astronomical cataclysms that
have been recorded. Owing to its close proximity to
the sun the material of which it is composed is in a
constant state of incandescence, the smaller particles
being dissipated into glowing gas by the intense heat
and the electrical friction of the coronal streamers
which penetrate through it. A ring of this kind would
also affect the motion of the planet Mercury in a like
manner to that of a group of small planets — the cause
assigned by the astronomer Leverrier. Of the ex-
plosive nature of the planets, assuming them to be of
a similar formation to the earth, there can be no doubt.
The elements of which the latter is composed are of
such a combustible constitution that it is difficult to
realize how the earth remained intact and escaped ex-
plosion during the Glacial period.
Venus nearly equals the earth in size, its diameter
being 7,700 miles. There is every indication of the
' "i.
224
AGE OF CREATION.
existence of an atmosphere surrounding the planet ;
and this fact, coupled with its intense brilliancy, pre-
vents a close examination of its physical condition.
The earth follows Venus in order of distance from
the sun. The conditions under which life exists on
its surface are well known. Three essentials for this
seem requisite. An internal temperature derived from
a molten interior, a fluid atmosphere surrounding the
earth, and an external source of heat emitted from the
sun. With the absence of the first the earth would
rapidly assume the condition of the moon ; with no
atmosphere life could not exist ; and without the latter
the earth would be enshrouded in Arctic desolation.
Therefore any planet not possessing a combination of
these essentials would present an abode unfit for
animal life as we know it. The effects of the Glacial
period upon the earth have already been described ;
and as the planets of the solar system were also in-
volved in the disturbances, a similar effect on them
must have been the result. As the physical surface
of the planets cannot be perfectly scrutinized, mainly
on account of their great distance, the general eflfects
produced must escape detection. Some of the planets,
however, present remarkable peculiarities, which may
probably be attributed to this cause.
A favorite theory of the earth's physical formation
is, that it consists of a solid crust enveloping a molten
nucleus, and supposed to be gradually undergoing a
slow process of cooling, causing a contraction or shrink-
age of the crust. By this means, it is held, the various
tHE PLANETS.
S25
inequalities on its surface liave been produced, such as
the mountains, valleys, ridges and depressions by
which it is diversified. It is also supposed to account
for the numerous volcanic disturbances and earth -
(piakes which occur at various periods. The contract-
ing process is thought to be going on in a manner
resembling that in which shrinkage is produced in a
shrivelled apple, the wrinkles on its surface being
analogous to the elevations and hollows on the face of
the earth. This theory can only hold good by assign-
ing to the earth an indefinite age ; for it is quite clear
that such a process, going on at a slow uniform rate,
would be entirely inadequate to produce the numerous
and gigantic ups and downs on its surface within a
period of 6,000 years, unless under the most violent
disturbances. Such a shrinkage has never been defi-
nitely known to exist in historical times ; and even if
it were so the contraction of the crust must have
taken place on an enormous scale in order to account
for the formation of manv of the mountain ranges of
the earth. If such were formerly the case the in-
equalities would still be increasing in the same ratio
as in the past, owing to the gradual and uniform
nature of the contracting process. But, on the con-
trary, many of the elevations are being slowly reduced
by disintegration and other causes, while the depres-
sions in many instances are being gradually filled
up. Besides, the formation of the principal mountain
ranges have long since ceased, for their origin and
completion can be traced to various geological epochs
226
AGE OF CREATION.
I
in the earth's history. Then the cooling process must
have proceeded at a most rapid rate during these
periods, and ceased afterwards. Such- a movement
would not be uniform ; and it i.» inconceivable how one
portion of a contracting globe would shrink and
another not if the process were still going on at pres-
ent. During the Glacial epoch the superficial up-
heavals originated from beneath, the underlying rocks
having in many instances been melted and fused by
the upward movement of the molten interior. Vol-
canic eruptions of the most violent nature were also
produced by this cause, together with numerous vast
rents and fissures in the crust. Subsequent earth-
quakes and volcanic disturbances have been undoubt-
edly produced in the same manner, by the upheaval
of the crust from beneath, owing to an interior dis-
turbance, and not by the process of gradual cooling.
The expansion of steam, generated beneath hy the
infiltration of water through the shattered crust to
the source of heat, is the only theory sufficient to
account for many of the upheavals tha: have taken
place in the history of the globe. The numerous
geysers and vaporous jets issuing from below the
surface bear testimony to the presence of water on a
heated interior. Many of the principal volcanoes are
located in the neighborhood of deep seas, some of
which have been observed to have undergone various
changes in level during volcanic eruptions. Though
all mountains were not formed by volcanic eruption,
any shifting or oscillation of the molten interior would
THE PLANETS.
227
be amply sufficient to heave upward the various moun-
tains of the globe.
Mars is the first planet outside the earth. Its di-
ameter is estimated at a little more than 4,000 miles.
Its axial revolution i.s performed in twenty-four hours
and thirty-seven minutes, and its annual revolution
around the sun in 687 days a-t a mean distance from
that body of about 140,000,000 miles. Its density is
much less than that of the earth, and a body weigh-
ing two pounds on the earth would weigh but one on
Mars. Its equator is inclined to the plane of its orbit
at an angle of twenty-seven degrees. Mars resembles
the earth in many particulars. The equatorial regions
present an appearance similar to land and water, while
the poles are seen surrounded by a region of brilliant
whiteness resembling ice and snow. It appears to be
enveloped in an atmosphere similar to that of the
earth, in which supposed clouds have been detected.
It is accompanied by two tiny moons, known as Phobos
and Deimos, the smallest celestial bodies known. The
diameter of Phobos, the inner satellite, is estimated
at about seven and one-half miles, and its periodic
revolution is completed in seven hours and thirty-
eight minutes, its velocity being three times swifter
than that of the actual rotation of the planet. Its
distance from the surface of Mars is about 4,000 miles.
The outer satellite is distant over 12,000 miles, and
makes one revolution in thirty hours and eighteen
minutes. Its diameter is estimated at about six and
one-quarter miles.
228
AGE OF CREATION.
In 1877 Schiaparelli, of MilaD, observed en the face
of the planet a curious system of long, straight chan-
nels, or " canals," some of which extended for a dis-
tance of over 1,000 miles. In width they appeared to
be from fifty to sixty miles, and of a remarkably uni-
form formation. These observations were confirmed
in 1879 and 1881, when they were again detected by
Burton and others, as well as by Schiaparelli, who
found nearly all of the " canals " to be double. More
than twenty have been observed ; and instead of a
single channel they were found to consist of two,
parallel to each other, and ranging from 200 to 300
miles apart. As the character of these " canals " is but
little known, and the confirmation of their discovery
of so recent date, no theory attempting to explain their
nature has been presented. As they appear to be
superficial markings, and therefore of comparatively
modern origin, thei. formation may safely be attrib-
uted to a resuL of the Glacial period. The winters of
the planet Mars are nearly twelve months long, conse-
quently the intensity and vastness of its polar regions
during that season must far exceed those of the earth.
Its polar inclination is also greater, being twenty-seven
degrees. The shock caused to the planet by the stand-
ing still of the sun would precipitate the Arctic regions
in their entirety with a tremendous force over its sur-
face, not merely striating it, as in the terrestrial shock,
but grooving out vast furrows or "canals " of enormous
magnitude, such as have been detected and described.
THE PLANETS.
229
The parallel "canals" indicate a second similar dis-
turbance with like results. When more definite obser-
vations of the planet's surface have been obtained other
and further traces of Glacial action will probably be
discovered.
Next in order of distance are a group of small bodies
revolving around the sun between the orbits of the
planets Mars and Jupiter. The largest of this group
is estimated at about 200 or 300 miles in diameter,
and the inclination of their orbits are much greater
than those of the major planets. On this account
they are sometimes known as the ultra-zodiacal
planets. The earliest of these discovered are Ceres,
Pallas, Juno and Vesta. All are named from the
mythological personages of ancient Greece and Kome.
About 268 of the small bodies are known, and new
discoveries are occasionally made. Between all the
minor planets an intimate relation is observed, and to
such an extent " that if tl^.eir orbits are figured under
the form of material rings," according to D' Arrest,
" these rings will be found so entangled that it would
be possible by means of one among them, taken at
hazard, to lift up all the rest." The discovery of the
principal of the minor planets arose from a remarkable
prediction, arising from a knowledge of what is known
as Bode's law — that the interval between the orbits of
any two planets is about twice a.s great as the inferior
interval, and only half the superior one. For instance,
the space between the earth's orbit and that of Venus
is nearly double that between Venus and Mercury ;
230
AGE OF CREATION.
and the interval between the orbits of Mars and
the earth is nearly twice that between the earth and
Venus. In this ratio the distances proceed in order
receding from the sun, as represented by the follow-
ing figures, each of which, with the exception of the
second, is double the preceding: 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96,
192. By adding the number 4 to each of these num-
bers the following is obtained : 4, 7, 10, 16, — , 52, 100,
196. Between the interval of the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter a break in the scale was observed, the dis-
tance being far too great, after which the ratio was
again resumed, but it is known to fail with regard to
Neptune. This circumstance resulted in a belief that
an undiscovered planet might be found between Mars
and Jupiter, a surmise afterwards verified to a certain
extent by the discovery of four other planetoids. A
stransfo coincidence existinij between the mean dis-
tance of Pallas and Ceres attracted the attention of
the astronomer Gibers, who advanced the remarkable
hypothesis tliat they were fragments of some large
planet which liad exploded or been shivered to pieces
during some astronomical catastrophe in the remote
past. Further observations appeared to confirm this
theory ; but in the absence of definite proof of a catas-
trophe, and the apparent failure of the supposed frag-
ments to form a general centre of intersection, Olbers'
hypothesis gradually died out.
Observations have shown that the mean distances
from the sun of the three first planetoids discovered
agree closely with the surmise that they were frag-
jrs
THE PLANETS.
231
ments of an exploded planet, and from these the fourth
discovered differs also but very little. The paths of
those four also pass through two opposite positions,
just as an exploded planet would do under ordinary-
circumstances. But it has been found that the peri-
helion distance of some is greater than the aphelion of
others ; and this by quantity so great as to equal the
interval between the paths of the planet Mars and the
earth. It has been objected, therefore, to the Olber-
sian theory, that if a planet exploded the greater por-
tion of the fragments could not possibly attain a veloc-
ity great cough to propel them beyond the limit in
which they would require to move in an ellipse. It is
demonstrable that the velocity attained by the frag-
ments would result according to that possessed by the
exploded planet and the force generated by the explo-
sion. Consequently the fragments would not deviate
beyond the limit of the ellipse in which they would
move ; for it is known that if the initial velocity be less
than a certain value, owing to the effect of the sun's at-
traction, the course described would be elliptical. The
separate fragments would then travel around the sun
in the same direction, and cross a common point of
intersection where the explosion occurred. This would
result as each completed its individual orbit, notwith-
standing the great diversity of their periodic revolu-
tion. If, again, the force of the explosion were greater
than that of the planet's velocity, the orbit would be
a hyperbola ; and if the velocity were exactly equal
then a parabola would be the path described.
u*
i!
232
AGE OF CREATION.
Though the firi,t four of the asteroids discovered
fulfilled the conditions pertaining to that of an ex-
ploded planet, many of them fail to connect at any one
point; and the wide variation in the position of their
planes and their orbits, and their ovalness, have ren-
dered it inconceivable how such extraordinary condi-
tions could be the result of a planetary explosion.
These objections, together with the fact that the
asteroids are scattered over a zone 300,000,000 miles
wide, formed a convincing argument to which the
Olbersian theory naturally succumbed.
But these objections vanish with an explanation of
the manner in which the disaster occurred. It is not
difficult to conceive of a planet being gradually broken
up as it shot across the space occupied by the ring of
asteroids, and scattering its flying debris at wide in-
tervals until the whole had terminated in a general
collapse. Under these conditions the fragments would
travel in paths such as they now describe, instead of
moving in a general elliptical course as the result of
an instantaneous explosion.
With remarkable evidence of astronomical revolu-
tions having occurred the origin of the asteroids may
safely be ascribed to the explosion of a planet formerly
occupying the orbit between Mars and Jupiter. Most
of those small bodies possess a great inclination, and
many have been observed of irregular form — facts
which undoubtedly tend to confirm the cause and
source of their origin.
Jupiter follows next in order, and is known as the
THE PLANETS.
233
of
kiid
:he
"giant " planet. It is distant from the sun 485,000,000
miles, its bulk being 1,300 times greater than that of
the earth, though its weight is only 310 times as heavy.
Its diameter is 88,390 miles, and the period of its axial
rotation nine days til'ty-five hours and twenty-one
minutes. It revolves once around the sun in 11 years
and 317 days. Jupiter is attended by four moons,
which pass through the same phases as those which
characterize the earth's satellite. They are known as
lo, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, the inner being
260,000 miles distant from the planet. In point of
difference they range nearly as tbe numbers 6, 9, 15,
27 — each successive increase being about double the
preceding. They are all larger than the earth's satel-
lite, the diameter of the smallest being 2.099 miles, and
that of the largest 3,436 miles.
The physical a{)pearance of the planet is character-
ized by what is known as " Jupiter's Great Red Spot."
It lies midway between the equator and the north
pole, and consists of an enormous superficial formation
of a dull brick-red color and oblong dimensions, being
29,600 miles in length and 8,300 miles in breadth.
Of the nature and cause of Jupiter's great spot
nothing is known, but its origin may be also traced to
the Glacial period. A peculiar feature connected with
the planet is the vast amount of its polar compression.
At the poles a region of comparative flatness exists,
and the inclination of its axis is but sliffhtlv inclined
from perpendicular. Consequently when this planet
shot away from its present orbit, at the standing still
la
u|(
It?
234
AGE OF CREATION.
of the sun, the force occasioned by its comparatively
slight vertical shock was not sufficient to drive the
polar accumulation down over the face of the planet.
Owing to its vast equatorial protuberance the detrital
accumulations of the Drift would be lodged between
the north pole an the equator, in the position occu-
pied by tlie great red spot. Then, during the time the
planet receded from the sun without its axial motion
the alluvium and detritus of the Drift would assume
an oblong form, according to the direction of the flying
planet, owing to the enormous quantity of the drift
material, its area being over 200,000,000 square miles.
The red color of Jupiter's spot may be attributed to
the nature of the underlying rocks on which the drift
material rests. In the terrestrial drift the clay varies
both in color and composition according to the forma-
tion on which it is deposited. Thus it is of a red color
over the Old Red Sandstone, fawn-colored over the
Silurian rocks, and black over the Carboniferous for-
mation. " Although a large proportion of the boulder
deposit, or 'northern drift,' as it sometimes called," re-
marks Lyell, " is made up of fragments brought from
a distance, and which have sometimes travelled manv
hundreds of miles, the bulk of the mass in each locality
consists of the ruins of subjacent or neighboring rocks;
so that it is red in a region of red sandstone, white in
chalk country ,^nd gray or black in a district of coal
and coal-shale."*
Jupiter presents another interesting and inexplicable
* " Elementary Geology," p. 121.
THE PLANETS.
235
'ina-
iolor
the
for-
Ider
're-
rom
any
lable
peculiarity. Its disc is seim to be surrounded by a
series of bright and dusky belts, parallel to each other
and to the equator of the planet. The middle or
equatorial belt is of a pearly whiteness, and is fol-
lowed in the direction of the poles by liorht and dark
alternating streaks or zones of a yellowish or grayish
tint. The planet appears to be surrounded by an
atmosphere of great depth, and from the many changes
and irregularities taking place on its surface is at
times the scene of violent storms and cyclones of tre-
mendous nature, occurring continuously for many
weeks. The belt zones are observed to undergo many
changes. In 1860 a great rift, 10,000 miles long and
500 wide, was observed across one of the zones, where
it remained for over three months, gradually increasing
in size until it stretched nearly across the disc of the
planet, and attained a length of about 100,000 miles.
As the rift grew it travelled from the end nearest the
equator in the direction of the planet's rotation at '^he
rate of about 150 miles per hour, the zone belt gradu-
ally becoming much wider. Similar disturbances con-
stantly occurring on the planet indicate an unknown
degree of terrestrial analogy. Jupiter's belts are sup-
posed to be clouds in the planet's atmosphere ; but the
enormous magnitude of the changes going on suggest
an entire distinction from the forces at work in the
atmosphere of the earth. An intimate relation be-
tween the disturbances arising: from the movement of
sun spots on the solar surface and the Jovian cyclones
has been observed. The movements of the enormous
II'
U:
2.36
AGE OF CREATION.
rifts occurring in the belts of Jupiter correspond with
those of the solar spots, both undergoing numerous
changes in an apparently similar manner, and travelling
with a swifter rotational movement at the equator than
at the poles. It has also been observed that one ap-
parent association exists between the period of maxima
and minima of sun spots and the disturbances occur-
ring on the planet Jupiter. These disturbances may
be explained in a manner similar to the cause of the
solar eruptions. The equatorial region of Jupiter's
crust has been torn and rent by the etiects of the
astronomical revolutions of the Glacial epoch. Enor-
mous masses of gaseous vapors are constantly up-
heaved from the depths below, in like manner, but on
a smaller scale, to the eruptions causing the solar
prominences. Owing to the great velocity of Jupiter's
rotation the vaporous uprush would be left in a trail
behind, forming the dusky belts extending along the
equatoi^ial regions. The attractive influence of the sun
on the planet would tend to drag open the atmosphere
surrounding: the rents or holes in the Jovian crust in a
manner identical with the formation and disappear-
ance of the solar spots. That such a reciprocating
action exists between the sun and the planets seems
altogether undoubted ; and owing to Jupiter's gigantic
dimensions it is but reasonable to expect that that
planet exerts a great proportion of the influences at
work in producing the disturbing process of the sun.
As Jupiter is d' .ant 485,000,000 miles from the sun
it seems almost absurd that such simultaneous connec-
THK PLANKTM.
287
js at
sun.
sun
mec-
tion could exist between the two bodies ; but when it
is considered that tlie hitter is surrounded by an
ocean of coronal electricity this difficulty must dis-
appear. The enormous quantity generated, and the
velocity with which electricity' travels, would be (juite
sufficient to maintain an imtnediate communication
between the sun and any body existing in the outer-
most limits of the solar system. That such electric
currents or lines exist between the sun and the planets
is evidenced by the many meteorological disturbances
which have been observed when these currents have
been interfered with at the time of perihelion or
aphelion, or during the conjunctions of the planets.
The fact that spots on Jupiter's equatorial belts have
been observed to travel forwards with a velocity
greater than the planet exhibits at its poles is indica-
tive of a solar influence independent of the planet's
rotation. Carrington has pointed out an equatorial
advance equal to 637 miles per hour over a spot situ-
ated between that region and the south pole. The
time occupied in the revolution of the great red spot
is also longer than those of white spots occasionally
seen near the equator. The red spot being a physical
permanency on the planet, and the belts consisting of
eruptions of gaseous matter, explains this apparent
difficulty. The movement of the former represents
the time of the actual rotation of the planet, while the
extra velocity of the latter is imparted by direct elec-
trical solar influence. Owing to Jupiter's vast size the
communication existinor between him and the sun
288
AGE OK CREATION.
would be more rearlily observed and detected than the
relations existing between the latter and the various
smaller planets. A similar connection between the
atmospheric disturbance of the earth and the occur-
rence of solar changes has f l^-eady been noted. When
such a phenomenon is kno by actual experience, to
occur upon the earth, Jupiter's gigantic size must tend
to produce a more intimate relation between himself
and the sun, notwithstanding the immense gulf of
space which separates them.
Saturn's mean distance from the sun is 881,000,000
miles, and the periodic time of its revolution twenty-
nine and a half years. Its equatorial diameter is 73,-
*300 miles, and it completes one revolution on its axis
in ten hours and fourteen minutes. It shines with a
faint, but remarkably stea light, free from any star-
like scintillation or brilliant „iare such as characterize
many of the celestial bodies. It lo attended by eight
satellites, or moons, which present many variations of
appearance, and revolve around the planet in con-
formity with Kepler's laws and the Newtonian theory
of gravitation. Saturn is nearly 1,000 times the bulk
of the earth, but its density barely exceeds it by one-
eiffhth, beinjr less than that of water. Certain briofht
belts and spots mark the surface of the planet, the
nature of which has not yet been detected, those on
the equatorial region being of a yellowish or golden
hue.
In Washington, on December 7th, 1876, Prof. Hall
witnessed what appeared to have been an immense
THE PLANETS.
