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EELIOTT, B.A., Principal, Model School, Ifamilton J. DiCARNlvSS, Inspector of Public Schools, East Middlesex J. F. WHITE, Inspector of Separate Schools, Ontario T. A. KIRKCONXia.L, B.A., Principal, /fi^^h School, Port //ope W. SCOTT, B.A., Principal, A'orrnal School, Toronto R. M. CIRAHAM, Principal Model School, London A. C. CASS ELM AN, Draioim^r Master, Normal School, Toronto A. F. NEWi.AXDS, Writing and Drawing A/aster, iXormal School, Ottawa Edited by J. J. TILLEY Inspector of County Model Schools, Ontario TORONTO GEORGE N. MORANG & COMPANY, Llmited 1899 ^HlR^// t. L6I025 1) Kntcred acoordiiiK to Act of Pari i union t of C'anadii, in the year on<> thousand eight hundred and i.inoty-nine, l)y (Jkorcik N. MoKANd & Cd.mi'ANV, I^imitkd, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. IMIKKACE. At m irn'otin^r of the Traiiiiiii'' Dcpai'tiiicnl ol' tlic Ontario Eflucation Association lu'M last year, the Model Scliool niastors l)y ivsolntion expressed a dt'sii'c tliat a text book on Metliods sliould l»e prepared lor the use of teachers-in-trainino-. It was su^^ested tliat educat(»i-s of well known ability in the teachino-of particular subjects be asked to contribute, in order that the book niioht set foi'th the most approved modern methods of teachin<^^ as developed by large experience. This suo-gestion was adopted unanimously, and the undersigned was re(picsted to make all necessary arrangements and to ct as editor. After much thou;j-^^ ind consultation with those interested in the subj Mie gentlemen whose names are given in the list of contributors, were requested to write on the several sul)jects allotted to them ; and the editor desires to thank the contril tutors for the readiness with which they responded to his request, and to acknowledge their claim to the greater share of whatever credit may be awarded to this publication. Although the nature and scope of the work undertaken by the different writers were discussed and outlined when the subjects were assigned, yet each contributor is to be considered as mainly respon- sible for his portion of the work. VI. METHODS IN TEACHING. The editor wislicH to ackiiowltulgu his indjihted- ncHH t!" one type-problem than to allow the pupils to solve a ^' ^' .>.< .. Ml ■il 6 METHODS IN TEAOIIING. dozen questions by means of verbal explanations and imitation of the teacher s blackboard work. This method of teaching is especially useful and should always be practised in giving pupils their first lessons in the compound quantities which are used, and in the operations which are to be performed in what are commonly known as Reduction and the Compound Rules. These are fully discussed in the chapter on Arithmetic. No learning of the " tables '' from a book, and no subsequent working of an indefinite number of examples with figures can ever serve as a substitute for a thorough " ground- ing in the primal realities " of quantity and of operation. There is another branch of education which comes as fully within the purview of the objective method as either of these already mentioned. It is the teacli- ingof ethics, which is but the science of human action. The child's first idea of what is right and of what is wrong must be obtained as the beginnings of all other knowledge are obtained, that is from the concrete, from realities. The concrete in this case is action. It is the child's own acts in relation to those in auth- ority over him. He gets his first conception of right from what he is permitted to do, and of wrong from what is prohibited. The child learns authority, government, restraint, self-denial, obedience, etc., just as he learns the quali- ties of objects. He learns them as objective facts or realities. The little child will never learn the mean- ing of truthfulness, kindness, gentleness, sympathy, patience^ through the use of words ; he must be taught through the illustration of these qualities I 'i ia<^i&'&iiuk&^. ANALYSIS OF METHOD. tiony and seful and -heir first are used, 'ormed in I and the 3d in the " tables " ig of an rures can " ground - Y and of ich comes e method he teach- an action. what is all other concrete, s action. in auth- |of right ing from |estraint, ic quali- Ifacts or mean- Inpathy, lust be ualities in action. " Moral knowledge and natural knowledge oriirinate in the same way."^ And teachers of experi- ence know that better results are achieved in the schoolroom by the observance of this fundamental principle than by trusting to formulated precepts as rules of conduct, however excellent these may be. The force of a moral (piality can be readily grasped when it is individualized in action, and actions which touch the person ?