239
eruption of incandescent matter near the equator of
the planet Saturn. It seemed to have burst forth
suddenly from the interior, and spread in an easterly
direction in the form of long, light streaks, which were
apparently carried in the direction of the rotation of
the planet. It was also seen by several astronomers,
and the time in which it crossed the planet's disc was
found to be ten hours and fourteen minutes.
Saturn is surrounded by three broa<l, tlun, concentric
rings, narrowly separated from each other, a much
wider interval separating the whole ring from the
body of the planet. The inner ring is dark in appear-
ance and about 9,000 miles wide. The interval between
it and the body of the planet is about 10,000 miles,
and is known to be decreasing about twenty-nine
miles a year. Then follows an inner briofht rinix
18,300 miles wide, separated from an outer bright
ring 10,000 miles in width by a gap of 1,750 miles.
The thickness of the rings has been estimated at about
250 miles.
While intervals between the planet and the dark
inner ring is gradually diminishing, the width of the
ring is increasing, and there is a possibility that in
two or three hundred years it will reach the surface
of the planet. The two bright rings are observed to
be also underofoinfj a similar change, the inner of
which has greatly increased in width by its approach
in the direction of the planet's equator.
In 1665 Huggens discovered the first and largest
satellite of Saturn, the eighth and last being first seen
240
AGE OF CREATiOK.
in 184(S, in Cambridge, U.S., by the Bonds (father and
son), and in Liverpool, England, by Lassel. These are
as follows : —
Distant from the
Centre of Saturn.
1. Mimas 119,725 miles.
2. Enceladus 153,630 "
3. Tethys 190,225 '«
4. Diune 243,670 "
S.Rhea 340:^20 "
6. l:\t^.^'.'.'.'.'..'.\\'.'.'.'.v^^v^'.'.'.'.',. 788,915 "
7. Hyperion 954,100 "
8. Japetus.! "..'.'.'..'...'...'...'.'....... . 2,292,790 "
It will be seen from the foregoing table that the
satellites of Saturn range proportionately in order of
distance from the planet, but between the fifth and
.sixth a gap occurs, similar to that occupied by the
ring of asteroids between Mars and Jupiter. Between
the seventh and eiqfhth a still greater vacancy is ob-
served, in which there is p»:oportionately room for
about three more satellites. It will therefore be safe
to assume that Saturn was originally attended by
twelve moons, four of which are missing entirely or
have never been discovered.
All of Saturn's moons revolve around the planet in
regular varying periods of from twenty-two hours lo
seventy-nine days. During the periodic revolution of
the planet many changes and phases are observed, in
which the planet is seen to resemble a golden globe
surrounded by a brilliant ring, which gradually dis-
THE PLANETS.
241
appears and resembles a minute streak of light when
the edge of the ring is presented to view.
During one-half of the planet's orbital revolution
the sun shines on the northern side of the ring, the
southern side in turn beino- illumined during the other
half. In time a position is presented in which the
light of the sun will shine only on the edge of the
ring. The movement of the satellites along this fila-
mentary line has been described by Sir William Her-
schel as reser M'ng "golden beads on a wire." From
the regions of the planet a scene of amazing grand-
eur would appear. The sky is spanned by the vast
luminous arches of the rings stretchinf:^ from hori-
zon to horizon, on which the shadow of the jolanet is
cast, while the many changes and eclipses of the swift-
whirling moons, together with the glittering stars,
present a magnificent spectacle of celestial scenery.
Of the nature of Saturn's rings a definite conclu-
sion has not yet been reached. They have been sup-
posed to have been formed by the tail of a comet
which had been overcome by the attraction of the
planet and forced to circulate around it. Another
opinion held them to be solid, having been originally
a part of the planet itself, but driven off from its
centre by the centrifugal force of its rotation while
the planet was in a liquid condition. These portions
then became solidified by cooling. Saturn was also
thought to have attained at one time enormous dimen-
sions, but afterwards shrunk, the rings being formed
of the residue of the older planet.
242
AGE OF CREATION.
That the rings are not uniformly solid has been
definitely demonstrated, a fatal objection, among many
others, being the various temporary divisions which oc-
cur in the rings, and which occasionally change in posi-
tion or disappear altogether. It has been also shown
that they could not be tiuid and maintain their continu-
ity. The most reliable theorj is the one now generally
accepted, that the rings are formed of clouds of myriads
of invisible meteoroids, too small to be individually
detected, and in the case of the inner dusky ring they
are not close enough to present the luminous appear-
ance of the brilliant rings. This being the only theory
known to account for many peculiarities connected
with the rings, their number, size and origin remains
to be explained. As before pointed out, according to
the proportional relations of the distances existing be-
tween the moons of Saturn that planet is entitled to
four more satellites. These are missing, and the rings
may be accounted for as being formed of the minute
fragments of these moons, which have been shattered
•md shivered to atoms during the astronomical revolu-
tions recorded to have taken place. The inner dark
ring, where the meteoroids are far apart, may be con-
sidered as formed of the nicon missing from the fijap
between the fifth and sixth satellites. The inner bright
ring is about twice the width of the dark one, l)eing
composed of the fragments of two of the moons mis.s-
ing from the gap between the seventh and eighth ;
while the third moon contributed to the formation of
the outer bright ring. The dimensions of the rings,
THE PLANETS.
243
;ing
however, would mainl}'' (lepend upon the size of the
exploded satellites. The attraction of the remainint^
eight moons would be sufficient to produce the tem-
porary divisions at times taking place in the rings, and
tend to maintain the intervals existing between them.
The motion of the rings being constantly retarded by
the atmospheric effects of the planet would result in
their continual approach towards its body, and a final
collapse upon its surface.
Uranus is about 35,000 miles in diameter, and though
its volume is sixty-four times greater than that of the
earth, it is only fifteen times as heavy. Its distance
from the sun is estimated at 1,771,000,000 miles.
Though its velocity is 252 miles per minute, it requires
eighty-four years to revolve once around the sun. The
period of its axial revolution is unknown. This planet
is attended by four moons, the planes of which are in-
clined ten degrees beyond the pole. As a consequence
their motions of revolution are from east to west, being
retrograde as compared with those of other planets.
To account for this unparalleled peculiarity seems diffi-
cult; but as these bodies also shared in the revolutions
of the Glacial epoch it is evident that they were then
disturbed from their former positions into others, by
which their orbits became tipped up to their present
inclination. It is altogether improbable that the pres-
ent motions of these satellites always existed, for,
with another exception, no similar cases are yet
known.
Neptune is 2,864,000,000 miles distant from the sun,
244
AGE OF CREATION.
around which It revolves in about 165 years, travelling
with a speed of 200 miles per minute. Its diameter is
35,000 miles, or more than four times that of the
earth. A remarkable feature in its history was its
discovery by prediction, the various perturbations of
the planet Uranus being ascribed to the attraction of
an outer planet. This prediction was found correct.
Its place was computed with singular exactness, and
the long-looked-for planet discovered. Owing to its
stupendous distance from the sun its physical appear-
ance is unknown. It is attended by one moon, the
plane of which, like those of Uranus, is vertically in-
clined to that of the planet's equator, showing that the
shocks to the solar system extended to a known dis-
tance of nearly 3,000,000,000 miles.
With Neptuno the outermost of the planets is reached.
Though at such an incomprehensible distance from the
centre of the solar system the law of gravitation
universally pervades. From one unsupported centre
light, heat and power are emitted sufficient to supply
and control proportionately an infinity of worlds, from
the tiny moons of the planet Mars to the enormous
orbs that spin and fly with inconceivable velocity in
an abyss of space, at a distance too remote to be
grasped by the imagination. Beyond the crbit of
Neptune lies a vast, unexplored ocean of space, defyi'
the most piercing penetration, while the mind reels
and staggers in the attempt to fathom its starry
depths. From this incomprehensible void comes the
mysterious Voice of Creation speaking of the terrible
I
THE PLANETS.
245
majesty of Him who loosed the bands of Orion and
i^uided Arcturus and his sons amid the complex in-
tricacies of that perilous course into which they de-
viated when " the sun stood still upon Gibeon, and the
moon in the valley of Ajalon." " The pillars of heaven
tremble and are astonished at His reproof. . . . Lo !
these are parts of His ways ; but how little a portion
is heard of Him ? but the thunder of His power who
can understand?"*
• Job xxvi, 11, H.
ill
r
246
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER XXI.
COMETS, METEORS, ETC.
F the nature of the comets comparatively little
-^4^^ is definitely known. Suddenly and unexpect-
edly, from some remote region of the heavens, a comet
makes an appearance, rushing impetuously in its
course, and after a short time disappears, sometimes
for many years, and perhaps forever. Unlike the
planets they travel in eccentric orbits, generally in
the form of an ellipse, and pass very near to the body
of the sun on their return. Occasionally they appear
directly to cross the path of another celestial body, or
swiftly speeding in that direction threaten to impinge
against it or collide with those having a more regular
and fixed motion. There is something of a mysterious
nature connected with these unknown wanderers that
causes them to be received on their approach as un-
welcome visitants. There is a universal feelintj that
they are not natural creations, like the other heavenly
bodies, but interlopers of a strange nature, which by
some unaccountable means have found Iheir way to
our solar system. In times past the terror and dread
excited in some places by the announcement that a
comet would cross the path of the earth was something
astonishing. . Persons of weak minds died of fright,
ifc a
jht,
COMETS, METEORS, ETC.
247
and other incidents and disorders occurred. In 1832
so great was the terror excited in France by the pre-
diction that a cornet would cross the earth's path that
a certain Parisian professor begged the Academy of
Sciences to refute the assertion which had gained
popular belief, that a comet would encounter the earth.
Why this dread of a comet should be of such a univer-
sal nature is difficult of explanation. No feeling of
alarm is excited at the movements of any of the
planets, some of which are of a wonderful appearance
and far more complexity of structure, such as Saturn
with his amazing ring system, and Jupiter with his
family of moons and terrific tornadoes. But the ap-
proach of a comet is the occasion of wonder and ex-
citement. They exist in countless numbers. Accord-
ing to Kepler comets are scattered throughout the
heavens as profusely as fishes in the ocean. Of their
physical nature little is definitely known. Whence
came they ? and what are they ? are unsolved prob-
lems in astronomy.
Comets consist of a nucleus, sometimes of enormous
magnitude, accompanied by a luminous train, occasion-
ally spreading over an immense space in the heavens.
The former is surrounded by a nebulous haze or
envelope, separated from it by a dark interval. The
latter presents a transparent appearance, through
which stars have occasionallv been observed. The
train, or tail, generally lies in a direction opposite to
the place of the sun, though this is not always the
case, comets having been observed with the direction
m
ffPR'
i ,
i •
*!■
248
AGE OF OREATION.
%
»
of the train at right angles, and in various other posi-
tions, to that himinary. Often tlie tails are bifurcated,
and sometimes they assume the most fantastic shapes ;
while others appear as an entire train, and exhibit no
signs of a nucleus whatever. They generally cover an
immense space, and appear enlarged in proportion as
they recede from the head of the comet.
The year 1G80 witnessed the appearance of a re-
markable comet, on account of its near approach to
the sun. Its nucleus was estimated at ten times the
size of the moon, its tail extending over a space of
seventy degrees. At its perihelion, or the point of its
orbit nearest the sun, it approached to within about
146,000 miles from the surface and 584,000 miles from
its centre. It appeared to descend almost perpendicu-
larly to the sun, around which it shot with a tremen-
dous velocity, estimated at no less than 1,240,000 miles
an hour ! As it ascended again its velocity was propor-
tionately retarded in the manner of its former acceler-
ation. The temperature of this comet was estimated
by Newton at 2,000 times the heat of red hot iron.
Herschel estimated its glare at perihelion as 25,600
times fiercer than that of an equatorial sunshine at
noonday, with the sun vertical. At its aphelion, or
point in the orbit farthest from the sun, its greatest
distance was no less than 13,000,000,000 miles, as
shown by Dr. Hal ley. During its travels it approached
within 440,000 miles of the earth. The period in
which it completes this vast orbit is supposed to be
about 575 years.
COMETS, METEOKS, ETC.
249
Among the celebrated comets was that of lGb2,
known as Halley's comet, whose return was predicted
and verified in about seventy-six years.
Another appeared in 1774 which was remarkable
for the changeable nature of its nucleus and train —
the former, which had previously been round, appeared
oblong in the direction of the tail, and the latter after-
wards became bifurcated, or divided into two branches.
The diameter of its nucleus was about the same as
that of the planet Jupiter, and its train was estimated
at about 2r,,000,000 miles in length.
A comet appeared in 1770 whose orbital revolution
was estimated at but five and a half years, but it mys-
teriously disappeared and has never been seen since.
Schroter s observations of the comet of 1807 gave
an estimated diameter of its nucleus at about 4,600
#
miles, or about the size of the planet Mars, and ap-
parently of considerable density. At certain periods
its coma increased and decreased in size, being esti-
mated at about 120,000 miles, and its velocity at 55,557
miles per hour. Its train was divided into two
separate branches, one side being convex, while the
other appeared concave. The most remarkable fea-
ture in connection with the comet was the variation
and coruscation of the tail. Within one second
streamers shot forth from the expansion of the train to
a distance of 4,600,000 miles.
Encke's comet was discovered in 1818, and was also
remarkable for the shortness of its periodic revolution,
17
'P'
250
AGE OF CREATION.
the time required to complete its orbit being but 1,200
days.
In 1826 Biela's comet was first observed, the period
of its revolution being six and thrce-cjuarter years.
The predicted appearances of the comet were after-
wards verified. In 1832 it crossed the plane of the
ecliptic a little over a month in advance of the earth,
its approach creating great excitement as to the possi-
bility of a collision. In September, 1832, Herschel
saw a group of stars of the sixteenth and seventeenth
magnitudes through this comet. " Though that group,"
says Dick, "could have been effaced by the most trifling
fog, yet they were visible through a tliickness of more
than 50,000 miles of cometary matter ; and therefore
it is supposed scarcely credible that so transparent a
material, affording a free passage to the light of such
minute stars, could be capable of arresting and reflect-
ing to us the solar rays."*
A comet of remarkable brilliancy and splendor ap-
peared in 1811, being visible to the naked eye for over
three months. Herschel gave the greatest length of
the train at 1,000,000,000 of miles, and its breadth as
nearly 15,000,000. The nucleus appeared to be spher-
ical and to shine by its inherent light. Its nucleus was
estimated by Schroter at 50,000 miles in diameter, or
nearly six and a half times that of the earth. He
was of opinion that this great body was in " all prob-
ability chiefly fluid, though its central parts might
consist of denser substances, and that there was reason
^ " Sidereal Heavens," p. 162.
COMETS, METEOltS, ETC.
251
ap-
over
M of
jh as
Ipher-
Is was
jr, or
He
Iprob-
Inight
leason
to believe that it shone with its own native light.
The coma was extremely rarefied in comparison with
the nucleus, resembling a very faint, whitish light,
scattered in separate portions. It was divided into
two — one immediately encompassing the nucleus ; the
other, of a mo'*? faint and grajish light, sweeping
around it at a distance, and forming the double tail
which the comet presented. The train, or head veil,
as he terms it, swept around the nucleus at a distance
equal to its breadth, and appeared as unconnected as
the ring of Saturn with its body, and which some-
times appeared darker than the open sky. The
diameter of this exterior part of the head was *H' 15",
or about 947,000 miles, which is larger than the
diameter of the sun, and which he thinks mus*- have
formed a hollow cone around the nucleus, and which he
thought indicated a force of a repulsive nature residing
in the nucleus. Between the 4th and 0th of December
a great revolution took place; the rarefied nebulous
matter, which had for three months been so unusually
repelled from the nucleus on every side to a distance
of about one-fifth of the diameter of the head, or 190,-
000 miles, was again attracted to it, attbrding an in-
controvertible proof of physical action upon a great
scale, arising, doubtless, from the same causes which
produce the other phenomena of nature. The double
tail of this comet was exceedingly faint compared with
the nucleus and coma. . . . Coruscation similar to that
which appeared in the tail of the comet of 1807 was
likewise perceived, particularly on October lOth, when
252
AGE OF CREATION.
a small tail instantaneously appeared, then vanished
and reappeared, which was in length equal to three
times the (liameter of the comet's head, or 2,373,000
miles. Other displays of the same kind took place
on the 7th of November and the 18th of December."*
The periodic revolution of this comet has been com-
puted at over 3,000 years ; according to Bessel at
3,383 years.
Donati's comet of 1858 was remarkable for the many
peculiar phases and transformations it presented. The
nucleus was observed surrounded by three distinct en-
velopes, connected with each other by radial streaks of
light issuing from different parts of the nucleus.
Shortly after their appearance a new tail was seen,
in addition to the primary one, lying in a direction
exactly away from the sun. This was followed by
another of a fainter appearance^ aiid the nucleus at
perihelion presented indications of the most violent
and angry excitement.
Respecting the actual structure of comets nothing
definite has been ascertained, save that of their appar-
ently gaseous nature ; but that there is an undoubted
connection between meteors and comets appears to be
well established. Sir John Herschel's observations of
the comet of 1862 confirmed the fact that recognized
meteor-systems are found to follow in the track of
known comets.
Meteors are known to consist of minute bodies
clustered together in zones or rings, and ranging in
* "Sidereal Heavens," p. 152,
ling
mr-
ted
be
; of
Hzed
of
T|P
COMETS, METEORS, ETC.
253
2 in
size from a small pebble to the most gigantic boulder.
Those which travel around the sun in orbits lying in
the course of the earth's path periodically come in
contact with it. They move with enormous velocity
through space ; but in plunging into the atmosphere
surrounding the earth their speed becomes suddenly
checked, resulting in the ignition of the meteors, which
then appear visible as shooting stars. Owing to the
intensity of the heat generated by the friction the
smaller bodies become dissolved into a streak of glow-
ing vapor in their course through the air ; but the
larger ones occasionally reach the earth in the form of
aerolites, or meteoric stones. These have been found
similar in their elementary constitution to the ig-
neous rocks existing in the crust of the earth, and pos-
sessing' nearly the same density, from which it is in-
ferred that aerolites have had an origin in common
with that of the earth. Meteoric fireballs of great
magnitude are known as bolides. It is estimated that
the heat of a meteor generated by atmospheric resist-
ance would exceed that of a rifle-bullet 10,000 times.
In November, 1869, a meteor flashed across the
south of England and disappeared in the sea off the
coast of (Cornwall. Its course w^as ascertained to be
170 miles in length, which it traversed in five seconds,
leaving behind a luminous streak fifty miles long and
four wude, which remained visible for fully five minutes.
During the course of the earth's orbit two recog-
nized rings of meteors are intersected, giving rise to
the annual meteoric displays of August and November.
%
* I
254
AGE OK f^RKATlON.
Tlie revolutionary time of the August meteors is sup-
posed to be about one hundred and five years, and
tliat of the latter about thirty-three and a (juarter
years. During these periods the earth encounters an
enormous swarm of meteors, ranging in weight from
an ounce to many tons, the whole travelling in the
path of recognized comets.
Meteors belong to the same class of matter as
aerolites, or meteoric stones, which occasionally fall to
the earth, and which have yielded the nature of their
composition to chemical and microscopical a^^alysis.
The result of such analysis shows that the material of
aerolites had been originally in a state of fusion, in
the form of small, detached, melted giubules, the for-
mation of which cannot be satisfactorily explained.
It is supposed, however, that there is a connection
between them and the constituent elements of which
the sun is composed. "This would clearly s\iggest,"
says Proctor, " that these meteoric masses were origin-
ally expelled either from '^ <i sun or from one of his
fellow suns, the stars, or eise that we must look back
to some long-lost epoch in the history of the universe
when a true chaos prevailed, regarding meteorites as
the fragments left from the time of chaos. Let us see
whaii the chemical analysis of meteorites may suggest
as the more probable of these views. The chemical
evidence is singularly decisive. Prof. Graham, the
late Master of the Mint, and one of the gr'^.atest chem-
ists of our day, examined the iron of an aerolite called
the Lenarto meteor, from the place where it fell. He
i
coMFiTs, Meteors, etc.
255
tested it witli special reference to the quantity of
hydrogen contained in it ; for hydrogen and other
gases can be occluded, as it is called, or, as it were,
closed in, within the substance of iron. Now, observe
what he says about the iron of this meteor: — 'It has
been found difficult to impregnate malleable iron with
mo2'e than an e(iual volume of hydrogen under the
pressure of our atmosphere. Now, the meteoric iron
(this Lenarto iron is remarkably pure and malleable)
gave up about three times that amount without being
fully exhausted. The inference is that the meteorite
had been extracted from a dense atmosphere of hydro-
gen gas, for which we must look beyond the light
cometary matter floating about within the limits of
our solar system. . . . Hydrogen has been recognized
by the spectrum analysis of the light of the fixed stars
by Messrs. Huggins and Miller. The same gas con-
stitutes, according to the wide researches of Father
Secchi, the principal element of a numerous class of
stars, of which Alpha Lyrie (the leading brilliant of
the Lyre) is the type. The iron of Lenarto has no
doubt come from such an atmosphere, in which hydro-
gen greatly prevailed. Tkis meteorite may be looked
upon as holding imprisoned luithin it, and bearing to
us, the hydrogen of the stars.'"*
From the forefjoin^: the remarkable conclusion to be
deduced is, that meteor systems and comets are the
remains of thousands of shattered worlds and erupted
ejections from others more fortunate in escaping de-
* " Expanse of Heaven," p. 147.
Rto
256
AGE OF CREATION.
struction during the astronomical catastrophes which
occurred in the days of Jo;^hua and Hezekiah. The
relations existing between cornets and meteors, by
which countless myriads of the latter follow in the
paths of comets, may thus be accounted for. While
many comets of the smaller class have undoubtedly
been ejected from the celestial bodies, others are in
whole the entire molten interior of exploded ones.
The comets ejected from other bodies would move in
elliptical orbits, and if not expelled from the solar
system by the intensity of the expulsive force would
again return to the place of their origination. The
comets of 1843, 1880 and 1882 almost grazed the sun
in the course of their perihelion, from which it is evi-
dent they originated. Vhe enormous sun-spot cavities
were no doubt the birthplace of these comets. On
the other hand, the orbits of short period comets, which
do not pass close to the sun, have had a planetary
origination. Proctor points out that comets of this
class are intimately associated with the greater planets
of the solar system. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune have each their related comets hovering
about their paths, and apparently under their control,
from which it must be inferred they were originally
ejected ; hence the low density of the greater planets.
The motions of this class of comets, which correspond
with their related planets, are generally forv/ard and
with little inclination to that of the planetary level,
and also point to >n intimate relation between them.
The relations existing between comets and meteors,
COMETS, METEORS, ETC.
257
vel,
em.
ors,
by which countless nurahers of meteoric bodies follow
in the same orbit, may be accounted for by an ex-
p^anation of the origin of meteors. The broken and
fragmentary crust of which the meteors are formed
would then travel beliind in the same direction as that
of the comet, as is generally known to be the case.
The transparency of the nucleus, through which stars
have been observed, would result when viewed at an
enormous distance against a dark background.
The intense heat radiating from the enormous mol-
ten metallic mass of which the nucleus is composed
forms the coma, while its condensation when in contact
with the colder rcijjions throufjh which the comet
moves results in the accumulation of distinct masses
of watery vapor, of which the surrounding envelope is
composed. From the evaporation arising from the
surface of the layer the process is repeated^ by which
the various envelopes arise.
The jets of light apparently thrown out from the
nucleus in the direction of the sun are molten streams,
analogous to terrestrial waterspouts, drawn from the
head of the comet by the force of solar attraction. As
the comet approaches perihelion the solar forces be-
come so intense as to cause the most violent excite-
ment in the nucleus, producing the various elongating
changes of form and other convulsive phenomena to
which it is constantly subject. Occasionally the nu-
cleus is torn apart or broken up by the immensity of
the forces with which it is brought into immediate
contact, thus forming two independent and distinct
H
158
AGS OF CREATION.
comets, or even a iriultiple of them, as are recorded to
have been observed.
The tail of a comet is a magnetic stream flowing
from the molten nuck^us. A well-known property
peculiar to some metals, by which they possess a
power of attraction for each other, is known as mag-
netism. On the earth it has been found to exist in a
large proportion in an ore of iron called " loadstone."
From this it may be communicated to other metallic
bodies by friction, and they in like manner become
possessed of the same power as that contained in the
loadstone. As the nucleus of a comet consists of a
molten metallic mass, magnetism exists on an enormous
scale. The electrical repulsive force of the sun's corona
exerted against the magnetic stream produces various
changes in the train. On the approach of a comet the
tail is mainly carried in the rear, and swept around
and carried in advance as the comet recedes from the
sun after the completion of its perihelion. The curva-
ture sometimes observed in the tail results from the
resistance of the magnetic stream to the repulsive
force, the curve being formed where the resisting force
becomes spent or weakest. The double or multiple
tails are produced by the exciting changes occurring
in the nucleus, by which the magnetic stream is forced
out in other directions. The apparent separation of
the tail from the head is caused by the shading of the
electrical current, arising from its intersection by the
nucleus. The bounding streaks extending along the
tail from either side of the head, with a dark enclosure
i
COMETS, METEORS, ETC.
259
a
3ive
)rce
iple
'incr
reed
of
the
the
the
mre
between, may be explained by the theory suggested by
Sir John Herschel, which regards the form of the tail
as conical, owing to the apparently spherical dimen-
sions of the nucleus. All the strange varieties and
changes of appearance presented by the tails of comets
arise from the variations of the magnetic stream in
conjunction with the electrical coronal current, conse-
quent upon the continual state of agitation and excite-
ment of the nucleus.
In addition to comets and meteors another celestial
class known as star clusters evidently originated in
like manner. Myriads upon myriads of star-like forms
are observed scattered in clustering groups with the
utmost closeness and profusion. They were- originally
supposed to be stars too remote in space to be fath-
omed in point of distance, and from which light, trav-
elling with its enormous velocity, required thousands
of years to reach the earth. But in their clustering
forms may be seen the minute fragments of shattered
and shivered stars, each so small as to present the
appearance of larger bodies feebly shining in the far-
off regions of space. Such ruin and destruction must
necessarily^ be the consequent result of any sudden
interference with the movements of such a compli-
cated network of intricate mechanism as that dis-
played in the universe. When we "consider the
heavens," and reflect on the magnitude of the v jrk of
Him who counts the numbers of the stars and calleth
them by name, and attempt to realize the vast effects
of its partial destruction accomplished by the bidding
III
7W
260
AGE OF CREATION.
of man, in wondrous amazement we can but re-echo
the inspired interrogatory : " What is man, that Thou
art mindful of him? and the son of man, that Thou
visitest him?"* "Of old hast Thou laid the foun-
dation of the earth : and the heavens are the work of
Thy hands. They shall perish, but Thou shalt en-
dure : yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment ;
as a vesture shalt Thou change them, and they shall
be changed : But Thou art the same, and Thy years
shall have no end."-|-
* Psalm viii. 4. t Psalm cii. 25-27.
m
NEBULiE AND STAR CLUSTERS.
261
CHAPTER XXII.
lift
NEBUL/E AND STAR CLUSTERS.
«
MONG the many celestial features of wonderful
peculiarity are the nebulae and star clusters.
When visible to the naked eye they appear as cloud-
like masses of milky light ; but are found by telescopic
aid to consist of a vast assemblage of star-like forms,
apparently so far distant as to cause their cloud-like
and nebulous appearance. Those which can be resolved
into distinct and stellar forms are called star clusters,
while the irresolvable afxorlomerations of diffused matter
are known as nebulae, of which one of the most bril-
liant and remarkable is that in the constellation of
Orion. In appearance the nebuliB are observed to be
changeable, partaking of various shapes, either circular,
oval, lenticular, spiral, conical, or occasionally aj-suming
a most fantastic form. Star clusters are generally of
a spherical shape, containing thousands of apparently
small, faint stars densely packed together, in some in-
stances in such a manner as to suggest the idea of a
nucleus, or power of centre. The most remarkable of
the star clusters is seen in the Pleiades.
The Galaxy, or Milky Way, presents a nebular
analogy. It consists of a vast stream of milky light,
obliquely spanning the heavens in the form of a mag-
r
262
AGE OF CREATION.
nificent arch. It displays a varied irregularity of
outline, a portion being longitudinally divided and
separated into two parts, which finally again reunite
and ettect a junction. Great gaps or vacant spaces,
known by the euphonious appellation of " coal sacks,"
also exist in the Galactic belt, tending to complete
the cloud-like appearance of the stream, in some of
which not even a single object can be discerned.
When observed with a powerful telescope its nebulous
appearance is found to arise from an immense ag-
glommeration of apparent stars, so densely clustered
together in certain places, and at such a seemingly in-
finitely remote distance, that their combined light pro-
duces only a cloud-like form. It has been observed
that the nebuhe are least in the regions near the Milky
Wav, and that where the stars are least nebula3 are
found to be most abundant.
A speetro.scopic analysis of the nebula? reveals the
fact that the light emitted therefrom proceeds from
enormous masses of glowing gas. Huggins found the
spectra of the nebuhe and clusters to consist of tv/o
classes, the spectrum of one resembling the sun and
stars, and that of the other as though arising from
irresolvable matter in an incandescent, gaseous form.
Many of the star clusters, howevei, present a continu-
ous spectrum, showing that the individual bodies com-
posing them are of a stellar constitution, while in some
instances a nebulous mixture is observed, arising from
a compound of matter in both a solid and j^aseous
form.
NEBUL.^^: AND STAR CLUSTERS.
263
the
from
d the
: two
and
from
Iform.
tinu-
com-
some
from
Iseous
The origin of the star clusters and nebulro may be
attributed to the disturbing causes which prodticed
comQjbs and meteors. The clusters are fragments of
instantaneously exploded stars hovering around the
central point of disturbance, while the nebulae are
vast clouds of gas, smoke and stellar debris resulting
from the explosions.
This fact explains the absence of stars when the
nebulae are most abundant. The Galactic belt marks
a course of utter ruin and stellar destruction, stretch-
ing from the North to the South Pole, surrounding
which it appears to be uniformly spread. Its bifurca-
tion points to a repetition of the devastating course,
after an interval of time, in almost exactly the same
location.
From the existence of nebulous matter in the
heavens it has been supposed by many that out of
this material the universe was evolved. The process
by which this evolution is supposed to have taken
place is described in a theory promulgated by Kant,
Laplace and others. It is known as the Nebular
Hypothesis, and is to the effect that the .sun, planets
and satellites originally existed in the form of a cos-
mical vapor, being rapidly contracted in volume by
the radiation of heat, a process which began with the
first evolution, and which is .supposed to be still taking-
place from the earth, the planets and the sun to the
present day. In point of size the nebulous mass is
thought to have occupied a space as large as the orbit
of Neptune, which planet, moving with a velocity of
m
264
AGE OF CREATION.
nearly 12,000 miles an hour, requires 165 years to make
one revolution. Diirini^ the evolving process the atoms
of which the cosiiiical vapor were formed began to ^xert
a tangential force, and while gyrating through space
the whole mass became distorted in form, and instead
of assuming a perfectly spherical condition, assumed
the shape of a flattened spheroid. The velocity of the
peripheral portion afterward became accelerated and
overcame the ])ower of gravity. As a result the peri-
pheral portion became detached and took the form of
a ring, which also continued to rotate about the mass
till a rupture was produced by the oscillations to
which it became subject, when the material became
accumulated in another globe of a similar nature, in
turn revolving around the first. After the lapse of an
eternity of time the original mass, under the Influence
of the acceleration of its motion and gradual cooling,
threw off another ring, which also became evolved into
a revolving globe. As this process was repeated every
few million years a series of globes were formed, and
these became the planets, and the original residual mass
the sun. The process is still supposed to be going on,
and it is thought the sun may yet throw off another
ring, which in the distant future will assume the form
of another planet. As each globe became detached
it at once began a repetition of the process of cooling
and condensation, greatly accelerating its motion. In
the case of the larger planets the rotation became so
rapid that a number of rings were detached before
the cooling process had reached a point of liquefac-
NEBULiE AND STAR CLUSTERS.
265
ass
on,
ler
)riii
bed
ing
In
so
Eore
[ac-
tion. These in turn became satellites and revolved
about their planets. The eaith became refrigerated so
rapidly that it had but time to throw off one, while
others became so rigid before the requisite velocity was
attained that they were unable tu throw off any.
Saturn threw off eight, which became satellites, and
another still remains hovering around the planet,
waiting for the hand of time to give it a gentle eleva-
tion into the realms of apace and independence.
In the course of time the original mass of vapor be-
came ignited, and gradually subsided in form, owing
to the process of radiation. In the case of the earth
a crystalline crust gradually formed over the liquid
mass, and the process likewise resulted in the forma-
tion of a solid film over the surface of the molten
planets. During a gradual refrigeration the stiffen-
ing crust became too large for the molten sea within,
arising from the rapid contraction of the more heated
parts, and a shrinkage of the crust took place, result-
ing in the form of wrinkles, which became the germs
of the mountain chains and continents with which the
surface of the globe is diversified. No water had then
existed upon the earth, which was surrounded by an
aqueous gas, which, when the proper time arrived,
began to be reduced in temperature, and condensation
was the result. Then a tremendous scene of ebulli-
tion took place, a fierce conflict between the elements
— tire and water, lightning and thunder — but in pro-
cess of time the fire was gradually conquered, the
waters triumphed, and the first germ of land gradually
18
» '
II
#
I
266
AGE OF CREATION .
appeared. After the lapse of an extended period of
time, so long as to be beyond the power of comprehen-
sion of the most intelligent being, the earth slowly
crept into its present position, from which it is slowly
and surely passing on to another of refrigeration, when
winter will reign universally; for the sun is supposed
to be rapidly cooling, and the intricate machinery of
the universe, destined only for a time, is running down,
and desolation will triumph and reign universal. The
moon has long since passed through this refrigerating
process, and as it now is so the earth will be. Such is,
in brief, the substance of the Nebular Hypothesis.
In confirmation of this theory it is held that uncon-
densed nebulous matter still exists ; out of material of
this nature the globes were formed ; that all the
planets move in the same plane as if thrown off from
one equator ; the satellites revolve around their pri-
maries in the same direction as the latter about the
sun ; that the same axial motion is common to both
the sun and the planets ; and that, with a few excep-
tions, the eccentricity of the planets is comparatively
small. While the truth of the Nebular Theory has
never been entirely disproved, many serious Haws and
fatal objections have been pointed out. Newcomb
remarks that the Hypothesis must remain doubtful
"until the sun shall be found growing smaller by
actual measurement, or the nebula3 be actually seen to
condense into stars and systems."
The main features of the Nebular Hypothesis lie in
the beginning and end of the Theory. It originates in
NEBULyE AND STAR CLUSTEKS.
267
of
:ivel
has
and
Torab
ibtful
by
;en to
lie in
ites in
a hot, ditiVised, <^aseous form, and ternnnates in a pro-
cess of refrigeration. The existing- nebulae is pointed
to as the material of whicli the vvorkls were formed.
This, liowever, has never been known to bear any
similitude to rotating globes, but assumes various and
fantastic shapes with enormous gaps throughout, in
no way resembling the primitive stages of evolutionary
world formation. The nature and origin of this neb-
ula, has already been explained. It is shown to be
the residual gaseous niatter of thousands of shattered
globes. Thus, instead of being the material of which
the worlds are formed, workls formed the nebuhe.
Instances of this have been observed. In November
1876, a star suddenly blazed forth with great bril-
liancy in the constellation of Cygnus. After a com-
paratively short time the star was observed to gradu-
ally fade away into a nebulous mist — an undoubted
proof that the nebube originated from the stars, and a
conclusive argument against the theory of Evolution.
The rings of the planet Saturn are shown as direct
evidence of the process of the formation of satellites.
The Hypothesis explains these rings as nebulous mist
thrown off the planet, to be evolved during the course
of untold ages into other satellites like those by which
it is accompanied. Instead of further receding from
the primary mass it is found by actual observation
that the rings are gradually but surely approaching
the planet, and are apparently doomed to collapse upon
its surface. Here, again, the Theory fails ; and it has
already been shown that the pulverized fragments of
268
AGE OF CREATION.
former satellites form the rings of Saturn, and there-
fore not the nebulous material of the rings that form
the satellites.
Again, the end to which the Nebular Hypothesis
points is a period of lifeless refrigeration. The sun
and planets are to gradually become cooled off, and
life cease to exist. The moon is held to have long
since passed through all the successive changes re-
quired by the Theory ; and as it now is so the earth
and planets will also be. If such is the result w4th
the moon, then the Theory fails to account for the
origination of the crateriform mountains, the moraines,
the ray or streak system, and other physical forma-
tions existing upon its surface. Until the Theory ac-
counts for the manner in which the cooling process
formed the various peculiarities on the surface of the
moon, the lifeless condition of which is attributed t<>
a direct result of the Hypothesis, the latter can only
be received with the utmost suspicion.
The moon having passed through a Glacial epoch
simultaneou.sly with the earth it will be seen that its
present condition is attributable to violent disturbance,
and not to a gradual refrigeration, as explained by the
Nebular Hypothesis.
■
PART I I
CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF A UNIVERSAL DELUGE.
CIENTISTS and s^eologists are unanimous in the
belief that the Glacial epoch occurred long be-
fore the Noachian Deluj^e, at a period of time ranf^inf^
from 10,000 to 100,000 years, and yet at the same
time manifest wonder and surprise at the compara-
tively modern appearance presented Iw the effects of
the Drift.
Now, if the Noachian l)elui»e occurred after the
Glacial epoch, geological evidence of ti e former event
must be found between the Boulder formation and the
surface of the earth ; for no deluge such as that re-
corded in the Book of Genesis could have taken place
without leaving some traces behind, just as the drift
materml was the result of the Glacial floods. But no
such testimony exists. In northern countries the
detritus and rocks of the Boulder formation are
scattered in thousands over the face of the countr}*.
There is no trace whatever of any deposits that might
have resulted from a delnije of the maijnitude of that
recorded in the Book of Genesis. It has therefore
been held by many th'.c no geological proof exists of
270
AGE OF CUKATTON.
the occurrence of a universal deluge in the past. But
though it is admitted there are imperfections in the
geological system, the origin of which cannot be ex-
plained, the events of these periods are supposed to
have taken place millions of years before the advent
of man upon the earth. That such w^as not the case,
however, is shown by the date of occurrence of the
Glacial epoch. If the Noachian Deluge, therefore, was
of the magnitude recorded, and took place previously
to the Glacial epoch, physical proofs of the same must
be found below the Boulder formation. The next gap
in the geological record i:* that overlying the Creta-
ceous deposits, and l)etween the Mesozoic and Oenozoic
formations, yet not separating them, but known to
roll away from the west toward the south-east until
the two formations are blended into one. There is no
break between the two periods, but the occurrence of
a o^reat geolofjical event the oriorin of which has not
yet been explained. It is held to repre.ient a great
chasm of time in the primitive history of the world,
in the formation of which thousands and thousands of
years are supposed to have been occupied. During this
period, it is known, a great revolution of the physical
features of the earth took place. An elevation of the
Hoors of the Cretaceous seas and a subsidence of the
land beneath the level of the oceans were the results,
toirether with an almost entire obliteration of all
animal life. Yet some were known to escape, such as
the lingula, for example, a small shell, which has been
traced to its origination in the early seas of the
i
PHYSICAL EVIDE^rCE OP A UNIVERSAL DELUGE. 271
Palaeozoic time. The disturbance which characterized
the sudden and abrupt termination of the Cretaceous
period in the west included also the Eocene, or lower
Tertiary, in the east. There is no break of continuit}'
between the Secondary and Tertiary series, but merely
the separation of the two by the occurrence of a great
phenomenal geological event, and that event was un-
doubtedlv a universal delude.
Many of the sedimentary deposits of the Cretaceous
period consist almost entirely of a vast accumulation
of minute and invisible shells of infusorire, animalculae,
etc. These are of enormous extent, and occasionally
hundreds of feet in thickness. The shells present a
remarkable state of preservation, even the most deli-
cate and fragile exhibiting no signs of decay or injury.
No foreign material is observed in the accumulations,
the whole masses being almost totally composed of
inhumed animalcula3.
" The city of Richmond, in North America," as
pointed out by Pouchet, " is the centre of one of these
districts, where, according to the beautiful saying of
Shelley, every grain of dust was once endued with
life. The deposit of microscopic skeletons attains a
depth of several hundred yards. It' as many human
mummies were laid one upon another they would
form a mountain the height of which would almost
equal a semi-diameter of the earth."*
A. microscopical examination of a small particle of
pulverized chalk shows that it is mainly composed of
* "Tho Universe," p. 20.
I«>
272
AGE OF CREATION.
an accumulated mass of minute shells, or broken frag-
ments of the same, in size resembling small grains of
fine sand. Incalculable billions of these tiny shells
compressed together form the great chalk deposits of
the (h-etaceous period, from which its name is derived
— crcta being the Latin word for chalk. Though in-
animate now each individual shell was once endowed
with life, perfect in its organization, and originally
existed beneath the water. They are called fora-
minifera, together with others known as pteropods.