*<3 more effective in influence than those which appeal only to the under- standing. Justice wlien administered by the teacher in the schooh-oom and on the play-ground becomes a living reality " know^i and read of all men." The heart is the true schoolroom, through which deeds of kindness, of sympathy, and of love come home to the mind. For the teaching of those moi-al (pialities which underlie a worthy character, no special pro- vision need be made in the time-table. Given the earnest, devoted teacher, in whose heart these (juali- ties abound, and the necessary objective teaching will be co-existent with the contact l)etween teacher and pupil. If these qualities are not possessed by the teacher, no constructed curriculum can serve as a substitute therefor. It was in this connexion that Emerson said : — " I care but little what my daughter learns, I care much from whom she learns : " and it was this truth, illus- trated in private life which enabled Sir Richard Steele to .my of Lady Hastings: — "To meet her was an immediate restraint upon all improper conduct and to be acquainted with her was a liberal education." Such teaching will ]n\ assisted by the proper 1 Hinsdale. maumiktMnm "^v 8 METHODS IN TEACHING. consideration of illustrations of human action fur- nished in history! and in literature. The relations of men to each other give rise to morals, and as history sets forth these relations, one of its chief uses is to form moral notions in chil- dren. Men are object lessons in moral education. Their deeds live after them to inspire and to warn. History abounds in examples of courage, patriotism, devotion to duty, nobility of character, in short ot all the higher qualities which ennoble mankind. When these are properly considered, with 4l^e many painful contrasts found on the pages of history, thv3 mind is led to form judgments thereon, which will have a reflex influence on the character of the person form- ing them. McMurray, in illustrating this point, says: — " When Sir Philip Sioney, wounded on the battle- field, and suflerino- with thirst, reached out his hand for the cup of water that was brought, his glance fell upon a dying soldier, who viewed the cup with great desire. Sidney handed him the water, with the words, ' Thy necessities are greater than mine.' " No one can refuse his approval of this act. After telling the story of the man who went down to Jericho and fell among thieves, and then of the priest, the Levite and the Samaritan who passed that way, our Lord put the question to His critics, " Who was neighbor to him that fell among thieves ?" And the answer came from unwilling lips, *' He that showed mercy." Such moral judgments as these 1 The relation of history to ethics should be discussed in the second part of tiiii) chapter, but on account of its close connexion with what has just been (-aid, it is considered here. j^^ ^^fgt^^»w^ ^ ANALYSIS OF METHOD. 9 stioii fur- give rise relations, s in chil- iducation. to warn, atriotisni, ort or all i. When \y painful le mind is 11 have a 3on form- says : — le battle- his hand ance fell lith great vith the le. ' No int down of the ised that ' Wlio And Le that is these spring up naturally and surely, when we understand the circumst inces under which an act was performed. On the otlier hand, it is natural to condenni wrong deedt] when presented clearly and objectively in the action of another, and later, the judgment must react upon our own conduct." The following ({notation from De Garmo^ fur- nishes a very fitting conclusion for the discussion of this part of our subject : — " All ethical instruction should proceed from individual cases of action involv- ing a liiorpJ content. Hence it does not suffice to preach in school, except from the text of an actual event. Children can best get the first points of crystallization for moral truths from stories involving a moral content. History fulfils its noblest mission to the race on account of its ethical content, and of the individual nature of the presentation. Every deed of heroism, of benevolence, of charity, of patriot- ism, is a concrete embodiment of a precious virtue ; while every mean, cowardly, dastardly act is an individual protest against meanness, cowardice, vil- lainy. We can only continue the deposit about these starting points, until at last the soul is strong enough in itself to stand alone." Ihe second what has W^e have seen that all knowledge must begin with individual notions acquired objectively through con- tact of the sense-organs with external phenomena,. We have now to consider how this knowledi»e is extended. These individual notions are not st{)i-eu-aiv,«KEimt AXAUYSTS OF METHOD: 21 fc wliich repT'c- represeiits the all the objects ssarily implies '> derived, and :)cess by which shown by the in^^ by a f^yn- 1 through the 3 of the object, fin inia^e of it, eedinp- imacfos b with increas- 1 those which fully recalled. I and perceives as the char- )arts, etc. It )nceives them lich they are tics are then eneral notion iitains only 1 to all the e parts and It cannot e individual of parts or can express consists in new class concepts, and it is impoi'tant that the method of con- ductina' lessons of this kind be considered somewhnl in detail. A ])rimary condition of the lesson is evidently the presentation of examples of the objects to be classified. Who should give these examples, the teacher or the pupil ? Some teachers assume that the pupil should furnish the examples, on the ground that he can better understand the objects which he himself dis- covers, and also that these are more likely to arouse his interest. An important objection in many instances is that it is a serious waste of time ; the teacher can prompth'' and judiciously select examples suited to the child's development, and can ascertain by a ({uestion or two whether any are beyond his experi- ence. Other objections are that it tends to discourage the pupil through the rejection of his efforts, and that it develops indefiniteness of thought, and a vicious habit of guessing. It is also illogical, presupposing a knowledge of the thing to be taught. It forms no highly colored scene to picture a teacher who misapplies the perfectly . nuid rule, " that the teacher should not do for the child what he can do for himself," conducting a lesson in this fashion. His aim, let us say, is to teach the adjective, and he proceeds to "develop" examples. Holding up a piece of chalk he asks :— T.—What is this ? p. — That is a piece of chalk. T. — Tell me something about it. P. — You can write with chalk. T. — Yes. Now Mar}' you tell me something about it. I Ml BBti>; •""TIMII ,^ Al METHODS IN TKACHINU. P. — The chalk was in tlio box. T. — Y-o-s. But t(,'ll 1110 .soiiiothiiif'' olso about it. Is it any wonder if after sueli an exercise both teacher and pupil are soon in despair and mentally jL^ropin"reat pil's attention Id discover for ects presented, icher to make i, stress being an. Examples ,mination and md tliorough- [lay be clearly :o obtain the ul scrutiny of new notion, ggest to the the wording nl's repetition that he has analysis and examples, the id, he will be The new term )e given, any form of ex- n made still '^ To illustrate the method suggested, let us take the teaching of the definition of an island. The beat presentation for this lesson is, of course, examples of real islands as observed in a neighboring lake or stream. The concept may, however, be clearly and e(jrrectly developed, though with greater difficulty, by representing islands on the moulding board or on the blackboard. Having first aided the pupil's imagination by referring to local examples of land and water surfaces, to accept the surface of the moulding board as representing water, and the little heaps of sand as land, his attention is directed to the first example. To make vivid the image which his mould- ing board represents, the little fellow may in imagina- tion row round the island, the course being traced on the moulding board back to the place of starting. The pupil then describes what he has observed. " This is land. This is water. The water is all round the land." As he scrutinizes a second example, he is certain to make some vague comparison with the first. Each succeeding example which the teacher directs him to examine, calls up the others, and finally by a systematic review the teacher makes the comparison formal and exact. The pupil sums up the results of his examination and comparison. " All these (point- ing to the different representations) are pieces of land. This is water. The water is all round each piece of land." The result of the comparison is that the child abstracts the notion of this relation of land and water ; that is, there is formed in his mind a general notion of portions of land entirely surrounded by water, without connecting it with any particular ^ 24 METHODS IN TEACHING. sland. He is now iTjuly for tlie tei'in /slu ih!, wliicli dosif^nat(3H his newly acMiuircd concept, and under the guidance of the teacher he makes a formal definition. Having first directed the pupil's mind to discern tlie essential common characteristics, his notion may be more clearly defined by directing his attention to the non-essential or accidental features or qualities exhibited in individual examples, such as varying size, elevation, outline, or material. He observes or images some as mere patches of bare sand or rock, some sustaining forests, farms, and towns, or forming extensive countries. He perceives