Chalk has been found similar in composition with a
white, slimy material dredged from the bottom of the
Atlantic, called " glol)igerina ooze," containing identi-
cally the same \.'.ny shells, and which, when dry and
hard, exceedingly resembles the European chalk.
From numerous deep sea soundings it has been
found that the bottoms of the Atlantic, Pacific and
Indian Oceans are almost entirely covered with a thick
accumulation of these minute shells, existing in count-
less myriads, many thousands being contained in a
single cubic inch. As shown by Bailey, from obser-
vations made of soundings in the North Atlantic by
the United States ship Dolphin, the bottom, "as far
as examined, from the depth of about sixty fathoms
to that of more than two miles (2,000 fathoms), is
literally nothing but a mass of microscopic shells,"
and further, that the dredged material " did not con-
tain a particle of gravel, sand or other recognized un-
organized mineral matter, but was almost entirely made
up of the calcareous shells of minute foraminifera."
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF A ITNIVERSAI, DELUGE. 273
far
oms
is
Us,"
con-
lade
From this it is known that the great chalk deposits
of Europe and other countries originally existed at the
bottom of the sea. The fecundity of this class of life,
or the rate at wliich these aninialculjie individually in-
crease, is generally admitted to be on an enormous scale,
millions being reproduced in one hour. Geologists as-
cribe the formation of these collections to the slow and
gradual deposition by marine waters during many thou-
sands of years. Assuming the rate of deposition to be
about ten inches in a century, it has been estimated
that more than 120,000 years would have been required
for the formation of many of the beds, which are sup-
posed to average 1,000 feet thick. How such masses
could have been slowly accumulated during untold
ages, without the least injury whatever to the shells-
themselves, and with an entire absence of foreign
material, is not explained. By no known mode of
calculation could an attempt be made to estimate in
numbers the innumerable tiny .shells of which the
chalk deposits are formed, from the white cliffs of
which Britain owed its ancient name of Albion. It
consists of billions upon billions, trillions upon tril-
lions, of invisible little creatures now dead and lifeless,
but once living and spread out over the bottom of the
ocean, after the manner of the " oflobiijerina ooze" of
the present timo.
Chalk fossils have been found in both the Old and
New World ; in North America, at Saskatchewan and
Vancouver Island, and in the United States. Accord-
ing to Ehrenberg the harbor of Wismar, in the Baltic,
» '
274
AGR OV CRJCATION.
is choked up with infusorial accuiiiuhitions, and many
similar formations are producing extensive changes in
the geographical contiguration of other places. In
a single ounce of sand from the Antilles D'Orbigny
estimated the number of shells of foraminifera at
3,48' )00. Schleiden estimated the number of animal-
cules in a cubic inch of the tripoli of Bilin, in Bohemia,
at 41,000,000.
According to Lyell " pure chalk of nearly uniform
aspect is met with in a north-west and south-east
direction from the north of Ireland to the Crimea, a
distance of about 1,140 geograpical miles; and in an
opposite dii-ection it extends from the south of Sweden
to the south of Bordeaux, a distance of about 840 geo-
graphical miles." Above and below nearly all true
chalk deposits beds of clay, marl and sand, of con-
siderable extent, are found, containing Jje iu.ssil re-
mains of land vegetation. This means, therefore, that
during this period the continent of Europe was sub-
merged and swept by the waters of the ocean, which
deposited thereon extensive masses of calcareous ooze,
consisting of foraminifera, etc., such as now exist at
its bottom, which resulted in the formation of the
extensive deposits of w^hat is now European chalk.
The destruction of every animal and vegetable sub-
stance was undoubtedly complete.
A total destruction of life also occurred in the Orient
during this geograpical period. Huge masses of rock
composed almost entirely of small shells known as
nummulites are found in great abundance.
t>HVSICAL EVIOKNCK OF A UNIVERSAL DELUGE. 27">
iont
•ock
as
In the Himalaya Mountains the Nuinniulitic lime-
stones occur at a height of 16,000 feet above the sea.
The same shells are found from Burmah to Eastern
Bengal, and in Persia, Syria, in Asia Minor, along the
Caspian Sea, and in Egypt. Not only this vast area
but the whole continent of Asia is known to have been
completely submerged at this time.
The Carpathian Mountains, as well as the Apennines,
in Europe, were elevated during the same period.
"The Nummulitic formation. \'ith its cliaracteristic
fossils," says Lyell, ' plays a far more conspicuous part
than any other Tertiary group in the solid frame-work
of the earth's crust, whether in Europe, Asia or Africa.
It often attains a thickness of many thousand feet,
and extends from the Alps to the Carpathians, and is
in full force in the north of Africa, as, for example, in
Algeria and Morocco. It has been traced from Egypt —
where it was largely quarried of old for the building
of the pyramids — into Asia Minor, and across Persia,
by Bagdad, to the mouth of the Indus. It occurs not
only in Cutch but in the mountain ranges which
separate Scinde from Persia, and \\hich form the
passes leading to Cabul ; and it has been followed still
further eastward into India, as far as Eastern Bengal
and the frontiers of China When we have ar-
rived at the conclusion," he adds, " that the Nummu-
litic formation occupies a middle place in the Eocene
series, loe are Htruch with the comparatively modern
date to which some of the orreatest revolutions in the
physical geography of Europe, Asia and Northern
•^i-
276
AGE OF CREATION.
Africa must be referred. All the mountain chains,
such as the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and Himala-
yas — into the composition of whose central and loftiest
parts the Nummulitic strata enter bodily — could have
had no existence till after the Eocene period."*
The city of Paris, in France, is built almost entirely
of stone composed solely of minute shells known as the
milioht). In size they have been compared to that of
a grain of millet, often less, and are found in such
abundance that whole mountains, consisting entirely of
these small shells closely cemented together, have oeen
quarried, and the stone used for building purposes.
It is known that the region of the Alps, in Switzer-
land, was completely submerged during the Secondary
period, and at the close of the Eocene period the enor-
mous sedimentary beds deposited on the bottom were
elevated and twisted into the various complicated fold-
ings which they now present.
On the north and south of the Alps there are strati-
fied beds of unfossiliferous sandstone, many thousand
feet thick, containini; ofranitic and limestone boulders
altoirether foreijxn to their present location. Many of
them are of vast proportions, and present a similarity
to the rounded and angular blocks of the drift. One
of these erratics, near the Lake of Thun, is ]()') feet
loner, 90 feet wide and 45 feet thick.
The testimony of several eminent ofeolosfists as to
the phenomenal events of the Cretaceous period may
be here recorded. Speaking on the geology of the Ter-
* " Elements of Geology," p. 305.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF A UNIVEUSAL DELUGE. 277
,s to
tiary formation of Dakota and Nebraska, in America,
Prof. F. V. Hayden says : " From the observations
which have already been made we believe that at the
close of the Cretaceous period the ocean rolled unin-
terruptedbj acrons the area now occupied by the Rocky
Mountain ranges. Whether some portions of the
mountain peaks did not project above the ocean
waters durin(f that period it is inj possible now to de-
termine, bvjt Hie evidence seems to be quite clear that
the greater part of the country, at least, was beneath the
ocean level during that period. Near the close of the
Cretaceous area the surface had reached an elevation
so great as to form long lines of separation between
the waters of the Atlantic on the east and those of
the Pacific on the west ; and then this great water-
shed began to rise above the surrounding country.
Then also began the existence of the first of that
serieG of fresh-water lakes which we now know was a
prominent feature in the physical geography of this
country during the Tertiary period. To obtain a clear
idea of the plan of growth of the western portion of
our continent, as it quietly and slowly emerged from
the ocean, we have but to study the numerous baro-
metrical sections which have been constructed by the
U. S. army officers and others for the past twenty or
thirty years. Taking almost any point along the
Missouri river below Council Bluffs we find that as
we proceed westward there is a gradual elevation or
ascent of about one foot to the mile for the first hun-
dred mileS; then three feet for the second, five feet for
278
AGE OF (JKEATION.
'i^m
«
B|
the third, eight or nine feet for the fourth, etc., until
at the foot of the mountains the ascent becomes eighty
or ninety feet to the mile. We then pass over a series
of mountain ranges of different elevations until we
rviich the western or Pacitic slope, when we gradually
de.scend into the ocean. We thus conclude that dur-
ing the Cretaceous period there was a gradual slow
elevation of the whole countr}' west of the Mississippi ;
that about the close of that period the crust of the
earth had been strained to its utmost tension, and long
lines of fracture commenced, which formed the nucleus
of our present mountain ranges ; for the evidence
seems to indicate that there was a long period of quiet
elevation, the central force actinc alonjx the lines of
upheaval. The barometrical profiles seem to indicate
that the west forms a vast plateau, upon which are
located a great number of ridges or mountain ranges,
tending in the aggregate nearly north-west and south-
east. At the close of the Cretaceous period, when
the crust had been elevated to its utmost tension, it
broke, sometimes in long lines of fracture, which gave
birth to these lofty continuous ranges with a granitoid
nucleus along the eastern portion of the Rocky Moun-
tains, as the Wind River, Big Horn, Laramie Moun-
tains, or to the Black Hills, or the basaltic ridges, which
are less regular in their structure, formed by outbursts
of melted matter arranged in a series of sharp peaks,
or sierras, as they are called in the Spanish countries,
of which the Wasatch, Gr-"?en River Mountains, and
numerous ranges on the Pacific coast, are examples."*
"njo Kxtiuct Maiuuialiiiu Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska," p. il,
PHYSICAL EVIDEiNCE OF A UNIVERSAL DELL'GE. 279
es
p. it.
"#
" The sea covered a large part of the region of the
Andes," o)>8erves Dana, "as well as of the Rocky
Mountains, and both chains were to a great extent
not yet flexed into mountain-shape ; the Alps, Pyre-
nees and Hinialayas luere also under wafer, or only in
their incipient stages of elevation The com-
plete extermination of species at the close of the Cre-
taceous period has not been fully explained."*
"In England," says Archibald Geikie, "the interval
between the Cretaceous and the next geological period
represented there by sedimentary formations is marked
by the abrupt line which separates the top of the
chalk from all later accumulations, and by the evidence
that the chalk seems to have been in some places ex-
tensively denuded before even the oldest of what are
called the Tertiary beds were deposited upon its surface.
There is evidently' here a considerable gap in the geo-
logical record. We have no data for ascertaininiif what
was the general march of events in the south of Eng-
land, between the eras chronicled respectively by the
upper chalk and the overlying Thanet beds. So
marked is this hiatus that the belief was long preva-
lent that between the records of the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic times there comes one of the great breaks in
the geological history of the globe. . . . Though in
Western Europe there is a tolerably abrupt separation
between the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, there
was, nevertheless, no real break between the two
periods. The one merged insen.sibly into the other ;
^ " Manual of Geology," pp. 491, .i04,
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
I.I
1.25
[SIM IM
m^^ [III! ^. C
1.4
1.8
1.6
V]
VI
.^^«
'K^.
4^ <<>.
'•{>' ^
280
AGE OF CREATION.
but the strata which would have served as the chroni-
cles of the intervening ages have either never been
deposited, or have since been in a great measure de-
stroyed."* "
According to Figuier, at the close of the Cretaceous
period " Europe was still far from displaying the con-
figuration which it now presents. A map of the period
would represent the great basin of Paris (with the ex-
ception of a zone of chalk), the whole of Switzerland,
the greater part of Spain and Italy, the whole of
Belgium, Holland, Prussia, Hungary, Wallachia and
Northern Russia, as one vast sheet of toater. A band
of Jurassic rocks connected France and England at
Cherbourg, which disappeared at a later period, and
caused the separation of the British Islands from what
is now France." f
In tlie Orient similar conditions prevailed during
this geological period. In an account of the journeys
of the Persian Boundary Commission, in 1870-72, W.
T. Blanford says : " It is evident that during Cretaceous
times the greater portion, and probably the whole, of
Southern and South-western Persia tvas beneath the
sea. . . . Towards the close of the Cretaceous epoch a
great change took place, accompanied by volcanic out-
bursts in the Caucasus, over a great area in Western
India, and probably in several parts of Persia, and the
result was the elevation of the Zagros range, and per-
haps of the country now forming the Persian plateau.
The south-west slopes of the Zagros, and the country
* " Text-book of Geology." p. 835. t " The World before the Deluge." p. 271.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF A UNIVERSAL DELUGE. 281
iring
jeous
lie, of
ii the
)ch a
out-
Istern
the
per-
,teau.
mtry
rp.27i.
on the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea,
were, however, still beneath the ocean in early Tertiary
times, and the Nummulitic sea extended far to the
eastward along the southern slopes of the Himalayas,
and very possibly occupied the plains of Northern
India and the Punjab. It certainly covered nearly
the whole, if not the whole, of Baluchistan and Sinde."*
From the foreijoini; accounts it will be seen that at
the close of the Cretaceous period the various coun-
tries all over the globe where o-eolooical observations
have been made were entirely submerged beneath the
waters of the ocean, even the then existing mountain-
tops being covered. Many ranges which had no exist-
ence previous to this period were thrown up, and
many others have originated since that time.
Thus was there a delu^ye, not onlv universal in
character and destruction of animal life, but one in
which there is evidence that every living substance
perished. The vegetation of the succeeding periods is
of an entirely different nature from that which pre-
ceded that event. A class immediately sprang up cor-
relative with its environment. Aquatic plants pre-
dominated, and the abundance of luxuriant ferns of
the Eocene period prove a mois! and foggy atmosphere,
which would naturally result from the evaporation of
surplus water from the rapidly-drying land.
In succeeding flora the first gymnosperms, or naked-
seeded plants, appear, while previous to the flood only
angiosperms, or plants having their seeds enclosed in
seed vessels, had an existence.
19 * " Geology of Persia," p. 168.
11^
ill ^
r
282
AGE OF CREATION.
From this time on the earth enjoyed a mild, warm
climate during the Miocene period, gradually becoming:
cooler in the Pliocene, until it had attained a tempera-
ture at its close nearly equal to that of the present day.
The termination of the Pliocene period witnessed the
Glacial epoch and the sudden and temporary change
of climate by which it was accompanied.
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
283
xrni
ling
era-
Llay.
the
mge
i^
CHAPTER II.
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
ANY of the earlier yjeolooists struc^o-leJ in vain
to identify the Drift deposits as the result of
the Noachian Deluj^e. A further investij^ation proved
that such was not the case, for the events of the Gla-
cial period were found to bo of a local character ; and
thougl; man existed upou the earth at the time of their
occurrence, entire races escaped its etfects in various
directions. No li-eoloufical evidence existing; of the
occurrence of a universal deluge since the close of tlie
Drift period, it is held that the Noachian Deluge was
not of a universal nature, but a local catastrophe, con-
fined to the neighborhood of the country where the
narrated events took place. The explanation given in
Figuier's '" The World before the Deluge " expresses a
very general and almost unanimous view held by
many scientists respecting the flood described in the
Mosaic account, in attributing its origin solely to a
natural cause in the ordinary course of geological
events.
" The Asiatic Deluge," he says, " of wdiich sacred
history has transmitted to us the few particulars we
know, was the result of the upheaval of a part of the
large chain of mountains which are a prolongation of
284
AGE OF CREATION.
the Caucasus. The earth opening by one of the fis-
sures made in its crust in course of cooling, an erup-
tion of volcanic matter escaped through the enormous
crater so produced. Masses of watery vapor or steam
accompanied the lava discharged from the interior of
the globe, which, being first dissipated in clouds and
afterwards condensing, descended in torrents of rain,
and the plains were drowned with the volcanic mud.
The inundation of the plains over an extensive radius
was the instantaneous effect of this upheaval, and the
formation of the volcanic cone of Mount Ararat, with
the vast plateau on which it rests, altogether 17,328
feet above the sea, the permanent result. * In the six
hundreth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the
seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all
the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the
windows of heaven were opened. And the rain was
upon the earth forty days and forty nights, . . . And
the flood was forty days upon the earth ; and the
waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift
up above the earth And the waters prevailed
upon the earth an hundred and fifty dcvys.' All the
particulars of the Biblical narrative here recited are
only to be explained by the volcanic and muddy erup-
tion which preceded the formation of Mount Ararat.
The waters which produced the inundation of these
countries proceeded from a volcanic eruption, accom-
panied by enormous masses of vapor, which in due
course became condensed and descended on the earth,
-inundating the extensive plains which now stretch
tHE DELUGE OF NOAH.
285
away from the foot of Mount Ararat. The expression
' the earth,' or 'all the earth,' as it is translated in the
Vulgate, which might be implied to mean the entire
globe, is explained by Marcel de Serres (in a learned
book entitled 'Lea (bsmogonie de Moise') and other
philologists as being r.n inaccurate translation. He
has proved that the Hebrew word haarets, incorrectly
translated ' all the earth,' is often used in the sense of
region or country, and that in this instance Moses used
it to express only the part of the globe which was then
peopled, and not its entire surface. In the same man-
ner the 'mountains' (rendered 'all the mountains' in
the Vulgate) only implies all the mountains known to
him. Similarly, M. Glaire, in the ' Christomathie He-
braique,' which he has placed at the end of his Gram-
mar, quotes the passage in this sense: 'The waters
were so prodigiously increased that the highest moun-
tains of the vast horizon were covered by them,' thus
restrictintj the mountains covered bv the inundation
to those bounded by the horizon. . . . It " (the Deluge)
" toas local, like all phenomena of the Jcind, and was
the consequence of the upheaval of the mountains of
Western Asia."
Many ingenious attempts have been made to contort
the Mosaic account with theories of this kind, all the
particulars of which, it is held, "are only to be ex-
plained by the violence and muddy eruption which
preceded the formation of Mount Ararat."
Now, it can be easily conceived how immense masses
of steam rising upward would be condensed and de-
v
»j
tse
Age of ckp:AtioM.
scend in torrents of rain ; but how can it be sensibly
understood that the inundation of the plains with
volcanic mud was the producini:^ cause of a flood at
all identical with that recorded in the Bible ?
This theory, it is held, is the only one that will ex-
plain all the particulars of the Biblical narrative.
Granting temporarily its local origin and effect, and
the beneflt of an alleged mistranslation, in what man-
ner are any of the particulars accounted for as re-
corded in Genesis ? How does it explain the going
and returning of the waters, and the great wind
which passed over the earth when the waters were
assuaged ? How were the fountains of the great deep
broken up and the windows of heaven opened ? and
how did the waters return from off the earth continu-
ally until all were abated ? Instead of explaining all
the particulars of that event, Figuier's theory explains
none. If the Deluge were local and the result of the
upheaval of a long chain of mountains in West3rn
Asia, there would have been no necessity for Noah
spending one hundred and twenty years making prep-
arations for such a disturbance, the eflfect of which
could have been easily escaped by migrating to a far
country. And why should the animals be preserved
in one particular locality for the purpose of continuing
their existence, and roam free and undisturbed in
other parts ^f the globe. To maintain a belief in the
occurrence of a partial deluge in the East is a frank
admission that man was there localized, and had not
as yet spread over the western hemisphere. And if the
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
287
Glacial events took place thousf-.nds of years previous
to ohe Noachian Deluge, as is generally believed, it re-
mains to be explained how man existed in Europe and
America during the Glacial period, and yet was con-
fined to the eastern hemisphere 4,000 years ago, and
within such a small radius that the human race could
have been exterminated by a local flood. It' the ex-
istence of a deluge is admitted, and its visitation the
result of a denunciation by the Creator, it is incredible
that such should have been the effect of an ordinary
second cause to the exclusion of Divine interposition.
" And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come
before me ; for the earth is filled with violence through
them ; and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth.
. . . And, b'^hold, /, even I, do bring a flood of tvaters
upon the eu ch, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the
breath of ]\ , from under heaven; and every thing
that is in the earth shall die."* If such an event
actually took place and for the reason ascribed, then
all the particulars narrated by Moses must be accepted
in a literal sense, without the slightest contortion of
the text whatever.
There need be no hesitation whatever in pointing to
the upper Cretaceous deposits as the phj'-sical result of
the Noachian Deluge, and that they were accumulated
there within a period of one year instead of having
been the accumulation of sedimentary matter for
hundreds of thousands of years, as has been supposed.
There is a peculiarity connected with this deposit
(just as there are peculiarities in the Drift formation)
•Gen. vi. 13. 17.
V '
I
288
AOE OP CREATION.
that point to the means employed to bring about the
events narrated in the seventh chapter of Genesis.
The line of demarcation in the western hemisphere is
very abrupt, while it gradually slopes away off to the
souUi-east until the underlying and overlying strata
are merged into one, showing plainly and clearly that
the waters which deposited this diluvium came from
the east and flowed towards the west.