that some of these characteristics are common to several or to many examples, but he is led to see their non-essential chai-acter, and thus his concept of an island grows in extent and its essential characteristics are more clear- ly defined. Having dealt with a typical example of concep- tive thought or classification, we have next to investi- gate the method of forming a general truth, rule or law. '' Take as an example of this the general rule for forming the plural of nouns. Here again the i^upil must begin with examples of the particular cases coming under the law. The teacher writes on the blackboard a list of familiar names of objects. As each is written he obtains from the pupil the statement that the nan^.e designates one thin^ of its kind. The pupil may also give the form which designates more than one. Pen. Pens. Book. Books. Cup. Cups, etc. Directed by the teacher's questions, the pupil ANALYSIS OF MKTIIOD. 25 /s/ain!, wliicli uid uiidi'i- tlie iial definition, iiid to discern .s notion may s attention to s or qualities li as varying 3 observes or sand or rock, la, or forming some of these or to many non-essential md grows in e more clear- 3 of concep- it to investi- uth, rule or eneral rule again the particular writes on of objects, pupil the dii^ of its »rm which [he pupil MMMhscs tliis j)res('iitati()n and coiiiparcs llic words. He notes tlie ditferent forms for each word, and the corresponding difference in tlieir meaning. The several judgments expressing his thinking are some- what as follows: — Pen denotes one thing. Pens denotes more than one thing. Pens is formed from j>C7? by the addition of s. In a similar way he pronounces upon the relations of book and hooks, cup and ^7/j).s', and all the other examples placed before him. As a result of his comparison of the words j)en, hook, cup, etc., he forms an abstract notion of a name with a sino-ular meaning:. He thus conceives a class of names meaning one, which he is taught to call names of the singular number. In the same way he forms a class concept of names of the plural number. By further comparison he discerns that the plural forms, pens, hooks, cup)s, etc., are formed by adding .s to the singular names pen, hook, cup, etc., respectively. As examples are multiplied, with increasing clearness is fo]'med the thought, that, since all the names exam- ined form their plurals by the addition of s to the singular, it must be true that all names form their plurals thus. This is necessarily beyond his experi- ence, but the thought develops in his mind from its inherent tendency to attribute to nil the members of a class, what has been observed to be true of those which have been examined. Subsequent experience teaches him the necessary modifications and limita- tions of the grammatical rule which he has thus discovered. The act of thinking, by which the mind thus reaches beyond the limits of experience, is called Inductive Reasoning. It is through the operation of 20 MKTHODS IN TKACHINO. tliis fni'iii of rojiHon tl»at all ^oncial tiutlis. mnxiins, rules, and laws ai'c (IcvclDpcd in tlie iiiiml. In casos of induction like that just described, tli<3 ouneral rule is tlio montal product resultin^^ from the examination and c()m})ai'iH()n of many exam})les. Tlie more num- erous these are, the greater the confidence in tlie I'ule. Havino- now Itriefly considei'ed the method of pro- ceedin<>' from tlie ])articuhir to the j^'eneral, we have next to deal with the application of the ji;eneral rule or principle to particular cases. By this exercise the pu])il obtains a cleai'er apprehension of the truth, discovers new and perhaps unexpected applications, as well as limitations or exceptions. Above all he is pi'actised in the exercise of formal reasoning. Formerly it was the practice of many teachers, and of the text-book which they followed, to begin the presentation of the subject witli a statement of general facts and principles. Thus a text-book on Grannnar began with a definition of the subject, followed by definitions of its several divisions, and so on. The order of development followed was first the rule and then the examples subsumed under it. The elementary text-book differed from the more advanced only in being a thinner book, and in containing fewer particulars. However suitable this plan of unfolding a subject may be for advanced students, who have already much elementry knowledge which enables them to attach at least some meaning to the definition given, it is not likely to be helpful in the teaching of children whose knowledge is meajxre and ill-defined. Ti'aining in inductive reasoning is of great impor- tance not only as the logical preparation for the G. ANALYSIS OK MKTMOD. 