The earth in its axial revolution, as is well known,
travels from west to east, and the waters of the oceans
are carried in the same direction. Therefore a re-
versal of this motion would produce this peculiarity,
and at the same time cover all the particulars of tl e
Biblical narrative exactly, without in any manner
attempting to contort the text or misconstrue its
meaning. It is clear that by Divine interposition
the axial motion of the sun was reversed, and the
earth and the planetary system revolved from east
to west in a manner directly opposite to that which
now obtains. Instantly the reversal took place the
waters of the Pacific Ocean rose in a heap, and were
carried with the motion of the earth in one immense
torrent over the eastern hemisphere, and the waters
of the Atlantic rose and poured in a body over the
continent of America into the vacancy created by the
flow of the Pacific. As the earth revolved in this
manner the waters rose higher and higher until the
mountain tops were covered and the whole earth was
submerged. And as it continued " the waters in-
creased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above
Ml
THE DELUGE OP NOAH.
289
the earth. And the waters prevailed, and were in-
creased greatly upon the earth ; and the ark went upon
the face of the waters. And the waters prevailed ex-
ceedingl}'- upon the earth*; and all the hiii;h hills, ihat
Lvere under the whole heaven, were covered. Fifteen
cubits upward did the waters prevail ; and the moun-
tains were covered. And ail flesh died that moved
upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of
beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon
the earth, and every man: all in whose nostrils was
the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died.
And every living substance was destroyed which was
upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and
the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven ; and
they were destroyed from the earth : and Noah only
remained aliv^e, and they that were with him in the
ark. And the waters prevailed upon the earth an
hundred and fifty days."*
The intense heat of the earth, caused by the stirring
up of the molten mass in its centre, and assisted by
the increased heat of the sun, which must ha" e been
emitted owing to the change of motion of that luminary,
completely enveloped the earth in steam and vapor, and
this rising into the colder regions became condensed
and descended, not in ordinary rain, but in immense
water-spouts and torrents on the earth.
" The fountains of the great deep were broken up,
and the loindows of heaven v^ere oi^ened. And the rain
was upon the earth forty days and forty nights." f
♦ Gen. vli. 17-24. t lb., vii. U, 12.
290
AGK OF CREATION.
ilil i
In the first verse of the eighth chapter of Genesis
it is recorded that " God made a wind to pass over the
earth, and the water assuaged." Here is described the
effect of the reversal of the* motions of the sun and
the earth to their former relations, a universal cyclone
of wind beiiiij carried around the globe as the earth
stopped in its course and revolved in an opposite direc-
tion. Then " the waters returned from off the earth
continually : and after the end of the hundred and
fifty da^^s the waters were abated." In this manner
resulted their going and returning, as so briefly and
yet fully detailed in the Mosaic narrative. By this'
means the ark would drift away towards the we.s't
with the first flow of the waters, and return again to
the east with their return. It is also recorded in the
last verse of the eighth chapter that God said in his
heart: "While the earth reniaineth, seedtime and har-
vest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and
day and night shall not cease." This would imply
that these phenomena were all interrupted by reason
of the Deluge. Thus it can be seen how day and night
would cease by the reversal of the earth on its axis.
When the sun appeared overhead on the first day of
the Deluge the day would cease and the sun appear to
go back again and set in the east where it had pre-
viously risen. In the days of Joshua and Hezekiah
the day and night did not cease but were 'prolonged,
thus verifying the promise recorded in Genesis.
It may safely be held that no event is more faith-
fully detailed or more fully recorded than this brief
tUft PELITGE OF l^OAii.
291
•ief
and distinct narrative of Scripture, and probably none
so universally believed in by almost every nation on
the face of the g^ )be.
Accordinc^ to those who maintain a continued uni-
formity in all terrestrial changes the ])eluge desci'ibed
by Moses is held to have been slow and gradual in its
action and result. No impetuosity of force is sup-
posed to have occurred, but merely the descent of
rain upon the earth, and a gentle rising and subsidence
of the waters. This assertion is flatly contradicted by
the statement recorded in Genesis vii. 11. "In the
six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second
month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same
day were all the fountaitis of the great deep broken
up, and the windov/s of heaven were opened." That
the event could have been slow and gradual, and
all the fountains of the great deep broken up in one
day, is absurd. The entire obliteration of all animal
and vegetable life by a gentle and ordinary rainfall of
forty days and forty nights is an idea rather difficult
to reconcile, even by those whose faith in miracles is
not shaken.
A principal objection urged against the universality
of the Noachian Deluge has been that there is no geo-
logical evidence of such an event ever havinor taken
place. But there are admitted imperfections in the
geological system that require explanation. There are
enormous gaps in the record that have hitherto re-
mained unsolved, and one of the most prominent of
these, in point of importance, is the break which divides
\ '
29^
AGE OF CREATION.
the Mesozoic from the Cenozoic form: vions. That the
events of this period were of a world-convulsing na-
ture, and were produced entirely by a breaking up
an(i complete submergence of tlie hind by water, are
facts universally admitted by geologists.
The great chalk cliffs, consisting almost entirely of
tons uj)()n tons of animalcul.'X}, were formed duiing
this period. But how, it may be asked, were they
accumulated to such an extent above the present
waters of the ocean and deprived of lifei' "The mind
iXrows bewildered," savs Touchet, 'in trvin^: to find
out in what mysterious way these many invisible
\/ %> *,
animalcules could be accumulated to form such extra-
ordinar}'- heaps of corpses."*
They were rolled up from the sea bottom during the
deluge, when the axial motion of the earth was re-
versed, and dried and hardened by the intense heat
iXenerated from the interior of the earth. In no other
way could they have been deprived of existence and
accumulated in the present manner. Thus it will be
seen that even the invisible animalcuhx) perished, as
recorded in the words of Scripture : "All in whose nos-
trils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry
land, died. And every living substance was destroyed
which was upon the face of the ground, both nian,
and cattle, and creeping things, and the fowl of the
heaven. "i*
It is further objected that it would be an impossi-
bili*^.y for Noah to collect couples and septules of all
' " The Universe." p. 19.
t Gen. vii. 22. 23.
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
293
! I
the animals then existing upon the globe, within a
short period, or even during his lit'etinie. There is not
the slightest intimation in the Mosaic narrative that
he did so. On the contrary, it is expressly stated that
the animals vere brought to Noah for their preserva-
tion, "Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after
their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after
his kind, two of everj' sort tt/ndl come uvto tJwe, to
keep them alive."* And it is further narrated that
Noah and his fainily went into the ark tirst, and tlie
animals followed afterwards. " And Noah w^ent in,
and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with
him, into the ark, because of the waters of the flood.
Of clean beasts, and of beasts that are not clean, and
of fowls, and of every thing that creepeth upon the
earth, there went in two and two unto Noah into the
ark, the male and the female, as God had connnanded
Noah.""f From this it is plainly evident th.at a (.Uiid-
ing Hand su[)erintended the preparation and per-
formed a part that might have otherwise seemed to
have been an utter inrpossibility for Noah.
Another objection to the universality of the Deluge
is pointed to in the geographical distribution of animals
throughout the globe. In each particular climatal
district there are found groups of animals of a nature
peculiarly ada})ted to the regions in which they are
located, and from which it would be fatal to venture
beyond certain assigned limits. Thus the fauna of the
tropics could not migrate to the Arctic regions, nor
Oen. vi. 2(». t //»., vii. 7 It.
294
AGE OF CREATION.
those of the Arctic regions to the tropics, under the
present climatal conditions, for, with a few exceptions,
they are not endowed with the power of accomnio-
datini^ themselves to every climate. Man and the
domestic animals which accompany liim are the only
cosmopolites ; to all others there is a prescribed bound-
ary beyond which they may not venture.
From this it is affirmed that the animals saved in
the ark could never have been dispersed to their re-
spective locations throughout the earth if they had
been released from the same centre of distribution. It
is held that they could not survive the climatal immi-
gration before each species could find the locality best
adapted to their nature.
The fjeoloo'ical location of the Deluoe in the Mesozoic
period forms a satisfactory ex[)lanation to this seeming
difficulty. A tropical climate prevailed at that time
over the greater part of the globe, as shown by the
animal and vegetable remains of the Secondary rocks.
This is explainable by the fact that the earth was then
in its infancy and its surface much nearer the internal
source of heat than at present ; and further, that none
of the great catastrophes had previ()U.sly occurred by
which the crust afterwards became thickened to an
enormous extent. 1 mmodiately after the Deluge, when
the whole world had been swept by the waters, a genial
climate prevailed, as attested by the flora of the Eocene
times.
" The lower Tertiary ^.eriod," says Lecoq, "constantly
reminds us of the tropical landscape of the present
s*
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
295
epoch in localities where water and heat together
impress on vegetation a power and majesty unknown
in our cliuiates. The alg{e, which have already been
observed in the marine waters at the close of the
Cretaceous period, represented themselves under still
more varied forms in the earlier Tertiary deposits,
when they have been formed in the sea. Hepaticas
and mosses grew in the more humid places ; many
pretty ferns, as pecopteris, taeniopteris and the equi-
setum stellare (pomil), vegetated in cool and humid
places. Trees predominate here as in the preceding
period, but the great numbers of aqaatic plants of the
period are quite in accordance with the geological
facts, which show that the continents and islands were
intersected by extensive lakes and inland seas, while
vast marine bays and arms of the sea penetrated
deeply into the land."
When such climatal conditions prevailed on the
earth immediately after the flood the geographical
distribution of animals was a matter of easy accom-
plishment.
The gigantic quadrupeds of the Tertiary epoch ap-
pear suddenly after this event, none of their remains
having been found previous to this period. It by no
means follows, however, that such did not formerly
exist. These huge animals would have been carried
by the Hood to the bottoms of the present oceans, and
there be buried and forever lost to siffht.
The capacity of the ark for the purpose for which
it was intended is held to have been altogether inade-
s '
296
AGE OF CllE/.TION.
quate to provide the necessary accouiiiiodation for the
animals sheltered within it.
According to calculations made from its dimensions,
countino' a cubit as 18 inches, the tonnage of the ark
hay been estimated at not less than 40,000 tons, and
equal in carrying capacity to a fleet of ten war vessels
of 4,000 tons each. Allowing 21 inch s to a cubit the
length of the ark reaches 525 feet, its breadth 87 feet
G inches, and height 52 feet 6 inches. Its capacity
would be equal to 2,500,000 cubic feet. On this basis
Prof. Hitchcock has demonstrated that the ark was
more than equal to the occasion. " Allowing that
there are a thousand species of mammalia, 600 kinds
of birds, 2,000 of reptiles, and 120,000 insects," he
says, " allow a million cubic feet for mammalia, 800,-
000 cubic feet for birds, 100,000 cubic feet for reptiles,
and 100,000 cubic feet for insects, and there would be
half a million of cubic feet still left for Noah and his
family."
The account in the narrative of the dove sent forth
by Noah, which brought back an olive leaf, is taken
as indicating that the vegetation was not even de-
stroyed, as the waters were almost abated and the land
about to appear. But by no means is the inference
warrantable that the tree did not escape destruction.
The leaves might still retain evidence of vitality ; but
whether the trunk was uprooted or remained upright
on the spot where it grew it would undoubtedly perJsh
on exposure to the heat of the sun, after the waters in
which it had been totally submerged for nine months
THE DELUGE OF NOAH.
297
had abated. Another period of three months was
further required for the subsidence of the waters after
the return of the dove, and there was then aniple time
in which to effect its destruction. But the objection
raised against any disastrous effects arising from the
flood by a reference to the circumstances connected
with the olive leaf and the survival of the tree is a
mere technicality, based entirely on an unaffirmed
supposition, for which not the slightest intimation is
to be found recorded in the narrative.
It has been held, further, that even if the Deluge
were universal, every living thing could not have
perished, and that fish and marine animals would not
require shelter in the ark, water being their native
element. But it is by no means impossible to " drown
a fish." Marine animals could not exist in fresh
water, nor fish peculiar to rivers and lakes exist in
saline waters. The conditions favorable to their exist-
ence were destroyed by the co-mingling of waters
during the flood. A whale or shark could not possibly
survive a journey over two or three thousand miles of
inundated land ; and even if so it would find no
means of sustenance, owing to the entire destruction
of life in its former circumscribed limit.
It is also objected that unless a continental subsi-
dence took place the amount of water requisite to
cover the entire globe above the tops of the highest
mountains would increase the mass of the earth to
such an extent as to derange its celestial harmony.
To cover the mountain tops would require a volume
20
298
AGE OF CREATION.
w
of water about five miles above the present ocean
level, and about eight times greater than at present
existing on the globe. The evaporation of such a body
of water, it is held, could not possiblj^ take place
within the period of time to which the limits of the
Deluge is assigned ; and if so the atmosphere sur-
rounding the earth would be entirely inadequate for
such a support.
An explanation of the manner in which the globe
was entirely enveloped by water sufficient to cover
the mountain tops without deranging the solar system
explains this seeming difficulty. The reversal of the
earth's axial motion would produce the effi^ct, and
the overflow of the oceans would be a direct conse-
quence of an opposite change in the rotary motion of
the earth.
The occurrence of the Deluge in this manner will
be found to explain many of the supposititious techni-
calities which have been urged against the destruction
of the earth by a flood, " whereby the world that then
was, being overflowed with water, perished,"* as well
as other particulars of that event recorded in the Holy
Scriptures.
* 2 Peter iii. 6.
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.
299
CHAPTER III.
THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.
^EFORE the Cretaceous period, or that which
witnessed the Noachian Deluge, the Triassic
and Jurassic formations were laid down. During the
former period a rich and liixuriant vegetation flour-
ished, and a great swarm of huge, uncouth reptiles
suddenly appeared upon the earth. Among them were
the great crocodilian rhizidonts, the protosaurus, noto-
saurus and labyrinthodon. Gigantic amphibia oc-
cupying an intermediate position between the fishes
and mammals also suddenly appeared. The ichthyo-
saurus, or fish-lizard, was about thirty feet in length,
with a head like a crocodile, four paddle fins, and a
body resembling a fish. The plesiosaurus was of a
similar nature, but possessed a long, flexible neck like
that of an aquatic bird. A gigantic flying reptile,
with long fingers like those of a bat for the support of
wings, and a head resembling an alligator, lived dur-
ing this period, and is known as the pterodactylus.
Other reptiles, batrachians and similar animals made
their appearance, as indicated by the abundance of
their fossil remains.
And here man first appeared in an extra-tropical
world of the richest vegetation, and coeval with the
^
300
AGE OF CREATION.
lit
gigantic reptiles and saurians oi' this primitive time.
By no means can his location be placed at the close
of the Tertiary period, after the Glacial epoch. The
absence of human remains in the Western world does
not imply the non-existence of human life on the
globe. It merely indicates the absence of man from
that particular region. Man's origination began in the
Orient. The whoie world was peopled from one pair.
For fifteen hundred years after creation the place of
human abode was confined within a circumscribed
limit. In the East he lived and died, and it was not
till after the Noachian Deluge that man began to be
scattered over the face of the earth. Mankind also
attained a considerable longevity. The first man
lived nine hundred and thirty years, and yet he was
not the oldest. The deaths were comparatively few
until a certain increase in population had been attained.
It would be impossible to find remains of man in the
Cretaceous formation of the Western world, where he
never existed. Nor v^ould his remains be found in the
East at that geological period, for they would, in all
probability, have been interred by his companions, and
have long since decayed out of existence. In the case
of animals it was different. Dying in caves and places
of retreat,without interment, their bones became liable
to petrifaction by exposure to ^avorable elements,
while those of the former would putrify and crumble
out of existence. A period of probably two thousand
years elapsed after creation before man found his way
to the West, and this would be geologically close to the
THE AN.EDIMTVIAN WORLD.
301
middle of the Tertiary period, where his remains are
now occasional ly found. I'rom the Paheozoic period
onward it is well-known that the Oriental continent
has maintained a lead in the scale of zoological pro-
gression. Its fauna and flora have been always more
numerous in species and varied in genera than that of
any other part of the globe, and no place seems to
have been better accommodated for the existence and
development of the highest forms of animal life than
the East. As man stands pre-eminently at the head
of all animal creation, from here he must have un-
doubtedly originated, along with the higher mammals,
and afterwards spread over the globe.
The Jurassic period followed. The previously ex-
isting vegetation became rank and luxurious, and the
great reptiles swarmed in hordes. In America the
Triassic and Jurassic form apparently one series, not
being so distinctly separated as in Europe, and the
period is thus known as the Jura-Triassic. In the
Cretaceous period, which followed the Jurassic, the re-
mains of the animals found are numerous, and in
many instances nearly identical with those of the
present time. Up to this period there had been no
perceptible effect of the seasons witnessed in the
various geological formations. Here f&r the first
time the change is seen in the autumnal nature of
the vegetation. If the earth had previously existed
through an eternity of ages, as has been maintained,
receiving the rays of the sun in the same manner as it
now does, month after month and year after year, it
302
AGE OF CREATION.
is an entirely inexplicable fact how the climate had
remained uniformly unchanged previous to this period
without the slightest variation whatever. The Cre-
taceous period was brought to a close by the occurence
of a great geological event that apparently obliterated
all animal and vegetable life. Yet in a mysterious
manner some of the animals bridged the chasm sepa-
rating the Cretaceous from the Tertiary formations.
That event was the Noachian Deluge, and the ark the
means by which they escaped, only to be pai'tially,
and in many instances totally, exterminated by the
catastrophes of the Glacial period.
PART III
CHAPTER I.
THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
tHE Coal formation includes the development of
-^. the most remarkable class of veoretation that
ever existed upon earth. Great bogs, swamps and
marshes, interspersed here and there with larcre patches
of dry land just risen above the level of the surround-
ing water, formed the main features of the present
physical world in that primitive period of the earth's
infancy. There were no rivers or streams, no pleasant
plains or smiling fields — nothing but a vast extent of
oozing, dripping mud, just emerged from the surround-
ing ocean, while in other parts rocky and elevated
hills of granite had previously risen from the main
and gazed peacefully on the forming world from their
lonely regions of primeval solitude. Out of the rising
land sprang up a rank and rapidly-developed vegeta-
tion totally different from any known to exist at the
present day. Gigantic ferns, reeds, mosses and plants
of a similar nature grew, flourished and passed through
their different sta^jes of existence with amazino- ra-
pidity. A damp, warm soil and a saturated atmos-
phere of carbonic acid, through which no ray of sun-
304
AGE OF CREATION.
^f
lijrht penetrated, also aided their development. In
those vast and dismal swamps all was dark and silent.
No aerial animal ever trod those noisome jungles,
and no feathered bird ever Hew among the branches
of their arborescent ferns or towering lepidodendra.
No sound was heard save the hoarse croak of an odd
batrachiaii or the gurgling splash of a scaly ganoid in
the nniddy and brackish waters of the quiet laL;oons.
All was a lonely wilderness of solitary grandeur.
Tlie flora was mainly of a cryptogamous nature,
such as ferns, mosses and fungi. In the more dry and
upland regions the coniferse, an order of plants bear-
ing cones, grew in abundance. The coniferse of the
present time, such as the pines and cypress, produce
dry, scaly seed vessels. The fruit is biennial and pro-
duced in the spring, but does not ripen or drop until
the spring of the following year. All the species are
resinous, which renders most of them evergreens.
The sigillaria were giants of the Coal period. Tall
cylindrical trunks, fluted with perpendicular rounded
ribs, and a spreading base, gave them a monumental
appearance. Rows of pits or spots left on the ribs
mark the fallen leaflets. A few thick branches cov-
ered with grass-like leaves terminated the cylindrical
trunks, on which long strings of nut-like seeds encir-
cled the stems. A large, pithy centre, surrounded by
cellular, corky tissue, and the whole enveloped in a
hard bark or rind, formed the material of which the
trunks were composed. They grew in clumps in the
swampy flats, and their thick, round roots were for-
m
THK OARBONtFEROrs PKRIOD.
3or>
merly supposed to have been independent plants,
known as sti<^inaria. These are marked V)y round in-
dentations or pits, from which long, cylindrical root-
lets spread, and are fountl in great numbers in the
underclay of the coal seams. Here also <;rew the cala-
mites, with tall, slender, cylindrical stems, striated,
jointed at intervals, and showing the marks where
the leaves had been detached. They are supposed to
have been allied to the equiseta, or horse-tail plants
of the present time. The latter are imperfectly-formed
plants whose real affinity is uncertain. They are
leafless, and branchcMl with striated hollow stems, in
the cuticle of which is secreted silica to the amount
of nearly half their weight when dried. They are
known as horse-tails, and are i'ound in wet and boggy
soils. The calamites grew on muddy f^ats, in thick,
dense brakes, and from their bases clumps of plants
budded out from the stem, which enableJ. them to
secure a firm foothold by their long and numerous
cord-like roots. The first bore spore cases, and re-
sembled a spike or long cone.