27 ti'iitlis. innxims, "H"l- 111 cases (n3 oonei-il rule lie examination lie more iium- iice ill the rule, ii let hod of pro- tieral, we have 10 ^reneral rule lis exercise tlie of the truth, d applications, ■bove all he is )nin is put in pil's state- put in the 'erb irent. e nomina- after the 5 Jiim to ision, thus Practice he pujjil's liabit of (s of liis uist he in First, to the :'rom tlie \^\ neces- idi vidua] th'/,'itions more and more comprehensive. Eacli trutli thus establislied is then applied to particular cases, thus storini;- the pupil's mind with new but properly I'elated ideas. New conce])ts are clearly ojrasped b}- being assimilated to that which was previously known, and the pupil is trained into the habit of dealing with new subjects whether presented in books or in the affairs of life, in a logical way. He calmly examines, compares and infers. " He is taught to rise from the particular to the general as easily as to 'reat deal of what is most naturally su'eneral ; let us now turn to what is more especially our theme, the consideration of literature in its more proper and narrow sense, and to the third of the aims mentioned above as belonjj^ino- to the subject with wdiich v/e are concerned, — the awakening of the sense of the beauty and power of literature. What, we may ask, is the business of the student of literature as such ? It is his function to understand exactly and fully what the author means. The printed symbols represent somethini;' in the writer's consciousness : it is the aim of the student of literature to reproduce within himself, the state of mind of the writer which is indicated by these printed symbols. In certain cases this is a compara- tively simple matter. For example, Mr. R. A. Proctor knows certain facts about the heavens, which are set down in the lesson on Fixed Stars. The process of understand ino- him is a simple and purely intellectual one ; on the other hand, in the case of the lesson entitled National Morality the reader who appre- hends merely the ideas, and the line of argument of Mv. Bright, has not caught the com])lex mental state which the orator intended to convey. Besides 1 ^ THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. 39 ;.li 313 avoided ; tlu! atton- \iv latter is ssioii of the as lie can, even at its L', and tlie of Litera- ies to the low turn to nsideration sense, and ; belonorino' rned, — the power of less of the motion to lor means, in the tudent of state of by these eonipara- -. Proctor li are set rocess of lellectual Ic lesson appre- linent of lal state i>esides understanding^ the thoughts, the person wIjo truly appreciates this selection feels also the <:;1()W of enthusiasm with which Mr. Bright legards his facts, and catches through the form and st^de the contagion «)f lofty emotion. The latter selection is literature in a fuller sense than tlie former : it has beauty, it has power beyond the mere thoughts conveyed ; its form and expression are shaped by the writer's feelings, and, to a person of literary culture, communicate these feelings. Literary Interpretation— In the widest sense of the word " literature," all recorded thought is literature, and all recordeling are absent, the expression is almost without ■, i 40 METHODS IN TKACHING. lit r literary character. 80 .soinetiines we find a writer narratiii*,'' a Hcries of lii.storic events, almost without arranj^eiiH'iit or connection other than is imposed hy the events tliemselves, — without indication as to which were the more imp(jrtant, and which the less impoi-t- ant Tacts. Such a one is a mere mechanical recorder. But ail historian like Macaulay marshals his facts, brings certain events into prominence, subordinates others to them, and, merely in virtue of his doing so, his work becomes literary. His view of the fact is indicated in the form — in the paragraph structure, for example. Accordingly, if a reader (as young- children are aj^t to do) mei'ely takes che facts as they come, without perceiving the connection and relative importance given them by the w^riter, he fails to apprehend the litei'aiy <{ualities of the work. Hence the teacher should, by ((uestion, ascertain wdiat the pupils think is the outcome of a passage, should test by means of oral or written reproductions, whether they have grasped the coiniection and importance of ideas. He should point out how the paragraphs are framed, how successive paragraphs are related to one another, and so forth. But still, we are not in the domain of literature in its fullest sense, but in the realm of such written thought as is chiefly valuable for the information that it gives. Literature Proper — We recognize that the oral reading of a passage which is valuable merely for the facts conveyed, is a much easier matter than the reading of such ])ieces as the scene from Kivg Jolin, {Foarfh Ratder, No. CI.), or LucJilnvar, which are not valuable as information. The substantial THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. 41 meaning' of these two Helection.s nn<:jlit, indeed, be conveyed in the simple and unvaried style of a passage written for information only. I>ut there is something beyond what is thus eonveyed — a some- thinir which does not exist in the matter-of-fact lesson, a something represented by the varied modifications, tones, ijifiections, of a good reader's voice. The elenuuits lepresented ))y the Jilay of the voice are the purely and essentially literary elements. Such reading brings out, for instance, the music and cadence of the lines and the changes of feeling in keeping with the ideas expressed. The child shouhl be taught to apprehend and feel these, as well as that substantial meaning which might be produced by a monotonous vocal ivndering or in a prose paraphrase. The best method of attaining this end is, as has been already said, good oral read- ing. But the teacher should also dogmatical!}' i)oint out such literary (qualities as are within the ])upirs comprehension — that the rhythm of the line is suit- able, the imagery beautiful and suggestive, this or that passage particularly effective. Let not an exag- gerated reverence for the de(bictive method lead the t(3acher to abandon his real position of superiority. He is able to perceive much that a child cannot perceive for himself, and which the most skilful questioning will never educe. The pupil should be informed, with a judicious consideration for the limitations of his powers, that such and such ([ualities exist in a passage, that it should awaken such and such a response in himself: he should be urged to read and re-read the passage with this information in mind. In time, some, at least, of the qualities j^ I M ■ 42 METHODS IN TEACHING. 1 i I s I 5 coutninud, will gradually ! i!,f • -4 « > 46 METHODS IN TEACHING. full of su^ij^t'stivcnoss and pictiiros([ue efi'cct Ques- tions jiiul explanations are needl'ul to elucidate these various points. But, after all, it should be remem- bered th.at the ^'eneral meaning and outcome, the stimulus to the pupil's imagination and to liis sense of beauty are the matters (jf greatest importance, and with these the study of the poem should begin and end. Method of Studying* a Poem— li my one reflects upon his own method of studying a poem, or of any other piece of literature which presents similar dilHculties, he will find that it is gradual advance from the obscure and vague to the clear and *>1 I "\ I !' 1 I \t \\ t 54 MKTIK)DS IN TKACHTN(i. ! iii))l i(* ii()tic(^ in ooiincctiDM \vi til tl ic M<;Mtati()ii .•i.i'jiinst tii<'('()i'ii laws, WMS elected to INiflifUiieiit, and heeanie one of the most distinguished orators and puMic men of his day. As a speaker \ni was distinenished for his skill in exposition, tor the simplicity, smoothness, id enei'gy oi* his style, and i'or the power which comes from hioh charact(3i\ sincere convictions, and ai n tin; constant a])[)eal to lofty motives and i(h'als. Tt must he rememb(n"(!d that a speech is intended to he spoken, and a mei'e i-eader lal)ors under e-reat disadvantages: he loses the charm of tone and utterance, and (especially in the case of a man of IJri;L;ht's stamp) the weight that comes from character and feeling — things ea-;ily perceptible when we liear and see the orator himself, but much less manifest on the pi'inted page. The extract before us is merely tlie conclusion of a long speeeli attacking tlie foreign policy usually followed by English statesmen, which, as Mr. Bright thought, too often involved the nation needlessly and wrongfully in war. It was delivered at a ban(juet given at Birmingham in Bright's honor, October 29, 185(S. During the thi-ee years innnedi- ately preceding, ill health had prevented him from appearing on the public phitform. At the date of this speech foreign affairs were threatening, and the Crimean war (LSS'i-lSSG), was fresh in the minds of his hearers ; it seemed a fitting time to raise his voice against an almost universal tendency (to which he was himself on principle opposed), to regard military achievements as the highest part of a nation's activity and its greatest glory. He believed that true national greatness lay in other things ; for e cj \\ SI rj r| f| tl M THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. 