The ferns of the Coal period were abundantly numer-
ous and of great size. Some of them presented a most
peculiar appearance with large, thick stems bearing
their fronds on two rows, one on each side of the
trunk. Large depressed areolas remain on the stem,
showing where the fronds originally grew.
One of the most common genus of plants was the
lepidodendron, so named from the scaly appearance of
the stems, which were produced by the separation of
P
-ST-
PSH '
306
AGE OF CREATION.
the leaf stalk. It presented the appearance of a
gigantic club moss, with tall and graceful branches,
bifurcating in a regular manner, and covered with
slender and pointed leaves. The extremities of the
branches terminated in fructification cones, containing
spores instead of seeds. It resembled the sigillaria in
having an interior of a pithy nature surrounded by a
hard and cork-like rind.
Various fruits, flowers and nuts have been found in
great abundance in the Coal formation, and are sup-
posed to be the production of the coniferse or sigillaria.
Nut-like fruits, enclosed in a husk or rind, spikes of
fruits protected by bracts, others large and oval with
their sides striated, and some fringed or margined, are
characteristic or the first land vegetation which grew
on the earth.
Such was the physical aspect of the period known
as the Carboniferous age, and probably no formation
in the crust of the earth has been more misleading
regarding the period of time required for its accumu-
lation than that which now forms its existing coal
beds.
It is generally estimated that thousands of years
must have elapsed in order to have accum.ulated
enough material to form the present coal seams. Sup-
posing that a similarity existed in the manner and
extent of growth and foliage with plants of a like
nature at the present day, it is held that a long period
of time was necessary to their development, and after
ages had past a slow and gradual submergence of the
THE CAllHON I FERGUS PERIOt).
307
land took place ; that the vegetation gradually de-
cayed and became buried beneath the accumulating
detritus of ages, and after another lapse of time the
land became habitable, and other fauna and flora ap-
peared.
In all probability this would have been the case
were the conditions then existing the same as now.
But they were not. The one grand mistake made in
geological study has been in assuming that the opera-
tions in force in times past ard the present existing
conditions have always been the same, and endeavor-
ing to ignore the working in nature of a Supreme Be-
ing. A close investigation and a thorough scrutiny of
the peculiarities connected with the flora of the Coal
deposits will show that the vegetation which existed
upon the earth during that period was of an ephemeral
nature, and had a very short existence of not more
than one or two days. An examination of the fossil-
ized plants plainly indicates that they were all of a
rapid growth and of a cryptogamous nature, such as
the calamites, equiseta, or gigantic horse-tails, fungi
and algne, or sea-weed, and other plants of a reed-
like and pithy nature. Vegetation of such forms
a.s those described could only have existed in dark,
warm, moist places; and as the plants of the coal beds
disappeared, and none of the same nature were after-
wards known to exist, it is clearly evident that the
physical conditions under which they flourished have
also disappeared and have never after been repro-
duced. These coal beds are found all over the world
308
AGE OK CREATION.
— in the Arctic regions as well as in the tropics ;
and the vegetative remains of the one are exactly
identical with those of the other. This would imply
that an e([ual)le temperature existed all over the globe ;
for if not there would be a marked difi'erence be-
tween the plants growing in the diti'erent zones, owing
to the influence of climate on the growth of vegeta-
tion. Unless the climate was moist and warm these
plants could not exist, and this could not be the case
unless the globe were enveloped in a heavy fog, and
at the same time free from winds or storms. Now, if
the heat of the sun was of a proper temperature to
nourish these plants in the Arctic regions, it must
iiave been of a still greater temperature in the trop
ical regions, and thus kill the vegetation thei-e, for
these plants could only have existed in dark and
shady places. And if the heat was of the proper tem-
perature in the tropical regions, those in the temperate
and Arctic regions could not survive the colder climate
of the North.
" In the present world," Dawson observes, " the flora
most akin to that of the Coal period is that of moist
and warm islands in the southern hemisphere. It is
not properly a tropical flora, nor is it the flora of a
cold region, but rather indicative of a moist and equa-
ble climate. . . . Further, we must not assume that
the climatal conditions of the northern hemisphere
were in the Coal period at all similar to those which
now prevail. . . . Again, there is much in the struc-
ture of the leaves of the coal plants, as well as in the
THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
309
vast amount of carbon which they accumulated in the
form of coal aii<l the characteristics of the animal life
of the period, to indicate, on independent grounds, that
the carboniferous atmosphere differed from that of the
present world in this way, or in the presence of more
carbonic acid — a substance now existing in the very
minute proportion of one ten-thousandth of the whole,
a quantity adapted to the present requirements of
vegetable and animal life, but probably not to those of
the Coal period."*
" A moist and warm climate," says Dana, " produces
exuberant growth in plants that are fitted for it. The
plants of the Coal period were made for that period.
The sigillaria and calamites manifest, by their char-
acters and mode of occurrence, that they could flourish
only in a moist region; and the ferns of the tropics, as
well as equiseta, everywhere else, like moist woods.
The lepidodendra, by their association with the sigil-
laria and ferns, show that the same conditions (as is
now the case with their kin, the lycopodiacea?) favored
their development. In fact, lycopodiaceae, equiseta, and
most ferns, are plants that like shady as well as moist
places. Adding, then, the prevalent moisture and
warmth to the excess of carbonic acid in the atmos-
phere, we should be warranted in concluding that
even if there was less sunshine than at the present
time, vegetable growth must have been more exuber-
ant than now, especially in our colder temperate zones.
This exuberance would not have shown itself in thick
^ " Acadian Geology," p. 422.
m
ill
I
I
310
AGE OF CREATION.
rings in trees, made for those very conditions, but,
as through the existing tropics, under a moist cli-
mate, in the great denseness of the jungles and
forests ; many plants starting up where but one
would have flourished under less favorable circum-
stances. Our peat swamps are often referred to as a
measure for the growth of plants in the Coal era. But
this is an assumption not based on a due considera-
tion of the facts. The peat plants of the present day
are species of the temperate zone alone, and are too
diflerent in kind to warrant a comparison."*
Lyell thus accounts for the complete development of
the flora of the Coal period : " The ferns of the Coal
period had fewer rivals to compete with, and more
space in which to develop themselves more freely; still,
analogy would lead us to ascribe a luxuriant growth
of ferns, many of them arborescent, to a period when
the humidity and warmth of the air were great. The
same may be said of the other vascular cryptogams,
which, together with the ferns, form nineteen-twenti-
eths of the carboniferous flora. They belong to families
allied to ferns, such, for example, as the sigillaria,
lepidodendra and calamites, and most of them attained
a vastly greater size and had a more complex structure
than any of their modern representatives. Their stems
had also a lax tissue, and like living cryptogams of
the same families they must have derived the greater
part of the water which entered into their composition,
as well as their carbon, by their leaves from the air.
* " Manual of Geology."
THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
311
They could only flourish, therefore, in an atmosphere
highly charged with aqueous vapor, and such an at-
mosphere must have been warm. Yet we must not
suppose the heat to have been tropical, for hot sun-
shine, hy promoting the decomjyosition of vegetable
matter, is as adverse to the format ion of coal as it is
to that of }->eaty *
Now, it' this foggy, damp, equable climate existed
for hundreds of thous?\nds of years, would the sun
have been hid all this time? Would its warm and
scorching rays never clear away the mists? and even
if it did not, would not seasons of some kind come and
go with their usual regularity? Then how can a
shady, equable climate all over the globe be accounted
for without the least change in temperature whatever?
There is only one forced conclusion that, willingly or
unwillingly, can be arrived at. The sun itself had
not yet been created. The plants were nourished by
the heat emitted from the centre of the earth, which
had been sufficiently cooled to allow of their jjrowth
and development, by tli^ covering of strata with which
it was surrounded. This warm, equable climate would
result in the formation of a heavy mist around the
entire globe, owing to the amount of evaporation that
would have taken place, there being no sun to carry it
off. There would be no wind or storms to blow and
smash down the reed-like and delicate plants of which
the world's flora was then composed, for the earth had
as yet no axial motion. The atmosphere which then
* "Principles of Geology," Vol. I., p. 226.
1
312
AGE OF CREATION.
existed would have contained such an excess of car-
bonic acid that the very soil would be impregnated
and saturated with it. This excess of carbonic acid
would have a density so great that no aerial animal life
could exist in it, while the existing vegetation would
thrive and flourish. Aided by the heat and moisture
then prevailing the vegetable growth would have a
most rapid and exuberant development, unrivalled by
any tropical growth of the present time. Plants would
have sprung up like mushrooms, reachin'^ maturity in
twenty-four hours. The vegetation was simple and
was made for the climate, and the climate exactly
suited the vegetation. Under such favorable condi-
tions there is nothing surprising in the rapid growth
and ephemeral nature of the coal plants. The case
may be explained by an illustration. Remove the
coat from a potato, turnip or other vegetable of a
similar nature, and place the vegetable in a dark,
moist, warm atmosphere. In a comparatively short
time afterwards the vegetable will be found completely
covered with a rich, parasitic" growth of mould. Ex-
amined under a microscope this mould is seen to be a
magnificent world of vegetation, equally as luxuriant
as that of the coal flora. Then if such a wonderful
growth of fungus could exist on a body of material
capable of producing it, only five or six inches in cir-
cumference, what kind of vegetation might not be ex-
pected from a vegetable-producing globe twenty-five
thousand miles in circumference? By making a com-
parison between the two the vegetation of the Coal
THE CAllBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
313
:erial
cir-
period was no larger in proportion than the thick
covering of mould on a decayed vegetable. Again, it'
the vegetation had an existence of thousands of years,
how can the perfect condition of the fossilized plants
found in the coal beds be accounted for? The impres-
sion of the leaves of the ferns, etc., are of the most
accurate description ; even the very veins of the leaves
can be most distinctly seen and traced in the fossil
material of that period. What is the reason these
leaves did not rot and decay during the "countless
ages" in which they are said to have existed? The
leaves must have shrivelled and dried up, and falling to
the earth would in a very short time have been con-
verted into that element. But this did not take place
while the plants were growing, for the fossils are as
fresh as if the plants were already alive and existing.
And coal is not composed entirely of decayed vegeta-
tion. In addition it contains a great quantity of soft,
carbonaceous matter, and other impurities, and the
remains of the vegetation found is of a most perfect
nature, showing no signs of natural decay whatever.
Therefore it must be concluded that their existence
was very short, being limited to one or two days ; and
that they had not survived long enough to die a nat-
ural death, but were suddenly cut otf by a catastrophe
or other event, and their natural course of decay in-
stantly arrested. The coal is simply the petrified, car-
bonated boggy soil in which the vegetation flourished.
It is a common occurrence to find the trunks of the
coniferous and sigillarioid trees of the Coal period in
21
ii'i
i
ii
314
AGE OF CREATION.
an upright or inclined position, on the place where
they had formerly grown. These erect trunks have
been completely imbedded in shales, clays and sand-
stones, and the interior of the sterns filled with the
accumulating debris, together with the remains of
snails, reptiles and plants. How a tree of any descrip-
tion could remain upright for thousands of years
while the surrounding material was slowly and gradu-
ally accumulating over its top is altogether inconceiv-
able. The interior of the trunks must have been
hollow in the first place, to admit of the sediment
being washed in from above. If they had been de-
cayed, and the interior rotted out through age, they
would speedily decompose long before the accumulat-
ing sedimentary matter covered their tops. It is
evident, therefore, that the trees were alive at the
time the sediment began to accumulate, their interior
being of a pithy nature. The accumulations must
have been also very rapidly deposited, for unless
quickly submerged the trees, either dead or alive,
would rapidly undergo decomposition, which was not
the case. The fluted trunks of the sigillaria are
occasionally found pressed together and flattened so
that the bark constitutes the horizontal layers half an
inch or an inch in thickness. This would indicate
that the plants were nothing more than gigantic reeds
thrown down and pressed flat together during life
by the rapidly accumulating material which caused
their destruction, and not being flrst hollowed out by
age and afterwards compressed. If the latter had
THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.
315
been the case the dry bark of the trees would have
been broken into splinters and swept away ; but the
compressed bark is found as perfect in every respect
as the rounded trunks whicli retained their upright
positions.
" Remains of branches of plants have been found in
the Ohio Coal measures by Dr. Newberry, with what
has been regarded by Hooker as youni;' or partially
developed leaf buds attached."* Then why did they
never develop during the " countless ages '' that are
presumed to have existed ? They had no time to do
so, for the transition took place too rapidly, and they
were blotted out before they could attain their normal
growth.
But how, it may be asked, could animal and vege-
table life exist on the earth if there was no sunlight,
even though the earth were warm and moist enough
for their existence ? Animal life coulci exist in the
same manner as it does at the present day under
almost similar circumstances. Vegetable life abounds
in caverns and subterranean regions where no ray of
sunlight has ever been known to enter. It consists of
fungi which shun light entirely and thrive in damp
and darkness. Some of these are remarkable for their
size, and have been known to attain from ten to fifteen
feet in diameter. Moisture and warmth of air, how-
ever, are necessary for their existence, and they are
usually found germinating on decomposed wood or
some other basis of an organic nature. In such sub-
♦ Dana's "Manual of Gcologjr."
316
AGE OF CREATION.
I«|i
terranean regions animal life also exists in great num-
bers, such as crickets, spiders, scorpions, millepedes,
crustaceans and beetles. In the underground rivers
blind fish and other animals abound, which are never
known to have existed in the waters of the outer
world. Among them is the well-known proteus an-
guinus, with its long, eel-like body and four little legs
— an animal which breathes through lungs and gills at
the same time. The animals of the Coal measures
were principally amphibian — an intermediate class
between fishes and the true reptiles. The insects were
such as could endure a similar climate at the present
day, such as neuroptera, orthoptera, arachnida, coleop-
tera and myriapods.
It if; well known that vegetable life can exist in
darkness if the necessary heat is provided, and light is
only an adjunct towards its development.
" We know by experiment," says Lyell, "that plants
which are natives of the tropics can dispense more
easily with the bright light of those countries than
with the heat of the same. Few palms can live in
our temperate latitudes without protection from the
cold ; but when placed in a hot-house they grow
luxuriantly, even under a cloudy sky and where
much light is intercepted by the glass and frame
work."* If animal and vegetable life can exist and
thrive under such conditions at the present day, there
need be no difficulty in understanding how they did
so in the past, when the physical conditions in which
they lived were specially adapted for their existence.
* "Principles of Geology." Vol. I., p. 225.
tHE CARBONIFEROtTS ^ERIOt).
317
The close of the Carboniferous formation witnessed
an event that almost completely exterminated all life
that then existed on the face of the earth. This event
was caused by a <,'reat oscillation of the globe, accom-
panied by an immense force that uplifted the coal
beds and the formations beneath them, by which they
were fractured, dislocated and thrown up in great un-
dulations or flexures, while the strata were consoli-
dated and debituminized, and the underlying rocks
crystallized and fused. Though there were slight
oscillations whilu the previous .strata were laid, they
were not general, nor did they cause any serious
disturbance. Up to the time of the formation of the
Coal deposits they had been laid down in their natural
horizontal position, and in some parts of America they
have escaped the efl'ects of the succeeding disturbance,
and still remain nearly in their original position. The
fact, also, that stumps of trees have been found in their
natural positions in the tilted coal beds shows that the
layers must once have been laid down in a horizontal
position. But at the close of the formation these strata
were violently disturbed by some great force that
raised and lowered its surface, and warped and bent
the layers into great flexures and folds, some of them
often many miles in extent. Not only were these
curvatures formed, but in many places the strata w^ere
ruptured and dislocated, forming great fissures, which
were filled up by the earth from above or the under-
lying rock beneath. The coal beds were formed when
the land had been elevated just above the sea level ;
318
AGR OF CRKATTON.
m
and the fact that these peculiarities occur similarly in
Kurope and America shows that the disturbing move-
ment was a general one, and not at all local in charac-
ter. From the appearances of the contorted flexures
it is evident that the strata were of a plastic nature at
the time in order to allow of the warping of the crust,
and that the crust was just stiffening sufficient to cause
the cracks, fissures and dislocations which then oc-
curred.
Now, what wonderful event almost completely ex-
terminated all forms of animal and vegetable life then
in existence ? What vast and tremendous force, trav-
elling from west to east over the entire globe, upraised
and lowered the crust of the earth, causing the gigantic
upheavals and flexures which then took place ? The
answer must be, the creation of the sun and the first
revolution of the earth on its axis. The very imprint
of the earth's first motion can be traced in America,
commencing in the north-west and gradually rising
in gentle undulations toward the south-east, where
they become more abrupt and pressed close together,
until only a small series remain, or they become lost
altogether as they recede towards the ocean.
With the advent of the sun and moon the swamps
disappeared as if by magic. The axial motion of the
earth submerged the low-lying lands beneath the
waters of the ocean, after the delicate reeds and ferns
had been cut down by the wind and laid in layers as
though they had been mown with a scythe. The
morasses were filled with sand, clay and debris from
THE OARlicjINFEUOUS PERIOD.
319
the marine waters. Some of tlie larjjje.st and stronnrest
plants continued to flourish until their tops were
covered with sand. The oceans were then forming,
currents were produced, tides were formed by the
attraction of the sun and moon, the wind and the
waves were in action, and in the commotion the land
was constantly submerged and elevated alternately.
The entire globe underwent a complete metamorphosis,
and a succession of rapid changes took place. The
vast bogs and marshes on which the vegetation grew
were floated .and whirled around by the forming cur-
rents, and buried layer after layer in sand and gravel
washed over them by the ocean. This formed the in-
tervening strata of the coal beds, which consist of
sandstone, shale, iron ore or limestones. In the
alternate layers are found fresh-water shells and
marine remains, showing that the ocean completely
covered the low-lying land. There need be no great
difficulty in considering how all these changes could
take place in twenty-four hours when the forces which
were at work at the time are taken into consideration.
Thus terminated the flrst catastrophe that devas-
tated the earth. It was the dividing point between
Palaeozoic and Neozoic times, the physical conditions
which previously existed having forever disappeared,
and an entire change of terrestrial surrounding, accom-
panied by a new creation of animal and vegetable life,
ushered into existence.
"»?=■
i
S20
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER II.
THE PRIMARY ROCKS.
m^
»TF)REVIOUS to the Carboniferous period the rocks
^^^^ constituting the Silurian and Devonian forma-
tions were laid down. The underlying or Azoic rocks
are the only ones which completely envelop the globe.
They are nearly all crystalline, flexed and disturbed,
having at one time been in a universal state of fusion,
showing them to be a direct result of igneous action.
They were also completely enveloped in water, for the
Silurian and Devonian rocks, which rest on them, are
sedimentary beds of subaqueous origin, but afterwards
solidilied. Thp theory of the great antiquity of the
earth has been chiefly derived from iihe enormous
magnitude of these primary rocks, which in some in-
stances attain a depth of several miles and cover a vast
extent. The formation of these is supposed to have
been effected by natural causes, such as those now in
operation which produce like results. No change
greater than that known by actual experience is ad-
mitted, and all extraordinary activity, or greater fre-
quency of subterranean action than that of the present
day, is excluded from the operations of these forces
during all time past. By a combination of the action
1"HE PRiMARt ROCKS.
321
of air and water the surfaces of the ancient rocks were
supposed to have been worn down and the detritus
deposited by currents of runninof water in stratified
layers in the bottom of the seas and lakes then exist-
ing. Thus the sand thrown up by the waves on the
sea shore, and laid down in layers along the coast, and
spread out over the sea bottom for many miles, is
pointed to as a simple example of the disintegrating
process and the manner in which the primary rocks
are inferred to have been formed. By the elevation of
these deposits dry land appeared, and the remains of
plants and animals found in these roclis tire thought
to have been buried in the accumulating stratifications
which succeeded as a continued result of a slow and
gradual disintegration. As the efiects of this process
during the past three thousand years are known by
actual experience to be infinitely slight in comparison
with the enormous magnitude of the primary rocks, it
is held that the process of stratification must have
been going on for immeasurable ages, and have occu-
pied a period of time so remote as to be beyond the
power of human comprehension.