55 exainpl<%in tlie happiness of the people at larj^e. He coiisi(lore Mars f— Into what two parts does this panujrapli fall, and what does each part Ho ? The first part states some facts about the Scythians, the second applies these facts to the English nation, or suggests a re;^emblance to certain facts true of the English. It is difficult for people to look impartially on the actions of their own nation, as it is difficult for men to judge in«i)artially the actions of the members of their own families. Hence the common device of leading a person unconsciously to judge his own case in the case of another ; so admirably illustrated by Nathan's parable to David (See II. Samuel xii. The story might bo told to the children). So, Bright hero attempts to make his audience feel the undue v-alue they place upon war and its barbarous character, by hinting a certain resemi)lance between the attitude of Englishmen towards war and that of the bloody and barbarous Scythians. Besides this, a sudden riiference to a remote and seemingly unrelated subject has the effect of rousing the attention and relieving thu strain of a long treatment of a single theme ; f«)r it must be remembered that this extract in the Reader is but a small part of a long speech. 58 METHODS IN TEACHING. 11 Wlidl hi h> llie urtions of men (ts indiridnuls, (DuI of tne}t (i:'tin(j fi.s nuli(nf there is no other miii tisutdUj tt> settle ti dispute except Inj rectmrse to tiruis'/ Is this ansirer td)sotutel\i true; do notions erer tippenl ttt 'I third pttrttj to decide tlie ct(se ticcttrdimj tt> its Uterits !' Yes, in case of arbitration, as in the Alabama claims. li'hot is the ijreot difference beticeen the r'onditions tf prirtite ptuties (joi)k(j beft)re a Court, and ntditms tiefire tt Ctturt (f Arbitrtdittn f In the case of nations, there is no external force to compel the parties to submit to arbitration, or to comply with the award ; in the case of individuals, there is. So we see it is more ditlieult to arrive at equitable decisions as between nations, than Ijet^een individuals ; and this tends to make nations resort to force, to the principle that might is right, rather than to the princijjles of justice. "The great Italian poet" is Dante. Whttt is the sultsttintitd meonintj if the poetictd ijuottition i' Fifth Paragraph. — Whttt litertdUj e((rt,ns " tmd " Ittndmttrks " (line 77) f -Whtd hos the pttst cost them 'i There is doubtless a special reference to the loss of life, suffering, etc., of the Crimean war, which had recently been brought to an end. The vast national debt of England is mainly due to war. Whtit tjuidf htire ire'f This is indicated below, "the unchangeable and eternal principle of the moral law." " Urim . . . . brea.st," (line 81) see Exod. xxviii, .'{0, a pair of jewels on the High priest's breast -plate, employed as an oracle in critical junctures. After the selecticm has been carefully studied, it should be read aloud either by the teacher or the best reader in the class. Finally, a brief outline might be written out by each of the pupils to exhibit the main thoughts of the [lassage and their proper connection. i '^ .'C i it' f BCBoaiKBteju; i::^i:::a^i:^iAtji;a5&-Ujj'ai.a."iz::':^i.-~vi'.^i^aaMia.-^ .:^i£ I { I I! I i ! i : t I '11 ■\ t i f the first tiiidtrain'f When Adaui first heard about Night, without liaving seen it, did he not dread its appearance, and fear that it might forever blot out tho beautiful blue dome of the sky f Second (][uatrain. — IVhdt isthe ^'■tircat settliKjjldme" (li)ie ('>)f The setting sun. " Hesperus " is the classical name for the evening star. What is the ^* host of heareu' {line 7) f The stars in general. What is the meanimj of " creation widened in man's rieir" (line 8)'f The darkness of night enabled Adam to see the vast multitude of heavenly bodies, and thus he got a w^ider view of the exter. L of the universe. Everyone must have noticed the sense of immensity and grandeur produced by the sights of the starry heavens. What, then, is the sid>- stantial meaning of the irhole of the second ifiialrain'^ When Adam beheld the first night that he ever experienced, he became accjuainted with a large part of the universe hitherto unknown to him. Indicate the connection in thought hetireen the first and second quatrains ; or vhat reasm has the poet for saging ^rhat he s<(gs in the second stan'^a^ after irhat he has s((id in the first stan::a ''^ The first stanza tells what result Adam might naturally have feared in connection with night, when he had only heard vaguely about it ; the second what was the result of his actual experience of night. Third <{uatrain. — Wtiat is meant tnj saying that ^^ darkness lag concetded irithin the t>e<(ms of the sun " {line 9-10)!' J'nt the thought in simple prosaic langioigt-. The rays of the sun hid something. What iras it ttiat the rags of the smi hid'f The universe of stars. Is thai actnidly trnef Observe it is a fact that the light of the sun does prevent us from seeing the vast universe of which our earth is but an insignificant speck ; whereas night reveals the universe to us. Notice also how the poet puts this in a very striking way. So that something of which we are all, of course, aware, is made fresh and vivid to us. This is a special example of that which poetry in general is fitted to do and is continually doing — the M m '(■ ,J ' 1 /' iTiifffipwiTwrir-l'tiBriiT'iifinri-it-'riTinTiTtri'MyT-'Tf-' 1' !Ju:.'x»»i.'.'iJH^J I ^ ' 62 METHODS IN TEACHING. imparting (jf freshness and iinpressiveness to what is familiar. Wlwn in it Unit ^\H\i vnd leaf and insert (ire )rredi. The third ([uatrain, then, substantially states in general what was said in regard to Adam in the second quatrain, that while the sun reveals the earth and the various objects which it contains, ic conceals a vastly greater and nmre stui)endous world. Final couplet. — 2*M< ^/('' suhslioilial vteani)t\i of the unestion of line 1-i in simple lamjiaaje. Why do we dread death i How does liijht dereive ns{line IJj) ^ It leads us to think that what we see in the day time comprises the whole universe. In the earlier part of the poem, our attention was directed to the fact that night gives us a wider and completer view of the universe than day. "^Wherefore not life i"' Kxpjert orthiiKj tlial he is sprai^inii n the tnte ha)ui, and death mat life on the other ( Can yon renieni,bei any pli rases commonly a r\ neg fityl fori dea\ the then a /I "/ the dec( THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. ()8 iised, 07' ((Hij i)ass<([ie in hoohs tluit you hare rend, irjiirh Indimte a re.iernbli(nce or connection hettrcn thest' 'nh'(is f " Tho dark- ness of the grave," "night of death," eternal life is often styled " eternal day," etc. "Work while it is called to-day, for the night cometh when no man can wc^rk. ' John ix. 4. There is , irhtd is the ansirer intended f We have no reason to be afraid of death. Is there iiny mention of fear or dread elseirhere jh this poem? Was Adam's fea^' of ni(jht justified vhen he artiadlii experienced niijid ? It did mm no harm; on the contrary, irhai — OI)serve in this line 13, the 'word " then " is used : did it do 'f- what force has tliis'f It indicates that the two assertions iniplied in these two lines are the result of what has been said in the earlier part. Th<' ^^ then" indicates that tlwre is <( reason in the previous part of the poem for the implied assertion in this line that we luive no tjround to dread death ; wltat is thr reason!' Adam had no real ground for dreading night. Nat onli/ did ni(jht do him. no httrm, we htive seen thai it receah-d to him thf immcnsitii and (jrandenr of the universe — showed him a world iiivisible tnj day. Now, since the pnet is evidentlij thiulii>ui of a resemlla)we lietween nitjht aiid death, dinj and life, he is insinu- atiui proordilij have some fffert similar to th((t which nii/ht ha" the second of these titles, as compared irith the first f Do i, ti i, h the idea of " Night " or " Immortalitg " is (f mitre importance iii. ^'-se. poet's mind in writing this poem? The latter. -What relation has the idea of Night to that of immortiditii i)i the poem? It serves to suggest it, and intro- duces it. 1)1 irhnt part of the poem, then, is the principal idea e,r.pressed? In the final couplet. And what purpose does the rest of the poem serve ? To introduce this idea, give reason for it, give impressiveness and picturesque power. The teacher may point out that a certain force is given to the main idea by thus including it concisely in the narrow limit of the couplet, whereas the introductory matter has a more roomy expression in the quatrains. Form and Thought. — What do you notice with regard to the rhymes of the first and second gnatrain respectively ? They are the same. This common rhgme serves to connect these t/iro stanzas titgefher hg the form —to make the^n stand together, and apart from the following giadrain, irhich does not rhgme ivith them. Are the guatrains likeirise connected i)i thoxajht? Yes ; they describe the incidents, the facts about night and day, which occasion the chief idea of the poem. It will be noted that the third quatrain gives expression to reflections suggested by the incidents mentioned in the previous lines ; and that the final couplet contains the principal thought which is the outcome of the whole. So the natural divisions of the sonnet made by the arrangement of rhymes correspond to stages of thought. in sp^ thi full nv\ it re^ be THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE. 65 a he ne ■:(ts nil he Iht IS id Miscellaneous points. — Let us note some further points in the poem. *' Myaterions NUihty'^ (line 1). Is Ucre «?«// special appropriateness in this adjective Jiere? What is the meanin