The first sedimentary deposits bear unmistakable
evidence of having been accumulated beneath a com-
paratively level stretch of water. There were no rag-
ing oceans and lofty mountains ; no land with its
mighty rivers and extensive plains from which these
sediments could have been washed down to form the
rocks of the Palaeozoic period ; no mighty upheavals or
violent eruptions ; and .save a comparatively gentle
322
AGE OF CREATION.
oscillation taking place on the surface of the earth all
was quiet.
It is entirely inconceivable how the igneous forces
by which earthquakes and other terrestrial phenomena
are at present produced could have slumbered for
untold millions of ages, when the surrounding rocks,
both above and below the sedimentary strata, every-
where show traces of intense heat and fire. That no
violent disturbance took place during their formation
is shown by the fact that metallic veins and dykes in
many instances interpose and penetrate completely
through the entire beds, from which it is seen that the
sediments were entirely accumulated before an erup-
tion took place. That millions of years passed in this
manner is contrary to all human knowledge of the
operations of the same forces as existing at present. It
is undeniable, too, that these forces acted with greater
intensity at this primitive time, for the igneous nature
of the rocks bears undoubted testimony to this fact. In
the midst of such an igneous period, therefore, these
sedimentary rocks could have had no other than a
rapid and almost instantaneous origin.
With the two forces of fire and water actively at
work, with an intensity sufficient to form clay slate
and such similar substances, the primitive rocks, that
would require an infinity of years to form by the
disintegrating process, could have been produced in
twenty-four hours as chemical precipitates. Heat and
water were the elements engaged in the formation of
THE PRIMARY ROCKS.
323
the Pal?eozoic rocks, and the effect of their consuming
and destructive nature is well known.
The underlying granitic rocks, which had an exist-
ence before the sediments resting upon them had ever
been formed, bear unmistakable evidence of having
been produced directly by igneous action. "These
have been purified by fire," says Winchell. " Every-
where uo we find those massive crystalline rocks rest-
ing beneath the entire series of those which have been
accumulated in the form of sediments from water, and
which have buried in their common sepu) hto the
hordes of earth's pre- Adamite existences. These foun-
dation-granites are bearing upon their Atlantean shoul-
ders the weight of twenty miles of solid strata. They
contain no organic remains. The granites of this class
exhibit no evidence of having been produced from
sediments. They bear the marks of fire. The devour-
ing element has caused their stubborn sides to yield.
They have been in a molten condition. You may take
a fragment and fuse it in a furnace, and on suffer-
ing it to cool under circumstances similar to those in
which the rock has been placed it resumes its rock-like
aspect. Marks of heat are all about these granites
and their trappean associates. Wherever they have
come in contact with rocks of sedimentary origin the
latter are scorched and reddened. In many cases they
have been actually fused. A sandstone has been con-
verted into quartz ; a slate into a micaceous, semi-
crystalline bed ; a limestone in'io a statuary marble ;
and all vestiges of living forms which these strata en-
3^4
AGE OF CREATION.
t[
closed have been withered up and dissipated by the
touch of fire."*
At this period of the earth's history there could have
been no gradual disintegration from the "pre-exist-
ing " rocks, for the earth had not as yet attained its
axial motion, and consequently there were no waves
or currents to wash and jxrind down the rocks into
layers of sand and other material of which the sedi-
mentary beds are formed. The uniformity of compo-
sition of the Silurian rocks may be accounted for by
chemical action. The surface of the globe was per-
fectly level and free from currents of wind or water,
for only on those conditions could chemical depositions
have taken place. There was no diversity of climate
or of oceanic temperature all over the globe.
The animal and vegfetable life existinfj on the earth
during this period were of the lowest forms and all
marine, no land or fresh water species being known.
Among the former were moUusks, such as the ammon-
ite, marine worms, and a tribe of crustaceans known
as trilobites, creatures with a body of jointed plates>
composed of three lobes, and with a single eye on the
top of the head calculated to look upward from the
bottom of the sea. During the Devonian period fishes
were numerous, bub of an entirely diflferent nature
from any known to have existed afterward. Among
them were species of ganoids known as the pterichthys
and coccosteus, covered with horny plates instead of
scales, the former having two wing-like appendages
* " Sketches of Creation."
THE PRIMARY ROCKS.
325
near the head, resembling paddles. The latter re-
sembled an immense tadpole in shape. All the species
present nearly the same characteristic features. The
head is broad, the tail divided into two unequal lobes*
and no indications of the bodies of the vertebra3 are
found, but merely the apophyses, or spinous processes,
from which it is supposed that the skeleton must
have been cartilaginous. The tails of the ganoids, or
sharks, were vertebrated, while the bodies were not
—a characteristic the reverse of fish of a similar na-
ture at the present time. Their existence was short
and brief. " They were not as fully developed as most
of our fishes," says Agassiz, " being like the sturgeon,
arrested, as it were, in their develojnnent"*
This generally-admitted fact clearly indicates the
rapidity of the creative process, and that they were
suddenly cut oif during that operation. If untold
millions of years had elapsed there was plenty of time
in which to complete their growth, and, if the theory
of Evolution were correct, to evolve into some other
animal. The vegetation of the period consisted prin-
cipally of alga?, or sea-weed. Among the lower forms
of life which figured conspicuously in Paheozoic times
were corals; and it may be asked how they could have
had a short existence when a long period of time is
necessary for their growth at the present day. There
is nothing in the extent of their work at this early
period to indicate to the contrary. " They were con-
spicuous, not from what they did," says Hugh Miller,
• Agasaiz and Gould's " Comparative Physiology," p. 400.
326
AGE OF CREATION.
1
1'
I
" but from what they were. . . . They were not built
up under the direction of even an instinctive intelli-
gence, but were as entirely the results of a vegetative
process of mere growth as the forests or reed-brakes
of the old Carboniferous savannas."* If the corals
grew for " untold ages " at this early period of the
earth's existence, their work should proportionately
correspond in exte'nt with the reefs of the present day.
The fact that they had a mere existence only is indica-
tive of the short period of time the primitive forma-
tions occupied in tlie geological history of the globe.
** " Testimony of the Rocks," p. 237.
' I '
I
A
4
PART IV,
CHAPTER I.
*
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
,HE Book of Genesis contains a curious and won-
derful account of the origin of the universe. It
is that narrated in the first chapter, and generally
known to scientists as the " Mosaic Cosmogony." To
those who have given the subject no more than a
passing examination all appears highly credible ; but
to others who have thoroughly investigated the sub-
ject the facts narrated seem altogether improbable, if
not absurd. It is there recorded tht,t the earth and
all therein were created in six days, and that there
were successively light and darkness, day and night,
and m itured vegetation, during the first three days,
and that on the fourth day the sun, moon and stars
were created. How light could have had an existence
three days before the creation of the sun. or how vege-
tation could have sprung up and brought forth fruit in
twenty-four hours, are considered by scientists as
utter impossibilities altogether irreconcilable with hu-
man experience.
It is generally believed that Moses was the author
I
J ^
4 11
]ii
i¥.
'■.1^^^
328
AGE OF CREATION.
of the Book of Genesis. As it is certain he was not
present at the Creation, and could not have witnessed
the different events recorded in its opening chapters,
he must have obtained his information from some
authentic source, or drawn largely on his imagination
for the account. But what human being would of
himself have devised such a wonderful scheme or con-
trived .such a plan, whereby light and darkness ex-
isted and vesfetation flourished before the sun was
brought into existence ? It is safe to say that no per-
son living on the earth at the present day would think
of ascribing an existence to the earth before that of
the sun. If correct it is therefore beyond all doubt
that the writinj^f is of Divine oriorin. If not it would
never have stood the test of ages as it has done, es-
pecially when its contents have been .so difficult to
reconcile with the teachings of Science. But although
inspiration is admitted it has been held that the writ-
ing bears the marks of human imperfection, since it
was communicated through man. But this objection
is not applicable in this instance, for the manner in
which Moses received his information is recorded in
Numbers xii. 5-8 : " And the Lord came down in the
pillar of the cloud, and stood in the door of the taber-
nacle, and called Aaron and Miriam : and they both
came forth. And He said, Hear now My words : If
there be a prophet among you, I the Lord will make
Myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak
unto him in a dream. My servant Moses is not so, who
is faithful in all Mine house. IVith him will I speak
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY,
329
writ-
ice it
ction
er in
il in
the
ber-
both
If
iiake
peak
who
peak
mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark
speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he
behold."
There could be no human imperfection whatever in
an account that was evidently communicated verbally,
and the whole must be accepted as literally correct.
It has been held that the six days referred to in the
first chapter of Genesis represent six indefinite periods
of time. But it cannot be supposed that Moses did
not know the distinction between a day and a year,
for the word "day" is referred to in the Fourth Com-
mandment in a manner that will defy any other than a
literal translation. " Six days shalt thou labor, and do
all thy work : . . . For in six days the Lord made
heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and
rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the
Sabbath day, and hallowed it."* In no manner could
the foresfoincr be contorted into a fis:urative sense and
Oct O
made to mean indefinite periods of time ; yet the first
chapter of Genesis and the twentieth chapter of Ex-
odus were the productions of the same author. But if
the Bible is correct the term must be taken literally;
and if it is found unsuitable to the relations of Science,
then Science must conform to Theology, and finally
submit to reconciliation. It is recorded in the first
chapter of Genesis that —
" In the beginning God created the heaven and the
ear*ih." The beginning is therefore the period of time
when the operations were first commenced to form the
earth into a habitable globe.
23
Exodus XX. 9, 11,
Hs'l}
''li'
I
i
i
330
AGE OF CREATION.
" And the earth was without form, and void ; and
darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the
Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."
Here are narrated two plain statements. First, that
the earth had a primordial existence, and in that state
it was without form or shape. Thus it was not a
circle, an oval, an ellipse, a triangle, a square, nor any
known geometrical figure, but a rough, undissolved
mass of something, composed of the elements from
which the process of formation was derived, and gen-
erally known as chaos. It was also void : it contained
nothing ; no trace of any animal or vegetable life, nor
any known substance. In this state it was in total
darkness and entirely surrounded by water.
"A dark,
Illimitable ocean, without bound.
Without dimension, where longth, breadth and height,
And time and place, are lost.
• ■■••• ■
Into this wild abyss,
• » • • • t •
Of neither sea, nor shore, nor air, nor fire,
But all these in their pregnant causes mix'd
Confus'dly, and which thus must ever light,
Unless the Almighty Maker them ordain
His dark materials to create more worlds."*
Second, the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the
waters. That is, an Infinite Being was present who
took action thereon.
But where, it may be asked, did chaos come from if
it had a primordial exisfenco? Matter could not have
* Milton's "Paradise Lofu" Book II,
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
33J
originated without a beginning, and chaos could not
exist by chance. To this there is only one reply: it
emanated from that Great First Cause, who had neither
beginning nor ending, and who has existed " from ever-
lasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was.
When there were no depths, ... no fountains abound-
ing with water. . . . Wliile as yet He had not made
the earth, nor the fields, nor the highest part of the
dust of the world."*
"And God said. Let there be light: and there was
light" ("And Elohim said, Light be ! and light was").
Instantly the creative Hat went forth a flash illumi-
nated the'Cinnnerian gloom, the waters were disturbed,
and chaos burst forth a blazing, seething mass of tire
and water, which continued till the whole was entirely
under the influence of the elements.
"And God called the light Day, and the darkness
He called Night. And the evening was, and the morn-
ing was." Thus there were two separate and distinct
periods— the first of darkness and the other of light;
an evening, and a succeeding morning when light first
flashed on the forming world.
•' Hail, holy Light ! offspring of heaven first-born !
Or of the Eternal, co-eternal beam.
Before the sun,
Before the heavens, thou wert, and at the voice
Of God, as with a mantle, didst invest
The rising world of waters dark and deep.
Won from the void and formless infinite. "f
* Proverbs viii. 23-26. t Milton's "Paradise Lost." Book lU.
m
332
AGE OF CUEATION.
It is unanimously admitted by geologists and scien-
tists, whether a creative or an evolutinary origin be
ascribed to the formation of the earth, that it was once
in an entire molten condition. The geological proofs of
this *) are overwhelming. The primitive crystalline
rock are entirely the result of igneous action, and
bear undoubted evidence of having been produced by
fire. Fire is light in a luminous, heated condition, and
both light and fire are implied in the Hebrew word
aor, contained in the text.
With the ignition of chaos a scene of tremendous
ebullition followed. Evaporation of the boiling waters
took place on an enormous scale. From tire molten
mass an immense cloud of steam and vapor rose mil-
lion' f miles from its surface. On reaching the colder
re^ of space, beyond the range of chaotic heat, it
became co' ^'^nsed, and descended back in an impetuous
torrent of water to the forming worlds. In this condi-
tion it could never reach the surface, owing to the in-
tense heat, but, while still millions of miles away, be-
came dissipated into an impenetrable mist, by which
the whole again became enshrouded in total darkness.
Thus while the surface of the chaotic mass was covered
by water, an aqueous zone also surrounded i in the
outlying regions of space, beyond the power of its
emitted heat.
"And God said, Let xhera be a firmament in the
midst of the waters, and let i : divide the waters from
the waters. And God made the firmament, and
divided the waters which were under the firmament
TFTR MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
333
from the waters which were aV)ove the firiuatnent: and
it was so." The universally admitted meaning of the
word "firmament" here referred to is an "expansion."
OwinLj to the intense lieat the chaotic mass began to
expand. The action of the water on the molten ma-
terial caused the latter to fly to pieces. As each fra*^-
ment of the fluid mass became detached and flew ofl*
into space the " waters were divided from the waters,"
and the encircling aqueous zone also became divided,
the waters of wliich were under the Armament and
above the firmament. According to the laws of the
equilibrium of fluids the form assumed by a molten
body, influenced only hy its molecular forces, would be
that of a perfect sphere. If the sphere were set rotat-
ing it would take the form of an oblate spheroid. As
this is precisely the form of the earth it is evident
that it first passed through the stages of fluidity and
rotation by which it assumed the conditions of form
under which it now exists. As the molten globes shot
through the regions of space the larger portions of the
flying matter threw off" detached fragments, by reason
of their individual expansion, and these in turn became
molten globes and formed satellites. The expanse by
which all are surrounded is the firmament.
" And God called the firmament Heaven. And the
evening and the morning were the second diy." With
the expansion of the chaotic mass and the removal of
the aqueous girdling envelope the temporary darkness
which it produced disappeared, and a period of cosmi-
cal light followed, being emitted from the residual
334
A(iE OF CHEATION.
ill ^
portion of the ignited chaotic mass, which formed the
nucleus of the sun, and from which the molten globes
were detached. There were therefore two distinct
periods — an evening and a morning — one of darkness,
occasioned by the formation of the belt of surrounding
waters, and the other of light, resulting from the ex-
pansion which occasioned its removal. "And the even-
ing and the morning*.were the second day."
During this period the Eozoic rocks of the earth
were formed. The action of the water on the molten
material cooled the surface to such an extent as to
form a thick cryitalline crust, which became distorted
and bent into numerous elevations and depressions-
The tire had been conquered and the waters began to
subside.
"And God said. Let the waters under the heaven be
gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land
appear : and it was so." By the aid of Infinite Power
the flying globes were stopped in their courses and
gathered together unto one place, forming the uni-
verse. On the earth the land had now risen above the
surface of the water, and the latter had found an abid-
ing place in the surrounding depressions. The disin-
tegrated particles arising from the action of the water
on the granitic crust, and the decomposed sediments
resulting from this vast chenucal operation, were pre-
cipitated in enormous layers or beds over the surface
crust, afterwards forming the primitive rocks, to the
origination of which has been ascribed an indefinite
and inconceivable period of time. As the waters re-
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
335
ceded and sought their level in the numerous depres-
sions on the crust, the land afterwards began to appear,
as recorded in the ninth verse. A thick, heavy atmos-
phere was formed, almost entirely of carbonic acid, as
a chemical result, which surrounded the earth and
again enshrouded it in a period of temporary darkness.
" And God called the dry land Earth ; and the gather-
ing together of the waters called He Seas : and God
saw that it was good."
" And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the
herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit
after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth :
and it was so." Then up sprang the great " watery
spore immaturities " of the Coal period ; the tender
grass or mosses, and the gigantic ferns, yielding seed,
and the coniferae, and the lepidodendra, and sigil-
laria and calamites, plants yielding fruit after their
kind, and whose seed was within themselves. And if
a human being had been present, and could have ex-
isted in the stifling and poisonous atmosphere, he
might have observed the movement of growth and
detected the plants rapidly bulging outward and up-
ward, and attaining full development in twenty-four
hours. He would have seen the trees bud and bloom,
and might have gathered the trigonocarpus, cardiocar-
pus and rhabdocarpus, which are now found in great
numbers in the Coal measures, and known to be the
fruit of the conifera) and other plants of the Carbo-
niferous period. With the growth and development of
the vast swampy forests immense quantities of carbon
ir f
m M
& I
nse
AGE OF CREATION.
were consumed from the surrounding atmosphere, the
soil became impregnated, and enormous quantities
were withdrawn and laid up in limestone and other
carbonates, and the air again became comparatively
clear, and a period of cosmical light followed. There
were therefore two more distinct periods of time — one
of darkness, caused by the envelopment of the earth
in an impenetrable atmosphere of carbon, and one of
light, caused by its removal — an evening and a morn-
ins: : " And the eveninor and the morning were the
third day." Up to this period the evening is repre-
sented as the darkness which preceded the light ; and
that these periods were indistinct is inferred from the
sixteenth verse, by the creation of the solar system to
make a definite distinction " between the day and
between the niijht."
"And God made two great lights; the greater light
to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night :
He mnde the stars Uso. And God set them in the
firmament of the heaven to give light upon the ?arth,
and to rule over the day and over the night, and to
divide the light from the darkness : and God saw that
it was good." During this day there were two periods
— of darkness and light respectively — the darkness
which preceded the creation of the sun. and the light
of the sun which followed. The periods now became
definitely divided, as the whole system was set in
revolution, and the physical features of the earth
underwent a complete metamorphosis.
" And God said, Let the waters bring forth abun-
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
337
in-
dantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl
that may fly above the earth in the open firmament
of heaven. And God created great whales, and every
living creature that moveth, which the waters brought
forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged
fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good."
That the waters brought forth life previous to the
creation of the sun is here inferred, for at this period
it is recorded they were to increase and bring forth
abundantly. And that the waters did bring forth
creeping things and other living c:'eatures abundantly
is well known. A great horde of enormous reptiles
fairly swarmed upon the earth, and to such an extent
that geologists have designated the period following
the Pala30zoic era as " The Age of the Reptiles." That
there were successive stagfes in the order of animal
creation is universally admitted, proceeding from the
lower forms upward. The creation of the quadrupeds
and higher forms of life is next recorded.
"And God made the beast of the earth after his
kind, and cattle after their kind, and verything that
creepeth upon the earth after his kind : and God saw
that it was good." Though the remains of domes-
tic animals are absent from the lower Mesozoic for-
mations it does not follow that they did not exist
during those periods. All such remains must be located
in a period far in advance of the strata in which they
are found , to allow for increasing geological changes
during the lifetime of the animal. Some of the larijest
quadrupeds attain a considerable longevity, and if
1
838
AGE OF CREATION.
I
their remains are not found it docs not imply tlieir
non-existence. Besides, it is a historical fact that such
animals existed in antediluvian times, and were con-
temporaneous with the advent of man. If the higher
quadrupeds were also created in single pairs it would
be impossible to find in the Secondary period the re-
mains of cattle and the great mammalia which roamed
in numbers over the earth during the Tertiary period.
They would require considerable time to multiply in
the earth, and consequently no remains could be found
till they had attained an extensive existence. Those
living and roaming the earth at the close of the
Secondary period would have been destroyed by the
Deluge, and after that event a further period of time
would be required for their multiplication. This
would locate these animals in the Tertiary period,
where their remains are now found in abundance.
The second chapter of Genesis narrates the conclu-
sion of the work, and contains an explanation of the
manner of Creation as recorded in the first chapter.
" Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and
all the host of them. And on the seventh day God
ended His work which He had made ; and He rested
on the seventh day from all His work which He had
made." If the successive acts of Creation occupied six
indefinite periods of time, is generally supposed, and
the Creator rested on the seventh day, the foregoing
becomes not only unintelligible but absurd. If the
seventh day is another indefinite period of time, and
God is still resting from His labors, the Biblical state-
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
339
nclu-
f the
er.
and
God
^sted
had
1 six
, and
;oing
L' the '
, and
state-
ment is contradictory, for it is recorded that the rest
had a termination : "And God blessed the seventh day,
and sanctified it : because that in it He had rested
from all His work." Unless it can be conceived that
the Creator formed the universe, and rested forever
afterwards, abandoning it to fate, -the -word " day " can
be construed into no other than its common and
natural meaning. The word again appears in the
same sense in the fourth verse : " These are the gener-
ations of the heavens and of the earth when they were
created, in the day that the Lord God made the earth
and the heavens." The natural meaning of the word
" generations " here recorded is " histories " or " ori-
gins," and the word " day " the time when the work
was concluded.
" And every plant of the field before it was in the
earth, and every herb of the field before it grew : for
the Lord God had not caused it to rain upon the earth,
and there was not a man to till the ground." Another
glaring inconsistency is here narrated, if the earth had
an existence of millions of years previous to the advent
of man. That no rain should fall upon the earth for
untold ages is not only inconceivable but an utter im-
possib'iity in the natural course of events. As evi-
dence that it did rain upon the earth prior to even the
Carboniferous formation. Geology points to the primor-
dial sandstones of these early times, apparently dot-
ted and splashed with numerous rain-drop impressions,
which are supposed to have been formed by the heavy
drops of an occasional passing shower. But while
n40
AGE OF CREATION.
these marks resemble the pitting of falling rain, it is
evident they were not formed in that manner. The
rocks bearing these impressions are found at wide in-
tervals in different parts of the world, and it is difh-
cult to conceive of the existence of passing clouds all
over the J^orld at the same time simultaneously drop-
ping just enough water to impress the surface of the
plastic layers, and no more. A bed of mud or clay
soft enough to receive the impressions of falling rain-
drops would not be firm enough to retain them. The
smallest quantity of water would speedily dissolve the
surrounding mud, and all traces of the indentions be
almost instantly lost. But the pit-marks in the primi-
tive sandstones are firmly indented, and show how
rapid was the action of the forces in operation by
which they were instantly preserved, instead of having
been formed by a slow and gradual process extending
over many millions of years. The impressions were
formed by air-bubbles in the oozing mud, which re-
tained their globular shape until the entire layer had
been converted into solid rock. And that such a con-
dition obtained upon the globe during the period of
the Creation is evident from the sixth verse : " But
there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the
whole face of the ground."
Accepting the word " day " in reference to the Crea-
tion in its ordinary sense, all such seeming impossi-
bilities vanish. And no other meaning can possibly
be inferred without contorting the entire narrative,
which cannot be assumed to be partly correct, for it
THE MOSAIC COSMOGONY.
341
must be either one or the other, all or none. That the
Mosaic account of the Creation has withstood the com-
bined assaults of infidelity and agnosticisnv for a-e.s
past, and still retains a firm foothold in the thristirn-
ized world, IS alone an insuperable proof of its authen-
ticity and Divine origin. ^,^,^
\
M2
AGE OF CREATION.
CHAPTER II.
ORIGIN OF LIFE
<3^
jTFlN organic matter there inherently exists a hidden
(^ and mysterious principle known as life, by which
it is animated, and, in many instances, enabled to rea-
son and think, as well as to mechanically counteract
the laws of gravitation. There was a time when life
had no existence on the earth, for the earth itself had
a beginning. Therefore organic life once had a start-
ing point and a definite origin. J)id it spontaneously
generate in a structureless organism, and afterwards
evolve into wondrous forms of anatomical develop-
ment ? Or, was man and the various forms of animal
life naturally and independently formed by special
acts of an Omnipotent Creator ? The latter has been
conceived incredible by many, who believe in a theory
of development — that man is but the modilication of a
pre-existing form of animal Mfe, and that plants and
animals came into existence by spontaneous genera-
tion. All immutability of race is rejected, and the
various diversities of form in which life exists are at-
tributed to the result of natural causes acting under
the guidance of general laws in the ordinary course of
events. Darwinism is a doctrine to the effect that
there is a universal struggle for existence in nature,
p
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
343
rea-
eract
1 life
t" had
start-
ously
vards
^elop-
imal
ecial
been
eory
of a
and
inera-
the
e at-
nder
se of
that
ture,
resulting in the survival of the fittest, and that with-
out any design whatever new species are evolved in
such a manner as different varieties could be produced
in domestic animals by the designing will of man.
It is held that variations take place among domestic
animals and plants, which are to a certain extent
transmitted to their individual offspring. By selecting
those individuals to breed from which have varied to
his advantage, man has been the means of giving rise
to whole races entirely different from the species from
which they were originally derived. A similar varia-
tion is held to occur among animals and plants in a
state of nature, producing like results. Owing to
their excessive fecundity no country could be capable
of furnishing sustenance adequate for their support if
this tendency to increase were not kept under restraint.
There arises, therefore, a constant struggle for exist-
ence between individuals of the same and different
species, as well as with the physical conditions of life.
By this means great numbers are destroyed by their
enemies ; and the supply of food being limited by the
agency of climatal changes, the power to increase is
kept in constant check. In this struggle only the
fittest survive and transmit the advantages of their
superiority to their offspring, while the injurious varia-
tions are inevitably destroyed. The repetition of this
process through untold generations results in the pro-
duction of new varieties, and the course by which the
variations were produced is known as the theory of
Natural Selection. New species are also supposo<l to
I
i (
344
AGE OF CREATION.
have arisen from the individual preference given to
particular mates by various animals. Thi^ principle
is termed Sexual Selection, to which Darwin attributes
the variegated colors of butterflies and the gorgeous
and beautiful plumage of birds. By a combination
of boui Selections and the exclusion of supernatural
interposition the existence of all natural organic phe-
nomena is supposed to be satisfactorily accounted for.
From a close comparison of the bodily structure of
man with that of animals lower in the creative scale —
their powers of reason and moral sense — Darwin ar-
rived at the conclusion that it is not iraposnible, or
even improbable, that man himself is the descendant of
some form of life common to the lower animals. Be-
tween man and the higher animals, especially the an-
throporaorphous apes, he points out that the "close
correspondence in general structure, in the minute
structures of the tissues, in chemical composition, and
in constitution," can scarcely be exaggerated.
" By considering the embryological structure of
man," says Darwin, "the homologies which he presents
with the lower animals, the rudiments he retains, and
the reversions to which he is liable, we can partly
recall in imagination tTie former condition of our early
progenitors, and can approximately place them in their
proper places in the zoological series. We thus learn
that man is descended from a hairy-tailed quadruped^
probably arboreal in its habits, and an inhabitant of
the Old World. This creature, if its whole structure
had been examined by the naturalist, would have been
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
345
of
jents
and
.rtly
|arly
their
learn
jped,
|t of
Iture
)een
classed among the quad rum ana, as surely as the still
more ancient pro<]fenitor of the Old and New World
monkeys. The quadrumana and all the higher mam-
mals are probably derived from an ancient marsupial
p.nimal, and thus, from the long line of diversified
forms, from some amphibian-like animal. In the dim
obscurity of the past we may see that the early pro-
genitor of all the vertebrata must have been an aquatic
animal, provided with branching, with the sexes united
in the same individual, and that the most important
organs of the body (such as the brain and heart) im-
perfectly or not at all developed. This animal seems
to have been more like the larvae of the existing
marine ascidians than any other known animal."*
While there is undoubw/etily a regular series of pro-
gressive steps in the forms of animal life, increasing
upward from invertebrate to vertebrate, ichthyic to
reptilia,n, reptilian to ornithic, and the latter to mam-
malian, there is not one authentic instance of an un-
disputed transitional form ever having been found, or
at present existing. Darwin admits this difficulty
along with several others, some of which, he says, were
so grave as to almost stagger him upon reflection.
But this fact he endeavors to explain by an allusion
to the imperfection of geological collections and the
comparatively small portion of the globe which has
undergone examination. Although even thousands of
years may have elapsed in the deposition of many
formations, the time, he holds, might have been too
* " Descent of Man," p. 609.
23
346
AGE OF CREATION.
i
i
short, in point of duration, to allow of the formation of
a change of species.
In addition to the fact that there iy no substantiated
geological proof of such structural changes having
taken place, there are numerous isolated types and
new forms of animal life suddenly introduced that
cannot be explained by the theory of Evolution. There
is not the slightest proof 0/ trace whatever that the
animal life of the Pakoozoic era passed from one form
into another by an insensible gradation. On the con-
trary, the vertebrated fishes appear as suddenly as if
they had dropped from the clouds, and there is no
apparent break in the close of the Silurian strata in
which an intermediate form could be lost. During
the Permian period also, immediately after the close
of the Carboniferous epoch, another sudden change in
organisms takes place, and that, too, in the very midst
of conformable strata. The Silurian species, known
as lingula, is known to have survived to the present
day, maintaining its stability of form with little or no
variation throughout the successive geological epochs,
and without showing the slightest trace of ever hav-
ing undergone the process of transmutation.
Many of the connecting forms are supposed to have
been lost in the unexplained geological gaps ; but with
a restoration of these imperfections the developmental
theory strands on a shore from which it expected as-
sistance. No connecting form between man and the
lower animals has ever been found, and the time when
such a change is supposed to have taken place is
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
347
as-
the
|e is
proved by an explanation ot* the geological gaps to be
but a few thousand years ago.
"At the period and place, whenever and wherever
it was," writes Darwin, " when man first lost his hairy
covering, he probably inhabited a hot country, a cir-
cumstance favorable for the frugiferous diet on which,
judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from
knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged
from the catarrhine stock ; but it may have occurred
at an epoch so remote as the Eocene 'period; for that
the higher apes had diverged from the lower apes as
early as the upper Miocene is shown by the existence
of the dryopithe^,us."*
The Eocene peii'iod to which Darwin refers as being
that in which man first lost his hairy covering has
been shown to be that which witnessed the close of
the Noachian Deluge. That the antediluvians were
not of an ape-like contour, nor in any way dissimilar
from mankind of the present day, is quite evident,
for it is impossible that such changes in the human
form could have taken place at such a recent date.
But this point is not inferred by Darwin ; he simply
refers to the Eocene period as one of a supposed im-
measurably remote antiquity, whereas its occurrence
took place about four thousand years ago. He takes
it for granted that a high antiquity of man has been
incontrovertibly demonstrated and established by geo-
logical and ethnological proof, and on these grounds
confirms his theory of Evolution and Descent. An in-
* " Descent of Man," p. 156,
US
AGE OF CREATION.
finite abyss of time is the essential element requisite
for the process, and Darwin presses into his service
the untold ages which geologists have supposed to
have occurred during the life-history of the earth.
With respect to the date of the Glacial epoch Lyell
says, " it must be conceded that the period required
for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its
duration when most intense, and the oscillations to
which it was subject, as well as the retreat of the
glaciers and the great thaw or disappearance of ice
from many mountain chains where the snow was once
perpetual, required not tens but hundreds of thousands
of years."* Dr. Croll dates the beginning of the Glacial
period, based on the combined influence of equinoxial
precession and increasing eccentricity of the earth's
orbit, at 240,000 years ago, and supposes that it lasted
160,000 years, terminating about 80,000 years ago.
Other estimates have been made of the date oi' the
Glacial period by means of water erosion and alluvial
d( ^ isits, varying from 10,000 to 100,000 years. The
same uncertainty has prevailed as to the age of tie
entire strata comprising the crust of the earth, and
the estimated time supposed to have elapsed since the
Cambrian period has been variously concluded by
British geologists to range from 1,000,000 to 250,000,-
000 years. On the theory of a cooling earth and a
decrease of the sources of solar energy, Thomson and
others maintain that solidification of its crust could
not have taken place more than 100,000,000 yesixs ago.
•"LyeU's Geology," Hth edit., Vol. ^., p. 286
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
349
Without the pillars of time for support, therefore, the
whole theory of Evolution must fall to the ground.
Upon figures such as these Darwin confirms his theory
of Development and Descent, without which incon-
ceivable time the process of evolution would be an
admitted impossibility. " If the theory be true," he
says, "it is indisputable that before the lowest Cam-
brian stratum was deposited long periods elapsed — as
long as or probably longer than the whole material
from the Cambrian age to the present day ; and that
during these vast periods the world swarmed with
living creatures."*
The Glacial epoch havinc: occurred but three thou-
sand five hundred years ago it will be seen that the
foundation of his theory is groundless Darwin ob-
serves that it is difficult to explain, on the principle
of Direct Creation, the absence of whole orders of ani-
mals from many oceanic islands, the physical conditions
of which are favorably adapted for their existence, as
shown by the increase of these animals after their
introduction by man. " Terrestrial mannnals," he says,
"are not miet with on any island more than three
hundred miles from a continent or great continental
island ; yet it cannot be said that small islands are not
fitted for the support of small mammals, for they occur
in many parts of the world on very small islands if
close to a continent, and hardly an island can be named
in which our smaller quadrupeds, when introduced by
man, have not become naturalized, and greatly multi-
* *• Origin of Species," p. 286.
350
AGE OF CREATION.
plied. It cannot be said, on the ordinary view of Crea-
tioa, that there has not been time for the creation of
mammals, for many volcanic islands are sufficiently
ancient, as shown by the stupendous degradation which
they have suffered and by their Tertiary strata. There
has also been time for the production of endemic
species belonging to other classes, and on continents it
is thought that mammals appear and disappear at a
quicker rate than other and lower animals."
The non-existence of quadrupeds upon oceanic
islands in every way fitted to their abode and con-
dition of life is used by Darwin as an argument
that these islands were not peopi d by Direct Creation,
from which it is inferred, in like manner, that on no
portion of the globe also was Animal Creation by spe-
cial and direct acts exercised. But the Uniformitarian
system of Geology from which Darwin derives his
main support here fails. Very few of the islands he
refers to had an existence before the Glacial period.
Certainly most of the coral islands had not, and those
of volcanic origin, to which he attributes a high an-
tiquity by their Tertiary strata, had no origin previous
to that epoch. Consequently no special act of creation
could have taken place on islands not in existence at
the time when these animals first appeared, and no
emigration could have been afterwards successfully
accomplished, owing to the complete isolation of the
islands by the waters of a surrounding ocean. If the
higher animals were descended from a single pair, their
ORIGIN OF LIFE.
351
at
no
ly
the
absence from any particular locality on the globe is no
proof against the principle of Direct Creation.
Darwin admits the extreme slowness and immeasur-
ably remote period of time requisite for the consum-
mation of the process of Natural Selection, which, he
says, *■ is daily and hourly scrutinizing throughout the
world every variation, even the slightest, rejecting all
that is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good,
silently and insensibly working, whenever and wher-
ever opportunity offers, at the improvement of each
organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic
conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow
changes in progress until the hand of time has marked
the long lapse of ages, and then so imperfect is our
view into long past geological ages that we only see
that the forms of life are different from what they
formerly were."
While Natural Selection may have been an impor-
tant factor in the production of the different varieties
of animals and plants, and accounts for many c." the
superficial similarities existing between them, it would
have been utterly impossible to produce within the
Scriptural age of the world a change of structure
sufficient to form a new species as the immediate
result. If, therefore, species are not derivative, it is
clearly evident they must undoubtedly be primordial
creations.
The theory of Evolution is supported by the derived
conclusion of geologists and scientists, that all physical
phenomena are the result of natural causes — Divine or
w
35^
AGE OF CREATION.
supernatural interposition being excluded. But " for
this they willingly are ignorant of, that by the Word of
God the heavens were of old,"* and stolidly maintain
to the contrary that " since the fathers fell asleep all
things continue as they were from the beginning of
the creation. "-f- But the geological results formulated
on this basis have been shown to be untenable in the
face of actual facts. Until Geology and Astronomy
havc satisfactorily demonstrated beyond all doubt a
high antiquity for the earth and the various forms of
life existing upon it, a theory built on such a sup-
position cannot be accepted unless sanctioned by a
unanimous agreement of their results respecting the
aofe of the earth. No such aofreement has ever existed.
The geological record has been one series of admitted
imperfections, and many astronomical phenomena are
still lingering under theoretical solution. When these
have been explained, and the results obtained from
the one found to mathematically tally with those of
the other with respect to the age of the world, the
Mosaic account of the origin of life will be found
correct, and the time far too short on which to base a
theory of Continuity and Development.
* 2 Peter iii. 5. t lb. iii. 4.
I
tHte FIJ^AL CATASTROPHte.
353
le
CHAPTER III.
THE FINAL CATASTROPHE.
"^yS^HETHER, in the course of future events, tl..
y^ earth will ao^ain be partially devastated by
catastrophes of the magnitude of those which occured
in the past, it is impossible to determine. That it will
never again be swept with a Hood to destroy every
living thing may be considered assured ; but that it
will have a final termination is morally certain. As
the earth once had a beginning, so it must have an
end. The teachings of nature all point in this direc-
tion. With an ascribed evolutionary origin, a termina-
tion by natural causes is admitted ; and with a creative
formation its sudden and final ending by the Power
which gave it birih, after it has serv/ed the purpose for
which it was intended, is undoubtedly a foregone con-
clusion. The mutual reconciliation of Science and Re-
ligion as to the origin of the world will leave no doubt
whatever as to the truth of. the Scriptural account of
the time and manner in which it will be brought to a
final termination. But "of that day and hour knoweth
no man, no, not the angels of heaven, neither the Son,
but the Father." According to the Apostle Peter, " The
heavens and the earth, which are now, by the same
word are kept in store, reserved unto fire against
S54
AGE OF CREATION.
the day of judgment and perdition of ungodly men."*
" But the day of the Lord will come as a thief in the
night ; in the which the heavens shall pass away with
a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent
heat, the earth also and the works that are therein
shall be burned up."-t" The materials necessary to pro-
duce such a catastroplie are at hand. An ocean of
liquid fire is contained' within the crust of the earth,
and an atmosphere of combustible gases surround it.
The spark of ignition has only to be applied and the
rocks would melt with fervent heat. The atmospheric
gaseous affinities have only to be displaced, and the
elements would dissolve an-^ the globe be enveloped in
a sheet of seething flame, followed by a tremendous
explosion as the crust of the earth burst and became
shivered into fragments. The whole of the universe
is destined to the same fate, and in that awful and
overwhelming catastrophe "all the host of heaven
shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled to-
gether as a scroll."]: Catastrophic events are predict-
ed before the final dissolution, for it is recorded that
" great earthquakes shall be in divers places, and fam-
ines, and pestilences ; and fearful sights and great signs
shall there be from heaven." § "And there shall be
signs in the sun, and in the moon, and 'in the stars ;
and upon the earth distress of nations, with perplex-
ity ; the sea and the waves roaring ; men's hearts fail-
ing them for fear, and for looking after those things
which are coming on the earth : for the powers of
» 2 Peter iii. 7. t lb., iii. 10, : laiah xxxiv. 4, § Luke xxi. 11.
9J^
I
THE FINAL CATASTROPHE.
355
heaven shall be shaken."* " For in those days shall be
affliction, such as was not from the beginning of the
creation which God created unto this time, neither shall
he"f "And except those days should be shortened,
there should no flesh be saved : but for the elect's sake
those days shall be shortened."]: " For as the lightning
Cometh out of the east, and shineth even unto the
west; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be."§
" Immediately after the tribulation of those days shall
the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not give
her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and
the powers of the heavens shall be shaken : and then
shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven :
and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and
they shall see the Son of man coming in the clouds of
heaven with power and great glory." |i Many other
prophecies are recorded to come to pass before the final
termination, among them the entire abolition of idola-
try, and the extension and establishment of the king-
dom of the Messiah over all nations. The Jews shall
be brought into the Christian Church with the fulness
of the Gentiles, wars shall cease, and peace and order
prevail all over the world. " The earth shall be filled
with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord, as the
waters cover the sea."*i But before this happy period
there shall be wars and rumors of wars ; " for nation
shall rise against nation, and kingdom against king-
dom." ** " And many false prophets shall rise, and shall
deceive many."ff " But the end is not yet."|| All
* Luke xxi. 25-2G.
t Mark xiii. 19.
t Matt. xxiv. 22.
§ Matt. xxiv. 27.
II Matt. xxiv. 29-30.
H Hab. ii. 14.
** Matt. xxiv. 7.
ft Matt. xxiv. 11.
n Matt. xxiv. 6.
356
AGE OF CllEATlON.
these prophecies must first be fulfilled before the final
event. When the foregoing events can be discerned
in the signs of the times, then may be seen the begin-
ning of the end. Until infidelity and unbelief are
banished from the face of the globe, perfect immunity
from its final destruction may be considered assured.
But in the meantime, if the civilized world can be
taught to realize the one simple fact that the sun stood
still at the command of Joshua, the foundations of
atheism and agnosticism will have received a severer
blow than any dealt the earth by a catastrophe in the
days of its infancy, if not altogether blotted out of
existence.
•e the final
discerned
the bej^in-
ibelief are
immunity
d assured.
;ld can be
5 sun stood
dations of
a severer
phe in the
ied out of